Personal life.

Reid was born in Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland. He went to school at Synge Street CBS, Dublin. Football was in his blood as his father Bill played for St Patrick's Athletic and his uncle Victor played for Shelbourne.  He started his footballing career with Irish youth clubs – Lourdes Celtic and Cherry Orchard. He turned down Manchester United and Arsenal to sign for Nottingham Forest.  Openly declared a socialist, Andy has a Che Guevara tattoo on his left arm, and a James Connolly tattoo on his right arm.

Club career.

Nottingham Forest.

Reid started his career with the Nottingham Forest youth academy, after joining from Cherry Orchard. Reid said "I chose Forest years ago because they made me feel wanted, because they had more time for me as a young kid than I felt at Arsenal or United". He turned professional in August 1999, making made his debut on 29 November 2000 against Sheffield United. In the 2001–02 season Reid failed to score a goal, although he played in 31 games.  He eventually scored a goal on 15 May 2003 against Sheffield United in the 2003 Football League Division One play-off semi-final, although Nottingham Forest lost the match 4–3. (5–4 on aggregate). He scored two goals in the 3–1 win over Coventry City on 27 August 2003. Reid then scored 13 goals in the 2003–04 season, finishing as Nottingham Forest's top scorer of the season, and named in the PFA Division One Team of the Year.  He handed in a transfer request at the start of August 2004 saying "I feel I have no other choice than to formally state my desire to leave the club". Reid left the Nottinghamshire club having scored 21 goals in 144 appearances.

Tottenham Hotspur.

After protracted negotiations, lasting for the bulk of his last season at the club, Reid completed his move from Forest to Tottenham on the last day of the January 2005 transfer window. He was joined by Michael Dawson for a combined fee of £8 million. He made his debut in a 3–1 win over Portsmouth on 5 February 2005, with Martin Jol saying "Andy Reid also did well on his debut, and you worry a bit how new players will cope with the Premiership".  Despite a promising start Reid failed to recapture the form he had shown at Forest and had to wait until May before netting for his new club, coming against Aston Villa in a 5–1 win at the end of the season. Making only 20 starts in 26 appearances he scored just one goal for Tottenham leading him to be listed by one journalist as one of the worst signings of the January Transfer market.

Charlton Athletic.

Reid joined Charlton Athletic for a fee of around £3 million in August 2006. He scored his first goal for Charlton against Everton on 25 November 2006. Charlton were relegated at the end of the season to the Championship. Reid scored both goals against Norwich City in a 2–0 win in September 2007, from two penalties in the space of two minutes. "The captain Andy Reid was brilliant, he was driving us on all night", Alan Pardew said about his performance that day. Reid's form had not gone unnoticed and he was eventually sold having played 40 games and scored 9 goals in all competitions during his two seasons at Charlton.

Sunderland.

At the end of January 2008, on the last day of the transfer window, Reid joined Sunderland in a three and a half-year deal worth £5m, making the step back up to the Premier League. Sunderland's Greg Halford went in the other direction in a six-month loan spell as part of the deal. Reid explained that he wanted Sunderland to be challenging for European places, and will not be happy fighting relegation season-after-season.  He made his début at the start of February 2008 against Wigan Athletic, coming on as a 74th-minute substitute and assisted Daryl Murphy by playing a cross field pass for him to score a goal.  Reid scored his first goal for Sunderland at the end of March in a 2–1 win over West Ham United, his 95th minute volley earning Sunderland their first back-to-back Premier League victory since December 2001. He scored his first goal of the 2008–09 campaign with a header in a 4–0 win over West Bromwich Albion. Reid scored his first goals of the 2009/2010 campaign with a brace against Norwich City in the League Cup – where Sunderland went on to win 4–1. His impressive display won him man of the match. Reid then scored his first Premier League goal of the season in a 4–1 win over Hull City, he also provided the cross which led to a Kamil Zayatte own goal to make it 4–1 to Sunderland.  After drifting out of first team contention Reid joined Sheffield United on a month's loan at the end of October 2010, with Sheffield manager Gary Speed stating "he is of undoubted Premier League quality and therefore a good addition to the squad." He made his début for the Blades a few days later, coming on as a second-half substitute against Coventry City. Reid went on to score his first goal for the Blades on in mid November to help secure the team a 1–0 victory at Millwall. After two months at Bramall Lane Reid was hit by a three match ban following an incident at Carrow Road in a game against Norwich and so returned early to his parent club. He left Bramall Lane having played nine times and scored two goals for the South Yorkshire club.

Blackpool.

On 31 January 2011, Reid joined Blackpool on a deal until the end of the season. Struggling to make an impact on the first team he made only five appearances for the Bloomfield Road team before being released at the end of May following Blackpool's relegation from the Premier League.

Nottingham Forest.

On 1 July 2011, Nottingham Forest announced the signing of Reid on a two-year deal, returning to the club where he started his career. He became Steve McClaren's first signing since joining the club as manager. Since his return to Forest, Reid became an integral part of the squad, providing goals and assists on a regular basis. On 5 January 2014, Billy Davies said Reid had signed a contract extension of two-and-a-half years to remain at Nottingham Forest until the summer of 2016.  Despite the club ending the 2013-14 Championship season in eleventh place and missing a number of games through injury, Reid scored ten goals in thirty-six games in all competitions. This led to him being named Forest's Player of the Year for the second time, as well as being named in the PFA Championship Team of the Year.  Having been an ever-present in Forest's starting XI in the 2014–15 Football League Championship, Reid came off with injury in the forty-third minute of their home-tie against local rivals Derby County on 14 September 2014. Reid would not play again until 17 August 2015, when he made his return from injury for Forest's under-21 side.  On 13 March 2016, Reid's manager Dougie Freedman was sacked and replaced by first team coach Paul Williams. The following day, Reid accepted a coaching role assisting Williams until the end of the 2015–16 season. Although he was yet to feature for the club that season due to injury, Reid still harboured hopes of playing again and told Forest Player HD "I'm going to be coupling this with my rehab – I had my operation four weeks ago – and I'm still trying to get back".  In July 2016, Reid announced his retirement from football due to long-term injury problems.

International career.

Reid was part of the team that won the U16 Nordic Cup on 8 August 1998 and scored in the final win over England. He has also appeared for the Republic of Ireland Under-21 team where he played 15 games and scored 4 goals, and also for the Republic of Ireland senior team where he has made 27 appearances and scored 4 goals.  He débuted for the Republic of Ireland national football team in a 3–0 win over Canada. The first of his international goals was a free kick against Bulgaria on 18 November 2003. His first international goal in a competitive game saw him score a shot from open play against Cyprus in a World Cup qualifier on 18 August 2004.  He also scored a consolation goal in a 2–1 friendly defeat by Italy on 17 August 2005. He also opened up the scoring in the last game at Lansdowne Road before redevelopment, a game in which Ireland won 5–0 against San Marino on 15 November 2006. He provided an assist with a low through ball for Robbie Keane in a 4–0 victory against Denmark in a friendly on 22 August 2007. Reid said that ex-Republic of Ireland manager, Steve Staunton, should not have been sacked. Reid explained, "I do not believe they should have done it. I believe he should have been given more time".  Reid fell out of favour with Ireland's previous manager, Giovanni Trapattoni, since the pair had a late night dispute in 2008 at the team hotel in Wiesbaden.  After a five-year exile from international football, interim manager Noel King recalled Reid to the Irish squad for the qualifiers against Germany and Kazakhstan. Reid spoke of his gratitude for King for recalling him to the Ireland squad fearing that the opportunity would not come along again to play for his country. On 15 October 2013, Reid made his return in an Irish jersey against Kazakhstan playing 75 mins before being replaced by Aiden McGeady in a 3-1 win in Dublin.

Honours.

Republic of Ireland U16  Individual

Andrew Matthew Reid (born 29 July 1982) is an Irish former professional footballer who played as a midfielder. He turned professional in August 1999 making his debut for Nottingham Forest on 29 November 2000 against Sheffield United. Reid moved from Forest to Tottenham in 2005, then to Charlton Athletic in 2006, Sunderland in 2008 and Blackpool in 2011. In July 2011 he signed a two-year deal back at Nottingham Forest. He has also represented the Republic of Ireland internationally.

安德鲁·马修·"安迪"·里德(英语:Andrew Matthew "Andy" Reid,1982年-7月29日),乃一名出生于都柏林的爱尔兰职业足球员,司职中场,但他可以踢左翼。2016年在诺定咸森林挂靴。


Construction and history.

In February 1838 a group of 121 peers, MPs and other gentry formed a committee to raise a monument to Lord Nelson, funded by public subscription, and the Government agreed to provide a site in Trafalgar Square, in front of the newly completed National Gallery. A competition was held for designs with an estimated budget of between £20,000 and £30,000. The deadline for submissions was 31 January 1839.  The winning entry, chosen by the sub-committee headed by the Duke of Wellington was a design by William Railton for a Corinthian column, surmounted by a statue of Nelson, and flanked by four sculpted lions. Flights of steps would lead up between the lions to the pedestal of the column. Several other entrants also submitted schemes for columns. The second prize was won by Edward Hodges Baily who suggested an obelisk surrounded by sculptures.  Criticism of the organisation of the competition caused it to be re-run. Railton submitted a slightly revised design, and was once again declared the winner, with the stipulation that the statue of Nelson should be made by EH Baily. The original plan was for a column high, including the base and statue, but this was reduced to with a shaft of due to concerns over stability. The base was to have been of granite and the shaft of Craigleith sandstone, but before construction began it was decided that the shaft should also be of granite.  Excavations for the brick foundations had begun by July 1840. On 30 September 1840, the first stone of the column was laid by Charles Davison Scott, honorary secretary of the committee (and son of Nelson's secretary, John Scott), at a ceremony conducted, according to the "Nautical Magazine", "in a private manner, owing to the noblemen and gentlemen comprising the committee being absent from town". Construction of the monument, by the contractors Grissell and Peto, progressed slowly, and the stonework, ready for the installation of the statue, was not completed until November 1843.  In 1844 the Nelson Memorial Committee ran out of money, having only raised £20,485 in public subscriptions, and the Government, in the form of the Office of Woods and Forests took over the project.  Installation of the bronze reliefs on the pedestal did not begin until late 1849, when John Edward Carew's depiction of the death of Nelson was put in place on the side facing Whitehall. This was followed early the next year by William F. Woodington's relief of the Battle of the Nile on the opposite side. Carew's relief was cast by Adams, Christie and Co. of Rotherhithe. The other three were cast by Moore, Fressange and Moore. The last to be made, "The Battle of Cape St Vincent" became the subject of legal action, when it was discovered that the bronze had been adulterated with iron. The partners in the company were jailed for fraud and the relief was completed by Robinson and Cottam. It was finally put in place in May 1854. The statue at the top was sculpted by Edward Hodges Baily R.A. from three pieces of Craigleith sandstone donated by the Duke of Buccleuch, former chairman of the Nelson Memorial Committee, from his own quarries.  The statue stands on a fluted column built from solid blocks of granite from the Foggintor quarries on Dartmoor. The Corinthian capital is made of bronze elements, cast from cannon salvaged from the wreck of HMS "Royal George" at the Woolwich Arsenal foundry. It is based on the Temple of Mars Ultor in Rome, and was modelled by C.H. Smith.. The bronze pieces, some weighing as much as are fixed to the column by the means of three large belts of metal lying in grooves in the stone.  The four identical bronze Barbary lions at the column's base were not added until 1867. At one stage, they were intended to be of granite, and the sculptor John Graham Lough was chosen to carve them. However, in 1846, after consultations with Railton, he turned down the commission, unwilling to work under the restrictions imposed by the architect. The sculptures eventually installed, commissioned in 1858, were designed by Sir Edwin Landseer in collaboration with Baron Marochetti. Their design may have been influenced by Marschalko János's lions at each abutment to the Széchenyi Lánchíd (Chain Bridge) in Budapest, installed 6 years before the Trafalgar Square lions were commissioned. Landseer was paid £6,000 for his services, and Marochetti £11,000. In 2011, consultants for the Greater London Authority reported that tourists climbing onto the backs of the lions have caused considerable damage and recommended banning tourists from climbing them.  The column also had a symbolic importance to Adolf Hitler. If Hitler's plan to invade Britain, Operation Sea Lion, had been successful, he planned to move it to Berlin.

Refurbishment.

The column was refurbished in 2006, during which time it was scaffolded from top to bottom for access. Steam cleaning was used together with gentle abrasives to minimise any harmful impact on the bronze and stonework. The £420,000 cost was covered by Zurich Financial Services, which advertised on the scaffolding for the duration of the work. Before restoration began, laser surveys were taken during which it was found that the column was significantly shorter than the usually quoted. In fact, it measures from the bottom of the first step to the tip of the admiral's hat.

Publicity stunts and protests.

John Noakes of the BBC TV children's programme "Blue Peter" climbed the column in 1977. Television presenter and entertainer Gary Wilmot climbed the column in 1989 for LWT's "Six O' Clock Show" to recreate the 'topping out' ceremony of 1843. Dressed in Victorian attire and sporting a boater hat, Wilmott enjoyed tea and sandwiches at the top of the column before climbing down.  The column has also been climbed on several occasions as a publicity stunt to draw attention to social or political causes. Ed Drummond made the first such climb in 1978 for the Anti-Apartheid Movement, making use of the lightning conductor "en route". On 30 March 1988, Joe Simpson and John Stevenson climbed the column as part of a Greenpeace Campaign against Acid Rain. On 14 June 1992, it was climbed by Martin Cotterrel, Joe Simpson and John Stevenson on behalf of Greenpeace to protest against the first Earth Summit meeting in Brazil. On 13 April 1995, Simon Nadin free-climbed Nelson's Column with Noel Craine, Jerry Moffatt and Johnny Dawes following on top rope, and graded the climb as "E6 6b/5a". This protest time was on behalf of Survival International to publicize the plight of Canada's Inuit people. On 13 May 1998, the Column was climbed by Al Baker, Peter Morris and John Cunningham on behalf of Greenpeace to protest against Old growth logging activity in British Columbia. In May 2003, BASE jumper and stuntman Gary Connery parachuted from the top of the column, in a stunt designed to draw attention to the Chinese policies in Tibet.  In December 2015, Disney paid £24,000 to cover it in lights to make it resemble a giant lightsaber, to promote "".  On 18 April 2016, in the early hours of the morning, Greenpeace activists climbed up the column and placed a breathing mask on Admiral Lord Nelson in protest of dangerous air pollution levels.

Other monuments to Nelson.

The first civic monument to be erected in Nelson's honour was the Nelson Monument, a 44-metre high obelisk on Glasgow Green in Glasgow, Scotland, in 1806. Also in Scotland, the Nelson Monument stands on top of Calton Hill, Edinburgh, and there is also a Nelson's Tower in Forres, Moray, which opened in 1812. In Dublin, Ireland, Nelson's Pillar was erected in 1808 but was destroyed by republicans in 1966, and in the Bull Ring, Birmingham, England, there is a Grade II* listed bronze statue of Nelson by Richard Westmacott, dating from 1809. Sir Richard Westmacott also designed the elaborate monument to Nelson in Liverpool. In Portsmouth, Nelson's Needle, on top of Portsdown Hill, was paid for by the company of after arriving back in Portsmouth. There is a column topped with a decorative urn in the Castle Green, Hereford – a statue was planned in place of the urn, but insufficient money was raised. The Britannia Monument, Great Yarmouth, England (1819), is a 144-foot-high doric column design.  Elsewhere in the world, Nelson's Column in Montreal was erected by both Britons and Canadians in 1809, and there is also a Mount Nelson, near Invermere, British Columbia. As at London, the column in Montreal has the admiral standing with his back to the waves. A much shorter statue of Lord Nelson in Trafalgar Square, Bridgetown, Barbados, is older than its counterpart in London.

Nelson's Column is a monument in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, Central London, built to commemorate Admiral Horatio Nelson, who died at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. The monument was constructed between 1840 and 1843 to a design by William Railton at a cost of. It is a column of the Corinthian order built from Dartmoor granite. The statue of Nelson was carved from Craigleith sandstone by sculptor Edward Hodges Baily. The four bronze lions around its base were added in 1867; they were designed by Sir Edwin Landseer.

纳尔逊纪念柱(Nelson's Column)位于伦敦市中心的特拉法加广场,高51.59米,纪念死于1805年特拉法加海战的海军上将霍雷肖·纳尔逊。纳尔逊纪念柱兴建于1840年到1843年,由威廉·莱尔顿设计,费用47,000英镑,科林斯柱式,材质为达特穆尔花岗岩。砂岩雕像的作者是爱德华·霍奇斯·贝利。底座上的四个青铜狮子是由埃德温兰西尔爵士设计。


History.

The office was created in England late 14th century sometime between 1405/06 and 1412 the two existing older naval commands that of the Admiral of the North and Admiral of the West were unified with this office.  During the reign of Henry VIII (1509–47) the English Navy had expanded to a point where it could not be managed by a single Lord High Admiral alone, therefore day-to-day management of the navy was handed over to a committee that later became known as the Navy Board. The navy board had Samuel Pepys as one of its members during the reign of Charles II (1660–85), and it ran side-by-side with the Board of Admiralty.  From the early 17th century onwards, when an individual Lord High Admiral was appointed, there was also a Council of the Lord High Admiral which assisted him to perform some of the duties of the Admiralty. When this office was not occupied by an individual, it was "put into commission" and exercised by a Board of Admiralty headed by a First Lord of the Admiralty; this was the usual arrangement from 1709 until it was merged with the Admiralty in 1832.  However, the office of Lord High Admiral, which, except for brief periods during its long history, had remained extant, and was not abolished as an official naval post until 1964. In 1964, the office of First Lord of the Admiralty was also abolished and the functions of the Lords Commissioners of Admiralty were transferred to the new Admiralty Board becoming a sub-committee (Navy) of the tri-service Defence Council of the United Kingdom. At the same time, the ancient title of Lord High Admiral was then resumed by the sovereign personally.  Elizabeth II held the title for the next 47 years, until in 2011 she conferred the office upon her husband, the Duke of Edinburgh as part of the celebrations for his 90th birthday. The Queen chose this title to honour her husband with as he served in the Royal Navy during the Second World War, and gave up a promising naval career to support her as consort.

Lord High Admirals of Great Britain.

Before 1707, a separate office of Lord High Admiral existed for Scotland. Following the Act of Union 1707, all jurisdictions were placed under the office of Lord High Admiral of Great Britain.

Former command flags.

Tudor Period.

The earliest known instructions given to the Lord Admiral to fly command flags were given by King Henry VIII in 1545 the Lord Admiral was ordered to fly the flag of the arms of the King on the top of the main masthead with the flag of the cross of Saint George on the top of the front (fore) masthead.

The Lord High Admiral (of England, Great Britain and then the United Kingdom, beginning in the 14th century) is the titular head of the Royal Navy. Most have been courtiers or members of the Royal Family, and not professional naval officers. The office of Lord High Admiral is one of the nine English Great Officers of State.

海军大臣(英语:Lord High Admiral)自15世纪以来是英格兰(及其后的大不列颠和联合王国)的皇家海军名义首长。这个职位主要由廷臣或英国皇室成员担任,而非专业海军将官。海军大臣也属于英国九个国务重臣之一。


Background.

Hamiltonian mechanics.

In Hamiltonian mechanics, a physical system is specified by a function, called "Hamiltonian" and denoted formula_1, of canonical coordinates in phase space. The canonical coordinates consist of the generalized coordinates formula_2 in configuration space and their conjugate momenta formula_3. The number of formula_4 pairs required to describe a given system is the number of its degrees of freedom. The coordinates are usually chosen in such a way as to simplify the calculations involved in solving a particular problem. One set of canonical coordinates can be changed to another by a canonical transformation. The equations of motion for the system are obtained from the Hamiltonian through "Hamilton's canonical equations", which relate time derivatives of the coordinates to partial derivatives of the Hamiltonian with respect to the conjugate momenta.

Orbital elements.

An elliptical orbit in three dimensions is uniquely described by a set of six coordinates, called orbital elements. The traditional choice are the Keplerian elements, which consist of the eccentricity, semimajor axis, inclination, longitude of the ascending node, argument of periapsis, and true anomaly. In celestial mechanics calculations, it is common to use a set of orbital elements introduced in nineteenth century by Charles-Eugène Delaunay. The Delaunay elements form a canonical set of action-angle coordinates and consist of the mean anomaly formula_5, the argument of periapsis formula_6 and the longitude of the ascending node formula_7, along with their conjugate momenta denoted by formula_8, formula_9, and formula_10, respectively.

The three-body problem.

The dynamics of a system composed of three bodies system acting under their mutual gravitational attraction is complex. In general, the behaviour of a three-body system depends sensitively on the initial conditions. Thus, the three-body problem, the problem of determining the motions of the three bodies, cannot be solved analytically except in special cases. Instead, numerical methods are used.  The Lidov-Kozai mechanism is a feature of "hierarchical" triple systems, that is systems in which one of the bodies, called the "perturber", is located far from the other two, which are said to comprise the inner binary. The perturber and the centre of mass of the inner binary comprise the outer binary. Such systems are often studied by using the methods of perturbation theory to write the Hamiltonian of a hierarchical three-body system as a sum of two terms responsible for the isolated evolution of the inner and the outer binary, and a third term coupling the two orbits,  The coupling term is then expanded in the orders of parameter formula_12, defined as the ratio of the semi-major axes of the inner and the outer binary and hence small in a hierarchical system. Since the perturbative series converges rapidly, the qualitative behaviour of a hierarchical three-body system is determined by the initial terms in the expansion, referred to as the "quadrupole" (formula_13), "octupole" (formula_14) and "hexadecapole" (formula_15) order terms,  For many systems, a satisfactory description is found already at the lowest, quadrupole order in the perturbative expansion. The octupole term becomes dominant in certain regimes and is responsible for a long-term variation in the amplitude of the Lidov-Kozai oscillations.

Secular approximation.

The Lidov-Kozai mechanism is a "secular" effect, that is, it occurs on timescales much longer compared to the orbital periods of the inner and the outer binary. In order to simplify the problem and make it more tractable computationally, the hierarchical three-body Hamiltonian can be "secularised", that is averaged over the rapidly varying mean anomalies of the two orbits. Through this process, the problem is reduced to that of two interacting massive wire loops.

Overview of the mechanism.

Test particle limit.

The simplest treatment of the Lidov-Kozai mechanism assumes that one of the inner binary's components, the "secondary", is a test particle - an idealized point-like object with negligible mass compared to the other two bodies, the "primary" and the distant perturber. These assumptions are valid, for instance, in the case of an artificial satellite in a low-Earth orbit that is perturbed by the Moon, or a short-period comet that is perturbed by Jupiter.  Under these approximations, the orbit-averaged equations of motion for the secondary have a conserved quantity: the component of the secondary's orbital angular momentum parallel to the angular momentum of the primary/perturber angular momentum. This conserved quantity can be expressed in terms of the secondary's eccentricity "e" and inclination "i" relative to the plane of the outer binary:  Conservation of "L" means that orbital eccentricity can be "traded for" inclination. Thus, near-circular, highly inclined orbits can become very eccentric. Since increasing eccentricity while keeping the semimajor axis constant reduces the distance between the objects at periapsis, this mechanism can cause comets (perturbed by Jupiter) to become sungrazing.  Lidov-Kozai oscillations will be present if "L" is lower than a certain value. At the critical value of "L", a "fixed-point" orbit appears, with constant inclination given by  For values of "L" less than this critical value, there is a one-parameter family of orbital solutions having the same "L" but different amounts of variation in "e" or "i". Remarkably, the degree of possible variation in "i" is independent of the masses involved, which only set the timescale of the oscillations.

Timescale.

The basic timescale associated with Kozai oscillations is where "a" indicates semimajor axis, "P" is orbital period, "e" is eccentricity and "m" is mass; variables with subscript "2" refer to the outer (perturber) orbit and variables lacking subscripts refer to the inner orbit; "M" is the mass of the primary. The period of oscillation of all three variables ("e", "i", ω – the last being the argument of periapsis) is the same, but depends on how "far" the orbit is from the fixed-point orbit, becoming very long for the separatrix orbit that separates librating orbits from oscillating orbits.

Astrophysical implications.

Solar System.

The Lidov-Kozai mechanism causes the argument of pericenter (ω) to librate about either 90° or 270°, which is to say that its periapse occurs when the body is farthest from the equatorial plane. This effect is part of the reason that Pluto is dynamically protected from close encounters with Neptune.  The Lidov-Kozai mechanism places restrictions on the orbits possible within a system, for example  The mechanism has been invoked in searches for Planet X, hypothetical planets orbiting the Sun beyond the orbit of Neptune.  A number of moons have been found to be in the Lidov-Kozai resonance with their planet, including Jupiter's Carpo and Euporie, Saturn's Kiviuq and Ijiraq, Uranus's Margaret, and Neptune's Sao and Neso.  Some sources identify the Soviet space probe Luna 3 as the first example of an artificial satellite undergoing Lidov-Kozai oscillations. Launched in 1959 into a highly inclined, eccentric, geocentric orbit, it was the first mission to photograph the far side of the Moon. It burned in the Earth's atmosphere after completing eleven revolutions. However, according to Gkolias et al., a different mechanism must have driven the decay of the probe's orbit since the Lidov-Kozai oscillations would have been thwarted by effects due to the oblateness of the Earth's figure.

Extrasolar planets.

The Lidov-Kozai mechanism, in combination with tidal friction, is able to produce Hot Jupiters, which are gas giant exoplanets orbiting their stars on tight orbits.

Black holes.

The mechanism is thought to affect the growth of central black holes in dense star clusters. It also drives the evolution of certain classes of binary black holes and may play a role in enabling black hole mergers.

History and development.

The effect was first described in 1961 by the Soviet space scientist Mikhail Lidov while analyzing the orbits of artificial and natural satellites of planets. Originally published in Russian, the result was translated into English in 1962. Lidov presented his work at the "Conference on General and Applied Problems of Theoretical Astronomy" held in Moscow on November 20–25, 1961. Among the participants of that conference was a Japanese astronomer Yoshihide Kozai who soon published this same result, in application to the orbits of the asteroids perturbed by Jupiter. Since Lidov was the first to discover it, many authors use the term Lidov–Kozai mechanism. Many, however, name it Kozai–Lidov or just Kozai mechanism. The number of citations of the 1961 and 1962 papers by Lidov and Kozai has risen sharply in the 21st century. As of 2017, the Kozai mechanism is among the most studied astrophysical phenomena.

In celestial mechanics, the Kozai mechanism or Lidov–Kozai mechanism or Kozai–Lidov mechanism, also known as the Kozai, Lidov–Kozai or Kozai–Lidov effect, oscillations, cycles or resonance, is a dynamical phenomenon affecting the orbit of a binary system perturbed by a distant third body under certain conditions, causing the orbit's argument of pericenter to oscillate about a constant value, which in turn leads to a periodic exchange between its eccentricity and inclination. The process occurs on timescales much longer than the orbital periods. It can drive an initially near-circular orbit to arbitrarily high eccentricity, and "flip" an initially moderately inclined orbit between a prograde and a retrograde motion.

古在机制是在天体力学中导致轨道倾角和离心率的周期性变化,也就是出现近心点参数振荡 (常数值的振幅)的机制。


Formal definition.

A flow on a set is a group action of the additive group of real numbers on. More explicitly, a flow is a mapping such that, for all ∈ and all real numbers and,  It is customary to write instead of, so that the equations above can be expressed as (identity function) and (group law). Then, for all, the mapping is a bijection with inverse. This follows from the above definition, and the real parameter may be taken as a generalized functional power, as in function iteration.  Flows are usually required to be compatible with structures furnished on the set. In particular, if is equipped with a topology, then is usually required to be continuous. If is equipped with a differentiable structure, then is usually required to be differentiable. In these cases the flow forms a one parameter subgroup of homeomorphisms and diffeomorphisms, respectively.  In certain situations one might also consider local flows, which are defined only in some subset called the flow domain of. This is often the case with the flows of vector fields.

Alternative notations.

It is very common in many fields, including engineering, physics and the study of differential equations, to use a notation that makes the flow implicit. Thus, is written for, and one might say that the "variable depends on the time and the initial condition ". Examples are given below.  In the case of a flow of a vector field on a smooth manifold, the flow is often denoted in such a way that its generator is made explicit. For example,

Orbits.

Given in, the set formula_6 is called the orbit of under. Informally, it may be regarded as the trajectory of a particle that was initially positioned at. If the flow is generated by a vector field, then its orbits are the images of its integral curves.

Examples.

Autonomous systems of ordinary differential equations.

Let be a (time-independent) vector field and the solution of the initial value problem  Then is the flow of the vector field "F". It is a well-defined local flow provided that the vector field

Time-dependent ordinary differential equations.

In the case of time-dependent vector fields, one denotes, where is the solution of Then is the time-dependent flow of "F". It is not a "flow" by the definition above, but it can easily be seen as one by rearranging its arguments. Namely, the mapping indeed satisfies the group law for the last variable: One can see time-dependent flows of vector fields as special cases of time-independent ones by the following trick. Define Then y("t") is the solution of the "time-independent" initial value problem if and only if is the solution of the original time-dependent initial value problem. Furthermore, then the mapping is exactly the flow of the "time-independent" vector field G.

Flows of vector fields on manifolds.

The flows of time-independent and time-dependent vector fields are defined on smooth manifolds exactly as they are defined on the Euclidean space and their local behavior is the same. However, the global topological structure of a smooth manifold is strongly manifest in what kind of global vector fields it can support, and flows of vector fields on smooth manifolds are indeed an important tool in differential topology. The bulk of studies in dynamical systems are conducted on smooth manifolds, which are thought of as "parameter spaces" in applications.

Solutions of heat equation.

Let be a subdomain (bounded or not) of R (with an integer). Denote by its boundary (assumed smooth). Consider the following Heat Equation on × (0,), for > 0, with the following initial boundary condition in.  The equation = 0 on corresponds to the Homogeneous Dirichlet boundary condition. The mathematical setting for this problem can be the semigroup approach. To use this tool, we introduce the unbounded operator defined on formula_14 by its domain (see the classical Sobolev spaces with formula_16 and is the closure of the infinitely differentiable functions with compact support in for the formula_18norm).  For any formula_19, we have  With this operator, the heat equation becomes formula_21 and. Thus, the flow corresponding to this equation is (see notations above) where is the (analytic) semigroup generated by.

Solutions of wave equation.

Again, let be a subdomain (bounded or not) of R (with an integer). We denote by its boundary (assumed smooth). Consider the following Wave Equation on formula_23 (for > 0), with the following initial condition in formula_25 and formula_26.  Using the same semigroup approach as in the case of the Heat Equation above. We write the wave equation as a first order in time partial differential equation by introducing the following unbounded operator, with domain formula_28 on formula_29 (the operator formula_30 is defined in the previous example).  We introduce the column vectors (where formula_32 and formula_33) and  With these notions, the Wave Equation becomes formula_35 and formula_36.  Thus, the flow corresponding to this equation is formula_37 where formula_38 is the (unitary) semigroup generated by formula_39.

Bernoulli flow.

Ergodic dynamical systems, that is, systems exhibiting randomness, exhibit flows as well. The most celebrated of these is perhaps the Bernoulli flow. The Ornstein isomorphism theorem states that, for any given entropy, there exists a flow, called the Bernoulli flow, such that the flow at time =1, "i.e.", is a Bernoulli shift.  Furthermore, this flow is unique, up to a constant rescaling of time. That is, if, is another flow with the same entropy, then, for some constant. The notion of uniqueness and isomorphism here is that of the isomorphism of dynamical systems. Many dynamical systems, including Sinai's billiards and Anosov flows are isomorphic to Bernoulli shifts.

In mathematics, a flow formalizes the idea of the motion of particles in a fluid. Flows are ubiquitous in science, including engineering and physics. The notion of flow is basic to the study of ordinary differential equations. Informally, a flow may be viewed as a continuous motion of points over time. More formally, a flow is a group action of the real numbers on a set.

在数学中, 一个流用数学方式形式化了“取决于时间的变化”的一般想法,这经常出现在工程学, 物理学和常微分方程的研究中。非正式地说,如果 formula_1 是某一系统的坐标连续表现为一个 "t" 的函数,那么formula_1 是一个流。更形式地说,流是单参数群在一个集合上的群作用。


Early life.

Iglesias was born in Madrid to Julio Iglesias Sr., a medical doctor from Ourense who became one of the youngest gynecologists in the country, and María del Rosario de la Cueva y Perignat. His paternal grandparents, Manuela Puga Noguerol and Ulpiano Iglesias Sarria, were of Galician ancestry. His maternal grandparents were José de la Cueva y Orejuela (1887–1955) and Dolores de Perignat y Ruiz de Benavides, who was a native of Guayama, Puerto Rico.  The name "Iglesias" translates as "churches", although Iglesias is of Jewish ancestry on his maternal side. He has said that his mother's family name, "de la Cueva y Perignat", meaning literally "of the cave" and referring to Jewish people in hiding, is a common Jewish name.  He alternated playing professional football with studying law at the CEU San Pablo University in Madrid. In his youth, he was a goalkeeper for Real Madrid Castilla in the Segunda División. His professional football career was ruined when he was involved in a serious automobile accident that left him unable to walk for two years. The accident smashed his lower spine and left his legs permanently weakened and requiring therapy for several years. He has said of those years, "I had more courage and attitude than talent." While he was in hospital after the accident, a nurse named Eladio Magdaleno gave him a guitar so that he could recover the dexterity of his hands. In learning to play, he discovered his musical talent. After his rehabilitation, Iglesias studied for three months at Bell Educational Trust's Language School in Cambridge, UK. After that, he went back to obtain his law degree at Complutense University of Madrid.

Entertainment career.

In 1968, he won the Benidorm International Song Festival, a songwriter's event in Spain, with the song ""La vida sigue igual"" (meaning "Life Goes On The Same") which was used in the film "La vida sigue igual" about his own life. He then signed a deal with Discos Columbia, the Spanish branch of the Columbia Records company, and released his first studio album, titled "Yo Canto", or "I Sing". The album spent 15 weeks in the Spanish charts and peaked at #3. He represented Spain in the 1970 Eurovision Song Contest, finishing in fourth place behind Ireland's winning entry, performed by Dana. His entry was the song "Gwendolyne." Shortly after, he had a number one hit in many European countries with "Un Canto A Galicia", sung in Galician, in honour of his father, who hailed from Galicia. That single sold 1 million copies in Germany. In 1975, he found success in the Italian market by recording a song exclusively in Italian, called "Se mi lasci non vale" or "If You Leave Me, It Can't Be." Notable albums from this decade are "A flor de piel" (1974, with the European hit "Manuela"), "El amor" (1975), and "Soy" (1973). He also sang in French: one of his popular songs in this language became "Je n'ai pas changé."  In 1979, he moved to Miami, Florida, in the United States, signed a deal with CBS International and started singing in different languages such as English, French, Portuguese and German. Two years later, he released the album "De niña a mujer", which he dedicated to his daughter, who appeared on the cover with him. From it came the first English-language hit of his career, a Spanish cover of "Begin the Beguine" which became number 1 in the United Kingdom; he also released a collection, "Julio" (1983). In 1984, he released "1100 Bel Air Place", the hit album which established him as a star in the English-speaking entertainment industry. It sold over three million albums in the United States alone. The first single, "To All the Girls I've Loved Before", a duet with Willie Nelson, hit #1 on the Country charts and went Top Five in the "Billboard" Hot 100. It also featured "All of You", in vocal duet with Diana Ross, a Top Twenty Pop hit, that climbed to #2 on the Adult Contemporary Chart with the help of a popular video. They also collaborated with The Beach Boys  Iglesias won a Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Album in the 1988 Grammy Awards for the album "Un hombre solo" ("A Man Alone"). He recorded a duet with Stevie Wonder, "My Love", in his "Non Stop" album, a crossover success in 1988. In the 1990s, Iglesias returned to his original Spanish melody in "Tango" (1996), nominated for Best Latin Pop Album at the 1998 Grammy Awards, losing to the "Romances" album by Mexican singer, Luis Miguel.  Iglesias made a cameo appearance as himself on "The Golden Girls" as Sophia Petrillo's date on St. Valentine's Day 1989. In 1993 he recorded Summer Wind with Frank Sinatra. In 1994 he released Crazy, including duets with Dolly Parton, Sting and Art Garfunkel. In 1995, Iglesias was the recipient of the Excellence Award at the 1995 Lo Nuestro Awards. In 2001, Iglesias was recognized as the Person of the Year by the Latin Recording Academy. A year later, Iglesias was inducted into the International Latin Music Hall of Fame.  In 2003, Julio released his album "Divorcio" ("Divorce"). In its first day of sales, "Divorcio" sold a record 350,000 albums in Spain, and reached the number 1 spot on the charts in Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, and Russia. In 2003 and 2004, aided by the success of his "Divorcio" album, Iglesias went on a ten-month world tour which took him from Europe to Asia and then on to North America, South America and Africa. More than half the shows on that tour sold out within days of going on sale. In December 2004, his Dutch girlfriend Miranda Rijnsburger and Iglesias himself recorded a duet of the Christmas song "Silent Night". The song, which was not officially released, also included a voice message from Iglesias, Rijnsburger, and their four young children. The song was released online through the singer's official website and a CD was included on their Christmas card as a holiday gift from the Iglesias family to their friends and fans around the world.  In 2008, Iglesias recorded another song as a gift to his fans. The family recorded "The Little Drummer Boy" in Spanish and English and included it in the family's Christmas card. Iglesias also made investments in the Dominican Republic's eastern town of Punta Cana, a major tourist destination, where he took to spending most of the year. He became a Dominican citizen in 2005.  In September 2006, Iglesias released a new English-language album, which he titled "Romantic Classics." "I've chosen songs from the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s that I believe will come to be regarded as the new standards," Iglesias stated in the album's sleeve notes. The album featured his interpretations of Foreigner's "I Want to Know What Love Is", the Wham! selection "Careless Whisper", and Richard Marx's "Right Here Waiting". "Romantic Classics" was Iglesias's highest debut on the Billboard charts, entering at number 31 in the United States, 21 in Canada, 10 in Australia, and top spots across Europe and Asia. He returned to the studio to record songs in Filipino and Indonesian for his Asian releases of "Romantic Classics", which helped propel record sales in the Asian entertainment industry. Iglesias promoted "Romantic Classics" in 2006; it was seen all over the world on television shows. In the United States, for example, he appeared on "Dancing With The Stars", where he sang his version of "I Want To Know What Love Is", "Good Morning America", "The View", "Fox and Friends" and "Martha Stewart".  In 2008, Iglesias made a music video with Gulnara Karimova, the daughter of Uzbek dictator Islam Karimov. In October 2012, he performed a concert in Equatorial Guinea where tickets were reportedly $1,000 each.  Iglesias's performance of the song "La Mer" ("The Sea") is featured in the soundtrack of the 2011 film "Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy". The performance comes from a live album that he recorded live at the Olympia in 1976.  On 1 April 2013, in Beijing, he received two historic awards: First & Most Popular International Artist of All Time in China, an award given by Sony Music China and which was presented to Julio by the world-renowned Chinese artist Lang Lang, and the Guinness World Records for the Best-selling Male Latin Artist. As Iglesias is a composer and lyricist, some of his songs being of his own authorship and composition, on 23 April 2013, he was inducted into the Latin Songwriters Hall of Fame, alongside Armando Manzanero and José Feliciano.  In 2015, Iglesias was slated to perform a complete concert for the first time with his son Julio Iglesias Jr. in a tour in Romania, on 22 May at Sala Polivalentă in Cluj-Napoca and 2 July at Sala Palatului in the capital city, Bucharest.  Berklee College of Music awarded Iglesias an Honorary Doctorate in May 2015 in recognition of his achievements and influence in music and for his enduring contribution to American and international culture.

Personal life.

On 29 January 1971, Iglesias married Isabel Preysler, a Filipina journalist and television host. Preysler, a Filipina of Spanish ancestry, was also a member of the wealthy and aristocratic Pérez de Tagle family. The couple had three children: Chábeli (born 3 September 1971), a socialite; Julio Jr. (born 25 February 1973), a singer; and Enrique (born 8 May 1975), an internationally successful singer-songwriter, actor, and record producer. In the 1970s, Iglesias and his family were extensively depicted on the front pages of international newspapers and magazines. The marriage ended in divorce in 1979.  Whenever Iglesias was not on tour, he spent his time at his Miami residence, purchased in 1978 for $650,000. The mansion on the private Indian Creek Island, whose interior design was made by Virginia Sipl, was placed on the market in 2006 for a quoted $28 million, making it one of the "Ten Most Expensive Homes in the South" in 2006 according to "Forbes" magazine.  After his divorce, Iglesias lived with Dutch model Miranda Rijnsburger, 22 years his junior, whom he married on 26 August 2010 in a small church in Marbella, Spain. They had five children: Miguel Alejandro Iglesias (born 7 September 1997), Rodrigo Iglesias (born 3 April 1999), twins Cristina and Victoria Iglesias (born 1 May 2001), and Guillermo Iglesias (born 5 May 2007). They took up residence in the Dominican Republic, where Iglesias had acquired several hotel complexes, as well as the Punta Cana International Airport, which he acquired jointly with other investors, including fashion designer Oscar de la Renta.  On 19 December 2005, Iglesias's father died of a heart attack at the age of 90. A week before his death, it became known that his 42-year-old wife, Ronna Keith, was pregnant with their second child. Their first child, Jaime, was born on 18 May 2004. The second child, Ruth, was born on 26 July 2006.  In 2008, after his house in Indian Creek did not sell at his asking price, he ordered it razed and said he planned to build another on the lot. In 2012, he purchased the property next door for $15 million and announced that he planned to build a new home on the combined properties.  In 2019, he was declared as the biological father of a 43-year old Spaniard after having a short affair with the mother. The ruling in Spain was a victory for former ballerina Maria Edite Santos and her son Javier Sánchez, 43, who began the paternity claim three decades before.

Julio José Iglesias de la Cueva (; born 23 September 1943) is a Spanish singer, songwriter and former professional footballer. Iglesias is recognized as the most commercially successful Continental European singer in the world and one of the top record sellers in music history, having sold more than 300 million records worldwide in 14 languages It is estimated that during his career he has performed in more than 5000 concerts, for over 60 million people in five continents. In April 2013, Iglesias was inducted into the Hall of Fame of Latin Composers.

胡利奥·伊格莱西亚斯(,,1943年-9月23日),销量极佳的西班牙情歌男歌手。他曾发行过77张专辑,销量超过2亿5千万份。他曾进行过超过5000场个人演唱会,并以14种语言演唱过。


History.

The Soviet Army began looking for a new heavy machine gun to replace its older SGM and DShK machine guns in the early 1950s. The Soviet Army liked the idea behind the German MG 42; a versatile weapon used on a variety of mounts to perform many different roles. Two Soviet weapon designers were asked to design one weapon each utilizing the same principle.  Testing approved Mikhail Kalashnikov's solution; it was found to be more reliable and cheaper to manufacture than the design of Grigory Nikitin and Yuri Sokolov. Kalashnikov's machine gun became the new standard machine gun, and was named PK.  Nikitin's and Sokolov's design was however not forgotten. It was developed into the heavy NSV machine gun about 10 years later and selected in 1969 as the successor to the DShK/DShKM machine gun. It was accepted in service by the Soviet Army in 1971. The machine gun was also license-manufactured in Bulgaria, India, Yugoslavia and Poland. The Yugoslavian version of the NSVT is called the M87.  Production of the NSV has ended in Russia, and it is currently being replaced by the Kord heavy machine gun. The Russian Army needed a more accurate heavy machine gun, and it has also been increasingly difficult to get hold of spare parts. NSV production was located in Ukraine and in Kazakhstan and was disrupted by the end of the Soviet Union.

Use in Finland.

The NSV is called 12,7 Itkk 96 or "12,7 ilmatorjuntakonekivääri 96" (12,7 anti-aircraft machine gun 96) in Finland. It is often used as a vehicle-mounted machine gun, and can be seen on the Pasi armoured personnel carrier, the Nasu transport vehicle and the Leopard 2R tank.  Due to its high rate of fire, the NSV is intended to be used as a close-range anti-aircraft weapon against helicopters, UAVs and aircraft. In dismounted ground combat it is placed on a special mount.  The Finnish Navy also uses the NSV in the anti-aircraft role, where it complements other unguided anti-aircraft weapons like the 23 ITK 95, Bofors 40 Mk3 or Bofors 57 Mk2 and Mk3.

The NSV (Russian НСВ Никитина-Соколова-Волкова), also known as the «Utyos» (Project: "Lonely Cliff"), is a 12.7mm caliber heavy machine gun of Soviet origin, named after the designers, G. I. Nikitin (Г. И. Никитин), Y. S. Sokolov (Ю. М. Соколов) and V. I. Volkov (В. И. Волков). It was designed to replace the DShK machine gun and was adopted by the Soviet Army in 1971. It is no longer being produced in Russia; the manufacturing license for the NSV ended up in Kazakhstan after the break-up of the Soviet Union. The NSV has been manufactured in Bulgaria, India, Poland and Yugoslavia under license.

NSV12.7毫米重机枪由苏联制造,名字取自其三位设计师G.I. Nikitin、J.S. Sokolov及V.I. Volkov。


Political background.

Allende contested the 1970 presidential election with Jorge Alessandri Rodriguez of the National Party and Radomiro Tomic of the Christian Democratic Party. Allende received 36.6% of the vote. Alessandri was a very close second with 35.3%, and Tomic third with 28.1%. Although Allende received the highest number of votes, according to the Chilean constitution and since none of the candidates won by an absolute majority, the National Congress had to decide among the candidates.  The 1925 constitution did not allow a person to be president for two consecutive terms. The incumbent president, Eduardo Frei Montalva, was therefore ineligible as a candidate. The CIA's "Track I" operation was a plan to influence the Congress to choose Alessandri, who would resign after a short time in office, forcing a second election. Frei would then be eligible to run. Alessandri announced on 9 September that if Congress chose him, he would resign. Congress then decided on Allende. Soon after hearing news of his win, Allende signed a Statute of Constitutional Guarantees, which stated that he would follow the constitution during his presidency.  The U.S. feared the example of a "well-functioning socialist experiment" in the region and exerted diplomatic, economic, and covert pressure upon Chile's elected socialist government. At the end of 1971, the Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro made a four-week state visit to Chile, alarming Western observers worried about the "Chilean Way to Socialism".  In 1972, economics minister Pedro Vuskovic adopted monetary policies that increased the amount of circulating currency and devalued the escudo, which increased inflation to 140 percent in 1972 and engendered a black market economy.  In October 1972, Chile suffered the first of many strikes. Among the participants were small-scale businessmen, some professional unions, and student groups. Its leaders – Vilarín, Jaime Guzmán, Rafael Cumsille, Guillermo Elton, Eduardo Arriagada – expected to depose the elected government. Other than damaging the national economy, the principal effect of the 24-day strike was drawing Army head, Gen. Carlos Prats, into the government as Interior Minister, an appeasement to the right wing. (Gen. Prats had succeeded Army head Gen. René Schneider after his assassination on 24 October 1970 by a group led by Gen. Roberto Viaux, whom the Central Intelligence Agency had not attempted to discourage.) Gen. Prats supported the legalist Schneider Doctrine and refused military involvement in a coup d'état against President Allende.  Despite the declining economy, President Allende's Popular Unity coalition increased its vote to 43.2% in the March 1973 parliamentary elections; but, by then, the informal alliance between Popular Unity and the Christian Democrats ended. The Christian Democrats allied with the right-wing National Party, who were opposed to Allende's government; the two right-wing parties formed the Confederation of Democracy (CODE). The internecine parliamentary conflict between the legislature and the executive branch paralyzed the activities of government.  Allende began to fear his opponents, convinced they were plotting his assassination. Using his daughter as a messenger, he explained the situation to Fidel Castro. Castro gave four pieces of advice: convince technicians to stay in Chile, only sell copper for US dollars, avoid extreme revolutionary acts which would give opponents an excuse to wreck or control the economy, and maintain a proper relationship with the Chilean military until local militias could be established and consolidated. Allende attempted to follow Castro's advice, but the latter two recommendations proved difficult.

Crisis.

On 29 June 1973, Colonel Roberto Souper surrounded the La Moneda presidential palace with his tank regiment and failed to depose the Allende Government. That failed "coup d’état" – known as the "Tanquetazo" tank putsch – had been organized by the nationalist "Fatherland and Liberty" paramilitary group.  In August 1973, a constitutional crisis occurred; the Supreme Court publicly complained about the government's inability to enforce the law of the land. On 22 August, the Chamber of Deputies (with the Christian Democrats united with the National Party) accused the government of unconstitutional acts and called upon the military to enforce constitutional order.  For months, the government had feared calling upon the "Carabineros" national police, suspecting them of disloyalty. On 9 August, Allende appointed General Carlos Prats as Minister of Defence. He was forced to resign both as defence minister and as the Army commander-in-chief on 24 August 1973, embarrassed by the Alejandrina Cox incident and a public protest of the wives of his generals at his house. General Augusto Pinochet replaced him as Army commander-in-chief the same day. In late August 1973, 100,000 Chilean women congregated at Plaza de la Constitución to protest against the government for the rising cost and increasing shortages of food and fuels, but they were dispersed with tear gas.

Chamber of Deputies' resolution.

On 22 August 1973, with the support of the Christian Democrats and National Party members, the Chamber of Deputies passed 81–47 a resolution that asked "the President of the Republic, Ministers of State, and members of the Armed and Police Forces" to "put an immediate end" to "breach[es of] the Constitution... with the goal of redirecting government activity toward the path of Law and ensuring the Constitutional order of our Nation, and the essential underpinnings of democratic co-existence among Chileans."  The resolution declared that the Allende Government sought "... to conquer absolute power with the obvious purpose of subjecting all citizens to the strictest political and economic control by the State... [with] the goal of establishing a totalitarian system",

President Allende's response.

Two days later, on 24 August 1973, President Allende responded, characterising the Congress' declaration as "destined to damage the country’s prestige abroad and create internal confusion", predicting "It will facilitate the seditious intention of certain sectors". He noted that the declaration had not obtained the two-thirds Senate majority "constitutionally required" to convict the president of abuse of power: essentially, the Congress was "invoking the intervention of the armed forces and of Order against a democratically elected government" and "subordinat[ing] political representation of national sovereignty to the armed institutions, which neither can nor ought to assume either political functions or the representation of the popular will".  Allende argued he had obeyed constitutional means for including military men to the cabinet "at the service of civic peace and national security, defending republican institutions against insurrection and terrorism". In contrast, he said that Congress was promoting a "coup d’état" or a civil war with a declaration "full

U.S. involvement.

Many people in different parts of the world immediately suspected the U.S. of foul play. In early newspaper reports, the U.S. denied any involvement or previous knowledge of the coup. Prompted by an incriminating "New York Times" article, the U.S. Senate opened an investigation into possible U.S. interference in Chile. A report prepared by the United States Intelligence Community in 2000, at the direction of the National Intelligence Council, that echoed the Church committee, states that The report stated that the CIA "actively supported the military Junta after the overthrow of Allende but did not assist Pinochet to assume the Presidency." After a review of recordings of telephone conversations between Nixon and Henry Kissinger, Robert Dallek concluded that both of them used the CIA to actively destabilize the Allende government. In one particular conversation about the news of Allende's overthrow, Kissinger complains about the lack of recognition of the American role in the overthrow of a "communist" government, upon which Nixon remarked, "Well, we didn't – as you know – our hand doesn't show on this one." A later CIA report contended that US agents maintained close ties with the Chilean military to collect intelligence but no effort was made to assist them and "under no circumstances attempted to influence them."  Historian Peter Winn found "extensive evidence" of United States complicity in the coup. He states that its covert support was crucial to engineering the coup, as well as for the consolidation of power by the Pinochet regime following the takeover. Winn documents an extensive CIA operation to fabricate reports of a coup against Allende,

Australian involvement.

An Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS) station was established in Chile at the Australian embassy in July 1971 at the request of the CIA and authorised by then Liberal Party Foreign Minister William McMahon. Newly-elected Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam was informed of the operation in February 1973 and signed a document ordering the closure of the operation several weeks later. It appears, however, the last ASIS

Military action.

By 7:00 am on 11 September 1973, a date chosen to match the historical coup of 12 September 1924, the Navy captured Valparaíso, strategically stationing ships and marine infantry in the central coast and closed radio and television networks. The Province Prefect informed President Allende of the Navy's actions; immediately, the president went to the presidential palace with his bodyguards, the "Group of Personal Friends" (GAP). By 8:00 am, the Army had closed most radio and television stations in Santiago city; the Air Force bombed the remaining active stations; the President received incomplete information, and was convinced that only a sector of the Navy conspired against him and his government.  President Allende and Defence minister Orlando Letelier were unable to communicate with military leaders. Admiral Montero, the Navy's commander and an Allende loyalist, was rendered incommunicado; his telephone service was cut and his cars were sabotaged before the "coup d’état", to ensure he could not thwart the opposition. Leadership of the Navy was transferred to José Toribio Merino, planner of the "coup d’état" and executive officer to Adm. Montero. Augusto Pinochet, General of the Army, and Gustavo Leigh, General of the Air Force, did not answer Allende's telephone calls to them. The General Director of the "Carabineros" (uniformed police), José María Sepúlveda, and the head of the Investigations Police (plain clothes detectives), Alfredo Joignant answered Allende's calls and immediately went to the "La Moneda" presidential palace. When Defence minister Letelier arrived at the Ministry of Defense, controlled by Adm. Patricio Carvajal, he was arrested

Casualties.

In the first months after the "coup d’état," the military killed thousands of Chilean leftists, both real and suspected, or forced their "disappearance". The military imprisoned 40,000 political enemies in the National Stadium of Chile; among the tortured and killed "desaparecidos" (disappeared) were the U.S. citizens Charles Horman, and Frank Teruggi. In October 1973, the Chilean songwriter Víctor Jara was murdered, along with 70 other people in a series of killings perpetrated by the death squad Caravan of Death ("Caravana de la Muerte").  The government arrested some 130,000 people in a three-year period; the dead and disappeared numbered thousands in the first months of the military government. Those include the British physician Sheila Cassidy, who survived to publicize to the UK the human rights violations in Chile. Among those detained was Alberto Bachelet (father of future Chilean President Michelle Bachelet), an Air Force official; he was tortured and died on 12 March 1974, the right-wing newspaper, "El Mercurio", reported that Mr Bachelet died after a basketball game, citing his poor cardiac health. Michelle Bachelet and her mother were imprisoned and tortured in the Villa Grimaldi detention and torture centre on 10 January 1975.  After Gen. Pinochet lost the election in the 1988 plebiscite, the Rettig Commission, a multi-partisan truth commission, in 1991 reported the location of torture and detention centers, among others, Colonia Dignidad, the tall ship "Esmeralda" and Víctor Jara Stadium. Later, in November 2004, the Valech Report confirmed the number as less than 3,000 killed, and reduced the number of cases of forced disappearance; but some 28,000 people were arrested, imprisoned, and tortured. Sixty individuals died as a direct result of fighting on 11 September, although the MIR and GAP continued to fight the following day.

Allende's death.

President Allende died in La Moneda during the coup. The junta officially declared that he committed suicide with a rifle given to him by Fidel Castro, two doctors from the infirmary of La Moneda stated that they witnessed the suicide, and an autopsy labelled Allende's death a suicide. Vice Admiral Patricio Carvajal, one of the primary instigators of the coup, claimed that "Allende committed suicide and is dead now." Patricio Guijon, one of the president's doctors, had testified to witnessing Allende shoot himself under the chin with the rifle while seated on a sofa.  At the time, few of Allende's supporters believed the explanation that Allende had killed himself. Allende's body was exhumed in May 2011. The exhumation was requested by members of the Allende family,

Aftermath.

Installing a new regime.

On 13 September, the Junta dissolved Congress, outlawed the parties that had been part of the Popular Unity coalition, and all political activity was declared "in recess". The military government took control of all media, including the radio broadcasting that Allende attempted to use to give his final speech to the nation. It is not known how many Chileans actually heard the last words of Allende as he spoke them, but a transcript and audio of the speech survived the military government. Chilean scholar Lidia M. Baltra details

Continued violence.

The newspaper "La Tercera" published on its front page a photograph showing prisoners at the Quiriquina Island Camp who had been captured during the fighting in Concepción. The photograph's caption stated that some of the detained were local leaders of the "Unidad Popular" while others were "extremists who had attacked the armed forces with firearms". The photo is reproduced in Docuscanner. This is consistent with reports in newspapers and broadcasts in Concepción about the activities of the Armed Forces, which mentioned clashes with "extremists" on several occasions from 11 to 14 September. Nocturnal skirmishes took place around the Hotel Alonso de Ercilla in Colo Colo and San Martín Street, one block away from the Army and military police administrative headquarters. A recently published testimony about the clashes in Concepcion offers several plausible explanations for the reticence of witnesses to these actions.  Besides political leaders and participants, the coup also affected many everyday Chilean citizens. Thousands were killed, went missing, and were injured. Because of the political instability in their country, many relocated elsewhere. Canada, among other countries, became a

International reaction.

President of Argentina Juan Domingo Perón condemned the coup calling it a "fatality for the continent". Before the coup Perón had warned the more radical of

Commemoration.

The commemoration of the coup is associated to competing narratives on its cause and effects. The coup has been commemorated by detractors and supporters in various ways.  On 11 September 1975 Pinochet lit the Llama de la Libertad (lit. Flame of Liberty) to commemorate the coup. This flame was extinguished in 2004. Avenida Nueva Providencia in Providencia, Santiago, was renamed Avenida 11 de Septiembre in 1980. In the 30th anniversary of the coup President Ricardo Lagos inaugurated the Morandé 80 entrance to La Moneda. This entrance to the presidential palace had been erased during the repairs the dictatorship did to the building after the bombing.

40th anniversary.

The 40th anniversary of the coup in 2013 was particularly intense. That year the name of Avenida 11 de Septiembre was reversed to the original Avenida Nueva Providencia. The Association of Chilean Magistrates issued a public statement in early September 2013 recognizing the past unwillingness of judges to protect those persecuted by dictatorship. On 11 September 2013 hundreds of Chileans posed as dead in the streets of Santiago in remembrance of the ones "disappeared" by the dictatorship.  The centre-left opposition refused to attend the commemoration event organized by Sebastián Piñera's right-wing government organizing instead a separate event. Osvaldo Andrade of the Socialist Party explained that attendance was not viable as Piñera's government was "packed with passive accomplices" of the dictatorship. Some right-wing politicians also declined the invitation. Presidential

The 1973 Chilean coup d'état was the overthrow of the socialist President of Chile Salvador Allende by the army and national police. It followed an extended period of social unrest and political tension between the opposition-controlled Congress of Chile and the socialist President Salvador Allende, as well as economic warfare ordered by US President Richard Nixon.

1973年智利政变()是指发生于1973年9月11日的一场推翻时任智利总统萨尔瓦多·阿连德的军事政变。结果阿连德遇害,由皮诺契特将军继任实行独裁统治至1990年。此次政变被视为冷战期间,美苏双方在智利相互角力的象征。


History.

Origins.

According to Chinese mythology, the origins of traditional Chinese medicine are traced back to the three legendary sovereigns Fuxi, Shennong and Yellow Emperor. Shennong is believed to have tasted hundreds of herbs to ascertain their medicinal value and effects on the human body and help relieve people of their sufferings. The oldest written record focussing solely on the medicinal use of plants was the "Shennong Ben Cao Jing" which was compiled around the end of the first century B.C. and is said to have classified 365 species of herbs or medicinal plants.  Chinese medical practices were introduced to Japan during the 6th century A.D. In 608, Empress Suiko dispatched E-Nichi, Fuku-In and other young physicians to China. It is said that they studied medicine there for 15 years. Until 838, Japan sent 19 missions to Tang China. While the officials studied Chinese government structures, physicians and many of the Japanese monks absorbed Chinese medical knowledge.

Early Japanese adaptation.

In 702 A.D., the Taihō Code was promulgated as an adaptation of the governmental system of China's Tang Dynasty. One section called for the establishment of a university ("daigaku") including a medical school with an elaborate training program, but due to incessant civil war this program never became effective. Empress Kōmyō (701–760) established the "Hidenin" and "Seyakuin" in the Kōfuku-Temple (Kōfuku-ji) in Nara, being two Buddhist institutions that provided free healthcare and medicine for the needy. For centuries to come Japanese Buddhist monks were essential in conveying Chinese medical know-how to Japan and in providing health care for both the elite and the general population.  In 753 A.D., the Chinese priest Jianzhen (in Japanese Ganjin), who was well-versed in medicine, arrived in Japan after five failed attempts in 12 years to cross the East China Sea. As he was blind, he used his sense of smell to identify herbs. He brought medical texts and a large collection of materia medica to the imperial palace in Nara, which he dedicated to the Emperor Shōmu in 756, 49 days after the emperor’s death. They are kept in a log-cabin-style treasure house of the Tōdai-Temple (Tōdai-ji) known as Shōsōin.  In 787 A.D., the "Newly Revised Materia Medica" ("Xinxiu Bencao", 659 A.D.), which had been sponsored by the Tang Imperial Court, became an obligatory text in the study of medicine at the Japanese Health Ministry, but many of the 844 medicinal substances described in this book were not available in Japan at the time. Around 918 A.D., a Japanese medical dictionary entitled "Japanese names of (Chinese) Materia Medica" ("Honzō-wamyō") was compiled, quoting from 60 Chinese medical works.  During the Heian Period, Tanba Yasuyori (912–995) compiled the first Japanese medical book, Ishinpō ("Prescriptions from the Heart of Medicine"), drawing from numerous Chinese texts, some of which have perished later. During the period from 1200 to 1600, medicine in Japan became more practical. Most of the physicians were Buddhist monks who continued to use the formulas, theories and practices that had been introduced by the early envoys from Tang China.

Early revision.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, Japanese physicians began to achieve a more independent view on Chinese medicine. After 12 years of studies in China Tashiro Sanki (1465–1537) became the leading figure of a movement called "Followers of Later Developments in Medicine" ("Gosei-ha"). This school propagated the teachings of Li Dongyuan and Zhu Tanxi that gradually superseded the older doctrines from the Song dynasty. Manase Dōsan, one of his disciples, adapted Tashiro's teachings to Japanese conditions. Based on his own observation and experience, he compiled a book on internal medicine in 8 volumes ("Keiteki-shū") and established an influential private medical school ("Keiteki-in") in Kyōto. His son Gensaku wrote a book of case studies ("Igaku tenshō-ki") and developed a considerable number of new herb formulas.  From the second half of the 17th century, a new movement, the "Followers of Classic Methods" ("Kohō-ha"), evolved, which emphasized the teachings and formulas of the Chinese classic "Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders" ("Shanghan Lun", in Japanese "Shōkan-ron"). While the etiological concepts of this school were as speculative as those of the "Gosei-ha", the therapeutic approaches were based on empirical observations and practical experience. This return to "classic methods" was initiated by Nagoya Gen'i (1628–1696), and advocated by influential proponents such as Gotō Gonzan (1659–1733), Yamawaki Tōyō (1705–1762), and Yoshimasu Tōdō (1702–1773). Yoshimasu is considered to be the most influential figure. He accepted any effective technique, regardless of its particular philosophical background. Yoshimasu's abdominal diagnostics are commonly credited with differentiating early modern Traditional Japanese medicine (TJM) from Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM).  During the later part of the Edo period, many Japanese practitioners began to utilize elements of both schools. Some, such as Ogino Gengai (1737–1806), Ishizaka Sōtetsu (1770–1841), or Honma Sōken (1804–1872), even tried to incorporate Western concepts and therapies, which had made their way into the country through physicians at the Dutch trading-post Dejima (Nagasaki). Although Western medicine gained some ground in the field of surgery, there was not much competition between "Eastern" and "Western" schools until the 19th century, because even adherents of "Dutch-Studies" (Rangaku) were very eclectic in their actual practice.  Traditional medicine never lost its popularity throughout the Edo period, but it entered a period of rapid decline shortly after the Meiji Restoration. In 1871, the new government decided to modernize medical education based on the German medical system. Starting in 1875, new medical examinations focused on natural sciences and Western medical disciplines. In October 1883, a law retracted the licenses of any existing traditional practitioner. Despite losing legal standing, a small number of traditional physicians continued to practice privately. Some of them, such as Yamada Gyōkō (1808–1881), Asada Sōhaku (1813–1894), and Mori Risshi (1807–1885), organized an "Association to Preserve [Traditional] Knowledge" ("Onchi-sha") and started to set up small hospitals. However, by 1887, the organization was disbanded due to internal policy dissent and the death of leading figures. The "Imperial Medical Association" ("Teikoku Ikai"), founded in 1894, was short-lived too. In 1895, the 8th National Assembly of the Diet vetoed a request to continue the practice of Kampō. When Azai Kokkan (1848–1903), one of the main activists, died, the Kampō-movement was almost stamped out.

Era of Western influence.

Any further attempt to save traditional practices had to take into account Western concepts and therapies. Therefore, it was graduates from medical faculties, trained in Western medicine, who began to set out to revive traditional practices. In 1910, Wada Keijūrō (1872‐1916) published "The Iron Hammer of the Medical World" ("Ikai no tettsui"). Yumoto Kyūshin (1876–1942), a graduate from Kanazawa Medical School, was so impressed by this book that he became a student of Dr. Wada. His "Japanese-Chinese Medicine" ("Kōkan igaku"), published in 1927, was the first book on Kampō medicine in which Western medical findings were used to interpret classical Chinese texts. In 1927, Nakayama Tadanao (1895–1957) presented his "New Research on Kampō-Medicine" ("Kampō-igaku no shin kenkyū"). Another "convert" was Ōtsuka Keisetsu (1900–1980), who became one of the most famous Kampō practitioners of the 20th century.  This gradual revival was supported by the modernization of the dosage form of herbal medicine. During the 1920s, the Nagakura Pharmaceutical Company in Osaka began developing dried decoctions in a granular form. At about the same time, Tsumura Juntendō, a company founded by Tsumura Jūsha (1871–1941) in 1893, established a research institute to promote the development of standardized Kampō medicine. Gradually, these "Japanese-Chinese remedies" ("wakan-yaku") became a standard method of Kampō medicine administration.  In 1937, new researchers such as Yakazu Dōmei (1905–2002) started to promote Kampō at the so-called “Takushoku University Kampo Seminar”. More than 700 people attended these seminars that continued after the war. In 1938, following a proposal of Yakazu, the "Asia Medicine Association" was established. In 1941, Takeyama Shinichirō published his "Theories on the Restoration of Kampō Medicine" ("Kampō-ijutsu fukkō no riron", 1941). In that same year, Yakazu, Ōtsuka, Kimura Nagahisa, and Shimizu Fujitarō (1886–1976) completed a book entitled "The Actual Practice of Kampō Medicine" ("Kampō shinryō no jissai"). By including Western medical disease names he greatly expanded the usage of Kampō formulas. A new version of this influential manual was printed in 1954. This book was also translated into Chinese. A completely revised version was published in 1969 under the title "Medical Dictionary of Kampō Practice" ("Kampō Shinryō Iten"). In 1950, Ōtsuka Keisetsu, Yakazu Dōmei, Hosono Shirō (1899–1989), Okuda Kenzō (1884–1961), and other leaders of the pre- and postwar Kampō revival movement established the "Japan Society for Oriental Medicine" ("Nippon Tōyō Igakkai") with 89 members (2014: more than 9000 members). In 1960, raw materials for crude drugs listed in the Japanese Pharmacopoeia ("Nippon Yakkyoku-hō") received official drug prices under the National Health Insurance (NHI, "Kokumin kenkō hoken").

Approved Kampō medicines.

Today in Japan, Kampō is integrated into the Japanese national health care system. In 1967, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare approved four Kampō medicines for reimbursement under the National Health Insurance (NHI) program. In 1976, 82 kampo medicines were approved by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. This number has increased to 148 Kampo formulation extracts, 241 crude drugs, and 5 crude drug preparations.  Rather than modifying formulae as in Traditional Chinese medicine, the Japanese Kampō tradition uses fixed combinations of herbs in standardized proportions according to the classical literature of Chinese medicine. Kampō medicines are produced by various manufacturers. However, each medicine is composed of exactly the same ingredients under the Ministry's standardization methodology. The medicines are therefore prepared under strict manufacturing conditions that rival pharmaceutical companies. In October 2000, a nationwide study reported that 72% of registered physicians prescribe Kampō medicines. New Kampō medicines are being evaluated using modern techniques to evaluate their mechanism of action.  Regulations, and likewise safety precautions, are much stronger and tighter for Japanese Kampō than Chinese traditional medicine due to strict enforcement of laws and standardization.

Herbs.

The 14th edition of the "Japanese Pharmacopoeia" (JP, "Nihon yakkyokuhō") lists 165 herbal ingredients that are used in Kampō medicines. Lots of the Kampō products are routinely tested for heavy metals, purity, and microbial content to eliminate any contamination. Kampō medicines are tested for the levels of key chemical constituents as markers for quality control on every formula. This is carried out from the blending of the raw herbs to the end product according to the Ministry’s pharmaceutical standards.  Medicinal mushrooms like Reishi and Shiitake are herbal products with a long history of use. In Japan, the "Agaricus blazei" mushroom is a highly popular herb, which is used by close to 500,000 people. In Japan, "Agaricus blazei" is also the most popular herb used by cancer patients. The second most used herb is an isolate from the Shiitake mushroom, known as Active Hexose Correlated Compound.

Kampō outside Japan.

In the United States, Kampō is practiced mostly by acupuncturists, Chinese medicine practitioners, naturopath physicians, and other alternative medicine professionals. Kampō herbal formulae are studied under clinical trials, such as the clinical study of Honso Sho-saiko-to (H09) for treatment of hepatitis C at the New York Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, and liver cirrhosis caused by hepatitis C at the UCSD Liver Center. Both clinical trials are sponsored by Honso USA, Inc., a branch of Honso Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Nagoya, Japan.

, often known simply as, is the study of traditional Chinese medicine in Japan following its introduction, beginning in the 7th century. Since then, the Japanese have created their own unique system of diagnosis and therapy. Japanese traditional medicine uses most of the Chinese therapies including acupuncture and moxibustion, but Kampō in its present-day sense is primarily concerned with the study of herbs.

日本汉方医学,是日本的传统医学之一,其是从汉医学的基础上发展而来。汉方的治疗方法以草药为主,但也包括传统的治疗手段,如针灸、按摩等,执业医师称为汉方医。


Details.

Purchasing managers/directors, and procurement managers/directors guide the organization’s acquisition procedures and standards. Most organizations use a three-way check as the foundation of their purchasing programs. This involves three departments in the organization completing separate parts of the acquisition process. The three departments do not all report to the same senior manager, to prevent unethical practices and lend credibility to the process. These departments can be purchasing, receiving and accounts payable; or engineering, purchasing and accounts payable; or a plant manager, purchasing and accounts payable. Combinations can vary significantly, but a purchasing department and accounts payable are usually two of the three departments involved.  When the receiving department is not involved, it is typically called a two-way check or two-way purchase order. In this situation, the purchasing department issues the purchase order receipt not required. When an invoice arrives against the order, the accounts payable department will then go directly to the requestor of the purchase order to verify that the goods or services were received. This is typically what is done for goods and services that will bypass the receiving department. A few examples are software delivered electronically, NRE work (non-reoccurring engineering services), consulting hours, etc.  Historically, the purchasing department issued purchase for supplies, services, equipment, and raw materials. Then, in an effort to decrease the administrative costs associated with the repetitive ordering of basic consumable items, "blanket" or "master" agreements were put into place. These types of agreements typically have a longer duration and increased scope to maximize the quantities of scale concept. When additional supplies were required, a simple release would be issued to the supplier to provide the goods or services.  Another method of decreasing administrative costs associated with repetitive contracts for common material, is the use of company credit cards, also known as "Purchasing Cards" or simply "P-Cards". P-card programs vary, but all of them have internal checks and audits to ensure appropriate use. Purchasing managers realized once contracts for the low dollar value consumables are in place, procurement can take a smaller role in the operation and use of the contracts. There is still oversight in the forms of audits and monthly statement reviews, but most of their time is now available to negotiate major purchases and setting up of other long term contracts. These contracts are typically renewable annually.  This trend away from the daily procurement function (tactical purchasing) resulted in several changes in the industry. The first was the reduction of personnel. Purchasing departments were now smaller. There was no need for the army of clerks processing orders for individual parts as in the past. Another change was the focus on negotiating contracts and procurement of large capital equipment. Both of these functions permitted purchasing departments to make the biggest financial contribution to the organization. A new term and job title emerged – Strategic sourcing and Sourcing Managers. These professionals not only focused on the bidding process and negotiating with suppliers, but the entire supply function. In these roles they were able to add value and maximize savings for organizations. This value was manifested in lower inventories, less personnel, and getting the end product to the consumer quicker. Purchasing managers' success in these roles resulted in new assignments outside to the traditional purchasing function – logistics, materials management, distribution, and warehousing. More and more purchasing managers were becoming Supply Chain Managers handling additional functions of their organization's operation. Purchasing managers were not the only ones to become Supply Chain Managers. Logistic managers, material managers, distribution managers, etc. all rose to the broader function and some had responsibility for the purchasing functions now.  In accounting, purchases is the amount of goods a company bought throughout this year. It also refers to information as to the kind, quality, quantity, and cost of goods bought that should be maintained. They are added to inventory. Purchases are offset by purchase discounts and Purchase Returns and Allowances. When it should be added depends on the Free On Board (FOB) policy of the trade. For the purchaser, this new inventory is added on shipment if the policy was FOB shipping point, and the seller remove this item from its inventory. On the other hand, the purchaser added this inventory on receipt if the policy was FOB destination, and the seller remove this item from its inventory when it was delivered.  Goods bought for the purpose other than direct selling, such as for Research and Development, are added to inventory and allocated to Research and Development expense as they are used. On a side note, equipments bought for Research and Development are not added to inventory, but are capitalized as assets.

Purchasing topics.

Acquisition process.

The revised acquisition process for major systems in the U.S. Department of Defense is shown in the next figure. The process is defined by a series of phases during which technology is defined and matured into viable concepts, which are subsequently developed and readied for production, after which the systems produced are supported in the field. The process allows for a given system to enter the process at any of the development phases. For example, a system using unproven technology would enter at the beginning stages of the process and would proceed through a lengthy period of technology maturation, while a system based on mature and proven technologies might enter directly into engineering development or, conceivably, even production. The process itself includes four phases of development:

Selection of bidders.

This is the process where the organization identifies potential suppliers for specified supplies, services or equipment. These suppliers' credentials and history are analyzed, with the products or services they offer. The bidder selection process varies from organization to organization, but can include running credit reports, interviewing management, testing products, and touring facilities. This process is not always done in order of importance, but rather in order of expense. Often purchasing managers research potential bidders obtaining information on the organizations and products from media sources and their own industry contacts. Additionally, purchasing might send Request for Information (RFI) to potential suppliers to help gather information. Engineering would also inspect sample products to determine if the company or organisation can produce products they need. If the bidder passes both of these stages engineering may decide to do some testing on the materials to further verify quality standards. These tests can be expensive and involve significant time of multiple technicians and engineers. Engineering management must make this decision based on the cost of the products they are likely to procure, the importance of the bidders’ product to production, and other factors. Credit checks, interviewing management, touring plants as well as other steps could all be utilized if engineering, manufacturing, and supply chain managers decide they could help their decision and the cost is justifiable.  Other organizations might have minority procurement goals to consider in selection of bidders. Organizations identify goals in the use of companies owned and operated by certain ethnicities or women owned business enterprises. Significant utilizing of minority suppliers may qualify the firm as a potential bidder for a contract with a company or governmental entity looking to increase their minority supplier programs.  This selection process can include or exclude international suppliers depending on organizational goals and criteria. Companies looking to increase their pacific rim supplier base may exclude suppliers from the Americas, Europe, and Australia. Other organizations may be looking to purchase domestically to ensure a quicker response to orders as well as easier collaboration on design and production.  Organizational goals will dictate the criteria for the selection process of bidders. It is also possible that the product or service being procured is so specialized that the number of bidders are limited and the criteria must be very wide to permit competition. If only one firm can meet the specifications for the product then the purchasing managers must consider utilizing a “Sole Source” option or work with engineering to broaden the specifications if the project will permit alteration in the specifications. The sole source option is the part of the selection of bidders that acknowledges there is sometimes only one reasonable supplier for some services or products. This can be because of the limited applications for the product cannot support more than one manufacturer, proximity of the service provided, or the products are newly designed or invented and competition is not yet available.

Bidding process.

This is the process an organization utilizes to procure goods, services or equipment. Processes vary significantly from the stringent to the very informal. Large corporations and governmental entities are most likely to have stringent and formal processes. These processes can utilize specialized bid forms that require specific procedures and detail. The very stringent procedures require bids to be open by several staff from various departments to ensure fairness and impartiality. Responses are usually very detailed. Bidders not responding exactly as specified and following the published procedures can be disqualified. Smaller private businesses are more likely to have less formal procedures. Bids can be in the form of an email to all of the bidders specifying products or services. Responses by bidders can be detailed or just the proposed dollar amount.  Most bid processes are multi-tiered. Acquisitions under a specified dollar amount can be “user discretion” permitting the request or to choose who ever they want. This level can be as low as $100 or as high as $10,000 depending on the organization. The rationale is the savings realized by processing these request the same as expensive items is minimal and does not justify the time and expense. Purchasing departments watch for abuses of the user discretion privilege. Acquisitions in a mid range can be processed with a slightly more formal process. This process may involve the user providing quotes from three separate suppliers. Purchasing may be asked or required to obtain the quotes. The formal bid process starts as low as $10,000 or as high as $100,000 depending on the organization. The bid usually involves a specific form the bidder fills out and must be returned by a specified deadline. Depending of the commodity being purchased and the organization the bid may specify a weighted evaluation criterion. Other bids would be evaluated at the discretion of purchasing or the end users. Some bids could be evaluated by a cross-functional committee. Other bids may be evaluated by the end user or the buyer in Purchasing. Especially in small, private firms the bidders could be evaluated on criteria or factors that have little if anything to do with the actual bid. Examples of these factors are history of the bidder with the company, history of the bidder with the company’s senior management at other firms, and bidder’s breadth of products.

Technical evaluation.

Technical evaluations, evaluations of the technical suitability of the quoted goods or services, if required, are normally performed prior to the commercial evaluation. During this phase of the procurement process, a technical representative of the company (usually an engineer) will review the proposal and designate each bidder as either technically acceptable or technically unacceptable.  Technical evaluation is usually carried out against a set of pre-determined Technical Evaluation Criteria. There are two types of criteria, general criteria (whereby scores are given if they are met) and essential criteria (failing of which shall render the bid technically disqualified).

Commercial evaluation.

Cost of Money is calculated by multiplying the applicable currency interest rate by the amount of money paid prior to the receipt of the Goods. If the money was to have remained in the buyer's account, interest would be drawn. That interest is essentially an additional cost associated with such Progress or Milestone payments.  The manufacturing location is taken into consideration during the evaluation stage primarily to calculate for freight costs and regional issues. For instance, it is common in Europe for factories to close during the month of August for a summer holiday. Labor agreements may also be taken into consideration and may be drawn into the evaluation if the particular region is known to have frequent labor disputes.  The manufacturing lead-time is the time from the placement of the order (or time final drawings are submitted by the Buyer to the Seller) until the goods are manufactured and prepared for delivery. Lead-times vary by commodity and can range from several days to years.  Transportation time is evaluated while comparing the delivery of goods to the Buyer's required use-date. If Goods are shipped from a remote port, with infrequent vessel transportation, the transportation time could exceed the schedule and adjustments would need to be made.  Delivery Charges - the charge for the Goods to be delivered to a stated point.

Negotiating.

Negotiating is a key skillset in the Purchasing field. One of the goals of Purchasing Agents is to acquire goods per the most advantageous terms of the buying entity (or simply, the "Buyer"). Purchasing Agents typically attempt to decrease costs while meeting the Buyer's other requirements such as an on-time delivery, compliance to the commercial terms and conditions (including the warranty, the transfer of risk, assignment, auditing rights, confidentiality, remedies, etc.).  Good negotiators, those with high levels of documented "cost savings", receive a premium within the industry relative to their compensation. Depending on the employment agreement between the Purchasing Agent (Buyer) and the employer, Buyer's cost savings can result in the creation of value to the business, and may result in a flat-rate bonus, or a percentage payout to the Purchasing Agent of the documented cost savings.  Purchasing Departments, while they can be considered as a support function of the key business, are actually revenue generating departments. For example, if the company needs to buy $30 million USD of widgets and the Purchasing Department secures the widgets for $25M USD, the Purchasing Department would have saved the company $5M USD. That savings could exceed the annual budget of the department, which in effect would pay the department's overhead - the employee's salaries, computers, office space, etc.

Post-award administration.

Post-award administration typically consists of making minor changes, additions or subtractions, that in some way change the terms of the agreement or the Seller's Scope of Supply. Such changes are often minor, but for auditing purposes must be documented into the existing agreement. Examples include increasing the quantity of a Line Item or changing the metallurgy of a particular component.

Order closeout.

Is the closing of order.

Purchasing is a business or organization attempting to acquire goods or services to accomplish its goals. Although there are several organizations that attempt to set standards in the purchasing process, processes can vary greatly between organizations. Typically the word "purchasing" is not used interchangeably with the word "procurement", since procurement typically includes expediting, supplier quality, and transportation and logistics (T&L) in addition to purchasing.

采购是商业组织为实现商业目标并试图在正确的时间以最低的价格,获得正确的数量和恰当质量的产品或服务的行为。最简单的采购如普通的购买行为,复杂的采购则包含了信息收集,寻找合作伙伴,商业谈判,签署合同等步骤。采购在法律上是一种订立合约及执行合约责任的过程。在以物易物的社会已经有之,互通有无。