Club career.

France.

Born in Douala, Kameni was first spotted when, aged 16, he became the youngest footballer to win an Olympic gold medal, in 2000. This earned him a transfer to French club Le Havre AC but he was unable to break into the first team, and remained a reserve throughout his four-year stay, also being loaned to AS Saint-Étienne and also failing to gain any playing time there; in 2001 he was linked with a move to Juventus FC, but nothing came of it.  Kameni almost moved to Premier League's Wolverhampton Wanderers on a season-long loan for 2003–04, but the deal collapsed after he was not granted a United Kingdom work permit.

Espanyol.

20-year-old Kameni left for Spanish side RCD Espanyol in July 2004, for US$600,000, and became first-choice in his second year, winning the Copa del Rey as backup to Gorka Iraizoz, who started in La Liga. In 2006–07, the opposite: Kameni was the undisputed starter, and Iraizoz was picked for the Catalans' UEFA Cup runner-up campaign; early in 2006, the club suspended two fans for racist abuse towards the player.  In 2008–09, a tense season for Espanyol, which ranked in the bottom three for a lengthy period, Kameni had two incidents: first, he had a near-physical confrontation with a fan (who first insulted the player) after a training session in January, then fought with teammate Grégory Béranger again in training, in May. He still featured in 37 out of 38 league games, being essential to the side's maintenance and, during the campaign, also broke countryman's Thomas N'Kono record of minutes without conceding a goal, at 497.

Málaga.

After two more seasons as starter, Kameni was demoted to third-choice for 2011–12, with Argentine Mauricio Pochettino still as Espanyol's manager. On 13 January 2012 he moved to fellow league side Málaga CF, making his league debut on 25 March after replacing injured Willy Caballero during the first half of a 2–1 away win against his former team, and keeping a clean sheet during his time on the pitch.  After Caballero left for Manchester City, Kameni became the starter. On 26 September 2015, in a game where Real Madrid registered 31 shots, he put on a Man of the match performance in a 0–0 draw at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. The following matchday, he became the first club goalkeeper to provide an assist in the Spanish top flight, as Charles scored the second of his three goals in a 3–1 home win against Real Sociedad.  On 2 March 2016, Kameni scored a bizarre own goal in a 1–2 home loss to Valencia CF. Three days later, at Deportivo de La Coruña, he had to be replaced shortly before half-time due to injury, as the match went on to end 3–3.  On 19 November 2016, Kameni denied hosts FC Barcelona on several occasions, in a 0–0 draw.

Fenerbahçe.

In July 2017, Kameni signed a three-year deal with Turkish club Fenerbahçe SK. He made his Süper Lig debut on 17 September, being booked late into a 4–1 away victory over Alanyaspor.  On 28 August 2019, Kameni left by mutual consent.

International career.

A Cameroonian international since the age of 17, Kameni was part of the national team squads at the 2002, 2004, 2006 and 2008 Africa Cup of Nations, starting in all but the first. He was the first-choice goalkeeper as his country finished as runners-up at the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup.  In 2002, aged 18, Kameni was picked for Cameroon's squad of 23 at the 2002 FIFA World Cup. He was named "Best African Goalkeeper" for 2006–07, after being runner-up in the previous season.  Kameni was also chosen for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa, and was expected to start by many observers. However, he ended up on the bench as coach Paul Le Guen preferred Souleymanou Hamidou over him, and the national side was the first team to be eliminated from the tournament after losing all three group matches.  On 27 October 2015, more than two years after being left out of consideration for selection for "trying to orchestrate disorder", Kameni was called by new manager Volker Finke for a game against Niger for the 2018 World Cup qualifiers.

Personal life.

Kameni's older brother, Mathurin, was also a footballer and a goalkeeper.

Honours.

Espanyol  Cameroon U23  Cameroon  Individual

Idriss Carlos Kameni (born 18 February 1984) is a Cameroonian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper.

伊德里斯·卡路士·卡文尼(,1984年-2月18日),简称伊德里斯·卡文尼(),出生在杜阿拉,是一名喀麦隆足球员,现效力土耳其足球超级联赛球会费伦巴治,司职门将。


History.

Imperial era.

Putian was first founded as an administrative area in the year of 568 as a county during the Liang Dynasty.  Putian was later re-established as a military administered city during the Song Dynasty with the stationing of military families and soldiers into the city during the period. Xinghua Prefecture was created in 979. It was abolished during the Yuan Dynasty in 1277.  The city greatly prospered during the Ming Dynasty.

Contemporary era.

On August 21 and August 25, 1949, Putian and Xianyou County were captured by the People's Liberation Army, respectively. The Wuqiu Islands were never successfully captured, and continue to be under ROC control. On September 9, 1983, the State Council approved the establishment of Putian as a prefecture-level city. It has jurisdiction over Putian and Xianyou Counties, along with Chengxiang and Hanjiang Districts.

Administration.

Putian's municipal executive, legislature and judiciary are in Chengxiang District (), together with the CPC and Public Security bureaux. The municipal region comprises three other districts and one county:

Languages and ethnic groups.

The Han Chinese are the majority ethnic group.  Puxian Min is the largest dialect spoken in Putian. It is a dialect of Min, a Chinese language.

Economy.

Putian has become an export base for Fujian products. The main industries are shoe-making, brewing, electronics, garments, fruits, vegetables, and machinery, electrical goods. In particular, the area is known for high-quality counterfeits of shoes and the domination of Chinese private healthcare.

Tourism.

Meizhou Island, most famous for being the legendary birthplace of the goddess Mazu, is located closely offshore of Putian. According to legends, Mazu in her earthly incarnation died on the seashore of Xianliang Harbor, in the coastal area of Putian, where Xianliang Mazu Temple hosts pilgrims from different Chinese provinces and from Taiwan, particularly for the ceremonies commemorating the goddess' death held in October. Because of its hosting "the most sacred places for Mazu believers," Putian is known as "Mazu's hometown."

Putian or Putien () is a prefecture-level city in eastern Fujian province, China. It borders Fuzhou City to the north, Quanzhou City to the south, and the Taiwan Strait's Xinghai Bay to the east. The Mulan River flows through the southern part of the city. It's built-up area made of 4 urban districts was home to 1,953,801 inhabitants as of 2010 census. The native language of the area is Pu-Xian Min.

莆田市(兴化语平话字:),简称莆,又称莆阳,莆仙,古称兴安、兴化,是中华人民共和国福建省下辖的地级市,位于福建省沿海中部。市境北临福州市,西南界泉州市,东南隔台湾海峡与台湾相望。地处闽东南山地丘陵与沿海平原,西北为戴云山,东南为莆仙平原。木兰溪自西往东横贯中部注入兴化湾。全市总面积4,131平方公里,人口287万,市人民政府驻城厢区。莆田自古是福建中部的政治、经济、文化中心,素有“海滨邹鲁”、“文献名邦”之誉。湾口的湄洲岛是海内外闻名的和平女神妈祖祖庙所在地、妈祖文化的发祥地。


Origins.

According to their family legend, the Orsini are descended from the Julio-Claudian dynasty of ancient Rome. The Orsini carried on a political feud with the Colonna family for centuries in Rome, until it was stopped by Papal Bull in 1511. In 1571, the heads of both families married nieces of Pope Sixtus V.  The Orsini were related to the Bobone family existing in Rome in the 11th century. The first members used the surname of Bobone-Orsini. The first known family member is one Bobone, in the early 11th century, father of Pietro, in turn father of Giacinto Bobone (1110–1198), who in 1191 became pope as Celestine III. One of the first great nepotist popes, he made two of his nephews cardinals and allowed his cousin Giovanni Gaetano (Giangaetano, died 1232) to buy the fiefs of Vicovaro, Licenza, Roccagiovine and Nettuno, which formed the nucleus of the future territorial power of the family.  The Bobone surname was lost with his children, who were called "de domo filiorum Ursi". Two of them, Napoleone and Matteo Rosso the Great (1178–1246), considerably increased the prestige of the family. The former was the founder of the first southern line, which disappeared with Camillo Pardo in 1553. He obtained the city of Manoppello, later a countship, and was "gonfaloniere" of the Papal States. Matteo Rosso, called the Great, was the effective lord of Rome from 1241, when he defeated the Imperial troops, to 1243, holding the title of Senator. Two of his sons, and Napoleone, were also Senators. Matteo ousted the traditional rivals, the Colonna family, from Rome and extended the Orsini territories southwards up to Avellino and northwards to Pitigliano. During his life, the family entered firmly in the Guelph party. He had some ten sons, who divided the fiefs after his deaths: Gentile (died 1246) originated the Pitigliano line and the second southern line, Rinaldo that of Monterotondo, Napoleone (died 1267) that of Bracciano, and another Matteo Rosso that of Montegiordano, from the name of the district in Rome housing the family's fortress. The most distinguished of his sons was Giovanni Gaetano (died 1280): elected pope as Nicholas III, he named his nephew Bertoldo (d. 1289) as count of Romagna, and had two nephews and a brother created cardinals.

The second southern line.

The rise of the Orsini did not stop after Nicholas' death. Bertoldo's son, Gentile II (1250–1318), was two times Senator of Rome, podestà of Viterbo and, from 1314, "Gran Giustiziere" ("Great Justicer") of the Kingdom of Naples. He married Clarice Ruffo, daughter of the counts of Catanzaro, forming an alliance of the most powerful Calabrian dynasty. His son Romano (1268–1327), called Romanello, was Royal Vicar of Rome in 1326, and inherited the countship of Soana through his marriage with Anastasia de Montfort, Countess of Nola. Romano's stance was markedly Guelph. After his death, his two sons divided his fiefs, forming the Pitigliano and the second southern line.  Roberto (1295–1345), Gentile II's grandson, married Sibilla del Balzo, daughter of the Great Senechal of the Kingdom of Naples. Among his sons, Giacomo (died 13 August 1379; Dean of Salisbury, Archdeacon of Leicester and Archdeacon of Durham) was created cardinal by Gregory XI in 1371, while Nicola (August 27, 1331 – February 14, 1399) obtained the counties of Ariano and Celano. The latter was also Senator of Rome and enlarged the family territories in Lazio and Tuscany.  His second son, Raimondello Orsini del Balzo, supported Charles III' "coup d'état" in Naples against Queen Joan I. Under king Ladislaus he was among the few Neapolitan feudataries who were able to maintain their territorial power after the royal war against them. However, at his death in 1406 the southern Orsini fiefs were confiscated. Relationships with the royal family remained cold under Joan II; However, when Raimondello's son Giannantonio (1386–1453) sent his troops to help her against the usurpation attempt of James of Bourbon, he received in exchange the Principality of Taranto.  The links with the court increased further under Sergianni Caracciolo, Joan's lover and Great Senechal. A younger brother of Giannantonio married one of Sergianni's daughters. However, the Orsini changed side when Alfonso V of Aragon started his conquest of the Kingdom of Naples. Giannantonio was awarded with the duchy of Bari, the position of Great Connestable and an appanage of 100,000 "ducati". Giannantonio remained faithful to Alfonso's heir, Ferdinand I, but was killed during a revolt of nobles. Having died without legitimate sons, much of his possessions were absorbed into the Royal Chamber.

Pitigliano line.

This line was initiated by Guido Orsini, second son of Romano, who inherited the county of Soana, on the western side of Lake Bolsena in southern Tuscany. He and his descendants ruled over the fiefs of Soana, Pitigliano and Nola, but in the early 15th century wars against the Republic of Siena and the Colonnas caused the loss of several territories. Bertoldo (died 1417) managed to keep only Pitigliano, while his grandson Orso (died July 5, 1479) was count of Nola and fought as condottiere under the Duke of Milan and the Republic of Venice. Later he entered the service of Ferdinand I of Naples, but, not having taken part in the Barons' conspiracy, he was rewarded with the fiefs of Ascoli and Atripalda. He took part in the Aragonese campaign in Tuscany and was killed at the siege of Viterbo. The most outstanding member of the Pitigliano line was Niccolò, one of the major condottiere of the time. His son Ludovico (died January 27, 1534) and his nephew Enrico (died 1528) participated in the Italian Wars at the service of both France and Spain, often changing side with the typical ease of the Italian military leaders of the time. Two of Ludovico's daughters married relevant figures: Geronima to Pier Luigi Farnese, illegitimate son of Pope Paul III and Marzia to Gian Giacomo Medici of Marignano, an important general of the Spanish army.  The line started to decay after the loss of Nola by Ludovico, who was also forced to accept the Sienese suzerainty over Pitigliano. Under his son Giovan Francesco (died May 8, 1567) the county entered the orbit of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. Later, the attempt of Alessandro (died February 9, 1604) to obtain the title of Monterotondo was thwarted by Pope Gregory XIII. His son Giannantonio (March 25, 1569 – 1613) sold Pitigliano to Tuscany, in exchange for the marquisate of Monte San Savino.  The line became extinct in 1640 with the death of Alessandro.

Monterotondo line.

This line was founded by Rinaldo, third son of Matteo Rosso the Great. His son, Napoleone, became a cardinal in 1288 and remained a prominent member of the Curia until his death at Avignon in 1342.  This branch of the family was often involved in the baronial struggles of the Late Middle Ages Rome, at least three members of the family being elected as Senators, while others fought as condottieri. Francesco in 1370 took part to the war of Florence against the Visconti of Milan. Orso (died July 24, 1424) died fighting for the king of Naples in the Battle of Zagonara against the Milanese. His sons Giacomo (died 1482) and Lorenzo (1452) battled for the Papal States, Naples and Florence. One of Giacomo's daughters, Clarice (1453–July 30, 1488) became Lorenzo de' Medici's wife. Franciotto Orsini was created cardinal by Leo X in 1517.  The most important member of the Monterotondo Orsinis was Giovani Battista Orsini, who became cardinal under Sixtus IV (1483). He was probably among the promoters of the failed plot against Cesare Borgia in 1502, being assassinated on February 22 of 1503 as retaliation, together with other members of the family : Giulio survived captivity under Cesare, and Paolo and Francesco 4th Duke of Gravina were strangled to death on the 18th of January 1503.  The line decayed from the late 16th century, when several members were assassinated or lost their lands for various reasons. Its last representatives Enrico (died September 12, 1643) and Francesco (1592 - September 21, 1650) sold Monterotondo to the Barberini in 1641.

Bracciano line.

Napoleone, another son of Matteo Rosso the Great, received Bracciano, Nerola and other lands in what is now northern Lazio. In 1259 he was Senator of Rome. Thanks to the strategic positions of their fiefs, and to their famous castle built in Bracciano in 1426, they were the most powerful Orsini line in the Lazio. Count Carlo (died after 1485), son of another Napoleone (died October 3, 1480), was Papal Gonfaloniere. By his marriage with a Francesca Orsini of Monterotondo was born Gentile Virginio Orsini, one of the most prominent figures of Italian politics in the late 15th century. After Carlo's death, he enlarged the family's tenure with lands inherited by his wife, another Orsini from Salerno, and most of all he was amongst the favourites of Ferdinand I of Naples, who appointed him as Great Constable of Naples. Together with his cousin, the Cardinal Giovanni Battista, he was among the fiercest opponents of popes Innocent VIII and Alexander VI. In 1492 Gentile Virginio bought the county of Anguillara from Franceschetto Cybo.  During Charles VIII of France's descent into Italy, he managed to keep Bracciano. Ferdinand II had his fiefs confiscated and imprisoned him in Castel dell'Ovo, where he was poisoned in 1497. The family recovered this setback under the more friendly Medici popes of the early 16th century. His son Giangiordano was Prince Assistant to the Papal Throne. His nephew Virginio was a famous admiral for the Papal States and France, but in 1539 he had his fiefs confiscated under the charge of treason.  Paolo Giordano was created first Duke of Bracciano in 1560. The son of Girolamo Orsini and Francesca Sforza, he was grandson, on his father’s side, of Felice della Rovere (illegitimate daughter of Pope Julius II) and Gian Giordano Orsini and, on his mother’s side, of Count Bosio Sforza and Costanza Farnese, an illegitimate daughter of Pope Paul III. An accomplished condottiero, he was however also a ruthless figure who had his wife Isabella de' Medici murdered. For this and other homicides he had to flee to northern Italy. He was succeeded by Virginio, whose heir Paolo Giordano II married the princess of Piombino and was created Prince of the Holy Roman Empire. His brother Alessandro was cardinal and Papal legate, and another brother, Ferdinando (died March 4, 1660) acquired the assets of the other line of San Gemini. In the 17th century the Dukes of Bracciano moved their residence to Rome. This, along with a general economical decadence, damaged the dukedom, and last Duke and Prince, Flavio (March 4, 1620 – April 5, 1698) was forced by the huge debts to sell it to Livio Odescalchi.

Gravina line.

The line of Gravina, from the name of the eponymous city in Apulia, is the only existing line of the Orsini. It descends from Francesco (died 1456), a son of Count Carlo of Bracciano. Most of his fief were located in northern Lazio, but he entered in the Neapolitan orbit when in 1418 he was called by Sergianni Caracciolo to fight against the Angevine troops, which he defeated. By marriage, he obtained the title of count of Gravina. He was made Duke of Gravina by King Alfonso, title definitely assigned to his son Giacomo (died 1472), to which had been added the counties of Conversano, Campagna and Copertino. Two of Francesco's son, Marino (died 1471) and Giovanni Battista (died June 8, 1476), were respectively archbishop of Taranto and Grand Master of Knights of Rhodes.  The fourth duke, Francesco, was part of a conspiracy along with his brothers Giulio and Paolo against Cesare Borgia but were found out and Francesco was strangled to death on 18 January 1503 along with his brother Paolo. One of Francesco's nephews, Flavio Orsini, was created cardinal in 1565. The fifth duke, Ferdinando (died December 6, 1549) had all his fiefs confiscated by the Spaniards, but regained it after a 40,000 scudi payment.  After the heirless death of Duke Michele Antonio (January 26, 1627), his lands passed to his cousin Pietro Orsini, count of Muro Lucano (died 1641). The latter's nephew Pier Francesco, who had renounced the succession in favour of his brother Domenico to become a Dominican, was later elected pope with the name of Benedict XIII.  His successor raised Benedict XIII's nephew, Prince Beroaldo Orsini, to the dignity of Prince Assistants to the Papal Throne (title held until 1958), after the emperor Charles VI had already, in 1724, made him a prince of the Holy Roman Empire. The last cardinal from the family was Domenico.  The family moved to Rome in the 18th century, where Duke Domenico (November 23, 1790 – April 28, 1874), married Maria Luisa Torlonia in 1823. In 1850 he was Minister of War and General Lieutenant of the Papal Armies, and, also, Senator of Rome.  The remaining princely family is represented by Prince Domenico Napoleone Orsini, Duke of Gravina (b. 1948). With no sons or male-line descendants, the heir to the dukedom of Gravina is his unmarried brother Don Benedetto Orsini (b. 1956), followed by his cousin Prince Raimondo Orsini d'Aragona (b. 1931), who is married to Princess Khetevan Bagration-Mukhransky.

Notable members.

Others.

Fellipi Orsini

Notable buildings.

Apart from the Bracciano castle, other notable buildings and structures associated with the Orsini include:

Orsinis in literature.

The Orsini family was briefly mentioned in Boccaccio's book "The Decameron" in the 5th day, 3rd story. In the woods, it is described that soldiers from a rival family's soldiers attacked a fictional character in the book named Pietro while they had become lost in the woods about eight miles from Rome. Boccaccio describes the soldiers acting to spite of the Orsini's. Furthermore, a castle named Campo de' Fiori, was included in the text.

The Orsini family is an Italian noble family that was one of the most influential princely families in medieval Italy and Renaissance Rome. Members of the Orsini family include three popes: Celestine III (1191–1198), Nicholas III (1277–1280), and Benedict XIII (1724–1730). In addition, the family membership includes 34 cardinals, numerous "condottieri", and other significant political and religious figures.

奥尔西尼家族()是一个意大利贵族家族,该家族在中古世纪、文艺复兴时期及近代意大利皆有着强大的影响力。家族成员包括切莱斯廷三世、尼古拉三世、本笃十三世三位教宗、至少34位天主教枢机、为数甚多的雇佣军首领以及其他重要的政治人物及宗教人士。


Charge.

Acids are classified as either weak or strong (and bases similarly may be either weak or strong). Similarly, polyelectrolytes can be divided into "weak" and "strong" types. A "strong" polyelectrolyte is one that dissociates completely in solution for most reasonable pH values. A "weak" polyelectrolyte, by contrast, has a dissociation constant (pKa or pKb) in the range of ~2 to ~10, meaning that it will be partially dissociated at intermediate pH. Thus, weak polyelectrolytes are not fully charged in solution, and moreover their fractional charge can be modified by changing the solution pH, counter-ion concentration, or ionic strength.  The physical properties of polyelectrolyte solutions are usually strongly affected by this degree of charging. Since the polyelectrolyte dissociation releases counter-ions, this necessarily affects the solution's ionic strength, and therefore the Debye length. This in turn affects other properties, such as electrical conductivity.  When solutions of two oppositely charged polymers (that is, a solution of polycation and one of polyanion) are mixed, a bulk complex (precipitate) is usually formed. This occurs because the oppositely-charged polymers attract one another and bind together.

Conformation.

The conformation of any polymer is affected by a number of factors: notably the polymer architecture and the solvent affinity. In the case of polyelectrolytes, charge also has an effect. Whereas an uncharged linear polymer chain is usually found in a random conformation in solution (closely approximating a self-avoiding three-dimensional random walk), the charges on a linear polyelectrolyte chain will repel each other via double layer forces, which causes the chain to adopt a more expanded, rigid-rod-like conformation. If the solution contains a great deal of added salt, the charges will be screened and consequently the polyelectrolyte chain will collapse to a more conventional conformation (essentially identical to a neutral chain in good solvent).  Polymer conformation of course affects many bulk properties (such as viscosity, turbidity, etc.). Although the statistical conformation of polyelectrolytes can be captured using variants of conventional polymer theory, it is in general quite computationally intensive to properly model polyelectrolyte chains, owing to the long-range nature of the electrostatic interaction. Techniques such as static light scattering can be used to study polyelectrolyte conformation and conformational changes.

Polyampholytes.

Polyelectrolytes that bear both cationic and anionic repeat groups are called polyampholytes. The competition between the acid-base equilibria of these groups leads to additional complications in their physical behavior. These polymers usually only dissolve when there is sufficient added salt, which screens the interactions between oppositely charged segments. In case of amphoteric macroporous hydrogels action of concentrated salt solution does not lead to dissolution of polyampholyte material due to covalent cross-linking of macromolecules. Synthetic 3-D macroporous hydrogels shows the excellent ability to adsorb heavy-metal ions in a wide range of pH from extremely diluted aqueous solutions, which can be later used as an adsorbent for purification of salty water All proteins are polyampholytes, as some amino acids tend to be acidic, while others are basic.

Applications.

Polyelectrolytes have many applications, mostly related to modifying flow and stability properties of aqueous solutions and gels. For instance, they can be used to destabilize a colloidal suspension and to initiate flocculation (precipitation). They can also be used to impart a surface charge to neutral particles, enabling them to be dispersed in aqueous solution. They are thus often used as thickeners, emulsifiers, conditioners, clarifying agents, and even drag reducers. They are used in water treatment and for oil recovery. Many soaps, shampoos, and cosmetics incorporate polyelectrolytes. Furthermore, they are added to many foods and to concrete mixtures (superplasticizer). Some of the polyelectrolytes that appear on food labels are pectin, carrageenan, alginates, and carboxymethyl cellulose. All but the last are of natural origin. Finally, they are used in a variety of materials, including cement.  Because some of them are water-soluble, they are also investigated for biochemical and medical applications. There is currently much research in using biocompatible polyelectrolytes for implant coatings, for controlled drug release, and other applications. Thus, recently, the biocompatible and biodegradable macroporous material composed of polyelectrolyte complex was described, where the material exhibited excellent proliferation of mammalian cells and muscle like soft actuators.

Multilayers.

Polyelectrolytes have been used in the formation of new types of materials known as polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs). These thin films are constructed using a layer-by-layer (LbL) deposition technique. During LbL deposition, a suitable growth substrate (usually charged) is dipped back and forth between dilute baths of positively and negatively charged polyelectrolyte solutions. During each dip a small amount of polyelectrolyte is adsorbed and the surface charge is reversed, allowing the gradual and controlled build-up of electrostatically cross-linked films of polycation-polyanion layers. Scientists have demonstrated thickness control of such films down to the single-nanometer scale. LbL films can also be constructed by substituting charged species such as nanoparticles or clay platelets in place of or in addition to one of the polyelectrolytes. LbL deposition has also been accomplished using hydrogen bonding instead of electrostatics. For more information on multilayer creation please see polyelectrolyte adsorption.  An LbL formation of PEM (PSS-PAH (poly(allylamine) hydrochloride)) on a gold substrate can be seen in the Figure. The formation is measured using Multi-Parametric Surface Plasmon Resonance to determine adsorption kinetics, layer thickness and optical density.  The main benefits to PEM coatings are the ability to conformably coat objects (that is, the technique is not limited to coating flat objects), the environmental benefits of using water-based processes, reasonable costs, and the utilization of the particular chemical properties of the film for further modification, such as the synthesis of metal or semiconductor nanoparticles, or porosity phase transitions to create anti-reflective coatings, optical shutters, and superhydrophobic coatings.

Bridging.

If polyelectrolyte chains are added to a system of charged macroions (i.e. an array of DNA molecules), an interesting phenomenon called the polyelectrolyte bridging might occur. The term bridging interactions is usually applied to the situation where a single polyelectrolyte chain can adsorb to two (or more) oppositely charged macroions (e.g. DNA molecule) thus establishing molecular bridges and, via its connectivity, mediate attractive interactions between them.  At small macroion separations, the chain is squeezed in between the macroions and electrostatic effects in the system are completely dominated by steric effects – the system is effectively discharged. As we increase the macroion separation, we simultaneously stretch the polyelectrolyte chain adsorbed to them. The stretching of the chain gives rise to the above-mentioned attractive interactions due to chain's rubber elasticity.  Because of its connectivity the behaviour of the polyelectrolyte chain bears almost no resemblance to the case of confined unconnected ions.

Polyacid.

In polymer terminology, a polyacid is a polyelectrolyte composed of macromolecules containing acid groups on a substantial fraction of the constitutional units. Most commonly, the acid groups are –COOH, –SOH, or –POH.

Polyelectrolytes are polymers whose repeating units bear an electrolyte group. Polycations and polyanions are polyelectrolytes. These groups dissociate in aqueous solutions (water), making the polymers charged. Polyelectrolyte properties are thus similar to both electrolytes (salts) and polymers (high molecular weight compounds) and are sometimes called polysalts. Like salts, their solutions are electrically conductive. Like polymers, their solutions are often viscous. Charged molecular chains, commonly present in soft matter systems, play a fundamental role in determining structure, stability and the interactions of various molecular assemblies. Theoretical approaches to describing their statistical properties differ profoundly from those of their electrically neutral counterparts, while technological and industrial fields exploit their unique properties. Many biological molecules are polyelectrolytes. For instance, polypeptides, glycosaminoglycans, and DNA are polyelectrolytes. Both natural and synthetic polyelectrolytes are used in a variety of industries.

聚电解质(polyelectrolyte)是带有可电离基团的长链高分子,这类高分子在极性溶剂中会发生电离,使高分子链上带上电荷。链上带正或负电荷的聚电解质分别叫做聚阳离子或聚阴离子。聚电解质分别具有电解质和高分子的一些性质。聚电解质溶液类似电解质溶液,可以导电,类似高分子溶液,有很大的粘度。作为软物质体系,聚电解质对很多分子组装体的结构、稳定性和相互作用具有重要影响。


Early life.

Wagenknecht was born on 16 July 1969 in the East German city of Jena. Her father is Iranian and her mother, who worked for a state-run art distributor, is German. She was cared for primarily by her grandparents until 1976, when she and her mother moved to East Berlin. While in Berlin, she became a member of the Free German Youth (FDJ). She completed her Abitur exams in 1988 and joined the (then ruling) Socialist Unity Party (SED) in early 1989.  From 1990, she studied Philosophy and New German Literature as an undergraduate in Jena and Berlin but dropped out. She then enrolled as a philosophy student at the University of Groningen where she earned an MA in 1996 for a thesis on the young Karl Marx's interpretation of Hegel, published as a book in 1997. From 2005 until 2012 she studied economics at the TU Chemnitz, where she earned a PhD with a dissertation on "The Limits of Choice: Saving Decisions and Basic Needs in Developed Countries", subsequently published by the Campus Verlag.

Political career.

After the fall of the Berlin Wall and the transformation of the SED into the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), Wagenknecht was elected to the new party's National Committee in 1991. She also joined the PDS's Communist Platform, an orthodox Marxist faction.  In the 1998 German federal election, Wagenknecht ran as the PDS candidate in a district of Dortmund, garnering 3.25% of the vote. Following the 1999 European elections, she was elected as a PDS representative to the European Parliament. Among her duties in the parliament is serving on the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs and Delegation, as well as the Euro-Latin American Parliamentary Assembly.  Following the merger of the PDS and the WASG that formed the Left Party (Die Linke), Wagenknecht considered campaigning for the position of party vice-chair. However, party leaders such as Lothar Bisky and Gregor Gysi objected to the idea primarily because of her perceived sympathies for the former German Democratic Republic (GDR or East Germany). Following the controversy, she announced that she would not run for the post. Wagenknecht successfully contested a seat in the 2009 federal election in North Rhine-Westphalia. She became the Left Party's spokesperson for economic politics in the Bundestag. On 15 May 2010, she was at last elected vice-president of the Left Party with 75.3% of the vote.  Early in 2012, the German press reported that Wagenknecht was one of 27 Left Party Bundestag members kept by the security services.  She has been one of the main driving forces in the formation of Aufstehen, a left-populist movement established in 2018, which exists outside of traditional political party structures and has been compared to the French movement La France Insoumise. In March 2019, Wagenknecht announced her withdrawal from her leadership role within Aufstehen, citing personal workload pressures and insisting that after a successful start-up phase, for which political experience was necessary, the time had come for the movement's own grass roots to resume control. She complained that the involvement of political parties at its heart had "walled in" (""sich eingemauert"") the movement. She would nonetheless continue to make public appearances on its behalf.

Political views.

Wagenknecht has argued that the Left Party must pursue radical and anti-capitalist goals, thereby remaining distinct from the more moderate Social Democratic Party (SPD) and Green Party. She has criticized the Left Party's participation in coalition governments, especially the Berlin state government, which has made cuts to social spending and privatized some services.  She has expressed strong support for the rise of left-wing leaders in Latin America, such as Hugo Chávez, and for SYRIZA's 2015 electoral victory in Greece. She serves as a spokesperson for the Venezuela Avanza solidarity network, and as an alternate on the European Parliament's delegation for relations with Mercosur.  On 28 May 2016, an activist from the anti-fascist group "Torten für Menschenfeinde" ("Cakes for Enemies of Humanity") pushed a chocolate cake in Wagenknecht's face at a Left Party meeting in Magdeburg in response to Wagenknecht's calls for limits on the number of refugees. Wagenknecht has criticised Angela Merkel's refugee policies, arguing that her government has not provided the levels of financial and infrastructural support required to avoid increasing pressure on local authorities and the labour market, thereby exacerbating tensions in society. She has also claimed that Merkel's policies were partly to blame for the 2016 Berlin truck attack.

Personal life.

Wagenknecht married businessman Ralph-Thomas Niemeyer in May 1997. However, on 12 November 2011, politician Oskar Lafontaine stated publicly that he and Wagenknecht had become "close friends" (German: "eng befreundet"). At the time, Wagenknecht and Lafontaine had already separated from their respective spouses. Wagenknecht married Lafontaine, 26 years her senior, on 22 December 2014. She is an atheist.

Sahra Wagenknecht (; born 16 July 1969) is a German left-wing politician, economist, author and publicist. Along with Dietmar Bartsch, she was the parliamentary chairperson of Die Linke from 2010 to 2019. Since 2009, she has been a member of the Bundestag.

莎拉·瓦根克内希特(,;1969年-7月16日)是一位德国左翼政治家、作家和政论家。


印地安纳县 (宾夕法尼亚州)

History.

Indiana County (Indiana meaning "land of the Indians") derives its name from the so-called "Indiana Grant of 1768" that the Iroquois Six Nations were forced to make to "suffering traders" under the Fort Stanwix Treaty of 1768. The Iroquois had controlled much of the Ohio River valley as their hunting grounds since the 17th century, and Anglo-American colonists were moving into the area and wanted to develop it. Traders arranged to force the Iroquois to grant land under the treaty in relations to losses due to Pontiac's Rebellion.  Some of the grantees joined forces with the Ohio Company, forming a larger development company based on enlarging their grant of land. They proposed that the entire large area would become a new British colony, possibly to be called Pittsylvania or Vandalia. It was to be bordered on the north and west by the Ohio River, and made up of what are now parts of eastern Kentucky, northern West Virginia (then part of the Virginia Colony), and western Pennsylvania. Anglo-European colonists from Virginia and Pennsylvania had already started to move into the area, which was identified by these various names as Indiana and the other above names on some maps of the late 1700s.  Opposition from other interest groups and the American Revolutionary War intervened before Britain approved such a colony. Afterward, some United States speculators proposed setting up a state in this area to be called Vandalia, or Westsylvania, as appears on some maps of the period.  But both the states of Virginia and Pennsylvania claimed the land based on their colonial charters. In establishing the Mason–Dixon line, the federal government assigned the Indiana Grant to Pennsylvania. As population increased after the war, this county was made up in 1803 of territory from Westmoreland and Clearfield counties; it was formally organized in 1806.  Kentucky and West Virginia continued to be associated with Virginia for some time, being separately admitted as states in the early 19th century and during the American Civil War, respectively. The area in Pennsylvania was unrelated to and was physically separated from the later named Indiana Territory established north of the Ohio River in 1800 by the new United States; that territory was eventually admitted to the Union as the State of Indiana.  In the 21st century, Indiana County comprises the Indiana, PA Micropolitan Statistical Area. This is included in the Pittsburgh-New Castle-Weirton, PA-WV-OH Combined Statistical Area. It is in the defined region of the Pittsburgh media market. Indiana County is served by three different area codes: 724, 814, and 582.  The county proclaims itself the "Christmas Tree Capital of the World", shipping over one million trees annually. Agriculture is a major part of its economy.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.9%) is water. Located in the county is the Buttermilk Falls Natural Area. The county has a humid continental climate which is warm-summer ("Dfb") except along the Conemaugh from below Strangford and the Kiskiminetas River where it is hot-summer ("Dfa"). Average monthly temperatures in the borough of Indiana range from 27.2 °F in January to 70.9 °F in July.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 89,605 people, 34,123 households, and 22,521 families residing in the county. The population density was 108 people per square mile (42/km2). There were 37,250 housing units at an average density of 45 per square mile (17/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 96.87% White, 1.57% Black or African American, 0.08% Native American, 0.74% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.16% from other races, and 0.58% from two or more races. 0.51% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 25.9% were of German, 11.6% Italian, 10.7% Irish, 8.6% American, 7.1% English and 6.8% Polish ancestry.  There were 34,123 households out of which 27.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.30% were married couples living together, 8.20% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.00% were non-families. 26.50% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 2.99.  In the county, the population was spread out with 21.10% under the age of 18, 16.60% from 18 to 24, 24.80% from 25 to 44, 22.70% from 45 to 64, and 14.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.60 males.

Micropolitan Statistical Area.

The United States Office of Management and Budget has designated Indiana County as the Indiana, PA Micropolitan Statistical Area (μSA). As of the 2010 U.S. Census the micropolitan area ranked 4th most populous in the State of Pennsylvania and the 50th most populous in the United States with a population of 88,880. Indiana County is also a part of the Pittsburgh-New Castle-Weirton, PA-OH-WV Combined Statistical Area (CSA), which combines the population of Indiana, as well as the Allegheny, Armstrong, Beaver, Butler, Fayette, Lawrence, Washington and Westmoreland county areas in Pennsylvania. In West Virginia the counties included are Brooke and Hancock. And in Ohio, Jefferson County. The Combined Statistical Area ranked 4th in the State of Pennsylvania and 20th most populous in the United States with a population of 2,660,727.

Government and politics.

Indiana County has been strongly Republican in presidential elections for most of its history, only backing Democratic party candidates four times in presidential elections from 1888 to the present day.  As of the 2016 primary election held April 26, 2016, there were 48,710 registered voters across Indiana County's 69 precincts: 20,089 Democrats (41.24%); 22,134 Republicans (45.44%); and 6,487 Independents (13.32%). This represents a slight demographic shift since November 2008, when a total of 58,077 registered voters were 45.89% (26,653) Democrat, 41.60% (24,159) Republican, and 12.51% (7,265) Independent.

Environment.

In 2003, the county was recommended for non-attainment under EPA ozone standards based upon mobile source contribution to smog-forming emissions.  The county is the site of the Homer City Generating Station, a coal-burning power plant. In 2002 the plant was ranked as second in emissions in the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) in Pennsylvania. In 2003, the plant ranked high in the emissions of both sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide, ranking 4th and 28th, respectively, in the nation. Such toxic emissions are injurious to people and other living things.

Communities.

Under Pennsylvania law, there are four types of incorporated municipalities: cities, boroughs, townships, and, in at most two cases, towns. The following boroughs and townships are located in Indiana County:

Census-designated places.

Census-designated places are geographical areas designated by the U.S. Census Bureau for the purposes of compiling demographic data. They are not actual jurisdictions under Pennsylvania law. Other unincorporated communities, such as villages, may be listed here as well.

Population ranking.

The population ranking of the following table is based on the 2010 census of Indiana County.  † "county seat"

Indiana County is a county located in the central west part of the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 88,880. Its county seat is Indiana. Indiana County comprises the Indiana, PA Micropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Pittsburgh-New Castle-Weirton, PA-WV-OH Combined Statistical Area.

印地安纳县(英语:Indiana County)是位于美国宾夕法尼亚州西部的一个县。面积2,161平方公里。根据美国人口调查局2000年统计,共有人口89,605人。县治印地安纳。


Description.

"Avimimus" was a small, bird-like dinosaur with a length of 1.5 m (5 ft). The skull was small compared to the body, though the brain and eyes were large. The size of the bones which surrounded the brain and were dedicated to protecting it are large. This is also consistent with the hypothesis that "Avimimus" had a proportionally large brain.  The jaws of "Avimimus" were thought to form a parrot-like beak lacking teeth, and a thorough review of the holotype specimen's anatomy confirmed that no teeth were preserved, although a series of tooth-like projections along the tip of the premaxilla were. However, subsequently discovered specimens have been reported to preserve small premaxillary teeth. The small teeth or possible lack thereof in "Avimimus" suggests that it may have been an herbivore or omnivore. Kurzanov himself, however, believed that "Avimimus" was an insectivore.  The foramen magnum, the hole allowing the spinal cord to connect with the brain, was proportionally large in "Avimimus". The occipital condyle, however, was small, further suggestive of the skull's relative lightness. The neck itself was long and slender, and is composed of vertebrae that are much more elongate than in other oviraptorosaurs. Unlike oviraptorids and caenagnathids, the back vertebrae lack openings for air sacs, suggesting that "Avimimus" is more primitive than these animals. The forelimbs were relatively short. The bones of the hand were fused together, as in modern birds, and a ridge on the ulna (lower arm bone) was interpreted as an attachment point for feathers by Kurzanov. Kurzanov, in 1987, also reported the presence of quill knobs, and while Chiappe confirmed the presence of bumps on the ulna, their function remained unclear. Kurzanov was so convinced they were attachment points for feathers that he concluded that "Avimimus" may have been capable of weak flight. The presence of feathers is now widely accepted, but most paleontologists do not believe "Avimimus" could fly.  The ilium was almost horizontally oriented, resulting in exceptionally broad hips. Little is known of the tail but the hip suggests that the tail was long. The legs were extremely long and slender, suggesting that "Avimimus" was a highly specialized runner. The proportions of the leg bones add further weight to the idea of "Avimimus" was quick on its feet. The animal's shins were long in comparison with its thighs, a trait common among cursorial animals. It also had three-toed feet with narrow pointed claws.

Discovery and species.

The remains of "Avimimus" were recovered by Russian paleontologists and officially described by Dr. Sergei Kurzanov in 1981. The "Avimimus" fossils were initially described as having come from the Djadokta Formation by Kurzanov; however, in a 2006 description of a new specimen, Watabe and colleagues noted that Kurzanov was probably mistaken about the provenance, and it is more likely that "Avimimus" hailed from the more recent Nemegt Formation. The type species is "A. portentosus". Because no tail was found with the original find, Kurzanov mistakenly concluded that "Avimimus" lacked a tail in life. However, subsequent "Avimimus" finds containing caudal vertebrae have confirmed the presence of a tail. A second nearly complete specimen of "Avimimus" was discovered in 1996 and described in 2000 by Watabe and colleagues. Additionally, these authors identified a number of small theropod footprints in the same area as belonging to "Avimimus".  A variety of isolated bones that have been attributed to "Avimimus" were considered to be distinct from "A. portentosus", and were initially referred to as "Avimimus sp." In 2008, a team of Canadian, American, and Mongolian paleontologists headed by Phil Currie reported the 2006 an extensive bonebed of "Avimimus sp." fossils, discovered in 2006. The bonebed is in the Nemegt Formation, 10.5 meters above the Barun Goyot Formation, in the Gobi Desert. The team reported finding abundant bones of at least ten individuals of "Avimimus", but the deposit may hold more. All individuals were either adult or subadult, and the adults showed little variation in size, suggesting determinate growth. The team also suggests that the individuals were found together because they were gregarious in life, providing possible indications that "Avimimus" formed age-segregated groups for either lekking or flocking purposes. The adults showed a greater degree of skeletal fusion in the tarsometatarsus and tibiotarsus, and also more prominent muscle scars. The preservation of the bonebeds suggest that they were buried rapidly, uncovered by rapid flow of water, and then buried again a short distance away. In 2018, "Avimimus sp." was formally described as a new species, "A. nemegtensis".

Classification.

"Avimimus" was originally suggested to be a very close relative of birds, given its unique suite of bird-like features not known in other dinosaurs at the time. In fact, Kurzanov argued that "Avimimus", rather than the famous early bird "Archaeopteryx", was close to the direct ancestor of modern birds, and that "Archaeopteryx" was not as closely related to birds as had previously been suggested. However, this view has not been supported by later phylogenetic analyses of dinosaur and bird relationships. Most modern scientists find that "Avimimus" in fact belongs to a diverse group of bird-like dinosaurs more primitive than "Archaeopteryx", the oviraptorosaurs. Kurzanov placed "Avimimus" in its own family, Avimimidae, in 1981. In 1991, Sankar Chatterjee erected the Order Avimimiformes to include "Avimimus". Neither of these group names is used frequently by paleontologists as they include only a single species. More recent studies have shown that "Avimimus" is best grouped within the Oviraptoridae, within the subgroup Elmisaurinae.  The following cladogram follows an analysis by Phil Senter, 2007.

Paleoecology.

The Barun Goyot Formation of Mongolia, is estimated to date back to the Campanian stage, between 84 and 70 million years ago of the Late Cretaceous period. During the Late Cretaceous period, the land that is now the Barun Goyot Formation had an arid environment with fields of sand dunes and only intermittent streams. It is slightly younger than the nearby Djadochta Formation, and seems to have been slightly wetter. This formation is noteworthy for the exquisite preservation of small and fragile dinosaur skeletons, a rare occurrence considering that these fossils are typically broken up and dispersed when found in other rock formations. The region that is preserved in the Barun Goyot Formation was home to the maniraptoran "Hulsanpes perlei", the oviraptorids "Conchoraptor gracilis" and "Ajancingenia yanshini", the alvarezsaurids "Ceratonykus oculatus", "Mononykus" and "Parvicursor remotus", the pachycephalosaur "Tylocephale gilmorei", the ankylosaurs "Saichania chulsanensis" and "Tarchia gigantea", and the ceratopsians "Bagaceratops rozhdestvenskyi", "Breviceratops kozlowskii", "Lamaceratops tereschenkoi" and "Platyceratops tatarinovi". The largest dinosaur among them was the titanosaur "Quaesitosaurus orientalis". It was observed that many of the same genera were present at the Barun Goyot and Djadochta Formations, though there was variation at the species level. Vertebrates present in the Barun Goyot Formation included the primitive birds "Gobipteryx minuta" and "Hollanda luceria" and the lizards "Estesia mongoliensis", "Ovoo gurvel", "Proplatynotia longirostrata" and "Gobiderma pulchrum". The early mammals that were present in this region during the time of "Avimimus" were the placental mammals "Asioryctes nemegetensis" and "Barunlestes butleri", the amphibian "Gobiates khermeentsavi", the multituberculate mammals "Catopsbaatar catopsaloides", "Chulsanbaatar vulgaris" and "Nemegtbaatar gobiensis", and the marsupial mammal "Asiatherium reshetovi" and "Deltatheridium pretrituberculare". Numerous dinosaur eggshells found in this region support the presence of sauropods and maniraptors.

Avimimus ( ), meaning "bird mimic" (Latin "avis" = bird + "mimus" = mimic), is a genus of oviraptorosaurian theropod dinosaur, named for its bird-like characteristics, that lived in the late Cretaceous in what is now Mongolia, around 85 to 70 million years ago.

拟鸟龙属(属名:)是偷蛋龙下目拟鸟龙科下的唯一一属,生活于上白垩纪的蒙古,距今约7,000万年前。牠的学名意思是「鸟类模仿者」,因为牠的样子很像鸟类。


Early life.

Burstyn was born Edna Rae Gillooly in Detroit, Michigan, the daughter of Correine Marie (née Hamel) and John Austin Gillooly. She has described her ancestry as "Irish, French, Pennsylvania Dutch, a little Canadian Indian". Burstyn has an older brother, Jack, and a younger brother, Steve. Her parents divorced when she was young, and she and her brothers lived with their mother and stepfather.  Burstyn attended Cass Technical High School, a university-preparatory school which allowed students to choose a specific field of study. Burstyn majored in fashion illustration. In high school, she was a cheerleader, a member of the student council, and president of her drama club. She dropped out of high school during her senior year after failing her classes. Soon afterwards, Burstyn worked as a dancer, and then a model until the age of 23. She later relocated to Dallas, where she continued modeling and worked in other fashion jobs before moving to New York City.  From 1955 to 1956, Burstyn appeared as an "away we go" dancing girl on "The Jackie Gleason Show" under the name Erica Dean. Burstyn then decided to become an actress and chose the name "Ellen McRae" as her professional name; she later changed her surname after her 1964 marriage to Neil Burstyn.

Career.

1958–1970: Early work.

Burstyn debuted on Broadway in 1957 and joined Lee Strasberg's The Actors Studio in New York City in 1967. In 1975, she won a Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play for her performance in the comedy "Same Time, Next Year," a role in which she would reprise in a film adaptation in 1978. Starting in the late 1950s, and throughout the 1960s, Burstyn frequently played guest roles on a number of primetime television shows, including "Dr. Kildare", "77 Sunset Strip", "Ben Casey", "Gunsmoke", "Perry Mason", "Wagon Train", "The Big Valley", and "The Virginian". During 1964–1965, she had a recurring role as Dr. Kate Bartok on the NBC daytime television soap opera "The Doctors". Between 1967 and 1968, she co-starred as Julie Parsons opposite Dale Robertson in the ABC western "The Iron Horse". She was credited as Ellen McRae until 1967, when she and her then-husband Neil Nephew both changed their surname to Burstyn, and she began to be credited as Ellen Burstyn.

1971–1981: Film breakthrough.

After a number of small film roles, Burstyn gained recognition after starring in the 1971's "The Last Picture Show," a coming of age story, directed by Peter Bogdanovich and adapted from a semi-autobiographical 1966 novel by Larry McMurtry. The film earned critical acclaim for its nostalgia and visual style that is reminiscent of 1951, the year in which the plot takes place. The film was nominated for eight Academy Awards, including Best Actress in a Supporting Role for Burstyn and her co-star Cloris Leachman. Leachman won the award. In 1998, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". She next appeared in the drama "The King of Marvin Gardens" in 1972, with Jack Nicholson, Bruce Dern, and Scatman Crothers. A story about a daydreamer who convinces his brother to help fund a get-rich-quick scheme, the film was well received by critics.  In 1972, Burstyn was keen on playing the lead role as Chris MacNeil in the supernatural horror, "The Exorcist" (1973). The film studio were initially reluctant to cast her, but when no other actors were put forward, Burstyn was chosen for the part. Her co-stars were Max von Sydow, Lee J. Cobb, Kitty Winn, Jack MacGowran, Jason Miller and Linda Blair. "The Exorcist" had a production budget of $12 million and its principal photography was held in various parts of New York City. Filming proved to be challenging for the entire cast, as it took "six day weeks, twelve hour days for nine months" to film and director William Friedkin preferred to get genuine shocked reactions by using a prop gun. Burstyn also injured her coccyx, which led to permanent injury to her spine. Film critic Roger Ebert praised Burstyn for her ability to capture MacNeil's "frustration" during her daughter's possession by an evil spirit. Against expectations, "The Exorcist" was a commercial success at the theaters. Adjusted for inflation, the film is the ninth highest-grossing film of all time in the U.S. and Canada and the top-grossing R-rated film of all time. The film won two Academy Awards—Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Sound Mixing—and gained Burstyn a Best Actress nomination.  Burstyn followed up with a small role in the comedy-drama, "Harry and Tonto" in 1974. Her next major role was in Martin Scorsese's "Alice Doesn't Live Here Anymore" (1975) where she played a widowed woman, raising a son and yearning to start a new life for herself as a singer. Drawn to the script, Burstyn selected then-newcomer Scorsese as director and recalled the collaboration as "one of the best experiences I've ever had". Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" wrote, "Burstyn never misses the eccentric beat that distinguishes it—that makes Alice such a hugely appealing character who is both banal and very rare". The film earned her an Academy Award for Best Actress. In 1975, she became a graduate of the first group of participants in the American Film Institute Directing Workshop for Women. In 1977, she served as a member of the jury at the 27th Berlin International Film Festival.  She had supporting roles in "Providence and A Dream of Passion" in 1977 and 1978, respectively. Although these were independent dramas and not widely seen, the latter was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Film. Also in 1978, Burstyn starred in "Same Time, Next Year" opposite Alan Alda"," a romantic-comedy about two people, married to others, who meet for a romantic tryst once a year for two decades. The film is based on a 1975 play of the same title by Bernard Slade. Upon its release on November 22, the film garnered mixed reviews, with Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" stating, "Slade's screenplay isn't often funny, and it's full of momentous events that can't be laughed away", but praises Burstyn for giving the role "warmth and grace". "Same Time, Next Year" was nominated for Academy Awards in Best Cinematography, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Original Song, and Best Actress for Burstyn. In the Golden Globes Awards, she won Best Actress in a Motion Picture, and the film received two other nominations—Best Actor for Alda and Best Original Song.  Burstyn hosted NBC's "Saturday Night Live", a late-night sketch comedy and variety show, in December 1980. That year, Burstyn starred in the drama "Resurrection", a story about a woman who possesses strange powers after a surviving an automobile crash. She was nominated again for Best Actress in the Academy Awards and Best Actress in the Golden Globes. In 1981, she starred in the biographical television movie "The People vs. Jean Harris" (1981), based on the real life murder of Herman Tarnower, a well-known cardiologist and author of the best-selling book "The Complete Scarsdale Medical Diet". Burstyn was nominated for Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film in the Golden Globes for her portrayal of the murderer, Jean Harris. She was also nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Actress in a Mini-Series or Movie. In 1981, Burstyn recorded "The Ballad of the Nazi Soldier's Wife" for Ben Bagley's album "Kurt Weill Revisited, Vol. 2".

1985–2005: Television films and continued success.

Burstyn followed up the mid-1980s with a number of roles in television movies, including "The Ambassador" (1984), (1985), "Twice in a Lifetime" (1985), "Into Thin Air" (1985), "Act of Vengeance" (1986), "Something in Common" (1986) and play adaptation, "Pack of Lies" (1987). For "Twice in a Lifetime," she co-starred with Gene Hackman and Ann-Margret. Burstyn portrays Kate, the wife that Hackman's character divorces when he falls in love with another woman. "Pack of Lies" was nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards, including another one for Burstyn as Outstanding Actress in a Mini-Series or Movie.  In 1986, Burstyn starred in an ABC television sitcom, "The Ellen Burstyn Show," with co-stars Megan Mullally as her daughter and Elaine Stritch as her mother. Created by David Frankel, it ran only for one season. In 1987, she appeared in "" and "Look Away", both which were television movies. In 1988, she then participated again as a member of the jury for the 38th Berlin International Film Festival. A variety of acting performances followed suit, including in the dramas "Hanna's War" (1987), "When You Remember Me" (1990), "Dying Young" (1991) and "Grand Isle" (1991). In 1990, Burstyn won the Sarah Siddons Award for her work in Chicago theatre. In addition to television movies, Burstyn appeared in "When a Man Loves a Woman" (1994) with co-stars Andy Garcia and Meg Ryan.  In 1995, she portrayed Judith in the comedy-drama "Roommates" (1995). The film received negative reviews and was a commercial failure, but it did receive a nomination for Best Makeup in the Academy Awards. Also that year, Burstyn appeared in "How to Make an American Quilt" (1995), based on the 1991 novel of the same name by Whitney Otto, which tells the stories of several generations of women who are part of the same quilting circle. Despite a mixed critical response, the cast received a nomination for Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture. In 1998, Burstyn appeared in "Playing By Heart", with co-stars including Sean Connery and Angelina Jolie, a story of eleven ordinary people in Los Angeles who are connected in different ways. Some critics such as Roger Ebert viewed the film positively despite the lackluster performance at the box office.  Burstyn next found supporting roles in "The Spitfire Grill" (1996), about a woman starting a new life after being released from prison, and "Deceiver" (1997), a murder crime drama. Although not box office hits, each film garnered mixed to positive responses, according to film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. Next, she appeared in James Gray's "The Yards" (2000) alongside a principal cast of Mark Wahlberg, Joaquin Phoenix, Charlize Theron, Faye Dunaway and James Caan. The crime drama was unpopular and a commercial failure, earning less than $1 million worldwide from a budget of $24 million.  In 1999, director Darren Aronofsky offered Burstyn the role of Sara Goldfarb in "Requiem for a Dream" (2000). She initially rejected the part, objecting to the depressive nature of the story. However, Burstyn changed her mind after seeing Aronofsky's previous work. The film is based on the novel of the same name by Hubert Selby Jr, which tells the story of four New Yorkers whose lives are affected by drug addictions. To prepare for the role, Burstyn had to research troubled women in Brooklyn, "to get their speech patterns and outlook on life - and how narrow that is... their life is about getting enough money to put food on the table to feed their children, and that's it". She also had to wear fat suits and lose about 10-pounds (41⁄2 kg) to showcase her character's weight-loss. Burstyn and her co-stars, Jennifer Connelly, Jared Leto, and Marlon Wayans, found the filming schedule of forty days challenging and intense. "Requiem for a Dream" premiered at the 2000 Cannes Film Festival and was released to theaters on October 6, 2000. The film was well received and praised for its visual style and depiction of drug abuse. Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" writes, "Burstyn gives an award-caliber performance that is as raw and riveting as the movie that contains it". Burstyn was nominated for Best Actress in the 2001 Academy Awards.  From 2000 to 2002, Burstyn starred in the CBS television series "That's Life". The series, set in suburban New Jersey, ran for two seasons. Burstyn appeared in several more films, including "Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood" (2002), "Brush with Fate" (2003) and "The Five People You Meet in Heaven" (2004). Burstyn starred in the Broadway production of Martin Tahse's "Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All", based upon the novel of the same title by Allan Gurganus. The show played 19 previews and officially opened November 17, 2003. Due to unfavorable reviews, all performances after the opening night were cancelled.

2006–2015: Steady work in film and television.

She provided a supporting role as the mother of two sons in the 2006 romantic drama "The Elephant King". The film originally premiered at the 2006 Tribeca Film Festival, and opened in U.S. theaters October 2008. In January 2006, she starred as an Episcopal bishop in the NBC comedy-drama series "The Book of Daniel". The series, which also starred Aidan Quinn as a drug-addicted Episcopal priest married to an alcoholic wife, was met with controversy from religious and spiritual leaders due to its unconventional portrayals of religious figures. Conservative groups including American Family Association and Focus on the Family urged supporters to complain to NBC affiliates that carried the show. Subsequently, NBC removed the series from its line-up after four episodes, but did not publicly give a reason for doing so. In 2006, Burstyn appeared in the epic drama "The Fountain", her second collaboration with Darren Aronofsky. Portraying Dr. Lillian Guzetti, the film is about a scientist (played by Hugh Jackman) struggling with mortality and is seeking a medical breakthrough to save his wife (Rachel Weisz) from cancer. Budgeted at $35 million, the screenplay is a blend of fantasy, history, spirituality, and science fiction. "The Fountain" premiered on November 22, 2006 to mixed reviews and under-performance at the box office. Ruthe Stein of the "San Francisco Chronicle" writes, "The movie is overloaded with imagery. At times, it's stunning to look at, but gradually becomes too much", but praises Burstyn for her character's "impressive depth". Since its release, the film managed to gain a cult following causing media to revisit the film.  In 2006, she was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Mini-Series or Movie for the role of Former Tarnower Steady in HBO's "Mrs. Harris", another biopic about Jean Harris. Soon after the nominations were announced, questions were raised regarding the worthiness of the nomination due to her minor role in the film, consisting of 14 seconds of screen time and 38 words of dialogue. The nominating committee were accused of approving a "familiar" name without actually seeing their performance. The Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, administrator of the Emmy Awards, insisted it was a legitimate nomination. Burstyn reacted, "I thought it was fabulous. My next ambition is to get nominated for seven seconds, and ultimately, I want to be nominated for a picture in which I don't even appear", adding, "This doesn't have anything to do with me... work it out yourself". Ultimately, Kelly Macdonald, who starred in "The Girl in the Cafe", won the award. In March 2007, the Academy adjusted the eligibility criteria.  She also appeared in the thriller "The Wicker Man" (2006), a remake of the 1973 British film of the same name, which was a commercial flop and negatively received by critics. "Slant" magazine was critical of the cast performances, writing that Burstyn "feigns arrogant malevolence". A year later, Burstyn starred in "The Stone Angel", based on the 1964 novel of the same name by Margaret Laurence. Like its predecessor, the film also garnered negative reviews, with Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" writing, "a film of tightly assembled bits and pieces that don’t fit comfortably together despite clever dashes of magical realism connecting past and present... it leaves you frustrated by its failure to braid subplots and characters into a gripping narrative".  A succession of films including "Lovely, Still" (2008), "The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond" (2008) and "The Mighty Macs" (2011), were released in the late 2000s which found success to niche audiences. She then appeared in "Main Street" (2010) and "Another Happy Day" (2011), small-scale features with mixed reviews. In addition to film roles, between 2007 and 2011, she had an occasional recurring role on the HBO television drama series "Big Love", playing the mother of polygamist wife Barbara Henrickson. Burstyn returned to the stage in March 2008, in the off-Broadway production of Stephen Adly Guirgis's "The Little Flower of East Orange", directed by Philip Seymour Hoffman in a co-production by LAByrinth Theater Company and The Public Theater. In addition to her stage work, Burstyn portrayed former First Lady Barbara Bush in Oliver Stone's biographical film "W." in 2008.  In 2009, she won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her portrayal of the bipolar estranged mother of Detective Elliot Stabler on NBC's police procedural "". In 2012, she joined the cast of "Political Animals," a television series about the life of a divorced former First Lady, serving as Secretary of State. "Political Animals" received generally favorable reviews from critics according to Metacritic. At the 2013 Golden Globe Awards, the series was nominated for Best Miniseries or Motion Picture Made for Television. Burstyn won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Mini-Series.  She portrayed the grandmother of Lou (played by Mackenzie Foy) in "Wish You Well" (2013). A year later, Burstyn and Foy worked together again in Christopher Nolan's epic science fiction "Interstellar". Set in a dystopian future where humanity is struggling to survive, the film follows a group of astronauts who travel through a wormhole in search of a new home for humanity. The film grossed over $677 million in the worldwide box office, making it the tenth-highest-grossing film of 2014. She made a guest appearance in five episodes of "Louie" in 2014, and starred in a thriller", The Calling," in the same year. Burstyn played Flemming, the daughter of Blake Lively's immortal character, in the film "The Age of Adaline" (2015). Production started in March 2014, and the film was released in April 2015.

2016–present.

In 2016, she guest starred in five episodes of the critically acclaimed political thriller "House of Cards". "The New York Times" praised Burstyn's character for adding "vitality and heart" which was likely to earn her an Emmy nomination. Burstyn was credited on a succession of low-budget films, including "Custody" (2016), "The House of Tomorrow" (2017), "All I Wish" (2017) and "Nostalgia" (2018). Burstyn also starred in "The Tale", a mystery drama which premiered on HBO on May 26, 2018. Director Jennifer Fox was praised for her direction and bringing the "complex, haunting work" to life. Burstyn served as an executive producer for Peter Livolsi's film, "The House of Tomorrow" (2017)"," about her friend R. Buckminster Fuller, in which she also stars in. As of 2014, Burstyn is working on directing her first feature film, "Bathing Flo". In 2019, Burstyn played musicologist Katherine Brandt in an acclaimed Australian production of Moisés Kaufman's play, "33 Variations" at Melbourne's Comedy Theatre.

Personal life.

Burstyn married Bill Alexander in 1950 and divorced in 1957. The following year, she married Paul Roberts, with whom she adopted a son named Jefferson in 1961. The couple divorced that same year. In 1964, she married actor Neil Nephew, who later changed his name to Neil Burstyn. She described Neil Burstyn as "charming and funny and bright and talented and eccentric", but schizophrenia made him violent and he eventually left her. He attempted to reconcile but they divorced in 1972. In her autobiography, "Lessons in Becoming Myself", Burstyn revealed that he stalked her for six years after their divorce, and that he broke into her house and raped her. No charges were filed, as spousal rape was not yet a crime. He committed suicide in 1978.  Burstyn was raised Catholic, but now affiliates herself with all religious faiths. She follows a form of Sufism, explaining, "I am a spirit opening to the truth that lives in all of these religions... I always pray to Spirit, but sometimes, it's to the Goddess. Sometimes, it's to Jesus... Sometimes, I pray to Ganesha if I need an obstacle removed. Guan Yin is one of my favorite manifestations of the divine, the embodiment of compassion... So, I have Guan Yin with me all the time." In her late 30s, she began to learn about spirituality, under the instruction of Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan, who gave her the spiritual name Hadiya, which means "she who is guided" in Arabic.  During the 1970s, Burstyn was active in the movement to free convicted boxer Rubin "Hurricane" Carter from jail. She is a supporter of the Democratic Party, and appeared in the 2009 documentary "PoliWood". Burstyn served as president of the Actors' Equity Association from 1982 to 1985. Burstyn is also on the Board of Selectors of Jefferson Awards for Public Service. In 1997, Burstyn was inducted into the Michigan Women's Hall of Fame. Since 2000, she has been co-president of the Actors Studio, alongside Al Pacino and Alec Baldwin. In 2013, she was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame for her work on stage.

Ellen Burstyn (born Edna Rae Gillooly; December 7, 1932) is an American actress. Known for her portrayal of complicated women in dramas, Burstyn is the recipient of various accolades, and is among the few performers to have won the Triple Crown of Acting.

艾伦·鲍丝汀(英语:Ellen Burstyn,1932年-12月7日),美国电影、舞台剧和电视剧演员。她在1950年代晚期自剧场起家,随后接演许多电影和电视剧,并在1967年加入演员工作室。她曾以《最后一场电影》(1971年)和《大法师》(1973年)中精湛的演技,获得奥斯卡金像奖提名。翌年,她以马丁·史柯西斯的作品《再见爱丽丝》(1973年)夺得奥斯卡最佳女主角奖。1975年,鲍丝汀在百老汇剧院演出《明年此时》,获得东尼奖肯定;她也以1978年的电影版本拿下金球奖,以及四项奥斯卡提名。鲍丝汀自1980年代开始她广博的演艺生涯,并以电影《迷上瘾》中的演出最广为好评,广揽许多影评人奖项。


Overview.

If analysis of the control chart indicates that the process is currently under control (i.e., is stable, with variation only coming from sources common to the process), then no corrections or changes to process control parameters are needed or desired. In addition, data from the process can be used to predict the future performance of the process. If the chart indicates that the monitored process is not in control, analysis of the chart can help determine the sources of variation, as this will result in degraded process performance. A process that is stable but operating outside desired (specification) limits (e.g., scrap rates may be in statistical control but above desired limits) needs to be improved through a deliberate effort to understand the causes of current performance and fundamentally improve the process.  The control chart is one of the seven basic tools of quality control. Typically control charts are used for time-series data, though they can be used for data that have logical comparability (i.e. you want to compare samples that were taken all at the same time, or the performance of different individuals); however the type of chart used to do this requires consideration.

History.

The control chart was invented by Walter A. Shewhart working for Bell Labs in the 1920s. The company's engineers had been seeking to improve the reliability of their telephony transmission systems. Because amplifiers and other equipment had to be buried underground, there was a stronger business need to reduce the frequency of failures and repairs. By 1920, the engineers had already realized the importance of reducing variation in a manufacturing process. Moreover, they had realized that continual process-adjustment in reaction to non-conformance actually increased variation and degraded quality. Shewhart framed the problem in terms of Common- and special-causes of variation and, on May 16, 1924, wrote an internal memo introducing the control chart as a tool for distinguishing between the two. Shewhart's boss, George Edwards, recalled: "Dr. Shewhart prepared a little memorandum only about a page in length. About a third of that page was given over to a simple diagram which we would all recognize today as a schematic control chart. That diagram, and the short text which preceded and followed it set forth all of the essential principles and considerations which are involved in what we know today as process quality control." Shewhart stressed that bringing a production process into a state of statistical control, where there is only common-cause variation, and keeping it in control, is necessary to predict future output and to manage a process economically.  Shewhart created the basis for the control chart and the concept of a state of statistical control by carefully designed experiments. While Shewhart drew from pure mathematical statistical theories, he understood that data from physical processes typically produce a "normal distribution curve" (a Gaussian distribution, also commonly referred to as a "bell curve"). He discovered that observed variation in manufacturing data did not always behave the same way as data in nature (Brownian motion of particles). Shewhart concluded that while every process displays variation, some processes display controlled variation that is natural to the process, while others display uncontrolled variation that is not present in the process causal system at all times.  In 1924, or 1925, Shewhart's innovation came to the attention of W. Edwards Deming, then working at the Hawthorne facility. Deming later worked at the United States Department of Agriculture and became the mathematical advisor to the United States Census Bureau. Over the next half a century, Deming became the foremost champion and proponent of Shewhart's work. After the defeat of Japan at the close of World War II, Deming served as statistical consultant to the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. His ensuing involvement in Japanese life, and long career as an industrial consultant there, spread Shewhart's thinking, and the use of the control chart, widely in Japanese manufacturing industry throughout the 1950s and 1960s.

Chart details.

A control chart consists of:  The chart may have other optional features, including: (n.b., there are several rule sets for detection of signal; this is just one set. The rule set should be clearly stated.)

Chart usage.

If the process is in control (and the process statistic is normal), 99.7300% of all the points will fall between the control limits. Any observations outside the limits, or systematic patterns within, suggest the introduction of a new (and likely unanticipated) source of variation, known as a special-cause variation. Since increased variation means increased quality costs, a control chart "signaling" the presence of a special-cause requires immediate investigation.  This makes the control limits very important decision aids. The control limits provide information about the process behavior and have no intrinsic relationship to any specification targets or engineering tolerance. In practice, the process mean (and hence the centre line) may not coincide with the specified value (or target) of the quality characteristic because the process design simply cannot deliver the process characteristic at the desired level.  Control charts limit specification limits or targets because of the tendency of those involved with the process (e.g., machine operators) to focus on performing to specification when in fact the least-cost course of action is to keep process variation as low as possible. Attempting to make a process whose natural centre is not the same as the target perform to target specification increases process variability and increases costs significantly and is the cause of much inefficiency in operations. Process capability studies do examine the relationship between the natural process limits (the control limits) and specifications, however.  The purpose of control charts is to allow simple detection of events that are indicative of actual process change. This simple decision can be difficult where the process characteristic is continuously varying; the control chart provides statistically objective criteria of change. When change is detected and considered good its cause should be identified and possibly become the new way of working, where the change is bad then its cause should be identified and eliminated.  The purpose in adding warning limits or subdividing the control chart into zones is to provide early notification if something is amiss. Instead of immediately launching a process improvement effort to determine whether special causes are present, the Quality Engineer may temporarily increase the rate at which samples are taken from the process output until it is clear that the process is truly in control. Note that with three-sigma limits, common-cause variations result in signals less than once out of every twenty-two points for skewed processes and about once out of every three hundred seventy (1/370.4) points for normally distributed processes. The two-sigma warning levels will be reached about once for every twenty-two (1/21.98) plotted points in normally distributed data. (For example, the means of sufficiently large samples drawn from practically any underlying distribution whose variance exists are normally distributed, according to the Central Limit Theorem.)

Choice of limits.

Shewhart set "3-sigma" (3-standard deviation) limits on the following basis.  Shewhart summarized the conclusions by saying: "... the fact that the criterion which we happen to use has a fine ancestry in highbrow statistical theorems does not justify its use. Such justification must come from empirical evidence that it works. As the practical engineer might say, the proof of the pudding is in the eating." Although he initially experimented with limits based on probability distributions, Shewhart ultimately wrote: "Some of the earliest attempts to characterize a state of statistical control were inspired by the belief that there existed a special form of frequency function" f "and it was early argued that the normal law characterized such a state. When the normal law was found to be inadequate, then generalized functional forms were tried. Today, however, all hopes of finding a unique functional form" f "are blasted." The control chart is intended as a heuristic. Deming insisted that it is not a hypothesis test and is not motivated by the Neyman–Pearson lemma. He contended that the disjoint nature of population and sampling frame in most industrial situations compromised the use of conventional statistical techniques. Deming's intention was to seek insights into the cause system of a process "...under a wide range of unknowable circumstances, future and past..." He claimed that, under such conditions, "3-sigma" limits provided "... a rational and economic guide to minimum economic loss..." from the two errors:

Calculation of standard deviation.

As for the calculation of control limits, the standard deviation (error) required is that of the common-cause variation in the process. Hence, the usual estimator, in terms of sample variance, is not used as this estimates the total squared-error loss from both common- and special-causes of variation.  An alternative method is to use the relationship between the range of a sample and its standard deviation derived by Leonard H. C. Tippett, as an estimator which tends to be less influenced by the extreme observations which typify special-causes.

Rules for detecting signals.

The most common sets are:  There has been particular controversy as to how long a run of observations, all on the same side of the centre line, should count as a signal, with 6, 7, 8 and 9 all being advocated by various writers.  The most important principle for choosing a set of rules is that the choice be made before the data is inspected. Choosing rules once the data have been seen tends to increase the Type I error rate owing to testing effects suggested by the data.

Alternative bases.

In 1935, the British Standards Institution, under the influence of Egon Pearson and against Shewhart's spirit, adopted control charts, replacing "3-sigma" limits with limits based on percentiles of the normal distribution. This move continues to be represented by John Oakland and others but has been widely deprecated by writers in the Shewhart–Deming tradition.

Performance of control charts.

When a point falls outside the limits established for a given control chart, those responsible for the underlying process are expected to determine whether a special cause has occurred. If one has, it is appropriate to determine if the results with the special cause are better than or worse than results from common causes alone. If worse, then that cause should be eliminated if possible. If better, it may be appropriate to intentionally retain the special cause within the system producing the results.  Even when a process is "in control" (that is, no special causes are present in the system), there is approximately a 0.27% probability of a point exceeding "3-sigma" control limits. So, even an in control process plotted on a properly constructed control chart will eventually signal the possible presence of a special cause, even though one may not have actually occurred. For a Shewhart control chart using "3-sigma" limits, this "false alarm" occurs on average once every 1/0.0027 or 370.4 observations. Therefore, the "in-control average run length" (or in-control ARL) of a Shewhart chart is 370.4.  Meanwhile, if a special cause does occur, it may not be of sufficient magnitude for the chart to produce an immediate "alarm condition". If a special cause occurs, one can describe that cause by measuring the change in the mean and/or variance of the process in question. When those changes are quantified, it is possible to determine the out-of-control ARL for the chart.  It turns out that Shewhart charts are quite good at detecting large changes in the process mean or variance, as their out-of-control ARLs are fairly short in these cases. However, for smaller changes (such as a "1-" or "2-sigma" change in the mean), the Shewhart chart does not detect these changes efficiently. Other types of control charts have been developed, such as the EWMA chart, the CUSUM chart and the real-time contrasts chart, which detect smaller changes more efficiently by making use of information from observations collected prior to the most recent data point.  Many control charts work best for numeric data with Gaussian assumptions. The real-time contrasts chart was proposed to monitor process with complex characteristics, e.g. high-dimensional, mix numerical and categorical, missing-valued, non-Gaussian, non-linear relationship.

Criticisms.

Several authors have criticised the control chart on the grounds that it violates the likelihood principle. However, the principle is itself controversial and supporters of control charts further argue that, in general, it is impossible to specify a likelihood function for a process not in statistical control, especially where knowledge about the cause system of the process is weak.  Some authors have criticised the use of average run lengths (ARLs) for comparing control chart performance, because that average usually follows a geometric distribution, which has high variability and difficulties.  Some authors have criticized that most control charts focus on numeric data. Nowadays, process data can be much more complex, e.g. non-Gaussian, mix numerical and categorical, or be missing-valued.

Types of charts.

Some practitioners also recommend the use of Individuals charts for attribute data, particularly when the assumptions of either binomially distributed data (p- and np-charts) or Poisson-distributed data (u- and c-charts) are violated. Two primary justifications are given for this practice. First, normality is not necessary for statistical control, so the Individuals chart may be used with non-normal data. Second, attribute charts derive the measure of dispersion directly from the mean proportion (by assuming a probability distribution), while Individuals charts derive the measure of dispersion from the data, independent of the mean, making Individuals charts more robust than attributes charts to violations of the assumptions about the distribution of the underlying population. It is sometimes noted that the substitution of the Individuals chart works best for large counts, when the binomial and Poisson distributions approximate a normal distribution. i.e. when the number of trials for p- and np-charts or for u- and c-charts.  Critics of this approach argue that control charts should not be used when their underlying assumptions are violated, such as when process data is neither normally distributed nor binomially (or Poisson) distributed. Such processes are not in control and should be improved before the application of control charts. Additionally, application of the charts in the presence of such deviations increases the type I and type II error rates of the control charts, and may make the chart of little practical use.

Control charts, also known as Shewhart charts (after Walter A. Shewhart) or process-behavior charts, are a statistical process control tool used to determine if a manufacturing or business process is in a state of control. It is more appropriate to say that the control charts are the graphical device for Statistical Process Monitoring (SPM). Traditional control charts are mostly designed to monitor process parameters when underlying form of the process distributions are known. However, more advanced techniques are available in the 21st century where incoming data streaming can-be monitored even without any knowledge of the underlying process distributions. Distribution-free control charts are becoming increasingly popular.

管制图(英语:Control chart),也称为修哈特图或流程行为图,是统计制程管制中,确定制造或业务流程是否在统计控制状态下的一种工具。