Name.

Malinche is known by many names. She was baptized as Marina, and was referred to as such by the Spaniards, often preceded with honorific. The Nahuas called her 'Malintzin', derived from 'Malina' (a Nahuatl rendering of her Spanish name) and the honorific suffix. According to the historian Camilla Townsend, the vocative suffix is sometimes added at the end of the name, giving the form "Malintzine", which would be shortened to 'Malintze', and heard by the Spaniards as 'Malinche'. Another possibility is that the Spaniards simply did not hear the 'whispered' of the name "Malintzin".  Her name at birth is unknown. It has been popularly assumed since at least the 19th century that she was originally named 'Malinalli' (Nahuatl for 'grass'), after the day sign on which she was supposedly born, and that Marina was chosen as her Christian name on account of phonetic similarity, but modern historians have rejected these propositions. The Nahuas associate the day sign 'Malinalli' with bad or even 'evil' connotations, and they are known to avoid using such day signs as personal names. Moreover, there would be little reason for the Spaniards to ask the natives what their personal names were before christening them with similar-sounding Spanish names.  Another title that is often assumed to be part of her original name is 'Tenepal'. In the annotation made by the Nahua historian Chimalpahin on his copy of Gómara's biography of Cortés, 'Malintzin Tenepal' is used repeatedly in reference to Malinche. According to the linguist and historian Frances Karttunen, Tenepal is probably derived from the Nahuatl root which means “lip-possessor, one who speaks vigorously” or “one who has a facility with words”, and postposition, which means “by means of”. The historian James Lockhart, however, suggests that Tenepal might be derived from or "somebody's tongue". In any case, it seems that 'Malintzin Tenepal' was intended to be a calque of Spanish, with ("the interpreter", literally "the tongue") being her Spanish sobriquet.

Life.

Background.

Malinche's birthdate is unknown, but it is estimated to be around 1500, and likely no later than 1505. She was born in an that was either a part or a tributary of a Mesoamerican state whose center was located on the bank of the Coatzacoalcos River to the east of the Aztec Empire. Records disagree about the exact name of the where she was born into. In three unrelated legal proceedings that occurred not long after her death, various witnesses who claimed to have known her personally, including her own daughter, said that she was born in Olutla. The of her grandson also mentioned Olutla as her birthplace. Her daughter also added that the of Olutla was related to Tetiquipaque, although the nature of this relationship is unclear. In the "Florentine Codex", Malinche's homeland is mentioned as "Teticpac", which is most likely the singular form of Tetiquipaque. Gómara writes that she came from "Uiluta" (presumably a variant of "Olutla"), although he departs from other sources by writing that it was in the region of Jalisco. Díaz, on the other hand, gives "Painalla" as her birthplace.  Her family is reported to be of noble background; Gómara writes that her father was related to a local ruler, while Díaz recounts that her parents themselves were rulers. Townsend notes that while Olutla at the time probably had a Popoluca majority, the ruling elite, which Malinche supposedly belonged to, would have been Nahuatl-speaking. Another hint that supports her noble origin is her apparent ability to understand the courtly language of (“lordly speech”), a Nahuatl register that is significantly different from the commoner's speech and has to be learned. The fact that she was often referred to as a, at the time when it was not commonly used even in Spain, also indicates that she was viewed as a noblewoman, although it is also possible that the honorific was attributed to her because of her important role in the conquest.  Probably between the age of 8 and 12, Malinche was either sold or kidnapped into slavery. Díaz famously wrote that after her father's death, she was given away to merchants by her mother and stepfather so that their own son (Malinche's stepbrother) could succeed as heir. Some scholars, historians and literary critics alike, have cast doubt upon Díaz's account of her origin. Nevertheless, Townsend considers it likely that some of her people were complicit in trafficking her, regardless of the reason. Malinche was taken to Xicalango, a major port city in the region. She was later purchased by a group of Chontal Maya who brought her to the town of Potonchán. It was here that Malinche started to learn the Chontal Maya language, and perhaps also Yucatec Maya. This would later enable her to communicate with Jerónimo de Aguilar, another interpreter for Cortes who also spoke Yucatec Maya, alongside his native Spanish.

The conquest of Mexico.

Early in his expedition to Mexico, Cortés was confronted by the Mayas at Potonchán. After suffering a significant loss of lives in the battle that ensued, the Mayas asked for peace, and in the following days, presented the Spaniards with gifts of food and gold, as well as twenty slave women. Malinche was one of the women presented to the Spaniards. She and the other women were baptized and subsequently distributed among Cortés's men, not only as servants, but also to provide sexual services. Malinche was given to Alonso Hernández Puertocarrero, one of Cortés's captains who was also a first cousin to the count of Cortés's hometown, Medellín.  Malinche's linguistic gift went undiscovered until the Spaniards first encounter with the Nahuatl-speaking people at San Juan de Ulúa. Moctezuma's emissaries had come to inspect them, but Aguilar found himself unable to understand their words. When it was realized that Malinche was able to converse with the emissaries, she and Aguilar were set aside by Cortés, who, according to Gómara, promised her “more than liberty” if she would assist him in finding and communicating with Moctezuma. Cortés took Malinche back from Puertocarrero, who was later given another indigenous woman before he was sent back to Spain. Through Aguilar and Malinche, Cortés talked with Moctezuma's emissaries. The emissaries also brought artists to make paintings of Malinche, Cortés, and the rest of the group, as well as their ships and weapons, to be sent as records for Moctezuma. Díaz later said that the Nahuas also addressed Cortés as "Malinche"; they apparently took her as a point of reference for the group.  From then on, Malinche would work together with Aguilar to bridge communication between the Spaniards and the Nahuas; Cortés would speak Spanish with Aguilar, who then translated into Yucatec Maya for Malinche, who in turn translated into Nahuatl, before reversing the process. The translation chain grew even longer when, after the emissaries left, they met the Totonacs, whose language was unintelligible to both Malinche and Aguilar. There, Malinche asked for Nahuatl interpreters. Karttunen remarks that "it is a wonder any communication was accomplished at all", for Cortés's Spanish words had to be translated into Maya, Nahuatl, and Totonac before reaching the locals, whose answers then went back through the same chain. It was from the meeting with the Totonacs that the Spaniards first learned of those who were hostile to Moctezuma. After founding the town of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz in order to be freed from the legal restriction of what was supposed to be an exploratory mission, the Spaniards stayed for two months in a nearby Totonac settlement, securing a formal alliance with the Totonacs and prepared for a march towards Tenochtitlan.  The first major polity that they encounter on the way to Tenochtitlan was Tlaxcala. Although the Tlaxcalans were initially hostile to the Spaniards and their allies, they later permitted the Spaniards to enter the city. The Tlaxcalans negotiated an alliance with the Spaniards through Malinche and Aguilar. Later Tlaxcalan records of this meeting feature scenes where Malinche appears prominent, bridging the communication between the two sides as the Tlaxcalans presented the Spaniards with gifts of food and noblewomen to cement the alliance. After several days in Tlaxcala, Cortés continued the journey to Tenochtitlan by the way of Cholula, accompanied by a large number of Tlaxcalan soldiers.  The Spaniards were received at Cholula and housed for several days, until, as the Spaniards claimed, the Cholulans stopped giving them food, dug secret pits, built a barricade around the city, and hid a large Aztec army in the outskirt in preparation for an attack against the Spaniards. Somehow, the Spaniards learned of this plot, and, in a preemptive strike, assembled and massacred the Cholulans. Later accounts specifically claimed that the plot was uncovered by Malinche. According to the version provided by Díaz, she was approached by a Cholulan noblewoman who promised her a marriage to the woman's son if she were to switch side. Malinche, pretending to go along with the suggestion, learned from the woman about the plot, and reported all the details to Cortés. This story has often been cited as an example of Malinche's “betrayal” to her people. However, the veracity of the story has been questioned by modern historians such as Hassig and Townsend. It has been suggested that the Tlaxcalans were the real mastermind behind the massacre. Cholula had previously supported Tlaxcala before joining the Aztec Empire one or two years prior, and losing them as an ally was a hard hit for the Tlaxcalans, whose state was now completely encircled by the Aztecs. It is possible that the attack on the Cholulans was in fact a test from the Tlaxcalans for the Spaniards' trustworthiness. In this view, thus, Malinche's “heroic” discovery of the purported plot is only a part of the justification for the massacre. The combined forces reached Tenochtitlan in early November 1519, and was met by Moctezuma in a causeway leading to the city. Malinche was in the middle of this event, translating the conversation between Cortés and Moctezuma. Gomara writes that Moctezuma was "speaking through Malinche and Aguilar", although other records indicate that Malinche was already translating directly, as she had quickly learned some Spanish herself. Moctezuma's flowery speech delivered through Malinche at the meeting has been claimed by the Spaniards to represent a submission, but this interpretation is not followed by modern historians. The deferential nature of the speech can be explained by Moctezuma's usage of, a Nahuatl register known for its indirection and complex set of reverential affixes. Despite Malinche's apparent ability to understand, it is possible that some nuances were lost in translation, and the Spaniards, deliberately or not, might have misinterpreted Moctezuma's actual words.  Following the fall of Tenochtitlán in late 1521 and the birth of her son Martín Cortés in 1522, Marina stayed in a house Cortés built for her in the town of Coyoacán, eight miles south of Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital city, while it was being rebuilt as Mexico City. Cortés took Marina to quell a rebellion in Honduras in 1524–1526 when she is seen serving again as interpreter (suggestive of a knowledge of Maya dialects beyond Chontal and Yucatán). While in the mountain town of Orizaba in central Mexico, she married Juan Jaramillo, a Spanish hidalgo. Some contemporary scholars have estimated that she died less than a decade after the conquest of Mexico-Tenochtitlan at some point before February 1529. She was survived by her son Don Martín, who would be raised primarily by his father's family, and a daughter Doña María, who would be raised by Jaramillo and his second wife Doña Beatriz de Andrada.

Role of La Malinche in the conquest of Mexico.

For the conquistadores, having a reliable interpreter was important enough, but there is evidence that Marina's role and influence were larger still. Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a soldier who, as an old man, produced the most comprehensive of the eye-witness accounts, the "Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España" ("True Story of the Conquest of New Spain"), speaks repeatedly and reverentially of the "great lady" Doña Marina (always using the honorific title Doña). "Without the help of Doña Marina", he writes, "we would not have understood the language of New Spain and Mexico." Rodríguez de Ocaña, another conquistador, relates Cortés' assertion that after God, Marina was the main reason for his success.  The evidence from indigenous sources is even more interesting, both in the commentaries about her role, and in her prominence in the codex drawings made of conquest events. Although to some Marina may be known as a traitor, she was not viewed as such by all the Tlaxcalan. In some depictions they portrayed her as "larger than life," sometimes larger than Cortés, in rich clothing, and an alliance is shown between her and the Tlaxcalan instead of them and the Spaniards. They respected and trusted her and portrayed her in this light generations after the Spanish conquest.  In the "Lienzo de Tlaxcala (History of Tlaxcala)", for example, not only is Cortés rarely portrayed without Marina poised by his side, but she is shown at times on her own, seemingly directing events as an independent authority. If she had been trained for court life, as in Díaz's account, her relationship to Cortés may have followed the familiar pattern of marriage among native elite classes. The role of the Nahua wife acquired through an alliance would have been to assist her husband achieve his military and diplomatic objectives.  Today's historians give great credit to Marina's diplomatic skills, with some "almost tempted to think of her as the real conqueror of Mexico." In fact, old conquistadors on various occasions would remember that one of her greatest skills had been her ability to convince other Indians of what she herself could see clearly, which was that it was useless in the long run to stand against Spanish metal and Spanish ships. In contrast with earlier parts of Díaz del Castillo's account, after Marina's diplomacy began assisting Cortés, the Spanish were forced into combat on one more occasion.  Had La Malinche not been part of the Conquest of Mexico for her linguistic gift, communication between the Spanish and the Indigenous would have been much harder. La Malinche knew to speak in different registers and tones between certain Indigenous tribes and people. For the Nahua audiences, she spoke rhetorically, formally, and high-handedly. This shift into formality gave the Nahua the impression that she was a noblewoman who knew what she was talking about.

Malinche’s image in contemporary Mexico.

Malinche's image has become a mythical archetype that Hispanic American artists have represented in various forms of art. Her figure permeates historical, cultural, and social dimensions of Hispanic American cultures. In modern times and in several genres, she is compared with the La Llorona (folklore story of the woman weeping for lost children), and the Mexican soldaderas (women who fought beside men during the Mexican Revolution) for their brave actions.  La Malinche's legacy is one of myth mixed with legend, and the opposing opinions of the Mexican people about the legendary woman. Some see her as a founding figure of the Mexican nation, while others continue to see her as a traitor—as may be assumed from a legend that she had a twin sister who went North, and from the pejorative nickname "La Chingada" associated with her twin.  Feminist interventions into the figure of Malinche began in 1960s. The work of Rosario Castellanos was particularly significant; Chicanas began to refer to her as a "mother" as they adopted her as symbolism for duality and complex identity. Castellanos's subsequent poem "La Mallinche" recast her not as a traitor but as a victim. Mexican feminists defended Malinche as a woman caught between cultures, forced to make complex decisions, who ultimately served as a mother of a new race.  Today in Mexican Spanish, the words "malinchismo" and "malinchista" are used to denounce Mexicans who are perceived as denying their own cultural heritage by preferring foreign cultural expressions.  Some historians believe that La Malinche saved her people from the Aztecs, who held a hegemony throughout the territory and demanded tribute from its inhabitants. Some Mexicans also credit her with having brought Christianity to the New World from Europe, and for having influenced Cortés to be more humane than he would otherwise have been. It is argued, however, that without her help, Cortés would not have been successful in conquering the Aztecs as quickly, giving the Aztec people enough time to adapt to new technology and methods of warfare. From that viewpoint, she is seen as one who betrayed the indigenous people by siding with the Spaniards. Recently a number of feminist Latinas have decried such a categorization as scapegoating.  President José López Portillo commissioned a sculpture of Cortés, Doña Marina, and their son Martín, which was placed in front of Cortés' house in the Coyoacan section of Mexico City. Once López Portillo left office, the sculpture was removed to an obscure park in the capital.

Marina or Malintzin (c. 1500 – c. 1529), more popularly known as La Malinche, was a Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast, who played a key role in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, acting as an interpreter, advisor, and intermediary for the Spanish conquistador, Hernán Cortés. She was one of 20 women slaves given to the Spaniards by the natives of Tabasco in 1519. Later, she gave birth to Cortés's first son, Martín, who is considered one of the first Mestizos (people of mixed European and indigenous American ancestry).

马林切(La Malinche,约1501年-1527年),又名玛丽娜丽(Malinalli)、马林钦(Malintzin)、唐娜·玛丽娜(Doña Marina),是一位来自墨西哥湾沿岸的纳瓦人女性,在西班牙征服阿兹特克帝国中扮演重要角色,担任西班牙征服者埃尔南·科尔特斯的翻译、顾问和中间人。1519年,她作为20名女奴的一员,被塔巴斯科土着人送给西班牙人。她后来给科尔特斯生下了长子马丁·科尔特斯 (马林切之子),此人被认为是第一位梅斯蒂索人(欧洲人和美洲土著的混血儿)。


History.

Background.

According to the Austro-Hungarian census of 1910, the territory claimed by the West Ukrainian People's Republic had about 5.4 million people. Of these, 3,291,000 (approximately 60%) were Ukrainians, 1,351,000 (approximately 25%) were Poles, 660,000 (approximately 12%) were Jews, and the rest included Rusyns, Germans, Hungarians, Romanians, Czechs, Slovaks, Romani, Armenians and others. The cities and towns of this largely rural region were mostly populated by Poles and Jews, while the Ukrainians dominated the countryside. This would prove problematic for the Ukrainians, because the largest city, Lviv (, ), had a majority Polish population and was considered to be one of the most important Polish cities.  The oil reserves near Lviv at Drohobych and Boryslav in the upper Dniester River were among the largest in Europe. Rail connections to Russian-ruled Ukraine or Romania were few: Brody on a line from Lviv to the upper Styr River, Pidvolochysk (Podwoloczyska) on a line from Ternopil to Proskurov (now Khmelnytskyi) in Podolia, and a line along the Prut from Kolomyia (Kolomca) to Chernivtsi (Czernowitz) in Bukovina.  Thus the stage was set for conflict between the West Ukrainian People's Republic and Poland.

Independence and struggle for existence.

The West Ukrainian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 1, 1918. The Ukrainian National Rada (a council consisting of all Ukrainian representatives from both houses of the Austrian parliament and from the provincial diets in Galicia and Bukovina) had planned to declare the West Ukrainian People's Republic on November 3, 1918 but moved the date forward to November 1 due to reports that the Polish Liquidation Committee was to transfer from Kraków to Lviv. Shortly after the republic proclaimed independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire a popular uprising took place in Lviv, where most residents were Polish and did not want to be part of a non-Polish state. A few weeks later Lviv's rebellious Poles received support from Poland. On November 9 Polish forces attempted to seize the Drohobych oil fields by surprise but were driven back, outnumbered by the Ukrainians. The resulting stalemate saw the Poles retaining control over Lviv and a narrow strip of land around a railway linking the city to Poland, while the rest of eastern Galicia remained under the control of the West Ukrainian National Republic.  Meanwhile, two smaller states immediately west of the West Ukrainian People's Republic, also declared independence as result of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.  An agreement to unite western Ukraine with the rest of Ukraine was made as early as December 1, 1918. The government of the West Ukrainian People's Republic officially united with the Ukrainian People's Republic on January 22, 1919. This was mostly a symbolic act, however.  Since western Ukraine had a different tradition in its legal, social and political norms it was to be autonomous within a united Ukraine. Furthermore, western Ukrainians retained their own Ukrainian Galician Army and government structure. Despite the formal union, the Western Ukrainian Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic fought in separate wars. The former was preoccupied with a conflict with Poland while the latter struggled with Soviet and Russian forces.  Relations between the West Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR) and the Kiev-based Ukrainian People's Republic were somewhat strained. The leadership of the former tended to be more conservative in orientation. Well-versed in the culture of the Austrian parliamentary system and an orderly approach to government, they looked upon the socialist revolutionary attitude of their Kiev-based peers with some dismay and with the concern that the social unrest in the East would spread to Galicia. Likewise, the West Ukrainian troops were more disciplined while those of Kiev's Ukrainian People's Army were more chaotic and prone to committing pogroms, something actively opposed by the western Ukrainians. The poor discipline in Kiev's army and the insubordination of its officers shocked the Galician delegates sent to Kiev.  The national movement in western Ukrainian was as strong as in other eastern European countries, and the Ukrainian government was able to mobilize over 100,000 men, 40,000 of whom were battle-ready.>Ludwik Mroczka writes that despite the strength of the Ukrainian nationalist forces, they received little support and enthusiasm from the local Ukrainian population, in general the attitude was often that of indifference, and male Ukrainian population often tried to avoid the service in its military During the Polish-Ukrainian War, the army of the West Ukrainian People's Republic was able to hold off Poland for approximately nine months but by July 1919, Polish forces had taken over most of the territory claimed by the West Ukrainian People's Republic.

Exile and diplomacy.

Part of the defeated army found refuge in Czechoslovakia and became known there under the name "Ukrajinská brigáda" (Czech), while most of the army, consisting of about 50,000 soldiers, crossed into the territory of the Ukrainian People's Republic and continued the struggle for Ukrainian independence there.  In July 1919, the West Ukrainian People's Republic established a government-in-exile in the city of Kamianets-Podilskyi. Relations between the exiled Western Ukrainian government and the Kiev-based government continued to deteriorate, in part because the Western Ukrainians saw the Poles as the main enemy (with the Russians a potential ally) while Symon Petliura in Kiev considered the Poles a potential ally against his Russian enemies. In response to the Kiev government's diplomatic talks with Poland, the Western Ukrainian government sent a delegation to the Soviet 12th Army, but ultimately rejected Soviet conditions for an alliance. In August 1919, Kost Levytsky, head of the Western Ukrainian state secretariat, proposed an alliance with Anton Denikin's White Russians which would involve guaranteed autonomy within a Russian state. Western Ukrainian diplomats in Paris sought contact with Russian counterparts in that city. The Russian Whites had mixed views of this proposed alliance. On the one hand, they were wary of the Galicians' Russophobia and concerned about the effect of such an alliance on their relationship with Poland. On the other hand, the Russians respected the discipline and training of the Galician soldiers and understood that an agreement with the Western Ukrainians would deprive Kiev's Ukrainian People's Army, at war with the Russian Whites, of its best soldiers. In November 1919 the Ukrainian Galician Army, without authorization from their government, signed a ceasefire with the White Russians and placed their army under White Russian authority. In talks with Kiev's Directorate government, Western Ukrainian president Petrushevych argued that the Whites would be defeated anyway but that the alliance with them would strengthen relations with the Western powers, who supported the Whites, and would help the Ukrainian military forces for their later struggle against the victorious Soviets. Such arguments were condemned by Petliura. As a result, Petrushevych recognized that the West Ukrainian government could no longer work with Petliura's Directorate and on November 15 the government of the West Ukrainian People's Republic left for exile in Vienna.

Treaty of Warsaw (1920).

In April 1920, Józef Piłsudski and Symon Petliura agreed in the Treaty of Warsaw to a border on the river Zbruch, officially recognizing Polish control over the disputed territory of Eastern Galicia. In exchange for agreeing to a border along the Zbruch River, recognizing the recent Polish territorial gains in western Ukraine, as well as the western portions of Volhynian Governorate, Kholm Governorate, and other territories (Article II), Poland recognized the Ukrainian People's Republic as an independent state (Article I) with borders as defined by Articles II and III and under otaman Petliura's leadership.  Neither the Polish government in Warsaw nor the exiled Western Ukrainian government agreed to this treaty.

Autonomous status.

Western Ukrainians continued pressing their interests during the negotiations following World War I at the Paris Peace Conference. These efforts ultimately resulted in the League of Nations declaring on February 23, 1921 that Galicia lay outside the territory of Poland, that Poland did not have the mandate to establish administrative control in that country, and that Poland was merely the occupying military power of Eastern Galicia, whose fate would be determined by the Council of Ambassadors at the League of Nations.  After a long series of further negotiations, on March 14, 1923 it was decided that eastern Galicia would be incorporated into Poland "taking into consideration that Poland has recognized that in regard to the eastern part of Galicia ethnographic conditions fully deserve its autonomous status." The government of the West Ukrainian People's Republic then disbanded, while the Polish government reneged on its promise of autonomy for eastern Galicia.

Government.

From November 22 to November 25 elections took place in Ukrainian-controlled territory for the 150-member Ukrainian National Council that was to serve as the legislative body. Yevhen Petrushevych, the chairman of the Council and a former member of the Austro-Hungarian parliament, automatically became the Republic's president. Subordinated to him was the State Secretariat, whose members included Kost Levytsky (president of the secretariat and the Republic's minister of finance), Dmytro Vitovsky (head of the armed forces), Lonhyn Tsehelsky (secretary of internal affairs), and Oleksander Barvinsky (secretary of education and religious affairs), among others. The country essentially had a two-party political system, dominated by the Ukrainian National Democrats and by its smaller rival, the Ukrainian Radical Party. The ruling National Democrats gave some of their seats to minor parties in order to ensure that the government represented a broad national coalition. In terms of the Ukrainian National Council's social background, 57.1% of its members came from priestly families, 23.8% from peasant households, 4.8% from urban backgrounds, and 2.4% from the petty nobility. In terms of the identified council members' vocational background, approximately 30% were lawyers, 22% were teachers, 14% were farmers, 13% were priests, and 5% were civil servants. Approximately 28% had Ph.D.'s, mostly in law.  The West Ukrainian People's Republic governed an area with a population of approximately 4 million people for much of its nine-month existence. Lviv functioned as the Republic's capital from November 1 until the loss of that city to Polish forces on November 21, followed by Ternopil until late December 1918 and then by Stanislaviv (present-day Ivano-Frankivsk) until May 26, 1919. Despite the war, the West Ukrainian People's Republic maintained the stability of the pre-war Austrian administration intact, employing Ukrainian and Polish professionals. The boundaries of counties and communities remained the same as they had been during the time of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The county, regional, and local courts continued to function as they had while the country had been a part of Austria, as did schools, the postal service, telegraphs and railroads. Austrian laws remained temporarily in force. Likewise, the government generally retained the Austrian system of tax collection, although war losses had impoverished the population and the amount of taxes collected was minimal. Most of the government's revenue came from the export of oil and salt.  Although ethnic Poles represented only a small minority in the rural areas, prior to World War I almost 39% of eastern Galician lands had been in the hands of large Polish landowners. The Western Ukrainian People's Republic passed laws that confiscated vast manorial estates from private landlords and distributed this land to landless peasants. Other than in those limited cases, the right to private property was made fundamental and expropriation of lands was forbidden. This differentiated the policies of the West Ukrainian People's Republic from those of the socialistic Kiev-based Ukrainian government.  The territory of the West Ukrainian People's Republic comprised 12 military districts, whose commanders were responsible for conscripting soldiers. The government was able to mobilize 100,000 soldiers in the spring of 1919, but due to a lack of military supplies only 40,000 were battle-ready.  In general, the government of the West Ukrainian People's Republic was orderly and well-organized. This contrasted with the chaotic state of the Ukrainian governments that arose on the territory of the former Russian Empire.

Policies towards national minorities and inter-ethnic relations.

Historian Yaroslav Hrytsak stated that the Ukrainian nationalism that developed before the First World War in Austria was anti-Polish, but neither "very xenophobic" nor antisemitic. In November 1918 a decision was made to include cabinet-level state secretaries of Polish, Jewish and German affairs. According to Hrytsak during the entire time of its existence there were no cases of mass repressions against national minorities in territories held by the West Ukrainian People's Republic, Hrytsak states that this differentiated the Ukrainian government from that of Poland. Katarzyna Hibel writes that while officially West Ukrainian People's Republic like Poland declared guarantees of rights of its national minorities, in reality both countries were violating them and treated other foreign nationalities like fifth column. On February 15, 1919 a law was passed that made Ukrainian the state language. According to this law, however, members of national minorities had the right to communicate with the government in their own languages.

Treatment of Polish population.

Historian Rafał Galuba writes that Polish population was treated as second class citizens by West Ukrainian authorities After 1 November several members of Polish associations were arrested or interned by Ukrainian authorities; similar fate awaited officials who refused to swear an oath of loyalty to Ukrainian state. On 6 November a ban on Polish press and publications was issued in Lviv by Ukrainian authorities and printing presses demolished (Poles had similarly banned Ukrainian publications in territories they controlled ) Ukrainian authorities tried to intimidate Polish population in Lviv by sending soldiers and armed trucks into the streets and dispersed crowds that could turn to Polish demonstrations. Christoph Mick states that initially, the Ukrainian government refused to take Polish hostages but as both the Polish civilian and military resistance to Ukrainian forces grew, Polish civilians were threatened with summary executions by Ukrainian commander in chief for alleged attacks and shots on Ukrainian soldiers. In response, the Polish side proposed a peaceful solution of the conflict and joint Polish-Ukrainian militia to oversee the public safety in the city.  In Zloczow 17 Poles were executed by Ukrainian authorities In Brzuchowice Polish railwaymen who refused to comply with Ukrainian orders to work were executed  On 29 May 1919 archbishop Jozef Bilczewski sent a message to Ignacy Paderewski attending Peace Conference in Paris, asking for help in facing brutal murders of Polish priests and civilians by Ukrainians.  Poles didn't support the Ukrainian authorities and set up an underground resistance movement that engaged in acts of sabotage. All fieldwork was stopped, the harvest destroyed and machinery purposely broken; Poles also issued to keep up the morale among the population. In response Ukrainian authorities engaged in terror, including mass executions, court martial and set up detention centers where some Poles were interned. The conditions in these camps involved unheated wooden barracks, lack of bedding and lack of medical care, resulting in high levels of morbidity from typhoid. Estimated casualties at these camps include nearly 900 at a camp in Kosiv, according to various sources from 300 to 600 (dying from typhoid) in Mikulińce, 100 in Kołomyja, and 16 to 40 in Brzeżany, due to unheated barracks at temperatures of -20 degrees Celsius. Cases of robbing, beating, torturing or shooting of Polish prisoners were reported.  According to Christopher Mick the Ukrainian government in general treated the Polish population under its control no worse than the Polish government treated the Ukrainians under its control., writing that Ukrainian authorities didn't treat Polish population "gently" and that Ukrainian authorities mirrored Polish authorities by making speaking in Polish unwelcome. Mick acknowledges that Ukrainian side during the siege of Lviv stopped caring about supplies reaching the city and attempted to disrupt water supply to city. It's fierce artillery fire killed many civilians, including women and children.

Treatment of Jewish minority.

Although relations between Poles and the West Ukrainian People's Republic were antagonistic, those between the Republic and its Jewish citizens was generally neutral or positive. Deep-seated rivalries existed between the Jewish and Polish communities, and anti-Semitism, particularly supported by the Polish National Democratic Party, became a feature of Polish national ideology. As a result, many Jews came to consider Polish independence as the least desirable option following the First World War. In contrast to the antagonistic position taken by Polish authorities towards Jews, the Ukrainian government actively supported Jewish cultural and political autonomy as a way of promoting its own legitimacy. The Western Ukrainian government guaranteed Jewish cultural and national autonomy, provided Jewish communities with self-governing status, and promoted the formation of Jewish national councils which, with the approval of the Western Ukrainian government, established the Central Jewish National Council in December 1918 to represent Jewish interests in relation to the Ukrainian government and to the Western allies. The Council of Ministers of the West Ukrainian National Republic bought Yiddish-language textbooks and visual aids for Jewish schools and provided assistance to Jewish victims of the Polish pogrom in Lviv. The Ukrainian press maintained a friendly attitude towards the West Ukrainian Republic's Jewish citizens. Their Hebrew and Yiddish schools, cultural institutions and publishers were allowed to function without interference. Reflecting the republic's demographics, approximately one-third of the seats in the national parliament were reserved for the national minorities (Poles, Jews, Slovaks and others). The Poles boycotted the elections, while the Jews, despite declaring their neutrality in the Polish-Ukrainian conflict, participated and were represented by approximately 10 percent of the delegates. Localized anti-Jewish assaults and robberies by Ukrainian peasants and soldiers, while far fewer in number and less brutal than similar actions by Poles, occurred between January and April 1919. The government publicly condemned such actions and intervened in defence of the Jewish community, imprisoning and even executing perpetrators of such crimes. The government also respected Jewish declared neutrality during the Polish-Ukrainian conflict. By the orders of Yevhen Petrushevych it was forbidden to mobilize Jews against their will or to otherwise force them to contribute to the Ukrainian military effort. In an effort to aid Western Ukraine's economy, the Western Ukrainian government granted concessions to Jewish merchants.  The West Ukrainian government's friendly attitude towards Jews was reciprocated by many members of the Jewish community. Although Jewish political organizations officially declared their neutrality in the Polish-Ukrainian struggle, many individual Jews offered their support or sympathized with the West Ukrainian government in its conflict with Poland. Jewish officers of the defunct Austro-Hungarian army joined the West Ukrainian military, and Jewish judges, lawyers, doctors and railroad employees joined the West Ukrainian civil service. From November 1918, ethnic Poles in the civil service who refused to pledge loyalty to the West Ukrainian government either quit "en masse" or were fired; their positions were filled by large numbers of Jews who were willing to support the Ukrainian state. Jews served as judges and legal consultants in the courts in Ternopil, Stanislaviv, and Kolomyia. Jews were also able to create their own police units, and in some locations the Ukrainian government gave local Jewish militias responsibility for the maintenance of security and order. In the regions of Sambir and Radekhiv approximately a third of the police force was Jewish. Jews fielded their own battalion in the army of the Western Ukrainian National Republic, and Jewish youths worked as scouts for the West Ukrainian military. Most of the Jews cooperating with and serving in the West Ukrainian military were Zionists. In general, Jews made up the largest group of non-ethnic Ukrainians who participated in all branches of the West Ukrainian government.  The liberal attitude taken towards Jews by the Western Ukrainian government could be attributed to the Habsburg tradition of inter-ethnic tolerance and cooperation leaving its mark on the intelligentsia and military officers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Postage stamps.

The republic issued about one hundred types of postage stamps during its brief existence, all but two of which were overprints of existing stamps of Austria, Austria-Hungary or Bosnia.

The West Ukrainian People's Republic (,, ZUNR) was a short-lived republic that existed from November 1918 to July 1919 in eastern Galicia. It included the cities of Lviv, Przemyśl, Ternopil, Kolomyia, Boryslav and Stanislaviv (now Ivano-Frankivsk), and claimed parts of Bukovina and Carpathian Ruthenia. Politically, the Ukrainian National Democratic Party (the precursor of the interwar Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance) dominated the legislative assembly, guided by varying degrees of Greek Catholic, liberal and socialist ideology. Other parties represented included the Ukrainian Radical Party and the Christian Social Party.

西乌克兰人民共和国(、""或简称、"ZUNR")是在1918年10月18日至1919年7月短暂出现在加利西亚东部的共和国,领土范围覆盖布科维纳和喀尔巴阡鲁塞尼亚部分地区及利维夫、普热梅希尔、科罗亚、史坦尼斯拉维夫(即现时伊万诺-弗兰科夫斯克)等城市。纹章以蓝色作背景,中间为一头朝左的黄色狮子。国旗的颜色是蓝、黄。


Plot.

"Gundam SEED Destiny" sets the story two years after the original series and it starts when the leader from Orb, Cagalli Yula Athha, reunites with PLANT's chairman Gilbert Durandal to discuss the construction of new mobile suits made for the military organization ZAFT. Three of them are stolen by a group called Phantom Pain, which is controlled by the Blue Cosmos terrorist organization. Cagalli's bodyguard Athrun Zala joins ZAFT pilot Shinn Asuka to stop them. During the fight, ZAFT's battleship Minerva is ordered to destroy the ruins of a space colony to prevent it from crashing into Earth. They find out that rogue ZAFT soldiers are controlling the colony in order to crash it into Earth. After failing to completely destroy the colony, a second war starts between the factions, the Earth Alliance and ZAFT, once news has spread that ZAFT soldiers caused the colony to collide on Earth. The neutral country of Orb allies with the Earth Alliance, with the former having also joined Blue Cosmos. This leads these three faction to confront the ZAFT soldiers several times, with Athrun having returned there.  Later in the war, the Archangel battleship interferes in the fights between ZAFT and the Earth Alliance's faction. Allied with the Archangel, Cagalli fails to stop her country from fighting and the Archangel intervenes. Athrun becomes disaffected after Gilbert Durandal orders the destruction of his friend Kira Yamato and the Archangel, deeming them as enemies. He defects with Meyrin Hawke when Durandal frames him as a traitor. Cagalli is able to regain leadership from Orb, causing the Blue Cosmos' members to flee to space. The leader of Blue Cosmos, Lord Djibril, orders the weapon Requiem to be fired which destroys several space colonies of PLANT, resulting in many deaths. The crew of the Minerva successfully kills Lord Djibril and capture the Requiem. Gilbert Durandal then announces the "Destiny Plan", a plan where a person's job or task will be based on their genetics, and uses the Requiem to destroy anyone who opposes him. This brings Shinn and the crew of the Minerva into direct conflict with the Archangel faction. Kira and Athrun with their new mobile suits and their allies, defeat the ZAFT forces and destroy the Requiem. Durandal is killed by one of his own followers, Rey Za Burrel.  The series' ending was expanded in both the original video animation and the last compilation film. Soon after Durandal's death, the Earth Alliance, ZAFT, and the Orb Union meet to end the war, with Lacus Clyne acting as the negotiator. After fighting between each other various time in their mobile suits, Kira and Shinn meet in person for the second time and promise to join forces for a better future.

Production.

"Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny" was first announced in July 2004 in Japanese magazines. Earlier, voice actor Seki Tomokazu had stated he was working on a popular show with fans hinting it was related to "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED". Next month, the first trailer from the series was hosted online in its official website. Before the series' premiere, staff member Kabashima Yousuke gave hints about Shinn's character, telling that the "Gundam SEED Destiny"s protagonist would be a character not seen in the prequel, and he would have a thin appearance. The main staff from "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED" remained in "Gundam SEED Destiny" including director Mitsuo Fukuda. When the series was premiering in Japan, Fukuda stated that unlike "Gundam SEED", the sequel would not focus on Kira's and Athrun's relationship, but on Shinn's involvement in the war. He addressed that such conflict would happen in the series, but refrained from giving its reasons. In order to add more entertainment to the series, the staff also worked on the fight scenes between mobile suits. Shinn's character was meant to contrast Kira's in regards to their involvement across the series, but as Kira did, he would also go through a major development.

Media.

Anime.

"Gundam SEED Destiny" had its premiere broadcast in Japan on October 9, 2004, at 6:00 p.m. on the Japan News Network television stations Tokyo Broadcasting System and Mainichi Broadcasting System replacing the first "Fullmetal Alchemist" anime series and ended on October 1, 2005. In December 2005, a special episode called "The Chosen Future" aired in Japan. The episode is mainly a remake of episode 50, extending the series' ending. The series was collected in a total of thirteen DVD volumes that were released in Japan from February 24, 2005, to February 24, 2005. A DVD box from the television series that also included the special episode was released on April 9, 2010.  The series was licensed by Bandai Entertainment for the North American market. The English adaptation was produced by Bandai Entertainment in association with The Ocean Group and the English-language dub was recorded at Ocean Studios. The series was released on twelve DVDs in North America in uncut bilingual format between March 14, 2006, and January 8, 2008. The Final Plus episode was announced to have been licensed in July 2007, with a single DVD released on April 15, 2008. Two "Anime Legends" DVD boxes volumes from the series were later released on January 13, 2009, and May 19, 2009. "Gundam SEED Destiny" began its Canadian broadcast on YTV's Bionix programming block on March 9, 2007, at 9:30 p.m. YTV did not air the special recap episode, "Edited". On January 11, 2008, "Gundam SEED Destiny" was moved to the 10:30 p.m. Bionix timeslot starting with episode 40, switching timeslots with "Bleach". On March 28, 2008, it ended its first run. In 2007, the series was available on demand from May through June with Comcast Cable in the United States. In July 2007, only episodes 1 to 22 have been aired and was thought to be discontinued on Comcast Cable; however, in September 2007, it has been made available again, this time with the English-dubbed version. Comcast Cable aired the 50th English episode at the end of February 2008. Due to the closure of Bandai Entertainment, the series has been out-of-print. On October 11, 2014, at their 2014 New York Comic-Con panel, Sunrise announced they will be releasing all of the Gundam franchise, including "Gundam SEED Destiny" in North America though distribution from Right Stuf Inc., beginning in Spring 2015. Sunrise will release the HD remaster of SEED in North America and will feature a brand new English dub produced by NYAV Post.  In November 2012, Sunrise announced through the last remastered episode of "Gundam SEED" a "Gundam SEED Destiny" HD remaster project. Shortly afterwards, director Mitsuo Fukuda announced in his Twitter account that the final episode of the HD rerelease would combine elements from the original finale with the "Special Edition" compilation films.  "" is an original net animation side-story to "Gundam SEED Destiny", and began streaming on July 14, 2006. A DVD containing all three episodes was released on November 24, 2006, in Japan.

Films.

A movie version of the TV series was released as "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny: Special Edition", which retells the story in four 90 minute parts. Unlike the "" films, this retelling of "Gundam SEED Destiny" is focused on Athrun Zala's point of view. Its four DVD volumes were released from May 25, 2006, to February 23, 2007. A DVD box of both "Gundam SEED: Special Edition" and "Gundam SEED Destiny: Special Edition" was released in Japan on February 25, 2010. "Gundam SEED: Special Edition" was licensed for North America by Bandai Entertainment and was released on bilingual DVDs between June 17, 2008, and January 13, 2009. Sunrise will release "Gundam SEED Destiny: Special Edition" in conjunction with Right Stuf Inc. beginning in 2015.

Theatrical film.

Although a plot was written, production did not go ahead on the "Gundam SEED Destiny" theatrical film. It would have been the first full-length film within the "Gundam" metaseries since "Mobile Suit Gundam F91" (1991), but because of the delays the "Mobile Suit Gundam 00" movie instead held that mantle. This film was first announced on May 6, 2006, at the Sony Music Anime Fes' 06 with a brief clip featuring the characters Shinn Asuka, Cagalli Yula Athha, Lacus Clyne, Kira Yamato, and Athrun Zala. After the Sony Music Anime Fes' 06 Sunrise announced the film on their website.  Houko Kuwashima, voice actress of character Stella Loussier, has stated on her "SEED Club blog" that the character will somehow also have a role in the film. Lacus, Yzak Joule, and Dearka Elsman will return as members of the PLANT Supreme Council and Kira, Shinn, and Lunamaria Hawke will be part of the ZAFT military.  In the April 2008 Edition of Animage Magazine, writer Chiaki Morosawa explained that although she have manage to complete the outline for the plot, but the requirement of continuous treatment for her illness have led to the indefinite postponement of the project. Chiaki Morosawa later died on 19 February 2016.

Manga.

Several manga series based on the "Gundam SEED Destiny" story have been released. The first one, sharing the same title, was written and illustrated by Masatsugu Iwase from November 26, 2004 to April 26, 2006. It was published in four "tankōbon" volumes from April 22, 2005, to June 23, 2006, by Kodansha. Del Rey Manga licensed this manga for release in North America in December 2005. The volumes were published between June 27, 2006, and July 31, 2007.  Chimaki Kuori also wrote "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny: The Edge" that tells the events of the anime from the viewpoint of Athrun Zala. Kadokawa Shoten published the series in a total of five volumes released between April 26, 2005, and October 26, 2006. After the end of the series, Kuori has released several chapters focusing on the other characters in the series under the name of "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny: The Edge Desire". The first volume of this series was released on June 26, 2007, and the second on February 26, 2008. A manga version of "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny Astray" was written by Tomohiro Chiba and illustrated by Kōichi Tokita, and published in "Gundam Ace" magazine. It was collected in four volumes from January 25, 2005, to June 26, 2006. Later another side story was created called "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Frame Astrays".

CDs.

Numerous soundtrack and character CDs have been released for the series by Victor Entertainment. Three soundtrack albums featuring music composed by Toshihiko Sahashi were released during the 2004-2005 series run. These were the "Mobile Suit Gundam Seed Destiny Original Soundtrack"s, numbered by Roman numerals from "I" through "III". "Soundtrack I" contained a new song by Rie Tanaka and was released on December 16, 2004, "Soundtrack II" included a new song by Houko Kuwashima and was released on April 21, 2005, and "Soundtrack III" contained series theme music by Yuki Kajiura and was released on August 24, 2005. Additionally, a fourth soundtrack, "Mobile Suit Gundam Seed Destiny Original Soundtrack IV", which contained selected music from the series score, was released on February 2, 2006. The first-press versions of all four soundtracks included a deluxe plastic box container, which replaced the standard jewel case for the standard release versions. An orchestral album of selections from the series score, "Kokyo Kumikyoku Mobile Suit Gundam Seed Destiny", was released on December 16, 2005, and featured performances by the London Symphony Orchestra. Besides the soundtracks, six character "Suit" CDs were released featuring songs and spoken drama sequences. They acted as a follow-up to the six CDs released for "Gundam SEED".  A total of four sets of opening and ending theme songs were used in "Gundam SEED Destiny". In similar fashion to the original "Gundam SEED", the songs were performed by a mix of high-profile and up-and-coming artists. As before, a number of the featured songs became top-charting singles such as T.M.Revolution's "Ignited". The third opening theme, "Bokutachi no Yukue" was performed by fifteen-year-old newcomer Hitomi Takahashi, and released on April 13, 2005. The selection of the previously unknown Takahashi mirrored that of Nami Tamaki, who was chosen to sing the third opening theme for the original "Gundam SEED". Additionally, two insert songs that were used in "Gundam SEED Destiny" achieved strong sales and popularity. These include "Honoo no Tobira", performed by FictionJunction Yuuka. and "vestige", performed by T.M.Revolution.  Two compilation albums including the credit themes and insert songs were also released, as well as an additional album including music from both "Gundam SEED" and "Gundam SEED Destiny". The first compilation disc, "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny Complete Best", was released on May 7, 2006, and included all eight themes with remixes. A deluxe version of this same album which included a box and a DVD containing the opening and ending animation footage was also released. A two-disc set, "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED - SEED DESTINY Best: THE BRIDGE", contained music from both series as well as the character "Suit" series and was released on November 22, 2006. The first-press version of this album included a booklet, art card, and poster.

Video games.

Various video games based on "Gundam SEED Destiny" have been released. For the PlayStation 2 there were "", and "Mobile Suit Gundam SEED Destiny: Generation of C.E." "" was originally released as an arcade game under the name "Mobile Suit Gundam Seed Destiny: Rengou vs. Z.A.F.T. II," and later ported to PS2. The PS2 port was released on December 7, 2006. For the PlayStation Portable it was released "", while for the Game Boy Advance it was released a game with the series' same title on November 25, 2004.  Various crossover games have also been released. These include the Gundam's franchise games "", "", "", and the SD Gundam series. Other series include the Super Robot Wars, debuting with "Super Robot Wars Z". Another game featuring "Gundam SEED Destiny" characters is "Another Century's Episode R".

Other merchandise.

The anime has been adapted into a series of five light novels by Riu Goto who previously wrote the "Gundam SEED" novels adaptation and published by Kadokawa Shoten. The first volume was released on March 1, 2005, and the last on April 1, 2006. Kodansha also published three series of magazines under the label of "Official File" that focus on characters' and mobile suits' analysis.

Reception.

The series has been highly popular in Japan, having won the "Animage" Anime Grand Prix awards for best anime in the 2004 and 2005 polls. In both of these polls, Athrun Zala, Kira Yamato and Lacus Clyne have also topped the most popular characters categories, with the last episode and the OVA also occupying their own category. DVD sales have been good, with various of them appearing in official Japanese rankings. In November 2005, Bandai Visual announced that "Gundam SEED Destiny" had sold over one million DVD volumes in Japan. Soundtracks have also been popular with both themes from T.M. Revolution and Nami Tamaki topping Oricon charts during their release. In the Recording Industry Association of Japan's awards, "Gundam SEED Destiny" was the winner in the category of animation album. In the Anime Nation's top selling DVDs, the twelfth "Gundam SEED Destiny" volume ranked ninth.  Critical reception for "Gundam SEED Destiny" has been positive but it was often compared with "Gundam SEED". "Gundam SEED"s backstory was noted to be essential for the plot of "Gundam SEED Destiny" to the point that Maria Lin considered that it was required to watch the former to fully understand the series. The new cast of characters was well-received with the relationship between Rey Za Burrel and Neo Roanoke bringing speculations regarding their identities due to how it mirrored one from "Gundam SEED". However, initial reaction to lead character Shinn Asuka has been mixed due to his antagonistic personality and how some of the new and returning characters overshadowed his role in the series. While at some points Shinn's role and relationships were found entertaining, UK Anime's Ross Liversidge liked how returning character Kira Yamato took bigger role in the series.  Still, the themes from the series have also been praised for being entertaining and debatable despite also sharing it with other Gundam series. Chris Beveridge from Mania Entertainment further commented on this, stating that while it brings parallels other series, "Gundam SEED Destiny"s themes are "also done well enough that it stands firmly on its own." The last episodes were criticized for bringing situations similar to the ones from the ending of "Gundam SEED". In contrast, the fight scenes occurrying in these episodes were praised alongside the emotional impact brought by some scenes. The OVA repraising the events from the series' last episode was praised for explaining events from "Gundam SEED Destiny" such as Gilbert Durandal's discussions with Rau Le Creuset. It was also noted make a more satisfying ending, allowing to develop more of their characters with the emotional focus being more explored than in the television series' finale.  The series' animation was highly praised for the coloring and character designs. The mobile suits' designs have been well-received despite the fact they transformed, something considered cheesy by Anime News Network's Paul Fargo. The fight scenes were also noted to be the main focus from the televisions series' last episodes, as they brought entertaining action scenes with the new mechas introduced. However, the OVA was noted to downplay these scenes, with some of them being hard to fully understand. Soundtracks also had praise for bringing enjoyable themes and the return from Nami Tamaki. Fargo stated that composer Toshihiko Sahashi notably improved his scores from "Gundam SEED", with artists' opening and ending themes also being entertaining. The Japanese voice was noted to bring popular idols such as Maaya Sakamoto, resulting in an enjoyable one. On the other hand, response to the English casting was mixed with some actors making appealing portrayals while in other cases poor ones. Nevertheless, Don Houston from DVD Talk advised viewers to listen to the English dub rather than the original Japanese version, having noticed that some sound effects were remixed and thus improved the audio.

In December 2005, Sunrise aired a special episode that remade the events from the series' last episode. A series of four films compiling the series has also been released in Japan. "Gundam SEED" was adapted into various manga adaptations and light novels published by Kodansha and Kadokawa Shoten. Bandai Entertainment licensed the series for North America release, and has published it in DVD volumes. The series also aired on television in Canada, while the compilation films were also released in DVDs. The first manga was licensed and published by Del Rey Manga. Various types of merchandising have also been released, including CD soundtracks and video games.

是一部由日本日升动画制作的电视动画连续剧,既是《机动战士高达SEED》(下文简称〈SEED〉或者‘前作’)的续集,也是高达系列第十部长篇动画连续剧。本剧保留大部分参与过《SEED》制作的工作人员,包括导演福田己津央。故事发生在《SEED》两年之后,主人公是一名新登场角色——ZAFT军士兵真·飞鸟。作为一名出生前就经过基因改造的“”,真·飞鸟随ZAFT军深入新的战争,对抗由未经基因改造的“”。本剧还刻画前作各个回归角色在战争中的活跃参与。本剧首次播映一共50集,从2004年10月9日到2005年10月1日,在日本新闻网络电视台东京广播系统和每日放送电视台播出。


History.

Air Europa started in 1986 (registered in Spain as Air España SA and previously known as such) as part of the British ILG-Air Europe Group and 75% owned by Spanish banks. It originally had a similar livery to Air Europe but with Air Europa titles and its aircraft were registered in Spain. It flew holiday charters from Mediterranean resorts and European cities using Boeing 737-300s and Boeing 757s. It was the first Spanish private company to operate national scheduled flights (besides charter flights which used to be its main business).  When parent company ILG ceased trading in 1991 Air Europa continued profitably with a larger fleet of Boeing 737s and 757s. It signed a franchise agreement with Iberia in January 1998, but this has since been dissolved. It is now owned by Globalia Corporación Empresarial S.A.  At the end of the 1990s Boeing 737-800 jets were introduced along with a new livery. In June 2005 it was announced Air Europa was among four future associate members of the SkyTeam alliance, due to join by 2006. However, the joining date was postponed, and it did not become a member until 1 September 2007. Air Europa was the parent company for Air Dominicana, the new flag carrier of the Dominican Republic, until bankruptcy was declared on 21 September 2009. Air Europa retired its last Boeing 767 on 13 April 2012.  On 22 May 2019, the National Civil Aviation Agency of Brazil (ANAC) granted Air Europa permission to operate domestic flights in the country. This is the first time a foreign company is granted this authorisation, after Brazilian laws were changed to allow full foreign ownership of domestic airlines. As of June 2019, no details are available yet about Air Europa's future domestic operations in Brazil, a market which the airline already serves with international flights from Madrid to Salvador and Recife.  On 4 November 2019, Iberia, British Airways & Vueling parent IAG announced its €1 billion ($1.1 billion) acquisition of Air Europa in cash from Globalia, the deal should close in the first half of 2020. Air Europa operates 66 aircraft and generated a €100 million operating profit in 2018. The brand will be retained initially within Iberia, IAG expects a return on investment by the fourth year, with full synergies by 2025: intra-group codeshares, Madrid timing adjustments, sales and loyalty programmes alignment. The synergy could propel the Madrid hub into a rival to Paris, London and Frankfurt, and may lead the Europe to the Caribbean and to Latin America markets, also linked to Asia.

Destinations.

Air Europa operates tour services between northern and western Europe and holiday resorts in the Canary Islands and Balearic Islands. It also operates domestic scheduled services and long-haul scheduled services to North America and South America from Madrid. Its main base is Adolfo Suárez Madrid-Barajas Airport.

Codeshare agreements.

, Air Europa has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:

Fleet.

Current fleet.

As of June 2020, the Air Europa fleet consists of the following aircraft:

Historical fleet.

Air Europa previously operated the following aircraft:

Air Europa Líneas Aéreas, S.A.U., branded as Air Europa is the third-largest Spanish airline after Iberia and Vueling. The airline is headquartered in Llucmajor, Mallorca, Spain, and has its main hub at Adolfo Suárez Madrid–Barajas Airport with secondary focus cities at Palma de Mallorca Airport and Tenerife North Airport.

欧罗巴航空()是一家西班牙的定期与包机航线航空公司,由现任董事会主席兼执行长胡安·赫塞·伊达尔戈()于1986年创立。总部设于西班牙离岛度假胜地马略卡岛上的欧罗巴航空,是西班牙第三大航空公司,规模仅次于西班牙的国家航空公司伊比利亚航空和新兴的低成本航空公司伏林航空。欧罗巴航空是同样由伊达尔戈创办的大型旅行社Globalia的全资子公司,2007年9月该公司加入天合联盟,并从不定期的包机业务逐渐转型为定期且永续的航线经营。并且逐步开航短、中、长程定期航班的营运,所以目前所有的航班都已是定期航线。2019年11月,国际航空集团宣布收购欧洲航空。


Plot.

The story begins with, a high school student in a Hokkaidō coastal city, walking up to an observatory and reminiscing about his girlfriend, ; there he finds her exchange diaries that she purposefully left behind. The ensuing story is narrated by Shuji through flashbacks while reading Chise's diary. Chise, a fellow student in his class, declares her love for Shuji at the beginning of the series. However, Chise is very shy and Shuji is insensitive: neither know how to express their feelings very well, but they do indeed have feelings for each other.  One day, while Shuji is shopping in Sapporo, unknown bombers attack the city in broad daylight. He and his friends run for cover, but notice a fast and small flying object shooting down the enemy bombers. Separated from his friends, Shuji wanders through the wreckage—only to stumble upon Chise; here she has metal wings and weapons—apparently grafted onto her body. She tells him she has become the ultimate weapon, without her knowledge or consent, and that she is seen by the Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) as the last hope for defending Japan. In the anime, it is not apparent why Chise was chosen to be the ultimate weapon or why the country is under attack. It was not until the OVA episodes were released that an explanation for Chise being chosen was offered: her body has the highest degree of compatibility with the weapon system.  This story focuses primarily on Chise's fading humanity as her condition worsens. The main conflict is within Chise herself; she questions whether or not she is human. Her soul is constantly trying to be a normal girl, while her body succumbs to the devastating effects of the weapon cell within her. Fundamentally important to the plot is the relationship between Shuji and Chise. From this, the resolution of the conflict follows. In the end, she is able to realize who she truly is.  A number of minor characters who do not necessarily know of Chise's role in the war have sub-plots that concern everyday people in the context of war: a woman whose husband is constantly away from home, a school boy who joins the army to protect his girlfriend, a girl whose civilian boyfriend is killed in a bombing, and others.

Media.

Manga.

"Saikano" began as a manga series written and illustrated by Shin Takahashi. It was serialized in Shogakukan’s "Big Comic Spirits" magazine and the chapters collected into 7 "tankōbon" volumes. It has been licensed and released in North America by Viz Media. It has also been translated into Spanish by "Glénat", into Italian by "Panini Comics", into German by "Carlsen Verlag" and into French by "Éditions Delcourt".

One-shots.

The story is of a 17-year-old Japanese sniper, who hides in the remains of a block of flats and kills enemy soldiers so that he can collect their guns (sans ammunition, just to lay them out on the floor). At the start of the story, he kills a group of enemy soldiers who are about to rape a Japanese girl. While collecting their guns, the sniper is confronted by the girl who picked up one of the guns, but the sniper eventually befriends the girl and takes her back to his room because he wants to have sex with her. It is revealed that he only has five rounds left, with his final round being his good luck charm that he keeps in the pocket, and that he wants to die because it will relieve him from the war. However, after getting to know the girl better and having sex with her, he becomes afraid of death, and when firing on an enemy squadron that came looking for him, he misses and reveals his position. Eventually, he finds himself unable to fire his good luck charm round due to his fear of death. Suddenly the girl appears in the doorway, bringing the guns and ammo of the soldiers he has just killed, saying that he now has the ammunition to kill more soldiers and can keep fighting in the war. Right as the sniper smiles however, three enemy soldiers appear behind the girl, kill the sniper and then rape and kill the girl. The enemy soldiers themselves all die two days later.  A series by Shin Takahashi which is a collection of OneShots called "The Last Love Song On This Little Planet". The first, and currently only released, story is of the day Chise asked Shuji to be her boyfriend and their journey home from the place where that happens. Takahashi does not shy away from confronting the awkwardness between the two teenagers and their problems, continuing the trend from his main series "SaiKano"

Anime.

An anime television series adaptation animated by Gonzo aired on Family Gekijo from July 2 to September 24, 2002 and ran for 13 episodes. The last TV episode strayed from the manga's continuity and gave an original conclusion to the anime.  A side-story OVA series animated by Studio Fantasia was released in 2005.

An anime television series adaptation animated by Gonzo aired from July to September 2002 and a side-story OVA series animated by Studio Fantasia was released in 2005. The anime television series was also licensed by Viz, but is now licensed by Sentai Filmworks.

《最终兵器少女》(),是一部日本的漫画和动画悲剧作品,原作者为高桥真。由于推出之后大受欢迎,所以于2005年8月至9月推出OVA版本《英语:Another love song》(另一个爱情故事),由前田亚季主演的真人电影版于2006年1月28日在日本上映。《最终兵器少女 Another love song》获选为2005年第九回日本文部省文化厅媒体艺术祭动画部门推荐的作品。


Background.

Construction of the tunnel began in secret on 1 March 1993 under the codename "Objekt BD". The tunnel was to link Butmir and Dobrinja, two Bosnia-held neighborhoods; one inside Serbian siege lines and the other outside. Nedžad Branković, a Bosnian civil engineer, created the plans for the tunnel's construction underneath the Sarajevo airport runway. However, because of the urgency of the construction, full costing and technical specifications were never made.  The construction was assigned to the First Corps Army of Bosnia-Herzegovina under the supervision of deputy commander General Rašid Zorlak. Beginning the project was difficult as there was a lack of skilled manpower, tools, and materials to complete the task. Consequently, the tunnel was dug by hand, with shovels and picks, and wheelbarrows were used to carry 1,200 cubic meters of detritus away. The tunnel was dug 24-hours a day, with workers working in 8-hour shifts digging from opposite ends. Its construction was financed by the State, the Army, and the City of Sarajevo. The workers were paid with one packet of cigarettes per day, an item that was in high demand and a prized bartering possession.  One source states that a total of 2,800 cubic meters of soil was removed and 170 cubic meters of wood and 45 tons of steel were used in the construction of the tunnel. The biggest technical problem was the underground water, which had to be frequently thrown out manually. Because of the permanent shelling, the tunnel was installed with a pipeline that was used for the delivery of oil for the town. Communication lines and electric cables donated by Germany were also installed so that Sarajevo had electricity and telephone lines connecting it with the world.  The construction of the tunnel was completed on 30 June 1993, when the two tunnels met in the middle. Use of the tunnel began the following day on 1 July 1993.

Structure.

The tunnel consists of 160 meters of covered trenches on the Dobrinja side, 340 meters of covered trenches on the Butmir side, and 340 meters of actual tunnel under the airport runway. On the Dobrinja side, the average height of the tunnel is 1.6 meters (excluding the height of the iron reinforcements) and averages 0.8 meters in width for the top half and 1 meters in width for the bottom half of the tunnel. On the Butmir side, the tunnel is slightly higher; 1.8 meters excluding the wood reinforcements. The width on the Butmir side is the same as that of the Dobrinja side. There is also a section called the'reduced level entrance', a 30-meter portion on the Dobrinja side that was the deepest and most difficult stretch of the tunnel to construct. At its deepest point, the tunnel is 5m below the airport runway.  The entrance on the Dobrinja side was the garage of an apartment building. The entrance on the Butmir side was a nondescript house near the airport belonging to the Kolar family. Both entrances were under close guard and ringed by trenches manned by Bosnian troops.  At first the tunnel was a simple, muddy path through which supplies had to be carried by hand or on the backs of soldiers. Less than a year after it was created, however, a small railway track was laid and small carts were built to transport supplies through the tunnel. The final construction of the tunnel included a 12-megawatt voltage cable, pumps for pumping underground water, an oil pipe, and permanent lighting.  There were two major problems with the tunnel. The first was flooding by underground waters which could rise to levels waist deep. The second was air quality. The tunnel had no ventilation and consequently everyone entering the tunnel was forced to wear a mask.

Usage.

The tunnel was constructed during the Bosnian War as a means by which to link two Bosnian held territories that had been cut off by the Army of Republika Srpska. The tunnel provided a crude way to supply Bosnian units and civilians in Sarajevo. It also allowed for communication between the Bosnian and Bosnian-allied forces in Sarajevo and outside territories. It became a symbol of the city's struggle. It allowed humanitarian aid to be given to the Bosnians and it let them flee the city.  The tunnel was used to supply the Bosnian armed forces with wartime supplies, including food, fuel, newspapers, and weapons. Wagons were used to cart supplies through the tunnel and could be loaded with 400 kilograms of goods at a time. The first items to go through the tunnel were Bosnian IEDs. Food, cigarettes, alcohol, and petrol also passed through the tunnel allowing Butmir, Kolonija, and Hrasnica to become blackmarket centers for the illegal sale of these items. The tunnel was also used to transport oil, and for telecommunication.  The tunnel was also used as a way for Bosnians to get out of Sarajevo. Transit each way, both into the city and out of the city, was constant. Every day, between 3000 and 4,000 Bosnian soldiers (as well as civilians) and 30 tons of various goods passed through the tunnel. Groups traveling through the tunnel ranged in size from 20 to 1,000 people. On average, it took 2 hours for these groups to travel through the tunnel. Throughout the war, between two million and three million trips of Bosnians were made through the tunnel, and a number of Bosnian civilians used the tunnel to flee Sarajevo. Those who traveled through the tunnel included soldiers, civilians, politicians, and generals. Alija Izetbegović, President of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, is the most notable individual who used the tunnel. He was carried through the tunnel on a chair called the "President's Chair" and thus never actually laid foot in the tunnel.  The entrance to the tunnel was protected by the Bosnian army, and a permit was required to enter and leave the city by this underground route. There were reports of Bosnian civilians being forced to pay up to $120 USD to the Bosnian army for passage for themselves and their families through the tunnel.

Sarajevo Tunnel Museum.

After the war, The Sarajevo Tunnel Museum was built onto the historic private house whose cellar served as the entrance to the Sarajevo Tunnel. Visitors can still walk down a small length of the tunnel (approximately 20 meters). The "house" museum exhibits archival materials including an 18-minute-long movie, war photographs, military equipment, flags, military uniforms, along with flotsam and jetsam. In 2004, local planning authorities were seeking funding for a "full reconstruction of the tunnel" and the "construction of museum buildings at its entrance and exit points".  Regarding the museum's purpose Vladimir Zubić, deputy of the City Council of Sarajevo, noted that the museum is "a reminder of everyone, so that a thing like this tunnel, that provided the people of this city with the minimum subsistence, will never have to be used again. It will be a place where younger people will be able to study a part of our recent past and it will be proof that this part of our history will never be forgotten".  The house and the land around Sarajevo Tunnel's entrance are owned by Bajro Kolar, a local man who runs the private museum. In a documentary about the Sarajevo War Tunnel, he talked about his reasons for turning the house into a war facility. He said, "whatever we have, we gave for the defense and liberation of Sarajevo." Having existed for 15 years without any governmental financial support, the museum is becoming one of the most visited sites of the Bosnian capital, with hundreds of daily visitors. Many guided tours in Sarajevo include the Tunnel Museum as one of the war sites most worth visiting in the city.  The museum is open to visitors every working day from 9am to 4pm.

The Sarajevo Tunnel (Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian: Sarajevski tunel / Сарајевски тунел), also known as Tunel spasa (Тунел спаса, English: "Tunnel of rescue") and Tunnel of Hope, was a tunnel constructed between March and June 1993 during the Siege of Sarajevo in the midst of the Bosnian War. It was built by the Bosnian Army in order to link the city of Sarajevo, which was entirely cut off by Serbian forces, with Bosnian-held territory on the other side of the Sarajevo Airport, an area controlled by the United Nations.

萨拉热窝隧道是在波斯尼亚战争的萨拉热窝围城战役期间于1992年至1995年期间修建的一条隧道。此隧道也被称作为 "希望隧道" 或者是 "救援隧道"。此隧道由波斯尼亚军队修建,以连结萨拉热窝市区和萨拉热窝机场。当时两者之间的联系已被塞族人切断。隧道使得食品、军用物资和人道主义援助得以进入萨拉热窝,也成为绕过武器禁运,提供守军武器的重要方式。也有许多人通过隧道逃出萨拉热窝。现在萨拉热窝隧道已经成为旅游景点,入口处和出口处被改建为博物馆。


Background.

"Khaosan" translates as'milled rice' or 'rice mill', a hint that in former times the street was a major Bangkok rice market. In the last 40 years, however, Khaosan Road has developed into a world-famous "backpacker ghetto". It offers cheap accommodation, ranging from "mattress in a box"-style hotels to reasonably priced three-star hotels. In an essay on the backpacker culture of Khaosan Road, Susan Orlean called it "the place to disappear." According to the Khao San Business Association, the road sees 40,000-50,000 tourists per day in the high season, and 20,000 per day in the low season.  Visitors to Khao San Road are a disparate lot:  It is also a base of travel: coaches leave daily for all major tourist destinations in Thailand, from Chiang Mai in the north to Ko Pha-ngan in the south, and there are many relatively inexpensive travel agents who can arrange visas and transportation to the neighbouring countries of Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, and Vietnam.  Khaosan shops sell handicrafts, paintings, clothes, local fruits, unlicensed CDs, DVDs, a wide range of fake IDs, used books, and other useful backpacker items. After dark, bars open, music is played, food hawkers sell barbecued insects and other exotic snacks for tourists, and touts promote ping pong shows..  The area is internationally known as a center of dancing, partying, and just prior to the traditional Thai New Year (Songkran festival) of 13–15 April, water splashing that usually turns into a huge water fight. One Thai writer has described Khaosan as "...a short road that has the longest dream in the world".  A Buddhist temple under royal patronage, the centuries-old Wat Chana Songkram, is directly opposite Khaosan Road to the west, while the area to the northwest contains an Islamic community and several small mosques.

Conflict.

In July 2018, the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA), in an attempt to clean up Khaosan Road, announced that street vendors would be removed from the thoroughfare from 1 August 2018. The BMA intends to move them to a nearby area and restrict their trading hours to 18:00 to midnight. The Khaosan Street Vendors Association, representing some 300 vendors, rejected the move, citing financial ruin for vendors. Last-minute negotiations between the BMA and vendors proved fruitless as neither side has been willing to compromise. Khaosan vendors announced that, in defiance of BMA order, they will open as usual on 1 August. On the first day of the ban on stalls, roughly 70 percent of the vendors opened as usual in defiance of the police.

Facelift.

The BMA announced in 2019 that it will commit 48.8 million baht to transform Khaosan Road into an "international walking street". The US$1.6 million project, the first makeover of the road since its creation in 1892, will commence in October 2019, continue through the tourist high-season, and be completed by February 2020. The project will repave footpaths and create designated 1.5 m x 2 m spaces for 240–360 licensed Thai vendors drawn by lot. Vehicles will be prohibited on Khaosan Road from 09:00–21:00 daily.

Khaosan Road or Khao San Road (;, ) is a short (410 meter long) street in central Bangkok, Thailand constructed in 1892 during the reign of Rama V. It is in the Bang Lamphu area of Phra Nakhon District about north of the Grand Palace and Wat Phra Kaew.

米路(),或音译作「考山路」,位于泰国首都曼谷的拍那空县,邻近拉达那哥欣岛的靠港处及皇宫外围1一公里处。它西端与朱拉蓬路交界;东端与打恼路(Tanao Road)交界。从前是曼谷贩买稻米的主要市集,因而得名。有人说:「考山路是背包客在曼谷旅游的缩影。」现在它深受欧洲及北美洲及非洲的观光旅客喜爱住宿的地区,相对较少来自亚洲观光客。观光客以它作到其它泰国城市,甚至东南亚国家的中转站,因为从街头到街尾都有旅行社。它亦有许多街头小贩售卖:工艺品、书画、服装、盗版光盘、假的教育文凭及驾驶执照、食品、二手书籍和其它许多产品。近年亦有泰国的艺术家及学生在街头卖艺:画画、音乐、歌唱及舞蹈等。 这是曼谷最有活力的街道上,东道国的人民来自世界各地的。泰国作家之一的道路描述为“短期道路,具有最长的梦想中的世界。 ”