History.

In 1995, the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) called for global action to be taken on POPs, which it defined as “chemical substances that persist in the environment, bio-accumulate through the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health and the environment”.  Following this, the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) prepared an assessment of the 12 worst offenders, known as the "dirty dozen".  The INC met five times between June 1998 and December 2000 to elaborate the convention, and delegates adopted the Stockholm Convention on POPs at the Conference of the Plenipotentiaries convened from 22–23 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden.  The negotiations for the Convention were completed on 23 May 2001 in Stockholm. The convention entered into force on 17 May 2004 with ratification by an initial 128 parties and 151 signatories. Co-signatories agree to outlaw nine of the dirty dozen chemicals, limit the use of DDT to malaria control, and curtail inadvertent production of dioxins and furans.  Parties to the convention have agreed to a process by which persistent toxic compounds can be reviewed and added to the convention, if they meet certain criteria for persistence and transboundary threat. The first set of new chemicals to be added to the Convention were agreed at a conference in Geneva on 8 May 2009.  As of September 2019, there are 184 parties to the Convention (183 states and the European Union). Notable non-ratifying states include the United States, Israel, Malaysia, and Italy.  The Stockholm Convention was adopted to EU legislation in Regulation (EC) No 850/2004. In 2019, the latter was replaced by Regulation (EU) 2019/1021.

Summary of provisions.

Key elements of the Convention include the requirement that developed countries provide new and additional financial resources and measures to eliminate production and use of intentionally produced POPs, eliminate unintentionally produced POPs where feasible, and manage and dispose of POPs wastes in an environmentally sound manner. Precaution is exercised throughout the Stockholm Convention, with specific references in the preamble, the objective, and the provision on identifying new POPs.

Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee.

When adopting the Convention, provision was made for a procedure to identify additional POPs and the criteria to be considered in doing so. At the first meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP1), held in Punta del Este, Uruguay from 2–6 May 2005, the POPRC was established to consider additional candidates nominated for listing under the Convention.  The Committee is composed of 31 experts nominated by parties from the five United Nations regional groups and reviews nominated chemicals in three stages. The Committee first determines whether the substance fulfills POP screening criteria detailed in Annex D of the Convention, relating to its persistence, bioaccumulation, potential for long-range environmental transport (LRET), and toxicity. If a substance is deemed to fulfill these requirements, the Committee then drafts a risk profile according to Annex E to evaluate whether the substance is likely, as a result of its LRET, to lead to significant adverse human health and/or environmental effects and therefore warrants global action. Finally, if the POPRC finds that global action is warranted, it develops a risk management evaluation, according to Annex F, reflecting socioeconomic considerations associated with possible control measures. Based on this, the POPRC decides to recommend that the COP list the substance under one or more of the annexes to the Convention. The POPRC has met annually in Geneva, Switzerland since its establishment. The seventh meeting of the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC-7) of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) took place from 10–14 October 2011 in Geneva, Switzerland. POPRC-8 was held from 15–19 October 2012 in Geneva, POPRC-9 to POPRC-15 were held in Rome.

Listed substances.

There were initially twelve distinct chemicals listed in three categories. Two chemicals, hexachlorobenzene and polychlorinated biphenyls, were listed in both categories A and C.

Chemicals newly proposed for inclusion in Annexes A, B, C.

POPRC-7 considered three proposals for listing in Annexes A, B and/or C of the Convention: chlorinated naphthalenes (CNs), hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD) and pentachlorophenol (PCP), its salts and esters. The proposal is the first stage of the POPRC's work in assessing a substance, and requires the POPRC to assess whether the proposed chemical satisfies the criteria in Annex D of the Convention. The criteria for forwarding a proposed chemical to the risk profile preparation stage are persistence, bioaccumulation, potential for long-range environmental transport (LRET), and adverse effects.  POPRC-8 proposed hexabromocyclododecane for listing in Annex A, with specific exemptions for production and use in expanded polystyrene and extruded polystyrene in buildings. This proposal was agreed at the sixth Conference of Parties on 28 April-10 May 2013.  POPRC-9 proposed di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, hepta- and octa-chlorinated napthalenes, and hexachlorobutadiene for listing in Annexes A and C. It also set up further work on pentachlorophenol, its salts and esters, and decabromodiphenyl ether, perfluorooctanesulfonic acid, its salts and perfluorooctane sulfonyl chloride.  POPRC-15 proposed PFHxS for listing in Annex A without specific exemptions.

Controversies.

Although some critics have alleged that the treaty is responsible for the continuing death toll from malaria, in reality the treaty specifically permits the public health use of DDT for the control of mosquitoes (the malaria vector). There are also ways to prevent high amounts of DDT consumed by using other malaria vectors such as window screens. As long as there are specific measures taken, such as use of DDT indoors, then the limited amount of DDT can be used in a regulated fashion. From a developing country perspective, a lack of data and information about the sources, releases, and environmental levels of POPs hampers negotiations on specific compounds, and indicates a strong need for research.  Another controversy would be certain POPs (which are continually active, specifically in the Arctic Biota) that were mentioned in the Stockholm Convention, but were not part of the Dirty Dozen such as Perfluorooctone sulfonates (PFOs). PFOs have many general uses such as stain repellents but have many properties which can make it a dangerous due to the fact that PFOs can be highly resistant to environmental breakdown. PFOs can be toxic in terms of increased offspring death, decrease in body weight, and the disruption of neurological systems. What makes this compound controversial is the economic and political impact it can have among various countries and businesses.

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

《斯德哥尔摩公约》是有关环境保护的国际公约,目的在禁用或限制生产持久性有机污染物。


Medical uses.

If percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is not available within 90–120 minutes of first contact, streptokinase is recommended intravenously as soon as possible after the onset of a ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). As streptokinase is a bacterial product, the body has the ability to build up an immunity to it. Therefore, it is recommended that this medication should not be used again after four days from the first administration, as it may not be as effective and can also cause an allergic reaction. For this reason, it is usually given only for a person's first heart attack. Further thrombotic events could be treated with tissue plasminogen activator (tPA). Overdose of streptokinase or tPA can be treated with aminocaproic acid.

Mechanism of action.

Streptokinase belongs to a group of medications known as fibrinolytics, and complexes of streptokinase with human plasminogen can hydrolytically activate other unbound plasminogen by activating through bond cleavage to produce plasmin. There are three domains to streptokinase, denoted α (residues 1–150), β (residues 151–287), and γ (residues 288–414). Each domain binds plasminogen, although none can activate plasminogen independently.  Plasmin is produced in the blood to break down fibrin, the major constituent of blood thrombi, thereby dissolving clots once they have fulfilled their purpose of stopping bleeding. Extra production of plasmin caused by streptokinase breaks down unwanted blood clots, for example, in the lungs (pulmonary embolism). The usual activation of plasminogen is by proteolysis of the Arg561—Val562 bond. The amino group of Val562 then forms a salt-bridge with Asp740, which triggers a conformational change producing the active protease plasmin. When streptokinase is present, it binds to plasminogen to form a complex (streptokinase·plasminogen) that converts substrate plasminogen to plasmin. Residues 1–59 of streptokinase regulate its capacity to induce an active site in bound plasminogen by a nonproteolytic mechanism and to activate substrate plasminogen in a fibrin-independent manner. This complex subsequently rearranges to an active complex although the Arg561–Val562 bond remains intact. Therefore, another residue must substitute for the free amino group of Val562 and provide a counterion for Asp740 in this active complex. Two candidates for this counterion have been suggested: Ile1 of streptokinase and Lys698 of plasminogen. Deletion of Ile1 of streptokinase markedly inhibits its capacity to induce an active site in plasminogen, which supports the hypothesis that establishment of a salt bridge between Ile1 of streptokinase and Asp740 of plasminogen is necessary for streptokinase to induce an active site in plasminogen by a nonproteolytic mechanism. In contrast with the Ile1 substitutions, the Lys698 mutations also decreased the dissociation constant of the streptokinase complex by 15 to 50 fold. These observations suggest that Lys698 is involved in formation of the initial streptokinase·plasminogen complex.

Biology.

Streptokinase is naturally produced by "Streptococci" spp. bacteria, which use this enzyme to break up blood clots so that they can spread from the initial site of infection. It can also activate fibrin.  It is similar, both in function and in structure, to staphylokinase (Sak) found in "Staphylococcus aureus". Staphylokinase is considered a virulence factor, although its presence after the establishment of infection actually decreases disease severity. Both enzymes are carried by phages.

History.

After many years of work along with his student Sol Sherry, William S. Tillett discovered streptokinase in 1933. Initially used in treatment of fibrinous pleural exudates, hemothorax and tuberculous meningitis, its role in acute myocardial infarction was serendipitous.

Research.

Streptokinase may find a use in helping to prevent postoperative adhesions, a common complication of surgery, especially abdominal surgery (appendectomy, gall stones, hysterectomy, etc.) One study using animal models (rats) found that when used with a PHBV membrane drug-delivery system, it was 90 percent effective in preventing adhesions. However, it has not been shown to be effective in humans in a clinical trial.

Marketing.

It is marketed in Chile as Streptase by Alpes Selection, under license of CSL Behring Germany.  Available in Vietnam under the name Mutose. Available in Cuba, Venezuela, Ecuador and other Latin American countries under the trademark Heberkinasa, commercialized by Heber Biotech, Havana, Cuba. Available in India under the name STPase by Cadila Pharmaceuticals, and Myokinase by Biocon Limited.

Streptokinase (SK) is a thrombolytic medication and enzyme. As a medication it is used to break down clots in some cases of myocardial infarction (heart attack), pulmonary embolism, and arterial thromboembolism. The type of heart attack it is used in is an ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). It is given by injection into a vein. Side effects include nausea, bleeding, low blood pressure, and allergic reactions. A second use in a person's lifetime is not recommended. While no harm has been found with use in pregnancy, it has not been well studied in this group. Streptokinase is in the antithrombotic family of medications and works by turning on the fibrinolytic system. Streptokinase was discovered in 1933 from beta-hemolytic streptococci. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost is between 30.00 and US$138.00 per dose as of 2014. It is no longer commercially available in the United States.

链激酶(英语:Streptokinase),又名溶栓酶,是由β-溶血性链球菌产生的一种酶。其能与血浆纤溶酶原结合成复合物,使其暴露活性部位,催化纤溶酶原转化为纤溶酶,使血栓溶解。但不能溶解形成已久且已机化的血栓。


Numbering and symbols.

In English, a footnote or endnote is normally flagged by a superscripted number immediately following that portion of the text the note references, each such footnote being numbered sequentially. Occasionally a number between brackets or parentheses is used instead, thus: [1], which can also be superscripted.  Typographical devices such as the asterisk (*) or dagger (†) may also be used to point to notes; the traditional order of these symbols in English is *, †, ‡, §, |, ¶. Other symbols, including the #, Δ, ◊, ↓, and ☞, have also been used. In documents like timetables, many different symbols, letters and numbers may refer the reader to particular notes.  In CJK languages, written with Chinese characters, the symbol ※ (called reference mark; ; ) is used for notes and highlighting, analogously to the asterisk in English.

Academic usage.

Notes are most often used as an alternative to long explanations, citations, comments or annotations that can be distracting to readers. Most literary style guidelines (including the Modern Language Association and the American Psychological Association) recommend limited use of foot and endnotes. However, publishers often encourage note references in lieu of parenthetical references. Aside from use as a bibliographic element, notes are used for additional information, qualification or explanation that might be too digressive for the main text. Footnotes are heavily utilized in academic institutions to support claims made in academic essays covering myriad topics.  In particular, footnotes are the normal form of citation in historical journals. This is due, firstly, to the fact that the most important references are often to archive sources or interviews which do not readily fit standard formats, and secondly, to the fact that historians expect to see the exact nature of the evidence which is being used at each stage.  The MLA (Modern Language Association) requires the superscript numbers in the main text to be placed following the punctuation in the phrase or clause the note is in reference to. The exception to this rule occurs when a sentence contains a dash, in which case the superscript would precede it.  Aside from their technical use, authors use notes for a variety of reasons:

Government documents.

The US Government Printing Office Style Manual devotes over 660 words to the topic of footnotes. NASA has guidance for footnote usage in its historical documents.

Legal writing.

Associate Justice Stephen Breyer of the Supreme Court of the United States is famous in the American legal community for his writing style, in which he never uses notes. He prefers to keep all citations within the text (which is permitted in American legal citation). Richard A. Posner has also written against the use of notes in judicial opinions. Bryan A. Garner, however, advocates using notes instead of inline citations.

HTML.

HTML, the predominant markup language for web pages, has no mechanism for marking up notes. Despite a number of different proposals over the years, and repeated pleas from the user base, the working group has been unable to reach a consensus on it. Because of this, MediaWiki, for example, has had to introduce its own codice_1 tag for citing references in notes, an idea which has since also been implemented for generic use by the "Nelson" HTML preprocessor.  It might be argued that the hyperlink partially eliminates the need for notes, being the web's way to refer to another document. However, it does not allow citing to offline sources and if the destination of the link changes, the link can become dead or irrelevant. A proposed solution is the use of a digital object identifier.

History.

The London printer Richard Jugge is generally credited as the inventor of the footnote, first used in the Bishops' Bible of 1568.  Early printings of the Douay Bible used two closely spaced colons (actually squared four dot punctuation mark U+2E2C) to indicate a marginal note.

Literary device.

At times, notes have been used for their comical effect, or as a literary device.

A note is a string of text placed at the bottom of a page in a book or document or at the end of a chapter, volume or the whole text. The note can provide an author's comments on the main text or citations of a reference work in support of the text.

脚注,又名注脚、笔记、札记(;英语:Footnote),是读书所做的笔录、见解、体会、看法、观点、心得、感想的总称。脚注分为:头注、侧注、后注、割注、分注。


Early years.

Russ Meyer was born in San Leandro, California, the son of Lydia Lucinda (Hauck) and William Arthur Meyer, an Oakland police officer. His parents were both of German descent. Meyer's parents divorced soon after he was born, and Meyer was to have virtually no contact with his father during his life. When he was 14 years old, his mother pawned her wedding ring in order to buy him an 8mm film camera. He made a number of amateur films at the age of 15, and served during World War II as a U.S. Army combat cameraman for the 166th Signal Photo Company, ultimately attaining the rank of staff sergeant.  In the Army, Meyer forged his strongest friendships, and he would later ask many of his fellow combat cameramen to work on his films. Much of Meyer's work during World War II can be seen in newsreels and in the film "Patton" (1971).  On his return to civilian life, he was unable to secure cinematography work in Hollywood due to a lack of industry connections. He made industrial films, freelanced as a still photographer for mainstream films (including "Giant"), and became a well known glamour photographer whose work included some of the initial shoots for Hugh Hefner's "Playboy" magazine. Meyer would go on to shoot three "Playboy" centerfolds during the magazine's early years, including one of his then-wife Eve Meyer in 1955. He also shot a pictorial of then-wife Edy Williams in March 1973.

Film career.

Early films.

Meyer was the cinematographer for the 1950 Pete DeCenzie film "French Peep Show", and the 1954 Samuel Newman production, "The Desperate Women", among the few Hollywood films to depict a women dying from an illegal abortion in pre–"Roe v. Wade" America, the original version of which is believed lost.

"The Immoral Mr. Teas" and Nudie Cuties.

His first feature, the naughty comedy "The Immoral Mr. Teas" (1959), cost $24,000 to produce and eventually grossed more than $1 million on the independent/exploitation circuit, ensconcing Meyer as "King of the Nudies." It is considered one of the first nudie cuties.  Russ Meyer was a true auteur who wrote, directed, edited, photographed and distributed all his own films. He was able to finance each new film from the proceeds of the earlier ones, and became very wealthy in the process.  Meyer followed "Teas" with some shorts, "This Is My Body" (1960) and "The Naked Camera", then made a second nudie cutie, "Eve and the Handyman" (1960). This starred Meyer's wife Eve and Anthony-James Ryan, both of whom would be crucial to the production of Meyer's films.  His next features were "Erotica" (1961) and "Wild Gals of the Naked West" (1962). Reception to the latter indicated the market for nudie cuties was drying up, so Meyer decided to change.  He did a documentary, "Europe in the Raw" (1963), and tried a comedy, "Heavenly Bodies!" (1963).  He then directed a version of "Fanny Hill" (1964) in Europe.

"Lorna" and the "Gothic" period.

Meyer had a career change with 1964's "Lorna" which saw the ever-economical director revert to black-and-white; with this change came a greater emphasis on storyline, almost theatrical violence, dominatrices, and their insipid male counterparts.  He followed this with three other similar films, and would call this his "Gothic" period: "Mudhoney" (1965), "Motorpsycho" (1965) and "Faster, Pussycat! Kill! Kill!" (1965).  "Lorna" was very successful commercially, making almost a million dollars. "Mudhoney" was more ambitious, based on a novel, and did not perform as well. "Motorpsycho", about three men terrorising the countryside, was a big hit—so much so Meyer decided to make a film about three bad girls, "Faster Pussycat". "Faster, Pussycat! Kill! Kill!" was commercially underwhelming but would eventually be reclaimed as a cult classic. It has a following all over the world and has inspired countless imitations, music videos and tributes.

Color melodramas – including "Vixen".

Meyer made the popular mockumentary "Mondo Topless" (1966) with the remnants of his production company's assets and made two mildly successful color melodramas: "Common Law Cabin" (1967) and "Good Morning... and Goodbye!" (1967).  Meyer made headlines once again in 1968 with the controversial "Vixen!". Although its lesbian overtones are tame by today's standards, the film—envisaged by Meyer and longtime producer Jim Ryan as a reaction to provocative European art films—grossed millions on a five-figure budget and captured the zeitgeist just as "The Immoral Mr. Teas" had a decade earlier.  He followed it with "Finders Keepers, Lovers Weepers!" (1969), and "Cherry, Harry & Raquel!" (1970), which utilized long montages of the California landscape (replete with anti-marijuana voiceovers) and Uschi Digard dancing in the desert as the film's "lost soul." These plot devices were necessitated after lead actress Linda Ashton left the shoot early, forcing Meyer to compensate for 20 minutes of unshot footage.

20th Century Fox: "Beyond the Valley of the Dolls" and "The Seven Minutes".

After the unexpected success of Columbia Pictures' low-budget "Easy Rider", and impressed by Meyer's frugality and profitability, 20th Century Fox signed him to produce and direct a proposed sequel to "Valley of the Dolls" in 1969, fulfilling his longstanding ambition to direct for a major Hollywood studio. What eventually appeared was "Beyond the Valley of the Dolls" (1970), scripted by film critic (and Meyer devotee) Roger Ebert. The film bears no relation to the novel or film adaptation's continuity, a development necessitated when Jacqueline Susann sued the studio after several drafts of the initial Susann-penned script were rejected. Many critics perceive the film as perhaps the greatest expression of his intentionally vapid surrealism—Meyer went so far as to refer to it as his definitive work in several interviews. Others, such as "Variety", saw it "as funny as a burning orphanage and a treat for the emotionally retarded." Contractually stipulated to produce an R-rated film, the brutally violent climax (depicting a decapitation) ensured an X rating (eventually reclassified to NC-17 in 1990). Though disowned by the studio for decades to come and amid gripes from the director after he attempted to recut the film to include more titillating scenes after the ratings debacle, it still earned $9 million domestically in the United States on a budget of $900,000.  The executives at Fox were delighted with the box office success of "Dolls" and signed a contract with Meyer to make three more films: "The Seven Minutes", from a novel by Irving Wallace; "Everything in the Garden" from a play by Edward Albee; and "The Final Steal" from a 1966 novel by Peter George. "We've discovered that he's very talented and cost conscious," said Fox president Richard Zanuck. "He can put his finger on the commercial ingredients of a film and do it exceedingly well. We feel he can do more than undress people."  Meyer then made his most subdued film, also for Fox "The Seven Minutes" (1971), an adaptation of the popular Irving Wallace novel. It was commercially unsuccessful.

Return to independent film making.

Richard Zanuck, who brought Meyer to Fox, had moved to Warner Bros and there was some talk Meyer would make a film at that studio. However, Meyer would never make a studio film again. He returned to grindhouse-style independent cinema in 1973 with the blaxploitation period piece "Black Snake", which was dismissed by critics and audiences as incoherent.  He was going to make "Foxy" with Edy Williams but cancelled it in the wake of the Supreme Court decision against pornography. His marriage to Williams subsequently disintegrated.  "Those years were very confusing to me," said Meyer. "But instead of rushing off and throwing myself out the window, I was able to psychoanalyze myself and discern what was best for me. I looked myself square in the face and realized I couldn't do everything."  In 1975, he released "Supervixens", a return to the world of big bosoms, square jaws, and the Sonoran Desert that earned $17 million in the United States on a shoestring budget.  Meyer's theatrical career ended with the release of the surreal "Up!" (1976) and 1979's "Beneath the Valley of the Ultra-Vixens", his most sexually graphic films. Film historians and fans have called these last three films "Bustoons" because Russ Meyer's use of color and mise en scène recalled larger-than-life pop art settings and cartoonish characters.  In 1977, Malcolm McLaren hired Meyer to direct a film starring The Sex Pistols. Meyer handed the scriptwriting duties over to Ebert, who, in collaboration with McLaren, produced a screenplay entitled "Who Killed Bambi?" According to Ebert, filming ended after a day and a half when the electricians walked off the set after McLaren was unable to pay them. (McLaren has claimed that the project was scrapped at the behest of the main financier and Meyer's erstwhile employer, 20th Century Fox, whose board of directors considered the prospect of a Meyer production to be untenable and incompatible with the insurgent family values ethos in popular culture.) The project ultimately evolved into "The Great Rock & Roll Swindle".

Later years.

Despite the fact that hardcore pornographic films overtook Meyer's softcore market share, he retired from filmmaking in the late 1970s a very wealthy man. He made a one-off return to filmmaking in 2001 to direct "Russ Meyer's Pandora Peaks", featuring the nude glamour model of the same name. Around the same time, he also participated in "Voluptuous Vixens II", a made-for-video softcore production by "Playboy".

Use of satire.

Russ Meyer was also adept at mocking moral stereotypes and flagrantly lampooning conservative American values. Many of his films feature a narrator who attempts to give the audience a "moral roadmap" of what they are watching. Like his contemporary Terry Southern, Meyer realized that sex—as one of the few common interests among most humans—was a natural vehicle for satirizing values and conventions held by the Greatest Generation. According to Roger Ebert in a commentary recorded for the DVD release of "Beyond the Valley of the Dolls", Meyer continually reiterated that this irreverence was the true secret to his artistic success.  Meyer was also known for his quick wit. While participating with Ebert in a panel discussion at Yale University, he was confronted by an angry woman who accused him of being "nothing but a breast man." His immediate reply: "That's only the half of it."

The Meyer physical archetype.

Russ Meyer's lifelong unabashed fixation on large breasts featured prominently in all his films and is his best-known character trait both as an artist and as a person. His discoveries include Kitten Natividad, Erica Gavin, Lorna Maitland, Tura Satana, and Uschi Digard among many others. The majority of them were naturally large-breasted and he occasionally cast women in their first trimesters of pregnancy as it enhanced their breast size even further.  Rarely were there cosmetically enhanced breasts in any of his films until "Up!" (1976) and "Beneath the Valley of the Ultra-Vixens" (1979). However, by the early 1980s, when surgical advancements had made the gargantuan breasts of Meyer's fantasies a reality, many felt he had started viewing the female body as simply a "tit transportation device" and that his aesthetic vision was no longer attractive or vibrant. Darlene Gray, a natural 36H-22-33 from Great Britain, who appeared in "Mondo Topless" (1966) is said to be Russ Meyer's most busty discovery.  The Russ Meyer female physical archetype is fairly complex to decipher. Firstly, it's not to be confused with today's surgically enhanced Hollywood porn starlets or even slim, naturally endowed actresses. Russ Meyer was almost as much about a shapely 1950s hip-to-waist ratio or "wasp waist" as he was about very large breasts. The six-pack abdominal muscles and built-up squarish appearance of modern Hollywood figures do not mesh with his pin-up aesthetic. Secondly, he required that even his most busty actresses looked good braless; "gravity-defying" and "cantilevered" became two of his favorite expressions.  In his films such as "Vixen!" and "Cherry, Harry & Raquel!", some of the actresses do not have large (by Russ Meyer standards) breasts yet their chests are always accentuated with very clever camera angles and well-constructed bras. Reportedly, Erica Gavin was cast as the lead in "Vixen!" because her "smaller" bust would make the character "more relatable to women."  He went on record numerous times to say that Anita Ekberg was the most beautiful woman he ever photographed and that her 39DD breasts were the biggest in A-list Hollywood history, dwarfing both Jayne Mansfield and Sabrina. Dolly Parton was the only modern Hollywood actress Meyer ever expressed interest in working with.  While he often referred to his actresses as "Junoesque" and "Amazonian", this was probably more in their spirit than their actual physiques" as Meyer rarely cast very tall or symmetrically built actresses with strong legs and large posteriors. So while the general public could easily perceive Jane Russell or Sophia Loren as "Russ Meyer material", their balanced bodies did not mesh with Meyer's precise aesthetic preferences." And indeed, Meyer said many times that it was Gina Lollobrigida's smaller-breasted figure that he preferred visually over her larger-breasted, taller and bigger-hipped rival, Sophia Loren. Thus, Meyer's oeuvre shows the viewer that while his actresses could easily be described as voluptuous, buxom and curvaceous, it's debatable to some if they were strapping, stately or even statuesque as Meyer readily proclaimed."  The tallest actress Meyer ever cast in a lead was the, slim-hipped, huge-breasted Lorna Maitland (working with whom he admitted he found intimidating). Nearly all the other women he featured were no taller than. Tura Satana's performance as Varla in "Faster, Pussycat! Kill! Kill!" was Meyer's only true portrayal of the large, strong and aggressive Amazonian archetype in the classic visual sense.

Female empowerment.

Film historian and Meyer biographer Jimmy McDonough posits that Russ Meyer's usage of physically and sexually overwhelming female characters places him in his own separate genre. He argues that despite portraying women as sex objects, Meyer nonetheless depicts them as more powerful than men and is therefore an inadvertent feminist filmmaker.  In many of Meyer's films, women eventually defeat men, winning sexual fulfillment as their reward, e.g., Super Vixen ("Supervixens"), Margo Winchester ("Up!") and Lavonia Shedd ("Beneath the Valley of the Ultra-Vixens"). Even in the 1950s and '60s, his films were sometimes centered on a woman's need and struggle for sexual satisfaction ("Lorna", "Good Morning and... Goodbye!" and "Beneath the Valley of the Ultra-Vixens"). Additionally, Russ Meyer's female characters were often allowed to express anger and violence towards men ("Faster, Pussycat! Kill! Kill!" and "Supervixens").  Yet in his research, McDonough also notes that Meyer's female characters were limited in how powerful they could appear; often the female lead is raped ("Up!" and "Lorna") or brutally murdered ("Beyond the Valley of the Dolls", "Supervixens", "Lorna" and "Blacksnake"). While Russ Meyer may have championed powerful woman characters, he also forced them into violent and terrifying situations, making them prove their physical and mental strength against tremendous odds. He also ensured that women's breasts were at least semi-exposed during these ordeals for comic or erotic effect. Furthermore, according to frequent collaborator and longtime lover Kitten Natividad, Meyer's love of dominant women extended to his personal life, and he was almost always in a tumultuous relationship.

Personal and family life.

In World War II, according to Meyer, was in a French brothel with Ernest Hemingway who, upon finding out that Meyer was a virgin, offered him the prostitute of his choice. Meyer picked the one with the largest breasts.  Despite his reputation, Meyer never employed the casting couch during his career's peak years, though that shifted during his post-1980 unfinished projects, and rarely had sex with any of his actresses. He had no children, though there were rumored unsuccessful pregnancies with his second wife Edy Williams and last serious girlfriend, Melissa Mounds, who was also found guilty of assaulting him in 1999. There is a long-standing rumor among his closest friends and at least one biographer that he had a son in 1964 with a secret lover who he would refer to only as "Miss Mattress" or "Janet Buxton."  Meyer was very upfront throughout his life about being too selfish to be a father or even a caring partner or husband. Yet he is also said to have been very generous with all his friends and acquaintances, and never isolated friends from one another. Biographers have attributed most of his brutish and eccentric nature to the fact that he was abandoned by his father, an Oakland police officer, and overly coddled by his mother, Lydia, who was married six times. Meyer had a half-sister, Lucinda, who was diagnosed in her 20s with paranoid schizophrenia and was committed to California State mental institutions until her death in 1999. Mental illness ran in his family and was something he secretly feared. During his entire life, Russ Meyer spoke with only the highest reverence for his mother and sister.  Meyer was married to:  Contrary to some accounts, Meyer was never married to Kitten Natividad, his longtime companion and the star of his final two films.

Final years.

Meyer owned the rights to nearly all of his films and spent the majority of the 1980s and 1990s making millions reselling his films on the home video and DVD market. He worked out of his Los Angeles home and usually took telephone orders in person. A major retrospective of his work was given at the British Film Institute which Meyer attended in 1982. The Chicago Film Festival honored his work in 1985 which he also made a personal appearance, and many revival movie houses booked his films for midnight movie marathons.  He also worked obsessively for over a decade on a massive three-volume autobiography, titled "A Clean Breast". Finally printed in 2000, it features numerous excerpts of reviews, clever details of each of his films and countless photos and erotic musings.  Starting in the mid-1990s Meyer had frequent fits and bouts of memory loss. By 2000, he was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease, and his health and well-being were thereafter looked after by Janice Cowart, his secretary and estate executor. That same year, with no wife or children to claim his wealth, Meyer willed that the majority of his money and estate would be sent to the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in honor of his late mother.  Russ Meyer died at his home in the Hollywood Hills, from complications of pneumonia, on September 18, 2004. He was 82 years old. Meyer's grave is located at Stockton Rural Cemetery in San Joaquin County, California.

Russell Albion Meyer (March 21, 1922 – September 18, 2004) was an American film director, producer, screenwriter, cinematographer, film editor, actor, and photographer. Meyer is known primarily for writing and directing a series of successful sexploitation films that featured campy humor, sly satire and large-breasted women, such as "Faster, Pussycat! Kill! Kill!"

罗素·阿尔比恩·梅耶(英语:Russell Albion Meyer,1922年-3月21日-2004年-9月18日)是一名美国男导演、编剧、监制、摄影指导、剪辑师、演员和摄影师。梅耶以编剧及执导多部成功的性剥削电影而闻名;他的电影以坎普风的幽默、狡猾性的讽刺及大胸部的女性为特色,如1965年的《小野猫的公路历险记》。


Origins.

According to some sources, Orkhon script is derived from variants of the Aramaic alphabet, in particular via the Pahlavi and Sogdian alphabets of Persia, or possibly via Kharosthi used to write Sanskrit ("cf". the inscription at Issyk kurgan).  Vilhelm Thomsen (1893) connected the script to the reports of Chinese account ("Records of the Grand Historian", vol. ) from a 2nd-century BCE Yan renegade and dignitary named Zhonghang Yue (). Yue "taught the Chanyu (rulers of the Xiongnu) to write official letters to the Chinese court on a wooden tablet () 31 cm long, and to use a seal and large-sized folder". The same sources tell that when the Xiongnu noted down something or transmitted a message, they made cuts on a piece of wood ("gemu"). They also mention a "Hu script". At the Noin-Ula burial site and other Hun burial sites in Mongolia and regions north of Lake Baikal, the artifacts displayed over twenty carved characters. Most of these characters are either identical with or very similar to the letters of the Turkic Orkhon script. Turkic inscriptions dating from earlier than the Orkhon inscriptions used about 150 symbols, which may suggest that tamgas first imitated Chinese script and then gradually was refined into an alphabet.  Contemporary Chinese sources conflict as to whether the Turks had a written language by the 6th century. The "Book of Zhou", dating to the 7th century, mentions that the Turks had a written language similar to that of the Sogdians. Two other sources, the "Book of Sui" and the "History of the Northern Dynasties" claim that the Turks did not have a written language. According to István Vásáry, Old Turkic script was invented under the rule of the first khagans and that it was modelled after the Sogdian fashion. Several variants of the script came into being as early as the first half of the 6th century.

Corpus.

The Old Turkic corpus consists of about two hundred inscriptions, plus a number of manuscripts.  The inscriptions, dating from the 7th to 10th century, were discovered in present-day Mongolia (the area of the Second Turkic Khaganate and the Uyghur Khaganate that succeeded it), in the upper Yenisey basin of central-south Siberia, and in smaller numbers, in the Altay mountains and Xinjiang. The texts are mostly epitaphs (official or private), but there are also graffiti and a handful of short inscriptions found on archaeological artifacts, including a number of bronze mirrors.  The website of the Language Committee of Ministry of Culture and Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan lists 54 inscriptions from the Orkhon area, 106 from the Yenisei area, 15 from the Talas area, and 78 from the Altai area. The most famous of the inscriptions are the two monuments (obelisks) which were erected in the Orkhon Valley between 732 and 735 in honor of the Göktürk prince Kül Tigin and his brother the emperor Bilge Kağan. The Tonyukuk inscription, a monument situated somewhat farther east, is slightly earlier, dating to ca. 722. These inscriptions relate in epic language the legendary origins of the Turks, the golden age of their history, their subjugation by the Chinese (Tang-Gokturk wars), and their liberation by Bilge.  The Old Turkic manuscripts, of which there are none earlier than the 9th century, were found in present-day Xinjiang and represent Old Uyghur, a different Turkic dialect from the one represented in the Old Turkic inscriptions in the Orkhon valley and elsewhere. They include Irk Bitig, a 9th-century manuscript book on divination.

Table of characters.

Old Turkic being a synharmonic language, a number of consonant signs are divided into two "synharmonic sets", one for front vowels and the other for back vowels. Such vowels can be taken as intrinsic to the consonant sign, giving the Old Turkic alphabet an aspect of an abugida script. In these cases, it is customary to use superscript numerals 1 and 2 to mark consonant signs used with back and front vowels, respectively. This convention was introduced by Thomsen (1893), and followed by Gabain (1941), Malov (1951) and Tekin (1968).  A colon-like symbol (⁚) is sometimes used as a word separator. In some cases a ring (⸰) is used instead.

Consonants.

A reading example (right to left): transliterated t2ñr2i, this spells the name of the Turkic sky god, Täñri ().

Variants.

Variants of the script were found from Mongolia and Xinjiang in the east to the Balkans in the west. The preserved inscriptions were dated to between the 8th and 10th centuries.  These alphabets are divided into four groups by Kyzlasov (1994)  The Asiatic group is further divided into three related alphabets:  The Eurasiatic group is further divided into five related alphabets:  A number of alphabets are incompletely collected due to the limitations of the extant inscriptions. Evidence in the study of the Turkic scripts includes Turkic-Chinese bilingual inscriptions, contemporaneous Turkic inscriptions in the Greek alphabet, literal translations into Slavic languages, and paper fragments with Turkic cursive writing from religion, Manichaeism, Buddhist, and legal subjects of the 8th to 10th centuries found in Xinjiang.

Unicode.

The Unicode block for Old Turkic is U+10C00–U+10C4F. It was added to the Unicode standard in October 2009, with the release of version 5.2. It includes separate "Orkhon" and "Yenisei" variants of individual characters.  Since Windows 8 Unicode Old Turkic writing support was added in the Segoe font.

The Old Turkic script (also known as variously Göktürk script, Orkhon script, Orkhon-Yenisey script, Turkic runes) is the alphabet used by the Göktürks and other early Turkic khanates during the 8th to 10th centuries to record the Old Turkic language.

突厥字母(Old Turkic script、Göktürk script)又称鄂尔浑文字(Orkhon script)、鄂尔浑-叶尼塞文字(Orkhon-Yenisey script),是古突厥人创造并使用的一种文字。因其形似欧洲古代的如尼字母,故旧时被欧洲人称为突厥如尼字母,但实际二者并无关系。古突厥语最早的文字记录即是以突厥字母为载体的。8世纪的鄂尔浑碑铭(分布在鄂尔浑河流域的阙特勤碑、毗伽可汗碑等碑铭)与9世纪的(分布在叶尼塞河流域的一系列碑铭)均以这种文字完成。突厥字母从右往左书写,鄂尔浑碑铭与叶尼塞碑铭所使用的字母稍有不同。


Plot.

A deadly virus, released in 1996, wipes out almost all of humanity; survivors are forced to live underground. A group known as the Army of the Twelve Monkeys is believed to have released the virus.  In 2035, James Cole is a prisoner living in a subterranean compound beneath the ruins of Philadelphia. Cole is selected to be trained and sent back in time to find the original virus to help scientists develop a cure. Meanwhile, Cole is troubled by recurring dreams involving a foot chase and shooting at an airport.  Cole arrives in Baltimore, 1990, not 1996 as planned; he is arrested and incarcerated at a mental hospital on the diagnosis of Dr. Kathryn Railly. There he encounters Jeffrey Goines, a mental patient with fanatical environmentalist and anti-corporatist views. Cole is interviewed by a panel of doctors where he tries to explain that the virus outbreak has already happened and that nobody can change it.  After an escape attempt, Cole is sedated and locked in a cell, but he disappears moments later, waking up back in 2035. Cole is interrogated by the scientists who play a distorted voicemail message that asserts the association of the Army of the Twelve Monkeys with the virus. He is also shown photos of numerous people suspected of being involved, including Goines. The scientists offer Cole a second chance to complete his mission and send him back in time. Cole accidentally arrives at a battlefield during World War I, is shot in the leg and then suddenly transported to 1996.  In 1996, Railly gives a lecture about the Cassandra complex to a group of scientists. At the post-lecture book signing, Railly meets Dr. Peters who tells her that apocalypse alarmists represent the sane vision while humanity's gradual destruction of the environment is the real lunacy.  Cole arrives at the venue after seeing flyers publicizing it and, when Railly departs, he kidnaps her and forces her to take him to Philadelphia. They learn that Goines is the founder of the Army of the Twelve Monkeys before they set out in search of him. When they confront Goines, he denies any involvement with the group and says that, in 1990, Cole originated the idea of wiping out humanity with a virus stolen from Goines' virologist father.  About to be apprehended by police, Cole is transported back to 2035 where he reaffirms to the scientists his commitment to his mission. But when he finds Railly again in 1996, he tells her he now believes himself crazy as she had suggested all along. Meanwhile Railly has discovered evidence of his time travel which she shows him, believing he is sane. They decide to depart for the Florida Keys before the onset of the plague.  On their way to the airport, they learn that the Army of the Twelve Monkeys was not the source of the epidemic; the group's major act of protest is releasing animals from a zoo and placing Goines' father in an animal cage. At the airport, Cole leaves a last message telling the scientists that in following the Army of the Twelve Monkeys they are on the wrong track and that he will not return. Cole is soon confronted by Jose, an acquaintance from his own time, who gives Cole a handgun and ambiguously instructs him to follow orders.  At the same time, Railly spots Dr. Peters and recognizes him from a newspaper photograph as an assistant at Goines' father's virology lab. Peters is about to embark on a tour of several cities that match the locations and sequence of the viral outbreaks.  Cole forces his way through a security checkpoint in pursuit of Peters. After drawing the gun he was given, Cole is fatally shot by police. As Cole lies dying in Railly's arms, Railly suddenly begins to scan the crowd around her; seemingly looking for something she knows must be there. Railly finally makes eye contact with a small boy—the young James Cole witnessing the scene of his own death, which will replay in his dreams for years to come. Peters, safely aboard the plane with the virus, sits down next to Jones, one of the scientists from the future, who comments that her job is “insurance.”

Production.

Development.

The genesis of "12 Monkeys" came from executive producer Robert Kosberg, who had been a fan of the French short film "La Jetée" (1962). Kosberg persuaded the film's director, Chris Marker, to let him pitch the project to Universal Pictures, seeing it as a perfect basis for a full-length science fiction film. Universal reluctantly agreed to purchase the remake rights and hired David and Janet Peoples to write the screenplay. Producer Charles Roven chose Terry Gilliam to direct, because he believed the filmmaker's style was perfect for "12 Monkeys" nonlinear storyline and time travel subplot. Gilliam had just abandoned a film adaptation of "A Tale of Two Cities" when he signed to direct "12 Monkeys". The film also represents the second film for which Gilliam did not write or co-write the screenplay. Although he prefers to direct his own scripts, he was captivated by Peoples' "intriguing and intelligent script. The story is disconcerting. It deals with time, madness and a perception of what the world is or isn't. It is a study of madness and dreams, of death and re-birth, set in a world coming apart."  Universal took longer than expected to approve "12 Monkeys", although Gilliam had two stars (Willis and Pitt) and a firm budget of $29.5 million (low for a Hollywood science fiction film). Universal's production of "Waterworld" (1995) had resulted in various cost overruns. To get "12 Monkeys" approved for production, Gilliam persuaded Willis to lower his normal asking price. Because of Universal's strict production incentives and his history with the studio on "Brazil", Gilliam received final cut privilege. The Writers Guild of America was skeptical of the "inspired by" credit for "La Jetée" and Chris Marker.

Casting.

Gilliam's initial casting choices were Nick Nolte as James Cole and Jeff Bridges as Jeffrey Goines, but Universal objected. Gilliam, who first met Bruce Willis while casting Jeff Bridges' role in "The Fisher King" (1991), believed Willis evoked Cole's characterization as being "somebody who is strong and dangerous but also vulnerable".  Gilliam cast Madeleine Stowe as Dr. Kathryn Railly because he was impressed by her performance in "Blink" (1994). The director first met Stowe when he was casting his abandoned film adaptation of "A Tale of Two Cities". "She has this incredible ethereal beauty and she's incredibly intelligent", Gilliam said of Stowe. "Those two things rest very easily with her, and the film needed those elements because it has to be romantic."  Gilliam originally believed that Pitt was not right for the role of Jeffrey Goines, but the casting director convinced him otherwise. Pitt was cast for a comparatively small salary, as he was still relatively unknown at the time. By the time of "12 Monkeys" release, "Interview with the Vampire" (1994), "Legends of the Fall" (1994), and "Se7en" (1995) had been released, making Pitt an A-list actor, which drew greater attention to the film and boosted its box-office standing. In Philadelphia, months before filming, Pitt spent weeks at Temple University's hospital, visiting and studying the psychiatric ward to prepare for his role.

Filming.

Principal photography lasted from February 8 to May 6, 1995. Shooting on location in Philadelphia and Baltimore (including the Senator Theatre) in winter was fraught with weather problems. There were also technical glitches with the futuristic mechanical props. Because the film has a nonlinear storyline, continuity errors occurred, and some scenes had to be reshot. Gilliam also injured himself when he went horseback riding. Despite setbacks, the director managed to stay within the budget and was only a week behind his shooting schedule. "It was a tough shoot", acknowledged Jeffrey Beecroft ("Mr. Brooks", "Dances with Wolves"), the production designer. "There wasn't a lot of money or enough time. Terry is a perfectionist, but he was really adamant about not going over budget. He got crucified for "Munchausen", and that still haunts him."  The filmmakers were not allowed the luxury of sound stages; thus, they had to find abandoned buildings or landmarks to use. The exteriors of the climactic airport scene were shot at the Baltimore–Washington International Airport, while the interior scenes were shot at the Pennsylvania Convention Center (formerly Reading Terminal). Filming at the psychiatric hospital was done at the Eastern State Penitentiary and the Girard College. Some shots took place in abandoned motels in Camden, New Jersey.

Design.

Gilliam used the same filmmaking style as he had in "Brazil" (1985), including the art direction and cinematography (specifically using fresnel lenses). The appearance of the interrogation room where Cole is being interviewed by the scientists was based on the work of Lebbeus Woods; these scenes were shot at three different power stations (two in Philadelphia and one in Baltimore). Gilliam intended to show Cole being interviewed through a multi-screen interrogation TV set because he felt the machinery evoked a "nightmarish intervention of technology. You try to see the faces on the screens in front of you, but the real faces and voices are down there and you have these tiny voices in your ear. To me that's the world we live in, the way we communicate these days, through technical devices that pretend to be about communication but may not be."  The art department made sure that the 2035 underground world only used pre-1996 technology as a means to depict the bleakness of the future. Gilliam, Beecroft, and Crispian Sallis (set decorator) went to several flea markets and salvage warehouses looking for materials to decorate the sets. The majority of visual effects sequences were created by Peerless Camera, the London-based effects studio that Gilliam founded in the late 1970s with visual effects supervisor Kent Houston ("The Golden Compass", "Casino Royale"). Additional digital compositing was done by The Mill, while Cinesite provided film scanning services.  Janet Maslin wrote in "The New York Times", "Since "12 Monkeys" has the junk heap aesthetic that Mr. Gilliam favors, nothing in the film is sleek or foolproof, certainly not its time-travel apparatus."

Music.

The film's score was composed, arranged, and conducted by English musician Paul Buckmaster. The main theme is based on Argentine tango musician/composer Astor Piazzolla's "Suite Punta del Este".

Themes.

Memory, time, and technology.

"12 Monkeys" studies the subjective nature of memories and their effect on perceptions of reality. Examples of false memories include Cole's recollection of the airport shooting, altered each time he has the dream, and a "mentally divergent" man at the asylum who has false memories.  References to time, time travel, and monkeys are scattered throughout the film, including the Woody Woodpecker cartoon "Time Tunnel" playing on the TV in a hotel room, the Marx Brothers film "Monkey Business" (1931) on TV in the asylum, and the subplots involving monkeys (drug testing, news stories and animal rights). The film is also intended to be a study of people's declining ability to communicate in modern civilization due to the interference of technology.

Allusions to other films and media.

"12 Monkeys" is inspired by the French short film "La Jetée" (1962); as in "La Jetée", characters are haunted by the images of their own deaths. Like "La Jetée", "12 Monkeys" contains references to Alfred Hitchcock's "Vertigo" (1958). Toward the end of the film, Cole and Railly hide in a theater showing a 24-hour Hitchcock marathon and watch a scene from "Vertigo". Railly then transforms herself with a blonde wig, as Judy (Kim Novak) transforms herself into blonde Madeleine in "Vertigo"; Cole sees her emerge within a red light, as Scottie (James Stewart) saw Judy emerge within a green light. Brief notes of Bernard Herrmann's film score can also be heard. Railly also wears the same coat Novak wore in the first part of "Vertigo". The scene at Muir Woods National Monument, where Judy (as Madeleine) looks at the growth rings of a felled redwood and traces back events in her past life, resonates with larger themes in "12 Monkeys". Cole and Railly later have a similar conversation while the same music from "Vertigo" is repeated. The Muir Woods scene in "Vertigo" is also reenacted in "La Jetée". In a previous scene in the film, Cole wakes up in a hospital bed with the scientists talking to him in chorus. This is a direct homage to the "Dry Bones" scene in Dennis Potter's "The Singing Detective".  James Cole is a notable Christ figure in film. The film is significant in the genre of science-fiction film noir, and it alludes to various "canonical noir" films.

Release.

Box office.

"12 Monkeys" was given a limited release in the United States on December 29, 1995. When the 1,629-theater wide release came on January 5, 1996, the film earned $13.84 million in its opening weekend. "12 Monkeys" eventually grossed $57,141,459 in the US and $111,698,000 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $168,839,459. The film held the No. 1 spot on box office charts for two weeks in January, before dropping due to competition from "From Dusk till Dawn", "Mr. Holland's Opus" and "Black Sheep".

Critical reception.

Of 68 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, 90% are positive, with an average rating of 7.62/10. The consensus reads: "The plot's a bit of a jumble, but excellent performances and mind-blowing plot twists make "12 Monkeys" a kooky, effective experience." By comparison, Metacritic calculated a 74 out of 100 rating, based on 20 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of B on an A+ to F scale.  Roger Ebert found "12 Monkeys" depiction of the future similar to "Blade Runner" (1982; also scripted by David Peoples) and "Brazil" (1985; also directed by Terry Gilliam). "The film is a celebration of madness and doom, with a hero who tries to prevail against the chaos of his condition, and is inadequate", Ebert wrote. "This vision is a cold, dark, damp one, and even the romance between Willis and Stowe feels desperate rather than joyous. All of this is done very well, and the more you know about movies (especially the technical side), the more you're likely to admire it. And as entertainment, it appeals more to the mind than to the senses."  Desson Thomson of "The Washington Post" praised the art direction and set design. "Willis and Pitt's performances, Gilliam's atmospherics and an exhilarating momentum easily outweigh such trifling flaws in the script", Thomson wrote. Peter Travers from "Rolling Stone" magazine attributes the film's success to Gilliam's direction and Willis' performance. Internet reviewer James Berardinelli believed the filmmakers had an intelligent and creative motive for the time-travel subplot. Rather than being sent to change the past, James Cole is instead observing it to make a better future. Richard Corliss of "Time" magazine felt the film's time-travel aspect and apocalyptic depiction of a bleak future were clichés. "In its frantic mix of chaos, carnage and zoo animals, "12 Monkeys" is "Jumanji" for adults", Corliss wrote.

Accolades.

Brad Pitt was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, but lost out to Kevin Spacey for his performance in "The Usual Suspects". Costume designer Julie Weiss was also nominated for her work, but lost out to James Acheson of "Restoration". However, Pitt won the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture. Terry Gilliam was honored for his direction at the 46th Berlin International Film Festival.  The film also received positive notices from the science fiction community. It was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films awarded it the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film at the 22nd Saturn Awards. Pitt and Weiss won awards at the ceremony as well; Gilliam, Bruce Willis, Madeleine Stowe, and writers David and Janet Peoples also received nominations.

Home media.

Universal Pictures released "12 Monkeys" on VHS on January 28, 1997. They also released a "Signature Collection" laserdisc of the film on February 18, 1997, containing an audio commentary by director Terry Gilliam and producer Charles Roven, "The Hamster Factor and Other Tales of Twelve Monkeys" (a making-of documentary), an archive of production art, and production notes. They released a Collector's Edition DVD on March 31, 1998, containing the same extras as the laserdisc. They released a Special Edition DVD on May 10, 2005, with a new transfer of the film and identical extras. They released an HD DVD on March 4, 2008, with the same extras. They released a Blu-ray Disc on July 28, 2009, with the same extras. Arrow Films released a new Blu-ray of the film on October 15, 2018, containing a new transfer of the film, remastered in 4K from the original negative, all of the previous extras, as well as a vintage 1996 interview with Terry Gilliam, and an interview with Gilliam scholar Ian Christie.

Post-release.

Lebbeus Woods lawsuit.

In the beginning of the film, Cole is brought into the interrogation room and told to sit in a chair attached to a vertical rail on the wall. A sphere supported by a metal armature is suspended directly in front of him, probing for weaknesses as the inquisitors interrogate him. Architect Lebbeus Woods filed a lawsuit against Universal in February 1996, claiming that his work "Neomechanical Tower (Upper) Chamber" was used without permission. Woods won his lawsuit, requiring Universal to remove the scenes, but he ultimately allowed their inclusion in exchange for a "high six-figure cash settlement" from Universal.

Trilogy claims.

After the release of "The Zero Theorem" in 2013, claims were made that Gilliam had meant it as part of a trilogy. A 2013 review for "The Guardian" newspaper said, "Calling it ["The Zero Theorem"] the third part of a trilogy formed by earlier dystopian satires "Brazil" and "Twelve Monkeys" [sic]"; but in an interview with Alex Suskind for "Indiewire" in late 2014, Gilliam said, "Well, it's funny, this trilogy was never something I ever said, but it's been repeated so often it's clearly true [laughs]. I don't know who started it but once it started it never stopped".

TV adaptation.

On August 26, 2013, "Entertainment Weekly" announced that Syfy was developing a "12 Monkeys" television series based on the film. Production began in November 2013. The pilot was written by Terry Matalas and Travis Fickett, who had written for the series "Terra Nova". Due to the series being labeled as "cast contingent", the series did not move forward until the roles of Cole and Goines were cast. In April 2014, Syfy green-lighted the first season, which consisted of 13 episodes, including the pilot filmed in 2013. The series premiered on January 16, 2015. On March 12, 2015, the series was renewed for a second season that began airing in April 2016. On June 29, 2016, the series was renewed for a 10-episode third season, set to premiere in 2017. In a surprising move, the entire third season aired over three consecutive nights. A fourth and final season was announced on March 16, 2017. The eleven-episode fourth season ran from June 15 to July 6, 2018 for four straight weeks.

12 Monkeys, also known as Twelve Monkeys, is a 1995 American science fiction film directed by Terry Gilliam, inspired by Chris Marker's 1962 short film "La Jetée", starring Bruce Willis, Madeleine Stowe, and Brad Pitt, with Christopher Plummer and David Morse in supporting roles. After Universal Studios acquired the rights to remake "La Jetée" as a full-length film, David and Janet Peoples were hired to write the script.

《十二只猴子》(英语:"12 Monkeys"),是1995年的一部美国科幻电影,由泰利·基咸执导,故事创作灵感来自1962年克里斯·马克的经典法国短片《堤》("La Jetée")。这是一部关于时间旅行、记忆和梦、病毒与世界末日的科幻电影。


Anatomy.

Bodyplan.

The studying of anatomical traits in coelurosaurs indicates that the last common ancestor had evolved the ability to eat and digest plant matter, adapting to an omnivorous diet, an ability that could be a major contributor to the clade's success. Later groups would hold on to the omnivory, while others specialized in various directions, becoming insectivorous (Alvarezsauridae), herbivorous (Therizinosauridae) and carnivorous (Tyrannosauroidea and Dromaeosauridae). The group includes some of the largest ("Tyrannosaurus") and smallest ("Microraptor", "Parvicursor") carnivorous dinosaurs ever discovered. Characteristics that distinguish coelurosaurs include:

Integument.

Fossil evidence shows that the skin of even the most primitive coelurosaurs was covered primarily in feathers. Fossil traces of feathers, though rare, have been found in members of most major coelurosaurian lineages. Most coelurosaurs also retained scales and scutes on some portion of their bodies, particularly the feet, though some primitive coelurosaurian species are known to have had scales on the upper legs and portions of the tail as well. These include tyrannosauroids, "Juravenator", and "Scansoriopteryx". Fossils of at least some of these animals ("Scansoriopteryx" and possibly "Juravenator") also preserve feathers elsewhere on the body.  Though once thought to be a feature exclusive to coelurosaurs, feathers or feather-like structures are also known in some ornithischian dinosaurs (like "Tianyulong" "and Kulindadromeus"), and in pterosaurs. Though it is unknown whether these are related to true feathers, recent analysis has suggested that the feather-like integument found in ornithischians may have evolved independently of coelurosaurs.

Nervous system and senses.

Although rare, complete casts of theropod endocrania are known from fossils. Theropod endocrania can also be reconstructed from preserved braincases without damaging valuable specimens by using a computed tomography scan and 3D reconstruction software. These finds are of evolutionary significance because they help document the emergence of the neurology of modern birds from that of earlier reptiles. An increase in the proportion of the brain occupied by the cerebrum seems to have occurred with the advent of the Coelurosauria and "continued throughout the evolution of maniraptorans and early birds."

Fossil evidence and age.

A few fossil traces tentatively associated with the Coelurosauria date back as far as the late Triassic. What has been found between then and the earliest Middle Jurassic is fragmentary. The oldest known unambiguous members of Coelurosauria are the proceratosaurid tyrannosauroids "Proceratosaurus" and "Kileskus" from the late Middle Jurassic. Many nearly complete fossil coelurosaurians are known from the Late Jurassic. "Archaeopteryx" (incl. "Wellnhoferia") is known from Bavaria at 155-150 Ma. "Ornitholestes", the troodontid "Hesperornithoides", "Coelurus fragilis" and "Tanycolagreus topwilsoni" are all known from the Morrison Formation in Wyoming at about 150 Ma. "Epidendrosaurus" and "Pedopenna" are known from the Daohugou Beds in China at about 165-163 Ma. The wide range of fossils in the late Jurassic and morphological evidence shows that coelurosaurian differentiation was virtually complete before the end of the Jurassic.  In the early Cretaceous, a superb range of coelurosaurian fossils (including avians) are known from the Yixian Formation in Liaoning. All known theropod dinosaurs from the Yixian Formation are coelurosaurs. Many of the coelurosaurian lineages survived to the end of the Cretaceous period (about 66 Ma) and fossils of some lineages, such as the Tyrannosauroidea, are best known from the late Cretaceous. A majority of coelurosaur groups became extinct in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, including the Tyrannosauroidea, Ornithomimosauria, Oviraptorosauria, Deinonychosauria, Enantiornithes, and Hesperornithes. Only the Neornithes, otherwise known as modern birds, survived, and continued to diversify after the extinction of the other dinosaurs into the numerous forms found today.  There is consensus among paleontologists that birds are descended from coelurosaurs. Under modern cladistical definitions, birds are considered the only living lineage of coelurosaurs. Birds are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup Maniraptora.  A portion of a tail belonging to a juvenile coelurosaur was found in 2015, inside of a piece of amber.

Classification.

The phylogeny and taxonomy of Coelurosauria has been subject to intensive research and revision. For many years, Coelurosauria was a 'dumping ground' for all small theropods. In the 1960s several distinctive lineages of coelurosaurs were recognized, and a number of new infraorders were erected, including the Ornithomimosauria, Deinonychosauria, and Oviraptorosauria. During the 1980s and 1990s, paleontologists began to give Coelurosauria a formal definition, usually as all animals closer to birds than to "Allosaurus", or equivalent specifiers. Under this modern definition, many small theropods are not classified as coelurosaurs at all and some large theropods, such as the tyrannosaurids, were actually more advanced than allosaurs and therefore were reclassified as giant coelurosaurs. Even more drastically, the segnosaurs, once not even regarded as theropods, have turned out to be non-carnivorous coelurosaurs related to "Therizinosaurus". Senter (2007) listed 59 different published phylogenies since 1984. Those since 2005 have followed almost the same pattern, and differ significantly from many older phylogenies.  Within Coelurosauria exists a slightly less inclusive clade named Tyrannoraptora. This clade was defined by Sereno (1999) as ""Tyrannosaurus rex", "Passer domesticus" (the house sparrow), their last common ancestor, and all of its descendants". As tyrannosauroids are considered to be the most basal large group within Coelurosauria, this means that the common ancestor of tyrannosauroids and birds was an even more basal coelurosaurian. As a result, almost all coelurosaurians are also tyrannoraptorans, with the only exceptions being particularly basal species such as "Zuolong salleei or Sciurumimus albersdoerferi". Within Tyrannoraptora exists a slightly less inclusive clade named Neocoelurosauria erected by Hendrickx, Mateus, Araújo and Choiniere (2019), defining it as "the clade Compsognathidae + Maniraptoriformes", which can be more or less inclusive than Maniraptoromorpha depending on the topology.  The following family tree illustrates a synthesis of the relationships of the major coelurosaurian groups based on various studies conducted in the 2010s.

"Coelurosaurus".

"Coelurosaurus" is an informal generic name, attributed to Friedrich von Huene, 1929, that is sometimes seen in lists of dinosaurs. It probably arose as a typographical error; von Huene intended to assign indeterminate remains to Coelurosauria "incertae sedis", but at some point in the process of publication a revision to the text made it appear that he was creating a new generic name "Coelurosaurus" (as described by George Olshevsky in a 1999 post to the Dinosaur Mailing List). The name is undescribed and has not been used seriously, although it has appeared in works of fiction.

Coelurosauria (; from Greek, meaning "hollow tailed lizards") is the clade containing all theropod dinosaurs more closely related to birds than to carnosaurs.

虚骨龙类(学名:)又名空尾龙类,是群多样性的兽脚亚目恐龙,包含许多次演化支,例如:暴龙超科、似鸟龙下目、以及手盗龙类(也包含鸟类)。虚骨龙类的范围为:兽脚亚目中,所有亲缘关系接近鸟类,而离肉食龙下目较远的物种。目前的有羽毛恐龙几乎都属于虚骨龙类,使许多科学家认为大部分虚骨龙类拥有某种程度的羽毛。


Early life.

Born to a farming family in Bula, Cacheu Region on 15 March 1953, Ialá became a militant member of the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) during his teenage years. The PAIGC sought independence from Portuguese colonial rule.  He studied theology at the Catholic University of Portugal, in Lisbon, and then philosophy (not completed). In Bissau, Ialá studied law at the Law School of the University Amílcar Cabral. After completing his studies, he was appointed director of the National Lyceum Kwame N'Krumah, where he also taught Philosophy and Psychology.  He spoke Portuguese, Crioulo, Spanish, French and English and could read Latin, Greek and Hebrew.

Political career.

Ialá was the head of a PAIGC delegation to Moscow in honor of the 70th anniversary of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, but in 1989 he was expelled from the party for demanding greater democratic reform.  In March 1991, alongside Rafael Barbosa, Ialá helped found the Democratic Social Front (FDS). On 14 January 1992, Ialá left the FDS and formed the Social Renewal Party (PRS).  The first multiparty presidential election took place on 3 July 1994. Incumbent president and PAIGC candidate João Bernardo "Nino" Vieira won 46.20% of the vote. Ialá finished second, capturing 21.88% of the vote. Since no candidate won the required 50% of the vote for an outright victory, a run-off was conducted on 7 August. The opposition parties united behind Ialá, but Vieira nevertheless won by a 4% margin (52.02% to 47.98%). Although the election was declared generally free and fair by election observers, Ialá contested the results, claiming intimidation of his supporters. The Supreme Court rejected his claims and the results were validated. On 20 August, he accepted the results, but announced that the PRS would not participate in the new government.  On 28 November 1999, after a devastating civil war and the ousting of Vieira, a new presidential election was held. In the first round, Kumba Ialá placed first with 38.81% of the vote, followed by interim president and PAIGC candidate, Malam Bacai Sanhá, who won 23.37%. Ialá was briefly hospitalized on 29 December 1999 due to high blood pressure, shortly before campaigning for the second round was to begin. He went to Lisbon for medical treatment on 30 December, and after returning to Guinea-Bissau in early January 2000, he launched his second round campaign on 9 January; he said that he was in good health and challenged Sanhá to a debate. The second round, held on 16 January 2000, was easily won by Ialá, who received 72% of the vote. He was sworn-in as President of Guinea-Bissau on 17 February.  Ialá resigned as President of the PRS in May 2000, although he continued to play an influential role in the party.

Presidency.

Kumba Ialá's tenure as the country's head of state was characterized by sackings of ministers and other high officials. Concerns about the government's financial management prompted protests, strikes and the suspension of International Monetary Fund aid. Ialá's relationship with General Ansumane Mané, the leader of the rebellion that had toppled Vieira in the 1998–99 civil war, was difficult. Ialá attempted to promote a number of military officers in November 2000, but Mané said that Ialá's list of promotions was not the one Ialá had previously agreed to with Mané. Mané announced that he was taking control of the armed forces, revoking Ialá's promotions and replacing the chief of staff, Veríssimo Correia Seabra. An outbreak of fighting followed, and Mané was killed in a clash with government forces a week later, on 30 November.  Ialá did not veto or promulgate the draft constitution approved by the National Assembly in 2001, instead sending it back to parliament with recommendations for increased presidential powers. Ialá's government claimed to have foiled a coup plot in early December 2001, although the opposition questioned its existence. Various members of opposition parties were subsequently detained and held without charge. In June 2002, he accused The Gambia of fomenting rebellion in Guinea-Bissau, a charge which the Gambian foreign ministry denied; Ialá even threatened an invasion of The Gambia. Ialá dissolved parliament in November 2002, appointed Mário Pires as caretaker prime minister, and called early elections for February 2003. These elections were repeatedly postponed, however: first to April, then to July, then to October. Some suspected that Ialá sought to manipulate the law to ensure that he would remain in power.

2003 coup.

On 12 September 2003, the electoral commission announced that it would not be able to finish voter registration in time to hold parliamentary elections as planned on 12 October. This together with a stagnant economy, political instability, and military discontent over unpaid salaries triggered a bloodless coup on 14 September. Ialá was detained and placed under house arrest. General Veríssimo Correia Seabra, leader of the coup, referred to the "incapacity" of Ialá's government as justification for the takeover. Ialá publicly announced his resignation on 17 September, and a political agreement signed that month prohibited him from participating in politics for five years. A civilian-led transitional government led by businessman Henrique Rosa and PRS secretary general Artur Sanhá was set up at the end of September.  On 8 March 2004, ahead of legislative elections, Ialá was released from house arrest. He announced that he would be participating in the PRS election campaign, despite the prohibition against his political activity. In the election, held on 28 March, the PRS won 35 out of 100 seats, making it the second largest party in the National People's Assembly, after the PAIGC.

2005 presidential election and afterwards.

On 26 March 2005, he was chosen as the PRS candidate for 19 June presidential election by the party's national council, despite being officially banned from politics for five years. Ialá submitted his candidate application to the Supreme Court on 11 April, arguing that since he had signed his agreement to respect his ban from politics at his home and not in his office, it was invalid. The Supreme Court cleared him to stand in the election in its list of approved candidates published on 10 May, with five judges in favor of permitting his candidacy and one opposed. The decision was based on the fact that Ialá had resigned prior to the signing of the transitional charter which had barred him from politics, with the judges ruling that the charter should not be retroactively applied to Ialá in a way contrary to his interests. Soon afterwards, on 15 May, Ialá said that he was withdrawing his resignation as President and would resume office to serve out the remainder of his term. Although this increased the country's political tension, the declaration did not appear to lead to much immediate consequence; a rally of some of Ialá's supporters was held two days later and was dispersed by police with tear gas.  In late May, ten days after declaring his resignation withdrawn, he occupied the presidential palace at night with a group of armed men for about four hours before leaving, according to an announcement by the army. According to official results he came in third in 19 June election with 25% of the vote, behind Malam Bacai Sanhá and Nino Vieira, and thus could not participate in the second round run-off. Ialá said that he actually came in first, with about 38% of the vote, and that the result was a fraud. At least four people were reported killed when Ialá's supporters clashed with police after the results were announced. Ialá went to Senegal for talks with Senegalese President Abdoulaye Wade, along with Vieira and Sanhá, and on 27 June he said at a news conference that he accepted the result in the interest of peace and democracy, while still claiming to have actually won. Ialá said on this occasion that he "rejected violence on principle" and predicted that he would eventually regain the presidency, noting that his opponents were older than himself "and tomorrow they will disappear." On 2 July, Ialá announced his support for Vieira's candidacy in the second round. He called Vieira "a symbol of the construction of the Guinean state and of national unity because he proclaimed our independence in the hills of Boe" and said that he could "be relied upon to defend our national independence, to oppose neo-colonialism, to build the republic and promote peace, stability and above all, national reconciliation". Given Ialá's sharp hostility to Vieira in previous years, this endorsement was viewed as surprising by many, and there was reportedly significant dissatisfaction with the decision among Ialá's supporters. The second round, held on 24 July, resulted in Vieira's victory.  On 27 October 2006, Ialá returned to Guinea-Bissau after a year of voluntary exile in Morocco. On 12 November he was elected as President of the PRS with about 70% of the vote at the party's third ordinary congress, defeating Alberto Nambeia, although his re-election was disputed by opponents within the PRS. He denounced the government of prime minister Aristides Gomes as "illegitimate and illegal" and said that it should be dissolved and early parliamentary elections should be held.  In May 2007, following an appeal for the annulment of the third ordinary congress by a faction of the PRS opposed to Ialá, the Regional Court of Bissau cancelled the congress' resolutions and removed Ialá from the party leadership. On 23 August 2007, however, the Supreme Court of Guinea-Bissau reversed that decision and restored Ialá to the party leadership.  After spending more time in exile in Morocco, Ialá returned to Bissau on 7 July 2008 to register for the November 2008 parliamentary election. On that occasion, he predicted that the PRS would win the election with a majority of seats. Soon after his return, he converted to Islam in the city of Gabú on 18 July 2008, taking the name Mohamed Ialá Embaló. He also learned to speak Arabic. In the November 2008 election, PAIGC officially won a majority of seats, defeating the PRS. Ialá initially disputed the official results and alleged fraud, although he later accepted PAIGC's victory and said that the PRS would be a constructive opposition.  President Nino Vieira was killed by soldiers on 2 March 2009. In April, the PRS designated Ialá as its candidate for the June 2009 presidential election. Some in the party who opposed Ialá's "system of monopoly" instead proposed the candidacy of Baltazar Lopes Fernandes, but they were unsuccessful.

Death.

Ialá suffered a "sudden cardiopulmonary arrest" and died on the night of 3 April–4 April 2014, aged 61. His personal security chief, Alfredo Malu, said that he "had a malaise on Thursday night" and died in the early hours of the next morning. The government announced that Ialá had died of a heart attack, that it would have a "special session of cabinet" at 9:00 and that his body was taken to Bra military hospital. Malu added that the sudden illness late in the day had prevented him from meeting PRS candidates in preparation for the parliamentary election to be held on 13 April 2014.

Kumba Ialá Embaló, also spelled Yalá (15 March 1953 – 4 April 2014), was a Bissau-Guinean politician who was president from 17 February 2000 until he was deposed in a bloodless military coup on 14 September 2003. He belonged to the Balanta ethnic group and was President of the Social Renewal Party (PRS). In 2008 he converted to Islam and took the name Mohamed Ialá Embaló. He was the founder of the Party for Social Renewal. In 2014, Ialá died from a cardiopulmonary arrest.

昆巴·雅拉(,1953年-3月15日-2014年-4月4日),几内亚比绍社会复兴党政治家,曾于2000年2月17日起任几内亚比绍总统,直到2003年9月14日因军事政变而遭废黜。他属于巴蓝他民族,并在2008年皈依伊斯兰教,改取教名穆罕默德·雅拉·恩巴洛(Mohamed Ialá Embaló)。


本杰明·阿普索普·古尔德

Biography.

He was born in Boston, Massachusetts, son of Benjamin Apthorp Gould, the principal of Boston Latin School, which the younger Gould attended. His mother was Lucretia Dana Goddard. The poet Hannah Flagg Gould was his aunt. After going on to Harvard College and graduating in 1844, he studied mathematics and astronomy under C. F. Gauss at Göttingen, Germany, during which time he published approximately 20 papers on the observation and motion of comets and asteroids. Following completion of his Ph.D. (he was the first American to receive this degree in astronomy) he toured European observatories asking for advice on what could be done to further astronomy as a professional science in the U.S.A. The main advice he received was to start a professional journal modeled after what was then the world's leading astronomical publication, the "Astronomische Nachrichten".  Gould returned to America in 1848 and from 1852 to 1867 was in charge of the longitude department of the United States Coast Survey. He developed and organized the service, was one of the first to determine longitudes by telegraphic means, and employed the Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish accurate longitude-relations between Europe and America.  After his return to Cambridge, Massachusetts, Gould started the "Astronomical Journal" in 1849, which he published until 1861. He resumed publication in 1885 and it is still published today. From 1855 to 1859 he acted as director of the Dudley Observatory at Albany, New York, and in 1859 published a discussion of the places and proper motions of circumpolar stars to be used as standards by the United States Coast Survey. In 1861 he undertook the enormous task of preparing for publication the records of astronomical observations made at the U.S. Naval Observatory since 1850.  In 1851 Gould suggested numbering asteroids in their order of discovery, and placing this number in a disk (circle) as the generic symbol of an asteroid.  In 1864 he was admitted to the Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati to represent his grandfather Captain Benjamin Gould. In the 1890s he became an early member of the Massachusetts Society of the Sons of the American Revolution.  Appointed in 1862 actuary to the United States Sanitary Commission, he issued in 1869 an important volume of "Military and Anthropological Statistics". In 1864 he fitted up a private observatory at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and undertook in 1868, on behalf of the Argentine republic, to organize a national observatory at Córdoba. In 1871 he became the first director of the Argentine National Observatory (today, Observatorio Astronómico de Córdoba of the National University of Córdoba). While there, he and four assistants extensively mapped the southern hemisphere skies using newly developed photometric methods. On June 1, 1884, he made the last definite sighting of the Great Comet of 1882. The need of astronomers for good weather prediction spurred Gould to collaborate with Argentine colleagues to develop the Argentine National Weather Service, the first in South America.  Gould's measurements of L. M. Rutherfurd's photographs of the Pleiades in 1866 entitle him to rank as a pioneer in the use of the camera as an instrument of precision; and he secured at Córdoba 1400 negatives of southern star clusters, the reduction of which occupied the closing years of his life. He remained in Argentina until 1885, when he returned to Cambridge, Massachusetts. He received the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1883 and the James Craig Watson Medal in 1887. Astronomers continue to investigate the astrophysics of a large scale feature of the Milky Way to which he called their attention in 1877, and honor him with its name, The Gould Belt. A crater on the Moon is named after him. Gould was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1892. He died at Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1896.  Alice Bache Gould (1868–1953), a mathematician, philanthropist, and historian, was one of his five children.

Uranography.

In 1874 Gould completed his greatest work, the "Uranometria Argentina" (published 1879), for which he received in 1883 the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. The publication assigned Gould designations to all bright stars within 100 degrees of the south celestial pole in a manner similar to what Flamsteed had earlier done for the northern hemisphere. An updated version, to which late 20th century data have been appended to the complete information for all stars in the original Uranometria Argentina, is available at www.uranometriaargentina.com/.  Gould followed his "Uranometria Argentina" with a zone-catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884), and a general catalogue (1885) compiled from meridian observations of 32,448 stars.

Benjamin Apthorp Gould (September 27, 1824 – November 26, 1896) was a pioneering American astronomer. He is noted for creating the "Astronomical Journal", discovering the Gould Belt, and for founding of the Argentine National Observatory and the Argentine National Weather Service.

本杰明·阿普索普·古尔德(英语:Benjamin Apthorp Gould,1824年-9月27日-1896年-11月26日)是美国天文学的先驱者之一。主要贡献有:发现了古尔德带,为南半球星空的恒星修订了古德命名法,创办了《天文期刊》以及阿根廷国家气象局等。


映山红公园 (佛罗里达州)

Geography.

Azalea Park is located at (28.541546, -81.296372).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 8.4 km (3.2 mi), of which 8.3 km (3.2 mi) is land and 0.1 km (0.04 mi) (0.93%) is water.  It is bordered by Colonial Drive (State Road 50) to the north, Goldenrod Road (State Road 551) to the east, and Curry Ford Road (State Road 552) to the south. The western boundary varies: when south of Lake Underhill Road, the western boundary is Semoran Boulevard (State Road 436), but when north of Lake Underhill Road the western boundary is the Orlando Executive Airport (ORL) and Lake Barton.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 11,073 people, 3,981 households, and 2,695 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,331.9/km (3,450.1/mi). There were 4,115 housing units at an average density of 495.0/km (1,282.1/mi). The racial makeup of the CDP was 70.23% White, 6.75% African American, 0.50% Native American, 3.60% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 14.55% from other races, and 4.30% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 38.97% of the population.  There were 3,981 households, out of which 33.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.1% were married couples living together, 16.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.3% were non-families. 21.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.26.  In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 25.8% under the age of 18, 13.5% from 18 to 24, 32.8% from 25 to 44, 17.6% from 45 to 64, and 10.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.4 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $32,841, and the median income for a family was $40,057. Males had a median income of $26,385 versus $21,445 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $14,136. About 8.9% of families and 11.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.6% of those under age 18 and 8.4% of those age 65 or over.

Services.

Government services.

Azalea Park is served by the Orange County government. Police service includes the Orange County Sheriff's Office and the Florida Highway Patrol. Fire/EMS service is provided through Orange County Fire Rescue. Rural-Metro also provides EMS service in the area. The Florida Highway Patrol has its Orlando station just off of Semoran Boulevard (State Road 436) and Lake Underhill Road.  The Florida Highway Patrol, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Orange County Fire Rescue have their communications centers in Azalea Park. Both Orange County and the city of Orlando have their Emergency Operations Centers in the area. The Florida Department of Transportation, has an office in Azalea Park in the same building with the Florida Highway Patrol. This office houses construction offices as well as the Orlando RTMC.  Azalea Park is served by the Greater Orlando Aviation Authority with two airports. Orlando International Airport (MCO) to the south and Orlando Executive Airport (ORL) to the immediate western boundary.

Hospitals.

The primary hospital in the area is Florida Hospital East, owned and operated by Adventist Health System. Orlando Regional Medical Center is less than three miles away and has Central Florida's only Level 1 Trauma Center.

Schools.

Schools within the neighborhood include Azalea Park Elementary School, Azalea Park Baptist School, Chickasaw Elementary School, Forsyth Woods Elementary School and Colonial High School. These schools have received average grades from the state in previous years.  Full Sail University is located just outside the physical boundaries.  Valencia Community College East is the closest public post-secondary institution to Azalea Park.

Taxes, politics/government, utilities.

Property taxes in the area are set by the Orange County Property Appraiser. The 2010 mill rate was 4.4347. The sales tax was 6.5% and there was no state income tax.  It is located in Florida's 7th Congressional District and Florida's 9th Congressional District, currently served by Stephanie Murphy (D) and Darren Soto (D) respectively, in the United States House of Representatives. The state is served by Senators Marco Rubio (R) and Rick Scott (R).  The area is governed by Orange County, led by Orange County Board of County Commissioners, which is headed by Mayor Jerry Demings.  Utilities in the area are provided by Orlando Utilities Commission on the northwest side of the community (north of Lake Underhill Road and west of Forsyth Road. The areas south of Lake Underhill Road but north of Curry Ford Road, and north of Lake Underhill Road and east of Forsyth Road, are handled by Orange County Utilities (water and solid waste) and Florida Power & Light or Progress Energy Inc.

Azalea Park is a census-designated place and an unincorporated area in Orange County, Florida, United States. The population was 12,556 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Orlando–Kissimmee–Sanford, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area.

映山红公园(英语:Azalea Park)是位于美国佛罗里达州橙县的一个人口普查指定地区。