History.

The current station replaced three stations in the city centre, which were next to each other near the fairground ("Rhein-Main-Hallen") and the Wiesbaden Museum. These were:  A fourth railway line was added in 1889, connecting to the "Rheinbahnhof", with the opening Langenschwalbach Railway (now the Aar Valley Railway—"Aartalbahn") from the Rheinbahnhof in Wiesbaden to Bad Schwalbach (then called "Langenschwalbach") and later extended to Diez on the Lahn.  The new station building became necessary to handle the growing number of passenger visiting the spa city at that time. It was built from 1904 to 1906 according to the plans of Fritz Klingholz in a flamboyant neo-baroque style that corresponded to an international style of architecture adopted for spa towns. It was also intended to welcome Kaiser Wilhelm II on his visit to the spa every May and a platform was established for him and other aristocrats. The first train ran into the new station on 15 November 1906 around 2:23 a.m. In the station building the relics of the former images of crowned heads, with the faces removed, can still be seen in many places.  The new Hauptbahnhof was located outside the town at the time of its building at the south-eastern end of the then newly constructed ring road (the "Kaiser-Friedrich-Ring" and the "Bismarckring"), which runs in an arc to the west of the historic pentagon ("Historische Fünfeck") at the centre of Wiesbaden. During the period up to the First World War the town developed towards the new station.  On 25 September 1983, the Hauptbahnhof was affected by the closure of a line. Passenger services were discontinued between Wiesbaden and Bad Schwalbach on the Aar Valley Railway. One of the long-term consequences was the decommissioning and dismantling of station track 11 so that the station now has only 10 tracks.  Wiesbaden Hauptbahnhof was extensively refurbished and modernised at a cost of €25 million between 2003 and 2004. A redesign of the forecourt, costing €1.5 million, was carried out between mid-2006 and March 2007. The modernisation should have been completed with the opening of the high-speed line to Cologne, but was postponed several times due to lack of funds. Next door is the "Lilien-Carré" shopping centre opened in March 2007 on the site of the former main post office.  As part of the economic stimulus package, the train shed roofs have been renovated at a cost of €35 million since late 2010.

Connection to the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed line.

Wiesbaden Hauptbahnhof is connected to the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed line by the approximately 13.0 km long Breckenheim–Wiesbaden line opened in 2002.  This line had been subjected to extensive analysis and discussions by 1990. Three options were investigated:  The option of running under the Wiesbaden city area with a station on a north-south orientation was dismissed. Overall, this option required an ascending 10.2 km tunnel. Also rejected was the east-west option as it would have required a tunnel that was located 30 to 100 m below the water table. The high pressure of ground water under parts of the city of Wiesbaden made this extremely difficult. Test bores on the route of the postulated tunnel found material that was penetrated by debris.  In August 1991, the state of Hesse, the city of Wiesbaden and the Deutsche Bundesbahn agreed to a ground-level connection running from the Hauptbahnhof via a link to the east to the new line. The realised "Wiesbadener Kreuz" (Wiesbaden Cross) option was accessed as having the best cost-benefit ratio. A major argument put forward in the assessment report was that the best way by far of generating passenger traffic would be a connection to the existing station and that only at Wiesbaden Hauptbahnhof would it be possible to give comprehensive access to public transport. Furthermore, the option largely agreed with the route promoted by nature conservation and environmental groups.  A proposed branch off the link along the A 66 and connecting to the high-speed line towards Frankfurt, which would be served only by regional services has not been realized. As part of the connection to the new line, a platform in Wiesbaden station was extended to the length of long ICE trains. The cost of €1.7 million were funded by the federal government.  Patronage of services on the line have been disappointing and services have been cut back from those originally operating so that there are now only two services each way on week days only.

Architecture.

The station building is connected to a five-span train-shed, originally with eleven tracks (now only ten are in operation), which are located in front of a broad vaulted concourse that extends eastward beyond the train-shed and at right angles to it to a vaulted lobby to the east of platform track 1.  The exterior is formed of red sandstone and has rich Baroque Revival forms. The highlight is the lobby on the eastern side, which has a clock tower with a curved canopy. The former entrance on the western side is surmounted by a copper dome. The roof is adorned with green tiles.  The interior of the building is formed of yellow sandstone, in contrast to the exterior. The roof over the actual platform area consists of steel and glass.  During its renovation in 2004, the station was largely restored to its original appearance. The monumental nature of the concourse is now restored to its full advantage as distracting objects have been removed.

Rail services.

It is served by the following long-distance services:

Regional trains.

The station is served by the following regional services:

S-Bahn.

The station is the terminus of three lines of the Rhine-Main S-Bahn:

Wiesbaden Hauptbahnhof is a railway station for the city of Wiesbaden, the state capital of the German state of Hesse. It is a terminal station at the southern edge of the city centre and is used by more than 40,000 travelers each day, so it is the second largest station in Hesse after Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof. It is classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 2 station.

威斯巴登火车总站()是德国黑森州州府威斯巴登的交通总枢纽。它是位于南部的一座尽头站,每天有逾40000名旅客光顾,使其成为仅次于达姆施塔特火车总站(以面积计)或位居法兰克福火车总站(以旅客人数计)之后的黑森州第二大铁路车站。这里日均图定开行有约256个班次,其中包括13班(均为ICE)、115班区域列车和128班快铁列车。只有两对ICE列车以及RB 10号线的列车是经停威斯巴登火车总站,而其余所有列车都是以此作为始发和终到站。


Geography and climate.

Wuzhou is located in eastern Guangxi bordering Guangdong province. It is at the confluence of the Gui River and the Xun River where they form the Xi River; 85% of all water in Guangxi flows through Wuzhou. The total area of Wuzhou is.  The Tropic of Cancer bisects the city. Despite its latitude, Wuzhou has a monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate (Köppen "Cfa"), with short, mild winters, and long, very hot and humid summers. Winter begins dry but becomes progressively wetter and cloudier. Spring is generally overcast and often rainy, while summer continues to be rainy though is the sunniest time of year. Autumn is sunny and dry. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from in January to in July, and the annual mean is. The annual rainfall is just above, and is delivered in bulk (~47%) from April to June, when the plum rains occur and often create the risk of flooding. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 17% in March to 55% in July, the city receives 1,738 hours of bright sunshine annually.

Demographics.

According to the 2010 Census, the prefecture-level city of Wuzhou has 3,273,300 inhabitants and a population density of 260 inhabitants per km2. The population is 13.22% higher than in 2000 (the average annual population growth for the period 2000-2010 was of 1.25%).  The dominant ethnic group in the prefecture-level city is Han Chinese but there are also Zhuang, Yao and others. Wuzhou traditionally belongs to the Cantonese cultural and linguistic region, so most people speak the Wuzhou dialect of Cantonese and Mandarin as a result of Central Government's Mandarin promotion policy.

Administration.

Wuzhou has 3 counties, 1 county-level city and 3 districts.

Delicacies.

Amongst the agricultural products produced in the region of Wuzhou, one of the most favoured snacks is Wuzhou honey date (). Guilinggao jelly is also described as a "Wuzhou delicacy". Bingquan Soybean Milk is also welcomed by people and is in the list of premium choices for breakfast.

Trade.

Wuzhou has become a hub of the synthetic gemstone trade, particularly specializing in corundum, spinel and cubic zirconia.

Transportation.

High Speed Railway Nanguang Railway  Railway Luozhan Railway  Expressway Nanwu Expressway  Highway China National Highway 207 China National Highway 321  Air Wuzhou Changzhoudao Airport has flights to Guiyang, Zhuhai and Chongqing, and is capable of handling Boeing 737 Classics and CRJ-200 CRJ-900 on its 1800M runway.

Wuzhou (, postal: Wuchow; ), formerly Ngchow, is a prefecture-level city in the east of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China.

梧州市(传统外文拼写:,邮政式拼音:),简称梧,古称苍梧,是中华人民共和国广西壮族自治区下辖的地级市,位于广西东部。市境北界贺州市、桂林市,西邻来宾市、贵港市、玉林市,南连广东省茂名市,东临广东省肇庆市、云浮市。地处桂东南丘陵区,北回归线经过梧州市区。南北地势较高,中部较低,主要为低山丘陵区,东部为云开大山,北有大桂山,西有大容山。浔江自西向东横贯市境中部,于市区与其支流桂江交汇。总面积12,572平方公里,人口299.94万,市人民政府驻长洲区。梧州邻近广东,扼西江航道之咽喉,被称为广西的“东大门”,为中国优秀旅游城市、国家园林城市和国家森林城市。


Location.

The station is located close to Munich's city centre in the north of the borough of Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt. The main entrance to the east of the station is via the Prielmayerstraße or Bayerstraße to Karlsplatz (Stachus). In the station forecourt ("Bahnhofsplatz")

History.

During the industrialisation of the mid-19th century a new, more efficient system was needed to accelerate the transport of passengers and goods. Horse-drawn carts on the mostly poor roads were no longer sufficient. As a solution, the construction of a railway, as was being developed in England, was considered. However, the Bavarian King, Ludwig I preferred the extension of canals. Construction of railways was left to private companies and associations. After the opening of the approximately 6 km-long railway from Nuremberg to Fürth on 28 November 1835, interested citizens founded railway committees in Munich and Augsburg. The two committees soon joined together to facilitate the construction of a railway line from Augsburg to Munich. The two major cities would be connected by a faster service than could be provided by stagecoach over a distance that in 1835 was measured as 17 "Poststunden" (“post hours”, which were each half a Bavarian mile, that is about 3,707 metres), equivalent to about 63 km. Based on the travel speed of a locomotive, a railway could be expected to reduce travel time to one-third of a stage coach's time. The railway committee commissioned a state official to plan the approximate route of the line. The state was to build the railway. The government turned down the proposal, but indicated that Bavaria would financially support its construction.  Joseph Anton von Maffei founded the Munich-Augsburg Railway Company ("München-Augsburger Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft") as a private company on 23 July 1837. After further support from shareholders had been found, construction began in the spring of 1838.

The station in Marsfeld.

In 1838, the initial planning began for the station in Munich. The Planning Director of the Munich–Augsburg railway, Ulrich Himbsel, and his deputy, Joseph Pertsch, proposed a railway layout with an entrance building and a warehouse for freight. Behind the entrance building, a semicircular building was followed by four radially arranged halls. This was based on English models. Joseph Pertsch preferred a location on today's Sonnenstraße, while Ulrich Himbsel favoured a station at Spatzenstraße. This would have been at the location of

The new central station ("Centralbahnhof") of Friedrich Bürklein.

Direction of the construction was transferred to the architect Friedrich Bürklein, a disciple of Friedrich von Gärtner. The new station hall was opened in 1848. It was 111 metres long, 29 metres wide and 20 metres high and had room for five tracks. The station building was opened a year later, on 1 October 1849. The station was used daily by around 1,500 passengers. The building was built of red and yellow brick in the Rundbogenstil with Romanesque revival and Italian Renaissance forms; sand and limestone were also used for individual components. The station building was a basilica-like building, which was extended with a pavilion on the east side. It was equipped with the latest technology, a central hot water heater and a mechanical

New construction in the 1880s.

The opening of the line from Munich to Ingolstadt in 1867, the Munich–Mühldorf–Simbach and the Munich–Grafing–Rosenheim lines in 1871 and the Munich–Buchloe in 1873 created further capacity problems. Thus, two projects were developed: Friedrich Bürklein planned another wing station. The other option was a new building, requiring the demolition of the Ostbahnhof. They chose the second option. So from 1877 to 1883 under the leadership of Carl Schnorr von Carlsfeld, Jacob Graff and Heinrich Gerber, a new concourse was built with 16 tracks. Carl Schnorr von Carlsfeld was responsible for the redesign of the tracks, Jacob Graff was the

Remodelling of the station and construction of the wing stations.

A few years later, the station again proved to be too small. The architect Friedrich Graf suggested the station be relocated to Landsbergerstraße to create a circle line from South station via Schwabing station to a planned North station. The plans were not realised, instead, freight was separated from passenger operations so that the Hauptbahnhof became a passenger-only station. Now freight was handled at the Laim marshalling yard. Construction began in 1891. In 1893, the Royal Bavarian State Railways opened the Starnberg wing station ("Starnberger Flügelbahnhof"), partly serving traffic on the line to Starnberg. It had six tracks and only had a temporary wooden building. Long-distance traffic was now concentrated in the main hall and local traffic towards Pasing was moved to the wing station. In 1897, the wing station received Bavaria's first electro-mechanical interlocking. In 1896, the Laim marshalling yard was opened; only the handling of small goods could not be moved to Laim. In addition, the line to Landshut was moved to a new course running to the west of Nymphenburg Park to allow a connection to the Laim yard. Next new flyovers were

The Reichsbahn and Hitler’s reconstruction plans.

Between 1925 and 1927, six of the lines beginning in Munich were electrified so that all parts of the station except the Holzkirchen wing station received overhead lines. This was part of the Deutsche Reichsbahn’s new restructuring plan. The Reichsbahn planned to move the station to the west of the Hacker Bridge. A connection to the South Ring ("Südring") by a 1,900 metre long tunnel under the Theresienwiese was part of the plan. Local traffic would still terminate at an adjacent terminal station. Laim marshalling yard would have to be demolished under these plans and a new marshalling yard would be built in Milbertshofen instead. As a result of the Great Depression during the following years, none of these plans were realised. From 1933, Adolf Hitler directed Hermann Alker to create new plans for rebuilding the station. A new station would be built between Laim and Pasing stations

During and after the Second World War.

During World War II the station suffered heavy damage from Allied bombing, but train services resumed after each air raid. However, after bombings from 11 July to 13 July 1944, trains had to be diverted because of the impact of 112 bombs. It was only possible for trains to reach Pasing. All trains had to either run around Munich at a distance or use the North Ring as a bypass. Overall, the loss amounted to 7.1 million Reichsmarks. In addition, there were numerous deaths and injuries. On 30 April 1945, American troops entered Munich and initially German troops were ordered to defend the station. Since a counter-attack would have been pointless, it was not carried out. Reconstruction started on 6 May 1945 on the building despite shortages and a complicated approval process. On 24 July 1945 it was possible to operate 128 trains. From 16 December there were 235 trains per day. The train shed was demolished from 16 May to 16

Construction of centralised signalling and the S-Bahn trunk line.

The central signalling centre was brought into operation on 11 October 1964 at 4 AM. The new signal box controlled 295 sets of points and 446 signals and detected occupancy on 300 sections of track and seven automatic block sections. In the signalling centre there were four interlockings, one controlling the Holzkirchen wing station, two controlling the tracks of the main hall and the other one controlling the Starnberg wing station. The new interlockings needed only 38 staff for operations and 12 for maintaining the signal technology, saving 93 jobs.  In the following years, postal operations, which included the station's own underground post office railway, had growing problem due to the interference of passengers. On 18 August 1969, a separate package handling facility was brought into operation at Wilhelm-Hale-Straße, which was connected with the station by a double-track line. The Starnberg wing station was

Improving infrastructure.

The platforms were thin with a width of 5.4 to 6 metres and were 20 centimetres too low. After the elimination of the 3.2 metre-wide baggage platforms, new passenger platforms were built that are up to 76 centimetres high and up to 10.2 metres wide. In addition, the facilities of the platforms, such as benches, were renewed and some platforms were extended to be 430 metres long. A baggage tunnel was put into operation under tracks 12 and 13. The northern and southern carriage sidings and the maintenance facilities were extended. The construction work began in August 1976. It was completed at Christmas 1987. A new split-flap

Current.

A Transrapid route to Munich Airport was undergoing a process of planning and political discussion for some time and supposed to be operational around 2011. However, construction never started due to rising costs caused by increasing prices for steel and other materials. It was finally cancelled when cost estimates reached €3.2 billion, up from an original estimate of €1.85 billion.  From 2013 to 2015, the mezzanine level linking the Hauptbahnhof to the current S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations and pedestrian pathways to the eastern tram platforms and streets was extensively renovated to give the now bright and airy feeling, to comply with new EU regulations on fire protection measures and escape routes, and to increase the number of stores and restaurants.  The current Hauptbahnhof consists of several buildings that were constructed at various times without any common design or physical cohesion between them. This causes lot of maintenance headaches and difficulties in navigating from one area to another for passengers and employees. The various buildings have their own façades that don't harmonise with each other; the larger building resembles some East German Plattenbau architecture. Some areas radiate a quite gloomy and unwelcoming athmosphere.  The construction of a second S-Bahn trunk route (a second main tunnel route through the centre of Munich) with a new S-Bahn station has already begun for the station hall. The entire construction project is expected

Station layout.

Apart from Lindau Hauptbahnhof, München Hauptbahnhof is the only major terminal station in Bavaria. The station is used by about 450,000 passengers a day and is one of 21 stations classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 1 station. There are 32 tracks, split over the original three stations:  The subterranean Munich S-Bahn station is separated operationally from the mainline station and known as "München Hbf (tief)". To optimise passenger flow, separate platforms for entering (centre) and disembarking (outer) trains exist. This arrangement of platforms is called "Spanish solution". The subway station is situated near the U-Bahn lines for the U1 and U2 trains, but if one wishes to change from the S-Bahn to U4/U5 trains, it is more practical to stay on the S-Bahn to Karlsplatz (Stachus),

Station services.

Trains.

Long distance.

The station is the southern point of the InterCityExpress line to Hamburg-Altona via the Hanover-Würzburg high-speed rail line. It also has frequent links to Dortmund via Frankfurt and Cologne using the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line. The most recent addition is the Nuremberg-Ingolstadt high-speed rail line, which has greatly benefited from Munich traffic. Additional ICE services using mainly ordinary lines on their run exist

Regional trains.

There are numerous RegionalExpress and RegionalBahn services to Landshut, Regensburg, Plattling, Passau, Kempten, Lindau, Garmisch-Partenkirchen and Nuremberg among others. The Bayerische Oberlandbahn operates services to Bayrischzell, Lenggries and Tegernsee.  All lines are electrified, except the ones to Mühldorf, Kempten and Lindau and the lines of the Bayerische Oberlandbahn. To minimise pollution, services using these lines preferably end at tracks 5–10 and 27–36.

S-Bahn.

The Munich S-Bahn operates through a separate part of the station as a S-Bahn station on the S-Bahn trunk line ("S-Bahn-Stammstrecke") with two tracks and three platforms in the Spanish solution (the island platform is for boarding only and the side platforms are for disembarking), which is

Other facilities.

In the east of the main hall at ground level and on the first floor there are several food shops, newsagents, flower and gift shops, etc. There is also an extensive shopping arcade in the basement to the north and east, as well as direct access to adjacent stores in the inner city through a shopping arcade. Since 1995, the Children and Youth Museum of the City of Munich ("Kinder- und Jugendmuseum München") has been located in the Starnberg

U-Bahn.

At the Hauptbahnhof there are two underground stations of the Munich U-Bahn.  The underground station of Munich U-Bahn trunk line 2 is at level -4 and is orientated in a north–south direction under the station forecourt and has four tracks. It branches to the north as line U1 to Olympia-Einkaufszentrum and line U 2 to Feldmoching. It was originally planned to build the station under the "Kaufhaus Hertie" department store. To enable shorter connections to the main hall and the underground station of lines U 4 and U 5 it was decided instead to build it directly next to the main station. Construction of the U-Bahn station began in the spring of 1975, which required the closure of the station forecourt to surface traffic. The building was built because of its great breadth and depth by the cut and cover method. First the side walls and the roof were built and then the individual levels were built from top to

Trams and buses.

There are also four stops of the Munich tramway in the vicinity of the station, called "Hauptbahnhof", "Hauptbahnhof Nord", "Hauptbahnhof Süd" and "Holzkirchner Bahnhof". "Hauptbahnhof Nord" is served by routes 16, 17, 20, 21 and 22. The "Hauptbahnhof" stop in the station forecourt is served by almost all lines (16, 17, 19, 20, 21 and 22), with lines 20, 21 and 22 only stopping towards the city. The "Hauptbahnhof Süd" and "Holzkirchner Bahnhof" stops are only used by lines 18 and 19. The first tram line to operate through the station forecourt, was a horse tram line that ran from Promenadenplatz to Maillingerstraße and was opened on 21 October 1876. In the next few years the horse tram network was expanded so that by 1900 four tram lines served the station. The tram network was further expanded and electrified as trams became the main mode of transport. By 1938, nine lines operated to the Hauptbahnhof, which was one of the focal points of the Munich tram network. In 1966, the Hauptbahnhof was served by ten tram lines. In the following period the number of trams in Munich was reduced as a result of the construction of the U-Bahn, but the lines that served Munich Hauptbahnhof were almost unaffected, so that the number even increased to eleven at one point. Metro bus line 58 of the Münchner Verkehrsgesellschaft (Munich Transport Company) stops at all tram stops except "Hauptbahnhof Süd". The "Hauptbahnhof Nord" stop is also served by museum bus line 100 and some regional bus services.

München Hauptbahnhof (German for "Munich Central Station") is the main railway station in the city of Munich, Germany. It is one of the three stations with long-distance services in Munich, the others being München Ost and München-Pasing. München Hauptbahnhof sees about 450,000 passengers a day, which puts it on par with other large stations in Germany, such as Hamburg Hauptbahnhof and Frankfurt (Main) Hauptbahnhof. It is classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 1 station, one of 21 in Germany and two in Munich, the other being "München Ost". The mainline station is a terminal station with 32 platforms. The subterranean S-Bahn with 2 platforms and U-Bahn stations with 6 platforms are through stations.

慕尼黑火车总站()是一座位于德国巴伐利亚州首府慕尼黑的铁路车站。该尽头式车站的站房建筑连同轨道范围共占地约760,000平方米,在地面及地下分别设有32条及2条到发线,其股道数量为德国所有车站之最。此外,它还是德国铁路所划分的21座一等站之一。伴随着日均45万人次的旅客发送量,它与汉堡火车总站共同成为了德国使用最为频繁的车站。


Outline.

Outline for ISO/IEC 27002:2013.

The standard starts with 5 introductory chapters: These are followed by 14 main chapters:  Within each chapter, information security controls and their objectives are specified and outlined. The information security controls are generally regarded as best practice means of achieving those objectives. For each of the controls, implementation guidance is provided.  Specific controls are not mandated since:  Most organizations implement a wide range of information security-related controls, many of which are recommended in general terms by ISO/IEC 27002. Structuring the information security controls infrastructure in accordance with ISO/IEC 27002 may be advantageous since it:

Implementation example of ISO/IEC 27002.

Here are a few examples of typical information security policies and other controls relating to three parts of ISO/IEC 27002. (Note: this is merely an illustration. The list of example controls is incomplete and not universally applicable.)

National equivalent standards.

ISO/IEC 27002 has directly equivalent national standards in several countries. Translation and local publication often results in several months' delay after the main ISO/IEC standard is revised and released, but the national standard bodies go to great lengths to ensure that the translated content accurately and completely reflects ISO/IEC 27002.

Certification.

ISO/IEC 27002 is an advisory standard that is meant to be interpreted and applied to all types and sizes of organization according to the particular information security risks they face. In practice, this flexibility gives users a lot of latitude to adopt the information security controls that make sense to them, but makes it unsuitable for the relatively straightforward compliance testing implicit in most formal certification schemes.

Ongoing development.

Both and ISO/IEC 27002 are revised by ISO/IEC JTC1/SC27 every few years in order to keep them current and relevant. Revision involves, for instance, incorporating references to other issued security standards (such as ISO/IEC 27000, ISO/IEC 27004 and ISO/IEC 27005) and various good security practices that have emerged in the field since they were last published. Due to the significant 'installed base' of organizations already using ISO/IEC 27002, particularly in relation to the information security controls supporting an ISMS that complies with ISO/IEC 27001, any changes have to be justified and, wherever possible, evolutionary rather than revolutionary in nature.

ISO/IEC 27002 is an information security standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), titled "Information technology – Security techniques – Code of practice for information security controls".

ISO/IEC 27002 是由国际标准化组织(ISO)及国际电工委员会(IEC)所发表的一个资讯安全标准,其标题为《资讯科技 - 安全技术 - 资讯安全管理作业法规》("Information technology – Security techniques – Code of practice for information security controls")。


Analysis.

Environmental.

Since the early 1970s, TOC has been an analytic technique used to measure water quality during the drinking water purification process. TOC in source waters comes from decaying natural organic matter (NOM) as well as synthetic sources. Humic acid, fulvic acid, amines, and urea are examples of NOM. Some detergents, pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides, industrial chemicals, and chlorinated organics are examples of synthetic sources. Before source water is treated for disinfection, TOC provides an estimate of the amount of NOM in the water source. In water treatment facilities, source water is subject to reaction with chloride containing disinfectants. When the raw water is chlorinated, active chlorine compounds (Cl, HOCl, ClO) react with NOM to produce chlorinated disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Researchers have determined that higher levels of NOM in source water during the disinfection process will increase the amount of carcinogens in the processed drinking water.  With passage of the U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act in 2001, TOC analysis emerged as a quick and accurate alternative to the classical but more lengthy biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) tests traditionally reserved for assessing the pollution potential of wastewaters. Today, environmental agencies regulate the trace limits of DBPs in drinking water. Recently published analytical methods, such as United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) method 415.3, support the Agency's "Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rules," which regulate the amount of NOM to prevent the formation of DBPs in finished waters.  The content of TOC is also an important parameter to evaluate the quality of organic shale resources which are one of the most important unconventional fuels. Numerous evaluation methods have been introduced, including these based on wireline logs and in situ techniques.

Pharmaceutical.

Introduction of organic matter into water systems occurs not only from living organisms and from decaying matter in source water, but also from purification and distribution system materials. A relationship may exist between endotoxins, microbial growth, and the development of biofilms on pipeline walls and biofilm growth within pharmaceutical distribution systems. A correlation is believed to exist between TOC concentrations and the levels of endotoxins and microbes. Sustaining low TOC levels helps to control levels of endotoxins and microbes and thereby the development of biofilm growth. The United States Pharmacopoeia (USP), European Pharmacopoeia (EP) and Japanese Pharmacopoeia (JP) recognize TOC as a required test for purified water and water for injection (WFI). For this reason, TOC has found acceptance as a process control attribute in the biotechnology industry to monitor the performance of unit operations comprising purification and distribution systems. As many of these biotechnology operations include the preparation of medicines, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) enacts numerous regulations to protect the health of the public and ensure the product quality is maintained. To make sure there is no cross-contamination between product runs of different drugs, various cleaning procedures are performed. TOC concentration levels are used to track the success of these cleaning validation procedures especially

Measurement.

A variety of different terms are used to identify the different types of carbon present at different levels of detail.  Since all TOC analyzers only actually measure total carbon, TOC analysis always requires some accounting for the inorganic carbon that is always present. One analysis technique involves a two-stage process commonly referred to as TC-IC. It measures the amount of inorganic carbon (IC) evolved from an acidified aliquot of a sample and also the amount of total carbon (TC) present in the sample. TOC is calculated by subtraction of the IC value from the TC the sample. Another variant employs acidification of the sample to evolve carbon dioxide and measuring it as inorganic carbon (IC), then oxidizing and measuring the remaining non-purgeable organic carbon (NPOC). This is called TIC-NPOC analysis. A more common method directly measures TOC in the sample by again acidifying the sample to a pH value of two or less to release the IC gas but in this case to the air not for measurement. The remaining non-purgeable CO gas (NPOC) contained in the liquid aliquot is then oxidized releasing the gases. These gases are then sent to the detector for measurement.  Whether the analysis of TOC is by TC-IC or NPOC methods, it may be broken into three main stages:  The first stage is acidification of the sample for the removal of the IC and POC gases. The release of these gases to the detector for measurement or to the air is dependent upon which type of analysis is of interest, the former for TC-IC and the latter for TOC (NPOC).

Acidification.

Addition of acid and inert-gas sparging allows all bicarbonate and carbonate ions to be converted to carbon dioxide, and this IC product vented along with any POC that was present.

Oxidation.

The second stage is the oxidation of the carbon in the remaining sample in the form of carbon dioxide (CO) and other gases. Modern TOC analyzers perform this oxidation step by several processes:

High temperature combustion.

Prepared samples are combusted at 1,200 °C in an oxygen-rich atmosphere. All carbon present converts to carbon dioxide, flows through scrubber tubes to remove interferences such as chlorine gas, and water vapor, and the carbon dioxide is measured either by absorption into a strong base then weighed, or using an Infrared Detector. Most modern analyzers use non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) for detection of the carbon dioxide. Compared to the conventional high temperature catalytic oxidation, the great benefit of the combustion-method is the high oxidation power, so that oxidation-promoting catalysts are superfluous.

High temperature catalytic oxidation.

A manual or automated process injects the sample onto a platinum catalyst at 680 °C in an oxygen rich atmosphere. The concentration of carbon dioxide generated is measured with a non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) detector.  Oxidation of the sample is complete after injection into the furnace, turning oxidizable material in the sample into gaseous form. A carbon-free carrier gas transports the CO, through a moisture trap and halide scrubbers to remove water vapor and halides from the gas stream before it reaches the detector. These substances can interfere with the detection of the CO gas. The HTCO method may be useful in those applications where difficult to oxidize compounds, or high molecular weight organics, are present as it provides almost complete oxidation of organics including solids and particulates small enough to be injected into the furnace. The major drawback of HTCO analysis is its unstable baseline resulting from the gradual accumulation of non-volatile residues within the combustion tube. These residues continuously change TOC background levels requiring continuous background correction. Because aqueous samples are injected directly into a very hot, usually quartz, furnace only small aliquots (less than 2 milliliters and usually less than 400 micro-liters) of sample can be handled making the methods less sensitive than chemical oxidation methods capable of digesting as much as 10 times more sample. Also, the salt content of the samples do not combust, and so therefore, gradually build a residue inside the combustion tube eventually clogging the catalyst resulting in poor peak shapes, and degraded accuracy or precision, unless appropriate maintenance procedures are followed. The catalyst should be regenerated or replaced as needed. To avoid this problem the manufacturing industry has developed several concepts, such as matrix separation, ceramic reactors, better process control or methods without catalysts.

Photo-oxidation (ultraviolet light).

In this oxidation scheme, ultra-violet light alone oxidizes the carbon within the sample to produce CO. The UV oxidation method offers the most reliable, low maintenance method of analyzing TOC in ultra-pure waters.

Ultraviolet/persulfate oxidation.

Like the photo-oxidation method, UV light is the oxidizer but the oxidation power of the reaction is magnified by the addition of a chemical oxidizer, which is usually a persulfate compound. The mechanisms of the reactions are as follows:  Free radical oxidants formed:  formula_1  formula_2  formula_3  Excitation of organics:  formula_4  Oxidation of organics:  formula_5  The UV–chemical oxidation method offers a relatively low maintenance, high sensitivity method for a wide range of applications. However, there are oxidation limitations of this method. Limitations include the inaccuracies associated with the addition of any foreign substance into the analyte and samples with high amounts of particulates. Performing "System Blank" analysis, which is to analyze then subtract the amount of carbon contributed by the chemical additive, inaccuracies are lowered. However, analyses of levels below 200 ppb TOC are still difficult.

Thermochemical persulfate oxidation.

Also known as heated persulfate, the method utilizes the same free radical formation as UV persulfate oxidation except uses heat to magnify the oxidizing power of persulfate. Chemical oxidation of carbon with a strong oxidizer, such as persulfate, is highly efficient, and unlike UV, is not susceptible to lower recoveries caused by turbidity in samples. The analysis of system blanks, necessary in all chemical procedures, is especially necessary with heated persulfate TOC methods because the method is so sensitive that reagents cannot be prepared with carbon contents low enough to not be detected. Persulfate methods are used in the analysis of wastewater, drinking water, and pharmaceutical waters. When used in conjunction with sensitive NDIR detectors heated persulfate TOC instruments readily measure TOC at single digit parts per billion (ppb) up to hundreds of parts per million (ppm) depending on sample volumes.

Detection and quantification.

Accurate detection and quantification are the most vital components of the TOC analysis process. Conductivity and non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) are the two common detection methods used in modern TOC analyzers.

Conductivity.

There are two types of conductivity detectors, direct and membrane. Direct conductivity provides an all-encompassing approach of measuring CO. This detection method uses no carrier gas, is good at the parts per billion (ppb) ranges, but has a very limited analytical range. Membrane conductivity relies upon the filtering of the CO prior to measuring it with a conductivity cell. Both methods analyze sample conductivity before and after oxidization, attributing this differential measurement to the TOC of the sample. During the sample oxidization phase, CO (directly related to the TOC in the sample) and other gases are formed. The dissolved CO forms a weak acid, thereby changing the conductivity of the original sample proportionately to the TOC in the sample. Conductivity analyses assume that only CO is present within the solution. As long as this holds true, then the TOC calculation by this differential measurement is valid. However, depending on the chemical species present in the sample and their individual products of oxidation, they may present either a positive or a negative interference to the actual TOC value, resulting in analytical error. Some of the interfering chemical species include Cl, HCO, SO, SO, ClO, and H. Small changes in pH and temperature fluctuations also contribute to inaccuracy. Membrane conductivity analyzers have improved upon the direct conductivity approach by incorporating the use of hydrophobic gas permeation membranes to allow a more “selective” passage of the dissolved CO gas and nothing else. This provides a more precise and accurate measurement of the organics that were converted to CO.

Non-dispersive infrared (NDIR).

The non-dispersive infrared analysis (NDIR) method offers the only practical interference-free method for detecting CO in TOC analysis. The principal advantage of using NDIR is that it directly and specifically measures the CO generated by oxidation of the organic carbon in the oxidation reactor, rather than relying on a measurement of a secondary, corrected effect, such as used in conductivity measurements.  A traditional NDIR detector relies upon flow-through-cell technology, where the oxidation product flows into and out of the detector continuously. A region of absorption of infrared light specific to CO, usually around 4.26 μm (2350 cm), is measured over time as the gas flows through the detector. A second reference measurement that is non-specific to CO is also taken and the differential result correlates to the CO concentration in the detector at that moment. As the gas continues to flow into and out of the detector cell the sum of the measurements results in a peak that is integrated and correlated to the total CO concentration in the sample aliquot.  A new advance of NDIR technology is Static Pressurized Concentration (SPC). The exit valve of the NDIR is closed to allow the detector to become pressurized. Once the gases in the detector have reached equilibrium, the concentration of the CO is analyzed. This pressurization of the sample gas stream in the NDIR, a patented technique, allows for increased sensitivity and precision by measuring the entirety of the oxidation products of the sample in one reading, compared to flow-through cell technology. The output signal is proportional to the concentration of CO in the carrier gas, from the oxidation of the sample aliquot. UV/ Persulfate oxidation combined with NDIR detection provides good oxidation of organics, low instrument maintenance, good precision at ppb levels, relatively fast sample analysis time and easily accommodates multiple applications, including purified water (PW), water for injection (WFI), CIP, drinking water and ultra-pure water analyses.

Analyzers.

Virtually all TOC analyzers measure the CO formed when organic carbon is oxidized and/or when inorganic carbon is acidified. Oxidation is performed either through Pt-catalyzed combustion, by heated persulfate, or with a UV/persulfate reactor. Once the CO is formed, it is measured by a detector: either a conductivity cell (if the CO is aqueous) or a non-dispersive infrared cell (after purging the aqueous CO into the gaseous phase). Conductivity detection is only desirable in the lower TOC ranges in deionized waters, whereas NDIR detection excels in all TOC ranges. A variation described as Membrane Conductometric Detection can allow for measurement of TOC across a wide analytical range in both deionized and non-deionized water samples. Modern high-performance TOC instruments are capable of detecting carbon concentrations well below 1 μg/L (1 part per billion or ppb).  A total organic carbon analyzer determines the amount of carbon in a water sample. By acidifying the sample and flushing with nitrogen or helium the sample removes inorganic carbon, leaving only organic carbon sources for measurement. There are two types of analyzers. One uses combustion and the other chemical oxidation. This is used as a water purity test, as the presence of bacteria introduces organic carbon.

Analyzer field testing and Reports.

A non-profit research and testing organization, the Instrumentation Testing Association (ITA) can provide results of field testing online TOC analyzers in an industrial wastewater application. Gulf Coast Waste Disposal Authority (GCWDA), Bayport Industrial Wastewater Treatment Plant in Pasadena, Texas sponsored and conducted this test in 2011. The GCWDA Bayport facility treats approximately 30 mgd of industrial waste received from approximately 65 customers (primarily petrochemical). Field tests consisted of operating online TOC analyzers at the influent of the Bayport facility in which TOC concentrations can range from 490 to 1020 mg/L with an average of 870 mg/L. GCWDA conducts approximately 102 TOC analyses in their laboratory per day at their Bayport treatment facility and use TOC measurements for process control and billing purposes. GCWDA plans to use online TOC analyzers for process control, detecting influent slug loads from industries and to potentially use online TOC analyzers to detect and monitor volatiles of the incoming stream. Field tests were conducted for a period of 90-days and used laboratory conformance measurements once per day to compare with analyzer output to demonstrate the instrument's overall accuracy when subjected to many simultaneously changing parameters as experienced in real-time monitoring conditions. Field test results can provide information regarding instrument design, operation and maintenance requirements which influence the performance of the instruments in field applications. The field test report includes evaluations of online TOC analyzers utilizing the following technologies: High Temperature Combustion (HTC), High Temperature Catalytic/Combustion Oxidation (HTCO), Supercritical Water Oxidation (SCWO), and Two-Stage Advanced Oxidation (TSAO).

Combustion.

In a combustion analyzer, half of the sample is injected into a chamber where it is acidified, usually with phosphoric acid, to turn all of the inorganic carbon into carbon dioxide as per the following reaction:  This is then sent to a detector for measurement. The other half of the sample is injected into a combustion chamber which is raised to between 600–700 °C, some even up to 1200 °C. Here, all the carbon reacts with oxygen, forming carbon dioxide. It's then flushed into a cooling chamber, and finally into the detector. Usually, the detector used is a non-dispersive infrared spectrophotometer. By finding the total inorganic carbon and subtracting it from the total carbon content, the amount of organic carbon is determined.

Chemical oxidation.

Chemical oxidation analyzers inject the sample into a chamber with phosphoric acid followed by persulfate. The analysis is separated into two steps. One removes inorganic carbon by acidification and purging. After removal of inorganic carbon persulfate is added and the sample is either heated or bombarded with UV light from a mercury vapor lamp. Free radicals form persulfate and react with any carbon available to form carbon dioxide. The carbon from both determination (steps) is either run through membranes which measure the conductivity changes that result from the presence of varying amounts of carbon dioxide, or purged into and detected by a sensitive NDIR detector. Same as the combustion analyzer, the total carbon formed minus the inorganic carbon gives a good estimate of the total organic carbon in the sample. This method is often used in online applications because of its low maintenance requirements.

Applications.

TOC is the first chemical analysis to be carried out on potential petroleum source rock in oil exploration. It is very important in detecting contaminants in drinking water, cooling water, water used in semiconductor manufacturing, and water for pharmaceutical use. Analysis may be made either as an online continuous measurement or a lab-based measurement.  TOC detection is an important measurement because of the effects it may have on the environment, human health, and manufacturing processes. TOC is a highly sensitive, non-specific measurement of all organics present in a sample. It, therefore, can be used to regulate the organic chemical discharge to the environment in a manufacturing plant. In addition, low TOC can confirm the absence of potentially harmful organic chemicals in water used to manufacture pharmaceutical products. TOC is also of interest in the field of potable water purification due to byproducts of disinfection. Inorganic carbon poses little to no threat.

Total organic carbon (TOC) is the amount of carbon found in an organic compound and is often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality or cleanliness of pharmaceutical manufacturing equipment. TOC may also refer to the amount of organic carbon in soil, or in a geological formation, particularly the source rock for a petroleum play; 2% is a rough minimum. For marine surface sediments average TOC content is 0.5% in the deep ocean, and 2% along the eastern margins.

总有机碳量(TOC)(或总有机碳)是以碳的含量表示有机物总量的一个指标,常用于检测水质。


Life.

Castiglioni was born on 16 February 1918 in Milan, in Lombardy in northern Italy. He was the third son of the sculptor Giannino Castiglioni and his wife Livia Bolla. His elder brothers Livio and Pier Giacomo were both architects.  Castiglioni studied classics at the in Milan, but switched to study the arts at the Liceo artistico di Brera. In 1937 he enrolled in the faculty of architecture of the Politecnico di Milano. When the Second World War broke out, he became an officer in the artillery, and was stationed on the Greek front and later in Sicily. He returned to Milan before the Allied Invasion of 1943. In March 1944 he graduated from the Politecnico.  When the War was over, Castiglioni joined the architectural design practice that his brothers Livio and Pier Giacomo had started with Luigi Caccia Dominioni in 1938. Much of their work was in exhibition design, but they also carried out a number of architectural projects, including the reconstruction in 1952–53 of the, which had been destroyed by bombing in 1943.  Livio Castiglioni left the practice in 1952. From then until Pier Giacomo died in 1968, he and Achille worked as a team; their designs are not attributable to either one of them. After the death of Pier Giacomo, Castiglioni worked alone. From 1969 he taught architectural and design subjects, first at the Politecnico di Torino, and then, from 1980 when he became an "ordinario" or full professor, at the Politecnico di Milano.  Achille Castiglioni died on 2 December 2002 in Milan.

Work.

The Castiglioni brothers designed the Lierna chair – an upright dining-chair in lacquered wood with a slightly padded plywood seat – for Cassina in 1960.

Achille Castiglioni (; 16 February 1918 – 2 December 2002) was an Italian designer of furniture, lighting, radiograms and other objects.

阿希尔·卡斯蒂格利尼(,1918年-2月16日-2002年-12月2日) 是一位意大利家具、灯具、音响及其它物件的设计师。他出生于米兰。他的设计风格相当有个人特色。


Overview.

Early steam locomotives normally traveled forwards only. Although reverse operations capabilities were soon built into locomotive mechanisms, the controls were normally optimized for forward travel, and the locomotives often could not operate as well in reverse. Some passenger cars, such as observation cars, were also designed as late as the 1960s for operations in a particular direction. Turntables allowed locomotives or other rolling stock to be turned around for the return journey, and roundhouses, designed to radiate around the turntables, were built to service and store these locomotives.  Most modern diesel and electric locomotives can run equally well in either direction, and many are push-pull trains with control cabs at each end. In addition, railroads often use multiple locomotives to pull trains, and even with locomotives that have distinct front and rear ends, the engines at opposing ends of a locomotive "consist" (a group of locomotives coupled together and controlled as a single unit) can be aligned so they face opposite directions. With such a setup, trains needing to reverse direction can use a technique known as a "run around," in which the engines are uncoupled from the train, pull around it on an adjacent track or siding, and reattach at the other end. The engineer changes operating ends from the original locomotive to the one on the opposite end of the locomotive consist.  Railroad terminals also use features such as balloon loops and wyes (Commonwealth: triangle) to reverse the orientation of railroad equipment. Because of the advent of these practices, modern roundhouses are frequently not round and are simply large buildings used for servicing locomotives. Like much other railroad terminology, however, the structure has retained its traditional name. The alternative term "engine-house" encompasses both semi-circular and rectangular structures and broadly describes all buildings intended for storage and servicing of locomotives. "Shops" or "workshops" are buildings containing hoists and heavy machinery capable of major repairs beyond routine servicing. Some roundhouses include shop facilities internally or in adjoining buildings.  Since the great dieselisation era of the 1940s and 1950s, many roundhouses have been demolished or put to other uses, but a few still stand and remain in use on the railroads. Early roundhouses were too small for later locomotives. The unusual shape of the buildings can make them difficult to adapt to new uses, but can also be aesthetically appealing.

Usage.

Australia.

Valley Heights roundhouse, west of Sydney, New South Wales, is the oldest surviving roundhouse in Australia, and has been preserved as a railway museum.

Canada.

The London Roundhouse Project London, Ontario, Canada, is an extensive renovation of the Michigan Central Railroad steam locomotive repair shop which was built in 1887. It is to become the new home of Ellipsis Digital and Engine SevenFour, a pair of emerging technology companies.  The Canadian National Railways roundhouse at the Turcot Yard in Montreal, built in 1906, was the largest ever built in Canada. Its demolition in 1962 to make way for the Turcot Interchange illustrated a profound change in transportation habits across North America.  The Steam Whistle Brewing brewery in Toronto, Ontario is located in the building known as the John Street Roundhouse, a former Canadian Pacific Railway steam locomotive repair facility.  The Canadian Pacific 374 steam engine is on display at the former CPR Drake Street roundhouse in Vancouver.

Poland.

The museum roundhouse in Wolsztyn, in western Poland, continues to supply steam locomotives for regular national rail services (as of 2011).

United Kingdom.

Probably the first railway roundhouse, designed by Robert Stephenson, was built in 1837 in Birmingham, at Curzon Street station. Its central turntable, inspection pits, and an exterior wall were uncovered in March 2020 during work to build HS2.  Another was built in 1839 at Derby, England by the North Midland Railway. The Derby roundhouse was restored in 2010, being converted into a brand new site for Derby College, with a new addition called the 'Stephenson Building' including the other survival of demolition - the original Midland Counties Railway workshop. The new site was opened in September 2009. Tours can be arranged through Derby Tourist Information Centre.  The Fenton, Murray and Jackson building in Leeds (1831–1843), a private workshop, may previously have been laid out in a radial pattern like a roundhouse. A guidebook of the time says:  This roundhouse narrowly escaped demolition when the works closed down, and was classified as a listed building.  The Roundhouse, Chalk Farm, London was built in 1847, but was too small for its function within 20 years (it is now an arts centre and concert venue).  Barrow Hill Engine Shed, which is home to a number of preserved locomotives is still in use.

United States of America.

The B&O Railroad Museum complex in Baltimore, Maryland contains the restored railcar maintenance roundhouse of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. It is said to be the world's largest 22-sided building.  The roundhouse in Aurora, Illinois, constructed in 1856, was purchased and restored by NFL football player Walter Payton. After Payton's death, the roundhouse was occupied by a micro-brewery and renamed Two Brothers Roundhouse, with a plaque mounted in Payton's honor.

Operational roundhouses.

North America.

The vast majority of roundhouses built in the US and Canada no longer exist, lie in ruins, or have been repurposed; however, a small number of them still exist and continue to operate in their intended capacity as locomotive storing and servicing facilities. Below is a list of locations with operational roundhouses that are also open to the public.

A railway roundhouse is a building with a circular or semicircular shape used by railways for servicing and storing locomotives, and traditionally surrounds, or is adjacent to, a turntable.

扇形车库(Roundhouse),或称为圆形机车库,是铁路机车使用的车库,一般是大型的圆形或半圆形结构,并且环绕转车盘或在转车盘旁。扇形车库的传统定义就是有转车盘以方便维修和存放蒸汽机车。


Early history.

It is possible that the Carthaginian explorer Hanno the Navigator sailed as far as the Gambia on an expedition in the sixth or fifth century BC.

Mali and Songhai empires.

The first verifiable written accounts of the region come from records of Arab traders in the 9th and 10th centuries AD. In medieval times the area was dominated by the trans-Saharan trade. The Mali Empire, most renowned for the Mandinka ruler Mansa Kankan Musa, brought worldwide recognition

15th and 16th centuries.

The European discovery of the Gambia began in the 15th century, with the push toward exploration by the Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator. In 1446, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristao made contact with the inhabitants of Cape Vert, and made a treaty of commerce and friendship with them. Every year following, ships were sent from Portugal to trade with them. From them, information reached Henry the Navigator regarding the Gambia, and according to their reports, the banks of the river yielded large quantities of gold. In 1455, Henry induced a Venetian called Luiz de Cadamosto to take a single ship on an expedition in search of the river. Later in the same year, he sent a Genoese trader called Antoniotto Usodimare with two ships on the same quest. The two joined forces near Cape Verde and, by keeping close to the coast, easily found the mouth of the Gambia River.  They arrived at the River Gambia in 1455 and proceeded a short way upstream. They repeated the voyage the next year, proceeding further upstream and making contact with some of the native chiefs. When they were near the

17th century.

English exploration.

In 1612, an attempt by the French to settle in the Gambia ended disastrously due to sickness spreading among the settlers. Letters patent conferring the right of the exclusive trade with the River Gambia were subsequently granted again in 1598, 1618 and 1632 to other English adventurers, but no attempts were made by the English to explore until 1618. An expedition that year was commanded by George Thomson and its objective was to open up trade with Timbuktu. Leaving his ships at Gassan, Thompson proceeded with a small party in boats as far as the River Neriko. During his absence, the crew of his ship were massacred by the Portuguese. However, some of his party managed on their return to make their way overland to Cape Verde and then to England. Thomson remained in the Gambia with seven companions but was killed by one of them in a sudden dispute.  In the meantime, a relief

Courlander Gambia and English reclamation.

During this, Jacob Kettler, the Duke of Courland, had in 1651 obtained from several native chiefs the cession of St Andrew's Island and land at Banyon Point (also known as Half-Die), Juffure and Gassan. Settlers, merchants and missionaries were sent out from Courland and forts were erected on St Andrew's Island and at Banyon Point. This was part of a period in Courlander history known as Couronian colonization, which also saw them colonise Tobago. The Courlanders believed that the possession of these territories would give them control over the river and enable them to levy tolls on all those who used the waterway. They erected a fort built out of local sandstone, appointed a Lutheran pastor, and positioned the cannons on the island so as to command both of the channels to the north and the south. The plan was to sell slaves to the colony in Tobago, but this did not prosper. In 1658, Kettler was made a prisoner by the Swedes during a war between Sweden and Poland. As a consequence, funds were no longer available to maintain the garrisons and settlements in the Gambia and in 1659, the Duke of Courland's agent at Amsterdam entered into an

Trader control.

Meanwhile, the Duke of Courland had lodged a protest against the seizure of his possessions in a time of peace. On 17 November 1664, after negotiations over the future of the territories, he relinquished in favour of Charles II all claims to his African possessions and in return was granted the island of Tobago and the right for himself to personally trade in the River Gambia. In 1667, the Royal Adventurers sublet their rights between Capes Blanco and Palmas to another body of adventurers, who became known as the Gambia

18th century.

African Company turmoil and prosperity.

In the wars with France following the Glorious Revolution, James Fort was captured on four occasions by the French, in 1695, 1702, 1704 and 1708. However, no attempt was made by France to occupy the fort permanently. At the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the French recognised the right of the English to James Island and their settlements on the River Gambia. One of the results of these wars was an outbreak of piracy along the West African coast. The English trade in the Gambia suffered heavily from the efforts of the pirates. In 1719, one pirate, Howel Davis, captured James Fort. In 1721, part of the garrison of the fort mutinied under the leadership of Captain John Massey, seizing one of the company's ships and turning pirate. Finally, in 1725, James Fort was extensively damaged by an accidental explosion of gunpowder.  Following these incidents,

Senegambia colony.

In 1766, the fort and settlements were taken from this new company by another Act of Parliament and given to the Crown. For the next 18 years, the Gambia formed part of the Senegambia colony. The government headquarters were at St Louis at the mouth of the Senegal River and a Lieutenant Governor was appointed to take charge of James Fort and the settlements in the Gambia. In 1779, the French captured James Fort for the fifth and final time. On this

Abandonment.

It was once again handed back to the Royal African Company. However, they made no attempt to administer the Gambia. In 1785, Lemain Island was acquired by the British government with the view of the establishment of a convict settlement, but nothing came of the plan. For the next thirty years, British influence in the Gambia was confined

19th century.

Early 19th century.

At the beginning of the 19th century, Montgomery identified that most settlements on the Gambia River were British. However, to the north, there were several native kingdoms, including Barra, Boor Salum, Yani and Woolli. At the time, Barra had a population of 200,000 and its capital was Barra Inding, although the main trading place was Jillifrey. Boor Salum had a population of 300,000 and the smaller kingdoms of Yani and Woolli were

British recolonisation.

Following the Treaty of Paris in 1814, which ended the war with the French, the British forces and officials on the island of evacuated Gorée. Captain Alexander Grant was sent with a detachment of Royal African Corps soldiers to explore the possibility of rebuilding Fort James on James Island but decided that more space would be provided by St Mary's Island. Grant made a treaty with the King of Kombo on 23 April 1816 that ceded the island to the UK. He also founded the town of Bathurst on St Mary's Island. In 1821, the Royal African Company was dissolved by Act of Parliament and the Gambia was placed under the jurisdiction of the Governor of Sierra Leone. It

Consolidation as a colony.

In the 1850s, under the leadership of Louis Faidherbe, the French colony of Senegal began a vigorous expansion until it virtually engulfed the Gambia. The colony assumed an importance to the French as a possible trade route, proposed cession of the Gambia for some other part of West Africa was first mooted in 1861. It was seriously discussed again during 1865 and 1866. In 1870 and 1876, negotiations were entered into between the French and British government over the proposed cession of the Gambia in exchange for other territories in West Africa.  However, the proposal aroused such opposition in Parliament and among various mercantile bodies in England, as well as among the native inhabitants of the Gambia, that the British government was unable to press ahead with the scheme. This "remarkably powerful" Gambia lobby was revived whenever the topic of the proposed cession was

20th century.

Early years.

the Gambia received its own executive and legislative councils in 1901 and gradually progressed toward self-government. Also in 1901, the Gambia Company, the first

World War I and interwar years.

During World War I, the Gambia Company served alongside other British troops in the Kamerun campaign, under the command of Captain V. B. Thurston of the Dorsetshire Regiment, and a number of its soldiers received gallantry medals for their conduct.  In 1920, the National Congress of British West Africa was formed, an organisation working towards African emancipation, with Edward Francis Small as the sole delegate. He returned and founded the Gambia Section of the Congress, the principal aim of which was to achieved

World War II.

During World War II, the Gambia Company became the Gambia Regiment, with a strength of two battalions from 1941. It fought in the Burma campaign and served for some time under the command of Antony Read, later the Quartermaster-General to the Forces. the Gambia itself was also important to the war effort. It was home to RAF Bathurst, a flying boat base, and RAF Yundum, an RAF station. HMS "Melampus", a shore base, was also based at Bathurst for some of the war, and in 1942, a light cruiser named was launched, which maintained ties to the colony until it was decommissioned in 1960. Bathurst

Post-war reform.

After the Second World War, the pace of reform increased. The economy of the Gambia, like other African countries at the time, was very heavily orientated towards agriculture. Reliance on the groundnut became so strong that it made up almost the entirety of exports, making the economy vulnerable. Groundnuts were the only commodity subject to export duties; these export duties resulted in the illegal smuggling of the product to French Senegal. Attempts were made to increase production of other goods for export: the Gambian Poultry Scheme pioneered by the Colonial Development Corporation aimed to produce twenty million eggs and one million lb of dressed poultry a year. The conditions in the Gambia proved unfavourable and typhoid killed much of the chicken stock, drawing criticism to the Corporation.  The River Gambia was the principal route of navigation and transport inland, with a port at Bathurst. The road network was mainly concentrated around Bathurst, with the remaining areas largely

Independent Gambia.

At the Marlborough House constitutional conference in June 1964, it was agreed between the British and Gambian delegations that the Gambia would become an independent country on 18 February 1965. It was agreed that the Elizabeth II would remain as the head of state, and a Governor-General would exercise executive powers on her behalf. On 18 February, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, on behalf of the Queen, formally granted the country independence with Prime Minister

Jawara era.

On 24 April 1970, the Gambia became a republic within the Commonwealth, following a second referendum, with Prime Minister Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara as head of state.  The relative stability of the Jawara era was first shattered by a coup attempt in 1981. The coup was led by Kukoi Samba Sanyang, who, on two occasions, had unsuccessfully sought election to Parliament. After a week

Jammeh era.

In July 1994, Yahya Jammeh led a "coup d'état" that deposed the Jawara government. Between 1994 and 1996, Jammeh ruled as head of the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council (AFPRC) and banned opposition political activity. The AFPRC announced a transition plan for a return to democratic civilian rule, establishing the Provisional Independent Electoral Commission (PIEC) in 1996 to conduct national elections. After a constitutional referendum in August, presidential and parliamentary elections were held. Jammeh was sworn into office as president on

Fall of Jammeh and return to democracy.

The presidential election of 2016 saw the surprising victory of the opposition candidate Adama Barrow, who defeated Jammeh with 43,3% of votes. However, Jammeh refused to recognise the result of the election and refused to leave office, instead proclaiming a state of emergency. Barrow abandoned the country and fled to Senegal, where he was sworn in as new president at the Gambian embassy in Dakar on 19 January 2017.  On the

The first written records of the region come from Arab traders in the 9th and 10th centuries. In medieval times, the region was dominated by the Trans-Saharan trade and was ruled by the Mali Empire. In the 16th century, the region came to be ruled by the Songhai Empire. The first Europeans to visit the Gambia River were the Portuguese in the 15th century, who attempted to settle on the river banks, but no settlement of significant size was established. Descendants of the Portuguese settlers remained until the 18th century. In the late 16th century, English merchants attempted to begin a trade with the Gambia, reporting that it was "a river of secret trade and riches concealed by the Portuguese."

现今的冈比亚曾是加纳帝国,马里帝国和桑海帝国的一部分。


History.

Early mentions of photocatalysis (1911-1938).

The earliest mention of photocatalysis dates back to 1911, when German chemist Dr. Alexander Eibner integrated the concept in his research of the illumination of zinc oxide (ZnO) on the bleaching of the dark blue pigment, Prussian blue. Around this time, Bruner and Kozak published an article discussing the deterioration of oxalic acid in the presence of uranyl salts under illumination, while in 1913, Landau published an article explaining the phenomenon of photocatalysis. Their contributions led to the development of actinometric measurements, measurements that provide the basis of determining photon flux in photochemical reactions. After a brief stint of lack of research on photocatalysis, in 1921, Baly et al. used ferric hydroxides and colloidal uranium salts as catalysts for the creation of formaldehyde under light in the visible spectrum. However, it wasn't until 1938, when Doodeve and Kitchener discovered that TiO, a highly-stable and non-toxic oxide, in the presence of oxygen, could act as a photosensitizer for bleaching dyes, as ultraviolet light absorbed by TiO led to the production of active oxygen species on its surface, resulting in the blotching of organic chemicals via photooxidation. This would actually mark the first observation of the fundamental characteristics of heterogeneous photocatalysis.

Advancements in photocatalysis research (1964–1981, present).

Research in photocatalysis subsided for over 25 years due to lack of interest and absence of practical applications. However, in 1964, V.N. Filimonov investigated isopropanol photooxidation from ZnO and TiO; at around the same time, Kato and Mashio, Doerffler and Hauffe, and Ikekawa et al. (1965) explored oxidation/photooxidation of carbon dioxide and organic solvents from ZnO radiance. A few years later, in 1970, Formenti et al. and Tanaka and Blyholde observed the oxidation of various alkenes and the photocatalytic decay of nitrous oxide (NO), respectively.  However, a breakthrough in photocatalysis research occurred in 1972, when Akira Fujishima and Kenichi Honda discovered electrochemical photolysis of water occurring between connected TiO and platinum electrodes, in which ultraviolet light was absorbed by the former electrode, and electrons would flow from the TiO electrode (anode; site of oxidation reaction) to the platinum electrode (cathode; site of reduction reaction); with hydrogen production occurring at the cathode. This was one of the first instances in which hydrogen production could come from a clean and cost-effective source, as the majority of hydrogen production back then came – and still today comes – from natural gas reforming and gasification. Fujishima's and Honda's findings have led to other advancements in photocatalysis; in 1977, Nozik discovered that the incorporation of a noble metal in the electrochemical photolysis process, such as platinum and gold, among others, could increase photoactivity, and that an external potential wasn't required. Future research conducted by Wagner and Somorjai (1980) and Sakata and Kawai (1981) delineated the production of hydrogen on the surface of strontium titanate (SrTiO) via photogeneration, and the generation of hydrogen and methane from the illumination of TiO and PtO in ethanol, respectively.  Research and development in photocatalysis, especially in electrochemical photolysis of water, continues today, but so far, nothing has been developed for commercial purposes. In 2017, Chu et al. assessed the future of electrochemical photolysis of water, discussing its major challenge of developing a cost-effective, energy-efficient photoelectrochemical (PEC) tandem cell, which would, “mimic natural photosynthesis.”

Types of photocatalysis.

Homogeneous photocatalysis.

In homogeneous photocatalysis, the reactants and the photocatalysts exist in the same phase. The most commonly used homogeneous photocatalysts include ozone and photo-Fenton systems (Fe and Fe/HO). The reactive species is the •OH which is used for different purposes. The mechanism of hydroxyl radical production by ozone can follow two paths.  Similarly, the Fenton system produces hydroxyl radicals by the following mechanism  In photo-Fenton type processes, additional sources of OH radicals should be considered: through photolysis of HO, and through reduction of Fe ions under UV light:  The efficiency of Fenton type processes is influenced by several operating parameters like concentration of hydrogen peroxide, pH and intensity of UV. The main advantage of this process is the ability of using sunlight with light sensitivity up to 450 nm, thus avoiding the high costs of UV lamps and electrical energy. These reactions have been proven more efficient than the other photocatalysis but the disadvantages of the process are the low pH values which are required, since iron precipitates at higher pH values and the fact that iron has to be removed after treatment.

Heterogeneous photocatalysis.

Heterogeneous catalysis has the catalyst in a different phase from the reactants. Heterogeneous photocatalysis is a discipline which includes a large variety of reactions: mild or total oxidations, dehydrogenation, hydrogen transfer, O–O and deuterium-alkane isotopic exchange, metal deposition, water detoxification, gaseous pollutant removal, etc.  Most common heterogeneous photocatalysts are transition metal oxides and semiconductors, which have unique characteristics. Unlike the metals which have a continuum of electronic states, semiconductors possess a void energy region where no energy levels are available to promote recombination of an electron and hole produced by photoactivation in the solid. The void region, which extends from the top of the filled valence band to the bottom of the vacant conduction band, is called the band gap. When a photon with energy equal to or greater than the materials band gap is absorbed by the semiconductor, an electron is excited from the valence band to the conduction band, generating a positive hole in the valence band. Such a photogenerated electron-hole pair is termed an "exciton". The excited electron and hole can recombine and release the energy gained from the excitation of the electron as heat. Exciton recombination is undesirable and higher levels lead to an inefficient photocatalyst. For this reason efforts to develop functional photocatalysts often emphasize extending exciton lifetime, improving electron-hole separation using diverse approaches that often rely on structural features such as phase hetero-junctions (e.g. anatase-rutile interfaces), noble-metal nanoparticles, silicon nanowires and substitutional cation doping. The ultimate goal of photocatalyst design is to facilitate reactions between the excited electrons with oxidants to produce reduced products, and/or reactions between the generated holes with reductants to produce oxidized products. Due to the generation of positive holes and electrons, oxidation-reduction reactions take place at the surface of semiconductors.  In one mechanism of the oxidative reaction, the positive holes react with the moisture present on the surface and produce a hydroxyl radical. The reaction starts by photo-induced exciton generation in the metal oxide surface (MO stands for metal oxide):  Oxidative reactions due to photocatalytic effect:  Reductive reactions due to photocatalytic effect:  Ultimately, the hydroxyl radicals are generated in both the reactions. These hydroxyl radicals are very oxidative in nature and non selective with redox potential of (E = +3.06 V)

Quantification of Photocatalytic Activity.

ISO 22197 -1:2007 specifies a test method for the determination of the nitric oxide removal performance of materials that contain a photocatalyst or have photocatalytic films on the surface.  Specific FTIR systems are used to characterise photocatalytic activity and/or passivity especially with respect to Volatile Organic Compounds VOCs and representative matrices of the binders applied.  Recent studies show that mass spectrometry can be a powerful tool to determine photocatalytic activity of certain materials by following the decomposition of gaseous pollutants such as nitrogen oxides or carbon dioxide

In chemistry, photocatalysis is the acceleration of a photoreaction in the presence of a catalyst. In catalysed photolysis, light is absorbed by an adsorbed substrate. In photogenerated catalysis, the photocatalytic activity (PCA) depends on the ability of the catalyst to create electron–hole pairs, which generate free radicals (e.g. hydroxyl radicals: •OH) able to undergo secondary reactions. Its practical application was made possible by the discovery of water electrolysis by means of titanium dioxide (TiO).

化学中,光触媒、光催化剂(photocatalyst)指的是能够加速光化学反应的催化剂,这种现象被称为光催化(photocatalysis)。


History.

On 1 April 1888, several students from Rotterdam founded a cricket club called Rotterdamsche Cricket & Football Club Sparta. In July 1888, a football branch of the club was established. In 1890, Sparta played its first real football match, and in 1892 Sparta disbanded the cricket branch. Sparta was promoted to the highest league of Dutch football on 23 April 1893. In 1897, Sparta withdrew from the competition after continuous dubious arbitration of Sparta matches. The club continued to exist, however, and in 1899 the board of Sparta visited a match of Sunderland. Impressed with the red-and-white jersey of the English club, the board decided that Sunderland's colours (red-white striped jersey, black shorts) would henceforth be the colours of Sparta.  In 1905, Sparta initiated and organised the first home match of the Netherlands national team, against Belgium. The match, won 4–0 by the Netherlands, was a rematch of a game two weeks prior, when the Netherlands beat Belgium 4–1 in Antwerp, Belgium.  The first match at Sparta's new stadium, Het Kasteel (The Castle), in the Spangen area of west Rotterdam, was played on 14 October 1916. The stadium was renovated in 1999 and is still Sparta's stadium.  Until the 2002–03 season, Sparta had always played at the highest level, but after they appointed the former international player Frank Rijkaard as a manager they were relegated from the top-level Eredivisie in 2002. That made Rijkaard resign from his position. Sparta returned to the Eredivisie for the 2005–06 season. They were relegated again in 2010. On 20 August 2010, they equalled Ajax's and Heracles Almelo's Dutch league record win when they defeated Almere City 12–1 with Johan Voskamp scoring an Eerste Divisie record 8 goals on his debut.  After six years in the Eerste Divisie, Sparta again won promotion to the Eredivisie in April 2016 after a 3–1 win over Jong Ajax won them an unassailable lead over second placed VVV-Venlo. However, they were relegated for the third time in their history in May 2018 after they were beaten 1-3 on aggregate by FC Emmen in the promotion/relegation play-offs. The result proved to be a historical one since Emmen won their first ever promotion to the Eredivisie.  Sparta has won six national titles (1909, 1911, 1912, 1913, 1915 and 1959) and three national cups (1958, 1962 and 1966).

Meuse/Scheldt Cup.

The best footballers of Rotterdam and Antwerp contested a yearly match between 1909 and 1959 for the Meuse- and Scheldt Cup (Maas- en Schelde Beker). It was agreed to play the game at stadium Het Kasteel in Rotterdam and at the Bosuilstadion in Antwerp. The cup was provided in 1909 by Kees van Hasselt from Rotterdam and P. Havenith from Antwerp.

Youth program.

The Sparta Jeugdopleiding (English: Sparta Youth Academy) is a four-star certified youth academy and amongst the strongest in the nation, having won the national academy of the year award on several occasions. Several International footballers have progressed through the ranks of the academy, including Danny Blind, Danny Koevermans, David Mendes da Silva, Ed de Goey, Winston Bogarde, Memphis Depay, Henk Fräser, Jan van Beveren, Georginio Wijnaldum, Anwar El Ghazi, Jetro Willems, John de Wolf, Kevin Strootman, Rick van Drongelen and Nick Viergever, Marten de Roon amongst others.  Runners-up (2): 1934, 1948

Domestic results.

Below is a table with Sparta Rotterdam's domestic results since the introduction of the Eredivisie in 1956.

Sparta Rotterdam () is a Dutch professional football club based in Rotterdam. Established on 1 April 1888, Sparta Rotterdam is the oldest professional football team in the Netherlands.

鹿特丹斯巴达是荷兰其中一间最早成立的球会,在1888年4月1日成立。在2002–03球季之前,球队一直在最高组别联赛角逐,直到2002年降至乙组为止,而他们在2005–06球季重返甲组。在2004–05球季的平均入场人数为5,700人。2015–16球季赢得乙组冠军,取得升上甲组资格。