Origins.

The first theoretical model for an index fund was suggested in 1960 by Edward Renshaw and Paul Feldstein, both students at the University of Chicago. While their idea for an "Unmanaged Investment Company" garnered little support, it did start off a sequence of events in the 1960s that led to the creation of the first index fund in the next decade.  Qualidex Fund, Inc., a Florida Corporation, chartered on 05/23/1967 (317247) by Richard A. Beach (BSBA Banking and Finance, University of Florida, 1957) and joined by Walton D. Dutcher Jr., filed a registration statement (2-38624) with the SEC on October 20, 1970 which became effective on July 31, 1972. "The fund organized as an open-end, diversified investment company whose investment objective is to approximate the performance of the Dow Jones Industrial Stock Average", thereby becoming the first index fund.  In 1973, Burton Malkiel wrote "A Random Walk Down Wall Street", which presented academic findings for the lay public. It was becoming well known in the popular financial press that most mutual funds were not beating the market indices. Malkiel wrote:  John Bogle graduated from Princeton University in 1951, where his senior thesis was titled: "The Economic Role of the Investment Company". Bogle wrote that his inspiration for starting an index fund came from three sources, all of which confirmed his 1951 research: Paul Samuelson's 1974 paper, "Challenge to Judgment"; Charles Ellis' 1975 study, "The Loser's Game"; and Al Ehrbar's 1975 "Fortune" magazine article on indexing. Bogle founded The Vanguard Group in 1974; as of 2009, it was the largest mutual fund company in the United States.  Bogle started the First Index Investment Trust on December 31, 1975. At the time, it was heavily derided by competitors as being "un-American" and the fund itself was seen as "Bogle's folly". In the first five years of Bogle's company, it made 17 million dollars. Fidelity Investments Chairman Edward Johnson was quoted as saying that he "[couldn't] believe that the great mass of investors are going to be satisfied with receiving just average returns". Bogle's fund was later renamed the Vanguard 500 Index Fund, which tracks the Standard and Poor's 500 Index. It started with comparatively meager assets of $11 million but crossed the $100 billion milestone in November 1999; this astonishing increase was funded by the market's increasing willingness to invest in such a product. Bogle predicted in January 1992 that it would very likely surpass the Magellan Fund before 2001, which it did in 2000.  John McQuown and David G. Booth of Wells Fargo, and Rex Sinquefield of the American National Bank in Chicago, established the first two Standard and Poor's Composite Index Funds in 1973. Both of these funds were established for institutional clients; individual investors were excluded. Wells Fargo started with $5 million from their own pension fund, while Illinois Bell put in $5 million of their pension funds at American National Bank. In 1971, Jeremy Grantham and Dean LeBaron at Batterymarch Financial Management "described the idea at a Harvard Business School seminar in 1971, but found no takers until 1973. Two years later, in December 1974, the firm finally attracted its first index client."  In 1981, Booth and Sinquefield started Dimensional Fund Advisors (DFA), and McQuown joined its board of directors. DFA further developed indexed-based investment strategies. Vanguard started its first bond index fund in 1986.  Frederick L. A. Grauer at Wells Fargo harnessed McQuown and Booth's indexing theories, which led to Wells Fargo's pension funds managing over $69 billion in 1989 and over $565 billion in 1998. In 1996, Wells Fargo sold its indexing operation to Barclays Bank of London, which it operated under the name Barclays Global Investors (BGI). Blackrock, Inc. acquired BGI in 2009; the acquisition included BGI's index fund management (both its institutional funds and its iShares ETF business) and its active management.

Economic theory.

Economist Eugene Fama said, "I take the market efficiency hypothesis to be the simple statement that security prices fully reflect all available information." A precondition for this strong version of the hypothesis is that information and trading costs, the costs of getting prices to reflect information, are always 0. A weaker and economically more sensible version of the efficiency hypothesis says that prices reflect information to the point where the marginal benefits of acting on information (the profits to be made) do not exceed marginal costs. Economists cite the efficient-market hypothesis (EMH) as the fundamental premise that justifies the creation of the index funds. The hypothesis implies that fund managers and stock analysts are constantly looking for securities that may out-perform the market; and that this competition is so effective that any new information about the fortune of a company will rapidly be incorporated into stock prices. It is postulated therefore that it is very difficult to tell ahead of time which stocks will out-perform the market. By creating an index fund that mirrors the whole market the inefficiencies of stock selection are avoided.  In particular, the EMH says that economic profits cannot be wrung from stock picking. This is not to say that a stock picker cannot achieve a superior return, just that the excess return will on average not exceed the costs of winning it (including salaries, information costs, and trading costs). The conclusion is that most investors would be better off buying a cheap index fund. Note that return refers to the ex-ante expectation; ex-post realisation of payoffs may make some stock-pickers appear successful. In addition, there have been many criticisms of the EMH.

Tracking.

Tracking can be achieved by trying to hold all of the securities in the index, in the same proportions as the index. Other methods include statistically sampling the market and holding "representative" securities. Many index funds rely on a computer model with little or no human input in the decision as to which securities are purchased or sold and are thus subject to a form of passive management.

Fees.

The lack of active management generally gives the advantage of lower fees and, in taxable accounts, lower taxes. In addition it is usually impossible to precisely mirror the index as the models for sampling and mirroring, by their nature, cannot be 100% accurate. The difference between the index performance and the fund performance is called the "tracking error", or, colloquially, "jitter."  Index funds are available from many investment managers. Some common indices include the S&P 500, the Nikkei 225, and the FTSE 100. Less common indexes come from academics like Eugene Fama and Kenneth French, who created "research indexes" in order to develop asset pricing models, such as their Three Factor Model. The Fama–French three-factor model is used by Dimensional Fund Advisors to design their index funds. Robert Arnott and Professor Jeremy Siegel have also created new competing fundamentally based indexes based on such criteria as dividends, earnings, book value, and sales.

Indexing methods.

Traditional indexing.

Indexing is traditionally known as the practice of owning a representative collection of securities, in the same ratios as the target index. Modification of security holdings happens only periodically, when companies enter or leave the target index.

Synthetic indexing.

Synthetic indexing is a modern technique of using a combination of equity index futures contracts and investments in low risk bonds to replicate the performance of a similar overall investment in the equities making up the index. Although maintaining the future position has a slightly higher cost structure than traditional passive sampling, synthetic indexing can result in more favourable tax treatment, particularly for international investors who are subject to U.S. dividend withholding taxes. The bond portion can hold higher yielding instruments, with a trade-off of corresponding higher risk, a technique referred to as enhanced indexing.

Enhanced indexing.

Enhanced indexing is a catch-all term referring to improvements to index fund management that emphasize performance, possibly using active management. Enhanced index funds employ a variety of enhancement techniques, including customized indexes (instead of relying on commercial indexes), trading strategies, exclusion rules, and timing strategies. The cost advantage of indexing could be reduced or eliminated by employing active management. Enhanced indexing strategies help in offsetting the proportion of tracking error that would come from expenses and transaction costs. These enhancement strategies can be:

Advantages.

Low costs.

Because the composition of a target index is a known quantity, relative to actively managed funds, it costs less to run an index fund. Typically expense ratios of an index fund range from 0.10% for U.S. Large Company Indexes to 0.70% for Emerging Market Indexes. The expense ratio of the average large cap actively managed mutual fund as of 2015 is 1.15%. If a mutual fund produces 10% return before expenses, taking account of the expense ratio difference would result in an after expense return of 9.9% for the large cap index fund versus 8.85% for the actively managed large cap fund.

Simplicity.

The investment objectives of index funds are easy to understand. Once an investor knows the target index of an index fund, what securities the index fund will hold can be determined directly. Managing one's index fund holdings may be as easy as rebalancing every six months or every year.

Lower turnovers.

Turnover refers to the selling and buying of securities by the fund manager. Selling securities in some jurisdictions may result in capital gains tax charges, which are sometimes passed on to fund investors. Even in the absence of taxes, turnover has both explicit and implicit costs, which directly reduce returns on a dollar-for-dollar basis. Because index funds are passive investments, the turnovers are lower than actively managed funds.

No style drift.

Style drift occurs when actively managed mutual funds go outside of their described style (i.e., mid-cap value, large cap income, etc.) to increase returns. Such drift hurts portfolios that are built with diversification as a high priority. Drifting into other styles could reduce the overall portfolio's diversity and subsequently increase risk. With an index fund, this drift is not possible and accurate diversification of a portfolio is increased.

Disadvantages.

Losses to arbitrageurs.

Index funds must periodically "rebalance" or adjust their portfolios to match the new prices and market capitalization of the underlying securities in the stock or other indexes that they track. This allows algorithmic traders (80% of the trades of whom involve the top 20% most popular securities) to perform index arbitrage by anticipating and trading ahead of stock price movements caused by mutual fund rebalancing, making a profit on foreknowledge of the large institutional block orders. This results in profits transferred from investors to algorithmic traders, estimated to be at least 21 to 28 basis points annually for S&P 500 index funds, and at least 38 to 77 basis points per year for Russell 2000 funds. In effect, an index, and consequently, all funds tracking an index are announcing ahead of time the trades that they are planning to make, allowing value to be siphoned by arbitrageurs, in a legal practice known as "index front running". Algorithmic high-frequency traders all have advanced access to the index re-balancing information, and spend large sums on fast technology to compete against each other to be the first—often by a few microseconds—to make these arbitrages.  John Montgomery of Bridgeway Capital Management says that the resulting "poor investor returns" from trading ahead of mutual funds is "the elephant in the room" that "shockingly, people are not talking about." Related "time zone arbitrage" against mutual funds and their underlying securities traded on overseas markets is likely "damaging to financial integration between the United States, Asia and Europe."

Common market impact.

One problem occurs when a large amount of money tracks the "same" index. According to theory, a company should not be worth more when it is in an index. But due to supply and demand, a company being added can have a demand shock, and a company being deleted can have a supply shock, and this will change the price. This does not show up in tracking error since the index is also affected. A fund may experience less impact by tracking a less popular index.

Possible tracking error from index.

Since index funds aim to match market returns, both under- and over-performance compared to the market is considered a "tracking error". For example, an inefficient index fund may generate a positive tracking error in a falling market by holding too much cash, which holds its value compared to the market.  According to The Vanguard Group, a well run S&P 500 index fund should have a tracking error of 5 basis points or less, but a Morningstar survey found an average of 38 basis points across all index funds.

Diversification.

Diversification refers to the number of different securities in a fund. A fund with more securities is said to be better diversified than a fund with smaller number of securities. Owning many securities reduces volatility by decreasing the impact of large price swings above or below the average return in a single security. A Wilshire 5000 index would be considered diversified, but a bio-tech ETF would not.  Since some indices, such as the S&P 500 and FTSE 100, are dominated by large company stocks, an index fund may have a high percentage of the fund concentrated in a few large companies. This position represents a reduction of diversity and can lead to increased volatility and investment risk for an investor who seeks a diversified fund.  Some advocate adopting a strategy of investing in every security in the world in proportion to its market capitalization, generally by investing in a collection of ETFs in proportion to their home country market capitalization. A global indexing strategy may have lower variance in returns than one based only on home market indexes, because there may be less correlation between the returns of companies operating in different markets than between companies operating in the same market.

Asset allocation and achieving balance.

Asset allocation is the process of determining the mix of stocks, bonds and other classes of investable assets to match the investor's risk capacity, which includes attitude towards risk, net income, net worth, knowledge about investing concepts, and time horizon. Index funds capture asset classes in a low cost and tax efficient manner and are used to design balanced portfolios.  A combination of various index mutual funds or ETFs could be used to implement a full range of investment policies from low to high risk.

Pension investment in index funds.

Research conducted by the World Pensions Council (WPC) suggests that up to 15% of overall assets held by large pension funds and national social security funds are invested in various forms of passive strategies including index funds- as opposed to the more traditional actively managed that still constitute the largest share of institutional investments The proportion invested in passive funds varies widely across jurisdictions and fund type  The relative appeal of index funds, ETFs and other index-replicating investment vehicles has grown rapidly for various reasons ranging from disappointment with underperforming actively managed mandates to the broader tendency towards cost reduction across public services and social benefits that followed the 2008-2012 Great Recession. Public-sector pensions and national reserve funds have been among the early adopters of index funds and other passive management strategies.

Comparison of index funds with index ETFs.

In the United States, mutual funds price their assets by their current value every business day, usually at 4:00 p.m. Eastern time, when the New York Stock Exchange closes for the day. Index ETFs, in contrast, are priced during normal trading hours, usually 9:30 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. Eastern time. Index ETFs are also sometimes weighted by revenue rather than market capitalization.

U.S. capital gains tax considerations.

U.S. mutual funds are required by law to distribute realized capital gains to their shareholders. If a mutual fund sells a security for a gain, the capital gain is taxable for that year; similarly a realized capital loss can offset any other realized capital gains.  Scenario: An investor entered a mutual fund during the middle of the year and experienced an overall loss for the next six months. The mutual fund itself sold securities for a gain for the year, therefore must declare a capital gains distribution. The IRS would require the investor to pay tax on the capital gains distribution, regardless of the overall loss.  A small investor selling an ETF to another investor does not cause a redemption on ETF itself; therefore, ETFs are more immune to the effect of forced redemption causing realized capital gains.

International tax considerations.

Typically mutual funds supply the correct tax reporting documents for only one country, which can cause tax problems for shareholders citizen to or resident of another country, either now or in the future. US citizens/taxpayers living at home or abroad should particularly consider whether their investment in an ex-US fund (meaning the fund is administered by a foreign investment company) not providing annual 1099 forms (which report distributed income and capital gains/losses) or annual PFIC annual information statements will be subject to punitive US taxation under section 1291 of the US tax code. Note that if a PFIC annual information statement is provided, a careful filing of form 8621 is required to avoid punitive US taxation.

An index fund (also index tracker) is a mutual fund or exchange-traded fund (ETF) designed to follow certain preset rules so that the fund can a specified basket of underlying investments. Those rules may include tracking prominent indexes like the S&P 500 or the Dow Jones Industrial Average or implementation rules, such as tax-management, tracking error minimization, large block trading or patient/flexible trading strategies that allows for greater tracking error, but lower market impact costs. Index funds may also have rules that screen for social and sustainable criteria.

指数基金(英语:Index Fund)或指数型基金,是被动管理的投资基金的主要形式,有时候被用来指代所有的被动管理的投资基金。从广义上讲,ETF(交易所交易基金)也属于指数基金。


Development.

The Fiat CR.32 was designed by the noted aeronautical engineer Celestino Rosatelli. It was derived from the earlier Fiat CR.30. The CR.30, being a relatively fast and maneuverable aircraft in its time, had received limited production orders for the type from the "Regia Aeronautica" but, within the space of 12 months, it had been superseded by the newer CR.32. In comparison to the CR.30, the CR.32 featured a more streamlined and smaller fuselage, resulting in a more compact aircraft overall. According to aviation author Gianni Cattaneo, the type was the product of a decade-old formula developed not only by Rosatelli but by his predecessors as well.  On 28 April 1933, the prototype CR.32, which was designated as the "MM.201", performed its maiden flight from the Fiat company airstrip at Turin. By the end of the year, the first production examples were already arriving with front line units of the Regia Aeronautica. Mass production of the type would proceed over the following years. Between 1933 and 1938, a total of four distinct variants of the CR.32 were developed: the standard, "bis", "ter", and "quater". The CR.32 "bis" was provided with a more powerful Fiat A.30R V12 engine as well as two additional machine guns, while the "ter" and the "quater" retained the original armament arrangement, differing by the adoption of improved sights and instrumentation.  By 1938, the CR.32 had been rendered obsolete by advances in the field of aviation, including the arrival of a new generation of monoplane fighters, which were capable of superior performance. The CR.32 was directly succeeded by the Fiat CR.42, which was a further advancement of the biplane platform, having been derived from the CR.32 itself. During the development of this improved derivative, a total of four CR.32s were converted to serve as prototypes, an act which highlighted the strong connection between the two fighters.

Design.

The Fiat CR.32 was a highly manoeuvrable biplane fighter aircraft; its agility was a major quality of the design. Its fuselage shared the same structure as the earlier CR.30, utilizing aluminium and steel tubes covered by duraluminium on the nose up to the cockpit, on the back, in the lower section under the tail, while a fabric covering was used on the sides and belly. According to Cattaneo, the fuselage was very robust for the time. The CR.32 was fitted with a fixed undercarriage arrangement, which incorporated two main legs, furnished with independent wheels housed within fairings and hydraulic shock absorbers; braking was achieved via a pneumatic system.  The wings and tail used a mixed composition, similar to the fuselage, composed of a pair of aluminium alloy tubular spars and square tubes, which were covered by fabric. According to Cattaneo, the atypical wing strut arrangement of the CR.32 had been first used on the Ansaldo SVA of 1917. Another notable feature was that the lower wing was shorter than the upper wing, making the fighter a sesquiplane. Ailerons were only present upon the upper wings, which were balanced via out-rigged tabs mounted upon steel struts. The empennage, which was largely composed of aluminium tubes, featured a variable incidence tailplane and a dynamically-balanced elevator. The cockpit of the CR.32 normally seated only a single pilot, who was provisioned with an adjustable seat and a parachute, the latter of which being stored within the squab. Although this was considered to be fully instrumented from the era, the RA.80-1 radio set was only an optional piece of equipment. Other equipment included a fire extinguisher, gun camera, an oxygen system for the pilot; both an optical gunsight and survey camera could also be installed as optional item. The armament initially included a pair of 7.7 mm (.030 in) Breda-SAFAT machine guns (which was later substituted for a pair of 12.7 mm (.5 in) Breda-SAFAT guns), which were fitted on top of the engine cowling; each gun had an ammo capacity of 350 rounds each. Later examples were also furnished with a pair of hard points, which could accommodate up to 12 5lb bombs, a pair of 100lb bombs, or a single 200lb bomb.  The CR.32 was powered by a single water-cooled Fiat A.30 R.A. V12 engine. Designed in 1930, it was a 60° V 12, producing up to 447 kW (600 hp) at 2,600 rpm, reportedly inspired by the American Curtiss D-12. It drove a 2.82 meter (9 ft 4 in) two-blade metal propeller with pitch only adjustable on the ground, not in flight. The engine did not use the usual aviation gasoline, but instead ran on a mixture of petrol (55%), alcohol (23%) and benzol (22%). The main fuel tank, which was located between the engine and cockpit, carried 325 litres (85.9 US gal). There was another small 25 liter (6.6 US gal) auxiliary tank positioned in a streamlined "torpedo" fairing in the center of the upper wing.

Operational history.

Early operations.

The new biplane proved to be an instant success. After a brief period of testing, the first production orders for the CR.32 were received during March 1934. Within a short amount of time, the type soon equipped the 1°, 3° and 4° "Stormi" of the "Regia Aeronautica". The CR.32 was commonly well liked by its crews, being very maneuverable and benefitting from a relatively strong fuselage structure.  The Fiat biplanes were used for many aerobatic shows, in Italy and abroad. When foreign statesmen visited the Holy City, the 4° "Stormo", "Regia Aeronautica" élite unit, based in Rome, put on impressive displays with formations of five or ten aircraft. During 1936, air shows were organized above various other European capitals and major cities, and, during the following year, in South America. When the team returned, a brilliant display was put on over the skies of Berlin. Further overseas tours by Italian display teams, such as a South American expedition in 1938, were performed using the type. According to Cattaneo, various aspects of the CR.32's design, including its favourable control arrangement, a tight turning circle, and excellent handling made the type ideal for executing aerobatic displays.  According to Cattaneo, the stand-out feature of the CR.32 was its remarkable manoeuvrability; he speculated that its outstanding performance and popularity amongst its pilots were responsible for a continued attitude within many officials of the Regia Aeronautica that the biplane platform remained a viable concept for further development and deployment even in the face of a new generation of monoplane fighters.

Spain.

During 1938, Spain acquired a license to build the CR.32. Spanish manufacturer Hispano Aviación established a production line and constructed at least 100 examples, which were locally known under the designation HA-132-L Chirri. Some of these aircraft remained in military service as C.1 aerobatic trainers up until as late as 1953.  The Fiat CR.32 was used extensively in the Spanish Civil War on the side of the Fascist military rebellion against the Spanish Republic. At least 380 examples took part in the air battles fought over Spain, proving formidable adversaries to the Soviet Polikarpov I-15 biplane and Polikarpov I-16 monoplane that formed the backbone of the Spanish Republican Air Force. During 1936, the type had its baptism of fire. On 18 August, the first 12 CR.32s arrived in Spain and formed the" Squadriglia Gamba di Ferro", "Cucaracha", and "Asso di Bastoni" of 3° "Stormo"; three days later "Tenente" Vittorino Ceccherelli, a Gold Medal of Military Valor winner, shot down the first enemy aircraft, a Nieuport 52, over Cordoba. In total, the Italian government dispatched between 365 and 405 C.R.32s to Spain while between 127 and 131 were delivered directly to Nationalist aviation units. During the conflict, six aircraft were captured by Republican forces, according to Nico, one of these was shipped to the Soviet Union, where it underwent a detailed evaluation.  Thanks to the agile CR.32, the Italians managed to achieved air superiority over their "Fuerzas Aéreas de la República Española" opponents, who flew a motley collection of very different and often obsolete aircraft. The Fiat biplane proved to be effective in the theatre, the "Aviazione Legionaria" claiming 60 (48 confirmed) modern Russian Tupolev SB bombers, which were once believed to be impossible to intercept, as well as 242 Polikarpov I-15 biplane fighters, and 240 Polikarpov I-16 monoplane fighters, plus another hundred aircraft that were not confirmed. In exchange, C.R.32 losses were reportedly only 73. According to other sources, of the 376 Fiat shipped to Spain, 175 (43 Spanish operated and 132 Italian) were lost, including 99 (26 Spanish and 73 Italian) shot down, while, by January 1939, the number of I-15s shot down was just 88.

Spanish aces.

The top scoring CR.32 ace was Spaniard Joaquín García Morato y Castaño, who was the leading Nationalist fighter pilot of the Spanish Civil War. He achieved 36 of his 40 victories while flying the Fiat biplane. He used the same aircraft, which carried the number "3-51" on the fuselage, until his death. During April 1939, shortly after the war had finished, Morato fatally crashed his faithful "3-51" while performing low aerobatics.  Another Nationalist CR.32 ace was "Capitán" Manuel Vázquez Sagastizábal, who claimed 21 victories with "Grupo 2-G-3", before he was shot down and killed on 23 January 1939. "Comandante" Angel Salas Larrazabal, after one kill flying a Nieuport-Delage 52, flew multiple CR.32s, shooting down, on 29 October 1936, the first of the fast Soviet monoplane Tupolev SB-2 bombers to fall to Nationalist fighters. He shot down four more aircraft with the CR.32 before moving to a Heinkel He 51 unit. After two more victories, he joined the new "Grupo 2-G-3". With this unit, again flying CR.32s, he raised his score to 16, including three SB-2s and an I-16 in a single sortie on 2 September 1938. "Capitán" Miguel Guerrero Garcia achieved nine of his 13 victories flying the Fiat biplane: four I-15s, three "Papagayos" (R-5s and Polikarpov-RZs assault bombers), and two I-16s.

Second World War.

The aerobatic characteristics of the CR.32 and its success in Spain misled the Italian air ministry, which was convinced that a biplane fighter still had potential as a weapon of war. Consequently, during May 1939, prior to Italy entering the Second World War, large numbers of CR.32 fighters, in "bis", "ter", and "quater" versions, represented two-thirds of all fighters in the "Regia Aeronautica". A total of 288 were based in Italy and North Africa, while 24 were stationed in East Africa.

North Africa.

When Italy declared war on Britain and France on 10 June 1940, 36 CR.32s together with 51 Fiat CR.42s formed the operational fighter force of the Regia Aeronautica in Libya. The first combat between CR.32s and British aircraft came the following day. Six CR.32s intercepted a formation of Bristol Blenheim bombers attacking the airfield at El Adem, claiming two Blenheims shot down and the remaining four damaged (compared with actual British losses of two Blenheims lost and two damaged), for no losses. According to Cattaneo, instead of focusing on air-to-air dogfighting, CR.32 pilots typically engaged in strafing ground targets, acting as light attack aircraft instead; he stated these activities to have been of "limited effectiveness" in the campaign.

East Africa.

Aviation author David Mondey has claimed that the greatest wartime successes to be achieved by CR.32s were accomplished in Italian East Africa. Here, 410 and 411 "Squadriglia" CR.32s (which represented half of all the fighters operational in the Italian colony) destroyed a number of British and South African aircraft. In the hands of a skillful pilot, the CR.32 could be capable of defeating the faster, more powerful, and better-armed monoplanes, like the Hurricanes and the Blenheims. The Fiats received their baptism of fire on 17 June, when CR. 32s of 411 "Squadriglia" flown by "Tenente" Aldo Meoli and "Maresciallo" Bossi attacked three South African Air Force Junkers Ju 86 bombers bound for Yavello, escorted by two Hurricanes of 1 SAAF Squadron. The Fiat CR.32s shot down one of the Ju 86s and then pounced on the Hurricanes, shooting down the one flown by 2/Lt B.L. Griffiths, who was killed in the crash. On the 7th of July, three CR.32s, escorting as many Caproni Ca.133s, intercepted three Hawker Hartebeests, and shot down the plane flown by Lt N.K. Rankin, killing the pilot and his gunner, Air Sgt D.H. Hughes. On 23 February 1941, while in the process of attacking the airfield at Makale, Maj Laurie Wilmot, who was flying a Hurricane, was bounced by Italian ace Alberto Veronese in a Fiat biplane. Wilmot was forced to crash-land, becoming a prisoner of war (PoW). Soon after, Capt Andrew Duncan hit Veronese, who was wounded and bailed out. The CR.32s obtained other kills, despite having to face an ever increasing number of more modern aircraft. The 410 "Squadriglia" alone managed to shoot down 14 enemy aircraft, before being disbanded. But the impossibility of obtaining replacements and spare parts from the motherland caused the gradual thinning of the rows of CR.32s. If on 10 January 1941 there were still 22 CR.32s in service, on 31 January there were 14, on 10 February 11 and on 5 March just eight. The last CR.32 survived until mid-April 1941.

Mediterranean.

Fourteen CR.32s of 160° "Gruppo" and nine of 2° "Gruppo" from 6° "Stormo" saw action against Greece in the first weeks after the attack of 28 October 1940. Eight more from 163a "Squadriglia", based at Gadurrà airport on Rhodes, took part in the invasion of Crete. CR.32s of 3° "Gruppo" operated in Sardinia, but in the period of July–December 1940 their number fell from 28 to seven serviceable aircraft. Cattaneo observed that ground crews lacked the fuel, ammunition, and spare components to properly maintain their aircraft, often resulting to improvisation due to the poor supply situation, which severely impacted the fighter's operational effectiveness. The last front line CR.32 survived until mid-April 1941 when they were sent to the "Scuola Caccia" (Schools for fighter pilots). By 1942, the type was relegated to only night missions as newer fighters were put into service.

International use.

China.

The first international operator of the CR.32 was Chiang Kai-shek's for China, which ordered 16 (according to other sources 24) CR.32s of the first series in 1933. The aircraft mounted Vickers 7.7 mm machine guns instead of the Breda-SAFAT, electric headlights, and the cooling fins on the oil tank in the nose were removed. Additionally, some were equipped with radios. They were based at Nangahang airport, near Shanghai. Some officers of the Chinese high command disliked the Fiat, but Chinese pilots appreciated that the Italian biplanes in comparative tests proved superior to the American Curtiss Hawk and Boeing P-26. The Chinese Government did not order more CR.32s as it was difficult to import alcohol and benzole to mix with petrol for the engines. In May 1936, only six CR.32s were still operational. In August 1937, the remaining CR.32s were used with some initial success in Shanghai against the invading Japanese. By late 1937, when the Chinese capital at Nanjing fell, all CR.32s had been lost.

Austria.

In spring 1936, 45 CR.32s were ordered by Austria to equip "Jagdgeschwader" II at Wiener Neustadt. In March 1938, following the Anschluss with neighbouring Nazi Germany, the Austrian units were absorbed into the Luftwaffe, and, after a brief period, the 36 remaining aircraft were handed over to Hungary.

Hungary.

The Magyar Királyi Honvéd Légierő, the Royal Hungarian Air Force (MKHL), acquired a total of 76 CR.32s during 1935 and 1936. MKHL Fiat biplanes had their baptism of fire in 1939, during the short conflict with the newly-formed state of Slovakia. The CR.32s, which were emblazoned with the red/white/green chevrons insignia, easily gained air superiority over the fledgling Slovak Air Force, which lost a few Avia B.534s and Letov S-328s during this action.  During the short conflict against Yugoslavia, fought in April 1941, the MKHL lost three CR.32s and, on 6 May 1941, the Hungarian Air Force still had 69 Fiat CR.32s on line. In June 1941, when the kingdom of Hungary declared war on the Soviet Union, the CR.32 fighter equipped two of the units that supported the Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front: 1./I Group of 1st Fighter Wing, based in Szolnok, and 2./I Group, of 2nd Fighter Wing, based at Nyíregyháza. On 29 June, the first aerial combat over Hungary took place, when seven Tupolev SB-2 bombers attacked the railway station at Csap and were intercepted by the Fiat CR.32s from 2/3 Fighter squadron. The Fiat biplanes shot down three of the raiders while incurring no loss to themselves.  Following the acquisition of newer fighters, including the Fiat CR.42 and Reggiane Re.2000, the remaining Hungarian CR.32s were relegated being used for training missions only.

South America.

In 1938, Venezuela acquired nine CR.32"quater"s (according to other sources, 10 aircraft.) Modifications included a larger radiator to assist engine cooling in tropical climate conditions. The aircraft were delivered to Maracay in the second half of 1938 and equipped the 1° "Regimiento de Aviación Militar del Venezuela". With five CR.32s still serviceable, the aircraft were struck off charge in 1943.  A small number, estimated at four, went to Paraguay in 1938. Five CR.32"quater" fighters (registered 1-1, 1-3, 1-5, 1-7 and 1-9) were assigned to 1.a "Escuadrilla de Caza" of the Fuerzas Aéreas del Ejército Nacional del Paraguay. They did not arrive in time for military operations against Bolivia, but were in service for several years.

Variants.

The "Regia Aeronautica" ordered 1,080 CR.32s (including the two prototypes and 23 aircraft rebuilt by SCA factory in Guidonia, near Rome, plus 52 without military registry numbers for Hungary). With 100 more CR.32quaters licence-built in Spain (as the Hispano Ha. 132L "Chirri"), the total CR.32 production numbers range from 1,306 to 1,332 examples.

The Fiat CR.32 was an Italian biplane fighter used in the Spanish Civil War and World War II. Designed by the aeronautical engineer Celestino Rosatelli, it was a compact, robust and highly manoeuvrable aircraft for its era, leading to it being a relatively popular fighter during the 1930s.

飞雅特CR.32(意大利语:Fiat Caccia Rosatelli 32)是意大利飞雅特于1930年代中期研制生产的一款双翼战斗机,又名「箭式」(Freccia)。CR.32以研发者克雷斯提诺·罗萨泰利(Caccia Rosatelli)的名字所命名,主要服役于参与西班牙内战的意大利空军军团、第二次世界大战初期的意大利皇家空军和少数外销至中华民国、奥地利、匈牙利、委内瑞拉和巴拉圭。CR.32被广泛用于西班牙内战中支援国民军,因为杰出的表现使它赢得不少声誉,并被认为是最优秀的双翼战斗机之一,但之后被更为先进的单翼机所取代,其机体设计以1939年的标准来说也已显得过时。西班牙还有取得CR.32的生产许可,持续使用至1953年才退役,自首次飞行算起,共被各个国家使用了20年。


Origin and history.

Daffy first appeared in "Porky's Duck Hunt", released on April 17, 1937. The cartoon was directed by Tex Avery and animated by Bob Clampett. "Porky's Duck Hunt" is a standard hunter/prey pairing, but Daffy (barely more than an unnamed bit player in this short) was something new to moviegoers: an assertive, completely unrestrained, combative protagonist. Clampett later recalled:  This early Daffy is less anthropomorphic and resembles a normal black duck. In fact, the only aspects of the character that have remained consistent through the years are his voice characterization by Mel Blanc; and his black feathers with a white neck ring. Blanc's characterization of Daffy once held the world record for the longest characterization of one animated character by their original actor: 52 years.  The origin of Daffy's voice, with its lateral lisp, is a matter of some debate. One often-repeated "official" story is that it was modeled after producer Leon Schlesinger's tendency to lisp. However, in Mel Blanc's autobiography, "That's Not All Folks!", he contradicts that conventional belief, writing, "It seemed to me that such an extended mandible would hinder his speech, particularly on words containing an "s" sound. Thus 'despicable' became 'des"th-"picable.'"  Daffy's slobbery, exaggerated lisp was developed over time, and it is barely noticeable in the early cartoons. In "Daffy Duck & Egghead", Daffy does not lisp at all except in the separately drawn set-piece of Daffy singing "The Merry-Go-Round Broke Down" in which just a slight lisp can be heard.  In "The Scarlet Pumpernickel" (1950), Daffy has a middle name, Dumas as the writer of a swashbuckling script, a nod to Alexandre Dumas. Also, in the "Baby Looney Tunes" episode "The Tattletale", Granny addresses Daffy as "Daffy Horatio Tiberius Duck". In "The Looney Tunes Show" (2011), the joke middle names "Armando" and "Sheldon" are used.

Golden Age Years.

Daffy's early years, 1937–1940.

Tex Avery and Bob Clampett created the original version of Daffy in 1937. Daffy established his status by jumping into the water, hopping around, and yelling, "Woo-hoo! Woo-hoo! Woo-hoo! Woo-hoo! Woo-hoo!" Animator Bob Clampett immediately seized upon the Daffy Duck character and cast him in a series of cartoons in the 1930s and 1940s. The early Daffy is a wild and zany screwball, perpetually bouncing around the screen with cries of "Hoo-hoo! Hoo-hoo!" (In his autobiography, Mel Blanc stated that the zany demeanor was inspired by Hugh Herbert's catchphrase, which was taken to a wild extreme for Daffy.) Clampett physically redesigned the character, making him taller and lankier and rounding out his feet and bill. He was often paired with Porky Pig; Daffy won out over several characters created as potential foils for Porky in the late 1930s after Beans the Cat fell out of favor (beating out competitors such as Gabby Goat and Petunia Pig).

World War II Daffy, 1941–45.

Daffy would also feature in several war-themed shorts during World War II, remaining true to his unbridled nature. He battles a Nazi goat intent on eating Daffy's scrap metal in "Scrap Happy Daffy" (1943), hits Adolf Hitler's head with a giant mallet in "Daffy the Commando" (1943) and outwits Hitler, Goebbels and Goering in "Plane Daffy" (1944). Oddly enough, it was only after these wartime escapades that Daffy is actually subject to conscription into military service, in the form of "the little man from the draft board", whom he tries to dodge in "Draftee Daffy" (1945). In the real world, Daffy was indeed "drafted" as a mascot for the 600th Bombardment Squadron.

Daffy 1946–1952.

For "Daffy Doodles" (his first "Looney Tunes" cartoon as a director), Robert McKimson tamed Daffy a bit, redesigning him yet again to be rounder and less elastic. The studio also instilled some of Bugs Bunny's savvy into the duck, making him as brilliant with his mouth as he was with his battiness. Daffy was teamed up with Porky Pig; the duck's one-time rival became his straight man. Arthur Davis, who directed Warner Bros. cartoon shorts for a few years in the late 1940s until upper management decreed there should be only three units (McKimson, Friz Freleng, and Jones), presented a Daffy similar to McKimson's. McKimson is noted as the last of the three units to make his Daffy uniform with Jones', with even late shorts, such as "Don't Axe Me" (1958), featuring traits of the "screwball" Daffy.

Daffy 1953–1964.

While Daffy's looney days were over, McKimson continued to make him as bad or good as his various roles required him to be. McKimson would use this Daffy from 1946 to 1961. Friz Freleng's version took a hint from Chuck Jones to make the duck more sympathetic, as in the 1957 "Show Biz Bugs". Here, Daffy is over-emotional and jealous of Bugs, yet he has real talent that is ignored by the theater manager and the crowd. This cartoon finishes with a sequence in which Daffy attempts to wow the Bugs-besotted audience with an act in which he drinks gasoline and swallows nitroglycerine, gunpowder, and uranium-238 (in a greenish solution), jumps up and down to "shake well" and finally swallows a lit match that detonates the whole improbable mixture. When Bugs tells Daffy that the audience loves the act and wants more, Daffy, now a ghost floating upward (presumably to Heaven), says that he can only do the act once. Some TV stations, and in the 1990s the cable network TNT, edited out the dangerous act, afraid of imitation by young children.

Pairing of Daffy and Porky in parodies of popular movies, 1951–1965.

While Bugs Bunny became Warner Bros.' most popular character, the directors still found ample use for Daffy. Several cartoons place him in parodies of popular movies and radio serials; Porky Pig was usually a comic relief sidekick. For example, Daffy in "The Great Piggy Bank Robbery" (1946) as "Duck Twacy" (Dick Tracy) by Bob Clampett; "The Scarlet Pumpernickel" (1950) Daffy was the hero and Porky Pig was the villain. In "Drip-Along Daffy" (1951), named after the Hopalong Cassidy character, throws Daffy into a Western with him labeled "Western-Type Hero" and Porky Pig labeled "Comedy Relief". In "Duck Dodgers in the 241⁄2th Century" (1953), a parody of "Buck Rogers", Daffy trades barbs (and bullets) with Marvin the Martian, with Porky Pig retaining the role of Daffy's sidekick. In "Rocket Squad" (1956), a parody of "Dragnet" and "Racket Squad" Daffy and Porky Pig pair up once again. Daffy also played "Stupor Duck" a parody of the "Adventures of Superman" television series. "Robin Hood Daffy" (1958) casts the duck in the role of the legendary outlaw Robin Hood with Porky Pig as Friar Tuck. Besides being playing parodies, Daffy also played a salesman-who continually annoys a potential customer to buying something: in "Fool Coverage" Daffy actually succeeds into selling Porky Pig a $1,000,000 accident policy which only works under impossible conditions-unfortunately for Daffy, all the conditions occur!

Pairing of Bugs and Daffy, 1951–1964.

Bugs' ascension to stardom also prompted the Warner Bros. animators to recast Daffy as the rabbit's rival, intensely jealous, insecure and determined to steal back the spotlight, while Bugs either remained cool headed but mildly amused or indifferent to the duck's jealousy or/and used it to his advantage. Daffy's desire to achieve stardom at almost any cost was explored as early as 1940 in Freleng's "You Ought to Be in Pictures", but the idea was most successfully used by Chuck Jones, who redesigned the duck once again, making him scrawnier and scruffier. In Jones' "Hunting Trilogy" (or "Duck Season/Rabbit Season Trilogy") of "Rabbit Fire", "Rabbit Seasoning" and "Duck! Rabbit, Duck!" (each respectively launched in 1951, 1952, and 1953), Daffy's attention-grabbing ways and excitability provide Bugs Bunny the perfect opportunity to fool the hapless Elmer Fudd into repeatedly shooting the duck's bill off. Also, these cartoons reveal Daffy's catchphrase, "Youuu're deththpicable!" Jones' Daffy sees himself as self-preservationist, not selfish. However, this Daffy can do nothing that does not backfire on him, more likely to singe his tail feathers as well as his ego and pride than anything. It is thought that Chuck Jones based Daffy Duck's new personality on his fellow animator Bob Clampett, who, like Daffy, was known as a loud self-promoter. In "Beanstalk Bunny" Daffy, Bugs and Elmer are once again teamed up in a parody of "Jack and the Beanstalk" (with Elmer as the giant); in "A Star Is Bored" Daffy tries to upstage Bugs Bunny; while in the spoofs of the TV shows "The Millionaire" and "This Is Your Life", "The Million Hare" Daffy tries to defeat his arch-rival Bugs Bunny for a $1,000,000.00 prize given out by his favorite TV show and "This Is a Life?" Daffy tries to upstage Bugs Bunny in order to be the guest of honor on the show; in all four of these cartoons Daffy ends up a loser because of his own over-emotional personality (which impairs Daffy's common sense and reasoning ability) and his craving for attention.

Solo Daffy.

Film critic Steve Schneider calls Jones' version of Daffy "a kind of unleashed id." Jones said that his version of the character "expresses all of the things we're afraid to express." This is evident in Jones' "Duck Amuck" (1953), "one of the few unarguable masterpieces of American animation" according to Schneider. In the episode, Daffy is plagued by a godlike animator whose malicious paintbrush alters the setting, soundtrack, and even Daffy. When Daffy demands to know who is responsible for the changes, the camera pulls back to reveal none other than Bugs Bunny. "Duck Amuck" is widely heralded as a classic of filmmaking for its illustration that a character's personality can be recognized independently of appearance, setting, voice, and plot. In 1999, the short was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

Daffy's pairing with Speedy in 1965–68.

When the Warner Bros. animation studio briefly outsourced cartoon production to DePatie-Freleng Enterprises (DFE) in the 1960s, Daffy Duck became an antagonist in several cartoons opposite Speedy Gonzales, who refers to Daffy as "the loco duck." In "Well Worn Daffy" (1965), Daffy is determined to keep the mice away from a desperately needed well seemingly for no other motive than pure maliciousness. Furthermore, when he draws all the water he wants, Daffy then attempts to destroy the well in spite of the vicious pointlessness of the act, forcing Speedy to stop him. The Warner Bros. studio was entering its twilight years, and even Daffy had to stretch for humor in the period. In many of the later DFE cartoons, such as "Feather Finger" and "Daffy's Diner", Daffy is portrayed as a more sympathetic character (often forced to turn against Speedy at the behest of a common enemy) rather than the full-blown villain he is in cartoons like "Well Worn Daffy" and "Assault and Peppered". The last cartoon featuring Daffy and Speedy is "See Ya Later Gladiator", in what animation fans call the worst cartoon made by Warner Bros.

"The Daffy Duck Show".

In light of the longstanding popularity of "The Bugs Bunny Show" and its various incarnations on CBS and ABC, NBC commissioned their own half-hour series, "The Daffy Duck Show", which began airing in the fall of 1978. While some well-known titles were included in the program, most of the cartoons featured on the series were from the late '60s Depatie-Freleng run. The program ran on NBC for two years, then in 1981 was rechristened "The Daffy/Speedy Show" and ran for another two years. Eventually, NBC cancelled the series, and many of the cartoons were reintegrated into the lineups for the respective CBS and ABC Bugs Bunny shows.

More recent years.

Daffy appeared in later cartoons. He was one of many "Looney Tunes" characters licensed by Warner Bros. to appear in the 1988 Disney/Amblin film "Who Framed Roger Rabbit". In the film, Daffy (utilizing his original, wacky characterization) shares a scene with his Disney counterpart and rival Donald Duck whilst engaged in a piano duel. In 1987, to celebrate Daffy's 50th anniversary, Warner Bros. released "The Duxorcist" as its first theatrical "Looney Tunes" short in two decades. Daffy Duck also appeared in several feature-film compilations, including two films centering on Daffy. The first was released in 1983, "Daffy Duck's Fantastic Island"; the second came in 1988, "Daffy Duck's Quackbusters", which is considered one of the "Looney Tunes"' best compilation films and featured another new theatrical short, "The Night of the Living Duck". Daffy has also had major roles in films such as "Space Jam" in 1996 and "" in 2003. The latter film does much to flesh out his character, even going so far as to cast a sympathetic light on Daffy's glory-seeking ways in one scene, where he complains that he works tirelessly without achieving what Bugs does without even trying. That same year, Warner Bros. cast him in a brand-new "Duck Dodgers" series. (It should be stressed that in this show, Duck Dodgers actually is Daffy Duck due to him being frozen in suspended animation in some unknown incident.) He had a cameo appearance in "The Sylvester and Tweety Mysteries" episode "When Granny Ruled the Earth", first airing on March 27, 1999. Daffy has also been featured in several webtoons, which can be viewed online.  Daffy has also made appearances on numerous television series. In "Tiny Toon Adventures", Daffy is a teacher at Acme Looniversity, where he is the hero and mentor of student Plucky Duck. Daffy is shown as a baby in "Baby Looney Tunes" and appears to have a similar personality to some of his earlier years with him being a rival of Bugs and saying Woo-hoo! a lot. show and made occasional cameo appearances on "Animaniacs" and "Histeria!". In "Loonatics Unleashed", his descendant is Danger Duck (voiced by Jason Marsden), who is also lame and unpopular to his teammates. A majority of these appearances try to emulate Chuck Jones of the characters.  Daffy has also been given larger roles in more recent "Looney Tunes" films and series. Following "", Warner Bros. has slowly moved the spotlight away from Bugs and more towards Daffy, as shown in the 2006 direct-to-video movie "Bah, Humduck! A Looney Tunes Christmas", where Daffy plays the lead, while Bugs appears in a minor supporting role. However, more recent merchandise of the duck as well as that featured on the official website have been shown to incorporate elements of the zanier, more light-hearted Daffy of the 1930s and 1940s. Producer Larry Doyle noted that recent theatrical cartoons were planned that would portray a more diverse Daffy closer to that of Robert McKimson's design; however, due to the box office bomb of "", these new films ceased production.  Daffy returned to Cartoon Network in "The Looney Tunes Show", voiced by Jeff Bergman. His characterization here seems to incorporate some elements of Clampett's and Jones' designs while giving him an overall cheery if dimwitted personality. In the show, he has moved out of the forest and shares Bugs's house with him. Unlike Bugs and their neighbors, Daffy has no way of earning money and relies on Bugs for food and shelter. He tried on numerous occasions to get rich quick, but ended up failing repeatedly. Daffy's one possession he is proud of is his paper-mache parade float, constructed on top of a flatbed truck, which is his main means of transportation. While Daffy's greed and jealousy of Bugs remains, he appears to be less antagonistic in this show, as Bugs even tells Daffy in spite of his faults, he is Bugs' best friend and vice versa. Daffy serves as a sort of mentor to Gossamer. Daffy has difficulty telling fiction from reality; he often confuses television shows for his own life, believes Bugs is Superman, and at one point hallucinates he is a wizard.  Daffy starred in the 3-D short "Daffy's Rhapsody" with Elmer Fudd that was originally set to premiere before "Happy Feet Two" but instead debuted prior to "". The short features Daffy and Elmer in the first CG or 3-D depiction of these specific "Looney Tunes" characters. According to Matthew O’Callaghan, who directed the short, the audio comes from a 1950s recording for a children's album. Daffy is performing in a hunting musical, when Elmer, who is in the audience, pursues him. Daffy is initially unaware of the danger, but quickly realizes the threat Elmer poses and outwits him by using the props against him.  Daffy appeared shortly in the 2015 DTV movie "".  Daffy appears in the Cartoon Network series "New Looney Tunes" where he is voiced by Dee Bradley Baker and has the screwball personality that Tex Avery and Bob Clampett originally gave him in the 30s and 40s. Daffy is often paired with Porky where Daffy will annoy and bedevil the pig, though occasionally Porky one ups Daffy.  Daffy appears in "Looney Tunes Cartoons", where he is voiced by Eric Bauza and is once again depicted as his original screwball self.

Comics.

Dell Comics published several Daffy Duck comic books, beginning in "Four Color Comics" #457, #536, and #615 and then continuing as "Daffy" #4-17 (1956–59), then as "Daffy Duck" #18-30 (1959–62). The comic book series was subsequently continued in Gold Key Comics "Daffy Duck" #31-127 (1962–79). This run was in turn continued under the Whitman Comics imprint until the company completely ceased comic book publication in 1984. In 1994, corporate cousin DC Comics became the publisher for comics featuring all the classic Warner Bros. cartoon characters, and while not getting his own title, Daffy has appeared in many issues of "Looney Tunes".

Daffy Duck is an animated cartoon character produced by Warner Bros. Styled as an anthropomorphic black duck, the character has appeared in cartoon series such as "Looney Tunes" and "Merrie Melodies", in which he usually has been depicted as a foil for Bugs Bunny. Daffy was one of the first of the new "screwball" characters that emerged in the late 1930s to replace traditional everyman characters who were more popular earlier during the decade, such as Mickey Mouse and Popeye.

达菲鸭(英语:Daffy Duck),又称为太菲鸭、酷酷鸭,是一个在乐一通动画系列里出现的一个虚构卡通人物。


Word formation.

Typically, a root plus a suffix forms a stem, and adding an ending forms a word.  formula_1  For example,'"he bears" can be split into the root "to bear", the suffix'"imperfective aspect" and the ending " "present tense, third person singular".  The suffix is sometimes missing, which has been interpreted as a zero suffix. Words with zero suffix are termed "root verbs" and "root nouns". An example is "I am". Beyond this basic structure, there is the nasal infix which functions as a present tense marker, and reduplication, a prefix with a number of grammatical and derivational functions.

Finite verbs.

Verbal suffixes, including the zero suffix, convey grammatical information about tense and aspect, two grammatical categories that are not clearly distinguished. Imperfective (present, durative) and perfective aspect (aorist, punctual) are universally recognised, while some of the other aspects remain controversial. Two of the four moods, the subjunctive and the optative, are also formed with suffixes, which sometimes results in forms with two consecutive suffixes:'>'"he would bear", with the first " being the present tense marker, and the second the subjunctive marker. Reduplication can mark the present and the perfect.  Verbal endings convey information about grammatical person, number and voice. The imperative mood has its own set of endings.

Nouns and adjectives.

Nouns usually derive from roots or verb stems by suffixation or by other means. (See the morphology of the Proto-Indo-European noun for some examples.) This can hold even for roots that are often translated as nouns:, for example, can mean "to tread" or "foot", depending on the ablaut grade and ending. Some noun stems like " "lamb" or "star", however, do not derive from known verbal roots. In any case, the meaning of a noun is given by its stem, whether this is composed of a root plus a suffix or not. This leaves the ending, which conveys case and number.  Adjectives are also derived by suffixation of (usually verbal) roots. An example is "begotten, produced" from the root "to beget, to produce". The endings are the same as with nouns.

Infinitives and participles.

Infinitives are verbal nouns and, just like other nouns, are formed with suffixes. It is not clear whether any of the infinitive suffixes reconstructed from the daughter languages (', ', ", among others) was actually used to express an infinitive in PIE.  Participles are verbal adjectives formed with the suffixes'(active imperfective and aorist participle),'(perfect participle) and'or'(mediopassive participle), among others.

Shape of a root.

In its base form, a PIE root consists of a single vowel, preceded and followed by consonants. Except for a very few cases, the root is fully characterized by its consonants, while the vowel may change in accordance with inflection or word derivation. Thus, the root'can also appear as ', with a long vowel as'or ', or even unsyllabic as ", in different grammatical contexts. This process is called ablaut, and the different forms are called ablaut grades. The five ablaut grades are the e-grade, o-grade, lengthended e- and o-grades, and the zero-grade that lacks a vowel.  In linguistic works,'is used to stand in for the various ablaut grades that the vowel may appear in. Some reconstructions also include roots with'as the vowel, but the existence of "" as a distinct vowel is disputed; see Indo-European ablaut: a-grade. The vowel is flanked on both sides by one or more consonants; the preceding consonants are the "onset", the following ones are the "coda".  The onset and coda must contain at least one consonant; a root may not begin or end with the ablaut vowel. Consequently, the simplest roots have an onset and coda consisting of one consonant each. Such simple roots are common; examples are: "to give",'"to bear", "to put", "to run", "to eat", "sharp",'"to tread", "to sit", and "to clothe". Roots can also have a more complex onset and coda, consisting of a consonant cluster (multiple consonants). These include: "to breathe", "red", "to plough", "straight", "to bind", "to freeze", "to flow", "to sleep", and "to moisten". The maximum number of consonants seems to be five, as in "to twine".  Early PIE scholars reconstructed a number of roots beginning or ending with a vowel. The latter type always had a long vowel (' "to put",'"to grow",'"to give"), while this restriction did not hold for vowel-initial roots (' "to eat",'"to drive",'"to smell"). Laryngeal theory can explain this behaviour by reconstructing a laryngeal following the vowel (',, ', resulting in a long vowel) or preceding it (",,, resulting in a short vowel). These reconstructions obey the mentioned rules.

Sonority hierarchy.

When the onset or coda of a root contains a consonant cluster, the consonants in this cluster must be ordered according to their sonority. The vowel constitutes a sonority peak, and the sonority must progressively rise in the onset and progressively fall in the coda.  PIE roots distinguish three main classes of consonants, arranged from high to low sonority:  The following rules apply:  Laryngeals can also occur in the coda "before" a sonorant, as in "small".

Obstruent clusters.

The obstruent slot of an onset or coda may consist of multiple obstruents itself. Here, too, only one member of each subgroup of obstruents may appear in the cluster; a cluster may not contain multiple laryngeals or plosives.  The rules for the ordering within a cluster of obstruents are somewhat different, and do not fit into the general sonority hierarchy:  In several roots, a phenomenon called s-mobile occurs, where some descendants include a prepended'while other forms lack it. There does not appear to be any particular pattern; sometimes forms with'and without it even occur side by side in the same language.

Further restrictions.

PIE abided by the general cross-linguistic constraint against the co-occurrence of two similar consonants in a word root. In particular, no examples are known of roots containing two plain voiced plosives (') or two glides ('). A few examples of roots with two fricatives or two nasals ( "to burn", "to give, to take" etc.) can be reconstructed, but they were rare as well. An exception, however, were the voiced aspirated and voiceless plosives, which relatively commonly co-occurred (e.g. "to burn", " "to fly"). In particular, roots with two voiced aspirates were more than twice as common than could be expected to occur by chance.  An additional constraint prohibited roots containing both a voiced aspirated and a voiceless plosive ('), unless the latter occurs in a word-initial cluster after an'(e.g. "to stiffen"). Taken together with the abundance of "-type roots, it has been proposed that this distribution results from a limited process of voice assimilation in pre-PIE, where a voiceless stop was assimilated to a voiced aspirate, if another one followed or preceded within a root.

Exceptions.

Thorn clusters are sequences of a dental (') plus a velar plosive (' etc.). Their role in PIE phonotactics is unknown. Roots like "to perish" apparently violate the phonotactical rules, but are quite common.  Some roots cannot be reconstructed with an ablauting ', an example being'"to grow, to become". Such roots can be seen as generalized zero grades of unattested forms like ", and thus follow the phonotactical rules.  Some roots like'"to sneeze" or'"to duck" do not appear to follow these rules. This might be due to incomplete understanding of PIE phonotactics or to wrong reconstructions. ", for example, might not have existed in PIE at all, if the Indo-European words usually traced back to it are onomatopoeias.

Lexical meaning.

The meaning of a reconstructed root is conventionally that of a verb; the terms "root" and "verbal root" are almost synonymous in PIE grammar. This is because, apart from a limited number of so-called root nouns, PIE roots overwhelmingly participate in verbal inflection through well-established morphological and phonological mechanisms. Their meanings are not always directly reconstructible, due to semantic shifts that led to discrepancies in the meanings of reflexes in the attested daughter languages. Many nouns and adjectives are derived from verbal roots via suffixes and ablaut.  Nevertheless, some roots did exist that did not have a primary verbal derivation. Apart from the aforementioned root nouns, the most important of these were the so-called Caland roots, which had adjectival meaning. Such roots generally formed proterokinetic adjectives with the suffix ', thematic adjectives in'and compounding stems in '. They included at least'"red", "white", "deep" and "heavy".  Verbal roots were inherently either imperfective or perfective. To form a verb from the root's own aspect, verb endings were attached directly to the root, either with or without a thematic vowel. The "other" aspect, if it was needed, would then be a so-called "characterised" stem, as detailed in Proto-Indo-European verb. The characterised imperfective stems are often different in different descendants, but with no association between certain forms and the various branches of Indo-European, which suggests that a number of aspects fell together before PIE split up.

Creation of new roots.

Roots were occasionally created anew within PIE or its early descendants. A variety of methods have been observed.

Root extensions.

Root extensions are additions of one or two sounds, often plosives, to the end of a root. These extensions do not seem to change the meaning of a root, and often lead to variant root forms across different descendants. The source and function of these extensions is not known.  For "" 'to push, hit, thrust', we can reconstruct:

Sonorant metathesis.

When the root contains a sonorant, the zero grade is ambiguous as to whether the sonorant should be placed before the ablaut vowel or after it. Speakers occasionally analysed such roots the "wrong" way, and this has led to some roots being created from existing ones by swapping the position of the sonorant.  An example of such a pair of roots, both meaning "to increase, to enlarge":  Another example concerns the root "sky", which formed a vṛddhi derivative in this way:

Back-formations.

Sometimes, commonly used words became the template for a new root that was back-formed from the word, different from the root from which the word was originally formed. For example, the ablauting noun "lifetime" was formed as a u-stem derivative of the root. The oblique stem alternant "" was then reinterpreted as the e-grade of a new root, which formed a new neuter s-stem, a formation which is only created from roots.

The roots of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) are basic parts of words that carry a lexical meaning, so-called morphemes. PIE roots usually have verbal meaning like "to eat" or "to run". Roots never occur alone in the language. Complete inflected verbs, but also nouns and adjectives are formed by adding further morphemes to a root and by changing the root's vowel in a process called ablaut.

重构的原始印欧语词根(PIE roots)是承载词汇意义的基本词素。通过增加后缀形成词干,再通过变形词缀在文法上形成变形后的词(名词或动词)。


Early years.

Weygand was born in Brussels of unknown parents. He was long suspected of being the illegitimate son of either Empress Carlota of Mexico and General Alfred Van der Smissen; or of her brother Leopold II, King of the Belgians, and Leopold's Polish mistress. Van der Smissen always seemed a likely candidate for Weygand's father because of the striking resemblance between the two men. In 2003, the French journalist Dominique Paoli claimed to have found evidence that Weygand's father was indeed van der Smissen, but the mother was Mélanie Zichy-Metternich, lady-in-waiting to Carlota (and daughter of Prince Metternich, Austrian Chancellor). Paoli further claimed that Weygand had been born in mid-1865, not January 1867 as is generally claimed.  Regardless, throughout his life Weygand maintained he did not know his true parentage. While an infant he was sent to Marseille to be raised by a widow named Virginie Saget, whom he originally took to be his mother. At age 6 he was transferred to the household of David Cohen de Léon, a financier of Sephardic origins who was a friend of Leopold II. Upon reaching adulthood, Weygand was legally acknowledged as a son by Francois-Joseph Weygand, an accountant in the employ of M. Cohen de Léon, thereby granting him French citizenship.  In his memoirs he says little about his youth, devoting to it only 4 pages out of 651. He mentions the "gouvernante" and the "aumônier" of his college, who instilled in him a strong Roman Catholic faith. His memoirs essentially begin with his entry into the preparatory class of Saint-Cyr Military School in Paris, as if he had wished to disregard his connection with Mme. Saget and M. Cohen de Leon.

Military career.

Weygand was admitted to the École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr, under the name of "Maxime de Nimal" as a foreign cadet (Belgian). Graduating in 1887, he was posted to a cavalry regiment. After changing his name to Weygand and receiving French nationality, he became an instructor at Saumur.  During the Dreyfus affair, Weygand was one of the most anti-Dreyfusard officers of his regiment, supporting the widow of Colonel Hubert-Joseph Henry, who had committed suicide after the discovery of the falsification of the charges against Captain Dreyfus.  Once promoted to captain, Weygand chose not to attempt the difficult preparation to the "École Supérieure de Guerre" (the French staff college) because of his desire, he said, to keep contact with the troops. This did not prevent him from later becoming an instructor at the Cavalry School at Saumur. He was one of the few to attend the "Centre des Hautes Etudes Militaires" (a school to give more strategic instruction), set up in the spring of 1909, despite not having been ""breveté"" (passed staff college).  Along with Joffre and Foch, Weygand attended the Russian manoeuvres in 1910; his account mentions a great deal of pomp and many gala dinners, but also records Russian reluctance to discuss military details. As a lieutenant colonel Weygand attended the last prewar French grand manoeuvres, in 1913, and commented that it had revealed "intolerable insufficiencies" such as two divisions becoming mixed up.

Service during World War I.

Early War.

Weygand passed World War I as a staff officer. At the outbreak, he satisfied his taste for contact with the troops by spending 26 days with the 5ème Hussars. On 28 August, he joined the staff of General Ferdinand Foch, under whom he was to serve for much of the rest of the war.  Weygand was promoted to général de brigade in 1916. He later wrote of the Anglo-French Somme Offensive in 1916, at which Foch commanded French Army Group North, that it had seen "constant mix-ups with an ally [i.e. the British] learning how to run a large operation and whose doctrines and methods were not yet in accordance with ours".

Supreme War Council.

British Prime Minister David Lloyd George pushed for the creation of a Supreme War Council, which was formally established on 7 November 1917. Keen to sideline the British Chief of the Imperial General Staff, General Sir William Robertson, he insisted that, as French Army Chief of the General Staff, Foch could not also be French Permanent Military Representative (PMR) on the SWC. Paul Painlevé, French Prime Minister until 13 November, believed that Lloyd George was already pushing for Foch to be Supreme Allied Commander so wanted him as PMR not French Chief of Staff.  The new Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau wanted Foch as PMR to increase French control over the Western Front, but was persuaded to appoint Weygand, seen very much as Foch's sidekick, instead. Clemenceau told US President Woodrow Wilson's envoy, Colonel Edward M. House that he would put in a "second- or third-rate man" as PMR and "let the thing drift where it will".  Weygand was the most junior of the PMRs (the others being the Italian Luigi Cadorna, the American Tasker H. Bliss, and the British Henry Wilson, later replaced by Henry Rawlinson). He was promoted général de division (equivalent to the Anglophone rank of major general) in 1918. This promotion was specifically because of his appointment as a PMR.  However, Clemenceau only agreed to set up an Allied General Reserve if Foch rather than Weygand were earmarked to command it. The Reserve was shelved for the time being at a SWC Meeting in London (14–15 March 1918) as the national commanders in chief, Philippe Pétain and Sir Douglas Haig, were reluctant to release divisions.

Supreme Allied Command Staff.

Weygand was in charge of Foch's staff when his patron was appointed Supreme Allied Commander in the spring of 1918, and was Foch's right-hand man throughout his victories in the late summer and until the end of the war.  Weygand initially headed a small staff of 25–30 officers, with Brigadier General Pierre Desticker as his deputy. There was a separate head for each of the departments, e.g. Operations, Intelligence, Q (Quartermaster). From June 1918 onwards, under British pressure, Foch and Weygand poached staff officers from the French Commander-in-Chief Philippe Pétain (Lloyd George's tentative suggestion of a multinational Allied staff was vetoed by President Wilson). By early August Colonel Payot (responsible for supply and transport) had moved to Foch's HQ, as had the Military Missions from the other Allied HQs; in Greenhalgh's words this "put real as opposed to nominal power into Foch's hands". From early July onwards, British military and political leaders came to regret Foch's increased power, but Weygand later recorded that they had only themselves to blame as they had pushed for the change.  Like Foch and most French leaders of his era (Clemenceau, who had lived in the US as a young man, was a rare exception), Weygand could not speak enough English to "sustain a conversation" (German, not English, was the most common second language in which French officers were qualified). Competent interpreters were therefore vital.  Weygand drew up the memorandum for the meeting of Foch with the national commanders-in-chief (Haig, Pétain and John J. Pershing) on 24 July 1918, the only such meeting before the autumn, in which Foch urged (successfully) the liberation of the Marne salient captured by the Germans in May (this offensive would become the Second Battle of the Marne, for which Foch was promoted Marshal of France), along with further offensives by the British and by the Americans at St Mihiel. Weygand personally delivered the directive for the Amiens attack to Haig. Foch and Weygand were shown around the liberated St. Mihiel sector by Pershing on 20 September.  Weygand later (in 1922) questioned whether Pétain's planned offensive by twenty-five divisions in Lorraine in November 1918 could have been supplied through a "zone of destruction" through which the Germans were retreating; his own and Foch's doubts about the feasibility of the plans were another factor in the seeking of an armistice. In 1918 Weygand served on the armistice negotiations, and it was Weygand who read out the armistice conditions to the Germans at Compiègne, in the railway carriage. He can be spotted in photographs of the armistice delegates, and also standing behind Foch's shoulder at Pétain's investiture as Marshal of France at the end of 1918.

Weygand in Poland.

During the Polish–Soviet War, Weygand was a member of the Interallied Mission to Poland of July and August 1920, supporting the infant Second Polish Republic against Soviet Russia. (He had not been on the 1919 French Military Mission to Poland headed by General Paul Prosper Henrys.) The Interallied Mission, which also included French diplomat Jean Jules Jusserand and the British diplomat Lord Edgar Vincent D'Abernon, achieved little: its report was submitted after the Poles had won the crucial Battle of Warsaw. Nonetheless, the presence of the Allied missions in Poland gave rise to a myth that the timely arrival of Allied forces saved Poland, a myth in which Weygand occupies the central role.  Weygand travelled to Warsaw expecting to assume command of the Polish army, yet those expectations were quickly dashed. He had no good reply for Józef Piłsudski, who on 24 July during their first meeting asked "How many divisions do you bring?" Weygand had none to offer. From 27 July Weygand was an adviser to the Polish Chief of Staff, Tadeusz Jordan-Rozwadowski. It was a difficult position; most Polish officers regarded him as an interloper, and spoke only Polish, which he did not understand. At the end of July he proposed that the Poles hold the length of the Bug River; a week later he proposed a purely defensive posture along the Vistula River; both plans were rejected, as were most of his other suggestions. One of his few lasting contributions was to insist on replacing the existing system of spoken orders by written documents. Norman Davies writes: "on the whole he was quite out of his element, a man trained to give orders yet placed among people without the inclination to obey, a proponent of defence in the company of enthusiasts for the attack." During another meeting with Piłsudski on 18 August, Weygand became offended and threatened to leave, depressed by his failure and dismayed by Poland's disregard for the Allied powers. At the station at Warsaw on 25 August he was consoled by the award of the Virtuti Militari, 2nd class; at Paris on the 28th he was cheered by crowds lining the platform of the Gare de l'Est, kissed on both cheeks by the Premier Alexandre Millerand and presented with the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. He could not understand what had happened and has admitted in his memoirs what he said to a French journalist already on 21 August 1920: that "the victory was Polish, the plan was Polish, the army was Polish". As Norman Davies notes: "He was the first uncomprehending victim, as well as the chief beneficiary, of a legend already in circulation that he, Weygand, was the victor of Warsaw. This legend persisted for more than forty years even in academic circles."

Weygand in France and the Middle East.

Weygand was unemployed for a time after the military mission to Poland, but in 1923 he was made commander-in-chief Levant, the French mandate in Lebanon and Syria. He was then appointed High Commissioner of Syria the next year, a position he also only kept for a year.  Weygand returned to France in 1925, when he became director of the Center for Higher Military Studies, a position he had for five years. In 1931 he was appointed Chief of Staff of the French Army, Vice President of the Supreme War Council and Inspector of the Army, and was elected a member of the Académie française (seat #35). He remained in the positions, except Inspector of the Army, until his retirement in 1935 at 68.  Weygand was recalled for active service in August 1939 by Prime Minister Édouard Daladier and appointed commander-in-chief for the Orient Theatre of Operation.

Weygand in World War II.

By late May 1940 the military disaster in France after the German invasion was such that the Supreme Commander—and political neutral—Maurice Gamelin, was dismissed, and Weygand—a figurehead of the right—recalled from Syria to replace him.  Weygand arrived on 17 May and started by cancelling the flank counter-offensive ordered by Gamelin, to cut off the enemy armoured columns which had punched through the French front at the Ardennes. Thus he lost two crucial days before finally adopting the solution, however obvious, of his predecessor. But it was by then a failed manoeuvre, because during the 48 lost hours, the German infantry had caught up behind their tanks in the breakthrough and had consolidated their gains.  Weygand then oversaw the creation of the Weygand Line, an early application of the Hedgehog tactic; however, by this point the situation was untenable, with most of the Allied forces trapped in Belgium. Weygand complained that he had been summoned two weeks too late to halt the invasion.  On 5 June the German second offensive ("Fall Rot") began. On 8 June Weygand was visited by Charles de Gaulle, newly-appointed to the government as Under-Secretary for War. According to de Gaulle's memoirs Weygand believed it was "the end" and gave a "despairing laugh" when de Gaulle suggested fighting on. He believed that after France was defeated Britain would also soon sue for peace, and hoped that after an armistice the Germans would allow him to retain enough of a French Army to "maintain order" in France. Weygand later disputed the accuracy of de Gaulle's account of this conversation, and remarked on its similarity to a dialogue by Pierre Corneille. De Gaulle's biographer Jean Lacouture suggests that de Gaulle's account is consistent with other evidence of Weygand's beliefs at the time and is therefore, allowing perhaps for a little literary embellishment, broadly plausible.  Italy entered the war on 10 June. That day Weygand barged into the office of Prime Minister Paul Reynaud and demanded an armistice. Weygand was present at the Anglo-French Conference at the Chateau du Muguet at Briare on 11 June, at which the option was discussed of continuing the French war effort from Brittany or French North Africa. The transcript shows Weygand to have been somewhat less defeatist than de Gaulle's memoirs would suggest. At the Cabinet meeting on the evening of 13 June, after another Anglo-French conference at Tours, Marshal Pétain, Deputy Prime Minister, strongly supported Weygand's demand for an armistice.  The French government moved to Bordeaux on 14 June. At Cabinet on 15 June Reynaud urged that they should follow the Dutch example, that the Army should lay down its arms so that the fight could be continued from abroad. Pétain was sympathetic, but he was sent to speak to Weygand (who was waiting outside, as he was not a member of the Cabinet). After no more than fifteen minutes Weygand persuaded him that this would be a shameful surrender. Chautemps then proposed a compromise proposal, that the Germans be approached about possible armistice terms. The Cabinet voted 13–6 for the Chautemps proposal.  After Reynaud's resignation as Prime Minister on 16 June, President Albert Lebrun felt he had little choice but to appoint Pétain, who already had a ministerial team ready, as Prime Minister. Weygand joined the new government as Minister for Defence, and was briefly able to veto the appointment of Pierre Laval as Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Collaboration during the Vichy Regime.

The Vichy regime was set up in July 1940. Weygand continued to serve in Pétain's cabinet as Minister for National Defence until September 1940. He was then appointed Delegate-General in French North Africa.  In North Africa, he persuaded young officers, tempted to join the Resistance against Germany, to go along with the armistice for the present, by letting them hope for a later resumption of combat. With the complicity of Admiral Jean-Marie Charles Abrial, he deported opponents of Vichy to concentration camps in Southern Algeria and Morocco. Those imprisoned included Gaullists, Freemasons, and Jews, and also Communists, despite their obedience at the time to Moscow's orders not to support the resistance. He also arrested the foreign volunteers of the "Légion Etrangère", foreign refugees who were in France legally but were without employment, and others. He applied Vichy's laws against Jews very harshly. With the complicity of the "Recteur" (University chancellor), Weygand instituted, on his own authority, by a mere ""note de service"" (n°343QJ of 30 September 1941), a school "numerus clausus" (quota). This drove out most Jewish students from the colleges and the primary schools, including children aged 5 to 11. Weygand did this without any order from Pétain, "by analogy," he said, "to the law about Higher Education."  Weygand acquired a reputation as an opponent of collaboration when he protested in Vichy against the Paris Protocols of 28 May 1941, signed by Admiral François Darlan. These agreements authorized the Axis to establish bases in French colonies: at Aleppo, Syria; Bizerte, Tunisia; and Dakar, Senegal. The Protocols also envisaged extensive French military collaboration with Axis forces in the event of Allied attacks against such bases. Weygand remained outspoken in his criticism of Germany.  Weygand opposed German bases in French territory not to help the Allies or even to keep France neutral, but rather to preserve the integrity of the French Empire and maintain prestige in the eyes of the natives. Weygand apparently favoured limited collaboration with Germany. The Weygand General Delegation (4th Office) delivered military equipment to the Panzer Armee Afrika: 1,200 French trucks and other French army vehicles (Dankworth contract of 1941), and also heavy artillery with 1,000 shells per gun. However, Adolf Hitler demanded full unconditional collaboration and pressured the Vichy government to dismiss Weygand in November 1941 and recall him from North Africa. A year later, in November 1942, following the Allied invasion of North Africa, the Germans arrested Weygand. He remained in custody in Germany and then in the Itter Castle in North Tyrol with General Gamelin and a few other French Third Republic personalities until May 1945. He was liberated by American troops after the Battle for Castle Itter.

Last years.

After returning to France, Weygand was held as a collaborator at the Val-de-Grâce but was released in May 1946 and cleared in 1948. He died on 28 January 1965 in Paris at the age of 98. He had married Marie-Renée, the daughter of Brigadier General Viscount de Forsanz, of Brittany. They had two sons, Édouard and Jacques.  Beirut still holds his name on one of its major streets, Rue Weygand.

Maxime Weygand (; 21 January 1867 – 28 January 1965) was a French military commander in World War I and World War II.

马克西姆·魏刚(,1867年-1月21日-1965年-1月28日)是一名法国将军,军阶为一级上将,但最终仍无力回天。在法国向德军投降组成新的维琪政府后,魏刚也与德军合作,战后魏刚也因此被起诉。