History.

Differential forms are part of the field of differential geometry, influenced by linear algebra. Although the notion of a differential is quite old, the initial attempt at an algebraic organization of

Concept.

Differential forms provide an approach to multivariable calculus that is independent of coordinates.

Integration and orientation.

A differential -form can be integrated over an oriented manifold of dimension. A differential 1-form can be thought of as measuring an infinitesimal oriented length, or 1-dimensional oriented density. A differential 2-form can be thought of as measuring an infinitesimal oriented area, or 2-dimensional oriented density. And so on.  Integration of differential forms is well-defined only on oriented manifolds. An example of a 1-dimensional manifold is an interval, and intervals can be given an orientation: they are positively oriented if, and negatively oriented otherwise. If then the integral of the differential 1-form over the interval (with

Multi-index notation.

A common notation for the wedge product of elementary 1-forms is so called multi-index notation: in an "n"-dimensional context, for formula_14, we define formula_15. Another useful notation is obtained by defining the set of all strictly increasing multi-indices of length "k", in a space of dimension "n", denoted formula_16. Then locally (wherever

The exterior derivative.

In addition to the exterior product, there is also the exterior derivative operator. The exterior derivative of a differential form is a generalization of the differential of a function, in the sense that the exterior derivative of formula_21is exactly the differential of "f". When generalized to higher forms, if formula_22is a simple "k"-form, then its exterior derivative is a (k+1)-form defined by taking the differential of the coefficient functions:  with extension to general -forms occurring linearly: if formula_24, then its exterior derivative is  It is worth noting that in formula_26, after equating vectors with their dual

Differential calculus.

Let be an open set in. A differential -form ("zero-form") is defined to be a smooth function on - the set of which is denoted formula_18. If is any vector in, then has a directional derivative, which is another function on whose value at a point is the rate of change (at ) of in the direction:  In particular, if is the th coordinate vector then is the partial derivative of with respect to the th coordinate function, i.e.,, where,,..., are the coordinate functions on. By their very definition, partial derivatives depend upon the choice of coordinates: if new coordinates,,..., are introduced, then

Intrinsic definitions.

Let be a smooth manifold. A smooth differential form of degree is a smooth section of the th exterior power of the cotangent bundle of. The set of all differential -forms on a manifold is a vector space, often denoted.  The definition of a differential form may be restated as follows. At any point, a -form defines an element where is the tangent space to at and is its dual space. This space is naturally isomorphic to the fiber at of the dual bundle of the th exterior power of the tangent bundle of. That is, is also a linear functional formula_41, i.e. the dual of the "k"th exterior power is isomorphic to the "k"th exterior power of the

Operations.

As well as the addition and multiplication by scalar operations which arise from the vector space structure, there are several other standard operations defined on differential forms. The most important operations are the exterior product of two differential forms, the exterior derivative of a single differential form, the interior product of a differential form and a vector field, the Lie derivative of a differential form with respect to a vector field and the covariant derivative of a differential form with respect to a vector field on a manifold with a defined connection.

Exterior product.

The exterior product of a -form and an -form is a ()-form denoted. At each point of the manifold, the forms and are elements of an exterior power of the cotangent space at. When the exterior algebra is viewed as a quotient of the tensor algebra, the exterior product corresponds to the tensor product (modulo the equivalence relation defining the exterior algebra).  The antisymmetry inherent in the exterior algebra means that when is viewed as a multilinear functional, it is

Riemannian manifold.

On a Riemannian manifold, or more generally a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, the metric defines a fibre-wise isomorphism of the tangent and cotangent spaces. This makes it possible to convert vector fields to covector fields and vice versa. It also enables the definition of additional operations such as the Hodge star operator formula_52 and the codifferential formula_53, which has degree and is adjoint to the exterior differential.

Vector field structures.

On a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, -forms can be identified with vector fields; vector fields have additional distinct algebraic structures, which are listed here for context and to avoid confusion.  Firstly, each (co)tangent space generates a Clifford algebra, where the product of a (co)vector with itself is given by the value of a quadratic form – in this case, the natural one induced by the metric. This algebra is "distinct" from the exterior algebra of differential forms, which can be viewed as a Clifford algebra where the quadratic form vanishes (since the exterior product of any vector with itself is zero). Clifford algebras are thus non-anti-commutative ("quantum") deformations of the exterior algebra. They are studied in geometric algebra.  Another alternative is to consider vector fields as derivations. The (noncommutative) algebra of differential operators they generate is the Weyl algebra and is a noncommutative ("quantum") deformation of the "symmetric" algebra in the vector fields.

Exterior differential complex.

One important property of the exterior derivative is that. This means that the exterior derivative defines a cochain complex:  This complex is called the de Rham complex, and its cohomology is by definition the de Rham cohomology

Pullback.

Suppose that is smooth. The differential of is a smooth map between the tangent bundles of and. This map is also denoted and called the pushforward. For any point and any, there is a well-defined pushforward vector in. However, the same is not true of a vector field. If is not injective, say because has two or more preimages, then the vector field may determine two or more distinct vectors in. If is not surjective, then will be a point at which does not determine any tangent vector at all. Since a vector field on determines, by definition, a unique tangent vector at every point of, the pushforward of a vector field does not always exist.  By contrast, it is always possible to pull back a differential form. A differential form on may be viewed as a linear functional

Integration.

A differential -form can be integrated over an oriented -dimensional manifold. When the -form is defined on an -dimensional manifold with, then the -form can be integrated over oriented -dimensional submanifolds. If, integration over oriented 0-dimensional submanifolds is just the summation of the integrand evaluated at points. Other values of correspond to line integrals, surface integrals, volume integrals, and so on. There are several equivalent ways to formally define the integral of a differential form, all of which depend on reducing to the case of Euclidean space.

Integration on Euclidean space.

Let be an open subset of. Give its standard orientation and the restriction of that orientation. Every smooth -form on has the form for some smooth function. Such a function has an integral in the usual Riemann or Lebesgue sense. This allows us to

Integration over chains.

Let be an -manifold and an -form on. First, assume that there is a parametrization of by an open subset of Euclidean space. That is, assume that there exists a diffeomorphism where. Give the orientation induced by. Then defines the integral of over to be the integral of over. In coordinates, this has the following expression. Fix a chart on with coordinates. Then Suppose that is defined by Then the integral may be written in coordinates as where is the determinant of the Jacobian. The Jacobian exists because is differentiable.  In general, an -manifold cannot be parametrized by an open subset of. But such a parametrization is always possible locally, so it is possible to

Integration using partitions of unity.

There is another approach, expounded in, which does directly assign a meaning to integration over, but this approach requires fixing an orientation of. The integral of an -form on an -dimensional manifold is defined by working in charts. Suppose first that is supported on a single positively oriented chart. On this chart, it may be pulled back to an -form on an open subset of. Here, the form has a well-defined Riemann or Lebesgue integral as before. The change of variables formula and the assumption

Integration along fibers.

Fubini's theorem states that the integral over a set that is a product may be computed as an iterated integral over the two factors in the product. This suggests that the integral of a differential form over a product ought to be computable as an iterated integral as well. The geometric flexibility of differential forms ensures that this is possible not just for products, but in more general situations as well. Under some hypotheses, it is possible to integrate along the fibers of a smooth map, and the analog of Fubini's theorem is the case where this map is the projection from

Stokes's theorem.

The fundamental relationship between the exterior derivative and integration is given by the Stokes' theorem: If is an ()-form with compact support on and denotes the boundary of with its induced orientation, then  A key consequence of this is that "the integral of a closed form over homologous chains is equal": If is a closed -form and and are -chains that are homologous (such that is the

Relation with measures.

On a "general" differentiable manifold (without additional structure), differential forms "cannot" be integrated over subsets of the manifold; this distinction is key to the distinction between differential forms, which are integrated over chains or oriented submanifolds, and measures, which are integrated over subsets. The simplest example is attempting to integrate the -form over the interval. Assuming the usual distance (and thus measure) on the real line, this integral is either or, depending on "orientation:" formula_90, while formula_91. By contrast, the integral of the "measure" on the interval is unambiguously (formally, the integral of the constant function with respect to this measure is ). Similarly, under a change of coordinates a differential -form changes by the Jacobian determinant, while a measure changes by the "absolute value" of the Jacobian determinant,, which further reflects the issue of orientation. For example, under the map on the line, the differential form pulls back to ; orientation has reversed; while the Lebesgue measure, which here we denote, pulls back to ; it does not change.  In the presence of the additional data of an "orientation", it is possible to integrate -forms (top-dimensional forms) over the entire manifold or

Currents.

The differential form analog of a distribution or generalized function is called a current. The space of -currents on

Applications in physics.

Differential forms arise in some important physical contexts. For example, in Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, the Faraday 2-form, or electromagnetic field strength, is  where the are formed from the electromagnetic fields formula_93 and formula_94; e.g.,,, or equivalent definitions.  This form is a special case of the curvature form on the principal bundle on which both electromagnetism and general gauge theories may be described. The connection form for the principal bundle is the vector potential, typically denoted by, when represented in some gauge. One then has  The current -form is  where are the four components of the current density. (Here it is a matter of convention to write instead of, i.e. to use capital letters, and to write instead of. However, the vector rsp. tensor components and the above-mentioned forms have different physical dimensions. Moreover, by

Applications in geometric measure theory.

Numerous minimality results for complex analytic manifolds are based on the Wirtinger inequality for 2-forms. A succinct proof may be found in Herbert Federer's classic text "Geometric Measure Theory". The Wirtinger inequality is also a key ingredient in Gromov's inequality for complex projective space in systolic geometry.

In the mathematical fields of differential geometry and tensor calculus, differential forms are an approach to multivariable calculus that is independent of coordinates. Differential forms provide a unified approach to define integrands over curves, surfaces, solids, and higher-dimensional manifolds. The modern notion of differential forms was pioneered by Élie Cartan. It has many applications, especially in geometry, topology and physics.

微分形式是多变量微积分,微分拓扑和张量分析领域的一个数学概念。现代意义上的微分形式,及其以楔积(wedge product)和外微分结构形成外代数的想法,都是由法国数学家埃里·嘉当引入的。


Procedure.

An aqueous sample is treated with an equal volume of 1% strong base (sodium or potassium hydroxide) followed by a few drops of aqueous copper(II) sulfate. If the solution turns purple, it contains protein. 5–160 mg/mL can be determined. Peptides with the correct length of at least 3 amino acids are necessary for a significant, measurable colour shift with these reagents.

Biuret reagent.

The Biuret reagent is made of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrated copper(II) sulfate, together with potassium sodium tartrate, the latter of which is added to chelate and thus stabilize the cupric ions. The reaction of the cupric ions with the nitrogen atoms involved in peptide bonds leads to the displacement of the peptide hydrogen atoms under the alkaline conditions. A tri- or tetra-dentate chelation with the peptide nitrogen produces the characteristic color. This is found with dipeptides (Datta, S.P., Leberman, R., and Rabin, B.R., Trans.Farad.Soc. (1959), 55, 2141).  The reagent is commonly used in the biuret protein assay, a colorimetric test used to determine protein concentration by UV/VIS spectroscopy at wavelength 540 nm.

High sensitivity variants of the biuret test.

Two major modifications of the biuret test are commonly applied in modern colorimetric analysis of peptides: the bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay and the Lowry assay. In these tests, the Cu formed during the biuret reaction reacts further with other reagents, leading to a deeper color.  In the BCA test, Cu forms a deep purple complex with bicinchoninic acid (BCA), which absorbs around 562 nm, producing the signature mauve color. The water-soluble BCA/copper complex absorbs much more strongly than the peptide/copper complex, increasing the sensitivity of the biuret test by a factor of around 100: the BCA assay allows to detect proteins in the range of 0.0005 to 2 mg/mL). Additionally, the BCA protein assay gives the important benefit of compatibility with substances such as up to 5% surfactants in protein samples.  In the Lowry protein assay Cu is oxidized back to Cu by Mo in the Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, which forms molybdenum blue (Mo). Tyrosine residues in the protein also form molybdenum blue under these circumstances. In this way, proteins can be detected in concentrations between 0.005 and 2 mg/mL. Molybdenum blue in turn can bind certain organic dyes such as malachite green and Auramine O, resulting in further amplification of the signal.  In Poland, the biuret test is also known as the Piotrowski test, in honor of the Polish physiologist, Gustaw Piotrowski (b. 1833), who described this test in 1857.

The biuret test, also known as Piotrowski's test, is a chemical test used for detecting the presence of peptide bonds. In the presence of peptides, a copper(II) ion forms mauve-colored coordination complexes in an alkaline solution. Several variants on the test have been developed, such as the BCA test and the Modified Lowry test.

双缩脲试剂(英语:Biuret reagent)是一个用于鉴定蛋白质的分析化学试剂。它是一个碱性的含铜试液,呈蓝色,由1%氢氧化钾、几滴1%硫酸铜和酒石酸钾钠配制。当底物中含有肽键时(多肽),试液中的铜与多肽配位,配合物呈紫色。可通过比色法分析浓度,在紫外可见光谱中的波长为540 nm。鉴定反应的灵敏度为5～160 mg/mL。


Construction.

In 1173 Henry the Lion founded the cathedral to serve the Diocese of Lübeck, after the transfer in 1160 of the bishop's seat from Oldenburg in Holstein under bishop Gerold.  The then Romanesque cathedral was completed around 1230, but between 1266 and 1335 it was converted into a Gothic-style building with side-aisles raised to the same height as the main aisle (around 20m).  On the night of Palm Sunday (28–29 March) 1942 a Royal Air Force bombing raid destroyed a fifth of the town centre. Several bombs fell in the area around the church, causing the eastern vault of the quire to collapse and destroying the altar which dated from 1696. A fire from the neighbouring cathedral museum spread to the truss of the cathedral, and around noon on Palm Sunday the towers collapsed. An Arp Schnitger organ was lost in the flames. Nevertheless, a relatively large portion of the internal fittings was saved, including the cross and almost all of the medieval polyptychs. In 1946 a further collapse, of the gable of the north transept, destroyed the vestibule almost completely.

Reconstruction.

Reconstruction of the cathedral took several decades, as greater priority was given to the rebuilding of the Marienkirche. Work was completed only in 1982.  In 2002 a symposium took place in conjunction with the Lübeck Academy of Music to consider the reconstruction of the Arp Schnitger organ. It was concluded that such a reconstruction would be possible, but no decision has yet been taken. The discussion follows a research project at the university in Göteborg, Sweden where a reconstruction of the Lübeck organ has been going on since the mid-1990s. That reconstruction was concluded in 2001 with installation of the replica, including a replica of the organ front, in an earlier abandoned church from the late 1890s, Örgryte church. The church is now rebuilt as a concert hall.  The cathedral is unique in that at 105 m, it is shorter than the tallest church in the city. This is the consequence of a power struggle between the church and the guilds.

Fixtures.

The 17 m crucifix is the work of the Lübeck artist Bernt Notke. It was commissioned by the bishop of Lübeck, Albert II. Krummendiek, and erected in 1477. The carvings which decorate the rood screen are also by Notke.  Since the war, the famous altar of Hans Memling has been in the medieval collection of the St. Annen Museum, but notable polyptychs remain in the cathedral.  In the funeral chapels of the southern aisle are Baroque-era memorials by the Flemish sculptor Thomas Quellinus.  One of the most famous inscriptions inside the Cathedral is a poem: Ye call Me Master and obey me not, Ye call Me Light and see Me not, Ye call Me Way and walk not, Ye call Me Life and desire Me not, Ye call Me wise and follow Me not, Ye call Me fair and love Me not, Ye call Me rich and ask Me not, Ye call Me eternal and seek Me not, Ye call Me gracious and trust Me not, Ye call Me noble and serve Me not, Ye call Me mighty and honor Me not, Ye call Me just and fear Me not, If I condemn you, blame me not. Anonymous

Legend.

According to legend, in the 8th century Charlemagne was hunting in Saxony and chased a huge deer. After a long pursuit he succeeded in capturing the animal but neither killed nor kept it. Instead he took a gold chain and laid it on the deer's antlers.  Four hundred years later the Wends and Saxons had converted to Christianity, and the man now out hunting was Henry the Lion, the founder of Lübeck. Henry had separated himself from his followers in order to be alone with his thoughts. He wanted to build a church, but lacked the necessary funds. At that moment a great deer appeared before him with a diamond-encrusted crucifix in its antlers. He took this as a sign from God, and shot the animal. He took the cross from its antlers; hardly had he done so when the deer rose up and disappeared into the bushes. The young duke now had enough money for the construction of the church.

Cathedral and congregation today.

The cathedral is now one of the three Lutheran churches of the North Elbian Evangelical Church. Since 2001 the bishop has been Bärbel Wartenberg-Potter.  The congregation is closely connected with the musical life of the city. Thanks to the long-serving organist and cantor Uwe Röhl (1925–2005), the cathedral plays host to the Schleswig-Holstein Musik Festival.

Lübeck Cathedral (, or colloquially "Lübecker Dom") is a large brick-built Lutheran cathedral in Lübeck, Germany and part of the Lübeck World Heritage Site. It was started in 1173 by Henry the Lion as a cathedral for the Bishop of Lübeck. It was partly destroyed in a bombing raid in World War II (1942), when the Arp Schnitger organ was destroyed by fire, but was subsequently reconstructed.

吕贝克主教座堂()是一座大型的砖砌路德会主教座堂,位于德国吕贝克,是世界遗产的一部分。


弗雷德里克·埃德温·丘奇

Biography.

Beginnings.

Frederic Edwin Church was a direct descendant of Richard Church, a Puritan pioneer from England who accompanied Thomas Hooker on the original journey through the wilderness from Massachusetts to what would become Hartford, Connecticut. Church was the son of Eliza (1796–1883) and Joseph Church (1793–1876). Frederic had two sisters and no surviving brothers. His father was successful in business as a silversmith and jeweler and was a director at several financial firms. The family's wealth allowed Frederic to pursue his interest in art from a very early age. In 1844, aged 18, Church became the pupil of landscape artist Thomas Cole in Catskill, New York after Daniel Wadsworth, a family neighbor and founder of the Wadsworth Athenaeum, introduced the two. Church studied with him for two years; by this time his talent was more than evident. Cole wrote that Church had "the finest eye for drawing in the world". During his time with Cole, he travelled around New England and New York to make sketches, visiting East Hampton, Long Island, Catskill Mountain House, The Berkshires, New Haven, and Vermont. His first recorded sale of a painting was in 1846 to Hartford's Wadsworth Athenaeum for $130; it was a pastoral. In 1848, he was elected as the youngest Associate of the National Academy of Design and was promoted to full member the following year. He took his own students including Walter Launt Palmer, William James Stillman and Jervis McEntee.

Style and influences.

Romanticism was prominent in Britain and France in the early 1800s as a counter-movement to the rationalism of the Age of Enlightenment. Artists of the Romantic period often depicted nature in idealized scenes that depicted the richness and beauty of nature, sometimes with emphasis on its grand scale. This tradition carried on in the works of Church, who idealizes an uninterrupted nature, highlighted by his excruciatingly detailed art. The emphasis on nature is encouraged by low horizontal lines and a preponderance of sky. Church usually "hid" his brushstrokes so that the painting surface was smooth and the painter's "personality" seemingly absent.  Church was the product of the second generation of the Hudson River School, a movement in American landscape art founded by his teacher Thomas Cole. Both Cole and Church were devout Protestants, and the latter's beliefs played a role in his paintings, especially his early canvases. Hudson River School paintings were characterized by their focus on traditional pastoral settings, especially the Catskill Mountains, and their Romantic qualities. They attempted to capture the wild realism of an unsettled America that was quickly disappearing, and the appreciation of natural beauty. His American frontier landscapes show the "expansionist and optimistic outlook of the United States in the mid-nineteenth century." Church differed from Cole in the topics of his paintings: he preferred natural and often majestic scenes over Cole's propensity towards allegory—though Church's work has increasingly been re-examined in terms of themes and meanings.  The Prussian explorer and scientist Alexander von Humboldt was a major influence on Church. In his "Kosmos", Humboldt put forth a vision of the interconnectedness of science, the natural world, and spiritual concerns. "Kosmos", which Church owned, dedicated a chapter to landscape painting; Humboldt gave an important role to the visual artist in "scientifically" portraying the diversity of nature, especially in the New World. As Charles Darwin's theory of evolution began to overturn Humboldt's ideas of unity in the 1860s, art historians have examined how Church's painting responded to this disruption in Church's world view.  The English art critic John Ruskin was another important influence on Church. In Ruskin's "Modern Painters", he emphasizes the close observation of nature: "the imperative duty of the landscape painter [is] to descend to the lowest details with undiminished attention. Every class of rock, every kind of earth, every form of cloud, must be studied with equal industry, and rendered with equal precision." This attention to detail must be combined with the artist's interpretation, impressions, and imagination to achieve great art. While Church's paintings were widely praised in the 1850s and 1860s, some critics found his detailed panoramas lacking in the imaginative or poetic. In his 1879 "American Painters", George W. Sheldon wrote of Church's canvases, "It is scarcely necessary to... explain what their principal defect is, because, by this time, that defect must have been recognized by almost every intelligent American lover of art. It consists in the elaboration of details at the expense of the unity and force of sentiment... They are faithful and beautiful, but they are not so rich as they might be in the poetry, the aroma, of art. The higher and spiritual verities of Nature are the true home of landscape art."  Some of Church's paintings relate to, and influenced, the luminist landscape style as well. Luminist art tends to emphasize horizontals, use non-diffuse light, and hide brushstrokes such that the painter's presence, or "personality", is less apparent to the viewer. An exhibition book considers Church's "" and "" to highlight the style's "meticulous draftsmanship and intense colors", while "" and "The Parthenon" "exemplify the style... in their panoramic structure". Nevertheless, Church is not considered a primarily luminist artist.

Career.

Church began his career by painting classic Hudson River School scenes of New York and New England, but by 1850, he had settled in New York. He exhibited his art at the American Art Union, the Boston Art Club, and (most impressively for a young artist) the National Academy of Design. His method consisted of creating paintings in his studio based on sketches in nature. In the earlier years of his career, Church's style was reminiscent of that of his teacher, Thomas Cole, and epitomized the Hudson River School's founding styles. As his style progressed he departed from Cole's approach: he painted in more elaborate detail and his compositions became more adventurous in format, sometimes with dramatic light effects.  Church quickly earned a reputation as a traveler-artist, with early domestic painting and sketching trips to the White Mountains, western Massachusetts, the Catskills, Hartford, Conn, Niagara, Virginia, Kentucky, and Maine. He made two trips to South America in 1853 and 1857 and stayed predominantly in Quito, visiting the volcanoes and cities of modern day Colombia and Ecuador, and crossing the isthmus of Panama. The first trip was with businessman Cyrus West Field, who financed the voyage, hoping to use Church's paintings to lure investors to his South American ventures. Church was inspired by Alexander von Humboldt's exploration of the continent in the early 1800s; Humboldt had challenged artists to portray the "physiognomy" of the Andes. After Humboldt's "Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America" was published in 1852, Church jumped at the chance to travel and study in Humboldt's footsteps. When Church returned to South America in 1857 with painter Louis Rémy Mignot, he added to his sketches of the area. After both trips, Church had produced a number of landscapes of Ecuador and the Andes, such as "The Andes of Ecuador" (1855), "Cayambe" (1858), "The Heart of the Andes" (1859), and "Cotopaxi" (1862). "The Heart of the Andes", Church's most famous painting, pictures several elements of topography combined into an idealistic, broad portrait of nature. The painting was very large, yet highly detailed; every species of plant and animal is identifiable and numerous climate zones appear at once.  As he had with "Niagara" before, Church debuted "The Heart of the Andes" in a single-painting exhibition in New York City in 1859. Thousands of people paid to see the painting, with the painting's huge floor-based frame playing the part of a window looking out on the Andes. The audience sat on benches to view the piece, sometimes using opera glasses to get close, and Church strategically arranged the room to illuminate the painting with the light from overhead skylights. The work was an instant success. Church eventually sold it for $10,000, at that time the highest price ever paid for a work by a living American artist.  Church’s friendship with Dr. Isaac Israel Hayes, a prominent arctic explorer, stimulated the artist’s interest in the arctic regions. In 1859, Church and his good friend Rev. Louis Legrand Noble traveled to Newfoundland and Labrador. The journey was chronicled in Noble’s book "After Icebergs with a Painter" (1861), published shortly before Church’s painting “The Icebergs” went on display.  During the Civil War, Church was inspired to paint "Our Banner in the Sky", from which a lithograph was made and sold to benefit the families of Union soldiers. In 1863, he was elected an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.  By 1860, Church was the most renowned American artist. In his prime, Church was a commercial as well as an artistic success. Church's art was very lucrative; he was reported to be worth half a million dollars at his death in 1900.

Family, later travels, and Olana.

In 1860, Church bought a farm near Hudson, New York and married Isabel Mortimer Carnes (born 1836, of Dayton, Ohio), whom he had met during the New York exhibition of "The Heart of the Andes". They soon started a family, but their two-year-old son Herbert and five-month-old daughter Emma both died of diphtheria in March 1865. A few months later, as the Civil War came to an end, still grief stricken, Church and his wife, and a young artist friend traveled to Jamaica. Church sketched and Isabel made a collection of pressed Jamaican ferns of which there were many spectacular varieties. He and his wife started a new family with the birth of Frederic Joseph in 1866, followed by Theodore Winthrop in 1869, Louis Palmer in 1870 and Isabel Charlotte ("Downie") in 1871.  In late 1867, Church began the longest period of travel of his career. That fall he and his family went to Europe, moving through London and Paris fairly quickly. From Marseille they went to Alexandria, Egypt, but Church did not visit the pyramids, perhaps being afraid to leave his family alone. Passing through Jaffa, they arrived at Beirut, where they spent four months. They stayed with American missionaries, including David Stuart Dodge. In February 1868 Church travelled with Dodge to the city of Petra by camel from Jerusalem. There he sketched the "Al Khazneh" tomb, which became the subject of one of his important later works, "El Khasné, Petra" (1874). Later that spring the family visited Damascus and Baalbek, then sailed the Aegean Sea with a stop in Constantinople. Back in southern Europe by summer, they wintered in Rome. There were many American artists in Rome that year, and they joined several artist/friends, including Sanford Robinson Gifford, Jervis McEntee and other friends who were also living in Rome. While in Rome, Church learned fresco painting, and made a collection of “Old Masters” paintings. However, apparently Europe on the whole did not seem to interest Church as it did most American artists of the 19th century, many of whom traveled there to experience the Western artistic heritage. Leaving his expanded family in Rome with friends, Frederic made a two-week visit to stay in Athens ended the journey in April 1869. At Athens the Parthenon exceeded all his expectations as the finest single specimen of architecture in the world, and he sketched and painted energetically. The Churches left Rome in May 1869, and made their way home via Paris and England, arriving home by the end of June.  Before departing America for that trip, Church purchased the on the hilltop above his Hudson farmland, which he had long wanted for its magnificent views of the Hudson River and the Catskills. In 1870, he began the construction of a Persian-inspired mansion on the hilltop, and the family moved into the home in the summer of 1872. Today this estate is conserved as the Olana State Historic Site. Richard Morris Hunt was consulted early on in the plans for the mansion at Olana, but after the Churches' trip, the English-born American architect Calvert Vaux was hired to complete the project. Church was deeply involved in the process, even completing his own architectural sketches for its design. This highly personal and eclectic building incorporated many of the design ideas that he had acquired during his travels. In one letter of the period, he wrote “I have made about 1 3 /4 miles of road this season, opening entirely new and beautiful views. I can make more and better landscapes in this way than by tampering with canvas and paint in the studio." He devoted much of his energy during his last twenty years to Olana.  Church had been enormously successful as an artist. In his last decades, illness limited Church's ability to paint. By 1876, Church was stricken with rheumatoid arthritis, making painting difficult. He eventually painted with his left hand and continued to produce works, although at a much slower pace. He still taught painting as Cole had before him. Two students were Walter Launt Palmer, son of his close friend Erastus Dow Palmer, and Howard Russell Butler. In later life he often wintered in Mexico, where he taught Butler.  Spending time at Olana and in Mexico, Church was less exposed to trends in New York City. He kept a studio there into the 1880s, but it was usually sublet to Martin Johnson Heade. His wife Isabel had been ill for years, and she died on May 12, 1899, at the home of their late friend and patron, William H. Osborn, on Park Avenue in New York. Less than a year later, on April 7, 1900, at the age of 73, Church also died at the home of Osborn's widow. Frederic and Isabel were buried in the family plot at Spring Grove Cemetery, Hartford, Connecticut.

Legacy.

In the last decades of his life Church's fame dwindled, and by his death in 1900 there was little interest in his work. His paintings were seen as part of an "old-fashioned and discredited" school that was too devoted to details. His reputation improved with a 1945 exhibition devoted to the Hudson River School at the Art Institute of Chicago, and that year the "Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin" revisited the original reception of "The Heart of the Andes". In 1960 art historian David C. Huntington completed a dissertation on Church that explored his influences and milieu. By 1966 he had written a monograph on Church and organized the first exhibition devoted to Church since his death, for the National Collection of Fine Arts. Huntington recognized Church's estate as his greatest artwork and spearheaded the effort to preserve Olana when the property, which had been preserved largely as Church created it by later generations of the family, was threatened with destruction. He spearheaded a two-year campaign to save Frederic Church's Olana, resulting in a public-private partnership that created Olana State Historic Site.  Church's legacy was rekindled; American museums began to acquire his works, and by 1979 Church's "The Icebergs" sold for $2.5 million, then the third-highest auction for any work of art. The next year the National Gallery of Art held a major exhibition, "American Light: The Luminist Movement, 1825–1875", which positioned Church as the leading American painter of his time.  Church's paintings, more confident and on a grander scale than those of his contemporaries, uniquely captured the spirit of an optimistic American people who associated the landscape of the New World with manifest destiny. Art historian Barbara Novak wrote that Church was "a paradigm of the artist who becomes the public voice of a culture, summarizing its beliefs, embodying its ideas, and confirming its assumptions."  Olana State Historic Site is now owned and operated by the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, Taconic Region, and with its curatorial work, visitor services, and external relations managed by The Olana Partnership, a private, non-profit organization. In 1999, the centenary of Church’s death, The Olana Partnership established the Frederic Church Award to honor individuals and organizations who make extraordinary contributions to American art and culture.

Frederic Edwin Church (May 4, 1826 – April 7, 1900) was an American landscape painter born in Hartford, Connecticut. He was a central figure in the Hudson River School of American landscape painters, best known for painting large landscapes, often depicting mountains, waterfalls, and sunsets. Church's paintings put an emphasis on realistic detail, dramatic light, and panoramic views. He debuted some of his major works in single-painting exhibitions to a paying and often enthralled audience in New York City. In his prime, he was one of the most famous painters in the United States.

弗雷德里克·埃德温·丘奇(Frederic Edwin Church,1836年5月4日-1900年4月7日)是一位美国风景画家,他是托马斯·科尔的学生,也是第二代哈德逊河派的中心人物之一。他的作品主要以他在美洲旅行时看到的山川、落日等宏伟的景观为主,晚年也画过一些城市景观及地中海和中东的景色。


History.

An online history, The Franciscan Presence in the Holy Land, has been prepared by the Custodian Emeritus, Archbishop Pierbattista Pizzaballa, OFM.  The Franciscan presence in the Holy Land started in 1217, when the province of Syria was established, with Frater (Brother) Elias of Cortona as Minister. By 1229, the friars had a small house near the fifth station of the Via Dolorosa. In 1272 the Sultan Baibars of Egypt permitted the Franciscans to settle in the Cenacle (also called the Upper Room) on Mount Sion. Later on, in 1309, they also settled in Bethlehem and in the Holy Sepulchre, along with the Canons Regular. In 1333, Robert d'Anjou, King of Naples, and his wife, Sancia of Majorca, bought the Cenacle from the Sultan of Egypt and gave it to the Franciscans. In 1342, Pope Clement VI, by the Papal bulls "Gratiam agimus" and "Nuper charissimae" declared the Franciscans as the official custodians of the Holy Places in the name of the Catholic Church. A portion reads: A short time ago good news from the king and queen reached our Apostolic See relating that, at great cost and following difficult negotiations, they had obtained a concession from the Sultan of Babylon [that is, Cairo], who to the intense shame of Christians occupies the Holy Sepulchre of the Lord and the other Holy Places beyond the sea that were sanctified by the blood of this same Redeemer, to wit that friars of your Order may reside continuously in the church known as the Sepulchre and celebrate there Solemn Sung Masses and the Divine Office in the manner of the several friars of this Order who are already present in this place; moreover, this same Sultan has also conceded to the King and Queen the Cenacle of the Lord, the chapel where the Holy Spirit was manifested to the Apostles and the other chapel in which Christ appeared to the Apostles after his resurrection, in the presence of Blessed Thomas; and also the news of how the Queen built a convent on Mount Zion where, as is known, the Cenacle and the said chapels are located; where for some time she has had the intention of supporting twelve friars of your Order to assure the divine Liturgy in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, along with three laymen charged with serving the friars and seeing to their needs.  The Custodian was described as the "Guardian of Mount Zion in Jerusalem". Between 1342 and 1489, the Custodian was the head of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre and held the "ex officio" title of Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem. From 1374, he was based at the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura in Rome.  In 1489, Pope Innocent VIII suppressed the Order of the Holy Sepulchre and ruled that it was to be merged with the Knights Hospitaller. In 1496, Pope Alexander VI, restored the Order of Holy Sepulchre to independent status, but the Custodian ceased to be the head of the Order. Instead, a Grand Master of the Order was created, and the office vested in the papacy. The Custodian continued to act as the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem "ex officio" until 1830, and by being appointed to both offices until 1905. The office of Grand Master remained vested in the papacy until 1949. On 29 August 2011, Archbishop Edwin Frederick O'Brien was appointed by Pope Benedict XVI Grand Master to succeed Cardinal John Patrick Foley, who resigned the office on 24 February 2011 due to ill health. The Order is a member of many international bodies and has observer status at others (such as the United Nations). The Grand Master is a papal viceroy who assists Vatican diplomacy with procedural support for making motions, proposing amendments and requiring votes in the sphere of international diplomacy.  Franciscan friars cared for the Cenacle, restoring also the building with Gothic vaults, until 1552 when the Turks captured Jerusalem and banished all Christians. After the Franciscan friars' eviction, the Cenacle was transformed into a mosque. Christians were not allowed to use the room for prayer until the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.  In 1623, the Latin Province of the Holy Land was split into a number of smaller entities, called Custodies - creating Custodies of Cyprus, Syria, and the Holy Land proper. The Custody of the Holy Land included the monasteries of Saint-Jean-d'Acre, Antioch, Sidon, Tyre, Jerusalem and Jaffa.  In 1847, a resident Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem was restored in the Holy Land, together with the Order of the Holy Sepulchre. The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem became the ecclesiastical superior of the Order, and eventually assumed the title Grand Prior, supplanting the Custodian. The office of Grand Master still remained vested in the papacy.  In 1937, Alberto Gori was appointed Custodian of the Holy Land, an office he would occupy until 1949, when he was appointed Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, an office he held until 1970. In Gori's reports to the Vatican in the 1940s, he was critical of Jewish and later Israeli forces, whom he accused of destruction of holy places. Despite repeated Israeli assurances that Israel will guarantee freedom of religion and safeguard the Holy Places of all religions, Pope Pius XII issued several encyclicals expressing concerns about the holy places as well as access. In 1949, at the time of appointing Gori to the office of Latin Patriarch, Pius XII also relinquished the title of Grand Master.

Organisation.

On 15 May 2004, Fr. Pierbattista Pizzaballa was appointed Custodian of the Holy Land, succeeding Giovanni Battistelli, who held the office for six years. On Friday, June 28, 2013, Pope Francis confirmed that he would continue as Custodian for at least a further three years. Pierbattista Pizzaballa was born in Cologno al Serio, Italy, on 21 April 1965. He was ordained a priest in September 1990. Since 2016, the chief custodian has been Francesco Patton.  The Custodian of the Holy Land, also called the International Custodian of the Holy Land, is appointed by the General Definitorium of the Order of Friars Minor (OFM) of the Franciscans and approved by the Pope and the Holy See.  The Custodian has the role of Minister Provincial (i.e. major superior) of the Franciscans living in Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, parts of Egypt, Cyprus and Rhodes. The Custody has about 300 friars and about 100 sisters in these countries. The Franciscans serve the principal Christian shrines, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, Basilica of the Nativity in Bethlehem and the Basilica of the Annunciation in Nazareth.  During the later Middle Ages and early modern times the Custody was official provider of hospitality for Latin pilgrims to the Holy Land, i.e. Westerners be they Catholic or Protestant. Such facilities existed primarily at Jaffa and in Jerusalem

Properties in the Holy Land.

The Franciscan order owns a great deal of property in the Holy Land, second only to the Orthodox Church of Jerusalem. In addition to the major shrines of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and the Basilica of the Nativity in Bethlehem, which the Franciscans own and administer in common with the Jerusalem Orthodox and Armenian Orthodox patriarchates, the Custodian also cares for 74 shrines and sanctuaries throughout the Holy Land, including properties in Syria and Jordan.  In 1909, in the territory of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, re-instituted in 1847, the Franciscans had 24 convents and 15 parishes, including numerous schools.  The Custodian's offices are at the Monastery of St Saviour, a 16th-century Franciscan monastery near New Gate in the Old City of Jerusalem.

Activities.

Education.

Schools founded by the Franciscan friars include Terra Santa College in Nicosia, Cyprus and Magnificat Institute in Jerusalem.

Current issues.

Fr. Pizzaballa expressed concern view that many Christians were leaving the region, especially the Christians of the Palestinian Territories, and that housing assistance was being offered to discourage emigration. He attributed the exodus to lack of prospects for the future and the political situation.  In 2011, the Catholic News Service (CNS) website aired an interview on Vatican Radio in which Father Pizzaballa alluded to the tense situation for Christians in Syria and Egypt.

The Custody of the Holy Land (Latin: "Custodia Terræ Sanctæ") is a custodian priory of the Order of Friars Minor in Jerusalem, founded as "Province of the Holy Land" in 1217 by Saint Francis of Assisi, who also founded the Franciscan Order. Its mission is to guard "the grace of the Holy Places" of the Holy Land and the rest of the Middle East, "sanctified by the presence of Jesus", as well as pilgrims visiting them, on behalf of the Catholic Church. In 1342, the Franciscans were declared by two papal bulls as the official custodians of the Holy Places in the name of the Catholic Church.

圣地保管人()是天主教会负责保护和管理圣地耶路撒冷的修会主管。现在由方济会会士担任此职。


Description.

The plants may be annual, biennial, or perennial. Usually herbaceous, a few species form shrubs or evergreen trees. They are lactiferous, producing latex, which may be milky or watery, coloured or plain. All parts contain a well-developed duct system (these ducts are called "laticifers"), producing a milky latex, a watery white, yellow or red juice.  The simple leaves are alternate or sometimes whorled. They have petioles and are not enclosed by a sheath. The leaves are usually lobed or pinnatifid (i.e. consisting of several not entirely separate leaflets), or much divided. There are no stipules.  The plants are hermaphroditic and are pollinated mostly by insects (entomophilous); flower nectaries are lacking. A few are wind pollinated (anemophilous). There is a distinct calyx and corolla, except in "Macleaya" where the corolla is lacking. The flowers are medium-sized or large. The terminal flowers are solitary in many species. In others the terminal inflorescence is cymose or racemose. The flowers are odourless and regular.  There are many stamens, mostly 16 to 60, arranged in two separate whorls, the outer one with stamens alternating with petals, the inner one opposite, or numerous in the subfamily Papaveroideae. The gynoecium consists of a compound pistil with 2 to 100 carpels. The ovary is superior and unilocular. The ovary is either stemless (sessile) or on a short stem (stipitate).  The non-fleshy fruit is usually a capsule, breaking open at maturity to release the seeds through pores (poricidal), through the partitions between the cells (septicidal), or by means of valves (valvular). The numerous seeds are small. Their nutritive tissue (endosperm) is oily and farinose. The fruit of "Platystemon" is a schizocarp.  The basic chromosome number, "x", is 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11, up to "2n" = 84 (dodecaploidy) in species of "Papaver", "Argemone" and "Meconopsis".

Taxonomy.

The APG III system (2009; unchanged from the APG II system of 2003 and the APG system of 1998) places the family in the order Ranunculales, in the clade eudicots. The Papaveraceae differ from the rest of the Ranunculales in some important characteristics but they share others such as the presence of isoquinoline-derived alkaloids. Based on molecular and morphological data, the family forms a clade with the families Lardizabalaceae, Circaeasteraceae, Menispermaceae, Berberidaceae and Ranunculaceae.

Genera.

The broad circumscription of Papaveraceae in the APG III system includes three taxa that have previously been separated into different families: the Papaveraceae "sensu stricto", the Fumariaceae and the Pteridophyllaceae. Thus the Cronquist system of 1981 recognised the Fumariaceae as a separate family, despite their close phylogenetic relationship to the Papaveraceae "sensu stricto". The three former families may be treated as subfamilies. One morphological and molecular study concluded that the former family Pteridophyllaceae has a basal position with a subsequent division into two terminal clades each containing one of the subfamilies Fumarioideae and Papaveroideae, which are clearly monophyletic. A more recent study includes the former Pteridophyllaceae in the Fumarioideae, dividing the Papaveraceae into only two subfamilies.  The internal division of the Fumarioideae shown below follows Lidén (1993), with the exception of the placement of "Pteridophyllum". The subtribes are given by the Germplasm Resources Information Network. The division of the Papaveroideae follows Hoot et al. (1997). In the latter study, the tribe Eschscholzieae would be the basal clade and sister group to the rest of the subfamily, which is divided into a different terminal clade (Chelidonieae) and into its sister group, formed by the Papavereae and Platystemoneae, whose separation is not based on the data presented by these authors. For discussions of subfamilies, see Carolan et al. (2006) and Blattner & Kadereit (1999).

Ecology.

Pollination is entomophile (basically by flies and wasps and bees, less often by beetles), except in "Bocconia" and "Macleaya". In Papaveroideae, the reward is pollen as there is no nectar. The visual attractant is the petals that are usually brightly coloured and often have basal guides, sometimes the attractant can also be the androecium as the petals do not last long. Some species, mostly those from the arctic and alpine regions, reinforce their attraction with floral fragrance (for example, "Papaver alpinum" smells of cloves), which in the case of "Romneya" drugs the insects. The anthers and stigmas mature at the same time, but "Bocconia" is clearly protogynous, the stigmas emerge from the calyx that encloses them. Autopollination is common and in some cases (for example, "Roemeria hybrida") it occurs before the bud opens (cleistogamy). The presence of an aril suggests dispersion of seeds by ants (myrmecochory), once they have been expelled by the fruit. In the case of "Bocconia" the seeds remain attached to the replums after the capsule's valves have fallen leaving their brilliant red or orange arils exposed, which attract birds to feed on them, facilitating their dispersal (ornithochory). Seeds that lack an aril appear to be dispersed by the wind (anemochory) for capsules that open, in the other cases they are freed when the fruit decomposes. Many Fumarioideae species have explosive fruits (ballistic), while "Rupicapnos" and "Sarcocapnos" species are chasmophytes, growing on rocks, and their fruit's peduncles and pedicels are geotropic and they lengthen so that the seeds bury into the base of the plant.  The Papaveroideae typically grow in cooler and wooded areas, forming part of the undergrowth. They have adapted to arctic and alpine habitats and to arid, Mediterranean areas, many species are ruderal and segetal (growing in cornfields). "Pteridophyllum" grows in the undergrowth of woods of needle-leaved trees between. The Fumarioideae are basically found in open, rocky, alpine landscapes or vertical or overhanging cracks, while some species are ruderal or segetal.

Phytochemistry.

Alkaloids: The isoquinolinic alkaloids present in the family are well known. They are derived from berberine, tetrahydroberberine, protopine and benzophenanthridine in Papaveroideae, and from spirobenzylisoquinoline and cularine in Fumarioideae, as well as from other groups that give them pharmacological properties: derivatives of aporphine, morphinan, pavine, isopavine, narceine and rhoeadine.  Others: Other characteristic substances contained within these species include: meconic acid and chelidonic acid, as well as cyanogenic glycoside compounds derived from tyrosine: dhurrin and triglochinin; in the Fumarioideae while the Chelidonieae contain the free amino acid δ-acetylornithine.  Flavonoids: Iridoids and proanthocyanidins absent. Flavonols, kaempferol and/or quercetin present.  Many of these plants are poisonous. The Mexican prickly poppy is poisonous if taken internally and may cause oedema and glaucoma. Even if an animal, such as a goat, should persist in grazing on this plant, not only will the animal suffer but so will those who drink its milk, because the poisons are passed along in the milk.

Fossil record.

The fossils of the late Cretaceous poppy "Palaeoaster inquirenda" from the Western Interior of North America occurs from 74.5 million year old deposits in the Fruitland Formation in New Mexico to 64.5 million year old deposits in the Hell Creek Formation in North Dakota. Dehiscent fruit fossils of "Palaeoaster" have been found at the excavation site for the well known "Tyrannosaurus rex" specimen BHI 3033. The seed capsule of "Palaeoaster" has some similarities to that of the extant poppy genus "Romneya".  Papaverites a fruit from the Eocene of Germany may be associated with Papaveraceae. Chesters et al. (1967) mentions Papaver pictum from the Oligocene of England.

Cultivation.

The family is well known for its striking flowers, with many species grown as ornamental plants, including California poppy ("Eschscholtzia californica", the California state flower), the stunning blue Himalayan poppies ("Meconopsis"), several species of "Papaver", and the wildflower bloodroot. Only two species are of economic importance for the production of opium and its derivatives for pharmaceutical use: "Papaver somniferum" is cultivated legally in order to obtain morphine and other opiates, and "Papaver bracteatum", for thebaine. "Papaver somniferum" is also the source of the poppy seeds used in cooking and baking, and poppy seed oil. The illegal cultivation of poppies in Asia for the production of opium and heroin is virtually equal to the legal production in the rest of the world. Some Funarioideae have a limited use in gardening, with "Lamprocapnos spectabilis" ("bleeding heart"), and "Pseudofumaria lutea" ("yellow corydalis") commonly used. Chinese traditional medicine used the boiled and dried tubers of "Corydalis yanhusuo" ("yanhusuo").

Symbolism.

The opium poppy and corn poppy are symbols, respectively, of sleep and death. In Great Britain, Canada, the United States, and Australia the corn poppy is worn in remembrance of World War I.

The Papaveraceae are an economically important family of about 42 genera and approximately 775 known species of flowering plants in the order Ranunculales, informally known as the poppy family. The family is cosmopolitan, occurring in temperate and subtropical climates (mostly in the northern hemisphere), but almost unknown in the tropics. Most are herbaceous plants, but a few are shrubs and small trees. The family currently includes two groups that have been considered to be separate families: Fumariaceae and Pteridophyllaceae.

罂粟科(学名:)植物广泛分布在全世界温带和亚热带地区,大部分种类是草本,也有少数是灌木或小乔木,整个植株都有导管系统,分泌白色、黄色或红色的汁液。单叶互生或对生,无托叶,常分裂。花两性,虫媒,有少数种是风媒花,单生,有萼片和花冠分离,只有其中的博落回属没有花瓣,花多大而鲜艳,无香味。


Name.

The name "Soho" first appears in the 17th century. The name may possibly derive from a former hunting cry. James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, used "soho" as a rallying call for his men at the Battle of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685, half a century after the name was first used for this area of

Location.

Soho is about in area, bounded by Shaftesbury Avenue to the south, Oxford Street to the north, Regent Street to the west, and Charing Cross Road to the east. However, apart from Oxford Street, all of these roads are 19th-century metropolitan improvements, and Soho has never been an administrative unit, with formally defined boundaries. The area to

History.

Early history.

During the Middle Ages, the area that is now Soho was farmland that belonged to the Abbot and Convent of Abingdon and the master of Burton St Lazar Hospital in Leicestershire, who managed a leper hospital in St Giles in the Fields. In 1536, the land was taken by Henry VIII as a royal park for the Palace of Whitehall. The area south of what is now Shaftesbury Avenue did not stay in the Crown possession for long; Queen Mary sold around in 1554, and most of the remainder was sold between 1590 and 1623. A small section of land remained, until sold by Charles II in 1676.  In the 1660s, ownership of Soho Fields passed to Henry Jermyn, 1st Earl of St

Gentrification.

Building progressed rapidly in the late 17th century, with large properties such as Monmouth House (built for James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, Charles II's eldest illegitimate son), Leicester House, Fauconberg House, Carlisle House and Newport House.  Soho Square was first laid out in the 1680s on the former Soho Fields. Firth built the first houses around the square, and by 1691, 41 had been completed. It was originally called King Square in honour of Charles II, and a statue of him was based in the centre. Several

Cholera outbreak.

A significant event in the history of epidemiology and public health was Dr. John Snow's study of an 1854 outbreak of cholera in Soho. He identified the cause of the outbreak as water from the public pump at the junction of Broad Street (now Broadwick Street) and Cambridge Street (now Lexington Street), close to the rear wall of what is today the John Snow public house.  Snow mapped the addresses of the sick, and noted that they were mostly people whose nearest access

Decline.

By the mid-18th century, the aristocrats who had been living in Soho Square or Gerrard Street had moved away, as more fashionable areas such as Mayfair became available. The historian and topographer William Maitland wrote that the parish "so greatly abound with French that is an easy Matter for a Stranger to imagine himself in France." Soho's character stems partly from the ensuing neglect by rich and fashionable London, and the lack of the redevelopment that characterised the neighbouring areas. The aristocracy had mostly disappeared from Soho by the 19th century, to be

Recent history.

Since the decline of the sex industry in Soho in the 1980s, the area has returned to being more residential. The Soho Housing Association was established in 1976 to provide reasonable rented accommodation. By the 21st century, it had acquired around 400 flats. St Anne's Church in Dean Street was

Properties.

Theatre and film.

Soho is near the heart of London's theatre area. It is home to Soho Theatre, built in 2000 to present new plays and comedy.  The Windmill Theatre was based on Great Windmill Street, and was named after a windmill at this location that was demolished in the 18th century. It initially opened as the Palais de Luxe in 1910 as a small cinema, but was unable to compete with larger venues and was converted into a theatre by Howard Jones. It re-opened

Restaurants and clubs.

Many small and easily affordable restaurants and cafes were established in Soho during the 19th century, particularly as a result of Greek and Italian immigration. The restaurants were not looked upon favourably at first, but their reputation changed at the start of the 20th century. In 1924, a guide reported "of late years, the inexpensive restaurants of Soho have enjoyed an extraordinary vogue." Arthur Ransome's "Bohemia in London" (1907) mentions Old and New Soho, including details about Soho coffee-houses including

Radio.

Soho Radio is an internet radio station on Great Windmill Street, next to the Windmill Theatre. Since May 2014 it has been streaming live and pre-recorded programming from its premises, which also function as a retail

Religion.

Soho is home to numerous religious and spiritual groups. St Anne's Church on Wardour Street was built between 1677 and 1686, possibly to the design of Sir Christopher Wren or William Talman. An additional tower was built in 1717 by Talman and reconstructed in 1803. The church was damaged by a V1 flying bomb during World War II in 1940, but the tower survived. In 1976, John Betjeman campaigned to save the building. The church was fully restored in the late 1980s and formally re-opened by the Princess Royal on 12 March

Music.

The music scene in Soho can be traced back to 1948 and Club Eleven, generally regarded as the first venue where modern jazz, or bebop, was performed in the UK. It closed in 1950 following a drugs raid. The Harmony Inn was a hang-out for musicians on Archer Street operating during the 1940s and 1950s.  The Ken Colyer Band's 51 Club, a venue for traditional jazz, opened on Great Newport Street in 1951. Blues guitarist and harmonica player Cyril Davies and guitarist Bob Watson launched the London Skiffle Centre, London's first skiffle club, on the first floor of the Roundhouse pub on

Sex industry.

The Soho area has been at the heart of London's sex industry for more than 200 years; between 1778 and 1801, 21 Soho Square was location of the White House, a brothel described by the magistrate Henry Mayhew as "a notorious place of ill-fame". Shortly before World War I, two rival gangs, one led by Chan Nan (also called "Brilliant Chang") and the other by Eddie Manning, controlled drugs and prostitution in Soho. Both were eventually arrested and imprisoned; Manning died midway through a three-year sentence in 1933. Following World War II, gangs set up rings of prostitutes in the area, concentrated around Brewer

Health and Welfare.

The National Hospital for Diseases of the Heart and Paralysis was established at No. 32 Soho Square in 1874. The property had previously been owned by the naturalist and botanist Sir Joseph Banks. It moved to Westmoreland Street in 1914,

Streets.

Berwick Street was built between 1687 and 1703, and is probably named after James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, the illegitimate son of James II of England. It has held a street market since the early 18th century, which has been formally organised since 1892.  Carnaby Street was laid out in the late 17th century. It was named after Karnaby House, built on the street's eastern side in 1683. It was a popular residence for Huguenots at first, before becoming populated by shops in the 19th century. In 1957, a fashion boutique was opened, and Carnaby Street became the fashion centre of 1960s Swinging London, although it quickly became known for poor quality "kitsch" products. D'Arblay Street was laid out between 1735 and 1744. It was originally known as Portland Street after William Bentinck, 2nd Duke of Portland and given its current named in 1909 in commemoration of Frances Burney, Lady D'Arblay, who had lived in the street. The George public house at No. 1 was opened in 1889, but there has been a tavern on this site since 1739. Several of the original houses have survived into the 21st century.  Dean Street was built in the 1680s and was originally settled by French immigrants. It is home to the Soho Theatre, and a pub known as The French House which during World War II was popular with the French Government-in-exile. Karl Marx lived at No. 64 Dean Street around 1850. The Colony Club was founded by Muriel Belcher and based at No. 41 Dean Street from 1948 to 2008. It was frequented by several important artists including Francis Bacon, Lucian Freud and Frank Auerbach.  Frith Street was named after Richard Frith, a local builder. On Roque's Map of London it is marked as Thrift Street. It was a popular aristocratic residence, although without as many foreign residents as some other streets. A plaque above the stage door of the Prince Edward Theatre identifies the site where Mozart lived as a child between 1764 and '65. John Logie Baird first demonstrated television in his laboratory at No 22 in 1926. The premises is now the location of Bar Italia. Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club is located at No 46 Frith Street having moved there from Gerrard Street in 1965.  Greek Street was first laid out around 1680 and was named after a nearby Greek church. It initially housed several upper-class tenants including Arthur Annesley, 5th Earl of Anglesey and Peter Plunket, 4th Earl of Fingall. Thomas De Quincey lived in the street after running away from Manchester Grammar School in 1802. Josiah Wedgwood ran his main pottery warehouse and showrooms at Nos. 12–13 between 1774 and 1797. The street now mostly contains restaurants, and several historical buildings from the early 18th century are still standing.  Gerrard Street was built between 1677–85 on land owned by Charles Gerard, 1st Earl of Macclesfield called the Military Ground. The initial development contained a large house belonging to the Earl of Devonshire, which was subsequently occupied by Charles Montagu, 4th Earl of Manchester, Baron Wharton and Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough. Several foreign

Cultural references.

A detailed mural depicting Soho characters, including writer Dylan Thomas and jazz musician George Melly, is in Broadwick Street, at the junction with Carnaby Street.  In fiction, Robert Louis Stevenson had Dr. Henry Jekyll set up a home for Edward Hyde in Soho in his novel, "Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde". Charles Dickens referred to Soho in several of his works; in "A Tale of Two Cities", Lucie Manette and her father Dr.

References.

Citations Sources

Soho is an area of the City of Westminster, part of the West End of London. Originally a fashionable district for the aristocracy, it has been one of the main entertainment districts in the capital since the 19th century.

苏豪区(Soho)位于英国伦敦西部的次级行政区西敏市境内,本来是当地的红灯区。后来色情事业式微,加上位置紧贴伦敦的金融区梅菲尔,每天下班时候都有很多人从梅菲尔到苏豪喝酒、消遣和听音乐,使苏豪区渐渐变成一个让世界各地游客云集的小区。许多时尚酒吧和小店、高档酒店云集于此,只有少部分色情场所还在营业。除此之外,伦敦的唐人街亦位于本区。


Career.

Studies.

Thomas Hoeren studied Theology and Law at the Universities of Tübingen, Münster and London Guildhall University from 1980 to 1987. In 1986 he graduated from Theology in Münster. From October 1986 to May 1988 he wrote his doctorate's thesis in IT Law at the University of Münster (title of the dissertation: “Softwareüberlassung als Sachkauf” (“Software Licensing as a Product Purchase”)). In May 1994, Thomas Hoeren qualified as a professor of Civil Law (degree: Dr. habil.) at the Faculty of Law of the University of Münster (title: "Selbstregulierung im Banken- und Versicherungsrecht" ("Problems in competition law with regard to self-regulation in the banking and insurance sector")).

Academic career.

Hoeren taught at the Faculty of Law of the Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf from April 1994 to June 1997. He was appointed as professor of Information, Media and Business Law at the Faculty of Law of the University of Münster and Head of the Institute for Information, Telecommunication and Media Law in June 1997. This Institute deals with Civil Law, Public Law and Criminal Law on the Information Law sector and conducts research on Industrial Property Rights and E-Learning. Since 2004 Hoeren is appointed a Research Fellow at the Oxford Internet Institute of the Balliol College (Oxford). In 2004 Hoeren was also a lecturer at the Academy of Art of Münster. Additionally, he is a lecturer for Information and IT law at the University of Zurich and the University of Vienna. Since 2006 he is a laison lecturer of the German National Merit Foundation(Studienstiftung des Deutschen Volkes).

Legal career.

From June 1996 until the end of 2011 Hoeren was a Judge at the Court of Appeals in Düsseldorf (IP Law senate). Hoeren is one of the legal advisors of the European Commission (DG XIII) at the “Legal Advisory Board on Information Technology”. Furthermore, he serves as legal counsel to the DENIC and is a board member of the Research Center for Information Law of the University of St. Gallen (Switzerland).  Since June 2000 he is working as a 'domain name panelist' for the WIPO. In 2005 he became a member of the expert committee for Copyright and Publishing Law at the German Union for Intellectual Property Protection. From 2012 to 2014 he was Dean of the Faculty of Law at the University of Muenster. He is as well working as a professional photographer.

Thomas Hoeren (born on August 22, 1961 in Dinslaken) is a German law professor and a former Court of appeal judge with focus on Information and Media Law.

托马斯·霍伦(Thomas Hoeren,1961年-8月22日)出生于德国丁斯拉肯,德国法学家。其重点研究领域为信息法和媒体法。


Etymology and pronunciation.

The word "hygroscopy" () uses combining forms of "hygro-" and "-scopy". Unlike any other "-scopy" word, it no longer refers to a viewing or imaging mode. It did begin that way, with the word "hygroscope" referring in the 1790s to measuring devices for humidity level. These hygroscopes used materials, such as certain animal hairs, that appreciably changed shape and size when they became damp. Such materials were then said to be "hygroscopic" because they were suitable for making a hygroscope. Eventually, though, the word "hygroscope" ceased to be used for any such instrument in modern usage. But the word "hygroscopic" (tending to retain moisture) lived on, and thus also "hygroscopy" (the ability to do so). Nowadays an instrument for measuring humidity is called a hygrometer ("hygro-" + "-meter").

Overview.

Hygroscopic substances include cellulose fibers (such as cotton and paper), sugar, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, wood, methanol, sulfuric acid, many fertilizer chemicals, many salts (like calcium chloride, bases like sodium hydroxide etc.), and a wide variety of other substances.  If a compound dissolves in water, then it is considered to be hydrophilic.  Zinc chloride and calcium chloride, as well as potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide (and many different salts), are so hygroscopic that they readily dissolve in the water they absorb: this property is called deliquescence. Not only is sulfuric acid hygroscopic in concentrated form but its solutions are hygroscopic down to concentrations of 10% v/v or below. A hygroscopic material will tend to become damp and cakey when exposed to moist air (such as the salt inside salt shakers during humid weather).  Because of their affinity for atmospheric moisture, hygroscopic materials might require storage in sealed containers. When added to foods or other materials for the express purpose of maintaining moisture content, such substances are known as humectants.  Materials and compounds exhibit different hygroscopic properties, and this difference can lead to detrimental effects, such as stress concentration in composite materials. The volume of a particular material or compound is affected by ambient moisture and may be considered its coefficient of hygroscopic expansion (CHE) (also referred to as CME, or coefficient of moisture expansion) or coefficient of hygroscopic contraction (CHC)—the difference between the two terms being a difference in sign convention.  Differences in hygroscopy can be observed in plastic-laminated paperback book covers—often, in a suddenly moist environment, the book cover will curl away from the rest of the book. The unlaminated side of the cover absorbs more moisture than the laminated side and increases in area, causing a stress that curls the cover toward the laminated side. This is similar to the function of a thermostat's bi-metallic strip. Inexpensive dial-type hygrometers make use of this principle using a coiled strip. Deliquescence is the process by which a substance absorbs moisture from the atmosphere until it dissolves in the absorbed water and forms a solution. Deliquescence occurs when the vapour pressure of the solution that is formed is less than the partial pressure of water vapour in the air.  While some similar forces are at work here, it is different from capillary attraction, a process where glass or other solid substances attract water, but are not changed in the process (e.g., water molecules do not become suspended between the glass molecules).

Engineering properties.

The amount of moisture held by hygroscopic materials is usually proportional to the relative humidity. Tables containing this information can be found in many engineering handbooks and is also available from suppliers of various materials and chemicals.  Hygroscopy also plays an important role in the engineering of plastic materials. Some plastics are hygroscopic while others are not.

Biology.

The seeds of some grasses have hygroscopic extensions that bend with changes in humidity, enabling them to disperse over the ground. An example is Needle-and-Thread, "Hesperostipa comata". Each seed has an awn that twists several turns when the seed is released. Increased moisture causes it to untwist, and, upon drying, to twist again, thereby drilling the seed into the ground.  Thorny dragons collect moisture in the dry desert via nighttime condensation of dew that forms on their skin and is channeled to their mouths in hygroscopic grooves between the spines of their skin. Water also collects in these grooves when it rains. Capillary action allows the lizard to suck in water from all over its body.

Deliquescence.

Deliquescence, like hygroscopy, is also characterized by a strong affinity for water and tendency to absorb moisture from the atmosphere if exposed to it. Unlike hygroscopy, however, deliquescence involves absorbing sufficient water to form an aqueous solution. Most deliquescent materials are salts, including calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, ferric chloride, carnallite, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, ferric ammonium citrate, ammonium nitrate, potassium hydroxide, and sodium hydroxide. Owing to their very high affinity for water, these substances are often used as desiccants, also an application for concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids. Some deliquescent compounds are used in the chemical industry to remove water produced by chemical reactions (see Drying tube).

Polymers.

Many engineering polymers are hygroscopic, including nylon, ABS, polycarbonate, cellulose, and poly(methyl methacrylate).  Other polymers, such as polyethylene and polystyrene, do not normally absorb much moisture, but are able to carry significant moisture on their surface when exposed to liquid water.  Type-6 nylon can absorb up to 9.5% of its weight in moisture.

Applications in baking.

The use of different substances' hygroscopic properties in baking are often used to achieve differences in moisture content and, hence, crispiness. Different varieties of sugars are used in different quantities to produce a crunchy, crisp cookie (UK: biscuit) versus a soft, chewy cake. Sugars such as honey, brown sugar, and molasses are examples of sweeteners used to create more moist, chewy cakes.

Hygroscopy is the phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules via either absorption or adsorption from the surrounding environment, which is usually at normal or room temperature. If water molecules become suspended among the substance's molecules, adsorbing substances can become physically changed, e.g., changing in volume, boiling point, viscosity or some other physical characteristic or property of the substance.

潮解(Deliquescence)指的是物质从空气中吸收水分,变为溶液的现象。


Medical use.

-DOPA crosses the protective blood–brain barrier, whereas dopamine itself cannot. Thus, -DOPA is used to increase dopamine concentrations in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and dopamine-responsive dystonia. Once -DOPA has entered the central nervous system, it is converted into dopamine by the enzyme aromatic -amino acid decarboxylase, also known as DOPA decarboxylase. Pyridoxal phosphate (vitamin B) is a required cofactor in this reaction, and may occasionally be administered along with -DOPA, usually in the form of pyridoxine.  In humans, conversion of -DOPA to dopamine does not only occur within the central nervous system. Cells in the peripheral nervous system perform the same task. Thus administering -DOPA alone will lead to increased dopamine signaling in the periphery as well. Excessive peripheral dopamine signaling is undesirable as it causes many of the adverse side effects seen with sole -DOPA administration. To bypass these effects, it is standard clinical practice to coadminister (with -DOPA) a peripheral DOPA decarboxylase inhibitor (DDCI) such as carbidopa (medicines containing carbidopa, either alone or in combination with -DOPA, are branded as Lodosyn (Aton Pharma) Sinemet (Merck Sharp & Dohme Limited), Pharmacopa (Jazz Pharmaceuticals), Atamet (UCB), Syndopa and Stalevo (Orion Corporation) or with a benserazide (combination medicines are branded Madopar or Prolopa), to prevent the peripheral synthesis of dopamine from -DOPA.  Inbrija (previously known as CVT-301) is an inhaled powder formulation of levodopa indicated for the intermittent treatment of off episodes in patients with Parkinson's disease currently taking carbidopa/levodopa. It was approved by the FDA on December 21, 2018 and is marketed by Acorda Therapeutics.  Coadministration of pyridoxine without a DDCI accelerates the peripheral decarboxylation of -DOPA to such an extent that it negates the effects of -DOPA administration, a phenomenon that historically caused great confusion.  In addition, -DOPA, co-administered with a peripheral DDCI, is efficacious for the short term treatment of restless leg syndrome.  The two types of response seen with administration of -DOPA are:

Biological role.

-DOPA is produced from the amino acid -tyrosine by the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase. It is also the precursor for the monoamine or catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline). Dopamine is formed by the decarboxylation of -DOPA by aromatic -amino acid decarboxylase (AADC).  -DOPA can be directly metabolized by catechol-"O"-methyl transferase to 3-"O"-methyldopa, and then further to vanillactic acid. This metabolic pathway is nonexistent in the healthy body, but becomes important after peripheral -DOPA administration in patients with Parkinson's disease or in the rare cases of patients with AADC enzyme deficiency.  -Phenylalanine, -tyrosine, and -DOPA are all precursors to the biological pigment melanin. The enzyme tyrosinase catalyzes the oxidation of -DOPA to the reactive intermediate dopaquinone, which reacts further, eventually leading to melanin oligomers. In addition, tyrosinase can convert tyrosine directly to -DOPA in the presence of a reducing agent such as ascorbic acid.

Side effects and adverse reactions.

The side effects of -DOPA may include:  Although many adverse effects are associated with -DOPA, in particular psychiatric ones, it has fewer than other antiparkinsonian agents, such as anticholinergics and dopamine receptor agonists.  More serious are the effects of chronic -DOPA administration in the treatment of Parkinson's disease, which include:  Clinicians try to avoid these side effects and adverse reactions by limiting -DOPA doses as much as possible until absolutely necessary.  The long term use of L-Dopa increases oxidative stress through monoamine oxidase led enzymatic degradation of synthesized dopamine causing neuronal damage and cytotoxicity. The oxidative stress is caused by the formation of reactive oxygen species (HO) during the monoamine oxidase led metabolism of dopamine. It is further perpetuated by the richness of Fe ions in striatum via the Fenton reaction and the intracellular auto-oxidation. The increased oxidation can potentially cause mutations in the DNA due to the formation of 8-oxoguanine which is capable of pairing with adenosine.

History.

In work that earned him a Nobel Prize in 2000, Swedish scientist Arvid Carlsson first showed in the 1950s that administering -DOPA to animals with drug-induced (reserpine) Parkinsonian symptoms caused a reduction in the intensity of the animals' symptoms. In 1960/61 Oleh Hornykiewicz, after discovering greatly reduced levels of dopamine in autopsied brains of patients with Parkinson's disease, published together with the neurologist Walther Birkmayer dramatic therapeutic antiparkinson effects of intravenously administered -DOPA in patients. This treatment was later extended to manganese poisoning and later Parkinsonism by George Cotzias and his coworkers, for which they won the 1969 Lasker Prize., who used greatly increased oral doses. The neurologist Oliver Sacks describes this treatment in human patients with encephalitis lethargica in his book "Awakenings", upon which the movie of the same name is based. The first study reporting improvements in patients with Parkinson's disease resulting from treatment with L-dopa was published in 1968.  The 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was also related to -DOPA: the Nobel Committee awarded one-quarter of the prize to William S. Knowles for his work on chirally catalysed hydrogenation reactions, the most noted example of which was used for the synthesis of -DOPA.

Dietary supplements.

Herbal extracts containing -DOPA are available; high-yielding sources include "Mucuna pruriens" (velvet bean), and "Vicia faba" (broad bean), while other sources include the genera "Phanera", "Piliostigma", "Cassia", "Canavalia", and "Dalbergia".

Marine adhesion.

-DOPA is a key compound in the formation of marine adhesive proteins, such as those found in mussels. It is believed to be responsible for the water-resistance and rapid curing abilities of these proteins. -DOPA may also be used to prevent surfaces from fouling by bonding antifouling polymers to a susceptible substrate.

Research.

Age-related macular degeneration.

In 2015, a retrospective analysis comparing the incidence of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) between patients taking versus not taking -DOPA found that the drug delayed onset of AMD by around 8 years. The authors state that significant effects were obtained for both dry and wet AMD.

-DOPA, also known as levodopa and -3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, is an amino acid that is made and used as part of the normal biology of humans, as well as some animals and plants. Humans, as well as a portion of the other animals that utilize -DOPA in their biology, make it via biosynthesis from the amino acid -tyrosine. -DOPA is the precursor to the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline), which are collectively known as catecholamines. Furthermore, -DOPA itself mediates neurotrophic factor release by the brain and CNS. -DOPA can be manufactured and in its pure form is sold as a psychoactive drug with the INN levodopa; trade names include Sinemet, Pharmacopa, Atamet, Stalevo, Madopar, and Prolopa. As a drug, it is used in the clinical treatment of Parkinson's disease and dopamine-responsive dystonia.

-多巴(英语:-DOPA,全称3,4-二羟苯丙氨酸)是酪氨酸经酪氨酸羟化酶的作用下羟化产生的一种氧化产物,具有儿茶酚羟基,可进一步生成另外一些有生物活性的物质:-多巴在酪氨酸酶的作用下生成多巴醌继而自发转变为黑色素,或在芳香族氨基酸脱羧酶的作用下生成多巴胺,继而形成去甲肾上腺素与肾上腺素等。