Height.

At and with a roof height of, Q1 qualifies as the world's seventh-tallest all-residential building when measured to the top of its structural point (spire), but is ranked lower behind buildings including Melbourne's Australia 108 (roof height of ) and the Eureka Tower (roof height of ) when measured to its roof height and highest inhabitable floor. However, according to the ranking system developed by the U.S.-based Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, the main criterion by which buildings are ranked is the height of the top of the spire, qualifying Q1 as the taller.  When the Q1 was completed it overtook the 21st Century Tower in Dubai, United Arab Emirates to become the world's tallest residential tower. It is in the top 50 tallest buildings in the world when measured to its structural point, dwarfing the Gold Coast skyline with the closest buildings to Q1's height being the North Tower of Circle on Cavill and the Soul building.

Design and construction.

Q1 Tower was designed by SDG & The Buchan Group, and its form was inspired by the Sydney 2000 Olympic torch and the Sydney Opera House. The name was given in honour of members of Australia’s Olympic sculling team of the 1920s – Q1.The concept was based on studies of wind, movement and tension in which a series of ribbons wrap concentrically around the tower form and hover above the entry plaza area providing cover and shading. The tension in the movement and free form are expressed by the gradual twisting of the aluminium-clad ribbons as they move around the building. The result is an open-air galleria-like shopping precinct under the glazed ribbon structure and a curved retail façade to the street edges.  The project was developed by The Sunland Group and built by Sunland Constructions. The building was the Silver Award winner of the 2005 Emporis Skyscraper Award, coming in second to Turning Torso in Sweden.  Q1 was completed towards the end of 2005. Its main point of difference to other high-rise in Surfers Paradise is its glass-enclosed sleek look. Q1's lift lobby is separated into two high-speed lift groups. Four high speed lifts service levels B2 to level 42. Three separate high-speed lifts service levels 43 to the penthouse on level 74.  The building is supported by 26 piles, each in diameter, that extend into the ground passing through up to of solid rock. Q1 contains one-, two- and three-bedroom units. Building facilities include two lagoon swimming pools, a lap pool, gymnasium, small theatre, a ballroom and a spa centre.  An application to construct a walkway around the outside of level 78 was lodged with the Gold Coast City Council in mid-2010.

Awards.

In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, Q1 was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a "structure and engineering feat".

Observation deck.

SkyPoint, formerly known as QDeck, is an observation deck at levels 77 and 78. It is Australia's only beachside observation deck and has room for 400 people. It towers above the Surfers Paradise beach, giving viewers a 360-degree view of Brisbane to the north, the Gold Coast hinterland to the west, Byron Bay, New South Wales, to the south and the Pacific Ocean to the east. The express elevator to the observation deck travels the 77 floors in 43 seconds.

Building condition.

In 2009, reports of disrepair and poor building conditions emerged. Peeling paint which has revealed rusty steel inside and outside, as well as shattered glass panels are amongst the visible concerns. The Building Services Authority has confirmed it has received complaints in relation to the building. The north stairwell was assessed as defective due to the stairwell pressurisation system not meeting the minimum air-flow requirements during a fire emergency. The Building Services Authority asked Q1's builders to rectify the problem in July 2010.

Events.

Q1 has been used as a fireworks launch site during New Year's Eve celebrations. The building is one of the most popular destinations for students celebrating schoolies week, despite the body corporate committee treasurer's claims that most of the building's unit owners were opposed to their stay.  On 28 March 2007, two BASE jumpers made an early morning and illegal jump from a northern side apartment. The skydivers pleaded guilty in the Southport Magistrates' Court and were fined A$750 without a conviction being recorded.  At, the SkyPoint Climb at Q1 is Australia’s highest external building climb.  Q1 has been holding an annual Stair Climb event for a number of years. It is uncertain whether this will be held in 2020.

Q1 Tower (an abbreviation of Queensland Number One) is a skyscraper in Surfers Paradise, Queensland, Australia. The residential tower on the Gold Coast was the world's tallest residential building from 2005 to 2011. As of 2020 it is the ninth-tallest residential tower in the world and is the tallest building in Australia and the Southern Hemisphere, and the second-tallest free-standing structure in the Southern Hemisphere, behind the Sky Tower in Auckland, New Zealand. The Q1 officially opened in November 2005.

Q1大厦,全称昆士兰第一大厦(英语:Queensland Number One)是一幢位于澳洲昆士兰黄金海岸的摩天大楼,共77层。在2005年时曾为全球最高的住宅大厦,其地位于2011年4月29日被迪拜火炬大厦取代。目前Q1大厦是世界最高公寓住宅列表,同时是澳洲与南半球最高的摩天大楼,以及南半球第2高独立构筑物,仅次于位在新西兰奥克兰市的天空塔。2005年11月,Q1大厦正式营运。


Description.

Appearance.

Standing in height at the withers and weighing, the Chinook is balanced and muscular. The United Kennel Club (UKC) breed standard states, "The ideal coloration runs from light honey color to reddish-gold. Black markings on the inside corners of the eyes are preferred. Dark tawny to black markings on the ears and muzzle are preferred. Guard hairs on the tail may be black. No white markings are allowed. Buff markings on the cheeks, muzzle, throat, chest, breeches, toes and underside are acceptable." The UKC standard faults any color other than tawny and disqualifies albinism. Other proposed standards state that the medium-length double coat is "tawny" in color, with darker shadings on muzzle and ears; white dogs are not allowed, nor are other colors. Eyes are brown to amber in color. Ear carriage is variable, but dropped is preferred and the head more strongly rectangular than other sleddog breeds. The tail is a well-furred saber and not the usual brush or plume of Arctic breeds. Overall, the Chinook seems to owe more to molosser than to spitz ancestry.

Temperament.

The Chinook is an affectionate and playful family companion with a special devotion toward children. It is a willing worker who is eager to please and enthusiastic to learn. The Chinook is highly trainable, adaptable, and versatile in his abilities. Gregarious with other dogs, the Chinook works well in teams and within family packs. The Chinook is a dignified dog; some may be reserved with strangers but should never appear shy or aggressive.

Health.

Health issues include normal hereditary problems such as epilepsy, hip dysplasia, and atopy. Also common is cryptorchidism, which occurs in about 10% of all male dogs.

History.

The Chinook owes its existence to one man: Arthur Treadwell Walden of Wonalancet, New Hampshire. The breed derives principally from one male ancestor born in 1917, named "Chinook", who was Walden's lead dog and stud. "Chinook" derived from a crossbreeding of a female Greenland Dog from the Peary North Pole expedition with a large, tawny male Mastiff/St. Bernard mix. Photos of "Chinook" show a drop-eared dog with a broad Mastiff head and muzzle. Walden's leader was bred to Belgian Sheepdogs, German Shepherd Dogs, Canadian Eskimo Dogs and perhaps other breeds; the progeny were bred back to him to set the desired type and was apparently a strong reproducer of his own traits. Arthur Walden was an experienced dog driver with years of experience in the Yukon; he was the lead driver and trainer on Byrd's 1929 Antarctic expedition. He is credited with bringing sled dog sports to New England and with founding the New England Sled Dog Club in 1924. The 12-year-old "Chinook" was lost on the Byrd expedition.  Control of the core breeding stock passed from Walden to Julia Lombard and from her to Perry Greene in the late 1940s. Greene, a noted outdoorsman, bred Chinooks in Waldoboro, Maine, for many years until his death in 1963. Rare and closely held by Greene, who was for many years the only breeder of Chinooks, the population dwindled rapidly after his death. By 1981 only eleven breedable Chinooks survived. Breeders in Maine, Ohio and California divided the remaining stock and managed to save the type from extinction.  The Chinook obtained registered status with the UKC in 1991; current numbers of registered animals are around 800. Only about 100 puppies are born annually worldwide. The registry has a cross-breeding program under which Chinooks are bred to individuals of other breeds thought to have contributed to Chinook development; fourth-generation backcross descendants of such crosses may be accepted as UKC purebred Chinooks if they meet the Chinook Owner Association's Cross Breeding Program requirements.  Chinooks joined the American Kennel Club (AKC) Foundation Stock Service in 2001 and were later added to the AKC's Miscellaneous Class in 2010. Finally, in January 2013 the Chinook became the AKC's 176th breed and joined the working group. Chinooks are still working for recognition from other major kennel clubs.

Working life.

Although still used for recreational dog sledding by some owners, Chinooks today appear to be used largely as family pets. Individuals are also used for dog-packing, search and rescue, skijoring, and obedience and dog agility trials.

The Chinook is a breed of sled dog, developed in the state of New Hampshire during the early 20th century. The Chinook is New Hampshire's official state dog.

奇努克犬是一种20世纪初源于新罕布夏州的罕见雪橇犬种,是该州州犬。


Latin.

Classical Latin wrote the "o" and "e" separately (as has today again become the general practice), but the ligature was used by medieval and early modern writings, in part because the diphthongal sound had, by Late Latin, merged into the sound. The classical diphthong had the value, similar to (standard) English "oy" as in "boy". It occurs most often in borrowings from Greek, rendering that language's οι (= in majuscule: ΟΙ), although it is also used in some native words such as "coepi".

French.

In French, "œ" is called ', which means "e in the o" (a mnemotechnic pun used first at school, sounding like ', meaning "eggs in water") or sometimes ', (literally "o and e glued") and is a true linguistic ligature, not just a typographic one (like the "fi" or "fl" ligatures), reflecting etymology. It is most prominent in the words'("mores"),'("heart"),'("sister"),'("egg"),'("beef", "steer"),'("work") and'("eye"), in which the digraph "œu", like "eu", represents the sound (in other cases, like plurals'("eggs") and'("steers"), it stands for ).  French also uses "œ" in direct borrowings from Latin and Greek. So, "coeliac" in French is '. In such cases, the "œ" is classically pronounced, or, sometimes, in modern pronunciation,. In some words, like'and "", the etymological "œ" is changed to a more French "é".  In French placenames of German origin (mostly in and around Alsace-Lorraine, historically Germanic-speaking areas that have changed hands between France and Germany (or Prussia before 1871) a number of times), "œ" replaces German "ö" and is pronounced. Examples include Schœneck (Moselle), Kœtzingue (Haut-Rhin), and Hœrdt (Bas-Rhin).  In all cases, "œ" is alphabetized as "oe", rather than as a separate letter.  When "oe" occurs in French without the ligature, it is pronounced, just like words spelt with "oi". The most common words of this type are'("stove", "frying pan") and'("soft"). Note that "poêle" is itself an etymological spelling, with the "ê" reflecting its derivation from Latin '. If the "oe" is not to be pronounced thus, then a diaeresis, acute or grave accent needs to be added in order to indicate that the vowels should be pronounced separately. For example, ', ', '. The exception to this rule is when a morpheme ending in "o" is joined to one beginning in "e", as in ', or with the prefix "co-", which is always pronounced in hiatus with the following vowel, as in'("ratio", "coefficient").

English.

A number of words written with "œ" were borrowed from French and from Latin into English, where the "œ" is now rarely written. Modern American English spelling usually substitutes "e", so "diarrhœa" has become "diarrhea", although there are some exceptions, such as "phoenix". In modern British English, the spellings generally keep the "o" but remove the ligature (e.g. "diarrhoea").  The "œ" ~ "oe" ~ "e" is traditionally pronounced as "short E", as "long E" (which = in most dialects or and or [iː] respectively), or as an (unrounded) unstressed vowel. These three Modern-English values interchange with one another in consistent ways, just as do the values within each of the sets from the other vowel-spellings that at the Middle English stage likewise represented non-diphthongs—except for, as was recognised particularly in certain positions by Dobson (2nd ed. = 1968: 495), a tendency whereby "... long vowels are, in later use, often substituted... cf. Pres(ent-Day) E(nglish) [iːkənɒmik] 'economic' in place of the popular [ekənɒmik], which (latter) is in accord with the normal rules and must be regarded as the traditional and naturally-developed pronunciation...".  There are a few words that English has recently borrowed from contemporary French. The pronunciation of these English words is generally an approximation to that of the French word (the French use or in terms of the International Phonetic Alphabet). English-speakers use a variety of substitutions for these sounds. The words involved include. These recent borrowings from French include,,, and  However most "œ" words use the traditional English pronunciation of borrowings from/via pre-modern French and from/via Latin, and examples are listed in the following categories, into which they have been divided by developments in our pronunciation since Middle English.

Other Germanic languages.

"Œ" is used in the modern scholarly orthography of Old West Norse, representing the long vowel, contrasting with "ø", which represents the short vowel. Sometimes, the "ǿ" is used instead for Old West Norse, maintaining consistency with the designation of the length of the other vowels, e.g."" "mothers". "Œ" is also used to express, regardless of the length of the vowel, in the modern scholarly orthography of Middle High German.  "Œ" is not used in modern German. Loanwords using "œ" are generally rendered ö, "e.g." '. A common exception is the French word'and its compounds (e.g. ""). It remains used in Switzerland German, especially in the names of people and places.  Like German, Danish does not use "œ", but unlike German, Danish replaces "œ" or "œu" in loan words with ø, as in'"economy" from Greek via Latin'or'"beef" from French '.

Transcription.

The symbol is used in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) for the open-mid front rounded vowel. This sound resembles the "œu" in the French'or the "ö" in the German '. These contrast with French'and German ', which have the close-mid front rounded vowel,.  The small capital variant represents the open front rounded vowel in the IPA. Modifier letter small ligature oe (œ) is used in extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet.  The Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA) includes.  The Teuthonista phonetic transcription system uses several related symbols:

Encodings.

In Unicode, the characters are encoded at and. In ISO-8859-15, "Œ" is 0xBC and "œ" 0xBD. In Windows-1252, at positions 0x8C and 0x9C. In Mac-Roman, they are at positions 0xCE and 0xCF.  "Œ" and "œ" were omitted from ISO-8859-1 (as well as derived standards, such as IBM code page 850), which are still widespread in internet protocols and applications. Œ is the only character in modern French that is not included in ISO-8859-1, and this has led to it becoming replaced by 'oe' in many computer-assisted publications (including printed magazines and newspapers). This was due, in part, to the lack of available characters in the French ISO/IEC 646 version that was used earlier for computing. Another reason is that "œ" is absent from most French keyboards, and as a result, few people know how to input it.  The above-mentioned small capital of the International Phonetic Alphabet is encoded at.

Œ (minuscule: œ) is a Latin alphabet grapheme, a ligature of "o" and "e". In medieval and early modern Latin, it was used to represent the Greek diphthong "οι" and in a few non-Greek words, usages that continue in English and French. In French, it is also used in some non-learned words, representing then mid-front rounded vowel-sounds, rather than sounding the same as "é" or "è", those being its traditional French values in the words borrowed from or via Latin.

("Oethel",发音为 )是中世纪拉丁语所用字母,用来代表 音。现在法语也有使用这个连字,而此字母也有在音标中使用。


Early life and education.

Max Müller was born into a cultured family on 6 December 1823 in Dessau, the son of Wilhelm Müller, a lyric poet whose verse Franz Schubert had set to music in his song-cycles "Die schöne Müllerin" and "Winterreise". His mother, Adelheid Müller (née von Basedow), was the eldest daughter of a prime minister of Anhalt-Dessau. Carl Maria von Weber was a godfather.  Müller was named after his mother's elder brother, Friedrich, and after the central character, Max, in Weber's opera "Der Freischütz". Later in life, he adopted Max as a part of his surname, believing that the prevalence of Müller as a name made it too common. His name was also recorded as "Maximilian" on several official documents (e.g. university register, marriage certificate), on some of his honours and in some other publications.  Müller entered the gymnasium (grammar school) at Dessau when he was six years old. In 1829, after the death of his grandfather, he was sent to the Nicolai School at Leipzig, where he continued his studies of music and classics. It was during his time in Leipzig that he frequently met Felix Mendelssohn.  In need of a scholarship to attend Leipzig University, Müller successfully sat his abitur examination at Zerbst. While preparing, he found that the syllabus differed from what he had been taught, necessitating that he rapidly learn mathematics, modern languages and science. He entered Leipzig University in 1841 to study philology, leaving behind his early interest in music and poetry. Müller received his degree in 1843. His final dissertation was on Spinoza's "Ethics". He also displayed an aptitude for classical languages, learning Greek, Latin, Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit.

Academic career.

In 1850 Müller was appointed deputy Taylorian professor of modern European languages at Oxford University. In the following year, at the suggestion of Thomas Gaisford, he was made an honorary M.A. and a member of the college of Christ Church, Oxford. On succeeding to the full professorship in 1854, he received the full degree of M.A. by Decree of Convocation. In 1858 he was elected to a life fellowship at All Souls' College.  He was defeated in the 1860 election for the Boden Professor of Sanskrit, which was a "keen disappointment" to him. Müller was far better qualified for the post than the other candidate (Monier Monier-Williams), but his broad theological views, his Lutheranism, his German birth and lack of practical first-hand knowledge of India told against him. After the election he wrote to his mother, "all the best people voted for me, the Professors almost unanimously, but the "vulgus profanum" made the majority".  Later in 1868, Müller became Oxford's first Professor of Comparative Philology, a position founded on his behalf. He held this chair until his death, although he retired from its active duties in 1875.

Scholarly and literary works.

Sanskrit studies.

In 1844, prior to commencing his academic career at Oxford, Müller studied in Berlin with Friedrich Schelling. He began to translate the "Upanishads" for Schelling, and continued to research Sanskrit under Franz Bopp, the first systematic scholar of the Indo-European languages (IE). Schelling led Müller to relate the history of language to the history of religion. At this time, Müller published his first book, a German translation of the "Hitopadesa", a collection of Indian fables.  In 1845 Müller moved to Paris to study Sanskrit under Eugène Burnouf. Burnouf encouraged him to publish the complete Rigveda, making use of the manuscripts available in England. He moved to England in 1846 to study Sanskrit texts in the collection of the East India Company. He supported himself at first with creative writing, his novel "German Love" being popular in its day.  Müller's connections with the East India Company and with Sanskritists based at Oxford University led to a career in Britain, where he eventually became the leading intellectual commentator on the culture of India. At the time, Britain controlled this territory as part of its Empire. This led to complex exchanges between Indian and British intellectual culture, especially through Müller's links with the Brahmo Samaj.  Müller's Sanskrit studies came at a time when scholars had started to see language development in relation to cultural development. The recent discovery of the Indo-European language group had started to lead to much speculation about the relationship between Greco-Roman cultures and those of more ancient peoples. In particular the Vedic culture of India was thought to have been the ancestor of European Classical cultures. Scholars sought to compare the genetically related European and Asian languages to reconstruct the earliest form of the root-language. The Vedic language, Sanskrit, was thought to be the oldest of the IE languages.  Müller devoted himself to the study of this language, becoming one of the major Sanskrit scholars of his day. He believed that the earliest documents of Vedic culture should be studied to provide the key to the development of pagan European religions, and of religious belief in general. To this end, Müller sought to understand the most ancient of Vedic scriptures, the "Rig-Veda." Müller translated the book written by the 14th century Sanskrit scholar Sayanacharya from Sanskrit to English. Müller was greatly impressed by Ramakrishna Paramhansa, his contemporary and proponent of Vedantic philosophy, and wrote several essays and books about him. For Müller, the study of the language had to relate to the study of the culture in which it had been used. He came to the view that the development of languages should be tied to that of belief-systems. At that time the Vedic scriptures were little-known in the West, though there was increasing interest in the philosophy of the Upanishads. Müller believed that the sophisticated Upanishadic philosophy could be linked to the primitive henotheism of early Vedic Brahmanism from which it evolved. He had to travel to London to look at documents held in the collection of the British East India Company. While there he persuaded the company to allow him to undertake a critical edition of the Rig-Veda, a task he pursued over many years (1849–1874). He completed the critical edition for which he is most remembered..  For Müller, the culture of the Vedic peoples represented a form of nature worship, an idea clearly influenced by Romanticism. Müller shared many of the ideas associated with Romanticism, which coloured his account of ancient religions, in particular his emphasis on the formative influence on early religion of emotional communion with natural forces. He saw the gods of the Rig-Veda as active forces of nature, only partly personified as imagined supernatural persons. From this claim Müller derived his theory that mythology is "a disease of language". By this he meant that myth transforms concepts into beings and stories. In Müller's view, "gods" began as words constructed to express abstract ideas, but were transformed into imagined personalities. Thus the Indo-European father-god appears under various names: Zeus, Jupiter, Dyaus Pita. For Müller all these names can be traced to the word ""Dyaus"," which he understood to imply "shining" or "radiance". This leads to the terms "deva", "deus", "theos" as generic terms for a god, and to the names "Zeus" and "Jupiter" (derived from deus-pater). In this way a metaphor becomes personified and ossified. This aspect of Müller's thinking was later explored similarly by Nietzsche.

Gifford Lectures.

In 1888, Müller was appointed Gifford Lecturer at the University of Glasgow. These Gifford Lectures were the first in an annual series, given at several Scottish universities, that has continued to the present day. Over the next four years, Müller gave four series of lectures. The titles and order of the lectures were as follows:

As translator.

In 1881, he published a translation of the first edition of Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason". He agreed with Schopenhauer that this edition was the most direct and honest expression of Kant's thought. His translation corrected several errors that were committed by previous translators. In his Translator's Preface, Müller wrote Müller continued to be influenced by the Kantian Transcendentalist model of spirituality, and was opposed to Darwinian ideas of human development. He argued that "language forms an impassable barrier between man and beast."  He was also influenced by the work "Thought and Reality", of the Russian philosopher African Spir.

Views on India.

Early career.

On August 25th 1866, Muller wrote to Chevalier Bunsen: In his career, Müller several times expressed the view that a "reformation" within Hinduism needed to occur, comparable to the Christian Reformation. In his view, "if there is one thing which a comparative study of religions places in the clearest light, it is the inevitable decay to which every religion is exposed... Whenever we can trace back a religion to its first beginnings, we find it free from many blemishes that affected it in its later states".  He used his links with the Brahmo Samaj to encourage such a reformation on the lines pioneered by Ram Mohan Roy. Müller believed that the Brahmos would engender an Indian form of Christianity and that they were in practice "Christians, without being Roman Catholics, Anglicans or Lutherans". In the Lutheran tradition, he hoped that the "superstition" and idolatry, which he considered to be characteristic of modern popular Hinduism, would disappear.  Müller wrote: The translation of the "Veda" will hereafter tell to a great extent on the fate of India, and on the growth of millions of souls in that country. It is the root of their religion, and to show them what the root is, I feel sure, is the only way of uprooting all that has sprung from it during the last 3,000 years... one ought to be up and doing what may be God's work.  Müller hoped that increased funding for education in India would promote a new form of literature combining Western and Indian traditions. In 1868 he wrote to George Campbell, the newly appointed Secretary of State for India:

Late career.

In his sixties and seventies, Müller gave a series of lectures, which reflected a more nuanced view in favour of Hinduism and the ancient literature from India. In his "What can India teach us?" lecture at University of Cambridge, he championed ancient Sanskrit literature and India as follows:  He also conjectured that the introduction of Islam in India in the 11th century had a deep effect on the psyche and behaviour of Hindus in another lecture, "Truthful Character of the Hindus":  Swami Vivekananda, who was the foremost disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, met Müller over a lunch on 28 May 1896. Regarding Müller and his wife, the Swami later wrote:

Controversies.

Anti-Christian.

During the course of his Gifford Lectures on the subject of "natural religion", Müller was severely criticised for being anti-Christian. In 1891, at a meeting of the Established Presbytery of Glasgow, Mr. Thomson (Minister of Ladywell) moved a motion that Müller's teaching was "subversive of the Christian faith, and fitted to spread pantheistic and infidel views amongst the students and others" and questioned Müller's appointment as lecturer. An even stronger attack on Müller was made by Monsignor Alexander Munro in St Andrew's Cathedral. Munro, an officer of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland (and Provost of the Catholic Cathedral of Glasgow from 1884 to 1892), declared that Müller's lectures "were nothing less than a crusade against Divine revelation, against Jesus Christ, and against Christianity". The blasphemous lectures were, he continued, "the proclamation of atheism under the guise of pantheism" and "uprooted our idea of God, for it repudiated the idea of a personal God".  Similar accusations had already led to Müller's exclusion from the Boden chair in Sanskrit in favour of the conservative Monier Monier-Williams. By the 1880s Müller was being courted by Charles Godfrey Leland, medium and Freemason Helena Blavatsky, and other writers who were seeking to assert the merits of "pagan" religious traditions over Christianity. The designer Mary Fraser Tytler stated that Müller's book "Chips from a German Workshop" (a collection of his essays) was her "Bible", which helped her to create a multi-cultural sacred imagery.  Müller distanced himself from these developments, and remained within the Lutheran faith in which he had been brought up. According to G. Beckerlegge, "Müller's background as a Lutheran German and his identification with the Broad Church party" led to "suspicion by those opposed to the political and religious positions that they felt Müller represented", particularly his latitudinarianism.  Although Müller took a strong religious and academic interest in Hinduism and other non-Christian religions, and often compared Christianity to religions that many traditional Protestants would have regarded as primitive or false, he grounded his Perennialism in a belief that Christianity possessed the fullest truth of all living religions. Twenty-first century scholars of religion, far from accusing Müller of being anti-Christian, have critically examined Müller's theological project as evidence for a bias towards Christian conceptions of God in early academic religious studies.

Darwin disagreement.

Müller attempted to formulate a philosophy of religion that addressed the crisis of faith engendered by the historical and critical study of religion by German scholars on the one hand, and by the Darwinian revolution on the other. He was wary of Darwin's work on human evolution, and attacked his view of the development of human faculties. His work was taken up by cultural commentators such as his friend John Ruskin, who saw it as a productive response to the crisis of the age (compare Matthew Arnold's "Dover Beach"). He analysed mythologies as rationalisations of natural phenomena, primitive beginnings that we might denominate "protoscience" within a cultural evolution. Müller also proposed an early, mystical interpretation of theistic evolution, using Darwinism as a critique of mechanical philosophy.  In 1870 Müller gave a short course of three lectures for the British Institution on language as the barrier between man and beast, which he called "On Darwin's Philosophy of Language". Müller specifically disagreed with Darwin's theories on the origin of language and that the language of man could have developed from the language of animals. In 1873, he sent a copy of his lectures to Darwin reassuring him that, though he differed from some of Darwin's conclusions, he was one of his "diligent readers and sincere admirers".

Aryanism.

Müller's work contributed to the developing interest in Aryan culture, which often set Indo-European ("Aryan") traditions in opposition to Semitic religions. He was "deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms", as this was far from his intention. For Müller the discovery of common Indian and European ancestry was a powerful argument against racism, arguing that "an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar" and that "the blackest Hindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest Scandinavians".

Turanian.

Müller put forward and promoted the theory of a "Turanian" family of languages or speech, comprising the Finnic, Samoyedic, "Tataric" (Turkic), Mongolic, and Tungusic languages. According to Müller, these five languages were those "spoken in Asia or Europe not included under the Arian (sic) and Semitic families, with the exception perhaps of the Chinese and its dialects". In addition, they were "nomadic languages," in contrast to the other two families (Aryan and Semitic), which he called State or political languages.  The idea of a Turanian family of languages was not accepted by everyone at the time. Although the term "Turanian" quickly became an archaism (unlike "Aryan"), it did not disappear completely. The idea was absorbed later into nationalist ideologies in Hungary and Turkey.

Honours.

In 1869 Müller was elected to the French "Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres" as a foreign correspondent ("associé étranger").  In June 1874 Müller was awarded the "Pour le Mérite" (civil class), much to his surprise. Soon after, when he was commanded to dine at Windsor, he wrote to Prince Leopold to ask if he "might" wear his Order, and the wire came back, "Not "may", but "must"."  In 1875 Müller was awarded the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art. The award is given to acknowledge excellent and outstanding achievements in the field of science and art. In a letter to his mother dated 19 December, Müller wrote that the award was more showy than the "Pour le Mérite", "but that is the best".  In 1896 Müller was appointed a member of the Privy Council.

Personal life.

Müller became a naturalized British citizen in 1855, at the age of 32.  He married Georgina Adelaide Grenfell on 3 August 1859. The couple had four children – Ada, Mary, Beatrice and Wilhelm Max – of whom two predeceased them.  Georgina (died 1919) had his papers and correspondence bound; they are at the Bodleian Library, Oxford.

Death and legacy.

Müller's health began deteriorating in 1898 and he died at his home in Oxford on 28 October 1900. He was interred at Holywell Cemetery on 1 November 1900.  After his death a memorial fund was opened at Oxford for "the promotion of learning and research in all matters relating to the history and archaeology, the languages, literatures, and religions of ancient India".  The Goethe Institutes in India are named Max Müller Bhavan in his honour, as is a street (Max Mueller Marg) in New Delhi.  Müller's biographies include those by Lourens van den Bosch (2002), Jon R. Stone (2002) and Nirad C. Chaudhuri (1974), the last of which was awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award for English by Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters. Stephen G. Alter's (2005) work contains a chapter on Müller's rivalry with the American linguist William Dwight Whitney.

Publications.

Müller's scholarly works, published separately as well as an 18-volume "Collected Works", include:

Friedrich Max Müller (; 6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900) was a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life. He was one of the founders of the western academic field of Indian studies and the discipline of Study of religions (science of religion, Religionswissenschaft). Müller wrote both scholarly and popular works on the subject of Indology. The "Sacred Books of the East", a 50-volume set of English translations, was prepared under his direction. He also promoted the idea of a Turanian family of languages.

弗里德里希·马克斯·缪勒(,1823年-12月6日-1900年-10月28日),生于德意志邦联德绍,是一位德国文字学家和东方学家,专长于印度学,是西方学术领域中印度研究与宗教比较等学科的奠基者之一。缪勒对印度的兴趣除了以学术著作展现之外,也以小说的形式来呈现,使得英国的广大读者能够接触并认识印度学。而他所领导翻译多达50册的《东方圣典》("Sacred Books of the East")更是维多利亚时代学术的永久性纪念碑。


Early life.

Miklós Rózsa was born in Budapest and was introduced to classical and folk music by his mother, Regina, a pianist who had studied with pupils of Franz Liszt, and his father, Gyula, a well-to-do industrialist and landowner who loved Hungarian folk music.  Rózsa's maternal uncle Lajos, violinist with the Budapest Opera, presented young Miklós with his first instrument at the age of five. He later took up the viola and piano. By the age of eight he was performing in public and composing. He also collected folksongs from the area where his family had a country estate north of Budapest in an area inhabited by the Palóc Hungarians. While deeply admiring the folk-based nationalism of Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály, Rózsa sought to find his own way as a composer. Fearing that Kodály's dominance at the Budapest's Franz Liszt Academy tended to suppress individualism, he sought to study music in Germany. He enrolled at the University of Leipzig in 1925, ostensibly to study chemistry at the behest of his practical-minded father. Determined to become a composer, he transferred to the Leipzig Conservatory the following year. There he studied composition with Hermann Grabner, successor to Max Reger. He also studied choral music with (and later assisted) Karl Straube at the Thomaskirche, where Johann Sebastian Bach had once been the organist. Rózsa emerged from these years with a deep respect for the German musical tradition, which would always temper the Hungarian nationalism of his musical style.  Rózsa's first two published works, the String Trio, Op. 1, and the Piano Quintet, Op. 2, were issued in Leipzig by Breitkopf & Härtel. In 1929, he received his diplomas "cum laude". During the Leipzig years he essayed a single-movement Violin Concerto and a lengthy Symphony, Op. 6. Neither work was published, and Rózsa was discouraged on a trip to Berlin when Wilhelm Furtwängler did not find time to consider the Symphony. Rozsa suppressed both works, but eventually allowed the Symphony (minus its lost scherzo) to be recorded in 1993.  For a time he remained in Leipzig as Grabner's assistant, but at the suggestion of the French organist and composer Marcel Dupré, he moved to Paris in 1931. There he composed chamber music and a "Serenade" for small orchestra, Op. 10 (later greatly revised as "Hungarian Serenade", Op. 25). It was premiered in Budapest by Ernő Dohnányi, who had advised Rózsa to offer a shorter work than the Symphony. Richard Strauss was in the audience, and his approval meant more to the young composer than the presence of Habsburg royalty and the prince regent, Miklós Horthy. The subsequent "Theme, Variations, and Finale", Op. 13, was especially well received and was performed by conductors such as Charles Munch, Karl Böhm, Georg Solti, Eugene Ormandy, Bruno Walter, and Leonard Bernstein.

Film scoring career.

Rózsa was introduced to film music in 1934 by his friend, the Swiss composer Arthur Honegger. Following a concert which featured their respective compositions, Honegger mentioned that he supplemented his income as a composer of film scores, including the film "Les Misérables" (1934). Rózsa went to see it and was greatly impressed by the opportunities the film medium offered. However, no film scoring opportunities presented themselves in Paris, and Rózsa had to support himself by reliance on a wealthy patron and by composing light music under the pseudonym Nic Tomay. It was not until Rózsa moved to London that he was hired to compose his first film score for "Knight Without Armour" (1937), produced by his fellow Hungarian Alexander Korda. Around the same time he also scored "Thunder in the City" (1937) for another Hungarian filmmaker, Ákos Tolnay, who had previously urged Rózsa to come to England. While the latter film was the first to open, Rózsa always cited the more prestigious Korda project as his film debut. He joined the staff of Korda's London Films, and scored the studio's epic "The Four Feathers" (1939). Korda and the studio's music director, Muir Mathieson, brought Rózsa onto their Arabian Nights fantasy "The Thief of Bagdad" (1940) when the operetta-style approach of the original composer, Oscar Straus, was deemed unsuitable. Production was transferred to Hollywood when the war broke out, and Rozsa completed his score there in 1940.  The music earned him his first Academy Award nomination. While Korda remained in Hollywood, Rózsa was effectively the music director of his organization. In his capacity he supervised the scoring of "To Be or Not to Be" (1942) and contributed at least one sequence of his own music. His own U.S. scores for Korda included "Lydia" (1940), "That Hamilton Woman" (1941), and "The Jungle Book" (1942). From the last of these emerged "The Jungle Book Suite" for narrator and orchestra, which became popular as narrated by the film's star, Sabu, and was soon recorded in New York by RCA. The 78-rpm album became the first substantial recording of Hollywood film music. It was later recorded with Rózsa conducting the Frankenland State Orchestra of Nuremberg and Leo Genn as narrator.  In 1943, now associated with Paramount, Rózsa scored the first of several collaborations with director Billy Wilder, "Five Graves to Cairo". That same year that he also scored the similarly themed Humphrey Bogart film "Sahara". In 1944, his scores for a second Wilder collaboration, "Double Indemnity", and for "The Woman of the Town", both received Academy Award nominations.  In 1944, Rózsa was hired by producer David O. Selznick to compose the score for Alfred Hitchcock's film "Spellbound". The scoring process was notably contentious, with producer, director, and composer all expressing considerable dissatisfaction with each other. Numerous changes were made in the editing by Audray Granville, Selznick's assistant and de facto music director. The almost farcical history or artists at cross-purposes has been documented by Jack Sullivan ("Hitchcock's Music", 2006) and especially Nathan Platte ("Making Music in Selznick's Hollywood", 2018). Nevertheless, the film, finally released in late 1945, was a hit, and the music became extraordinarily popular in its own right. The combination of lush melody for the romance and frenzied expressionism for the suspense scenes proved irresistible. Rózsa's pioneering (for Hollywood) use of the theremin contributed to the effect, and the attention it generated likely influenced his Academy Award nomination. Two of his other 1945 scores were also nominated, "The Lost Weekend" and "A Song to Remember", but the Oscar was awarded to "Spellbound". Although Selznick was unhappy with the score, his innovative radio promotion of the music contributed to both the film's and the composer's popularity. Rózsa eventually arranged his themes as the "Spellbound Concerto", which (in multiple versions) has enjoyed lasting success in concerts and recordings.  Rózsa earned another Oscar nomination for scoring "The Killers" (1946) which introduced Burt Lancaster to film audiences. Part of the famed theme for the "Dragnet" radio and TV show duplicated part of Rozsa's "The Killers" main theme, and he successfully sued for damages, and subsequently was given co-credit for the "Dragnet" theme.  Rózsa received his second Oscar for "A Double Life" (1947), in which Ronald Colman, as a Shakespearean actor playing Othello, becomes murderously disturbed in his offstage life. Rózsa later adopted the title for his own memoir, signifying his desire to keep his personal music distinct from his movie career. That same year Rózsa and Eugene Zador arranged music by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov for the film "Song of Scheherazade", about a fictional episode in the composer's life. Zador, a fellow Hungarian immigrant and a noted composer in his own right, assisted with the orchestration of most of Rózsa's Hollywood film music. Also in 1947, Rózsa scored the music for the psychological thriller "The Red House".  Among other films scored by Rózsa during the 1940s were the prison drama "Brute Force" (1947), also with Lancaster, and "The Naked City" (1948), the latter also including music by Frank Skinner. Both of those films were directed by Jules Dassin.  "Madame Bovary" (1949) was Rózsa's first important score for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, which produced most of the later films that he scored. Other popular scores that he composed for MGM pictures include "Quo Vadis" (1951), "Ivanhoe" (1952), "Plymouth Adventure" (1952), "Knights of the Round Table" (1953), "Green Fire" (1954). "Moonfleet" (1955)," Bhowani Junction" (1956), "Lust for Life" (1956), "Ben-Hur" (1959), "King of Kings" (1961) and "The V.I.P.s" (1963).  For "Ben-Hur", Rózsa received his third and final Oscar. His final two nominations (one each for Best Original Score and Best Original Song) were for the 1961 Samuel Bronston film "El Cid".  In 1968, he was asked to score "The Green Berets", after Elmer Bernstein turned it down due to his political beliefs. Rózsa initially declined the offer, saying, "I don't do westerns." However, he agreed to compose the score after being informed, "It's not a Western, it's an 'Eastern'." He produced a strong and varied score, which included a nightclub vocal by a Vietnamese singer, Bạch Yến. However, one cue which incorporated stanzas of "Onward, Christian Soldiers" was deleted from the film's final edit.  His popular film scores during the 1970s included his last two Billy Wilder collaborations "The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes" (1970) and "Fedora" (1978), the Ray Harryhausen fantasy sequel "The Golden Voyage of Sinbad" (1973), the latter-day "film noir" "Last Embrace" starring Roy Scheider, and the time-travel fantasy film "Time After Time" (1979) for which Rózsa won a Science Fiction Film Award, saying in his televised acceptance speech that of all the film scores he had ever composed, it was the one he had worked on the hardest.  For his first film in English, "Providence" (1977), Alain Resnais turned to Rózsa whom he had admired especially for his work on the 1949 version of "Madame Bovary". Rózsa later cited Resnais as one of the few directors in his experience who really understood the function of music in film.  After completing work on the music for the spy thriller "Eye of the Needle" (1981), Rózsa's last film score was for the black-and-white Steve Martin film "Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid" (1982), a comic homage to the "film noir" films of the 1940s, a genre to which Rozsa himself had contributed scores. Although Rózsa's career as a composer for films ended following a stroke he suffered while on holiday in Italy later that year, he continued to compose various concert pieces thereafter; one of his last works being Sonata for Ondes Martenot, op. 45 (1989).  He returned to California at the behest of his son, and remained sequestered at his home for the remainder of his life.

Death.

Rózsa died on 27 July 1995, and is buried at Forest Lawn in the Hollywood Hills. His wife, Margaret, died in 1999, aged 89.

Works.

Rózsa's first major success was the orchestral "Theme, Variations, and Finale", Op. 13, introduced in Duisburg, Germany, in 1934 and soon taken up by Charles Munch, Karl Böhm, Bruno Walter, Hans Swarowsky, and other leading conductors.  It was first played in the United States by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra under Hans Lange on 28–29 October 1937, and achieved wide exposure through a 1943 New York Philharmonic concert broadcast when Leonard Bernstein made his famous conducting debut.  By 1952, his film score work was proving so successful that he was able to negotiate a clause in his contract with MGM that gave him three months each year away from the film studio so that he could focus on concert music.  Rózsa's Violin Concerto, Op. 24, was composed in 1953–54 for the violinist Jascha Heifetz, who collaborated with the composer in fine-tuning it. Rózsa later adapted portions of this work for the score of Billy Wilder's "The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes" (1970). Rózsa's Cello Concerto, Op. 32 was written much later (1967–68) at the request of the cellist János Starker, who premiered the work in Berlin in 1969.  Between his violin and cello concertos, Rózsa composed his Sinfonia Concertante, Op. 29, for violin, cello, and orchestra. The commissioning artists, Heifetz and his frequent collaborator Gregor Piatigorsky, never performed the finished work, although they did record a reduced version of the slow movement, called "Tema con Variazoni", Op. 29a.  Rózsa also received recognition for his choral works. His collaboration with conductor Maurice Skones and The Choir of the West at Pacific Lutheran University in Tacoma, Washington, resulted in a commercial recording of his sacred choral works—"To Everything There is a Season", Op. 20; "The Vanities of Life", Op. 30; and "The Twenty-Third Psalm", Op. 34—produced by John Steven Lasher and recorded by Allen Giles for the Entr'acte Recording Society in 1978.

In popular culture.

The seventh variation (after the theme) of his "Theme, Variations and Finale", Op. 13, was used as part of the soundtrack in four episodes—most notably "The Clown Who Cried"—of 1950s television series "Adventures of Superman".

Miklós Rózsa (; 18 April 1907 – 27 July 1995) was a Hungarian-American composer trained in Germany (1925–1931) and active in France (1931–1935), the United Kingdom (1935–1940) and the United States (1940–1995), with extensive sojourns in Italy from 1953 onward. Best known for his nearly one hundred film scores, he nevertheless maintained a steadfast allegiance to absolute concert music throughout what he called his "double life" (Rózsa, "Double Life: The Autobiography of Miklós Rózsa" [Tunbridge Wells: Baton Press, 1982), p. 9].)

米克罗斯·罗饶(,1907年-4月18日-1995年-7月27日),美籍匈牙利作曲家。从小学习钢琴和小提琴,并喜爱当地民歌。后来他到莱比锡学习音乐,并创作了最初的一些作品。1932年移居巴黎,开始创作电影配乐,1939年到美国,成为好莱坞的重要电影音乐作曲家,曾屡次获奥斯卡金像奖。罗饶的创作风格比较传统,音乐色彩绚烂,配器丰富,常具有匈牙利民族风情,颇为世人喜爱。


Structure.

Location.

There is a choroid plexus in each of the four ventricles of the brain. In the lateral ventricles, it is only present in the inferior horn.

Microanatomy.

The choroid plexus consists of a layer of cuboidal epithelial cells surrounding a core of capillaries and loose connective tissue. The epithelium of the choroid plexus is continuous with the ependymal cell layer (ventricular layer) that lines the ventricles. The ependymal cells of the choroid plexus begin as monociliated but differentiate to multiciliated ependymal cells. but, unlike the ependyma, the choroid plexus epithelial layer has tight junctions between the cells on the side facing the ventricle (apical surface). These tight junctions prevent the majority of substances from crossing the cell layer into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF); thus the choroid plexus acts as a blood–CSF barrier. The choroid plexus folds into many villi around each capillary, creating frond-like processes that project into the ventricles. The villi, along with a brush border of microvilli, greatly increase the surface area of the choroid plexus. CSF is formed as plasma is filtered from the blood through the epithelial cells. Choroid plexus epithelial cells actively transport sodium ions into the ventricles and water follows the resulting osmotic gradient.  The choroid plexus consists of many capillaries, separated from the ventricles by choroid epithelial cells. Fluid filters through these cells from blood to become cerebrospinal fluid. There is also much active transport of substances into, and out of, the CSF as it is made.

Function.

The choroid plexus mediates the production of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF acts as a medium for filtration system that facilitates the removal of metabolic waste from the brain and exchange of biomolecules and xenobiotics into and out of the brain. In this way the choroid plexus has a very important role in helping to maintain the delicate extracellular environment required by the brain to function optimally.  The choroid plexus is also a major source of transferrin secretion that plays a part in iron homeostasis in the brain.

Blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier.

The blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) is a fluid–brain barrier that is composed of a pair of membranes that separate blood from CSF at the capillary level and CSF from brain tissue. The blood–CSF boundary at the choroid plexus is a membrane composed of epithelial cells and tight junctions that link them. There is a CSF-brain barrier at the level of the pia mater, but only in the embryo.  Similar to the blood–brain barrier, the blood–CSF barrier functions to prevent the passage of most blood-borne substances into the brain, while selectively permitting the passage specific substances into the brain and facilitating the removal of brain metabolites and metabolic products into the blood. Despite the similar function between the BBB and BCSFB, each facilitates the transport of different substances into the brain due to the distinct structural characteristics between the two barrier systems. For a number of substances, the BCSFB is the primary site of entry into brain tissue.  The blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier has also been shown to modulate the entry of leukocytes from the blood to the central nervous system. The choroid plexus cells secrete cytokines that recruit monocyte-derived macrophages, among other cells, to the brain. This cellular trafficking has implications both in normal brain homeostasis as in neuroinflammatory processes.

Clinical significance.

Choroid plexus cysts.

During prenatal development, some fetuses may form choroid plexus cysts. These fluid-filled cysts can be detected by a detailed second trimester ultrasound. The finding is relatively common, with a prevalence of ~1%. Choroid plexus cysts are usually an isolated finding. The cysts typically disappear later during pregnancy, and are usually harmless. They have no effect on infant and early childhood development.  Cysts confers a 1% risk of fetal aneuploidy. The risk of aneuploidy increases to 10.5-12% if other risk factors or ultrasound findings are noted. Size, location, disappearance or progression, and whether the cysts are found on both sides or not do not affect the risk of aneuploidy. 44-50% of Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18) cases will present with choroid plexus cysts, as well 1.4% of Down syndrome (trisomy 21) cases. ~75% of abnormal karyotypes associated with choroid plexus cysts are trisomy 18, while the remainder are trisomy 21.

Other.

There are three graded types of choroid plexus tumor that mainly affect young children. These types of cancer are rare.

Etymology.

Choroid plexus translates from the Latin plexus chorioides, which mirrors Ancient Greek χοριοειδές πλέγμα. The word "chorion" was used by Galen to refer to the outer membrane enclosing the fetus. Both meanings of the word plexus are given as pleating, or braiding. As often happens language changes and the use of both "choroid" or "chorioid" is both accepted. Nomina Anatomica (now Terminologia Anatomica) reflected this dual usage.

The choroid plexus or plica choroidea, is a plexus of cells that produces the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of the central nervous system. CSF is produced and secreted by regions of choroid plexus in the ventricles of the brain. The choroid plexus consists of modified ependymal cells.

脉络丛是在脑室中由软脑膜及其上的反复分支的血管和室管膜上皮共同构成的脉络状组织丛状结构。脉络丛是产生脑脊液的主要结构。


Rise.

Before the 13th century, the feudal levy of knights was the customary method employed in the raising of Polish armies in the Kingdom of Poland of the Late Middle Ages. The earliest mentions of the term can be traced to the reign of Władysław I the Elbow-high (1320–1333). Statutes of Casimir the Great made the service in the military obligatory for all knights-landowners, under the penalty of land confiscation. The more wealthy knights provided a lances fournies unit (known in Poland as "kopia"), and the less prosperous ones served as a light horseman or even infantryman. They were obliged to take arms and defend the country, and to participate in wars in foreign lands.  As the knights (later, nobles - the szlachta class) started to acquire privileges, some of them began to change the way that the "pospolite ruszenie" functioned. The length of the service was set at two weeks. The Privilege of Buda of 1355 required the king to compensate any losses incurred by the nobles in wars abroad, and the Privilege of Koszyce of 1374 required him to pay the ransom for any nobles taken into captivity during wars abroad. A privilege of 1388 extended that compensation for losses incurred when defending the country and confirmed that the nobles were to receive a monetary wage for their participation and that they should be consulted with by the king beforehand.  The early "pospolite ruszenie" also put the requirement of military service on the landowning knights in the priesthood, and on the peasant leaders (sołtys and wójts). The few townsfolk who owned land estates would also have the obligation to serve. It could be called by the king, or in his absence and in dire need, from the 14th century, the starost of the affected territory. From 1454 another privilege (the Privilege of Cerkwica, confirmed the same year by the Statutes of Nieszawa) made the calling of a pospolite ruszenie conditional on the agreement of the local sejmik (regional parliament) and, by the end of the 15th century, this required the agreement of the national parliament, the sejm. Some of the above privileges were extorted by the szlachta from the king, as a "pospolite ruszenie" was known to refuse to act unless more privileges were granted to it (this was the case, for example, in 1454).  "Pospolite ruszenie" units were usually organized based on a territorial and administrative division of Kingdom of Poland (later, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), within units known as voivodeships (Latin 'palatinate'), and smaller ones. The knights (nobles) would be gathered by castellans and voivodes, who led them to the chosen points where the command would pass to the military commanders (hetmans) or the king. The units would be organized into units of about 50-120 strong (chorągiew), based on their territorial origin. There were some exceptions, as the most powerful magnates would form their own chorągiews.

Decline.

"Szlachta" from regions like the Commonwealth's eastern and southern borderlands, where combat was common, created fairly competent units, while those from peaceful regions of the Commonwealth lacked battle experience and training compared to regular-military troops or mercenaries. In time, "pospolite ruszenie" became increasingly amateurish and inefficient when compared to professional soldiers; Bardach notes that this process can be seen as early as the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66). In addition to the lack of training, discipline and unstandardized equipment, the time it took for a pospolite ruszenie to be called to arms and gathered in a designed spot (often, close to a month) was also a problem. Some attempts at reform the situation, including a mass wave of estate confiscations at 1497, and a requirement for yearly gatherings and reviews, did little to ameliorate the situation.  From the 15th century, "pospolite ruszenie" levies were used less often than were professional military troops. By mid-16th century, pospolite ruszenie could, in theory, have fielded about 50,000 troops.  By the 17th century, the military value of the "pospolite ruszenie" was very limited, and was last called to participate in the Battle of Warsaw of 1656 during The Deluge (the battle ended with a Polish defeat). Nonetheless, the "szlachta" continued to believe they formed an elite army, and that their participation in the defense of the country was an important reason for their privileged position in it. As this was used as a justifications for lower taxation, the Commonwealth treasury found itself increasingly starved for funds to pay to regular, standing army. With the Commonwealth Army reduced by that time to around 16,000, it was easy for its neighbors to overpower its armies (the Imperial Russian Army numbered 300,000; the Prussian Army and Imperial Austrian Army, 200,000).

Final reforms, partitions and the Second Polish Republic.

During the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794, under the influence of revolutionary France and Enlightenment ideas about the role of the militia, "pospolite ruszenie" was redefined as consisted of not only the nobility, but all able-bodied males between 18 and 40 years of age. In 1806, by decree of Napoleon, the "pospolite ruszenie" in the Duchy of Warsaw served for a short period as the reserve force and recruitment pool for the regular army. During the November Uprising in 1831, the "Sejm" (Polish Parliament) called for "pospolite ruszenie" recruits from the ages of 17 to 50, but that plan was opposed by General Jan Zygmunt Skrzynecki.  During the Second Republic of Poland (1918–1939), the "pospolite ruszenie" consisted of reserve soldiers, aged 40–50 and officers, aged 50–60. They were required to participate in army exercises and to serve in armed forces during times of war.

Pospolite ruszenie (, lit. "mass mobilization"; "Noble Host",, the French term "levée en masse" is also used) is a name for the mobilisation of armed forces during the period of the Kingdom of Poland and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The tradition of wartime mobilisation of part of the population existed from before the 13th century to the 19th century. In the later era, "pospolite ruszenie" units were formed from the "szlachta" (Polish "nobility"). The "pospolite ruszenie" was eventually outclassed by professional forces.

全民动员(法语:levée en masse)是指对国内所有男性或部分具有资格的男性进行武装号召。在佣兵或征兵等职业军人制度前,全民动员为中世纪欧洲及世界其他地区普遍的宣战方式。动员对象须自备武器与装备,并有专门条文详细规范。由于动员对象所拥有的战斗经验不同,每次动员的战斗价值及训练程度,皆有极大的差异。


History.

Without British participation, 26 members founded the OIR on 28 June 1946. The next day, at the General Assembly of the International Broadcasting Union (IBU), an attempt was made to dissolve this body, but the motion failed to obtain the required majority. However, 18 of the 28 existing members left the IBU and become co-founders of the new OIR.  In 1946, the newly created OIR installed itself in the IBU building in Brussels. Technical activity was taken up again under the authority of two directors, one delegated by the Soviet Union and the other by France. However, the political situation gradually degraded into the Cold War and this created an uneasy situation of distrust within the staff of the Technical Centre.  In 1950 some members (mostly western European) left the organization to form the new European Broadcasting Union (EBU), among them Belgium, Egypt, France, Italy, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Monaco, Morocco, Netherlands, Tunisia and Yugoslavia.  Broadcasting organizations from the following countries remained members: Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Finland (also a member of EBU), East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Syria and the Soviet Union.  As a consequence, the OIR headquarters and its Technical Centre was relocated from Brussels to Prague in 1950. Staff members from Belgium and other Western countries, some of whom had already been active before the war, stayed on in Brussels and the centre became the technical centre of the new EBU.  Unlike the EBU, the OIRT was not limited to European and Mediterranean countries and has been operating since its inception as a global organization. Members of the organization included countries aligned with the Eastern bloc, such as Cuba, Vietnam, the People's Republic of China and North Korea (although the latter's membership was temporarily inactive after their break with the USSR), as well as the allies of the USSR temporarily led by communist parties, such as Nicaragua and the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, and the African and Middle Eastern states having been temporarily associated or supported by the socialist camp.  On January 1, 1993, about a year after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the OIRT merged with the European Broadcasting Union.

Intervision.

The television network of OIRT was established in 1960 and was called Intervision (Russian "Интервидение", Bulgarian "Интервизия", Polish "Interwizja", Czech "Intervize", Slovak "Intervízia", Hungarian "Intervízió", Romanian "Interviziune", Finnish "Intervisio").  Between 1977 and 1980 the OIRT organised four Intervision Song Contests in Sopot, Poland, in an attempt to imitate the Eurovision Song Contest.

The International Radio and Television Organisation (official name in French: Organisation Internationale de Radiodiffusion et de Télévision or OIRT (before 1960 International Broadcasting Organization (IBO), official name in French: "Organisation Internationale de Radiodiffusion" (OIR)) was an East European network of radio and television broadcasters with the primary purpose of establishing ties and securing an interchange of information between those various organizations responsible for broadcasting services, promoting the interests of broadcasting, seeking by international cooperation a solution to any matter relating to broadcasting, and studying and working out all measures having as their aim the development of broadcasting.

国际广播与电视组织,英语全名“The International Radio and Television Organisation”,法语全名“Organisation Internationale de Radiodiffusion et de Télévision”(1960前为 "Organisation Internationale de Radiodiffusion (OIR)"),常被称为“Intervision” (,,)或“OIRT”,是一个已不存在的国际性广播电视联盟,成立于1946年6月28日,成员包括保加利亚、捷克斯洛伐克、东德、芬兰、匈牙利、波兰、罗马尼亚和苏联等国的电视台和广播电台,中国的北京广播电台(即现在的中国国际广播电台)和北京电视台(即现在的中国中央电视台)也曾加入这一组织,后由于中苏交恶退出。1993年1月1日,被并入欧洲广播联盟。


Background.

In 1372 the English monarch Edward III planned an important campaign in Aquitaine under the new lieutenant of the Duchy, the Earl of Pembroke. He contracted to serve a year in the duchy with a retinue of 24 knights, 55 squires and 80 archers besides other companies led by Sir Hugh Calveley and Sir John Devereux, who finally did not serve or did not appear. Pembroke received £12,000 and instructions to use the money recruit a host of 500 knight, 1,500 squires and 1,500 archers in France for at least four months. One of Edward's clerks, John Wilton, was appointed to accompany the Earl and administer the funds.  The Earl of Pembroke, his retinue and Wilton embarked at Plymouth aboard a transport fleet which was unprepared for serious engagement. The Castilian chronicler Pero López de Ayala estimated that this fleet had 36 ships, whereas the chronicler of the French court estimated it to be 35. Jean Froissart, in one of his two descriptions of the battle, put the English force on 'perhaps' 14 ships. A fleet of 20 vessels is considered a creditable force. As most of them were small transports, Sir Philip Courtenay, the Admiral of the West, was detached to escort them with 3 ships with large tonnage and towers utilizable by archers.  The English rule in Aquitaine was by then under threat. Since 1370 large parts of the region had fallen under French rule and in 1372 Bertrand du Guesclin lay siege at La Rochelle. To respond to the demands of the Franco-Castilian alliance of 1368, the king of Castile, Henry II of Trastámara, dispatched a fleet to Aquitaine under Ambrosio Boccanegra, who was seconded by Cabeza de Vaca, Fernando de Peón and Rui Díaz de Rojas. The size of this fleet is also uncertain. According to López de Ayala, it was composed of 12 galleys. Froissart, in his first relation, mentioned 40 sailing ships and 13 barges, but later reduced this numbers to 13 galleys. "Quatre Premiers Valois" and "Chronique des Pays-Bas" mention respectively 20 and 22 galleys.

Battle.

On 21 June the English convoy arrived at La Rochelle and the battle began as Pembroke's ships approached the harbour. This lay at the head of an inlet which was partially unnavigable at low water. The first Castilian attacks met strong resistance. The English, despite the inferiority of their numbers, defended themselves well. At dusk, when the tide rose, the two fleets separated. Though they had lost two or four vessels, according to Froissart, the English were not yet defeated. Pembroke then withdrew some way from land, while Boccanegra anchored in front of La Rochelle. The Chronicle "Quatre Premiers Valois", unlike López de Ayala and Froissart, implies that only some skirmishes took place on the first day, as Boccanegra would have ordered his galleys to withdraw, reserving them for the main action. According to this chronicle, the anchoring sites were reversed: the English off the town and the Castilians on the open sea.  Froissart described a discussion between Pembroke and his men during the night of 21–22 June regarding how to escape the trap. An attempt to escape under the cover of the night was dismissed due to the fear of the Castilian galleys, as well as another to enter La Rochelle because of the low draft of the passage. In the end, the low tide left the English ships aground. Castilian galleys could maneuver freely in shallow water. That gave them a decisive tactical advantage. When the fight resumed on the morning of the 22nd, the Castilians managed to set fire to some of them by spraying oil on their decks and rigging and then igniting it with flaming arrows. Many of the English were killed or burned alive, while other surrendered, among them Pembroke. The Spanish naval historian Cesáreo Fernández Duro claims that the English prisoners amounted to 400 knights and 8,000 soldiers, without counting the slain. Estimates in English chronicles speak of about 1,500 casualties, 800 deaths and between 160 and 400 prisoners. The whole fleet was destroyed or captured and £12,000 fell into Castilian hands. The English defeat appeared inevitable because of the major inequality in strength.

Aftermath.

The battle of La Rochelle was the first important English naval defeat of the Hundred Years' War. Its effect upon the course of the war was significant: La Rochelle was lost on 7 September. Its capture was followed during the second half of the year by nearly all of Poitou, Angoumois and Saintonge, which Bertrand du Guesclin cleared of English garrisons. Some authors claim that the battle cost England its naval supremacy along the French coast but others disagree, though asserting that England's naval policy had become misguided. The projected resources to support John of Gaunt's claims to the Castilian throne were largely suspended, while a great expedition under Edward III himself had to be postponed because of contrary winds.  The English needed a year to rebuild their fleet through the efforts of fourteen towns. In April 1373 a powerful force under William de Montacute, Earl of Salisbury, set sail for Portugal. It was commanded by Admirals Neville and Courtenay in two divisions, the first consisting of 15 ships and 9 barges and the second, 12 ships and 9 barges, 44 fighting vessels all told. Other ships and barges joined the large concentration and by July, Salisbury had 56 ships crewed by 2,500 sailors and an army of 2,600 soldiers. This campaign of 1373 was successful, seeing, amongst other events, the burning of a Castilian merchant convoy at Saint-Malo.

The Battle of La Rochelle was a naval battle fought on 22 and 23 June 1372 between a Castilian fleet commanded by the Castilian Ambrosio Boccanegra and an English convoy commanded by John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke. The Castilian fleet had been sent to attack the English at La Rochelle, which was being besieged by the French. Besides Boccanegra, other Castilian commanders were Cabeza de Vaca, Fernando de Peón and Ruy Díaz de Rojas.

拉罗歇尔海战(英语:Battle of La Rochelle)是英法百年战争期间的一场重要海战,发生于1372年6月22日到23日间。由彭布罗克伯爵约翰·哈斯廷斯率领的英军船队,对上与法兰西王国同盟的卡斯提尔王国海军提督安布罗西奥·波卡涅拉。卡斯提尔舰队被派遣到正在被法军围攻的拉罗歇尔港,随行的指挥官包含卡韦萨·德·巴卡、费尔南多·德·皮翁与罗·迪亚斯·德·罗哈斯。


King George Island (South Shetland Islands)

Geography.

King George island has three major bays, Maxwell Bay, Admiralty Bay, and King George Bay. Admiralty Bay contains three fjords, and is protected as an Antarctic Specially Managed Area under the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.

History.

The island was first claimed for Britain on 16 October 1819, formally annexed by Britain as part of the Falkland Islands Dependencies in 1908, and now as part of the separate British Antarctic Territory. The Island was claimed by Chile in 1940, as part of the Chilean Antarctic Territory. It was also claimed by Argentina in 1943, now as part of Argentine Antarctica, called by the Argentines "Isla Veinticinco de Mayo" (May 25) in honour of their National day. The US and Russia do not recognize these claims and have formally reserved their right to claim Antarctic territories.  The island was discovered and named by the British explorer William Smith in 1819, who named it after the then King, George III. It is approximately long and wide with a land area of. Over 90% of the island's surface is permanently glaciated. In 1821, 11 men of the sealing vessel "Lord Melville" survived the winter on the island, the first men to do so in Antarctica.

Life on the island.

The coastal areas of the island are home to a comparatively diverse selection of vegetation and animal life, including elephant, Weddell, and leopard seals, and Adelie, chinstrap and gentoo penguins. Several other seabirds, including skuas and southern giant petrel, nest on this island during the summer months.

Human activity.

Human habitation of King George Island is limited to research stations belonging to Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, South Korea, Peru, Poland, Russia, Uruguay, and the United States. Most of these stations are permanently staffed, carrying out research into areas as diverse as biology, ecology, geology, and palaeontology. Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva, the Chilean Station on the Fildes Peninsula, is operated as a permanent village with an airstrip (with large hangar and control tower along with other buildings), cafeterias for personnel of its several agencies there, a bank, a post office and comfortable ranch-style family homes with children. Chile (like Argentina and Great Britain) regards all of the Antarctic Peninsula and South Shetland Islands as part of that country's territory; however, the terms of the Antarctic Treaty allow Chile to colonize the Fildes Peninsula without overtly pursuing its territorial claims. The Chinese Great Wall base features an indoor multipurpose room which serves as a full-size basketball court.  In 2004, a Russian Orthodox church, Trinity Church, was opened on the island near Russia's Bellingshausen Station. The church, one of the southernmost in the world and one of the few permanent structures in Antarctica, is permanently manned by a priest.  In October 2013, American heavy metal band Metallica announced that it would perform a concert sponsored by The Coca-Cola Company at Carlini Station heliport. The concert took place on December 8, 2013.  The first attempted murder in Antarctica occurred on the island in 2018 at Russia's Bellingshausen Station. A small amount of specialised tourist activity also takes place during summer, including an annual marathon, known as the Antarctic marathon.  The Fildes Peninsula long, forms the SW extremity of the island. It was named from association with nearby Fildes Strait by the UK-APC in 1960.  Point Thomas lighthouse at Arctowski Station is the most southerly lighthouse of the world.  NOAA runs Lenie Base, a seasonal research station for penguin studies on Admiralty Bay. This small station, dubbed Copacabana, operates in the Antarctic summer only, but is used as a survival hut in the winter.

Climate.

The Antarctic Peninsula and its nearby islands are considered to have the mildest living conditions in Antarctica. The island's climate is strongly influenced by the surrounding ocean. Under the Köppen system, it is one of the few locations in Antarctica classified as a tundra climate rather than an ice cap climate. Variation in temperatures are small with the coldest month, July averaging and in the warmest month. With only 591.3 hours of sunshine per year, the weather is often unsettled and cloudy throughout the year with precipitation in the form of snow, rain and drizzle occurring often. On average, 729 mm of precipitation falls per year.

King George Island (Argentina: Isla 25 de Mayo, Chile: Isla Rey Jorge, Russian: Ватерло́о Vaterloo) is the largest of the South Shetland Islands, lying off the coast of Antarctica in the Southern Ocean. The island was named after King George III.

乔治王岛(英语:King George Island)是南设得兰群岛其中最大的岛屿,位于62°23'S, 58°27'W,120公里附近的海面上。目前,乔治王岛已经有阿根廷,巴西,智利,中国,韩国,秘鲁,波兰,俄罗斯,乌拉圭等国建立的南极科学考察站对该地区进行生物学,生态学,地质学和古生物学的研究。


History.

Although the first fortifications on this hilltop date from the 1st century BC, archaeological excavations have identified a human presence in the Tagus valley as far back as the 8th century BC. The first fortification was, presumably, erected in 48 BC, when Lisbon was classified as a Roman municipality.  The hill was first used by indigenous Celtic tribes, then by Phoenicians, followed by Greeks and later the Carthaginians as a defensive outpost that was later expropriated successively by the Romans, the Suebi, the Visigoths, and the Moors. During the 10th century, the fortifications were rebuilt by Muslim Berber forces; these included the walls or "Cerca Moura" ("Moorish Encirclement").

Kingdom.

In the context of the Christian "Reconquista", the castle and the city of Lisbon were freed from Moorish rule in 1147 by Afonso Henriques and northern European knights in the Siege of Lisbon during the Second Crusade; this victory was the only notable success of that failed crusade. According to an oft-repeated legend, the knight Martim Moniz, noticing that one of the doors to the castle was open, prevented the Moors from closing it by throwing his own body into the breach, thus allowing Christian soldiers to enter at the cost of his own life. With the taking of the castle Christian forces were able to maintain the defense of Lisbon until the end of the 12th century. When Lisbon became the capital of the Kingdom of Portugal in 1255, the castle served as the "alcáçova", a fortified residence for Afonso III, in his role as governor. It was extensively renovated around 1300 by King Denis I, transforming the Moorish alcáçova into the Royal Palace of the Alcáçova. Between 1373 and 1375, King Ferdinand I ordered the building of the "Cerca Nova" or "Cerca Fernandina", the walled compound that enclosed the entirety of the castle. The master builders João Fernandes and Vasco Brás were responsible for its construction. This wall, which partially replaced the old Moorish walls, was designed to encircle previously unprotected parts of the city. Completed in two years, it had 77 towers, 34 or 38 gates, and a perimeter of.  The castle and the city resisted the forces of Castile several times during the 14th century (notably in 1373 and in 1383–1384). It was during this period (the late 14th century) that the castle was dedicated to Saint George by King John I, who had married the English princess Philippa of Lancaster. Saint George, the warrior-saint, was normally represented slaying a dragon, and was very popular in both countries.  From this point onward many of the kingdom's records were housed in the "Torre de Ulisses" ("Tower of Ulysses"), also known as the "Torre Albarrã", until the reign of Manuel I. The Portuguese National Archive, where the eminent Portuguese chroniclers Fernão Lopes and Damião de Góis once worked, is still referred to as the "Torre do Tombo" (literally the "Tower of the Archive"). On 9 December 1448, Gil Pires was named the castle master builder to replace Afonso Esteves, being paid 400 réis for his work. Between 1448 and 1451, the master builder was paid several stipends for his work on the palace. Similarly, the mason João de Alverca was paid a substantial sum for stonework. These public works continued from 1449 until 1452, with additional payments being made for labor and materials to convert the building from a fortified castle to a royal residence.  As the royal palace, the castle was the setting for the reception by King Manuel I of the navigator Vasco da Gama when he returned from discovering the maritime route to India in 1498. The castle also served as a theater in 1502 when pioneering playwright Gil Vicente staged his "Monólogo do Vaqueiro" to honor the birth of Manuel I's son and heir, the future João III.  Around the early 16th century, following the construction of the Ribeira Palace beside the Tagus river, the Palace of Alcáçova began to lose its importance. An earthquake occurring in 1531 further damaged the old castle, contributing further to its decay and neglect. In 1569, King Sebastian ordered the rebuilding of the royal apartments in the castle, intending to use it as his official residence. As part of the rebuilding, in 1577 Filippo Terzi demolished one of the towers near the principal facade of the Church of Loreto. However, many of the works were never completed after the young king's apparent death during the Battle of Alcácer Quibir. The following Portuguese dynastic crisis opened the way for sixty years of Spanish rule and the castle was converted into military barracks and a prison. On 30 December 1642, Teodósio de Frias the Younger was appointed master builder to continue the works begun by his father, Luís de Frias, and his grandfather, Teodósio de Frias. This was part of a greater plan by the Spanish forces to recommission the fortification.  However, after Portugal regained its independence following the Portuguese Restoration War, the works were taken over by the Portuguese government. On 6 November 1648, Nicolau de Langres was called upon to take over the design, execution and construction of a new fortification that would surround the Castle of São Jorge and the city walls of Lisbon. In 1650 the military architect Mateus do Couto was named master builder of the project and reconstruction took on a new formality: although the military engineer João Gillot built new walls in 1652, construction again followed Couto's plans between 1657 and 1733. In 1673, the Soldiers' Hospital, dedicated to "São João de Deus" (St John of God), was installed on the grounds beside the Rua do Recolhimento. At the end of the 17th century the "Recolhimento do Castelo" ("Castle Shelter") was constructed along the southeast angle of the courtyard, and in 1733, new projects were initiated by master Custódio Vieira.  The 1755 Lisbon earthquake severely damaged the castle and contributed to its continuing decay: apart from the walls of the old castle, the soldier's hospital and the "Recolhimento" were left in ruins. The necessity of maintaining a supporting military force within the capital city required expansion of the site's role of garrison and presidio. From 1780 to 1807, the charitable institution Casa Pia, dedicated to the education of poor children, was established in the citadel, while soldiers continued to be garrisoned on site. Inspired by the events of the earthquake and the following tsunami, the first geodetic observatory in Portugal was constructed in 1788 at the top of one of the towers of the castle, later referred to as the "Torre do Observatório" (Observatory Tower).

Republic.

As part of the commemorative celebrations marking the foundation of nationhood and restoration of independence (), the government of António de Oliveira Salazar initiated extensive renovations at the site. Most of the incongruous structures added to the castle compound in previous centuries were demolished, under the supervision of the DGEMN, and there was a partial restoration of the "Recolhimento". In addition, on 25 October 1947, a monument dedicated to Afonso Henriques, presented by the city of Porto, of a replica created by Soares dos Reis (in 1887) was installed on the grounds.  On 31 May 1942 the castle's operations began to be handled by the city government of Lisbon, which was reaffirmed on 8 June 1979.  In 1998, the semi-rectangular spaces, columns and cistern were adapted into the museum "Olissipónia".  On 22 August 2006, Direcção Regional de Cultura Lisboa (DRCLisboa) defined a special protection zone, that included the Castle of São Jorge and the rest of the walls of Lisbon, the "Baixa Pombalina" and various properties that were already classified as cultural heritage. The "Conselho Nacional de Cultura" (National Council of Culture) proposed shelving this definition on 10 October 2011, which was supported by IGESPAR.

Architecture.

The castle is in the centre of Lisbon, on a hill, while many of its walls extend around the citadel into the civil parishes that surround it to the east and south. The castle's plan is roughly square, and it was originally encircled by a wall, to form a citadel. The castle complex consists of the castle itself (the "castelejo"), some ancillary buildings (including the ruins of the royal palace), gardens, and a large terraced square from which an impressive panorama of Lisbon is visible. The main entrance to the citadel is a 19th-century gate surmounted by the coat-of-arms of Portugal, the name of Queen Maria II, and the date 1846. This gate permits access to the main square ("Praça d'Armas"), which is decorated with old cannons and a bronze statue of Afonso Henriques, the Portuguese monarch who took the castle from the Moors. This statue is a copy of the 19th-century original, by the romantic sculptor António Soares dos Reis, which is located near Guimarães Castle in northern Portugal.  The remnants of the royal palace are located near the main square, but all that is left are some walls and a few rebuilt rooms such as the "Casa Ogival". It now hosts the "Olissipónia", a multimedia show about the history of Lisbon.  The medieval castle is located toward the northwest corner of the citadel, at its highest point. Hypothetically, during a siege, if attackers managed to enter the citadel, the castle was the last stronghold, the last place in which to take refuge. It is rectangular, with ten towers. A wall with a tower and a connecting door divides the castle courtyard into halves. A series of stairways allow visitors to reach the walkway atop the wall and the towers, from which magnificent views of Lisbon can be enjoyed. The Tower of Ulysses (where the "Torre do Tombo" archive used to be) had in 1998 a camera obscura installed that allows spectators a 360-degree view of the city and Tagus River.  Apart from its main walls, the castle is protected, on its southern and eastern sides, by a barbican ("barbacã"), a low wall that prevented siege engines from approaching the main castle walls. The northern and western sides of the castle, on the other hand, were naturally protected by the steep hillside sloping downward from the castle's foundations. The castle is also partially encircled by a moat, now dry. The main entrance is fronted by a stone bridge across the moat. On the west side, there is a long curtain wall extending downhill, ending at a tower (the "Torre De Couraça"). This tower served to control the valley below, and it could also be used to escape, in case the castle was taken by enemies.

São Jorge Castle (; ; English: Saint George Castle) is a historic castle in the Portuguese capital of Lisbon, located in the "freguesia" of Santa Maria Maior. Human occupation of the castle hill dates to at least the 8th century BC while the first fortifications built date from the 1st century BC. The hill on which São Jorge Castle stands has played an important part in the history of Lisbon, having served as the location of fortifications occupied successively by Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Romans, and Moors, before its conquest by the Portuguese in the 1147 Siege of Lisbon. Since the 12th century, the castle has variously served as a royal palace, a military barracks, home of the Torre do Tombo National Archive, and now as a national monument and museum.

圣乔治城堡()位于葡萄牙首都里斯本,在古堡观景台可俯瞰城景和宽阔的特茹河,是里斯本主要的历史古迹和旅游景点之一。