Early life.

Rohmer was born "Jean-Marie Maurice Schérer" (or "Maurice Henri Joseph Schérer") in Nancy (also listed as Tulle), Meurthe-et-Moselle department, Lorraine, France, the son of Mathilde (née Bucher) and Lucien Schérer. Rohmer was a Catholic. He was secretive about his private life and often gave different dates of birth to reporters. He fashioned his pseudonym from the names of two famous artists: actor and director Erich von Stroheim and writer Sax Rohmer, author of the Fu Manchu series. Rohmer was educated in Paris and received an advanced degree in history. He also studied literature, philosophy, and theology as a student.

Career as a journalist.

Rohmer first worked as a teacher in Clermont-Ferrand. In the mid-1940s he quit his teaching job and moved to Paris, where he worked as a freelance journalist. In 1946 he published a novel, "Elisabeth" (AKA "Les Vacances") under the pen name Gilbert Cordier. In about 1949, while living in Paris, Rohmer first began to attend screenings at Henri Langlois's Cinémathèque Française, where he first met and befriended Jean-Luc Godard, François Truffaut, Claude Chabrol, Jacques Rivette and other members of the French New Wave. Rohmer had never been very interested in film, preferring literature, but soon became an intense lover of films and switched from journalism to film criticism. He wrote film reviews for such publications as "Révue du Cinéma", "Arts", "Temps Modernes" and "La Parisienne".  In 1950, he co-founded the film magazine "La Gazette du Cinéma" with Rivette and Godard, but it was short-lived. In 1951 Rohmer joined the staff of André Bazin's newly founded film magazine "Cahiers du Cinéma", of which he became the editor in 1956. There, Rohmer established himself as a critic with a distinctive voice; fellow "Cahiers" contributor and French New Wave filmmaker Luc Moullet later remarked that, unlike the more aggressive and personal writings of younger critics like Truffaut and Godard, Rohmer favored a rhetorical style that made extensive use of questions and rarely used the first person singular. Rohmer was known as more politically conservative than most of the "Cahiers" staff, and his opinions were highly influential on the magazine's direction while he was editor. Rohmer first published articles under his real name but began using "Éric Rohmer" in 1955 so that his family would not find out that he was involved in the film world, as they would have disapproved.  Rohmer's best-known article was "Le Celluloid et le marbre" ("Celluloid and Marble", 1955), which examines the relationship between film and other arts. In the article, Rohmer writes that in an age of cultural self-consciousness, film is "the last refuge of poetry" and the only contemporary art form from which metaphor can still spring naturally and spontaneously.  In 1957 Rohmer and Claude Chabrol wrote "Hitchcock" (Paris: Éditions Universitaires, 1957), the earliest book-length study of Alfred Hitchcock. It focuses on Hitchcock's Catholic background and has been called "one of the most influential film books since the Second World War, casting new light on a filmmaker hitherto considered a mere entertainer". "Hitchcock" helped establish the auteur theory as a critical method and contributed to the reevaluation of the American cinema that was central to that method.  By 1963 Rohmer was becoming more at odds with some of the more radical left-wing critics at "Cahiers du Cinéma". He continued to admire US films while many of the other left-wing critics had rejected them and were championing "cinéma vérité" and Marxist film criticism. Rohmer resigned that year and was succeeded by Rivette.

Film career.

1950–1962: Shorts and early film career.

In 1950 Rohmer made his first 16mm short film, "Journal d'un scélérat". The film starred writer Paul Gégauff and was made with a borrowed camera. By 1951 Rohmer had a bigger budget provided by friends and shot the short film "Présentation ou Charlotte et son steak". The 12-minute film was co-written by and starred Jean-Luc Godard. The film was not completed until 1961. In 1952 Rohmer began collaborating with Pierre Guilbaud on a one-hour short feature, "Les Petites Filles modèles", but the film was never finished. In 1954 Rohmer made and acted in "Bérénice", a 15-minute short based on a story by Edgar Allan Poe. In 1956 Rohmer directed, wrote, edited and starred in "La Sonate à Kreutzer", a 50-minute film produced by Godard. In 1958 Rohmer made "Véronique et son cancre", a 20-minute short produced by Chabrol.  Chabrol's company AJYM produced Rohmer's feature directorial debut, "The Sign of Leo" ("Le Signe du lion") in 1959. In the film an American composer spends the month of August waiting for his inheritance while all his friends are on vacation and gradually becomes impoverished. It included music by Louis Sagver. "The Sign of Leo" was later recut and rescored by distributors when Chabrol was forced to sell his production company, and Rohmer disowned the recut version. In 1962 Rohmer and Barbet Schroeder co-founded the production company Les Films du Losange (they were later joined by Pierre Coltrell in the late 1960s). Les Films du Losange produced all of Rohmer's work (except his last three features produced by La Compagnie Eric Rohmer).

1962–1972: Six Moral Tales and television work.

Rohmer's career began to gain momentum with his "Six Moral Tales". Each of the films in the cycle follows the same story, inspired by F. W. Murnau's "Sunrise" (1927): a man, married or otherwise committed to a woman, is tempted by a second woman but eventually returns to the first.  For Rohmer, these stories' characters "like to bring their motives, the reasons for their actions, into the open, they try to analyze, they are not people who act without thinking about what they are doing. What matters is what they "think" about their behavior, rather than their behavior itself." The French word "moraliste" does not translate directly to the English "moralist" and has more to do with what someone thinks and feels. Rohmer cited the works of Blaise Pascal, Jean de La Bruyère, François de La Rochefoucauld and Stendhal as inspirations for the series. He clarified, "a "moraliste" is someone who is interested in the description of what goes on inside man. He’s concerned with states of mind and feelings." Regarding the repetition of a single storyline, he explained that it would allow him to explore six variations of the same theme. Plus, he stated, "I was determined to be inflexible and intractable, because if you persist in an idea it seems to me that in the end you do secure a following."  The first "Moral Tale" was "The Bakery Girl of Monceau" (1963). This 26-minute film portrays a young man, a college student, who sees a young woman in the street and spends days obsessively searching for her. He meets a second woman who works in a bakery and begins to flirt with her, but abandons her when he finally finds the first woman. Schroder starred as the young man and Bertrand Tavernier was the narrator. The second "Moral Tale" was "Suzanne's Career" (1963). This 60-minute film portrays a young student who is rejected by one woman and begins a romantic relationship with a second. The first and second "Moral Tales" were never theatrically released and Rohmer was disappointed by their poor technical quality. They were not well known until after the release of the other four.  In 1963 Les Films du Losange produced the New Wave omnibus film "Six in Paris", of which Rohmer's short "Place de l'Etoile" was the centerpiece. After being driven out of his editor position at "Cahiers", Rohmer began making short documentaries for French television. Between 1964 and 1966 Rohmer made 14 shorts for television through the Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française (ORTF) and Télévision Scolaire. These included episodes of "Filmmakers of Our Time" on Louis Lumiere and Carl Theodor Dreyer, educational films on Blaise Pascal and Stéphane Mallarmé, and documentaries on the Percival legend, the industrial revolution and female students in Paris. Rohmer later said that television taught him how to make "readable images". He later said, "When you show a film on TV, the framing goes to pieces, straight lines are warped...the way people stand and walk and move, the whole physical dimension...all this is lost. Personally I don't feel that TV is an intimate medium." In 1964 Rohmer made the 13-minute short film "Nadja à Paris" with cinematographer Nestor Almendros.  Rohmer and Schroder then sold the rights of two of their short films to French television in order to raise $60,000 to produce the feature film "La Collectionneuse" in 1967, the third "Moral Tale". The film's budget went only to film stock and renting a house in St. Tropez as a set. Rohmer described it as a film about "l'amour par désoeuvrement" ("love from idleness"). "La Collectionneuse" won the Jury Grand Prix at the 17th Berlin International Film Festival and was praised by French film critics, though US film critics called it "boring".  The fourth "Moral Tale" was "My Night at Maud's" in 1969. The film was made with funds raised by Truffaut, who liked the script, and was initially intended to be the third "Moral Tale". But because the film takes place on Christmas Eve, Rohmer wanted to shoot the film in December. Actor Jean-Louis Trintignant was not available so filming was delayed for a year. The film centers on Pascal's Wager and stars Trintignant, Françoise Fabian, Marie-Christine Barrault and Antoine Vitez. "My Night at Maud's" was Rohmer's first successful film both commercially and critically. It was screened and highly praised at the 1969 Cannes Film Festival and later won the Prix Max Ophüls. It was released in the US and praised by critics there as well. It eventually received Oscar nominations for Best Original Screenplay and Best Foreign Film. James Monaco wrote, "Here, for the first time the focus is clearly set on the ethical and existential question of choice. If it isn't clear within "Maud" who actually is making the wager and whether or not they win or lose, that only enlarges the idea of "le pari" ("the bet") into the encompassing metaphor that Rohmer wants for the entire series."  The fifth "Moral Tale" was "Le genou de Claire" ("Claire's Knee", 1970). It won the Grand Prix at the San Sebastián International Film Festival, the Prix Louis Delluc and the Prix Méliès, and was a huge international success. Vincent Canby called it "something close to a perfect film." It was Rohmer's second film in color. Rohmer said, "the presence of the lake and the mountains is stronger in color than in black and white. It is a film I couldn't imagine in black and white. The color green seems to me essential in that film...This film would have no value to me in black and white."  The sixth and final "Moral Tale" was 1972's "Love in the Afternoon" (released as "Chloe in the Afternoon" in the US). Molly Haskell criticized the film for betraying the rest of the series by making a moral judgment of the main character and approving of his decision in the film.  Overall, Rohmer said he wanted the "Six Moral Tales" "to portray in film what seemed most alien to the medium, to express feelings buried deep in our consciousness. That's why they have to be narrated in the first person singular...The protagonist discusses himself and judges his actions. I film the process."

1972–1987: Adaptations and "Comedies and Proverbs".

Following the "Moral Tales" Rohmer wanted to make a less personal film and adapted a novella by Heinrich von Kleist, "La Marquise d'O..." in 1976. It was one of Rohmer's most critically acclaimed films, with many critics ranking it with "My Night at Maud's" and "Claire's Knee". Rohmer stated that "It wasn't simply the action I was drawn to, but the text itself. I didn't want to translate it into images, or make a filmed equivalent. I wanted to use the text as if Kleist himself had put it directly on the screen, as if he were making a movie... Kleist didn't copy me and I didn't copy him, but obviously there was an affinity."  In 1978 Rohmer made the Holy Grail legend film "Perceval le Gallois", based on a 12th-century manuscript by Chrétien de Troyes. The film received mostly poor critical reviews. Tom Milne said that the film was "almost universally greeted as a disappointment, at best a whimsical exercise in the faux-naif in its attempt to capture the poetic simplicity of medieval faith, at worse an anticlimatic blunder" and that it was "rather like watching the animation of a medieval manuscript, with the text gravely read aloud while the images — cramped and crowded, coloured with jewelled brilliance, delighting the eye with bizarre perspectives — magnificently play the role traditionally assigned to marginal illuminations." In 1980 Rohmer made a film for television of his stage production of Kleist's play "Catherine de Heilbronn", another work with a medieval setting.  Later in 1980 Rohmer embarked on a second series of films: the "Comedies and Proverbs", where each film was based on a proverb. The first "Comedy and proverb" was "The Aviator's Wife", which was based on an idea that Rohmer had had since the mid-1940s. This was followed in 1981 with "Le Beau Mariage" ("A Perfect Marriage"), the second "Comedy and Proverb". Rohmer stated that "what interests me is to show how someone's imagination works. The fact that obsession can replace reality." In his review of the film, film critic Claude Baignères said that "Eric Rohmer is a virtuoso of the pen sketch...[He had not been] at ease with the paint tubes that Persival required, [but in this film he created] a tiny figurine whose every feature, every curl, every tone is aimed at revealing to us a state of soul and of heart." Raphael Bassan said that "the filmmaker fails to achieve in these dialogues the flexibility, the textual freedom of "The Aviator's Wife". "A Perfect Marriage" is only a variation on the spiritual states of the petty bourgeoise who go on and on forever about the legitimacy of certain institutions or beliefs confronted by problems of the emotions. Quite simply, this is a minor variation on this central Rohmerian theme."  The third "Comedy and proverb" was "Pauline at the Beach" in 1983. It won the Silver Bear for Best Director at the 33rd Berlin International Film Festival. It was based on an idea that Rohmer had in the 1950s, originally intended for Brigitte Bardot. Rohmer often made films that he had been working on his many years and stated "I can't say 'I make one film, then after that film I look for a subject and write on that subject...then I shoot.' Not at all...these are films that are drawn from one evolving mass, films that have been in my head for a long time and that I think about simultaneously."  The fourth "Comedy and Proverb" was "Full Moon in Paris" in 1984. The film's proverb was invented by Rohmer himself: "The one who has two wives loses his soul, the one who has two houses loses his mind." The film's cinematographer Renato Berta called it "one of the most luxurious films ever made" because of the high amount of preparation put into it. The film began with Rohmer and the actors discussing their roles and reading from the film's scenario while tape recording the rehearsals. Rohmer then re-wrote the script based on these sessions and shot the film on Super 8mm as a dress rehearsal. When the film was finally shot, Rohmer often used between two and three takes for each shot, and sometimes only one take. Alain Bergala and Alain Philippon have stated that "all the art of Eric Rohmer consists of creating on the set avertable osmosis among himself, the actors and the technicians." Rohmer even encouraged actress Pascale Ogier to design sets for the film since her character is an interior decorator. Ogier later won the Best Actress award at the Venice Film Festival. Alain Philippon called the film "one of the most accomplished films that Rohmer has given us...and that if the film moves it is because of its own risk-taking."  The fifth "Comedy and Proverb" was "The Green Ray" in 1986. Rohmer explained that "I was struck by the naturalness of television interviews. You can say that here, nature is perfect. If you look for it, you find it because people forget the cameras." As was becoming his custom in pre-production, Rohmer gathered his cast together to discuss the project and their characters, but then allowed each actor to invent their own dialogue. Rohmer stated that lead actress Marie Rivière "is the one who called the shots, not only by what she said, but by the way she'd speak, the way she'd question people, and also by the questions her character evoked from the others." The film was shot chronologically and in 16mm so as to be "as inconspicuous as possible, to have Delphine blend into the crowd as a way, ultimately, of accentuating her isolation." Rohmer also instructed his cinematographer Sophie Maintigneux to keep technical aspects of the shoot to a minimum so as to not interrupt or distract the actors. The film's only major expense was a trip to the Canary Islands in order to film the green rays there. Rohmer chose to première the film on Canal Plus TV, a pay-TV station that paid $130,000 for the film, which was only one fifth of its budget. Rohmer stated that "Cinema here will survive only because of television. Without such an alliance we won't be able to afford French films." The experiment paid off when the film was a theatrical hit after being released three days after its initial broadcast. It won the Golden Lion and the FIPRESCI Prize at the 1986 Venice Film Festival. It was mostly praised by film critics, although Alain Robbe-Grillet wrote an unfavorable review and stated "I didn't like it very much."  The Sixth "Comedy and Proverb" was "Boyfriends and Girlfriends" ("L'Ami de mon amie") in 1987.

1987–2009: Later film career.

He followed these with a third series in the 1990s: "Tales of the Four Seasons". "Conte d’automne" or "Autumn Tale" was a critically acclaimed release in 1999 when Rohmer was 79. The previous titles of the series were "A Tale of Springtime" (1990), "A Tale of Winter" (1992), and "A Summer's Tale" (1996).  Beginning in the 2000s, Rohmer, in his eighties, returned to period drama with "The Lady and the Duke" and "Triple Agent". "The Lady and the Duke" caused considerable controversy in France, where its negative portrayal of the French Revolution led some critics to label it monarchist propaganda. Its innovative cinematic style and strong acting performances led it to be well received elsewhere.  In 2001, his life's work was recognised when he received the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival.  In 2007, Rohmer's final film, "The Romance of Astrea and Celadon", was shown during the Venice Film Festival, at which he spoke of retiring.

Style.

Rohmer's films concentrate on intelligent, articulate protagonists who frequently fail to own up to their desires. The contrast between what they say and what they do fuels much of the drama in his films. Gerard Legrand once said that "he is one of the rare filmmakers who is constantly inviting you to be intelligent, indeed, more intelligent than his (likable) characters." Rohmer considered filmmaking to be "closer to the novel — to a certain classical style of novel which the cinema is now taking over — than the other forms of entertainment, like the theater."  Rohmer saw the full-face closeup as a device that does not reflect how we see each other and avoided its use. He avoids extradiegetic music (not coming from onscreen sound sources), seeing it as a violation of the fourth wall. He has on occasion departed from the rule by inserting soundtrack music in places in "The Green Ray" (1986) (released as "Summer" in the United States). Rohmer also tends to spend considerable time in his films showing his characters going from place to place, walking, driving, bicycling or commuting on a train, engaging the viewer in the idea that part of the day of each individual involves quotidian travel. This was most evident in (1982), which had the female protagonist constantly traveling, particularly between Paris and Le Mans.  Rohmer typically populates his movies with people in their twenties and the settings are often on pleasant beaches and popular resorts, notably in "La Collectionneuse" (1967), "Pauline at the Beach" (1983), "The Green Ray" (1986) and "A Summer's Tale" (1996). These films are immersed in an environment of bright sunlight, blue skies, green grass, sandy beaches, and clear waters. He explained that "people sometimes ask me why most of the main characters in my films are young. I don't feel at ease with older people...I can't get people older than forty to talk convincingly."  Rohmer preferred to use non-professional actors in his films. He usually held a large number of rehearsals before shooting and would shoot his films very quickly. He spent little time editing his films. He usually shot his films chronologically, and often shot scenes during the time of day in which they took place. He explained that "my films are based on meteorology. If I didn't call the weather service everyday, I couldn't make my films because they're shot according to the weather outside. My films are slaves to weather."  The director's characters engage in long conversations—mostly talking about man-woman relationships but also on mundane issues like trying to find a vacation spot. There are also occasional digressions by the characters on literature and philosophy as most of Rohmer's characters are middle class and university educated.  "A Summer's Tale" (1996) has most of the elements of a typical Rohmer film: no soundtrack music, no closeups, a seaside resort, long conversations between beautiful young people (who are middle class and educated) and discussions involving the characters' interests from songwriting to ethnology.  Rohmer said he wanted to look at "thoughts rather than actions", dealing "less with what people do than what is going on in their minds while they are doing it."  Beginning in the late 1970s during the production of "Perceval le Gallois" Rohmer began to reduce the number of crew members on his films. He first dispensed of the script supervisor, then (controversially) cut out the assistant director, then all other assistants and technical managers until, by the time he shot "The Green Ray" in 1986, his crew consisted only of a camera operator and a sound engineer. Rohmer stated that "I even wonder if I could work in the usual conditions of filmmaking."  His style was famously criticised by Gene Hackman's character in the 1975 film "Night Moves" who describes viewing Rohmer's films as "kind of like watching paint dry".  Rohmer was a highly literary man. His films frequently refer to ideas and themes in plays and novels, such as references to Jules Verne (in "The Green Ray"), William Shakespeare (in "A Winter's Tale") and Pascal's Wager (in "Ma nuit chez Maud").

Personal life and death.

René Schérer, a philosopher, is his brother and René Monzat, a journalist, is his son.  In 1957, Rohmer married Thérèse Barbet. The couple had two sons. Rohmer was a devout Catholic and "ecological zealot". For years Rohmer had no telephone and refused to even get into cars, which he called "immoral pollutors." For many years he was known to jog two miles to his office every morning. He was well known for his need for personal privacy and sometimes wore disguises, such as wearing a false moustache at the New York premiere of one of his films. Rohmer's mother died without ever knowing that her son Maurice was in fact a famous film director named Éric Rohmer. He stated that his favorite film director was Jean Renoir.  Rohmer died on the morning of 11 January 2010 at the age of 89. His cause of death is unknown. He had been admitted to hospital the previous week.  The former Culture Minister Jack Lang said he was "one of the masters of French cinema". Director Thierry Fremaux described his work as "unique".  Rohmer's grave is located in district 13 of Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris.  During the 2010 César Awards, actor Fabrice Luchini presented a special tribute to him: I’m gonna read a remarkable text written by Jacques Fieschi: "Writer, director; creator of “the cinematographe”, challenger of "Les cahiers du cinema", which recently published a special edition on Eric Rohmer. Truffaut once said he was one of the greatest directors of the 20th century, Godard was his brother, Chabrol admired him, Wenders couldn’t stop taking photos of him. Rohmer is a tremendous international star. The one and only French director who was in coherence with the money spent on his films and the money that his films made. I remember a phrase by Daniel Toscan Du Plantier the day “Les Visiteurs” opened, which eventually sold 15 million tickets: “Yes but there is this incredible film called "L'arbre, le maire et la médiathèque" that sold 100,000 tickets, which may sound ridiculous in comparison, but no, because but it was only playing in one theater for an entire year." A happy time for cinema when this kind of thing could happen. Rohmer." Here is a tribute from Jacques Fieschi: "We are all connected with the cinema, at least for a short time. The cinema has its economical laws, its artistic laws, a craft that once in a while rewards us or forgets us. Eric Rohmer seems to have escaped from this reality by inventing his own laws, his own rules of the game. One could say his own economy of the cinema that served his own purpose, which could skip the others, or to be more accurate that couldn’t skip the audience with its originality. He had a very unique point of view on the different levels of language and on desire that is at work in the heart of each and every human being, on youth, on seasons, on literature, of course, and one could say on history. Éric Rohmer, this sensual intellectual, with his silhouette of a teacher and a walker. As an outsider he made luminous and candid films in which he deliberately forgot his perfect knowledge of the cinema in a very direct link with the beauty of the world." The text was by Jacques Fieschi and it was a tribute to Eric Rohmer, Thank You.  On 8 February 2010, the Cinémathèque Française held a special tribute to Rohmer which included a screening of "Claire's Knee" and a short video tribute to Rohmer by Jean-Luc Godard.

Awards and nominations.

The Venice Film Festival awarded Éric Rohmer the Career Golden Lion in 2001.

Jean Marie Maurice Schérer or Maurice Henri Joseph Schérer, known as Éric Rohmer (, 21 March 192011 January 2010), was a French film director, film critic, journalist, novelist, screenwriter, and teacher.

埃里克·侯麦(,)是法国电影导演、影评人、记者、作家、编剧与老师。他是战后法国新浪潮指标人物,曾是杂志《电影手册》的编辑。


Early life.

Pop was born James Newell Osterberg Jr. in Muskegon, Michigan, on April 21, 1947, the son of Louella ("née" Christensen; 1917–1996) and James Newell Osterberg Sr. (1921–2007), a former high school English teacher and baseball coach at Fordson High School in

Music career.

Early days: 1960–1967.

Osterberg began his music career as a drummer in various high school bands in Ann Arbor, Michigan, including the Iguanas, who cut several records such as Bo Diddley's "Mona" in 1965. His later stage name, Iggy, is derived from the Iguanas. After exploring local blues-style bands such as the Prime Movers (with brothers Dan and Michael Erlewine), he eventually dropped out of the University of Michigan and moved

The Stooges era: 1968–1974.

The seeds of Pop's stage persona were sown when he saw The Doors perform in 1967 at the University of Michigan and was amazed by the stage antics and antagonism displayed by singer Jim Morrison. Morrison's extreme behavior, while performing in a popular band, inspired the young Pop to push the boundaries of stage performance. Other influences on Pop's vocals and persona were Mick Jagger and James Brown.  In addition to Jim Morrison and The Doors' influence on the band,

Bowie and Berlin: 1976–1978.

After the Stooges' second breakup, Pop made recordings with James Williamson, but these were not released until 1977 (as "Kill City", credited jointly to Pop and Williamson). Pop was unable to control his drug use and checked himself into a mental institution, the UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute, to try to clean up. Bowie was one of his few visitors there, and he continued to support his friend and collaborator. In 1976, Bowie took him along as his companion on the "Station to Station" tour. This was Pop's first exposure to large-scale professional touring and he was impressed, particularly with Bowie's work ethic. Following a March 21, 1976 show, Bowie and Pop were arrested together for marijuana possession in Rochester, New York, although charges

Arista albums: 1979–1981.

Pop had grown dissatisfied with RCA, later admitting that he had made "TV Eye Live" as a quick way of fulfilling his three-album RCA contract. He moved to Arista Records, under whose banner he released "New Values" in 1979. This album was something of a Stooges reunion, with James Williamson producing and latter-day Stooge Scott Thurston playing guitar and keyboards. Not surprisingly, the album's style harkened back to the guitar sound of the Stooges. "New Values" was not a commercial success in the U.S., but has since been highly regarded by critics.  The album was moderately successful in Australia and New Zealand, however, and this led to Pop's first visit there to promote it. While in Melbourne, he made a memorable appearance on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's nationwide show "Countdown". During his anarchic performance of "I'm Bored", Pop made no attempt to conceal the fact that he was lip-synching (shoving the microphone down his pants at one point), and he even tried to grab

1980s.

In 1980, Pop published his autobiography "I Need More", co-written with Anne Wehner, an Ann Arbor arts patron. The book, which includes a selection of black and white photographs, featured a foreword by Andy Warhol. Warhol wrote that he met Pop when he was Jim Osterberg, at the Ann Arbor Film Festival in 1966. "I don't know why he hasn't made it really big," Warhol wrote. "He is so good."  The 1982 album "Zombie Birdhouse" on Chris Stein's Animal label, with Stein himself producing, was no more commercially successful than his Arista works. In 1983, Pop's fortunes changed when David Bowie recorded a cover of the song "China Girl". The song had originally appeared on "The Idiot", and was a

1990s and early 2000s.

In 1990, Pop recorded "Brick by Brick", produced by Don Was, with members of Guns N' Roses and The B-52's as guests, as well as backup vocals by many local Hollywood groups, two of whom (Whitey Kirst and Craig Pike) would create his band to tour and perform on his "Kiss My Blood" video (1991), directed by Tim Pope and filmed at the Olympia in Paris. The video attracted much controversy, as it featured much footage of Pop performing with his penis exposed to the audience. The album featured his first Top 40 U.S. hit, "Candy", a duet with B-52's singer Kate Pierson.  Also in 1990, Pop sang the role of "The Prosecutor" for the POINT Music/Philips Classics recording (released in 1992) of composer John Moran's multimedia

The Stooges reunion: 2003–2010.

Pop's 2003 album "Skull Ring" featured collaborators Sum 41, Green Day, Peaches, and The Trolls, as well as Ron and Scott Asheton, reuniting the three surviving founding members of the Stooges for the first time since 1974. Pop made a guest appearance on Peaches's song "Kick It" as well as the video. Also in 2003, his first full-length biography was published. "Gimme Danger – The Story of Iggy Pop" was written by Joe Ambrose; Pop did not collaborate on the biography or publicly endorse it. Having enjoyed working with the Ashetons on "Skull Ring", Pop reformed the Stooges with bassist Mike Watt (formerly of the Minutemen) filling in for the late Dave Alexander, and "Fun House" saxophonist Steve Mackay rejoining the lineup. They have toured regularly since 2004. That year, Pop opened Madonna's "Reinvention" World Tour in Dublin.  Pop and the Stooges played the Glastonbury Festival in June 2007. Their set included material from the 2007 album "The Weirdness" and classics such as "No Fun and "I

2000s.

In 2005, Pop appeared, along with Madonna, Little Richard, Bootsy Collins, and The Roots' Questlove, in an American TV commercial for the Motorola ROKR phone. In early 2006, Pop and the Stooges played in Australia and New Zealand for the Big Day Out. They also began work on a new album, "The Weirdness", which was recorded by Steve Albini and released in March 2007. In August 2006 Pop and the Stooges performed at the Lowlands pop festival in the Netherlands, Hodokvas in Slovakia and in the Sziget Festival in Budapest.  Author Paul Trynka completed a biography of Pop (with his blessing) called "Open Up and Bleed", published in early 2007. More recently, Pop and the Stooges played at Bam Margera's wedding and Pop appeared on the single "Punkrocker" with the Teddybears in a Cadillac television commercial. Pop was also the voice of Lil' Rummy on the Comedy Central cartoon "Lil' Bush" and confirmed that he has done voices for "American Dad!" and "Grand Theft Auto IV", which also included the Stooges song "I Wanna Be Your Dog" (though the game's manual credited Iggy Pop as the artist).  Pop guested on "Profanation", the new

2010s.

Pop also sings on "We're All Gonna Die" on Slash's first solo album "Slash", which was released in April 2010. He appeared as a character in the video game "Lego Rock Band" to sing his song "The Passenger" and also lent his voice for the in game tutorial. With reference to the song "The Passenger", Pop has appeared on NZ television advertising phone networks to show how he can get a band to play together by conference call.  After a March 2010 stage diving accident, Pop claimed he would no longer stage dive. However, he did so on three occasions at a concert in Madrid, Spain on April 30, 2010. And it was much the

2020s.

In January 2020, Pop received a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.  On April 10, 2020, Pop released an alternate mix of his hit song "China Girl" as part of the forthcoming release on May 29 of "The Bowie Years", a new seven-disc deluxe box set due

Film, television and radio career.

As an actor Pop has appeared in a number of movies, including "Sid and Nancy" (a non-speaking cameo role), "The Color of Money", "Hardware" (voice only), "", "The Rugrats Movie", "Snow Day", "Coffee and Cigarettes" (opposite Tom Waits, in the third segment of the film, ""), "Cry-Baby", "Dead Man", "Tank Girl" and "Atolladero", a Spanish science fiction Western. He was wanted to play Funboy in the original "The Crow" movie, but his recording schedule would not permit him. In February 2009, he played the character Victor in the movie "Suck". Pop was featured alongside indie starlet Greta Gerwig in the film "Art House", which premiered at the Nashville Film Festival in April 2010.  Pop has been featured in multiple television series, including "Tales from the Crypt", "The Adventures of Pete & Pete", where he played Nona's dad in the second and third season, and "", in which he played Yelgrun in the episode "The Magnificent Ferengi". With the Stooges, he was featured in an episode of MTV's "Bam's Unholy Union" as the main band performing at Bam Margera's wedding. Additionally, a portion of the music video for Pop's "Butt Town" was featured on an episode of "Beavis and Butthead". Pop voiced Lil' Rummy on the Comedy Central show "Lil' Bush", and also provided the voice for a character in the English-language version of the 2007 animated film "Persepolis".  Pop has been profiled in several rockumentaries and has had songs on many soundtracks, including "Crocodile Dundee II"; "Trainspotting"; "Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels"; ""; "Arizona Dream"; "Repo Man"; "Black Rain"; ""; "Shocker"; and "".  Pop worked with Johnny Depp on several films: they appeared together in "Cry-Baby" and "Dead Man". Pop provided the soundtrack for "The Brave", which was directed by and starred Depp, and music for Depp's 1993 film "Arizona Dream".  Pop also voiced a cameo in the

Biopic.

"The Passenger" was the putative name for a biographical film about Pop's early career with the Stooges. The film was to be directed by Nick Gomez and

Classical scholarship.

In 1995, an established journal of classical scholarship, "Classics Ireland", published Pop's reflections on the applicability of Edward Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman

Personal life.

Pop lives near Miami, Florida. He has been married three times: to Wendy Weissberg (for several weeks in 1968 before the marriage was annulled shortly thereafter), to Suchi Asano (from 1984 until their divorce in 1999), and to his longtime

Discography.

Studio albums.

with the Stooges

Honours.

In 2017, shortly after his 70th birthday, Pop was made a Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Consul general in Miami on behalf of the French government.  A photo of Pop on stage with fans at the Sydney Opera House in 2019 won the Culture Category of the Sony World Photography Awards.

James Newell Osterberg Jr. (born April 21, 1947), better known as Iggy Pop, is an American singer, songwriter, musician, record producer, and actor. Designated the "Godfather of Punk", he was the vocalist and lyricist of influential proto-punk band the Stooges, who were formed in 1967 and have disbanded and reunited multiple times since.

伊基·波普(Iggy Pop,1947年-4月21日),本名小詹姆斯·纽威尔·奥斯特伯格(James Newell Osterberg, Jr.),美国歌手、音乐家,有时会参与戏剧演出,伊吉·帕普在庞克摇滚等音乐类型中被认为是个具影响力的创新者。


佛罗伦萨圣若翰洗者洗礼堂

History.

Early history.

It was long believed that the Baptistery was originally a Roman temple dedicated to Mars, the tutelary god of the old Florence. The chronicler Giovanni Villani reported this medieval Florentine legend in his fourteenth-century "Nuova Cronica" on the history of Florence. However, twentieth-century excavations have shown that there was a first-century Roman wall running through the piazza with the Baptistery, which may have been built on the remains of a Roman guard tower on the corner of this wall, or possibly another Roman building. It is, however, certain that a first octagonal baptistery was erected here in the late fourth or early fifth century. It was replaced or altered by another early Christian baptistery in the sixth century. Its construction is attributed to Theodolinda, queen of the Lombards (570-628) to seal the conversion of her husband, King Authari.

Octagonal design.

The octagon had been a common shape for baptisteries for many centuries since early Christian times. Other early examples are the Lateran Baptistery (440) that provided a model for others throughout Italy, the Church of the Saints Sergius and Bacchus (527-536) in Constantinople and the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna (548). The earlier baptistery was the city's second basilica after San Lorenzo, outside the northern city wall, and predates the church Santa Reparata. It was first recorded as such on 4 March 897, when the Count Palatine and envoy of the Holy Roman Emperor sat there to administer justice. The granite pilasters were probably taken from the Roman forum sited at the location of the present "Piazza della Repubblica". At that time, the baptistery was surrounded by a cemetery with Roman sarcophagi, used by important Florentine families as tombs (now in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo).

Construction.

The present much bigger Baptistery was built in Romanesque style around 1059, evidence of the growing economic and political importance of Florence. It was reconsecrated on 6 November 1059 by Pope Nicholas II, a Florentine. According to legend, the marbles were brought from Fiesole, conquered by Florence in 1078. Other marble came from ancient structures. The construction was finished in 1128.  An octagonal lantern was added to the pavilion roof around 1150. It was enlarged with a rectangular entrance porch in 1202, leading into the original western entrance of the building, that became an apse, after the opening of the eastern door, facing the western door by Lorenzo Ghiberti of the cathedral in the 15th century. On the corners, under the roof, are monstrous lion heads with a human head under their claws. They are early representations of Marzocco, the heraldic Florentine lion (the symbol of Mars, the god of war, the original male protector of Florentia, protecting a lily or iris, the symbol of the original female patron of the town (Flora, the fertile agricultural earth goddess).  Between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, three bronze double doors were added, with bronze and marble statues above them. This gives an indication that the Baptistery, at that time, was at least equal to the neighbouring cathedral in importance.

Exterior.

Design.

The Baptistery has eight equal sides with a rectangular addition on the west side. The sides, originally constructed in sandstone, are clad in geometrically patterned colored marble, white Carrara marble with green Prato marble inlay, reworked in Romanesque style between 1059 and 1128. The pilasters on each corner, originally in grey stone, were decorated with white and dark green marble in a zebra-like pattern by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1293. The style of this church would serve as a prototype, influencing many architects, such as Leone Battista Alberti, in their design of Renaissance churches in Tuscany.  The exterior is also ornamented with a number of artistically significant statues by Andrea Sansovino (above the "Gates of Paradise"), Giovan Francesco Rustici, Vincenzo Danti (above the south doors) and others.  The design work on the sides is arranged in groupings of three, starting with three distinct horizontal sections. The middle section features three blind arches on each side, each arch containing a window. These have alternate pointed and semicircular tympani. Below each window is a stylized arch design. In the upper fascia, there are also three small windows, each one in the center block of a three-panel design.  The apse was originally semicircular, but it was made rectangular in 1202.

Baptistery doors.

Andrea Pisano.

As recommended by Giotto, Andrea Pisano was awarded the commission to design the first set of doors in 1329. The south doors were originally installed on the east side, facing the Duomo, and were transferred to their present location in 1452. The bronze-casting and gilding was done by the Venetian Leonardo d'Avanzo, widely recognized as one of the best bronze smiths in Europe. This took six years, the doors being completed in 1336. These proto-Renaissance doors consist of 28 quatrefoil panels, with the twenty top panels depicting scenes from the life of St. John the Baptist. The eight lower panels depict the eight virtues of hope, faith, charity, humility, fortitude, temperance, justice and prudence. The moulded reliefs in the doorcase were added by Lorenzo Ghiberti in 1452. There is a Latin inscription on top of the door: "Andreas Ugolini Nini de Pisis me fecit A.D. MCCCXXX" (Andrea Pisano made me in 1330).  The group of bronze statues above the gate depict "The Beheading of St John the Baptist". It is the masterwork of Vincenzo Danti from 1571.

Lorenzo Ghiberti.

In 1401, a competition was announced by the "Arte di Calimala" (Cloth Importers Guild) to design doors which would eventually be placed on the north side of the baptistery. (The original location for these doors was the east side of the baptistery, but the doors were moved to the north side of the baptistery after Ghiberti completed his second commission, known as the "Gates of Paradise".)  These north doors would serve as a votive offering to celebrate the sparing of Florence from relatively recent scourges such as the Black Death in 1348. Many artists competed for this commission and a jury selected seven semi-finalists. These finalists include Lorenzo Ghiberti, Filippo Brunelleschi, Donatello and Jacopo della Quercia, with 21-year-old Ghiberti winning the commission. At the time of judging, only Ghiberti and Brunelleschi were finalists, and when the judges could not decide, they were assigned to work together on them. Brunelleschi's pride got in the way, and he went to Rome to study architecture leaving Ghiberti to work on the doors himself. Ghiberti's autobiography, however, claimed that he had won, "without a single dissenting voice." The original designs of "The Sacrifice of Isaac" by Ghiberti and Brunelleschi are on display in the museum of the Bargello.  It took Ghiberti 21 years to complete these doors. These gilded bronze doors consist of twenty-eight panels, with twenty panels depicting the life of Christ from the New Testament. The eight lower panels show the four evangelists and the Church Fathers Saint Ambrose, Saint Jerome, Saint Gregory and Saint Augustine. The panels are surrounded by a framework of foliage in the door case and gilded busts of prophets and sibyls at the intersections of the panels. Originally installed on the east side, in place of Pisano's doors, they were later moved to the north side. They are described by the art historian Antonio Paolucci as "the most important event in the history of Florentine art in the first quarter of the 15th century".  The bronze statues over the northern gate depict "John the Baptist preaching to a Pharisee and Sadducee". They were sculpted by Francesco Rustici and are superior to any sculpture he did before. Leonardo da Vinci is said to have given him technical advice; the pose of John the Baptist resembles that of Leonardo's depiction of the prophet.  Ghiberti was now widely recognized as a celebrity and the top artist in this field. He was showered with commissions, even from the pope. In 1425 he got a second commission, this time for the east doors of the baptistery, on which he and his workshop (including Michelozzo and Benozzo Gozzoli) toiled for 27 years, excelling themselves. These had ten panels depicting scenes from the Old Testament, and were in turn installed on the east side. The panels are large rectangles and are no longer embedded in the traditional Gothic quatrefoil, as in the previous doors. Ghiberti employed the recently discovered principles of perspective to give depth to his compositions. Each panel depicts more than one episode. In "The Story of Joseph" is portrayed the narrative scheme of "Joseph Cast by His Brethren into the Well", "Joseph Sold to the Merchants", "The merchants delivering Joseph to the pharaoh", "Joseph Interpreting the Pharaoh's dream", "The Pharaoh Paying him Honour", "Jacob Sends His Sons to Egypt" and "Joseph Recognizes His Brothers and Returns Home". According to Vasari's "Lives", this panel was the most difficult and also the most beautiful. The figures are distributed in very low relief in a perspective space (a technique invented by Donatello and called "rilievo schiacciato", which literally means "flattened relief".) Ghiberti uses different sculptural techniques, from incised lines to almost free-standing figure sculpture, within the panels, further accentuating the sense of space.  The panels are included in a richly decorated gilt framework of foliage and fruit, many statuettes of prophets and 24 busts. The two central busts are portraits of the artist and of his father, Bartolomeo Ghiberti.  Although the overall quality of the casting is exquisite, some mistakes have been made. For example, in panel 15 of the north doors ("Flagellation") the casting of the second column in the front row has been mistakenly overlaid over an arm, so that one of the flagellators looks trapped in stone, with his hand sticking out of it.  Michelangelo referred to these doors as fit to be the "Gates of Paradise" (), and they are still invariably referred to by this name. Giorgio Vasari described them a century later as "undeniably perfect in every way and must rank as the finest masterpiece ever created". Ghiberti himself said they were "the most singular work that I have ever made".

Preservation of original art.

The "Gates of Paradise" situated in the Baptistery are a copy of the originals, substituted in 1990 to preserve the panels after over five hundred years of exposure and damage. To protect the original panels for the future, the panels are being restored and kept in a dry environment in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, the museum of the Duomo's art and sculpture. Some of the original panels are on view in the museum; the remaining original panels are being restored and cleaned using lasers in lieu of potentially damaging chemical baths. Three original panels made a US tour in 2007-2008, and then were reunited in a frame and hermetically sealed with the intention of making the panels appear in the context of the doors for public viewing. One of the few copies made in the 1940s is installed in Grace Cathedral, in San Francisco; copies of the doors are also crafted for the Kazan Cathedral in Saint Petersburg, Russia and in 2017 for the Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City, Missouri.

Other contributors.

The two porphyry columns on each side of the "Gates of Paradise" were plundered by the Pisans in Majorca and given in gratitude to the Florentines in 1114 for protecting their city against Lucca while the Pisan fleet was conquering the island.  The "Gates of Paradise" are surmounted by a (copy of a) group of statues portraying the "Baptism of Christ" by Andrea Sansovino. The originals are in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo. He then left to Rome to work on a new commission, leaving these statues unfinished. Work on these statues was continued much later in 1569 by Vincenzo Danti, a sculptor from the school of Michelangelo. At his death in 1576 the group was almost finished. The group was finally completed with the addition of an angel by Innocenzo Spinazzi in 1792.

Images from the doors.

Reproduction examples in situ  A copy of the "Gates of Paradise" in The Harris Museum, Preston, UK

Interior.

The interior, which is rather dark, is divided into a lower part with columns and pilasters and an upper part with a walkway. The Florentines didn't spare any trouble or expense in decorating the baptistery. The interior walls are clad in dark green and white marble with inlaid geometrical patterns. The niches are separated by monolithic columns of Sardinian granite. The marble revetment of the interior was begun in the second half of the eleventh century.  The building contains the monumental tomb of Antipope John XXIII by Donatello and Michelozzo Michelozzi. A gilt statue, with the face turned to the spectator, reposes on a deathbed, supported by two lions, under a canopy of gilt drapery. He had bequeathed several relics and his great wealth to this baptistery. Such a monument with a baldachin was a first in the Renaissance.  The mosaic marble pavement was begun in 1209. The geometric patterns in the floor are complex. Some show us oriental zodiac motifs, such as the slab of the astrologer Strozzo Strozzi. There was an octagonal font, its base still clearly visible in the middle of the floor. This font, which once stood in the church of Santa Reparata, was installed here in 1128. Dante is said to have broken one of the lower basins while rescuing a child from drowning. The font was removed in 1571 on orders from the grand duke Francesco I de' Medici. The present, and much smaller, octagonal font stands near the south entrance. It was installed in 1658 but is probably much older. The reliefs are attributed to Andrea Pisano or his school.

Mosaic ceiling.

The Baptistery is crowned by a magnificent mosaic ceiling. It was created over the course of a century in several different phases. The oldest parts are the upper zone of the dome with the hierarchy of angels (2,3), the Last Judgment on the three western segments of the dome (1) and the mosaic above the rectangular chapel on the western side. An inscription in the mosaic above the western rectangular chapel states the date of the beginning of the work and the name of the artist. According to this inscription, work on the mosaic began in 1225 by the Franciscan friar Jacobus. The artist was previously falsely identified to be the Roman mosaicist Jacopo Torriti, who was active around 1300. In accordance with his style, Jacobus was trained in Venice and strongly influenced by the Byzantine art of the early to mid-thirteenth century. Since the inscription also names Emperor Frederick II, the inscription and the completion of the first phase of mosaics must fall within the Ghibelline phase of Florentine rule between 1238 and 1250.  "The Last Judgment", created by Jacobus and his workshop, was the largest and most important spiritual image created in the Baptistery. It shows a gigantic majestic Christ and angels with the instruments of the passion at each side (formerly attributed to the painter Coppo di Marcovaldo), the rewards of the saved leaving their tomb in joy (at Christ's right hand), and the punishments of the damned (at Christ's left hand). This last part is particularly famous: evil doers are burnt by fire, roasted on spits, crushed with stones, bitten by snakes, gnawed and chewed by hideous beasts.  The other scenes on the lower zones of the five eastern sections of the dome depict different stories in horizontal tiers of mosaic : (starting at the top) stories from the Book of Genesis; stories of Joseph; stories of Mary and the Christ and finally in the lower tier : stories of Saint John the Baptist, patron saint of the church. A total of sixty pictures originated in the last decade of the thirteenth century. The key artists employed were Corso di Buono and Cimabue. It is the most important narrative cycle of Florentine art before Giotto.  In the drum under the dome many heads of prophets are depicted. Some chapels of the gallery are also decorated with mosaic. These parts were executed around 1330 by mosaicists from Siena.  <br

The Florence Baptistery, also known as the Baptistery of Saint John (), is a religious building in Florence, Italy, and has the status of a minor basilica. The octagonal baptistery stands in both the Piazza del Duomo and the Piazza San Giovanni, across from Florence Cathedral and the Campanile di Giotto.

佛罗伦萨圣若望洗礼堂()是意大利佛罗伦萨主教座堂广场的一座天主教宗教建筑,列入乙级宗座圣殿。圣若望洗礼堂是圣母百花圣殿所辖的洗礼用教堂,位于圣殿正西,与后者的西侧主入口相对。


Geography.

Bayonne is located in the south-west of France on the western border between Basque Country and Gascony. It developed at the confluence of the Adour and tributary on the left bank, the Nive, 6 km from the Atlantic coast. The commune was part of the Basque province of Labourd.

Geology and relief.

Bayonne occupies a territory characterized by a flat relief to the west and to the north towards the Landes forest, tending to slightly raise towards the south and east. The city has developed at the confluence of the Adour and Nive from the ocean. The meeting point of the two rivers coincides with a narrowing of the Adour valley. Above this the alluvial plain extends for nearly towards both Tercis-les-Bains and Peyrehorade, and is characterized by swampy meadows called "barthes." These were are influenced by floods and high tides. Downstream from this point, the river has shaped a large, wide bed in the sand dunes, creating a significant bottleneck at the confluence.  The occupation of the hill that dominates this narrowing of the valley developed through a gradual spread across the lowlands. Occupants built embankments and the aggradation from flood soil.  The Nive has played a leading role in the development of the Bayonne river system in recent geological time by the formation of alluvial terraces; these form the sub-soil of Bayonne beneath the surface accumulations of silt and aeolian sands. The drainage network of the western Pre-Pyrenees

Hydrography.

The city developed along the Adour. The river is part of the Natura 2000 network from its source at Bagnères-de-Bigorre to its exit to the Atlantic Ocean after Bayonne, between Tarnos (Landes) for the right bank and Anglet (Pyrénées-Atlantiques) for

Climate.

The nearest weather station is that of Biarritz-Anglet.  The climate of Bayonne is relatively similar to that of its neighbour Biarritz, described below, with fairly heavy rainfall; the oceanic climate is due to the proximity of the Atlantic

Communication and transport.

Road communications.

Bayonne is located at the intersection of the A63 autoroute (Bordeaux-Spain) and the D1 extension of the A64 autoroute (towards Toulouse). The city is served by three interchanges—two of them on the A63: exit (Bayonne Nord) serves the northern districts of Bayonne but also allows quick access to the centre while exit (Bayonne

Bridges.

There are several bridges over both the Nive and the Adour linking the various districts.  Coming from upstream on the Adour there is the A63 bridge, then the Saint-Frédéric bridge which carries the D 810, then the railway bridge that replaced the old Eiffel iron bridge, the Saint-Esprit bridge, and finally the Grenet bridge. The Saint-Esprit bridge connects the Saint-Esprit district to the Amiral-Bergeret dock just upstream of the confluence with the river Nive. In 1845 the old bridge, originally made of wood, was rebuilt in masonry with seven arches supporting a deck wide. It was then called the Nemours Bridge in honour of Louis

Cycling network.

The commune is traversed by the "Vélodyssée". Bicycle paths are located along the left bank of the Adour, a

Public transport.

Urban network.

Most of the lines of the "Chronoplus" bus network operated by the "Transdev agglomeration of Bayonne" link Bayonne to other communes in the urban

Interurban networks.

Bayonne is connected to many cities in the western half of the department such as Saint-Jean-de-Luz and Saint-Palais by the Pyrenees-Atlantiques long-distance coach

Rail transport.

The Gare de Bayonne is located in the Saint-Esprit district and is an important station on the Bordeaux-Irun railway. It is also

Air transport.

Bayonne is served by the Biarritz – Anglet – Bayonne Airport (IATA code: BIQ • ICAO code: LFBZ), located on the communal territories of Anglet and Biarritz. The airport was returned to service in 1954 after repair of damage from bombing during the Second World War.  Airport management is carried out by the joint association for the development and operation of the airport of Biarritz-Anglet-Bayonne, which includes the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Bayonne Basque Country, the agglomeration of Côte Basque-Adour, the departments of Pyrénées-Atlantiques and Landes, and the commune of Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The airport of Biarritz-Anglet-Bayonne had nearly 1.1 million passengers in 2013. It has regular connections to Paris-Orly, Paris-CDG, Lyon, Nice, Geneva, and London Stansted and from March to October 2014 had connections with: Marseille, Strasbourg, Lille, Brussels South Charleroi Airport, Dublin, Stockholm-Skavsta, Stockholm-Arlanda, London-Gatwick, Copenhagen, Oslo, and Helsinki. Airline companies serving the airport at 1 November 2014 were: Air France, Etihad Regional, EasyJet, Finnair, Hop!, Ryanair, SAS, Twin Jet, and Volotea.

Toponymy.

Etymology.

While the modern Basque spelling is "Baiona" and the same in Gascon Occitan, "the name "Bayonne" poses a number of problems both historical and linguistic which have still not been clarified". There are different interpretations of its meaning.  The termination "-onne" in "Bayonne" can come from many in hydronyms "-onne" or toponyms derived from that. In certain cases the element "-onne" follows an Indo-European theme: "*ud-r/n" (Greek "húdōr" giving hydro, Gothic "watt" meaning "water") hence "*udnā" meaning "water" giving "unna" then "onno" in the glossary of Vienne. "Unna" therefore would refer to the Adour. This toponymic type evoking a river traversing a locality is common. The appellative "unna" seems to be found in the name of the Garonne ("Garunna" 1st century; "Garonna" 4th century). However it is possible

Old attestations.

The names of the Basque province of Labourd and the locality of Bayonne have been attested from an early period with the place name "Bayonne" appearing in the Latin form "Lapurdum" after a period during which the two names could in turn designate a Viscounty or Bishopric.  "Labourd" and "Bayonne" were synonymous

History.

Prehistory.

In the absence of accurate objective data there is some credence to the probable existence of a fishing village on the site in a period prior to ancient times. Numerous traces of human occupation have been found in the Bayonne region from the Middle Paleolithic especially in the discoveries at Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, a neighbouring locality. On the other hand, the presence of a mound about high has been detected in the current Cathedral Quarter overlooking the Nive which formed a natural

Ancient times.

The oldest documented human occupation site is located on a hill overlooking the Nive and its confluence with the Adour.  In the 1st century AD, during the Roman occupation, Bayonne already seems to have been of some importance since the Romans surrounded the city with a wall to keep out the Tarbelli, Aquitani, or the proto-Basque who then occupied a territory that extended south of modern-day Landes, to the modern French Basque country, the Chalosse, the valleys of the Adour, the mountain streams of Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, and to the Gave d'Oloron.  The archaeological discoveries of October and November 1995 provided a shred of evidence to support this projection. In the four layers of sub-soil along the foundation of the Gothic cathedral

Middle Ages.

The geographical location of the locality at the crossroads of a river system oriented from east to west and the road network connecting Europe to the Iberian Peninsula from north to south predisposed the site to the double role of fortress and port. The city, after being Roman, alternated between the Vascones and the English for three centuries from the 12th to the 15th century.  The Romans left the city in the 4th century and the Basques, who had always been present, dominated

Renaissance and modern times.

Jean de Dunois – a former companion at arms of Joan of Arc—captured the city on 20 August 1451 and annexed it to the Crown "without making too many victims", but at the cost of a war indemnity of 40,000 gold Écus payable in a year,—thanks to the opportunism of the bishop who claimed to have seen "a large white cross surmounted by a crown which turns into a fleur-de-lis in the sky" to dissuade Bayonne from fighting against the royal troops.  The city continued to be fortified by the kings of France to protect it from danger from the Spanish border. In 1454 Charles VII created a separate judicial district: the "Seneschal of Lannes" a "single subdivision of Guyenne during the English period" which had jurisdiction over a wide area including Bayonne, Dax and Saint-Sever and which exercised

French Revolution and Empire.

Activity in Bayonne peaked in the 18th century. The Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1726. Trade with Spain, the Netherlands, the Antilles, the cod fishery off the shores of Newfoundland, and construction sites maintained a high level of activity in the port.  In 1792 the district of Saint-Esprit (that revolutionaries renamed "Port-de-la-Montagne") located on the right bank of the Adour, was separated from the city and renamed "Jean-Jacques Rousseau". It was reunited with Bayonne on 1 June 1857. For 65 years the autonomous commune was part of the department of Landes.  In 1808 at the Château of Marracq the act of abdication of the Spanish king Charles IV in favour of Napoleon was signed under

Contemporary period.

In 1854 the railway arrived from Paris bringing many tourists eager to enjoy the beaches of Biarritz. Bayonne turned instead to the steel industry with the forges of the Adour. The Port took on an industrial look but its slow decline seemed inexorable in the 19th century. The discovery of the Lacq gas field restored a certain dynamism.  The Treaty of Bayonne was concluded on 2 December 1856. It overcame the disputes in fixing the Franco-Spanish border in the area extending from the mouth of the Bidassoa to the border between Navarre and Aragon.  The city built three light railway lines to connect to Biarritz at the beginning of the 20th century.

The World Wars.

The 249th Infantry Regiment, created from the 49th Infantry Regiment, was engaged in operations in the First World War, including action at Chemin des Dames, especially on the plateau of Craonne. 700 Bayonnaises perished in the conflict. A centre for engagement of foreign volunteers was established in August 1914 in Bayonne. Many nationalities were represented, particularly the Spanish, the Portuguese, the Czechs, and the Poles  During the Second World War Bayonne was occupied by the 3rd SS Panzer Division Totenkopf from

Policy and administration.

List of mayors under the Ancien Régime.

The Gramont family provided captains and governors in Bayonne from 1472 to 1789 as well as mayors, a post which became hereditary from

Modern times.

List of Successive Mayors

Cantons of Bayonne.

As per the Decree of 22 December 1789 Bayonne was part of two cantons: Bayonne-North-east, which includes part of Bayonne commune plus Boucau, Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, Lahonce, Mouguerre, and Urcuit; and Bayonne Northwest which consisted of the rest of Bayonne commune plus Anglet, Arcangues, and Bassussarry.  In a first revision of cantons in 1973 three cantons were created from the same total; geographic

Judicial and administrative proceedings.

Bayonne is the seat of many courts for the region. It falls under the jurisdiction of the "Tribunal d'instance" (District court) of Bayonne, the "Tribunal de grande instance" (High Court) of Bayonne, the "Cour d'appel" (Court of Appeal) of Pau, the "Tribunal pour enfants"

Intercommunality.

The commune is part of twelve inter-communal structures of which eleven are based in the commune:  The city of Bayonne is part of the "Agglomeration Côte Basque-Adour" which also includes Anglet, Biarritz, Bidart and Boucau. The statutory powers of the structure

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Bayonne has

Demography.

In 2012 the commune had 45,855 inhabitants. The evolution of the number of inhabitants is known from the population censuses conducted in the commune since 1793. From the 21st century, a census of communes with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held every five years, unlike larger communes that have a sample survey every year.

Education.

Bayonne commune is attached to the Academy of Bordeaux. It has an information and guidance center (CIO).  On 14 December 2015 Bayonne had 10 kindergartens, 22 elementary or primary schools (12 public and 10 private primary schools including two ikastolas). 2 public colleges (Albert Camus and Marracq colleges), 5 private colleges (La Salle Saint-Bernard, Saint Joseph, Saint-Amand, Notre-Dame

Cultural festivities and events.

For 550 years every holy Thursday, Friday and Saturday the "Foire au Jambon" (Ham festival) is held to mark the beginning of the season.  An annual summer festival has been held in the commune since 1932 for five days organized around parades, bulls races, fireworks, and music in the Basque and Gascon tradition. These festivals have become the most important

Health.

Bayonne is the focus of much of the hospital services for the agglomeration of Bayonne and the southern Landes. In this area all inhabitants are less

Worship.

Christian worship.

Bayonne is in the Diocese of Bayonne, Lescar and Oloron, with a Suffragan bishop since 2002 under the Archdiocese of Bordeaux. Monseigneur Marc Aillet has been the bishop of this diocese since 15 October 2008. The diocese is located in Bayonne in the Place Monseigneur-Vansteenberghe.  Besides Bayonne Cathedral in Grand Bayonne, Bayonne has Saint-Esprit, Saint Andrew (Rue des Lisses), Arènes (Avenue of the Czech Legion), Saint-Étienne, and Saint-Amand (Avenue Marechal Soult) churches.  The "Carmel of Bayonne", located in the Marracq district, has had a community of Carmelite nuns since

Jewish worship.

The synagogue was built in 1837 in the Saint-Esprit district north of the town. The Jewish community of Bayonne is old—it consists of different groups

Muslim worship.

The mosque is located in Rue Joseph-Latxague. It is the seat of the cultural association of Muslims in the Basque Coast.

Economy.

Population and income tax.

In 2011, the median household income tax was €22,605, placing Bayonne 28,406th place among

Jobs.

In 2011 the population aged from 15 to 64 years was 29,007 persons of which 70.8% were employable, 60.3% in employment and 10.5% unemployed. While there were 30,012 jobs

Businesses and shops.

Bayonne is the economic capital of the agglomeration of Bayonne and southern Landes. The table below details the number of companies located in Bayonne according to

Workshops and Industry.

Bayonne has few such industries, as indicated in the previous tables. There is "Plastitube" specializing in plastic packaging (190 employees). The Izarra liqueur company set up a distillery in 1912 at Quai Amiral-Bergeret and has long symbolized the economic wealth of Bayonne. Industrial activities are concentrated in the neighbouring communes of Boucau, Tarnos (Turbomeca), Mouguerre, and Anglet.  Bayonne is known for its fine chocolates, produced in the town for 500

Service activities.

The active tertiary sector includes some large retail chains such as those detailed by geographer Roger Brunet: BUT (240 staff), Carrefour (150 staff), E.Leclerc (150 staff), Leroy Merlin (130 staff), and Galeries

The port of Bayonne.

The port of Bayonne is located at the mouth of the Adour, downstream of the city. It also occupies part of communes of Anglet and Boucau in Pyrenees-Atlantiques and Tarnos in Landes. It benefits greatly from the natural gas field of Lacq to which it is connected by pipeline. This is the 9th largest French port for trade with an annual traffic of about 4.2 million tonnes of which 2.8 is export.

Tourism services.

Due to its proximity to the ocean and the foothills of the Pyrenees as well as its historic heritage, Bayonne has developed important activities related to tourism.  On 31 December 2012 there

Sights.

The Nive divides Bayonne into Grand Bayonne and Petit Bayonne with five bridges between the two, both quarters still being backed by Vauban's walls. The houses lining the Nive are examples of Basque architecture, with half-timbering and shutters in the national colours of red and green. The much wider Adour is to the north. The Pont Saint-Esprit connects Petit Bayonne with the Quartier Saint-Esprit across the Adour, where the massive Citadelle and the railway station are located. Grand Bayonne is the commercial and civic hub, with small pedestrianised streets packed with shops, plus the cathedral and Hôtel de Ville.  The Cathédrale Sainte-Marie is an imposing, elegant Gothic building, rising over the houses, glimpsed along the narrow streets. It was constructed in the 12th and 13th centuries. The south tower was completed in the 16th century but the cathedral was only completed in the 19th century with the north tower. The cathedral is noted for its charming cloisters. There are other details and sculptures of note, although much was destroyed in the Revolution.  Nearby is the Château Vieux, some of which dates back to the 12th century, where the governors of the city were based, including the English Black Prince. The Musée Basque is the finest ethnographic museum of the entire Basque Country. It opened in 1922 but has been closed for a decade recently for refurbishment. It now has special exhibitions on Basque agriculture, seafaring and "pelota", handicrafts and Basque history and way of life.  The Musée Bonnat began with a large collection bequeathed by the local-born painter Léon Bonnat. The museum is one of the best galleries in south west France and has paintings by Edgar Degas, El Greco, Sandro Botticelli, and Francisco Goya, among others.  At the back of Petit Bayonne is the Château Neuf, among the ramparts. Now an exhibition space, it was started by the newly arrived French in 1460 to control the city. The walls nearby have been opened to visitors. They are important for plant life now and Bayonne's botanic gardens adjoin the walls on both sides of the Nive.  The area across the Adour is largely residential and industrial, with much demolished to make way for the railway. The Saint-Esprit church was part of a bigger complex built by Louis XI to care for pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela. It is home to a wooden "Flight into Egypt" sculpture.  Overlooking the quarter is Vauban's 1680 Citadelle. The soldiers of Wellington's army who died besieging the citadelle in 1813 are buried in the nearby English Cemetery, visited by Queen Victoria and other British dignitaries when staying in Biarritz.  The distillery of the famous local liqueur Izarra is located on the northern bank of the Adour and is open to visitors.

Bayonne (; Gascon: "Baiona" ; ; ; ) is a city and commune and one of the two sub-prefectures of the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region of southwestern France. It is located at the confluence of the Nive and Adour rivers in the northern part of the cultural region of the Basque Country. This is also the southern part of Gascony, where the Aquitaine basin joins the beginning of the Pre-Pyrenees.


History.

Rostov was preceded by Sarskoye Gorodishche, which some scholars interpret as the capital of the Finnic Merya tribe. Others believe it was an important Viking trade enclave and fortress guarding the Volga trade route. Scythians also settled there. These different ethnicities, such as the Vikings, Scyths, Slavs and Finns, were likely the ancestors of many of today's people in that region. First mentioned in documents in the year 862 as an already important settlement, by the 10th century Rostov became the capital city of Vladimir-Suzdal, one of the most prominent Russian principalities]]. It was incorporated into Muscovy in 1474.  After losing its independent status, Rostov was still an ecclesiastic center (from 988 it was the see of the Diocese of Yaroslavl, one of the first Russian bishoprics. In the 14th century, the bishops of Rostov became archbishops, and late in the 16th century, metropolitans. One of those metropolitans, Iona (Jonah) Sysoyevich (ca. 1607-1690), commissioned the town's main landmark: the kremlin. This is regarded by some as the finest outside that of Moscow.  Ravaged by the Mongols in the 13th and 14th centuries (last sack by Edigu in 1408), and the Poles in 1608, Rostov survived as a medium-sized town. Late in the 18th century, the metropolitan see was transferred to Yaroslavl.  Rostov is renowned for manufacturing enamels.

Administrative and municipal status.

Within the framework of administrative divisions, Rostov serves as the administrative center of Rostovsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the town of oblast significance of Rostov—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the town of oblast significance of Rostov is incorporated within Rostovsky Municipal District as Rostov Urban Settlement.

Main sights.

The central square of Rostov is occupied by the Assumption Cathedral. It is unknown when the present building was erected, the mid-16th century being the most likely date. Lower parts of the cathedral walls are dated to the 12th century. The ponderous bell-tower was constructed mostly in the 17th century. Its bells are among the largest and most famous in Russia - each has its own name. The largest bell, cast in 1688, weighs. It is named Sysoy to honor the city's founding father. The church is home to the incorrupt body of Saint Leontius of Rostov.  An area situated between the cathedral square and the lake was chosen by Iona Sysoevich as a place for his fairy-tale residence. All the construction works were carried out between 1667 and 1694. Major buildings include the ornate Savior Church-na-Senyakh (1675), the sombre Church of St. Gregory (1670), and the barbican churches of St. John the Apostle (1683) and of the Resurrection of Christ (1670). The residence, often erroneously called kremlin, also includes eleven ornate tower bells, numerous palaces, several small belfries, and the diminutive baroque Church of Our Lady of Smolensk (1693). All the churches are elaborately painted and decorated.  The cathedral and four tall kremlin churches with their silver "blind" domes were imitated throughout the city. This is particularly evident in the Savior-on-the-Market church and the cathedral church of the Nativity convent, both dating from the 17th century and situated near the kremlin walls. The oldest church within the town center was consecrated to St. Isidore the Blessed in 1565. They say that Ivan the Terrible had the architect executed, because his church was so much smaller than its predecessor.  The kremlin is flanked by two monasteries, both facing the Lake Nero. To the right from the kremlin stands the Abraham monastery, founded in the 11th century and one of the oldest in Russia. Its cathedral, commissioned by Ivan the Terrible in 1553 to commemorate the conquest of Kazan, inspired numerous churches in the region, particularly in Yaroslavl.  Spaso-Yakovlevsky Monastery, situated to the left from the Kremlin on the town's outskirts, has been venerated as the shrine of St. Dmitry of Rostov. Most of the monastery structures were built in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in the fine neoclassical style. There are also two 17th-century churches: the Conception of St. Anna, and the Transfiguration of Our Savior. Unlike most other churches in the town, the monastery belongs to the Russian Orthodoxy and houses a theological seminary.

Surroundings.

The vicinity of Rostov is rich in old architecture. For example, an old wooden church (1687–1689) may be seen in Ishnya. One of the best preserved monasteries in Russia, named after the saints Boris and Gleb, is situated in Borisoglebsky, about west of the town. The monastery was favored by Ivan the Terrible, who personally supervised the construction of towered walls and bell-tower around an even more ancient cathedral. The only addition made to the monastery after Ivan's death is a barbican church, commissioned by the metropolitan Iona Sysoyevich.

Rostov () is a town in Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, one of the oldest in the country and a tourist center of the Golden Ring. It is located on the shores of Lake Nero, northeast of Moscow. Population:

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