History.

Monteriggioni is a medieval walled town, located on a natural hillock, built by the Sienese in 1214–19 as a front line in their wars against Florence, by assuming command of the Via Cassia running through the Val d'Elsa and Val Staggia to the west.  During the conflicts between Siena and Florence in the Middle Ages, the city was strategically placed as a defensive fortification. It also withstood many attacks from both the Florentines and the forces of the Bishop of Volterra. In 1554 the Sienese were able to place control of the town's garrison to Giovannino Zeti, who had been exiled from Florence. In 1554, in an act of reconciliation with the Medicis, Zeti simply handed the keys of the town over to the Medicean forces— considered a "great betrayal" by the town's people.

Main sights.

The roughly circular walls, totalling a length of about and following the natural contours of the hill, were built between 1213 and 1219. There are 14 towers on square bases set at equidistance, and two portals or gates. One gate, the Porta Fiorentina opens toward Florence to the north, and the other, the Porta Romana, faces Rome to the south. The main street within the walls connects the two gates in a roughly straight line.  The main piazza, the Piazza Roma, is dominated by a Romanesque church with a simple, plain façade. Other houses, some in the Renaissance style (once owned by local nobles, gentry and wealthy merchants) face into the piazza. Off the main piazza smaller streets give way to public gardens fronted by the other houses and small businesses of the town. In more hostile times, these gardens provided vital sustenance when enemies gathered without.  Other sights in the town's countryside include:

Cultural significance.

The Tuscan poet Dante Alighieri used the turrets of Monteriggioni to evoke the sight of the ring of giants encircling the Infernal abyss.  Monteriggioni also plays a significant role in the games "Assassin's Creed II" and "", both of which are loosely based around certain key historical events in Renaissance Italy. It is home to protagonist Ezio Auditore, and his uncle Mario, who lives in the fictional Villa Auditore.

Education.

Public schools include:  All public schools within the commune are a part of the "Istituto Comprensivo Statale di Monteriggioni", School District #38.  International School of Siena, a private international school, is in the commune.

Monteriggioni is a "comune" in the province of Siena in the Italian region of Tuscany. It borders on the communes of Casole d'Elsa, Castellina in Chianti, Castelnuovo Berardenga, Colle di Val d'Elsa, Poggibonsi, Siena and Sovicille. The town is architecturally and culturally significant; it hosts several piazzas, and is referenced in Dante Alighieri's "Divine Comedy".

蒙特里久尼()是意大利中部托斯卡纳大区锡耶纳省的一个市镇,与周围卡斯德尔诺沃贝拉登卡、埃尔萨谷口村、波吉邦西、锡耶纳省和索维奇勒等市镇毗邻。


Morphology.

The following overview is based on Pekka (Pyotr) M. Zaykov's volume. Zaykov's Uralic phonetic transcription is retained here. The middle dot ˑ denotes palatalization of the preceding consonant, analyzed by Zaykov as semisoft pronunciation.

Noun.

Akkala Sámi has eight cases, singular and plural: nominative, genitive-accusative, partitive, dative-illative, locative, essive, comitative and abessive. Case and number are expressed by a combination of endings and consonant gradation:

Pronoun.

The table below gives the declension of the personal pronouns "monn" ‘I’ and "mij" ‘we’. The pronouns "tonn" ‘you (sg.)’ and "sonn" ‘(s)he’ are declined like "monn", the pronouns "tij" ‘you (pl.)’ and "sij" ‘they’ are declined like "mij".  The interrogative pronouns "mī" ‘what?’ and "tˑī", "kī" ‘who?’ are declined as follows:  The proximal demonstrative "tˑa͕t" ‘this’ and the medial demonstrative "ti̮t" ‘that’ are declined as follows:

Verb.

Akkala Sámi verbs have three persons and two numbers, singular and plural. There are three moods: indicative, imperative and conditional; the potential mood has disappeared. Below, the paradigm of the verbs "va͕n̄ˑće" ‘to walk’ and "korrɛ" ‘to knit’ is given in the present and imperfect tense:  The verb "ĺiije" ‘to be’ conjugates as follows:  Compound tenses such as perfect and pluperfect are formed with the verb "ĺii̭je" in the present or imperfect as auxiliary, and the participle of the main verb. Examples are "ĺam tĭĕhtmi̮nč" ‘I have known’ from "tĭĕhttɛ" ‘to know’, and "ĺai tui̭jāma" ‘(s)he had made’ from "tui̭je" ‘to make’.  The conditional mood has the marker "-č", which is added to the weak grade of the stem: "kuarčim" ‘I would sew’, "vizzčik" ‘you (sg.) would become tired’.  As in other Sámi languages, Akkala Sámi makes use of a negative verb that conjugates according to person and number, while the main verb remains unchanged. The conjugation of the negative verb is shown here together with the verb "aĺ̄ḱe" ‘to begin’:  The third person singular and plural of the verb "ĺii̭je" ‘to be’ have special contracted forms "ɛĺĺa" and "jāĺa".

Akkala Sámi is a Sámi language that was spoken in the Sámi villages of A ́kkel (Russian "Бабинский", Finnish "Akkala"), Ču ́kksuâl (Russian "Экостровский") and Sââ ́rvesjäu ́rr (Russian "Гирвасозеро", Finnish "Hirvasjärvi"), in the inland parts of the Kola Peninsula in Russia. Formerly erroneously regarded as a dialect of Kildin Sámi, it has recently become recognized as an independent Sámi language that is most closely related to its western neighbor Skolt Sámi.

阿卡拉萨米语是萨米语中的一种语言。阿卡拉萨米语是东部萨米语中最濒危的一门语言。2003年12月29日,最后一位可以流利使用阿卡拉萨米语的人去世,阿卡拉萨米语宣告灭亡。不过现在仍有至少两位70岁老人有阿卡拉萨米语知识。


Early life and education.

Ferrera, the youngest of six children, was born in Los Angeles, California. Her parents, América Griselda Ayes and Carlos Gregorio Ferrera, were originally from Tegucigalpa, Honduras, and emigrated to the United States in the mid-1970s. Her mother worked as the director of the housekeeping staff for one of the Hilton Hotels, and stressed the importance of higher education. When she was 7, her parents divorced and her father returned to Honduras. Ferrera was estranged from her father when he died there in 2010.  Ferrera was raised in the Woodland Hills section of Los Angeles, where she attended Calabash Street Elementary School, George Ellery Hale Middle School and El Camino Real High School. From the time she was seven years old, when she landed a small role in a school production of "Hamlet" and then at age 10, the role as the Artful Dodger in "Oliver!", Ferrera knew that she wanted to be a performer. Her first play was "Romeo and Juliet", and although only in the third grade, she went to the junior high school and auditioned and got the role of the Apothecary. She acted in school plays and community theatre in Los Angeles throughout her youth, though with little help from her mother, who insisted that she pursue other interests because she was concerned her daughter would not be treated fairly. Ferrera disliked her first name as a child and went by her middle name, "Georgine", until she began acting professionally.  While at El Camino High School, she took acting lessons at the age of 15 and was able to pay for them by waiting tables and babysitting. She entered University of Southern California (USC) on a presidential scholarship, double majoring in theatre and international relations. She dropped out to focus on her acting career but later completed her bachelor's degree in May 2013.

Career.

Debut and early roles (2002–2005).

In July 2002, Ferrera appeared in her first television movie, "Gotta Kick It Up!" for The Disney Channel. While at a theatre program at Northwestern University that same year, she made her feature movie debut in "Real Women Have Curves". Ferrera followed this with roles in television ("Touched by an Angel"). She also appeared in the movie "Plainsong", based on the novel by Kent Haruf, which also featured Aidan Quinn and Rachel Griffiths. Ferrera played a pregnant teenager, Victoria Roubideaux, who has been kicked out of her mother's house and she is taken in by two kindly brothers who live alone on a farm. In the 2005 film "How the Garcia Girls Spent Their Summer", she starred as Bianca, a 17-year-old third-generation Mexican-American who is disgusted with the boys in her neighborhood but finds romance with a boy from a neighboring town. In 2006, she appeared in the short film "3:52", which won the Audience Award at the San Diego Women Film Festival. Later that year, she featured in the movie "Steel City", which received nominations at the Film Independent Spirit Awards and the Sundance Film Festival. In December 2005, she appeared in the Off-Broadway play "", directed by Trip Cullman.

Breakthrough and rise to fame (2006–2010).

In 2006, Ferrera landed the lead role of Betty Suarez in ABC's new comedy drama "Ugly Betty", an adaptation of the successful Colombian telenovela "Yo soy Betty, la fea", in which Ferrera portrays a girl whom her peers find extremely unattractive, thus the series title. As Betty Suarez, Ferrera wears braces, has bushy eyebrows and a disheveled wig, and cosmetics and clothing intended to downplay her own looks, in contrast to most of the "glammed up" characters; Ferrera herself invented the term “Bettification” to describe the process of creating her onscreen persona. In 2007, Ferrera won numerous accolades winning the “triple crown” for her performance in the series; she won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy, the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series, and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series, becoming the first Latin woman to win the Outstanding Lead Actress Award.  Post her Golden Globe win, Ferrera was congratulated by Hilda L. Solis in the United States House of Representatives and was commended for "helping to break down stereotypes and provide a role model for young Latinas". "Time" included Ferrera in their 2007 list of the 100 most influential people in the world. Also in 2007, Ferrera won Imagen Foundation's Creative Achievement Award. Ferrera starred as Carmen in the 2005 film "The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants", and reprised the role in 2008's "The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2". Among other film work, she supplied the voice of Astrid in the hit animated film "How to Train Your Dragon" (2010). She also appeared in "The Dry Land" which premiered at the 2010 Sundance Film Festival and ran at the Dallas International Film Festival where it won the top prize in the Filmmaker Award for Best Narrative Feature.

Post "Ugly Betty" (2011–present).

Ferrera made her London stage debut on November 7, 2011, playing Roxie Hart in the musical "Chicago" in London's West End. In 2012, Ferrera was featured in the four-hour documentary "Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide", which premiered on PBS October 1 and 2, 2012. The series introduces women and girls living in very difficult circumstances and struggling to challenge them. The "Half the Sky" PBS TV series is produced by Show of Force along with Fugitive Films. Ferrera starred alongside David Cross and Julia Stiles in the dark comedy "It's a Disaster", which premiered at the 2012 Los Angeles Film Festival and had a limited commercial release on April 12, 2013.  On May 17, 2013, ABC announced that Ferrera was cast in a limited-run telenovela titled "Pedro & Maria", a modern-day take on "Romeo and Juliet" set in Washington, D.C. The series had been in development at MTV since 2010 with Ferrera serving as director on the project, which would have interactive participation online content from viewers. ABC later decided not to move forward with the series. On March 16, 2015, Ferrera was added to the cast of the upcoming NBC sitcom "Superstore", portraying Amy, a 10-year veteran floor supervisor at a superstore named "Cloud 9". In addition to her main role, Ferrera has co-production duties as well. After NBC had initially announced the sixth renewal of the series, the network revealed on February 28, 2020, that series star America Ferrera, would be departing the series at the end of the fifth season citing new projects and spending time with family.  In February 2019, it was announced that Ferrera will be credited as an executive producer and director for the Netflix comedy-drama series, "Gentefied". The series premiered on February 21, 2020.

Personal life.

Ferrera first met actor, director, and writer Ryan Piers Williams when he cast her in a student film at USC. The couple became engaged in June 2010, and married on June 27, 2011. On January 1, 2018, Ferrera and Williams announced that they were expecting their first child. She announced on her Instagram page on May 29, 2018, that she had given birth that month to a boy, Sebastian. On May 4, 2020, Ferrera gave birth to a girl, Lucia.  In 2018, her edited anthology of stories, "American Like Me: Reflections on Life Between Cultures", was published by Gallery Publishing Group.

Political activities.

Ferrera has been politically active. During the 2008 presidential primaries, Ferrera, alongside Chelsea Clinton and Amber Tamblyn, led the Hillblazers organization in support of Hillary Clinton's campaign.  Ferrera attended both the 2012 Democratic National Convention in Charlotte, North Carolina and the 2016 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia. At the 2016 convention, she addressed the delegates as a speaker, sharing the stage with Lena Dunham.  Ferrera has been active in getting Latinos in the United States to vote through her involvement with the organization Voto Latino by appearing on various news programs.  Ferrera was the opening speaker for the Women's March on Washington on January 21, 2017.  Ferrera spoke at the Families Belong Together protest on June 30, 2018.

Fighting sexual harassment.

In October 2017 Ferrera began her participation in the #MeToo campaign, publicly revealing that she was sexually harassed when she was 9 years old. She did not reveal any details about the harassment or the person who harassed her. In January 2018, Ferrera was a founding member of the Time's Up legal defense fund.

America Georgine Ferrera (; born April 18, 1984) is an American actress, voice actress, producer, and director. Born in Los Angeles, California, to Honduran parents, Ferrera developed an interest in acting at a young age, performing in several stage productions at her school. She made her feature film debut in 2002 with the comedy drama "Real Women Have Curves", winning praise for her performance. Ferrera is the recipient of numerous accolades including an Emmy Award, a Golden Globe Award, and a Screen Actors Guild Award among others.

艾美莉卡·-{zh-cn:乔治娜;zh-tw:乔治娜;zh-hk:佐治娜;}-·弗利拉(英语:America Georgina Ferrera,1984年-4月18日)是美国女演员和制片人。她最有名的角色是在ABC制作的电视系列《丑女贝蒂》("Ugly Betty")(2006–2010)中扮演的“贝蒂”,她的表演受到一致好评,赢得了金球奖音乐及喜剧类最佳女主角和黄金时段艾美奖喜剧类最佳女主角。后来她拍了几部电影, 包括《挫折的女人》("Real Women Have Curves"),《牛仔裤的夏天》("The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants")及续集《牛仔裤的夏天2》("Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2")和《干燥的土地》("The Dry Land")。此外,她还为梦工厂的动画电影《驯龙高手》("How to Train Your Dragon")配音。


History.

The Sambódromo was commissioned in 1983 and completed in 1984. It is one of two works designed by Oscar Niemeyer upon his return to Brazil after exile during the Brazilian dictatorship of 1964-1985. The democratic election of regional governors, notably in the state of Rio de Janeiro in 1982, signaled a return to civilian rule and renewed work for artists whose work was suppressed by the regime. Governor Leonel Brizola, a longtime Niemeyer associate, commissioned the Sambradrome to reflect "socialismo moreno", or multicultural socialism. Niemeyer worked closely with vice-governor Darcy Ribeiro (1922-1997), a Brazilian anthropologist, on the location and building concept. The Sambadrome was not only to function as the centerpiece of the Rio Carnival, but also house a primary school with 115 classrooms underneath the bleachers of the structure. Niemeyers's "Praça da Apoteose" (Apotheosis Square), a trilegged arch, became a noted symbol of the Rio Carnival.

The venue.

The Sambódromo consists of a stretch of Marquês de Sapucaí street converted into a permanent parade ground with bleachers (grandstands) built on either side for spectators. Its capacity is 90,000. The parade avenue is painted gray each year before Carnival. The complex includes an area located at the end of the parade route, the "Praça da Apoteose" (Apotheosis Square) near the Morro da Mineira, where the bleachers are set further back from the parade area, creating a square where revelers gather as they end their parade.  Outside the Carnival season, Apotheosis Square is occasionally used as a major concert venue in Rio de Janeiro. Artists who have performed in Apotheosis Square of the Sambadrome include Eric Clapton, Supertramp, the Black Eyed Peas, Pearl Jam, Elton John, Coldplay, Whitney Houston, Avril Lavigne, Britney Spears, Justin Bieber, Iron Maiden, Radiohead, Hillsong, Jonas Brothers, Nirvana, A-ha, Janet Jackson, Bon Jovi, David Bowie and the Rolling Stones.  In December, the samba schools begin holding technical rehearsals at the Sambadrome, leading up to Carnival.

The Carnival parade events.

The official Carnival parades take place just before the start of Lent. They are held for four consecutive nights, during which schools parade one after another from 8pm until the morning. The "A Series" samba schools are hosted on Friday and Saturday, and the elite "Special Group" marches on Sunday and Monday. The "Special Group" nights are by far the biggest attractions. The parades are televised nationally and are watched by large audiences.  Each samba school has a preset amount of time (75 minutes) to parade from one end of the Sambadrome to the other with all its thousands of dancers, its drum section, and a number of floats. Each school has its own unique qualities according to its own traditions. Schools are graded by a jury, and the competition is ferocious. On Ash Wednesday ("quarta-feira de cinzas"), grades are gathered and one school is declared the winner. The "Parade of Champions" is held the following Saturday featuring the five winning samba schools in the "Special Group" category and the A Series division winner, which joins the "Special Group" come the next year.  In 2008, ticket prices for normal bleacher, or Grandstands, seats in the Sambadrome on "Special Group" nights ranged between R$10 and R$500 (US$6.50 to US$312.50), with VIP Cabins, or Covered Boxes, seating (which includes open bar, buffet - dinner, dessert and more) and scalped tickets costing much more (starting from US$2,500.00, in the best locations).  Inflated prices to watch star samba schools exclude many Brazilians from attending. As a reaction to high levels of commercialization, Rio de Janeiro has experienced a resurgence in free block parties (Street Bands and Groups: Blocos) that take place in suburbs all over the city.  It is possible for a person who is not a member of any samba school to buy a costume and arrange for a spot as a dancer in one of the parade groups.

Upgrade for 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics.

For the 2016 Summer Olympics, the venue hosted archery and the athletics marathon event, and for the 2016 Summer Paralympics, the venue hosted archery.  In preparation for the Olympics, an old Brahma beer factory nearby was demolished and extra bleachers were built on the site, increasing spectator capacity by around 18,000 seats in accordance with Niemeyer's original vision of making the Sambadrome complex symmetrical. The reopening occurred on February 7, 2012. Mayor Eduardo Paes and architect Oscar Niemeyer attended the ceremony.

The Sambadrome Marquês de Sapucaí is a purpose-built parade area built for the Rio Carnival in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The venue is also known as Passarela Professor Darcy Ribeiro or simply the Sambódromo in Portuguese or Sambadrome in English. It is located in the downtown area of Cidade Nova in Rio de Janeiro, and is the place where samba schools parade competitively each year during the Rio Carnival. The parades attract many thousands of Brazilians and foreign tourists each year, and the structure is also used as a multi-purpose performance venue. The structures of the Sambadrome were designed by the architect Oscar Niemeyer (1907–2012), and represent his first major work after the end of the Brazilian dictatorship of 1964–1985.

萨普卡伊侯爵森巴场(),或称达西·里贝罗教授走秀场()、森巴场(),是位于巴西里约热内卢市中心的特别游行区。每年里约嘉年华期间,来自各间森巴学校的成员在此游行,吸引了成千上万名游客前来观赏。


Explanation.

The rationale of the doctrine is that if ignorance were an excuse, a person charged with criminal offenses or a subject of a civil lawsuit would merely claim that one was unaware of the law in question to avoid liability, even if that person really does know what the law in question is. Thus, the law imputes knowledge of all laws to all persons within the jurisdiction no matter how transiently. Even though it would be impossible, even for someone with substantial legal training, to be aware of every law in operation in every aspect of a state's activities, this is the price paid to ensure that willful blindness cannot become the basis of exculpation. Thus, it is well settled that persons engaged in any undertakings outside what is common for a normal person will make themselves aware of the laws necessary to engage in that undertaking. If they do not, they cannot complain if they incur liability.  The doctrine assumes that the law in question has been properly promulgated—published and distributed, for example, by being printed in a government gazette, made available over the internet, or printed in volumes available for sale to the public at affordable prices. In the ancient phrase of Gratian, "Leges instituuntur cum promulgantur" ("Laws are instituted when they are promulgated"). In order that a law obtain the binding force which is proper to a law, it must be applied to the men who have to be ruled by it. Such application is made by their being given notice by promulgation. A law can bind only when it is reasonably possible for those to whom it applies to acquire knowledge of it in order to observe it, even if actual knowledge of the law is absent for a particular individual. A secret law is no law at all.  In criminal law, although ignorance may not clear a defendant of guilt, it can be a consideration in sentencing, particularly where the law is unclear or the defendant sought advice from law enforcement or regulatory officials. For example, in one Canadian case, a person was charged with being in possession of gambling devices after they had been advised by customs officials that it was legal to import such devices into Canada. Although the defendant was convicted, the sentence was an absolute discharge.  In addition, there were, particularly in the days before satellite communication and cellular phones, persons who could genuinely be ignorant of the law due to distance or isolation. For example, in a case in British Columbia, a pair of hunters were acquitted of game offenses where the law was changed during the period they were in the wilderness hunting. In reaching this decision, the court refused to follow an early English law case in which a seaman on a clipper before the invention of radio was convicted even though the law had been changed while he was at sea.

In literature.

The doctrine, "Ignorance of the law is no excuse," first shows up in the Bible in Leviticus 5:17: "If a person sins and does what is forbidden in any of the LORD's commands, even though he does not know it, he is guilty and will be held responsible." An alternate explanation of the origin of the maxim, though not particularly relevant to the modern context, can be found in the philosophy of the Greeks and Romans. Such were cultures heavily influenced by customary legal systems. Within such a system, law is learned as a person participates in the culture and customs of the community. Thus it is unreasonable to believe a person could have avoided learning them. These rules and customs were also interwoven with ethical and religious dialogue so that laws expressed what is right and that which is not. We find that Cicero wrote the following in "De re publica" (On the Republic):  There is a true law, right reason, agreeable to nature, known to all men, constant and eternal, which calls to duty by its precepts, deters from evil by its prohibition. This law cannot be departed from without guilt. Nor is there one law at Rome and another at Athens, one thing now and another afterward; but the same law, unchanging and eternal, binds all races of man and all times.  Minos (attributed to Plato) states the following conversation between Socrates and his companion: .

Translation.

Presumed knowledge of the law is the principle in jurisprudence that one is bound by a law even if one does not know of it. It has also been defined as the "prohibition of ignorance of the law".  The concept comes from Roman law, and is expressed in the brocard "ignorantia legis non excusat".  The essential public character of a law requires that the law, once properly promulgated, must apply to anyone in the jurisdiction where the law applies. Thus, no one can justify his conduct on the grounds that he was not aware of the law.  Generally, a convention exists by which the laws are issued and rendered accessible by methods, authors and means that are simple and well known: the law is readable in certain places (some systems prescribe that a collection of the laws is copied in every local city council), is made by certain authorities (usually sovereign, government, parliament, and derivative bodies), and enters into effect in certain ways (many systems for instance prescribe a certain number of days - often 15 - after issue). This is commonly intended as a constitutional regulation, and in fact many constitutions or statutes exactly describe the correct procedures.  However, some recent interpretations weaken this concept. Particularly in civil law, regard can be had to the difficulty of being informed of the existence of a law considering the lifestyle of the average citizen. On the penal side, the quality of the knowledge of the law can affect the evaluation of the animus nocendi or the mens rea, in that certain subjective conditions can weaken personal responsibility.  The theme was widely discussed, also for political reasons, at the time of the Enlightenment and in the 18th century, given the heavy proportion of illiterate citizens in European countries (who would have some difficulties being aware of all the laws in a country). It was then argued that both the presumed knowledge and the heavily increasing corpus of national legislation were working in favour of lawyers rather than citizens.  In recent times, some authors have considered this concept as an extension of (or at least as analogous to) the other ancient concept (typical of criminal law) that no one can be punished under a law that was issued after the action was committed (non-retroactivity of the law. See ex post facto). This interpretation is however disputed, given that the matter would hierarchically more properly refer to a constitutional doctrine rather than to a civil or penal one.  Some modern criminal statutes contain language such as stipulating that the act must be done "knowingly and wittingly" or "with unlawful intent," or some similar language. However, this does not refer to ignorance of laws, but having criminal intent.

Statutory law.

This principle is also stated in statutes:

Exceptions.

In some jurisdictions, there are exceptions to the general rule that ignorance of the law is not a valid defense. For example, under U.S. Federal criminal tax law, the element of "willfulness" required by the provisions of the Internal Revenue Code has been ruled by the courts to correspond to a "voluntary, intentional violation of a known legal duty" under which an "actual good faith belief based on a misunderstanding caused by the complexity of the tax law" is a valid legal defense. See Cheek v. United States.  In "Lambert v. California" (1957), the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that a person who is unaware of a "malum prohibitum" law cannot be convicted of violating it if there was no probability he could have known the law existed. It was subsequently ruled in "United States v. Freed" (1971) that this exception does not apply when a reasonable person would expect their actions to be regulated, such as when possessing narcotics or dangerous weapons.  In "Heien v. North Carolina" (2014), the Supreme Court held that even if a police officer incorrectly believes that a person has violated the law, the officer's "reasonable suspicion" that a law was being broken does not violate the Fourth Amendment.

Ignorantia juris non excusat or ignorantia legis neminem excusat (Latin for "ignorance of the law excuses not" and "ignorance of law excuses no one" respectively) is a legal principle holding that a person who is unaware of a law may not escape liability for violating that law merely because one was unaware of its content.

不知法律不免责(,英语:Ignorance of the law excuses not;拉丁语中又名:,英语:英语:Ignorance of law excuses no one),也称不知法不免责,是一种法律理论,主张不知道有法律存在的个人违反法律也不能免于法律责任。


Name.

Allied Irish Banks is usually referred to, both inside and outside the company, simply as AIB and often by its trade name of "Allied Irish Bank" (singular). In Northern Ireland, the bank traded as First Trust Bank until November 2019, while in Great Britain, it is called "Allied Irish Bank (GB)"—the only part of the operation where the full name, in the singular, is still in day-to-day use. Initially, the bank operated under the names of its former constituent companies, alongside a new AIB logo, a circle divided in three with an "A" at the centre. From 1970, these were replaced by "Allied Irish Banks". In 1990, AIB introduced a new logo (prompted, it was said in some quarters, by the remarkable similarity between its previous logo and that of Mercedes-Benz.) Since then, the bank has preferred to be referred to as "AIB", though "Allied Irish Banks plc" remains its legal name.  The bank is often referred to colloquially as "AIB Bank", an example of a redundant acronym. This is due to the name "AIB Bank" being adopted for the Republic of Ireland branch banking business at the time of the 1990 rebrand (with the word "Bank" being printed in the green stripe in the logo). This version of the logo is no longer used in print advertising but can still be seen on the façades of most AIB branches in the Republic. The 'Trustee Savings Banks' similarly rebranded to "TSB Bank" in 1993. The new logo features a depiction of Noah's Ark, after a carving on a Celtic cross at Killary Church near Lobinstown in County Meath, which dates from the 9th century.

History.

Allied Irish Banks Limited was formed in 1966 as a new company that acquired three Irish banks: "Provincial Bank of Ireland", the "Royal Bank of Ireland", and the "Munster & Leinster Bank". The banks saw an alliance as the best way to overcome the fragmented nature of the Irish banking industry. Ireland in the mid-1960s was changing fast and the merger strengthened the banks' position in the emerging global business era. In 1966, AIB's aggregate assets were €323.8 million—as at 31 December 2005, the AIB Group had assets of €133 billion. In the 1980s the introduction of their Automatic Teller Machine Network called Banklink just shortly after the Bank of Ireland Pass.

Early history.

1825 saw Provincial Bank commence operations, pioneering joint stock branch banking in Ireland. It also established a branch in London. Royal Bank of Ireland (RBI) commenced operations in 1836, becoming known for its mercantile links. Shaw's Bank merged with Royal Bank in 1837.  1864 saw the Munster Bank established. In 1867 the Munster Bank purchased some of the branches of the unsuccessful Union Bank of Ireland. In 1870 The Munster Bank acquired the long established private bank David La Touche & Son. In 1885 the Munster Bank failed due to mismanagement and fraud and is liquidated. However, Munster and Leinster Bank commenced operations. Eventually it would become the largest of the three banks with the most extensive branch network.  In 1923 the Royal Bank of Ireland bought the Irish Free State business of the Belfast Banking Company, which in turn bought the Northern Ireland business of the Royal Bank. Over the decades, AIB has become an increasingly international organisation. It created a branch network in Britain in the 1970s.

1985 ICI collapse.

"The Can of Worms at ICI" was the headline in "Business & Finance" magazine on 8 November 1984. The Insurance Corporation of Ireland (ICI) was a wholly owned subsidiary of AIB when it collapsed in 1985 with losses of over £200 million. When it was discovered in November 1984 that ICI was operating below the statutory reserve ratio, a request for further capital was made to AIB — ICI had returned a profit of more than £80 million the previous year. This collapse occurred at a time of deep economic recession in Ireland. The level of Government debt at that time was 116% of GDP. But the Irish taxpayer bailed ICI out of its difficulties. The Irish Government did so to ensure a continuation of the insurance business and to protect policyholders. AIB claimed that it could not resolve the problems of ICI without putting its core banking business in jeopardy. The investment of £85 million by AIB in ICI was written off and the cost to the Irish taxpayer was £400 million.

International growth.

In 1983, AIB invested in First Maryland Bancorp in the USA. In July 1991, AIB merged the Group's interests in Northern Ireland with those of TSB Northern Ireland. In July 1997, AIB acquired Dauphin Deposit Corporation which it merged with First Maryland Bancorp to form Allfirst in 1999. Concerning Poland, AIB invested in Poland by gradually building a majority shareholding of 60.1% in Wielkopolski Bank Kredytowy (WBK) between 1995 and 1996. In June 1999, AIB reached an agreement with the Polish State Treasury to acquire an 80% shareholding in Bank Zachodni SA. In June 2001, AIB completed a merger of the two banks to create Bank Zachodni WBK SA. AIB owned 70.5% of the combined bank, which is a leading bank in Poland in terms of asset size and key product market shares. On 9 September 2010 AIB reached agreement to sell a 66% stake in BZ-WBK to Santander for 3.1 billion euro, the balance of the shares to be sold on the open market. Any purchase over 66% would have forced Santander to make an offer to buy the entire company.

Recent history.

Between 1999 and 2001 AIB had an interest in Keppel TatLee Bank in Singapore, but withdrew after Oversea-Chinese Banking Corporation (OCBC) acquired Keppel TatLee.  After suffering large losses due to the activities of rogue trader John Rusnak at Allfirst (see below) in April 2003, AIB completed a deal merging Allfirst with M&T Bank Corporation, which is headquartered in Buffalo, New York. In November 2010, AIB sold its 22.5% stake (26.7 million shares) in M&T. The shares were sold at $77.50/share and generated $2.1 billion. The sale was part of AIB's effort to raise capital amidst the ongoing financial crisis in Ireland. AIB maintains representative offices in the United States in Chicago, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Los Angeles, and White Plains.  At the beginning of 2008 AIB entered the Latvian, Estonian and Lithuanian markets by acquiring the "AmCredit" mortgage finance business from the Baltic American Enterprise Fund. Now AIB operates as a branch of this financial group in Estonia and Lithuania (update needed), operations in Latvia have ceased (see below). In 2008 AIB operated through its local branches providing financial services under established AmCredit brand in all three countries. AmCredit operated as a single product mortgage business, but the company is expanding the range of banking products. All AmCredit's mortgage customers automatically became customers of the AIB branch in their country. The goal of AIB is to become a full service customer focused bank in the Baltic region. The branch in Latvia was operating between November 26, 2007 (date of registration) and September 20, 2012 (date of liquidation). Its mortgage portfolio of 800 loans was acquired by Swedbank.  In February 2008, AIB entered into an agreement to acquire a 49.99% interest in Bulgarian American Credit Bank (BACB), a specialist provider of secured finance to small and medium-sized companies in Bulgaria. AIB later sold its stake in BACB to a Bulgarian private-equity fund for a nominal sum in May 2011.  The Irish government received shares of €3.5bn in AIB in 2009 as part of measures to recapitalise the bank. In April 2010, AIB announced that the Irish government would receive a stake of 16% or 17% in the bank. The Irish State had been due to receive dividends on those shares, but EU regulations state that banks that get State aid cannot make cash payments. This forced AIB to give the government shares instead.

Controversy.

2002: John Rusnak losses.

John Rusnak, a currency trader at Allfirst, racked up losses of almost US$700 million during Michael Buckley's tenure as group chief executive. It was Ireland's biggest banking scandal and the fourth-biggest banking scandal in the world when it came to light on 4 February 2002.

Tax evasion.

The €90 million settlement that AIB reached with the Revenue Commissioners in respect of Deposit Interest Retention Tax evasion in 2000 was the highest tax settlement in the history of Ireland. The bank's internal auditor, Tony Spollen, highlighted a potential Deposit Interest Retention Tax (DIRT) liability of £100 million for the period 1986 - 1991, but Gerry Scanlon, the group chief executive at that time rubbished this estimate, describing it as "infantile". The Oireachtas Sub-Committee Inquiry into DIRT hearing on 27 September 1999 concluded that it was "extraordinary" when Scanlon told the Inquiry that he was unaware of the scale of the DIRT issue.  The Revenue Commissioners on 28 March 2006 imposed a tax settlement plus penalties on four former senior executives for their interest, while employed by AIB, arising from investments they maintained in Faldor Limited. Faldor was an investment company set up in the British Virgin Islands that between 1989 and 1996 hold funds on behalf of these senior AIB executives as well as people connected to them. Allied Irish Banks Investment Managers then managed the funds in the company on their behalf; at the time Mr Gerry Scanlan was CEO of the bank. Faldor subsequently benefited from inappropriate deal allocations, and artificial deals that amounted to €48,000 out of AIB Investment Managers' own funds.  Those cited include:

Excess FX charging issues.

In 2004 it was revealed that the bank had been overcharging on foreign exchange transactions for up to ten years. The overcharging affected 3 million purchase transactions of foreign drafts. Initially the projected amount of overcharging was €14 million. However the bank set aside €50 million to cover the cost of refunds.  The Central Bank of Ireland published a report into an investigation of AIB Group concerning overcharging its own customers for FX transactions and deal allocation and other associated issues. This revealed excess charges of €34.2 million, including interest. AIB failed to comply with the law for a period of almost 8 years and that certain staff and management were fully aware of this at the time.  The Central Bank of Ireland had been aware that Allied Irish Banks were overcharging consumers in FX fees but did not act for a number of years. They gave a parliamentary inquiry the "false impression" that they were unaware of it. The whistleblower who gave the Central Bank the information was requested to come to a meeting with them but was only invited to withdraw the allegations of wrongdoing and at the same time found himself removed from his position at Allied Irish Banks without any reason given. After his case was highlighted in the media, the Central Bank officially apologised on how the authorities treated him, eight years after alerting them of overcharging.  AIB announced on 27 September 2006 that the final outlay in respect of restitution and interest arising from overcharging amounted to €65 million and that this included a donation of €20.6 million on behalf of its customers to an unspecified charity that it was unable to identify. No employee or officer of the banks was disciplined.  Apart from FX, the Central Bank of Ireland discovered in 2004, following an anonymous tip-off, that AIB overcharged customers €8.6 million. No regulatory action was taken.

Deal allocation and associated issues.

Between 1989 and 1996, funds of certain senior executives of AIB at the time and/or related parties were managed by Allied Irish Investment Managers Limited (now AIBIM) through a British Virgin Islands investment company, Faldor Ltd.  Faldor benefited from inappropriate favorable deal allocations, by way of artificial deals, amounting to approximately €48,000 out of AIBIM's own funds. Further inappropriate deal allocation practices relating to eight transactions in the period 1991 to 1993 were identified which adversely affected the performance of two specialist unit trusts, amounting to a total of €174,000, to the advantage of other clients. These were unrelated to Faldor. While the Internal Audit function of AIB did identify some inappropriate dealing practices in 1991 and 1993, there is no evidence that the Faldor account was identified in these audits. No disciplinary action was taken against individuals involved in these practices at the time and compensation was not paid to the unit trusts affected. When this episode of law breaking was exposed a disciplinary process was put in place within AIB and compensation has been paid to those who were disadvantaged. Tom Mulcahy, group chief executive of AIB from 1994 to June 2001, resigned the chairmanship of the board of Aer Lingus on 28 May 2004 following the disclosure of this matter.

Charles Haughey and the Moriarty Tribunal.

In 2006, the Moriarty Tribunal published its report into the financial affairs of former Taoiseach Charles Haughey. Mr. Justice Moriarty found that AIB had settled a million-pound overdraft with Haughey on favourable terms for the politician shortly after he became Taoiseach in 1979; the tribunal found that the leniency shown by the bank in this case amounted to a benefit from the bank to Haughey. According to the report, the bank showed an extraordinary degree of deference to Mr. Haughey despite his financial excesses.

Current developments.

The bank is currently involved in a number of "sale and leaseback" deals with its properties. In 2005 it sold an extension to its Ballsbridge Bankcentre headquarters for €367m. There are also plans to sell the remainder of the building for €275m, as well as the bank's branch network for €421m.  In February 2006 the bank announced record pre-tax profits of €1.7 billion, a 23% rise on the previous year and the largest ever for an Irish bank. The majority of the increase came from its Republic of Ireland operations, but with its Capital Markets in Northern Ireland, Great Britain, Poland and American divisions also making significant contributions. This led to criticism from some newspapers, as their profit per customer was some three times that of other European banks. Former Labour Party leader Pat Rabbitte called for more competition in the Irish banking sector. In August 2006 the bank again announced record profits for the first half of 2006, making €1.2 billion before tax, equating to €1.2 million per hour.

2008 share price collapse.

The international credit crunch presented the first challenge to AIB — namely a dramatic fall-off in liquidity. As AIB depends to a significant extent on the international financial markets for liquidity due to an insufficient deposit base, this has impacted the bank severely. The Irish government stepped in with a guarantee which effectively granted a triple A rating on AIB debt, thus freeing up its access to finance.  The second and more serious problem, unacknowledged by bank management, the financial regulator and the Irish government, is solvency. The question concerning solvency has arisen due to domestic problems in the crashing Irish property market. AIB, like most Irish financial institutions, has substantial exposure to property developers in their loan portfolio. These property developers are currently suffering from gross over-supply of property, much still unsold, while demand has evaporated. The massive immigration from Eastern Europe which had propped up demand has now reversed due to rapidly rising unemployment in Ireland. Irish property developers own speculated billions of euros of overvalued land parcels such as urban brownfield and greenfield sites, and also agricultural land at an average value of €23,600 per acre (US$32,000 per acre or €60,000 per hectare) which is several multiples above the value of equivalent land in other European countries.  AIB correctly identify a systematic risk of triggering an even more severe financial crisis in Ireland if they were to call in the loans as they fall due. The loans are subject to terms and conditions, referred to as "covenants". Although AIB is not one of the banks listed as waiving these covenants, confidence in the Irish banking system is low as a result of other Irish banks electing to waive these financial safeguards in fear of provoking the (inevitable) bankruptcy of many property developers and banks are thought to be ""lending some developers further cash to pay their interest bills, which means that they are not classified as 'bad debts' by the banks"."  Furthermore, AIB's balance sheet indicated only limited impairment (bad debt) provisions. Their 2008 1st half financial report only accounts for an impairment provision of 0.21%. This does not appear to be consistent with the real negative changes taking place in property market fundamentals. The Central Bank told the Oireachtas Enterprise Committee that shareholders who lost their money in the banking collapse are to blame for their fate and got what was coming to them for not keeping bank chiefs in check, but did admit that the Central Bank had failed to give sufficient warning about reckless lending to property developers.  In contrast, on 7 October 2008, "Danske Bank" wrote off a substantial sum largely due to property-related losses incurred by its Irish subsidiary - National Irish Bank. Write downs by the domestically owned Irish banks are only now beginning to take place.  AIB's then subsidiary Goodbody Stockbrokers continually issued "Buy" recommendations for its then parent, notwithstanding its worsening financial position, and used Client Discretionary mandates to invest their monies in Allied Irish Banks at the start of the post-2008 Irish banking crisis in November 2008, which generated adverse comment. When asked if they had ever issued a sell notice on AIB, a Goodbody spokesman said "I don't know if we even keep records going back that far".

Rescue package 2009.

On 12 February 2009 the Irish government arranged a €7 billion rescue plan for AIB and Bank of Ireland. The bank's capital value had fallen to €486 million, rather less than its 70% holding in Bank Zachodni in Poland.  Goodbody Stockbrokers was sold as part of the restructuring plan for €24 million. The Financial Times commented that the lowly price tag placed on Ireland's oldest stockbroker and "one-time bastion of Ireland's Protestant business elite" was just another measure of the dramatic decline of the Irish economy. AIB were likely to have had to indemnify the new owners of Goodbody Stockbrokers against any legal action arising from the firm's boom-time trading.

2010: Nationalisation.

On 30 September 2010, the Irish Government announced plans to use its National Pensions Reserve to inject €3.7 billion of capital into Allied Irish Banks, becoming the majority shareholder and effectively nationalizing the bank.  AIB needed to raise additional capital due to increasing losses on bad loans incurred from the real estate bubble, and Irish Finance Minister Brian Lenihan stated that the bank was unable to attract sufficient interest from private investors. As part of the deal, Chairman Dan O'Connor agreed to quit the bank while managing director, Colm Doherty, announced he would leave before the end of the year after 13 months in the job.  In December 2010, the European Commission approved the plans, and the Government passed emergency legislation to allow the deal to take place without requiring the approval of existing shareholders. The High Court subsequently approved the deal on 24 Dec 2010, allowing the Irish government to take a 49.9% stake in the bank, rising to 92.8% following disposal of the Polish subsidiary to "Banco Santander".  AIB became the fourth of Ireland's "Big Six" financial institutions to be nationalised, following Anglo Irish Bank, Irish Nationwide Building Society, and EBS Building Society. AIB was delisted from the main market of the Irish Stock Exchange on 25 January 2011 and the NYSE on 26 August 2011.

2011 AIB filed lawsuit.

AIB filed a lawsuit against Oracle Financial Services, India in January 2011, claiming breach of contract on Flexcube implementation. The case was settled later that year.

Restructuring Credit Event.

The ISDA Determinations Committee, consisting of 15 USA and European banks, decided that a Restructuring Credit Event occurred with respect to Allied Irish Banks on 9 June 2011.  On 12 June 2017, the Irish government announced that the IPO of Allied Irish Banks to take place later in the month might result in bank value of $14.9 billion. The IPO took place on 23 June 2017.

Sponsorships.

AIB were one of the key sponsors of the 2006 Ryder Cup, which was held at The K Club in Straffan, County Kildare. In May of that year, the bank launched a €5 million advertising campaign for the tournament. AIB also sponsor an M.Sc. course in Data Science at Technological University Dublin for a select few of their employees.

Allied Irish Banks, p.l.c. is one of the so-called Big Four commercial banks in Ireland. AIB offers a full range of personal and corporate banking services. AIB Capital Markets is the division of the company that offers international banking and treasury operations. The bank also offers a range of general insurance products such as home, travel, and health insurance. It offers life assurance and pensions through its tied agency with Irish Life Assurance plc.

爱尔兰联合银行(Allied Irish Banks,缩写:AIB) 是爱尔兰的四大商业银行之一,2010年12月爱尔兰政府持有的爱尔兰联合银行股份已达99.8%,随着其国有化的步伐,爱尔兰联合银行也从伦敦证券交易所除牌,不过其仅剩的少部分股份仍在爱尔兰证券交易所上市发行。


History.

Early crop dispersal.

Cultivated wheat, originating at the Fertile Crescent, appeared in China around 2800 BC at Donghuishan at the Hexi corridor. Several other crops are also attested at this time period. Xishanping is another similar site in Gansu.  According to Dodson and coauthors (2013), wheat entered via the Hexi Corridor into northern Gangsu around 3000 BC, although other scholars date this somewhat later.  The Chinese millets (Panicum miliaceum, and Setaria italica), rice, as well as other crops travelled the opposite way through the Corridor, and reached western Asia and Europe from the fifth millennium to the second millennium BC.  As early as the 1st millennium BCE, silk goods began appearing in Siberia, having traveled over the Northern branch of the Silk Road, including the Hexi Corridor segment.

Qin dynasty.

At the end of the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE), the Yuezhi overcame previous settlers, the Wusun and Qiang, occupying the western Hexi Corridor. Later, Northern Xiongnu armies vanquished the Yuezhi and established dominance here during the early Han dynasty.

Han Dynasty.

During the Han–Xiongnu War, Han China expelled the Xiongnu from the Hexi Corridor in 121 BCE and even drove them from Lop Nur when King Hunye surrendered to Huo Qubing in 121 BCE. The Han acquired a territory stretching from the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur, thus cutting the Xiongnu off from their Qiang allies. Again, Han forces repelled a joint Xiongnu-Qiang invasion of this northwestern territory in 111 BCE. After 111 BCE, new outposts were established, four of them in the Hexi Corridor, namely Jiuquan, Zhangye, Dunhuang, and Guzang (Wuwei). From roughly 115–60 BCE, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin. Han was eventually victorious and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BCE, which dealt with the region's defense and foreign affairs.  During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang, Han lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was conquered by the Xiongnu in 63 CE, and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor. Dou Gu defeated the Xiongnu again at the Battle of Yiwulu in 73 CE, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami.  After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu was killed in 75 CE by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha, the garrison at Hami was withdrawn. At the Battle of the Altai Mountains in 89 CE, Dou Xian defeated the Northern Chanyu, who retreated into the Altai Mountains.

Tang Dynasty.

The Tang dynasty fought the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia. There was a long string of conflicts with Tibet over territories in the Tarim Basin between 670–692.  In 763 the Tibetans even captured the Tang capital of Chang'an for fifteen days during the An Lushan Rebellion. It was during this rebellion that the Tang withdrew its western garrisons stationed in what is now Gansu and Qinghai, which the Tibetans then occupied along with the area that is modern Xinjiang. Hostilities between the Tang and Tibet continued until they signed a formal peace treaty in 821. The terms of this treaty, including fixed borders between the two countries, are recorded in a bilingual inscription on a stone pillar outside the Jokhang in Lhasa.

Western Xia Dynasty.

The Western Xia Dynasty, known also as the Tangut Empire, was established in the 11th century by Tangut tribes. Western Xia controlled from 1038 CE up to 1227 CE the areas in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi, and Ningxia.

Yuan Dynasty.

Genghis Khan began the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty around 1207 and Ögedei Khan continued it after his death in 1227. The Jin dynasty of the Jurchen people fell in 1234 CE with help from the Han Chinese dynasty of the Southern Song.  Ögedei also crushed the Western Xia in 1227, pacifying the Hexi Corridor region, which was later controlled by the Yuan dynasty established by Kublai Khan, the fifth Khagan of the Mongol Empire. The Yuan lasted officially from 1271-1368.

Geography and climate.

The Hexi Corridor is a long, narrow passage stretching for some from the steep Wushaolin hillside near the modern city of Lanzhou to the Jade Gate at the border of Gansu and Xinjiang. There are many fertile oases along the path, watered by rivers flowing from the Qilian Mountains, such as the Shiyang, Jinchuan, Ejin (Heihe), and Shule Rivers.  A strikingly inhospitable environment surrounds this chain of oases: the snow-capped Qilian Mountains ("Nanshan") to the south; the Beishan mountainous area, the Alashan Plateau, and the vast expanse of the Gobi desert to the north. Geologically, the Hexi Corridor belongs to a Cenozoic foreland basin system on the northeast margin of the Tibetan Plateau. The ancient trackway formerly passed through Haidong, Xining and the environs of Juyan Lake, serving an effective area of about. It was an area where mountain and desert limited caravan traffic to a narrow trackway, where relatively small fortifications could control passing traffic.  There are several major cities along the Hexi Corridor. In western Gansu Province is Dunhuang (Shazhou), then Yumen, then Jiayuguan, then Jiuquan (Suzhou), then Zhangye (Ganzhou) in the center, then Jinchang, then Wuwei (Liangzhou) and finally Lanzhou in the southeast. In the past, Dunhuang was part of the area known as the Western Regions. South of Gansu Province, in the middle just over the provincial boundary, lies the city of Xining, the capital of Qinghai Province. Xining used to be the chief commercial hub of the Hexi Corridor.  The Jiayuguan fort guards the western entrance to China. It is located in Jiayuguan pass at the narrowest point of the Hexi Corridor, some southwest of the city of Jiayuguan. The Jiyaguyan fort is the first fortification of Great Wall of China in the west.

Hexi Corridor (, Xiao'erjing: حْسِ ظِوْلاْ, IPA: ) or Gansu Corridor is an important historical route in Gansu province of China. As part of the Northern Silk Road running northwest from the bank of the Yellow River, it was the most important route from North China to the Tarim Basin and Central Asia for traders and the military. The corridor is a string of oases along the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. To the south is the high and desolate Tibetan Plateau and to the north, the Gobi Desert and the grasslands of Outer Mongolia. At the west end the route splits in three, going either north of the Tian Shan or south on either side of the Tarim Basin. At the east end are mountains around Lanzhou before one reaches the Wei River valley and China proper.

河西走廊,位于中国黄河以西,呈西北—东南走向为狭长状平原,形如走廊,故而得名,丝绸之路必经之道。其范围是东起乌鞘岭,西至玉门关,南北介于南山(祁连山和阿尔金山)和北山(马鬃山、合黎山和龙首山)之间,北部可经居延海沿着草原丝绸之路进入漠北,长约900公里,宽数公里至近百公里不等。全境皆为甘肃省、青海省海东市、西宁市和部分内蒙古额济纳旗所辖,由于大部分范围在甘肃省,故又称“甘肃走廊”。


Description.

Macroscopic characteristics.

The fungus forms 20–50 mm high, club-shaped and orange/red fruiting bodies, which grow out of dead underground pupae. The club is covered with the stroma, into which the actual fruit bodies, the perithecia, are inserted. The surface appears roughly punctured. The inner fungal tissue is whitish to pale orange.

Microscopic features.

The spores are smooth, hyaline, long-filiform, and often septate. They decompose to maturity in 3-7 μm × 1-1.2 μm subpores. The asci are long and cylindrical. Sometimes an anamorphic state, which is "Isaria", is found. Masses of white mycelia form around the parasitised insect; however, these may not be of the same species.

Ecology and dispersal.

"Cordyceps militaris" is a entomopathogenic fungus, meaning it parasitizes insects. Many authors consider it quite common, spread throughout the northern hemisphere, and fruiting bodies appear in Europe from August to November.

Cultivation and use.

"C. militaris" can be cultivated in a variety of media including silkworm pupae, rice, or liquid nutrition. It is considered inedible in American sources, but in Asia the fruiting body is cooked as a mushroom in dishes like chicken soup.  "C. militaris" is a potential harbour of bio-metabolites for herbal drugs and evidences are available about its applications for revitalization of various systems of the body from ancient times. In traditional Chinese medicine, this fungi can serve as a cheap substitute of "Ophiocordyceps sinensis". Both contain cordycepin.  "C. militaris" contains a protein CMP18 that induces apoptosis "in vitro" via a mitochondrion-dependent pathway. It is thought that it might be toxic when eaten. Cooking destroys this protein.

Cordyceps militaris is a species of fungus in the family Clavicipitaceae, and the type species of the genus "Cordyceps". It was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 as "Clavaria militaris".

虫草花(学名:Cordyceps militaris),又称北虫草、黄金草,是一种寄生于昆虫的真菌,通常寄生于鳞翅目幼虫体内生长,但也可以人工培养在谷物上。是虫草菌属的模式物种,也是一种食用蕈。有时被误认为冬虫夏草,后者也曾经归在虫草菌属。


哈里森县 (西维吉尼亚州)

History.

Indigenous peoples lived in the area that would become Harrison County for thousands of years. The Oak Mounds outside Clarksburg were built by the Hopewell culture mound builders during the first millennium CE.

18th century.

White trappers visited the area that is now Harrison County as early as the 1760s. Some traded with the Native Americans of the area. The Virginia Colony claimed the area as part of its vast Augusta County. The first permanent settler in the area was hunter and trapper John Simpson, who erected a cabin at the mouth of Elk Creek on the West Fork River in 1763 or '64. Simpson's name remains on "Simpson's Creek" (its mouth is about 9 miles downstream from present Clarksburg). Settler Daniel Davisson (1748-1819), from New Jersey, claimed the land upon which present-day Clarksburg, Harrison County, was formed in 1773; the area was re-designated as part of Monongalia County, Virginia three years later. Simpson's story did not end well. According to a 19th-century local historian, he... ... continued to hunt and trap for a year without encountering any other human being. In 1765, he went to the South Branch to dispose of a stock of skins and furs, and returning to his camp, remained until permanent settlements were made in the vicinity.... Simpson's cabin was located about one mile from Clarksburg, on the west side of the West Fork River... Simpson became indebted to a man named Cottrial to the amount of "one quart of salt" (a precious article at the time), which he agreed to pay, either in money or salt, upon his return from Winchester, whither he was going to dispose of a stock of skins and furs. Upon his return, a dispute arose between them, regarding the payment, and Cottrial, in the heat of passion, hastened from the house, and grasping Daniel Davisson's gun, which stood leaning against the cabin, took aim through the space between the logs, and attempted to shoot Simpson. The latter, however, was too quick for him, and springing outside, grasped the gun from Cottrial's hands and killed him. This was the first tragedy of this nature in the vicinity.  Harrison County was organized in 1784, with territory partitioned from Monongalia County. It was named for Benjamin Harrison V, who had recently retired as the Governor of Virginia. (He was the father of William Henry Harrison, 9th President of the United States and great-grandfather of Benjamin Harrison, 23rd president.) Over the next 72 years, all of eight present-day West Virginia counties and parts of ten others were formed from this original Harrison County.  The first meeting of the Harrison County court was held on July 20, 1784 at the home of George Jackson. The group designated the county seat as Clarksburg. The town, named for explorer General George Rogers Clark (1752–1818), was chartered by the Virginia General Assembly in October 1785, and it was incorporated in 1795.

19th century.

Clarksburg's first newspaper, "The By-Stander", began publication in 1810. Construction of the Northwestern Turnpike connecting Winchester and Parkersburg, reached the town in 1836, stimulating development by connecting it to other markets. Clarksburg's economic development was also helped by the arrival of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1856. The railroad was instrumental in the development of the local coal mining industry during the late 1800s and early 1900s.  In 1863, West Virginia's counties were divided into civil townships, with the intention of encouraging local government. This proved impractical in the heavily rural state, and in 1872 the townships were converted into magisterial districts. Harrison County was divided into ten districts: Clark, Clay, Coal, Eagle, Elk, Grant, Sardis, Simpson, Tenmile, and Union. These districts remained stable for a century, but in the 1970s they were consolidated to form six new districts: North Clarksburg, South Clarksburg, Suburban, Northern, Southeast, and Southwest. In the 1980s, North and South Clarksburg Districts became North Urban and South Urban. In the 1990s, the Southeast and Suburban Districts were discontinued, and replaced by the Eastern and Southern Districts.

Geography.

The county terrain consists of low rolling hills, largely wooded, etched by drainages and creeks. The terrain slopes to the West Fork River valley from both east and west borders, and also generally slopes to the north. Its highest point is on its south corner, at 1,736' (529m) ASL. The county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.1%) is water. The county is drained by the north-flowing West Fork River and its tributaries, including Tenmile Creek, Simpson Creek, and Elk Creek.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 68,652 people, 27,867 households, and 19,088 families in the county. The population density was 165/sqmi (63.7/km2). There were 31,112 housing units at an average density of 74.8/sqmi (28.9/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 96.55% White, 1.61% Black or African American, 0.15% Native American, 0.59% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.21% from other races, and 0.86% from two or more races. 0.96% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 27,867 households out of which 29.70% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.30% were living together, 11.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.50% were non-families. 27.70% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.94.  The county population contained 23.10% under the age of 18, 8.30% from 18 to 24, 27.50% from 25 to 44, 24.50% from 45 to 64, and 16.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.20 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $30,562, and the median income for a family was $36,870. Males had a median income of $30,721 versus $22,110 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,810. About 13.60% of families and 17.20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.10% of those under age 18 and 9.40% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 69,099 people, 28,533 households, and 18,992 families in the county. The population density was 166/sqmi (64.1/km2). There were 31,431 housing units at an average density of 75.6/sqmi (29.2/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 96.0% white, 1.6% black or African American, 0.5% Asian, 0.2% American Indian, 0.2% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1.3% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 19.8% were German, 19.0% were American, 18.3% were Irish, 13.2% were English, and 10.4% were Italian.  Of the 28,533 households, 30.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.7% were married couples living together, 11.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 33.4% were non-families, and 28.3% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.92. The median age was 41.8 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $39,191 and the median income for a family was $46,882. Males had a median income of $42,615 versus $28,867 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,010. About 15.0% of families and 18.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.0% of those under age 18 and 9.1% of those age 65 or over.

Communities.

Charles Pointe Master-Planned Community.

Harrison County is the site of a master-planned community, Charles Pointe, which is currently under construction in the city of Bridgeport, WV and comprises that will combine commercial, residential, and recreational areas into one master-planned community. Adjacent to Charles Pointe, the United Hospital Center, a $278 million state-of-the-art medical facility. Across from the United Hospital Center site, White Oaks, a planned business community is also under construction, and will support the hospital and the FBI CJIS complex, which is also located near the White Oaks site. This area of West Virginia's Interstate 79 is considered part of a "High Tech Corridor."

Politics.

During the 20th century Harrison County voters tended Democratic. However, since 2000 the county selected the Republican Party candidate in every national election (as of 2016).

Harrison County is a county in the U.S. state of West Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 69,099. The county seat is Clarksburg.

哈里森县(Harrison County, West Virginia)是位于美国西维吉尼亚州中北部的一个县。面积1,079平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查共有人口68,652人。县治克拉克堡 (Clarksburg)。


喀拜尔县 (西维吉尼亚州)

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of, of which is land and (2.4%) is water.  In 1863, West Virginia's counties were divided into civil townships, with the intention of encouraging local government. This proved impractical in the heavily rural state, and in 1872 the townships were converted into magisterial districts. Cabell County was divided into five districts: Barboursville, Grant, Guyandotte, McComas, and Union. Two additional districts, Gideon and Kyle, were established between 1920 and 1930. Between 1980 and 1990, the county was redivided into five districts: District 1, District 2, District 3, District 4, and District 5. The names and boundaries of the historic districts were preserved in the form of tax and assessment districts.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 96,784 people, 41,180 households, and 25,490 families living in the county. The population density was 344 people per square mile (133/km2). There were 45,615 housing units at an average density of 162 per square mile (63/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 93.37% White, 4.29% Black or African American, 0.18% Native American, 0.77% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.20% from other races, and 1.14% from two or more races. 0.68% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 41,180 households out of which 25.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.10% were married couples living together, 11.60% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.10% were non-families. 31.30% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.85.  In the county, the population was spread out with 20.00% under the age of 18, 13.50% from 18 to 24, 26.80% from 25 to 44, 23.60% from 45 to 64, and 16.00% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 91.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.50 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $28,479, and the median income for a family was $37,691. Males had a median income of $31,780 versus $22,243 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,638. About 13.70% of families and 19.20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.60% of those under age 18 and 10.80% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 96,319 people, 41,223 households, and 24,308 families living in the county. The population density was. There were 46,169 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 91.6% white, 5.0% black or African American, 1.0% Asian, 0.2% American Indian, 0.3% from other races, and 2.0% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1.1% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 17.2% were Irish, 16.5% were English, 15.9% were German, and 10.7% were American.  Of the 41,223 households, 26.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.3% were married couples living together, 12.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 41.0% were non-families, and 33.5% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.85. The median age was 38.7 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $34,492 and the median income for a family was $48,323. Males had a median income of $39,523 versus $28,952 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,907. About 15.3% of families and 20.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.0% of those under age 18 and 10.7% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

For most of its history, Cabell County was a swing county, voting for the national winner in every presidential election from 1912 to 2004 aside from 1924 & 1960. However, similar to the rest of West Virginia, it has become a Republican stronghold, with Donald Trump winning the county by a margin of 25 percent over Hillary Clinton.

Cabell County is a county in the U.S. state of West Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 96,319, making it West Virginia's fourth-most populous county. Its county seat is Huntington. The county was organized in 1809 and named for William H. Cabell, the Governor of Virginia from 1805 to 1808. Cabell County is part of the Huntington-Ashland, WV-KY-OH Metropolitan Statistical Area.

喀拜尔县(Cabell County, West Virginia)是美国西维吉尼亚州西部的一个县,西、北隔俄亥俄河与俄亥俄州相望。喀拜尔县面积为746平方公里,其中729平方公里为陆地,17平方公里(2.23%)为水域。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口96,784人。县治亨廷顿 (Huntington)。


History.

Mingo County is West Virginia's newest county, formed by an act of the state legislature in 1895 from parts of Logan County. The county was named for the Mingo Indians.  At the time of its creation, Mingo County was divided into magisterial districts, which the United States Census Bureau classifies as a type of non-functional subdivision serving purely administrative purposes. After West Virginia's establishment in 1863, its counties were initially divided into civil townships, with the intent to encourage local government. This proved impractical in the heavily rural state, and in 1872 the townships were converted into magisterial districts.  Mingo County's five original districts were Hardee, Harvey, Lee, Magnolia, and Stafford. As West Virginia's only county established after 1871, Mingo is unique in never having been divided into townships, but Hardee, Lee, and Magnolia districts were formerly districts in Logan County, and Hardee and Magnolia were townships until 1872.  A sixth district, Warfield, was created from part of Harvey District in 1906, followed by the formation of Williamson District from part of Lee in 1908; Williamson District was coextensive with the City of Williamson. In the 1920s, Warfield District was renamed Kermit, after its chief town. An eighth district, Tug River, was formed from part of Lee District in 1947. Mingo County was redistricted in 2005, at which time Hardee and Tug River Districts were consolidated to form Tug Hardee, and Harvey and Kermit were consolidated to form Kermit Harvey.  The attempt to unionize coal miners in the county in the 1920s led to the Battle of Blair Mountain in neighboring Logan County.  Mingo County is well known for its opposition to former President Barack Obama. In 2008 Obama received only 8% of the vote in the Democratic primary, one of his worst performances nationwide. In 2012 Keith Russell Judd, a convicted felon who was the only other candidate on the ballot, received more Mingo County primary votes than Obama.  In 2014 Mingo County native Jeremy T. K. Farley published "The Ghosts of Mingo County", based on the real life story of Timmy Barker, a history of what Farley called "the bloodiest county in America." The book met with mixed reviews; some residents said it portrayed the county as too lawless, while others believed the book told the county's history accurately.  In 2016 Mingo County was "one of the places in America most touched by opioids."

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.2%) is water.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 28,253 people, 11,303 households, and 8,217 families living in the county. The population density was 67 people per square mile (26/km2). There were 12,898 housing units at an average density of 30 per square mile (12/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 96.39% White, 2.34% Black or African American, 0.24% Native American, 0.21% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.06% from other races, and 0.74% from two or more races. 0.48% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 11,303 households out of which 33.50% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.20% were married couples living together, 12.70% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.30% were non-families. 25.20% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.98.  In the county, the population was spread out with 24.20% under the age of 18, 9.20% from 18 to 24, 29.10% from 25 to 44, 25.00% from 45 to 64, and 12.40% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 93.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.20 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $21,347, and the median income for a family was $26,581. Males had a median income of $31,660 versus $18,038 for females. The per capita income for the county was $12,445. About 25.90% of families and 29.70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 38.90% of those under age 18 and 18.60% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 26,839 people, 11,125 households, and 7,707 families living in the county. The population density was. There were 12,699 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 97.1% white, 1.8% black or African American, 0.2% Asian, 0.1% American Indian, 0.0% from other races, and 0.9% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 0.4% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 12.6% were Irish, 11.9% were American, 7.0% were German, and 6.9% were English.  Of the 11,125 households, 30.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.6% were married couples living together, 11.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 30.7% were non-families, and 27.7% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 2.91. The median age was 40.9 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $32,902 and the median income for a family was $40,199. Males had a median income of $46,917 versus $27,168 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,629. About 16.9% of families and 21.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.1% of those under age 18 and 10.8% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

The youngest of West Virginia's 55 counties, Mingo was created from deeply secessionist Logan County. Consequently, for the 110 years following its creation, Mingo County was staunchly Democratic, voting for Walter Mondale—who came within 3,819 votes of losing all 50 states—by a two-to-one margin in 1984, and voting Republican only for William Howard Taft in 1908, Herbert Hoover in 1928 due to widespread anti-Catholic sentiment against Al Smith, and Richard Nixon against the left-wing George McGovern in 1972. Like all of West Virginia, since 2000 a combination of declining unionization and differences with the Democratic Party's liberal views on social issues has produced a dramatic swing to the Republican Party. In 2016, Mingo County voted only five percentage points less Republican than historically Unionist and rock-ribbed GOP Grant County.  In state elections, Mingo County remained very Democratic up until the mid-2010s. In the 2018 U.S. Senate election, Democrat Joe Manchin lost Mingo County despite winning statewide.

Mingo County is a county in the U.S. state of West Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 26,839. Its county seat is Williamson. Created in 1895, Mingo is West Virginia's newest county, named for the historic Iroquoian Mingo people.

明戈县(Mingo County, West Virginia)是位于美国西维吉尼亚州西南部的一个县,西、西南邻肯塔基州。面积1,097平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口28,253人。县治威廉森 (Williamson)。


泰勒县 (西维吉尼亚州) (1844)

History.

This area was populated by the Adena culture in the Pre-Columbian Woodland period of the Native Americans in the United States.  Some of the first Europeans to visit the area are thought to have been British Army deserters from Fort Pitt, who reportedly fled their post in 1761 during the French and Indian War and roamed northwestern Virginia for several years thereafter. A European trader with the Hudson's Bay Company reportedly set foot in these lands as early as 1764.  Pruntytown is the oldest known white settlement in what is now Taylor County. Initially known as Cross Roads, on January 1, 1801 it was renamed Williamsport in honor of Abraham Williams, a longtime resident. The name was changed again on January 23, 1845 to honor pioneer resident John Prunty. This town served as the county seat of government from the county's founding in 1844 until a county election in 1878 moved that honor to Grafton, West Virginia.  The county was established by the Virginia General Assembly on January 19, 1844. It was formed out of parts of Barbour, Harrison, and Marion counties in Virginia. Most historians think the county was named after John Taylor (1753-1824) of Caroline County, Virginia, while a minority believe it was named after Zachary Taylor. Fifteen justices were appointed by Governor James McDowell to organize the newly formed county: John Asbury, Frederick Burdett, Dr. Joseph L. Carr, John Cather, John A. Guseman, Nathan Hall, Calder Haymond, Absalom Knotts, John Leeper, Charles W. Newlon, Jonathan Poe, Robert Reed, Joshua A. Robinson, William A. Rogers, and Benjamin Sinclair.  On June 20, 1863, at the height of the Civil War, Taylor was one of fifty Virginia counties that were admitted to the Union as the state of West Virginia. Later that year, the counties were divided into civil townships, with the intention of encouraging local government. This proved impractical in the heavily rural state, and in 1872 the townships were converted into magisterial districts. Taylor County was initially divided into nine townships: Booths Creek, Clay, Court House, Fetterman, Flemington, Grafton, Haymond, Union, and Webster. Grafton Township was co-extensive with the town of Grafton.  In 1871, Union Township was annexed by Grafton Township; the following year, Clay and Webster Townships were annexed by Court House Township, Haymond was annexed by Fetterman, and the five remaining townships were converted to magisterial districts. In the 1880s, Knottsville District was created from the part of Grafton District that lay outside the town of Grafton. Except for minor adjustments, the six historic districts remained largely unchanged for the next ninety years, until in the 1970s they were consolidated into three new magisterial districts: Central, Eastern, and Western. In the 1990s, Central District was renamed, becoming Tygart.  The West Virginia Equal Suffrage Association was founded in November 1895 at the Taylor County Courthouse after a meeting called by leaders of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Anna Jarvis, the founder of the Mother's Day, was a native of Taylor County, which is now home to the International Mother's Day Shrine.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (1.7%) is water. It is the fifth-smallest county in West Virginia by area.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 16,089 people, 6,320 households, and 4,487 families living in the county. The population density was 93 people per square mile (36/km2). There were 7,125 housing units at an average density of 41 per square mile (16/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 98.07% White, 0.83% Black or African American, 0.19% Native American, 0.17% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.06% from other races, and 0.63% from two or more races. 0.59% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 6,320 households out of which 30.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.40% were married couples living together, 10.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.00% were non-families. 25.50% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.60% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 2.95.  In the county, the population was spread out with 22.90% under the age of 18, 7.90% from 18 to 24, 28.50% from 25 to 44, 24.90% from 45 to 64, and 15.80% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.90 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $27,124, and the median income for a family was $32,222. Males had a median income of $29,349 versus $20,116 for females. The per capita income for the county was $13,681. About 15.30% of families and 20.30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27.00% of those under age 18 and 16.10% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 16,895 people, 6,778 households, and 4,703 families living in the county. The population density was. There were 7,541 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 97.5% white, 0.7% black or African American, 0.4% Asian, 0.2% American Indian, 0.1% from other races, and 1.0% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 0.8% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 26.1% were German, 22.9% were Irish, 11.3% were American, 10.3% were English, 7.2% were Italian, and 5.1% were Dutch.  Of the 6,778 households, 29.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.6% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 30.6% were non-families, and 26.1% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.89. The median age was 42.3 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $36,956 and the median income for a family was $45,620. Males had a median income of $38,085 versus $26,292 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,562. About 11.3% of families and 15.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.6% of those under age 18 and 16.0% of those age 65 or over.

Taylor County is a county in the U.S. state of West Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 16,895. Its county seat is Grafton. The county was formed in 1844. and named for Senator John Taylor of Caroline.

泰勒县(Taylor County, West Virginia)是位于美国西维吉尼亚州中北部的一个县。面积544平方公里。根据美国人口调查局2000年统计,共有人口16,089人。县治格拉夫顿 (Grafton)。


Development.

The game is written in the Python programming language, and is licensed under the GNU General Public License, although the game incorporates other free and open-source code under other licenses. The game's included song files and some internal fonts are proprietary, and their redistribution is not permitted outside of the Frets On Fire executable.  As there has not been an updated stable release of the original Frets on Fire since 2010, many former users have begun using Phase Shift, as it supports the use of song files originally created for Frets on Fire and offers more current support. Clone Hero had also released in 2017, and grew a large fanbase.

Gameplay.

"Frets on Fire" is a music playing video game. It is playable on Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. The player presses buttons in time to coloured markers, which appear on-screen, the markers are matched with the rhythm of the music. "Frets on Fire" can be played by using a keyboard by pressing the fret buttons and pick buttons, although there is support for joysticks, meaning that with the appropriate adapter and/or software, various guitar-type controllers can be used as well.  Coloured square-shaped markers appear on the player's screen, synchronized with the song and are played by holding the fret buttons that correspond with the correct colour and pressing one of the pick button at the correct moment. Every ten correct hits increase the score multiplier, which multiplies the points for every hit by up to four times. The multiplier is reset when the player misses a note or strums at the wrong time.

Features.

Frets on Fire includes a built-in song editor (or "fretting" tool) that allows editing and creation of songs. This allows users to customise their own tracks. Other programs include "EOF" (EditorOnFire), "dB" (Feedback), and "Freetar" editors. MIDI sequences created in programs such as "FL Studio" and "REAPER" can also be used. The Frets on Fire Wiki has an extensive resource of custom song frets. There are also many other sites that have been created to provide songs and other resources for the game. Frets on Fire also allows users to import songs from other guitar games. These include "Guitar Hero", "Guitar Hero II" and "". The game also features a tutorial, which lets users unfamiliar with the gameplay get accustomed to the game. While the game contains a keyboard play mode, USB Joysticks can also be used. This allows regular joysticks and guitar controllers to be controllers for the game as well, helping to replicate the same feel that commercial guitar games provide.  Since version 1.2.438, the game features "hammer-on and pull-off" notes, commonly abbreviated to "HOPO", although the game refers to them as "tappable notes". These notes allows the player to press only its fret button to play if the previous note was played correctly, emulating the feature of the Guitar Hero series. Bugs were found in the new gameplay element, and version 1.2.451 fixed them; this version also added an option to disable HOPO notes. Frets On Fire lacks the ability to allow players to use the whammy bar, while FoFiX has basic support for modulating the pitch of a track. This is referred to as either "Killswitch" or "Pitchbend." This was added in the 3.100 update for FoFiX.  Much like console guitar-style games, Frets on Fire comes with "World Charts", an official online high score list. However, since the entire system is open source, players have the ability to host their own server as well.  Latest versions of the game (1.2.512 and 1.3.110) are affected by major bugs and it may be hard or impossible to use them; a comfortable solution is to download a previous version, such as 1.2.451.

Alternate versions.

One popular version of the game is "Frets on Fire X" (commonly abbreviated "FoFiX"), a fork developed from a series of mods of version 1.2.451 of Frets on Fire. As well as having support for four players, this fork supports custom graphical themes (which enables users to create a "Guitar Hero" or "Rock Band" look-alike), bass and drum tracks and preliminary support for lyrics. The latest stable version of FoFiX is 3.121 released on December 7, 2009. Currently in development for version 4.000 is the inclusion of Online-Multiplayer, Video Background Support, and support for both Guitar Hero and Rock Band styles of play among many others.

Reception and impact.

Frets on Fire has received generally positive reviews in a variety of publications. Released for competition at Assembly, it won first place among its competition. As a free and open source game, it has not received as much attention from mainstream review sites, but many niche game sites as well as open source game review sites have discussed it, averaging between 7 and 8 out of 10. GameSpot's user ratings give the game an 8.1 as of November 2008; other sites such as Download.com average lower, around 3.5/5. However, because of the cross-platform nature of the game, it has garnered fans from both Linux and Mac gaming communities as well. Frets On Fire was included on the television show "Click".  The University of Nevada developed a modified version of Frets on Fire called Blind Hero which uses a haptic glove to make this game accessible to players who are visually impaired. A similar game has been developed as homebrew for the Wii named Guitars On Fire, which uses Frets on Fire songs, and incorporates the use of the guitar controller. A British developer designed a program based on Frets on Fire called Phase Shift which offers expanded compatibility for guitar peripherals, and includes capabilities for the use of real guitars as well as keyboards.  Frets on Fire became a very popular Freeware game; the game was downloaded between 2007 and May 2017 alone over Sourceforge.net over 14 million times.

Frets on Fire (FoF) is a free, open-source Finnish music video game created by Unreal Voodoo. Players use the keyboard to play along with markers which appear on screen, with the aim to score points, achieve a high point multiplier, and complete a song. "Frets on Fire" was the winner of the Assembly 2006 game development competition.

是一款由Unreal Voodoo创作的免费开放源码的芬兰音乐电子游戏。玩家根据屏幕上显示的符号按键得分,并积累得分倍数因子,并完成歌曲。《热火吉他手》是汇编展示团队2006年游戏开发竞赛的胜利者。