Construction and configuration.

"Gneisenau" was ordered as "Ersatz Hessen" as a replacement for the old pre-dreadnought, under the contract name "E." The "Deutsche Werke" in Kiel was awarded the contract, where the keel was laid on 6 May 1935. The ship was launched on 8 December 1936, after which fitting-out work was begun. The ship was completed in May 1938 and commissioned for sea trials on the 21st, under the command of "Kapitän zur See" ("KzS") Erich Förste. The trials revealed a dangerous tendency to ship considerable amounts of water in heavy seas. This caused flooding in the bow and damaged electrical systems in the forward gun turret. As a result, she went back to the dockyard for extensive modification of the bow. The original straight stem was replaced with a raised "Atlantic bow." A diagonal cap was fitted to the smoke stack to keep the main mast free of smoke. The modifications were completed by September 1939, by which time the ship was finally fully operational.  "Gneisenau" displaced as built and fully loaded, with a length of, a beam of and a maximum draft of. She was powered by three Germania geared steam turbines, which developed a total of and yielded a maximum speed of on speed trials. Her standard crew numbered 56 officers and 1,613 enlisted men, though during the war this was augmented up to 60 officers and 1,780 men. While serving as a squadron flagship, "Gneisenau" carried an additional ten officers and 61 enlisted men.  She was armed with nine 28 cm (11.1 in) L/54.5 guns arranged in three triple gun turrets: two superfiring turrets forward—Anton and Bruno—and one aft—Caesar. Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm (5.9 in) L/55 guns, fourteen L/65 and sixteen SK C/30 L/83, and initially ten C/30 anti-aircraft guns. The number of 2 cm guns was eventually increased to thirty-eight. Six above-water torpedo tubes, taken from the light cruisers and, were installed in 1942.

Service history.

"Gneisenau" left Germany for a round of trials in the Atlantic in June 1939. As it was peacetime, the ship carried primarily practice ammunition, with only a small number of live rounds. She was back in Germany when war began in September 1939. On the 4th, the day after the British declaration of war, "Gneisenau" was attacked by fourteen Wellington bombers, though they made no hits. In November, "KzS" Förste was replaced by "KzS" Harald Netzbandt. The ship's first combat operation, under the command of Admiral Wilhelm Marschall, began on 21 November 1939; the ship, in company with her sister, the light cruiser, and nine destroyers, was to patrol the area between Iceland and the Faroe Islands. The intent of the operation was to draw out British units and ease the pressure on the heavy cruiser, which was being pursued in the South Atlantic. Two days later, the German flotilla intercepted the auxiliary cruiser.  "Scharnhorst" fired first, followed by "Gneisenau" eight minutes later. The ship was quickly reduced to a burning wreck; Marschall ordered "Scharnhorst" to pick up survivors while he stood by in "Gneisenau". The cruiser arrived on the scene, which prompted Marschall to halt rescue operations and flee. Four allied capital ships, the British,,, and the French followed in pursuit. The Germans reached Wilhelmshaven on 27 November, and on the trip both battleships incurred significant damage from heavy seas and winds. After returning to Kiel, "Gneisenau" went into drydock for repairs for the storm damage. During the repairs, the bow was remodeled a second time to incorporate additional flare and sheer, in an attempt to improve her seaworthiness. "Gneisenau" went into the Baltic for trials on 15 January 1940, after the completion of the refit. Her voyage back to the North Sea was blocked by ice in the Kiel Canal until 4 February.

Operation Weserübung.

"Gneisenau" was assigned to the forces participating in Operation Weserübung, the invasion of Denmark and Norway. She and her sister were the covering force for the assaults on Narvik and Trondheim (Flag Officer "Vize Admiral" Günther Lütjens). The two ships left Wilhelmshaven on the morning of 7 April, along with the heavy cruiser and fourteen destroyers. The cruiser and destroyers carried the assault forces for Narvik and Trondheim, while "Gneisenau" and "Scharnhorst" provided cover for them. Later that day, at around 14:30, the three ships came under attack by a force of British bombers, though the bombers failed to make any hits. On the morning of 8 April, the destroyer encountered the British destroyer. Before being sunk, "Glowworm" rammed "Admiral Hipper", though the latter was not seriously damaged. The crews of the two battleships went to battle stations, though they did not take part in the brief engagement. At 21:00, "Gneisenau" and "Scharnhorst" took up a position west of the Vestfjorden to provide distant cover to both of the landings at Narvik and Trondheim.  At 04:30 on the 9th, "Gneisenau" located the British battlecruiser "Renown" with her Seetakt radar; the call to battle stations rang out on both "Gneisenau" and "Scharnhorst", though it was that fired first, at 05:05. "Gneisenau" scored two hits on "Renown"; the first failed to explode and the second exploded on her upper deck and damaged the radio equipment. "Gneisenau" and "Scharnhorst" then turned to disengage. Almost simultaneously, two of "Renown"'s 15 in (38 cm) shells struck "Gneisenau". One shell hit the director tower and passed through it without exploding; regardless, it cut several cables and killed one officer and five enlisted men. The second shell disabled the rear turret. This prompted "Gneisenau" to cease firing and increase speed in order to break away from "Renown". Vice Admiral Lütjens feared that the destroyers escorting "Renown" could be used to make torpedo attacks against his unescorted battleships. In the course of the action, "Gneisenau" fired sixty 28 cm and eight 15 cm rounds. During the high-speed escape, both "Gneisenau" and "Scharnhorst" were flooded by significant quantities of water over their bows, which caused problems in both of their forward gun turrets.  "Admiral Hipper" rejoined the two battleships off Trondheim on the morning of 11 April, and the three ships returned to Wilhelmshaven, arriving the following day. There, the damage incurred during the engagement with "Renown" was repaired. She was then drydocked in Bremerhaven for periodic maintenance on 26–29 April. The ship was to go to the Baltic following the completion of repairs, but on the morning of 5 May, while steaming at off the Elbe estuary, "Gneisenau" detonated a magnetic mine about off the port rear quarter and below the hull. The explosion caused significant damage to the hull and flooded several compartments, which caused the ship to take on a half-degree list to port. The concussive shock from the blast damaged many internal and topside components, including the starboard low-pressure turbine and the rear rangefinders. Repairs were effected in a floating drydock in Kiel from 6 to 21 May. A brief shakedown cruise followed in the Baltic, and by the 27th, she was back in Kiel at full combat readiness.  "Gneisenau" and "Scharnhorst" left Wilhelmshaven on 4 June to return to Norway. They were joined by "Admiral Hipper" and four destroyers. The purpose of the sortie (Operation Juno) was to interrupt Allied resupply efforts to the Norwegians and to relieve the pressure on German troops fighting in Norway. On 7 June, the squadron rendezvoused with the tanker "Dithmarschen" to refuel "Admiral Hipper" and the four destroyers. The next day, the trawler was discovered and sunk, along with the oil tanker "Oil Pioneer". The Germans then launched their Arado 196 float planes to search for more Allied vessels. "Admiral Hipper" and the destroyers were sent to destroy "Orama", a passenger ship, while "Atlantis", a hospital ship, was allowed to proceed unmolested. Admiral Marschall, who had returned from sick leave to command the sortie, detached "Admiral Hipper" and the four destroyers to refuel in Trondheim, while he would steam to the Harstad area.  At 17:45, the German battleships spotted the British aircraft carrier and two escorting destroyers, and, at a range of some. "Scharnhorst" was closer and therefore fired first. "Scharnhorst" had some boiler difficulty, which reduced her speed to. This allowed "Gneisenau" to overtake her sister during the action. Although the destroyers attempted to cover "Glorious" with smoke screens, the German battleships used their Seetakt radar to assist the gunlaying. In less than an hour's shooting, "Glorious" was reduced to a burning hulk. "Gneisenau" then turned her fire on "Acasta", while "Scharnhorst" dispatched "Ardent". Before "Acasta" was sunk, she fired a spread of torpedoes at "Gneisenau", which the latter successfully evaded. One of them struck "Scharnhorst", however, and caused serious damage. After all three British ships had been sunk, Marschall withdrew his force to Trondheim to conduct emergency repairs to "Scharnhorst". In the meantime, Marschall sortied with "Gneisenau", "Admiral Hipper", and four destroyers, though after two days he returned to Trondheim when it became clear that the British convoys were too heavily guarded.  Admiral Günther Lütjens replaced Marschall as the commander of the squadron permanently, and on 20 June he sortied with "Gneisenau", "Admiral Hipper", and four destroyers in the direction of Iceland. His intention was to give the impression he was attempting to break out into the Atlantic, to draw British attention away from "Scharnhorst" as she made the return voyage to Germany. About northwest of Halten, however, the submarine torpedoed "Gneisenau". The torpedo hit the ship in the bow, just forward of the splinter belt, and caused serious damage. The ship took on a significant amount of water in the two forward watertight compartments, and she was forced to return to Trondheim at reduced speed. In Trondheim, the repair ship "Huascaran" effected temporary repairs that permitted the ship to return to Kiel on 25–27 July, escorted by "Admiral Hipper","Nürnberg", four destroyers, and six torpedo boats. A strong force from the British Home Fleet attempted to intercept the flotilla, but it failed to find it. Upon arrival, "Gneisenau" went into drydock at the Howaldtswerke dockyard for five months of repair work. In August, the ship's commander was replaced by "KzS" Otto Fein, who would captain the ship for the majority of her active wartime career.

Operation Berlin.

"Scharnhorst" joined "Gneisenau", in preparation for Operation Berlin, the planned breakout into the Atlantic Ocean designed to wreak havoc on the Allied shipping lanes. Severe storms caused damage to "Gneisenau", though "Scharnhorst" was undamaged. The two ships were forced to put into port during the storm: "Gneisenau" went to Kiel for repairs while "Scharnhorst" put into Gdynia ("Gotenhafen"). Repairs were quickly completed, and on 22 January 1941, the two ships, again under the command of Admiral Lütjens, left port for the North Atlantic. They were detected in the Skagerrak and the heavy units of the British Home Fleet deployed to cover the passage between Iceland and the Faroes. The Germans' radar detected the British at long range, which allowed Lütjens to avoid the British patrols, with the aid of a squall. By 3 February, the two battleships had evaded the last British cruiser patrol, and had broken into the open Atlantic.  On 6 February, the two ships refueled from the tanker "Schlettstadt" south of Cape Farewell. Shortly after 08:30 on 8 February, lookouts spotted convoy HX 106, though it was escorted by the battleship. Lütjens' orders prohibited him from engaging Allied capital ships, and so the attack was called off. "Scharnhorst"s commander, "KzS" Hoffmann, however, closed to in an attempt to lure "Ramillies" away from the convoy so that "Gneisenau" could attack the convoy. Lütjens ordered Hoffmann to rejoin the flagship immediately. The two battleships steamed off to the northwest to search for more shipping. On 22 February, the pair spotted an empty convoy sailing west, though it dispersed at the appearance of the battleships. "Gneisenau" sank three ships, and along with a fourth destroyed by "Scharnhorst", the pair accounted for 25,784 GRT of Allied shipping.  Lütjens then decided to move to a new area, as the surviving members of the dispersed convoy had sent distress signals. He chose the Cape Town-Gibraltar convoy route, and positioned himself to the northwest of Cape Verde. The two ships encountered another convoy, escorted by the battleship, on 8 March. Lütjens again forbade an attack, though he shadowed the convoy and directed U-boats to attack it. A pair of U-boats sank a total of 28,488 GRT of shipping on the night of 7–8 March. "Malaya" turned on the two battleships and closed to, well within the range of the Germans' guns, but Lütjens refused to be drawn into an engagement. He instead turned toward the mid-Atlantic, where the two ships refueled from the tankers "Uckermark" and "Ermland" on 12 March.  On 15 March, the two battleships, with the two tankers in company, encountered a dispersed convoy in the mid-Atlantic. "Gneisenau" captured three tankers and sank a fourth, totaling 20,139 GRT of shipping. The next day, stragglers from a convoy were sighted. "Gneisenau" sank seven ships for 26,693 GRT, while her sister accounted for six vessels for. One of the surviving ships radioed the location of the German battleships, which summoned the powerful British battleships "Rodney" and. "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" used their high speed to escape in a squall, and the intervention by the British battleships convinced Lütjens that the chances of further success were small. He therefore decided to head for Brest in occupied France, which the ships reached on 22 March. She then entered drydock for periodic maintenance.

Air attacks in Brest.

After arriving in Brest, "Gneisenau" was the subject of repeated British air raids. The first attack took place on the night of 30–31 March, and a second occurred on 4–5 April. During this second raid, a armor-piercing (AP) bomb narrowly missed the ship. As a result of the attacks, the ship was moved out of the dry dock and moved to the harbor. On 6 April, "Gneisenau" was attacked by British torpedo bombers, which managed to score a single hit. The Bristol Beaufort that struck the ship was piloted by Flying Officer Kenneth Campbell. The torpedo struck "Gneisenau" in the vicinity of the rear main battery turret. Some of water flooded the ship and caused a 2 degree list to starboard. The flooding also disabled several components of the ship's propulsion system. The explosion caused significant destruction to the side plating as well as the starboard and centerline propeller shafts. The concussive shock also caused widespread damage to the ship's electronic components. A salvage tug came alongside to assist in the pumping effort. Following the attack, "Gneisenau" returned to the drydock for repairs.  Three days later, on the night of 9–10 April, several British bombers dropped around of 227 kg AP bombs on the ship, four of which hit. All four hit the starboard side of the forward superstructure. Two of the bombs exploded on the main armor deck while the other two failed to detonate. The attack killed 72 initially and wounded 90, of whom 16 later died of their injuries. The bombs slightly damaged the main armor deck and caused some structural damage on the starboard side. It was decided to make alterations to the ship while she was drydocked for repairs; these included the installation of fourteen additional 2 cm anti-aircraft guns and six 53.3 cm torpedo tubes amidships. The aircraft hangar was rearranged, and the catapult that had been mounted on top of it was removed. The length of repairs and modifications precluded participation in Operation Rheinübung, the sortie by the new battleship in May 1941. The British continued to attack the ship in drydock, though no further damage was done. On 6 February 1942, a bomb fell close to "Gneisenau", but caused no damage.

Operation Cerberus.

On 12 January 1942, the German Naval Command, in a conference with Hitler, made the decision to return "Gneisenau", "Scharnhorst", and the heavy cruiser to Germany. The intention was to deploy the vessels to Norway to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union. The so-called "Channel Dash", codenamed Operation Cerberus, would avoid the increasingly effective Allied radar and patrol aircraft in the Atlantic. Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax was given command of the operation. In early February, minesweepers swept a route through the English Channel, though the British failed to detect the activity.  At 23:00 on 11 February, "Scharnhorst", "Gneisenau", and "Prinz Eugen" left Brest. They entered the Channel an hour later; the three ships sped at, hugging the French coast along the voyage. The British failed to detect their departure, as the submarine that had been tasked with observing the port had withdrawn to recharge its batteries. By 06:30, they had passed Cherbourg, at which point they were joined by a flotilla of torpedo boats. The torpedo boats were led by "Kapitän" Erich Bey, aboard the destroyer. "General der Jagdflieger" (General of Fighter Force) Adolf Galland directed Luftwaffe fighter and bomber forces (Operation Donnerkeil) during "Cerberus". The fighters flew at masthead-height to avoid detection by the British radar network. Liaison officers were present on all three ships. German aircraft arrived later to jam British radar with chaff. By 13:00, the ships had cleared the Strait of Dover, though half an hour later, a flight of six Swordfish torpedo bombers, with Spitfire escort, attacked the Germans. The British failed to penetrate the Luftwaffe fighter shield and all six Swordfish were destroyed. Several more attacks were launched over the next two hours, but the Luftwaffe screen repulsed them all.  Five British destroyers mounted an attack on the German squadron at 16:17. The ships attempted to close to torpedo range, though heavy seas and overcast conditions hampered their attack. "Gneisenau" and "Prinz Eugen" inflicted serious damage to the destroyer. At 19:55, "Gneisenau" detonated a magnetic mine off Terschelling. The mine exploded just forward of the rear gun turret but caused only minor damage. Slight flooding was quickly stopped, though the shock disabled the center turbine. The ship stopped for less than 30 minutes before resuming the voyage; by 03:50, "Gneisenau" and two destroyers reached Helgoland. After being joined there by "Prinz Eugen", the ships left for Kiel, but thick ice in the canal forced the ships to stop in Brunsbüttel. While maneuvering in port, "Gneisenau" struck a submerged wreck. The collision tore a hole in the hull and caused some minor flooding. "Gneisenau" reached Kiel the following day, where she went into a floating dry dock at the "Deutsche Werke" dockyard.

Fate.

Repair work on "Gneisenau" was completed by 26 February 1942, and she was scheduled to deploy to Norway on 6 March. Despite the fact that she was still in dry dock, her ammunition stores had been restocked and she was prepared for a short round of trials before her departure. On the night of 26–27 February, however, the British launched a heavy air raid on the ship. The ship was hit by a single bomb in her forecastle that penetrated the armored deck and exploded. Red-hot bomb fragments ignited propellant charges in the forward turret and caused a tremendous explosion. The turret was thrown off its mount and the entire bow section was burned out. The crew partially flooded the magazine to prevent a more catastrophic explosion. The blast killed 112 men and wounded 21 others.  The extensive damage convinced the Naval Staff to rebuild "Gneisenau" to mount the six 38 cm guns originally planned, rather than repair the ship. The damaged bow section was removed in order to attach a lengthened bow, which would correct the decrease in freeboard that would have been caused by the heavier 38 cm guns. On 4 April, the ship went to Gotenhafen, escorted by the training ship and the icebreaker "Castor". She was formally decommissioned on 1 July. Her crew were paid off and redeployed to the U-boat arm.  By early 1943, the ship had been sufficiently repaired to begin the conversion process, but Hitler, angered by the failure of German surface raiders at the Battle of the Barents Sea in December 1942 ordered the cessation of all work. "Gneisenau" was disarmed and her 28 cm and 15 cm gun turrets were used in shore batteries. Turret Caesar was installed in Austrått Fort in Trondheim as the coastal battery "Orlandet".  "Gneisenau" remained unused in Gotenhafen until the end of the war. As the Red Army advanced on the city, the remaining crew took the ship out to the entrance of the harbor and sank the vessel as a blockship on 27 March 1945. In 1947, the Polish government ordered the ship be removed, and initial salvage operations began. The ship was sealed and refloated on 12 September 1951 then completely scrapped, though it is believed that some of her steel was used in the construction of Polish merchant vessels.. The ship's bell was preserved and it is now in the collection of the Museum of the Polish Army in Warsaw (Poland), it is occasionally presented at exhibitions. She was the largest ship raised at the time. Norway offered to return the turret from Trondheim in 1979, though the offer was rejected. The gun turret was instead preserved as a museum in Norway.

Gneisenau was a German capital ship, alternatively described as a battleship and battlecruiser, of Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine". She was the second vessel of her class, which included one other ship,. The ship was built at the "Deutsche Werke" dockyard in Kiel; she was laid down on 6 May 1935 and launched on 8 December 1936. Completed in May 1938, the ship was armed with a main battery of nine 28 cm (11 in) C/34 guns in three triple turrets, though there were plans to replace these weapons with six 38 cm (15 in) SK C/34 guns in twin turrets.

格奈森瑙号战列舰()是纳粹德国海军的一艘战列舰,为沙恩霍斯特级的2号舰,在第二次世界大战中投入使用。该舰是第3艘被命名为「格奈森瑙号」的军舰,以纪念普鲁士王国陆军元帅—奥古斯特·冯·格奈森瑙,为继1879年下水的和在第一次世界大战的福克兰群岛战役中被击沉的装甲巡洋舰格奈森瑙号后的同名舰。


Early life and career.

Born in Pavlovsky Posad, Russia, on 2 August 1934, Bykovsky was the son of Fyodor Fyodorovich Bykovsky and Klavdia Ivanova. He had an older sister named Margarita born three years earlier. When he was four years old, World War II began, forcing the family to move to Kuybyshev, and later again to Syzran, before moving back to near Moscow. By the age of 14, Bykovsky wanted to attend naval school; however, his father was not a proponent of this idea and encouraged him to stay at his school. A few days later Bykovsky attended a lecture on the Soviet Air Force Club which inspired him to pursue his dream of becoming a pilot. He began flight theory lessons when he was 16 at the Moscow City Aviation Club.  Bykovsky graduated from aviation school aged 18 and enrolled in the Kachinsk Military Aviation Academy. He graduated from the academy at 21 years old and received the rank of lieutenant. At 25 he became a jet fighter pilot and later became a pilot and parachute instructor with over 72 jumps by the time he began his cosmonaut training.

Cosmonaut career.

Vostok programme.

At 26 years old he started his cosmonaut training at Zhukovsky Military Engineering academy. His first assignment was as the backup pilot of Vostok 3.  Bykovsky launched on the Vostok 5 mission on 14 June 1963. During the flight he conducted experiments, such as photographing the Earth's horizon and documenting the growth of peas. Two days into his flight, Valentina Tereshkova flew the Vostok 6 spacecraft within five kilometers of his spacecraft. He set a space endurance record when he spent five days in orbit aboard Vostok 5 in 1963 where his call-sign was "Hawk" (Russian: Ястреб). Although this flight duration has since been surpassed by crews of more than one person, it remains the endurance record for a solo spaceflight as of 2019. During his orbit aboard Vostok 5, Bykovsky was also made a member of the communist party. He was promoted to colonel on 30 April 1966.

Soyuz programme.

Bykovsky was assigned to be the commander of the original Soyuz 2 mission, which was planned to be launched soon after Soyuz 1. Two of the three crewmen from Soyuz 2 were to conduct an extravehicular activity (EVA) and enter Soyuz 1. During the Soyuz 1 flight, many concurrent problems forced mission control to command an early reentry of the spacecraft. This also caused them to cancel the Soyuz 2 flight as no rendezvous could occur. On Soyuz 1, tube holding the main parachute was too rough, which created enough friction that the drogue parachute was unable to pull it out. The spacecraft struck the ground at approximately 93 miles per hour, killing Vladimir Komarov. As the Soyuz 2 capsule was made with the same specifications as Soyuz 1, if the mission had flown Bykovsky and his crew would have been killed.  He flew the Soyuz 22 mission with Vladimir Aksyonov. The mission launched on 15 September 1976. The capsule was originally a backup for the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). The main purpose of the mission was studying and practising Earth observation techniques.  He flew the Soyuz 31 mission to the Salyut 6 space station with the East German Sigmund Jähn. It was launched on 26 August 1978. They joined two other cosmonauts on the space station that had arrived on Soyuz 29. The four conducted biological experiments on themselves during their stay. Bykovsky and Jähn undocked from the station in the Soyuz 29 capsule on 3 September and landed back on Earth later that day.

Post-cosmonaut career.

Much of his later career was devoted to promoting the Intercosmos programme amongst the world's Socialist nations. Due to his age, he was moved from active duty to the reserves in 1988. He became the director of the Centre of Soviet Science & Culture in East Berlin after the Soyuz 31 mission.

Personal life.

Bykovsky was a keen sportsman: He was married to Valentina Mikhailovna Sukhova; they had two sons. He died on 27 March 2019.

Valery Fyodorovich Bykovsky (; 2 August 1934 – 27 March 2019) was a Soviet cosmonaut who flew on three space flights: Vostok 5, Soyuz 22, and Soyuz 31. He was also backup for Vostok 3 and Soyuz 37.

瓦列里·费奥多罗维奇·贝科夫斯基(,1934年-8月2日-2019年-3月27日)是苏联宇航员。


History.

The first airline meals were served by Handley Page Transport, an airline company founded in 1919, to serve the London–Paris route in October of that year. Passengers could choose from a selection of sandwiches and fruit.

Contents.

The type of food varies depending upon the airline company and class of travel. Meals may be served on one tray or in multiple courses with no tray and with a tablecloth, metal cutlery, and glassware (generally in first and business classes). Often the food is reflective of the culture of the country the airline is based in or the country that the airplane is destined for (e.g. Indian, Japanese, Chinese, or Western meals).  The airline dinner typically includes meat (most commonly chicken or beef), fish, or pasta; a salad or vegetable; a small bread roll (with butter); and a dessert. Condiments (typically salt, pepper, and sugar) are supplied in small sachets or shakers.  Caterers usually produce alternative meals for passengers with restrictive diets. These must usually be ordered at least 24 hours in advance, sometimes when buying the ticket. Some of the more common examples include:

Halal food.

For several Islamic and Middle Eastern airlines, in accordance with Islamic customs, all classes and dishes on the plane are served a Muslim meal with Halal certification – without pork and alcohol. While Emirates, Etihad Airways, Oman Air, and Qatar Airways provide bottles of wine to non-Muslim passengers, the cabin crew does not deliver alcoholic beverages lest they violate Islamic customs, unless those non-Muslim passengers specifically request it. Turkish Airlines does not serve any meals with pork or lard, but especially during international flights, a variety of alcoholic beverages are served upon request. Because Iran and Saudi Arabia apply strict Sharia regulations, those countries' airlines, e.g. Iran Air, Mahan Air, and Saudi Airlines, do not deliver pork or alcoholic beverages, and all airlines flying to or from Iran or Saudi Arabia are prohibited from serving either. However, Garuda Indonesia serves alcoholic beverages (whiskey, beer, champagne, and wine) to non-Muslim passengers.

Kosher food.

In the case of Israeli airlines El Al, Arkia, and Israir, all meals served are kosher-certified by Rabbis. Even at destinations outside Israel, sky chefs must be supervised by rabbis to make kosher meals and load their planes. Many other airlines also supply kosher-certified meals, which they buy in from outside certified providers and are supplied to the passengers sealed. These may contain food in double-wrapped foil containers which can be heated up in the plane oven, alongside non-kosher food, without breaking the appropriate dietary laws.

Cutlery and tableware.

Before the September 11, 2001 attacks, first class passengers were often provided with full sets of metal cutlery. Afterward, common household items were evaluated more closely for their potential use as weapons on aircraft, and both first class and coach class passengers were restricted to plastic utensils. Some airlines switched from metal to all-plastic or plastic-handled cutlery during the SARS outbreak in 2003, since the SARS virus transfers from person to person easily, and plastic cutlery can be thrown away after use. Many airlines later switched back to metal cutlery. However, some airlines such as Singapore Airlines, Qatar Airways, Japan Airlines, Emirates, Garuda Indonesia, and Swiss International Air Lines continue to use metal utensils even in economy class as of 2019.  Some airlines also made the switch to plastic cutlery in economy class to recover costs resulting from passenger theft, of which metal cutlery tends to be a common item targeted.  In May 2010, concerns were raised in Australia and New Zealand over their respective flag carriers, Qantas and Air New Zealand, reusing their plastic cutlery for international flights between 10 and 30 times before replacement. Both airlines cited cost saving, international quarantine, and environmental as the reasons for the choice. Both have also said that the plastic cutlery is commercially washed and sterilized before reuse. Reusing plastic tablewares though is a regular practice among many airliners and food caterers. For cleanliness, most meals come with a napkin and a moist towelette. First and business class passengers are often provided with hot towels.

Breakfast.

During morning flights a cooked breakfast or smaller continental-style may be served. On long haul flights (and short/medium haul flights within Asia) breakfast normally includes an entrée of pancakes or eggs, traditional fried breakfast foods such as sausages and grilled tomatoes, and often muffins or pastries, fruits, and breakfast cereal on the side. On shorter flights a continental-style breakfast, generally including a miniature box of breakfast cereal, fruits and either a muffin, pastry, or bagel. Coffee and tea are offered as well, and sometimes hot chocolate.

Cost.

Food on board a flight is usually free on full-service Asian airlines and on almost all long-distance flights, while they might cost extra on low-cost airlines or European full-service airline flights. Quality may also fluctuate due to shifts in the economics of the airline industry.  On long-haul international flights in first class and business class, most Asian and European airlines serve gourmet meals, while legacy carriers based in the US tend to serve multicourse meals including a cocktail snack, appetizer, soup, salad, entrée (chicken, beef, fish, or pasta), cheeses with fruit, and ice cream. Some long-haul flights in first and business class offer such delicacies as caviar, champagne, and sorbet (intermezzo).  The cost and availability of meals on US airlines has changed considerably in recent years, as financial pressures have forced some airlines to either begin charging for meals, or abandon them altogether in favor of small snacks, as in the case of Southwest Airlines. Eliminating free pretzels saved Northwest $2 million annually. Nowadays, the main US legacy carriers (American, Delta, and United) have discontinued full meal service in economy class on short-haul US domestic and North American flights, while retaining it on most intercontinental routes; and at least one European carrier, Icelandair, follows this policy on intercontinental runs as well.  As of 2018, all 4 major U.S. legacy airlines now offer free snacks on board in economy class. United Airlines re-introduced free snacks in February 2016. From April 2016, American Airlines fully restored free snacks on all domestic flights in economy class. Free meals will also be available on certain domestic routes. Delta and Southwest have already been offering free snacks for years.  Air China has reported that each domestic flight's meal requires RMB50 (US$7.30) while international flights require RMB70 (US$10). However, this figure varies from airline to airline, as some have reported costs to be as low as US$3.50. Air China is also minimizing costs by loading only 95% of all meals to reduce leftovers and storing non-perishable foods for emergencies.  In 1958 Pan Am and several European airlines entered into a legal dispute over whether certain airline food sandwiches counted as a "meal".

Preparation.

Meals must generally be prepared on the ground before takeoff. Guillaume de Syon, a history professor at Albright College who wrote about the history of airline meals, said that the higher altitudes alter the taste of the food and the function of the taste buds; according to de Syon the food may taste "dry and flavorless" as a result of the pressurization and passengers, feeling thirsty due to pressurization, may drink alcohol when they ought to drink water. Tests have shown that the perception of saltiness and sweetness drops 30% at high altitudes. The low humidity in airline cabins also dries out the nose which decreases olfactory sensors which are essential for tasting flavor in dishes.  Food safety is paramount in the airline catering industry. A case of mass food poisoning amongst the passengers on an airliner could have disastrous consequences. For example, on February 20, 1992, shrimp tainted with cholera was served on Aerolíneas Argentinas Flight 386. An elderly passenger died and other passengers fell ill. For this reason catering firms and airlines have worked together to provide a set of industry guidelines specific to the needs of airline catering. The World Food Safety Guidelines for Airline Catering is offered free of charge by the International Flight Service Association.

An airline meal, airline food, or in-flight meal is a meal served to passengers on board a commercial airliner. These meals are prepared by specialist airline catering services and normally served to passengers using an airline service trolley.

飞机餐即是民航飞机在航程中供应予乘客的餐饮。飞机餐菜式由航空公司订定,一般由指定供应航机饮食的厂商供应。这样的厂商称为「空厨」(transport catering,原意指餐饮服务)。飞机餐在机场附近制作,并于起飞前直接运送至航机上,在航程中途飞机稳定时由空服员放在手推车上分发予乘客。


Background.

24 March commemorates the day in 1882 when Dr Robert Koch astounded the scientific community by announcing to a small group of scientists at the University of Berlin's Institute of Hygiene that he had discovered the cause of tuberculosis, the TB bacillus. According to Koch's colleague, Paul Ehrlich, "At this memorable session, Koch appeared before the public with an announcement which marked a turning-point in the story of a virulent human infectious disease. In clear, simple words Koch explained the aetiology of tuberculosis with convincing force, presenting many of his microscope slides and other pieces of evidence." At the time of Koch's announcement in Berlin, TB was raging through Europe and the Americas, causing the death of one out of every seven people. Koch's discovery opened the way toward diagnosing and curing tuberculosis.

History.

In 1982, on the one-hundredth anniversary of Robert Koch's presentation, the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (IUATLD) proposed that 24 March be proclaimed an official World TB Day. This was part of a year-long centennial effort by the IUATLD and the World Health Organization under the theme "Defeat TB: Now and Forever.” World TB Day was not officially recognized as an annual occurrence by WHO's World Health Assembly and the United Nations until over a decade later.  In the fall of 1995, WHO and the Royal Netherlands Tuberculosis Foundation (KNCV) hosted the first World TB Day advocacy planning meeting in Den Haag, Netherlands; an event they would continue co-sponsor over the next few years. In 1996, WHO, KNCV, the IUATLD and other concerned organizations joined to conduct a wide range of World TB Day activities.  For World TB Day 1997, WHO held a news conference in Berlin during which WHO Director-General Hiroshi Nakajima declared that "DOTS is the biggest health breakthrough of this decade, according to lives we will be able to save." WHO's Global TB Programme Director, Dr. Arata Kochi, promised that, "Today the situation of the global TB epidemic is about to change, because we have made a breakthrough. It is the breakthrough of health management systems that makes it possible to control TB not only in wealthy countries, but in all parts of the developing world, where 95 percent of all TB cases now exist."  By 1998, nearly 200 organizations conducted public outreach activities on World TB Day. During its World TB Day 1998 news conference in London, WHO for the first time identified the top twenty-two countries with the world's highest TB burden. The next year, over 60 key TB advocates from 18 countries attended the three-day WHO/KNCV planning meeting for World TB Day 1999.  U.S. President Bill Clinton marked World TB Day 2000 by administering the WHO-recommended Directly Observed Therapy, Short-Course (DOTS) treatment to patients at the Mahavir Hospital in Hyderabad, India. According to Clinton, "These are human tragedies, economic calamities, and far more than crises for you, they are crises for the world. The spread of disease is the one global problem for which... no nation is immune."  In Canada, the National Collaborating Centre for Determinants of Health noted on World TB Day 2014 that 64% of TB cases reported nationally were among foreign-born individuals and 23% among Aboriginal people, highlighting TB as a key area of concern about health equity.  Today the Stop TB Partnership, a network of organizations and countries fighting TB (the IUATLD is a member and WHO houses the Stop TB Partnership secretariat in Geneva), organizes the Day to highlight the scope of the disease and how to prevent and cure it.

Themes by year.

Each World TB Day addresses a different theme. The following is a list of annual themes:

2008–2009: I am stopping TB.

The two-year World TB Day campaign "I am stopping TB", launched in 2008, highlighted the message that the campaign belonged to people everywhere doing their part to Stop TB.

2010: Innovate to accelerate action.

The World TB Day 2010 recognized people and partners who had introduced a variety of innovations in a variety of settings to stop TB.  On the occasion of World TB Day 2010, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) declared that attempts to stem the spread of tuberculosis across the globe are likely to fall well short of what is needed unless authorities in affected countries significantly increase their efforts to stop the deadly disease from breeding inside prisons. As a result of overcrowding and poor nutrition, TB rates in many prisons are 10 to 40 times higher than in the general public. The ICRC had been fighting TB in prisons in the Caucasus region, Central Asia, Latin America, Asia Pacific and Africa for more than a decade, either directly or by supporting local programmes.

2011: Transforming the fight.

For the World TB Day 2011 campaign, the goal was to inspire innovation in TB research and care.

2012: Tell the world what you want to see in your lifetime.

For World TB Day 2012, individuals were called upon to join the global fight to stop TB in their lifetime.

2013: Stop TB in my lifetime.

The World TB Day 2013 campaign provided an opportunity to mark progress towards global targets for reductions in TB cases and deaths: TB mortality fell over 40% worldwide since 1990, and incidence was declining. Further progress would depend on addressing critical funding gaps: an estimated 1.6 billion US dollars needed to implement existing TB interventions.

2014: Reach the three million.

Of the 9 million people a year who get sick with TB, 3 million of them are "missed" by health systems. The focus of World TB Day 2014 was for countries and partners to take forward innovative approaches to reach the 3 million and ensure that everyone suffering from TB has access to TB diagnosis, treatment and cure.

2015: Gear up to end TB.

World TB Day 2015 was seen as an opportunity to raise awareness about the burden of TB worldwide and the status of TB prevention and control efforts, highlighting WHO's vision of a world free of TB with zero deaths and suffering.

2017: Unite to end TB.

World TB 2017 focused on joining efforts to raise awareness and eliminate Tuberculosis.

2018: Wanted: Leaders for a TB-free world.

World TB 2018 focused on building commitment to end TB, not only at the political level with Heads of State and Ministers of Health, but at all levels from Mayors, Governors, parliamentarians and community leaders, to people affected with TB, civil society advocates, health workers, doctors or nurses, NGOs and other partners.

2019: It's time.

The theme for World TB day 2019 is "It's time". The emphasis for this year's event is to pressure world leaders to "act on [their] commitments".

2020: It's time to End TB.

The theme for World TB day 2020 is "It's time to End TB!"

World Tuberculosis Day, observed on 24 March each year, is designed to build public awareness about the global epidemic of tuberculosis (TB) and efforts to eliminate the disease. In 2012, 8.6 million people fell ill with TB, and 1.3 million died from the disease, mostly in low and middle-income countries.

世界结核病日(英语:World Tuberculosis Day,或译世界防治结核病日)定于每年的3月24日,是纪念1882年德国微生物学家罗伯特·科霍向一群德国柏林医生发表他对结核病病原菌的发现。


History.

Croatian Radiotelevision is the direct successor of the "Radio station Zagreb" () that started broadcasting on 15 May 1926 under its first director and co-founder, dr. Ivo Stern. During the first 14 years of its existence the Zagreb Radio station was owned by a private corporation. "Radio Zagreb" was nationalized on 1 May 1940. During the Independent State of Croatia, the station was known as "Hrvatski krugoval". After World War II it began to operate as a state-owned radio station.  Zagreb Radio station was the first public broadcasting facility in the southeast European area, including countries of former Yugoslavia.  At the end of the first year of operation, Radio Zagreb company had a little over four thousand subscribers.  On the 30th anniversary of the establishment of Zagreb Radio station, on 15 May 1956, the first television programme was broadcast from the transmitter built at Sljeme. For the next two years this was the only TV broadcasting service in the southeast European area. This was the first TV station in Yugoslavia and would later become a color station in 1972.  In June 1990, the Croatian Parliament renamed the company from "Radiotelevizija Zagreb" to "Hrvatska radiotelevizija". On 1 January 1993, HRT was admitted as a full active member of the European Broadcasting Union.  The television channels were aired under the name "Croatian Television", "Hrvatska televizija" (HTV) between 1990 and 1993. Since then, the current name has been used. The radio broadcast unit is referred to as "Croatian Radio", "Hrvatski radio" (HR).

Television.

Channels.

In the 1980s there was a third channel called Z3 and later HTV Z3. It was taken off air on 16 September 1991 when its main transmitter, the Sljeme TV tower, was damaged in an air raid. On 7 November 1994 the channel came back on the air, this time called HRT 3. The channel was later shut down with its frequency de-nationalized and put up for lease in a public tender in 2004 (it has been used by RTL Televizija ever since).

Radio.

The Croatian Radio ("Hrvatski radio") runs three national and eight local (county-level) stations.  The three national stations are available on FM throughout the country and are streamed live via the Internet.  The mediumwave transmitter at Zadar was at one time one of the most powerful in Europe and at nighttime could be heard throughout most of the continent with JRT (Yugoslav) and later HR (Croatian) programming from Zagreb and Pula. However it was badly damaged during the Serbian shelling of the city in the early 1990s, and has operated on somewhat reduced power since on 1134 kHz. It was taken off the air on 1 January 2014.

Hrvatska radiotelevizija () or simply HRT is a Croatian public broadcasting company. It operates several radio and television channels, over a domestic transmitter network as well as satellite. In 2014, more than 85% of HRT's revenue came from broadcast user fees with each household in Croatia required to pay 79 HRK (~€10) per month for a single television set, with the remainder being made up from advertising (which is limited by law). HRT is divided into three joint companies - Croatian Radio (), Croatian Television () and Music Production ().

克罗地亚广播电视台()是克罗地亚的公共广播电视系统,提供广播和电视服务。在2011年,克罗地亚广播电视80%以上的收入来自收视费。每户克罗地亚家庭每个月需要缴纳79克罗地亚库纳的收视费。其他收入则来自广告等财源。克罗地亚广播电视分为三个部分,分别是广播部门、电视部门和音乐制作部门。现在克罗地亚广播电视拥有五个频道。


Service under Sun Ce.

Jiang Qin was from Shouchun County (), Jiujiang Commandery (), which is in present-day Shou County, Anhui. He served as an Attendant () under Sun Ce when Sun Ce gained independence from the warlord Yuan Shu. When Sun Ce crossed the Yangtze River to start his conquests of the territories in the Jiangdong region, Jiang Qin was appointed as a Major of Separate Command () and placed in command of some troops. He accompanied Sun Ce on the campaigns and assisted in the conquest of Yuzhang Commandery (). He was later reassigned to be the Commandant of Geyang () and was placed in charge of three counties. During his tenure, he defeated some bandits and was promoted to Commandant of the West ().  When Lü He () and Qin Lang () led an uprising in the five eastern counties in Kuaiji Commandery, Jiang Qin led his troops to fight them and succeeded in pacifying the five counties and capturing the two rebel leaders. For his achievement, he was promoted to General of the Household Who Attacks the Yue () and placed in charge of Jingqu () and Zhaoyang () counties. Jiang Qin later led 10,000 troops to assist He Qi in suppressing a rebellion in You County ().

Service under Sun Quan.

Jiang Qin participated in the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford in 214-215. When his lord, Sun Quan, came under attack by the enemy general Zhang Liao at Xiaoyao Ford, Jiang Qin fought bravely to protect Sun Quan and succeeded in buying time for Sun Quan to escape to safety. He was promoted to General Who Defeats Bandits () and Area Commander () of Ruxu () for his achievements. He was later recalled to the Wu capital and was commissioned as Right Protector of the Army () and given additional responsibilities in the judiciary.  In 219, Sun Quan ordered Lü Meng to lead an army to invade Jing Province when its defender, Guan Yu (a general under Liu Bei), was away at the Battle of Fancheng. Jiang Qin participated in the campaign and led a naval force at Mian (). However, after the victory, Jiang Qin fell sick and died on the way back to Wu. Sun Quan personally donned mourning attire when he attended Jiang Qin's funeral. He also gave 200 taxable households and of land in Wuhu to Jiang Qin's family.

Anecdotes.

Sun Quan's home visit.

Sun Quan once visited Jiang Qin's house and saw that Jiang's mother had only a light bed-curtain and cotton blankets, while Jiang's wife and concubines wore only simple cloth dresses. Sun Quan was so impressed with Jiang Qin's frugality that he ordered his own household to make silk blankets for Jiang's mother and exchange her curtains for better ones. Jiang Qin's wife and concubines also received silk and embroidered garments.

Incident with Xu Sheng.

Once, when Jiang Qin was stationed in Xuancheng County () and was out fighting rebels in Yuzhang Commandery, Xu Sheng, who was then the Prefect () of Wuhu, arrested an officer under Jiang Qin and requested for permission from Sun Quan to have the officer executed. As Jiang Qin was away at that time, Sun Quan denied the request. Xu Sheng had since estranged himself from Jiang Qin. Later, during the Battle of Ruxu in 217, Jiang Qin and Lü Meng were put in charge of military discipline. Xu Sheng was constantly worried that Jiang Qin would find fault with him, but, much to his surprise, Jiang praised him instead, and Xu was very impressed by Jiang's virtuous behaviour. Jiang Qin became more highly regarded after this incident. Sun Quan later asked Jiang Qin, "Xu Sheng offended you earlier on, but yet now you praise him. You wish to emulate Qi Xi, don't you?" Jiang Qin replied, "I heard that one should not let his personal feuds affect his official duties. Xu Sheng is loyal and hardworking, possesses both courage and talent, and is capable of leading thousands of troops. Now, we've yet to accomplish our great task, so I should help to scout for and recommend talents to serve the state instead of letting my private problems cloud my judgment." Sun Quan was very pleased.

Descendants.

Jiang Qin's son, Jiang Yi (), received the title "Marquis of Xuancheng" () and fought at the Battle of Xiaoting in 221-222 against Liu Bei's forces. He was later despatched to Nan Commandery () to join the Battle of Jiangling but died before participating in the battle. Jiang Yi had no son so his military post was inherited by his younger brother, Jiang Xiu (). Jiang Xiu was later discharged from service for committing an offence.

Jiang Qin (died 219), courtesy name Gongyi, was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He previously served under Sun Quan's elder brother and predecessor, Sun Ce, and participated in various battles throughout his service under the Sun family, including Sun Ce's conquests in Jiangdong, the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford and Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province.

蒋钦(?-220年),字公奕,扬州九江寿春人。东汉末年孙策麾下孙吴的重要将领;是江东十二虎臣之一。与周泰是同乡九江人,曾助孙策平定江东及参与合肥之战;随吕蒙攻打关羽后,班师回军途中病逝。


Life.

Bao Xin was from Pingyang County (), Taishan Commandery (), which is present-day Xintai County, Shandong. His father, Bao Dan (), served as a Palace Attendant () in the Han central government. Bao Xin started his official career during the reign of Emperor Ling ( 168–189) and served as a Cavalry Commandant ().  Around 189, the general He Jin sent Bao Xin back to Taishan Commandery to recruit soldiers to serve in the imperial army. However, before Bao Xin completed his mission, He Jin had been assassinated by the eunuch faction, and the warlord Dong Zhuo had taken advantage of the political vacuum to seize control of the Han central government in Luoyang. Bao Xin saw Dong Zhuo as a serious threat to the Han Empire, so he did not return to Luoyang.  In early 190, a coalition of warlords from the east of Hangu Pass started a military campaign aimed at freeing the central government and the figurehead Emperor Xian from Dong Zhuo control. Bao Xin brought along his younger brother Bao Tao () and his own troops to join the coalition and was appointed as acting General Who Destroys Barbarians (). The warlords nominated Yuan Shao, who had the highest prestige among them, to be their leader. Bao Xin, however, saw great potential in another warlord Cao Cao and befriended him. Later, Bao Xin and Cao Cao fought together at the Battle of Bian River () against Dong Zhuo's forces and scored a victory, but Bao Xin's brother Bao Tao was killed in action and Bao Xin himself was wounded.  After the coalition broke up, Bao Xin advised Cao Cao to establish his own base in the Henan region, while other warlords such as Yuan Shao and Gongsun Zan were fighting over territories. In 191, after Yuan Shao recommended Cao Cao to be the Administrator () of Dong Commandery (東郡; around present-day Puyang, Henan), Cao Cao in turn nominated Bao Xin to be the Chancellor () of the neighbouring Jibei State (濟北國; around present-day Feicheng, Shandong).  In 192, when thousands of former Yellow Turban rebels swarmed into Yan Province from Qing Province, Liu Dai, the Inspector of Yan Province, wanted to lead government forces to attack the rebels. Bao Xin advised Liu Dai against doing so because the rebels had superiority in numbers, but Liu Dai ignored him, went ahead and was killed in battle. Bao Xin then recommended Cao Cao to be the Governor of Yan Province to replace Liu Dai and take the lead in the fight against the rebels. Bao Xin and Cao Cao then led their troops to the east of Shouzhang County (壽張縣; southwest of present-day Dongping County, Shandong) to attack the rebels. During this time, they came under a sudden attack by the rebels and were overwhelmed. Bao Xin fought bravely to cover Cao Cao while he escaped, but ended up sacrificing himself in the process. After Cao Cao broke out of the encirclement, he reorganised his troops and returned to the battlefield to search for Bao Xin's body but could not find it. He then ordered his men to carve a wooden statue in Bao Xin's likeness and held a memorial service for Bao Xin, during which he wept bitterly. The rebels eventually surrendered to Cao Cao, who recruited them to form the elite Qingzhou Army.  Bao Xin was 41 years old (by East Asian age reckoning) when he died. As he led a frugal life and used his personal wealth to help his subordinates, his family did not own much property at the time of his death. In 212, Cao Cao wrote a memorial to Emperor Xian, asking him to honour Bao Xin and confer the title of a village marquis on Bao Shao (), one of Bao Xin's sons. Cao Cao also recruited Bao Xun, another of Bao Xin's sons, to serve as an official under him. Bao Xun continued serving as an official in the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period.

Bao Xin (152–192) was a military general and minor warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China.

鲍信,东汉泰山郡平阳县(今山东省新泰)人。初为骑都尉官至破虏将军、济北相。


Name.

The name derives from Middle English "stanes", from Old English "" ("stones").

History.

Early history.

Evidence of neolithic settlement has been found at Yeoveney on Staines Moor. There has been a crossing of the River Thames at Staines since Roman times. The emperor Claudius invaded Britain in AD 43. Staines was settled the same year. Within a decade, some sort of first Staines Bridge would have been needed for the Roman road later known as the Devil's Highway between Londinium (London) and Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester). Pontibus, Latin for "at the bridges" in the early 3rd-century Antonine Itinerary, has long been guessed to refer to Staines, but that may be wrong since the Itinerary's mileages actually point some distance away (possibly to the south end of Virginia Water Lake). More than one bridge might have traversed Church Island. Ad Pontem was an altogether different place.  The Middlesex section of the Domesday Book records the manor "Stanes" as a property held by Westminster Abbey. It was stated to have 19 hides of land and had 6 mills worth £3, 4s, 0d; 2 weirs worth 6s, 8d; 24 ploughs; meadows for 24 ploughs; and some cattle. It rendered £35.  A boundary stone on the bank of the River Thames dated 1280 still remains, indicating the western limit of the City of London's jurisdiction over the Thames. Although familiarly known as the 'London Stone', it is not to be confused with the more famous – and probably more ancient – London Stone in Cannon Street in the City of London. The barons assembled at Staines before they met King John at Runnymede in 1215, and Stephen Langton held a consecration there shortly after the sealing of Magna Carta. Kings and other important people must have passed through the town on many occasions: the church bells were rung several times in 1670, for instance, when the king and queen went through Staines. Between 1642 and 1648 during the Civil War, there were skirmishes on Staines Moor and numerous troop movements over Staines Bridge. The parish remained largely agricultural until the mid-19th century.

Modern history.

Staines was a regular staging post with coaching inns. It was used for an overnight horse change on The Trafalgar Way in 1805, announcing the victory over the combined French and Spanish fleet and the death of Nelson. Samuel Lewis mentions the place in his 1848 "Topographical Dictionary of England", saying that "The town, which has been much improved of late, consists principally of one wide street, containing several good houses, terminating at the river." In the 19th century the Church of England lost all its secular maintenance and relief functions (run by the vestries). However, as Staines's local government is unparished, the parish boundary of the village of Laleham is the one used in road signs and official naming. Stanwell, forming its own wards, lost land in and around Leaside, north of the River Ash in the 20th century to Staines.  Laleham remains, as it was in the mid-19th century, a long tranche beginning east of the north-south Sweep's Ditch which runs south to the tip of the Penton Hook peninsula of the River Thames. Spelthorne Borough Council is one of the few Surrey districts divided completely equally in terms of number of councillors per wards yet the population of Laleham is insufficient to elect three councillors. Laleham does share a post town, and has a large sports ground named after Laleham and Staines. It instead forms one half of the ward "Riverside [Staines] and Laleham", parts A and D of Spelthorne's 009 division in the United Kingdom Census 2011. The town was a major producer of linoleum after the formation of the Linoleum Manufacturing Company in 1864 by its inventor, Frederick Walton. Linoleum became the main industry of the town and was a major employer in the area until the 1960s. In 1876 about 220 and in 1911 about 350 people worked in the plant. By 1957 it employed some 300 people and in 1956 the factory produced about 2675 m of linoleum each week. The term 'Staines Lino' became a worldwide name but the factory was closed around 1970 and is the site is now occupied by the Two Rivers shopping centre, completed about 2000. A bronze statue of two lino workers in Staines High Street commemorates the Staines Lino Factory. The Spelthorne Museum has a display dedicated to the Linoleum Manufacturing Company.  The Lagonda car factory was on the site of Sainsbury's supermarket in Egham Hythe.  The town was the site of the Staines air disaster in 1972, at the time the worst air crash in Britain until the Lockerbie disaster of 1988. (Since the Lockerbie crash was a terrorist act in Scotland, the Staines crash remains England's worst air disaster, and Britain's worst air "accident".) The crash was commemorated in June 2004 by the opening of a dedicated garden near the crash site, created at the request of relatives, and the unveiling of a stained glass window at St Mary's Church, where a memorial service was held.

Staines Urban District.

In 1894 the Local Government Act 1894 created the Staines Urban District. This status conferred additional powers and responsibilities compared with the few Rural Districts in Middlesex County Council. In 1965, under the London Government Act 1963, Middlesex, apart from the Staines, Sunbury-on-Thames and Potters Bar Urban Districts, became part of Greater London. Staines and Sunbury were transferred to Surrey and Potters Bar to Hertfordshire. In 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, the Staines Urban District was combined with Sunbury-on-Thames Urban District to form the present-day borough of Spelthorne. Staines remains associated with the historical county of Middlesex through certain cultural and sporting affiliations, and until 1996 for postal purposes.

Staines-upon-Thames.

The town changed its official name to "Staines-upon-Thames" on 20 May 2012.  On 15 December 2011, Spelthorne Borough Council resolved by 25 votes to 4 with 6 abstentions (including all the councillors for Staines ward itself) to change the name of the town to Staines-upon-Thames, to try to boost the local economy by promoting its riverside location, and reportedly to discourage association with Sasha Baron Cohen’s fictional character Ali G, as well as rock band Hard-Fi, who described Staines as "a ghost town".  The name change proposal originated with Spelthorne Business Forum. 428 responses to a public consultation were in favour and 234 opposed, but there were some public objections, including one from Staines Town Football Club which attempted to present 134 signatures to the council, but they were not received. Adopting the name change, the council resolved to call on residents, businesses and public organisations to use the name Staines-upon-Thames, and to call on Surrey County Council and Runnymede Borough Council to use Staines-upon-Thames for all official business. Following a day of celebrations in the town, including a regatta on the river, the Lord Lieutenant of Surrey, Dame Sarah Goad DCVO, formally changed the name on 20 May 2012 at 2 pm. Royal Mail adopted the new name in mid-2013, having previously stated that the name would remain as Staines on the Postcode Address File.

Economy.

The town's proximity to London, Heathrow Airport and the M25 motorway has attracted a number of companies: Bupa (healthcare), and Wood Group Kenny (oil & gas) have major offices here, while Siemens Building Automation Division and British Gas (part of Centrica) have their national headquarters here. Samsung R&D Institute UK (SRUK), Samsung's UK R&D division, is based in the town.  The town centre is fairly compact and mainly focused on a wide pedestrianised High Street. A market is held every Wednesday, Friday and Saturday in the High Street. A moderately-sized shopping centre, Elmsleigh, is behind the High Street. The Two Rivers retail park was opened in 2002, and is bisected by the confluence of the rivers Wraysbury and Colne. Staines has at least three parades of convenience shops and local professional services. A range of pubs host live music evenings. The town is the home of indie rock band Hard-Fi.

Architecture and landmarks.

The original manor of Staines became derelict and was demolished. Staines Bridge spans the Thames with a three arch structure completed in 1832. Until the 14th century, Staines was the tidal limit, but this is now downstream at Teddington – a replica London Stone exists in the Lammas Recreation Ground.  The administrative offices of Spelthorne Borough Council are by one of the town's more linear parks. In the early 2000s, a public landscape area was constructed by the riverside conservation area with seating and sculptures to enhance the waterfront as a place to walk. The 'Town Hall' is a stuccoed Victorian blend of Italian and Flemish styles in a small market square, converted into an Art Centre in the 1990s, and later turned into a pub (now closed). Elaborate Georgian shophouses line Clarence Street (named after William, Duke of Clarence, who became King William IV). Church Street and Lammas Lane house the oldest properties clustered around the parish church of St Mary.

Education.

The town has the following schools:  Several other schools have previously existed in the town, including:  The nearest further education institution to Staines is Brooklands College (formerly Spelthorne College) in neighbouring Ashford, about 3 miles to the east. Royal Holloway, University of London is 3 miles west of the town centre, off the A30 between Egham and Englefield Green.

Sport.

Two affiliated senior association football clubs bear the name of Staines, namely Staines Town F.C. (senior status), and Staines Lammas F.C. (intermediate status). Staines Town plays at the newly rebuilt Wheatsheaf Park ground and is a member of Isthmian League Premier Division. Staines Town has a strong rivalry with Hampton & Richmond Borough F.C.. Staines Lammas was champion of the Combined Counties League Division One in the 2007–08 season.the club runs various age group teams. Staines also has several successful junior football clubs: Staines Town, Staines Lammas and Staines Albion, as well as girls' clubs Kempton Girls FC — Colne Valley and the U11, one of the best girls' junior clubs in Surrey.  Staines Rugby Football Club used to play at the Lammas (a recreation ground in the town also known as the Ashby Recreation Ground). The club moved to The Reeves (on Snakey Lane, Hanworth) in the 1960s but kept its name. It has teams named Swans, Cobs and Mucky Ducks. The Club is in Herts/Middlesex 1 league and has mini and youth sections.  Staines Boat Club is immediately across the bridge in Egham Hythe and competes at a national level.  Staines Swimming Club founded in the early 1900s and affiliated to the Amateur Swimming Association is based at Spelthorne Leisure Centre and provides competitive swimming from inter-club level up to national level.  Spelthorne Volleyball Club, also based at Spelthorne Leisure Centre, provides volleyball to a wide range of abilities and age groups.  Clubs in the borough cater to sailing, cricket, hockey, running, rambling, martial arts (jujitsu), rifle & pistol shooting, bowls, chess, bridge, snooker, darts, pool, poker, and a district table tennis league.  The town is also home to TS "Thamesis", Staines and Egham Sea Cadet Corps. This is a uniformed youth organisation for young people aged between 10 and 18 years old. It meets at The Lammas.

Historic sports.

Motorcycle speedway racing was staged at a stadium in Wraysbury Road. Events in 1938 and 1939 are well-known, but it is possible that a venue was active from at least 1931, for a team named Staines raced at Caxton Speedway (near Cambridge, 1931 – 1933 inclusive). The stadium was also used for greyhound racing, as well as 'novelty' events such as cheetah racing.  Staines Stadium was famous from 1955 to 1960 during the early days of stock car racing in England, and featured in the 1955 feature film "Stock Car" among others.  Other sports formerly held in Staines include: boxing (there were weekly programmes off the High Street in the 1930s, and local hearsay suggests bare-knuckle events were held at the Crooked Billet earlier in the 20th century); wrestling (bouts were included in boxing programmes of the 1930s); motorcycle football (a club existed in the 1960s; and American football (a short-lived team called Staines Removers entered the Budweiser League in 1988, but failed to start the season, although they did play some friendly matches at their base on The Lammas).

Transport.

Staines railway station is a stop on all services between London Waterloo station and (for the South West Main Line), (for the Great Western Main Line) and. Semi-fast services serve the Waterloo to Reading Line, being the operator's secondary main line. Taxis are available from the station. The bus station is a five-minute walk from the railway station, with services in all directions including to Thorpe Park and Royal Holloway College. Staines-upon-Thames is also a short distance south of Heathrow Airport.

Rail infrastructure projects.

There were proposals to build a new railway line, Airtrack, connecting the South West Main Line and/or London Gatwick to Heathrow Airport's Terminal 5 station. As part of these proposals, the former Staines High Street railway station was to be rebuilt by Two Rivers Shopping Centre and the High Street in the direction of Wraysbury railway station, using a generally unused arc from north to south in the town centre, towards Weybridge on the South West Main Line. In 2011 the Department for Transport announced it had decided that this would not proceed because extra trains would delay road traffic using the level crossing at Egham. The existing Staines station would have an additional platform built instead on the relevant arc.

Demography and housing.

The average level of accommodation in the region composed of detached houses was 28%, the average that was apartments was 22.6%. The proportion of households in the town who owned their home outright compares to the regional average of 35.1%. The proportion who owned their home with a loan compares to the regional average of 32.5%. The remaining % is made up of rented dwellings (plus a negligible % of households living rent-free).

Nearest places.

Neighbouring towns and villages are Egham, Wraysbury, Ashford, Stanwell, Laleham and Chertsey. About 3 miles north east of Staines-upon-Thames is Heathrow airport. The area across the Thames between Egham and Staines-upon-Thames town centres is a ward called Egham Hythe.

Local media.

A number of local newspapers are available in Staines-upon-Thames; these include:

Staines-upon-Thames, formerly Staines, is a town on the River Thames in Surrey, England, within the borough of Spelthorne. At or near the Roman settlement of Pontibus, it became Stanes and then Staines. The town lies within the historic county boundaries of Middlesex, being transferred to Surrey in 1965.

泰晤士河畔的斯坦斯(英语:Staines-upon-Thames),通常以传统上的名字斯坦斯(英语:Staines)称呼,是位于英国东南英格兰萨里郡斯佩尔索恩自治区的一个城镇,也是斯佩尔索恩的区政府所在地。泰晤士河穿过斯坦斯,自从2012年5月20日,该镇的官方名称从斯坦斯改为泰晤士河畔的斯坦斯。


Taxonomy.

The etymology of the word "porbeagle" is obscure. A common suggestion is that it combines "porpoise" and "beagle", referencing this shark's shape and tenacious hunting habits. Another is that it is derived from the Cornish "porth", meaning "harbor", and "bugel", meaning "shepherd". The "Oxford English Dictionary" states that the word was either borrowed from Cornish or formed from a Cornish first element with the English "beagle". The "Dictionary" also notes that no evidence exists

Phylogeny and evolution.

Several phylogenetic studies, based on morphological characters and mitochondrial DNA sequences, have established the sister species relationship between the porbeagle and the salmon shark ("L. ditropis"), which occurs in place of it in the North Pacific. The genus "Lamna" evolved 65–45 Mya. When its two extant species diverged from each other is uncertain, though the precipitating event was likely the formation of the ice cap over the Arctic Ocean, which would have isolated sharks

Distribution and habitat.

The porbeagle has an almost global amphitemperate distribution, i.e. it is absent from the tropics; in the North Pacific, its niche is assumed by the salmon shark. It is found mostly within 30–70°N and 30–50°S latitudes. In the North Atlantic, the northern limit of its range extends from the Newfoundland Grand Banks off Canada, through southern Greenland, to Scandinavia and Russia; the southern limit of its range extends from New Jersey and Bermuda, through the Azores and Madeira, to Morocco. It is found in the Mediterranean Sea, but not the Black Sea. Normally, North Atlantic sharks only stray as far south as South Carolina and the Gulf of Guinea, but pregnant females from the western North Atlantic population are known to range into the Sargasso Sea, almost as far as Hispaniola, to give birth. In the Southern Hemisphere, the porbeagle apparently occupies a continuous band bound in the south by the Antarctic Convergence, and extending as far north as Chile and Brazil, the Western Cape province of South Africa, Australia to southern Western Australia and southern Queensland, and New Zealand. In New Zealand it is most common south of the Cook Strait. The porbeagle is thought to have colonized the Southern Hemisphere during the Quaternary glaciation (beginning around 2.6 Mya), when the tropical climate zone was much narrower than it is today.  Offshore fishing banks are the favored habitat of the porbeagle, though it can be found from a depth of in oceanic basins to littoral (close to shore) waters less than deep, over the entire water column. A single, anomalous record was made of a juvenile in brackish water in Mar Chiquita in Argentina.

Description.

The porbeagle is a very stout-bodied shark with a fusiform (spindle-like) shape. The long, conical snout tapers to a sharp point, and is supported by enlarged, highly calcified rostral cartilages. The eyes are large and black, without nictitating membranes (protective third eyelids). The small, S-shaped nostrils are positioned in front of and below the level of the eyes. The mouth is large and strongly curved, with moderately protrusible jaws. North Atlantic sharks have 28–29 upper tooth rows and 26–27 lower tooth rows, while Southern Hemisphere sharks have 30–31 upper tooth rows and 27–29 lower tooth rows. Each tooth has a strongly arched base and a nearly straight, awl-like central cusp, which is flanked by a pair of smaller cusplets in all but the smallest individuals. The five pairs of gill slits are long and precede the pectoral fin bases.  The pectoral fins are long and narrow. The first dorsal fin is large and high, with a rounded apex, and originating just behind the pectoral fin bases. The pelvic fins are much smaller than the first dorsal fin. The second dorsal and anal fins are smaller

Biology and ecology.

Fast and energetic, the porbeagle can be found singly or in groups. Its fusiform body, narrow caudal peduncle with lateral keels, and crescent-shaped tail are adaptations for efficiently sustaining speed, which have also been independently evolved by tunas, billfishes, and several other groups of active fishes. The salmon shark and it are the thickest-bodied members of their family (length-depth ratio approaching 4.5), and consequently have the stiffest swimming style; they oscillate their tails while holding their bodies mostly rigid, which confers propulsive power with high energy efficiency, but at the cost of maneuverability. The large gill surface area of the porbeagle allows more oxygen to be delivered to its tissues. It also has a short band of aerobic "red muscle" along each side, which can contract independently of the regular "white muscle" at a lower energy cost, enhancing the shark's stamina.  Porbeagles are among the few fishes that exhibit apparent play behavior. Reports, principally off the Cornish coast, have this species rolling and repeatedly wrapping themselves in long kelp fronds near the surface; this activity may have an exploratory or self-stimulatory purpose, though alternately, the sharks may be attempting to feed on small kelp organisms or scrape off parasites. In addition, porbeagles within a group have been seen chasing each other, and they will reportedly "play with anything floating on the water"; individuals have been observed prodding, tossing, or biting natural and artificial objects, including pieces of driftwood and balloon floats used by anglers.  Great white sharks ("Carcharodon carcharias") and killer whales ("Orcinus orca") are plausible, albeit undocumented, predators of the porbeagle. In one record, a small individual caught off Argentina bore bite marks from a copper shark ("Carcharhinus brachyurus") or similar species, but whether the porbeagle was the target of attempted predation or if the two were simply involved in interspecific aggression is uncertain. Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms "Dinobothrium septaria" and "Hepatoxylon trichiuri", and the copepods "Dinemoura producta", "Laminifera doello-juradoi", and "Pandarus floridanus". Natural annual mortality is low, estimated to be 10% for juveniles, 15% for adult males, and 20% for adult females in the western North Atlantic.

Feeding.

The porbeagle is an active predator that predominantly ingests small to medium-sized bony fishes. It chases down pelagic fishes such as lancet fish, mackerel, pilchards, herring, and sauries, and forages near the bottom for groundfishes such as cod, hake, icefish, dories, sand lances, lumpsuckers, and flatfish. Cephalopods, particularly squid, also form an important component of its diet, while smaller sharks such as spiny dogfish ("Squalus acanthias") and tope sharks ("Galeorhinus galeus") are rarely taken. Examinations of porbeagle stomach contents have also found small shelled molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms, and other invertebrates, which were likely ingested incidentally, as well as inedible

Life history.

The timing of the porbeagle's reproductive cycle is unusual in that it is largely similar in both hemispheres, rather than being offset by six months. This suggests that its reproduction is not significantly affected by temperature or day length, perhaps owing to its endothermic physiology. Mating takes place mainly between September and November, though females with fresh mating scars have been reported as late as January off the Shetland Islands. The male bites at the female's pectoral fins, gill region, and flanks while courting and to hold on for copulation. Two mating grounds are known for western North Atlantic porbeagles, one off Newfoundland and the other on Georges Bank in the Gulf of Maine. Adult females have a single functional ovary, on the right, and two functional uteri. They probably reproduce every

Thermoregulation.

Like other members of its family, the porbeagle is endothermic; metabolic heat generated by its red muscles is conserved within the body by specialized systems of blood vessels called "retia mirabilia" (Latin for "wonderful nets"; singular "rete mirabile"), that act as highly efficient countercurrent heat exchangers. The porbeagle has several "rete mirabile" systems: the orbital "retia" accessing its brain and eyes, the lateral cutaneous "retia" accessing its swimming muscles, the suprahepatic "rete" accessing its viscera, and the kidney "rete".  Among sharks, the porbeagle's capacity for elevating body temperature is second only

Human interactions.

The porbeagle has very rarely, if ever, bitten swimmers or boats. As of 2009, the International Shark Attack File attributes three bites to this species, one provoked and none fatal, and two on boats. One older anecdote tells of a fisherman who provoked a porbeagle into leaping from the water and tearing his clothes. In another account of a swimmer bitten by a "mackerel shark", the species responsible could easily have been a misidentified shortfin mako or great white shark. Recently in the North Sea, adult porbeagles have been filmed charging at divers working on oil platforms, sometimes even brushing lightly against them without doing harm. These rushes do not appear to have predatory intent and may instead be motivated by curiosity or defense.  On 14 May 2018, a porbeagle shark was reported to have bitten a fisherman off the coast of Cornwall, United Kingdom, as it was being returned to the sea.  At one time, porbeagles were regarded as nuisances by some commercial fishers because they damaged lighter fishing gear intended for smaller species and stole hooked fish from lines. This shark is highly valued as a game fish by sport fishers in Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It fights strongly on hook-and-line, but does not usually jump into the air like the related shortfin mako shark. Novice anglers often mistake this shark for the mako, which has earned it the affectionate moniker "fako" in New England. The International Game Fish Association keeps records on the porbeagle.

Commercial fishing.

Prized for its meat and fins, the porbeagle has long been under heavy fishing pressure. The meat is sold fresh, frozen, or dried and salted, and ranks among the most valuable of any shark: in 1997 and 1998, it had a wholesale price of 5–7 eur/kg, four times that of the blue shark ("Prionace glauca"). Most of the demand comes from Europe, though the United States and Japan also import this species. The fins are shipped to East Asia for use in shark fin soup. The remainder of the shark may also be used for production of leather, liver oil, and fishmeal. International trade in the porbeagle appears to be significant, but remains unquantified, as shark products tend not to be reported to the species level, and many consist of a mix of various species. This shark is caught most readily on longlines, but is also susceptible to gillnets, driftnets, trawls, and handlines. It is valuable enough to be generally retained when caught as bycatch; if storage space cannot be spared, it may be finned and the carcass discarded.  Intensive fishing for the porbeagle dates back the 1930s, when Norway and to a lesser extent Denmark began operating longline vessels in the Northeast Atlantic. The Norwegian annual catch rose from 279 tons in 1926 to 3,884 tons in 1933, and peaked at around 6,000 tons in 1947, with the resumption of fishing after World War II. Soon after, the stock collapsed; Norwegian annual catches declined steadily to 1,200–1,900 tons from 1953 to 1960, 160–300 tons in the early 1970s, and 10–40 tons in the late 1980s to early 1990s. Similarly, Danish annual catches fell from 1,500 tons in the early 1950s to under 100 tons in the 1990s. France and Spain began to target porbeagles in the Northeast Atlantic in

Conservation.

The rapid collapse of porbeagle stocks on both sides of the North Atlantic is often cited as archetypal of the "boom and bust" pattern of most shark fisheries. Factors including a small litter size, long maturation time, and the capture of multiple age classes all contribute to this shark's susceptibility to overfishing. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the porbeagle globally as vulnerable, endangered in the western North Atlantic (including the Baltic), and critically endangered in the eastern North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea.  The porbeagle is listed on Annex 1 (Highly Migratory Species) of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea and on Annex 1 of the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS; also known as the Bonn Convention) Migratory Shark Memorandum of Understanding. This species benefits from bans on shark finning instituted by several nations and supranational entities, including Canada, the United States, Brazil, Australia, the European Union, and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas. Although the Animals Committee of the UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) recommended additional conservation actions for the porbeagle, CITES rejected proposals to list the species in 2008 and again in 2010. In March 2013, the porbeagle was listed on Appendix II of CITES, allowing for increased regulation in the international trade of this species.  In March 2015, The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) responded to a court order to compile information as to whether the shark will be listed as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act.

Southern Hemisphere.

The only regulation of porbeagle catches in the Southern Hemisphere is New Zealand's total allowable catch of 249 tons per

Eastern North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea.

In the eastern North Atlantic, porbeagle fishing has been illegal in waters of the European Union since 2011. From 1985 and until the EU ban, the Faroe Islands and Norway (which are not members of the EU) were allowed annual quotas of 200 tons and 125 tons, respectively, from European Community waters. Although these quotas were lower than the originals set in 1982 (500 tons for Norway and 300 tons for the Faroe Islands), they were still consistently higher than the yearly total porbeagle catch in the region, thus had no practical effect. The species is included on the red list of Norway and it has been protected in their national waters since 2012. Any porbeagle caught in EU or Norwegian

Western North Atlantic.

The western North Atlantic porbeagle population has a more positive prospect than in the eastern North Atlantic. Fishing in Canadian waters was originally regulated by the 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada, which established an annual quota of 1,500 tons, restricted the time, place, and gear types allowed for commercial fishing, and set limits for bycatch and recreational fishing. In 2000–2001, Fisheries and Oceans Canada prepared a detailed population model and concluded that a quota of 200–250 tons would allow for population growth, resulting in

The porbeagle ("Lamna nasus") is a species of mackerel shark in the family Lamnidae, distributed widely in the cold and temperate marine waters of the North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere. In the North Pacific, its ecological equivalent is the closely related salmon shark ("L. ditropis"). The porbeagle typically reaches in length and a weight of ; North Atlantic sharks grow larger than Southern Hemisphere sharks and differ in coloration and aspects of life history. Gray above and white below, the porbeagle has a very stout midsection that tapers towards the long, pointed snout and the narrow base of the tail. It has large pectoral and first dorsal fins, tiny pelvic, second dorsal, and anal fins, and a crescent-shaped caudal fin. The most distinctive features of this species are its three-cusped teeth, the white blotch at the aft base of its first dorsal fin, and the two pairs of lateral keels on its tail.

鼠鲨(学名:"Lamna nasus"),又名大西洋鲭鲨,是鼠鲨科的远洋大型鲨鱼。鼠鲨被认为是处于易危至灭绝的状况,欧洲联盟建议将鼠鲨列入联合国的濒临绝种野生动植物国际贸易公约中。


History.

Emperor Go-Daigo 後醍醐天皇 (1288–1339) destroyed the Kamakura shogunate in 1333. Yet the emperor was unable to control the unrest produced. The emperor’s inefficient rule led to one of his greatest generals, Ashikaga Takauji 足利尊氏 (1305–1358), to betray him in 1335. This established the Northern Court, named after its location in Kyoto, which was north of Go-Daigo’s encampment. The conflict between Go-Daigo and the Ashikaga clan is known as the Upheaval of the Northern and Southern courts (Nanbokuchō no dōran 南北朝の動乱). In 1392, the Southern Court surrendered to the third shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu 足利義満 (1358–1408).

Notable Shōguns.

The Ashikaga clan had 15 Shōguns from 1333 to 1573. Some were more powerful or prominent than others. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (足利義満) was the third shogun of the Ashikaga clan. He made the Ashikaga Shogunate strong and stable. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was responsible for the defeat of the Southern Court in 1392. Known for his patronage of the arts, he constructed the Kinkaku-ji in 1397. Yoshimitsu also expanded foreign relations with Ming China. Yoshimitsu sent an embassy to Ming Dynasty China in 1401, headed by priest Soa and Hakata merchant Koetomi. They brought with them a conciliatory memorial to the emperor, and numerous gifts including horses, fans, gold, screens, paper, swords, armor, and inkstone cases. The mission was successful, and returned to Japan the following year. A Ming envoy returned alongside Soa and Koetomi, and presented Yoshimitsu with an official imperial Chinese calendar, and documents officially recognizing (or investing) him as "King of Japan."  After the death of Yoshimitsu, the Ashikaga Shogunate lost power and influence. In 1429, Ashikaga Yoshinori (足利義教) the sixth shogun adapted Yoshimitsu’s policies in order to strengthen the power of the Shogunate. He wanted to increase military power but faced opposition. His 12-year reign saw the restoration of diplomatic ties and trade between Japan and China that had been the fourth Shogun, Yoshimochi’s undertaking.  Ashikaga Yoshiaki (足利義昭)was the 15th and last Shogun. He came into power in 1568 with the help of the general Oda Nobunaga (織田信長). After rivalry emerged between the two, Nobunaga defeated Yoshiaki and banished him from Kyoto. This effectively ended the rule on the Ashikaga clan in 1573.

Clan heads.

1. Ashikaga Yoshiyasu 2. Ashikaga Yoshikane 3. Ashikaga Yoshiuji 4. Ashikaga Yasuuji  5. Ashikaga Yoriuji 6. Ashikaga Ietoki 7. Ashikaga Sadauji 8. Ashikaga Takauji

Shōguns.

1. Ashikaga Takauji 2. Ashikaga Yoshiakira 3. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu 4. Ashikaga Yoshimochi 5. Ashikaga Yoshikazu 6. Ashikaga Yoshinori 7. Ashikaga Yoshikatsu 8. Ashikaga Yoshimasa  9. Ashikaga Yoshihisa 10. Ashikaga Yoshitane 11. Ashikaga Yoshizumi 12. Ashikaga Yoshiharu 13. Ashikaga Yoshiteru 14. Ashikaga Yoshihide 15 Ashikaga Yoshiaki

The was a prominent Japanese samurai clan which established the Muromachi shogunate and ruled Japan from roughly 1333 to 1573. The Ashikaga were descended from a branch of the Minamoto clan, deriving originally from the town of Ashikaga in Shimotsuke province (modern-day Tochigi prefecture).

足利氏是日本活跃于平安时代到室町时代的一个氏族,家纹足利二之引。原姓是源氏。是清和源氏中的河内源氏世家一族。镰仓时代是幕府将军的宗室而到了室町时代则成了足利幕府的征夷大将军。在江户时代,其后裔足利国朝改姓喜连川,并成为藩主,幕末以后复姓足利。