Early life and education.

Barnier was born at La Tronche in the French Alps, into a Gaullist family in 1951. His father was a leather and textiles craftsman. In his youth, Barnier was a scout and choirboy. Barnier graduated from the ESCP business school in 1972.

Political career.

National politics.

Barnier served on the staff of various Gaullist ministers in the 1970s, before being elected in 1978, aged 27, to the French National Assembly as deputy for the Department of Savoie representing the neo-Gaullists, Rally for the Republic (RPR), serving until 1993.  Together with Jean-Claude Killy he organised the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville as co-president of the COJO ("Comité d'Organisation des Jeux Olympiques").  Barnier first joined the French Cabinet as Minister of the Environment following the Right's landslide victory in the 1993 legislative election. In 1995, Jacques Chirac appointed him secretary of state for European affairs, serving as such until the defeat of the presidential majority in the 1997 legislative election. Barnier then served as a European Commissioner for Regional Policy in the Prodi Commission from 1999 until 31 March 2004. Then he served as Foreign Minister of France in Jean-Pierre Raffarin's government until 5 June 2005 when Dominique de Villepin replaced him with Philippe Douste-Blazy. He considered he was unjustly sanctioned for the victory of the "No" in the French referendum over the European Constitution.  In March 2006, Barnier was elected vice president of the European People's Party (EPP) for a three-year term. Under Nicolas Sarkozy's presidency, upon the reshuffle of the French cabinet, caused by the resignation of Alain Juppé after the 2007 French legislative election, he re-joined the French Cabinet as Minister of Agriculture.  In 2016, the French investigating judge Sabine Kheris requested that the case of Michel Barnier, Dominique de Villepin and Michèle Alliot-Marie be referred to the Court of Justice of the Republic. These former ministers were suspected of having allowed the exfiltration of the mercenaries responsible for the attack on the Bouaké camp in 2004, killing nine French soldiers. The operation was allegedly intended to justify a response operation against the Laurent Gbagbo government in the context of the 2004 crisis in Ivory Coast.

European politics.

Barnier worked in 2006 as a special adviser to José Manuel Barroso, the then President of the European Commission, and presented a report to the Council of Ministers proposing the creation of a European civil-protection force. In 2006–2007, he served as member of the Amato Group, a group of high-level European politicians unofficially working on rewriting the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe into what became known as the Treaty of Lisbon following its rejection by French and Dutch voters.  Barnier led the UMP list in Ile-de-France for the 2009 European Parliament election. In February 2010 he was confirmed as European Commissioner for Internal Market and Services. In charge of European banking system reform, he argued for a "coherent single market with intelligent rules that apply everywhere".  He was twice appointed Acting Commissioner for Industry and Entrepreneurship in Antonio Tajani's stead, from 19 April 2014 to 25 May 2014 while he was on electoral campaign leave for the 2014 elections to the European Parliament and from 1 July 2014 to 16 July 2014 after he took up his seat.  As European Commissioner for Internal Market and Services, Barnier handled many important issues, such as the reform of the financial sector (40 pieces of legislation between 2010 and 2014), the banking union (starting with the Single Supervisory Mechanism) and the digital single market.  From 2015, Barnier served as unpaid special adviser on European defence policy to President of the European Commission Jean-Claude Juncker.

Brexit negotiator.

On 27 July 2016, he was announced as the European Commission's chief negotiator with the United Kingdom over leaving the European Union, under of the Treaty on European Union. Commenting on the appointment, Juncker said: "I wanted an experienced politician for this difficult job."  For the 2020 Trade deal negotiation between the UK and EU, Barnier is the main negotiator, who received his negotiating mandate from the European Council on 25 February 2020.

Timeline.

European Commission  European Commissioner for Internal Market and Services 2010–2014  European Commissioner for Regional Policy 1999–2004  French Government  Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries 2007–2009  Minister of Foreign Affairs 2004–2005  Minister of European Affairs 1995–1997  Minister of the Environment 1993–1995  Electoral mandates  European Parliament  Member of European Parliament 2009–2010 (resignation)  National Assembly of France  Member of the National Assembly of France for Savoie 1978–1993 (became minister in 1993). Elected in 1978, reelected in 1981, 1986, 1988, 1993.  Senate of France  Senator of Savoie. Elected in 1995, but remains minister 1997–1999 (resignation; became European commissioner in 1999).  General Council  President of the General Council of Savoie 1982–1999 (resignation; became European commissioner in 1999). Reelected in 1985, 1988, 1992, 1994, 1998.  General councillor of Savoie 1973–1999 (resignation, became European commissioner in 1999). Reelected in 1979, 1985, 1992, 1998.

Michel Bernard Barnier (born 9 January 1951) is a French politician serving as the European Commission's Head of Task Force for Relations with the United Kingdom (UK Task Force/UKTF) since November 2019. He previously served as Chief Negotiator - Task Force for the Preparation and Conduct of the Negotiations with the United Kingdom under Article 50 TEU (Task Force 50/TF50) from October 2016 to November 2019.

米歇尔‧伯纳德‧巴尼耶(,1951年-1月9日)为法国的政治人物,于2016年12月起担任英国脱离欧盟之欧盟方谈判首席代表。 他曾在法国内阁任职于多项岗位,包括外交部长 (2004-2005)、欧盟事务首席代表(1995-1997)、环境及生命部部长(1993-1995)。他也曾于欧盟担任「区域政策欧洲专员」 (1999-2004)及「内务市场及服务部欧洲专员」(2010-2014),并于2014至2015年间担任欧洲人民党副主席。


Early life.

Thomas Edward Lawrence was born on 16 August 1888 in Tremadog, Carnarvonshire, Wales, in a house named Gorphwysfa, now known as Snowdon Lodge. His Anglo-Irish father Thomas Chapman had left his wife Edith after he had a son with Sarah Junner who had been governess to his daughters. Sarah had herself been an illegitimate child, having been born in Sunderland as the daughter of Elizabeth Junner, a servant in the Lawrence household; she was dismissed four months before Sarah was born, and identified Sarah's father as "John Junner, Shipwright journeyman". Lawrence's parents did not marry but lived together under the name Lawrence. In 1914, his father inherited the Chapman baronetcy based at Killua Castle, the ancestral family home in County Westmeath, Ireland, but his parents moved to live in England. They had five sons, Thomas being the second eldest. From Wales, the family moved to Kirkcudbright, Galloway in southwestern Scotland, where their son William George was born, then to Dinard in

Travels, antiquities, and archaeology.

At age 15, Lawrence and his schoolfriend Cyril Beeson cycled around Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, and Oxfordshire, visiting almost every village's parish church, studying their monuments and antiquities, and making rubbings of their monumental brasses. Lawrence and Beeson monitored building sites in Oxford and presented the Ashmolean Museum with anything that they found. The Ashmolean's "Annual Report" for 1906 said that the two teenage boys "by incessant watchfulness secured everything of antiquarian value which has been found." In the summers of 1906 and 1907, Lawrence toured France by bicycle, sometimes with Beeson, collecting photographs, drawings, and measurements of medieval castles. In August 1907, Lawrence wrote home: "The Chaignons & the Lamballe people complimented me on my wonderful French: I have been asked twice since I arrived what part of France I came from". From 1907 to 1910, Lawrence read History at Jesus College, Oxford. In July and August 1908 he cycled 2,200 miles (3,500 km) solo through France to the

Military intelligence.

In January 1914, Woolley and Lawrence were co-opted by the British military as an archaeological smokescreen for a British military survey of the Negev Desert. They were funded by the Palestine Exploration Fund to search for an area referred to in the Bible as the "Wilderness of Zin", and they made an archaeological survey of the Negev Desert along the way. The Negev was strategically important, as an Ottoman army attacking Egypt would have to cross it. Woolley and Lawrence subsequently published a report of the expedition's archaeological findings, but a more important result was updated mapping of the area, with special attention to features of military relevance such as water sources. Lawrence also visited Aqaba and Shobek, not far from Petra.  Following the outbreak of hostilities in August 1914, Lawrence did not immediately enlist in the British Army. He held back until October on the advice of S. F. Newcombe, when he was commissioned on the General List. Before the end of the year, he was summoned by renowned archaeologist and historian Lt. Cmdr. David Hogarth, his mentor at Carchemish, to the new Arab Bureau intelligence unit in Cairo, and he arrived in Cairo on 15 December 1914. The Bureau's chief was General Gilbert Clayton who reported to Egyptian High Commissioner Henry McMahon.  The situation was complex during 1915. There was a growing Arab-nationalist movement within the Arabic-speaking Ottoman territories, including many Arabs serving in the Ottoman armed forces. They were in contact

Arab Revolt.

The Arab Revolt began in June 1916, but it bogged down after a few successes, with a real risk that the Ottoman forces would advance along the coast of the Red Sea and recapture Mecca. On 16 October 1916, Lawrence was sent to the Hejaz on an intelligence-gathering mission led by Ronald Storrs. He interviewed Sharif Hussein's sons Ali, Abdullah, and Faisal, and he concluded that Faisal was the best candidate to lead the Revolt.  In November, S. F. Newcombe was assigned to lead a permanent British liaison to Faisal's staff. Newcombe had not yet arrived in the area and the matter was of some urgency, so Lawrence was sent in his place. In late December 1916, Faisal and Lawrence worked out a plan for repositioning the Arab forces to prevent the Ottoman forces around Medina from threatening Arab positions and putting the railway from Syria under threat. Newcombe arrived and Lawrence was preparing to leave Arabia, but Faisal intervened urgently, asking that Lawrence's assignment become permanent.  Lawrence's most important contributions to the Arab Revolt were in the area of strategy and liaison with British armed forces, but he also participated personally in several military engagements:  Lawrence made a 300-mile personal journey northward in June 1917, on the way to Aqaba, visiting Ras Baalbek, the outskirts of Damascus, and Azraq, Jordan. He met Arab nationalists, counselling them to avoid revolt until the arrival of Faisal's forces, and he attacked a bridge to create the impression of guerrilla activity. His findings were regarded by the British as extremely valuable and there was serious consideration of awarding him a Victoria Cross; in the end, he was invested as a Companion of the Order of the Bath and promoted to Major.  Lawrence travelled regularly between British headquarters and Faisal, co-ordinating military action. But by early 1918, Faisal's chief British liaison was Colonel Pierce Charles Joyce, and Lawrence's time was chiefly devoted to raiding and intelligence-gathering. By the summer of 1918, the Turks were offering a substantial reward for Lawrence's capture, initially £5,000 and eventually £20,000 (approx $2.1 million in 2017 dollars or £1.5 million). One officer wrote in his notes: "Though a price of £15,000 has been put on his head by the Turks, no Arab has, as yet, attempted to betray him. The Sharif of Mecca has given him the status of one of his sons, and he is just the finely tempered steel that supports the whole structure of our influence in Arabia. He is a very inspiring gentleman adventurer."

Post-war years.

Lawrence returned to the United Kingdom a full colonel. Immediately after the war, he worked for the Foreign Office, attending the Paris Peace Conference between January and May as a member of Faisal's delegation. On 17 May 1919, a Handley Page Type O/400 taking Lawrence to Egypt crashed at the airport of Roma-Centocelle. The pilot and co-pilot were killed; Lawrence survived with a broken shoulder blade and two broken ribs. During his brief hospitalisation, he was visited by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy.  In August 1919, Lowell Thomas launched a photo show in London entitled "With Allenby in Palestine" which included a lecture, dancing, and music and engaged in "Orientalism", depicting the Middle East as exotic, mysterious, sensuous, and violent. Initially, Lawrence played only a supporting role in the show, as the main focus was on Allenby's campaigns; but then Thomas realised that it was the photos of Lawrence dressed as a Bedouin which had captured the public's imagination, so he had Lawrence photographed again in London in Arab dress. With the new photos, Thomas re-launched his show under the new title "With Allenby in Palestine and Lawrence in Arabia" in early 1920, which proved to be extremely popular. The new title elevated Lawrence from a supporting role to a co-star of the Near Eastern campaign and reflected a changed emphasis. Thomas' shows made the previously obscure Lawrence into a household name.  Lawrence served as an adviser to Winston Churchill at the Colonial Office for just over a year starting in February 1920. He hated bureaucratic work, writing on 21 May 1921 to Robert Graves: "I wish I hadn't gone out there: the Arabs are like a page I have turned over; and sequels are rotten things. I'm locked up here: office every day and much of it". He travelled to the Middle East on multiple occasions during this period, at one time holding the title of "chief political officer for Trans-Jordania".  He campaigned actively for his and Churchill's vision of the Middle East, publishing pieces in multiple newspapers including the "Times", "The Observer", "The Daily Mail", and "The Daily Express".  Lawrence had a sinister reputation in France during his lifetime and even today as an implacable "enemy of France", the man who was constantly stirring up the Syrians to rebel against French rule throughout the 1920s. However, French historian Maurice Larès wrote that the real reason for France's problems in Syria was that the Syrians did not want to be ruled by France, and the French needed a "scapegoat" to blame for

Death.

Lawrence was fatally injured in an accident on his Brough Superior SS100 motorcycle in Dorset close to his cottage Clouds Hill, near Wareham, just two months after leaving military service. He was 46. A dip in the road obstructed his view of two boys on their bicycles; he swerved to avoid them, lost control, and was thrown over the handlebars. He died six days later on 19 May 1935. The location of the crash is marked by a small memorial at the roadside.

Writings.

Lawrence was a prolific writer throughout his life, a large portion of which was epistolary; he often sent several letters a day, and several collections of his letters have been published. He corresponded with many notable figures, including George Bernard Shaw, Edward Elgar, Winston Churchill, Robert Graves, Noël Coward, E. M. Forster, Siegfried Sassoon, John Buchan, Augustus John, and Henry Williamson. He met Joseph Conrad and commented perceptively on his works. The many letters that he sent to Shaw's wife Charlotte are revealing as to his character.  Lawrence was a competent speaker of French and Arabic, and reader of Latin and Ancient Greek.  Lawrence published three major texts in his lifetime. The most significant was his account of the Arab Revolt in "Seven Pillars of Wisdom". Homer's "Odyssey" and "The Forest Giant" were translations, the latter an otherwise forgotten work of French fiction. He received a flat fee for the second translation, and negotiated a generous fee plus royalties for the first.

"Seven Pillars of Wisdom".

Lawrence's major work is "Seven Pillars of Wisdom", an account of his war experiences. In 1919, he was elected to a seven-year research fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford, providing him with support while he worked on the book. Certain parts of the book also serve as essays on military strategy, Arabian culture and geography, and other topics. He rewrote "Seven Pillars of Wisdom" three times, once "blind" after he lost the manuscript while changing trains at Reading railway station.  There are many alleged "embellishments" in "Seven Pillars", though some allegations have been disproved with time, most definitively in Jeremy Wilson's. However, Lawrence's own notebooks refute his claim

"Revolt in the Desert".

"Revolt in the Desert" was an abridged version of "Seven Pillars" that he began in 1926 and that was published in March 1927 in both limited and trade editions. He undertook a needed but reluctant publicity exercise, which resulted in a best-seller. Again he vowed not to take any fees from the publication, partly to appease the subscribers to "Seven Pillars" who had paid dearly for their editions. By the fourth reprint in 1927, the debt from "Seven Pillars" was paid off. As Lawrence left for military service in India at the

Posthumous.

Lawrence left "The Mint" unpublished, a memoir of his experiences as an enlisted man in the Royal Air Force (RAF). For this, he worked from a notebook that he kept while enlisted, writing of the daily lives of enlisted men and his desire to be a part of something larger than himself. The book is stylistically very different from "Seven Pillars of Wisdom", using sparse prose as opposed to the complicated syntax found in "Seven Pillars". It was published posthumously, edited by his brother Professor A. W. Lawrence.  After Lawrence's death, A. W. Lawrence inherited Lawrence's estate and his copyrights as the sole beneficiary. To pay the inheritance tax, he sold the US copyright of "Seven Pillars of Wisdom" (subscribers' text) outright to Doubleday Doran in 1935. Doubleday still controls publication rights of this version of the text of "Seven Pillars of Wisdom" in the US, and will continue

Sexuality.

Lawrence's biographers have discussed his sexuality at considerable length, and this discussion has spilled into the popular press. There is no reliable evidence for consensual sexual intimacy between Lawrence and any person. His friends have expressed the opinion that he was asexual, and Lawrence himself specifically denied any personal experience of sex in multiple private letters. There were suggestions that Lawrence had been intimate with Dahoum, who worked with him at a pre-war archaeological dig in Carchemish, and fellow serviceman R. A. M. Guy, but his biographers and contemporaries found them unconvincing.  The dedication to his book "Seven Pillars" is a poem titled "To S.A." which opens: Lawrence was never specific about the identity of "S.A." Many theories argue in favour of individual men or women, and the Arab nation as a whole. The most popular theory is that S.A. represents (at least in part) his companion Selim Ahmed, "Dahoum", who apparently died of typhus before 1918.  Lawrence lived in a period of strong official opposition to homosexuality, but his writing on the subject was

Awards and commemorations.

Lawrence was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 7 August 1917, appointed a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order on 10 May 1918, awarded the Knight of the Legion of Honour (France) on 30 May 1916 and awarded the Croix de guerre (France) on 16 April 1918.  A bronze bust of Lawrence by Eric Kennington was placed in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral, London, on 29 January 1936, alongside the tombs of Britain's greatest military leaders. A recumbent stone effigy by Kennington was installed in St Martin's Church, Wareham, Dorset, in 1939.  An English Heritage blue plaque marks Lawrence's childhood home at 2 Polstead Road, Oxford, and another appears on his London home at 14 Barton Street, Westminster. Lawrence appears on the album cover of "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" by The Beatles. In 2002, Lawrence was named 53rd in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.

Colonel Thomas Edward Lawrence, (16 August 1888 – 19 May 1935) was a British archaeologist, army officer, diplomat, and writer. He was renowned for his role in the Arab Revolt and the Sinai and Palestine Campaign against the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. The breadth and variety of his activities and associations, and his ability to describe them vividly in writing, earned him international fame as Lawrence of Arabia, a title used for the 1962 film based on his wartime activities.

托马斯·爱德华·劳伦斯上校(英语:Thomas Edward Lawrence,常称英语:T. E. Lawrence,1888年-8月16日-1935年-5月19日),也称“阿拉伯的劳伦斯”(Lawrence of Arabia),是一位英国军官,因在1916年至1918年的阿拉伯起义中作为英国联络官的角色而出名。他成为公众偶像有部分原因是因为美国旅行家兼记者洛维尔·杰克森·汤玛斯所写关于那场起义的轰动一时的报告文学,还有劳伦斯的自传体记录《智慧的七柱》。许多阿拉伯人将他看成民间英雄,推动了他们从奥斯曼帝国和欧洲的统治中获得自由的理想;同样地,许多英国人将他包括在他们国家最伟大的战争英雄之一。


Heat of reaction at constant pressure and at constant volume.

The heat of a reaction depends upon the conditions under which the reaction is carried out. There are two general conditions under which thermochemical measurements are made.  The magnitudes of the heat effects in these two conditions are different. In the first case the volume of the system is kept constant during the course of the measurement by carrying out the reaction in a closed and rigid container and as there is no change in the volume and so no work is also involved.  From the first law of thermodynamics we have a relation, formula_4  That is, the heat of a reaction at constant volume is equal to the change in the internal energy (Δ E) of the reacting system.  The thermal change that occurs in a chemical reaction is only due to the difference in the sum of internal energy of the products and the sum of the internal energy of reactants.  This also signifies that the amount of heat absorbed at constant volume could be identified with the change in the thermodynamic quantity internal energy.  At constant pressure on the other hand, the system is either kept open to the atmosphere or confined within a container on which a constant external pressure is exerted and under these conditions the volume of the system changes. The thermal change at a constant pressure not only involves the change in the internal energy of the system but also the work performed either in expansion or contraction of the system.  If ‘W’ is only pressure-volume work, then  As enthalpy or heat content is defined by formula_10.  So we have, formula_11  At constant pressure, the heat of the reaction is exactly equal to the enthalpy change, formula_12, of the reacting system.

Subcategories.

In each case the word "standard" implies that all reactants and products are in their standard states.

The standard enthalpy of reaction (denoted Δ"H") is the enthalpy change that occurs in a system when matter is transformed by a given chemical reaction, when all reactants and products are in their standard states.

标准反应焓变(表示为Δ"H" )是指系统中处于标准状态的物质发生反应时的焓变


Early life.

Stone was born on September 15, 1946, in New York City, the son of a French woman named Jacqueline (née Goddet) and Louis Stone (born Louis Silverstein), a stockbroker. He grew up in Manhattan and Stamford, Connecticut. His parents met during World War II, when his father was fighting as a part of the Allied force in France. His American-born father was Jewish and his French-born mother was Roman Catholic, both non-practicing. Stone was raised in the Episcopal Church, and now practices Buddhism.  Stone attended Trinity School in New York City before his parents sent him away to The Hill School, a college-preparatory school in Pottstown, Pennsylvania. His parents divorced abruptly while he was away at school (1962) and this, because he was an only child, marked him deeply. Stone's mother was often absent and his father made a big impact on his life; father-son relationships were to feature heavily in Stone's films perhaps because of this.  He often spent parts of his summer vacations with his maternal grandparents in France, both in Paris and La Ferté-sous-Jouarre in Seine-et-Marne. Stone also worked at 17 in the Paris mercantile exchange in sugar and cocoa – a job that proved inspirational to Stone for his film "Wall Street". He speaks French fluently. Stone graduated from The Hill School in 1964.  Stone was admitted into Yale University, but left in June 1965 at age 18 to teach high school students English for six months in Saigon at the Free Pacific Institute in South Vietnam. Afterwards, he worked for a short while as a wiper on a United States Merchant Marine ship in 1966, traveling from Asia to Oregon across the rough Pacific Ocean in January. He returned to Yale, where he dropped out a second time (in part due to working on an autobiographical novel "A Child's Night Dream", published 1997 by St. Martin's Press).

U.S. Army.

In April 1967, Stone enlisted in the United States Army and requested combat duty in Vietnam. From September 16, 1967 to April 1968, he served in Vietnam with 2nd Platoon, B Company, 3rd Battalion, 22nd Infantry Regiment, 25th Infantry Division and was twice wounded in action. He was then transferred to

Writing and directing career.

1970s.

Stone graduated from New York University with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in film in 1971, where his professors included director and fellow NYU alumnus Martin Scorsese. The same year, he had a small acting role in the comedy "The Battle of Love's Return". Stone made a short, well received 12-minute film "Last Year in Viet Nam". He worked as a taxi driver, film production assistant, messenger, and salesman before making his mark in film as a screenwriter in the late 1970s, in the period

1980s.

Stone wrote further features, including Brian De Palma's drug lord epic "Scarface," loosely inspired by his own addiction to cocaine, which he successfully kicked while working on the screenplay."" He also penned "Year of the Dragon" (co-written with Michael Cimino) featuring Mickey Rourke, before his career took off as a writer-director in 1986. Like his contemporary Michael Mann, Stone is unusual in having written or co-written most of the films he has directed. In 1986, Stone directed two films back to back: the critically acclaimed but commercially unsuccessful "Salvador", shot largely in Mexico, and his long in-development Vietnam project "Platoon", shot in the Philippines.  "Platoon" brought Stone's name to a much wider audience. It also finally kickstarted a busy directing career, which saw him making nine films over the next decade. Alongside some negative reaction, "Platoon" won many rave reviews (Roger Ebert later called it the ninth best film of the

1990s.

"The Doors", released in 1991, received criticism from former Doors keyboardist Ray Manzarek during a question and answer session at Indiana University East in 1997. During the discussion, Manzarek stated that he sat down with Stone about The Doors and Jim Morrison for over 12 hours. Patricia Kennealy-Morrison—a rock critic and author—was a consultant on the movie, in which she makes a cameo appearance, but she writes in her memoir "" (Dutton, 1992) that Stone ignored everything she told him and proceeded with his own version of events. From the moment the movie was released, she blasted it as untruthful and inaccurate. The other surviving former members of the band, John Densmore and Robby Krieger, also cooperated with the filming of "Doors", but Krieger distanced himself from the work before the film's release. However, Densmore thought highly of the film, and in fact celebrated its DVD release on a panel with Oliver Stone.  During this same period, Stone directed one of his most ambitious, controversial and successful films: "JFK", that depicts the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November

2000s.

After a period from 1986 to 1999, where he released a new film at least every 1–2 years, Stone slowed down in the 2000s, though still finding some success.  In 2004, Stone directed "Alexander". He later re-edited his biographical film of Alexander the Great into a two-part, 3-hour 37-minute film "Alexander Revisited: The Final Cut", which became one of the highest-selling catalog

2010s.

In 2010, Stone returned to the theme of "Wall Street" for the sequel "". In 2012, Stone directed "Savages", based on a novel by Don Winslow. In 2015, he was presented with an honorific award at the Sitges Film Festival. His film "Snowden", starring Joseph Gordon-Levitt as whistleblower Edward Snowden. "Snowden" finished filming in

Unrealized projects.

Stone wrote a script titled "Demolished Man" which was listed as one of the ten best unproduced screenplays on the March 1991 issue of "American Film".  In the early 1990s, Stone attempted to produce a "Planet of the Apes" film titled "Return of the Apes", with Arnold Schwarzenegger slated to star. Stone was reportedly paid a million dollars to produce the film. Stone was also slated to direct the film at one point.  In May 1994, it was reported that Stone was to direct Al Pacino in "Noriega", a biopic about the life of Manuel Noriega for Warner Bros. Stone cancelled the project in June that same year.  Stone has made several attempts to make a new film adaptation of Ayn Rand's novel "The Fountainhead". It was reported in the mid-to-late 1990s that Stone's adaptation was in the works. The project was temporarily shelved until Brad Pitt was interested in portraying Howard Roark under Stone's direction. Despite Pitt's involvement, Stone's adaptation remains shelved as of 2018.  In the late 1990s, Stone attempted to make "Memphis", a biopic about the life of Martin Luther King Jr. The film was to have been distributed by Warner Bros. On October

Documentaries.

Stone made three documentaries on Fidel Castro: "Comandante" (2003), "Looking for Fidel", and "Castro in Winter" (2012). He made "Persona Non Grata", a documentary on Israeli-Palestinian relations, interviewing several notable figures of Israel, including Ehud Barak, Benjamin Netanyahu, and Shimon Peres, as well as Yasser Arafat, leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization.  In 2009, Stone completed a feature-length documentary, "South of the Border" about the rise of leftist governments in Latin America, featuring seven presidents: Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, Bolivia's Evo Morales, Ecuador's Rafael Correa, Cuba's Raúl Castro, the Kirchners of Argentina, Brazil's Lula da Silva, and Paraguay's Fernando Lugo (all of whom hold negative views of US foreign policy in South America). Stone hoped the film would get the rest of the Western world to rethink socialist policies in South America, particularly as it was being applied by Venezuela's Hugo Chávez. Chávez joined Stone for the premiere of the documentary at the Venice International Film Festival in September 2009. Stone defended his decision not to interview Chávez's opponents, stating that oppositional statements and TV clips were scattered through the documentary and that the documentary was an attempt to right a balance of heavily negative coverage. He praised Chávez as a leader of a movement for social transformation in Latin America (the Bolivarian Revolution), along with the six other presidents in the film. The documentary was also released in several cities in the United States and Europe in the mid-2010.  In 2012, the documentary miniseries "Oliver Stone's Untold History of the United States" premiered on Showtime, Stone co-wrote, directed, produced, and narrated the series, having worked on it since 2008 with co-writers American University historian Peter J. Kuznick and British screenwriter Matt Graham. The 10-part series is supplemented by a 750-page companion book of the same name, also written by Stone and Kuznick, released on October 30, 2012 by Simon & Schuster. Stone described the project as "the most ambitious thing I've ever done. Certainly in documentary form, and perhaps in fiction, feature form." The project received positive reviews from former

Other work.

In 1993, Stone produced a miniseries for ABC Television called "Wild Palms". In a cameo, Stone appears on a television in the show discussing how the theories in his film "JFK" had been proven correct (the series took place in a hypothetical future, 2007). That same year, he also spoofed himself in the comedy hit "Dave", espousing an (accurate) conspiracy theory about the film President's replacement by a near-identical double. In 1997, Stone published "A Child's Night Dream" (St. Martin's Press), a semiautobiographical novel first written in 1966–1967.  On

Personal life.

Family.

Stone has been married three times, first to Najwa Sarkis on May 22, 1971. They divorced in 1977. He then married Elizabeth Burkit Cox, an assistant in film production, on June 7, 1981. They had two sons, Sean Stone/Ali (b. 1984)

Religion and humanism.

Stone is mentioned in Pulitzer Prize-winning American author Lawrence Wright's book "Going Clear: Scientology, Hollywood, and the Prison of Belief" as having been a member of Scientology for about a month, saying "It was like going to college and reading Dale Carnegie, something

Legal issues.

In 1999, Stone was arrested and pleaded guilty to alcohol and drug charges. He was ordered into a rehabilitation program. He was arrested again on

Sexual assault allegations.

In 2017, former "Playboy" model Carrie Stevens alleged that in 1991, Stone had "walked past me and grabbed my boob as he waltzed out the front door of a party."  The allegation Stevens made surfaced after Stone announced he would no longer direct The Weinstein Company's television series "Guantanamo" following the revelation of the Harvey Weinstein sexual misconduct allegations. Stone also drew criticism for defending

Political views.

Stone has been described as having leftist political views. He has also drawn attention for his opinions on controversial world leaders such as Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin and Hugo Chávez. In Showtime's "The Putin Interviews", Stone called Joseph Stalin "the most famous villain in history, next to Adolf [Hitler]", who "left a horrible reputation, and stained the [Communist] ideology forever... it's mixed with blood, and terror."

Latin America.

Stone has had an interest in Latin America since the 1980s, when he directed "Salvador", and later returned to make his documentary "South of the Border" about the left-leaning movements that had been taking hold in the region. He has expressed the view

Middle East.

Stone called Saudi Arabia a major destabilizer in the Middle East. He also criticized the foreign policy of

U.S. presidential politics.

Stone has suggested a link between 9/11 and the controversies of the 2000 election: "Does anybody make a connection between the 2000 election and the events of September 11th?... Look for the thirteenth month!"  According to "Entertainment Weekly", Stone voted for Barack Obama as President of the United States in both the 2008 and 2012 elections, instead of John McCain and Mitt Romney, the GOP candidates for the presidency. Stone was quoted as saying at the time: "I voted for Obama because... I think he's an intelligent individual. I think he responds to difficulties well... very bright guy... far better choice yes." In 2012, Stone endorsed Ron Paul for the Republican nomination for President, citing

Holocaust controversy.

In a January 2010 press conference announcing his documentary series on the history of the United States, he said: "Hitler is an easy scapegoat throughout history and it’s been used cheaply. He’s the product of a series of actions. It’s cause and effect". Just before commenting about Hitler, he mentioned Stalin: "We can’t judge people as only 'bad' or 'good.'" In response to Stone's comment about his intention to place Hitler "in context", Rabbi Marvin Hier of the Simon Wiesenthal Center said it "is like placing cancer in context, instead of recognizing cancer for what it really is - a horrible disease."  Interviewed by London's "Sunday Times" on July 25, 2010, Stone said: "Hitler did far more damage to the Russians than the Jewish people, 25 or 30[million killed]". He objected to what he termed "the Jewish domination of the media", appearing to be critical of the coverage of the Holocaust, adding "There’s a major lobby in the United States. They are "hard" workers. They stay on top of every comment, the

WikiLeaks.

Oliver Stone is a vocal supporter of WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange. Stone signed a petition in support of Assange's bid for political asylum in June 2012. In August 2012, he penned a "New York Times" op-ed with filmmaker Michael Moore on the importance of WikiLeaks and free speech. Stone visited Assange

Ukraine.

In December 2014, Stone made statements supporting the Russian government's narrative on Ukraine, portraying the 2014 Ukrainian revolution as a CIA plot. He also refutes the claim that former Ukrainian president (who was ousted as a result of the 2014 Ukrainian revolution) Viktor Yanukovych, was responsible for the killing of protesters as claimed

Russia.

In a June 2017 interview with "The Nation" to promote his documentary on Vladimir Putin, Stone rejected the consensus findings of the United States’ intelligence agencies that Russia sought to influence the 2016 election. He accused the CIA, FBI, and NSA of cooking the intelligence. Stone added that “The influence on the election from the Russians to me is absurd to

Further reading.

Articles  Books

William Oliver Stone (born September 15, 1946) is an American film director, producer, and writer.

威廉·奥利弗·斯通(英语:William Oliver Stone,1946年-9月15日)是一名美国电影导演、编剧和监制,同时还是一名演员。来自法裔美国人家庭. 史东凭《午夜快车》(1978年)编剧而获得奥斯卡最佳改编剧本奖。他也替备受赞誉的黑帮电影《疤面煞星》(1983年)编剧。作为导演,史东在执导和编剧的战争电影《前进高棉》(1986年)中取得声望,为他获得奥斯卡最佳导演奖,而这部电影被授予最佳影片奖。《前进高棉》是基于越战的电影三部曲中的第一部,史东曾在越战中服役步兵,因而在其电影中注重利用暴力进行对社会的反思。这点与另外一名著名导演昆廷·塔伦蒂诺恰恰相反;后者的作品崇尚暴力美学,暴力在其电影中的目的往往只是娱乐观众。。他继续该系列作品,《生于七月四日》(1989年),史东为此获得他的第二个奥斯卡最佳导演奖,以及《天与地》(1993年)。史东的其他著名作品包括以萨尔瓦多内战为基础的电影《萨尔瓦多》(1986年)、金融电影《华尔街》(1987年)和2010年续集《华尔街金融大鳄》、占·摩利臣传记电影《火乐焚城》(1991年),以及基于美国总统的三部曲电影——《惊天大刺杀》(1991年)、《惊世谎言尼克逊》(1995年)和《殊不简单》(2008年)。他最近的电影是《斯诺登风暴》(2016年)。


Early life and education.

Katrin Eckhardt was born on 3 May 1966 in the small town of Friedrichroda, near Gotha in Thuringia. Her parents were both dancers. She was an active member of the Free German Youth (, abbreviated FDJ). After completing her "Abitur" at the "Erweiterte Oberschule" (, abbreviated EOS) Gotha in 1984, she began studying Protestant theology at the University of Leipzig, where she studied until 1988 without gaining an academic degree.

Political career.

Party career.

Until the Peaceful Revolution and "Die Wende" in East Germany, Göring-Eckardt worked with the "Arbeitskreis Solidarische Kirche" (, abbreviated as AKSK) and without any party membership. In 1989, she became a founding member of the East German political group called the Democratic Awakening and, in 1990, the citizens' movement Democracy Now. From 1990 to 1993, she was a member of the Thuringia State Executive of Alliance 90. As a member of the Thuringia state boards of Democracy Now and Alliance 90, she participated in the negotiations for the merger of Alliance 90 and the Greens, which in 1990, merged with the Green Party in the GDR to form an all-German party that currently exists: Alliance '90/The Greens.  After the merger of Alliance 90 with the Greens in 1993, Göring-Eckardt worked in the Thuringia Landtag with the same parliamentary group as a speaker for women's issues, family and youth. From 1998 to 2006, she was also a member of the party council of the Alliance 90/The Greens. From 1995 to 1998, she was also an employee of the Green politician Matthias Berninger; around that same time from 1996 to 1998, she was also an adjunct member of the Federal Executive for the Greens. Until 1998, she was a member of the Thuringia Green Party National Executive; she was also the state spokeswoman with interruptions during her service. In 2006, she was once again an assessor for the Thuringia Green Party State Executive Committee.  Prior to the ballot to determine the top two Green candidates in November 2012 for the 2013 German federal election, Göring-Eckardt initially spoke out against having a top two for parliamentary candidates, but instead favored a broad-positioned top team. One strong supporter of her candidacy was, amongst others, Boris Palmer (mayor of Tübingen), the party was also internally "realist". During her candidacy, she announced her intention to engage in discussing in particular how to resolve the further disintegration of society. She wanted to go to the people and especially appeal to those sections of the population there, because she said that the other values are crucial as the purely economic ones. An example factor for that choice was the electoral success of Winfried Kretschmann as Minister-President of Baden-Württemberg in 2011. Compared to competitors Claudia Roth and Renate Künast, who were seen as insiders, voters felt that the conservative Göring-Eckardt was a better choice than an outsider. Various media described her performance as a correction to the force rather than going further left when compared to first-place primary election winner Jürgen Trittin, a vote made by the now much more bourgeois party base. The rumored affinity to her black-green alliances notwithstanding, Göring-Eckardt spoke out after the primary election for a red-green coalition. Left party members evaluated the good performance rather critically; compared with the weekly newspaper "Die Zeit", they called her an "alleged social politician".

Member of the Bundestag, 1998–present.

Since 1998, Göring-Eckardt has been a member of the Bundestag; she entered the body as a list MP for Thuringia since the electoral system is mixed-member proportional representation with half of the seats being constituency-based and the other half being state list-based. From 1998 to 2002, she was First Parliamentary Secretary (or managing director), specifically from February to October 2002, as well as health and pension policy spokeswoman for the party's parliamentary group. From October 2002 to September 2005, she and Krista Sager became co-chairs of the Green Party faction. In the 2005 federal election, she was the Greens candidate for the Thuringia constituency Erfurt – Weimar – Weimarer Land II; however, she lost election for that constituency but still remained in the Bundestag because she was re-elected on the state list for Thuringia.  On 18 October 2005, Göring-Eckardt was elected as the Green parliamentary group's Vice President of the Bundestag with 479 votes in favor, 69 votes against, and 39 abstentions. Since the fall of 2005, she is also the cultural affairs spokeswoman in her group. In 2009, she sought again to win a constituency seat in her state, this time Gotha – Ilm-Kreis; she still could not gain a constituency-based seat but once again got re-elected on the state list. On 27 October 2009, she was re-elected Vice President of the Bundestag on the first day of the meeting of the new parliament with 473 votes in favor, 9 votes against, 5 abstentions, and 61 blank votes. In the primary election for the Greens' top candidates for the 2013 federal election on 11 November 2012, she was the second-place winner with 47.3%, beating Claudia Roth and Renate Künast; this made her and Jürgen Trittin, who won the most votes, the factions' top two candidates for the following year's election.  Since October 2013, she has been co-chair of the Green Party faction, together with Anton Hofreiter.

Other activities.

Religious activities.

Göring-Eckardt is active within the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) and has held a number of positions within it. She served from 2007 to 2015 as an elected board member of the German Evangelical Church Assembly. She also sat on the Board of Trustees of the International Martin Luther Foundation.  She was a member of the Evangelical Church in Germany's 11th Synod and was elected its head in 2009 over the former Minister-President of Bavaria Günther Beckstein.  In 2009 became President of the 33rd biannual German Evangelical Church Assembly, held in Dresden in 2011.  When in November 2012 the Green party elected her as their joint top candidate (with Jürgen Trittin) for the 2013 general election Göring-Eckhard chose to relinquish her responsibilities within the EKD for the duration of the election campaign.

Other community activities.

Göring-Eckardt is a member of the Board of Trustees of the Action Reconciliation Service for Peace e. V. She was also a 2009/2010 Board member of the non-profit association Atlantik-Brücke e. V. and, since May 2010, an official "godmother" of the Bethel Children's Hospice for dying children.  She also holds the following community positions:

Political positions.

Values and Positions.

Party insiders, the media and the public view Göring-Eckardt as a member of the so-called """" (), or "realpolitik"/realist wing of the Greens. In addition she is considered to be a supporter of conservative values with a green lifestyle. In the past, she has based her conscience-based decisions on her religious views. Due to her strong localization in the bourgeois/middle class and good contacts with the centre-right Christian Democratic Union (CDU), she has been listed as a suitable candidate for discussions about forging CDU-Green or black-green coalitions (black being the CDU's color and green being the color for the Greens). Her reputation of being friendly to the CDU is well-founded with her participation in the so-called "Pizza-Connection" () in the 1990s; the Pizza Connection was an informal conversation circle between the younger Green and CDU politicians with the name of the circle coming from an Italian restaurant in Bonn.  She was a supporter of Schröder's Agenda 2010 reforms.  After the end of the red-green coalition government (where the Social Democratic Party led by Gerhard Schröder and the Greens were in a coalition from 1998 to 2005), Göring-Eckardt profiled on different occasions that what she called her conservative values of sustainability, social compensation, and social justice are of particular concern to her.

Human rights.

Under the umbrella of the godparenthood program of "Libereco – Partnership for Human Rights" for political prisoners, Göring-Eckardt has been raising awareness for the imprisonment of Belarusian political activist Ales Bialiatski between 2011 and 2014.  In August 2012, Göring-Eckardt was one of 124 members of the Bundestag to sign a letter that was sent to the Russian ambassador to Germany, Vladimir Grinin, expressing concern over the trial against the three members of Pussy Riot. "Being held in detention for months and the threat of lengthy punishment are draconian and disproportionate", the lawmakers said in the letter. "In a secular and pluralist state, peaceful artistic acts -- even if they can be seen as provocative -- must not lead to the accusation of serious criminal acts that lead to lengthy prison terms".  In December 2014, Göring-Eckardt and fellow Green MP Luise Amtsberg visited the Zaatari refugee camp in Jordan to learn more about the plight of Syrians fleeing the violence in the ongoing Syrian Civil War that erupted in 2011.  In August 2018, Göring-Eckardt urged Chancellor Angela Merkel to appeal Russian President Vladimir Putin for the release of Ukrainian filmmaker Oleg Sentsov.

European integration.

Following the United Kingdom's 2016 referendum on European Union membership, Göring-Eckart made a request to the German government on behalf of the estimated 100,000 Britons living and working across Germany to offer fast-track citizenship.

Personal life.

Göring-Eckardt married Lutheran pastor Michael Göring in 1988 and had two sons. The couple separated in 2011 and divorced in 2017. She is in a relationship with Thies Gundlach, a theologian and official in the EKD.

Katrin Dagmar Göring-Eckardt (born Katrin Dagmar Eckardt; 3 May 1966) is a German politician from the German Green Party (officially known as Alliance '90/The Greens; ). Starting her political activity in the now-former German Democratic Republic (East Germany) in the late 1980s, she has been a member of the German Bundestag since 1998. She became co-chair of her party caucus in the Bundestag (2002–2005) and the Greens' Vice President of the Bundestag on 18 October 2005, a position that she held until 2013. In the November 2012 primary election, the Green Party chose her and Jürgen Trittin as the top two candidates for the Greens for the 2013 German federal election. She also stood as joint top candidate for the Greens in the 2017 German federal election, alongside Cem Özdemir.

凯特琳·艾卡特(;1966年-5月3日),是德国绿党(正式称为联盟90/绿党)政治人物,自1998年以来一直担任德国联邦议院议员。艾卡特在联邦议院(2002年至2005年)担任党内核心小组的联合主席。她在2005年10月18日担任联邦议院绿党副主席,直到2013年。在2012年11月的初选中,绿党选择她和尤尔根·特里汀作为2013年德国绿党的前两名候选人参选。艾卡特是2017年德国联邦选举中绿党的最高候选人之一。


History.

Some of the world's earliest examples of steam cooking were found in Gunma Prefecture, Japan, created during the Stone Age. Some of the second earliest examples of steam cooking have been found in Italy and Sardinia, created during the Bronze Age, and in Cochise County, Arizona, where steam pits were used for cooking about 10,000 years ago. In China's Yellow River Valley, early steam cookers made of stoneware have been found dating back as far as 5,000 BCE. From the eighth century CE, thin cypress strips were used to make steamers; today their slatted bases are constructed from bamboo. The classic steamer has a chimney in the center, which distributes the steam among the tiers.

Method.

Steaming works by boiling water continuously, causing it to vaporize into steam; the steam then carries heat to the nearby food, thus cooking the food. The food is kept separate from the boiling water but has direct contact with the steam, resulting in a moist texture to the food. This differs from double boiling, in which food is not directly exposed to steam, or pressure cooking, which uses a sealed vessel.  Such cooking is most often done by placing the food into a food steamer, typically a circular container made of metal or wood and bamboo. The steamer usually has a lid that is placed on the top of the container during cooking to allow the steam to cook through the food. When a steamer is unavailable, food can be steamed inside a wok, supported over boiling water in the bottom of the wok by a metal frame. Some modern home microwave ovens include a structure to cook food by steam vapor produced in a separate water container, providing a similar result to being cooked on stove. There are also specialized steam ovens available.

Steamed foods.

In Japan, glutinous rice is steamed to prepare "mochi" rice cakes. Traditional Japanese sweets or "wagashi" making involves steaming rice or wheat dough for making mochigashi and manju.  In Western cooking, steaming is most often used to cook vegetablesit is rarely used to cook meats. However, steamed clams are prepared by steaming. With Chinese cuisine, vegetables are usually stir fried or blanched and seldom steamed. Seafood and meat dishes are steamed. For example: steamed whole fish, steamed crab, steamed pork spare ribs, steamed ground pork or beef, steamed chicken and steamed goose.  Rice can be steamed too, although in Chinese cooking this is simply referred to as "cooking" rather than "steaming". In Thailand steaming is the definition of minimalist cooking. Wheat foods are steamed as well. Examples include buns and Chinese steamed cakes.  Steamed meat dishes (except fish and some dim sum) are less common in Chinese restaurants than in traditional home cooking, because meats usually require longer cooking times to steam than to stir fry. Commercially sold frozen foods (such as dim sum) formerly had instructions to reheat by steaming, until the rise in popularity of home microwave ovens, which have considerably shorter cooking times.

Chinese dishes.

Staple foods Chinese steamed eggs similar to custard with local variety of ingredients and vessels.  Dim sum (Shaomai, Baozi, dumpling)  Rice  Seafood  Soup  Sweets

Japanese dishes.

Bread  Chawanmushi (Savory egg custard): beaten egg, dashi soup and ingredients (chicken, shrimp, ginkgo nuts, kamaboko and mitsuba) into a bowl with a lid.  Glutinous rice. Instead of boiling, glutinous rice is steamed to eat. *Okowa as it is called, receipts with ingredients and vessel chestnuts (kuri okowa) or wild herbs (sansai okowa) are popular.  There are receipts where sauce is added to the main ingredients, aiming to control smell or aroma, or keep moisture to the ingredients.  Receipts named after the container. Sweets: steaming is an important process in Japanese sweets making such as manjū, yōkan, uirō, karukan or suama.

Benefits.

Overcooking or burning food is easily avoided when steaming it. Individuals preferring to avoid additional fat intake may prefer steaming to methods which require cooking oil.  A 2007 USDA comparison between steaming and boiling vegetables shows the most affected nutrients are folic acid and vitamin C. When compared to raw consumption, steaming reduces folic acid by 15%, and boiling reduces it by 35%. Steaming reduces vitamin C by 15%, and boiling reduces it by 25%.  Steaming, compared to boiling, showed 42% higher amount of glucosinolates in broccoli cooked for medium firmness. Phenolic compounds with antioxidant properties have been found to retain significantly better through steaming than through boiling or microwaving. Steaming compared to boiling retained β-carotene in carrots. The effect of cooking food may increase or decrease the nutrients.

Steaming is a method of cooking using steam. This is often done with a food steamer, a kitchen appliance made specifically to cook food with steam, but food can also be steamed in a wok. In the American southwest, steam pits used for cooking have been found dating back about 5,000 years. Steaming is considered a healthy cooking technique that can be used for many kinds of food.

蒸是一种烹饪方法。指把食材放于蒸笼等器皿,置入注水的蒸具如镬,利用热力把水加热成蒸汽,以蒸汽加热烹熟食材的过程。中国菜以蒸来烹调的食品以肉类、鱼类及蛋类为主,蒸豆腐亦很常见,根据食品原料的不同,可分为猛火蒸,中火蒸和慢火蒸三种。相对而言,西方惯作蒸素菜类而很少作蒸肉类菜色。


Etymology.

The name "Bangalore" represents an anglicised version of the Kannada language name and its original name, "Bengalūru" ಬೆಂಗಳೂರು. It is the name of a village near Kodigehalli in Bangalore city today and was used by Kempegowda to christen the city as Bangalore at the time of its foundation. The earliest reference to the name "Bengalūru" was found in a ninth-century Western Ganga Dynasty stone inscription on a ""vīra gallu" () (literally, "hero stone", a rock edict extolling the virtues of a warrior). In this inscription found in Begur, "Bengalūrū" is referred to as a place in which a battle was fought in 890 CE. It states that the place was part of the Ganga Kingdom until 1004 and was known as ""Bengaval-uru"", the "City of Guards" in Halegannada (Old Kannada).

History.

Early and medieval history.

A discovery of Stone Age artefacts during the 2001 census of India at Jalahalli, Sidhapura and Jadigenahalli, all of which are located on Bangalore's outskirts today, suggest probable human settlement around 4,000 BCE. Around 1,000 BCE (Iron Age), burial grounds were established at Koramangala and Chikkajala on the outskirts of Bangalore. Coins of the Roman emperors Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius found at Yeswanthpur and HAL indicate that the region was involved in trans-oceanic trade with the Romans and other civilizations in 27 BCE.  The region of modern-day Bangalore was part of several successive South Indian kingdoms. Between the fourth and the tenth centuries, the Bangalore region was ruled by the Western Ganga Dynasty of Karnataka, the first dynasty to set up effective control over the region. According to Edgar Thurston there were twenty-eight kings who ruled Gangavadi from the start of the Christian era until its conquest by the Cholas. These kings belonged to two distinct dynasties: the earlier line of the "Solar race" which had a succession of seven kings of the Ratti or Reddi tribe, and the later line of the Ganga race. The Western Gangas ruled the region initially as a sovereign power (350–550), and later

Foundation and early modern history.

Modern Bangalore was begun in 1537 by a vassal of the Vijayanagara Empire, Kempe Gowda I, who aligned with the Vijayanagara empire to campaign against Gangaraja (whom he defeated and expelled to Kanchi), and who built a mud-brick fort for the people at the site that would become the central part of modern Bangalore. Kempe Gowda was restricted by rules made by Achuta Deva Raya, who feared the potential power of Kempe Gowda and did not allow a formidable stone fort. Kempe Gowda referred to the new town as his "gandubhūmi" or "Land of Heroes".

Later modern and contemporary history.

In the 19th century, Bangalore essentially became a twin city, with the "pētē", whose residents were predominantly Kannadigas and the cantonment created by the British. Throughout the 19th century, the Cantonment gradually expanded and acquired a distinct cultural and political salience as it was governed directly by the British and was known as the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore. While it remained in the princely territory of Mysore, Cantonment had a large military presence and a cosmopolitan civilian population that came from outside the princely state of Mysore, including British and Anglo-Indians army officers.  Bangalore was hit by a plague epidemic in 1898 that claimed nearly 3,500 lives. The crisis caused by the outbreak catalysed the city's

Geography.

Bangalore lies in the southeast of the South Indian state of Karnataka. It is in the heart of the Mysore Plateau (a region of the larger Precambrian Deccan Plateau) at an average elevation of. It is located at and covers an area of. The majority of the city of Bangalore lies in the Bangalore Urban district of Karnataka and the surrounding rural areas are a part of the Bangalore Rural district. The Government of Karnataka has carved out the new district of Ramanagara from the old Bangalore Rural district.  The topology of Bangalore is generally flat, though the western parts of the city are hilly. The highest point is Vidyaranyapura Doddabettahalli, which is and is situated to the north-west of the city. No major rivers run through the city, although the Arkavathi and South Pennar cross paths at the Nandi Hills, to the north. River Vrishabhavathi, a minor tributary of the Arkavathi, arises within the city at Basavanagudi and flows through the city. The rivers Arkavathi and Vrishabhavathi together carry much of Bangalore's sewage. A sewerage system, constructed in 1922, covers of the city and connects with five sewage treatment centres located in the periphery of Bangalore.  In the 16th century, Kempe Gowda I constructed many lakes to meet the town's water requirements. The Kempambudhi Kere, since overrun by modern development, was prominent among those lakes. In the earlier half of 20th century, the Nandi Hills waterworks was commissioned by Sir Mirza Ismail (Diwan of Mysore, 1926–41 CE) to provide a water supply to the city. Currently, the river Kaveri provides around 80% of the total water supply to the city with the remaining 20% being obtained from the Thippagondanahalli and Hesaraghatta reservoirs of the Arkavathi river. Bangalore receives 800 million litres (211 million US gallons) of water a day, more than any other Indian city. However, Bangalore sometimes does face water shortages, especially during summer- more so in the years of low rainfall. A random sampling study of the air quality index (AQI) of twenty stations within the city indicated scores that ranged from 76 to 314, suggesting heavy to severe air pollution around areas of traffic concentration.  Bangalore has a handful of freshwater lakes and water tanks, the largest of which are Madivala tank, Hebbal lake, Ulsoor lake, Yediyur Lake and Sankey Tank. Groundwater occurs in silty to sandy layers of the alluvial sediments. The Peninsular Gneissic Complex (PGC) is the most dominant rock unit in the area and includes granites, gneisses and migmatites, while the soils of Bangalore consist of red laterite and red, fine loamy to clayey soils.  Vegetation in the city is primarily in the form of large deciduous canopy and minority coconut trees. Though Bangalore has been classified as a part of the seismic zone II (a stable zone), it has experienced quakes of magnitude as high as 4.5.

Demographics.

With a population of 8,443,675 in the city and 10,456,000 in the urban agglomeration, up from 8.5 million at the 2011 census, Bangalore is a megacity, and the third-most-populous city in India and the 18th-most-populous city in the world. Bangalore was the fastest-growing Indian metropolis after New Delhi between 1991 and 2001, with a growth rate of 38% during the decade. Residents of Bangalore are referred to as "Bangaloreans" in English and "Bengaloorinavaru or Bengaloorigaru" in Kannada. People from other states have migrated to Bangalore.  census of India, 78.9% of Bangalore's population is Hindu, a little less than the national average. Muslims comprise 13.9% of the population, roughly the same as their national average. Christians and Jains account for 5.6% and 1.0% of the population, respectively, double that of their national averages. The city has a literacy rate of 89%. Roughly 10% of Bangalore's population lives in slums.—a relatively low proportion when compared to other cities in the developing world such as Mumbai (50%) and Nairobi (60%). The 2008 National Crime Records Bureau statistics indicate that Bangalore accounts for 8.5% of the total crimes reported from 35 major cities in India which is an increase in the crime rate when compared to the number of crimes fifteen years ago.  Bangalore suffers

Languages.

Kannada is the official language of Bengaluru, but the city is multi-cultural., Kannada spoken by 46%, Tamil spoken by 13.99%, Telugu spoken by 13.89%, Urdu spoken by 12%, Hindi spoken by 5.4%, Malayalam

Civic administration.

Management.

The Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP, "Greater Bangalore Municipal Corporation") is in charge of the civic administration of the city. It was formed in 2007 by merging 100 wards of the erstwhile "Bangalore Mahanagara Palike", with seven neighbouring City Municipal Councils, one Town Municipal Council and 110 villages around Bangalore. The number of wards increased to 198 in 2009. The BBMP is run by a city council composed of 250 members, including 198 corporators representing each of the wards of the city and 52 other elected representatives, consisting of members of Parliament and the state legislature. Elections to

Pollution control.

Bangalore generates about 3,000 tonnes of solid waste per day, of which about 1,139 tonnes are collected and sent to composting units such as the Karnataka Composting Development Corporation. The remaining solid waste collected by the municipality is dumped in open spaces or on roadsides outside the city. In 2008, Bangalore produced around 2,500 metric tonnes of solid waste, and increased to 5000 metric tonnes in 2012, which is transported from collection units located near Hesaraghatta Lake,

Slums.

report submitted to the World Bank by Karnataka Slum Clearance Board, Bangalore had 862 slums from total of around 2000 slums in Karnataka. The families living in the slum were not ready to move into the temporary shelters. 42% of the households migrated

Waste management.

Ιn 2012 Bangalore generated 2.1 million tonnes of Municipal Solid Waste (195.4 kg/cap/yr). The waste management scenario in the state of Karnataka is regulated by the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) under the

Economy.

Recent estimates of the economy of Bangalore's metropolitan area have ranged from $45 to $83 billion (PPP GDP), and have ranked it either fourth- or fifth-most productive metro area of India. In 2014, Bangalore contributed US$ 45 billion, or 38 per cent of India’s total IT exports.  With an economic growth of 10.3%, Bangalore is the second fastest-growing major metropolis in India, and is also the country's fourth largest fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) market. "Forbes" considers Bangalore one of "The Next Decade's Fastest-Growing Cities". The city is the third largest hub for high-net-worth individuals and is home to over 10,000-dollar millionaires and about 60,000 super-rich people who have an investment surplus of and respectively.  The headquarters of several public sector undertakings such as Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML), Central Manufacturing Technology Institute (CMTI) and HMT (formerly Hindustan Machine Tools) are located in Bangalore. In June 1972 the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was established under the Department of Space and headquartered

Transport.

Air.

Bangalore is served by Kempegowda International Airport, located at Devanahalli, about from the city centre. It was formerly called Bangalore International Airport. The airport started operations from 24 May 2008 and is a private airport managed by a consortium led by

Namma Metro (Rail).

A rapid transit system called the "Namma Metro" is being built in stages. Initially opened with the stretch from Baiyappanahalli to MG Road in 2011, phase 1 covering a distance of for the north–south and east–west lines was made operational by June 2017. Phase 2 of the metro covering is under construction and includes two new lines along with the extension of the existing north–south and east–west lines. There are also plans to extend the north–south line to the airport, covering a distance of. It is expected to be operational by 2021.  Bangalore is a divisional

Road.

Buses operated by Bengaluru Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC) are an important and reliable means of public transport available in the city. While commuters can buy tickets on boarding these buses, BMTC also provides an option of a bus pass to frequent users. BMTC runs air-conditioned luxury buses on major routes, and also operates shuttle services from various parts of the city to Kempegowda International Airport. The BMTC also has a mobile app that provides real-time location of a bus using the global positioning system of the user's mobile device. The Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation operates 6,918 buses on 6,352 schedules, connecting Bangalore with other parts of Karnataka as well as

Culture.

Bangalore is known as the "Garden City of India" because of its greenery, broad streets and the presence of many public parks, such as Lal Bagh and Cubbon Park. Bangalore is sometimes called as the "Pub Capital of India" and the "Rock/Metal Capital of India" because of its underground music scene and it is one of the premier places to hold international rock concerts. In May 2012, Lonely Planet ranked Bangalore third among the world's top ten cities to visit.  Bangalore is also home to many vegan-friendly restaurants and vegan activism groups, and has been named as India's most vegan-friendly city by PETA India.  Biannual flower shows are held at the Lal Bagh Gardens during the week of Republic Day (26 January) and Independence Day (15 August). Bengaluru Karaga or "Karaga Shaktyotsava" is one of the most important and oldest festivals of Bangalore dedicated to the Hindu Goddess Draupadi. It is celebrated annually by the Thigala community, over a period of nine days in the month of March or April. The Someshwara Car festival is an annual procession of the idol of the Halasuru Someshwara Temple (Ulsoor) led by the Vokkaligas, a major land holding community in the southern Karnataka, occurring in April. Karnataka Rajyotsava is widely celebrated on 1 November and is a public holiday in the city, to mark the formation of Karnataka state on 1 November 1956. Other popular festivals in Bangalore are Ugadi, Ram Navami, Eid ul-Fitr, Ganesh Chaturthi, St. Mary's feast, Dasara, Deepawali and Christmas.  The diversity of cuisine is reflective of the social and economic diversity of Bangalore. Bangalore has a wide and varied mix of restaurant types and cuisines and Bangaloreans deem eating out as an intrinsic part of their culture. Roadside vendors, tea stalls, and South Indian, North Indian, Chinese and Western fast food are all very popular in the city. Udupi restaurants are very popular and serve predominantly vegetarian, regional cuisine.

Art and literature.

Bangalore did not have an effective contemporary art representation, as compared to Delhi and Mumbai, until recently during the 1990s, several art galleries sprang up, notable being the government established National Gallery of Modern Art. Bangalore's international art festival, "Art Bangalore", was established in 2010.  Kannada literature appears to have flourished in Bangalore even before Kempe Gowda

Indian Cartoon Gallery.

The cartoon gallery is located in the heart of Bangalore, dedicated to the art of cartooning, is the first of its kind in India. Every month the gallery is conducting fresh cartoon

Theatre, music, and dance.

Bangalore is home to the Kannada film industry, which churns out about 80 Kannada movies each year. Bangalore also has a very active and vibrant theatre culture with popular theatres being Ravindra Kalakshetra and the more recently opened Ranga Shankara The city has a vibrant English and foreign language theatre scene with places like Ranga Shankara and Chowdiah Memorial Hall leading the way in hosting performances leading to the establishment of the Amateur film industry.  Kannada theatre is very popular in Bangalore, and consists mostly of political satire and light comedy. Plays are organised mostly by community organisations, but there are some amateur groups which stage plays in Kannada. Drama companies touring India under the auspices of the British Council and Max Müller Bhavan also stage performances in the city frequently.

Education.

Schools.

Until the early 19th century, education in Bangalore was mainly run by religious leaders and restricted to students of that religion. The western system of education was introduced during the rule of Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar. Subsequently, the British Wesleyan Mission established the first English school in 1832 known as Wesleyan Canarese School. The fathers of the Paris Foreign Missions established the St. Joseph's European School in 1858. The Bangalore High School was started by the Mysore government in 1858 and the Bishop Cotton Boys' School was started in 1865. In 1945 when World War II came to an end, King George Royal Indian Military Colleges was started at Bangalore by King George VI; the school is popularly known as Bangalore Military School  In post-independent India, schools for young

Universities.

The Central College of Bangalore is the oldest college in the city, it was established in the year 1858. It was originally affiliated to University of Mysore and subsequently to Bangalore University. Later in the year 1882 the priests from the Paris Foreign Missions Society established the St Joseph's College, Bangalore. The Bangalore University was established in 1886, it provides affiliation to over 500 colleges, with a total student enrolment exceeding 300,000. The university has two campuses within Bangalore – Jnanabharathi and Central College.

Media.

The first printing press in Bangalore was established in 1840 in Kannada by the Wesleyan Christian Mission. In 1859, "Bangalore Herald" became the first English bi-weekly newspaper to be published in Bangalore and in 1860, "Mysore Vrittanta Bodhini" became the first Kannada newspaper to be circulated in Bangalore. Currently, "Vijaya Karnataka" and "The Times of India" are the most widely circulated Kannada and English newspapers in Bangalore respectively, closely followed by the "Prajavani" and "Deccan Herald" both owned by the Printers (Mysore) Limited – the largest print media house in Karnataka. Other circulated newspapers are "Vijayvani", "Vishwavani", "Kannadaprabha", "Sanjevani", "Bangalore Mirror", "Udayavani" provide localised news updates. On the web, Explocity provides listings information in Bangalore.  Bangalore got its first radio station when All India Radio, the official broadcaster for the Indian Government, started broadcasting from its Bangalore station on 2 November 1955. The radio transmission was AM, until in 2001, Radio City became the first private channel in India to start transmitting FM radio from Bangalore. In recent years, a number of FM channels have started broadcasting from Bangalore. The city

Sports.

Cricket and football are by far the most popular sports in the city. Bangalore has many parks and gardens that provide excellent pitches for impromptu games. A significant number of national cricketers have come from Bangalore, including former captains Rahul Dravid and Anil Kumble. Some of the other notable players from the city who have represented India include Gundappa Vishwanath, Syed Kirmani, E. A. S. Prasanna, B. S. Chandrasekhar, Roger Binny, Venkatesh Prasad, Sunil Joshi, Robin Uthappa, Vinay Kumar, KL Rahul, Karun Nair, Brijesh Patel and Stuart Binny. Bangalore's international cricket stadium is the M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, which has a seating capacity of 55,000 and has hosted matches during the 1987 Cricket World Cup, 1996 Cricket World Cup and the 2011 Cricket World Cup. The Chinnaswamy Stadium is the home of India's National Cricket Academy.  The Indian Premier League franchise Royal Challengers Bangalore and the Indian Super League club Bengaluru FC are based in the city. The city hosted some games of the 2014 Unity World Cup.  The city hosts the Women's Tennis Association (WTA) Bangalore Open tournament annually. Beginning September 2008, Bangalore has also been hosting the Kingfisher Airlines Tennis Open ATP tournament annually.  The city is home to the Bangalore rugby football club (BRFC). Bangalore has a number of elite clubs, like Century Club, The Bangalore Golf Club, the Bowring Institute and the exclusive Bangalore Club, which counts among its previous members Winston Churchill and the Maharaja of Mysore. The Hindustan Aeronautics Limited SC is based in Bangalore.  India's Davis Cup team members, Mahesh Bhupathi and Rohan Bopanna reside in Bangalore. Other sports personalities from Bangalore include national swimming champion Nisha Millet, world snooker champion Pankaj Advani and former All England Open badminton champion Prakash Padukone.  Bangalore is home to Bengaluru Beast, 2017 vice champion of India's top professional basketball division, the UBA Pro Basketball League.  The city has hosted some games of the 2014 Unity World Cup.

Bangalore, officially Bengaluru (), is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. It has a population of over ten million, making it a megacity and the third-most populous city and fifth-most populous urban agglomeration in India. It is located in southern India, on the Deccan Plateau at an elevation of over above sea level. Its multi-ethnic, multi-religious, and cosmopolitan character is reflected by its more than 1000 Hindu temples, 400 mosques, 100 churches, 40 Jain Basadis, three Sikh gurdwaras, two Buddhist viharas and one Parsi fire temple located in an area of 741 km2 of the metropolis. The religious places are further represented by the proposed Chabad of the Jewish community. The numerous Bahá'ís have a society called the Bahá'í Centre.

班加罗尔(Bengaluru,,国际音标 /'),是印度卡纳塔克邦的首府。班加罗尔人口超过一千万,为印度第三大城市,第五大都会区。班加罗尔位于印度南部的德干高原,海拔超过三千英尺。


Product overview.

ARCHICAD is a complete design suite with 2D and 3D drafting, visualization and other building information modeling functions for architects, designers and planners. A wide range of software applications are integrated in ARCHICAD to cover most of the design needs of an architectural office:

Features.

Working with parametric objects.

ARCHICAD allows the user to work with data-enhanced parametric objects, often called "smart objects" by users. This differs from the operational style of other CAD programs created in the 1980s. The product allows the user to create a "virtual building" with virtual structural elements like walls, slabs, roofs, doors, windows and furniture. A large variety of pre-designed, customizable objects come with the program.  ARCHICAD allows the user to work with either a 2D or 3D representation on the screen. Two-dimensional drawings can be exported at any time, even though the model in the program's database always stores data in three dimensions. Plans, elevations, and sections are generated from the three-dimensional virtual building model and are constantly updated if the user'rebuilds' the view. Detail drawings are based on enlarged portions of the model, with 2D detail added in.

Collaboration and remote access.

ARCHICAD released its first file exchange based Teamwork solution in its version 5.1 in 1997, which allowed more architects to work on the same building model simultaneously. A completely rewritten Teamwork "2.0" solution with a new database approach came out in version 13 in 2009 named Graphisoft BIM Server. Since only the changes and differences are sent to the central storage, this solution allows remote access to the same project over the Internet, thus allowing worldwide project collaboration and coordination. In 2014, with the introduction of the BIMcloud, better integration is provided with standard IT solutions: browser-based management, LDAP connection, and HTTP/HTTPS based communication. Also, new scalability options are available, by allowing multi-server layouts to be created, with optional caching servers.

APIs and scripting.

Third-party vendors and some manufacturers of architectural products have compiled libraries of architectural components for use in ARCHICAD. The program includes Geometric Description Language (GDL) used to create new components. Also, API (Application Programming Interface) and ODBC database connections are supported for third party Add-On developers. Via direct API links to 4D and 5D software such as Vico Office Suite or Tocoman iLink, the ARCHICAD model can be exported to BIM-based cost estimation and scheduling. ARCHICAD is also directly linked via API to Solibri's Model checking and quality assurance tools.  In addition, Graphisoft provides a direct link to Grasshopper 3D enabling a visual programming environment for parametric modelling and design.

Data interchange.

ARCHICAD can import and export DWG, DXF and IFC and BCF files among others. Graphisoft is an active member of BuildingSMART (formerly the International Alliance for Interoperability, IAI), an industry organization that publishes standards for file and data interoperability for built environment software. Graphisoft was one of the founders of the Open BIM concept, which supports 3D BIM data exchange between the different design disciplines on open-source platforms.  ARCHICAD can also export the 3D model and its corresponding 2D drawings to BIMx format which can be viewed on a number of desktop and mobile platforms with native BIMx viewers.

License types and localizations.

License types.

Commercial, educational and fully functional 30-day trial versions can be installed with the same installer. As long as no hardware protection is present or the software is not activated with a trial or an educational serial number, ARCHICAD can be launched in demo mode. The installer files can be downloaded without registration. The educational or trial serial numbers can be obtained after registration.

Languages and localizations.

ARCHICAD is available in a number of localized versions. In addition to a translated user interface and documentation, these versions have a set of parametric objects (object libraries) developed considering the specific requirements of the regional market, and different default values for object properties, menu arrangements, etc.

Extensions.

Various free and commercial add-on products and extensions add extra functionality to ARCHICAD or provide further data exchange possibilities with other software applications. Some of these extensions are developed by Graphisoft, such as the freely available Trimble SketchUp, Google Earth or Maxon's Cinema 4D import/export add-ons or other extensions sold separately such as Graphisoft MEP Modeler, Graphisoft EcoDesigner or Graphisoft Virtual Building Explorer; while there are a number of add-ons provided by third party vendors, such as Cigraph or Cadimage.

Version history.

For a detailed version history see the help center article.

ARCHICAD is an architectural BIM CAD software for Macintosh and Windows developed by the Hungarian company Graphisoft. ARCHICAD offers computer aided solutions for handling all common aspects of aesthetics and engineering during the whole design process of the built environment — buildings, interiors, urban areas, etc.

ARCHICAD是一个理想的3D建筑设计软件,它同时具备了成熟的2D绘图与布图功能,由匈牙利公司Graphisoft开发。自ARCHICAD问世就以3D建模和设计为特色,并提出虚拟建筑的概念。现在ARCHICAD也同样宣传自己是BIM软件,业内也认为ARCHICAD是世界上最早的BIM软件,其扩展模块中也有MEP(水暖电)ECO(能耗分析)及Artlantis渲染插件等。ARCHICAD支持IFC标准和GDL技术。Graphisoft公司推出ARCHICAD系列支持10余种语言。


Corporate history.

In 1966, Peugeot and Renault entered a cooperative agreement to manufacture common components. The first joint subsidiary, "La Française de Mécanique" (also called "Compagnie Française de Mécanique" or simply "FM") was launched in 1969. The FM factory was built in Douvrin near Lens in northern France. The PRV engines are sometimes referred to as "Douvrin" engines, though that name is more commonly applied to a family of straight-fours produced at the same time.  In 1971, Volvo joined Peugeot and Renault in the creation of the PRV company, a public limited company (plc) in which each of the three manufacturers owned an equal portion. The company originally planned to build V8 engines, although these were later scrapped in favor of a smaller and more fuel-efficient V6.  The PRV engine could be seen as a V8 with two missing cylinders, having a 90 degree angle between cylinder banks, rather than the customary 60, but with crankpins being 120 degrees apart. The Maserati V6 of the Citroën SM followed a remarkably similar pattern of development.  The 1973 energy crisis, and taxes levied against engine displacement greater than 2.8 litres made large V8 engines somewhat undesirable, and expanded the market for smaller displacement engines.  Additionally, Renault needed a V6 engine to fit in its new model, the Renault 30. Renault's internal designation for the PRV was Z-Type.  Machinery for assembling the engines arrived at Douvrin in early June 1973, and buildings for producing the engines were finished in January 1974. The first PRV engines were officially introduced on 3 October 1974 in the Volvo 264. Adoption was swift, and the PRV V6 had been sold in at least five different models by the end of 1975.  In 1984, the first commercially available turbocharged PRV V6 was sold in the Renault 25 V6 Turbo. This was the first to be even-fire with split crankpins, and was the first of the second generation, and indeed EFI engine of any sort. Turbocharged versions went on to be used in the Renault Alpine GTA V6 Turbo (essentially the same engine as the 25 Turbo at ), Renault Alpine A610, and Renault Safrane Bi-turbo – both with low compression. Naturally aspirated and versions of both low- and high-compression 3-litre engines appeared in a number of Peugeot, Citroën and Renault cars until 1997.  While Renault were working forced induction into the PRV, Peugeot and Citroën developed their own 24-valve engines as an option in the 605 and XM respectively. The compression remained the same as the Renault 12v, but the pistons differed, as did some of the timing gear, and the heads were re-engineered to allow easier maintenance (the camshaft being fitted from the opposite end for example). This engine was however extremely expensive, and suffered cam wear problems. This was due to the exhaust valves sharing a single lobe, while each inlet valve had its own lobe. This was at least partially solved by the use of ceramic followers as one of a succession of recalls.  Meanwhile, French supercar manufacturer Venturi had been developing their own versions of the PRV. The most powerful versions they built were in the Atlantique 300 at from a single turbocharged 3.0 L 12v, and they successfully raced at the 24 Hours of Le Mans with the 600LM with a twin turbocharged 24v 3.0-litre, pushing out over in race spec, and the road-going spin-off, the 400GT managed. This used the low compression bottom end common to the Renault turbo engines, coupled to 24-valve cylinder heads with bespoke rockers and tappets.  Peugeot too allowed a small group of engineers to create a team for endurance racing, and after a few years the team grew to be called WM Peugeot. The ultimate version of the car used a low compression 3.0-litre bottom end coupled to bespoke twin-cam heads. It is the only DOHC PRV. This car still holds the top speed record at 24 Hours of Le Mans set in 1988. By taping over the engine cooling intakes to improve aerodynamics, the team managed to push the car to on the straight before the engine was destroyed.  Volvo began to withdraw from the PRV consortium in the late 1980s, shifting its powerplant reliance onto in-house inline engines. Peugeot, Renault and Citroën continued using the PRV until 1997.  After producing 970,315 units, production of the PRV V6 was stopped on 15 June 1998.

Engineering.

Uneven firing order.

The original engineering work done on the V8 engine can still be seen in the resulting V6 engine: its cylinder banks are arranged at 90°, instead of the much more common 60°. V8 engines nearly universally feature 90° configurations, because this allows for a natural firing order. V6 engines, on the other hand, produce even firing intervals between cylinders when their two banks of cylinders are arranged at 60°. 90-degree V6 engines, like the PRV, experience uneven firing, which can be addressed using split crankshaft journals. 90° V6 engines are shorter and wider than 60° engines, allowing lower engine bay hood/bonnet profiles.  First-generation PRV engines (1974–1985) featured uneven firing order. Second generation PRV engines (introduced in 1984 in the Renault 25 Turbo) featured split crankshaft journals to create evenly spaced ignition events. Other similar design examples are the "odd-fire" and "even-fire" Buick V6 and the Maserati V6 seen in the Citroën SM.

PRV powered automobiles.

The dates following each entry denote the introduction of a PRV V6-equipped model

PRV engines in racing.

The PRV was also the basis for the 90° V6 engine used by Alfa Romeo in the 155 V6 Ti in the 1996 DTM/ITC season from Silverstone onwards. The engines in that series required the use of bank separation angle and cylinder bore spacing from a production based engine, and as a 90° V6 has greater room between banks than a 60° V6 for a more optimal induction system, Alfa Romeo used the PRV as a basis as it had been used in the Lancia Thema, a car which shared its platform with the Alfa Romeo 164, as well as the Fiat Croma and Saab 9000. Other sources declare that the 90° V6 engine in 1996 Alfa Romeo 155 V6 Ti is based on a 2.6 L V8 from 1970 Alfa Romeo Montreal with 2 cylinders removed, as allowed by the rules, however the FIA homologation documentation shows the homologated production engine was a "2850cm3" capacity "V6” engine. The bore spacing of the Montreal engine was too close to be suitable for the 155 V6 Ti in any case. Limone invented the "Montreal V8" story to throw the press off the scent and to satisfy FIAT management who were unhappy that a non-FIAT group developed engine was being used.

The V6 PRV engine is an automobile petrol V6 engine that was developed jointly by Peugeot, Renault and Volvo Cars – and sold from 1974 to 1998. It was gradually replaced after 1994 by another joint PSA-Renault design, known as the "ES" engine at PSA and the "L" engine at Renault. It was designed and manufactured by the company "Française de Mécanique" for PSA, Renault and Volvo.

PRV引擎是1974年-1998年由标致汽车、雷诺汽车及富豪汽车等三家车厂共同研发的V型6缸引擎,故其名称各取其字首「P」、「R」、「V」而成;不过1994年之后渐渐被PSA集团的雷诺开发的ES引擎取代。