朝鲜民主主义人民共和国农业

Farming conditions.

North Korea's sparse agricultural resources restricts agricultural production. Climate, terrain, and soil conditions are not particularly favorable for farming, with a relatively short cropping season. Only about 17% of the total landmass, or approximately, is arable, of which is well suited for cereal cultivation; the major portion of the country is rugged mountain terrain.  The weather varies markedly according to elevation, and lack of precipitation, along with infertile soil, makes land at elevations higher than 400 meters unsuitable for purposes other than grazing. Precipitation is geographically and seasonally irregular, and in most parts of the country as much as half the annual rainfall occurs in the three summer months. This pattern favors the cultivation of paddy rice in warmer regions that are outfitted with irrigation and flood control networks. Rice yields are 5.3 tonnes per hectare, close to international norms.

Agricultural products.

Rice.

Rice is North Korea's primary farm product.

Potatoes.

Potatoes have become an important food source in North Korea. After the 1990s famine, a "potato revolution" has taken place. Between 1998 and 2008 the area of potato cultivation in North Korea quadrupled to 200,000 ha and per capita consumption increased from per year.  The potato was considered a second grade food item, but has become the main staple in rural areas, replacing rice.

Greenhouse products.

Since 2014 many greenhouses have been built, funded by the new semi-private traders in co-operation with farmers, growing soft fruits such as strawberries and melons. The traders arrange distribution and sale in the Jangmadang markets in cities.

Food distribution system.

Since the 1950s, a majority of North Koreans have received their food through the Public Distribution System (PDS). The PDS requires farmers in agricultural regions to hand over a portion of their production to the government and then reallocates the surplus to urban regions, which cannot grow their own foods. About 70% of the North Korean population, including the entire urban population, receives food through this government-run system.  Before the floods, recipients were generally allotted 600–700 grams per day while high officials, military men, heavy laborers, and public security personnel were allotted slightly larger portions of 700–800 grams per day. As of 2013, the target average distribution was 573 grams of cereal equivalent per person per day, but varied according to age, occupation, and whether rations are received elsewhere (such as school meals).  Decreases in production affected the quantity of food available through the public distribution system. Shortages were compounded when the North Korean government imposed further restrictions on collective farmers. When farmers, who had never been covered by the PDS, were mandated by the government to reduce their own food allotments from 167 kilograms to 107 kilograms of grain per person each year, they responded by withholding portions of the required amount of grain. Famine refugees reported that the government decreased PDS rations to 150 grams in 1994 and to as low as 30 grams by 1997.  The PDS failed to provide any food from April to August 1998 (the “lean” season) as well as from March to June 1999. In January 1998, the North Korean government publicly announced that the PDS would no longer distribute rations and that families needed to somehow procure their own food supplies. By 2005 the PDS was only supplying households with approximately one half of an absolute minimum caloric need. By 2008 the system had significantly recovered, and from 2009 to 2013 daily per person rations averaged at 400 grams per day for much of the year, though in 2011 it dropped to 200 grams per day from May to September.  It is estimated that in the early 2000s, the average North Korean family drew some 80% of its income from small businesses that were technically illegal (though unenforced) in North Korea. In 2002, and in 2010, private markets were progressively legalized. As of 2013, urban and farmer markets were held every 10 days, and most urban residents lived within 2 km of a market, with markets having an increasing role in obtaining food.

Agricultural policy.

Since self-sufficiency remains an important pillar of North Korean ideology, self-sufficiency in food production is deemed a worthy goal. Another aim of government policies—to reduce the "gap" between urban and rural living standards—requires continued investment in the agricultural sector. Finally, as in most countries, changes in the supply or prices of foodstuffs probably are the most conspicuous and sensitive economic concerns for the average citizen. The stability of the country depends on steady, if not rapid, increases in the availability of food items at reasonable prices. In the early 1990s, there were severe food shortages.  The most far-reaching statement on agricultural policy is embodied in Kim Il-sung's 1964 "Theses on the Socialist Agrarian Question in Our Country", which underscores the government's concern for agricultural development. Kim emphasized technological and educational progress in the countryside as well as collective forms of ownership and management.

Agricultural history.

As industrialization progressed, the share of agriculture, forestry, and fisheries in the total national output declined from 63.5% and 31.4%, respectively, in 1945 and 1946, to a low of 26.8% in 1990. Their share in the labor force also declined from 57.6% in 1960 to 34.4% in 1989.  In the 1990s decreasing ability to carry out mechanized operations (including the pumping of water for irrigation), as well as lack of chemical inputs, was clearly contributing to reduced yields and increased harvesting and post-harvest losses.  Incremental improvements in agricultural production have been made since the late 1990s, bringing North Korea close to self-sufficiency in staple foods by 2013. In particular rice yields have steadily improved, though yields on other crops have generally not improved. The production of protein foods remains inadequate. Access to chemical fertilizer has declined, but the use of compost and other organic fertilizer has been encouraged.

Crisis and famine (1994–1998).

From 1994 to 1998 North Korea suffered a famine. Since 1998 there has been a gradual recovery in agriculture production, which by 2013 brought North Korea back close to self-sufficiency in staple foods. However, as of 2013, most households have borderline or poor food consumption, and consumption of protein remains inadequate.  In the 1990s the North Korean economy saw stagnation turning into crisis. Economic assistance received from the USSR and China was an important factor of its economic growth. In 1991 USSR collapsed, withdrew its support and demanded payment in hard currency for imports. China stepped in to provide some assistance and supplied food and oil, most of it reportedly at concessionary prices. But in 1994 China reduced its exports to North Korea. The rigidity in the political and economic systems of North Korea left the country ill-prepared for a changing world. The North Korean economy was undermined and its industrial output began to decline in 1990.  Deprived of industrial inputs, including fertilizers, pesticides, and electricity for irrigation, agricultural output also started to decrease even before North Korea had a series of natural disasters in the mid-1990s. This evolution, combined with a series of natural disasters including record floods in 1995, caused one of the worst economic crises in North Korea's history. Other causes of this crisis were high defense spending (about 25% of GDP) and bad governance. It is estimated that between 1992 and 1998 North Korea's economy contracted by 50% and several hundred thousand (possibly up to 3 million) people died of starvation.  North Korea announced in December 1993 a 3-year transitional economic policy placing primary emphasis on agriculture, light industry, and foreign trade. A lack of fertilizer, natural disasters, and poor storage and transportation practices have left the country more than a million tons per year short of grain self-sufficiency. Moreover, lack of foreign exchange to purchase spare parts and oil for electricity generation left many factories idle.  The 1990s famine paralyzed many of the Stalinist economic institutions. The government pursued Kim Jong Il's "Songun" policy, under which the military is deployed to direct production and infrastructure projects. As a consequence of the government's policy of establishing economic self-sufficiency, the North Korean economy has become increasingly isolated from that of the rest of the world, and its industrial development and structure do not reflect its international competitiveness.

Food shortages.

The food shortage was caused as a direct result of the massive flooding and a mix of political failure and poor amounts of arable land in the country. In 2004, more than half (57%) of the population didn't have enough food to stay healthy. 37% of the children had their growth stunted and 1/3 of mothers were severely undernourished.  In 2006, the World Food Program (WFP) and FAO estimated a requirement of 5.3 to 6.5 million tons of grain when domestic production fulfilled only 3.8 million tons. The country also faces land degradation after forests stripped for agriculture resulted in soil erosion. Harsh weather conditions that dented the agricultural output (wheat and barley production dropped 50% and 80% respectively in 2011) and rising global food prices stressed greater food shortage, putting 6 million North Koreans at risk.  With a dramatic increase on the reliance on private sales of goods, as well as increased international aid, the situation has improved somewhat with undernourishment no longer being a major concern for most North Koreans as of 2014, although PDS (the Public Distribution System) still continues.  The yield in food production in 2016 increased by 7 percent from 4.5 million tonnes in 2015 to 4.8 million tonnes and North has produced more food than South. It is estimated production decreased by 2 percent in 2017 to 4.7 million tonnes. Food production further fell in 2018 thus 641 thousand tons is needed to be imported and in comparison to last year when required 456 thousand tons with 390 thousand bought by and 66 thousand received by North Korea.

Farming in North Korea is concentrated in the flatlands of the four west coast provinces, where a longer growing season, level land, adequate rainfall, and good irrigated soil permit the most intensive cultivation of crops. A narrow strip of similarly fertile land runs through the eastern seaboard Hamgyŏng provinces and Kangwŏn Province.

朝鲜民主主义人民共和国农业,朝鲜民主主义人民共和国在朝鲜半岛的历史中和现实地理条件中都是发展重工业和矿业为主,而南方是粮食和渔业产地,所以建国后粮食生产一直是北朝鲜不可忽略的政治重点,甚至间歇性的饥荒影响了北朝鲜的政权和外交,并间接触发了对内的深化组事件以及对外的核问题等等行为,朝鲜农业成为外界研究了解其内部状态的显学。


History.

Rita Hester (November 30, 1963 – November 28, 1998) was a transgender African American woman who was murdered in Allston, Massachusetts on November 28, 1998. In response to her murder, an outpouring of grief and anger led to a candlelight vigil held the following Friday (December 4) in which about 250 people participated. The community struggle to see Rita's life and identity covered respectfully by local papers, including the Boston Herald and Bay Windows, was chronicled by Nancy Nangeroni. Her death inspired the "Remembering Our Dead" web project and the Transgender Day of Remembrance.

Race, TDoR, and Transgender Women of Color.

While TDoR is a critical event, scholars and activists committed to advancing intersectional approaches to trans politics continue to highlight the importance of seeing transphobic violence as inherently connected to race, gender, and class. This is reflected in the disproportionate instances of violence against trans women of color in general, black and Latina transgender women in particular.  Theorists C. Riley Snorton and Jin Haritaworn critique how images and narratives centering on the deaths of trans people of color—most often transfeminine bodies of color—are circulated within social movements and spaces headed by white gay and trans activists, such as TDoR. Reflecting on the case of African American trans woman Tyra Hunter, Snorton and Haritaworn observe the dangers of positioning trans women and transfeminine bodies of color as legible only in the aftermath of their deaths, and failing to see such violence as effects of both systematic transphobia and racism. Resonating alongside (but not limited to) trans activists CeCe McDonald, Reina Gossett, Sylvia Rivera, and Dean Spade, Snorton and Haritaworn's work advocates for the importance of an intersectional approach to events such as TDoR and transgender activism in general.  Scholar Sarah Lamble (2008) argues that TDoR's focus on a collective mourning risks producing the white spectator as innocent of, rather than complicit in, the violence that produces the deaths of trans women of color they are mourning. Lamble states that: "Our task then is to push these further—not only with respect to TDOR but also in the many ways we recount and confront violence. None of us are innocent. We must envision practices of remembrance that situate our own positions within structures of power that authorize violence in the first place. Our task is to move from sympathy to responsibility, from complicity to reflexivity, from witnessing to action. It is not enough to simply honor the memory of the dead—we must transform the practices of the living".  Transgender activist Mirha-Soleil Ross criticizes TDoR for conflating the motivation behind the murders of transgender women sex workers. In an interview with scholar Viviane Namaste, she presents examples of transgender sex workers who were murdered in Toronto for being sex workers and accuses the organizers of TDoR of using these women who died for being sex workers as martyrs of the transgender community.

Recognition by governments.

The Canadian province of Ontario unanimously passed the Trans Day of Remembrance Act, 2017 on December 12, 2017, officially recognizing TDoR and requiring the Legislative Assembly of Ontario to hold a moment of silence every year on November 20.

The Transgender Day of Remembrance (TDoR), also known as the International Transgender Day of Remembrance, has been observed annually (from its inception) on November 20 as a day to memorialize those who have been murdered as a result of transphobia. It is a day to draw attention to the continued violence endured by transgender people. Transgender Day of Remembrance was founded in 1999 by Gwendolyn Ann Smith, a transgender woman, to memorialize the murder of transgender woman Rita Hester in Allston, Massachusetts. It has slowly evolved from the web-based project started by Smith into an international day of action. In 2010, TDoR was observed in over 185 cities throughout more than 20 countries.

跨性别追悼日(英语:Transgender Day of Remembrance),也称跨性别死难者纪念日、国际跨性别纪念日,日期为11月20日。它的设立是为了悼念反跨性别憎恨暴力谋杀事件的受害者,并提高对跨性别群体所受暴力的认知度。


Building.

The iron structure contains two floors, and has one bedroom, a kitchen, a bathroom and a living area. It has two non-opening windows, with sunlight also entering through translucent glass panels that make up the walls. The entire interior is painted white and the building's electricity is obtained from a neighboring building. The house has custom water and sewage technology and is not connected to the city-provided water systems. Because of its small size, the building only accommodates a small 2-beverage refrigerator, and occupants use a ladder to travel from level to level. Entry is via retractable stairs that, when closed, become the living area.  The construction of the Keret House was supported by the Warsaw Town Hall and the Polish Modern Art Foundation. The house is classified as an "art installation" because it does not meet Polish building codes, even though it is being used as a residence.  In 2019, it was named as one of the most iconic houses in the world and included on a list of international projects honoured by the architecture portal "Iconic Houses".

Location.

Keret House is located between 22 Chłodna Street and 74 Żelazna Street in Warsaw, and is designated as the narrowest house in the world. The structure was installed between a pre-war house and an apartment building. Keret said that staying at the Keret House is like a "memorial to my family"; his parents' families died in World War II when Nazi Germany occupied Poland.

Keret House is a structure and art installation in Warsaw, Poland. It was designed by the architect Jakub Szczęsny through the architecture firm Centrala, and has been described as the narrowest house in the world, measuring at its thinnest point and at its widest. The two-story art installation was named after Israeli writer and filmmaker Etgar Keret, who was the building's first tenant.

奇勒屋(Keret House)是位于波兰首都华沙犹太人区的一间奇葩建筑物,因为它是位于两幢大厦的空隙之间,它是「全世界最窄的建筑物」,其最窄处是0.92米而最阔也祇有1.52米。


History.

Carroll was laid out in 1867. It took its name from Carroll County, which was named in honor of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Maryland. He was the only Roman Catholic to sign the Declaration of Independence.  In 1869, the centrally located railroad town of Carroll City was selected as the county seat, replacing, with some protest, Carrollton. Later a $4,000 courthouse was constructed on the town square. This building was used until it burned to the ground in 1886. The vaults and records were undamaged, however, and moved to temporary housing in the Joyce Building and Drees' Music Hall.  The following winter a $40,000 bond issue was approved toward the construction of a new, permanent courthouse. The impressive building was built on the northwest corner of the square (the parking lot of the current courthouse). The stone and brick building, complete with a clock tower, was used for more than three-quarters of a century. It was replaced by a modern-looking building in 1965.  A $750,000 bond issue was used to construct and equip the new courthouse. This building was officially dedicated on September 24, 1966. The highlight of the dedication ceremony was the opening of the boxes sealed in the cornerstone of the old courthouse. The bell from the previous courthouse clock tower sits on the courthouse grounds. Source: Marie Hackett, Curator of the Carroll County Historical Museum, 1991

Geography.

Carroll is located at (42.069544, −94.866361).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

2010 census.

At the 2010 census there were 10,103 people, 4,357 households, and 2,605 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 4,698 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 96.0% White, 0.5% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 1.5% from other races, and 1.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.4%.  Of the 4,357 households 28.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.7% were married couples living together, 9.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.2% were non-families. 35.5% of households were one person and 16.7% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.91.  The median age was 42 years. 23.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.7% were from 25 to 44; 26.7% were from 45 to 64; and 19.7% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.1% male and 52.9% female.

2000 census.

At the 2000 census there were 10,106 people, 4,173 households, and 2,649 families living in the city. The population density was 1,823.2 people per square mile (704.3/km2). There were 4,431 housing units at an average density of 799.4 per square mile (308.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 98.57% White, 0.18% African American, 0.10% Native American, 0.51% Asian, 0.28% from other races, and 0.37% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.57%.  Of the 4,173 households 31.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.7% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.5% were non-families. 31.9% of households were one person and 16.2% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.99.  Population spread: 25.9% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 26.0% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 19.7% 65 or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.1 males.  The median household income was $39,854 and the median family income was $51,020. Males had a median income of $31,124 versus $22,215 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,442. About 3.4% of families and 5.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.8% of those under age 18 and 7.4% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

The public school district is the Carroll Community School District.  The area Catholic private school is the Kuemper Catholic School System, which includes Kuemper Catholic High School.

Carroll is a city in, and the county seat of, Carroll County, Iowa, United States, along the Middle Raccoon River. The population was 10,103 in the 2010 census, down three people from the 10,106 population in 2000.

卡洛尔(Carroll)是美国艾奥瓦州卡洛尔县的城市和县城。2010年美国人口普查中的人口为10103人,比2000年人口普查中的10106人少了3人。


埃瓦拉斯·阿布罗马维丘斯

Biography.

Abromavičius was born in Lithuania, but lived in Estonia, Sweden, USA and Russia for many years. He was educated in Lithuania later obtaining a BA in international business from Concordia International University Estonia and Concordia University Wisconsin. He started his career in finance in 1996 at Hansabank (Swedbank). During 2002–2014, he co-owned and was at the core of building a Stockholm-based investment company East Capital, one of the largest and most reputable Investment companies from Western Europe investing in Eastern Europe. After the Revolution of Dignity in Ukraine, Aivaras, a Lithuanian national, was asked to serve as Minister of Economic Development and Trade of Ukraine.  In 2004 Abromavičius married a Ukrainian woman from Donetsk and in 2008 they settled in Kiev where their three children were born.  Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko granted citizenship to Abromavičius, Natalie Jaresko and Alexander Kvitashvili on 2 December 2014 to allow them to serve as ministers in the Second Yatsenyuk Government.  Over 1,5 years, he built and managed the strongest and reform-minded team in the entire government. Under his leadership a completely new Electronic Public Procurement System Prozorro was launched, which received multiple international awards and recognition and saved billions of UAH to Ukrainian tax payers. He also kick started a major State Owned Enterprise reform that included totally new CEO selection process and helped form a new and first truly independent Board of Directors at Naftogaz. He also helped start a Better Regulation Delivery Office with substantial EU funding to improve business climate in Ukraine.  Abromavičius speaks Ukrainian, Lithuanian, English and Russian.  On 3 February 2016, Abromavičius announced his resignation. He was finally relieved from his post when the Groysman Government was installed in 14 April 2016.  In 2019, he returned to the political arena of Ukraine, when he set up meetings for presidential candidate Volodymyr Zelensky. On June 12, 2019, President Zelensky appointed Abromavičius to serve as a Member of the Supervisory Board at Ukroboronprom. On 31 August 2019 Presidents Zelensky appointed Abromavičius as the Director General of Ukroboronprom.  Currently Aivaras holds positions of Chairman of the Board at Ukrainian Corporate Governance Academy, Founding Member at Global Blockchain Business Council, Chairman of the Board Riverside Development (Riga), Member of the Board in SUP (Ukrainian Entrepreneurs' Union).

Aivaras Abromavičius (, born 21 January 1976) is a Lithuanian-born Ukrainian investment banker and politician. On 31 August 2019 Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky appointed Abromavičius the Director General of Ukroboronprom. Previously he was Ukraine's Minister of Economy and Trade starting in December 2014 (Abromavičius announced his resignation on 3 February 2016). He did not retain his post in the Groysman Government that was installed in 14 April 2016.

埃瓦拉斯·阿布罗马维丘斯(,,1976年-1月21日)是一位犹太裔立陶宛人,但他现在的国籍是乌克兰。自2014年12月起,他担任乌克兰的经济和贸易部长。他2004年和一位乌克兰人结婚,2008年开始定居在基辅。2014年12月,他取得乌克兰国籍并开始担任乌克兰经济和贸易部长。


List of countries by intentional homicide rate

Definition.

Intentional homicide is defined by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in its "Global Study on Homicide" report thus: Though some discrepancies exist in how specific categories of intentional killings are classified, the definitions used by countries to record data are generally close to the UNODC definition, making the homicide rates highly comparable at the international level. UNODC uses the homicide rate as a proxy for overall violence, as this type of crime is one of the most accurately reported and internationally comparable indicators.  Figures from the Global Study on Homicide are based on the UNODC Homicide Statistics dataset, which is derived from the criminal justice or public health systems of a variety of countries and territories. The homicide rates derived from criminal justice data (typically recorded by police authorities) and the public health system data (recorded when the cause of death is established) may diverge substantially for some countries. The two sources usually match in the Americas, Europe and Oceania, but there are large discrepancies for the three African countries reporting both sources. For the 70 countries in which neither source was made available, figures were derived from WHO statistical models.  Deaths resulting from an armed conflict between states are never included in the count. Killings caused by a non-international armed conflict may or may not be included, depending on the intensity of hostilities and whether it is classified as 'civil unrest' or a clash between organized armed groups.

UNODC's global study.

All data in this section comes from the Statistics Online website of the Research and Analysis Branch of UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime).

By region.

Rates are calculated per 100,000 inhabitants.

By country, region or dependant territory.

The regions and region names in the table are based on the United Nations geoscheme since the table sources are United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reports.

Country subdivisions.

The following is a list of rates. Click the "show" links next to the country names at the top left of each chart. The references are linked from the sources column.

List of countries by UNODC homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants is typically expressed in units of deaths per 100,000 individuals per year; thus, a mortality rate of 30 (out of 100,000) in a population of 100,000 would mean 30 deaths per year in that entire population, or 0.03% out of the total. The reliability of underlying national murder rate data may vary. Only UNODC data is used in the main table below. In some cases it is not as up to date as other sources. See farther down as to why its data is used over other sources.

各国谋杀率列表是指每年每10万人的谋杀数,统计数据从2000年开始。分析比较各国的谋杀率必须认真进行,可信的谋杀率也许是罕见的,这是因为不同国家的法律对“杀人”的定义不一样。谋杀案可能会或可能不会包括攻击导致的死亡、杀婴、协助自杀或安乐死。


World Heritage Sites.

UNESCO lists sites under ten criteria; each entry must meet at least one of the criteria. Criteria i through vi are cultural, whereas vii through x are natural.

Sites by autonomous community.

Exclusive sites refer to sites locating in a single community. Shared sites refer to sites with entries in multiple communities, including Pirineos – Monte Perdido, which Aragon shares with France, Prehistoric Rock-Art Sites in the Côa Valley and Siega Verde, which Castile and León shares with Portugal and Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests which Navarre, Castile and León, Community of Madrid and Castile-La Mancha shares with other countries of Europe.

Tentative list.

In addition to sites inscribed on the World Heritage List, member states can maintain a list of tentative sites that they may consider for nomination. Nominations for the World Heritage List are only accepted if the site was previously listed on the tentative list. As of 2016, Spain recorded 32 sites on its tentative list. At 2018, the sites, along with the year they were included on the tentative list are:

Memory of the World.

In Spain there are 6 inscriptions of the category "Memory of the World Programme" awarded by the UNESCO: Capitulations of Santa Fe, Treaty of Tordesillas, Llibre del Sindicat de Remença, Cortes of León, materials related to the keicho era mission to Europe, and Archivo General de Simancas.

Pending transboundary nominations.

In 2014, the idea to nominate the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade Route was initiated by the Mexican ambassador to UNESCO with the Filipino ambassador to UNESCO.  An Experts' Roundtable Meeting was held at the University of Santo Tomas (UST) on April 23, 2015 as part of the preparation of the Philippines for the possible transnational nomination of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade Route to the World Heritage List. The nomination will be made jointly with Mexico.  The following are the experts and the topics they discussed during the roundtable meeting: Dr. Celestina Boncan on the Tornaviaje; Dr. Mary Jane A. Bolunia on Shipyards in the Bicol Region; Mr. Sheldon Clyde Jago-on, Bobby Orillaneda, and Ligaya Lacsina on Underwater Archaeology; Dr. Leovino Garcia on Maps and Cartography; Fr. Rene Javellana, S.J. on Fortifications in the Philippines; Felice Sta. Maria on Food; Dr. Fernando Zialcita on Textile; and Regalado Trota Jose on Historical Dimension. The papers presented and discussed during the roundtable meeting will be synthesized into a working document to establish the route's Outstanding Universal Value.  The Mexican side reiterated that they will also follow suit with the preparations for the route's nomination.  Spain has also backed the nomination of the route in the World Heritage List and has also suggested the archives related to the route under the possession of the Philippines, Mexico, and Spain to be nominated as part of another UNESCO list, the Memory of the World Register. At the same time, Spain has also backed the possible nomination of "Spanish Colonial Fortifications of the Philippines" in the UNESCO World Heritage List.  In 2017, the Philippines established the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Museum in Metro Manila, one of the necessary steps in nominating the trade route to UNESCO.

External links.

Comisión Nacional Española de Cooperación con la UNESCO

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites are places of importance to cultural or natural heritage as described in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, established in 1972. Spain accepted the convention on May 4, 1982, making its historical sites eligible for inclusion on the list.

本列表罗列了经联合国教科文组织(UNESCO)审核通过的西班牙世界遗产。1972年,联合国教科文组织决定将价值较高的文化遗产和自然遗产选为世界遗产并写入《世界遗产名录》。1982年5月4日,西班牙表示愿意接受《保护世界文化和自然遗产公约》,其历史遗迹获得了列入《世界遗产名录》、成为世界遗产的资格。随着时间的推移,越来越多的西班牙历史遗迹成为世界遗产。这些世界遗产可分为自然遗产、文化遗产和复合遗产。


Early Life and Education.

Saikhanbileg was born on the 20th of January, 1969, as the second of 4 children of Chimed Ochir, on the morning of the first day of Tsagaan Sar, the Lunar New Year, one of Mongolia's largest festive holidays, in Bayantumen soum (sub-province) of Dornod aimag, the easternmost province of Mongolia. His father, Chimed Ochir, and mother, Orolmaa Alag, were both engineers. His father oversaw the construction of new industrial, cultural, residential buildings, and the new airport built by the Russian Construction Company in Ulaanbaatar in the capital city of Mongolia and greatly contributed to the development of the city's modern image and look. His mother, Orolmaa, personally carried out the technological work of developing the film of all Mongolian feature films from the early 1960s to the mid-1990s.  Saikhanbileg attended the 45th school in Ulaanbaatar city between 1976 and 1986, for general compulsory education. During his school years, he was a socially active student, serving as a board member of the children's organization of all schools in the capital. In 1983, he organized and supervised the largest Mongolian children's assembly, the 5th Annual Inheritor Conference. He also worked at the Mongolian National Television as a children's show host.  After graduating from secondary school, Saikhanbileg went to Moscow to study history at the Moscow State University for Humanities from 1986 to 1991 and received a bachelor's degree in History and History Education.  When working for the Mongolian Youth Federation, Mongolia's largest youth NGO, Saikhanbileg studied law and received his Bachelor of Law degree from the School of Law of the Mongolian National University in 1995. After his first election and service as a Member of Parliament, Saikhanbileg spent a year in Boulder, Colorado, at the University of Colorado Economics Institute from 2000 to 2001 and subsequently completed his master's degree at The George Washington University Law School in Washington DC, USA.

Political career.

As a young student in Moscow, Saikhanbileg witnessed Gorbachev's Perestroika and Glasnost; shortly afterwards, the fall of the Berlin Wall. As soon as he graduated from the University in 1991, he started to actively participate in the Mongolian Democratic Revolution. At that time, the ruling party – the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party was influencing Mongolian youth through its largest youth organization, Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League. Saikhanbileg initiated and implemented numerous reforms and ideas in line with the ideals and mindsets of youths including the reorganization of this organization into the Mongolian Youth Federation, modernizing its form into that of the classical non-governmental organizations and expelling party influence. In a single year, he advanced within the organization from an ordinary MYF member to the organization's leader.  To determine new principles of democracy and introduce change in the society, Mongolian Youth Federation formed the “Four Union Coalition<nowiki>"</nowiki> in collaboration with the Democratic Union of Mongolia, the Student Union of Mongolia, and the New Progress Association and organized rallies and demonstrations.  Mongolian Youth Federation and his team gained recognition and popularity not only in Mongolia, but also internationally, and in 1995 the World Youth Assembly named the MYF the “World's Best Youth Organization”. In addition to working for the youth organization, he also hosted a very popular TV entertainment and talk shows among the youth such as “Agshin” and VIP.  Saikhanbileg ran and won in the 1996 Mongolian parliamentary election, becoming the youngest Member of the Mongolian Parliament at the age of 27. A number of laws on reforms in the legislative and education sectors he initiated were passed by the Parliament. He was one of the initiating members of the 2000 Constitutional Amendment. Furthermore, he also initiated the Law on Parliament, the Law on the Legal Status of Parliament Members, and the Law on Parliamentary Procedures, which became the basis of today's core legal and regulatory system.  In 1999 he was appointed Minister of Education, Science Technology and Culture by Parliament. His becoming a Cabinet Minister of Mongolia at the age of 29 marks the record of the youngest ministerial appointment in the new Mongolian history. During his tenure, Saikhanbileg reformed the higher (tertiary) education system, passed new tertiary education laws, and began accreditation system of all universities in Mongolia. The legal basis of private schools in the education system were legalized for the first time. In addition, universities came to be governed by an independent board and the appointment of university presidents were freed from political influence. Saikhanbileg also served as the first Chairman of the Board of the National University of Mongolia, the largest and oldest university in Mongolia.  Mongolian youth began attending universities in Russia and Germany in the 1920s forming the first wave of Mongolian intellectuals. The second wave of educating the youth in Russia and Eastern Europe began in the late 1950s and early 1960s and continued through to the 1990s. As Minister of Education, from the late 1990s Saikhanbileg began the third wave of education, training Mongolian youth in USA, Australia, European Union, Japan and Korea which has continued to today, preparing the next generation of Mongolian professionals. This effort was complemented by Government's support to students – stipends, tuition loans and aid. Additionally, he had the Law on Science and Technology approved, securing 1.5% of the annual government budget for science and technology.  Saikhanbileg studied for 2 years in the United States of America after the 2000 Parliamentary Election. While studying at GWU, he conceived 2 ideas to implement in Mongolia and successfully achieved them after graduation. The first was estate planning, which was a concept unfamiliar to the Mongolian people. He established E&T Law Firm and worked there from 2002 to 2004. The second idea was to establish a secondary school in line with American standards in Mongolia. Finding a partner and raising over US$10 million, he founded the American School of Ulaanbaatar (ASU) making it one of the most prestigious schools today. Each year, more than 600 students enroll in the K-12 program and each graduate is accepted into prestigious foreign schools. ASU has become one of the private benchmark schools, and many other schools have worked hard to reach its standards. This project was an important contribution to the American-Mongolian relationship as well as introducing American teaching and pedagogical standards and curricula in Mongolia.  Saikhanbileg was appointed the Chairman of Information and Communication Technology Authority of the Mongolian Government after the 2004 Parliamentary Election where he served until 2008. Under his leadership, 2004 to 2008 was a period of rapid development in telecommunications and information technologies in Mongolia.  He personally oversaw and completed the construction of high-speed Internet access and fiber-optic cables in 1.5 million km2 area of Mongolia, connecting 21 aimags and 330 soums during those years. This fiber-optic network became the first infrastructure in Mongolia to connect the entire country. Within only 4 years, a new network spanning almost 10,000 km had been built. He successfully managed the re-negotiation of a 20-year contract with the Korea Telecom company, which had been signed in 1995 and had granted the company an exclusive right to use central telecommunication network. Saikhanbileg was able to remove the exclusive rights, inviting fair competition to the industry. With the advent of two new cellular carriers, competition flourished, leading to reduction of users’ bills by almost 3 to 4 times. Cellular phone user numbers increased to 4.3 million for 3 million Mongolians, making Mongolia a country with a leading mobile penetration rate. The percentage of smartphone users has grown to over 80%. At his initiative, the projects “E-Mongolia”, “E-Government”, “Internet for Every Family” and “A Computer for Every Child” were successfully implemented and the total size of Internet traffic was increased by a factor of 400. The IPTV project to connect Mongolia to the main fiber-optic network that connects Asia and Europe, was successfully implemented allowing the user to rewind any program aired within 72 hours. E-government project eliminated bureaucracy and red-tape in government services and enabled numerous innovative services to reach the public.  His phenomenal transformations of Mongolia's IT industry won him the highest number of votes in 2008 Parliamentary Election in the Ulaanbaatar city constituency thus making him a second-term Member of Parliament.  2008 and 2009 were trying years for Mongolia due to the global financial crisis. The political situation was also tense after the mass riot in July 1, 2008. During this time, the two largest political parties put aside their differences, establishing a coalition and launched the largest economic project, the Oyu Tolgoi (OT). In those challenging circumstances Saikhanbileg led the Democratic Party floor in the Parliament, one of the two largest factions, and boldly solved pressing political and economic issues in 2008–2012.  His leadership, management skills, problem-solving techniques and enabling attitude were constructive in overcoming the financial crisis, implementing the IMF program, subsequently attaining 14.5% economic growth and starting and advancing the complex Oyu Tolgoi project.  In 2012 Parliamentary election, Saikhanbileg became a Member of Parliament for the third time, his Democratic Party faction gained the most number of seats in the Parliament and formed the Government. Saikhanbileg was appointed Chief of the Cabinet Secretariat, a Cabinet Minister.  As Chief of the Cabinet Secretariat, Saikhanbileg undertook a series of important reforms to alleviate the burden of red-tape on business, invite for more openness along the core of World Bank Doing Business indicators, and within only 2 years, Mongolia advanced to the 56th from 97th in the world ranking. Moreover, by certain indicators, Mongolia excelled to rank among the top 20 countries.  He established a permanent 11-11 Call Center for citizens to submit complaints and feedback, introduced government service electronic machines capable of providing 34 public services, implemented reforms in the professional inspectorate, and reformed government-issued permits for businesses and citizens, lowering the number from 900 to 300.  Saikhanbileg was appointed the 28th Prime Minister of Mongolia on the 21st of November, 2014. It was a time of crisis, with plunging commodity prices (commodities as gold, copper, and coal being the main revenue earners for Mongolia) and shrinking Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). In his address to the Parliament on the day of his appointment as the country's Premier, Saikhanbileg noted: “My Government’s priority will be the Economy, with the second priority being the Economy and the third – Economy”.  He was able to realistically plan for a modest budget revenue and reduced the budget expenditures by MNT 2 trillion consecutively for 2 years. Collaborating with the Bank of Mongolia, he implemented "Good" programs with the intent to protect low-income segments of the population and support the middle class. Also, as a result of implementing the VAT registration system reform, cash transactions were drastically reduced and the number of cash and cashless transaction machines were increased by a factor of 4 in just the first year. Compared with economic performance of 2008–2009, when the country was under the same grave economic conditions and had shrunk by 1.3%, the economy under Saikhanbileg's management grew modestly by 1.3%, under the prevalently same tough economic circumstances.  FDI has been one of the key drivers of Mongolia's economic growth.  Saikhanbileg, as Prime Minister, worked relentlessly to attract foreign investment to Mongolia. He visited the main capital markets: London, New York, Dubai, Hong Kong, Tokyo, and Singapore, met with the leaders, businesses, and investors from those countries, organized Investment conferences in each country he visited, presented Mongolian markets and mega projects and invited them to invest. He also visited prominent television studios such as CNBC, CNN, Bloomberg, BBC, and CCTV for live programs to speak about the political environment surrounding the Mongolian economy and investment. He met with the World Bank, IMF, IFC, Credit Suisse, EBRD, ADB and ING, and their executives, and came up with specific solutions for investment and co-operation in Mongolia.  As a result, the two-year negotiation of Oyu Tolgoi Underground Mine was concluded and the decision to launch a $4.2 billion construction project was reached on the 19th of May, 2015. More than half of the 6 to 7 percent Mongolian economic growth of today can be directly attributed to this project, launched by the financing of 14 international banks. Currently, 14,000 Mongolians and over 1,000 Mongolian companies are taking part in the project.  Inaugurating the Oyu Tolgoi Project, Saikhanbileg said: "From now on, the OT project transforms from a controversial political matter into a business project. From now on, the matter will be settled by the members of the board and not by politicians." But to this day, some authorities and parliament members continue to politicize the subject of OT and employ it as a topic for populism.  During his service as a Prime Minister, Saikhanbileg attended and spoke at diverse international forums and fora such as WEF in Davos, Summer Davos forums and the St. Petersburg Economic Forum, speaking for Mongolia's challenges, solutions and successes.  Prime Minister Saikhanbileg made timely decisions to seize the opportunity to purchase a 49% stake in Erdenet Copper Mine [which bears no less than OT at an economic value for Mongolia], held by Russia. These critical decisions transferred the title of a MNT 4.9 trillion worth asset to Mongolia.  Just these two actions - securing the OT underground mine's US$4.2 billion investment and the Erdenet Copper Plant valued at MNT 4.9 trillion title transfer to Mongolia are the legacy of his Prime Ministership.  In July 2016, as a Prime Minister of Mongolia, Saikhanbileg hosted the leaders of state and government of 53 countries of Europe and Asia for the ASEM Summit in the capital city of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar. He personally chaired the Organizing Committee of ASEM and took the charge for the successful and effective organization of important meetings within ASEM.

Family and Personal Life.

Saikhanbileg is married and is a father of three. He met his wife, Baigal, at the Mongolian Student Festival on the shores of Baikal (Baigal) lake. Saikhanbileg and Baigal married in 1993. His spouse, Baigal graduated from the Mongolian National University of Arts and Culture with a degree in acting. She starred in 6 Mongolian feature films and dramas, immortalizing her youth on the screen. In her youth, she was named Mongolia's Top Model. After her husband entered the political arena, she ended her acting career and fully devoted herself to the family as a loving wife and a caring mother. As their children grew, Baigal started her own business. She founded one of the first beauty salons in Mongolia, Baigal Beauty (lit. Natural Beauty) in 2002. Furthermore, she expanded her Baigal House company to souvenirs and accessories featuring ancient Mongolian arts and traditions. She was selected as one of the 50 Top Business Women in Mongolia by Forbes Magazine in 2019.  The eldest son, Unubileg Saikhanbileg graduated from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University in Florida, USA and started as a pilot in Aero Mongolia aircompany. Currently, he is a pilot of a Boeing 767 at MIAT Mongolian Airlines, the national flag-carrier company. The eldest daughter Unuhishig Saikhanbileg is a senior at Babson College in Boston, USA. The youngest daughter Unu-Erdene Saikhanbileg is a primary school student.  In recognition for his devoted service to his country, Saikhanbileg was awarded with state decorations – Order of the Red Banner of Labour and the Order of the Golden Polar Star.  Saikhanbileg is fluent in Mongolian, Russian and English. He believes that every young Mongolian should learn the main international language-English and the languages of the two main neighboring countries, People's Republic of China and Russian Federation. To set an example for the youths of today, he is currently learning Mandarin Chinese.  In his leisure, Saikhanbileg enjoys Powerlifting. His personal records are 185 kg bench press, 220 kg squat and 160 kg deadlift. He was elected the President of the Mongolian Powerlifting Federation from 2010 to 2017. He loves mountaineering. He successfully climbed 3 mountain peaks above 4,000 meters in Mongolia.

Chimed Saikhanbileg (; born 17 February, 1969) is a Mongolian politician, who served as the 28th Prime Minister of Mongolia from 2014 to 2016, and whose work and career are indispensably associated with political, economic and education reforms, youth organizations, information technology, democracy, investment, and mega-projects of Mongolia.

其米德·赛汗比勒格(,1969年),蒙古族,蒙古国东方省人,蒙古国政治家。


Biography.

Early years.

Petrovsky was born in the village of Pechenihy in Kharkov Governorate on 3 February (Old Style - 22 January) 1878, in the family of a craftsman (some sources claim - son of tailor and laundrywoman). Grigory's father died when he was three. Petrovsky had two siblings.  After finishing two classes of school at the Kharkiv Theological Seminary in 1889, Petrovsky was dismissed for not being able to pay for his tuition. Being 11 years old he left education for a job in the city working for a locomotive depot. In 1893 at age of 15 he arrived to Yekaterinoslav (current Dnipro) where he found a job at the Bryansk Metallurgical Factory (today - Petrovsky Factory).  In 1895 Petrovsky joined the revolutionary movement and in 1897 enrolled in the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDRP) and joined the "Union in the fight for the liberation of the worker's class" as well as the Yekaterinslav committee of RSDRP. At this period of time he actively participated in the political agitation for the Bolsheviks from Mykolaiv to Mariupol, from Donets basin to Kharkiv, for which he was arrested in 1900 and 1903.  During the Russian Revolution of 1905 Petrovsky became one of the organizers and leaders of the Yekaterinoslav City Council of Worker's Deputies and the local Battle Strike Committee. However, he soon was forced to flee and for a brief period of time emigrated to Germany. In 1907 he returned to Mariupol where he worked as a turning specialist and continued his revolutionary activity at the factory "Russian Providence" (today - part of Ilyich Steel & Iron Works).

Parliament and revolution.

In 1912 Petrovsky was elected a deputy to the Russian 4th State Duma as a representative of workers of the Yekaterinoslav Governorate for Bolshevik faction. During this time he also was a chief editor of "Pravda". In January 1913 Petrovsky was included into the Central Committee of RSDRP. It is known that in the Duma he spoke on 32 occasions, while the text of his 21st speech was prepared personally by Vladimir Lenin. In his speeches Petrovsky was addressing the issues related to improving working conditions and life of miners and workers of Donets basin.  With the start of World War I in November 1914 he was arrested along with the other six Bolshevik members of the parliament and in February 1915 was sentenced to a lifetime exile in Turukhansky Krai (today - the northern part of Krasnoyarsk Krai).  After the Bolshevik seizure of power Petrovsky was appointed People's Commissar for the Interior Affairs between 30 November 1917 and 1 March 1919. In this post he oversaw the activities of the Cheka and was one of the advocates of the Red Terror, he wrote in his order "A huge number of hostages has to be taken to the bourgeoisie, in cases of resistance these hostages have to be shot in masses(...) No hesitation in the application of the terror" He was a member of the Russian delegation during signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1917.  On 30 December 1922 he became the representative of Ukraine SSR in the USSR Central Executive Committee after signing the decree for the creation of the Soviet Union. According to the BBC, "Petrovsky saw himself as an internationalist, and rejected Ukrainian nationalism". He was co-chairman of the USSR Central Executive Committee until 12 January 1938, when he was elected deputy chairman of the presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.  Some Ukrainian historians believe he and the Ukrainian Soviet Communist leader, Lazar Kaganovich, were the main executors of Stalin's 1930s policies in Ukraine, part of which was the 1932–33 man-made genocidal famine, better known as the Holodomor. Other historians, like Vasyl Marochko, a member of an official commission that investigated the Holodomor, say that when Petrovsky fully understood what was being perpetrated and realized the extent of the famine, he pleaded with Stalin to provide Ukrainians with food but this request went unheeded.

Survivor of the Great Terror.

He was not purged during the Great Terror, but he was shocked and saddened by the executions of close friends such as Stanislav Kosior, Vlas Chubar and Sukhomlin. Soon after the USSR celebrated its sixteenth birthday, he was interrogated by Joseph Stalin, who told him, "We shoot people like you but you will be spared" and then was excluded from the Communist Party and deprived of his dachas and apartments. After a year without a job, in 1940 he was made the director of the Revolution Museum of the USSR in Moscow and never returned to politics. During the Second World War, after the death of his son Leonid, he asked Stalin in a letter to release his imprisoned son Peter, but he was subsequently shot. Petrovsky died in 1958.  Petrovsky's body is interred near the Kremlin wall in Moscow.

Legacy.

The city Dnipro (originally named Yekaterinoslav) was named "Dnipropetrovsk" after Petrovsky from 1926 until 2016. On 20 May 2016 the city was renamed "Dnipro". Some Ukrainians believed that the city should have been renamed after Ukraine gained independence in 1991. The city was eventually renamed to comply with 2015 decommunization laws. Ukraine's Dnipropetrovsk oblast was not renamed because as such it is mentioned in the Constitution of Ukraine, and the Oblast can only be renamed by a constitutional amendment.  A statue of Petrovsky in Kiev (the capital of Ukraine) was demolished in late November 2009, just days before the annual Ukrainian commemorating of the victims of the Holodomor. President of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko had issued a decree ordering the removal of monuments to Soviet leaders, "in memory of the victims of the Holodomor". Petrovsky's statue in then still named "Dnipropetrovsk" was demolished on 29 January 2016. In April 2014 the local statue of Vladimir Lenin had already been demolished.

Grigory Ivanovich Petrovsky (, "Hryhoriy Ivanovych Petrovsky") (3 February 1878 - 9 January 1958) was a Ukrainian Soviet politician. He participated in signing the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Petrovsky was one of the officials responsible for implementing Stalin's policies such as collectivization.

格里戈里·伊万诺维奇·彼得罗夫斯基(,;1878年-2月3日-1958年-1月9日)是苏共中央政治局候补委员、全乌克兰中央执行委员会主席。


Birth.

On 30 May 2014, it was announced that Princess Charlene was pregnant. After much speculation it was confirmed, on 9 October 2014, that the couple was expecting twins by the end of the year. On November 21, 2014, the palace announced that each twin would have the right to a salvo of 21 cannon shots at birth. In addition, the day would be declared a holiday. On 10 December 2014, Jacques was born at Monaco's Princess Grace Hospital Centre, two minutes after his sister Gabriella.  The Prince's Palace of Monaco released a statement describing how the birth was to be celebrated in the principality. Forty-two cannon shots (twenty-one for each child) were to be fired from the Fort Antoine and church bells were to ring for fifteen minutes, followed by boat horns. The twins were presented on 7 January 2015 which was declared a public holiday in Monaco.  Prince Jacques and Princess Gabriella have an older half-sister, Jazmin Grace Grimaldi, and an older half-brother, Alexandre Grimaldi-Coste, from their father's previous relationships.

Baptism.

The new Hereditary Prince was baptized Jacques Honoré Rainier. Princess Charlene revealed that she chose the name Jacques, a name that is common in her homeland. The names Honoré and Rainier are common among previous rulers of Monaco. He received the title Marquis of Baux from his father.  The twins were baptised at the Saint Nicholas Cathedral, Monaco on 10 May 2015. At this occasion, he was awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of Grimaldi of 10 May 2015.  His full name and title is His Serene Highness Jacques Honoré Ranier Grimaldi, Hereditary Prince of Monaco, Marquis of Baux.

Titles and honors.

When referring to Jacques in French, the palace has used the term "Prince Héréditaire" to refer to the prince. However, when mentioning the prince in English, the palace has referred to Jacques as "Crown Prince" instead of "Hereditary Prince."

Jacques, Hereditary Prince of Monaco, Marquis of Baux (Jacques Honoré Rainier Grimaldi; born 10 December 2014), is the heir apparent to the Monegasque throne. He is the son of Prince Albert II and Princess Charlene and twin brother of Princess Gabriella. He also holds the title of Marquis de Baux; which all the heirs apparent to the crown of Monaco have held since 1643.

雅克·奥诺雷·兰尼埃(Jacques Honoré Rainier,2014年-12月10日),摩纳哥王储,出生于摩纳哥的格蕾丝王妃中心医院(),头衔为及鲍克斯侯爵。王储是摩纳哥亲王阿尔贝二世与查伦妮亲王妃的龙凤胎幼子。虽然比他的龙凤胎胞姊加布里埃拉郡主晚出生两分钟,但因为是男性有王位优先继承权。除了加布里埃拉公主外,他还有一名同父异母的姐姐及哥哥,但两人均是阿尔贝二世未婚前所生的子女。


Physical basis.

Criticality occurs when sufficient fissile material (a critical mass) accumulates in a small volume such that each fission, on average, produces a neutron that in turn strikes another fissile atom causing another fission; this causes the chain reaction to become self-sustaining within the mass of material. In other words, the number of neutrons emitted, over time, exceeds the number of neutrons captured by another nucleus or lost to the environment, resulting in a cascade of increasing nuclear fissions.  Criticality can be achieved by using metallic uranium or plutonium, liquid solutions, or powder slurries. The chain reaction is influenced by range of parameters noted by the acronyms MAGIC MERV (for Mass, Absorption, Geometry, Interaction, Concentration, Moderation, Enrichment, Reflection, and Volume) and MERMAIDS (for Mass, Enrichment, Reflection, Moderation, Absorption, Interaction, Density, and Shape). Temperature is also a factor.  Calculations can be performed to determine the conditions needed for a critical state, mass, geometry, concentration etc. Where fissile materials are handled in civil and military installations, specially trained personnel are employed to carry out such calculations, and to ensure that all reasonably practicable measures are used to prevent criticality accidents, during both planned normal operations and any potential process upset conditions that cannot be dismissed on the basis of negligible likelihoods (reasonably foreseeable accidents).  The assembly of a critical mass establishes a nuclear chain reaction, resulting in an exponential rate of change in the neutron population over space and time leading to an increase in neutron flux. This increased flux and attendant fission rate produces radiation that contains both a neutron and gamma ray component and is extremely dangerous to any unprotected nearby life-form. The rate of change of neutron population depends on the neutron generation time, which is characteristic of the neutron population, the state of "criticality", and the fissile medium.  A nuclear fission creates approximately 2.5 neutrons per fission event on average. Hence, to maintain a stable, exactly critical chain reaction, 1.5 neutrons per fission event must either leak from the system or be absorbed without causing further fissions.  For every 1,000 neutrons released by fission, a small number, typically no more than about 7, are delayed neutrons which are emitted from the fission product precursors, called "delayed neutron emitters". This delayed neutron fraction, on the order of 0.007 for uranium, is crucial for the control of the neutron chain reaction in reactors. It is called one dollar of reactivity. The lifetime of delayed neutrons ranges from fractions of seconds to almost 100 seconds after fission. The neutrons are usually classified in 6 delayed neutron groups. The average neutron lifetime considering delayed neutrons is approximately 0.1 sec, which makes the chain reaction relatively easy to control over time. The remaining 993 prompt neutrons are released very quickly, approximately 1 μs after the fission event.  In steady-state operation, nuclear reactors operate at exact criticality. When at least one dollar of reactivity is added above the exact critical point (where the neutron production rate balances the rate of neutron losses, from both absorption and leakage) then the chain reaction does not rely on delayed neutrons. In such cases, the neutron population can rapidly increase exponentially, with a very small time constant, known as the prompt neutron lifetime. Thus there is a very large increase in neutron population over a very short time frame. Since each fission event contributes approximately 200 MeV per fission, this results in a very large energy burst as a "prompt-critical spike". This spike can be easily detected by radiation dosimetry instrumentation and "criticality accident alarm system" detectors that are properly deployed.

Accident types.

Criticality accidents are divided into one of two categories:  Excursion types can be classified into four categories depicting the nature of the evolution over time:  The prompt-critical excursion is characterized by a power history with an initial prompt-critical spike as previously noted, which either self-terminates or continues with a tail region that decreases over an extended period of time. The transient critical excursion is characterized by a continuing or repeating spike pattern (sometimes known as "chugging") after the initial prompt-critical excursion. The longest of the 22 process accidents occurred at Hanford Works in 1962 and lasted for 37.5 hours. The 1999 Tokaimura nuclear accident remained critical for about 20 hours, until it was shut down by active intervention. The exponential excursion is characterized by a reactivity of less than one dollar added, where the neutron population rises as an exponential over time, until either feedback effects or intervention reduce the reactivity. The exponential excursion can reach a peak power level, then decrease over time, or reach a steady-state power level, where the critical state is exactly achieved for a "steady-state" excursion.  The steady-state excursion is also a state which the heat generated by fission is balanced by the heat losses to the ambient environment. This excursion has been characterized by the Oklo natural reactor that was naturally produced within uranium deposits in Gabon, Africa about 1.7 billion years ago.

Recorded incidents.

At least sixty criticality accidents have been recorded since 1945. These have caused at least twenty-one deaths: seven in the United States, ten in the Soviet Union, two in Japan, one in Argentina, and one in Yugoslavia. Nine have been due to process accidents, and the others from research reactor accidents.  Criticality accidents have occurred in the context of production and testing of fissile material for both nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors.  There was speculation although not confirmed within criticality accident experts, that Fukushima 3 suffered a criticality accident. Based on incomplete information about the 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, Dr. Ferenc Dalnoki-Veress speculates that transient criticalities may have occurred there. Noting that limited, uncontrolled chain reactions might occur at Fukushima I, a spokesman for the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) "emphasized that the nuclear reactors won't explode." By 23 March 2011, neutron beams had already been observed 13 times at the crippled Fukushima nuclear power plant. While a criticality accident was not believed to account for these beams, the beams could indicate nuclear fission is occurring. On 15 April, TEPCO reported that nuclear fuel had melted and fallen to the lower containment sections of three of the Fukushima I reactors, including reactor three. The melted material was not expected to breach one of the lower containers, which could cause a massive radioactivity release. Instead, the melted fuel is thought to have dispersed uniformly across the lower portions of the containers of reactors No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3, making the resumption of the fission process, known as a "recriticality", most unlikely.

Observed effects.

Blue glow.

It has been observed that many criticality accidents emit a blue flash of light.  The blue glow of a criticality accident results from the fluorescence of the excited ions, atoms and molecules of the surrounding medium falling back to unexcited states. This is also the reason electrical sparks in air, including lightning, appear electric blue. The smell of ozone was said to be a sign of high ambient radioactivity by Chernobyl liquidators.  This blue flash or "blue glow" can also be attributed to Cherenkov radiation, if either water is involved in the critical system or when the blue flash is experienced by the human eye. Additionally, if ionizing radiation directly transects the vitreous humor of the eye, Cherenkov radiation can be generated and perceived as a visual blue glow/spark sensation.  It is a coincidence that the color of Cherenkov light and light emitted by ionized air are a very similar blue; their methods of production are different. Cherenkov radiation does occur in air for high-energy particles (such as particle showers from cosmic rays) but not for the lower energy charged particles emitted from nuclear decay.  In a nuclear setting, Cherenkov radiation is instead seen in dense media such as water or in a solution such as uranyl nitrate in a reprocessing plant. Cherenkov radiation could also be responsible for the "blue flash" experienced in an excursion due to the intersection of particles with the vitreous humour within the eyeballs of those in the presence of the criticality. This would also explain the absence of any record of blue light in video surveillance of the more recent incidents.

Heat effects.

Some people reported feeling a "heat wave" during a criticality event. It is not known whether this may be a psychosomatic reaction to the terrifying realization of what has just occurred (i.e. the high probability of inevitable impending death from a fatal radiation dose), or if it is a physical effect of heating (or nonthermal stimulation of heat sensing nerves in the skin) due to energy emitted by the criticality event.  A review of all of the criticality accidents with eyewitness accounts indicates that the heat waves were only observed when the fluorescent blue glow (the non-Cherenkov light, see above) was also observed. This would suggest a possible relationship between the two, and indeed, one can be potentially identified. In dense air, over 30% of the emissions lines from nitrogen and oxygen are in the ultraviolet range, and about 45% are in the infrared range. Only about 25% are in the visible range. Since the skin feels light (visible or otherwise) through its heating of the skin surface, it is possible that this phenomenon can explain the heat wave perceptions. However, this explanation has still not been confirmed and may be inconsistent with the intensity of light reported by witnesses compared to the intensity of heat perceived. Further research is hindered by the small amount of data available from the few instances where humans have witnessed these incidents and survived long enough to provide a detailed account of their experiences and observations.

A criticality accident is an uncontrolled nuclear fission chain reaction. It is sometimes referred to as a critical excursion, critical power excursion, or divergent chain reaction. Any such event involves the unintended accumulation or arrangement of a critical mass of fissile material, for example enriched uranium or plutonium. Criticality accidents can release potentially fatal radiation doses, if they occur in an unprotected environment.

临界事故(英语:criticality accident)是核反应堆发生链式反应导致功率失常激增引起的事故。事故中浓缩铀或钚等裂变材料中的链式反应能产生强烈的中子辐射,对人类伤害极大,并且会在周围环境中引发感生放射性。临界或超临界核裂变一般发生在反应堆堆芯内部或实验中。


Early life.

A native of Tennessee where he was born in 1942, Prueher attended Montgomery Bell Academy in Nashville and graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy. He also obtained a master's degree in international affairs from George Washington University's Elliott School of International Affairs.

Career.

Prueher started his career in the United States Navy as Midshipman as the U.S. Naval Academy in 1960. He is a combat veteran of the Vietnam War where he flew as an A-6 Intruder pilot. In the later part of his career, he served as the seventy-third Commandant of Midshipmen at the U.S. Naval Academy.  Prueher attained the rank of admiral as Commander Carrier Group One in 1991. He was Vice Chief of Naval Operations from 1995 to 1996, and Commander-in-Chief of the United States Pacific Command from 1996 to 1999.  He was posted as ambassador to China from November 1999 to May 2001. Prueher also negotiated the settlement and delivered the "letter of the two sorries" which defused the Hainan Island incident in 2001.  He then joined Stanford University's Institute of International Studies as Consulting Professor in 2001.  Prueher is currently the James R. Schlesinger Distinguished Professor at the Miller Center of the University of Virginia, as well as Senior Advisor to the Stanford-Harvard Preventive Defense Project, working on dialogue for US-China security matters.

Awards and decorations.

In December 1998 he was appointed an Honorary Officer of the Order of Australia, "for distinguished service in the promotion of Australian and United States of America Defence relations".  In 1997, he was honored with the Naval War College Distinguished Graduate Leadership Award and, in 2001, Distinguished Alumni Achievement Award by George Washington University.

Post-Government Career.

Prueher is a director of Fluor Corporation, Irving, Texas; Emerson Electric Co., St. Louis, Missouri; and AMERIGROUP Corporation, Virginia Beach, Virginia.

Joseph Wilson Prueher (born November 25, 1942) is a former United States Navy Admiral who served as United States Ambassador to the People's Republic of China from 1999 to 2001. He was succeeded as ambassador by Clark T. Randt, Jr.

普理赫(英文:英语:Joseph Wilson Prueher,1942年-11月25日),曾用名普吕厄,为前美国驻华大使(1999年-2001年)。担任驻华大使前,普理赫是美国海军上将,美国太平洋司令部司令(1996年-1999年)和海军作战部副主任(1995至1996年)。


Railcar types.

Three types of cars were manufactured for these trains, which were motor, trailer, and cab-trailer. The minimal quantity of cars is four (2 motor & 2 cab-trailer cars). The maximal quantity was twelve (6 motor cars, 4 trailers, and 2 cab-trailers.) The trains could be controlled and/or operated only from cab cars.

Design and construction.

Railcar bodies.

The railcar bodies utilise a frameless construction similar to the ER2 series trainsets, with a number of modifications due to the different equipment arrangement, such as AC transformers and rectifiers. The car entrances are fitted for both high and low platforms. Like most Soviet rollingstock, the cars have SA-3 automatic couplers.  The bodies are supported by two twin-axle bogies. The bogie frames are of a H-shaped fully welded construction. Trainsets constructed up to ER9p-125 have N. E. Galakhov's elliptical amortizers in their central suspensions. Bogie frames are supported by 8 cylindrical springs installed in a coat of axle box balancers. The static deformation of amortizer is 105 mm. Starting with ER9p-126 trainset (1966), the trolleys are supported on axles box through four sets of cylindrical springs, placed in two rows. The hydraulic amortizers are placed in the central suspension, like the ER2 motor cars dating from 1966-1975. The static deformation remained the same (105 mm). The diameter of motor car wheels is 1050 mm, and of trailer car wheels is 950 mm.

Electric traction motors.

Electric traction engines are installed on bogie frames, as in ER2 motor cars. The engine's shaft is connected with the minor gear train using a jaw clutch. The speed reduction couple's body is anchored on a pair of wheels through friction reducer made of rolls. From the side of minor gear train, the speed reduction couple is suspended from the trolley's frame. Unit: Electric Traction Engine (RT-51D) Installed: On motor cars Voltage: 825 V, directly from rectifiers. Power: 180 kW, 240 A (in case of 92.5% excitement) 200 kW, 266 A (in case of 32% excitement)  Rotational frequency: 645 rpm (in case of 92.5% excitement) 1140 rpm (in case of 32% excitement)  In case of pulse current, and 32% excitement the hourly power is 182 kW. The rotational frequency 2080 rpm.  Mass of Unit: 2000 kg The motors are connected in series of two. These series are connected in parallel, and connected to the rectifier through general smoothing reactor. Besides high (92%) and low (32.5%) excitement levels, there is a medium level (53.5%)

Transmission.

The transmission is one way, rigid, and straight-cogged. The ratio is 23:73 (1:3.17) Two braking cylinders are installed on every motor car's trolley. Brake shoes depress the wheel from both sides. The brakes feature electro-pneumatic control.

Transformer.

Unit: OCR-1000/25 transformer Suspended: Under the body of a motor car Manufactured: At the Electric Technology plant of Tallinn The transformer has a core type, and is cooled by oil.  Composed on 4 coils: Primary, for 25 kV (normal power 965,000 volt-amperes), Traction coil: 7 outlets with regulating electrodes. Output voltage - 2208 V (During neutral position) Normal Current 350 amperes Hourly Current 530 amperes  power: 100 kV·A output Voltage: 628 V Supplementary coil power: 92 kV·A voltage: 220 V. Transformer's mass is 3122 kg.

Pneumatic switch/circuit breaker.

Unit: The main pneumatic switch (VOV25-4) Mounted: On the roof of motor car Purpose: to protect the high voltage circuits from short circuit currents and overloading. Manufactured by: High Voltage equipment plant of Nalchik.  Unit: UVP-1 Rectifier. Mounted: Under the body of motor car Features: Bridge scheme

Rectifying circuits.

The unit has 30 VK2-200-6B rectifiers. Every bridge's arm has 3 parallel circuits, consisting of 10 rectifiers connected in series. The branchings have 3 parallel circuits, with 2 rectifiers connected in series. For even distribution of reverse voltage in serial circuits, the active resistors are connected in parallel with rectifiers in non-conducting period. The connection of rectifiers with same potential is realized by resistors.

Controlling train speed.

Unit: KSP - 6B Controller Purpose: Regulating the voltage on Electric traction Engines' clamps, as well as their excitement level. Composition: 18 contactors and leads. The system is developed by Professor L. M. Reshetov. The unit has 20 working positions.

Position 1: Maneuvering.

The voltage from one traction coil segment follows to traction engines' clamps through starting resistor, and rectifier. The engines are working in high excitement mode.

Position 2.

The circuit is the same, excluding the starting resistor.

Subsequent positions (3 to 16).

The voltage on motor clamps is increased, due to the serial connection of load to the traction coil output.  Position 17: The excitement level is brought down to 53.5%. Position 18: The same working mode as position 17. Position 19: The excitement level is brought down to 32%.  The main controller is controlled by Engineer's controller (1KU - 023). The unit has two handles. They are: Reversive - features Reverse, Drive, and Neutral positions. Main - features neutral, maneuvering, and 4 working positions.  Traction engines and most of electrical devices are manufactured by the Electric Equipment plant of Riga.  Unit: Phase Splitters Placed: Under the body of Motor cars. Purpose: Converts single phase 220 V Current into 3 phase. The produced current serves for powering various supplementary machines.  Unit: Fan wheel. Placed: On splitter's rotor(?). Purpose: Cooling rectifiers, reactors, and transformers. The rotational frequency of the splitter is 1495 rpm.  Unit: Motor - Compressor. Composition: LOSV-72-6 Electric Motor, with EK1-V or EK-1P compressor. Performance 0.7, 0.6 and m/min. Location: Under the body of attached and cab cars.  Unit: Alkaline, accumulator battery (90KN-55) Normal Voltage: 110 V. Charged by 220 V coil of the transformer, through silicon rectifier. The stabilized is in use for supporting the voltage. Location: Under the body of attached and cab cars.  The construction speed of the trainset is 130 km/h. Calculated acceleration up to 60 km /h is 0.8 m/s^2.  Weights: (On Earth) Motor Car - 59,000 kg 108 Seats; Attached Car - 37,000 kg 110 Seats; Cab Car - 39,000 kg 88 Seats;

Modifications to layout and construction.

In process of manufacturing, a lot of changes were introduced in ER9p construction. Starting with ER9p-125 train, jaw clutch drive clutch is changed by rigid roll. Electric engines rotor rod is connected with minor cog wheel using rubber cord shell (like in ER2 motor cars)

Modified versions of ER9.

ER9P.

Produced since 1961. In difference of ER9, the rectifiers were placed in car bodies not in passenger space compartments.

ER9M.

Produced since 1976. In difference of ER9P, ER9M trainsets have high voltage compartment in their motor cars, where a high voltage bus is located. In ER9/ER9P it was done through the wall.

ER9E.

Produced since 1981. Differs from ER9M by natural air cooling of rectifiers.

ER9T.

Produced since 1988 till the end of ER9 manufacturing by the plant in Riga. This modification has modernized bogies, traction engines and rheostatic brakes.

ER25 contract, for Bulgaria.

Bulgaria Railways ordered ER25 trainsets from Railcar Manufacturing plant of Riga. The plant projected rheostatic braking system for these trains. ER9p-101 electric trainset was equipped with such a brake. This train was tested on experimental circle track of CNII of Railroad Ministry. The rheostatic braking was in use for lowering speed from 130 km/h down to 50 km/h. Then regular electro-pneumatic braking was in use. After that, the electric trainset entered Gorky Depot for a permanent use. It worked on common schedule with other ER9p electric trainsets.  In 1974 Tallinn Electrotechnical plant manufactured experimental UVP-5 rectifying units. They featured tablet avalanche rectifiers (12th class) with natural air cooling. One of these units was mounted in ER9P-32304 motor car, which were in use by Gorky Railroad.

For servicing suburban commuter lines, electrified on 25 kV, AC, the Railcar Manufacturing Plant of Riga produced ER9, then ER9p electric trainsets in the 1966-1975 period. The mass production of these trains had begun in 1964.

ER9型电力动车组()是苏联铁路的电力动车组车型之一,适用于供电制式为25千伏工频单相交流电的电气化铁路,由位于拉脱维亚的里加车辆制造厂设计制造,被广泛运用于苏联各地的交流电气化铁路。


History and development.

As early as 1928, the Japanese Army had been developing amphibious tanks and created several experimental models such as the Sumida Amphibious Armored Car (AMP), SR I-Go, SR II Ro-Go, SR III Ha-Go, which were produced only as one-off prototypes for concept testing in the 1930s. Each of the SR series were 3.6 to 7 tonne amphibious tanks with a 2 to 3 man crew, and armed with machine guns.  In 1940, the Imperial Japanese Navy took over development of amphibious vehicles. Mitisubishi used the knowledge gained from the SR program and the Type 95 Ha-Go light tank as a base. The Type 1 Mi-Sha a/k/a/ "Type 1 Floating Tank Ka-Mi" was the first IJN prototype produced. The Type 1 led to the development of the Type 2 Ka-Mi being produced in 1942. The Type 2 Ka-Mi was designed for the IJN's Special Naval Landing Forces for the amphibious invasion of Pacific Islands without adequate port facilities, and for various special operations missions. The Type 2 Ka-Mi tanks were organized into "several amphibious tank units". Beginning in 1942, only 182 to 184 units of this tank were built.

Design.

The Type 2 Ka-Mi was based on the army's Type 95 Ha-Go light tank, but with an all-welded hull with rubber seals in place of the riveted armor. It was intended to be water-tight. Large, hollow pontoons made from steel plates were attached to the front glacis plate and rear decking to give the necessary buoyancy. The front pontoon was internally divided into two "symmetrical sections" and each one was divided into three separate watertight compartments to minimize the effects of damage from flooding and shellfire. The pontoons were attached by a system of "small clips" with a release inside the tank, to be engaged once it landed for ground combat operations.  Its gun turret had a high-velocity Type 1 37 mm gun and a coaxial Type 97 light machine gun. A second Type 97 light machine gun was located in the tank's bow.  The tank was capable of attaining speeds of 10 km/h in the water with a range of 140 km through two propellers situated at the rear of the hull, powered by the tank's engine. Steering was in the control of the tank commander, who operated a pair of rudders from the turret through cables. The crew included an onboard mechanic. It was the "best designed amphibious tank of the war".

Combat record.

The Type 2 Ka-Mi came into active service after the initial campaigns of World War II, and thus for the most part was too late to be used in its original design mission of amphibious landings. Many units were assigned to naval garrison detachments in the South Seas Mandate and in the Netherlands East Indies.  The Type 2 Ka-Mi was first used in combat on Guadalcanal in late 1942. Later they were encountered by the United States Marine Corps in the Marshall Islands and Mariana Islands, particularly on Saipan, where they supported the Yokosuka Base Special Naval Landing Force (SNLF) in its failed amphibious operation. They were also used during the fighting on the Philippine island of Leyte in late 1944 when they supported the 101st SNLF at Ormoc Gulf. According to Ralph Zumbro in his book "Tank Aces", several Ka-Mi were destroyed by US Army LVT-1s off the coast of Leyte during history's only amphibious tank vs. amphibious tank action; this is doubtful however, as most Ka-Mi tanks were destroyed after they came ashore. A handful more were captured by US Army troops on Luzon in 1945, as well as several others captured by Australian and Commonwealth troops.

Surviving vehicles.

The Kubinka Tank Museum in Moscow, Russia has a Type 2 Ka-Mi on display, complete with its front and rear pontoons. A near complete hull is located near the airport in Babeldaob, Palau. Another specimen is located in Koror, Palau. The latter is notable in that there is still a heavy anti aircraft machine gun mounted on the rear pontoon. These two tanks were once located in the center of Babeldaop Island in the late 1980s. They had actually been buried by the Japanese either to keep them out of American hands after their surrender, or as defensive fortifications. After the war they were unearthed by locals. They were subsequently moved, one to the Old Communications center south of the airport, and one to Koror as part of war memorial displays.

The was the first amphibious tank of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). The Type 2 Ka-Mi was based on the Imperial Japanese Army's Type 95 Ha-Go light tank with major modifications.

特二式内火艇,是配备给日本帝国海军的两栖战车,也是日军使用的第一款两栖装甲战斗车辆。它是以九五式轻战车为基础,经过一些大的修改后而成。