Division.

The department is divided into several geographic regions:  The department has several organizations which carry out specific tasks:  The Impact Assessment Agency of Canada is an arms-length agency that reports to the Minister of Environment.  Parks Canada, which manages the Canadian National Parks system, was removed from Environment Canada and became an agency reporting to the Minister of Heritage in 1998. In 2003, responsibility for Parks Canada was returned to the Minister of the Environment.

Enforcement.

The Enforcement Branch is responsible for ensuring compliance with several federal statutes. The Governor-in-Council appoints enforcement officers and pursuant to section 217(3) of the "Canadian Environmental Protection Act", enforcement officers have all the powers of peace officers.  There are two designations of enforcement officers: Environmental Enforcement and Wildlife Enforcement. The former administers the "Canadian Environmental Protection Act" and pollution provisions of the "Fisheries Act" and corresponding regulations. The latter enforces "Migratory Birds Convention Act", "Canada Wildlife Act", "Species at Risk Act" and "The Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act". All officers wear dark green uniform with black ties and a badge (appear on the right). Environmental Enforcement Officers only carry baton and OC spray whereas Wildlife Enforcement Officers are also equipped with firearm.  The Minister may also appoint members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, fishery officers, parks officers, customs officers and conservation officers of provincial and territorial governments as enforcement officers and to allow them to exercise the powers and privilege of Environment Canada officers.  On March 4, 2009, a bill to increase the enforcement capabilities of the department was introduced into the House of Commons. The Environmental Enforcement Bill would increase the fines for individuals and corporations for serious offenses, give enforcement officers new powers to investigate cases and grants courts new sentencing authorities that ensure penalties reflect the seriousness of the pollution and wildlife offences.  More information: Enforcement Branch

Enforcement of: Export and Import of Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Recyclable Material Regulations (EIHWHRMR).

The Export and Import of Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Recyclable Material Regulations (EIHWHRMR) operates with a few basic premises, one of which being that electronic waste is either "intact" or "not intact". The various annexes define hazardous waste in Canada, and also deem any waste that is "...considered or defined as hazardous under the legislation of the country receiving it and is prohibited by that country from being imported or conveyed in transit" to be covered under Canadian regulation and therefore subject to prior informed consent procedures.  The loophole in the regulations that allows tons of e-waste to be exported from Canada is the use of the definition of "intact" vs "functional". A non-functioning electronic device that is intact can be exported under the current legislation. What can't be exported without prior informed consent is a non-functioning but no longer intact electronic device (if the component pieces are deemed hazardous). The principal problem being, the non-functioning but intact electronic device is at high risk of being disassembled in some far away e-waste dumping ground. The Canadian government's use of a unique interpretation of the Basel Convention obligations "intact" and "not intact" opens the door to uncontrolled e-waste exports as long as the device is intact. See Canadian fact sheet and associated links.  Since Canada ratified the Basel Convention on August 28, 1992, and as of August 2011, the Enforcement Branch has initiated 176 investigations for violations under EIHWHRMR, some of which are still in progress. There have been 19 prosecutions undertaken for non-compliance with the provisions of the EIHWHRMR some of which are still before the courts. Electronic waste by country

2012 Budget Bill C-38, the "Jobs, Growth and Long-term Prosperity Act".

Bill C-38, (June 2012), replaced the "Canadian Environmental Assessment Act" (CEAA 1992, 1999) with the" Canadian Environmental Assessment Act", 2012. "The Canadian Environmental Protection Act", "Species at Risk Act", "The National Energy Board Act", the "Canadian Oil and Gas Operations Act", the "Nuclear Safety and Control Act", the "Fisheries Act" (for example, closing the Experimental Lakes Area) all underwent major changes under Bill-38. By placing the emphasis on jobs, growth and prosperity significant changes have been made to the federal environmental assessment regime (EA) and environmental regulatory framework.

Minister of the Environment and the Kyoto Accord.

In December 2011, Minister of the Environment Peter Kent announced Canada's withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol one day after negotiators from nearly 200 countries meeting in Durban, South Africa at the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference (November 28 – December 11), completed a marathon of climate talks to establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions.[1] The Durban talks were leading to a new binding treaty with targets for all countries to take effect in 2020.  Kent argued that, "The Kyoto protocol does not cover the world's largest two emitters, the United States and China, and therefore cannot work." In 2010 Canada, Japan and Russia said they would not accept new Kyoto commitments. Canada is the only country to repudiate the Kyoto Accord. Kent argued that since Canada could not meet targets, it needed to avoid the $14 billion in penalties for not achieving its goals. This decision drew widespread international response. States for which the emissions are not covered by the Kyoto Protocol (the US and China) have the largest emissions, being responsible for 41% of the Kyoto Protocol. China's emissions increased by over 200% from 1990 to 2009.

Related legislation.

The department administers and assists in the administration of nearly c. 24 acts through regulations and through "voluntary and regulated agreements with individuals or multiple parties in Canada and elsewhere to define mutual commitments, roles and responsibilities and actions on specific environmental issues."

"Bill C-38".

Bill C-38 (2012)

"Canada National Parks Act (S.C. 2000, c. 32)".

Canada National Parks Act

"Canada Water Act".

"Recognizing the need for better environmental management, the federal government passed the Canada Water Act in 1970 and created the Department of the Environment in 1971, entrusting the Inland Waters Directorate with providing national leadership for freshwater management. Under the "Constitution Act" (1867), the provinces are "owners" of the water resources and have wide responsibilities in their day-to-day management. The federal government has certain specific responsibilities relating to water, such as fisheries and navigation, as well as exercising certain overall responsibilities such as the conduct of external affairs."  The "Canada Water Act" (proclaimed on September 30, 1970) provides the framework for cooperation with provinces and territories in the conservation, development, and utilization of Canada's water resources. The "Canadian Environmental Protection Act", 1999, completes the framework for the protection and of water resources. Environment and Climate Change Canada is the federal department in charge of conserving and protecting Canada's water resources. The "Water Act" (2000), a federal legislation, "supports and promotes the conservation and management of water, including the wise allocation and use of water.". The provinces are responsible for administering the "Water Act"(2000). In Alberta for example, Alberta Environment and Water is responsible for administering the "Water Act" (2000) and the "Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act" (2000). Provinces environmental ministries primarily lead Water for Life (2003) programs. Provinces also implement and oversee "regulation of municipal drinking water, wastewater, and storm drainage systems."

"Canada Wildlife Act".

"Canada Wildlife Act" (R.S.C., 1985, c. W-9) Amended in June 2012 by Bill C-38 'allows for the creation, management and protection of wildlife areas' to preserve habitats, particularly for at risk species and requires permits for specified activities in designated wildlife areas.

"Impact Assessment Act" (2019).

The "Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act" (2000) "supports and promotes the protection, enhancement, and wise use of the environment. The Act's individual regulations cover a wide range of activities, from beverage container recycling and pesticide sales, potable water, to wastewater and storm drainage."

"Fisheries Act" (pollution prevention into fish bearing waters) (R.S., 1985, c. F-14).

Federal legislation such as the "Fisheries Act" (1985) have relevance for water management in the provinces.

"Migratory Birds Convention Act".

Federal legislation such as the "Migratory Birds Convention Act" (2000) also have relevance for water management in the provinces.

"Weather Modification Information Act".

"Weather Modification Information Act"

"Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Inter-provincial Trade Act".

Aerospace Fleet.

Until 2010 the department operated several different aircraft for their environmental studies. Although the department does not have a current fleet of aircraft it contracts other branches of the government to provide airborne research facilities.  Former Fleet:

Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC; ; formerly Environment Canada (EC); legally incorporated as the Department of the Environment) is the department of the Government of Canada created under the "Department of the Environment Act" with responsibility for coordinating environmental policies and programs as well as preserving and enhancing the natural environment and renewable resources. The powers, duties and functions of the Minister of the Environment and Climate Change extend to and include matters relating to: "preserve and enhance the quality of the natural environment, including water, air, soil, flora and fauna; conserve Canada's renewable resources; conserve and protect Canada's water resources; forecast daily weather conditions and warnings, and provide detailed meteorological information to all of Canada; enforce rules relating to boundary waters; and coordinate environmental policies and programs for the federal government."

加拿大环境和气候变化部(英语:Environment and Climate Change Canada,),是加拿大政府负责协调环境政策和方案,以及保护并提高自然环境与可再生资源的行政部门。


History.

Observations of the (then unidentified) Delta Aquariids (δ Aquariids) were recorded by G. L. Tupman in 1870, who plotted 65 meteors observed between July 27 and August 6. He plotted the radiant's apparent beginning and ending points (RA=340°, DEC=−14°; RA=333°, DEC=−16°). This was corrected later. Ronald A. McIntosh re-plotted the path, based on a greater number of observations made from 1926 to 1933. He determined it to begin at RA=334.9°, DEC=−19.2° and end RA=352.4°, DEC=−11.8°. Cuno Hoffmeister and a team of German observers were the first to record the characteristics of a Northern Aquariid radiant within the stream around 1938. And Canadian D. W. R. McKinley observed both branches in 1949, but did not associate the two radiants. That was accomplished by astronomer Mary Almond, in 1952, who determined both accurate velocity and orbit of the δ Aquariids. She used a "more selective beamed aerial" (echo radio) to identify probable member meteors and plotted an accurate orbital plane. Her paper reported it as a broad "system of orbits" that are probably "connected and produced by one extended stream." This was confirmed in the 1952–1954 Harvard Meteor Project, via photographic observation of orbits. The Project also produced the first evidence that the stream's evolution was influenced by Jupiter.

Viewing.

The Delta Aquariids are best viewed in the pre-dawn hours, away from the glow of city lights. Southern Hemisphere viewers usually get a better show because the radiant is higher in the sky during the peak season. Since the radiant is above the southern horizon for Northern Hemisphere viewers, meteors will primarily fan out in all compass points, east, north and west. Few meteors will be seen heading southward, unless they are fairly short and near the radiant.

The Southern Delta Aquariids are a meteor shower visible from mid July to mid August each year with peak activity on 28 or 29 July. The shower originated from the breakup of what are now the Marsden and Kracht Sungrazing comets.

宝瓶座δ南流星雨是出现在7月中旬至8月中旬的流星雨,极大期在7月28或29日,但是母体尚不清楚是哪一颗彗星,头号的候选者是96P/梅克贺兹一号彗星(1994o),但在1994年观测到这颗彗星已经分裂成数块碎片,不过2007年还是回归了。


Business career.

Cartes' father was the owner of a Cessna aircraft franchise holding company and the young Horacio studied aviation mechanics in the United States. At the age of 19, he started a currency exchange business which grew into the Banco Amambay. Over the following years, Cartes bought or helped establish 25 companies including Tabesa, the country's biggest cigarette manufacturer, and a major fruit juice bottling company.  In 1986, Cartes spent 60 days in jail during a currency fraud investigation. He was accused of making millions of dollars on a central bank loan obtained at a preferential exchange rate and then moving it through his money exchange business before buying farm equipment in the U.S. The case was eventually dropped.  Cartes was imprisoned on charges of currency fraud for seven months in 1989. He was eventually cleared by a court.  In 2000, the anti-drug police seized a plane carrying cocaine and marijuana on his ranch. He claimed that the plane had made an emergency landing, that he had no involvement with the drug trade and that he opposed the legalization of narcotics.  Cartes' name appears in the Offshore leaks files in connection with a Cook Islands financial entity linked to Cartes' Paraguayan bank Banco Amambay. A classified WikiLeaks cable from 2010 mentioned Cartes as the focus of a money laundering investigation by the DEA.

Early political career.

Until 2008 Cartes was uninvolved in politics and he was not registered as a voter. He joined the far-right Colorado Party in 2009 and said he wanted to counter the swing to the left in Latin American politics. He became known as an efficient politician uncompromised by his party's past support of the military dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner who ruled until 1989.  In regards to allegation of his connections to the drug trade, as well as being targeted by the DEA, he said during his presidential campaign: "I wouldn't want to be president if I had ties to drug traffickers. Go to the courts and check. There's nothing, not a single charge against me."

President of Paraguay.

Election.

Cartes was the Colorado candidate in the 2013 presidential election. The BBC suggested that his convincing points during his campaign were the promises to raise private capital to upgrade the country's infrastructure, to modernise its public enterprises, to attract international investments, and to create jobs. On 21 April 2013, he was elected President of Paraguay with 45.80% of the vote. When he took office on 15 August, it marked only the second time in the country's 202 years of independence that a ruling party peacefully surrendered power to the opposition.  In regards to the impeachment of Fernando Lugo and the negative reception the country was given in the aftermath by Latin American leaders, Cartes defended the legality of the impeachment and said that Paraguay should not withdraw from Mercosur, pointing to economic benefits of the common market and free trade.  He was sworn in on August 15, 2013, using his inaugural address to declare a war on poverty in Paraguay. His inauguration was attended by fellow conservative South American, Chilean President Sebastián Piñera, as well as Argentina's Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, Peru's Ollanta Humala, Brazil's Dilma Rousseff, Uruguay's José Mujica and Taiwan's Ma Ying-jeou.

Cabinet.

Cartes announced his cabinet in August 2013 upon being sworn in. Cartes' picks were largely technocratic.

Education.

In 2015, massive student protests occurred in Paraguay. The demand of students was a better quality of education, demanding an increase in the education budget to reach 7% of the national GDP as requested by UNESCO; at the time education spending represented 3.9% of GDP and was one of the lowest in the region.

Foreign relations.

On May 21, 2018, the Paraguayan embassy moved to Jerusalem, becoming the third country in the world to recognize the city as the diplomatic capital of Israel. However, Cartes's successor Mario Abdo Benítez reversed the decision on September 5, 2018.

Reelection attempt.

The current constitution limits the president to a single five-year term. In later 2016 and early 2017, Cartes and his supporters in Congress attempted to pass a constitutional amendment to run for re-election, a move described by the opposition as "a coup". On 31 March 2017, a series of protests erupted after supporters of the amendment in the Senate voted for the amendment during a secret session in a closed office rather than on the Senate floor, during which demonstrators set fire to the Congress building. Several people were reported injured, including one protester who was killed after being hit by a shotgun blast by police, and one lower-house deputy who had to undergo surgery after being injured by rubber bullets. On 17 April, Cartes announced that he would not run for a second presidential term even if the amendment passed. On 26 April, the Chamber of Deputies rejected the proposed constitutional amendment for presidential re-election. In a June 2019 interview with "Financial Times", when asked about the amendment, Cartes said, "If you ask me today if it was a mistake, yes it was because it created an unnecessary climate."

Resignation attempt.

In the 2018 Paraguayan general election, Cartes, while still President, ran for a full Senate seat, which was perceived as an attempt of extending his political influence past his presidency, and was elected. New Senators would be sworn in on 30 June 2018, six weeks before Cartes's presidential term was scheduled to end, thus the need for Cartes to leave office before the expiration of his term, as the constitution states officials can not hold two offices concurrently. Consequently, on 28 May 2018, Cartes offered his resignation as President, which would have to be agreed to by Congress. Legislators were opposed to Cartes resigning and taking up the seat, stating it was unconstitutional. The opposition, as well as dissidents within Cartes' own Colorado Party, successfully blocked Cartes's resignation, boycotting the vote, hence preventing a quorum from being present for a vote on the resignation. Cartes withdrew his bid to resign and be sworn in as a senator on 26 June 2018 after not receiving enough political support to carry through his plans.

Controversial statements.

Leading to the 2013 presidential election, Cartes made controversial statements on the LGBT community, comparing it to "monkeys". He also said he would "shoot myself in the bollocks" if he were to discover a son who wanted to marry another man.  On 10 August 2018, when asked by a journalist about his response to a series of citizen protests on Yacyretá Dam deals and congressmen with pending criminal cases, Cartes responded "rubber bullets". Cartes later apologized for the remark, stating, "I want to express my apologies to the young people for the published expressions. I always encouraged them to express themselves and my goal is the peace of all Paraguayans".

Horacio Manuel Cartes Jara OSC (born 5 July 1956) is a Paraguayan businessman and politician. He was the president of Paraguay from 2013 to 2018. He is a member of the Colorado Party.

奥拉西奥·曼努埃尔·卡特斯·哈拉(西班牙语:Horacio Manuel Cartes Jara,1956年-7月5日)为巴拉圭政治家、拥有数家公司的企业家和体育活动领导人,前任巴拉圭总统。


Review.

Men.

Third seed Novak Djokovic overcame a number of upsets to his fellow top seeds to win his fourth ATP Masters Series title. He beat the unseeded Stanislas Wawrinka in the final, who was aiming to become the second unseeded champion in Rome in the Open Era, and the first Swiss to win the title here.  The tournament was notable for its semifinals, where both Radek Štěpánek and Andy Roddick retired before the completion of their matches. It was the first time this situation had happened at a Masters Series event in ATP history. The two matches combined lasted a mere forty-nine minutes, and fans in attendance were refunded with 50% off tickets for the following week's women's tournament.  The big story at the beginning of the week was Rafael Nadal's shock second round loss to Juan Carlos Ferrero, his second defeat in one-hundred-and-five matches on clay. Nadal was trying to win his third tournament in three weeks. He had earlier complained about the ATP schedule, saying it was "impossible" for the players to maintain their best level at all four of the European clay tournaments back-to-back.  Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan won the doubles title, beating Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić in the championships match.

Women.

Jelena Janković successfully defended a title for the first time in her career with a straight set victory over qualifier Alizé Cornet in the final. Cornet was the first female qualifier to reach the final at this tournament in the Open Era. She defeated two Top Ten players, Svetlana Kuznetsova and Anna Chakvetadze to reach the biggest final of her career so far.  Like the men's event, the later stages of the women's tournament were hit by two high-profile withdrawals. Serena Williams withdrew before her quarterfinal match with Cornet due to a back injury, and new World No. 1 Maria Sharapova withdrew before her semifinal match with Janković due to a left calf injury.  Tsvetana Pironkova caused the biggest shock of the tournament in the second round, beating top seeded and WTA No. 3 Ana Ivanovic for her second career Top Ten victory. She eventually made her first ever Tier I quarterfinal, benefitting from Victoria Azarenka's retirement in the third round, before losing to Chakvetadze in three sets.  The doubles title was won by Taiwanese pairing Yung-jan Chan and Chia-jung Chuang, after they beat Iveta Benešová and Janette Husárová in straight sets to win their first ever Tier I title as a team.

Finals.

Men's Singles.

Novak Djokovic defeated Stanislas Wawrinka 4–6, 6–3, 6–3

Women's Singles.

Jelena Janković defeated Alizé Cornet 6–2, 6–2

Men's Doubles.

Bob Bryan / Mike Bryan defeated Daniel Nestor / Nenad Zimonjić 3–6, 6–4, [10–8]

Women's Doubles.

Yung-jan Chan / Chia-jung Chuang defeated Iveta Benešová / Janette Husárová 7–6 (7–5), 6–3

The 2008 Italian Open (also known as 2008 Rome Masters and the "Internazionali BNL d'Italia" for sponsorship reasons) was a tennis tournament played on outdoor clay courts. It was the 65th edition of the Rome Masters, and was part of the ATP Masters Series of the 2008 ATP Tour, and of the Tier I Series of the 2008 WTA Tour. Both the men's and the women's events took place at the Foro Italico in Rome, Italy, with the men playing from 5 May through 11 May 2008, and the women from 12 May through 18 May 2008.

2008年意大利公开赛于2008年5月5日至5月18日在意大利罗马举行,是第65届赛事,也称罗马大师赛。


History.

To replace the old Wangjiadun Airport, the Chinese government permitted plans to build a commercial airport in Tianhe Town, Huangpi District, Wuhan on 1 July 1985. The first term construction started in December 1989 and finished in April 1994. It initially operated domestic flights but later in 2000, the CAA re-designated it as an international airport.  The airport has expanded twice – first for terminal 2 and second for terminal 3, new control tower and the second runway.  Wuhan opened up to intercontinental flights when Air France began service from Paris on 11 April 2012, and two years later opened up to the United States non-stop when China Southern Airlines announced, in September 2014, a daily non-stop flight to San Francisco, originating from Guangzhou, operating with a Boeing 787 to begin December 16, 2014.

Facilities.

Runways.

Tianhe International Airport has two runways.

Runway West (04L 22R).

Length:, width:

Runway East (04R 22L main runway).

Length:, width:

ILS.

Tianhe Airport equipped with ILS II in south side (main landing side), ILS I in north side. The East runway is equipped with blind landing systems.

Terminals.

Terminal 1 (demolished).

Terminal 1 was opened in 1995 when all flight services were transferred from Nanhu Airport to Tianhe International Airport. It was located at where the west concourse of Terminal 3 stands nowadays. It had been the only terminal of the airport until Terminal 2 was completed in 2008.  From 2008 onwards, all domestic flights were operated at T2 while international flights were still operated at T1. T1 was closed in 2010 after serving international flights for two years. A new international terminal was built in 2010, and has undergone subsequent expansions after seeing major increase of international travelers. The terminal was demolished during the construction of Terminal 3.

Terminal 2 (closed).

Terminal 2 was the main terminal for Tianhe Airport during 2008–2017, which handled only domestic airlines. It has a floor area of 121,200 square meters and a designed capacity to handle 13 million passengers and 320,000 tons of cargo a year. The project was completed in April 15, 2008, at a total cost of 3.37 billion yuan (421.5 million US dollars). By 2010, Wuhan served at least 5 international and 100 domestic routes. The airport's cargo-handling capacity is to reach 144,000 tons. Terminal 2 was closed when Terminal 3 were officially opened in mid 2017 for the upgrade construction.

International Terminal (closed).

The International Terminal was opened in December 2010 and all international flights and flights to Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan operated at the International Terminal from 2010 to 2017. After the old Terminal 1 was closed in 2010, the International Terminal was sometimes mistakenly called "T1" by passengers.  The single-floor terminal is located at the southwest of Terminal 2. It has a floor area of 5310 square meters, shared by both departure and arrival facilities. To handle wide-body jet within limited ramp, there is no air-bridge for this terminal.  Due to its compact size and the growing number of international flights, there were complaints that Terminal 1 was "too crowded". In 2013, the average departure traffic was 880 per hour during the peak season, which was far greater than its designed maximum capacity of 550.  The International Terminal was closed in mid 2017 and it will be turned to a chartered and VIP terminal in the future.

Terminal 3.

Starting from August 31, 2017, all flights from the original International Terminal (international, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan) and T2 (domestic) have been moved to Terminal 3, which has a passenger capacity of 35 million. Following the opening of the new Terminal 3, International Terminal (IT) and Terminal 2 (T2) were closed temporarily for renovation. IT is scheduled to operate as the VIP terminal. T2 will undergo renovation and reopen when passengers in T3 exceed the design limit.  The T3 has a new departure lounge, restaurants and duty-free shops.  The construction of Terminal 3 started in June 2013 and it was opened on August 31, 2017. A new runway, new control tower, and a transportation hub connecting the airport to the city with an intercity railway and a metro line have been built and opened along with the new terminal.

Transportation.

Roads.

Two tolled expressways, the S18 Wuhan Airport Expressway and the S19 Wuhan Airport 2nd Expressway, connect the airport to downtown Hankou.

Public Transit.

There is a limited bus service between Wuhan Tianhe Airport and several bus stops in the urban area of Wuhan.  The Wuhan–Xiaogan Intercity Railway, one of the lines of the Wuhan Metropolitan Area intercity railway, serves Wuhan Tianhe Airport. This railway opened in December 2016.  The extension of Line 2 of Wuhan Metro to Tianhe Airport opened on 28 December 2016.

Future development.

Presently, Tianhe is the only civic airport in the Wuhan metropolitan area. However, the city authorities are considering repurposing the military Shanpo Airfield (山坡机场; ), located in the city's far southern suburbs (Shanpo Township, Jiangxia District), as a commercial cargo airport. If the plans are implemented, Shanpo will become Wuhan's second airport.

Wuhan Tianhe International Airport serves Wuhan, the capital of the Hubei province, People's Republic of China. It was opened on 15 April 1995, replacing the old Hankou Wangjiadun Airport and Nanhu Airport as the major airport of Wuhan. The airport is located in Wuhan's suburban Huangpi District, around to the north of Wuhan city center.

武汉天河国际机场(),位于湖北省武汉市黄陂区天河街道,距离武汉市区约二十余公里,机场飞行区等级为最高的4F级, 能够起降波音747和空中客车A380等特大型飞机,是中国大陆最繁忙的民用机场之一。机场一期工程于1990年12月16日动工,1995年4月15日作为国家一级民用机场正式开航启用。


Early life and education.

Born in Glasgow on 5 December 1969, Ramsay studied photography at Napier College, Edinburgh. In 1995, she graduated from the National Film and Television School in Beaconsfield, England, where she specialised in cinematography and direction.

Career.

Ramsay took a break between "Black and White Town" and "We Need to Talk About Kevin", explaining she thinks the filmmaking process is different for her and other writer-directors from directors who do not write their own material. The Harvard Film Archive welcomed Lynne Ramsay for a showcase of her films, including the three acclaimed shorts that inaugurated her career.  She experienced great frustration in her involvement with "The Lovely Bones," during which personal and professional problems saw her lose the job of directing to Peter Jackson, whose version of the film received largely negative reviews. She stated in an interview: "People started to call it 'The Lovely Money,' they were getting greedy around it. And I could feel the vibes. It became like the Holy Bible, I kept handing in drafts and I thought they were good, but it was like 'But that's not exactly like the book, the book's going to be a success.' That was the mistake they made with the project." She stated additionally that she considered Jackson's interpretation of the film, with a desire to stick as closely as possible to the original story, was partially responsible for what she considered the lacklustre quality of the finished product.

Short films.

Ramsay won the 1996 Cannes Prix de Jury for her graduation short film, "Small Deaths". Her second short film, "Kill the Day", won the Clermont Ferrand Prix du Jury; her third, "Gasman", won her another Cannes Prix du Jury in addition to a Scottish BAFTA for Best Short Film.  "Small Deaths" (1996) is Ramsay's debut short film that she completed as her graduating film at the UK's National Film and Television School. It is a series of three vignettes of children grappling with familial realities and the repercussions of their actions. Ramsay is the writer, director and cinematographer for this film.  "Kill the Day" (1997), written and directed by Ramsay, captures a day in the life of a heroin addict recently released from jail, and in the process inventively probes the inner workings of memory.  "Gasman" (1997), also written and directed by Ramsay, is about a brother and sister who attend a Christmas party with their dad, and encounter two other children who are strangely familiar with him.  "Swimmer" (2012) was co-commissioned by BBC Films, Film4 and the London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games. The short was nominated for the British Independent Film Awards (BIFA) in the category for Best Short Film. It won a BAFTA Award for Best Short Film at the 66th British Academy Film Awards in 2013.

Feature films.

"Ratcatcher" (1999), Ramsay's debut feature, won critical acclaim and numerous awards. It was screened at the 1999 Cannes Film Festival and opened the Edinburgh International Film Festival, winning her the Guardian New Directors prize. She also won the Carl Foreman Award for Newcomer in British Film at the 2000 BAFTA Awards, the Sutherland Trophy at the London Film Festival and the Silver Hugo for Best Director at the Chicago International Film Festival.  "Morvern Callar" (2002) won Samantha Morton the British Independent Film Award for Best Actress, and Kathleen McDermott the Scottish BAFTA Award for Best Actress. It also won the 2002 C.I.C.A.E. Award and the Award of The Youth at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival. The motion picture soundtrack includes tracks from Stereolab, Aphex Twin, Broadcast, Velvet Underground, and Nancy Sinatra. Ramsay is credited as the writer and director. The film is based on Alan Warner's 1995 novel of the same name, Morvern Callar. It was featured in the Directors Fortnight for the Cannes Film Festival 2002 and then went on to open the Edinburgh International Film Festival in August of the same year. The film also featured at the Telluride, Toronto, San Sebastian, Dinard and Stockholm Film Festivals of 2002. It was nominated for seven British Independent Film Awards.  Ramsay was slated to direct the adaptation of Alice Sebold's "The Lovely Bones", which she had read in manuscript form prior to its publication. She left the project in early 2004 after the novel had become a bestseller and the producers wanted a version more faithful to the original than she had been planning.  "We Need to Talk About Kevin" (2011) was Ramsay's next feature-length film in which she was the writer, producer and director. The film, based on Lionel Shriver's novel, is about a mother dealing with the aftermath of a school massacre committed by her son. Budgetary difficulties held the production up, but after several script drafts, the film, which employed a fragmented, elliptical narrative and starred Tilda Swinton as the tormented mother, premiered in 2011 to great acclaim at the Cannes Film Festival. Ramsay went on to receive a BAFTA nomination for Best Director as well as taking the Best Director prize at the British Independent Film Awards, and a win for Best Film Screenplay at the Writer's Guild of Great Britain.  In 2013, Ramsay was slated to direct "Jane Got a Gun". Natalie Portman signed on to star and produce the film as the farmer wife of an outlaw husband, who, after his gang turns on him, she must defend with the help of an old lover. In March 2013 Ramsay left the project due to creative differences with producersand funders, including over the latter's demand for a happy ending. She was replaced by Gavin O'Connor. Actor Jude Law also left the production shortly after.  Lynne Ramsay is scheduled to direct a modern adaptation of Herman Melville's "Moby Dick". She has stated that the film will be set in space, and deal with themes of psychology and claustrophobia, quoting "So we're creating a whole new world, and a new alien. [It's] a very psychological piece, mainly taking place in the ship, a bit like "Das Boot", so it's quite claustrophobic. It's another monster movie, cos the monster's Ahab."  Ramsay directed "You Were Never Really Here", an adaptation of Jonathan Ames's novella of the same name. It premiered to wide critical acclaim in competition at the 70th Cannes Film Festival in 2017, where it received a seven-minute standing ovation, and Ramsay won the Best Screenplay award. The film, starring Joaquin Phoenix, was released by Amazon Studios.

Music promos.

Ramsay directed the promotional video for the Manchester-based indie-rock band Doves' single "Black and White Town", which was released on 7 February 2005. However, Ramsay's version was re-edited and the released version was significantly different from her original piece.

Praise and criticism.

In 2007 Ramsay was rated number 12 in Guardian Unlimited's list of the world's 40 best directors working at that time.  Sean O'Hagan wrote in "The Guardian" that "Ramsay is entertaining company, whether talking about the art films she loves —by Bergman, Cassavetes, Fassbinder— or railing against the 'bullshitters and backstabbers' of the film industry."  The Harvard Film Archive describes Ramsay as "an uncompromising filmmaker fascinated by the tremendous power of cinema to appeal directly to the senses and awaken new depths in our audio-visual imagination. Immersive and at times almost overwhelming, Ramsay's films abound with uncommon imagery arresting for its remarkable use of texture, composition, color, music and sound."  In her "The New York Times" biography, Ramsay's work is described as having a "gritty, realistic visual style that demands attention."  Tilda Swinton, whom Ramsey directed in "We Need To Talk About Kevin", called her "the real McCoy", saying, "She is one of those rare directors who creates the kind of films that just would not be there if she didn't make them."  British film critic Jonathan Romney, when speaking on "We Need To Talk About Kevin", opined "Ramsay, thinks not in concepts but in images. She doesn't make intellectual films, but ones that are close to music, taking visuals to the point of abstraction."  "Los Angeles Times" columnist Mark Olsen considered Ramsay "one of the leading lights of young British cinema", describing her additionally as "among the most celebrated British filmmakers of her generation."

Personal life.

Ramsay was previously married to Rory Stewart Kinnear, a writer and musician. She has one daughter.

Awards.

On 8 October 2013, Ramsay was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Edinburgh for her contribution to British film.

Lynne Ramsay (born 5 December 1969) is a Scottish film director, writer, producer, and cinematographer best known for the feature films "Ratcatcher" (1999), "Morvern Callar" (2002), "We Need to Talk About Kevin" (2011), and "You Were Never Really Here" (2017).

琳恩·拉姆塞 (Lynne Ramsay,1969年12月5日—) 是一名苏格兰女导演、编剧和摄影师。主要作品有《凯文怎么了》和《你从未在此》,前者获得英国电影学院奖最佳导演提名,后者赢得第70届戛纳影展最佳编剧奖。


Early life and education.

Rafferty grew up as the youngest of four daughters in the Riverside neighborhood of Greenwich, Connecticut. She credits her mother, Mary Lee Rafferty, the Chairwoman of the English Department at Convent of the Sacred Heart school, and her father, Michael Griffin Rafferty Jr., who enjoys two successful careers in finance and oil painting, for cultivating her passion for the arts. Her sisters are Maura, Ann, and Constance.  Rafferty studied at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, and graduated in 1989. She majored in English and Theatre at Hamilton College, studied theatre abroad in the United Kingdom and at the University of Oxford during her junior year, and, after graduating magna cum laude from Hamilton in 1993, went on to study at the Yale School of Drama, receiving a Master of Fine Arts.

Personal life.

Rafferty's husband is Aleksanteri Olli-Pekka Seppälä, an American of Finnish descent, who is a stock research analyst in the asset management unit of Lazard Frères & Company. They were married on June 23, 2001, at the Roman Catholic church of St. Mary in Greenwich, Connecticut. and have two daughters, Oona Gray (b. 22 October 2007) and Iris Friday (b. January 2012).  She and her "Suits" co-star Gabriel Macht have been friends for over 25 years. They met in 1993 at the Williamstown Theatre Festival.  Rafferty was one of the guests at Meghan Markle’s wedding to Prince Harry at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle on 19 May 2018.

Sarah Gray Rafferty (born December 6, 1972) is an American actress. She is best known for her role as Donna Paulsen on the USA Network legal drama "Suits".

莎拉蕾佛蒂 (1972年-12月6日),美国女演员。 最为知名的角色为USA电视台法律剧无照律师中的唐娜·罗伯特·包尔森。


History.

On March 3, 1508 Michelangelo, who had moved to Rome three years earlier to work on the Tomb of Pope Julius II, bought four adjoining buildings at the corner of via Ghibellina and via Santa Maria (now via Buonarroti), just north of the Basilica di Santa Croce. He acquired another adjacent structure in April 1514. These five buildings were the nucleus of what would later become the Casa Buonarroti. From 1516 to 1525 Michelangelo occupied the two most spacious buildings, renting out the other three; in that period he was working on the façade of the Basilica of San Lorenzo in Florence. In 1525 he moved to another residence, and all five buildings were rented out.  After moving to Rome in 1534, Michelangelo became increasingly obsessed with the idea of having a "honorable home" in Florence, a palace that would represent his own family with dignity. He repeatedly asked his nephew Leonardo (1519-1599) to transform the five buildings at the corner of via Ghibellina and via Santa Maria into a family palace; however Leonardo always showed little interest in the project, committing only to a partial restoration of the complex which was carried out in 1590, 26 years after Michelangelo's death.  The palace was given its present look by one of Leonardo's sons, Michelangelo Buonarroti the Younger (1568-1647), who further expanded the complex by purchasing an adjacent lot. He had the various buildings rearranged into a unified structure; on the "piano nobile", he arranged four monumental rooms dedicated to the celebration of his great-uncle and of his family, as well as a Gallery for displaying the works of art in his collection, including Michelangelo's Battle of the Centaurs and Madonna of the Stairs. Michelangelo the Younger commissioned a number of contemporary Italian artists to decorate the interior rooms, including Artemisia Gentileschi, Cecco Bravo, Pietro da Cortona, Jacopo da Empoli, Francesco Furini, Giovanni da San Giovanni, Domenico Passignano, Ottavio Vannini and Jacopo Vignali.

Casa Buonarroti is a museum in Florence, Italy. The building was a property owned by the sculptor Michelangelo, which he left to his nephew, Leonardo Buonarroti. The house was converted into a museum dedicated to the artist by his great nephew, Michelangelo Buonarroti the Younger. Its collections include two of Michelangelo's earliest sculptures, the "Madonna of the Stairs" and the "Battle of the Centaurs". A ten-thousand book library includes the family's archive and some of Michaelangelo's letters and drawings. The Galleria is decorated with paintings commissioned by Buonarroti the Younger and created by Artemisia Gentileschi and other early seventeenth-century Italian artists.

博纳罗蒂之家(),也译博纳罗蒂之家博物馆、博那罗蒂之家、博那罗蒂之家博物馆,是位于意大利佛罗伦萨的一家博物馆。


2013年法国网球公开赛女子单打比赛

Road to the final.

Since winning the French Open in 2002, Serena Williams had not advanced to the final of the event, last semifinal was in 2003 (lost to Henin). In 2008, she was the only former champion left in the draw, she lost to Katarina Srebotnik in the third round. In 2012, she lost in the first round to Virginie Razzano, a player ranked in the 100s. In 2013, however, she made quick work of her opponents advancing to the finals with an average match length of less than one hour and fifteen minutes. She had problems in just one match, in quarterfinals against Svetlana Kuznetsova, when she was down 2–0 and break points in third set. However, she won six of last seven games to close out the match.  After reaching quarterfinals without dropping set, Sharapova needed two three-setters to reach final. First, she met 18th seed Jelena Jankovic and dropped first set 6–0. In that set Sharapova committed 20 errors to just two from Jankovic. However, Jankovic lost opening service game in second set, which looked to be key for Sharapova as she could cool down after horrible first set. In semifinal she faced third seed Victoria Azarenka. Sharapova won first set convincingly, but lost second in the same fashion. But she eased to 5–2 lead in final set and finished match two games later to reach second French Open final.

Final.

First seeded Williams faced off against second seeded Maria Sharapova in the women's singles final. Williams came out aggressive, charging the net on the first point. Her aggression set up a triple break-point, but Sharapova fought back and held serve. She then broke Williams for a 2–0 lead. Williams broke back in the next game, then broke Sharapova twice more for a 6–4 first set. In the second set, Sharapova fought off five break points to hold in her opening serve. After Williams held serve, Sharapova dropped a break with two consecutive errors in the fourth game. From there, Williams went on to take a 5–4 lead with her serve coming up. She finished off the match with her tenth ace of the day. "She's always had a big serve," said Sharapova. "I think her second serve is better than it was in the past."  For Williams, it was her 31st consecutive victory, a career best. She has beaten Sharapova 13 times in a row. When asked by a reporter if she still wanted to retire at her peak, Williams replied "That's my goal, but have I peaked yet?" Commentary by Simon Briggs published by "The Daily Telegraph" described Williams' performance as "almost flawless". "Sharapova actually played a fine match," said Briggs. "But it is so difficult to attack an in-form Williams because she can shut you down with the quality of her serve."  By winning the 1 hour 46 minute match, Williams completed her second career Grand Slam. It was her 16th major title overall, moving her within six of Steffi Graf's modern era record of 22 such wins, and within eight of Margaret Court's all-time record. She also became the oldest women ever to win the French Open.

Serena Williams defeated defending champion Maria Sharapova, 6-4, 6-4, to win the Women's Singles tennis title at the 2013 French Open. Williams' victory in the final earned her a multiple slam set in Women's Singles, her 16th Grand Slam singles title, her second French Open title since her triumph in 2002. She also became the oldest woman to win the French Open (a record she surpassed herself in 2015) and set a record for the longest gap between French Open titles. With her victory, Williams expanded her season winning streak to 31 matches dating back to the Miami Open. Williams only dropped one set the entire tournament, to Svetlana Kuznetsova in the quarterfinals.

玛丽亚·莎拉波娃是本届衞冕冠军,在决赛负于塞雷娜·威廉姆斯。塞雷娜·威廉姆斯继2002年后夺得第二个法网女单冠军。


Early life and education.

Takeichi was born in Aichi Prefecture, Japan, on November 27, 1943. He received his BSc in 1966 and MSc in 1968 from Nagoya University, and his Ph.D. in Biophysics from Kyoto University in 1973.

Academic career.

In 1970 Takeichi became a member of the faculty of Kyoto University, and he served as Professor of Biophysics from 1986 to 2002. During his time at Kyoto, he studied abroad at the Carnegie Institute Department of Embryology for a fellowship. In 2000, he was appointed as Director of the RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology (RIKEN CDB).

Research contributions.

In 1977 Takeichi discovered cadherin, and since then he has contributed to clarify its functions in tissue construction and to understand the molecular mechanisms of cell adhesion. After his discovery of cadherins, he continued to research cadherins and their properties. Along with cadherins, he also researched cell junctions and adhesions. He continues to research at RIKEN today.

Discovery of the Cadherin Family.

While first working in Kyoto, Takeichi was using trypsin to study cell adhesions and aggregation. Once he moved to the Carnegie Institution, he realized the trypsin he was using behaved differently. This trypsin solution contained EDTA, along with the trypsin, which disturbed adhesion. The EDTA sequesters calcium ions, so Takeichi began testing for adhesion dependent on calcium. He used Chinese Hamster V79 cells and treated them with a variety of treatments, including EDTA, trypsin + EDTA, and trypsin + calcium. Once treated, these cells were tested for aggregation levels. He found that both calcium dependent and calcium independent pathways existed, and that the calcium treatment prevent trypsin's effects on the cell.  Takeichi knew there was calcium dependent molecule that served an important role, but he had to find it. Rolf Kemler's anti serum was what helped him finally identify cadherin. E-cadherin was the first of the cadherin family to be discovered. During this research, Takeichi also observed changes in the morphology of the cells involved with adhesions. He accurately hypothesized that that the adhesions dependent on calcium played a role in managing cells' morphogenetic behavior. His discovery of the cadherin family led to a developing field of studying adhesions pathways.

Other contributions.

Takeichi, along with other scientists, studied the mechanism behind hemagglutinin from Botulism and its effect on the epithelial barrier of the intestines. They found the hemagglutinin directly interacted with the e-cadherin in the epithelial cells to disturbed cell to cell adhesion. This interaction like cell to cell adhesion is dependent on calcium ions. An assay showed the hemaglutinin interaction is specific to e-cadherin.  Outside of cadherin, Takeichi studied other molecules involved with cell adhesion and beyond. He studied alpha-catenin functions outside of their functions within cell adhesion. The results showed alpha-catenin have a variety of functions outside of cadherin and adhesion. It regulates multiple different molecules, like actin and RhoGEF.

He was selected as a Member of the Japan Academy (MJA) in 2000 and as a Foreign Associate of the United States National Academy of Sciences.

竹市雅俊(,1943年-11月27日),日本细胞生物学者、胚胎学者,美国国家科学院外籍院士,日本学士院会员。现任理化学研究所多细胞系统研究形成中心(CDB)特别顾问、京都大学名誉教授。文化功劳者。


Taxonomy.

It was initially described as a subspecies of "Laccaria laccata" by French mycologist René Maire in 1937, before being raised to species rank by P.D. Orton in 1960. Like others in its genus it has the common name of 'Deceiver', because of its propensity to fade and become hard to identify.

Description.

The cap is across, convex to flat, and with a central navel. It is often incurved at the margin, and is various shades of ochraceous-buff, and tan, depending on moisture content. The fibrillose stipe is the same color, and with a distinct lilac down towards the base. The flesh is whitish, tinged with pink, or ochraceous, and has no apparent distinctive smell, or taste. The gills are pale lilac at first, fading paler. The spores are white. The picture on the right shows young specimens with quite vivid coloration. More often, they are found duller in appearance.

Distribution and habitat.

This species is mycorrhizal with a range of trees, and is found throughout the temperate zones of the world, in summer and autumn. This includes temperate and boreal forests of North America and probably Northern Europe. It seems to prefer birch and pine woods.

Carnivory.

"Laccaria bicolor" is one of a number of species of carnivorous fungi, but one of the few that catches and kills arthropods, specifically springtails.

Ectomycorrhizae.

This species forms ectomycorrhizal associations with a wide variety of tree species, such as red pine, jack pine, and black spruce. Studies have shown that "L. bicolor" is more effective in early colonization of pine roots compared to other ectomycorrhiza forming fungi. In field studies, it preferentially colonizes and improves the survival of red pine. Actinobacteria isolates, e.g. from the genus "Streptomyces", obtained from old growth Norway spruce field sites have been shown to stimulate the growth of "Laccaria bicolor" in the laboratory.

Genome.

"Laccaria bicolor" was the first ectomycorrhizal fungus to have its genome sequenced. The genome is 65 megabases long and is estimated to contain 20,000 protein coding genes. Analysis revealed a large number of small secreted proteins of unknown function, several of which are only expressed in symbiotic tissues, where they probably play a role in initiating symbiosis. It lacks enzymes that are able to degrade plant cell walls but does possess enzymes which can degrade other polysaccharides, revealing how it is able to grow both in soil and in association with plants.

Laccaria bicolor is a small tan-colored mushroom with lilac gills. It is edible but not choice, and grows in mixed birch and pine woods. It is found in the temperate zones of the globe, in late summer and autumn. "L. bicolor" is an ectomycorrhizal fungus used as a soil inoculant in agriculture and horticulture.

双色蜡蘑(学名:"Laccaria bicolor")是蜡蘑属的一种真菌,为带有淡紫色菌褶的棕褐色伞菌,可以食用但一般被认为味道不好,广泛分布在温带地区的桦木和松木混合林,在夏末和秋季可以发现它的踪迹,常与植物形成外菌根,能应用在农业和园艺业中。


Overview.

Diversity refers to the attributes that people use to confirm themselves with respect to others, “that person is different from me.” These attributes include demographic factors (such as race, gender, and age) as well as values and cultural norms. The many separate societies that emerged around the globe differ markedly from each other, and many of these differences persist to this day. The more obvious cultural differences that exist between people are language, dress, and traditions, there are also significant variations in the way societies organize themselves, such as in their shared conception of morality, religious belief, and in the ways, they interact with their environment. Cultural diversity can be seen as analogous to biodiversity.

Opposition and support.

By analogy with biodiversity, which is thought to be essential to the long-term survival of life on earth, it can be argued that cultural diversity may be vital for the long-term survival of humanity; and that the conservation of indigenous cultures may be as important to humankind as the conservation of species and ecosystems is to life in general. The General Conference of UNESCO took this position in 2001, asserting in Article 1 of the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity that ""...cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature.""  This position is rejected by some people, on several grounds. Firstly, like most evolutionary accounts of human nature, the importance of cultural diversity for survival may be an un-testable hypothesis, which can neither be proved nor disproved. Secondly, it can be argued that it is unethical deliberately to conserve "less developed" societies because this will deny people within those societies the benefits of technological and medical advances enjoyed by those in the "developed" world.  In the same manner that the promotion of poverty in underdeveloped nations as "cultural diversity" is unethical. It is unethical to promote all religious practices simply because they are seen to contribute to cultural diversity. Particular religious practices are recognized by the WHO and UN as unethical, including female genital mutilation, polygamy, child brides, and human sacrifice.  With the onset of globalization, traditional nation-states have been placed under enormous pressures. Today, with the development of technology, information and capital are transcending geographical boundaries and reshaping the relationships between the marketplace, states, and citizens. In particular, the growth of the mass media industry has largely impacted on individuals and societies across the globe. Although beneficial in some ways, this increased accessibility has the capacity to negatively affect a society's individuality. With information being so easily distributed throughout the world, cultural meanings, values, and tastes run the risk of becoming homogenized. As a result, the strength of identity of individuals and societies may begin to weaken.  Some individuals maintain that it is in the best interests of individuals and of humanity as a whole that all people adhere to a specific model for society or specific aspects of such a model. Nowadays, communication between different countries has become much more frequent. And many more students are choosing to study overseas to broaden their understanding of cultural diversity. For example, according to Fengling, Chen, Du Yanjun, and Yu Ma's paper "Academic Freedom in the People's Republic of China and the United States Of America", in regards to Chinese education, they pointed out that "traditionally, teaching has consisted of spoon-feeding, and learning has been largely by rote. China's traditional system of education has sought to make students accept fixed and ossified content." And "In the classroom, Chinese professors are the laws and authorities; Students in China show great respect to their teachers in general." On another hand, in the United States of America, the paper states "American students treat college professors as equals." Also "American students are encouraged to debate topics. The free open discussion on various topics is due to the academic freedom which most American colleges and universities enjoy." The discussion above gives us an overall idea of the differences between China and the United States on education. But we cannot simply judge which one is better, because each culture has its own advantages and features. Thanks to those differences form the culture diversity and those make our world more colorful. For students who go abroad for education, if they can combine positive culture elements from two different cultures to their self-development, it would be a competitive advantage in their whole career. Especially, with the current process of global economics, people who owned different perspectives on cultures stand at a more competitive position in the current world.

Quantification.

Cultural diversity is difficult to quantify, but a good indication is thought to be a count of the number of languages spoken in a region or in the world as a whole. By this measure, we may be going through a period of the precipitous decline in the world's cultural diversity. Research carried out in the 1990s by David Crystal (Honorary Professor of Linguistics at the University of Wales, Bangor) suggested that at that time, on average, one language was falling into disuse every two weeks. He calculated that if that rate of the language death were to continue, then by the year 2100 more than 90% of the languages currently spoken in the world will have gone extinct.  Overpopulation, immigration and imperialism (of both the militaristic and cultural kind) are reasons that have been suggested to explain any such decline. However, it could also be argued that with the advent of globalism, a decline in cultural diversity is inevitable because information sharing often promotes homogeneity.

Cultural heritage.

The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity adopted by UNESCO in 2001 is a legal instrument that recognizes cultural diversity as the "common heritage of humanity" and considers its safeguarding to be a concrete and ethical imperative inseparable from respect for human dignity.  Beyond the Declaration of Principles adopted in 2003 at the Geneva Phase of the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, adopted in October 2005, is a legally binding instrument to all States Parties to the Convention that recognizes  It was adopted in response to "growing pressure exerted on countries to waive their right to enforce cultural policies and to put all aspects of the cultural sector on the table when negotiating international trade agreements". Civil society played an important role in the elaboration and adoption of the 2005 Convention. The Coalition for Cultural Diversity (CDC) was one of the most active civil society organizations in the debates and later in the ratification process of the Convention.  To date, 116 member states, as well as the European Union, have ratified the Convention, except the US, Australia and Israel. States Parties recognize the specificity of cultural goods and services, as well as state sovereignty and public services in this area. Thought for world trade, this soft law instrument (meaning non-binding) clearly became a crucial reference to the definition of the European policy choice. In 2009, the European Court of Justice favored a broad view of culture—beyond cultural values through the protection of film or the objective of promoting linguistic diversity yet previously recognized. On top of it, under this Convention, the EU and China have committed to fostering more balanced cultural exchanges, strengthening international cooperation and solidarity with business and trade opportunities in cultural and creative industries. The most motivating factor behind Beijing's willingness to work in partnership at the business level might certainly be the access to creative talents and skills from foreign markets.  There is also the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage ratified on June 20, 2007, by 78 states which said:  Cultural diversity was also promoted by the Montreal Declaration of 2007, and by the European Union. The idea of a global multicultural heritage covers several ideas, which are not exclusive (see multiculturalism). In addition to language, diversity can also include religious or traditional practice.  On a local scale, Agenda 21 for culture, the first document of world scope that establishes the foundations for a commitment by cities and local governments to cultural development, supports local authorities committed to cultural diversity.

Defense.

The defense of cultural diversity can take several meanings:

Cultural uniformity.

In a specific occasion of social life, or custom, cultural uniformity can be observed and displayed in behaviors of a community.  Cultural diversity is presented as the antithesis of cultural uniformity.  Some (including UNESCO) fear this hypothesis of a trend towards cultural uniformity. To support this argument they emphasize different aspects:  There are several international organizations that work towards protecting threatened societies and cultures, including Survival International and UNESCO. The UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, adopted by 185 Member States in 2001, represents the first international standard-setting instrument aimed at preserving and promoting cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue.  Indeed, the notion of "cultural diversity" has been echoed by more neutral organizations, particularly within the UNESCO. Beyond the Declaration of Principles adopted in 2003 at the Geneva Phase of the World Summit on the information Society (WSIS), the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions was adopted on 20 October 2005, but neither ratified by the US, Australia nor by Israel. It is instead a clear recognition of the specificity of cultural goods and services, as well as state sovereignty and public services in this area. Thought for world trade, this soft law instrument (strength in not binding) clearly became a crucial reference to the definition of the European policy choice. In 2009, the European Court of Justice favored a broad view of culture—beyond cultural values—through the protection of film or the objective of promoting linguistic diversity yet previously recognized. On top of it, under this Convention, the EU and China have committed to fostering more balanced cultural exchanges, strengthening international cooperation and solidarity with business and trade opportunities in cultural and creative industries.  The European Commission-funded "Network of Excellence on "Sustainable Development in a Diverse World"" (known as "SUS.DIV") builds upon the UNESCO Declaration to investigate the relationship between cultural diversity and sustainable development.

Cultural diversity is the quality of diverse or different cultures, as opposed to monoculture, the global monoculture, or a homogenization of cultures, akin to cultural decay. The phrase cultural diversity can also refer to having different cultures respect each other's differences. The phrase "cultural diversity" is also sometimes used to mean the variety of human societies or cultures in a specific region, or in the world as a whole. Globalization is often said to have a negative effect on the world's cultural diversity.

文化多样性是多元文化或各种单一文化结合体的本质,与谋求全球单一文化的文化同质化相反,更类似于文化融合。文化多样性也可以指不同的文化尊重彼此的差异。一般情况下,人们认为全球化会对文化多样性带来负面影响。


Early life.

Wojcicki, the youngest of three daughters, was born in Palo Alto, California. Her parents are Esther Wojcicki (née Hochman), an educator of Russian-Jewish descent, and Stanley Wojcicki, a Polish-born physics professor emeritus at Stanford University. Her two sisters are Susan Wojcicki, CEO of YouTube and a former executive at Google, and Janet Wojcicki, anthropologist at the University of California, San Francisco.  Wojcicki grew up on the Stanford campus. When she was two, she learned how to figure skate, and later started playing ice hockey. She attended Gunn High School in Palo Alto, California, and was an editor for "The Oracle", the school newspaper, and won a scholarship for her sports stories.

Education.

Wojcicki attended Yale University, where she was a competitive ice skater and played on the varsity women's ice hockey team. She graduated with a B.S. in biology in 1996. She did molecular biology research at the National Institutes of Health and the University of California, San Diego.

Career.

After graduating, Wojcicki worked as a health care consultant at Passport Capital, a San Francisco-based investment fund and at Investor AB. She was a health care investment analyst for 4 years, overseeing health care investments, focusing on biotechnology companies. Disillusioned by the culture of Wall Street and its attitude towards health care, she quit in 2000, intending to take the MCAT and enroll in medical school. Instead, she decided to focus on research.  In 2006, she co-founded 23andMe with Linda Avey. 23andMe is a privately held personal genomics and biotechnology company, based in Sunnyvale, California, that provides genetic testing. The company is named for the 23 pairs of chromosomes in a normal human cell. The company's personal genome test kit was named "Invention of the Year" by "Time" magazine in 2008. From 2015, the FDA started to give approval to 23andMe's health-related tests, including risk from cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, certain cancers, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and coeliac disease. In 2018, 23andMe entered into a four-year collaboration with GlaxoSmithKline to develop new medicines.  Wojcicki is also a member of the Xconomists, an ad hoc team of editorial advisors for the tech news and media company, Xconomy. In October 2013, "Fast Company" named Wojcicki "The Most Daring CEO". She is a co-founder and board member of the Breakthrough Prize.

Personal life.

Wojcicki married Google co-founder Sergey Brin in May 2007. They have a son, Benji Wojin, born in December 2008, and a daughter, Chloe Wojin, born in late 2011. Wojcicki is not religious. The couple stopped living together in 2013, and they divorced in 2015.  Her grandfather,, was a People's Party and Polish People's Party politician who had been elected MP during the Polish legislative election, 1947. Her grandmother, Janina Wójcicka Hoskins, was a Polish-American librarian at the Library of Congress who was responsible for building the largest collection of Polish material in the United States.

Anne E. Wojcicki ( ; born July 28, 1973) is an American entrepreneur who co-founded and serves as CEO of the personal genomics company 23andMe.

安妮·沃西基(英语:Anne Wojcicki,1973年-7月28日),美国生物学家、企业家,基因技术公司23andMe的联合创始人。


艾丽莎·莱奥尼达·赞菲瑞斯库

Early life and education.

Elisa Zamfirescu was born in Galați, Romania on 10 November 1887. Her father, Atanase Leonida, was a career officer while her mother, Matilda Gill, was the daughter of a French-born engineer. She was one of 11 children; among her siblings were Dimitrie Leonida, also an engineer, and Gheorghe Leonida, a sculptor.  Due to prejudices against women in the sciences, Zamfirescu was rejected by the School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest. In 1909 she was accepted at the Royal Academy of Technology Berlin, Charlottenburg. She graduated in 1912, with a degree in engineering. It has been claimed that Zamfirescu was the world's first female engineer, but Englishwoman Nina Cameron Graham also gained a degree in civil engineering in 1912, from the University of Liverpool and the Irish engineer Alice Perry graduated six years before either of them: in 1906.

Career.

Returning to Romania, Zamfirescu worked as an assistant at the Geological Institute of Romania. During World War I, she joined the Red Cross and ran a hospital at Mărășești Romania. In 1917 her hospital received the wounded from the Battle of Mărășești between the German and the Romanian armies. It was a victory by Romania over 28 days during which there were over 12,000 Romanian and over 10,000 of the invaders who were wounded.  Around this time, she met and married chemist Constantin Zamfirescu, brother of the politician and writer Duiliu Zamfirescu.  After the war, Zamfirescu returned to the Geological Institute. She led several geology laboratories and participated in various field studies, including some that identified new resources of coal, shale, natural gas, chromium, bauxite and copper. Zamfirescu also taught physics and chemistry.

Later life and death.

Zamfirescu retired in 1963, aged 75. In retirement she was involved in activism for disarmament. She died at the age of 86 on 25 November 1973.  An award for women working in science and technology was established in her name, the Premiul Elisa Leonida-Zamfirescu.

Honours and awards.

Zamfirescu was the first woman member of A.G.I.R. (General Association of Romanian Engineers). A street in Sector 1 of Bucharest bears her name, and she was honoured with a Google Doodle on the anniversary of her birthday in 2018.

Elisa Leonida Zamfirescu (10 November 1887 – 25 November 1973) was a Romanian engineer who was one of the first women to obtain a degree in engineering. She was born in the Romanian town of Galați but qualified in Berlin. During World War I she managed a hospital in Romania.

艾丽莎·莱奥尼达·赞菲瑞斯库(英语:Elisa Leonida Zamfirescu,1887年-11月10日-1973年-11月25日)是世界上最早的几位女工程师之一。


India.

Most dowry deaths occur when the young woman, unable to bear the harassment and torture, commits suicide. Most of these suicides are by hanging, poisoning or by fire. Sometimes the woman is killed by being set on fire by her husband or inlaws ; this is known as "bride burning", and is sometimes disguised as suicide or accident. Death by burning of Indian women has been more frequently attributed to dowry conflicts. In dowry deaths, the groom's family is the perpetrator of murder or suicide.  India has by far the highest number of dowry-related deaths in the world according to Indian National Crime Record Bureau. In 2012, 8,233 dowry death cases were reported across India. This means a bride was burned every 90 minutes, or dowry issues cause 1.4 deaths per year per 100,000 women in India.  According to a 1996 report by Indian police, every year it receives over 2,500 reports of bride-burning. The Indian National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) reports that there were 8,331 dowry death cases registered in India in 2011. Incidents of dowry deaths during the year 2008 (8,172) have increased by 14.4 per cent over the 1998 level (7,146), while India's population grew at 17.6% over the 10-year period. The accuracy of these figures have received a great deal of scrutiny from critics who believe dowry deaths are consistently under-reported.  Dowry deaths in India are not limited to any specific religion, but are much more common in Hindu and Sikh communities in Northern India, particularly around Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.

Prohibition.

The "Dowry Prohibition Act" of 1961 prohibits the request, payment or acceptance of a dowry, "as consideration for the marriage", where "dowry" is defined as a gift demanded or given as a precondition for a marriage. Gifts given without a precondition are not considered dowry, and are legal. Asking or giving of dowry can be punished by an imprisonment of up to six months, or a fine of up to. It replaced several pieces of anti-dowry legislation that had been enacted by various Indian states. Murder and suicide under compulsion are addressed by India's criminal penal code.  Indian women's rights activists campaigned for more than 40 years for laws to contain dowry deaths, such as the "Dowry Prohibition Act" 1961 and the more stringent Section 498a of Indian Penal Code (enacted in 1983). Under the "Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005" (PWDVA), a woman can put a stop to the dowry harassment by approaching a domestic violence protection officer. However, effectiveness of these laws has been questioned  Although Indian laws against dowries have been in effect for decades, they have been largely criticised as being ineffective. The practice of dowry deaths and murders continues to take place unchecked in many parts of India and this has further added to the concerns of enforcement.

Pakistan.

In Pakistan, the giving and expectation of a dowry (called "Jahez") is part of the culture, with over 95% of marriages in every region of Pakistan involving transfer of a dowry from the bride's family to a groom's family.  Dowry deaths have been rising in Pakistan for decades. Dowry-related violence and deaths have been widespread since Pakistan became an independent nation. At over 2,000 dowry-related deaths per year, and annual rates exceeding 2.45 deaths per 100,000 women from dowry-related violence, Pakistan has the highest reported number of dowry death rates per 100,000 women in the world.  There is some controversy on the dowry death rates in Pakistan. Some publications suggest Pakistan officials do not record dowry deaths, and that the death rates are culturally under-reported and may be significantly higher. For example, Nasrullah reports total average annual stove burn rates of 33 per 100,000 women in Pakistan, of which 49% were intentional, or an average annual rate of about 16 per 100,000 women.  Pakistan's "Dowry and Marriage Gifts (Restriction) Bill", 2008, restricts dowry to PKR 30,000 (~US$300) while the total value of bridal gifts is limited to PKR 50,000. The law made demands for a dowry by the groom's family illegal, as well as public display of dowry before or during the wedding. However, this and similar anti-dowry laws of 1967, 1976 and 1998, as well as "Family Court Act" of 1964 have proven to be unenforceable. Activists such as SACHET, Pakistan claim the police refuse to register and prosecute allegations of dowry-related domestic violence and fatal injuries.  Various military and democratically elected civil governments in Pakistan have tried to outlaw traditional display of dowry and expensive parties ("walima"). One such attempt was the Act of 1997, Ordinance (XV) of 1998 and Ordinance (III) of 1999. These were challenged in the Supreme Court of Pakistan. The petitioner cited a number of hadiths under religious Sharia laws to demonstrate that Islam encouraged "walima" and related customary practices. The petitioner claimed that the Pakistan government's effort to enact these laws are against the injunctions of Islam. The Supreme Court ruled these laws and ordinances unconstitutional.

Bangladesh.

In Bangladesh, dowry is called "joutuk" (Bengali:যৌতুক), and a significant cause of deaths as well. Between 0.6 and 2.8 brides per year per 100,000 women are reported to die because of dowry-related violence in recent years. The methods of death include suicides, fire and other forms of domestic violence. In 2013, Bangladesh reported 4,470 women were victims of dowry-related violence over a 10-month period, or dowry violence victimized about 7.2 brides per year per 100,000 women in Bangladesh.

Iran.

Dowry is an ancient custom of Persia, and locally called "jahâz" (sometimes spelled "jahiziyeh"). Dowry-related violence and deaths in Iran are reported in Iranian newspapers, some of which appear in English media. Kiani et al., in a 2014 study, report dowry deaths in Iran. Iranian director Maryam Zahirimehr's 2018 film "Endless?" addresses trauma related to a dowry death in Iran.

International efforts at eradication.

Reports of incidents of dowry deaths have attracted public interest and sparked a global activist movement seeking to end the practice. Of this activist community, the United Nations (UN) has played a pivotal role in combating violence against women, including dowry deaths.

United Nations.

The United Nations has been an advocate for women's rights since its inception in 1945, explicitly stating so in its Charter's Preamble, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted in 1948), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted in 1966), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (also adopted in 1966) (these three documents are known collectively as the International Bill of Rights) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (2012).  The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), though predominately focused on improving the quality of education available to children globally, has also taken a proactive stance against dowry death. On March 9 (International Women's Day), 2009, at a press conference in Washington D.C., UNICEF's Executive Director, Ann M. Veneman, publicly condemned dowry deaths and the legislative systems which allow the culprits to go unpunished. In 2009, UNICEF launched its first Strategic Priority Action Plan for Gender Equality, which was followed by a second Action Plan in 2010. The aim of these plans has been to make gender equality a higher priority within all international UNICEF programs and functions.

Private organizations.

Amnesty International, in an effort to educate the public, has cited dowry deaths as a major contributor to global violence against women. Also, in their annual human rights evaluations, Amnesty International criticizes India for the occurrences of dowry deaths as well as the impunity provided to its perpetrators.  Human Rights Watch has also criticized the Indian government for its inability to make any progress towards eliminating dowry deaths and its lackluster performance for bringing its perpetrators to justice in 2011. In 2004, the Global Fund for Women launched its "Now or Never" funding project. This campaign hopes to raise funds domestically and consequently finance the efforts of feminist organizations across the globe - including Indian women's rights activists. the Now or Never fund has raised and distributed about $7 million.  A relatively smaller organization, V-Day, has dedicated itself to ending violence against women. By arranging events such as plays, art shows, and workshops in communities and college campuses across the United States, V-Day raises funds and educates the public on topics of gender-based violence including dowry death. Full-length plays on dowry deaths include 'The Bride Who Would Not Burn'

Dowry deaths are deaths of married women who are murdered or driven to suicide by continuous harassment and torture by their husbands and in-laws over a dispute about their dowry, making the women's homes the most dangerous place for them to be. Dowry deaths are found predominantly in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Iran. India reports the highest total number of dowry deaths with 8,391 such deaths reported in 2010, meaning there are 1.4 deaths per 100,000 women. Female dowry deaths account for 40 to 50 percent of all female homicides recorded annually in India, representing a stable trend over the period 1999 to 2016. Adjusted for population, Pakistan, with 2,000 reported such deaths per year, has the highest rate of dowry death at 2.45 per 100,000 women.

嫁妆死亡,是因夫家认为嫁妆不足,直接或间接造成妻子死亡的事件。嫁妆死亡常见于印度、巴基斯坦及孟加拉;在当地,许多妻子因此遭烧死、毒死、泼酸,或死于手术等,但被掩饰为意外事件,而警方或医院也经常配合发出假证明。此类案件受调查的比例低于10%。多数手法为在受害者身上淋煤油并点燃。


Background.

The Ottomans estimated that the population of Constantinople in 1920 was between 800,000 and 1,200,000 inhabitants, having collected population statistics from the various religious bodies. The uncertainty in the figure reflects the uncounted population of war refugees and disagreements as to the boundaries of the city. Half or less were Muslim, the rest being largely Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and Jewish; there had been a substantial Western European population before the war.

Legality of the occupation.

The Armistice of Mudros of 30 October 1918, which ended Ottoman involvement in World, mentions the occupation of Bosphorous fort and Dardanelles fort. That day, Somerset Gough-Calthorpe, the British signatory, stated the Triple Entente's position that they had no intention to dismantle the government or place it under military occupation by "occupying Constantinople". This verbal promise and lack of mention of the occupation of Constantinople in the armistice did not change the realities for the Ottoman Empire. Admiral Somerset Gough-Calthorpe puts the British position as "No kind of favour whatsoever to any Turk and to hold out no hope for them". The Ottoman side returned to the capital with a personal letter from Calthorpe, intended for Rauf Orbay, in which he promised on behalf of the British government that only British and French troops would be used in the occupation of the Straits fortifications. A small number of Ottoman troops could be allowed to stay on in the occupied areas as a symbol of sovereignty.

Military administration.

The Allies did not wait for a peace treaty for claiming the Ottoman territory. Just 13 days after the Armistice of Mudros, a French brigade entered Constantinople on November 12, 1918. The first British troops entered the city on November 13, 1918. Early in December 1918, Allied troops occupied sections of Constantinople and set up an Allied military administration.  On February 7, 1919, an Italian battalion with 19 officers and 740 soldiers landed at the Galata pier; one day later they were joined by 283 Carabinieri, commanded by Colonel Balduino Caprini. The Carabinieri assumed police tasks.  On February 8, 1919, the French general Franchet d' Espèrey entered the city on a horse led by two of his soldiers.  On February 10, 1919, the commission divided the city into 3 zones for police matters: Stambul (the old city) was assigned to the French, Pera-Galata to the British and Kadiköy and Scutari to the Italians.

Somerset Calthorpe, December 1918 – August 1919.

After the armistice, High Commissioner Admiral Somerset Gough-Calthorpe was assigned as the military adviser to Constantinople. His first task was to arrest between 160 and 200 persons from the Government of Tevfik Pasha in January 1919. Among this group, he sent thirty to Malta (Malta exiles).

Establishing authority.

The British rounded up a number of members of the old establishment and interned them in Malta, awaiting their trial for alleged crimes during World. Calthorpe included only Turkish members of the Government of Tevfik Pasha and the military/political personalities. He wanted to send a message that a military occupation was in effect and failure to comply would end with harsh punishment. His position was not shared with other partners. The French Government's response to those accused was "distinction to disadvantage of Muslim-Turks while Bulgarian, Austrian and German offenders were as yet neither arrested nor molested". However, the government and the Sultan understood the message. In February 1919, Allies were informed that the Ottoman Empire was in compliance with its full apparatus to the occupation forces. Any source of conflict (including Armenian questions) would be investigated by a commission, to which neutral governments could attach two legal superintendents. Calthorpe's correspondence to Foreign Office was "The action undertaken for the arrests was very satisfactory, and has, I think, intimidated the Committee of Union and Progress of Constantinople".

Conflict resolution.

Calthorpe's message was fully noted by the Sultan. There was an eastern tradition of presenting gifts to the authority during serious conflicts, sometimes "falling of heads". There was no higher goal than preserving the integrity of the Ottoman Institution. If Calthorpe's anger could be calmed down by foisting the blame on a few members of the Committee of Union and Progress, the Ottoman Empire could thereby receive more lenient treatment at the Paris peace conference. The trials began in Istanbul on April 28, 1919. The prosecution presented "forty-two authenticated documents substantiating the charges therein, many bearing dates, identification of senders of the cipher telegrams and letters, and names of recipients." On July 22, the court-martial found several defendants guilty of subverting constitutionalism by force and found them responsible for massacres. During its whole existence from April 28, 1919 to March 29, 1920, Ottoman trials were performed very poorly and with increasing inefficiency, as presumed guilty people were already intended as a sacrifice to save the Empire. However, as an occupation authority, the historical rightfulness of the Allies was at stake. Calthorpe wrote to London: "proving to be a farce and injurious to our own prestige and to that of the Turkish government". The Allies considered Ottoman trials as a travesty of justice, so Ottoman justice had to be replaced with Western justice by moving the trials to Malta as "International" trials. The "International" trials declined to use any evidence developed by the Ottoman tribunals. When the International trials were staged, Calthorpe was replaced by John de Robeck. John de Robeck said regarding the trials "that its findings cannot be held of any account at all." All of the Malta exiles were released.

A new movement.

Calthorpe was alarmed when he learned that the victor of Gallipoli had become the inspector general for Anatolia, and Mustafa Kemal's behavior during this period did nothing to improve matters. Calthorpe urged that Kemal be recalled. Thanks to friends and sympathizers of Mustafa Kemal's in government circles, a 'compromise' was developed whereby the power of the inspector general was curbed, at least on paper. "Inspector General" became a title that had no power to command. On June 23, 1919, Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe began to understand Kemal and his role in the establishment of the Turkish national movement. He sent a report about Mustafa Kemal to the Foreign Office. His remarks were downplayed by George Kidson of the Eastern Department. Captain Hurst (British army) in Samsun warned Calthorpe one more time about the Turkish national movement, but his units were replaced with a brigade of Gurkhas.  Arthur Gough-Calthorpe was assigned to another position on August 5, 1919 and left Constantinople.

John de Robeck, August 1919–1922.

In August 1919 John de Robeck replaced Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe with the title of "Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean, and High Commissioner at Constantinople". He was responsible for activities regarding Russia and Turkey (Ottoman Empire-Turkish national movement).  John de Robeck was very worried by the defiant mood of the Ottoman parliament. When 1920 arrived, he was concerned by reports that substantial stocks of arms were reaching Turkish revolutionaries, some from French and Italian sources. In one of his letters to London, he asked: "Against whom would these sources be employed?"  In London, the Conference of London (February 1920) took place; it featured discussions about settling the treaty terms to be offered in San Remo. John de Robeck reminded participants that Anatolia was moving into a resistance stage. There were arguments of "National Pact" (Misak-ı Milli) circulating, and if these were solidified, it would take a longer time and more resources to handle the case (partitioning of the Ottoman Empire). He tried to persuade the leaders to take quick action and control the Sultan and pressure the rebels (from both directions). This request posed awkward problems at the highest level: promises for national sovereignty were on the table and the United States was fast withdrawing into isolation.

Treaty of Sevres.

Ottoman parliament of 1920.

The newly elected Ottoman parliament in Constantinople did not recognize the occupation; they developed a National Pact (Misak-ı Milli). They adopted six principles, which called for self-determination, the security of Constantinople, the opening of the Straits, and the abolition of the capitulations. While in Constantinople, self-determination and protection of the Ottoman Empire were voiced; the Khilafat Movement in India tried to influence the British government to protect the caliphate of the Ottoman empire, and although it was mainly a Muslim religious movement, the Khilafat struggle was becoming a part of the wider Indian independence movement. Both these two movements (Misak-ı Milli and the Khilafat Movement) shared a lot of notions on the ideological level, and during the Conference of London (February 1920) Allies concentrated on these issues.  The Ottoman Empire lost World, but Misak-ı Milli with the local Khilafat Movement was still fighting the Allies.

Solidification of the partitioning, February 1920.

The plans for partitioning of the Ottoman Empire needed to be solidified. At the Conference of London on March 4, 1920, the Triple Entente decided to implement its previous (secret) agreements and form what would be the Treaty of Sèvres. In doing so, all forms of resistance originating from the Ottoman Empire (rebellions, Sultan, etc.) had to be dismantled. The Allies' military forces in Constantinople ordered that the necessary actions be taken; also the political side increased efforts to put the Treaty of Sèvres into writing.  On the political side, negotiations for the Treaty of Sèvres presumed a Greek (Christian administration), a French-Armenian (Christian administration), Italian occupation region (Christian administration) and Wilsonian Armenia (Christian administration) over what was the Ottoman Empire (Muslim administration). Muslim citizens of the Ottoman Empire perceived this plan as losing their sovereignty. British intelligence registered the Turkish national movement as a movement of the Muslim citizens of Anatolia. The Muslim unrest all around Anatolia brought two arguments to the British government regarding the new establishments: the Muslim administration (Ottoman Empire) was not safe for Christians; the Treaty of Sèvres was the only way that Christians could be safe. Enforcing the Treaty of Sèvres could not happen without repressing Mustafa Kemal's (Turkish Revolutionaries) national movement.  On the military side the British claimed that if the Allies could not control Anatolia at that time, they could at least control Constantinople. The plan was step by step beginning from İstanbul, dismantle every organization and slowly move deep into Anatolia. That meant facing what will be called the Turkish War of Independence. The British foreign department was asked to devise a plan to ease this path, and developed the same plan that they had used during the Arab revolt. This policy of breaking down authority by separating the Sultan from his government, and working different millets against each other, such as the Christian millet against the Muslim millet, was the best solution if minimal British force was to be used.

Military occupation of Constantinople.

Dissolution of the parliament, March 1920.

The Telegram House was occupied on March 14. On the night of March 15 British troops began to occupy the key buildings and arrest Turkish nationalists. It was a very messy operation. The 10th division and military music school resisted the arrest. At least 10 students were killed by gunfire from British Indian troops. The total death toll is unknown. On March 18 the Ottoman parliament met and sent a protest to the Allies: "it was unacceptable to arrest five of its members", declared the parliament. This marked the end of the Ottoman political system. The British move on the parliament left the Sultan as sole controller of the Empire; without parliament the Sultan stood alone with the British. Beginning with March 18, the Sultan became the puppet of the British foreign department, saying, "There would be no one left to blame for what will be coming soon"; the Sultan revealed his own version of the declaration of dissolution on April 11, after approximately 150 politicians were exiled to Malta.  The dissolution of the parliament was followed by the raid and closing of the journal "Yeni Gün" ("New Day"). "Yeni Gün" was owned by Yunus Nadi Abalıoğlu, an influential journalist, and was the main media organ publishing the news to the outside world.

Official declaration, March 16, 1920.

On March 16, 1920, the third day of hostilities, the Allied forces declared the occupation:

Enforcing the peace treaty.

Early pressure on the insurgency, April–June 1920.

The British argued that the insurgency of the Turkish revolutionaries should be suppressed by local forces in Anatolia, with the help of British training and arms. In response to a formal British request, the Constantinople government appointed an extraordinary Anatolian general inspector Süleyman Şefik Pasha and a new Security Army, Kuva-i Inzibatiye, to enforce central government control with British support. The British also supported local guerrilla groups in the Anatolian heartland (they were officially called 'independent armies') with money and arms.  Ultimately, these forces were unsuccessful in quelling the nationalist movement. A clash outside İzmit quickly escalated, with British forces opening fire on the nationalists, and bombing them from the air. Although the attack forced the nationalists to retreat, the weakness of the British position had been made apparent. The British commander, General George Milne, asked for reinforcements of at least twenty-seven divisions. However, the British government was unwilling to channel these forces, as a deployment of this size could have had political consequences that were beyond the British government's capacity to handle.  Some Circassian exiles, who had emigrated to the Empire after the Circassian genocide may have supported the British—notably Ahmet Anzavur, who led the Kuva-i Inzibatiye and ravaged the countryside. Others, such as Hussein Reuf Orbay, who was of Ubykh descent, remained loyal to Atatürk, and was exiled to Malta in 1920 when British forces took the city. The British were quick to accept the fact that the nationalistic movement, which had hardened during World, could not be faced without the deployment of consistent and well-trained forces. On June 25 the Kuva-i Inzibatiye was dismantled on the advice of the British, as they were becoming a liability.

Presentation of the treaty to the Sultan, June 1920.

The treaty terms were presented to the Sultan in the middle of June. The treaty was harsher than anyone expected. However, because of the military pressure placed on the insurgency from April to June 1920, the Allies did not expect that there would be any serious opposition.  In the meantime, however, Mustafa Kemal had set up a rival government in Ankara, with the Grand National Assembly. On October 18, the government of Damat Ferid Pasha was replaced by a provisional ministry under Ahmed Tevfik Pasha as Grand Vizier, who announced an intention to convoke the Senate with the purpose of ratification of the Treaty, provided that national unity be achieved. This required seeking cooperation with Mustafa Kemal. The latter expressed disdain to the Treaty and started a military assault. As a result, the Turkish Government issued a note to the Entente that the ratification of the Treaty was impossible at that time.

End of the occupation.

The success of the Turkish National Movement against the French and Greeks was followed by their forces threatening the Allied forces at Chanak. The British decided to resist any attempt to penetrate the neutral zone of the Straits. Kemal was persuaded by the French to order his forces to avoid any incident at Chanak. Nevertheless, the Chanak Crisis nearly resulted in hostilities, these being avoided on October 11, 1922, when the Armistice of Mudanya was signed, bringing the Turkish War of Independence to an end. The handling of this crisis caused the collapse of David Lloyd George's Ministry on October 19, 1922.  Following the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922), the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in Ankara abolished the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, and the last Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed VI, was expelled from the city. Leaving aboard the British warship HMS "Malaya" on 17 November 1922, he went into exile and died in Sanremo, Italy, on 16 May 1926.  Negotiations for a new peace treaty with Turkey began at the Conference of Lausanne on 20 November 1922 and reopened after a break on 23 April 1923. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923. Under the terms of the treaty, Allied forces started evacuating Constantinople on 23 August 1923 and completed the task on 4 October 1923 – British, Italian, and French troops departing "pari passu".  Turkish forces of the Ankara government, commanded by Şükrü Naili Pasha (3rd Corps), entered the city with a ceremony on 6 October 1923, which has been marked as the "Liberation Day" of Istanbul (Turkish: "İstanbul'un Kurtuluşu") and is commemorated every year on its anniversary. On 29 October 1923 the Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the establishment of the Turkish Republic, with Ankara as its capital. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk became the Republic's first President.

List of Allied High Commissioners.

France: Italy: United Kingdom: Kingdom of Greece:

The occupation of Constantinople () (November 13, 1918 – October 4, 1923), the capital of the Ottoman Empire, by British, French and Italian forces, took place in accordance with the Armistice of Mudros, which ended Ottoman participation in the First World War. The first French troops entered the city on November 12, 1918, followed by British troops the next day. The Italian troops landed in Galata on February 7, 1919.

占领君士坦丁堡(1918年11月13日 – 1923年10月4日)是在穆德洛斯停战协定签订后,英国和法国占领奥斯曼帝国首都,奥斯曼帝国退出第一次世界大战。1918年11月2日法军开始进入该市,英军于次日进驻。占领分为两个阶段:从1918年11月13日到1920年3月16日,是根据停战协定的占领;从1920年3月16日,是根据色佛尔条约的占领,直到1923年7月24日签署洛桑条约。1923年10月4日,最后一支协约国军队撤出该市。1923年10月6日,土耳其国民运动军队进驻该市。