Curation scope.

In smaller organizations, a curator may have sole responsibility for acquisitions and even for collections care. The curator makes decisions regarding what objects to select, oversees their potential and documentation, conducts research based on the collection and its history, provides proper packaging of art for transportation, and shares research with the public and community through exhibitions and publications. In very small, volunteer-based museums such as those of local historical societies, a curator may be the only paid staff-member.  In larger institutions, the curator's primary function is that of a subject specialist, with the expectation that he or she will conduct original research on objects and guide the organization in its collecting. Such institutions can have multiple curators, each assigned to a specific collecting area (e.g., curator of ancient art, curator of prints and drawings, etc.) and often operating under the direction of a head curator. In such organizations, the physical care of the collection may be overseen by museum collections-managers or by museum conservators, with documentation and administrative matters (such as personnel, insurance, and loans) handled by a museum registrar.  In the United Kingdom, the term "curator" also applies to government employees who monitor the quality of contract archaeological work under Planning Policy Guidance 16: Archaeology and Planning (PPG 16) and manage the cultural resource of a region. In the museum setting, a curator in the United Kingdom may also be called a "keeper".  In Scotland, the term "curator" is also used to mean the guardian of a child, known as curator "ad litem".  In the US, curators have multifaceted tasks dependent on the particular institution and its mission. But in recent years the role of the curator has evolved alongside the changing role of museums. As US museums have become increasingly more digitized, curators find themselves constructing narratives in both the material and digital worlds. Historian Elaine Gurian has called for museums in which "visitors could comfortably search for answers to their own questions regardless of the importance placed on such questions by others". This would change the role of curator from teacher to "facilitator and assistor". In this sense, the role of curator in the United States is precarious, as digital and interactive exhibits often allow members of the public to become their own curators, and to choose their own information. Citizens are then able to educate themselves on the specific subject they are interested in, rather than spending time listening to information they have no desire to learn.  More recently, advances in new technologies have led to a further widening of the role of curator. This has been a focus in major art institutions internationally and has become an object of academic study and research. A biocurator is a professional scientist who curates, collects, annotates, and validates information that is disseminated by biological and Model Organism Databases.  In contemporary art, the title "curator" identifies a person who selects and often interprets works of art. In addition to selecting works, the curator is often responsible for writing labels, catalog essays, and other content supporting exhibitions. Such curators may be permanent staff members, "guest curators" from an affiliated organization or university, or "freelance curators" working on a consultancy basis. The late-20th century saw an explosion of artists organizing exhibitions. The artist-curator has a long tradition of influence, notably featuring Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792), inaugural president of the Royal Academy of Arts, London, founded in 1768.  In some US cultural organizations, the term "curator" may designate the head of any given division. This has led to the proliferation of titles such as "Curator of Education" and "Curator of Exhibitions". The term "literary curator" has been used to describe persons who work in the field of poetry, such as former 92nd Street Y poetry-director Karl Kirchwey. This trend has increasingly been mirrored in the United Kingdom in such institutions as Ikon, Birmingham, UK and Baltic, Gateshead, UK.  In Australia and New Zealand, the term also applies to a person who prepares a sports ground for use (especially a cricket ground). This job is equivalent to that of groundsman in some other cricketing nations.  In France, the term curator is translated as "conservateur". There are two kinds of curators: heritage curators ("conservateurs du patrimoine") with five specialities (archeology, archives, museums, historical monuments, natural science museums), and librarian curators ("conservateurs des bibliothèques"). These curators are selected by competitive examination and attend the INP (Institut National du Patrimoine). The "conservateurs du patrimoine" are civil servants or work in the public service; the use of the title by private workers is not possible.

Education and training.

Curators hold a high academic degree in their subject, typically a Doctor of Philosophy or a master's degree in subjects such as history, art, history of art, archaeology, anthropology, or classics. Curators are also expected to have contributed to their academic field, for example, by delivering public talks, publishing articles, or presenting at specialist academic conferences. It is important that curators have knowledge of the current collecting market for their area of expertise, and are aware of current ethical practices and laws that may impact their organisation's collecting.  The increased complexity of many museums and cultural organisations has prompted the emergence of professional programs in fields such as public history, public humanities, museum studies, arts management, and curating/curatorial practice. In 1992, the Royal College of Art established an MA course co-funded by the Royal College of Art and the Arts Council of Great Britain, the first in Britain to specialise in curating with a particular focus on contemporary art. The course is now funded by Arts Council England, and in 2001 the course title was amended to Curating Contemporary Art to more accurately reflect the content and primary focus of the programme. Similarly, a number of contemporary art institutions launched curatorial study courses as an alternative to traditional academic programs. Established in 1987, the École du Magasin is a curatorial training program based at the art center Le Magasin in Grenoble, France. Similarly, the Whitney Museum of American Art, through its independent study program, hosts a curatorial program as one of its three study areas, and de Appel arts centre has hosted a curatorial programme since 1994. Other institutions that run programs in curating include Norwich University of the Arts; The Courtauld Institute of Art; Kingston University; Goldsmiths, University of London; Birkbeck, University of London; Chelsea College of Arts; University of the Arts London; California College of the Arts; University of Southern California; Bard College; School of Visual Arts; the École du Louvre; the Institut national du patrimoine (The National Institute of Cultural Heritage); University of Rennes 2—Upper Brittany; OCAD University; and University of Melbourne. (See "→External links" for further information on courses.)

Community curation.

Community curation— also known as co-curation or public curation—is a movement in U.S. museums and public humanities organizations to involve community members in various curatorial processes, including exhibit development and programming. Community members involved in community curation are likely not trained as museum professionals, but have vested interests in the outcomes of curatorial projects. Community curation is a response to the 19th century “information transmission” model of learning, in which museums are sources of expert knowledge and visitors are the recipients of that expertise. Community curation seeks not to abandon expertise, but to broaden definitions of expertise to “include broader domains of experience” that visitors bring to museums.  Community curation practices are varied. The Wing Luke Museum conducts community outreach at the beginning of exhibition projects, and convenes community advisory committees at various stages in the curatorial process. The Brooklyn Historical Society has accepted exhibit proposals from community members and trained them in curatorial skills to co-create exhibits. Such efforts to allow communities to participate in curation can require ""more" not less expertise from museum staff."

Technology and society.

In the same way that a museum curator may acquire objects of relevance or an art curator may select or interpret a work of art, the injection of technology and impact of social media into every aspect of society has seen the emergence of technology curators.  Technology curators are people who are able to disentangle the science and logic of a particular technology and apply it to real world situations and society, whether it is for social change, commercial advantage, or other purposes. The first U.K. "Wired" Conference had a test lab, where an independent curator selected technology that showcased radical technology advancements and their impact on society, such as the ability to design and "print" physical objects using 3D printers (such as a fully working violin) or the ability to model and represent accurate interactive medical and molecular models in stereoscopic 3D.  MLOVE, a Confestival started in 2010, celebrated the disruption of the perception of what a tech conference should be, using a radically more interactive format that drew on a variety of influences outside of the traditional world of technology, including religion, micro-banking for developing countries, and interactive art installations/workshops such as the Future Cube and a giant interactive video projection.

A curator (from, meaning "to take care") is a manager or overseer. Traditionally, a curator or keeper of a cultural heritage institution (e.g., gallery, museum, library or archive) is a content specialist charged with an institution's collections and involved with the interpretation of heritage material including historical artifacts.

策展人(Curator)是为美术馆、博物馆、图书馆或其它商业单位安排艺术家与场地方媒合展览事宜,或是决定文物呈现方式的独立工作者。传统策展人会和有形的艺术品有关,可能是艺品、收藏品、历史项目或科学收藏。但现在已出现新性态的策展人,像数码策展者及生物数据管理员。


Purpose and structure.

A didactic, moralistic purpose, which would color so much of the Spanish literature to follow (see Novela picaresca), is the mark of this book. Count Lucanor engages in conversation with his advisor Patronio, putting to him a problem ("Some man has made me a proposition..." or "I fear that such and such person intends to...") and asking for advice. Patronio responds always with the greatest humility, claiming not to wish to offer advice to so illustrious a person as the Count, but offering to tell him a story of which the Count's problem reminds him. (Thus, the stories are "examples" ["ejemplos"] of wise action.) At the end he advises the Count to do as the protagonist of his story did.  Each chapter ends in more or less the same way, with slight variations on: "And this pleased the Count greatly and he did just so, and found it well. And Don Johán (Juan) saw that this example was very good, and had it written in this book, and composed the following verses." A rhymed couplet closes, giving the moral of the story.

Treatments derived from "Tales of Count Lucanor".

Shakespeare's "The Taming of the Shrew" has the basic elements of Tale 44, "Of what happened to a young Man on his Wedding Day".  Tale 7, "Of that which happened to a King and three Impostors" tells the story that Hans Christian Andersen made popular as "The Emperor's New Clothes".  Tale 23, "What happened to a good Man and his Son, leading a beast to market" is the familiar fable The miller, his son and the donkey.  In 2016, Baroque Decay released a game under the name "The Count Lucanor". As well as some protagonists' names, certain events from the books inspired past events in the game.

The stories.

The titles in the following list are those given in James York's 1868 translation into English.

Don Juan Manuel's Tales of Count Lucanor, in Spanish Libro de los ejemplos del conde Lucanor y de Patronio ("Book of the Examples of Count Lucanor and of Patronio"), also commonly known as El Conde Lucanor, Libro de Patronio, or Libro de los ejemplos (original Old Castilian: "Libro de los enxiemplos del Conde Lucanor et de Patronio"), is one of the earliest works of prose in Castilian Spanish. It was first written in 1335.

《卢卡诺尔伯爵》(),又名《帕特罗尼奥之书》()是西班牙14世纪短篇故事散文集。以问答体的形式记录卢卡诺尔伯爵和老师帕特罗尼奥之间的对话。伯爵就各种社会道德和政治问题向老师提问,而老师则以讲述寓言故事的形式来解答。


History.

As a result of the Cao's relative weakness, later generations wrote few records on events concerning the state's history. The only major event recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian during the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046 – 770 BC) was in 826 BC when Count You of Cao was killed by his younger brother Count Dai of Cao.  At the beginning of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770 BC),the State of Cao suffered internal upheaval. In 760 BC, Duke Mu of Cao killed his elder brother Count Fei of Cao and appointed himself the eleventh ruler. He was the first ruler of the State of Cao to receive the title of "Duke" (公).  During the Spring and Autumn period the State of Cao became caught up in the struggle for hegemony between the states of Jin and Chu. In 637 BC Chong’er, son of Duke Xian of Jin got into difficulties when passing through the State of Cáo and was treated rudely by Duke Gong of Cao.  About 630 it was a vassal or ally of Chu. When Chu attacked Song, Jin made a diversionary attack on Cao. After Jin defeated Chu at the Battle of Chengpu in 632 BC, Jin crushed the State of Cao, rescued the State of Song and took Duke Gong of Cao prisoner. After the defeat of the State of Chu, Cao followed the orders of its near neighbour the State of Jin.  Later on, the States of Cao and Song became hostile towards each other. Duke Jing of Song captured Duke Dao of Cao in 515 BC and held him prisoner until his death. Thereafter, disorder broke out in Cao and Duke Dao's successors Duke Sheng of Cao and Duke Yin of Cao were killed one after another. Duke Fei of Cao became ruler and betrayed the State of Jin by invading the State of Song. As a result, Duke Jing of Song attacked Cao. No troops from the State of Jin came to the rescue such that the State of Cao was exterminated in 487 BC after the capture of Duke Fei of Cao.

Legacy.

Descendants of the people of Cao adopted the name of their former state. This is one origin of the Chinese Surname Cao.

The State of Cao () was a vassal state in China during the Zhou Dynasty (1046–221 BC). The state was founded sometime in the 11th century BC by Cao Shu Zhenduo (曹叔振鐸; d. 1053 BC), a son of King Wen of Zhou and younger brother of King Wu of Zhou. With its capital at Taoqiu (陶丘), the State of Cao covered roughly the area of modern-day Dingtao County, Shandong Province. It was located on the flat country of the North China Plain about 50 miles east of the point where the current course of the Yellow River changes from east to north-east. To the northwest was Wey, to the northeast Lu and to the southeast Song.

曹国,中国历史上春秋战国时代的一个诸侯国,伯爵,国君为姬姓。周文王子曹叔振铎后裔。建都陶丘,辖地大致为现在的定陶附近。


History.

All cue sports are generally regarded to have evolved into indoor games from outdoor stick-and-ball lawn games – specifically those retroactively termed ground billiards – and as such to be related to the historical games jeu de mail and palle-malle, and modern trucco, croquet, and golf, and more distantly to the stickless bocce and bowls.  The word "billiard" may have evolved from the French word "billart" or "billette", meaning'stick', in reference to the, an implement similar to a golf putter, and which was the forerunner to the modern cue; however, the term's origin could have been from French "bille", meaning 'ball'. The modern term "cue sports" can be used to encompass the ancestral mace games, and even the modern cueless variants, such as finger billiards, for historical reasons. "Cue" itself came from "queue", the French word for 'tail'. This refers to the early practice of using the tail or butt of the mace, instead of its club foot, to strike the ball when it lay against a.  A recognizable form of billiards was played outdoors in the 1340s, and was reminiscent of croquet. King Louis XI of France (1461–1483) had the first known indoor billiard table. Louis XIV further refined and popularized the game, and it swiftly spread among the French nobility. While the game had long been played on the ground, this version appears to have died out (aside from trucco) in the 17th century, in favor of croquet, golf and bowling games, even as table billiards had grown in popularity as an indoor activity. The imprisoned Mary, Queen of Scots, complained when her was taken away (by those who eventually became her executioners, who were to cover her body with the table's cloth). Billiards grew to the extent that by 1727, it was being played in almost every Paris café. In England, the game was developing into a very popular activity for members of the gentry.  By 1670, the thin butt end of the mace began to be used not only for shots under the cushion (which itself was originally only there as a preventative method to stop balls from rolling off), but players increasingly preferred it for other shots as well. The footless, straight cue as it is known today was finally developed by about 1800.  Initially, the mace was used to push the balls, rather than strike them. The newly developed striking cue provided a new challenge. Cushions began to be stuffed with substances to allow the balls to rebound, in order to enhance the appeal of the game. After a transitional period where only the better players would use cues, the cue came to be the first choice of equipment.  The demand for tables and other equipment was initially met in Europe by John Thurston and other furniture makers of the era. The early balls were made from wood and clay, but the rich preferred to use ivory.  Early billiard games involved various pieces of additional equipment, including the "arch" (related to the croquet hoop), "port" (a different hoop) and "king" (a pin or skittle near the arch) in the 1770s, but other game variants, relying on the cushions (and eventually on pockets cut into them), were being formed that would go on to play fundamental roles in the development of modern billiards. The early croquet-like games eventually led to the development of the carom or carambole billiards category – what most non-Commonwealth and non-US speakers mean by the word "billiards". These games, which once completely dominated the cue sports world but have declined markedly in many areas over the last few generations, are games played with three or sometimes four balls, on a table without holes (and without obstructions or targets in most cases), in which the goal is generally to strike one with a, then have the cue ball rebound off of one or more of the cushions and strike a second object ball. Variations include straight rail, balkline, one-cushion, three-cushion, five-pins, and four-ball, among others.  Over time, a type of obstacle returned, originally as a hazard and later as a target, in the form of pockets, or holes partly cut into the table bed and partly into the cushions, leading to the rise of pocket billiards, including "pool" games such as eight-ball, nine-ball, straight pool and one-pocket; Russian pyramid; snooker; English billiards and others.  In the United States pool and billiards had died out for a bit, but between 1878 and 1956 pool and billiards became very popular. Players in annual championships began to receive their own cigarette cards. This was mainly due to the fact that it was a popular pastime for troops to take their minds off from battle. However, by the end of World War II pool and billiards began to die down once again. It was not until 1961 when the film "The Hustler" came out that sparked a new interest in the game. Now the game is generally a well-known game and has many players of all different skill levels.

As a sport.

The games with regulated international professional competition, if not others, have been referred to as "sports" or "sporting" events, not simply "games", since 1893 at the latest. Quite a variety of particular games (i.e., sets of rules and equipment) are the subject of present-day competition, including many of those already mentioned, with competition being especially broad in nine-ball, snooker, three-cushion and eight-ball.  Snooker, though technically a pocket billiards variant and closely related in its equipment and origin to the game of English billiards, is a professional sport organized at the international level, and its rules bear little resemblance to those of modern pool, pyramid and other such games.  A "Billiards" category encompassing pool, snooker and carom was featured in the 2005 World Games, held in Duisburg, Germany, and the 2006 Asian Games also saw the introduction of a "Cue sports" category.

Equipment.

Billiard balls.

Billiard balls vary from game to game, in size, design and quantity.  Russian pyramid and kaisa have a size of 68 mm ( in). In Russian pyramid there are sixteen balls, as in pool, but fifteen are white and numbered, and the is usually red. In kaisa, five balls are used: the yellow (called the "kaisa" in Finnish), two red object balls, and the two white cue balls (usually differentiated by one cue ball having a dot or other marking on it and each of which serves as an object ball for the opponent).  Carom billiards balls are larger than pool balls, having a diameter of 61.5 mm ( in), and come as a set of two cue balls (one colored or marked) and an object ball (or two object balls in the case of the game four-ball).  American-style pool balls are 57 mm ( in), are used in many pool games found throughout the world, come in sets of two of object balls, seven and seven, an and a ; the balls are racked differently for different games (some of which do not use the entire ball set). Blackball (English-style eight-ball) sets are similar, but have unmarked of (or ) and balls instead of solids and stripes, and at 56 mm ( in) are smaller than the American-style; they are used principally in Britain, Ireland, and some Commonwealth countries, though not exclusively, since they are unsuited for playing nine-ball.  Snooker balls are smaller than American-style pool balls with a diameter of 52.5 mm ( in), and come in sets of 22 (15 reds, 6 "", and a cue ball). English billiard balls are the same size as snooker balls and come in sets of three balls (two cue balls and a red, an object ball). Other games, such as bumper pool, have custom ball sets.  Billiard balls have been made from many different materials since the start of the game, including clay, bakelite, celluloid, crystallite, ivory, plastic, steel and wood. The dominant material from 1627 until the early 20th century was ivory. The search for a substitute for ivory use was not for environmental concerns, but based on economic motivation and fear of danger for elephant hunters. It was in part spurred on by a New York billiard table manufacturer who announced a prize of $10,000 for a substitute material. The first viable substitute was celluloid, invented by John Wesley Hyatt in 1868, but the material was volatile, sometimes exploding during manufacture, and was highly flammable.

Tables.

There are many sizes and styles of pool and billiard tables. Generally, tables are rectangles twice as long as they are wide. Most pool tables are known as 7-, 8-, or 9-footers, referring to the length of the table's long side. Full-size snooker and English billiard tables are long on the longest side. Pool halls tend to have tables and cater to the serious pool player. Pubs will typically use tables which are often coin-operated. Formerly, tables were common, but such tables are now considered antique collectors items; a few, usually from the late 19th century, can be found in pool halls from time to time. Ten-foot tables remain the standard size for carom billiard games. The slates on modern carom tables are usually heated to stave off moisture and provide a consistent playing surface.  The length of the pool table will typically be a function of space, with many homeowners purchasing an table as a compromise. Full-size pool tables are 4.5 by (interior dimensions). High-quality tables have a made of thick slate, in three pieces to prevent warping and changes due to temperature and humidity. Smaller bar tables are most commonly made with a single piece of slate. Pocket billiards tables of all types normally have six pockets, three on each side (four corner pockets, and two side or middle pockets).

Cloth.

All types of tables are covered with billiard cloth (often called "felt", but actually a woven wool or wool/nylon blend called baize). Cloth has been used to cover billiards tables since the 15th century.  Bar or tavern tables, which get a lot of play, use "slower", more durable cloth. The cloth used in upscale pool (and snooker) halls and home billiard rooms is "faster" (i.e., provides less friction, allowing the balls to roll farther across the table ), and competition-quality pool cloth is made from 100% worsted wool. Snooker cloth traditionally has a nap (consistent fiber directionality) and balls behave differently when rolling against versus along with the nap.  The cloth of the billiard table has traditionally been green, reflecting its origin (originally the grass of ancestral lawn games), and has been so colored since at least the 16th century, but it is also produced in other colors such as red and blue. Television broadcasting of pool as well as 3 Cushion billiards prefers a blue colored cloth which was chosen for better visibility and contrast against colored balls.

Rack.

A rack is the name given to a frame (usually wood, plastic or aluminium) used to organize billiard balls at the beginning of a game. This is traditionally triangular in shape, but varies with the type of billiards played. There are two main types of racks; the more common triangular shape which is used for eight-ball and straight pool and the diamond-shaped rack used for nine-ball.  There are several other types of less common rack types that are also used, based on a "template" to hold the billiard balls tightly together. Most commonly it is a thin plastic sheet with diamond-shaped cut-outs that hold the balls that is placed on the table with the balls set on top of the rack. The rack is used to set up the "break" and removed before the "break shot" occurs.

Cues.

Billiards games are mostly played with a stick known as a cue. A cue is usually either a one piece tapered stick or a two piece stick divided in the middle by a joint of metal or phenolic resin. High quality cues are generally two pieces and are made of a hardwood, generally maple for billiards and ash for snooker.  The end of the cue is of larger circumference and is intended to be gripped by a player's hand. The of the cue is of smaller circumference, usually tapering to an terminus called a (usually made of fiberglass or brass in better cues), where a rounded leather is affixed, flush with the ferrule, to make final contact with balls. The tip, in conjunction with chalk, can be used to impart spin to the cue ball when it is not hit in its center.  Cheap cues are generally made of pine, low-grade maple (and formerly often of ramin, which is now endangered), or other low-quality wood, with inferior plastic ferrules. A quality cue can be expensive and may be made of exotic woods and other expensive materials which are artfully inlaid in decorative patterns. Many modern cues are also made, like golf clubs, with high-tech materials such as woven graphite. Skilled players may use more than one cue during a game, including a separate cue often with a hard phenolic resin tip for the opening break shot and another, shorter cue with a special tip for.

Mechanical bridge.

The mechanical bridge, sometimes called a "rake", "crutch", "bridge stick" or simply "bridge", and in the UK a "rest", is used to extend a player's reach on a shot where the cue ball is too far away for normal hand bridging. It consists of a stick with a grooved metal or plastic head which the cue slides on. Many amateurs refuse to use the mechanical bridge based on the perception that to do so is unmanly or cheating. However, many aficionados and most professionals employ the bridge whenever the intended shot so requires.  Some players, especially current or former snooker players, use a screw-on cue butt extension instead of or in addition to the mechanical bridge.  Bridge head design is varied, and not all designs (especially those with cue shaft-enclosing rings, or wheels on the bottom of the head), are broadly tournament-approved.  In Italy a longer, thicker cue is typically available for this kind of tricky shot.  For snooker they are normally available in three forms, their use depending on how the player is hampered; the standard rest is a simple cross, the'spider' has a raised arch around 12 cm with three grooves to rest the cue in and for the most awkward of shots, the 'giraffe' (or'swan' in England) which has a raised arch much like the'spider' but with a slender arm reaching out around 15 cm with the groove.

Chalk.

Chalk is applied to the tip of the cue stick, ideally before every shot, to increase the tip's friction coefficient so that when it impacts the cue ball on a non-center hit, no (unintentional slippage between the cue tip and the struck ball) occurs. Chalk is an important element to make good shots in pool or snooker. Cue tip chalk is not actually the substance typically referred to as "chalk" (generally calcium carbonate), but any of several proprietary compounds, with a silicate base. It was around the time of the Industrial Revolution that newer compounds formed that provided better grip for the ball. This is when the English began to experiment with side spin or applying curl to the ball. This was shortly introduced to the American players and is how the term "putting English on the ball" came to be. "Chalk" may also refer to a cone of fine, white ; like talc (talcum powder) it can be used to reduce friction between the cue and bridge hand during shooting, for a smoother stroke. Some brands of hand chalk actually are made of compressed talc. (Tip chalk is not used for this purpose because it is abrasive, hand-staining and difficult to apply.) Many players prefer a slick pool glove over hand chalk or talc because of the messiness of these powders; buildup of particles on the cloth will affect ball behavior and necessitate more-frequent cloth cleaning.  Cue tip chalk (invented in its modern form by straight rail billiard pro William A. Spinks and chemist William Hoskins in 1897) is made by crushing silica and the abrasive substance corundum or aloxite (aluminium oxide), into a powder. It is combined with dye (originally and most commonly green or blue-green, like traditional billiard cloth, but available today, like the cloth, in many colours) and a binder (glue). Each manufacturer's brand has different qualities, which can significantly affect play. High humidity can also impair the effectiveness of chalk. Harder, drier compounds are generally considered superior by most players.

Major games.

There are two main varieties of billiard games: carom and pocket.  The main carom billiards games are straight rail, balkline and three cushion billiards. All are played on a pocketless table with three balls; two cue balls and one object ball. In all, players shoot a cue ball so that it makes contact with the opponent's cue ball as well as the object ball. Others of multinational interest are four-ball and five-pins.  The most globally popular of the large variety of pocket games are Pool and snooker. A third, English billiards, has some features of carom billiards. English billiards used to be one of the two most-competitive cue sports along with the carom game balkline, at the turn of the 20th century and is still enjoyed today in Commonwealth countries. Another pocket game, Russian pyramid and its variants like kaisa are popular in the former Eastern bloc.

Games played on a carom billiards table.

Straight rail.

In straight rail, a player scores a point and may continue shooting each time his cue ball makes contact with both other balls. Some of the best players of straight billiards developed the skill to the balls in a corner or along the same rail for the purpose of playing a series of to score a seemingly limitless number of points.  The first straight rail professional tournament was held in 1879 where Jacob Schaefer Sr. scored 690 points in a single turn (that is, 690 separate strokes without a miss). With the balls repetitively hit and barely moving in endless "nursing", there was little for the fans to watch.

Balkline.

In light of these skill developments in straight rail, the game of balkline soon developed to make it impossible for a player to keep the balls gathered in one part of the table for long, greatly limiting the effectiveness of nurse shots. A is a line parallel to one end of a billiards table. In the game of balkline, the players have to drive at least one object ball past a balkline parallel to each rail after a specified number of points have been scored.

Cushion billiards.

Another solution was to require a player's cue ball to make contact with the rail cushions in the process of contacting the other balls. This in turn saw the three-cushion version emerge, where the cue ball must make three separate cushion contacts during a shot. This is difficult enough that even the best players can only manage to average one to two points per turn. This is sometimes described as "hardest to learn" and "require most skill" of all billiards.

Games played on a pool table.

There are many variations of games played on a standard pool table. Popular pool games include eight-ball, nine-ball, straight pool and one-pocket. Even within games types (e.g. eight-ball), there may be variations, and people may play recreationally using relaxed or local rules. A few of the more popular examples of pool games are given below.  In eight-ball and nine-ball, the object is to sink object balls until one can legally pocket the winning eponymous "". Well-known but waning in popularity is straight pool, in which players seek to continue sinking balls, rack after rack if they can, to reach a pre-determined winning score (typically 150). Related to nine-ball, another well-known game is rotation, where the lowest-numbered object ball on the table must be struck first, although any object ball may be pocketed (i.e., combination shot). Each pocketed ball is worth its number, and the player with the highest score at the end of the rack is the winner. Since there are only 120 points available (1 + 2 + 3 ⋯ + 15 = 120), scoring 61 points leaves no opportunity for the opponent to catch up. In both one-pocket and bank pool, the players must sink a set number of balls; respectively, all in a particular, or all by. In snooker, players score points by alternately potting and various special "".

Speed pool.

Speed pool is a standard billiards game where the balls must be pocketed in as little time as possible. Rules vary greatly from tournament to tournament. The International Speed Pool Challenge has been held annually since 2006.

Games played on a snooker table.

English billiards.

Dating to approximately 1800, English billiards, called simply billiards in many former British colonies and in the UK where it originated, was originally called the "winning and losing carambole game", folding in the names of three predecessor games, "the winning game", "the losing game" and "the carambole game" (an early form of straight rail), that combined to form it. The game features both (caroms) and the pocketing of balls as objects of play. English billiards requires two and a red. The object of the game is to score either a fixed number of points, or score the most points within a set time frame, determined at the start of the game.  Points are awarded for:

Snooker.

Snooker is a pocket billiards game originated by British officers stationed in India during the 19th century, based on earlier pool games such as black pool and life pool. The name of the game became generalized to also describe one of its prime strategies: to "" the opposing player by causing that player to foul or leave an opening to be exploited.  In the United Kingdom, snooker is by far the most popular cue sport at the competitive level, and major national pastime along with association football and cricket. It is played in many Commonwealth countries as well, especially in Asia. Snooker is uncommon in North America, where pool games such as eight-ball and nine-ball dominate, and Latin America and Continental Europe, where carom games dominate. The first World Snooker Championship was held in 1927, and it has been held annually since then with few exceptions. The World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA) was established in 1968 to regulate the professional game, while the International Billiards and Snooker Federation (IBSF) regulates the amateur games.

List of cue sports and games.

Snooker games.

Technically a form of pocket billiards, snooker has its own worldwide sporting community separate from that of pool.

Hybrid carom and pocket games.

These combine aspects of carom and pocket billiards, and are played on tables with pockets (often as s not targets).

Disk games.

These are variations using small disks instead of balls, and light-weight cue sticks.

Cue sports (sometimes written cuesports), also known as billiard sports, are a wide variety of games of skill generally played with a cue stick, which is used to strike billiard balls and thereby cause them to move around a cloth-covered billiards table bounded by elastic bumpers known as.

台球(cue sports、cuesports、billiard sports、billiards),是一种有多重玩法的技巧运动,其共同点是使用台球杆撞击一般为白色的母球,令其在台球桌上滚动并撞击其他球(子球),以达成特定目的。


Meteorological history.

On August 11, 2007, a tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa, and, encountering favorable conditions, quickly developed into Tropical Depression Four, about 520 miles (835 km) west-southwest of Cape Verde on August 13. The depression moved briskly westward, and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dean at 1500 UTC on August 14. The storm's intensity continued to build although dry air and cooler air inflow from the north were slowing structural development. Ragged bands formed on August 15 and the formation of a partial eyewall was observed later that day. Intensification continued, and the storm was upgraded to Hurricane Dean at 5 am EDT (0900 UTC) August 16. The deep-layered ridge to the north continued to steer the system west, towards the Caribbean Sea. The storm quickly strengthened to a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale. The storm's development slowed slightly but a reconnaissance aircraft discovered a closed eyewall on August 17 as the storm passed through the Lesser Antilles. Data from the aircraft indicated that Hurricane Dean had strengthened to a Category 3 hurricane and its trailing bands were still over the Lesser Antilles. During the evening of August 17, Dean strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane and continued to steadily grow in both size and intensity through the night. On August 18 the presence of

Preparations.

Hurricane Dean's smooth and well-predicted track gave unusually advance warning to all of the nations in its path and allowed them time to prepare for the storm's impact. Because of the advance warning and Dean's extraordinary strength, the nations of Central America and the Caribbean set up hundreds of shelters, readied thousands of disaster recovery experts, evacuated hundreds of thousands of vulnerable residents, and prepared millions of dollars of emergency supplies.

Lesser Antilles.

As Hurricane Dean approached the Lesser Antilles the local meteorological services issued watches and warnings, advising residents to prepare for the storm. Hurricane warnings were issued for St. Lucia, Dominica, Martinique and Guadeloupe and its dependencies. Hurricane watches were issued for Saba and St. Eustatius. Tropical storm warnings were issued for Barbados, Antigua, Barbuda, St. Kitts, Nevis, and St. Maarten St. Vincent and the Grenadines, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the British Virgin Islands. Tropical storm watches were issued for Sint Maarten, St. Vincent, Grenada and its dependencies, Montserrat, and Anguilla.  Local authorities closed airports, set up shelters, and readied emergency service personnel. Authorities in Martinique canceled a memorial to the victims of West Caribbean Airways Flight 708 and began to set up shelters. In Dominica, tourists were

Greater Antilles.

Hurricane warnings were issued for all of Jamaica, for Haiti from Port-au-Prince to the Dominican border, and for the Dominican Republic from Barahona to the Haitian border. Tropical Storm warnings were issued for the rest of Hispaniola and for coastal Cuba between Camagüey and Guantánamo. Hundreds of thousands were evacuated from vulnerable low-lying and coastal areas and disaster management programs were activated throughout the Greater Antilles.  Jamaica, which was forecast to bear the brunt of Hurricane Dean, underwent the most extensive preparations. The Jamaican government executed long-standing evacuation plans, including converting the country's national

Mexico.

With Hurricane Dean's path predicted well in advance of the storm, the Government of Mexico was able to make ample preparations. On August 17, a state of emergency was declared for the state of Quintana Roo where Dean was expected to make landfall. On August 18 authorities

Belize.

A hurricane warning was issued for the coastal locations north of Belize City with the forecast of 150 mph (240 km/h) winds. The government instituted a dusk-to-dawn curfew from Belize City to the Mexican border. On August 16 and 17, Prime Minister Said Musa chaired two meetings of Belize's National Emergency Management Organization (NEMO). He instructed the newly created Coastguard to evacuate popular tourist sites Caye Caulker and Ambergris

Gulf of Mexico.

Oil futures spiked on August 15 as analysts considered the impact of Hurricane Dean on refining capacity if it were to move into the Caribbean as predicted. Transocean evacuated 11 nonessential workers late on August 15 from an oil rig located about 160 mi (260 km) southeast of New Orleans. The company left about 125 personnel on board the structure. A day later, Royal Dutch Shell evacuated 275 ancillary staff, following an evacuation of 188 due to Tropical Storm Erin.

Other regions.

Throughout the Caribbean Sea, about a dozen cruise ships altered their routes to avoid Hurricane Dean. Honduras was put on a state of preventative alert for 48 hours, particularly the departments to the north of the country; the Bay Islands were on a state of red alert. There were places ready to accommodate 10,000 people for 15 days if necessary.  In the United States, the Louisiana Governor's Office of Homeland Security and Emergency Preparedness activated its Crisis Action Team on August 16 to monitor the storm and coordinate preparation. Governor of Louisiana Kathleen Blanco declared a state of emergency early on the evening of August 17, asking for a presidential emergency declaration to give Louisiana access to federal funds prior to any landfall. Texas Governor Rick Perry declared Dean to be

Impact.

Fifteen countries felt the effects of Hurricane Dean as its path through the Caribbean Sea claimed 42 lives. The hurricane first brushed the Lesser Antilles on August 17, 2007, and as it passed through the interior of the Caribbean its outer rain bands swept over the Greater Antilles. It passed Jamaica as a Category 4 hurricane, and strengthened to a Category 5 storm as it made landfall on Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula on August 21. A second landfall on August 22 was less devastating.

Lesser Antilles.

Hurricane Dean entered the Caribbean as a Category 2 hurricane through the Saint Lucia Channel on August 17. It moved briskly between the Lesser Antillean islands of St. Lucia and Martinique, with its storm surge and rain bands reaching every island in the chain. Damage was most severe in Martinique where total damage was estimated at €350 million and three indirect deaths, while nearby Guadaloupe suffered €150 million of damage. In St. Lucia, damage was mostly caused by the high seas and was estimated at US$18 million.  Martinique experienced 75 mph (120 km/h) winds with gusts to 105 mph (170 km/h). The torrential rainfall, which reached 332 mm (13.07 in) caused flooding throughout the island, with the town of Rivière-Pilote flooding completely. The majority of Martinique's population were left without electricity, water, telephone, or food, and 600 Martiniquans were left homeless. The storm destroyed Martinique's entire banana crop, and 70% of the island's sugar cane plantations. The damage to these two agricultural sectors accounted for the majority of the island's €400 million damage.  On the evening of August 16, 12 hours

Greater Antilles.

The storm passed to the south of most of the Greater Antilles, though its outer rain bands crossed many of the islands, and delivered hurricane-force winds to Jamaica. Puerto Rico, Cuba, and the Cayman Islands were mostly spared, though Hurricane Dean passed 50 to 60 mi (80 to 95 km) south of Jamaica as a Category 4 hurricane. In Jamaica the rain caused flooding on the eastern side of the island and landslides on the northeast end. At least two direct deaths were confirmed. Over 1,500 roofs were lost, primarily to the hurricane-force winds, and 1,582 of the 3,127 damaged homes were uninhabitable. Landslides and fallen trees blocked hundreds of roads, particularly in the rural northeast region. As in the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica suffered severe damage to its agricultural sector. Forty percent of the sugarcane crop, 80 to 100% of the banana crop, 75% of the coffee trees under three years old, and 20% of

Mexico.

The hurricane strengthened right up until it made landfall near Majahual on the Quintana Roo coast of the Yucatán Peninsula on August 21, 2007 as a Category 5 hurricane. Wind gusts of 200 mph (320 km/h) were reported. The state's tourist cities of Cancún and Cozumel were spared the worst of the storm, but it wreaked havoc in the state capital Chetumal, 40 mi (65 km) south of landfall, causing significant flooding. The town of Majahual, which had a population of 200, was totally destroyed by the storm. Storm surge and high winds severely damaged or destroyed hundreds of buildings and had the strength to crumple steel girders. The waves tore away portions of the concrete docks at Costa Maya's popular cruise port and the harbor was closed to cruise ships for almost a year. Despite the storm's tremendous intensity, not a single

Belize.

The town of Corozal on Belize's northern border experienced the worst conditions in the country. Trees were downed throughout the town, and minor flooding was reported. Eight thousand were displaced to shelters, though all returned home in less than two days. Throughout the entire country, the Belizean Ministry of Health reported no storm-related fatalities and only a few minor injuries.  Belize's agricultural sector received significant damage. Its sugar cane fields and papaya crops suffered extensive damage. The Belizian Government's National Emergency Management Organization

Other regions.

No land effects were reported in Nicaragua but a four-year-old girl drowned on a boat that sank amidst high winds and waves at the mouth of the Kukra River.  While the hurricane itself never approached the United States, heavy surf and rip currents were reported on the beaches of Florida. One person drowned and at least 35 people had to be rescued

Aftermath.

Despite Dean's significant damage, it did not have severe effects on infrastructure, and the non-agricultural sectors of most affected nations recovered quickly. Most cruise lines diverted their ships away from the Western Caribbean in anticipation of Hurricane Dean's passage, though by August 27 all were back on schedule, except those with damaged ports in Belize and the Yucatán. The Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles were especially quick to resume servicing cruise lines, as their ports opened within days.

Lesser Antilles.

Although Hurricane Dean was only a Category 2 hurricane when its northern eyewall passed over Martinique, the wind and widespread flooding destroyed 70% of the island's sugar cane crop and all of its banana crop, valued at €400 million or 10% of GDP. Remarkably the tourism industry withstood the storm well; only a few hotels reported minor damage and the airport opened the day after the hurricane. Other than landscaping damage, all of the island's hotels were fully functional by the end of August.  The French Overseas Minister, Christian Estrozy and French Prime Minister, Francois Fillon visited French Caribbean

Jamaica.

On August 24 Jamaican Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller announced that her government would provide JA$225 million (US$3.2 million) in emergency assistance to the country's agriculture sector. This aid was targeted at the country's hardest-hit parishes. She also announced a JA$500 million (US$7.1 million) programme to provide grants and low-interest loans for emergency housing repairs. Temporary tarpaulins were also provided to patch roofs at no cost.  The World Food Program immediately placed 5,500 Jamaicans on complementary food assistance, a daily ration of 1900 kJ (450 kcal) of High Energy Biscuits, for two weeks. Within three days US$398,000 of pre-prepared United States Agency for International Development (USAID) emergency supplies arrived on the island. The airlift was composed mostly of mattresses, blankets, plastic sheeting, hygiene kits and water containers. The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)

Mexico.

Although Dean's landfall in Mexico occurred in a relatively uninhabited area and the storm's well-predicted track gave ample warning, the storm inflicted extreme damage. In Majahual, the only town to experience the full force of the hurricane, hundreds of buildings were destroyed. Quintana Roo Governor Félix González Canto reported that although the cleanup in the state capital of Chetumal was completed within three weeks, it took more than six months to fix all of the region's more rural roads. Unable to handle the hurricane's aftermath, the state government appealed to federal authorities for aid. Together, they established a housing-repair fund which contributed to the reconstruction of over

Retirement.

As the first Category 5 landfalling hurricane in 15 years, and due to its widespread impact, the name Dean was officially retired on May 13, 2008 by the

In Literature.

Hurricane Dean featured prominently in the travel novel Chasing Dean by Welsh surf/travel writer Tom Anderson. The book is an account of surfing America's hurricane states and the swell produced by Hurricane Dean.

Hurricane Dean was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season. It was the most intense North Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane Wilma of 2005, tying for seventh overall. Additionally, it made the third most intense Atlantic hurricane landfall. A Cape Verde hurricane that formed on August 13, 2007, Dean took a west-northwest path from the eastern Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lucia Channel and into the Caribbean. It strengthened into a major hurricane, reaching Category 5 status on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale before passing just south of Jamaica on August 20. The storm made landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula on August 21 at peak intensity. It crossed the peninsula and emerged into the Bay of Campeche weakened, but still remained a hurricane. It strengthened briefly before making a second landfall near Tecolutla in the Mexican state of Veracruz on August 22. Dean drifted to the northwest, weakening into a remnant low which dissipated uneventfully over the southwestern United States. Dean was the second-most intense tropical cyclone worldwide of 2007 in terms of pressure, only behind Cyclone George in the Australian region, and tied with Felix as the most intense worldwide in terms of 1-minute sustained winds.

飓风迪安(英语:Hurricane Dean)是2007年大西洋飓风季最强烈的热带气旋,也是自2005年的飓风威尔玛以来最强烈的北大西洋飓风,在有纪录以来所有大西洋飓风中也可以排到第七位,还能在所有登陆过的大西洋飓风中排名第三。这股佛得角型飓风于2007年8月13日形成,从大西洋东部向西北偏西方向穿越圣卢西亚海峡进入加勒比海。系统接下来逐渐增强成大型飓风,并在8月20日从牙买加南部近海经过前不久达到萨菲尔-辛普森飓风等级下的五级飓风强度。8月21日,迪安以强劲的五级风暴强度在尤卡坦半岛登陆,穿越半岛进入坎佩切湾后虽有大幅削弱,但仍然达到飓风强度。系统接下来又有小幅增强,于8月22日在韦拉克鲁斯州实现二度登陆。之后迪安朝西北方向漂移,逐渐减弱成残留低气压,最终在美国西南部上空消散。


Discovery and layout.

The People's Liberation Army accidentally discovered the tomb in 1977 while destroying a hill to build a factory at Leigudun. The tomb was constructed of large wooden timbers and covers an area of 220 square meters. The date ""jiayin" 3rd day" () written on an astronomical diagram on a lacquered clothing chest from the tomb is believed to be the date of the Marquis's death or an important date in his life, and has been extrapolated to the evening of the 3rd day of the third lunar month of 433 BC.  The tomb is divided into four separate chambers, resembling the layout of a palace of the day. The northern chamber is the smallest and contained military artifacts. The eastern chamber contained the tomb of Marquis Yi, who was buried in a wooden lacquer coffin nested inside a larger lacquer coffin. This chamber also contained eight other coffins that held the remains of eight women. The western chamber contained thirteen coffins that held the remains of thirteen other women. The central chamber is the largest, and contained a large ensemble of ritual musical instruments, including a set of 64 "bianzhong" (bronze bells).  In 1981, a less well-preserved and smaller tomb was discovered about 100 meters away, containing the remains of a woman related to Marquis Yi. This tomb contained a less extravagant set of 36 bronze bells and other musical instruments.

Contents.

Musical instruments.

The most famous discovery at the tomb is the large set of 64 "bianzhong" bells, mounted on an elaborate framework, which required a cast of five members to be played, and were struck with wooden mallets to produce music. The bells are two-toned, producing two distinct tones when struck at the center or the side; this property is enabled because the bells have an almond-shaped cross-section. The bells cover a range of five octaves. The collection also contains a non-matching bell, a memorial to Marquis Yi from King Hui of Chu, recording King Hui's rushed trip from the west to create the bell and attend the Marquis's funeral during the 56th year of King Hui's reign; the inscription on the bell dates the event to 433 BC. The bells were inscribed with music notations that detailed the relationship among the pitch standards of Zeng, Chu and Zhou.  Other musical instruments in the ensemble include stone chimes. Various string instruments were also discovered in the tombs, including "se", "qin" and "zhu". The tomb also contained pan flutes ("paixiao"), flutes and special "sheng", each made from a one-piece body through a time-consuming procedure; a gourd would be placed inside a mold that held the desired shape of the instrument. Once the gourd matured, it would take the shape of the mold that conformed to the desired musical properties of the instrument.

Ritual bronzes.

Along with the Late Shang dynasty tomb of Fu Hao, the tomb represents one of the largest sets of ritual bronze vessels to be properly recorded at the site. Most of the large number of ritual bronzes extant are individual pieces, or pairs, with no archaeological context recorded, but it is becoming clear that most pieces would have originally come from large groups deposited in an elite tomb.  The tomb had a total of 88 vessels and implements such as ladles and shovels, with many matching sets of a particular type of vessel. The decoration of the vessels is highly elaborate, with many protruding elements. The largest vessel is a unique "pan" wine vessel in two pieces, 33 cm high and nearly as wide. There are two different sets of the "ding" type of cauldron, typically a key component of late sets of vessels: 9 matching open "sheng ding", 5 matching with covers, and seven individual "ding", two very large. There is a matching set of 9 of the smaller "li" type of cauldron. Other vessels include a set of 8 covered "gui" for holding grain, 4 "fǔ" () square sacrificial vessels, 10 cups on legs, four "fou", and several other pairs or individual pieces.

Other contents.

In addition to aesthetic artifacts, the tomb contained a trove of weaponry, including arrowheads, dagger-axes spear tips and chariot wheel spokes. This tomb is important in the history of Ancient Chinese glass, as it contains 173 eye beads that were made in a western Asian style, similar to some found in Gilan, Iran.  The earliest examples of Chinese ink writings on bamboo (Zhujian) were discovered in this tomb, showing the calligraphic styles of the Chu or Zeng state. They recorded the people who attended the Marquis's funeral, such as the officials and royalty of the Chu and Zeng states and also included details of their transportation, such as number of horses carrying the chariots. These bamboo slips provide important information on the development of Chinese brush calligraphy.

The Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng () is an important archaeological site in Leigudun Community (), Nanjiao Subdistrict (), Zengdu District, Suizhou (then Sui County), Hubei, China, dated sometime after 433 BC. The tomb contained the remains of Marquis Yi of Zeng (sometimes "Duke Yi"), and is one of a handful of ancient Chinese royal tombs to have been discovered intact and then excavated using modern archaeological methods. Zeng was a minor state subordinate to its powerful neighbor, Chǔ. The tomb was made around 433 BC, either at the end of the Spring and Autumn period or the start of the Warring States period. The tomb comes from the end of the thousand-year-long period of the burial of large sets of Chinese ritual bronzes in elite tombs, and is also unusual in containing large numbers of musical instruments, including the great set of bells for which it is most famous.

曾侯乙墓是战国时期曾侯乙的一座墓葬,呈“卜”字形,岩坑竖穴木椁墓。位于湖北省随州市城西两公里的擂鼓墩东团坡上。


Manufacturing.

Geo models were manufactured by GM in joint ventures with three Japanese automakers. The Prizm was produced at the GM/Toyota joint-venture NUMMI assembly plant in Fremont, California, and the Metro and Tracker were produced at the GM/Suzuki joint-venture CAMI assembly plant in Ingersoll, Ontario. The exceptions, the Spectrum and Storm, were entirely manufactured by Isuzu in Japan. Geo Metro convertibles and early Geo Trackers were built by Suzuki in Japan.

Logo.

Geo's logo was based on the Chevrolet logo and the newest look had a small Chevrolet Bowtie logo placed within the "O" in Geo.

Models.

Metro.

The Geo Metro is a small economy car that was based on the Suzuki Swift (Cultus). It was produced from 1989 to 2001 model years. The first generation was offered in three and five-door hatchback models as well as a 4-door notchback sedan that was only sold in Canada. In 1990, a convertible was available but was phased out after 1993. Metros came in three trim levels: XFi, Base or LSi. The XFi's engine has less horsepower than the base and LSi and achieved startling gas mileage 53 MPG (city) 58 MPG (highway). All of the Metros at this time had three cylinder engines with a 5-speed manual or 3-speed automatic transmission. The convertible is also the only first-generation Metro to offer an airbag. In 1995 the Metro was redesigned with a more modern appearance and offered a four-cylinder engine, standard dual airbags and optional anti-lock brakes. A four-door sedan replaced the five-door hatchback. The XFi did not return for 1995 and only the base and LSi models were offered. The three-cylinder engine remained in the base hatchback. In 1998 the Metro, now branded as a Chevrolet, was revamped one last time. It was given minor re-styling, improved headlamps, and improved four cylinder engine, now producing. The 2000 model year was the last for the Metro hatchback and the three cylinder engine. All 2001 models were four-door sedans that were sold to fleets only.

Prizm.

The Prizm is a compact four-door sedan that was based on the Toyota E90 and E100 platform Toyota Sprinter. It was the successor to the Chevrolet Nova. A five-door hatchback model was also offered through 1991. While the Prizm consistently won awards from the auto industry (including a "Consumer's Digest" Best Buy selection), it was always outsold by the platform twin Toyota Corolla. Additionally, the Prizm was positioned within Chevrolet's model lineup against Chevy's own Cavalier for market share and dealer floor space. The Prizm was sold from 1989 through 2002 and produced at NUMMI in Fremont, California. The Prizm came in either a base model or a more upscale LSi version that had an optional 1.8 L engine and a 4-speed automatic transmission. Leather interior was also optional on the LSi model. From 1990-1992 the Prizm had a sporty GSi model, with red and black badging. It was equivalent in power and equipment to the Corolla GT-S although the latter was a coupe.The GSi was the most powerful Prizm with. The Prizm model line was not offered in Canada.

Spectrum.

The Spectrum was a short-lived subcompact model based on the Isuzu Gemini and one size up from the Metro. The Spectrum was sold as a regular Chevrolet model from 1985 to 1988. The 85-86 models shared several subtle differences to their 87-89 counterparts and were still fully branded as Chevrolets for the first year of production in 1989. However, with the launch of the Geo marque in 1989, the Spectrum was rebranded as a Geo. Although the grille stayed the same (including the Chevrolet "bowtie" emblem without Geo "globe") the rear "Chevrolet" emblem was replaced with a "Geo" emblem. The Geo Spectrum was only sold in 1989 and was replaced by the Isuzu-produced Geo Storm hatchback.

Storm.

The Storm was a sports car based on the Isuzu Impulse, available as a three-door fastback "Sport Coupe" and a two-door "Hatchback", the latter styled as a mini station wagon in profile, often referred to as the "Wagonback" in some markets. The Storm entered Geo's lineup in 1990 as a base model or in GSi trim, replacing the related Geo Spectrum. The base model came with a choice of either a 3-speed automatic or a 5-speed manual. The Storm line entered Canada in 1992, and the Hatchback (wagon) was offered only in base model trim. The GSi models came with either a 5-speed manual or a 4-speed automatic, better handling, a rear spoiler, bucket seats, and a more powerful DOHC engine. In 1992, the front and rear of all models were restyled, the GSi sported a bigger 1.8 liter DOHC engine, replacing the former 1.6 DOHC, and a redesigned rear spoiler. Despite strong sales the Storm was discontinued in 1993, this was due in part to Isuzu discontinuing their car lines, and refocusing on trucks and SUVs. The Geo Storm was the performance oriented vehicle of the Geo marque. The Storm and the Geo Spectrum were produced in Japan by Isuzu.

Tracker.

The Geo Tracker SUV was introduced in 1989 and was based on the Suzuki Sidekick|Suzuki Vitara. It was a low cost alternative vehicle in place of a Jeep. It was introduced as a two-door with either a convertible or fixed hard top in base or upscale LSi versions. All models between 89 and 90 were offered in 5-speed manual with four-wheel drive. In 1996 the two-door hard top was dropped in favor of the four-door model. The four-door offered a engine and an optional four-speed automatic transmission. The Tracker was produced from 1989 to 1998 under the Geo marque, and 1999 to 2004 under Chevrolet itself, making it the longest running Geo model. The Tracker was completely redesigned for the 1999 model year. It was replaced by the Chevrolet Equinox in 2005. It still is a popular off road vehicle.

Geo was a marque of small cars and SUVs marketed by General Motors as a subdivision of its Chevrolet division from 1989 to 2004. However, for the 1998 model year, the Metro, Prizm, and Tracker were made by Chevrolet until their discontinuance in 2001, 2002, and 2004, respectively. In this sense, Geo existed until 2004, even with the Geo nameplate being dropped in mid-1997. Its original slogan was "Get to know Geo" and commercials often featured the song "Getting to Know You" from the musical "The King and I". Formed by GM to compete with the growing small import market of the mid 1980s, the Geo nameplate continued through the 1997 model year, after which the remaining models were marketed under the Chevrolet name. In the 1990s consumer interest in the economy compact market faded, and the last vehicle of the former Geo line, the Tracker, was discontinued in 2016. In Canada, another import marque, Asüna, was introduced in 1992 to provide Pontiac-Buick-GMC dealers access to a similar range of import vehicles.

吉优汽车(英语:Geo)乃是1990年代美国通用汽车成立的汽车品牌,主打经济实惠的紧凑型轿车车款。不过因为市场定位不够明确,加上售后服务的口碑不佳,1997年被并入该集团旗下的雪佛兰汽车。


History.

From its beginnings, the Urbaniana has always been an academic institution with a missionary character that has served the Catholic Church through the formation of missionaries and experts in the area of Missiology or other disciplines, necessary in the evangelizational activity of the Church.  The origins of the university date back to Pope Urban VIII who decided to establish a new college with his papal bull "Immortalis Dei Filius" of August 1, 1627. Pope Urban saw that it was necessary to establish a central seminary for the missions where young priests could be educated, both for countries which had no national college, but also those that did. A central international college would allow priests to make acquaintances and form mutually helpful relationships in other countries. The new college was called the Collegium Urbanum from the name of its founder and placed under the immediate direction of the Congregation of Propaganda (now called the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples).  After the College's founding, G. Batta Vives, a Spanish prelate, donated a suitable building near the Piazza di Spagna. Under Pope Alexander VII, the Church of the Three Magi was added to the building. Vives established six free scholarships, to which were later added endowments by other pontiffs and prelates, especially Innocent XII, Clement XII, and the brother of Urban VIII, Cardinal Antonio Barberini.  In 1798, following the disruption surrounding the creation of the Roman Republic and the Napoleonic Wars, the college was closed and some of the students were received by the Lazarists at Montecitorio. This arrangement lasted until 1809, when even this last remnant of the college was suppressed. In 1814, however, some of the Propaganda students were again received by the Lazarists, and in 1817 the Urbaniana was reopened. From 1836 until 1848, it operated under the direction of the Jesuits.  At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Urban College was still housed in the Palazzo di Propaganda Fide in Piazza di Spagna. At that time, the average number of its resident students was about one hundred and ten. Those resident students were necessarily from countries that fell under the responsibility of the "Propaganda". Then as now, however, the Urbaniana operates its own schools, which are attended by other students not subject to the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples. In fact, since 1966, the Urbaniana has accepted the affiliation of seminaries and institutes of philosophy, theology, missiology, and canon law from all over the world. The total number of students educated under the auspices of the Urbanianum was about five hundred in 1910.  In 1926, the College moved from its historic home in the Piazza di Spagna to its current campus on the Janiculum, overlooking Saint Peter's Square. Its first home there was a relatively modest building, but it is now housed in a much-expanded group of buildings.  The university was endowed with the title "pontifical" with the "motu proprio" "Fidei propagandae" of Pope John XXIII on October 1, 1962.

Traditions.

In the seventeenth century, Alexander VII instituted a tradition of having all the students make an oath, binding them to remain under the jurisdiction of the "Propaganda", not to enter a religious order without special permission, and to return after ordination to the priesthood to their dioceses or provinces to engage in the sacred ministry, and to send each year if in Europe, or every second year otherwise, a report of their apostolic work. By the early 1900s, this practice was still done: every graduate student ("alumno"), wherever he may have been in the pursuit of his ministry, was bound to write a letter to the cardinal prefect every year, to let him know how his work was progressing and how he was faring. "Catholic Encyclopedia" reports that cardinal used to answer immediately with "a letter of paternal encouragement and counsel."  In the early twentieth century, it used to be customary for the Urban College to hold an annual solemn "Accademia Polyglotta" at Epiphany, to symbolize the worldwide unity of the Catholic Church. At this event, the Propaganda students would recite poems in their respective mother tongues to the delight of guests.

Activity.

Faculties.

The university, which is located on the Janiculum Hill in Rome, has four faculties: the faculty of theology, the faculty of philosophy, the faculty of canon law, and the faculty of missiology. The faculties of theology and philosophy are as old as the institution itself, while the canon law and missiology faculties are more recent. The Missionary Institute was founded on September 1, 1933, and split into the two faculties of canon law and missiology on July 25, 1986.  As of 2004, the university educated about 1400 students between these four faculties.

Library.

The current library of the Urbaniana was formed from two pre-existing collections: the historic Urban College Library and the Pontifical Missionary Library, which were joined in 1979. Today the combined library contains about 350,000 volumes, including over 9,000 directly accessible in reading rooms; 800 current journals and about 4,000 archival; about 50,000 microfiches; and documents from various specialized archives. In the library there are about 1500 late-Medieval "incunabula", a collection of rare atlases, geographical maps printed in the sixteenth century, and missionary catechisms from the sixteenth century onwards. The library is particularly notable for its Chinese collections and Old and New Testament resources.

University press.

The Urban University Press handles publishing for both the university and the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples. Although it currently operates in line with the criteria of modern university publishing, it derives from a tradition that goes back to the very origins of the Urban College and the Printing House of the Congregation of "Propaganda Fide". Currently the UUP publishes the following periodicals: "Euntes Docete", the scientific journal of the university, "Ius Missionale", the yearbook of the Faculty of Canon Law, and "Bibliographia Missionaria", a journal curated by the director of the Library. In addition to these, every year the press also prints the university "Annales", which serves to review and record the academic and non-academic life of the university and its faculty.

Administration.

While the university is owned and operated by the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, whose prefect is Chancellor of the university "ex officio", as a center of higher education it is regulated by the Congregation for Catholic Education. Cardinal Luis Antonio Tagle, as current Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, serves as the Chancellor; the Vice Chancellor is Archbishop Protase Rugambwa, Secretary of the same Congregation.  In its early days, the rector of the university always used to be a Theatine and would serve as the parish priest of all who lived in the Palazzo di Propaganda Fide. For centuries, however, the rector was a secular prelate (that is, not attached to a particular order). As of 2015, the "Rector Magnificus" of the Urbaniana is Father Alberto Trevisiol, a priest of the order of Consolata Missionaries. He is assisted by Father Godfrey Igwebuike Onah as Vice Rector.

Alumni.

Alumni of the Urbaniana include  American  African  Asian In add  ition to the many ecclesiastical dignitaries among the Urbaniana's past students there have also been four martyrs: the Belgian Jacques Foelech (1643); Pietro Cesy (1680); the Armenian Melchior Tasbas (1716), and Nicholas Boscovich (1731).  The first known African-American Catholic priest, Servant of God Augustus Tolton was a graduate.

The Pontifical Urban University, also called the Urbaniana after its names in both Latin and Italian, is a pontifical university under the authority of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples. The university's mission is to train priests, religious brothers and sisters, and lay people for service as missionaries. Its campus is located on the Janiculum Hill in Rome, on extraterritorial property of the Holy See.

宗座传信大学(;;缩写:PUU), 又名乌尔班大学。著名的天主教宗座大学,历史悠久,专门从事神职人员和传教士的培育。它位于意大利罗马贾尼科洛山山顶。


Etymology.

The word "street" has its origins in the Latin "strata" (meaning "paved road" - abbreviation from "via strata"); it is thus related to "stratum" and "stratification". The first recorded use of word "stratæ" referring to the road has been made by the Eutropius. Ancient Greek "stratos" means army: Greeks originally built roads to move their armies. Old English applied the word to Roman roads in Britain such as Ermine Street, Watling Street, etc. Later it acquired a dialectical meaning of "straggling village", which were often laid out on the verges of Roman roads and these settlements often became named Stretton. In the Middle Ages, a "road" was a way people travelled, with "street" applied specifically to paved ways.

Role in the built environment.

The street is a public easement, one of the few shared between all sorts of people. As a component of the built environment as ancient as human habitation, the street sustains a range of activities vital to civilization. Its roles are as numerous and diverse as its ever-changing cast of characters.  Streets can be loosely categorized as main streets and side streets. Main streets are usually broad with a relatively high level of activity. Commerce and public interaction are more visible on main streets, and vehicles may use them for longer-distance travel. Side streets are quieter, often residential in use and character, and may be used for vehicular parking.

Circulation.

Circulation, or less broadly, transportation, is perhaps a street's most visible use, and certainly among the most important. The unrestricted movement of people and goods within a city is essential to its commerce and vitality, and streets provide the physical space for this activity.  In the interest of order and efficiency, an effort may be made to segregate different types of traffic. This is usually done by carving a road through the middle for motorists, reserving pavements on either side for pedestrians; other arrangements allow for streetcars, trolleys, and even wastewater and rainfall runoff ditches (common in Japan and India). In the mid-20th century, as the automobile threatened to overwhelm city streets with pollution and ghastly accidents, many urban theorists came to see this segregation as not only helpful but necessary in order to maintain mobility.  Le Corbusier, for one, perceived an ever-stricter segregation of traffic as an essential affirmation of social order—a desirable, and ultimately inevitable, expression of modernity. To this end, proposals were advanced to build "vertical streets" where road vehicles, pedestrians, and trains would each occupy their own levels. Such an arrangement, it was said, would allow for even denser development in the future.  These plans were never implemented comprehensively, a fact which today's urban theorists regard as fortunate for vitality and diversity. Rather, vertical segregation is applied on a piecemeal basis, as in sewers, utility poles, depressed highways, elevated railways, common utility ducts, the extensive complex of underground malls surrounding Tokyo Station and the Ōtemachi subway station, the elevated pedestrian skyway networks of Minneapolis and Calgary, the underground cities of Atlanta and Montreal, and the multilevel streets in Chicago.  Transportation is often misunderstood to be the defining characteristic, or even the sole purpose, of a street. This has not been the case since the word "street" came to be limited to urban situations, and even in the automobile age, is still demonstrably false. A street may be temporarily blocked to all through traffic in order to secure the space for other uses, such as a street fair, a flea market, children at play, filming a movie, or construction work. Many streets are bracketed by bollards or Jersey barriers so as to keep out vehicles. These measures are often taken in a city's busiest areas, the "destination" districts, when the volume of activity outgrows the capacity of private passenger vehicles to support it. A feature universal to all streets is a human-scale design that gives its users the space and security to feel engaged in their surroundings, whatever through traffic may pass.

Vehicular traffic.

Despite this, the operator of a motor vehicle may (incompletely) regard a street as merely a thoroughfare for vehicular travel or parking. As far as concerns the driver, a street can be one-way or two-way: vehicles on one-way streets may travel in only one direction, while those on two-way streets may travel both ways. One way streets typically have signs reading "ONE WAY" and an arrow showing the direction of allowed travel. Most two-way streets are wide enough for at least two lanes of traffic.  Which lane is for which direction of traffic depends on what country the street is located in. On broader two-way streets, there is often a "centre line" marked down the middle of the street separating those lanes on which vehicular traffic goes in one direction from other lanes in which traffic goes in the opposite direction. Occasionally, there may be a median strip separating lanes of opposing traffic. If there is more than one lane going in one direction on a main street, these lanes may be separated by intermittent "lane lines", marked on the street pavement. Side streets often do not have centre lines or lane lines.

Parking for vehicles.

Many streets, especially side streets in residential areas, have an extra lane's width on one or both sides for parallel parking. Most minor side streets allowing free parallel parking do not have pavement markings designating the parking lane. Main streets more often have parking lanes marked. Some streets are too busy or narrow for parking on the side. Sometimes parking on the sides of streets is allowed only at certain times. Curbside signs often state regulations about parking. Some streets, particularly in business areas, may have parking meters into which coins must be paid to allow parking in the adjacent space for a limited time. Other parking meters work on a credit card and ticket basis or pay and display. Parking lane markings on the pavement may designate the meter corresponding to a parking space. Some wide streets with light traffic allow "angle parking" or "herringbone parking".

Sidewalk and bicycle traffic.

Sidewalks (US usage) or pavements (UK usage) are often located alongside on one or usually both sides of the street within the public land strips beyond the curbs. Sidewalks serve a traffic purpose, by making walking easier and more attractive, but they also serve a social function, allowing neighbors to meet and interact on their walks. They also can foster economic activity, such as window shopping and sidewalk cafes. Some studies have found that shops on streets with sidewalks get more customers than similar shops without sidewalks.  An important element of sidewalk design is accessibility for persons with disabilities. Features that make sidewalks more accessible include curb ramps, tactile paving and accessible traffic signals. The Americans with Disabilities Act requires accessibility improvement on new and reconstructed streets within the US.  In most jurisdictions, bicycles are legally allowed to use streets, and required to follow the same traffic laws as motor vehicle traffic. Where the volume of bicycle traffic warrants and available right-of-way allows, provisions may be made to separate cyclists from motor vehicle traffic. Wider lanes may be provided next to the curb, or shoulders may be provided. Bicycle lanes may be used on busy streets to provide some separation between bicycle traffic and motor vehicle traffic.  The bicycle lane may be placed between the travel lanes and the parking lanes, between the parking lanes and the curb, or for increased safety for cyclists, between curb and sidewalk. These poorer designs can lead to Dooring incidents and are unsafe for cycling.  A more sensible design is found in the Netherlands with a Protected Bicycle Path totally separate from the traffic which is safe for cycling.

Tramlines.

Trams are generally considered to be environmentally friendly with tramlines running in streets with a combination of tram lanes or separate alignments are used, sometimes on a segregated right of way. Signalling and effective braking reduce the risk of a tram accident.

Vehicular amenities and roadside hardware.

Often, a curb (British English: "Kerb") is used to separate the vehicle traffic lanes from the adjacent pavement area and where people on bicycles are considered properly are used to separate cycling from traffic as well. Street signs, parking meters, bicycle stands, benches, traffic signals, and street lights are often found adjacent to streets. They may be behind the sidewalk, or between the sidewalk and the curb.

Landscaping.

There may be a road verge (a strip of grass or other vegetation) between the carriageway (North American English: Roadway) and the pavement on either side of the street on which Grass or trees are often grown there for landscaping. These are often placed for beautification but are increasingly being used to control stormwater.

Utilities.

Although primarily used for traffic, streets are important corridors for utilities such as electric power; communications such as telephone, cable television and fiber optic lines; storm and sanitary sewers; and natural gas lines.

Street numbering.

Practically all public streets in Western countries and the majority elsewhere (though not in Japan; see Japanese addressing system) are given a street or road name, or at least a number, to identify them and any addresses located along the streets. Alleys, in some places, do not have names. The length of a lot of land along a street is referred to as the "frontage" of the lot.

Interaction.

A street may assume the role of a town square for its regulars. Jane Jacobs, an economist and prominent urbanist, wrote extensively on the ways that interaction among the people who live and work on a particular street—"eyes on the street"—can reduce crime, encourage the exchange of ideas, and generally make the world a better place.

Identity.

A street can often serve as the catalyst for the neighborhood's prosperity, culture and solidarity. New Orleans’ Bourbon Street is famous not only for its active nightlife but also for its role as the center of the city's French Quarter. Similarly, the Bowery has at various times been New York City's theater district, red-light district, skid row, restaurant supply district, and the center of the nation's underground punk scene. Madison Avenue and Fleet Street are so strongly identified with their respective most famous types of commerce, that their names are sometimes applied to firms located elsewhere. Other streets mark divisions between neighborhoods of a city. For example, Yonge Street divides Toronto into east and west sides, and East Capitol Street divides Washington, D.C. into north and south.  Some streets are associated with the beautification of a town or city. Greenwood, Mississippi's Grand Boulevard was once named one of America's ten most beautiful streets by the U.S. Chambers of Commerce and the Garden Clubs of America. The 1,000 oak trees lining Grand Boulevard were planted in 1916 by Sally Humphreys Gwin, a charter member of the Greenwood Garden Club. In 1950, Gwin received a citation from the National Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution in recognition of her work in the conservation of trees.  Streets also tend to aggregate establishments of similar nature and character. East 9th Street in Manhattan, for example, offers a cluster of Japanese restaurants, clothing stores, and cultural venues. In Washington, D.C., 17th Street and P Street are well known as epicenters of the city's (relatively small) gay culture. Many cities have a Radio Row or Restaurant Row. Like in Philadelphia there is a small street called Jewelers' row giving the identity of a "Diamond district". This phenomenon is the subject of urban location theory in economics. In Cleveland, Ohio, East 4th Street has become restaurant row for Cleveland. On East 4th is Michael Symon's Lola Bistro and other restaurants.

As distinct from other spaces.

A road, like a street, is often paved and used for travel. However, a street is characterized by the degree and quality of street life it facilitates, whereas a road serves primarily as a through passage for road vehicles or (less frequently) pedestrians. Buskers, beggars, boulevardiers, patrons of pavement cafés, peoplewatchers, streetwalkers, and a diversity of other characters are habitual users of a street; the same people would not typically be found on a road.  In rural and suburban environments where street life is rare, the terms "street" and "road" are frequently considered interchangeable. Still, even here, what is called a "street" is usually a smaller thoroughfare, such as a road within a housing development feeding directly into individual driveways. In the last half of the 20th century these streets often abandoned the tradition of a rigid, rectangular grid, and instead were designed to discourage through traffic. This and other traffic calming methods provided quiet for families and play space for children. Adolescent suburbanites find, in attenuated form, the amenities of street life in shopping malls where vehicles are forbidden.  A town square or plaza is a little more like a street, but a town square is rarely paved with asphalt and may not make any concessions for through traffic at all.

Nomenclature.

There is a haphazard relationship, at best, between a thoroughfare's function and its name. For example, London's Abbey Road serves all the vital functions of a street, despite its name, and locals are more apt to refer to the "street" outside than the "road". A desolate road in rural Montana, on the other hand, may bear a sign proclaiming it "Davidson Street", but this does not make it a "street" except in the original sense of a paved road.  In the United Kingdom many towns will refer to their main thoroughfare as the High Street (in the United States and Canada it would be called the Main Street—however, occasionally "Main Street" in a city or town is a street other than the "de facto" main thoroughfare), and many of the ways leading off it will be named "Road" despite the urban setting. Thus the town's so-called "Roads" will actually be more street-like than a road.  Some streets may even be called highways, even though they may carry no highway designation at all: This may arise when an historic road that was built to connect distant towns was named a "street" but originally never was in the truest sense. Some roads of this type which later became highways, became identified as said highway and may continue to colloquially be labelled as such from force of habit even if sections of it are subsequently urbanized and become an actual street and has its highway status decommissioned. Hurontario Street in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada (which was formerly Ontario Highway 10, but predates it), is an example of this.  In some other English-speaking countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, cities are often divided by a main "Road", with "Streets" leading from this "Road", or the cities are divided by thoroughfares known as "Streets" or "Roads" with no apparent differentiation between the two. In Auckland, for example, the main shopping precinct is located around Queen Street and Karangahape Road.  Streets have existed for as long as humans have lived in permanent settlements (see civilization). However, modern civilization in much of the New World developed around transportation provided by motor vehicles. In some parts of the English-speaking world, such as North America, many think of the street as a thoroughfare for vehicular traffic first and foremost. In this view, pedestrian traffic is incidental to the street's purpose; a street consists of a thoroughfare running through the middle (in essence, a road), and may or may not have pavements (or sidewalks) along the sides.  In an even narrower sense, some may think of a street as only the vehicle-driven and parking part of the thoroughfare. Thus, sidewalks (pavements) and road verges would not be thought of as part of the street. A mother may tell her toddlers, "Don't go out into the street, so you don't get hit by a car."  Among urban residents of the English-speaking world, the word "street" appears to carry its original connotations (i.e., the facilitation of traffic as a prime purpose, and "street life" as an incidental benefit). For instance, a "New York Times" writer lets casually slip the observation that automobile-laden Houston Street, in lower Manhattan, is "a street that can hardly be called'street' anymore, transformed years ago into an eight-lane raceway that alternately resembles a Nascar event and a parking lot." Published in the paper's Metro section, the article evidently presumes an audience with an innate grasp of the modern urban role of the street. To the readers of the Metro section, vehicular traffic does not reinforce, but rather detracts from, the essential "street-ness" of a street.  At least one map has been made to illustrate the geography of naming conventions for thoroughfares; avenue, boulevard, circle, road, street, and other suffixes are compared and contrasted.

Culture.

Happy street, alternatively called open street or fun street, are open to all public celebrations organised in many European and Indian cities; mostly on some Sunday or some other specific day, initiative encourages people to use non-motorised transport and to come out onto the streets to socialize every Sunday morning through a wide array of activities; Where in families and people of all ages can simply get out in the middle of the street to walk, run, jog, dance, bicycle, sing, skate or play.  According to Sandeep Nanduri, the Corporation Commissioner of Madurai, “The idea is to socialise comfortably and safely with elements of entertainment thrown in. The aim is to keep all vehicles out and allow the public in.”  Happy Street comes to different areas on the some specific Sunday of every month.  Several cities across India including Kolkata, Pune, Thane, Ahmedabad, Madurai, BengloreVisakhapatnam have been successfully implementing it while places like Chennai and Coimbatore have introduced car-free Sundays.  Detroiters Halifax

Converting streets.

Rare street redesigns rarely require a change of street structure or shape.

Street names.

The street names sometimes change or move to another area for political reasons or they are completely erased.

A street is a public thoroughfare in a built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A street can be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but is more often paved with a hard, durable surface such as tarmac, concrete, cobblestone or brick. Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, or otherwise prepared to accommodate non-pedestrian traffic.

街道为“街”与“道”的合称,指城镇中的道路,而且此类道路两边有连续不断的房屋建筑。汉语意境中,人口稠密区中有建筑连片区的道路,尽管多被冠以“街”、“道”、“路”、“马路”、“大道”,不论其主要功能是什么,都可以被认为是街道。对于具有良好基础设施与娱乐休闲功能的道路,即使两边没有连片建筑设施,也被认为是街道。但对以车辆通行为主的普通公路和高速公路等,很少人会当作街道。


圣母圣衣圣殿 (佛罗伦萨)

History.

The church, dedicated to the "Beatæ Virginis Mariæ de monte Carmelo", was founded by a group of Carmelite friars from Pisa. Construction of the church commenced in 1268 as part of the Carmelite convent, which still exists today. Of the original edifice only some Romanesque-Gothic remains can be seen on the sides.  By the 14th century, it was the seat of a number of lay fraternities. The complex was enlarged a first time in 1328 and again in 1464, when the capitular hall and the refectory added, though the church maintained the Latin Cross, one nave plan.  Renovated in the Baroque style in the 16th–17th centuries, it was damaged by a fire in 1771 which destroyed the interior of the church. It was rebuilt internally in the Rococo style in 1782. The façade, like in many Florentine churches, remained unfinished. The fire did not touch the sacristy: therefore have survived the "Stories of St. Cecilia" attributed to Lippo d'Andrea (c. 1400) and the marble monument of Pier Soderini by Benedetto da Rovezzano (1511–1513). The vault of the nave has a trompe-l'oeil, quadratura fresco by Domenico Stagi.

Brancacci Chapel.

The Brancacci Chapel also survived the fire, and was saved by the subsequent restoration by the intervention of a Florentine noblewoman who was firmly opposed to the covering of the frescoes. The Chapel is home to the famous frescoes by Masaccio and Masolino, considered the first masterwork of the Italian Renaissance. Masaccio's master Masolino, commissioned by a wealthy merchant, Felice Brancacci, began work on the chapel in 1425 and was soon joined in the project by his pupil, Masaccio. The scenes by Masolino are St Peter Healing a Lame Man and Raising Tabitha from the Dead, St Peter Preaching, and Adam and Eve. Those by mostly Masaccio are The Tribute Money, St Peter Healing with his Shadow, The Crucifixion of St Peter, The Baptism of the Neophytes, and The Expulsion from Paradise. Their treatment of figures in believable space made the frescoes among the most important to have come out of the Early Renaissance. The cycle was finished by Filippino Lippi.  The elaborated Italian Rococo ceiling is from one of the most important 18th century artists in the city, Giovanni Domenico Ferretti.

Corsini Chapel.

The Corsini, one of the richest families in Florence during the 17th–18th centuries, had this chapel built in 1675-1683, to hold the remains of an ancestral member of the family, St Andrea Corsini (1301–1374), who became a Carmelite friar and the Bishop of Fiesole, and who was canonized in 1629.  The architect Pier Francesco Silvani choose for it the Baroque style then popular in Rome. The altar has a marble bas-relief depicting the "Glory of St Andrea Corsini", sculpted by Foggini, and above a "God the Father" sculpted by Carlo Marcellini. On the sides of the altar are two more Foggini marble bas-reliefs: one depicts "Sant'Andrea descends girded with sword to lead the Florentines to victory during the Battle of Anghiari" and the other recalls a "Miraculous vision of the Virgin by a young Sant'Andrea" (occurring in the church of the Convent delle Selve).  The small dome was frescoed by Giordano in 1682. The frescoes suffered in the great church fire, and were restored by Stefano Fabbrini.

The convent.

The convent suffered in its history from numerous disasters, from the 1771 fire to the 1966 River Arno flood. Most of the artworks are therefore fragmentary: these include the "Bestowal of the Carmelite Rule" by Filippo Lippi and the "Last Supper" by Alessandro Allori, and remains of works from other chapels by Pietro Nelli and Gherardo Starnina.  The second refectory is decorated with the "Supper in Simon the Pharisee's house" by Giovanni Battista Vanni (c. 1645); it also houses fragments of frescoes by Lippo d'Andrea.

Santa Maria del Carmine is a church of the Carmelite Order, in the Oltrarno district of Florence, in Tuscany, Italy. It is famous as the location of the Brancacci Chapel housing outstanding Renaissance frescoes by Masaccio and Masolino da Panicale, later finished by Filippino Lippi.

佛罗伦萨卡尔米内圣母大殿(Basilica di Santa Maria del Carmine)是一座加尔默罗会教堂,位于意大利佛罗伦萨Oltrarno区。以布兰卡契礼拜堂的文艺复兴时期由马萨乔和马索利诺所作的壁画而著称。