Rationale.

Computing mostly operates independently of the concrete world. The hardware implements a model of computation that is interchangeable with others. The software is structured in architectures to enable humans to create the enormous systems by concentrating on a few issues at a time. These architectures are made of specific choices of abstractions. Greenspun's Tenth Rule is an aphorism on how such an architecture is both inevitable and complex.  A central form of abstraction in computing is language abstraction: new artificial languages are developed to express specific aspects of a system. "Modeling languages" help in planning. "Computer languages" can be processed with a computer. An example of this abstraction process is the generational development of programming languages from the machine language to the assembly language and the high-level language. Each stage can be used as a stepping stone for the next stage. The language abstraction continues for example in scripting languages and domain-specific programming languages.  Within a programming language, some features let the programmer create new abstractions. These include subroutines, modules, polymorphism, and software components. Some other abstractions such as software design patterns and architectural styles remain invisible to a translator and operate only in the design of a system.  Some abstractions try to limit the range of concepts a programmer needs to be aware of, by completely hiding the abstractions that they in turn are built on. The software engineer and writer Joel Spolsky has criticised these efforts by claiming that all abstractions are "leaky" – that they can never completely hide the details below; however, this does not negate the usefulness of abstraction.  Some abstractions are designed to inter-operate with other abstractions – for example, a programming language may contain a foreign function interface for making calls to the lower-level language.  In simple terms, abstraction is removing irrelevant data so a program is easier to understand.

Language features.

Programming languages.

Different programming languages provide different types of abstraction, depending on the intended applications for the language. For example:

Specification methods.

Analysts have developed various methods to formally specify software systems. Some known methods include:

Specification languages.

Specification languages generally rely on abstractions of one kind or another, since specifications are typically defined earlier in a project, (and at a more abstract level) than an eventual implementation. The UML specification language, for example, allows the definition of "abstract" classes, which in a waterfall project, remain abstract during the architecture and specification phase of the project.

Control abstraction.

Programming languages offer control abstraction as one of the main purposes of their use. Computer machines understand operations at the very low level such as moving some bits from one location of the memory to another location and producing the sum of two sequences of bits. Programming languages allow this to be done in the higher level. For example, consider this statement written in a Pascal-like fashion:  To a human, this seems a fairly simple and obvious calculation (""one plus two is three, times five is fifteen""). However, the low-level steps necessary to carry out this evaluation, and return the value "15", and then assign that value to the variable "a", are actually quite subtle and complex. The values need to be converted to binary representation (often a much more complicated task than one would think) and the calculations decomposed (by the compiler or interpreter) into assembly instructions (again, which are much less intuitive to the programmer: operations such as shifting a binary register left, or adding the binary complement of the contents of one register to another, are simply not how humans think about the abstract arithmetical operations of addition or multiplication). Finally, assigning the resulting value of "15" to the variable labeled "a", so that "a" can be used later, involves additional 'behind-the-scenes' steps of looking up a variable's label and the resultant location in physical or virtual memory, storing the binary representation of "15" to that memory location, etc.  Without control abstraction, a programmer would need to specify "all" the register/binary-level steps each time they simply wanted to add or multiply a couple of numbers and assign the result to a variable. Such duplication of effort has two serious negative consequences:

Structured programming.

Structured programming involves the splitting of complex program tasks into smaller pieces with clear flow-control and interfaces between components, with reduction of the complexity potential for side-effects.  In a simple program, this may aim to ensure that loops have single or obvious exit points and (where possible) to have single exit points from functions and procedures.  In a larger system, it may involve breaking down complex tasks into many different modules. Consider a system which handles payroll on ships and at shore offices:  These layers produce the effect of isolating the implementation details of one component and its assorted internal methods from the others. Object-oriented programming embraces and extends this concept.

Data abstraction.

Data abstraction enforces a clear separation between the "abstract" properties of a data type and the "concrete" details of its implementation. The abstract properties are those that are visible to client code that makes use of the data type—the "interface" to the data type—while the concrete implementation is kept entirely private, and indeed can change, for example to incorporate efficiency improvements over time. The idea is that such changes are not supposed to have any impact on client code, since they involve no difference in the abstract behaviour.  For example, one could define an abstract data type called "lookup table" which uniquely associates "keys" with "values", and in which values may be retrieved by specifying their corresponding keys. Such a lookup table may be implemented in various ways: as a hash table, a binary search tree, or even a simple linear list of (key:value) pairs. As far as client code is concerned, the abstract properties of the type are the same in each case.  Of course, this all relies on getting the details of the interface right in the first place, since any changes there can have major impacts on client code. As one way to look at this: the interface forms a "contract" on agreed behaviour between the data type and client code; anything not spelled out in the contract is subject to change without notice.

Abstraction in object oriented programming.

In object-oriented programming theory, abstraction involves the facility to define objects that represent abstract "actors" that can perform work, report on and change their state, and "communicate" with other objects in the system. The term encapsulation refers to the hiding of state details, but extending the concept of "data type" from earlier programming languages to associate "behavior" most strongly with the data, and standardizing the way that different data types interact, is the beginning of abstraction. When abstraction proceeds into the operations defined, enabling objects of different types to be substituted, it is called polymorphism. When it proceeds in the opposite direction, inside the types or classes, structuring them to simplify a complex set of relationships, it is called delegation or inheritance.  Various object-oriented programming languages offer similar facilities for abstraction, all to support a general strategy of polymorphism in object-oriented programming, which includes the substitution of one type for another in the same or similar role. Although not as generally supported, a configuration or image or package may predetermine a great many of these bindings at compile-time, link-time, or loadtime. This would leave only a minimum of such bindings to change at run-time.  Common Lisp Object System or Self, for example, feature less of a class-instance distinction and more use of delegation for polymorphism. Individual objects and functions are abstracted more flexibly to better fit with a shared functional heritage from Lisp.  C++ exemplifies another extreme: it relies heavily on templates and overloading and other static bindings at compile-time, which in turn has certain flexibility problems.  Although these examples offer alternate strategies for achieving the same abstraction, they do not fundamentally alter the need to support abstract nouns in code – all programming relies on an ability to abstract verbs as functions, nouns as data structures, and either as processes.  Consider for example a sample Java fragment to represent some common farm "animals" to a level of abstraction suitable to model simple aspects of their hunger and feeding. It defines an codice_5 class to represent both the state of the animal and its functions: public class Animal extends LivingThing  With the above definition, one could create objects of type and call their methods like this: thePig = new Animal(); theCow = new Animal(); if (thePig.isHungry()) { if (theCow.isHungry()) { theCow.moveTo(theBarn);  In the above example, the class "codice_5" is an abstraction used in place of an actual animal, "codice_7" is a further abstraction (in this case a generalisation) of "codice_5".  If one requires a more differentiated hierarchy of animals – to differentiate, say, those who provide milk from those who provide nothing except meat at the end of their lives – that is an intermediary level of abstraction, probably DairyAnimal (cows, goats) who would eat foods suitable to giving good milk, and MeatAnimal (pigs, steers) who would eat foods to give the best meat-quality.  Such an abstraction could remove the need for the application coder to specify the type of food, so s/he could concentrate instead on the feeding schedule. The two classes could be related using inheritance or stand alone, and the programmer could define varying degrees of polymorphism between the two types. These facilities tend to vary drastically between languages, but in general each can achieve anything that is possible with any of the others. A great many operation overloads, data type by data type, can have the same effect at compile-time as any degree of inheritance or other means to achieve polymorphism. The class notation is simply a coder's convenience.

Object-oriented design.

Decisions regarding what to abstract and what to keep under the control of the coder become the major concern of object-oriented design and domain analysis—actually determining the relevant relationships in the real world is the concern of object-oriented analysis or legacy analysis.  In general, to determine appropriate abstraction, one must make many small decisions about scope (domain analysis), determine what other systems one must cooperate with (legacy analysis), then perform a detailed object-oriented analysis which is expressed within project time and budget constraints as an object-oriented design. In our simple example, the domain is the barnyard, the live pigs and cows and their eating habits are the legacy constraints, the detailed analysis is that coders must have the flexibility to feed the animals what is available and thus there is no reason to code the type of food into the class itself, and the design is a single simple Animal class of which pigs and cows are instances with the same functions. A decision to differentiate DairyAnimal would change the detailed analysis but the domain and legacy analysis would be unchanged—thus it is entirely under the control of the programmer, and it is called an abstraction in object-oriented programming as distinct from abstraction in domain or legacy analysis.

Considerations.

When discussing formal semantics of programming languages, formal methods or abstract interpretation, abstraction refers to the act of considering a less detailed, but safe, definition of the observed program behaviors. For instance, one may observe only the final result of program executions instead of considering all the intermediate steps of executions. Abstraction is defined to a concrete (more precise) model of execution.  Abstraction may be exact or faithful with respect to a property if one can answer a question about the property equally well on the concrete or abstract model. For instance, if one wishes to know what the result of the evaluation of a mathematical expression involving only integers +, -, ×, is worth modulo "n", then one needs only perform all operations modulo "n" (a familiar form of this abstraction is casting out nines).  Abstractions, however, though not necessarily exact, should be sound. That is, it should be possible to get sound answers from them—even though the abstraction may simply yield a result of undecidability. For instance, students in a class may be abstracted by their minimal and maximal ages; if one asks whether a certain person belongs to that class, one may simply compare that person's age with the minimal and maximal ages; if his age lies outside the range, one may safely answer that the person does not belong to the class; if it does not, one may only answer "I don't know".  The level of abstraction included in a programming language can influence its overall usability. The Cognitive dimensions framework includes the concept of "abstraction gradient" in a formalism. This framework allows the designer of a programming language to study the trade-offs between abstraction and other characteristics of the design, and how changes in abstraction influence the language usability.  Abstractions can prove useful when dealing with computer programs, because non-trivial properties of computer programs are essentially undecidable (see Rice's theorem). As a consequence, automatic methods for deriving information on the behavior of computer programs either have to drop termination (on some occasions, they may fail, crash or never yield out a result), soundness (they may provide false information), or precision (they may answer "I don't know" to some questions).  Abstraction is the core concept of abstract interpretation. Model checking generally takes place on abstract versions of the studied systems.

Levels of abstraction.

Computer science commonly presents "levels" (or, less commonly, "layers") of abstraction, wherein each level represents a different model of the same information and processes, but with varying amounts of detail. Each level uses a system of expression involving a unique set of objects and compositions that apply only to a particular domain.  Each relatively abstract, "higher" level builds on a relatively concrete, "lower" level, which tends to provide an increasingly "granular" representation. For example, gates build on electronic circuits, binary on gates, machine language on binary, programming language on machine language, applications and operating systems on programming languages. Each level is embodied, but not determined, by the level beneath it, making it a language of description that is somewhat self-contained.

Database systems.

Since many users of database systems lack in-depth familiarity with computer data-structures, database developers often hide complexity through the following levels:  Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes "how" a system actually stores data. The physical level describes complex low-level data structures in detail.  Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction describes "what" data the database stores, and what relationships exist among those data. The logical level thus describes an entire database in terms of a small number of relatively simple structures. Although implementation of the simple structures at the logical level may involve complex physical level structures, the user of the logical level does not need to be aware of this complexity. This is referred to as physical data independence. Database administrators, who must decide what information to keep in a database, use the logical level of abstraction.  View level: The highest level of abstraction describes only part of the entire database. Even though the logical level uses simpler structures, complexity remains because of the variety of information stored in a large database. Many users of a database system do not need all this information; instead, they need to access only a part of the database. The view level of abstraction exists to simplify their interaction with the system. The system may provide many views for the same database.

Layered architecture.

The ability to provide a design of different levels of abstraction can  Systems design and business process design can both use this. Some design processes specifically generate designs that contain various levels of abstraction.  Layered architecture partitions the concerns of the application into stacked groups (layers). It is a technique used in designing computer software, hardware, and communications in which system or network components are isolated in layers so that changes can be made in one layer without affecting the others.

In software engineering and computer science, abstraction is:

在计算机科学中,抽象化(英语:Abstraction)是将资料与程序,以它的语意来呈现出它的外观,但是隐藏起它的实作细节。抽象化是用来减少程序的复杂度,使得程序员可以专注在处理少数重要的部分。一个电脑系统可以分割成几个抽象层(Abstraction layer),使得程序员可以将它们分开处理。


Definition.

The term was first used by molecular nanotechnology pioneer K. Eric Drexler in "Engines of Creation" (1986). In Chapter 4, "Engines Of Abundance", Drexler illustrates both exponential growth and inherent limits (not gray goo) by describing nanomachines that can function only if given special raw materials: According to Drexler, the term was popularized by an article in science fiction magazine "Omni", which also popularized the term "nanotechnology" in the same issue. Drexler says arms control is a far greater issue than gray goo "nanobugs".  In a History Channel broadcast, a contrasting idea (a kind of gray goo) is referred to in a futuristic End time scenario: Drexler describes gray goo in Chapter 11 of "Engines of Creation": Drexler notes that the geometric growth made possible by self-replication is inherently limited by the availability of suitable raw materials. Drexler used the term "gray goo" not to indicate color or texture, but to emphasize the difference between "superiority" in terms of human values and "superiority" in terms of competitive success:  Bill Joy, one of the founders of Sun Microsystems, discussed some of the problems with pursuing this technology in his now-famous 2000 article in "Wired" magazine, titled "Why The Future Doesn't Need Us". In direct response to Joy's concerns, the first quantitative technical analysis of the ecophagy scenario was published in 2000 by nanomedicine pioneer Robert Freitas.

Risks and precautions.

Drexler more recently conceded that there is no need to build anything that even resembles a potential runaway replicator. This would avoid the problem entirely. In a paper in the journal "Nanotechnology", he argues that self-replicating machines are needlessly complex and inefficient. His 1992 technical book on advanced nanotechnologies "Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation" describes manufacturing systems that are desktop-scale factories with specialized machines in fixed locations and conveyor belts to move parts from place to place. None of these measures would prevent a party from creating a weaponized gray goo, were such a thing possible.  Prince Charles called upon the British Royal Society to investigate the "enormous environmental and social risks" of nanotechnology in a planned report, leading to much media commentary on gray goo. The Royal Society's report on nanoscience was released on 29 July 2004, and declared the possibility of self-replicating machines to lie too far in the future to be of concern to regulators.  More recent analysis in the paper titled "Safe Exponential Manufacturing" from the Institute of Physics (co-written by Chris Phoenix, Director of Research of the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology, and Eric Drexler), shows that the danger of gray goo is far less likely than originally thought. However, other long-term major risks to society and the environment from nanotechnology have been identified. Drexler has made a somewhat public effort to retract his gray goo hypothesis, in an effort to focus the debate on more realistic threats associated with knowledge-enabled nanoterrorism and other misuses.  In "Safe Exponential Manufacturing", which was published in a 2004 issue of "Nanotechnology", it was suggested that creating manufacturing systems with the ability to self-replicate by the use of their own energy sources would not be needed. The Foresight Institute also recommended embedding controls in the molecular machines. These controls would be able to prevent anyone from purposely abusing nanotechnology, and therefore avoid the gray goo scenario.

Ethics and chaos.

Gray goo is a useful construct for considering low-probability, high-impact outcomes from emerging technologies. Thus, it is a useful tool in the ethics of technology. Daniel A. Vallero applied it as a worst-case scenario thought experiment for technologists contemplating possible risks from advancing a technology. This requires that a decision tree or event tree include even extremely low probability events if such events may have an extremely negative and irreversible consequence, i.e. application of the precautionary principle. Dianne Irving admonishes that "any error in science will have a rippling effect". Vallero adapted this reference to chaos theory to emerging technologies, wherein slight permutations of initial conditions can lead to unforeseen and profoundly negative downstream effects, for which the technologist and the new technology's proponents must be held accountable.

Gray goo (also spelled grey goo) is a hypothetical global catastrophic scenario involving molecular nanotechnology in which out-of-control self-replicating machines consume all biomass on Earth while building more of themselves, a scenario that has been called "ecophagy" ("eating the environment", more literally "eating the habitation"). The original idea assumed machines were designed to have this capability, while popularizations have assumed that machines might somehow gain this capability by accident.

灰色粘质(英语:gray goo,也拼作grey goo),又称灰蛊或灰雾,是一种假想的世界末日情景,在该情景中失控的大量分子纳米技术制成的自我复制机器消耗掉了地球上所有的生物量以复制自身,这一情景也被称为生态吞噬。最初的设想中,该种机器是一开始就设定为拥有自我复制的能力,后来演变成了机器偶然获得了自我复制的能力。


Life.

Childhood and education.

Shin Saimdang was born and raised in Gangneung at the home of her maternal grandparents. Her father, Shin Myeonghwa (申命和) was a government official and a friend of the scholar Jo Gwangjo, but he was not politically active. Her mother was Lady Yi, the daughter of Yi Saon (李思溫). Saimdang was the second of five daughters. Her father initially lived in Hansung(한성부), so lived largely apart from the family for 16 years. He continued his imperial examination preparation with his wife's side family's assistance, and visited home several times a year. Saimdang's mother assisted his studies. However, Shin Myeonghwa did not go beyond jinsa test(진사), an elementary test for yangban, and gave up the daegwa(대과) test due to the massacre of scholars at kimyo year(기묘사화). He moved to Gangneung.  Lady Yi had continued living with her parents after her marriage, which gave her greater autonomy in how she chose to educate Saimdang and her other daughters. Saimdang's grandfather's beliefs also greatly influenced Saimdang. Her maternal grandfather taught her as he would have taught a grandson.  Although she was a woman, Saimdang developed an abundant knowledge of Neo-Confucianism, history, and literature, which surprised her father's visitors. Saimdang and her sisters learned Thousand Character Classic, Dongmongseonseub(동몽선습), Mingxin baojian, and confucianism from Shin Myeonghwa. Saimdang was especially talented, earning her father's favor. Having no brothers, she received an education that would have been bequeathed only to a son, and this background greatly influenced the way she later educated her own children.  Shin Saimdang received an education that was not common for women of that era. Besides literature and poetry, she was adept at calligraphy, embroidery, and painting. She was also gifted at writing and drawing, earning praise from Isuggwon(이숙권).

Marriage.

Shin Myeonghwa chose Commander Yi Wonsu (李元秀) to become Saimdang's husband. Many people felt that this showed poor judgement, because although Yi Wonsu's ancestors included Yeonguijeong and Jwauijeong, the family was poor. At that time, Yi Wonsu was also unemployed, and his father had died. However, Shin Myeonghwa prioritised marrying Saimdang to a man who would allow her to continue with her artwork, and Wonsu had no objections to this.  On 20 August 1522 (aged 19) Saimdang married Yi Wonsu, and with his consent she continued to spend time at her parents' home in Gangneung. Yi Wonsu's house was at Paju but her father died in the same year that they got married, so she moved back and forth between the two homes in order to care for her mother. She later accompanied her husband to his official posts in Seoul and in rural towns. She moved to several places including Hansungbu and Pyeongchang.  The couple had eight children: five boys and three girls. At the age of 33, she went back to Gangneung to give birth to her third son, Yi I. At 1537, on her return to Hansungbu with her baby, she stood on top of a hill at Daegwallyeong and looked back at a village she had just passed. She expressed her love for her mother through a new poem. Aged 38, she managed a new house in Hansungbu and lived with her mother.  In this era, obedience was considered an important mark of a good wife, but Saimdang did not listen to her husband Yi Wonsu easily. Promising 10 years of separation for his study, she sent her husband to a good mountain. When he came back yearning for his wife, she reprimanded him, threatening to cut off her hair if he didn’t study hard. In spite of her efforts, Yi Wonsu quit studying after 3 years.

Conflict with her husband.

She noticed that her husband, Yi Wonsu, loved a kisaeng named Kwon. When Yi Wonsu began living with Kwon, Saimdang strongly disapproved of it and the couple's relationship cooled. Shin Saimdang, who foresaw her death, asked her husband not to marry another woman after she died. Yi Wonsu argued that Confucius, Zengzi, and Zhou Dunyi had broken their marriages, but Shin Saimdang contradicted him by telling him that none of those people had remarried. Kwon was considered to be a rash girl who acted unpredictably, the opposite of Shin Saimdang. When Shin Saimdang discovered the presence of Kwon, she once again asked her husband not to invite Kwon to their home. Quoting the Confucian scriptures, she tried to convince him not to marry Kwon. Yi Wonsu and Shin Saimdang's bad relationship also affected their children. Since his parent's marital relations were not good, Yi I wanted a peaceful family life.

Death.

Yi I loved his mother dearly, so when Shin Saimdang got sick, he went to the shrine where his maternal grandfather's spirit tablet was, and prayed for his mother for one hour every day. The family members who were searching for missing Yi I were moved when they found the young child sincerely praying in hopes of his mother recovering. Despite his efforts, her illness got worse. Sin Saimdang died suddenly after moving to the Pyongan region. Shin Saimdang died on May 17, 1551, at the age of 48. As a result of her death, her son Yi I wandered about with questions about the cause of life and death.  After her death, Yi Wonsu didn't marry Kwon, causing conflict with Yi I. Unlike Shin Saimdang who was a gentle and caring mother, Kwon liked to drink. Shin Saimdang's children suffered because of Kwon, and Yi I ran away from home.

Works.

In Joseon, women were discouraged from broadcasting their gifts and talents to the world after marriage. However, Saimdang was able to develop her talents in part because she had no brothers, so was able to live at her home instead of her husband's; and because her father sought to select a son-in-law who would let Saimdang develop her skills as much as possible.  Shin Saimdang's artwork is known for its delicate beauty; insects, flowers, butterflies, orchids, grapes, fish, and landscapes were some of her favorite themes. Approximately 40 paintings of ink and stonepaint colors remain, although it is believed that many others exist.  Unfortunately, not much of her calligraphy remains, but her style was greatly praised in her time, with high-ranking officials and connoisseurs writing records of her work. The scholar Eo Sukgwon of Myeongjong mentioned in his book "Paegwan Japgi" (Hangul:패관잡기, hanja:稗官雜記, "The Storyteller's Miscellany") that Saimdang's paintings of grapes and landscapes compared to those of the notable artist Ahn Gyeon. In 1868, upon admiring the work of Saimdang, the governor of Gangneung remarked that "Saimdang's calligraphy is thoughtfully written, with nobility and elegance, serenity and purity, filled with the lady's virtue".  Her children also possessed artistic talent. For example, Yi U was so talented in the art that there is an anecdote that "He drew insects using muk, and then the chickens were chasing after it since it looked like real insects." Yi U was also talented in poetry. His brother Yi I said: "If Yi U concentrated in scholarship, he would be better than me." Shin Saimdung's eldest daughter, Mae Chang, was also good at poetry and therefore known as "little Shin Saimdang".

Legacy.

Sin Saimdang is the first woman to appear on a South Korean banknote. The Bank of Korea (BOK; Hangul: 한국은행), the 50,000 won note, first issued in June 2009. The design of the 50,000 won was released on February 25, 2009. A portrait of Shin Saimdang and her drawings, Mook Grapes (Hangul: 묵포도도) and Chochungdosubyeong (Hangul: 초충도수병,South Korean National Treasure No. 595) were illustrated on the front. Paintings ('wolmaedo' and 'pungjugdo') of the Joseon dynasty were illustrated on the back side. Unlike other bills, the illustrations on the back of this bill were illustrated vertically. On May 5, The Bank of Korea announced that they selected Shin Saimdang main character of 50000won because she is "a representative female artist in the middle of the Joseon period" and "a person who has accomplished a remarkable achievement in gifted education by fulfilling his wife's role". The reason for the selection is that it is expected to contribute to raising awareness of gender equality in Korean society and to raise the importance of education and family. (Other candidate characters of 50,000 won were Kim Koo, Gwanggaeto the Great, Ahn Changho, Jang Yeong-sil, and Ryu Gwansun.)  Feminist critics, however, have criticized this selection as reinforcing sexist stereotypes about women's roles.

Additional resources.

Kim-Renand, Young-Key. "Creative Women of Korea: the Fifteenth Through the Twentieth Centuries." M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 2004.

Shin Saimdang (申師任堂, December 5, 1504 – May 17, 1551) was a Korean artist, writer, calligraphist, and poet. She was born in Gangwondo Gangneungbu jugheonli bugpyeongchon (강원도 강릉부 죽헌리 북평촌) on 29 October 1504. Her birth home, Ojukheon, which is also her mother's side home, is well-preserved to this day. She was the mother of the Korean Confucian scholar Yi I. Often held up as a model of Confucian ideals, her respectful nickname was "Eojin Eomeoni" (어진 어머니; "Wise Mother"). Her real name was Shin In Seon(신인선). Her pen names were Saim, Saimdang, Inimdang, and Imsajae. She was a contemporary of the poet Heo Nansseolheon, and the two women were considered rivals.

申师任堂(,1504年-10月29日-1551年-5月17日),朝鲜国中期的女性书画家、作家、儒学者和诗人。儒学者李栗谷的母亲。字仁善、号师任堂、思任堂、师妊堂、妊师斋、任堂。朝鲜历史上良妻贤母的典范。


Taxonomy.

Krill belong to the large arthropod subphylum, the Crustacea. The most familiar and largest group of crustaceans, the class Malacostraca, includes the superorder Eucarida comprising the three orders, Euphausiacea (krill), Decapoda (shrimp, prawns, lobsters, crabs), and the planktonic Amphionidacea.  The order Euphausiacea comprises two families. The more abundant Euphausiidae contains 10 different genera with a total of 85 species. Of these, the genus "Euphausia" is the largest, with 31 species. The lesser known family, the Bentheuphausiidae, has only one species, "Bentheuphausia amblyops", a bathypelagic krill living in deep waters below. It is considered the most primitive extant krill species.  Well-known species of the Euphausiidae of commercial krill fisheries include Antarctic krill ("Euphausia superba"), Pacific krill ("E. pacifica") and Northern krill ("Meganyctiphanes norvegica").

Phylogeny.

, the order Euphausiacea is believed to be monophyletic due to several unique conserved morphological characteristics (autapomorphy) such as its naked filamentous gills and thin thoracopods and by molecular studies.  There have been many theories of the location of the order Euphausiacea. Since the first description of "Thysanopode tricuspide" by Henri Milne-Edwards in 1830, the similarity of their biramous thoracopods had led zoologists to group euphausiids and Mysidacea in the order Schizopoda, which was split by Johan Erik Vesti Boas in 1883 into two separate orders. Later, William Thomas Calman (1904) ranked the Mysidacea in the superorder Peracarida and euphausiids in the superorder Eucarida, although even up to the 1930s the order Schizopoda was advocated. It was later also proposed that order Euphausiacea should be grouped with the Penaeidae (family of prawns) in the Decapoda based on developmental similarities, as noted by Robert Gurney and Isabella Gordon. The reason for this debate is that krill share some morphological features of decapods and others of mysids.  Molecular studies have not unambiguously grouped them, possibly due to the paucity of key rare species such as "Bentheuphausia amblyops" in krill and "Amphionides reynaudii" in Eucarida. One study supports the monophyly of Eucarida (with basal Mysida), another groups Euphausiacea with Mysida (the Schizopoda), while yet another groups Euphausiacea with Hoplocarida.

Timeline.

No extant fossil can be unequivocally assigned to Euphausiacea. Some extinct eumalacostracan taxa have been thought to be euphausiaceans such as "Anthracophausia", "Crangopsis" – now assigned to the Aeschronectida (Hoplocarida) – and "Palaeomysis". All dating of speciation events were estimated by molecular clock methods, which placed the last common ancestor of the krill family Euphausiidae (order Euphausiacea minus "Bentheuphausia amblyops") to have lived in the Lower Cretaceous about.

Distribution.

Krill occur worldwide in all oceans, although many individual species have endemic or neritic ("i.e.," coastal) distributions. "Bentheuphausia amblyops", a bathypelagic species, has a cosmopolitan distribution within its deep-sea habitat.  Species of the genus "Thysanoessa" occur in both Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The Pacific is home to "Euphausia pacifica". Northern krill occur across the Atlantic from the Mediterranean Sea northward.  Species with neritic distributions include the four species of the genus "Nyctiphanes". They are highly abundant along the upwelling regions of the California, Humboldt, Benguela, and Canarias current systems. Another species having only neritic distribution is "E. crystallorophias", which is endemic to the Antarctic coastline.  Species with endemic distributions include "Nyctiphanes capensis", which occurs only in the Benguela current, "E. mucronata" in the Humboldt current, and the six "Euphausia" species native to the Southern Ocean.  In the Antarctic, seven species are known, one in genus "Thysanoessa" ("T. macrura") and six in "Euphausia". The Antarctic krill ("Euphausia superba") commonly lives at depths reaching, whereas ice krill ("Euphausia crystallorophias") reach depth of, though they commonly inhabit depths of at most. Both are found at latitudes south of 55° S, with "E. crystallorophias" dominating south of 74° S and in regions of pack ice. Other species known in the Southern Ocean are "E. frigida", "E. longirostris", "E. triacantha" and "E. vallentini".

Anatomy and morphology.

Krill are crustaceans and have a chitinous exoskeleton made up of three tagmata: the cephalon (head), the pereion (fused to the cephalon to form a cephalothorax), and the pleon. This outer shell of krill is transparent in most species. Krill feature intricate compound eyes; some species adapt to different lighting conditions through the use of screening pigments. They have two antennae and several pairs of thoracic legs called pereiopods or thoracopods, so named because they are attached to the thorax; their number varies among genera and species. These thoracic legs include feeding legs and grooming legs. Additionally all species have five pairs of swimming legs called pleopods or "swimmerets", very similar to those of a lobster or freshwater crayfish. Most krill are about long as adults; a few species grow to sizes on the order of. The largest krill species is the bathypelagic "Thysanopoda spinicauda". Krill can be easily distinguished from other crustaceans such as true shrimp by their externally visible gills.  Except for "Bentheuphausia amblyops", krill are bioluminescent animals having organs called photophores that can emit light. The light is generated by an enzyme-catalysed chemiluminescence reaction, wherein a luciferin (a kind of pigment) is activated by a luciferase enzyme. Studies indicate that the luciferin of many krill species is a fluorescent tetrapyrrole similar but not identical to dinoflagellate luciferin and that the krill probably do not produce this substance themselves but acquire it as part of their diet, which contains dinoflagellates. Krill photophores are complex organs with lenses and focusing abilities, and can be rotated by muscles. The precise function of these organs is as yet unknown; possibilities include mating, social interaction or orientation and as a form of counter-illumination camouflage to compensate their shadow against overhead ambient light.

Ecology.

Feeding.

Many krill are filter feeders: their frontmost appendages, the thoracopods, form very fine combs with which they can filter out their food from the water. These filters can be very fine in species (such as "Euphausia" spp.) that feed primarily on phytoplankton, in particular on diatoms, which are unicellular algae. Krill are mostly omnivorous, although a few species are carnivorous, preying on small zooplankton and fish larvae.  Krill are an important element of the aquatic food chain. Krill convert the primary production of their prey into a form suitable for consumption by larger animals that cannot feed directly on the minuscule algae. Northern krill and some other species have a relatively small filtering basket and actively hunt copepods and larger zooplankton.

Predation.

Many animals feed on krill, ranging from smaller animals like fish or penguins to larger ones like seals and baleen whales.  Disturbances of an ecosystem resulting in a decline in the krill population can have far-reaching effects. During a coccolithophore bloom in the Bering Sea in 1998, for instance, the diatom concentration dropped in the affected area. Krill cannot feed on the smaller coccolithophores, and consequently the krill population (mainly "E. pacifica") in that region declined sharply. This in turn affected other species: the shearwater population dropped. The incident was thought to have been one reason salmon did not spawn that season.  Several single-celled endoparasitoidic ciliates of the genus "Collinia" can infect species of krill and devastate affected populations. Such diseases were reported for "Thysanoessa inermis" in the Bering Sea and also for "E. pacifica", "Thysanoessa spinifera", and "T. gregaria" off the North American Pacific coast. Some ectoparasites of the family Dajidae (epicaridean isopods) afflict krill (and also shrimp and mysids); one such parasite is "Oculophryxus bicaulis", which was found on the krill "Stylocheiron affine" and "S. longicorne". It attaches itself to the animal's eyestalk and sucks blood from its head; it apparently inhibits the host's reproduction, as none of the afflicted animals reached maturity.  Climate change poses another threat to krill populations.

Plastics.

Preliminary research indicates krill can digest microplastics under in diameter, breaking them down and excreting them back into the environment in smaller form.

Life history and behavior.

The life cycle of krill is relatively well understood, despite minor variations in detail from species to species. After krill hatch, they experience several larval stages—"nauplius", "pseudometanauplius", "metanauplius", "calyptopsis", and "furcilia", each of which divides into sub-stages. The pseudometanauplius stage is exclusive to species that lay their eggs within an ovigerous sac: so-called "sac-spawners". The larvae grow and moult repeatedly as they develop, replacing their rigid exoskeleton when it becomes too small. Smaller animals moult more frequently than larger ones. Yolk reserves within their body nourish the larvae through metanauplius stage.  By the calyptopsis stages differentiation has progressed far enough for them to develop a mouth and a digestive tract, and they begin to eat phytoplankton. By that time their yolk reserves are exhausted and the larvae must have reached the photic zone, the upper layers of the ocean where algae flourish. During the furcilia stages, segments with pairs of swimmerets are added, beginning at the frontmost segments. Each new pair becomes functional only at the next moult. The number of segments added during any one of the furcilia stages may vary even within one species depending on environmental conditions. After the final furcilia stage, an immature juvenile emerges in a shape similar to an adult, and subsequently develops gonads and matures sexually.

Reproduction.

During the mating season, which varies by species and climate, the male deposits a sperm sack at the female's genital opening (named "thelycum"). The females can carry several thousand eggs in their ovary, which may then account for as much as one third of the animal's body mass. Krill can have multiple broods in one season, with interbrood intervals lasting on the order of days.  Krill employ two types of spawning mechanism. The 57 species of the genera "Bentheuphausia", "Euphausia", "Meganyctiphanes", "Thysanoessa", and "Thysanopoda" are "broadcast spawners": the female releases the fertilised eggs into the water, where they usually sink, disperse, and are on their own. These species generally hatch in the nauplius 1 stage, but have recently been discovered to hatch sometimes as metanauplius or even as calyptopis stages. The remaining 29 species of the other genera are "sac spawners", where the female carries the eggs with her, attached to the rearmost pairs of thoracopods until they hatch as metanauplii, although some species like "Nematoscelis difficilis" may hatch as nauplius or pseudometanauplius.

Moulting.

Moulting occurs whenever a specimen outgrows its rigid exoskeleton. Young animals, growing faster, moult more often than older and larger ones. The frequency of moulting varies widely by species and is, even within one species, subject to many external factors such as latitude, water temperature, and food availability. The subtropical species "Nyctiphanes simplex", for instance, has an overall inter-moult period of two to seven days: larvae moult on the average every four days, while juveniles and adults do so, on average, every six days. For "E. superba" in the Antarctic sea, inter-moult periods ranging between 9 and 28 days depending on the temperature between have been observed, and for "Meganyctiphanes norvegica" in the North Sea the inter-moult periods range also from 9 and 28 days but at temperatures between. "E. superba" is able to reduce its body size when there is not enough food available, moulting also when its exoskeleton becomes too large. Similar shrinkage has also been observed for "E. pacifica", a species occurring in the Pacific Ocean from polar to temperate zones, as an adaptation to abnormally high water temperatures. Shrinkage has been postulated for other temperate-zone species of krill as well.

Lifespan.

Some high-latitude species of krill can live for more than six years (e.g., "Euphausia superba"); others, such as the mid-latitude species "Euphausia pacifica", live for only two years. Subtropical or tropical species' longevity is still shorter, e.g., "Nyctiphanes simplex", which usually lives for only six to eight months.

Swarming.

Most krill are swarming animals; the sizes and densities of such swarms vary by species and region. For "Euphausia superba", swarms reach 10,000 to 60,000 individuals per cubic meter. Swarming is a defensive mechanism, confusing smaller predators that would like to pick out individuals. In 2012, Gandomi and Alavi presented what appears to be a successful stochastic algorithm for modelling the behaviour of krill swarms. The algorithm is based on three main factors: " (i) movement induced by the presence of other individuals (ii) foraging activity, and (iii) random diffusion."

Vertical migration.

Krill typically follow a diurnal vertical migration. It has been assumed that they spend the day at greater depths and rise during the night toward the surface. The deeper they go, the more they reduce their activity, apparently to reduce encounters with predators and to conserve energy. Swimming activity in krill varies with stomach fullness. Sated animals that had been feeding at the surface swim less actively and therefore sink below the mixed layer. As they sink they produce feces which implies a role in the Antarctic carbon cycle. Krill with empty stomachs swim more actively and thus head towards the surface.  Vertical migration may be a 2–3 times daily occurrence. Some species (e.g., "Euphausia superba", "E. pacifica", "E. hanseni", "Pseudeuphausia latifrons", and "Thysanoessa spinifera") form surface swarms during the day for feeding and reproductive purposes even though such behaviour is dangerous because it makes them extremely vulnerable to predators.  Experimental studies using "Artemia salina" as a model suggest that the vertical migrations of krill several hundreds of metres, in groups tens of metres deep, could collectively create enough downward jets of water to have a significant effect on ocean mixing.  Dense swarms can elicit a feeding frenzy among fish, birds and mammal predators, especially near the surface. When disturbed, a swarm scatters, and some individuals have even been observed to moult instantaneously, leaving the exuvia behind as a decoy.  Krill normally swim at a pace of 5–10 cm/s (2–3 body lengths per second), using their swimmerets for propulsion. Their larger migrations are subject to ocean currents. When in danger, they show an escape reaction called lobstering – flicking their caudal structures, the telson and the uropods, they move backwards through the water relatively quickly, achieving speeds in the range of 10 to 27 body lengths per second, which for large krill such as "E. superba" means around. Their swimming performance has led many researchers to classify adult krill as micro-nektonic life-forms, i.e., small animals capable of individual motion against (weak) currents. Larval forms of krill are generally considered zooplankton.

Human uses.

Harvesting history.

Krill have been harvested as a food source for humans and domesticated animals since at least the 19th century, and possibly earlier in Japan, where it was known as "okiami". Large-scale fishing developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and now occurs only in Antarctic waters and in the seas around Japan. Historically, the largest krill fishery nations were Japan and the Soviet Union, or, after the latter's dissolution, Russia and Ukraine. The harvest peaked, which in 1983 was about 528,000 tonnes in the Southern Ocean alone (of which the Soviet Union took in 93%), is now managed as a precaution against overfishing.  In 1993, two events caused a decline in krill fishing: Russia exited the industry; and the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) defined maximum catch quotas for a sustainable exploitation of Antarctic krill. After an October 2011 review, the Commission decided not to change the quota.  The annual Antarctic catch stabilised at around 100,000 tonnes, which is roughly one fiftieth of the CCAMLR catch quota. The main limiting factor was probably high costs along with political and legal issues. The Japanese fishery saturated at some 70,000 tonnes.  Although krill are found worldwide, fishing in Southern Oceans are preferred because the krill are more "catchable" and abundant in these regions. Particularly in Antarctic seas which are considered as pristine, they are considered a "clean product".  In 2018 it was announced that almost every krill fishing company operating in Antarctica will abandon operations in huge areas around the Antarctic Peninsula from 2020, including "buffer zones" around breeding colonies of penguins.

Human consumption.

Although the total biomass of Antarctic krill may be as abundant as 400 million tonnes, the human impact on this keystone species is growing, with a 39% increase in total fishing yield to 294,000 tonnes over 2010–2014. Major countries involved in krill harvesting are Norway (56% of total catch in 2014), the Republic of Korea (19%), and China (18%).  Krill is a rich source of protein and omega-3 fatty acids which are under development in the early 21st century as human food, dietary supplements as oil capsules, livestock food, and pet food. Krill tastes salty with a somewhat stronger fish flavor than shrimp. For mass-consumption and commercially prepared products, they must be peeled to remove the inedible exoskeleton.  In 2011, the US Food and Drug Administration published a letter of no objection for a manufactured krill oil product to be generally recognized as safe (GRAS) for human consumption.  Krill (and other planktonic shrimp) are most widely consumed in Southeast Asia, where it is fermented (with the shells intact) and usually ground finely to make shrimp paste. It can be stir-fried and eaten paired with white rice or used to add umami flavors to a wide variety of traditional dishes. The liquid from the fermentation process is also harvested as fish sauce.

Krill are small crustaceans of the order Euphausiacea, and are found in all the world's oceans. The name "krill" comes from the Norwegian word "", meaning "small fry of fish", which is also often attributed to species of fish.

磷虾是一种类似虾的海洋无脊椎动物,生物学上属于磷虾目(Euphausiacea)。磷虾这种小型的甲壳亚门浮游动物是须鲸、蝠鲼、鲸鲨、锯齿海豹及海豹的食物,也是一些海鸟的主要食物。是接近食物链最底部的关键物种(keystone species),不过仍不算最底部,因为牠们会进食浮游植物(phytoplankton)和一些比牠们更小的浮游动物(zooplankton)。在南冰洋的南极磷虾可制造逾5亿公吨的生物质能,约为人类的两倍,每年有逾一半的南极磷虾被鲸、海豹、企鹅、鱿鱼和鱼吃掉,而没被吃掉的那些则会再继续繁殖下一代,以维持种群总数。大部分的磷虾物种每天会在海面和海底之间垂直迁徙一段很长的路线,因此它们的猎食者也会跟着在夜间上海面,日间则潜至海底。


History.

Since the 1980s, sequence information has become increasingly abundant; subsequently many laboratories realized this and began to store such information in central repositories-the primary database. However, the information provided by the primary sequence databases (lower level databases) focus on different aspects. To gather these scattered data, the Weizmann Institute of Science's Crown Human Genome Centre developed a database called ‘GeneCards’ in 1997. This database mainly dealt with human genome information, human genes, the encoded proteins’ functions, and related diseases, though it has expanded since that time.

Growth.

Initially, the GeneCards database had two main features: delivery of integrated biomedical information for a gene in ‘card’ format, and a text-based search engine. Since 1998, the database has integrated more data resources and data types, such as protein expression and gene network information. It has also improved the speed and sophistication of the search engine, and expanded from a gene-centric dogma to contain gene-set analyses. Version 3 of the database gathers information from more than 90 database resources based on a consolidated gene list. It has also added a suite of GeneCards tools which focus on more specific purposes. "GeneNote and GeneAnnot for transcriptome analyses, GeneLoc for genomic locations and markers, GeneALaCart for batch queries and GeneDecks for finding functional partners and for gene set distillations.". The database updates on a 3-year cycle of planning, implementation, development, semi-automated quality assurance, and deployment. Technologies used include Eclipse, Apache, Perl, XML, PHP, Propel, Java, R and MySQL.

Availability.

GeneCards can be freely accessed by non-profit institution for educational and research purpose at https://www.genecards.org/ and academic mirror sites. Commercial usage requires a license.

GeneCards Suite.

GeneDecks.

GeneDecks is a novel analysis tool to identify similar or partner genes, which provides a similarity metric by highlighting shared descriptors between genes, based on GeneCards’ unique wealth of combinatorial annotations of human genes.

GeneALaCart.

GeneALaCart is a gene-set-orientated batch-querying engine based on the popular GeneCards database. It allows retrieval of information about multiple genes in a batch query.

GeneLoc.

The GeneLoc suit member presents an integrated human chromosome map, which is very important for designing a custom-made capture chip, based on data integrated by the GeneLoc algorithm. GeneLoc includes further links to GeneCards, NCBI's Human Genome Sequencing, UniGene, and mapping resources.

Usage.

Search.

Firstly, enter a search term into the blank on the homepages. Searching methods include Keywords, Symbol only, Symbol/Alias/Identifier and Symbol/Alias. The default search option is searching by keywords. When a user searches by keywords, MicroCard and MiniCard are shown. However, when a user searches by Symbol only, they will be directed to GeneCard.  Searches may be furthered by clicking on advanced search, where a user can choose section, category, GIFtS, Symbol Source and gene sets directly. Sections include Aliases & Descriptions, Disorders, Drugs & Compounds, Expression in Human Tissues, Function, Genomic Location, Genomic Variants, Orthologs, Paralogs, Pathways & Interactions, Protein Domains/Families, Proteins, Publications, Summaries and Transcripts. The default option is searching for all sections.  Categories include Protein-coding, Pseudogenes, RNA genes Genetic Loci, Gene clusters and Uncategorized. The default option is searching for all categories. GIFtS is the GeneCards Inferred Functionality Scores, which gives objective numbers to show the knowledge level about the functionality of human genes. It includes High, Medium, Low, and custom range. Symbol Sources include HGNC (HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee), EntrezGene (gene-centered information at NCBI), Ensembl, GeneCards RNA genes, CroW21 and so on.  Moreover, the user can choose to search for All GeneCards or Within Gene Subset, which would be more specific and with priority.  Secondly, the search result page shows all relevant minicards. Symbol, Description, Category, GIFtS, GC id and Score are displayed on the page. A user may click on the plus button for each of the mini-cards to open the minicard. Also, the user can click directly on the symbol to see the details of a particular GeneCard.

GeneCards Content.

For a particular GeneCard (example: ), it is consist of the following contents.

Applications.

GeneCards is used widely in the biological and biomedical fields. For example, S.H. Shah extracted data of early-onset coronary artery disease from GeneCards to identify genes that contributes to the disease. Chromosome 3q13, 1q25 etc. are confirmed to take effects and this paper further discussed the relationship between morbid genes and serum lipoproteins with the help of GeneCard.  Another example is a research study on synthetic lethality in cancer. Synthetic lethality appears when a mutation in a single gene has no effect on the function of a cell but a mutation in an additional gene leads to cell death. This study aimed to find novel methods of treating cancer through blocking the lethality of drugs. GeneCards was used when comparing data of a given target gene with all possible genes. In this process, the annotation sharing score was calculated using GeneDecks Partner Hunter (now called Genes Like Me) to give paralogy. Inactivation targets were be extracted after the microarray experiments of resistant and non-resistant neuroblastoma cell lines.

GeneCards is a database of human genes that provides genomic, proteomic, transcriptomic, genetic and functional information on all known and predicted human genes. It is being developed and maintained by the Crown Human Genome Center at the Weizmann Institute of Science.

GeneCards(中文大意:基因卡片)是一个收录人基因组、转录组、蛋白质组的数据库。该数据库亦提供所有已知以及推测的人类基因的功能信息。该数据库由魏茨曼科学研究学院创立,该数据库的运作亦由该机构负责。该数据库旨在为研究者提供相关基因现有生物医学信息的速览,包括基因编码的蛋白质以及相关疾病。


Gameplay.

The game begins with the player naming their island and creating or importing their personal Mii, who is referred to as the player's "look-alike" and lives in an apartment building. The building holds up to 100 Miis (or more depending on the date of the release of your copy).  The player can import Miis from the system's Mii Maker, other devices or QR codes or create them from scratch using the 3DS's camera or the in-game Mii Maker. The Miis are voiced by a text-to-speech software and have unique personalities. Miis can then perform various actions, such as eating, trying on different outfits, falling in love with each other, and engaging in many leisure activities. As more Miis are added to the island, many strange and curious interactions can occur between them, such as friendship, romance, rivalry, romantic relationships and families. As the game goes by, the player unlocks more stores, clothes, food, and places for the Miis to play. They can even unlock a port, where they can give and "trade" goods with other islands.

Development.

In May 2014, a playable demo of the game was distributed to Platinum members of Club Nintendo in North America, the data of which could be transferred to the final version to unlock a bonus in-game item. The game is bundled with two Nintendo eShop download codes for a 'Welcome version' demo, which can be given to friends. A slightly different demo version was later publicly released for download via the Nintendo eShop. This version does not unlock any features in the full game.  Following the announcement of a worldwide release, controversy arose concerning the impossibility of same-sex relationships. Nintendo stated, "The ability for same-sex relationships to occur in the game was not part of the original game that launched in Japan, and that game is made up of the same code that was used to localise it for other regions outside Japan." In May 2013, it was widely reported that a bug in the original Japanese version of the game, which enabled same-sex relationships, was patched by Nintendo. This was refuted by Nintendo in a statement made April 2014, explaining that same-sex relationships were never possible, and that the patch in fact fixed a different issue. Despite various campaigns from users, Nintendo stated that it would not be possible to add same-sex relationships to the game, as they "never intended to make any form of social commentary with the launch of the game", and because it would require significant development alterations which would not be able to be released as a post-game patch. The company later apologised and stated that if they were to create a third game in the series they would "strive to design a gameplay experience from the ground up that is more inclusive, and better represents all players."

Reception.

"Tomodachi Life" has received positive reviews. It holds an average of 72% and 71/100 on review aggregate sites GameRankings and Metacritic, respectively. IGN gave the game a score of 8.4, calling it "a surprisingly funny and rewarding experience." Polygon gave "Tomodachi Life" a 7.5 out of 10, praising its likeability despite certain aspects being repetitive. GamesRadar gave the game 4 out of 5 stars, praising its weird humor and relaxing gameplay, whilst criticising the minigames for being too simple. GameTrailers gave the game a score of 6.0, stating "the pervasive sense of quirkiness in "Tomodachi Life" works, but can’t sustain the entire game." The game has received criticism for not enabling relationships between Mii characters of the same sex; Nintendo of America later apologized for failing to include same-sex relationships in Tomodachi Life, stating that it wasn't possible for NoA to change the game's design, or for Nintendo to change this aspect in a post-ship patch. It also noted that "if we create a next installment in the Tomodachi series, we will strive to design a game-play experience from the ground up that is more inclusive, and better represents all players."  "Tomodachi Life" was the best seller in the Japanese video game market during the week of its release, selling about 404,858 units. By September 2014, its global sales reached 3.12 million units., Nintendo has sold 6.59 million units of the game worldwide, making it one of the top 10 best selling games on the 3DS.

Legacy.

A stage based on "Tomodachi Life" appears in "Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS" and "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate". "Miitomo", a social networking mobile app for iOS and Android devices, was released in March 2016. The app was created by the same core team who developed "Tomodachi Life", and features very similar ideas. In 2016, a similar game involving Miis, "Miitopia", was released in Japan. It was released worldwide the following year.

Tomodachi Life is a life simulation video game developed by Nintendo SPD and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 3DS. The game, which is a direct sequel to the Japan-exclusive Nintendo DS title "Tomodachi Collection", was released in Japan in April 2013, June 2014 worldwide and July 2014 in South Korea. The game received positive reviews and good sales records. Many reviewers praised the gameplay but criticised the minigames. Its name means "Friend Life".

是由任天堂企划开发本部开发的一款生活模拟游戏,并在任天堂3DS上发行,日本版本于2013年4月18日发行。并在2014年6月取得较高销售记录。


Barbados 4–2 Grenada (1994 Caribbean Cup qualification)

1994年加勒比海杯预选赛巴巴多斯 4-2 格林纳达

Background.

The 1994 Caribbean Cup was the fifth edition of the Caribbean Cup and was played in Trinidad and Tobago. Qualification took place in various other locations around the Caribbean in early 1994. At the time, FIFA had been testing variations on tournament rules, and the tournament organizers had decided that any matches where the score was tied at the end of the normal 90 minutes would go to extra-time, which would feature a golden goal worth two points. Barbados, Grenada, and Puerto Rico were drawn into Group 1, and on January 23 the round-robin tournament kicked off in Barbados, with the home team falling 0–1 to Puerto Rico. Two days later, Grenada defeated Puerto Rico 2–0 after a golden goal in extra-time. This put Grenada at the top of the group with three points and a +2 goal difference. Thus, the only way that Barbados could advance to the finals would be if they could beat Grenada by a margin of at least two goals.  Before the match the standings were as follows:

Match.

The match was played at the Barbados National Stadium in Saint Michael.  The match started off routinely and Barbados scored the first two goals, establishing the two-goal winning margin they needed. In the 83rd minute, however, the game changed when Grenada scored a goal, which would take Grenada through to the finals unless Barbados could score again.  Barbados attempted to score for the next few minutes, but as time ran out they switched to a different strategy - tying up the game so that they could try to achieve the two-goal margin with the golden goal in extra-time. In the 87th minute they stopped attacking, and Barbados defender Terry Sealey and goalkeeper Horace Stoute passed the ball between each other before Sealey intentionally scored an own goal.  Now the game was at 2–2, with just three minutes of normal time left. The Grenadian players caught on to the Barbadians' plan, but then they realized that they would advance in the tournament by scoring a goal in either net since they would still qualify for the finals with a 1-point loss. This left the match in a highly unusual position, with Grenada trying to score a goal in either net and Barbados trying to defend both. For the next three minutes, Barbadian players successfully defended both sides.  Still drawn at 2–2, the game went on to extra-time, where the winning "golden goal" would count double — thus, Barbados only had to score once to qualify for the 1994 Caribbean Cup. Trevor Thorne scored the winning goal for Barbados, and they advanced to the next round with a score of 4-2.  The final table was:

Response.

The game did not receive much attention, although reports were published in the United Kingdom in "The Guardian" and "The Times". The story has since been told in the 2005 book "Sports Law". The lack of immediate attention to the subject may have contributed to the game becoming something of an urban legend in the sport.  In a press conference after the game, Grenadian manager James Clarkson said:  The double golden goal rule was used five times over the course of qualification in 1994, and the Caribbean Cup organisers scrapped the rule after the tournament. Although the Barbadians' own-goal was highly unconventional, FIFA decided not to penalize the team because they were playing optimally under the circumstances.

Post-match.

Barbados went on to achieve third place in Group A of the 1994 Caribbean Cup after drawing against Guadeloupe and Dominica and losing to the home team Trinidad and Tobago, which went on to win the tournament.

On January 27, 1994, the Barbados national football team and Grenada national football team played against each other as part of the qualification round for the 1994 Caribbean Cup. Due to an unusual scoring rule and the two teams' respective positions in the tournament, it became alternately in the best interest of each team to score an own goal. The result has been described as "one of the strangest football matches ever".

1994年加勒比海杯预选赛巴巴多斯对战格林纳达是于1994年1月27日举行的一场足球比赛。此场比赛为该小组预选赛的最后一场,并且对战双方均有出线的可能(此场比赛中巴巴多斯的净胜球大于等于两球时出线,其他情况下格林纳达出线)。但由于比赛采用不寻常黄金入球规则,即金球算作两粒入球,导致比赛87分钟巴巴多斯攻入一粒乌龙球,而格林纳达则于随后对双方球门发起攻势。此场比赛也被称为“史上最不可思议的足球比赛”。


History.

Self-funded scientists practiced more commonly from the Renaissance until the late 19th century, including the Victorian era, especially in England, before large-scale government and corporate funding was available. Many early fellows of the Royal Society in London were independent scientists.

Benefits and drawbacks.

Self-funding has the disadvantage that funds may be more restricted; however, it has the advantage of eliminating a number of inconveniences such as teaching obligations, administrative duties, and writing grant requests to funding bodies. It also permits the scientist to have greater control over research directions, as funding bodies direct grants towards interests that may not coincide with that of the scientist. Furthermore, intellectual property of the inventions belongs to the inventor and not the employer.  Modern science requires competence and may require access to scientific equipment. However, independent scientists may have past careers as funded scientists, cooperate with funded colleagues, obtain partial equipment-only grants or choose directions where the most expensive resource required is the researcher's time. If the research succeeds, independent scientists may publish results in the same peer-reviewed journals as funded scientists do.  Scientists may choose to work on unusual projects with high risk of failure also when the grant system does not fund them. A scientist could be attributed the status of independent scientist if they work on such projects during a gap between two academic positions, for example.

Modern-day independent scientists.

Modern-day independent scientists who fund their own research on an independent basis include, for example, Stephen Wolfram who funds his research through the sale of Mathematica software, Julian Barbour, Aubrey de Grey, Barrington Moore, Susan Blackmore, James Lovelock, and John Wilkinson who funds his research on "molecular synergism in nature" by running a regulatory scientific consultancy in natural products.  Peter Rich said of Peter D. Mitchell: "I think he would have found it difficult to have gotten funding because his ideas were rather radical." Mitchell went on to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1978. Chemist Luis Leloir funded the research institute he headed, the Institute for Biochemical Research, in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He won the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1970.  There are today several virtual research institutes for independent scientists.

An independent scientist (modern gender-neutral term historically also known as gentleman scientist) is a financially independent scientist who pursues scientific study without direct affiliation to a public institution such as a university or government-run research and development body. The expression "gentleman scientist" arose in post-Renaissance Europe, but became less common in the 20th century as government and private funding increased.

绅士科学家( gentleman scientist)是指财务上独立的,以从事科学研究为个人爱好的科学家。 这一术语源自后文艺复兴时期的欧洲,在20世纪,随着政府和私人对科学研究的资助的增长,就不常使用了。


Gameplay.

"The Wolf Among Us" is a graphic adventure game, played from a third-person perspective. The player controls protagonist Bigby Wolf, who must investigate the murder of a woman. Throughout the game, the player explores various three-dimensional environments, such as apartment buildings and a bar. When exploring an environment, the player may find an object they can interact with; when this occurs, they must move a cursor over the object to select and examine it. Items of interest are stored in an inventory, and can be used later in the story. The player may also talk with non-player characters, and see the conversations presented in the form of dialogue trees. The dialogue options chosen during conversations would either have a positive or negative effect on how other characters view Bigby, and their perceptions would influence future events in the story. Some scenes are more action-oriented, forcing the player to respond to a series of quick time event (QTE) prompts. The player is not required to complete every QTE prompt, and skipping certain prompts may affect future events in the story.

Synopsis.

Setting.

"The Wolf Among Us" is set in the year 1986, nearly twenty years before the events of "Fables". For years, many of the magical lands described in myth, legend, and folklore (known as The Homelands) have been occupied by an enigmatic tyrant known as the Adversary. To escape the Adversary's totalitarian regime, many of The Homelands inhabitants (collectively known as Fables) fled to colonial America, and created an enclave known as Fabletown, now located in modern-day Manhattan. To mask their presence from the native humans (referred to as "mundys"), all non-human Fables have to purchase an enchantment known as a "glamour" which allows them to appear human, or be relocated to a rural community known as "The Farm".

Characters.

The protagonist of "The Wolf Among Us" is Bigby Wolf (Adam Harrington), formerly the Big Bad Wolf. He is the sheriff of Fabletown, currently working at the "Business Office" under corrupt interim mayor Ichabod Crane (Roger L. Jackson), aided by Snow White (Erin Yvette) and the Magic Mirror (Gavin Hammon) in his investigation along with the help of Bufkin the winged monkey (Chuck Kourouklis) that manages Fabletown's records. Aristocrat Bluebeard (Dave Fennoy) also works at the Office though his motives are unclear. Bigby resides at the Woodlands apartments where Colin (Brian Sommer), one of the Three Little Pigs, occasionally crashes at his place. Beauty and the Beast (Melissa Hutchison and Gavin Hammon) are also residents of the Woodlands, though currently struggling with a troubled marriage. One of the Fables that Bigby frequently contacts is Mr. Toad (Chuck Kourouklis) and his son TJ (Toad Jr.), who live in a run-down apartment building nearby.  In the first episode, the player is introduced to The Woodsman (Adam Harrington), who lives in the same building as Mr. Toad. Standing in Bigby's way are Dee and Dum Tweedle (Gavin Hammon), twin private investigators and criminals. Bigby also encounters Holly (Janet Lipsey), a Troll who runs the Trip Trap bar, and barfly Grendel (Kid Beyond). The second episode introduces trickster and thief Jack Horner (Colin Benoit), Georgie Porgie (Kevin Howarth), a pimp and the owner of the Pudding & Pie strip club, along with prostitute Nerissa (Molly Benson), the former Little Mermaid, Vivian (Sandy Delonga), and Clever Hans (Ben Knoll), the club's bouncer. The third episode introduces the janitor Flycatcher (Dustin Rubin), Bloody Mary (Kathryn Cressida) as a minion of the Crooked Man (Philip Banks), and Aunty Greenleaf (Laura Bailey), a rogue witch who illegally sells cheap black-market glamours to Fables. The fourth episode introduces the Jersey Devil (Bobby Vickers), the manager of the Lucky Pawn shop and Johann the butcher (Terry McGovern), the former owner of the Cut Above butcher shop who has been forced out of his business by the Crooked Man's henchmen.

Plot.

This is a broad overview of the plot. Certain decisions made by the player will alter details of specific events.  Bigby Wolf, formerly the Big Bad Wolf, is the Sheriff of Fabletown, a hidden community of fairytale characters located in 1980s New York City. Receiving a call from Mr. Toad, Bigby protects a prostitute from an intoxicated Woodsman. Before she departs, she tells him he is not as bad as everyone says he is.  Later that night, Bigby and Snow White find the woman's head left on the Woodlands doorstep. Clues left with the head identify her as Faith, a Fable from "Allerleirauh". Deputy Mayor Ichabod Crane orders him and Snow to investigate her death. They head to the apartment she shared with her husband Prince Lawrence and find the Tweedles, Dee and Dum, snooping through it. They learn that Lawrence and Faith struggled to make ends meet and Faith took up prostitution to help pay the bills. Bigby leaves Snow at the Woodlands while he continues to trace leads. When he returns, he finds the Woodlands surrounded by police, Snow's head sitting on the building's steps.  Bigby is taken in for questioning by the mundy police, but Crane uses a spell to wipe the incident from the police's minds. When they return, they are surprised to find Snow still alive; the head is shown to be disguised by a black-market glamour, a spell that non-human Fables use, and belongs instead to a troll named Lily. Bigby tracks Lily's connections to the Pudding & Pie, a strip club run by Georgie Porgie, but Georgie claims innocence. One of his other prostitutes, Nerissa, cryptically directs Bigby to a nearby hotel room. There he finds Lily's blood on the bed, and photographic evidence of Crane engaging in sexual acts with Lily glamoured to look like Snow. He informs Snow of this, and they race back to the Woodlands to find Crane gone, and the Magic Mirror, which could have revealed his location, shattered with one shard missing.  Bigby follows a trail of clues to Crane's whereabouts to the apartment of Aunty Greenleaf, one of the witches that makes the black-market glamours. Along the way, Bigby discovers that Crane has been embezzling money from Fabletown over the years to pay off a loan shark known as the Crooked Man. Greenleaf points the two back to the Pudding & Pie. Storming the club, they find Crane trying to extract information out of the prostitutes to prove his innocence. Snow realizes Crane's actions are not that of a murderer, and he is arrested for his embezzlement. Leaving the club, they are attacked by the Crooked Man and his henchmen, the Tweedles and Bloody Mary. Mary and the Tweedles goad Bigby into his werewolf form, and a fight breaks out. When Mary critically wounds Bigby with a silver bullet, Snow steps in to stop the fight and willingly gives up Crane to the Crooked Man to save Bigby's life.  Back at the Woodlands, Bigby struggles to find clues when Nerissa appears. He realizes the ribbon she wears prevents her from speaking the truth, that Faith wore an identical ribbon, and that she died when the ribbon was removed. He follows another trail of clues, and finds evidence of the black-market glamour ring in the Cut Above butcher shop, a pawn shop called the Lucky Pawn where the Crooked Man distributes his loans to Fables owned by Jersey Devil, another henchman of the Crooked Man, and Crane's presence, as well as the missing Mirror Shard. The Mirror reveals Mary putting Crane onto an overseas flight to Paris to keep him from talking, as well as the next location of the door to the Crooked Man's lair, which moves around the city.  Bigby enters the Crooked Man's lair alone, meeting him and his agents. The Crooked Man reveals Georgie as Faith and Lily's killer and claims he misunderstood his orders to deal with them, but Georgie asserts the Crooked Man told him to kill the women. A fight ensues and the Crooked Man and a fatally stabbed Georgie escape. When Bigby pursues Georgie and his lover Vivian to the Pudding & Pie, she explains that the Crooked Man and Georgie were acting to stop a plot spearheaded by Faith with the other prostitutes to escape their forced servitude. Vivian is revealed to be the girl with the ribbon around her neck and, having made copies of her ribbon, trapped women like Faith, Lily, and Nerissa for Georgie whilst guaranteeing their silence. Regretting her actions, Vivian undoes her ribbon, breaking the spell but severing her head.  Bigby then finds the Crooked Man hiding in an old foundry, and after turning into his true wolf form to kill Bloody Mary, corners him in an office, where he demands a fair trial at the Woodlands. Bigby returns to the Witching Well at the Business Office to recount events to the assembled Fables of the Woodlands, where he and Snow are forced to defend their actions against claims from the Fables. Bigby recounts Vivian's and Georgie's confessions regarding the Crooked Man's involvement, but his word is deemed untrustworthy. Nerissa appears and testifies that she and five other women heard the Crooked Man order the murders. Their testimonies are considered sufficient to believe what Bigby did was right.  In the epilogue, Snow becomes the new Deputy Mayor and deals with the fallout of the Crooked Man's actions, while Bigby sees off the Fables being taken back to the Farm. Afterward, he encounters Nerissa, who is moving on with her life. She admits that Faith concocted a plan with her and Lily to blackmail Georgie and the Crooked Man for their freedom, using a picture of Lily and Crane together, but Georgie killed the two women when she panicked and revealed their plot to him. Nerissa left Faith's head at the Woodlands to get Bigby involved, and gave false testimony to have the Crooked Man punished, knowing that he was the one who ordered their deaths. Leaving, she comments that Bigby is not as bad as everyone says he is, causing Bigby to recall Faith saying the same before her death. Several past conversations with Faith and Nerissa play out in Bigby's head, leading him to question the true identity of Nerissa.

Episodes.

Episodic releases for the Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, OS X and PlayStation 3 platforms were released near-simultaneously within the same week; the iOS and PlayStation Vita episodic releases were expected to trail these by about a month or so.

Development.

In 2011, Telltale Games announced that it had acquired licenses to develop video games based on two comic book series, "The Walking Dead" by Robert Kirkman, and "Fables" by Bill Willingham. This announcement came around the same time that the television series "The Walking Dead" became critically successful, leading to Telltale to put much of their initial focus on developing "The Walking Dead" property through 2011 and 2012. This game was released by April 2012, and was a critical success for Telltale. With "The Walking Dead" shipping, the company then started working on their "Fables" title, but according to Telltale's Job Stauffer, they struggled with the narrative of the title over a year and a half. Stauffer said at one point, they found the game to be more of a comedy, but without much humorous substance and in an un-shippable state. Stauffer said that their team rallied together to refocus the game, delaying it from an early 2012 release to late 2012, and ultimately to October 2013 when it finally shipped. This did allow for Telltale to incorporate mechanics that had proven successful in "The Walking Dead" into their "Fables" game.  Due to these delays, Telltale re-announced the "Fables" game at the New York Comic Con in October 2012. The name "The Wolf Among Us" was revealed in March 2013, and is based on the main character Bigby Wolf.  Pre-orders were made available October 3, 2013 from Telltale Games and Steam. Those who pre-ordered through Telltale received a collector's DVD at the end of the season.  The game was initially released across five episodes between October 2013 and July 2014 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 platforms.

Sequel.

When "The Wolf Among Us" was completed by July 2014, Telltale had thought of doing a second season, but they had already committed to the projects leading to "Tales from the Borderlands", "", and "Game of Thrones". The company was aware of strong interest in a second season through the intervening years, and they were looking for the right time to develop it.  A second yet-to-be-named season was announced during the July 2017 San Diego Comic Con, and was originally set to premiere in 2018 for personal computers, consoles, and mobile devices. Both Harrington and Yvette were to return to voice Bigby and Snow White, respectively. Stauffer said that Season Two would not resolve the apparent cliffhanger related to Nerissa's connection to Faith; he said that it was meant to be ending similar to a film noir work that made the viewer think about the implications, but never saw this themselves as a cliffhanger. Instead, Season 2 would have continued on with more narrative related to Bigby and Snow White. By May 2018, Telltale announced that due to recent internal studio issues, they had to push back the release of the sequel until 2019. In September 2018, Telltale had a majority studio closure due to "insurmountable challenges", cancelling "The Wolf Among Us"s second season among other projects in development.  Upon Telltale's revival by LCG Entertainment, "The Wolf Among Us" was one of the titles reacquired by LCG, but no announcement was made at that time about the sequel. The company announced "The Wolf Among Us 2" at The Game Awards 2019. The sequel will continue events after the first game, though still remain as a prequel to the comic series. The game is being developed in association with AdHoc Studio, formed by former Telltale Games staff, who will focus on the game's narrative and cinematic elements while Telltale will implement the gameplay and other designs. In addition to returning Telltale staff, Harrington and Yvette will return to voice Bigby and Snow White, and Emerson-Johnson will compose music for the game. The game is being developed on the Unreal Engine, and will be released in an episodic approach. This sequel will be worked completely from scratch, using none of the ideas and initial work that had been done under the former Telltale banner before its closure.

Reception.

"The Wolf Among Us" has received mostly positive reviews from critics. Praise was given to the game's story, action sequences, atmosphere, visual style and faithfulness to the source material while criticism was focused on its pacing and technical issues.

Episode 1 – Faith.

"Episode 1 – Faith" received positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator website Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 85/100, the PC version 85/100, and the Xbox 360 version 82/100.

Episode 2 – Smoke and Mirrors.

"Episode 2 – Smoke and Mirrors" received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 82/100, the PC version 76/100, and the Xbox 360 version 73/100.

Episode 3 – A Crooked Mile.

"Episode 3 – A Crooked Mile" received positive reviews. Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 82/100, the PC version 82/100, and the Xbox 360 version 77/100.

Episode 4 – In Sheep's Clothing.

"Episode 4 – In Sheep's Clothing" received mixed to positive reviews from critics. Metacritic gave the PC version 75/100, the Xbox 360 version 74/100, and the PlayStation 3 version 69/100.

Episode 5 – Cry Wolf.

"Episode 5 – Cry Wolf" received positive reviews from critics. Metacritic gave the PC version 84/100, the Xbox 360 version 85/100, and the PlayStation 3 version 75/100.

Awards.

The series was nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Story and Adventure Game of the Year for the 18th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences.  The series was nominated for two 2014 BAFTA Games Awards for Story and Performer (Adam Harrington as Bigby Wolf), losing both to "".  At the 2014 National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers (NAVGTR) awards the game won "Direction in a Game Cinema" and received six nominations: "Writing in a Drama" (Pierre Shorette), "Performance in a Drama, Lead" (Adam Harrington), "Original Dramatic Score, Franchise" (Jared Emerson-Johnson), "Game, Original Adventure" (Joe Pinney), "Camera Direction in a Game Engine" (Dennis Lenart) and "Art Direction, Contemporary" (David Bogan).

Comic adaptation.

At the 2014 New York Comic Con, Vertigo Comics announced that they will be adapting "The Wolf Among Us" into comic form, to be released digitally first in December 2014 and later as print comic. The story was adapted for the comic by Lilah Sturges, who has previously written for the "Fables" series, and Dave Justus, staying otherwise true to the game's story but exploring some of the characters and back story in more depth. The comic has since been completed.

The Wolf Among Us is an episodic graphic adventure game based on Bill Willingham's "Fables" comic book series. It is developed by Telltale Games. It is canon with the comic book universe and is set as a prequel to the comic book. The game consists of five episodes that were released throughout 2013. Retail versions for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Xbox 360, and Xbox One consoles were released in November 2014.

是一部改编自比尔·威廉汉姆漫画丛书作品《成人童话》的章回体电子游戏互动式悬疑戏剧文字冒险电子游戏。本作由热门游戏《行尸走肉》的开发商Telltale Games开发和发行,由Vertigo和华纳兄弟互动娱乐发行。游戏的正典为漫画书宇宙,剧情设置为漫画书的前传。游戏的第一季分五章,第一章于2013年10月11日在Microsoft Windows和Xbox 360平台全球首发,10月14日在OS X首发,10月15日在北美登录PlayStation 3,10月16日登录欧洲和澳洲,12月4日在iOS平台全球首发,并于2014年末前亮相PlayStation Vita。PlayStation 3、PlayStation 4、PlayStation Vita、Xbox 360和Xbox One主机平台零售版于2014年11月发布。 于2017年7月19日宣布推出续作,续作将于2018年发售。


History.

The immediate forerunner of the FSP was the Kirk-Kaye tendency within the Socialist Workers Part (SWP), led by Dick Fraser (Kirk) and Clara Fraser (Kaye) who were at the time husband and wife. At the time Richard Fraser was seen as the central leader of the tendency due to his development of the theory of revolutionary integrationism. In addition to their distinctive position on civil rights, derived from said theory of revolutionary integrationism, the tendency also took a position that was more sympathetic to China than was the norm in the SWP, in part this being due to the alliance between the Kirk-Kaye tendency and the loser tendency of Arne Swabeck and Frank Glass.  Political differences, as articulated by the soon-to-become FSP, included what was characterized as the SWP's uncritical support of the black nationalist views of Malcolm X, SWP's orientation toward the labor aristocracy, its opportunism in the anti-Vietnam War movement, and its dismissive attitude toward the emerging feminist movement. The nascent FSP advocated the class solidarity of black and white workers, called for a greatly expanded understanding of and attention to women's emancipation, and urged the anti-war movement to support the socialist, anti-colonial aims of the Vietnamese Revolution.  The FSP became a pole of attraction for Seattle leftists opposed to the SWP's internal politics and established a home at Freeway Hall. The party formed Radical Women with the dual goal of building a revolutionary socialist feminist organization and teaching women the organizational and leadership skills they were often denied in male-dominated organizations.

Ideology.

The FSP is politically Trotskyist. FSP leaders Clara Fraser (1923–1998) and Gloria Martin (1916–1995) built on the socialist analysis of women's oppression to create a Leninist party that is "socialist-feminist" in ideology and practice. The party views the liberation struggles of women, people of color and sexual minorities (such as gay people) as intrinsic to working class revolt, and it looks to these specially-oppressed sectors of society to provide revolutionary leadership. Women comprise a predominant part of the party leadership. Overall, membership is very diverse and is composed of all genders and races. The party characterizes its "National Comrades of Color Caucus" as offering the party's diverse ranks of people of color an opportunity to work together as a team to grow as leaders and provide direction for the party's work in people of color movements.

Strategy.

The party has frequently supported united front efforts on a number of issues and often helps other socialist groups get on the ballot, while simultaneously running its own candidates for office.  The United Front Against Fascism (UFAF)—founded by the FSP, but also including a broad coalition of the Left, the LGBT community, labor unionists, feminists, people of color, Jews, and civil libertarians—took the lead in mobilizing against neo-Nazis in the Pacific Northwest in the 1980s and 1990s. The party has branches in a number of U.S. cities, as well as one in Melbourne, Australia. The "Freedom Socialist" newspaper is produced six times a year. Red Letter Press publishes books and pamphlets for the party. The FSP is affiliated with Radical Women, which is an autonomous socialist feminist organization. In 2003, Red Letter Press and its managing editor, Helen Gilbert, were the target of a complaint to the Federal Election Commission by the campaign committee of perennial presidential candidate Lyndon LaRouche. LaRouche alleged that Gilbert and the FSP publishing house, which had issued a pamphlet by Gilbert critical of LaRouche's ideology and political history, were in violation of campaign finance laws. The FEC found LaRouche's complaint to be without merit and dismissed it.  In 2004, Jordana Sardo, party organizer in Portland, Oregon, ran for the Oregon House of Representatives in Oregon's 45th House district, earning 8.74% of the vote. Other FSP campaigns have been run in New York, Washington state, and California.  In 2012, the party ran a write-in presidential campaign with candidates Stephen Durham for U.S. president and Christina López for vice-president. The ticket received 117 votes nationwide. Eight states do not permit write-in candidates, 32 require prior registration to be an official write-in, and many do not report write-ins.  In the 2016 election, FSP critically endorsed Jeff Mackler of Socialist Action for president.  In 2018, the party announced that member Steve Hoffman would seek to petition onto the ballot for United States Senate against incumbent Democrat Maria Cantwell. Hoffman got 7,390 votes (0,4%) and did not advance to the general election.

The Freedom Socialist Party is a far-left socialist political party with a revolutionary feminist philosophy based in the United States. It views the struggles of women and minorities as part of the struggle of the working class. It emerged from a split in the United States Socialist Workers Party in 1966. The party's Seattle branch, with support from individuals in other cities, split off from the SWP over what it described as the SWP's entrenched opportunism and undemocratic methods. The party has branches in the United States, as well as Australia, Canada, England, Germany and New Zealand. The current National Secretary of the FSP is Doug Barnes.

自由社会党(英语:Freedom Socialist Party,缩写为FSP)是美国的一个托洛茨基主义政党。该党成立于1966年,分裂自社会主义工人党。该党的意识形态是革命社会主义、托洛茨基主义、社会主义女权主义。该党的政治立场是极左翼。该党的全国书记是Doug Barnes。该党的总部位于西雅图。该党出版刊物《自由社会主义者》,每年发行六期。