Structure.

The human reticular formation is composed of almost 100 brain nuclei and contains many projections into the forebrain, brainstem, and cerebellum, among other regions. It includes the reticular nuclei, reticulothalamic projection fibers, diffuse thalamocortical projections, ascending cholinergic projections, descending non-cholinergic projections, and descending reticulospinal projections. The reticular formation also contains two major neural subsystems, the ascending reticular activating system and descending reticulospinal tracts, which mediate distinct cognitive and physiological processes. It has been functionally cleaved both sagittally and coronally.  Traditionally the reticular nuclei are divided into three columns: The original functional differentiation was a division of caudal and rostral. This was based upon the observation that the lesioning of the rostral reticular formation induces a hypersomnia in the cat brain. In contrast, lesioning of the more caudal portion of the reticular formation produces insomnia in cats. This study has led to the idea that the caudal portion inhibits the rostral portion of the reticular formation.  Sagittal division reveals more morphological distinctions. The raphe nuclei form a ridge in the middle of the reticular formation, and, directly to its periphery, there is a division called the medial reticular formation. The medial RF is large and has long ascending and descending fibers, and is surrounded by the lateral reticular formation. The lateral RF is close to the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves, and mostly mediates their function.

Medial and lateral reticular formation.

The medial reticular formation and lateral reticular formation are two columns of nuclei with ill-defined boundaries that send projections through the medulla and into the midbrain. The nuclei can be differentiated by function, cell type, and projections of efferent or afferent nerves. Moving caudally from the rostral midbrain, at the site of the rostral pons and the midbrain, the medial RF becomes less prominent, and the lateral RF becomes more prominent.  Existing on the sides of the medial reticular formation is its lateral cousin, which is particularly pronounced in the rostral medulla and caudal pons. Out from this area spring the cranial nerves, including the very important vagus nerve. The lateral RF is known for its ganglions and areas of interneurons around the cranial nerves, which serve to mediate their characteristic reflexes and functions.

Function.

The reticular formation consists of more than 100 small neural networks, with varied functions including the following:

Major subsystems.

Ascending reticular activating system.

The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), also known as the "extrathalamic control modulatory system" or simply the "reticular activating system" (RAS), is a set of connected nuclei in the brains of vertebrates that is responsible for regulating wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions. The ARAS is a part of the reticular formation and is mostly composed of various nuclei in the thalamus and a number of dopaminergic, noradrenergic, serotonergic, histaminergic, cholinergic, and glutamatergic brain nuclei.

Structure of the ARAS.

The ARAS is composed of several neural circuits connecting the dorsal part of the posterior midbrain and anterior pons to the cerebral cortex via distinct pathways that project through the thalamus and hypothalamus. The ARAS is a collection of different nuclei – more than 20 on each side in the upper brainstem, the pons, medulla, and posterior hypothalamus. The neurotransmitters that these neurons release include dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, histamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate. They exert cortical influence through direct axonal projections and indirect projections through thalamic relays.  The thalamic pathway consists primarily of cholinergic neurons in the pontine tegmentum, whereas the hypothalamic pathway is composed primarily of neurons that release monoamine neurotransmitters, namely dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, and histamine. The glutamate-releasing neurons in the ARAS were identified much more recently relative to the monoaminergic and cholinergic nuclei; the glutamatergic component of the ARAS includes one nucleus in the hypothalamus and various brainstem nuclei. The orexin neurons of the lateral hypothalamus innervate every component of the ascending reticular activating system and coordinate activity within the entire system.  The ARAS consists of evolutionarily ancient areas of the brain, which are crucial to the animal's survival and protected during adverse periods, such as during inhibitory periods of Totsellreflex, aka, "animal hypnosis". The ascending reticular activating system which sends neuromodulatory projections to the cortex - mainly connects to the prefrontal cortex. There seems to be low connectivity to the motor areas of the cortex.

Functions of the ARAS.

Consciousness.

The ascending reticular activating system is an important enabling factor for the state of consciousness. The ascending system is seen to contribute to wakefulness as characterised by cortical and behavioural arousal.

Regulating sleep-wake transitions.

The main function of the ARAS is to modify and potentiate thalamic and cortical function such that electroencephalogram (EEG) desynchronization ensues. There are distinct differences in the brain's electrical activity during periods of wakefulness and sleep: Low voltage fast burst brain waves (EEG desynchronization) are associated with wakefulness and REM sleep (which are electrophysiologically similar); high voltage slow waves are found during non-REM sleep. Generally speaking, when thalamic relay neurons are in burst mode the EEG is synchronized and when they are in tonic mode it is desynchronized. Stimulation of the ARAS produces EEG desynchronization by suppressing slow cortical waves (0.3–1 Hz), delta waves (1–4 Hz), and spindle wave oscillations (11–14 Hz) and by promoting gamma band (20 – 40 Hz) oscillations.  The physiological change from a state of deep sleep to wakefulness is reversible and mediated by the ARAS. The ventrolateral preoptic nucleus (VLPO) of the hypothalamus inhibits the neural circuits responsible for the awake state, and VLPO activation contributes to the sleep onset. During sleep, neurons in the ARAS will have a much lower firing rate; conversely, they will have a higher activity level during the waking state. In order that the brain may sleep, there must be a reduction in ascending afferent activity reaching the cortex by suppression of the ARAS.

Attention.

The ARAS also helps mediate transitions from relaxed wakefulness to periods of high attention. There is increased regional blood flow (presumably indicating an increased measure of neuronal activity) in the midbrain reticular formation (MRF) and thalamic intralaminar nuclei during tasks requiring increased alertness and attention.

Clinical significance of the ARAS.

Mass lesions in brainstem ARAS nuclei can cause severe alterations in level of consciousness (e.g., coma). Bilateral damage to the reticular formation of the midbrain may lead to coma or death.  Direct electrical stimulation of the ARAS produces pain responses in cats and educes verbal reports of pain in humans. Additionally, ascending reticular activation in cats can produce mydriasis, which can result from prolonged pain. These results suggest some relationship between ARAS circuits and physiological pain pathways.

Pathologies.

Some pathologies of the ARAS may be attributed to age, as there appears to be a general decline in reactivity of the ARAS with advancing years. Changes in electrical coupling have been suggested to account for some changes in ARAS activity: if coupling were down-regulated, there would be a corresponding decrease in higher-frequency synchronization (gamma band). Conversely, up-regulated electrical coupling would increase synchronization of fast rhythms that could lead to increased arousal and REM sleep drive. Specifically, disruption of the ARAS has been implicated in the following disorders:

Developmental influences.

There are several potential factors that may adversely influence the development of the ascending reticular activating system:

Descending reticulospinal tracts.

The reticulospinal tracts, also known as the descending or anterior reticulospinal tracts, are extrapyramidal motor tracts that descend from the reticular formation in two tracts to act on the motor neurons supplying the trunk and proximal limb flexors and extensors. The reticulospinal tracts are involved mainly in locomotion and postural control, although they do have other functions as well. The descending reticulospinal tracts are one of four major cortical pathways to the spinal cord for musculoskeletal activity. The reticulospinal tracts works with the other three pathways to give a coordinated control of movement, including delicate manipulations. The four pathways can be grouped into two main system pathways – a medial system and a lateral system. The medial system includes the reticulospinal pathway and the vestibulospinal pathway, and this system provides control of posture. The corticospinal and the rubrospinal tract pathways belong to the lateral system which provides fine control of movement.

Components of the reticulospinal tracts.

The tract is divided into two parts, the medial (or pontine) and lateral (or medullary) reticulospinal tracts (MRST and LRST).  The ascending sensory tract conveying information in the opposite direction is known as the spinoreticular tract.

Clinical significance of the reticulospinal tracts.

The reticulospinal tracts provide a pathway by which the hypothalamus can control sympathetic thoracolumbar outflow and parasympathetic sacral outflow.  Two major descending systems carrying signals from the brainstem and cerebellum to the spinal chord can trigger automatic postural response for balance and orientation: vestibulospinal tracts from the vestibular nuclei and reticulospinal tracts from the pons and medulla. Lesions of these tracts result in profound ataxia and postural instability.  A physical or vascular damage to the brainstem disconnecting the red nucleus (midbrain) and the vestibular nuclei (pons) may cause decerebrate rigidity which has the neurological sign of increased muscle tone and hyperactive stretch reflexes. Responding to a startling or painful stimulus, both arms and legs extend and turn internally. The cause is the tonic activity of lateral vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts stimulating extensor motoneurons without the inhibitions from rubrospinal tract.  A brainstem damage above the red nucleus' level may cause decorticate rigidity. Responding to a startling or painful stimulus, the arms flex and the legs extend. The cause is the red nucleus, via the rubrospinal tract, counteracting the extensor motorneuron's excitation from the lateral vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts. Because the rubrospinal tract only extends to the cervical spinal chord, it mostly acts on the arms by exciting the flexor muscles and inhibiting the extensors, but not on the legs.  A damage to the medulla below the vestibular nuclei may cause flaccid paralysis, hypotonia, loss of respiratory drive, and quadriplegia. There are no reflexes resembling early stages of spinal shock because of complete loss of activities in the motorneurons. The cause is there is no longer tonic activity from the lateral vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts.

History.

The term "reticular formation" was coined in the late 19th century by Otto Deiters, coinciding with Ramon y Cajal’s "neuron doctrine". Allan Hobson states in his book "The Reticular Formation Revisited" that the name is an etymological vestige from the fallen era of the aggregate field theory in the neural sciences. The term "reticulum" means "netlike structure", which is what the reticular formation resembles at first glance. It has been described as being either too complex to study or an undifferentiated part of the brain with no organization at all. Eric Kandel describes the reticular formation as being organized in a similar manner to the intermediate gray matter of the spinal cord. This chaotic, loose, and intricate form of organization is what has turned off many researchers from looking farther into this particular area of the brain. The cells lack clear ganglionic boundaries, but do have clear functional organizations and distinct cell types. The term "reticular formation" is seldom used anymore except to speak in generalities. Modern scientists usually refer to the individual nuclei that compose the reticular formation.  Moruzzi and Magoun first investigated the neural components regulating the brain's sleep-wake mechanisms in 1949. Physiologists had proposed that some structure deep within the brain controlled mental wakefulness and alertness. It had been thought that wakefulness depended only on the direct reception of afferent (sensory) stimuli at the cerebral cortex.  The direct electrical stimulation of the brain could simulate electrocortical relays. Magoun used this principle to demonstrate, on two separate areas of the brainstem of a cat, how to produce wakefulness from sleep. First the ascending somatic and auditory paths; second, a series of "ascending relays from the reticular formation of the lower brain stem through the midbrain tegmentum, subthalamus and hypothalamus to the internal capsule." The latter was of particular interest, as this series of relays did not correspond to any known anatomical pathways for the wakefulness signal transduction and was coined the "ascending reticular activating system" (ARAS).  Next, the significance of this newly identified relay system was evaluated by placing lesions in the medial and lateral portions of the front of the midbrain. Cats with mesancephalic interruptions to the ARAS entered into a deep sleep and displayed corresponding brain waves. In alternative fashion, cats with similarly placed interruptions to ascending auditory and somatic pathways exhibited normal sleeping and wakefulness, and could be awakened with somatic stimuli. Because these external stimuli would be blocked by the interruptions, this indicated that the ascending transmission must travel through the newly discovered ARAS.  Finally, Magoun recorded potentials within the medial portion of the brain stem and discovered that auditory stimuli directly fired portions of the reticular activating system. Furthermore, single-shock stimulation of the sciatic nerve also activated the medial reticular formation, hypothalamus, and thalamus. Excitation of the ARAS did not depend on further signal propagation through the cerebellar circuits, as the same results were obtained following decerebellation and decortication. The researchers proposed that a column of cells surrounding the midbrain reticular formation received input from all the ascending tracts of the brain stem and relayed these afferents to the cortex and therefore regulated wakefulness.

The reticular formation is a set of interconnected nuclei that are located throughout the brainstem. The reticular formation is not anatomically well defined because it includes neurons located in different parts of the brain. The neurons of the reticular formation make up a complex set of networks in the core of the brainstem that extend from the upper part of the midbrain to the lower part of the medulla oblongata. The reticular formation includes ascending pathways to the cortex in the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) and descending pathways to the spinal cord via the reticulospinal tracts.

网状结构(脑干网状系统)(英语:Reticular Formation)是脑部涉及到例如觉醒/睡眠循环等动作的部分,并可以过滤进入的刺激以区分无关的背景刺激。这对于高等生物控制一些身体基本功能是必须的,并且是脑部系统发生学上最老的部分之一。


Plot.

While walking home from school, "Shu", the main protagonist, a boy who loves Kendo, intercedes to protect a girl, (Lala-Ru), who is attacked by abductors piloting dragon-like mechas and is accidentally transported to the attackers' world as a result — a wasteland devoid of water and dominated by a red giant star. Lala-Ru possesses a pendant containing a vast reservoir of water, and she has the ability to control it.  Shu is trapped in this new, harsh reality, and he is beaten and interrogated repeatedly inside the warship commanded by the ruthless, manic dictator, Hamdo. While locked in a cell he meets an abducted girl who introduces herself as Sara Ringwalt of America. Sara's reason for her capture was being mistaken for Lala-Ru by Hamdo's minions. Sara is forced into the quarters of exceptional soldiers to be impregnated and is traumatized by her repeated rape. After an assault by an unknown enemy landship, Shu is forced to join an army of child soldiers; children trained for the looting of villages, in which they kidnap female villagers for breeding, and conscript orphaned male children into the ever dwindling ranks of Hamdo's army.  Much of the series deals with serious moral issues relating to war and famine, the consequences of war, slavery, rape, and the exploitation of children.

Media.

Soundtrack.

Released 1999, the "Now and Then, Here and There" contains seventeen tracks, including the opening and ending sequences. Most of the tracks are performed by Taku Iwasaki (credited as Takumi Iwasaki) with one track performed by Toshio Masuda and one performed by Masuda and Reiko Yasuhara.

Reception.

The show was very well received by critics and also received comparisons to "Grave of the Fireflies". AnimeOnDVD.com stated "Now and Then, Here and There" is "a wonderfully scripted show, where each line of dialog seems to be said with some larger purpose behind it." Of the events of war, the show continues a "devastating and brutal feel throughout.". Commenting on the realism of the show, reviewer Chris Beveridge stated "The story doesn’t flinch from putting people into the situations and resolving them in a way that they’d likely play out in real life." SciFi.com stated the show was "a cruel series with a kindhearted message" that contrasted brutality with a greater message. The review further mentioned: ""Never before in anime have I seen a dead cat used as a motif and a metaphor. But like so many aspects of Now and Then, Here and There, this unusual artistic decision is a startling, effective and chilling one""J!-ENT.com's Dennis A. Amith stated that the series "shows a perspective of war through the eyes of a young teen. The savagery, the brutality, and how even through darkness, how hope can go a long way. A riveting anime series that is worth watching and even worth owning!" Anime News Network reviewer Theron Martin called the series "one of the best-written and most emotionally powerful anime series ever made."

"Now and Then, Here and There" follows a young boy named Shuzo "Shu" Matsutani who, in an attempt to save an unknown girl, is transported to another world which may be the Earth in the far future. The world is desolate and militarized, survival is a daily struggle for displaced refugees, and water is a scarce commodity.

,又译《此时此刻的我》、《此时此地的我》、《今天,那里的我》,是AIC制作的13话TV动画。于1999年10月14日至2000年1月20日在WOWOW播出。


Signs and symptoms.

The hallmark sign of sarcopenia is loss of lean muscle mass, or muscle atrophy. The change in body composition may be difficult to detect due to obesity, changes in fat mass, or edema. Changes in weight, limb or waist circumference are not reliable indicators of muscle mass changes. Sarcopenia may also cause reduced strength, functional decline and increased risk of falling. Sarcopenia may also have no symptoms until it is severe and is often unrecognized.

Causes.

There are many proposed causes of sarcopenia and it is likely the result of multiple interacting factors. Understanding of the causes of sarcopenia is incomplete, however changes in hormones, immobility, age-related muscle changes, nutrition and neurodegenerative changes have all been recognized as potential causative factors.  The degree of sarcopenia is determined by two factors: initial amount of muscle mass and rate at which muscle mass declines. Due to variations in these factors across the population, the rate of progression and the threshold at which muscle loss becomes apparent is variable. Immobility dramatically increases the rate of muscle loss, even in younger people. Other factors that can increase rate of progression of sarcopenia include decreased nutrient intake, low physical activity, or chronic disease. Additionally, epidemiological research has indicated that early environmental influences may have long-term effects on muscle health. For example, low birth weight, a marker of a poor early environment, is associated with reduced muscle mass and strength in adult life.

Pathophysiology.

There are multiple theories proposed to explain the mechanisms of muscle changes of sarcopenia including changes in satellite cell recruitment, changes in anabolic signalling, protein oxidation, inflammation, and developmental factors. The pathologic changes of sarcopenia include a reduction in muscle tissue quality as reflected in the replacement of muscle fibers with fat, an increase in fibrosis, changes in muscle metabolism, oxidative stress, and degeneration of the neuromuscular junction.  The distribution of muscle fibers types also changes in sarcopenic muscle causing a decrease in type II muscle fibers, or "fast twitch," or with little to no decrease in or type I muscle fibers, or "slow-twitch" muscle fibers. Deinervated type II fibers are often converted to type I fibers by reinnervation by slow type I fiber motor nerves.  The failure to activate satellite cells upon injury or exercise is also thought to contribute to the pathophysiology of sarcopenia. Additionally, oxidized proteins can lead to a buildup of lipofuscin and cross-linked proteins causing an accumulation of non-contractile material in the skeletal muscle and contribute to sarcopenic muscle.

Diagnosis.

Multiple diagnostic criteria have been proposed by various expert groups and continues to be an area of research and debate. Despite the lack of a widely accepted definition, sarcopenia was assigned an ICD-10 code (M62.84) in 2016, recognizing it as a disease state.  Sarcopenia can be diagnosed when a patient has muscle mass that is at least two standard deviations below the relevant population mean and has a slow walking speed. The European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People (EWGSOP) developed a broad clinical definition for sarcopenia, designated as the presence of low muscle mass and either low muscular strength or low physical performance. Other international groups have proposed criteria that include metrics on walking speed, distance walked in 6 minutes, or grip strength. Hand grip strength alone has also been advocated as a clinical marker of sarcopenia that is simple and cost effective and has good predictive power, although it does not provide comprehensive information.  There are screening tools for sarcopenia that assess patient reported difficulty in doing daily activities such as walking, climbing stairs or standing from a chair and have been shown to predict sarcopenia and poor functional outcomes.

Management.

Exercise.

Exercise remains the intervention of choice for sarcopenia, but translation of research findings into clinical practice is challenging. The type, duration and intensity of exercise are variable between studies, preventing a standardized exercise prescription for sarcopenia. Lack of exercise is a significant risk factor for sarcopenia and exercise can dramatically slow the rate of muscle loss. Exercise can be an effective intervention because aging skeletal muscle retains ability to synthesize proteins in response to short-term resistance exercise. Progressive resistance training in older adults can improve physical performance (gait speed) and muscular strength.

Medication.

There are currently are no approved medications for the treatment of sarcopenia. Testosterone or other anabolic steroids have also been investigated for treatment of sarcopenia, and seem to have some positive effects on muscle strength and mass, but cause several side effects and raise concerns of prostate cancer in men and virilization in women. Additionally, recent studies suggest testosterone treatments may induce adverse cardiovascular events.  DHEA and human growth hormone have been shown to have little to no effect in this setting. Growth hormone increases muscle protein synthesis and increases muscle mass, but does not lead to gains in strength and function in most studies. This, and the similar lack of efficacy of its effector insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), may be due to local resistance to IGF-1 in aging muscle, resulting from inflammation and other age changes.  Other medications under investigation as possible treatments for sarcopenia include ghrelin, vitamin D, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, and eicosapentaenoic acid.

Nutrition.

Intake of calories and protein are important stimuli for muscle protein synthesis. Older adults may not utilize protein as efficiently as younger people and may require higher amounts to prevent muscle atrophy. A number of expert groups have proposed an increase in dietary protein recommendations for older age groups to 1.0-1.2 g/kg body weight per day. Ensuring adequate nutrition in older adults is of interest in the prevention of sarcopenia and frailty, since it is a simple, low-cost treatment approach without major side effects.

Supplements.

A component of sarcopenia is the loss of ability for aging skeletal muscle to respond to anabolic stimuli such as amino acids, especially at lower concentrations. However, aging muscle retains the ability of an anabolic response to protein or amino acids at larger doses. Supplementation with larger doses of amino acids, particularly leucine has been reported to counteract muscle loss with aging. Exercise may work synergistically with amino acid supplementation.  β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate (HMB) is a metabolite of leucine that acts as a signalling molecule to stimulate protein synthesis. It is reported to have multiple targets, including stimulating mTOR and decreasing proteasome expression. Its use to prevent the loss of lean body mass in older adults is consistently supported in clinical trials. More research is needed to determine the precise effects of HMB on muscle strength and function in this age group.

Epidemiology.

The prevalence of sarcopenia depends on the definition used in each epidemiological study. Estimated prevalence in 60-70 year old people is 5-13% and increases to 11-50% in people over 80 years of age. This equates to >50 million people and is projected to affect >200 million in the next 40 years given the rising population of older adults.

Public health impact.

Sarcopenia is emerging as a major public health concern given the increased longevity of industrialized populations and growing geriatric population. Sarcopenia is a predictor of many adverse outcomes including increased disability, falls and mortality. Immobility or bed rest in populations predisposed to sarcopenia can cause dramatic impact on functional outcomes. In the elderly, this often leads to decreased biological reserve and increased vulnerability to stressors known as the "frailty syndrome". Loss of lean body mass is also associated with increased risk of infection, decreased immunity, and poor wound healing. The weakness that accompanies muscle atrophy leads to higher risk of falls, fractures, physical disability, need for institutional care, reduced quality of life, increased mortality, and increased healthcare costs. This represents a significant personal and societal burden and its public health impact is increasingly recognized.

Research directions.

There are significant opportunities to better understand the causes and consequences of sarcopenia and help guide clinical care. This includes elucidation of the molecular and cellular mechanisms of sarcopenia, further refinement of reference populations by ethnic groups, validation of diagnostic criteria and clinical tools, as well as tracking of incidence of hospitalization admissions, morbidity, and mortality. Identification and research on potential therapeutic approaches and timing of interventions is also needed.  New pharmaceutical therapies in clinical development include myostatin and the selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs). Nonsteriodal SARMs are of particular interest, given they exhibit significant selectivity between the anabolic effects of testosterone on muscle, but with little to no evidence of androgenic effects (such as prostate stimulation in men).

Sarcopenia is a type of muscle loss (muscle atrophy) that occurs with aging and/or immobility. It is characterized by the degenerative loss of skeletal muscle mass, quality, and strength. The rate of muscle loss is dependent on exercise level, co-morbidities, nutrition and other factors. The muscle loss is related to changes in muscle synthesis signalling pathways. It is distinct from cachexia, in which muscle is degraded through cytokine-mediated degradation, although both conditions may co-exist. Sarcopenia is considered a component of frailty syndrome. Sarcopenia can lead to reduced quality of life and disability.

肌肉减少症(Sarcopenia)也称为肌少症,其英文是来自希腊语σάρξ “肉体”和πενία“减少症”,是指肌肉体在质量和强度上随着年龄产生退化性损失。肌肉减少症是老化过程,50岁以后每年有0.5-1%的损失。可以通过病理和行为因素如营养不足加速。肌肉减少症是脆弱综合征的一个特性。它也是恶病质的特性之一。


Administration.

Founded in 1958, Fuzhou University is one of the national key universities that are selected into the “211 Project”, a Chinese government programme for the 21st century to support 100 selected universities for their further rapid development.  Now Fuzhou University covers more than 333 hectares, including several campuses such as Yishan campus, Qishan campus, Tongpan campus and the Academy of Arts and Design in Xiamen. The main running campus is located in Qishan campus of the University Town of Fuzhou Region. There are 19 schools in Fuzhou University mainly for undergraduate education and two independently operated colleges—Zhicheng College and Yangguang College. There are 4 post-doctoral research stations, 9 doctoral degree programmes for the first-rank disciplines, 54 doctoral degree programmes for the second-rank disciplines, 29 master's degree programmes for the first-rank disciplines and 168 master's degree programmes for the second-rank disciplines and 11 professional degree authorization stations.  Fuzhou University has been approved by the Ministry of Education to offer undergraduate and postgraduate programmes to students from Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan regions and foreign countries. At present, there are about 50,000 students in Fuzhou University, including about over 5,200 doctoral and master's degree seekers. Since its establishment, about 200,000 students graduated from Fuzhou University, including full-time doctoral and master's degree students as well as those with the bachelor's degrees and associate degrees.  Fuzhou University has been taking great efforts to develop the cooperation and exchange. The international and national academic conferences have been conducted successfully in Fuzhou University so that the social academic influence from Fuzhou University has been enhanced. Academic exchanges on science, teaching and culture with Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macao regions have been actively carried out. The University is also positively engaged in promoting the exchanges between Chinese civilization and western civilization. “Library of the Western Belvedere”, the first western works center in China, and Institute of International Sinology have been established. The favorable collaborative relationship has been established with more than 20 universities in different countries, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Russia, Japan, South Korea and so on. Fuzhou University has become an important window of scientific, academic, educational and cultural exchanges in Fujian Province.

Fuzhou University (FZU ) is a university located in Fuzhou, Fujian, China. Split into two campuses by the Min River, Fuzhou University's Old Campus is located on the north bank of the river in the western part of Fuzhou City, while the New Campus is located on the edge of the city on the south bank, at the base of Qi Mountain.

福州大学(英语:,缩写:),简称福大,中华人民共和国双一流建设高校、211工程重点建设大学之一,位于福建省省会福州市。


Description.

The word "pharmacognosy" is derived from two Greek words: "φάρμακον" pharmakon (drug), and γνῶσις "gnosis" (knowledge) or the Latin verb "cognosco" ("con", 'with', and "gnōscō", 'know'; itself a cognate of the Greek verb γι(γ)νώσκω, "gi(g)nόsko", meaning 'I know, perceive'), meaning 'to conceptualize' or 'to recognize'.  The term "pharmacognosy" was used for the first time by the Austrian physician Schmidt in 1811 and 1815 by Crr. Anotheus Seydler in work titled "Analecta Pharmacognostica".  Originally—during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century—"pharmacognosy" was used to define the branch of medicine or commodity sciences ("Warenkunde" in German) which deals with drugs in their crude, or unprepared, form. Crude drugs are the dried, unprepared material of plant, animal or mineral origin, used for medicine. The study of these materials under the name "pharmakognosie" was first developed in German-speaking areas of Europe, while other language areas often used the older term "materia medica" taken from the works of Galen and Dioscorides. In German the term "drogenkunde" ("science of crude drugs") is also used synonymously.  As late as the beginning of the 20th century, the subject had developed mainly on the botanical side, being particularly concerned with the description and identification of drugs both in their whole state and in powder form. Such branches of pharmacognosy are still of fundamental importance, particularly for pharmacopoeial identification and quality control purposes, but rapid development in other areas has enormously expanded the subject. The advent of the 21st century brought a renaissance of pharmacognosy and its conventional botanical approach has been broadened up to molecular and metabolomic level.  In addition to the previously mentioned definition, the American Society of Pharmacognosy also defines pharmacognosy as "the study of natural product molecules (typically secondary metabolites) that are useful for their medicinal, ecological, gustatory, or other functional properties." Other definitions are more encompassing, drawing on a broad spectrum of biological subjects, including botany, ethnobotany, marine biology, microbiology, herbal medicine, chemistry, biotechnology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmaceutics, clinical pharmacy and pharmacy practice.

Biological background.

All plants produce chemical compounds as part of their normal metabolic activities. These phytochemicals are divided into (1) primary metabolites such as sugars and fats, which are found in all plants; and (2) secondary metabolites—compounds which are found in a smaller range of plants, serving a more specific function. For example, some secondary metabolites are toxins used to deter predation and others are pheromones used to attract insects for pollination. It is these secondary metabolites and pigments that can have therapeutic actions in humans and which can be refined to produce drugs—examples are inulin from the roots of dahlias, quinine from the cinchona, THC and CBD from the flowers of cannabis, morphine and codeine from the poppy, and digoxin from the foxglove.  Plants synthesize a variety of phytochemicals, but most are derivatives:

Natural products chemistry.

A typical protocol to isolate a pure chemical agent from natural origin is bioassay-guided fractionation, meaning step-by-step separation of extracted components based on differences in their physicochemical properties, and assessing the biological activity, followed by next round of separation and assaying. Typically, such work is initiated after a given crude drug formulation (typically prepared by solvent extraction of the natural material) is deemed "active" in a particular "in vitro" assay. If the end-goal of the work at hand is to identify which one(s) of the scores or hundreds of compounds are responsible for the observed "in vitro" activity, the path to that end is fairly straightforward: "In vitro" activity does not necessarily translate to activity in humans or other living systems.

Herbal.

In some countries in Asia and Africa, 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine (including herbal medicine) for primary health care. Native American cultures have also relied on traditional medicine such as ceremonial smoking of tobacco, potlatch ceremonies, and herbalism, to name a few, prior to European colonization. Knowledge of traditional medicinal practices is disappearing, particularly in the Amazon.

Pharmacognosy is the branch of pharmacy that studies plants or other natural sources as a possible source of drugs. The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines pharmacognosy as "the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical, and biological properties of drugs, drug substances, or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources".

生药学(Pharmacognosy)指以生药为主要研究对象,对生药的名称、来源(基原)、生产(栽培)、采制(采集、加工、炮制)、鉴定(真伪鉴别和品质评价)、化学成分、医疗用途、组织培养、资源开发与利用和新药创制等的学问。换句话说,生药学是利用本草学、植物学、动物学、化学、药理学、医学、分子生物学等知识研究天然药物应用的学科。


Description.

The six-line wrasse is very small species of wrasse which attains a maximum total length of. It is violet in colour and is marked with six orange stripes along the flanks. There is also a small eyespot on the dorsal part of the base of the caudal fin, a blue stripe along the base of the anal fin, and a blue streak on the pelvic fin. It has red eyes.

Distribution.

The six-line wrasse occurs from the eastern coast of Africa where it is found from the Red Sea to South Africa across the Indian Ocean and into the Western Pacific Ocean where its range extends north to Japan, south to northern Australia and east as far as Tuamotu.

Habitat and biology.

The six-line wrasse occurs among the branches of corals on seaward reef, it is also found in clear coastal waters and in areas of dense coral growth on the crests of reefs in shallow water or on the slopes. It has been recorded to depths of around. This is a secretive and shy species which is normally encountered in small, loose groups swimming among the branches of corals for protection. It feeds mainly on small crustaceans. They have also been recorded acting as cleaner fish removing ectoparasites such as copepods and isopods from other fishes. In the Izu Islands of Japan spawning takes place just before sunset and the paired adults undertake a very quick dash towards the surface to spawn, the speed of this dash reduces the risk of predation by other fish. This is a diurnal species which takes shelter in cavities where it creates a mucus cocoon in which to sleep during the night, it is thought that this cocoon helps protect it from nocturnal predators by masking the scent of the sleeping fish.

Human usage.

The six-line wrasse is a popular species in the aquarium[ trade, although they have not been bred in captivity. This species collected as food by Sea Gypsies in some parts of Thailand.

Species description and taxonomy.

This species was first formally described as "Cheilinus hexataenia" in 1857 by the Dutch ichthyologist Pieter Bleeker (1819-1878) with the type locality given as Ambon in the Moluccas. When Bleeker described the genus "Pseudocheilinus" in 1862 he designated "Cheilinus hexataenia" as its type species.

The six-line wrasse ("Pseudocheilinus hexataenia") is a species of marine ray-finned fish from the family Labridae which has a wide Indo-Pacific distribution. This species is associated with coral reefs and can be found in the aquarium trade.

六带拟唇鱼又称拟唇鱼、六带拟鹦鲷,俗名六线龙、汕冷仔,为辐鳍鱼纲鲈形目隆头鱼亚目隆头鱼科的其中一种。


Description.

The great white pelican is a huge birdonly the Dalmatian pelican is, on average, larger among pelicans. It measures in length with a enormous pink and yellow bill, and a dull pale-yellow gular pouch. The wingspan measures, the latter measurement being the highest among extant flying animals outside of the great albatross. The adult male measures about in length; it weighs from and larger races from the Palaearctic are usually around, with few exceeding. It has a bill measuring. The female measures about in length, and is considerably less bulky, weighing, and has a bill that measures in length. In Lake Edward, Uganda, the average weight of 52 males was found to and in 22 females it was. In South Africa, the average weight of males was and of females was. Thus the sexual dimorphism is especially pronounced in this species (perhaps the greatest known in any extant pelican), as at times the male can average more than 30% more massive than the female. The great white pelican rivals the kori bustard, which has even more pronounced sexual dimorphism, as the heaviest flying bird to reside in Africa (both averaging perhaps slightly heavier than the cape vulture and the wattled crane). There are a small few slightly heavier flying birds in the Eurasian portions of the range. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is, the tail, and the tarsus long. Standard measurements from different areas indicate that pelicans from the Western Palaearctic are somewhat larger than those from Asia and Africa.  The male has a downward bend in the neck and the female has a shorter, straighter beak. The plumage is predominantly white except on remiges, with a faint pink tinge on the neck and a yellowish base on the foreneck. The primary feathers are black, with white shafts at the bases, occasionally with paler tips and narrow fringes. The secondary feathers are also black, but with a whitish fringe. The upperwing coverts, underwing coverts, and tertials are white. The forehead is swollen and pinkish skin surrounds the bare, dark eyes having brown-red to dark brown irides. It has fleshy-yellow legs and pointed forehead-feathers where meeting the culmen. In breeding season, the male has pinkish skin while the female has orangey skin on its face. The bill is mostly bluish grey, with a red tip, reddish maxilla edges, and a cream-yellow to yolk-yellow gular pouch. The white plumage becomes tinged-pink with a yellow patch on the breast, and the body is tinged yellowish-rosy. It also has a short, shaggy crest on the nape. The white covert feathers contrast with the solid black primary and secondary feathers. The legs are yellow-flesh to pinkish orange. Both male and female are similar, but the female is smaller and has brighter orange facial skin in the breeding season.  The juvenile has darker, brownish underparts that are palest at the rump, center of the belly, and uppertail coverts. The underwing coverts are mostly dull-white, but the greater coverts are dark and there is a dark brownish bar over the lesser coverts. The rear tertials upperwing coverts mostly have paler tips with a silvery-grey tinge on the greater secondary coverts and tertials. It has dark flight feathers, and brown-edged wings. The head, neck, and upperparts, including the upperwing coverts, are mostly brownthis is the darkest part of the neck. The facial skin and the bill, including its gular pouch, are greyish to dusky greyish. The forehead, rump, and abdomen are white, and its legs and feet are grey. Its blackish tail occasionally has a silvery-grey tinge. Its underparts and back are initially browner and darker than those of the Dalmatian pelican, and the underwing is strongly patterned, similar to the juvenile brown pelican.  The great white pelican is distinguished from all other pelicans by its plumage. Its face is naked and the feathering on its forehead tapers to a fine point, whereas other species are completely feathered. In flight, the white underwing with black remiges of the adult are similar only to those of the American white pelican ("P. erythrorhynchos"), but the latter has white inner secondary feathers. It differs from the Dalmatian pelican in its pure white rather than greyish-white plumage, a bare pink facial patch around the eye, and pinkish legs. The spot-billed pelican ("P. philippensis") of Asia is slightly smaller than the great white pelican, with greyish tinged white plumage, and a paler, duller-colored bill. Similarly, the pink-backed pelican ("P. rufescens") is smaller, with brownish-grey plumage, a light pink to off-grey bill, and a pinkish wash on the back.  The bird is mostly silent but has a variety of low-pitched lowing, grunting, and growling calls. The flight call is a deep, quiet croak., while at breeding colonies, it gives deep "moooo" calls.

Distribution and habitat.

The breeding range of the great white pelican extends to Ethiopia, Tanzania, Chad, northern Cameroons, and Nigeria in Africa, and has been observed or reported breeding in Zambia, Botswana, and South Africa. In the 1990s, 6,700 to 11,000 breeding pairs in 23 to 25 breeding sites, were found in the Palearctic region. A 1991 study noted about 3,070 to 4,300 pairs were present in the Soviet Union. Only two breeding colonies are located in the Mediterranean basin, one having 250 to 400 pairs in Turkey and the other having 50 to 100 pairs in northern Greece. The breeding colony at Lake Rukwa, Tanzania is the largest known breeding colony in Africa, followed by the Lake Shala, Ethiopia colony which is probably of crucial importance to the species in Africa. The African population of about 75,000 pairs of the great white pelican is resident. The ones breeding in the Palearctic region are migrants, although it is possible that the majority of the western Palearctic populations stop-over in Israel during their autumn migration. The migration routes are only partially known. Migratory populations are found from Eastern Europe to Kazakhstan during the breeding season. More than 50% of Eurasian great white pelicans breed in the Danube Delta in Romania. They also prefer staying in the Lakes near Burgas, Bulgaria and in Srebarna Lake in Bulgaria. The pelicans arrive in the Danube in late March or early April and depart after breeding from September to late November. Wintering locations for European pelicans are not exactly known but wintering birds may occur in northeastern Africa through Iraq to north India, with a particularly large number of breeders from Asia wintering around Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Northern populations migrate to China, India, Myanmar, with stragglers reaching Java and Bali in Indonesia. These are birds that are found mostly in lowlands, though in East Africa and Nepal may be found living at elevations of up to.  Overall, the great white pelican is one of the most widely distributed species. Although some areas still hold quite large colonies, it ranks behind the brown pelican and possibly the Australian pelican in overall abundance. Europe now holds an estimated 7,345–10,000 breeding pairs, with over 4,000 pairs that are known to nest in Russia. During migration, more than 75,000 have been observed in Israel and, in winter, over 45,000 may stay in Pakistan. In all its colonies combined, 75,000 pairs are estimated to nest in Africa. It is possibly extinct in Serbia and Montenegro, and regionally extinct in Hungary.  Great white pelicans usually prefer shallow, (seasonally or tropical) warm fresh water. Well scattered groups of breeding pelicans occur through Eurasia from the eastern Mediterranean to Vietnam. In Eurasia, fresh or brackish waters may be inhabited and the pelicans may be found in lakes, deltas, lagoons and marshes, usually with dense reed beds nearby for nesting purposes. Additionally, sedentary populations are found year-round in Africa, south of the Sahara Desert although these are patchy. In Africa, great white pelicans occur mainly around freshwater and alkaline lakes and may also be found in coastal, estuarine areas. Beyond reed beds, African pelicans have nested on inselbergs and flat inshore islands off of Banc d'Arguin National Park.

Behavior.

The great white pelican is highly sociable and often forms large flocks. It is well adapted for aquatic life. The short strong legs and webbed feet propel it in water and aid a rather awkward takeoff from the water surface. In flight, it is an elegant soaring bird, with the head held close to and aligned with the body. Its flight consists of a few slow wingbeats followed by a glide. Once aloft, the long-winged pelicans are powerful fliers, however, and often travel in spectacular linear, circular, or V-formation groups.

Feeding.

The great white pelican mainly eats fish. It leaves its roost to feed early in the morning and may fly over in search of food, as has been observed in Chad and in Mogode, Cameroon. It needs from of fish every day, which corresponds to around annual fish consumption at the largest colony of the great white pelican, on Tanzania's Lake Rukwa (with almost 75,000 birds). Fish targeted are usually fairly large ones, in the weight range, and are taken based on regional abundance. Common carp are preferred in Europe, mullets in China, and Arabian toothcarp in India. In Africa, often the commonest cichlids, including many species in the "Haplochromis" and "Tilapia" genera, seem to be preferred.  The pelican's pouch serves simply as a scoop. As the pelican pushes its bill underwater, the lower bill bows out, creating a large pouch which fills with water and fish. As it lifts its head, the pouch contracts, forcing out the water but retaining the fish. A group of 6 to 8 great white pelicans gather in a horseshoe formation in water to feed together. They dip their bills in unison, creating a circle of open pouches, ready to trap every fish in the area. Most feeding is cooperative and done in groups, especially in shallow waters where fish schools can be corralled easily, though they may also forage alone as well.  Great white pelicans are not restricted to fish, however, and are often opportunistic foragers. In some situations, they eat chicks of other birds, such as the well documented case off the southwest coast of South Africa. Here, breeding pelicans from the Dassen Island prey on chicks weighing up to from the Cape gannet colony on Malgas Island. Similarly, in Walvis Bay, Namibia the eggs and chicks of Cape cormorants are fed regularly to young pelicans. The local pelican population is so reliant on the cormorants, that when the cormorant species experienced a population decline, the numbers of pelicans appeared to decline as well.  They also rob other birds of their prey. During periods of starvation, they also eat seagulls and ducklings. The gulls are held under water and drowned before being eaten headfirst. A flock of captive great white pelicans in St James's Park, London is well known for occasionally eating local pigeons, despite being well-fed.

Breeding.

The breeding season commences in April or May in temperate zones, is essentially all year around in Africa and runs February through April in India. Large numbers of these pelicans breed together in colonies.  Nest locations vary: some populations make stick nests in trees but a majority, including all those that breed in Africa, nest exclusively in scrapes on the ground lined with grass, sticks, feathers and other material.  The female can lay from 1 to 4 eggs in a clutch, with two being the average. Incubation takes 29 to 36 days. The chicks are naked when they hatch but quickly sprout blackish-brown down. The young are cared for by both parents. The colony gathers in "pods" around 20 to 25 days after the eggs hatch. The young fledge at 65 to 75 days of age. Around 64% of young successful reach adulthood, attaining sexual maturity at 3 to 4 years of age.

Predators.

While white pelicans are often protected from bird-eating raptors by virtue of their own great size, eagles, especially sympatric "Haliaeetus" species, may prey on their eggs, nestlings, and fledglings. Occasionally, pelicans and their young are attacked at their colonies by mammalian carnivores, such as jackals and lions. As is common in pelicans, the close approach of a large predaceous or unknown mammal, including a human, at a colony will lead the pelican to abandon its nest in self-preservation. Additionally, crocodiles, especially Nile crocodiles in Africa, readily kill and eat swimming pelicans.

Status and conservation.

Since 1998, the great white pelican has been rated as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. This is because it has a large range more than 20,000 km (7700 mi) and because its population is thought not to have declined by 30% over ten years or three generations, which is not a rapid enough decline to warrant a vulnerable rating. However, the state of its overall population is not known, and although it is widespread, it is not abundant anywhere. It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. It is listed under the Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Appendix II of the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats and Annexure I of the EU Birds Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds. It occurs within 43 Important Bird Areas in its European range, and is listed within 108 Special Protection Areas in the European Union. This species is often kept in captivity in zoos or in semi-wild colonies such as that in St. James's Park, London. The ancestors of this colony were originally given to Charles II by the Russian ambassador in 1664 which initiated the tradition of ambassadors donating the birds.  Today, because of overfishing in certain areas, white pelicans are forced to fly long distances to find food. Great white pelicans are exploited for many reasons. Their pouch is used to make tobacco bags, their skin is turned into leather, the guano is used as fertiliser, and the fat of its young is converted into oils for traditional medicine in China and India. In Ethiopia, great white pelicans are shot for their meat. Human disturbance, loss of foraging habitat and breeding sites, as well as pollution are all contributing to the decline of the great white pelican. Declines have been particularly notable in the Palaearctic.

The great white pelican ("Pelecanus onocrotalus") also known as the eastern white pelican, rosy pelican or white pelican is a bird in the pelican family. It breeds from southeastern Europe through Asia and Africa, in swamps and shallow lakes.

白鹈鹕(学名:')也叫东方白鹈鹕或大白鹈鹕,是一种大型鹈鹕。产于欧洲到亚洲以及非洲的沼泽地和浅湖区。在中国见于新疆的天山西部、准噶尔盆地西部和南部水域、塔里木河流域,青海湖。


Name and location.

In 1863, with the opening of the West London Extension Railway, a station named Kensington was opened north of the junction with the West London Railway, but when several underground lines opened stations at High Street Kensington and West Kensington, the station name was changed to Addison Road to avoid any confusion.  The station appears as Kensington Olympia on the National Rail website and on some of its maps and timetables. On London Underground and London Overground maps, station signage and the London Rail & Tube Services map, it is labelled Kensington (Olympia). On the automated announcements and the dot matrix indicators on District line trains, the station is shown as simply Olympia.  The station is located alongside the namesake Olympia exhibition centre. The boundary between the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea and the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham here runs parallel to and immediately to the west of the railway line.  The platforms are accessed via Russell Road from the east and Olympia Way from the west. A footbridge connects the two roads, and is segregated so it is possible to walk directly from Russell Road to Olympia Way without having to pass through any ticket barriers. Platform 1 serves the part-time District line services towards High Street Kensington via Earl's Court, platform 2 serves Overground trains towards Willsden, and platform 3 runs towards Clapham Junction.  London Buses routes 9, 23, 27, 28, 49, 391, C1; night routes N9, N28 and Green Line Coaches services 701 and 702 call at and pass the station.

History.

Opening.

A station called Kensington was opened by the West London Railway as its southern terminus on 27 May 1844, located just south of Hammersmith Road. The line was not popular and it was closed on 1 December that year due to the losses made. A scant and erratic goods service continued. The line was re-opened to passengers on 2 June 1862 as part of the West London Extension Railway with a new station, also called Kensington, to the north of Hammersmith Road, providing services to and. Great Western Railway trains started serving the station in 1863, with London & North Western Railway trains arriving in 1872. A link to the Hammersmith & City Railway enabled the station to join the Middle Circle service, which operated via Paddington to the north and South Kensington to the south. In 1868 the station was renamed Kensington Addison Road.  From 1869 the London & South Western Railway operated trains from Richmond to London Waterloo via Addison Road, until their branch via Shepherd's Bush closed in 1916. By 1907 the Middle Circle had been replaced by a link to Hammersmith. The station appears on the first 'London Underground' map in 1908 with Metropolitan and District Railway services.  There was an Express Dairies creamery and milk bottling plant close to the station. It was served by milk trains running from the Great Western Railway at Old Oak Common to a siding adjacent to the station.

Decline.

In 1940 Addison Road and the link to the Metropolitan line at Latimer Road closed along with the other West London Line stations after the line was bombed, and it was not considered cost-effective to rebuild by the London Passenger Transport Board. Due to its ability to access all lines radiating from London, its close location to SHAEF headquarters and its relative quietness compared to the main London termini, it was the preferred embarkation point for US Army General Dwight D. Eisenhower when he visited troops in Wales preparing for the June 1944 Normandy landings.  On 19 December 1946 the station was renamed Kensington (Olympia) and became the northern terminus of a peak-hour shuttle service to Clapham Junction, serving workers at the Post Office Savings Bank (later National Savings Bank) in nearby Blythe Road. Until 1986 this was the only British Rail service stopping at the station. It was known as the "Kenny Belle" and was unadvertised, reportedly because the Post Office Savings Bank was under the Official Secrets Act. There was also a District line shuttle to Earl's Court, as the station had been left without a dedicated Underground connection. The service originally only ran when there was an exhibition at the centre, but a permanent platform opened on 3 March 1958. The station was sometimes used as a terminus during reconstruction and upgrading of mainline London terminal stations. It was recommended for closure in the 1963 Beeching Report.

Cold War.

Kensington (Olympia) was included in Cold War plans to ensure continuity of government in the event of hostilities.  The station was important in the war, as the West London Line connected to the Great Western Main Line (and hence the Wiltshire headquarters) at North Pole Junction, to the north, and acted as a diversionary route to Paddington station. Secret plans entailed use of the station, in the prelude to a nuclear war, to evacuate several thousand civil servants to the Central Government War Headquarters underground bunker (codenamed "Burlington") in Wiltshire. If the government had decided to activate its Central Government War Headquarters in Wiltshire, civil servants tasked with manning the facility would have been directed to join trains at this station. These trains would have connected with buses at Warminster for further transfer to the headquarters facility.

Motorail.

In 1966 Kensington (Olympia) became the main London terminus for British Rail Motorail trains, which carried passengers and vehicles across Britain. In the London Midland Region timetable for 1970–71 services are shown to Perth, Stirling, Carlisle, St Austell, Totnes, Newton Abbot and Fishguard (connecting with the ferry for Rosslare). This facility closed in 1981 with operations transferred to Paddington, Euston and King's Cross.  The car park for the service is now used for exhibition vehicles, and Europcar for car rental and is called "Olympia Motorail Car Park P4".

Revival.

From 12 May 1986 services at the station were greatly enhanced. The London Underground shuttle service started to run to a regular daily schedule, and inter-regional services from the Midlands and northern England stopped at Kensington (Olympia). Southern Region destinations included and. As part of this the footbridge was painted in InterCity colours. These trains were operated by the InterCity division of British Rail and later, after privatisation, by Virgin CrossCountry and CrossCountry. Destinations included,,, and. The services were withdrawn in October 2008, by which time only two daily Brighton–Manchester journeys were operated. The station was part of the London Station Group, accepting "London Terminals" tickets, until it was delisted in May 1994. The same year, a full passenger service between Willesden Junction and Clapham Junction was reinstated after a gap of 54 years.  There were two bay platforms on the south-eastern side, mainly used by services to/from Clapham Junction. These platforms were removed in 1983 and the track was lifted; the space was used for an additional car park for the exhibition centre. One of the former platforms is now Olympia Garden, a community garden with 89 vegetable plots.  Before the Channel Tunnel Rail Link was proposed in 1996, Kensington (Olympia) was planned to be expanded to accommodate a car terminal for international services. The line would have run via the West London and South Eastern Main Lines to before entering the tunnel. Before Eurostar transferred in November 2007 to St Pancras International, Eurostar trains passed through the station between Waterloo International station and North Pole depot, and the station was a backup terminus for the services in case Waterloo International became unusable; immigration facilities were maintained there.  In June 2011, Transport for London (TfL) announced that the District line shuttle between Kensington (Olympia) and Earl's Court would close on weekdays at the end of the year. The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea unsuccessfully protested against the closure, and general weekday services ceased in December 2011. Some special weekday services continue to run on the District line when there is an exhibition on. In 2012 TfL announced plans to introduce ticket gates at the station to combat fare dodgers, which would remove access to the footbridge used by local residents for years. Both the councils within whose boundaries this station falls challenged this loss of an established right of way. The plan was abandoned the following year.

Services.

National Rail.

The station is on the West London line of the London Overground network, which is signed by Transport for London as the "Willesden Junction – Clapham Junction" line. The line lies entirely in zone 2, and can be used to bypass central London. National Rail services are provided by London Overground and Southern.  The London Overground services in trains per hour are:  Southern operate between and, typically once an hour.

District line.

The District line shuttle to Earl's Court and High Street Kensington runs at weekends and sometimes when there is an exhibition on. A very limited service also operates during the early morning and evening each weekday. There is no service New Year's Eve or New Year's Day when these days fall on or partly on a weekend.

References.

Notes Citations Sources

Kensington (Olympia) is a combined rail and tube station in Kensington, London. Services are provided by London Overground, who manage the station, along with Southern and London Underground. It is in Travelcard Zone 2. On the Underground it is the terminus of a short District line branch from, originally built as part of the Middle Circle. On the main-line railway it is on the West London Line from to, by which trains bypass central London. The station's name is drawn from its location in Kensington and the adjacent Olympia exhibition centre.

肯辛顿(奥林匹亚)站(英语:Kensington (Olympia) station)是一个伦敦地铁,地上铁以及英国国铁车站,位于伦敦地铁区域线肯辛顿(奥林匹亚)支线,可在伯爵阁站换乘区域线其他支线。伦敦地上铁方面,肯辛顿(奥林匹亚)站位于伦敦地上铁西伦敦线,可在牧者丛站和卫斯顿交汇站换乘伦敦地铁中央线和伦敦地上铁沃特福德直流电铁线,北伦敦线,也可在克拉珀姆交汇站换乘南内伦敦线。本站同时也是英国国铁车站,运营米尔顿凯恩斯至南克洛顿和本站至旺兹沃思路的国铁线路。


History.

The club was founded in June 2003 and started to compete in the Croatian Second League, where they replaced NK Omladinac, a club based in the Čakovec suburb of Novo Selo Rok. They finished top of the league at the end of the 2003–04 season, clinching promotion to the Croatian First League.  They started their first season in the top flight with three defeats in their opening three matches, before beating Zagreb 1–0 on the road on Day 4 to clinch their first win of the season. However, they continued to experience very little success after that, only grabbing two further wins in the following 18 matches and being bottom of the table as the league split in two groups in March 2005. Their performance improved in the bottom-6 group, the Relegation League, where they had a streak of seven games undefeated and finished 5th, overtaking Zadar on the final day of the season.  In their second top-flight season in 2005–06, they once again found themselves bottom of the table in March, although with 5 wins and only one point fewer than both Inter Zaprešić and Slaven Belupo. After three defeats in their opening three matches in the Relegation League, they managed a streak of seven games undefeated and overtook Inter Zaprešić after beating them on the penultimate day of the season.  In 2006–07, they experienced mixed fortunes in their opening seven games, but then managed four consecutive wins and even found themselves in 4th place after Day 11. They eventually finished the season in 9th place, their best result in the top flight, with 11 wins in 33 matches. The 2007–08 season, however, brought very little success and they found themselves bottom of the table for majority of the season. They eventually finished rock-bottom, with only 15 points and mere three wins from 33 matches, 18 points behind the 11th-place Inter Zaprešić, and were effectively relegated to the Croatian Second League.  In 2008–09, they finished fifth in the Croatian Second League, but were nevertheless directly promoted back to the Croatian First League for the 2009–10 season as the league was expanded to 16 teams and Slavonac CO, who finished above them, decided to withdraw from the top flight after failing to secure a proper stadium as their home ground.  In the first half of the 2009–10 season, they performed well at home, recording 5 wins and 2 draws in 9 matches, but poor performance on the road (they lost all 8 away matches) saw them start the second half of the season in 13th place, just above the relegation zone. Despite winning two away matches in the second half of the season, a series of draws and defeats (including a crushing 5–1 defeat at home to Rijeka) saw them dropping into the relegation zone with 6 matches left. A 4–1 defeat at Hajduk Split on the penultimate day of the season confirmed their 15th-place finish and relegation back to the second division. The 4–1 loss was later investigated for match fixing allegations.

Derby.

In recent years Međimurje have contested the northern derby with NK Varaždin.

Seasons.

Key Top scorer shown in bold when he was also top scorer for the division.

NK Međimurje is a Croatian football club based in Čakovec. The club is named after Međimurje, the region in northern Croatia where Čakovec is located. In 2019–20 season, they will compete in the Croatian Second Football League.

梅吉慕捷足球俱乐部(NK Međimurje)克罗地亚职业足球俱乐部,位于西北部边境城市察科韦茨,俱乐部队名梅吉慕捷是察科韦茨所在的一个地区的地名。球队的主场是SRC姆拉多斯特体育场,可容纳7,000名观众,这个体育场同时也是球队同城对手察科韦茨。


Biography.

Little is known of Gabirol's life, and some sources give contradictory information. Sources agree that he was born in Málaga, but are unclear whether in late 1021 or early 1022 CE. The year of his death is a matter of dispute, with conflicting accounts having him dying either before age 30 or by age 48.  Gabirol lived a life of material comfort, never having to work to sustain himself, but he lived a difficult and loveless life, suffering ill health, misfortunes, fickle friendships, and powerful enemies. From his teenage years, he suffered from some disease, possibly lupus vulgaris, that would leave him embittered and in constant pain. He indicates in his poems that he considered himself short and ugly. Of his personality, Moses ibn Ezra wrote: "his irascible temperament dominated his intellect, nor could he rein the demon that was within himself. It came easily to him to lampoon the great, with salvo upon salvo of mockery and sarcasm." He has been described summarily as "a social misfit."  Gabirol's writings indicate that his father was a prominent figure in Córdoba, but was forced to relocate to Málaga during a political crisis in 1013. Gabirol's parents died while he was a child, leaving him an orphan with no siblings or close relatives. He was befriended, supported and protected by a prominent political figure of the time, Yekutiel ibn Hassan al-Mutawakkil ibn Qabrun, and moved to Zaragoza, then an important center of Jewish culture. Gabirol's anti-social temperament, occasionally boastful poetry, and sharp wit earned him powerful enemies, but as long as Jekuthiel lived, Gabirol remained safe from them and was able to freely immerse himself in study of the Talmud, grammar, geometry, astronomy, and philosophy. However, when Gabirol was seventeen years old, his benefactor was assassinated as the result of a political conspiracy, and by 1045 Gabirol found himself compelled to leave Zaragoza. He was then sponsored by no less than the grand vizier and top general to the kings of Granada, Samuel ibn Naghrillah (Shmuel HaNaggid). Gabirol made ibn Naghrillah an object of praise in his poetry until an estrangement arose between them and ibn Naghrillah became the butt of Gabirol's bitterest irony. It seems Gabirol never married, and that he spent the remainder of his life wandering.  Gabirol had become an accomplished poet and philosopher at an early age:  As mentioned above, the conflicting accounts of Gabirol's death have him dying either before age 30 or by age 48. The opinion of earliest death, that he died before age 30, is believed to be based upon a misreading of medieval sources. The remaining two opinions are that he died either in 1069 or 1070, or around 1058 in Valencia. As to the circumstances of his death, one legend claims that he was trampled to death by an Arab horseman. A second legend relates that he was murdered by a Muslim poet who was jealous of Gabirol's poetic gifts, and who secretly buried him beneath the roots of a fig tree. The tree bore fruit in abundant quantity and of extraordinary sweetness. Its uniqueness excited attention and provoked an investigation. The resulting inspection of the tree uncovered Gabirol's remains, and led to the identification and execution of the murderer.

Historical identity.

Though Gabirol's legacy was esteemed throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance periods, it was historically minimized by two errors of scholarship that mis-attributed his works.

False ascription as King Solomon.

Gabirol seems to have often been called "the Málagan", after his place of birth, and would occasionally so refer to himself when encrypting his signature in his poems (e.g. in "שטר עלי בעדים", he embeds his signature as an acrostic in the form "אני שלמה הקטן ברבי יהודה גבירול מאלקי חזק" – meaning: "I am young Solomon, son of Rabi Yehuda, from Malaqa, Hazak"). While in Modern Hebrew the city is also called Málaga (), that is in deference to its current Spanish pronunciation. In Gabirol's day, when it was ruled by Arabic speakers, it was called "Mālaqa" (), as it is to this day by Arabic speakers. The 12th-century Arab philosopher Jabir ibn Aflah misinterpreted manuscript signatures of the form "שלמה... יהודה... אלמלאק" to mean "Solomon... the Jew.. the king", and so ascribed to Solomon some seventeen philosophical essays of Gabirol. The 15th-century Jewish philosopher Yohanan Alemanno imported that error back into the Hebrew canon, and added another four works to the list of false ascriptions.

Identification as Avicebron.

In 1846, Solomon Munk discovered among the Hebrew manuscripts in the French National Library in Paris a work by Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera. Comparing it with a Latin work by Avicebron entitled "Fons Vitæ", Munk proved them to both excerpt an Arabic original of which the "Fons Vitæ" was evidently the translation. Munk concluded that Avicebron or Avencebrol, who had for centuries been believed to be a Christian or Arabic Muslim philosopher, was instead identical with the Jewish Solomon ibn Gabirol. The centuries-long confusion was in part due to a content feature atypical in Jewish writings: "Fons Vitæ" exhibits an independence of Jewish religious dogma and does not cite Biblical verses or Rabbinic sources.  The progression in the Latinization of Gabirol's name seems to have been ibn Gabirol, Ibngebirol, Avengebirol. Avengebrol, Avencebrol, Avicebrol, and finally Avicebron. Some sources still refer to him as Avicembron, Avicenbrol, or Avencebrol.

Philosophy.

Gabirol, in his poem "כשרש עץ" (line 24), claims to have written twenty philosophical works. Through scholarly deduction (see above), we know their titles, but we have the texts of only two.  Gabirol made his mark on the history of philosophy under his alias as Avicebron, one of the first teachers of Neo-Platonism in Europe, and author of "Fons Vitæ". As such, he is best known for the doctrine that all things, including soul and intellect, are composed of matter and form (“Universal Hylomorphism”), and for his emphasis on divine will.  His role has been compared to that of Philo: both were ignored by their fellow Jews, but exercised considerable influence upon Gentiles (Philo upon primitive Christianity, Gabirol upon medieval Christian scholasticism); and both served as cultural intermediaries (Philo between Hellenistic philosophy and the Oriental world; Gabirol between Greco-Arabic philosophy and the Occident).

"Fons Vitæ".

"Fons Vitæ", originally written in Arabic under the title "Yanbu' al-Hayat" () and later translated into Hebrew by Ibn Tibbon as,, lit. "Source of Life", (cf. ) is a Neo-Platonic philosophical dialogue between master and disciple on the nature of Creation and how understanding what we are (our nature) can help us know how to live (our purpose). "His goal is to understand the nature of being and human being so that he might better understand and better inspire the pursuit of knowledge and the doing of good deeds." The work stands out in the history of philosophy for introducing the doctrine that all things, including soul and intellect, are composed of matter and form, and for its emphasis on divine will.  In the closing sentences of the Fons "Vitæ" (5.43, p. 338, line 21), ibn Gabirol further describes this state of “return” as a liberation from death and a cleaving to the source of life.  The work was originally composed in Arabic, of which no copies are extant. It was preserved for the ages by a translation into Latin in the year 1150 by Abraham ibn Daud and Dominicus Gundissalinus, who was the first official director of the Toledo School of Translators, a scholastic philosopher, and the archdeacon of Segovia, Spain. In the 13th century, Shem Tov ibn Falaquera wrote a summary of "Fons" "Vitæ" in Hebrew, and only in 1926 was the full Latin text was translated into Hebrew.  "Fons Vitæ" consists of five sections:  "Fons Vitæ" posits that the basis of existence and the source of life in every created thing is a combination of "matter" () and "form". The doctrine of matter and form informed the work's subtitle: ""De Materia et Forma."" Its chief doctrines are:

Influence within Judaism.

Though Gabirol as a philosopher was ignored by the Jewish community, Gabirol as a poet was not, and through his poetry, he introduced his philosophical ideas. His best-known poem,, is a philosophical treatise in poetical form, the "double" of the "Fons Vitæ". For example, the eighty-third line of the poem points to one of the teachings of the "Fons Vitæ"; namely, that all the attributes predicated of God exist apart in thought alone and not in reality.  Moses ibn Ezra is the first to mention Gabirol as a philosopher, praising his intellectual achievements, and quoting several passages from the "Fons Vitæ" in his own work, "Aruggat ha-Bosem". Abraham ibn Ezra, who cites Gabirol's philosophico-allegorical Bible interpretation, borrows from the "Fons Vitæ" both in his prose and in his poetry without giving due credit.  The 12th-century philosopher Joseph ibn Tzaddik borrows extensively from the "Fons Vitæ" in his work "Microcosmos".  Another 12th-century philosopher, Abraham ibn Daud of Toledo, was the first to take exception to Gabirol's teachings. In "Sefer ha-Kabbalah" he praises Gabirol as a poet. But to counteract the influence of ibn Gabirol the philosopher, he wrote an Arabic book, translated into Hebrew under the title "Emunah Ramah", in which he reproaches Gabirol for having philosophized without any regard to the requirements of the Jewish religious position and bitterly accuses him of mistaking a number of poor reasons for one good one. He criticizes Gabirol for being repetitive, wrong-headed and unconvincing.  Occasional traces of ibn Gabriol's thought are found in some of the Kabbalistic literature of the 13th century. Later references to ibn Gabirol, such as those of Elijah Chabillo, Isaac Abarbanel, Judah Abarbanel, Moses Almosnino, and Joseph Solomon Delmedigo, are based on an acquaintance with the scholastic philosophy, especially the works of Aquinas.  The 13th-century a Jewish philosopher Berechiah ha-Nakdan drew upon Gabirol's works in his encyclopedic philosophical text "Sefer Haḥibbur" (,, lit. "The Book of Compilation").

Influence on Scholasticism.

For over six centuries, the Christian world regarded "Fons Vitæ" as the work of a Christian philosopher or Arabic Muslim philosopher, and it became a cornerstone and bone of contention in many theologically charged debates between Franciscans and Dominicans. The Aristotelian Dominicans led by St. Albertus Magnus and St. Thomas Aquinas opposed the teachings of "Fons Vitæ"; the Platonist Franciscans led by Duns Scotus supported its teachings, and led to its acceptance in Christian philosophy, influencing later philosophers such as the 16th-century Dominican friar Giordano Bruno. Other early supporters of Gabirol's philosophy include the following:  The main points at issue between Gabirol and Aquinas were as follows:

Ethics.

"The Improvement of the Moral Qualities".

"The Improvement of the Moral Qualities", originally written in Arabic under the title Islah al-Khlaq (), and later translated by Ibn Tibbon as (, ) is an ethical treatise that has been called by Munk "a popular manual of morals." It was composed by Gabirol at Zaragoza in 1045, at the request of some friends who wished to possess a book treating of the qualities of man and the methods of effecting their improvement.  The innovations in the work are that it presents the principles of ethics independently of religious dogma and that it proposes that the five physical senses are emblems and instruments of virtue and vice, but not their agents; thus, a person's inclination to vice is subject to a person's will to change. Gabirol presents a tabular diagram of the relationship of twenty qualities to the five senses, reconstructed at right, and urges his readers to train the qualities of their souls unto good through self-understanding and habituation. He regards man's ability to do so as an example of divine benevolence.  While this work of Gabirol is not widely studied in Judaism, it has many points in common with Bahya ibn Paquda's very popular work "Chovot HaLevavot", written in 1040, also in Zaragoza.

"Mivchar HaPeninim".

"Mukhtar al-Jawahir" (), "Mivchar HaPeninim" (. lit. "The Choice of Pearls"), an ethics work of sixty-four chapters, has been attributed to Gabirol since the 19th century, but this is doubtful. It was originally published, along with a short commentary, in Soncino, Italy, in 1484, and has since been re-worked and re-published in many forms and abridged editions (e.g. Joseph Ḳimcḥi versified the work under the title ""Shekel ha-Kodesh"").  The work is a collection of maxims, proverbs, and moral reflections, many of them of Arabic origin, and bears a strong similarity to the Florilegium of Hunayn ibn Ishaq and other Arabic and Hebrew collections of ethics sayings, which were highly prized by both Arabs and Jews.

Poetry.

Gabirol wrote both sacred and secular poems, in Hebrew, and was recognized even by his critics (e.g. Moses ibn Ezra and Yehuda Alharizi) as the greatest poet of his age. His secular poems express disillusionment with social mores and worldliness, but are written with a sophistication and artistry that reveals him to have been socially influenced by his worldly Arabic contemporaries.  Gabirol's lasting poetic legacy, however, was his sacred works. Today, "his religious lyrics are considered by many to be the most powerful of their kind in the medieval Hebrew tradition, and his long cosmological masterpiece, "Keter Malchut", is acknowledged today as one of the greatest poems in all of Hebrew literature." His verses are distinctive for tackling complex metaphysical concepts, expressing scathing satire, and declaring his religious devotion unabashedly.  Gabirol wrote with a pure Biblical Hebrew diction that would become the signature style of the Spanish school of Hebrew poets, and he popularized in Hebrew poetry the strict Arabic meter introduced by Dunash ben Labrat. Abraham ibn Ezra calls Gabirol, not ben Labrat, "the writer of metric songs," and in "Sefer Zaḥot" uses Gabirol's poems to illustrate various poetic meters.  He wrote also more than one hundred piyyuṭim and selichot for the Sabbath, festivals, and fast-days, most of which have been included in the Holy Day prayer books of Sephardim, Ashkenazim, and even Karaites. Some of his most famous in liturgical use include the following:  Gabirol's most famous poem is "Keter Malchut" (lit. Royal Crown), which, in 900 lines, describes the cosmos as testifying to its own creation by God, based upon the then current (11th-century) scientific understanding of the cosmos.  Gabirol's poetry has been set to music by the modern composer Aaron Jay Kernis, in an album titled "Symphony of Meditations."  In 2007 Gabirol's poetry has been set to music by the Israeli rock guitarist Berry Sakharof and the Israeli modern composer Rea Mochiach, in a piece titled "Red Lips" ("Adumey Ha-Sefatot" "אֲדֻמֵּי הַשְּׂפָתוֹת")

Solomon ibn Gabirol (also Solomon ben Judah; "Shlomo Ben Yehuda ibn Gabirol", ; "Abu Ayyub Sulayman bin Yahya bin Jabirul", ) was an 11th-century Andalusian poet and Jewish philosopher in the Neo-Platonic tradition. He published over a hundred poems, as well as works of biblical exegesis, philosophy, ethics and satire. One source credits ibn Gabirol with creating a golem, possibly female, for household chores.

所罗门·伊本·盖比鲁勒(, "Shelomo ben Yehuda ibn Gabirol",约1021年-约1058年),阿拉伯语称艾布·阿尤布·苏莱曼·伊本·叶海亚·伊本·盖比鲁勒(, "Abu Ayyūb Suleiman ibn Yahya ibn Jabirūl"),拉丁文称阿维斯布隆(Avicebron),11世纪安达卢斯犹太学者。他代表了当时希伯来宗教诗和世俗诗的顶峰,同时还是一位重要的新柏拉图主义哲学家,被誉为西班牙第一位哲学家。


Symbolism.

The disc represents the northern sun. The light blue, white, and green colors stand for the sky, snow, and taiga landscape respectively. The red symbolizes the courage and constancy of the people. According to the constitution of the Sakha Republic, the white disc represents the white sun of the arctic sky while the combination of blue, white and red represent Sakha's place in the Russian Federation.

Legislation.

The current law regulating the design and use of the flag was passed on July 15, 2004. The third chapter of Law No. 313-III "On the Official Symbols of the Sakha (Yakut) Republic" describes the symbolism, usage, placement, and the custom of flowing the flag of the Sakha Republic alongside with other flags.

History.

Revolt flags.

Before and after the civil war, there were several revolts in the Yakut region. The revolts mainly uses tricolor flags.

As the Yakut ASSR.

The first flag of the Yakut ASSR was described in the 1926 Constitution of the Yakut ASSR, which was approved on the 4th All-Yakutsk Congress of Soviets on 13 February 1926, and was introduced by resolution of the 2nd session of the Yakut Central Executive Committee on the 4th convocation of September 17, 1926. The flag was a red flag, with a blue canton in the top left of the flag on which the northern lights was depicted with the inscription in golden letters "ЯАССР" in the Yakut language.  The flag of the Yakut ASSR was described in the 1937 Constitution of the Yakut ASSR, which was adopted by the Central Executive Committee of the Yakut ASSR on 9 March 1937, at the 9th Extraordinary Congress of Soviets of the Yakut ASSR. The flag was the same with the flag of the Russian SFSR. The only difference was some additional inscriptions. These inscriptions changed after a new alphabet for the Yakut language was approved by a decree of the People's Commissar of Education of the Soviet Union.  A new state flag of the Yakut ASSR was adopted on June 12, 1954, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the Yakut ASSR "On the State Flag of the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic", and the official design of the flag was approved by the Law of the Yakut ASSR of June 23, 1954. The new state flag was identical with the state flag of the Russian SFSR, but with additional inscriptions. The position of the inscriptions changed after the adoption of the new constitution of the Yakut ASSR on May 31, 1978.

As the Sakha (Yakut) Republic.

In line with the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of new national entities, the Sakha Republic adopted a new constitution on April 4, 1992. There wasn't any statements regarding to the detail of the flag of the Sakha Republic on the constitution. The only statement was: The flag of the Republic of Sakha itself was approved on 14 October 1992, by the Decree No.1158-XII, and the decree itself was adopted by the Decree No.1159-XII. At 17.50 on the same day, the flag was first hoisted over the building of the Supreme Council of the Sakha Republic, next to the flag of the Russian Federation.  The description of the flag was approved and the description of the flag was inserted into the Constitution of the Sakha Republic by the amendments of July 22, 2008.

The flag of the Republic if Sakha (Yakutia) ( "Sakha Öröspüübülüketin Bılaağa"; ), in the Russian Federation, is one of the official symbols of the Sakha Republic, alongside the coat of arms and the national anthem of the Sakha Republic. The flag has four horizontal stripes. From top to bottom, the stripes are light blue (3/4 of the flag's width), white (1/16), red (1/16), and green (1/8). The flag has been used officially as the flag of the Sakha Republic since 14 October 1992. The light blue stripe is charged with a white disc in the center. The diameter of the disc is 2/5 of the flag's width.

萨哈(雅库特)共和国国旗,为俄罗斯联邦萨哈共和国之国旗,为一个水平长款不一之四条色带。颜色形成由上到下条纹为淡蓝色(3/4高度)、白色(1/16高度)、红色(1/16高度)以及绿色(1/8高度)。淡蓝色面内有白色圆形于中心。圆的直径占旗帜宽度的2/5。


Characteristics.

The male cockatoo dwarf cichlid reaches a body length of 8 centimetres. The female is considerably smaller, reaching only 5 centimetres. The body shape is long and of middle height and the mouth is rather big with thick lips. The male is more colorful than the female, usually with red/orange dorsal and caudal fins. The leading 3 or 4 hard rays are elongated, and the ventral fins are clear. In color, the female is quite dull but with a clear black line running along her flanks. Her background color is a pale yellow, but this will become vibrant when mating or brood protecting. In addition, she lacks the elongated dorsal rays of the male and her ventral fins show a black leading edge. There are several color forms which naturally occur in the wild; these include blues, yellows and some reds. Because of selective breeding the colors are now much more pronounced. Both sexes have a dark line leading from the eye to the bottom of the gill flap.

Range and habitat.

The cockatoo dwarf cichlid is found in the Amazon River basin, in tributaries of the Ucayali, Amazon and Solimões rivers from the Pachitea River to Tabatinga in Peru and Colombia where it lives in small shallow streams or lagoon-like waters in the rain forest. The fish prefer a water temperature between 24 and 28 °C. The bottom of these waters is covered with leaves that are used by the fish for hiding.

Breeding.

The female places her eggs inside the roof of a cavity or underneath a leaf. She takes care of the eggs by herself, while the male guards the territory. The eggs are salmon colored.  One of the more interesting traits of "Apistogramma cacatuoides" is that of "sneaker" males. Due to the aggressive, territorial nature of the males, a submissive male will not develop the full "cockatoo" finnage nor the full male coloration. He will "pretend" to be a female and take any opportunities presented to mate with willing females. If the dominant male then dies, this submissive male will then develop the full finnage.  Small aquaria (less than 120 litres) should be avoided if more than a single pair is to be kept, as a female will protect an area of approximately 30 centimeters in radius. If breeding is to be attempted in a community aquarium, fast-swimming fish should be avoided as they will poach the fry from the female "A. cacatuoides".

Maintenance in the aquarium.

The cockatoo dwarf is one of the best suited cichlid species for the planted aquarium. But because the male is highly territorial, the fish should be kept in pairs, trios (one male with two females), or harems (one male with many females), and in the company of peaceful tankmates like tetras. In the case of very large Aquariums, more males can be kept together, provided there is plenty of territory, such as wood, heavy planting, and caves. Females also can be highly territorial, not only when in brood care.  Water conditions should be maintained in the pH 6.5-pH 8.0 range. These are one of the few South American Dwarf Cichlids that can tolerate alkaline water.

References.

↑ Wally Kahl / Burkard Kahl / Dieter Vogt, Kosmos Atlas Aquarienfische, Seite 220, Franckh-Kosmos Verlags-GmbH & Co Stuttgart 2003 (German) 2

Apistogramma cacatuoides or the cockatoo dwarf cichlid" is a South American cichlid and the Apistogramma species most commonly bred in captivity.

凤尾隐带丽鱼,又称短身隐带丽鱼、鸡冠袖珍慈鲷,为辐鳍鱼纲鲈形目隆头鱼亚目慈鲷科的其中一种。