Gameplay.

"Final Fantasy" has four basic game modes: an overworld map, town and dungeon maps, a battle screen, and a menu screen. The overworld map is a scaled-down version of the game's fictional world, which the player uses to direct characters to various locations. The primary means of travel across the overworld is by foot; a ship, a canoe, and an airship become available as the player progresses. With the exception of some battles in preset locations or with bosses, enemies are randomly encountered on field maps and on the overworld map when traveling by foot, canoe, or ship, and must either be fought or fled from.  The game's plot develops as the player progresses through towns and dungeons. Some town citizens offer helpful information, while others own shops that sell items or equipment. Dungeons appear in areas that include forests, caves, mountains, swamps, underwater caverns, and buildings. Dungeons often have treasure chests containing rare items that are not available in most stores. The game's menu screen allows the player to keep track of their experience points and levels, to choose which equipment their characters wield, and to use items and magic. A character's most basic attribute is their level, which can range from one to fifty, and is determined by the character's amount of experience. Gaining a level increases the character's attributes, such as their maximum hit points (HP), which represents a character's remaining health; a character dies when they reach zero HP. Characters gain experience points by winning battles.  Combat in "Final Fantasy" is menu-based: the player selects an action from a list of options such as Attack, Magic, and Item. Battles are turn-based and continue until either side flees or is defeated. If the player's party wins, each character will gain not only experience but also money, which is known as Gil in the "Final Fantasy" universe; if it flees, it will be returned to the map screen; and if every character in the party dies, the game will be over and all unsaved progress will be lost. "Final Fantasy" was the first game to show the player's characters on the right side of the screen and the enemies on the left side of the screen, as opposed to a first-person view.  The player begins the game by choosing four characters to form a party and is locked into that choice for the duration of the game. Each character has an "occupation", or character class, with different attributes and abilities that are either innate or can be acquired. There are six classes: Fighter, Thief, Black Belt, Red Mage, White Mage, and Black Mage. Later in the game, the player has the option to have each character undergo a "class upgrade"; whereby their sprite portraits mature, and some classes gain the ability to use weapons and magic that they previously could not use. The game contains a variety of weapons, armor, and items that can be bought or found to make the characters more powerful in combat. Each character has eight inventory slots, with four to hold weapons and four to hold armor. Each character class has restrictions on what weapons and armor it may use. Some weapons and armor are magical; if used during combat, they will cast spells. Other magical artifacts provide protection, such as from certain spells. At shops, the characters can buy items to help themselves recover while they are traveling. Items available include potions, which heal the characters or remove ailments like poison or petrification; Tents and Cottages, which can be used on the world map to heal the player and optionally save the game; and Houses, which also recovers the party's magic after saving. Special items may be gained by doing quests.  Magic is a common ability in the game, and several character classes use it. Spells are divided into two groups: White, which is defensive and healing, and Black, which is debilitating and destructive. Magic can be bought from White and Black magic shops and assigned to characters whose occupation allows them to use it. Spells are classified by a level between one and eight, with four White and four Black spells per level. Each character may learn only three spells per level. White and Black Mages can potentially learn any of their respective spells, while Red Mages, the Ninja, and the Knight cannot use most high-level magic.

Plot.

Setting.

"Final Fantasy" takes place in a fantasy world with three large continents. The elemental powers of this world are determined by the state of four crystals, each governing one of the four classical elements: earth, fire, water, and wind. The world of "Final Fantasy" is inhabited by numerous races, including humans, elves, dwarves, mermaids, dragons, and robots. Most non-human races have only one "town" in the game, although individuals are sometimes found in human towns or other areas as well. Four hundred years prior to the start of the game, the Lefeinish people, who used the Power of Wind to craft airships and a giant space station (called the Floating Castle in the game), watched their country decline as the Wind crystal went dark. Two hundred years later, violent storms sank a massive shrine that served as the center of an ocean-based civilization, and the Water crystal went dark. The Earth crystal and the Fire crystal followed, plaguing the earth with raging wildfires, and devastating the agricultural town of Melmond as the plains and vegetation decayed. Some time later, the sage Lukahn tells of a prophecy that four Light Warriors will come to save the world in a time of darkness.

Story.

The game begins with the appearance of the four youthful Light Warriors, the heroes of the story, who each carry one of the darkened Orbs. Initially, the Light Warriors have access to the Kingdom of Coneria and the ruined Temple of Fiends. After the Warriors rescue Princess Sara from the evil knight Garland, the King of Coneria builds a bridge that enables the Light Warriors' passage east to the town of Pravoka. There the Light Warriors liberate the town from Bikke and his band of pirates and acquire the pirates' ship for their own use. The Warriors now embark on a chain of delivery quests on the shores of the Aldi Sea. First, they retrieve a stolen crown from the Marsh Cave for a king in a ruined castle, who turns out to be the dark elf Astos. Defeating him gains them the Crystal Eye, which they return to the blind witch Matoya in exchange for a herb needed to awaken the elf prince cursed by Astos. The elf prince gives the Light Warriors the Mystic Key, which is capable of unlocking any door. The key unlocks a storage room in Coneria Castle which holds TNT. Nerrick, one of the dwarves of the Cave of Dwarf/Dwarf Village, destroys a small isthmus using the TNT, connecting the Aldi Sea to the outside world.  After visiting the near-ruined town of Melmond, the Light Warriors go to the Earth Cave to defeat a vampire and retrieve the Star Ruby, which gains passage to Sage Sadda's cave. With Sadda's Rod, the Warriors venture deeper into the Earth Cave and destroy the Earth Fiend, Lich. The Light Warriors then obtain a canoe and enter Gurgu Volcano and defeat the Fire Fiend, Kary. The Levistone from the nearby Ice Cave allows them to raise an airship to reach the northern continents. After they prove their courage by retrieving the Rat's Tail from the Castle of Ordeal, the King of the Dragons, Bahamut, promotes each Light Warrior. A kind gesture is repaid by a fairy, receiving special liquid that produces oxygen, and the Warriors use it to help defeat the Water Fiend, Kraken, in the Sunken Shrine. They also recover a Slab, which allows a linguist named Dr. Unne to teach them the Lefeinish language. The Lefeinish give the Light Warriors access to the Floating Castle that Tiamat, the Wind Fiend, has taken over. With the Four Fiends defeated and the Orbs restored, a portal opens in the Temple of Fiends which takes them 2000 years into the past. There the Warriors discover that the Four Fiends sent Garland (now the archdemon Chaos) back in time and he sent the Fiends to the future to do so, creating a time loop by which he could live forever. The Light Warriors defeat Chaos, thus ending the paradox, and return home. By ending the paradox, however, the Light Warriors have changed the future to one where their heroic deeds remain unknown outside of legend.

Development.

Creation.

Hironobu Sakaguchi had intended to make a role-playing game (RPG) for a long time, but his employer Square refused to give him permission as it expected low sales of such a product. However, when the RPG "Dragon Quest" was released and proved to be a hit in Japan, the company reconsidered its stance on the genre and approved Sakaguchi's vision of an RPG inspired by "" and "". Only three of his colleagues volunteered to join this project headed by him because he was thought of as a "rough boss" in spite of his unsuccessful creations. Eventually, "Final Fantasy" was developed by a team of seven core staff members within Square referred to as the "A-Team". Sakaguchi convinced fellow game designers Koichi Ishii and Akitoshi Kawazu to join the project. Kawazu was mainly responsible for the battle system and sequences, which he based heavily on the tabletop game "Dungeons & Dragons" and the RPG "Wizardry". For example, enemies' weaknesses to elements such as fire and ice had not been included in Japanese RPGs up until that point. Kawazu had grown fond of such aspects of Western RPGs and decided to incorporate them into "Final Fantasy". He also advocated the player's option to freely choose their own party member classes at the beginning of the game as he feels "the fun in an RPG begins when you create a character".  The scenario was written by freelance writer Kenji Terada, based on a story by Sakaguchi. Ishii heavily influenced the game's setting with his idea of the crystals. He also suggested illustrator Yoshitaka Amano as character designer, but Sakaguchi declined at first as he had never heard the artist's name before. When Sakaguchi showed Ishii some drawings on magazine clippings and told him that this was the art style he was looking for, Ishii revealed to him that these were actually created by Amano, hence leading to his involvement in the game. The music for "Final Fantasy" was composed by Nobuo Uematsu and marked his 16th video game music composition. Iranian-American programmer Nasir Gebelli was hired to code the game. He initially tried to understand all aspects of the gameplay but was soon advised by Sakaguchi to just program the design concepts so he did not have to explain everything to Gebelli in detail. Gebelli was also responsible for creating what is considered to be the first RPG minigame, a sliding puzzle, which he added into the game despite it not being part of the original game design. Among the other developers were graphic designer Kazuko Shibuya, programmers Kiyoshi Yoshii and Ken Narita, as well as debugger Hiroyuki Ito. When the project started to show promise, designer Hiromichi Tanaka and his "B-Team" joined to aid development. The lack of faith in Sakaguchi's team, as well as its unpopularity within the company, motivated the staff members to give their best.

Release.

Sakaguchi took an in-development ROM of the game to Japanese magazine "Famicom Tsushin", but it would not review it. However, "Famitsu" gave the game extensive coverage. Initially, only 200,000 copies were to be shipped, but Sakaguchi pleaded with the company to make 400,000 to help spawn a sequel, and the management agreed, then the original NES version successfully shipped 520,000 copies in Japan. Following the successful North American localization of "Dragon Quest", Nintendo of America translated "Final Fantasy" into English and published it in North America in 1990. The North American version of "Final Fantasy" met with modest success, partly due to Nintendo's then-aggressive marketing tactics. No version of the game was marketed in the PAL region until Final Fantasy Origins in 2003.

Title.

Over the years, several theories emerged as to why the game was called "Final Fantasy". In 2015, Sakaguchi stated that, from the beginning, the team had wished for a name that could be shortened to ; that way, the game's title could be abbreviated in the Latin script and pronounced in four syllables in the Japanese language. The original working title for Sakaguchi's RPG concept was "Fighting Fantasy", but it was changed to avoid issues with a tabletop game of the same name that had already been released. The reason for choosing the word "final" to form the eventual title of "Final Fantasy" was explained as twofold by Uematsu: for one thing, it stemmed from Sakaguchi's personal situation, as he would have quit the game industry and gone back to university had the game not sold well, and for another, Square was under the threat of bankruptcy at the time, which meant the game could have been the company's last. Although Sakaguchi confirmed some of the theories, he later downplayed the rationale for choosing the word "final", saying that "it was definitely a back-to-the-wall type situation back then, but any word that starts with an 'F' would have been fine".

Versions and re-releases.

"Final Fantasy" has been remade several times for different platforms and has frequently been packaged with "Final Fantasy II" in various collections. While all of these remakes retain the same basic story and battle mechanics, various changes have been made in different areas, including graphics, sound, and specific game elements.  "Final Fantasy" was first re-released for the MSX2 system and was published by Microcabin in Japan in June 1989. It had access to almost three times as much storage space as the Famicom version but suffered from problems not present in Nintendo's cartridge media, including noticeable loading times. There were also minor graphical upgrades, much-improved music tracks, and sound effects.  In 1994, "Final Fantasy I・II", a compilation of "Final Fantasy" and "Final Fantasy II", was launched for the Famicom. This version was only released in Japan and had very few graphical updates.  The WonderSwan Color remake was released in Japan on December 9, 2000, and featured many new graphical changes. The 8-bit graphics of the original Famicom game were updated, battle scenes incorporated full background images, and character and enemy sprites were redrawn to look more like the ones from the Super Famicom "Final Fantasy" games.  In Japan, "Final Fantasy" and "Final Fantasy II" were re-released both separately and as a combined game for the PlayStation. The collection was released in Japan in 2002 as Final Fantasy I & II Premium Package and in Europe and North America in 2003 as Final Fantasy Origins. This version was similar to the WonderSwan Color remake and featured several changes such as more detailed graphics, a remixed soundtrack, added full motion video sequences, art galleries of Yoshitaka Amano's illustrations, and a memo save function. On December 18, 2012, the port was re-released as part of the "Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Ultimate Box" release.  "Final Fantasy I & II: Dawn of Souls" is, like "Final Fantasy Origins", a port of the first two games in the series and was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004. The "Dawn of Souls" version incorporates various new elements, including four additional dungeons, an updated bestiary, and a few minor changes.  Square Enix released a version of "Final Fantasy" for two Japanese mobile phone networks in 2004; a version for NTT DoCoMo FOMA 900i series was launched in March under the title "Final Fantasy i" and a subsequent release for CDMA 1X WIN-compatible phones was launched in August. Another titular version was released for SoftBank Yahoo! Keitai phones on July 3, 2006. The games have more refined graphics compared to the original 8-bit game, but not as advanced as many of the later console and handheld ports.  Square Enix planned to release this version for North American mobile phones in 2006, but it was delayed to 2010 and released in collaboration with Namco. It retains the game difficulty and "spell level"-based magic system from the original Famicom version. Other elements such as updated graphics, spell names, and monster names are borrowed from the Game Boy Advance / Wonderswan Color versions, not including the additional dungeons, monsters and items present in the GBA version. Game data is saved as in the original Famicom version (by using Tent, Sleeping Bag, and Cottage or by going into an inn). However, there are now three save game slots and a "Temporary Save" option available in the game.  For the 20th anniversary of "Final Fantasy", Square Enix remade "Final Fantasy" and "Final Fantasy II" for the PlayStation Portable. The games were released in Japan and North America in 2007, and in European territories in 2008. The PSP version features higher-resolution 2D graphics, full motion video sequences, a remixed soundtrack, and a new dungeon as well as the bonus dungeons from "Dawn of Souls". The script is the same as in the "Dawn of Souls" version, aside from the new dungeon.  Square Enix released the original NES version of the game on the Wii's Virtual Console service in Japan on May 26, 2009, in North America on October 5, 2009 and in the PAL region as an import on May 7, 2010.  On February 25, 2010, Square Enix released the iOS version of "Final Fantasy", based on the PSP port with touch controls, worldwide. On June 13, 2012, Square Enix released the Windows Phone version, which is based on the iOS version. On July 27, 2012, Square Enix released an Android port, largely based on the iOS version though lacking the new dungeons of the 20th-anniversary edition.  On November 11, 2016, the game (alongside 29 other games) was included in the NES Classic Edition / Nintendo Classic Mini: Nintendo Entertainment System released by Nintendo.

Reception.

"Final Fantasy" has been well received by critics and commercially successful; the original NES version shipped 520,000 copies in Japan. According to Square's publicity department, the Japanese Famicom and MSX releases sold a combined 600,000 copies, and the North American NES release sold 700,000 copies. As of March 31, 2003, the game, including all re-releases and remakes at the time, had shipped 1.99 million copies worldwide, with 1.21 million of those copies being shipped in Japan and 780,000 abroad. As of November 19, 2007, another PlayStation Portable version has shipped 140,000 copies.  Editors at IGN ranked "Final Fantasy" the 11th best game on the NES, calling the game's class system diverse, and praising its convenient use of vehicles as a means of traveling across the world map. GamesRadar ranked it the eighth best NES game ever made. The staff felt that while "Dragon Warrior" introduced gamers to the genre, "Final Fantasy" popularized it. In 2004, readers of "Retro Gamer" voted "Final Fantasy" 93rd top retro game, with the staff noting that "despite poor visuals and a relatively simple quest, many still consider the original to be the best (with the exception of "FFVII")." In 2006, "Final Fantasy" appeared in the Japanese magazine "Famitsu"s Top 100 games list, where readers voted it the 63rd best game of all time. GameFAQs users made a similar list in 2005, which ranked "Final Fantasy" at 76th. It was rated the 49th best game made on a Nintendo system in "Nintendo Power"s Top 200 Games list. In 2008, "Nintendo Power" ranked it the 19th best Nintendo Entertainment System video game, praising it for setting up the basics of console role-playing games, along with "Dragon Warrior", and citing examples such as epic stories, leveling up, random battles, and character classes.  "Final Fantasy" was one of the most influential early console role-playing games and played a major role in legitimizing and popularizing the genre. According to IGN's Matt Casamassina, "Final Fantasy"s storyline had a deeper and more engaging story than the original "Dragon Quest" (known as "Dragon Warrior" in North America). Modern critics have pointed out that the game is poorly paced by contemporary standards, and involves much more time wandering in search of random battle encounters to raise their experience levels and money than it does exploring and solving puzzles. Other reviewers find the level-building and exploration portions of the game as the most amusing ones. In 1987, "Famitsu" initially described the original "Final Fantasy" as "one of many" that imitated the "Dragon Quest" formula. The game is considered by some to be the weakest and most difficult installment of the series.  The subsequent versions of "Final Fantasy" have garnered mostly favorable reviews from the media. Peer Schneider of "IGN" enjoyed the WonderSwan Color version, praising its graphical improvements, especially the environments, characters, and monsters. "Famitsu" scored this version a 30 out of 40. Final Fantasy Origins was generally well-received; "GamePro" said the music was "fantastic", and that the graphics had a "suitably retro cuteness to them." Reviews for were generally positive, with Jeremy Dunham of "IGN" giving particular praise to the improved English translation, saying it was better than any previous version of the game. The PlayStation Portable version was not as critically successful as the previous releases; GameSpot's Kevin VanOrd cited the visuals as its strongest enhancement but stated that the additional random enemy encounters and updated graphics did not add much value. The "Dawn of Souls" package was rated 76th in "Nintendo Power"s Top 200 Games list.

Legacy.

A soundtrack album was released together with the score of "Final Fantasy II" in 1989. Some of the game's tracks became mainstays to the "Final Fantasy" series: the "Prelude", the arpeggio played on the title screen; the "Opening Theme", which is played when the party crosses the bridge early in the game and later referred to as the "Final Fantasy" theme; and the "Victory Fanfare", which is played after every victorious battle. The opening motif of the battle theme has also been reused a number of times in the series. "Final Fantasy" was also the basis for the series finale of a video game-themed cartoon series "" entitled "The Fractured Fantasy of Captain N". "8-Bit Theater", a sprite-based webcomic created by Brian Clevinger, parodies the game, and has become very popular in the gaming community since it started in March 2001.  Elements from the video game have also appeared in a series of fighting games: "Dissidia Final Fantasy", "Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy" and "Dissidia Final Fantasy NT". Warrior of Light, based on Yoshitaka Amano's design of the lead character, and Garland are the respective hero and villain representing "Final Fantasy". Warrior of Light is voiced by Toshihiko Seki in the Japanese version and Grant George in the English version, while Garland is voiced by Kenji Utsumi ("Dissidia Final Fantasy" and "012 Dissidia Final Fantasy") and Kōji Ishii ("Dissidia Final Fantasy NT") in the Japanese versions and Christopher Sabat in the English versions. All the games add background information to the world of "Final Fantasy". For instance, "Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy" names the world of "Final Fantasy" "World A" in order to distinguish it from World B, the world of "Dissidia". Characters and music from "Final Fantasy" have also appeared in the "Theatrhythm Final Fantasy" series.

Final Fantasy is a fantasy role-playing video game developed and published by Square in 1987. It is the first game in Square's "Final Fantasy" series, created by Hironobu Sakaguchi. Originally released for the NES, "Final Fantasy" was remade for several video game consoles and is frequently packaged with "Final Fantasy II" in video game collections. The story follows four youths called the Light Warriors, who each carry one of their world's four elemental orbs which have been darkened by the four Elemental Fiends. Together, they quest to defeat these evil forces, restore light to the orbs, and save their world.

是由坂口博信创作,史克威尔(现史克威尔艾尼克斯)开发,并于1987年在日本首发的奇幻电子角色扮演游戏。游戏是最终幻想系列的首作,故另有《Final Fantasy I》、《Final Fantasy 1》(简称FF1)的别称。游戏于FC游戏机平台首发,之后又重制于数个主机平台,并经常和《最终幻想II》打包作为电子游戏合集发行。游戏故事讲述了四个称为光之战士的年轻人的故事,他们分别持有世界上四个被四元素恶魔黑暗化的元素水晶。他们一起旅行击败这些邪恶势力,让水晶重新放出光芒,并拯救世界。


History.

An Army, Navy, and Marine Corps were established in 1775, in concurrence with the American Revolution. The War Department, headed by the secretary of war, was created by Act of Congress in 1789 and was responsible for both the Army and Navy until the founding of a separate Department of the Navy in 1798.  Based on the experiences of World War II, proposals were soon made on how to more effectively manage the large combined military establishment. The Army generally favored centralization while the Navy had institutional preferences for decentralization and the status quo. The resulting National Security Act of 1947 was largely a compromise between these divergent viewpoints. It renamed the Department of War the Department of the Army, and added both it and the Department of the Navy to a newly-established National Military Establishment (NME). The Act also separated the Army Air Forces from the Army to become its own branch of service, the United States Air Force.  A new title was coined by the Act for the head of the NME: Secretary of Defense. At first, each of the service secretaries maintained cabinet status. The first secretary of defense, James Forrestal, who in his previous capacity as the secretary of the Navy had opposed creation of the new position, found it difficult to exercise authority over the other branches with the limited powers his office had at the time. To address this and other problems, the National Security Act was amended in 1949 to further consolidate the national defense structure in order to reduce interservice rivalry, directly subordinate the secretaries of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force to the secretary of defense in the chain of command, and rename the National Military Establishment as the Department of Defense, making it one Executive Department. The position of the deputy secretary of defense, the number two position in the department, was also created at this time.  The general trend since 1949 has been to further centralize management in the Department of Defense, elevating the status and authorities of civilian OSD appointees and defense-wide organizations at the expense of the military departments and the services within them. The last major revision of the statutory framework concerning the position was done in the Goldwater–Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986. In particular, it elevated the status of joint service for commissioned officers, making it in practice a requirement before appointments to general officer and flag officer grades could be made.

Powers and functions.

The secretary of defense, appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate, is by federal law () the head of the Department of Defense, "the principal assistant to the President in all matters relating to Department of Defense", and has "authority, direction and control over the Department of Defense". Because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the president, the statutory authority of the secretary of defense is derived from their constitutional authorities. Since it is impractical for either Congress or the president to participate in every piece of Department of Defense affairs, the secretary of defense, and the secretary's subordinate officials generally exercise military authority.  As the head of DoD, all officials, employees and service members are "under" the secretary of defense. Some of those high-ranking officials, civil and military (outside of OSD and the Joint Staff) are: the secretary of the Army, secretary of the Navy, and secretary of the Air Force, Army chief of staff, commandant of the Marine Corps, chief of naval operations, and Air Force chief of staff, chief of the National Guard Bureau and the combatant commanders of the Combatant Commands. All of these high-ranking positions, civil and military, require Senate confirmation.  The Department of Defense is composed of the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD), the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and the Joint Staff (JS), Office of the Inspector General (DODIG), the Combatant Commands, the Military Departments (Department of the Army (DA), Department of the Navy (DON) & Department of the Air Force (DAF)), the Defense Agencies and DoD Field Activities, the National Guard Bureau (NGB), and such other offices, agencies, activities, organizations, and commands established or designated by law, or by the president or by the secretary of defense.  Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the organizational relationships within the Department, and is the foundational issuance for delineating the major functions of the Department. The latest version, signed by former secretary of defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987.

Office of the Secretary of Defense.

The secretary's principally civilian staff element is called the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) and is composed of the deputy secretary of defense (DEPSECDEF) and five under secretaries of defense in the fields of acquisition, technology & logistics, comptroller/chief financial officer, intelligence, personnel & readiness, and policy; several assistant secretaries of defense; other directors and the staffs under them.  The name of the principally military staff organization, organized under the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, is the Joint Staff (JS).

Awards and decorations.

The Defense Distinguished Service Medal (DDSM), the Defense Superior Service Medal (DSSM), the Defense Meritorious Service Medal (DMSM), the Joint Service Commendation Medal (JSCM) and the Joint Service Achievement Medal (JSAM) are awarded, to military personnel for service in joint duty assignments, in the name of the secretary of defense. In addition, there is the Joint Meritorious Unit Award (JMUA), which is the only ribbon (as in non-medal) and unit award issued to joint DoD activities, also issued in the name of the secretary of defense.  The DDSM is analogous to the distinguished services medals issued by the military departments (i.e. Army Distinguished Service Medal, Navy Distinguished Service Medal & Air Force Distinguished Service Medal), the DSSM corresponds to the Legion of Merit, the DMSM to the Meritorious Service Medal, the JSCM to the service commendation medals, and the JSAM to the achievement medals issued by the services. While the approval authority for DSSM, DMSM, JSCM, JSAM and JMUA is delegated to inferior DoD officials: the DDSM can only be awarded by the secretary of defense.  Recommendations for the Medal of Honor (MOH), formally endorsed in writing by the secretary of the military department concerned and the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, are processed through the under secretary of defense for personnel and readiness, and such recommendations be must approved by the secretary of defense before it can be handed over to the president, who is the final approval authority for the MOH, although it is awarded in the name of Congress.  The secretary of defense, with the concurrence of the secretary of state, is the approval authority for the acceptance and wear of NATO medals issued by the secretary general of NATO and offered to the U.S. permanent representative to NATO in recognition of U.S. servicemembers who meet the eligibility criteria specified by NATO.

Congressional committees.

As the head of the department, the secretary of defense is the chief witness for the congressional committees with oversight responsibilities over the Department of Defense. The most important committees, with respect to the entire department, are the two authorizing committees, the Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC) and the House Armed Services Committee (HASC), and the two appropriations committees, the Senate Appropriations Committee and the House Appropriations Committee.  For the DoD intelligence programs the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence and the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence have the principal oversight role.

National Security Council.

The secretary of defense is a statutory member of the National Security Council. As one of the principals, the secretary along with the vice president, secretary of state and the assistant to the president for national security affairs participates in biweekly Principals Committee (PC) meetings, preparing and coordinating issues before they are brought before full NSC sessions chaired by the president.

Role in the military justice system.

The secretary is one of only five or six civilians—the others being the president, the three "service secretaries" (the secretary of the Army, secretary of the Navy, and secretary of the Air Force), and the secretary of homeland security (when the United States Coast Guard is under the United States Department of Homeland Security and has not been transferred to the Department of the Navy under the Department of Defense)—authorized to act as convening authority in the military justice system for General Courts-Martial (: article 22, UCMJ), Special Courts-Martial (: article 23, UCMJ), and Summary Courts-Martial (: article 24 UCMJ).

Amenities.

Salary.

Secretary of Defense is a Level I position of the Executive Schedule, and thus earns a salary of $210,700 per year as of January 2018.

List of secretaries of defense.

The longest-serving secretary of defense is Robert McNamara, who served for a total of 7 years, 39 days. Combining his two non-sequential services as the secretary of defense, the second-longest serving is Donald Rumsfeld, who served just ten days fewer than McNamara. The second-longest unbroken tenure was Caspar Weinberger's, at 6 years, 306 days.  The shortest-serving secretary of defense is Elliot Richardson, who served 114 days and then was appointed U.S. attorney general amid the resignations of the Watergate Scandal. (This is not counting deputy secretaries of defense William P. Clements and William Howard Taft IV, who each served a few weeks as temporary/acting secretary of defense).

Succession.

Presidential succession.

The secretary of defense is sixth in the presidential line of succession, following the secretary of the treasury and preceding the attorney general.

Secretary of Defense succession.

In of March 1, 2010, President Barack Obama modified the line of succession regarding who would act as the secretary of defense in the event of a vacancy or incapacitation, thus reversing the changes made by President George W. Bush in as to the relative positions of the secretaries of the military departments. All of the officials in the line of succession are civilians appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate:

Living former secretaries of defense.

As of, there are nine living former secretaries of defense, the oldest being William Perry (1994–1997, born 1927). The most recent secretary of defense to die was Harold Brown (1977–1981), on January 4, 2019.

The secretary of defense (SecDef) is the leader and chief executive officer of the United States Department of Defense, the executive department of the Armed Forces of the U.S. The secretary of defense's position of command and authority over the U.S. military is second only to that of the president. This position corresponds to what is generally known as a defense minister in many other countries. The secretary of defense is appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate, and is by custom a member of the Cabinet and by law a member of the National Security Council.

美国国防部长(英语:United States Secretary of Defense)是美国国防部(英语:U.S. Department of Defense)的首长,处理军事方面相关事务。国防部长的角色是担任总统的主要国防政策顾问,并负责规划一般国防政策和与国防部相关的其他政策与执行获得认可的政策。国防部长由总统提名并经参议院批准同意,属于内阁阁员。根据1947年国家安全法案,国防部长必须是至少在七年内未加入任何现役美军部队的平民(10 USC Sec. 113;此外,美国国会通过一项豁免,让1945年才退役的乔治·马歇尔能在1950年合法出任国防部长),而国防部长在总统继任顺序中排序第六。


Definition.

The Lorentz factor is defined as where:  This is the most frequently used form in practice, though not the only one (see below for alternative forms).  To complement the definition, some authors define the reciprocal see velocity addition formula.

Occurrence.

Following is a list of formulae from Special relativity which use as a shorthand: Corollaries of the above transformations are the results:  Applying conservation of momentum and energy leads to these results:

Numerical values.

In the table below, the left-hand column shows speeds as different fractions of the speed of light (i.e. in units of "c"). The middle column shows the corresponding Lorentz factor, the final is the reciprocal. Values in bold are exact.

Alternative representations.

There are other ways to write the factor. Above, velocity "v" was used, but related variables such as momentum and rapidity may also be convenient.

Momentum.

Solving the previous relativistic momentum equation for leads to This form is rarely used, although it does appear in the Maxwell–Jüttner distribution.

Rapidity.

Applying the definition of rapidity as the hyperbolic angle formula_12: also leads to (by use of hyperbolic identities):  Using the property of Lorentz transformation, it can be shown that rapidity is additive, a useful property that velocity does not have. Thus the rapidity parameter forms a one-parameter group, a foundation for physical models.

Series expansion (velocity).

The Lorentz factor has the Maclaurin series: which is a special case of a binomial series.  The approximation ≈ 1 + "β" may be used to calculate relativistic effects at low speeds. It holds to within 1% error for "v" < 0.4 c ("v" < 120,000 km/s), and to within 0.1% error for "v" < 0.22 "c" ("v" < 66,000 km/s).  The truncated versions of this series also allow physicists to prove that special relativity reduces to Newtonian mechanics at low speeds. For example, in special relativity, the following two equations hold:  For ≈ 1 and ≈ 1 + "β", respectively, these reduce to their Newtonian equivalents:  The Lorentz factor equation can also be inverted to yield This has an asymptotic form  The first two terms are occasionally used to quickly calculate velocities from large values. The approximation "β" ≈ 1 − holds to within 1% tolerance for > 2, and to within 0.1% tolerance for > 3.5.

Applications in astronomy.

The standard model of long-duration gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) holds that these explosions are ultra-relativistic (initial formula_7 greater than approximately 100), which is invoked to explain the so-called "compactness" problem: absent this ultra-relativistic expansion, the ejecta would be optically thick to pair production at typical peak spectral energies of a few 100 keV, whereas the prompt emission is observed to be non-thermal.  Subatomic particles called muons, have a relatively high Lorentz factor and therefore experience extreme time dilation. As an example, muons generally have a mean lifetime of about which means muons generated from cosmic ray collisions at about 10 km up in the atmosphere should be non-detectable on the ground due to their decay rate. However, it has been found that ~10% of muons are still detected on the surface, thereby proving that to be detectable they have had their decay rates slow down relative to our inertial frame of reference.

The Lorentz factor or Lorentz term is the factor by which time, length, and relativistic mass change for an object while that object is moving. The expression appears in several equations in special relativity, and it arises in derivations of the Lorentz transformations. The name originates from its earlier appearance in Lorentzian electrodynamics – named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz.

-{A|zh-hans:洛伦兹;zh-hant:劳仑兹}-因子是一个出现在狭义相对论中的速记因子,得名于荷兰物理学家亨德里克·洛伦兹,被用于计算时间膨胀、长度收缩、相对论质量等相对论效应。


Cartridge dimensions.

The 14.5×114mm has 42.53 ml (655 grains HO) cartridge case capacity. The exterior shape of the case was designed to promote reliable case feeding and extraction in bolt action rifles and machine guns alike, under extreme conditions.  14.5×114mm maximum cartridge dimensions. All dimensions in millimeters (mm).  Americans would define the shoulder angle at alpha/2 = 22.5 degrees. The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 455 mm (1 in 17.91 in), 8 grooves, Ø lands = 14.50 mm, Ø grooves = 14.95 mm.  According to the official guidelines the 14.5×114 case can handle up to 360 MPa (52,213 psi) piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers.

Ammunition types.

Cartridges use lacquered steel cases and a percussion primer. Some countries also use brass cartridge cases. The propellant consists of 28.8 g smokeless powder with seven tubes, designated as 5/7NA powder. Two different versions of bullet series are known, the earlier had a conventional bullet jacket with boat-tail. These had a long engraving portion that caused considerable barrel wear. The newer bullet types have a smaller engraving portion with a rounder boat-tail and were used from about 1957 on.  The cartridge has been manufactured in Bulgaria, China, Egypt, Hungary, Iraq, North Korea, Poland, Romania, Russia, and the former Czechoslovakia. Of special note are the new Chinese armor-piercing types:

Chambered weapons.

Anti-materiel rifles  Machine guns  Other

The 14.5×114mm (.57 Cal) is a heavy machine gun and anti-materiel rifle cartridge used by the Soviet Union, the former Warsaw Pact, modern Russia, and other countries.

14.5×114mm弹是苏联于1939年开发的重机枪及反坦克步枪子弹,原本用于PTRD-41及PTRS-41,后来亦成为KPV重机枪的弹药,时至今日仍然是俄罗斯、前苏联成员国及其他采用苏式武器国家的主要弹种之一。


History.

After the United States' entry into World War II, complaints arose from Army soldiers and Marines issued World War I-era bronze or alloy-handled trench knives such as the U.S. Mark I trench knife for use in hand-to-hand fighting. The Mark I was relatively expensive and time-consuming to manufacture, and reports from the field indicated that the knife's large 'brass-knuckle' fingerguard handle made it difficult to secure in conventional scabbards while limiting the range of useful fighting grip positions. Another criticism was that the Mark I's relatively thin blade was prone to breakage when used for common utility tasks such as cutting wire or opening ammunition crates and ration cans. A final impetus came from the War Department, which had determined the need for a new multipurpose knife capable of fulfilling the roles of both a fighting and a utility knife, while at the same time conserving strategic metal resources.  The Marine Corps authorized limited issuance of a fighting knife with a stiletto blade design, the Marine Raider Stiletto designed by Lt. Col. Clifford H. Shuey, a Marine Corps engineering officer. Shuey's pattern was essentially a copy of the Fairbairn–Sykes fighting knife with altered material specifications designed to reduce dependence on critical strategic metals. The Raider stiletto was initially issued to elite Marine forces, including the entire 1st Marine Raider Battalion commanded by Colonel Merritt A. Edson, the USMC 1st Parachute Battalion, and to Marines of the 2nd Marine Raider Battalion commanded by Lt. Col. Evans F. Carlson. Primarily intended as a thrusting (stabbing) weapon, the Marines of the 1st Raider battalion found the Raider stiletto to be well designed for silent killing, but was of little use for any other purpose, and too frail for general utility tasks. After their first combat, many Marines in the 2nd Raider Battalion exchanged their Raider stilettos for No. 17 and No. 18 Collins general-purpose short machetes ("machetes pequeños") purchased with unit funds. The Collins machetes, which superficially resembled a large Bowie knife, were also issued to some Army air crews as part of the "Jungle Emergency Sustenance Kit" of 1939.  In the absence of suitable official-issue knives, a number of Marines deploying for combat in 1942 obtained their personal knives through private purchase, usually hunting/utility patterns such as Western States Cutlery Co.'s pre-war "L76" and "L77" pattern knives, both of which had "Bowie" type clip blades and leather handles. The Western States "L77" was stocked at the San Diego Base Exchange at the onset of the war, and knives of this pattern were carried by many Marines in the 1st Marine Division as well as by Marine Raiders in the 2nd Marine Raider Battalion commanded by Lt. Col. Evans F. Carlson.  In response to a specification requesting a modern individual fighting knife design for the U.S. Marines, ordnance and quartermaster officials requested submissions from several military knife and tool suppliers to develop a suitable fighting and utility knife for individual Marines, using the U.S. Navy Mark 1 utility knife and existing civilian hunting/utility knives such as Western's L77 as a basis for further improvements. Working with Union Cutlery, USMC Colonel John M. Davis and Major Howard E. America contributed several important changes, including a longer, stronger blade, the introduction of a small fuller to lighten the blade, a peened pommel (later replaced by a pinned pommel), a straight (later, slightly curved) steel crossguard, and a stacked leather handle for better grip. The blade, guard, and pommel were Parkerized instead of the bright polished steel of the prototype. The design was given the designation of 1219C2 The knife used a thicker blade stock than that of the USN Mark 1 utility knife, and featured a clip point. After extensive trials, the prototype was recommended for adoption. The Marines' Quartermaster at the time initially refused to order the knives, but his decision was overruled by the Commandant. The Marine Corps adopted the knife on November 23, 1942.  The knife proved easy to manufacture, and the first run was shipped Jan. 27, 1943, by Camillus Cutlery Company. After the U.S. Navy became disenchanted with blade failures on the USN Mark 1 utility knife, the latter service adopted the Ka-Bar as the US Navy Utility Knife, Mark 2. The Marine Corps in turn re-designated the Ka-Bar as either the USMC Mark 2 Combat Knife, or simply the Knife, Fighting Utility. In naval service, the knife was used as a diving and utility knife from late 1943 onward, though the stacked leather handle tended to rot and disintegrate rapidly in saltwater.  As its new name implied, the "Knife, Fighting Utility" was designed from the outset as a dual-purpose knife: it was both an effective combat knife and a utility tool, well-suited to the type of jungle warfare encountered by Marines in the Pacific theater. This dual-purpose design resulted in some initial criticism of the pattern as being less than ideal for knife fighting, but combat experience of returning veterans as well as reports from the battlefield dispelled doubts about its combat effectiveness.  After the Second World War, the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps continued to use the Ka-Bar Fighting Utility knife. In addition to military contract knives, the knife was produced for the civilian market, and the pattern enjoyed some popularity as a general-purpose hunting and utility knife.

Manufacturers and the "Ka-Bar" name.

Camillus Cutlery Co., the first and largest manufacturer to supply the knife, produced over 1 million with "Camillus.N.Y." on the knife's crossguard. Besides Camillus, the Union Cutlery Co., Robeson (ShurEdge) Cutlery Co., and PAL Cutlery Co. produced the Ka-Bar knife under military contract during World War II.  After the end of World War II, Utica Cutlery Co., Conetta Cutlery Co., Camillus, and, around 1980, Ontario Knife Co., all produced the knife under contract for the U.S. military. From 1945-1952, Weske Cutlery Co. of Sandusky, Ohio, purchased leftover and overrun parts from wartime knife contractors and assembled them for commercial sale, polishing out manufacturer and military markings, and fitting them with ungrooved leather handles. Though W.R. Case made two prototype Ka-Bar knives as part of a contract submission in 1942-43, no contract was ever awarded to Case for the production of the knife. In 1992, Case would release a modern commemorative of these prototypes, the Case XX USMC Fighting Utility Knife. The Case knife is actually manufactured for Case by Ontario Knife Co.  The originator of the KA-BAR trademark, Union Cutlery Co, began using the name in 1923, having received a letter from a fur trapper who had used the knife to kill a wounded bear which attacked him when his rifle jammed. According to company records, the letter was only partially legible; "ka bar" could be read, as fragments of the phrase "kill a bear". In 1923, the company adopted the name Ka-Bar from the "bear story" as its trademark. From 1923, the KA-BAR trademark was used as a ricasso stamp by Union Cutlery Co. on its line of automatic switchblade pocket knives, including the "KA-BAR Grizzly", "KA-BAR Baby Grizzly", and "KA-BAR Model 6110 Lever Release" knives. The company produced about 1 million knives with the trademark on the ricasso. By 1944, Marines began referring to the knife as the "KA-BAR", regardless of manufacturer. The popular designation of the knife may also have resulted from contact with Marine Corps close combat instructors in San Diego, who used the name when training recruits. To capitalize on the popularity, Union Cutlery changed its name to Ka-Bar Cutlery Inc. in 1952.

Service.

Ka-Bar makes Army and Navy versions along with USMC versions. They are the same as the Marine version except for different initials at the bottom of the blade and different symbols on the sheath. Marines today often treat the blades, guards and pommels with non-reflective black spray paint to reduce reflected light and give them additional protection against saltwater corrosion. According to Ka-Bar, its 1095 Cro-Van, a moderate carbon and low chromium steel alloy, allows the blade to hold an edge very well. The "1095 Cro-Van" steel used in the blades of contemporary Ka-Bars has a hardness of 56–58 HRC, while the guard and pommel are made from sintered 1095 carbon steel. Besides use as a fighting knife, the Ka-Bar has proved useful as a utility knife, for opening cans, digging trenches, and cutting wood, roots, wire, and cable. In 1995, a version was released with a stainless steel blade, synthetic handle, and synthetic sheath marketed as "The Next Generation". As of June 2012 the "Next Generation" models have been discontinued. In 1999, Ka-Bar released the "D2 Extreme" version of their fighting knife, coming with the same synthetic handle and sheath that was produced with the "Next Generation", but also a blade made from D2 tool steel for extra edge retention and slightly better corrosion resistance than 1095.

Ek Commando Knife Co..

In May 2014, the Ek Commando Knife Co. was purchased by Ka-Bar, with the firm selling its versions in 2015.

Becker Knife and Tool.

In 2008, Ka-Bar began producing Ethan Becker's knife designs after his partnership with Camillus ended.

Ka-Bar (trademarked as KA-BAR, pronounced ) is the contemporary popular name for the combat knife first adopted by the United States Marine Corps in November 1942 as the 1219C2 combat knife (later designated the USMC Mark 2 combat knife or Knife, Fighting Utility), and subsequently adopted by the United States Navy as the U.S. Navy utility knife, Mark 2. Additionally, Ka-Bar is the name of a related knife manufacturing company, Ka-Bar Knives., Inc. (formerly Union Cutlery Co.), of Olean, New York, a subsidiary of the Cutco Corporation.

卡巴刀(英语:KA-BAR),一种多用途战斗刀的品牌,由美国卡巴刀具制造公司(英语:KA-BAR Knives, Inc)制造,风格接近布伊刀,是美军的标准配备。美国海军及美国海军陆战队都配备此型刀具,名为USN Fighting Knife Mark II。曾经被选为二十世纪最具代表性的二十把刀之一。


As bridge decks.

Grating can also come in or x panels which are often used for decks on bridges, footbridges and catwalks. Other panel sizes may also be available. Grating can be made of different materials like steel, aluminum, fiberglass. Fiberglass grating is also known as FRP grating.

As filters.

A grating covering a drain (as illustrated) can be a collection of iron bars (the identical, elongated elements) held together (to ensure the bars are parallel and regularly spaced) by a lighter iron frame. Gratings over drains and air vents are used as filters, to block movement of large particles (such as leaves) and to allow movement of small particles (such as water or air).

Diffraction gratings.

Grating can also be a diffraction grating: a reflecting or transparent optical component on which there are many fine, parallel, equally spaced grooves.

As pictures.

A grating can also be a picture having the characteristics of a grating. For example, a picture might be of a collection of parallel black bars separated by equal-sized white bars. These sorts of gratings are described by a graph (illustrated). On the y-axis of the graph is the luminance obtained by moving a light meter over the grating perpendicular to the orientation of the grating. On the x-axis of the graph is the distance the light meter moved. The example is a square-wave grating (see second panel of the illustration); the graph consists of flat, low lines (corresponding to the black bars), with abrupt corners leading to flat high lines (corresponding to the white bars). One period (or cycle) of such a grating consists of one black bar and one adjacent white bar. Gratings where the black bars have a different width from the white bars are rectangular and are described by the duty cycle. The duty cycle is the ratio of width of the black bar to period (or pitch, i.e. the sum of the widths of one black and one white bar).  Gratings are usually specified by four parameters. "Spatial frequency" is the number of cycles occupying a particular distance (e.g., 10 lines [or cycles] per millimeter). "Contrast" is a measure of the difference in luminance between the light parts of the grating and the dark parts. It is usually expressed as Michelson contrast: the maximum luminance minus the minimum luminance divided by the maximum luminance plus the minimum luminance. "Phase" is the position of the graph relative to some standard position. It is usually measured in degrees (from 0 to 360 for one complete cycle) or in radians (2π for one complete cycle). "Orientation" is the angle the grating makes with some standard orientation (such as the y-axis in a picture). It is also usually measured in degree or in radians.  Grating elements can have luminances other than that of sharp-edged bars. If the graph of a grating is sinusoidal (see top panel in the illustration), the grating looks like a set of blurry light and dark bars and it is called a sine-wave grating.  Sine-wave gratings are used extensively in optics to determine the transfer functions of lenses. A lens will form an image of a sine-wave grating that is still sinusoidal, but with some reduction in its contrast depending on the spatial frequency and possibly some change in phase. The branch of mathematics dealing with this part of optics is Fourier analysis.  Gratings are also used extensively in research into visual perception. Campbell and Robson promoted using sine-wave gratings by arguing that the human visual performs a Fourier analysis on retinal images.

External links.

https://www.saudicast.com/cover-grates/gully-grating https://www.saudicast.com/cover-grates/channel-grating  https://www.saudicast.com/cover-grates/tree-grating

A grating is any regularly spaced collection of essentially identical, parallel, elongated elements. Gratings usually consist of a single set of elongated elements, but can consist of two sets, in which case the second set is usually perpendicular to the first (as illustrated). When the two sets are perpendicular, this is also known as a grid (as in grid paper) or a mesh.

光栅(Grating)是一种非常重要的光学元件。


Early years.

Moss was born in Charleston, West Virginia and moved to Rand, West Virginia at a young age. He attended DuPont High School, one of two schools that later consolidated into Riverside High School, where he excelled in football, basketball, baseball, and track. Randy was also on the school's debate team. On the football field, Moss led the DuPont Panthers to back-to-back state championships in 1992 and 1993. He was a star at wide receiver, but also played free safety, returned kickoffs and punts, and was the team's kicker and punter. In 1994, he was honored with the Kennedy Award as the West Virginia Football Player of the Year. "Parade" magazine named him to their annual All-American high school football team in 1995

College football career.

Moss's dream was to play for the Notre Dame Fighting Irish, but he also considered going to Ohio State, where his half-brother, Eric, had played offensive tackle. Former Notre Dame head coach Lou Holtz said "Randy Moss was the best high school football player I've ever seen." Florida State head coach Bobby Bowden said "He was as good as Deion Sanders. Deion's my measuring stick for athletic ability, and this kid was just a bigger Deion."  After originally signing a letter of intent to play college football with Notre Dame in 1995, Moss took part in a racially charged fight at his high school that left one person hospitalized. On March 23, 1995, Moss had backed a friend in a hallway fight against a white student who had allegedly used racist comments towards Randy's friend. Moss was initially charged with a felony for kicking the student, but it was later reduced to a misdemeanor. On August 1, 1995, Moss pleaded guilty to two counts of misdemeanor battery and was sentenced to 30 days behind bars at the South Central Regional Jail in Charleston, West Virginia. He served 3 days in jail starting that night and would be required to serve the remaining 27 days within the following 18 months, after he completed his freshman year in college. Moss was expelled from DuPont and completed his education at Cabell Alternative School.  Notre Dame subsequently denied his enrollment application, but this did not stop another high-profile college football program from giving him a chance. Notre Dame officials suggested he attend Florida State due to the reputation of its coach, Bobby Bowden, for handling troubled players.

Freshman (redshirt) (1995).

Because of his signed letter of intent at Notre Dame, the NCAA

Freshman season (1996).

In 1996, while serving his 30-day jail sentence in a work-release program from 1995, Moss tested positive for marijuana, thus violating his probation, and was dismissed from Florida State. He served an additional 60 days in jail for the probation violation.  Ultimately, Moss transferred to Marshall University, about an hour's drive from his home. Because Marshall was then a Division I-AA school, NCAA rules allowed him to transfer there without losing any further eligibility. In 1996, he set the NCAA Division I-AA records for the most games with a touchdown catch in a season (14), most

Sophomore season (1997).

In the 1997 season, Marshall's first in Division I-A, Moss and Quarterback Chad Pennington were the centerpiece of an explosive offense that led the Thundering Herd to the Mid-American Conference title. Moss caught 26 touchdown passes that season, at the time a Division I-A record, and was a first-team All-American.  The first game of the season was at West Virginia University where Marshall lost. The second game of the season saw Moss pick up right where he left off in 1996. Facing Army, Moss caught 5 balls for 186 yards and two touchdowns. One touchdown went for 79 yards in which Pennington lobbed the ball down the left sideline. Moss leaped over an Army defender to snag the ball out of the air at the 40-yard line while the safety crashed into his teammate, knocking both men down. Moss galloped the last 50 yards untouched for the score. The other touchdown reception was his career long of 90 yards that came on a short screen pass on third down. Moss caught the ball on the right side of the field at his own 8-yard line, ran past 3 defenders in the middle of the field at the

Professional football career.

1998 NFL Draft.

Moss would skip his senior season at Marshall and enter the NFL Draft. He would not attend the NFL Combine, opting instead for an individual work out at Marshall's pro day. Moss would run the 40 yard dash in the 4.24-4.28 range by scouts hand timers and posted vertical leaps of 47 and 51 inches. Numerous teams had scouts on hand with many noting the work-out was jaw dropping.  During the 1998 NFL Draft, Moss, who was projected as a high first-round pick, was taken by the Minnesota Vikings with the 21st overall pick after a number of NFL clubs—even those in need of a WR—were concerned with Moss' well-documented legal problems. Before the draft Moss was quoted as saying teams that passed on him "will regret it once they see what kind of a player I am and what kind of guy I really am." The team most

Minnesota Vikings.

1998 season.

In 1998, Moss helped the Vikings to become the number 1 rated offense ever at the time, setting the single-season record for scoring (later surpassed by the 2007 New England Patriots, a team that also featured Moss) with 556 points.  The Vikings opened the season with a 31–7 rout against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Moss' first NFL game would also be his first multi-touchdown game as he recorded 4 receptions for 95 yards and two touchdowns. His first NFL reception came on the third play of the game on an 11-yard pass from Brad Johnson. His first touchdown was a 48-yard acrobatic grab over defensive back Floyd Young late in the first quarter, in which Moss

1999 season.

In 1999, Moss had another impressive season, catching 80 passes for 1,413 yards and 11 touchdowns, including a punt return for a touchdown. He went on to record five receptions for 127 yards and a touchdown in the Vikings 27–10 NFC wildcard playoff win over the Dallas Cowboys. Minnesota lost in the divisional round to the St. Louis Rams 49–37, despite Moss

2000 season.

The 2000 season featured second year quarterback Daunte Culpepper leading the team. Culpepper had been the team's first round draft pick in 1999; with a pick they received from the Redskins for quarterback Brad Johnson. He had been selected largely due to his extremely strong arm, which the team believed was perfectly suited for Moss's deep routes. The decision proved correct. Culpepper was a rookie sensation, the Vikings started 7–0, and Moss was a leading MVP candidate. For the second time

2001 season.

In the offseason, Moss and his agent Danté DiTrapano began negotiating a new contract with the Minnesota Vikings. He was scheduled to earn $3.5 million in 2001. But Moss, who was entering the final year of the rookie contract he signed in 1998, was seeking a long-term deal that would make him the highest-paid player in the NFL. His agent said, "We want to break the tradition of quarterbacks being the highest-paid players." One option

2002 season.

After replacing Dennis Green on an interim basis to end the 2001 season, Mike Tice was officially named head coach on January 10, 2002. One of the strategies the Vikings first-year head coach came up with was a formula to get Moss the ball more often. Coach Tice called it the Randy Ratio. It was an effort on the coaches part to throw 40% of the passes to Moss as a way to keep him involved in the offense more than he

2003 season.

Moss' fortunes took a better turn on the football field during the 2003 regular season, where he became the second wide receiver in NFL history (behind Jerry Rice in 1995) to play more than 12 games (he played 16) while averaging over 100 yards and one touchdown per contest. He

2004 season.

Moss started the season strong catching 8 touchdowns in his first 5 games of the season. However, he sustained a hamstring injury to his right leg against New Orleans in Week 6 that hampered him for the next five weeks. He played in Week 7 against Tennessee, but had no receptions in a game for the first time in his career. He also played the following week against the Giants, but again recorded no receptions and was used mainly as a decoy. The injury eventually sidelined him for 3 straight weeks. He returned to the lineup in Week 12 with a touchdown catch against the Jacksonville Jaguars.  Even though he

Oakland Raiders.

On March 2, 2005, Moss was traded to the Oakland Raiders for linebacker Napoleon Harris and the Raiders' first (7th overall, which Minnesota parlayed into wide receiver Troy Williamson) and seventh-round picks in the NFL draft. Adding a player of Moss's caliber generated optimism in Oakland, but the Raiders' poor play continued, while Moss suffered nagging injuries which limited his production. He surpassed the 1,000 mark on the final day of the 2005 season, finishing the year with 1,005 receiving yards on 60 catches. However, Moss only managed

New England Patriots.

2007 season.

There were rumors leading up to the 2007 NFL Draft that the Raiders were eager to part ways with Randy Moss through a trade. First-year Raiders head coach Lane Kiffin went so far as to contact their division rival Denver Broncos to "gauge interest", but the Patriots and Green Bay Packers were the two teams most interested in acquiring Moss. Packers QB Brett Favre, who once said, "There is no one in this league who puts fear in people more than Randy Moss," tried to persuade team management to trade for him, but a deal that both sides could agree to did not get done.  During the first day of the NFL Draft, the Patriots and Raiders discussed the trade several times before reaching an agreement. Bill Belichick spoke with Moss

2008 season.

On February 28, 2008, Moss became a free agent after the Patriots decided not to place the franchise tag on Moss. Although the Dallas Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, and Green Bay Packers were rumored to have interest in Moss, he decided to return to the Patriots, signing a three-year, $27 million deal on March 3, 2008. The contract included a $12 million signing bonus, and a total of $14.1 million guaranteed.  The first game of the

2009 season.

In the season opener of 2009, Moss caught a career-high 12 passes for 141 yards in a comeback 25–24 victory over the Bills. In Week 5 against the Denver Broncos, Moss was placed deep in coverage on a Broncos Hail Mary attempt to end the first half, and intercepted Broncos quarterback Kyle Orton. In a snowy Week 6 game against the winless Tennessee Titans, Moss caught three touchdown passes from Tom Brady, two of them in the 2nd quarter as Brady set a record for most touchdown passes in a single quarter with five. This was Moss's 34th multi-touchdown game, and his 8th game with 3 or more touchdowns.  During the Patriots bye week, Belichick stated that Moss "is the smartest receiver he's ever been around." He compared Moss' ability to see the field and anticipate plays to that of Tom Brady,

2010 season.

In the week leading up to the Patriots' 2010 season opener against the Cincinnati Bengals, Moss, who was entering the final year of his contract told CBS Sports that he "did not feel wanted" in New England absent a contract extension offer. Moss would go on to catch 5 passes for 59 yards in Week 1. After the game, Moss told reporters that it would be his final season with the Patriots. The "Boston Herald" reported weeks later that Moss requested a trade following the game.  Moss had two receptions in Week 2 against the New York Jets, including a 34-yard touchdown that he caught one-handed after beating All-Pro cornerback Darrelle Revis. The following week against the Buffalo Bills, Moss had two more catches, both for touchdowns. His final game in New England came in Week 4 on "Monday Night Football" against the Miami Dolphins; he did not record a catch in the game for the first time in his Patriots career as a touchdown pass attempt off a fake spike bounced off his hands in the end zone.

Return to Minnesota.

Two days after the Patriots' game against Miami, Moss was traded to the Minnesota Vikings, in exchange for the Vikings' third-round selection (later used to select quarterback Ryan Mallett) in the 2011 NFL Draft. The Patriots also sent a 2012 seventh-round selection to the Vikings as part of the trade.  On November 1, less than four weeks after being traded to Minnesota,

Tennessee Titans.

Moss was claimed off waivers by the Tennessee Titans, the only team to submit a claim, on November 3, 2010. Moss played eight games with the Titans, starting four. He

Initial retirement and comeback.

On August 1, 2011, Moss's agent, Joel Segal, announced Moss's decision to retire from professional football.  On February 13, 2012, his 35th birthday, Moss announced that he was coming out of retirement

San Francisco 49ers.

On March 12, 2012, Moss signed a one-year contract with the San Francisco 49ers for undisclosed financial terms after a workout with the team's head coach Jim Harbaugh. On September 9, 2012, Moss caught his 154th touchdown reception, and subsequently passed Terrell Owens for sole possession of 2nd on the all-time receiving touchdown list. After Alex Smith suffered a concussion against the

Randy Moss Motorsports.

On April 29, 2008, Moss announced the formation of Randy Moss Motorsports, an auto racing team in the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series.

Post-football career.

Upon his release from the 49ers, Moss was hired as an analyst for Fox Sports 1's "Fox Football Daily" show.  Moss was hired as an associate head coach and defensive coordinator at Victory Christian Center

Charity.

Moss has participated in, founded, and financed many charitable endeavors since joining the NFL, particularly aimed at helping children. Many times when talking about his charity work, he has said he just looks forward to "seeing smiles." He has donated clothing and food to needy families, given away free backpacks to Boston area school-children, and hosted autograph signings. He has also bussed children to amusement parks, NBA games, and even NFL games in which he has played.  On June 29, 2005, he launched the Randy Moss Celebrity Charity Invitational Bass Tournament. The tournament was a one-day event that paired celebrities and corporate sponsors with pro fishermen to raise money for the Smile Network, which is a foundation that provides

Personal life.

Moss's parents are Maxine Moss and Randy Pratt. Moss has little contact with his father. He has a sister named Lutisia and had a brother Eric, who had a short stint in the NFL as an offensive tackle with the Minnesota Vikings. Moss has five children: Lexi Adkins, Sydney, Senali, Thaddeus, and Montigo. Thaddeus played football as a tight end/defensive end for Boone County High School, St. Albans High School (W.Va), and Lincoln (R.I.) High before transferring to Victory Christian Center High School in Charlotte, North Carolina, where Randy was hired as an associate head coach (defensive coordinator) in June 2014. In 2016, Thaddeus played tight end for the NC State Wolfpack. On April 24, 2017 Thaddeus announced that he would be transferring to Louisiana State University. Sydney is a basketball player at NCAA Division III Thomas More College and set the record for points in the 2014 Division III NCAA Tournament. Moss was seen at the National Championship Game in New Orleans, watching his son Thaddeus play for LSU.  Moss is a Christian.

Traffic incident.

On September 24, 2002, in downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota, Moss was driving and was preparing to make an illegal turn. A traffic control officer, noticing what he was about to do, stood in front of his vehicle and ordered him to stop. Eyewitness accounts of the event differ at this point, but Moss did not comply with the officer's order, and she was bumped by his vehicle and fell to the ground. Moss was arrested, and a search of

Marijuana use.

In April 1996, Moss smoked a joint just prior to turning himself in to jail. He was scheduled to finish the remainder of his 30-day sentence for misdemeanor battery while in high school. During his first week in jail, Moss was given a drug test that came back positive. He was placed in solitary confinement for a week and had 60 days attached to his 27-day sentence. Coach Bobby Bowden revoked his scholarship and Moss was dismissed from Florida State University for the failed drug test.  Moss tested positive in 2001 for marijuana under the NFL's substance abuse program and was subject to additional random drug screening for two

Dating violence allegations.

On January 15, 2008, Orlando-based radio station WDBO reported that Moss "had" been hit with a temporary injunction for protection against dating violence. According to the affidavit, Moss committed a battery upon Rachelle Washington, causing serious injury, and then refused to allow her to seek medical attention. The affidavit out of Broward County reveals Moss cannot come within 500 feet of the victim and cannot use or possess firearms. The next day, in a locker room press conference, Moss claimed the woman was simply looking for

Randy Gene Moss (born February 13, 1977) is an American former professional football player who is now a television sports analyst. He played wide receiver for 14 seasons in the National Football League (NFL). He holds the NFL single-season touchdown reception record (23 in 2007), the NFL single-season touchdown reception record for a rookie (17 in 1998), and is second on the NFL all-time regular season touchdown reception list with 156. He currently works for ESPN as a studio analyst for their "Sunday NFL Countdown" and "Monday Night Countdown" programs.

兰迪·莫斯(英语:Randy Moss,1977年-2月13日)是美式足球外接手,他大学时在马歇尔大学(Marshall University)打球,1998年在第一轮被明尼苏达维京人队选中。


加州州立大学圣贝纳迪诺分校

History.

California State University, San Bernardino was created by the state legislature on April 29, 1960, as the San Bernardino-Riverside State College. Later, the California State College system's board of trustees chose a site in the city of San Bernardino in 1963 and the official name was changed to California State College at San Bernardino. It opened in 1965 with 293 students and 30 faculty members. CSUSB earned its university status in 1984, officially becoming California State University, San Bernardino. Today, the university has more than 18,000 students and 84,000 alumni.

Campus.

Built atop of bedrock on the city's north side, CSUSB is framed to the north by the San Bernardino Mountains. More than of new facilities have been built to meet students' academic and social needs. Campus residential housing provides more than 1,500 beds. A new College of Education building opened in 2008. The Santos Manuel Student Union has doubled in size in recent years, and a new Student Recreation and Fitness Center was completed in 2007. Other recently constructed facilities include the Social and Behavioral Sciences and Chemical Sciences buildings.  The John M. Pfau Library, named after the university's first president, sits at the very center of the campus. Other distinctive university landmarks include: the clock tower above the Santos Manuel Student Union, the Robert V. Fullerton Art Museum, and the James & Aerianthi Coussoulis Arena, a modern, 4,000-plus seat sports and events venue—one of the largest indoor arenas in the Inland Empire.  In 2009, the university received a major donation from the Pauline Murillo family to construct a $2 million research observatory on the campus. The W.M. Keck Foundation and the California Portland Cement Co. also made substantial contributions.

Robert and Frances Fullerton Museum of Art.

The Robert and Frances Fullerton Museum of Art (formerly the Robert V. Fullerton Art Museum) is among the 4 percent of museums in the United States accredited by the American Alliance of Museums. The RAFFMA's permanent collections consist of three distinct kinds of art: ancient, ceramic, and contemporary. A world-class collection of about 200 Egyptian artifacts and a smaller selection of Italian pottery are part of the museum's permanent holdings. Rotating shows feature artists from throughout the region and country. One gallery of the museum is dedicated to exhibiting the work of the school's own art students. The museum celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2016 and received accreditation by the American Alliance of Museums in 2008.

Palm Desert Campus.

Opened in 1986, the California State University, San Bernardino Palm Desert Campus in Palm Desert, California () hosts upper-division and graduate students. Many of them come from the Coachella Valley and Joshua Tree areas. Since its inception, the Palm Desert Campus has maintained a close relationship with the nearby College of the Desert. The majority of Palm Desert Campus undergraduate students have transferred from College of the Desert through a dual admissions program.  A health sciences building for the four-year nursing program opened on the Palm Desert Campus in October 2008.  The Palm Desert Campus was built entirely with private funds. This public-private partnership was featured in a front-page story in the Sunday, August 3, 2003, edition of the New York Times.

Murillo Family Observatory.

The Murillo Family Observatory is a teaching and research observatory at CSUSB, located on Badger Hill on the northern portion of campus. It is the newest research observatory in the Inland Empire and in the California State University system. The observatory consists of two telescopes which are used for research and teaching; a 20-inch Ritchey-Chretien and a 17-inch Corrected Dall-Kirkham Astrograph. In addition to the research telescopes the observatory has an observation deck with piers where small telescopes may be set up for undergraduate laboratory classes or open house nights. It serves as both an academic and community resource, with public viewing nights and special astronomy events for the community.

Organization and administration.

San Bernardino-Riverside State College became a part of the California College System (now called the California State University system) in 1965 and eventually became California State University, San Bernardino. It, along with 22 other campuses, now forms the California State University system, which is the largest senior system of higher education in the United States.  The current president is Tomas Morales, who was chosen in 2013. A graduate of SUNY New Paltz, he serves on the boards of directors of the American Council on Education, and the American Association of State Colleges and Universities, for which he is chair.

Academics.

The university offers degree, credential, and certificate programs. It is divided into three Liberal Arts colleges,  and three vocational colleges:  Cal State San Bernardino has taken a role in furthering the study and understanding Middle Eastern Cultures, and is the only CSU campus offering Arabic language and Islamic history courses. CSUSB offers degrees in accounting and finance, computer science and engineering, geographic information and decision sciences, nursing, health, psychology and public administration, among many others.  CSUSB's University Center for Developmental Disabilities is a clinical training program that provides evaluation, assessment, training, and support for autistic children, their parents, and siblings.

Business and National Security Studies.

Many CSUSB programs have earned specialized national and international accreditation, including the business program, which was the first in the Inland Empire to gain AACSB Accreditation at both the graduate and undergraduate levels. AACSB Accreditation represents the highest standard of achievement for business schools worldwide. Less than 5% of the world's 13,000 business programs have earned AACSB Accreditation. AACSB-accredited schools produce graduates that are highly skilled and more desirable to employers than other non-accredited schools. The business and entrepreneurship programs are nationally recognized, as evidenced by CSUSB's 2006 ranking of fourth in the United States for graduate entrepreneur programs. The university's College of Business and Public Administration was also listed in the 2008 edition and the 2013 edition of The Princeton Review's "Best 290 Business Schools.". In 2011, California State University, San Bernardino's Jack H. Brown College of Business and Public Administration was recognized by European CEO Magazine as one of the top 20 schools of business in the world and one of the world's 18 most innovative business schools.  The National Security Studies master of arts program is a nationally renown, two-year program that offers a comprehensive curriculum for students interested in pursuing careers in national service. It is one of three such programs in the country and the only one in the California State University system. The university also has collaborative educational programs with nearby Fort Irwin. In addition, CSUSB's advanced accounting students provide free tax preparation services to local low-income, elderly, disabled, non-English-speaking residents.

Jack Brown Hall.

Many business and public administration classes take place in Jack Brown Hall, which was funded by Jack Brown, chairman of the board and chief executive officer of Stater Bros., and opened on September 23, 1991. Jack Brown pledged $1 million to building enhancements in 1992, which was the largest donation CSUSB had ever received at the time; as a result, CSUSB named the building after him. He also provided student scholarships.

Education.

The university is one of the region's largest teacher-training institutions. In 2007, the university welcomed its first class of doctoral degree candidates. The Ed.D. in educational leadership is a research-based program that prepares pre-K through 12 and community college leaders to contribute to the study, development and implementation of educational reforms.

Admissions, enrollment and retention.

Admission to CSUSB is based on a combination of the applicant's high school cumulative grade point average (GPA) and standardized test scores. These factors are used to determine the applicant's California State University (CSU) eligibility index. More specifically, the eligibility index is a weighted combination of high school grade point average during the final three years of high school and a score on either the SAT or ACT. The average grade point average for incoming freshmen is 3.34. The average composite ACT score was 20 and the average SAT score was 900. Overall, 58.2% of applicants are accepted to CSUSB. Enrollment has increased by more than a third in recent years, and freshman enrollment has doubled. Due to the large number of applicants in the Fall 2010 quarter, CSUSB has declared "campus impaction" for the first time in its history. More than 70 percent of CSUSB students are the first generation of their families to attend college. Latino and African American student enrollments are the third highest of any university in California. CSUSB students are awarded on average 13 percent of CSU system scholarships, despite representing only 4 percent of the CSU's overall enrollment. Fifty-seven percent of full-time undergraduate students at CSUSB receive sufficient scholarships and grants to pay all fees and another 10 percent pay less than the full fees. Almost 75 percent of CSUSB students receive financial aid. More than three-quarters of the incoming 2009 freshmen class required remediation in either English or Math or both.

President's Academic Excellence Scholarship program.

Initiated in 2002 by university president, Albert K. Karnig, the President's Academic Excellence Scholarship program invites the top 1 percent of graduating high school seniors in San Bernardino County to attend Cal State San Bernardino. The program provides a full scholarship, including tuition, books and a small stipend, to eligible students and is renewable for up to four academic years. The program is designed to attract the best and brightest students to CSUSB who might otherwise be lured to colleges outside the area., there were 132 enrolled presidential scholars. The first major donor to this program was Evelyn Magnuson, who extended her legacy in 2008 through a planned gift making CSUSB a beneficiary of her $2.4 million estate.

Rankings.

"Money" ranked Cal State San Bernardino 70th in the country out of the 744 schools it evaluated for its 2019–20 Best Value Colleges ranking.  "Washington Monthly" ranked Cal State San Bernardino 3rd among 606 master's universities in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.  The Daily Beast ranked Cal State San Bernardino 115th in the country out of the nearly 2000 schools it evaluated for its 2013 Best Colleges ranking.  CSUSB Jack H. Brown College of Business and Public Administration ranks as one of the top 20 schools of business in the world and one of the world's 18 most innovative business schools.  The Princeton Review 2013 Edition also ranks CSUSB Jack H. Brown College of Business as one of the top 296 "Best Business Schools" in 2013 worldwide.

Student life.

Like many other universities, much of the student life on campus revolves around extensive local outreach and retention programs. As of fall 2018 CSU Sand Bernardino has the largest enrollment percentage of Mexican Americans in the California State University system. CSUSB also has a very diverse campus of different ethnicities and nationalities. CSUSB is home to more than 100 student clubs and organizations, including academic, cultural, religious, service and political organizations.

Student residence halls.

Cal State San Bernardino's residence halls, which are referred to as "The Villages," consist of three structures—Serrano Village, Arrowhead Village, and the University Village—which houses more than 1,500 students in single and double rooms.

Student organizations, and activities.

Student media organizations include the Coyote Chronicle, the student newspaper that is a part of the college media network, and Coyote Radio, a popular station for music, local news, talk and campus information. It is also one of only 50 college stations around the world listed as an official iTunes college station, and finished third in the MTVU Woodie Awards for best college radio station. Coyote Radio recently became the home and partner to Isla Earth, the award-winning radio science program.  The Coussoulis Arena is a popular site for concerts, entertainment activities, commencement ceremonies and also serves kinesiology students.

Greek organizations.

With the support of alumni and University advisors, CSUSB has seen the establishment of 15 social fraternity and sorority chapters managed by Student Leadership and Development. At least eight or more fraternities are co-ed and are either major related, honor related, or community service related.  CSUSB Greek Chapters Include:

Athletics.

In 2009, CSUSB intercollegiate athletics celebrated its 25th anniversary. Established in 1984, the program offers men's and women's soccer and basketball, men's golf and baseball and women's softball, cross country, volleyball and track & field along with the Coyotes Spirit Squad. The school's athletic mascot is the Coyote and the school colors are blue (Pantone 300) and black.  The Coyotes play in the California Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA) in the NCAA's Division II. The men's and women's basketball and women's volleyball teams play in the James & Aerianthi Coussoulis Arena, and the baseball team plays at Fiscalini Field in Perris Hill Park.  Since 1984, the Coyotes have taken many local and regional championships and regularly finish high up in national tournaments. The men's soccer team went to the NCAA Division III national semi-finals in 1987 and captured the university's first NCAA Division II California Collegiate Athletic Association title in 1991. In 1997, Scott Householder grabbed the university's sole national championship to date with a 273 for 72 holes, a record that still stands. Men's golf has finished third in the national tournament three times in its history.  The men's baseball team took West Region titles in 1990 and 1991. The men's basketball team has won three West Region titles, eight CCAA championships, and has made one appearance in the NCAA Division II national semi-finals.  The CSUSB women's volleyball team has won 14 CCAA and 8 West Region titles, has gone to the NCAA Division II quarter finals in 2017,semi-finals three times, in 2003, in 2008, when it advanced to the finals, 2009, 2011 and 2019 when it won the final.

Notable alumni.

There are currently more than 84,000 alumni members in all 50 states and in over 35 countries. Among the notable alumni of CSUSB have become prominent businessmen, engineers, athletes, actors, politicians, and those that have gained both national and international fame. To keep alumni connected, the CSUSB alumni association has established over several regional alumni groups. CSUSB alumni have served in the White House, California Legislature, and United States Congress.  Some of the more notable alumni include:

California State University, San Bernardino (Cal State San Bernardino or CSUSB) is a public university in San Bernardino, California. It is one of the 23 general campuses of the California State University system. The main campus sits on in the University District of San Bernardino, with a branch campus of in Palm Desert, California, opened in 1986. Founded in 1965, Cal State San Bernardino's Fall 2019 enrollment was 20,311. In Fall of 2018, it had 310 full-time faculty, of which 220 (71 percent) were on the tenure track.

加州州立大学圣贝纳迪诺分校(California State University, San Bernardino,亦称:Cal State San Bernardino or CSUSB)是加利福尼亚州立大学系统内、位于美国加利福尼亚州圣贝纳迪诺的一所公立大学,成立于1965年。它在加州的棕榈沙漠还有一个小型的校区,此校区成立于1986年。2016年《美国新闻与世界报道》将其排在“西部地区大学”中的第61位。


Regional geography.

The Mountain West is one of the largest and most diverse regions in the United States. Most regional boundaries of the Mountain West are often looked at the area from the High Plains to the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range. The southern and northern portions of the Mountain West are often split into two separate regions. The southern portion (Arizona and New Mexico) is often called the Southwest region, while the northern portion (Idaho and Montana) is often included in either the Northwest states or called the "Northern Rockies".

Terrain.

Together with the Pacific States of Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, and Washington, the Mountain States constitute the broader region of the West, one of the four regions the United States Census Bureau formally recognizes (the Northeast, South, and Midwest being the other three). The terrain of the Mountain West is more diverse than any other region in the United States. Its physical geography ranges from some of the highest mountain peaks in the continental United States to large desert lands and rolling plains in the eastern portion of the region. The Mountain West states contain all of the major deserts found in North America. The Great Basin Desert is located in almost all of Nevada, western Utah, and southern Idaho. Portions of the Mojave Desert are located in California, but over half of the desert is located in southern Nevada, in the Mountain West. Meanwhile, the Sonoran Desert is located in much of Arizona, and the Chihuahuan Desert is located in most of southwestern and southern New Mexico, including White Sands and Jornada del Muerto. Colorado also has scattered desert lands in the southern and northwestern portions of the state, including the expansive San Luis Valley.  Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Arizona have other smaller desert lands, part of the Colorado Plateau. The Painted Desert is located in northern and northeastern Arizona, and the San Rafael Desert is located in eastern Utah. New Mexico has other desert lands located in the northern and northwest. Colorado has large desert lands on the colorado plateau in the northwestern, western, and southern parts of the state. These desert lands in Colorado are located in and around areas such as Royal Gorge, Great Sand Dunes National Park, Pueblo, the San Luis Valley, Cortez, Dove Creek, Delta, Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, the Roan Plateau, Dinosaur National Monument, Colorado National Monument, and the Grand Mesa. The San Luis Valley is the largest high valley desert in the world.  In the far-eastern portions of the Mountain West are the High Plains, a portion of the Great Plains. These plains mainly consist of flat rolling land, with scattered buttes, canyons, and forests located in these areas. The High Plains receive very little rainfall and sit at high elevations, usually about. Many people view the High Plains as the point where one begins to enter the greater Mountain West region.  The Mountain West has some of the highest mountain peaks in America. Some of the more famous mountains in the Mountain West are Mount Elbert, Pikes Peak, Blanca Peak, Longs Peak, Kings Peak, Wind River Peak, Cloud Peak, Wheeler Peak, Truchas Peak, Granite Peak, Borah Peak, and Humphreys Peak.

Climate.

The climate of the Mountain West is one of the more diverse climates in the United States. The entire region generally features a semi-arid to the arid climate, with some alpine climates in the mountains of each state. Some parts of the tall mountains can receive very large amounts of snow and rain, while other parts of the region received very little rain, and virtually no snow at all. The High Plains in the eastern portion of the region receive moderate snowfalls, but very little rain.  The states of Nevada and Arizona are generally filled with desert lands and scattered mountain ranges. Much of Nevada receives little to no snow in the southern portion of the state, while northern Nevada can receive large amounts of snow in and around the mountains, and even in the desert lands in Nevada. Arizona generally receives little rain or snow, but high elevations in and near mountains receive extremely large amounts of rain and snow. Northern and northeastern Arizona display characteristics of a "High Desert", where the summers are very hot and dry, while the winters can become very cold, and it can snow as well.  Utah is also generally large desert lands, with mountains as well. However, the desert lands in Utah receive significant snowfall, and there are large amounts of snowfall on and around the mountains. Colorado and New Mexico have very similar climates. Both states can receive significant snowfalls off the mountains, while the mountains in both states receive extremely large amounts of snow. However, southern and southwestern New Mexico generally does not receive much snow at all, similar to southern Nevada and southern Arizona. The desert lands found in northeastern Arizona, eastern Utah, northern New Mexico, and western and southern Colorado are generally referred to as the "High Desert" lands.  The northern portion of the Mountain West tends to be a bit cooler than the southwestern areas. Idaho and Montana both receive significant snowfalls off the mountains and very large snowfalls in the mountains. The High Desert also exists in the northern Mountain West. Southeastern Oregon and southern Idaho have the Great Basin Desert lands located in them, which is part of the high desert.  The eight Mountain States have the highest mean elevations of all 50 U.S. states.

Cities.

The Phoenix metropolitan area is the most populous metropolitan area of the Mountain States, followed by Denver, Las Vegas, and Salt Lake City. Phoenix is also the most populous city.  The following table is a ranking of Rocky Mountain cities by city population.

Time zones.

Mountain Time is observed in nearly the entire division, except Nevada (all but the stateline city of West Wendover) and the Idaho Panhandle. With the exception of West Wendover and Jackpot, Nevada, the entire state of Nevada, along with the Idaho Panhandle, observes Pacific Time. Daylight saving time is not observed in Arizona, except for lands within the Navajo Nation (northeast corner of the state) which observe daylight saving time due to the Nation traversing state lines. For this reason, most of Arizona is one hour behind the rest of the Mountain Time Zone from the second Sunday in March until the first Sunday in November.

The Mountain States (also known as the Mountain West or the Interior West) form one of the nine geographic divisions of the United States that are officially recognized by the United States Census Bureau. It is a subregion of the Western United States.

美国山区(Mountain States)是美国人口调查局的九个官方分区之一,也是美国西部的一部分。美国山区一般分为两个部分,西北部包括了爱达荷州、蒙大拿州、怀俄明州,西南部则包括了亚利桑那州、科罗拉多州、内华达州、新墨西哥州和犹他州。这八个州是美国平均海拔最高的地区。美国山区的大部分地区使用北美山区时区。这一地区最大的都市圈是凤凰城都市圈,之后是丹佛、拉斯维加斯和盐湖城。美国山区也是美国气候最多样化的地区。