Geography.

The Great Smoky Mountains stretch from the Pigeon River in the northeast to the Little Tennessee River to the southeast. The northwestern half of the range gives way to a series of elongate ridges known as the "Foothills," the outermost of which include Chilhowee Mountain and English Mountain. The range is roughly bounded on the south by the Tuckasegee River and to the southeast by Soco Creek and Jonathan Creek. The Great Smokies comprise parts of Blount County, Sevier County, and Cocke County in Tennessee and Swain County and Haywood County in North Carolina.  The sources of several rivers are located in the Smokies, including the Little Pigeon River, the Oconaluftee River, and Little River. Streams in the Smokies are part of the Tennessee River watershed and are thus entirely west of the Eastern Continental Divide. The largest stream wholly within the park is Abrams Creek, which rises in Cades Cove and empties into the Chilhowee Lake impoundment of the Little Tennessee River near Chilhowee Dam.  Other major streams include Hazel Creek and Eagle Creek in the southwest, Raven Fork near Oconaluftee, Cosby Creek near Cosby, and Roaring Fork near Gatlinburg. The Little Tennessee River passes through five impoundments along the range's southwestern boundary, namely Tellico Lake, Chilhowee Lake, Calderwood Lake, Cheoah Lake, and Fontana Lake.

Notable peaks.

The highest point in the Smokies is Clingmans Dome, which rises to an elevation of. The mountain is the highest in Tennessee and the third highest in the Appalachian range. Clingmans Dome also has the range's highest topographical prominence at. Mount Le Conte is the "tallest" (i.e., from immediate base to summit) mountain in the range, rising from its base in Gatlinburg to its summit.

Climate.

The Smokies rise prominently above the surrounding low terrain. For example, Mount Le Conte (6,593 feet or 2,010 m) rises more than a mile (1.6 km) above its base. Because of their prominence, the Smokies receive heavy annual amounts of precipitation. Annual precipitation amounts range from 50 to 80 inches (130–200 cm), and snowfall in the winter can be heavy, especially on the higher slopes. For comparison, the surrounding terrain has annual precipitation of around 40 to 50 inches (100–130 cm). Flash flooding often occurs after heavy rain. In 2004, the remnants of Hurricane Frances caused major flooding, landslides, and high winds, which was soon followed by Hurricane Ivan, making the situation worse. Other post-hurricanes, including Hurricane Hugo in 1989, have caused similar damage in the Smokies.  As for temperatures, the average temperature difference between the mountains (Newfound Gap around 5,000 feet MSL or 1,524 m) and the valleys (Park Headquarters around 1,600 feet MSL or 488 m) in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park is between 10 and with highs and between 3 and with lows. The difference between high temperatures is similar to the moist adiabatic lapse rate (3.3 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 ft), while the smaller difference between low temperatures is the result of frequent temperature inversions developing in the morning, especially during autumn.  Strong damaging winds (80 to 100 mph, or sometimes greater) are observed a few times each year around the Smoky Mountains during the cool season (October through April), as a result of a phenomenon known as mountain waves. These mountain wave winds are strongest in a narrow area along the foothills, and can create extensive areas of fallen trees and roof damage, especially around Cades Cove in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park and the Camp Creek community. Strong winds created by mountain waves were a contributing factor with the devastating Gatlinburg fire on November 28, 2016 during the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires.

Geology.

Most of the rocks in the Great Smoky Mountains consist of Late Precambrian rocks that are part of a formation known as the Ocoee Supergroup. The Ocoee Supergroup consists primarily of slightly metamorphosed sandstones, phyllites, schists, and slate. Early Precambrian rocks, which include the oldest rocks in the Smokies, comprise the dominant rock type in the Raven Fork Valley (in the Oconaluftee valley) and lower Tuckasegee River between Cherokee and Bryson City. They consist primarily of metamorphic gneiss, granite, and schist. Cambrian sedimentary rocks are found among the outer reaches of the Foothills to the northwest and in limestone coves such as Cades Cove.  The Precambrian gneiss and schists—the oldest rocks in the Smokies—formed over a billion years ago from the accumulation of marine sediments and igneous rock in a primordial ocean. In the Late Precambrian period, this ocean expanded, and the more recent Ocoee Supergroup rocks formed from accumulations of the eroding land mass onto the ocean's continental shelf.  By the end of the Paleozoic era, the ancient ocean had deposited a thick layer of marine sediments which left behind sedimentary rocks such as limestone. During the Ordovician period, the North American and African plates collided, destroying the ancient ocean and initiating the Alleghenian orogeny—the mountain-building epoch that created the Appalachian range. The Mesozoic era saw the rapid erosion of the softer sedimentary rocks from the new mountains, re-exposing the older Ocoee Supergroup formations.  Around 20,000 years ago, subarctic glaciers advanced southward across North America, and although they never reached the Smokies, the advancing glaciers led to colder mean annual temperatures and an increase in precipitation throughout the range. Trees were unable to survive at the higher elevations, and were replaced by tundra vegetation. Spruce-fir forests occupied the valleys and slopes below approximately. The persistent freezing and thawing during this period created the large blockfields that are often found at the base of large mountain slopes.  Between 16,500 and 12,500 years ago, the glaciers to the north retreated and mean annual temperatures rose. The tundra vegetation disappeared, and the spruce-fir forests retreated to the highest elevations. Hardwood trees moved into the region from the coastal plains, replacing the spruce-fir forests in the lower elevations. The temperatures continued warming until around 6,000 years ago, when they began to gradually grow cooler.

Flora.

Heavy logging in the late 19th century and early 20th century devastated much of the forests of the Smokies, but the National Park Service estimates of old growth forest remains, comprising the largest old growth stand in the Eastern United States. Most of the forest is a mature second-growth hardwood forest. The range's 1,600 species of flowering plants include over 100 species of native trees and 100 species of native shrubs. The Great Smokies are also home to over 450 species of non-vascular plants, and 2,000 species of fungi.  The forests of the Smokies are typically divided into three zones:  Appalachian balds—patches of land where trees are unexpectedly absent or sparse—are interspersed through the mid-to-upper elevations in the range. Balds include grassy balds, which are highland meadows covered primarily by thick grasses, and heath balds, which are dense thickets of rhododendron and mountain laurel typically occurring on narrow ridges. Mixed oak-pine forests are found on dry ridges, especially on the south-facing North Carolina side of the range. Stands dominated by the Eastern hemlock ("Tsuga canadensis") are occasionally found along streams and broad slopes above.

Cove hardwood forest.

Cove hardwood forests, which are native to Southern Appalachia, are among the most diverse forest types in North America. The cove hardwood forests of the Smokies are mostly second-growth, although some are still old-growth. The Albright Grove along the Maddron Bald Trail (between Gatlinburg and Cosby) is an accessible old-growth forest with some of the oldest and tallest trees in the entire range.  Over 130 species of trees are found among the canopies of the cove hardwood forests in the Smokies. The dominant species include yellow birch ("Betula alleghaniensis"), basswood ("Tilia americana"), yellow buckeye ("Aesculus flava"), tulip tree ("Liriodendron tulipifera"; commonly called "tulip poplar"), silverbells ("Halesia carolina"), sugar maple ("Acer saccharum"), cucumber magnolia ("Magnolia acuminata"), shagbark hickory ("Carya ovata"), Carolina hemlock ("Tsuga caroliniana") and eastern hemlock ("Tsuga canadensis"). The American chestnut ("Castanea dentata"), which was arguably the most beloved tree of the range's pre-park inhabitants, was killed off by the introduced Chestnut blight in the 1920s.  The understories of the cove hardwood forest contain dozens of species of shrubs and vines. Dominant species in the Smokies include the Eastern redbud ("Cercis canadensis"), flowering dogwood ("Cornus florida"), Catawba rhododendron ("Rhododendron catawbiense"), mountain laurel ("Kalmia latifolia"), and smooth hydrangea ("Hydrangea arborescens").

Northern hardwood forest.

The mean annual temperatures in the higher elevations in the Smokies are cool enough to support forest types more commonly found in the northern United States. The northern hardwood forests of the Smokies constitute the highest broad-leaved forest in the eastern United States. About of the northern hardwood forest are old-growth.  In the Smokies, the northern hardwood canopies are dominated by yellow birch ("Betula alleghaniensis") and American beech ("Fagus grandifolia"). White basswood ("Tilia heterophylla"), mountain maple ("Acer spicatum") and striped maple ("Acer pensylvanicum"), and yellow buckeye ("Aesculus flava") are also present. The northern hardwood understory is home to diverse species such as coneflower, skunk goldenrod, Rugels ragwort, bloodroot, hydrangea, and several species of grasses and ferns.  One unique community in the northern hardwoods of the Smokies is the beech gap, or beech orchard. Beech gaps consist of high mountain gaps that have been monopolized by beech trees. The beech trees are often twisted and contorted by the high winds that occur in these gaps. Why other tree types such as the red spruce fail to encroach into the beech gaps is unknown.

Spruce-fir forest.

The spruce-fir forest—also called the "boreal" or "Canadian" forest—is a relict of the ice ages, when mean annual temperatures in the Smokies were too cold to support a hardwood forest. While the rise in temperatures between 12,500 and 6,000 years ago allowed the hardwoods to return, the spruce-fir forest has managed to survive on the harsh mountain tops, typically above. About of the spruce-fir forest are old-growth.  The spruce-fir forest consists primarily of two conifer species—red spruce ("Picea rubens") and Fraser fir ("Abies fraseri"). The Fraser Firs, which are native to Southern Appalachia, once dominated elevations above in the Great Smokies. Most of these firs were killed, however, by an infestation of the balsam wooly adelgid, which arrived in the Smokies in the early 1960s. Thus, red spruce is now the dominant species in the range's spruce-fir forest. Large stands of dead Fraser Firs remain atop Clingmans Dome and on the northwestern slopes of Old Black. While much of the red spruce stands in the Smokies were logged during World War I, the tree is still common throughout the range above. Some of the red spruce trees in the Smokies are believed to be 300 years old, and the tallest rise to over.  The main difference between the spruce-fir forests of Southern Appalachia and the spruce-fir forests in northern latitudes is the dense broad-leaved understory of the former. The spruce-fir understories of the Smokies are home to catawba rhododendron, mountain ash, pin cherry, thornless blackberry, and hobblebush. The herbaceous and litter layers of the spruce-fir forests are poorly lit year-round, and are thus dominated by shade-tolerant plants such as ferns, namely mountain wood fern and northern lady fern, and over 280 species of mosses.

Wildflowers.

Many wildflowers grow in mountains and valleys of the Great Smokies, including bee balm, Solomon's seal, Dutchman's breeches, various trilliums, the Dragon's Advocate and even hardy orchids. There are two native species of rhododendron in the area. The Catawba rhododendron has purple flowers in May and June, while the rosebay rhododendron has longer leaves and blooms white or a light pink in June and July.  The orange- to sometimes red-flowered and deciduous flame azalea closely follows along with the Catawbas. The closely related mountain laurel blooms in between the two, and all of the blooms progress from lower to higher elevations. The reverse is true in autumn, when nearly bare mountaintops covered in rime ice (frozen fog) can be separated from green valleys by very bright and varied leaf colors. The rhododendrons are broadleafs, whose leaves droop in order to shed wet and heavy snows that come through the region during winter.

Fauna.

The Great Smoky Mountains are home to 66 species of mammals, over 240 species of birds, 43 species of amphibians, 60 species of fish, and 40 species of reptiles. The range has the densest black bear population east of the Mississippi River. The black bear has come to symbolize wildlife in the Smokies, and the animal frequently appears on the covers of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park's literature. Most of the range's adult eastern black bears weigh between and, although some grow to more than.  Other mammals in the Great Smokies include the white-tailed deer, the population of which drastically expanded with the creation of the national park. The bobcat is the range's only remaining wild cat species, although sightings of cougars, which once thrived in the area, are still occasionally reported. The coyote is not believed to be native to the range, but has moved into the area in recent years and is treated as a native species. Wolf packs do not roam this region due to extirpation. They modernly reside in Alaska, portions of the Great Lakes region, all northwestern American states and Canada. Two species of fox (red fox and the gray fox) are found within the Smokies, with red foxes being documented at all elevations.  European boar, introduced as game animals in the early 20th century, thrive in Southern Appalachia but are considered a nuisance due to their tendency to root up and destroy plants. The boars are seen as taking food resources away from bears as well, and the park service has sponsored a program that pays individuals to hunt and kill boars and leave their bodies in locations frequented by bears.  The Smokies are home to over two dozen species of rodents, including the endangered northern flying squirrel, and 10 species of bats, including the endangered Indiana bat. The National Park Service has successfully reintroduced river otters and elk into the Great Smokies. An attempt to reintroduce the red wolf in the early 1990s ultimately failed. These wolves were removed from the park and relocated to the Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge in North Carolina.  The Smokies are home to a diverse bird population due to the presence of multiple forest types. Species that thrive in southern hardwood forests, such as the red-eyed vireo, wood thrush, wild turkey, northern parula, ruby-throated hummingbird, and tufted titmouse, are found throughout the range's lower elevations and cove hardwood forests. Species more typical of cooler climates, such as the raven, winter wren, black-capped chickadee, yellow-bellied sapsucker, dark-eyed junco, and Blackburnian, chestnut-sided, and Canada warblers, are found in the range's spruce-fir and northern hardwood zones.  Ovenbirds, whip-poor-wills, and downy woodpeckers live in the drier pine-oak forests and heath balds. Bald eagles and golden eagles have been spotted at all elevations in the park. Peregrine falcon sightings are also not uncommon, and a peregrine falcon eyrie is known to have existed near Alum Cave Bluffs throughout the 1930s. Red-tailed hawks, the most common hawk species, have been sighted at all elevations in the range. Owl species residing in the Smokies include the barred owl, eastern screech-owl, and northern saw-whet owl.  Timber rattlesnakes—one of two venomous snake species in the Smokies—are found at all elevations in the range. The other venomous snake, the copperhead, is typically found at lower elevations. Other reptiles include the eastern box turtle, the eastern fence lizard, the black rat snake, and the northern water snake.  The Great Smokies are home to one of the world's most diverse salamander populations. Five of the world's nine families of salamanders are found in the range, consisting of up to thirty-one species. A type of Jordan's salamander known as the redcheeked salamander is found only in the Smokies. The imitator salamander is found only in the Smokies and the nearby Plott Balsams and Great Balsam Mountains.  Two other species—the southern gray-cheeked salamander and the Southern Appalachian salamander—occur only in the general region. Other species include the shovelnose salamander, blackbelly salamander, eastern red-spotted newt, and spotted dusky salamander. The legendary hellbender inhabits the range's swifter streams. Other amphibians include the American toad and the American bullfrog, wood frog, upland chorus frog, northern green frog, and spring peeper.  Fish inhabiting the streams of the Smokies include trout, lamprey, darter, shiner, bass, and sucker. The brook trout is the only trout species native to the range, although northwestern rainbow trout and European brown trout were introduced in the first half of the 20th century. The larger rainbow and brown trout outcompete the native brook trout for food and habitat at lower elevations. As such, most of the brook trout found in the park today are in streams above 3,000 feet in elevation. Trout in the Smokies are generally smaller than other members of their species in different locales. Protected fish species in the range include the smoky and yellowfin madtom, the spotfin chub, and the duskytail darter.  The lightning-bug firefly "Photinus carolinus", whose synchronized flashing light displays occur in mid-June, is native to the Smoky Mountains with a population epicenter near Elkmont, Tennessee.

Ecosystem threats.

Air pollution is contributing to increased Red Spruce tree mortality at higher elevations and oak decline at lower elevations, while invasive hemlock woolly adelgids attack Hemlocks and balsam woolly adelgids attack Fraser firs. "Pseudoscymnus tsugae", a type of beetle in the ladybug family, Coccinellidae, has been introduced in an attempt to control the pests.  Visibility now is dramatically reduced by smog from both the Southeastern United States and the Midwest, and smog forecasts are prepared daily by the Environmental Protection Agency for both nearby Knoxville, Tennessee and Asheville, North Carolina.  Environmental threats are the concern of many non-profit environmental stewardship groups, especially The Friends of the Smokies. Formed in 1993, the friends group assists the National Park Service in its mission to preserve and protect the Great Smoky Mountains National Park by raising funds and public awareness, and providing volunteers for needed projects.

History.

Prehistory.

Native Americans have likely been hunting in the Great Smoky Mountains for 14,000 years. Numerous Archaic period (c. 8000–1000 B.C.) artifacts have been found within the national park's boundaries, including projectile points uncovered along likely animal migration paths. Woodland period (c. 1000 B.C. - 1000 A.D.) sites found within the park contained 2000+-year-old ceramics and evidence of primitive agriculture.  The increasing reliance upon agriculture during the Mississippian period (c. 900–1600 A.D.) lured Native Americans away from the game-rich forests of the Smokies and into the fertile river valleys on the outer fringe of the range. Substantial Mississippian-period villages were uncovered at Citico and Toqua (named after the Cherokee villages that later thrived at these sites) along the Little Tennessee River in the 1960s. Fortified Mississippian-period villages have been excavated at the McMahan Indian Mounds in Sevierville and more recently in Townsend.  Most of these villages were part of a minor chiefdom centered on a large village known as Chiaha, which was located on an island now submerged by Douglas Lake. The 1540 expedition of Hernando de Soto and the 1567 expedition of Juan Pardo passed through the French Broad River valley north of the Smokies, both spending a considerable amount of time at Chiaha. The Pardo expedition followed a trail across the flanks of Chilhowee Mountain to the Mississippian-period villages at Chilhowee and Citico (Pardo's notary called them by their Muskogean names, "Chalahume" and "Satapo").

The Cherokee.

By the time the first English explorers arrived in Southern Appalachia in the late 17th century, the Cherokee controlled much of the region, and the Great Smoky Mountains lay at the center of their territory. One Cherokee legend tells of a magical lake hidden deep within the range, but inaccessible to humans. Another tells of a captured Shawnee medicine man named Aganunitsi who, in exchange for his freedom, travels to the remote sections of the range in search of the Uktena. The Cherokee called Gregory Bald "Tsitsuyi", or "rabbit place," and believed the mountain to be the domain of the Great Rabbit. Other Cherokee place names in the Smokies included "Duniskwalgunyi", or "forked antlers", which referred to the Chimney Tops, and "kuwahi", or "mulberry place", which referred to Clingmans Dome.  Most Cherokee settlements were located in the river valleys on the outer fringe of the Great Smokies range. The Smokies, along with the Unicois, provided the main bulwark dividing the Overhill Cherokee villages in modern Tennessee from the Cherokee Middle towns in modern North Carolina. The Overhill town of Chilhowee was situated at the confluence of Abrams Creek and the Little Tennessee, and the Overhill town of Tallassee was located just a few miles upstream near modern Calderwood (both village sites are now under Chilhowee Lake). A string of Overhill villages, including Chota and Tanasi, dotted the Little Tennessee valley north of Chilhowee.  The Cherokee Middle towns included the village of Kittowa (which the Cherokee believed to be their oldest village) along the Tuckasegee River near Bryson City. The village of Oconaluftee, which was situated along the Oconaluftee River near the modern Oconaluftee Visitor Center, was the only known permanent Cherokee village located within the national park's boundaries. Sporadic or seasonal settlements were located in Cades Cove and the Hazel Creek valley.

European settlement.

European explorers and settlers began arriving in Western North Carolina and East Tennessee in the mid-18th century. The influx of settlers at the end of the French and Indian War brought conflict with the Cherokee, who still held legal title to much of the land. When the Cherokee aligned themselves with the British at the outbreak of the American Revolution in 1776, American forces launched an invasion of Cherokee territory.  The Middle towns, including Kittuwa, were burned by General Griffith Rutherford, and several of the Overhill towns were burned by John Sevier. By 1805, the Cherokee had ceded control of the Great Smokies to the U.S. government. Although much of the tribe was forced west along the Trail of Tears in 1838, a few—largely through the efforts of William Holland Thomas—managed to retain their land on the Qualla Boundary and today comprise the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians.  In the 1780s, several frontier outposts had been established along the outskirts of the Smokies, namely Whitson's Fort in what is now Cosby and Wear's Fort in what is now Pigeon Forge. Permanent settlers began arriving in these areas in the 1790s. In 1801, the Whaley brothers, William and John, moved from North Carolina to become the first settlers in what is now the Greenbrier section of the park.  In 1802, Edgefield, South Carolina resident William Ogle (1751–1803) arrived in White Oak Flats where he cut and prepared logs for cabin construction. Although Ogle died shortly after returning to Edgefield, his wife, Martha Jane Huskey, eventually returned with her family and several other families to White Oak Flats, becoming the first permanent settlers in what would eventually become Gatlinburg. Their children and grandchildren spread out southward into the Sugarlands and Roaring Fork areas.  Cades Cove was settled largely by families who had purchased lots from land speculator William "Fighting Billy" Tipton. The first of these settlers, John and Lucretia Oliver, arrived in 1818. Two Cades Cove settlers, Moses and Patience Proctor, crossed over to the North Carolina side of the Smokies in 1836 to become the first Euro-American settlers in the Hazel Creek area. The Cataloochee area was first settled by the Caldwell family, who migrated to the valley in 1834. Like most of Southern Appalachia, the early 19th-century economy of the Smokies relied on subsistence agriculture. The average farm consisted of roughly, part of which was cultivated and part of which was woodland. Early settlers lived in x log cabins, although these were replaced by more elaborate log houses and eventually, as lumber became available, by modern frame houses. Most farms included at least one barn, a springhouse (used for refrigeration), a smokehouse (used for curing meat), a chicken coop (protected chickens from predators), and a corn crib (kept corn dry and protected it from rodents). Some of the more industrious farmers operated gristmills, general stores, and sorghum presses. Religion was a central theme in the lives of the early residents of the Smokies, and community life was typically centered on churches. Christian Protestantism—especially Primitive Baptists, Missionary Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians; dominated the religious culture of the region.

American Civil War.

While both Tennessee and North Carolina joined the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, Union sentiment in the Great Smoky Mountains was much stronger relative to other regions in these two states. Generally, the communities on the Tennessee side of the Smokies supported the Union, while communities on the North Carolina side supported the Confederates. On the Tennessee side, 74% of Cocke Countians, 80% of Blount Countians, and 96% of Sevier Countians voted against secession. In the North Carolina Smokies—Cherokee, Haywood, Jackson, and Macon counties—about 46% of the population favored secession.  While no major engagements took place in the Smokies, minor skirmishes were fairly common. Cherokee chief William Holland Thomas formed a Confederate legion made up mostly of Cherokee soldiers. Thomas' Legion crossed the Smokies in 1862 and occupied Gatlinburg for several months to protect salt peter mines atop Mount Le Conte. Residents of predominantly Union Cades Cove and predominantly Confederate Hazel Creek routinely crossed the mountains to steal one another's livestock. Residents of Cosby and Cataloochee did likewise. One notable Civil War incident in the Smokies was the murder of long-time Cades Cove resident Russell Gregory (for whom Gregory Bald is named), which was carried out by bushwhackers in 1864 shortly after Gregory had led an ambush that routed a band of Confederates seeking to wreak havoc in the cove. Another incident was George Kirk's raid on Cataloochee, in which Kirk killed or wounded 15 Union soldiers recovering at a makeshift hospital.

Logging.

While selective logging occurred in the Great Smoky Mountains throughout the 19th century, the general inaccessibility of the range's forests prevented major logging operations, and lumber firms relied on the lowland forests in the northeastern United States and the Mississippi Delta in the southeast. As timber resources in these regions became exhausted, and as the demand for lumber skyrocketed after the Civil War, entrepreneurs began looking for ways to reach the virgin forests of Southern Appalachia. The first logging operations in the Smokies, which began in the 1880s, used splash dams or booms to float logs down rivers to lumber mills in nearby cities. Notable splash dam and boom operations included the English Lumber Company on Little River, the Taylor and Crate operations along Hazel Creek, and the ambitious operations of Alexander Arthur on the Pigeon River. All three of these operations failed within their first few years, however, after their dams and boom systems were destroyed by floods.  Innovations in logging railroads and band saw technology in the late 19th century made large-scale logging possible in the mountainous areas of Southern Appalachia. The largest logging operation in the Smokies was the Little River Lumber Company, which logged the Little River watershed between 1901 and 1939. The company also established company towns at Townsend (named for the company's chief owner and manager, Wilson B. Townsend), Elkmont, and Tremont.  The second-largest operation was the Ritter Lumber Company, which logged the Hazel Creek watershed between 1907 and 1928. Ruins of Ritter's lumbering operations are still visible along the Hazel Creek Trail. Other lumbering operations included Three M Lumber and Champion Fibre, both of which logged the Oconaluftee watershed. By the time all operations ceased in the 1930s, logging firms had removed two-thirds of the virgin forests of the Smokies.

The National Park.

Wilson B. Townsend, the head of Little River Lumber, began advertising Elkmont as a tourist destination in 1909. Within a few years, the Wonderland Hotel and the Appalachian Club had been established to cater to elite Knoxvillians seeking summer mountain getaways. In the early 1920s, several Appalachian Club members, among them Knoxville businessman Colonel David Chapman, began seriously considering a movement to establish a national park in the Great Smokies. As head of the Great Smoky Mountains Park Commission, Chapman was largely responsible for raising funds for land purchases and coordinating park efforts between local, state, and federal entities.  The creation of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park proved much more complex than the creation of its predecessors, such as Yellowstone and Yosemite, which were already federally owned. Along with convincing logging firms to sell lucrative lumber rights, the Park Commission had to negotiate the purchase of thousands of small farms and remove entire communities. The commission also had to deal with the Tennessee and North Carolina legislatures, which at times were opposed to spending taxpayer money on park efforts. In spite of these difficulties, the Park Commission had completed most major land purchases by 1932. The national park officially opened in 1934, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt presiding over the opening ceremony at Newfound Gap.

Culture and tourism.

The culture of the area is that of Southern Appalachia, and previously the Cherokee people. Tourism is key to the area's economy, particularly in cities like Pigeon Forge and Gatlinburg in Tennessee, and Cherokee, North Carolina. In 2006, the Great Smoky Mountains Heritage Center opened in Townsend, Tennessee, with the mission of preserving various aspects of the region's culture.

The Great Smoky Mountains are a mountain range rising along the Tennessee–North Carolina border in the southeastern United States. They are a subrange of the Appalachian Mountains, and form part of the Blue Ridge Physiographic Province. The range is sometimes called the Smoky Mountains and the name is commonly shortened to the Smokies. The Great Smokies are best known as the home of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, which protects most of the range. The park was established in 1934, and, with over 11 million visits per year, it is the most visited national park in the United States.

大雾山山脉(英语:Great Smoky Mountains;)坐落于美国东南部田纳西州与北卡罗来纳州的交界处,为阿帕拉契山脉的分支山脉。以其为基础的大雾山国家公园于1934建立,每年约有900万人次访问此公园。


Early life.

Geria was born in Canberra to Ugandan parents.

Club career.

Youth.

Geria's first youth club was Weston Creek SC in Canberra. He also played in Woden Valley's youth sides. Geria was a member of the Australian Institute of Sport football program before joining Brisbane Roar's youth team in 2011. He eventually became captain of the side in the National Youth League.

Melbourne Victory.

On 29 November 2012, Geria was signed for Melbourne Victory by ex-Roar coach Ange Postecoglou. Despite often missing A-League games due to national youth team commitments, Geria became a regular first team player and was awarded the number 2 shirt, although it took him almost three years to score his first senior goal for the club, against Hume City in the 2015 FFA Cup Semi Final on 28 October 2015.

JEF United Chiba.

In March 2018, Geria left Melbourne Victory and transferred to J2 League club JEF United Chiba for a $800,000 transfer fee.

International career.

Geria played for Australia numerous times at youth level, including participating in the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup, and the 2016 AFC U-23 Championship.  Geria was first called up to the Socceroos by Ange Postecoglou (with whom he had played for at club level) in March 2016 for two 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification matches that month against Tajikistan and Jordan, but he didn't play any match.  He was called up for the Socceroos for two home friendlies against Greece in June 2016, and started in the first match.

Honours.

Club.

Melbourne Victory

Jason Kato Geria (born 10 May 1993) is an Australian professional football (soccer) player who plays as a defender for JEF United Chiba in the J2 League and for the Australia national team.

贾森·杰里亚(Jason Kato Geria,),澳洲足球运动员,澳洲国家足球队成员。


Overview.

The S660 is a very lightweight mid-engined roadster. It shares a platform with the Honda N-One and uses the same 656 cc S07A engine with mechanical improvements. Its dimensions, due to kei car size restrictions, are nearly identical to the 1990s Honda Beat. It is sold with either a 6-speed manual transmission or a CVT with paddle shifters, both options being offered on the two trims available (Alpha and Beta). The S660 weighs approximately 830 kg with the manual transmission and 850 kg with the CVT, and is claimed to have a front/rear weight balance of 45/55.  The naming convention of using the letter "S" followed by the engine displacement is a long-held Honda tradition going back to Honda's second production car, the Honda S500 (from which the S660 draws inspiration).

Development and launch.

A prototype was shown at the November 2013 Tokyo Motor Show. The prototype and proposed production announcement were widely covered in auto enthusiast news sites and blogs. Initial reactions to the concept were favorable.  After the S660 entered the market, its first driving review was in June 2015 of a Japanese-market prototype driven by Top Gear in Tokyo. The author concluded that the car was "supremely maneuverable" but lacked power, something he hoped an export model with a larger motor would amend, and felt that such an export model might be a potential Mazda MX-5 competitor.

First photographs.

The prototype S660 was photographed by car enthusiasts at a wintertime car event in early 2015 and published in the Japanese car enthusiast magazine "Mag-X", and subsequently republished in the US car blog "The Truth About Cars". The pictures included several exterior photos and one of the opened engine compartment.

Production.

The development team of the S660 was led by Ryo Mukumoto, who beat out 400 other participants in Honda's in-house competition at the age of 22. Honda made him the youngest lead engineer in the company's history in spite of his lack of engineering experience, and he was given 5 years to develop the S660.  Honda Motor Co. president Takanobu Ito stated that the S660 was planned for production in 2015. American Honda Motor Co. president Tetsuo Iwamura was quoted as saying "I would personally fight for it," to come to the United States if the US market asked for it.

The Honda S660 is a two-seat kei sports car manufactured by the Japanese manufacturer Honda. It is the successor to the Honda Beat (segment-wise), and the Honda S2000 (nomenclature-wise, as it also belongs to Honda's family of "S" models).

S660是本田技研工业开发生产销售的轻型车规格两人座敞篷车。由关系公司八千代工业的四日市制作所生产。S系列的第五辆车。


History and methodology.

Your Better Life Index (BLI), launched in May 2011, is an interactive tool that allows people to compare countries' performances according to their own preferences in terms of what makes for a better life. It was designed by Berlin-based agency Raureif in collaboration with Moritz Stefaner. First published on 24 May 2011, it includes 11 "dimensions" of well-being:  Canberra has been ranked as the world's most liveable city according to the OECD Better Life Index for the second consecutive year, based on results published on 6 October 2014.  How's Life? offers a comprehensive picture of what makes up people's lives in 40 countries worldwide. The report assesses the above 11 specific aspects of life as part of the OECD's ongoing effort to devise new measures for assessing well-being that go beyond GDP.  New indicators and dimensions are planned be added to the Better Life Index in the future. For example, the Better Life Index was criticised for not showing inequalities in a society. Future editions of the index are planned to take inequalities into account, by focusing on well-being achievements of specific groups of the population (women and men and low and high socio-economic status).

Rankings.

2017 ranking.

OECD Better Life Index for 2017.

2016 ranking.

Legend:

Criticism.

From an econometric point of view, the Index seems similar to other efforts aimed at substituting or complementing the gross domestic product (GDP) measure by an econometric model for measuring happiness and well-being of the population. One major criticism is that the Better Life Index uses a limited subset of indicators used by other econometric models such as Gross National Well-being Index 2005, Sustainable Society Index of 2008, and Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index of 2012, and Social Progress Index of 2013. Observers argue that "the 11 dimensions still cannot fully capture what is truly important to a populace, such as social networks that sustain relationships, and freedom of speech.". Various critics have pointed out that the OECD's BLI does not include such dimensions as poverty, economic inequality, access to health insurance, pollution.  In 2012 OECD relaunched "with new indicators on inequality and gender plus rankings for Brazil and Russia. A couple have been removed too: Governance has been renamed civic engagement, employment rate of women with children has been replaced by the full integration of gender information in the employment data and students' cognitive skills (e.g. student skills in reading, math and sciences) has replaced students' reading skills to have a broader view."  Some argue that some of the criteria are vague and question the purpose of such measure, for example, they question, "what really constitutes “environmental quality”? Can it result in population control policy to minimize damage to the environment? While others argue that the Better Life Index unlike the Gross National Happiness Index does not pay attention to religion. Critics also state that the Better Life Index ignores good family life, or moral formation.  Others have criticized its methodology such as the use of relative scores instead of absolute ones.

The OECD Better Life Index, in May 2011 by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development following a decade of work on this issue, is a first attempt to bring together internationally comparable measures of well-being in line with the recommendations of the Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress also known as the Stiglitz-Sen-Fitoussi Commission. The recommendations made by this Commission sought to address concerns that standard macroeconomic statistics like GDP failed to give a true account of people’s current and future well-being. The OECD Better Life Initiative includes two main elements: "Your Better Life Index" and "How's Life?"

美好生活指数(英语:OECD Better Life Index),是测度一个国家或地区居民幸福程度的一套指标体系。最早使“幸福指数”这一概念,并量化成为指标体系的是南亚国家不丹。


Bezek.

Some scholars propose that Bezek was near Gezer. Others suggest that the place is to be identified with Khirbet Ibzik or the nearby Khirbet Salhab, while others think that "Bezek" is a corruption of "Zedek," in reference to the story of Adonizedek. Bezek appears again in as the site where Saul assembled the Israelite armies to fight against Nahash the Ammonite.

Mutilation.

Adoni-Bezek, according to Judges, had removed the large toes and thumbs of kings he subjugated to render them harmless as warriors, presumably so they could no longer wield weapons or run. After Joshua had died, the tribes of Judah and Simeon continued the Israelite conquest of Canaan by leading an army against this Canaanite king. Employing the biblical law of "eye for an eye" they apparently did the same to Adoni-Bezek before sending him to Jerusalem as a slave. Adoni-Bezek is recorded as saying "Seventy kings with their thumbs and big toes cut off used to pick up scraps under my table. As I have done, so God has repaid me." According to Elicott's Commentary for English readers, "The cutting off of his thumbs would prevent him from ever again drawing a bow or wielding a sword. Romans who desired to escape conscription cut off their thumbs".

Later life.

According to the Book of Judges, he confessed that God had requited him for his cruelty to the seventy kings whom he had subdued. Otherwise, nothing is known of his life after his mutilation.

Comparison with Adonizedek.

According to Coggins he is probably the same person as Adonizedek mentioned in Joshua 10 who flourished c. 1200 BC. While some scholars think that the story of Adoni-bezek is a variation on the story of Adonizedek, James Martin argues that the stories are "so dissimilar" that the Adoni-Bezek narrative is most likely not "simply a variant" of the Adonizedek narrative. According to Joshua 10, Adonizedek was captured after taking refuge with four other rulers in a cave, and put to death in the course of Joshua's campaign in Canaan. Adonibezek, on the other hand, was captured, in a campaign following Joshua's death, in his own city (Judges 1).  His name is missing in the list of thirty-one city kings in Joshua 12:9-24, although he had subjugated seventy other kings in the Judges account. It has been argued that the latter figure may not be literally true: "The Temple Dictionary of the Bible" (1910) stated: '"This [70] is a round number, meaning'many'".

Adoni-Bezek, ( "’Ăḏōnî-Ḇezeq", "lord of Bezek"), also written Adonibezek or Adoni Bezek, was a Canaanite king referred to in the Hebrew Bible in. Previous to the occupation of Canaan by the Israelites, he had subdued seventy of the kings of cities around him. The tribes of Judah and Simeon attacked the Canaanites and the Perizzites at Bezek and defeated him.

亚多尼比色 ( "’Ăḏōnî-Ḇezeq", Adoni-Bezek,意为"比色之主")是希伯来圣经提到的一位迦南君主。在以色列人占领迦南之前,他征服了他周围70个城市的王。犹大支派和西缅支派在比色与他交战,击杀了迦南人和比利洗人。


Plot.

An organized crime war breaks out between two rival gangs in Chicago during the Roaring Twenties. The leader of the Southside Mob is the notorious Al Capone, who resents his nemesis George "Bugs" Moran's activity in the city. Moran, too, wants control of the town's bootlegging and gambling operations. His lieutenants Peter and Frank Gusenberg use threats and intimidation to make tavern owners do business with them in exchange for "protection." Peter Gusenberg also argues and fights with his moll, particularly over her extravagant spending of his money.  Moran gives the order to have a crony of Capone's eliminated as the Chicago body count escalates. Inclusive are flashbacks to a lunchtime attack on Capone at the Hawthorne restaurant outside of Chicago by Hymie Weiss and Moran in September 1926 and the murders of Dean O'Banion in November 1924 and Weiss in October 1926 by Capone's gang.  In a bid to get rid of Moran once and for all, Capone goes to his winter home in Miami, Florida to establish an alibi while his henchmen, some dressed as police officers, ambush and execute seven members of Moran's gang, including Peter Gusenberg, in a northside garage on February 14, 1929. Also at the garage - and caught in the attack - were Johnny May (Bruce Dern), a mechanic, and Reinhardt Schwimmer, an optician who enjoyed being around gangsters. Of the victims, only Frank Gusenberg, Peter's brother survives and is taken to a hospital. Despite knowing that he will soon die, Frank refuses to tell the police anything. Moran, the apparent focus of the attack, was not in the garage, left for a diner, and escaped certain death.  Each character is given a verbal voiceover biography as they are introduced, and in some video releases, the biographies of Rheinhard Schwimmer and Adam Heyer, two of the massacre victims, are removed from the soundtrack, possibly due to protest from surviving family members.  In the aftermath, Al Capone is shown dispatching two of those responsible for carrying out the attack as he learns of their plans to kill him. Moran dies in prison, dropping a verbal clue to the crime: "Only Capone kills like that." No one is ever charged for the murders of St. Valentine's Day of 1929 as they either disappear going into hiding or are violently killed.

Background.

Development.

Roger Corman said he wanted to do something about "gangsterism" which "played a significant role in the development of American culture" but "I wanted to do it honestly, and not in the usual romanticized man-against-the-system."  More specifically, Corman was drawn to the idea of making a film about the St Valentine's Day massacre, which had never been the subject of a whole movie (though it had been frequently referenced in other films). Corman said the massacre was the day that "changed the whole public face of gangsterism - public outcry broke Capone's stranglehold on society."  The massacre had been the focus of a "Playhouse 90" episode; "Seven Against the Wall", broadcast in December 1958, was written by Harold Browne. Corman hired Browne to write the script for the film. Browne had researched the period and the event extensively. He felt the gangsters were "complex human beings, shrewd, cunning men whose qualities of leadership, had it been directed into honest channels, might have contributed to this country's history, rather than leaving a scar."  Corman had recently endured an unhappy experience working for Columbia, but still wanted to try working at a major studio. In February 1966 he signed to make the film from Brown's script with Richard Zanuck at 20th Century Fox. (Corman later said Fox invited him in to pitch ideas and he told them about "Massacre" and a biopic about the Red Baron; Fox had just made "The Blue Max" so went with the gangster film.  Corman made the film following the huge success of "The Wild Angels". While "Angels" had a budget of $350,000, "Massacre" was budgeted at $2.5 million. It was the most expensive movie he had ever made. (Corman later claimed the film cost $1 million and the rest was studio overhead.)  Corman said, "There comes a time when the public conscience needs jolting and in "St Valentine's Day Massacre" this is our intention. It is also certain that the movie will make money - crime is always box office."  Corman wanted classical actors to play gangsters and offered the part of Capone to Orson Welles and Bugs Moran to Jason Robards. However, Fox did not want Welles, advising Corman that he would try to take over directing; they suggested that Robards play Capone. Corman felt Robards was not physically large enough for the role of Capone and was better suited to play Moran, but did not want to cause trouble after his experience with Columbia and went along with the suggestion.  Corman wanted to cast Jack Nicholson in a key supporting role but Fox insisted the director use an actor they had under contract. However Corman did manage to cast Nicholson and Bruce Dern in small roles that were used for the entire length of the shoot, ensuring them a decent payday.

Shooting.

Corman originally wanted to shoot the film on location in Chicago but eventually did it on the Fox backlot.  He filmed the Massacre scene in one of the Desilu lots which got converted to look like the garage where the crime was committed. (The real garage was torn down by the time the movie started production). Another matter was the recreation of the Massacre itself: before filming, Corman found photos of the mass murders. Then he had the actors for the scene study the stills, followed by rehearsals and the shoot. After one take, the massacre came in the way it looked in the old photos and the collapse of each actor followed the positions the murder victims fell in the real massacre. The film was one of the few that Roger Corman directed from a major Hollywood studio with a generous budget and an open-ended schedule. While most directors would love such an assignment, Corman was disgusted with the incredible waste of time and money involved with "typical" movie production techniques. He was given a $2.5 million budget and made it for $400,000 less. Corman, an independent director, was most comfortable in his own style: shoestring budgets, and shooting schedules measured in days, rather than weeks. Nonetheless, it generally is considered one of his best films as a director.  Towards the end of the film shoot, Corman felt that the movie was too "male heavy" and added a character who was played by Dee Gardner, who resembled Jean Harlow.  The shoot took just over seven weeks, the longest ever schedule for one of Corman's film. "By the end of the movie I was very weary," he said.  Corman later wrote that "physically, it is one of the best films I ever directed because I was able to walk around the lot and pick those fantastic sets."

Reception.

According to Fox records, the film needed to earn $4,550,000 in rentals to break even and made $4,165,000, meaning it made a loss.

Home media.

"The St. Valentine's Day Massacre" was released to DVD by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on May 23, 2006 as a Region 1 widescreen DVD. It was issued as a Limited Edition Region Free Blu-Ray by "Twilight Time".

The St. Valentine's Day Massacre is a 1967 American gangster film based on the 1929 mass murder of seven members of the Northside Gang (led by George "Bugs" Moran) on orders from Al Capone. It was directed by Roger Corman and written by Howard Browne. Corman called it "the most accurate, authentic gangster film ever".

是一部1967年的黑帮电影,根据1929年芝加哥北边帮的七名帮派份子遭到集体枪杀的真实事件改编而成,该事件受艾尔·卡彭指使。本片由罗杰·科曼执导,霍华德·布朗恩编剧。


Plot.

In 1966, during the Vietnam War, U.S. State Department military analyst Daniel Ellsberg accompanies American troops in combat, documenting military progress for Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara. On the flight home, McNamara tells Ellsberg and William B. Macomber that the war is hopeless. Upon landing, however, he tells the congregated media that he has every confidence in the war effort. Ellsberg, overhearing this abrupt turn-about, becomes disillusioned. Years later, as a civilian military contractor/consultant working for the RAND Corporation (a military/defense "think tank"), Ellsberg photocopies hundreds of pages of classified reports documenting the country's decades-long involvement in Vietnam, dating back to the Harry S. Truman presidential administration. Ellsberg then leaks these documents first to The New York Times, through reporter Neil Sheehan.  In that same year of 1971, newspaper heiress Katharine Graham tries to balance a busy social life with her responsibilities as owner and publisher for only eight years of The Washington Post, following the suicide of her husband and the death of her father. She nervously prepares for its stock-market launch, a move to help financially stabilize the paper. Graham lacks journalistic experience and is frequently overruled by her domineering financial advisers and editors, including editor-in-chief (executive editor) Ben Bradlee and board member Arthur Parsons.  McNamara, a long-time friend, warns Graham that an unflattering story featuring him will be published in The New York Times, another example of the Times' ability to get preemptive "scoops" while The Post languishes behind. The story is an exposé of the American government's long-running deception regarding America's position in Vietnam and Southeast Asia. However, a federal district court injunction halts the Times from publishing further articles on the subject.  Post assistant editor Ben Bagdikian tracks down Daniel Ellsberg, a former colleague, as the source for the leak. Ellsberg provides him copies of the same material given previously to the Times. Hand-picked Post reporters pore over mounds of pages, searching for additional headline stories. The Post's attorneys advise against publishing the material, lest the Nixon administration file criminal charges. Graham confers with McNamara, Bradlee, and trusted Post chairman Fritz Beebe, as she agonizes about publishing. Bradlee (who is a close friend of John F. Kennedy) tells Graham that their politician friends (including JFK, as shown in the top-secret documents) abused their friendships by lying to them; her friendship with McNamara must not be a factor in a decision whether to publish. The situation intensifies when the Post's lawyers discover that Bagdikian's source is the same as the Times's, possibly putting Graham in contempt of court and potentially destroying the newspaper and her family's ownership and legacy. Alternately, if the legal challenges are overcome in court, the Post could emerge as a significant journalistic institution and increase its reputation. Graham goes ahead and says "let's do it".  The White House retaliates. The Post and Times jointly appear before the Supreme Court to plead their First Amendment constitutional rights. Meanwhile, other major newspapers start publishing on the secret war study in solidarity with the once isolated Post and Times. On June 30, 1971, the high Court's justices, in the case of New York Times Co. v. United States, rule 6–3 in the two newspapers' favor, vindicating Graham's decision to print. Shortly after, President Nixon demands that the Post be barred from the White House. The film ends with a sequence showing the discovery of the Watergate burglary, which led ultimately to the resignation of Nixon.

Production.

In October 2016, Amy Pascal won a bid for the rights to the screenplay "The Post", written by Liz Hannah. In February 2017, Steven Spielberg had halted pre-production on "The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara" after a casting setback, and consequently opened his schedule to other potential films to direct. The following month, it was announced that Spielberg was in negotiations to direct and produce the film, with Meryl Streep and Tom Hanks in talks for the roles of Katharine Graham and Ben Bradlee, respectively. "The Post" is the first time that Spielberg, Streep, and Hanks had all worked together on a film.  Spielberg read the screenplay and decided to direct the film as soon as possible, citing that "when I read the first draft of the script, this wasn't something that could wait three years or two years — this was a story I felt we needed to tell today." Spielberg worked on "The Post" while post-production work continued on the visual-effects-heavy "Ready Player One", a situation familiar to him from concurrently producing, in the early 1990s, "Jurassic Park" and "Schindler's List". Josh Singer was hired to re-write the screenplay ten weeks before filming.  As filming commenced, a number of "New York Times" figures who were associated with the "Pentagon Papers" case—among them James Greenfield, James Goodale, Allan M. Siegal, and Max Frankel—objected to the film's production due to the script's lack of emphasis on the "Times" role in breaking the story. Goodale, who was at the time the "Times"s in-house counsel, later called the film "a good movie but bad history."

Filming.

The film began principal photography in New York on May 30, 2017. On June 6, 2017, it was announced that the project, retitled "The Papers", would also star Alison Brie, Carrie Coon, David Cross, Bruce Greenwood, Tracy Letts, Bob Odenkirk, Sarah Paulson, Jesse Plemons, Matthew Rhys, Michael Stuhlbarg, Bradley Whitford, and Zach Woods. On August 25, 2017, the film's title reverted to "The Post". Spielberg finished the final cut of the film on November 6, 2017, with the final sound mix also completed along with the musical score a week later, on November 13.

Costume design.

Writing for "The New York Times", Manohla Dargis indicated some high points in the costume design used in the film stating, "The costume designer Ann Roth subtly brightens Katharine, taking her from leaden gray to free-flowing gold."

Music.

The score for the film was written by John Williams; it is his 28th collaboration with Spielberg. The music is a combination of traditional orchestral instrumentation and what Williams has called "very light, computerised electronic effects." Williams was originally attached to write the music for Spielberg's "Ready Player One", but, because both films had similar post-production schedules, Williams chose to work on "The Post", while Alan Silvestri composed for "Ready Player One". Spielberg has said that "The Post" was a rare instance in which he went to the recording sessions "having not heard a note" in advance.  Recording began on October 30, 2017 in Los Angeles. The soundtrack was released digitally by Sony Classical Records on December 22, 2017 and in physical form on January 12, 2018.

Release.

"The Post" premiered at the Newseum in Washington, D.C. on December 14, 2017. It began a limited theatrical release in the United States on December 22, 2017, and a wide release on January 12, 2018. The film is distributed internationally through Amblin Partners' distribution agreements with Universal Pictures, Reliance Entertainment, and Entertainment One. The film was released by Reliance in India. Tom Hanks expressed disinterest in appearing at a potential White House screening for President Donald Trump.

Marketing.

The first official image from "The Post" was released on October 31, 2017. The trailer for "The Post" premiered exclusively on "The Late Show with Stephen Colbert", on November 7, 2017, and the film's poster, designed by BLT Communications, was released the next day. The first TV spot, titled "Uncover the Truth", was released on November 21, 2017.

Home media.

"The Post" was released on Digital HD on April 3 and on Blu-ray/DVD April 17, 2018 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment.

Reception.

Box office.

"The Post" grossed $81.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $97.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $179.8 million, against a production budget of $50 million.  During "The Post"s limited opening weekend, December 22 to 24, it grossed $526,011 (and a total of $762,057 over the four-day Christmas weekend) from nine theaters. The following weekend, the film grossed $561,080 for a per-theater average of $62,342, one of the highest of 2017. The film had its wide release alongside the openings of "The Commuter", "Paddington 2" and "Proud Mary", and was projected to gross around $20 million from 2,819 theaters over the weekend. It made $5.9 million on its first day and $18.6 million over the weekend (and a four-day MLK weekend total of $23.4 million), finishing second at the box office behind holdover "". 66% of its opening weekend audience was over the age of 35. It dropped 37% the following weekend to $12.2 million, finishing 4th behind "Jumanji" and newcomers "12 Strong" and "Den of Thieves". It dropped to 5th in its third week of wide release, grossing $8.9 million.

Critical response.

On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88% based on 387 reviews, with an average rating of 7.88/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""The Post" period setting belies its bitingly timely themes, brought compellingly to life by director Steven Spielberg and an outstanding ensemble cast." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 83 out of 100, based on 51 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported 63% of audience members gave the film a "definite recommend".  Alonso Duralde of "TheWrap" praised the acting and Spielberg's direction, though he noted the script was too on-the-nose at times, saying, ""The Post" passes the trickiest tests of a historical drama: it makes us understand that decisions validated by the lens of history were difficult ones to make in the moment, and it generates suspense over how all the pieces fell into place to make those decisions come to fruition." David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film an A– and wrote: "Nobody needs to be reminded that history tends to go in circles, but "The Post" is so vital because it captures the ecstasy of trying to break the chain and bend things towards justice; defending the fundamental tenets of the Constitution hasn't been this much fun since "Hamilton"."  Chris Nashawaty, writing for "Entertainment Weekly", gave the film a positive review, but also compared it with previous journalism films such as "All the President's Men" stating, "Spielberg makes these crucial days in American history easy to follow. But if you look at "The Post" next to something like "All the President's Men", you see the difference between having a story passively explained to you and actively helping to untangle it. That's a small quibble with an urgent and impeccably acted film. But it's also the difference between a very good movie and a great one."  Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" awarded the film an NYT Critic's Pick with a strong acknowledgment of Spielberg as director saying, "Mostly, (the "Post" decision to publish) went down fast, a pace that Mr. Spielberg conveys with accelerated rhythms, flying feet, racing cameras and an enjoyably loose approach to the material. With his virtuosic, veteran crew, Mr. Spielberg paints the scene vividly and with daubs of beauty; most notably, he creates distinct visual realms for the story's two main overlapping, at times colliding, worlds. Katharine reigns over one; at first she's all but entombed in her darkly lighted, wood-paneled empire. Ben rules the other, overseeing the talking and typing warriors of the glaring, noisily freewheeling newsroom".  Matt Bobkin, writing for "Exclaim!", gave the film a 6 out of 10 score, saying the film "has all the makings of an awards season hit, but is too calculated to reflect today's ragged, tenuous sociopolitical climate."  Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com reflected on the film nearly two years after its release, noting that due to the film's accessibility and Spielberg's invisible style of direction, critics underrated the film and tended to take its story literally such as by fact-checking historical details, in spite of the film being a "coded commentary" and doubling "as a stealth portrait of the media’s responsibility in the age of Trump, and in any age."

Portrayal of "The New York Times".

The film downplays the original role that "The New York Times" had in breaking the "Pentagon Papers" and emphasizes "The Washington Post"'s subsequent involvement. In an interview with the "Columbia Journalism Review", former "New York Times" associates James Greenfield, who coordinated the "Pentagon Papers" project as the "Times" foreign editor; James Goodale, the"Times" general counsel at the time; and Max Frankel, the "Times"' Washington bureau chief when the "Papers" were published"," criticized the film's more minor portrayal of the paper. "The New York Times" had not only published the "Pentagon Papers" before "The Washington Post", but had also set the stage for the major legal battle between the press and the United States government. The newspaper also won the 1972 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for its contributions.  The 1972 Pulitzer jury of journalists noted in their recommendation not only the significance of Daniel Ellsberg's "Pentagon Papers" leak, but also that of "Times" reporters Neil Sheehan, Hedrick Smith, Fox Butterfield and E. W. Kenworthy, and stated that their effort was "a combination of investigative reporting, analysis, research, and writing — all of which added to a distinctly meritorious public service, not only for readers of The Times but also for an entire nation." Goodale noted in an article for "The Daily Beast" that the "Times" published the "Papers" after Ellsberg had leaked them to Sheehan, and further stated that the film "creates a false impression that the Post was a major player in such publication. It's as though Hollywood had made a movie about the Times' triumphant role in Watergate." On "PBS NewsHour", Goodale further said, "Although a producer has artistic license, I think it should be limited in a situation such as this, so that the public comes away with an understanding of what the true facts are in this case... And I think that if you're doing a movie now, when [President Donald] Trump is picking on the press for 'fake news', you want to be authentic. You don't want to be in any way fake."

The Post is a 2017 American historical political thriller film directed and produced by Steven Spielberg, and written by Liz Hannah and Josh Singer. It stars Meryl Streep as Katharine Graham, the first female publisher of a major American newspaper, and Tom Hanks as Ben Bradlee, the longtime executive editor of "The Washington Post", with Sarah Paulson, Bob Odenkirk, Tracy Letts, Bradley Whitford, David Cross, Bruce Greenwood, Carrie Coon, Alison Brie, and Matthew Rhys in supporting roles.

是一部于2017年上映的美国剧情电影,由史蒂芬·史匹柏执导,莉兹·汉娜(英语:Liz Hannah)与乔许·辛格编剧,并由梅莉·史翠普与汤姆·汉克斯等人主演。


History.

The emergence of ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs) around 1980 was pivotal to the development of sensitive electroanalytical techniques like SECM. UMEs employed as probes enabled the study of quick or localized electrochemical reactions. The first SECM-like experiment was performed in 1986 by Engstrom to yield direct observation of reaction profiles and short-lived intermediates. Simultaneous experiments by Allen J. Bard using an Electrochemical Scanning Tunneling Microscope (ESTM) demonstrated current at large tip-to-sample distances that was inconsistent with electron tunneling. This phenomenon was attributed to Faradaic current, compelling a more thorough analysis of electrochemical microscopy. The theoretical basis was presented in 1989 by Bard, where he also coined the term Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy. In addition to the simple collection modes used at the time, Bard illustrated the widespread utility of SECM through the implementation of various feedback modes. As the theoretical foundation developed, annual SECM-related publications steadily rose from 10 to around 80 in 1999, when the first commercial SECM became available. SECM continues to increase in popularity due to theoretical and technological advances that expand experimental modes while broadening substrate scope and enhancing sensitivity.

Principles of operation.

Electric potential is manipulated through the UME tip in a bulk solution containing a redox-active couple (e.g. Fe/Fe). When a sufficiently negative potential is applied, (Fe) is reduced to (Fe) at the UME tip, generating a diffusion-limited current. The steady-state current is governed by the flux of oxidized species in solution to the UME disc and is given by:  formula_1  where "i" is the diffusion-limited current, "n" is the number of electrons transferred at the electrode tip (O + "n"e → R), "F" is Faraday's constant, "C" is the concentration of the oxidized species in solution, "D" is the diffusion coefficient and "a" is the radius of the UME disc. In order to probe a surface of interest, the tip is moved closer to the surface and changes in current are measured.  There are two predominant modes of operation, which are feedback mode and collection-generation mode.

Feedback mode.

In a bulk solution, the oxidized species is reduced at the tip, producing a steady-state current that is limited by hemispherical diffusion. As the tip approaches a conductive substrate in the solution, the reduced species formed at the tip is oxidized at the conductive surface, yielding an increase in the tip current and creating a regenerative "positive" feedback loop. The opposite effect is observed when probing insulating surfaces, as the oxidized species cannot be regenerated and diffusion to the electrode is inhibited as a result of physical obstruction as the tip approaches the substrate, creating a "negative" feedback loop and decreasing the tip current. An additional parameter to consider when probing insulating surfaces is the electrode sheath diameter, "r", since it contributes to the physical obstruction of diffusion.  The change in tip current as a function of distance "d" can be plotted as an "approach curve" as shown.  Due to the rate dependent nature of SECM measurements, it is also employed to study electron-transfer kinetics.

Collection-generation modes.

Another mode of operation that is employed is tip generation/substrate collection (TG/SC). In TG/SC mode, the tip is held at a potential sufficient for an electrode reaction to occur and "generate" a product while the substrate is held at a potential sufficient for the electrode product to react with or be "collected" by the substrate. The reciprocal to this method is substrate generation/tip collection (SG/TC), where the substrate acts to generate a species that is measured at the tip. Both TG/SC and SG/TC variations are also categorized as "direct" modes.  Two currents are generated: the tip current, "i", and the substrate current, "i". Since the substrate is generally much larger than the tip, the efficiency of collection, "i"/"i", is 1 if no reactions occur during the transfer of tip-generated species to the substrate. As the distance between tip and substrate, "d", decreases, the collection efficiency, "i"/"i", approaches 1.

Alternating Current (ac)-SECM.

In ac-SECM a sinusoidal bias is applied to the dc bias of the SECM probe allowing the impedance of a sample to be measured, as is the case in electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Unlike dc-SECM techniques ac-SECM does not require the use of a redox mediator. This is particularly advantageous for measurements where the redox mediator could affect the chemistry of the system under study. Examples include corrosion studies where a redox mediator may act to inhibit or enhance the rate of corrosion, and biological studies where a redox mediator may be toxic to the living cell under study.  In ac-SECM the feedback response measured is dependent on both the sample type and the experimental conditions. When a sample is insulating the measured impedance will always increase with decreasing probe to sample distance. This is not the case for a conductive sample however. For a conductive sample measured in a high conductivity electrolyte, or measured with a low ac frequency, decreasing the probe to sample distance will lead to an increase in impedance. If, however, a conductive sample is measured in a low conductivity electrolyte, or with a high ac frequency, decreasing the probe to sample distance will result in a lower measured impedance.

SECM imaging.

Changes in current as a function of distance between electrode tip and substrate surface allow imaging of insulating and conducting surfaces for topology and reactivity information by moving the tip across surfaces and measuring tip current.  The most common scanning mode is constant-height mode, where the tip height is unchanging and is scanned across the surface in the x-y plane. Alternatively, constant distance measurements are possible, which change the z position to maintain the probe to sample distance as the probe is scanned across the surface in the x-y plane. The constant distance measurement can be based on an electrical signal as is the case in the constant-current mode, where the device attempts to maintain a constant current by changing the substrate to tip distance, "d", and recording the change in "d". A mechanical signal can also be used to control the probe to sample distance. Examples of this are the intermittent contact (ic)-SECM and shear force techniques which use changes in probe vibration to maintain the probe to sample distance.  Spatial resolution is dependent on the tip radius, the substrate to tip distance, the precision of the electronics, and other considerations.

Instrumentation.

Early SECMs were constructed solely by individual lab groups from a set of common components including potentiostat (or bipotentiostat) and potential programmer, current amplifier, piezoelectric positioner and controller, computer, and UME. Many SECM experiments are highly specific in nature, and in-house assembly of SECMs remains common. The development of new techniques toward the reliable nanofabrication of electrodes has been a primary focus in the literature due to several distinct advantages including high mass-transfer rates and low levels of reactant adsorption in kinetic experiments. Additionally, enhanced spatial resolution afforded by reduced tip size expands the scope of SECM studies to smaller and faster phenomena. The following methods encompass an abbreviated summary of fabrication techniques in a rapidly developing field.

Preparation of electrodes.

SECM probes use platinum as the active core material, however carbon, gold, mercury, and silver have all been used. Typical preparation of a microscale electrode is performed by heat sealing a microwire or carbon fiber in a glass capillary under vacuum. This tip can be connected to a larger copper electrode through the use of silver epoxy then polished to yield a sharpened tip. Nanofabrication of electrodes can be performed by etching a metal wire with sodium cyanide and sodium hydroxide. Etched metal wires can then be coated with wax, varnish, molten paraffin or glass, poly(a-methylstyrene), polyimide, electropolymerized phenol, and electrophoretic paint. Nanotips produced by these methods are conical, however disc-shaped tips can be obtained by micropipette pulling of glass sealed electrodes. Nanoscale electrodes allow for high resolution experiments of biological features of sub micron scale or single molecule analysis. "Penetration" experiments, where the tip is inserted into a microstructure (such as a thin polymer film with fixed redox centers) to probe kinetic and concentration parameters, also require the use of nanoscale electrodes. However, microelectrodes remain ideal for quantitative kinetic and feedback mode experiments due to their increased surface area.  Modification of electrodes has developed beyond the size parameter. SECM-AFM probes can act as both a force sensor and electrode through the utilization of a flattened, etched metal wire coated by electrophoretic paint. In this system, the flattened wire acts as a flexible cantilever to measure the force against a sample (AFM) as the wire electrode measures the current (SECM). Similarly, SECM functionality can be imparted into standard AFM probes by sputtering the surface with a conductive metal or by milling an insulated tip with a focused ion beam (FIB). Electron-beam lithography has also been demonstrated to reproducibly generate SECM-AFM probes using silicon wafers. AFM probe manufacturers, such as Scuba Probe Technologies fabricate SECM-AFM probes with reliable electrical contacts for operation in liquids.  Images of the chemical environment that is decoupled from localized topographies are also desirable to study larger or uneven surfaces. "Soft stylus probes" were recently developed by filling a microfabricated track on a polyethylene terephthalate sheet with a conductive carbon ink. Lamination with a polymer film produced v-shaped stylus that was cut to expose the carbon tip. The flexibility inherent in the probe design allows for constant contact with the substrate that bends the probe. When drug across a sample, probe bending accommodates for topographical differences in the substrate and provides a quasi-constant tip-to-substrate distance, "d".  Micro-ITIES probes represent another type of specialty probe that utilizes the Interface between Two Immiscible Electrolyte Solutions (ITIES). These tips feature a tapered pipette containing a solution containing a metal counter electrode, and are used to measure electron and ion transfer events when immersed in a second, immiscible liquid phase containing a counter-reference electrode.  Often the probing of liquid/liquid and air/liquid interfaces via SECM require the use of a submarine electrode. In this configuration, the electrode is fashioned into a hook shape where the electrode can be inverted and submerged within the liquid layer. The UME tip points upwards and can be positioned directly beneath the liquid/liquid or air/liquid interface. The portion of the electrode passing through the interface region is electrically insulated to prevent indirect interfacial perturbations.  Increases in the complexity of electrodes along with decreases in size have prompted the need for high resolution characterization techniques. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), cyclic voltammetry (CV), and SECM approach curve measurements are frequently applied to identify the dimension and geometry of fabricated probes.

Potentiostat.

The potentiostat biases and measures the voltage using the standard three electrode system of voltammetry experiments. The UME acts as the working electrode to apply a controlled potential to the substrate. The auxiliary electrode (or counter electrode) acts to balance the current generated at the working electrode, often through a redox reaction with the solvent or supporting electrolyte. Voltage measured with regard to the well defined reduction potential of the reference electrode, although this electrode itself does not pass any current.

Positioners and translators.

SECM utilizes many of the same positioning components that are available to other materials characterization techniques. Precise positioning between the tip and sample is an important factor that is complementary to tip size. The position of the probe relative to a given point on the material surface in the x, y, and z directions is typically controlled by a motor for rough positioning coupled with a piezoelectric motor for finer control. More specifically, systems may feature an inchworm motor that directs coarse positioning with additional z control governed by a PZT piezo pusher. Stepper motors with XYZ piezo block positioner or closed-loop controller systems have also been used.

Applications.

SECM has been employed to probe the topography and surface reactivity of solid-state materials, track the dissolution kinetics of ionic crystals in aqueous environments, screen electrocatalytic prospects, elucidate enzymatic activities, and investigate dynamic transport across synthetic/natural membranes and other biophysical systems. Early experiments focused on these solid/liquid interfaces and the characterization of typical solution-based electrochemical systems at higher spatial resolution and sensitivities than bulk electrochemical experiments typically afford. More recently the SECM technique has been adapted to explore the chemical transfer dynamics at liquid/liquid and liquid/gas interfaces.

Solid/Liquid Interface.

Microstructuring.

SECM and variations of the technique have also found use in microfabrication, surface patterning, and microstructuring. A multitude of surface reactions within this context have been explored including metal deposition, etching and patterning of surfaces by enzymes. Scanning probe lithography (SPL) of surfaces can be performed using the SECM configuration. Due to size limitations in the microfabrication procedures for the UMEs, spatial resolution is decreased, affording larger feature sizes compared to other SPL techniques. An early example demonstrated patterning of dodecylthiolate self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) by moving the UME in a two-dimensional array in close proximity to the surface while applying an oxidative or reductive potential, thus locally desorbing the chemical species. Micron-sized features were effectively patterned into the SAM. An inherent benefit of SECM over other SPL techniques for surface patterning can be attributed to its ability to simultaneously acquire surface-related electrochemical information while performing lithography. Other studies have demonstrated the utility of SECM for the deposition of local gold islands as templates for attachment of biomolecules and fluorescent dyes. Such studies are suggestive of the technique’s potential for the fabrication of nanoscale assemblies, making it particularly suited to explore previously studied systems tethered to small gold clusters.  Varieties of SECM employing the micropipet tip geometry have been used to generate spatially resolved microcrystals of a solid solution. Here, glass microcapillaries with sub-micron sized orifices replace the standard UME allowing femtoliter-sized droplets to be suspended from the capillary over a conductive surface acting as the working electrode. Upon contact with the positively biased surface, the droplets of salt solutions achieve supersaturation and crystallize with well-defined, microscale geometries. Such technology could lend itself well to solid-state electrochemical sensors on microdevices.

Ionic dissolution.

The dissolution of ionic crystals in aqueous environments is fundamentally important to the characterization of a host of naturally occurring and synthetic systems. The high spatial resolution and three-dimensional mobility provided by the UME allows one to probe the dissolution kinetics on specific faces of single ionic crystals, whereas previous characterization techniques relied on a bulk or ensemble average measurement. Due to the high mass transfer rates associated with UMEs in the SECM configuration, it is possible to quantify systems defined by very fast reaction kinetics. In addition, UMEs allow monitoring over a wide dynamic range, making possible the study of ionic solids with large differences in solubility.  Early examples demonstrating the utility of SECM to extract quantitative rate data from such systems was carried out on CuSO crystals in an aqueous solution saturated with Cu and ions. By positioning an UME in the SECM configuration approximately one-electrode radius away from the (100) face of a CuSO crystal, it was possible to perturb the dissolution equilibrium by locally reducing Cu at the UME surface. As the crystal face locally dissolved into copper and sulfate ions, a visible pit was formed and the chronoamperometric signal could be monitored as a function of distance between the UME and the crystal. Assuming first or second order kinetic behavior, the dissolution rate constant could then be extracted from the data. Similar studies have been performed on additional crystal systems without a supporting electrolyte.

Electrocatalysis investigation.

Approaching the search for novel catalytic materials to replace precious metals used in fuel cells demands extensive knowledge of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) occurring at the metal surface. Often even more pressing are the physical limitations imposed by the need to survey and assess the electrocatalytic viability of large numbers of potential catalytic candidates. Some groups studying electrocatalysis have demonstrated the use of SECM as a rapid screening technique that provides local quantitative electrochemical information about catalytic mixtures and materials.  A variety of approaches have been suggested for high throughput assessment of novel metallic electrocatalysts. One functional, non-SECM approach, enabled the electocatalytic activities of a large number of catalysts to be assessed optically by employing a technique that detected proton production on deposited arrays of proton-sensitive fluorescent dyes. Though of certain utility, the technique suffers from the failure to extract quantitative electrochemical information from any catalytic system of interest, thus requiring the quantitative electrochemical information to be obtained off-line from the array experiment. Bard et al. have demonstrated assessment of electrocatalytic activities at high volume using the SECM configuration. With this approach, direct quantitative electrochemical information from multicomponent systems can be acquired on a rapid screening platform. Such high throughput screening significantly assists the search for abundant, efficient and cost-effective electrocatalytic materials as substitutes for platinum and other precious metals.

Biological analysis.

The ability to probe non-conductive surfaces makes SECM a feasible method for analyzing membranes, redox active enzymes, and other biophysical systems.  Changes in intracellular redox activity may be related to conditions such as oxidative stress and cancer. Redox processes of individual living cells can be probed by SECM, which serves as a non-invasive method for monitoring intracellular charge transfer. In such measurements, the cell of interest is immobilized on a surface submerged in a solution with the oxidized form of the redox mediator and feedback mode is employed. A potential is applied to the tip, which reduces the oxidized species, generating a steady-state current, "i". When the tip product enters the cell, it is re-oxidized by processes within the cell and sent back out. Depending on the rate at which tip product is regenerated by the cell, the tip current will change. A study by Liu et al. employed this method and showed that the redox states within three human breast cell lines (nonmotile, motile, and metastatic) were consistently different. SECM can not only examine immobilized cells, but also be used to study the kinetics of immobilized redox-active enzymes.  Transport of ions such as K and Na across membranes or other biological interfaces is vital to many cell processes; SECM has been employed in studying transport of redox active species across cell membranes. In feedback mode, the transfer of molecules across a membrane can be induced by collecting the transferred species at the tip and forming a concentration gradient. The changes in current can be measured as a function of molecule transport rate.

Liquid/liquid interface.

Electrocatalysis.

The interface between two immiscible electrolyte solutions (ITIES) can be studied using SECM with a micro-ITIES probe. The probe lies in one layer, and is moved closer to the junction while applying a potential. Oxidation or reduction depletes the substrate concentration, resulting in diffusion from either layer. At close tip-interface distances, rates of diffusion between the organic/aqueous layer for a substrate or ionic species are observed. Electron transfer rates have also been studied extensively at the ITIES. In such experiments, redox couples are dissolved in separate phases and the current at the ITIES is recorded. This is also the fundamental principle in studying transport across membranes.

Liquid/gas interface.

The transfer of chemical species across air/liquid interfaces is integral to almost every physical, physiological, biological and environmental system on some level. Thus far, a major thrust in the field has been the quantification of molecular transfer dynamics across monolayer films in order to gain insight into chemical transport properties of cellular membrane systems and chemical diffusion at environmental interfaces.<ref name="Thibodeaux, air/liquid interface apps"></ref>  Though much work has been done in the area of evaporation through monolayers at air/water interfaces, it was the introduction of SECM that provided researchers an alternative method for exploring the permeability of monolayers to small solute molecules across such interfaces. By precisely positioning a submarine electrode beneath an organic monolayer that separates an air/water interface, researchers were able to perturb the oxygen diffusion equilibrium by local reduction of oxygen in the aqueous layer, thereby eliciting diffusion across the monolayer.<ref name="Unwin, gas/liq interface"></ref> Diffusion dynamics of the system can be elucidated by measuring the current response at the UME with high spatial and temporal resolution. SECM is quite amenable to such kinetics studies since the current response can be monitored with high sensitivity due to the rapid mass transfer rates associated with UMEs in the SECM configuration. The three dimensional mobility of the UME also affords spatial probing of membranes to identify points of high flux or permeability. A very similar approach has been employed for diffusion studies at liquid/liquid and solid/liquid interfaces.

Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) is a technique within the broader class of scanning probe microscopy (SPM) that is used to measure the local electrochemical behavior of liquid/solid, liquid/gas and liquid/liquid interfaces.<ref name="Unwin, 99', gas/liquid interface"><ref name="Zhang, 01', liquid/liq"> Initial characterization of the technique was credited to University of Texas electrochemist, Allen J. Bard, in 1989. Since then, the theoretical underpinnings have matured to allow widespread use of the technique in chemistry, biology and materials science. Spatially resolved electrochemical signals can be acquired by measuring the current at an ultramicroelectrode (UME) tip as a function of precise tip position over a substrate region of interest. Interpretation of the SECM signal is based on the concept of diffusion-limited current. Two-dimensional raster scan information can be compiled to generate images of surface reactivity and chemical kinetics.

扫描电化学显微镜(缩写SECM)基于电化学原理工作,可测量微区内物质氧化或还原所给出的电化学电流。


第44届七大工业国组织会议

Host.

The Fairmont Le Manoir Richelieu in La Malbaie, Quebec, Canada, was chosen as the host of the G7 summit, in part due to its natural beauty and security. It is the first G7 summit to be hosted by Quebec since 1981. La Malbaie, once a resort town that hosted American presidents, required US$465 million in preparations, including new high-speed internet service, new cellphone towers, and security fences. Kelowna, British Columbia, was also considered as a potential host.

Agenda and preparation.

In May 2017, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau stated that he intended to “showcase both its domestic and international priorities: to strengthen the middle class, advance gender equality, fight climate change, and promote respect for diversity and inclusion”.  In June 2017, Peter Boehm was appointed as Deputy Minister for the G7 Summit and Personal Representative of the Prime Minister after serving as the Canadian G7 Sherpa since 2012.  In December 2017, Trudeau unveiled the summit logo and announced five key themes that Canada would advance once it assumed the Presidency of the G7 on 1 January 2018.

Economic growth.

The notion of ”economic growth that works for everyone” or “equitable growth”, known as 'Croissance Équitable' in French, is rooted in the papal encyclical Rerum Novarum which has had a profound influence on the economic thought of French and Quebecois policy makers—including Pierre Elliott Trudeau and other alumni of the Université de Montréal.  It holds that governments and institutional investors must always have in mind the best interests of employees when making investment decisions—including decent wages and pension benefits. Engaged employee-nominated pension board members are expected to contribute to the development of the equitable investment ethos that will drive this economic approach.

Gender equality.

Canadian and French thought leaders have stressed the need to achieve gender equality across all economic sectors by using modern, quantitative managerial tools that can help more precisely measure gender pay gaps and thus inform corrective policy measures at both the corporate and government level. Meeting in Paris, Montreal and Toronto in the weeks leading up to the Charlevoix summit, Canadian and European asset owners and policy makers agreed on the need to step up and assume more responsibility for the advancement of women's rights and other “related social parameters” across all assets classes.  In that perspective, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau is expected to announce a distinct G7 sustainability initiative focusing specifically on gender diversity across global capital markets—for which "the Canada Pension Plan, OMERS, the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec and the Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan are each expected to pitch in [initially] $1 million apiece, with another $5 million from the federal government."  Melinda Gates and Isabelle Hudon served as co-chairs of the Gender Equality Advisory Council created by the Trudeau government for the G7 summit.

Climate change, oceans and clean energy.

World Pensions Council (WPC) economist Nicolas J. Firzli has argued that, in spite of the United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement, the G7-driven process of international consensus-building could still be tilted in favor of renewed cooperation towards the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals—thanks notably to Justin Trudeau's multilateralist approach and the rapid shift towards ESG-informed investment policies amongst US and Canadian institutional investors.

Declarations issued.

The "Charlevoix Commitment on Defending Democracy from Foreign Threats" was one of eight declarations—also known as statements of commitment—issued by the G7 leaders on June 9, 2018. Charlevoix Commitment states that "foreign actors seek to undermine our democratic societies and institutions, our electoral processes, our sovereignty and our security. These malicious, multi-faceted and ever-evolving tactics constitute a serious strategic threat which we commit to confront together, working together with other governments that share our democratic values." The Charlevoix Summit resolved to establish a G7 Rapid Response Mechanism "to strengthen our coordination to identify and respond to diverse and evolving threats to our democracies, including through sharing information and analysis, and identifying opportunities for coordinated response."

Leaders at the summit.

The attendees included the leaders of the seven G7 member states as well as representatives of the European Union. The President of the European Commission has been a permanently welcome participant at all meetings and decision-making since 1981.  The 44th G7 summit was the first summit for Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte. It was also the last summit for British Prime Minister Theresa May and Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker.

Gallery of participating leaders.

Invited guests.

Heads of government.

The following leaders were invited to the Outreach Session of the G7 Summit.

Heads of international organizations.

The following heads of international organizations were invited to the Outreach Session of the G7 Summit.

Dispute with Donald Trump.

Background.

The summit was dubbed the “G6+1” by the Government of France and political commentators. This resulted from the United States withdrawing from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action and from the Paris Agreement, American tariffs, and trade-related disputes between Trump and French President Emmanuel Macron and Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau.

Comments by Donald Trump to Shinzo Abe.

President Trump insulted Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe. He stated he would send 25 million ethnic Mexicans to Japan, saying that “you don't have this problem, but I can send you 25 million Mexicans and you'll be out of office very soon”.

Comments by Donald Trump on Justin Trudeau.

Trump left the summit early in order to travel to Singapore for the United States' first summit with North Korean leader Kim Jong-un. On 9 June 2018, he tweeted that he had instructed the representatives of the United States not to endorse the communique and criticized Justin Trudeau's statements at a news conference following the meeting, calling him “meek and mild” and “dishonest and weak”.

Comments by Peter Navarro.

Trump Advisor Peter Navarro spoke harshly negative words about Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, saying that there is "a special place in Hell" for Justin Trudeau. He later apologized for the language, but stood behind his statement.

Analysis.

The response of the United States at the G7 received condemnation from foreign policy experts, political scientists, and former diplomats.  Foreign policy expert Ian Bremmer called the summit the “geopolitical equivalent of the Comey firing” and that it will “really damage...important long-term relationship[s]”.  Political scientist Brian Klaas stated that “By attacking allies while championing Russia, Trump made the G-7 summit a disaster—but he fulfilled Vladimir Putin's biggest fantasy. An absolute disgrace”.  Former United States Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbott wrote that Donald Trump is “the democratic world's worst nightmare. He has crippled NATO, the North Atlantic community, the European Union and now the G-7. In Putin's zero-sum worldview, that is a dream come true”.

The 44th G7 summit was held on 8–9 June 2018, in La Malbaie, Quebec, Canada. This was the sixth time since 1981 that Canada has hosted the meetings.

第44届七大工业国组织会议(英语:44th G7 Summit)于2018年6月8日到6月9日在加拿大魁北克省拉马巴克举行,是加拿大自1981年来第六次举办会议。