History.

In 1903, Nikolai K. Koltsov proposed that the shape of cells was determined by a network of tubules that he termed the cytoskeleton. The concept of a protein mosaic that dynamically coordinated cytoplasmic biochemistry was proposed by Rudolph Peters in 1929 while the term ("cytosquelette", in French) was first introduced by French embryologist Paul Wintrebert in 1931.  When the cytoskeleton was first introduced, it was thought to be an uninteresting gel-like substance that helped organelles stay in place. Much research took place to try to understand the purpose of the cytoskeleton and its components. With the help of Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose, it was discovered that microtubules vibrate within neurons in the brain, suggesting that brain waves come from deeper microtubule vibrations. This discovery demonstrated that the cytoskeleton is not just a gel-like substance and that it actually has a purpose.  Initially, it was thought that the cytoskeleton was exclusive to eukaryotes but in 1992 it was discovered to be present in prokaryotes as well. This discovery came after the realization that bacteria possess proteins that are homologous to tubulin and actin; the main components of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton.

Eukaryotic cytoskeleton.

Eukaryotic cells contain three main kinds of cytoskeletal filaments: microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Each type is formed by the polymerization of a distinct type of protein subunit and has its own characteristic shape and intracellular distribution. Microfilaments are polymers of the protein actin and are 7 nm in diameter. Microtubules are composed of tubulin and are 25 nm in diameter. Intermediate filaments are composed of various proteins, depending on the type of cell in which they are found; they are normally 8-12 nm in diameter. The cytoskeleton provides the cell with structure and shape, and by excluding macromolecules from some of the cytosol, it adds to the level of macromolecular crowding in this compartment. Cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with cellular membranes.  Research into neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) indicate that the cytoskeleton is affected in these diseases. Parkinson's disease is marked by the degradation of neurons, resulting in tremors, rigidity, and other non-motor symptoms. Research has shown that microtubule assembly and stability in the cytoskeleton is compromised causing the neurons to degrade over time. In Alzheimer's disease, tau proteins which stabilize microtubules malfunction in the progression of the illness causing pathology of the cytoskeleton. Excess glutamine in the Huntington protein involved with linking vesicles onto the cytoskeleton is also proposed to be a factor in the development of Huntington's Disease. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis results in a loss of movement caused by the degradation of motor neurons, and also involves defects of the cytoskeleton.  Accessory proteins including motor proteins regulate and link the filaments to other cell compounds and each other and are essential for controlled assembly of cytoskeletal filaments in particular locations.  A number of small-molecule cytoskeletal drugs have been discovered that interact with actin and microtubules. These compounds have proven useful in studying the cytoskeleton, and several have clinical applications.

Microfilaments.

Microfilaments, also known as actin filaments, are composed of linear polymers of G-actin proteins, and generate force when the growing (plus) end of the filament pushes against a barrier, such as the cell membrane. They also act as tracks for the movement of myosin molecules that affix to the microfilament and "walk" along them. In general, the major component or protein of microfilaments are actin. The G-actin monomer combines to form a polymer which continues to form the microfilament (actin filament). These subunits then assemble into two chains that intertwine into what are called F-actin chains. Myosin motoring along F-actin filaments generates contractile forces in so-called actomyosin fibers, both in muscle as well as most non-muscle cell types. Actin structures are controlled by the Rho family of small GTP-binding proteins such as Rho itself for contractile acto-myosin filaments ("stress fibers"), Rac for lamellipodia and Cdc42 for filopodia.  Functions include:

Intermediate filaments.

Intermediate filaments are a part of the cytoskeleton of many eukaryotic cells. These filaments, averaging 10 nanometers in diameter, are more stable (strongly bound) than microfilaments, and heterogeneous constituents of the cytoskeleton. Like actin filaments, they function in the maintenance of cell-shape by bearing tension (microtubules, by contrast, resist compression but can also bear tension during mitosis and during the positioning of the centrosome). Intermediate filaments organize the internal tridimensional structure of the cell, anchoring organelles and serving as structural components of the nuclear lamina. They also participate in some cell-cell and cell-matrix junctions. Nuclear lamina exist in all animals and all tissues. Some animals like the fruit fly do not have any cytoplasmic intermediate filaments. In those animals that express cytoplasmic intermediate filaments, these are tissue specific. Keratin intermediate filaments in epithelial cells provide protection for different mechanical stresses the skin may endure. They also provide protection for organs against metabolic, oxidative, and chemical stresses. Strengthening of epithelial cells with these intermediate filaments may prevent onset of apoptosis, or cell death, by reducing the probability of stress.  Intermediate filaments are most commonly known as the support system or “scaffolding” for the cell and nucleus while also playing a role in some cell functions. In combination with proteins and desmosomes, the intermediate filaments form cell-cell connections and anchor the cell-matrix junctions that are used in messaging between cells as well as vital functions of the cell. These connections allow the cell to communicate through the desmosome of multiple cells to adjust structures of the tissue based on signals from the cells environment. Mutations in the IF proteins have been shown to cause serious medical issues such as premature aging, desmin mutations compromising organs, Alexander Disease, and muscular dystrophy.  Different intermediate filaments are:

Microtubules.

Microtubules are hollow cylinders about 23 nm in diameter (lumen diameter of approximately 15 nm), most commonly comprising 13 protofilaments that, in turn, are polymers of alpha and beta tubulin. They have a very dynamic behavior, binding GTP for polymerization. They are commonly organized by the centrosome.  In nine triplet sets (star-shaped), they form the centrioles, and in nine doublets oriented about two additional microtubules (wheel-shaped), they form cilia and flagella. The latter formation is commonly referred to as a "9+2" arrangement, wherein each doublet is connected to another by the protein dynein. As both flagella and cilia are structural components of the cell, and are maintained by microtubules, they can be considered part of the cytoskeleton. There are two types of cilia: motile and non-motile cilia. Cilia are short and more numerous than flagella. The motile cilia have a rhythmic waving or beating motion compared to the non-motile cilia which receive sensory information for the cell; processing signals from the other cells or the fluids surrounding it. Additionally, the microtubules control the beating (movement) of the cilia and flagella. Also, the dynein arms attached to the microtubules function as the molecular motors. The motion of the cilia and flagella is created by the microtubules sliding past one another, which requires ATP. They play key roles in:  In addition to the roles described above, Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose have proposed that microtubules function in consciousness.

Septins.

Septins are a group of the highly conserved GTP binding proteins found in eukaryotes. Different septins form protein complexes with each other. These can assemble to filaments and rings. Therefore, septins can be considered part of the cytoskeleton. The function of septins in cells include serving as a localized attachment site for other proteins, and preventing the diffusion of certain molecules from one cell compartment to another. In yeast cells, they build scaffolding to provide structural support during cell division and compartmentalize parts of the cell. Recent research in human cells suggests that septins build cages around bacterial pathogens, immobilizing the harmful microbes and preventing them from invading other cells.

Spectrin.

Spectrin is a cytoskeletal protein that lines the intracellular side of the plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells. Spectrin forms pentagonal or hexagonal arrangements, forming a scaffolding and playing an important role in maintenance of plasma membrane integrity and cytoskeletal structure.

Yeast cytoskeleton.

In budding yeast (an important model organism), actin forms cortical patches, actin cables, and a cytokinetic ring and the cap. Cortical patches are discrete actin bodies on the membrane and are vital for endocytosis, especially the recycling of glucan synthase which is important for cell wall synthesis. Actin cables are bundles of actin filaments and are involved in the transport of vesicles towards the cap (which contains a number of different proteins to polarize cell growth) and in the positioning of mitochondria. The cytokinetic ring forms and constricts around the site of cell division.

Prokaryotic cytoskeleton.

Prior to the work of Jones et al., 2001, the cell wall was believed to be the deciding factor for many bacterial cell shapes, including rods and spirals. When studied, many misshapen bacteria were found to have mutations linked to development of a cell envelope. The cytoskeleton was once thought to be a feature only of eukaryotic cells, but homologues to all the major proteins of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton have been found in prokaryotes. Harold Erickson notes that before 1992, only eukaryotes were believed to have cytoskeleton components. However, research in the early '90s suggested that bacteria and archaea had homologues of actin and tubulin, and that these were the basis of eukaryotic microtubules and microfilaments. Although the evolutionary relationships are so distant that they are not obvious from protein sequence comparisons alone, the similarity of their three-dimensional structures and similar functions in maintaining cell shape and polarity provides strong evidence that the eukaryotic and prokaryotic cytoskeletons are truly homologous. Three laboratories independently discovered that FtsZ, a protein already known as a key player in bacterial cytokinesis, had the "tubulin signature sequence" present in all α-, β-, and γ-tubulins. However, some structures in the bacterial cytoskeleton may not have been identified as of yet.

FtsZ.

FtsZ was the first protein of the prokaryotic cytoskeleton to be identified. Like tubulin, FtsZ forms filaments in the presence of guanosine triphosphate (GTP), but these filaments do not group into tubules. During cell division, FtsZ is the first protein to move to the division site, and is essential for recruiting other proteins that synthesize the new cell wall between the dividing cells.

MreB and ParM.

Prokaryotic actin-like proteins, such as MreB, are involved in the maintenance of cell shape. All non-spherical bacteria have genes encoding actin-like proteins, and these proteins form a helical network beneath the cell membrane that guides the proteins involved in cell wall biosynthesis.  Some plasmids encode a separate system that involves an actin-like protein ParM. Filaments of ParM exhibit dynamic instability, and may partition plasmid DNA into the dividing daughter cells by a mechanism analogous to that used by microtubules during eukaryotic mitosis.

Crescentin.

The bacterium "Caulobacter crescentus" contains a third protein, crescentin, that is related to the intermediate filaments of eukaryotic cells. Crescentin is also involved in maintaining cell shape, such as helical and vibrioid forms of bacteria, but the mechanism by which it does this is currently unclear. Additionally, curvature could be described by the displacement of crescentic filaments, after the disruption of peptidoglycan synthesis.

Common features and differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

By definition, the cytoskeleton is composed of proteins that can form longitudinal arrays (fibres) in all organisms. These filament forming proteins have been classified into 4 classes. Tubulin-like, actin-like, Walker A cytoskeletal ATPases (WACA-proteins), and intermediate filaments.  Tubulin-like proteins are tubulin in eukaryotes and FtsZ, TubZ, RepX in prokaryotes. Actin-like proteins are actin in eukaryotes and MreB, FtsA in prokaryotes. An example of a WACA-proteins, which are mostly found in prokaryotes, is MinD. Examples for intermediate filaments, which have almost exclusively been found in animals (i.e. eukaryotes) are the lamins, keratins, vimentin, neurofilaments, and desmin.  Although tubulin-like proteins share some amino acid sequence similarity, their equivalence in protein-fold and the similarity in the GTP binding site is more striking. The same holds true for the actin-like proteins and their structure and ATP binding domain.  Cytoskeletal proteins are usually correlated with cell shape, DNA segregation and cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Which proteins fulfill which task is very different. For example, DNA segregation in all eukaryotes happens through use of tubulin, but in prokaryotes either WACA proteins, actin-like or tubulin-like proteins can be used. Cell division is mediated in eukaryotes by actin, but in prokaryotes usually by tubulin-like (often FtsZ-ring) proteins and sometimes (Crenarchaeota) ESCRT-III, which in eukaryotes still has a role in the last step of division.

Cytoplasmic streaming.

Cytoplasmic streaming, also known as cyclosis, is the active movement of a cell’s contents along the components of the cytoskeleton. While mainly seen in plants, all cell types use this process for transportation of waste, nutrients, and organelles to other parts of the cell. Plant and algae cells are generally larger than many other cells; so cytoplasmic streaming is important in these types of cells. This is because the cell’s extra volume requires cytoplasmic streaming in order to move organelles throughout the entire cell. Organelles move along microfilaments in the cytoskeleton driven by myosin motors binding and pushing along actin filament bundles.

The cytoskeleton is a complex, dynamic network of interlinking protein filaments present in the cytoplasm of all cells, including bacteria and archaea. It extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane and is composed of similar proteins in the various organisms. In eukaryotes, it is composed of three main components, microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules, and these are all capable of rapid growth or disassembly dependent on the cell's requirements.

细胞骨架(英语:Cytoskeleton)一般是指细胞内细胞质中的由蛋白质构成的纤维的网络结构。它是一个动态结构,其中有一部分是不断的被破坏,更新或新建的,有些细胞可以通过骨架的破坏和重建运动(尺蠖运动)。


Early life and education.

Nyman was born in Stratford, London to a family of Polish secular Jewish furriers.  Nyman was educated at the Sir George Monoux Grammar School, Walthamstow. He studied at King's College London and at the Royal Academy of Music, with Alan Bush and Thurston Dart, focusing on piano and seventeenth-century baroque music. He won the Howard Carr Memorial Prize for composition in July 1964. In 1965–66 Nyman secured a residency in Romania, to study folk-song, supported by a British Council bursary.

Career.

Nyman says he discovered his aesthetic playing the aria, "Madamina, il catalogo è questo" from Mozart's "Don Giovanni" on his piano in the style of Jerry Lee Lewis, which "dictated the dynamic, articulation and texture of everything I've subsequently done." It subsequently became the base for his 1977 piece "In Re Don Giovanni."  In 1969, Nyman provided the libretto of Harrison Birtwistle's opera "Down by the Greenwood Side" and directed the short film "Love Love Love" (based on, and identical in length to, the Beatles' "All You Need Is Love") before settling into music criticism, where he is generally acknowledged to have been the first to apply the term "minimalism" to music (in a 1968 article in "The Spectator" magazine about the English composer Cornelius Cardew). He wrote introductions for George Frideric Handel's Concerti Grossi, Op. 6 and interviewed George Brecht in 1976.  One of his earliest film scores was the British sex comedy "Keep It Up Downstairs" (1976), and he has since scored numerous films, many of them European art films, including several of those directed by Peter Greenaway. Nyman drew frequently on early music sources in his scores for Greenaway's films: Henry Purcell in "The Draughtsman's Contract" (1982) and "The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover" (1989) (which included Memorial and Miserere Paraphrase), Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber in "A Zed & Two Noughts" (1985), Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in "Drowning by Numbers" (1988), and John Dowland in "Prospero's Books" (1991), largely at the request of the director. He wrote settings to various texts by Mozart for "Letters, Riddles and Writs", part of "Not Mozart". He also produced a soundtrack for the silent film "Man with a Movie Camera". Nyman's popularity increased after he wrote the score to Jane Campion's award-winning 1993 film "The Piano". The album became a classical music best-seller. He was nominated for both a British Academy Award and a Golden Globe. His few forays into Hollywood have been "Gattaca" (1997), "Ravenous" (1999) (with musician Damon Albarn), and "The End of the Affair" (1999).  Among Nyman's other works are the opera "Noises, Sounds & Sweet Airs" (1987), for soprano, alto, tenor and instrumental ensemble (based on Nyman's score for the ballet "La Princesse de Milan"); "Ariel Songs" (1990) for soprano and band; MGV (Musique à Grande Vitesse) (1993) for band and orchestra; concertos for saxophone, piano (based on "The Piano" score), violin, harpsichord, trombone, and saxophone & cello recorded by John Harle and Julian Lloyd Webber; the opera "The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat" (1986), based on a case-study by Oliver Sacks; and five string quartets. In 2000, he produced a new opera on the subject of cloning on a libretto by Victoria Hardie titled "Facing Goya", an expansion of their one-act opera "Vital Statistics". The lead, a widowed art banker, is written for contralto and the role was first created by Hilary Summers. His newest operas are "" (2003) and "Love Counts" (2005), both on libretti by Michael Hastings. He has also composed the music for the children's television series "Titch" which is based on the books written and illustrated by Pat Hutchins.  Many of Nyman's works are written for his own ensemble, the Michael Nyman Band, a group formed for a 1976 production of Carlo Goldoni's "Il Campiello". Originally made up of old instruments such as rebecs and shawms alongside more modern instruments like the saxophone to produce as loud a sound as possible without amplification, it later switched to a fully amplified line-up of string quartet, three saxophones, trumpet, horn, bass trombone, bass guitar and piano. This line up has been variously altered and augmented for some works.  Nyman also published an influential book in 1974 on experimental music called "Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond", which explored the influence of John Cage on classical composers.  In the 1970s, Nyman was a member of the Portsmouth Sinfonia – the self-described World's Worst Orchestra – playing on their recordings and in their concerts. He was the featured pianist on the orchestra's recording of "Bridge Over Troubled Water" on the Martin Lewis-produced "20 Classic Rock Classics" album on which the Sinfonia gave their unique interpretations of the pop and rock repertoire of the 1950s–1970s. Nyman created a similar group called Foster's Social Orchestra, which specialised in the work of Stephen Foster. One of their pieces appeared in the film "Ravenous" and an additional work, not used in the film, appeared on the soundtrack album.  He has also recorded pop music with the Flying Lizards; a version of his "Bird List" from the soundtrack to Peter Greenaway's "The Falls" (1980) appears on their album "Fourth Wall" as "Hands 2 Take".  On 7 July 2007, Nyman performed at Live Earth in Japan. Nyman also began a long-term artistic collaboration with the filmmaker Max Pugh which has resulted in many short art films, three experimental feature documentaries and a number of video installations. In 2008 Nyman realised, in collaboration with the cultural association Volumina, Sublime, an artist's book that unified his music with his passion for photography.  In October 2009, Nyman released "The Glare", a collaborative collection of songs with David McAlmont, which cast his work in a new light. The album – recorded with the Michael Nyman Band – finds McAlmont putting lyrics based on contemporary news stories to 11 pieces of Nyman music drawn from different phases of his career.  In 2012, he made a soundtrack for film "Everyday". Keith H. Yoo in 2012 commissioned Nyman to write a 26 minutes long piano quintet in four movements titled "Through the Only Window". It premiered at the gala dinner for his father Yoo Byung-eun's photographic exhibition "Through My Window" in the Tuileries Garden of The Louvre in Paris on 25 June 2012. The work has been recorded by Nyman Quintet in the Abbey Road Studios, and has been released on Nyman's record label. In 2013 Nyman was again commissioned to compose a piece for Yoo Byung-eun's exhibition in the Orangerie Hall of the Palace of Versailles, and wrote the 32 minutes long symphony in four movements, Symphony No. 6"AHAE", representing the four seasons in nature as depicted by Ahae, a pseudonym for Yoo Byung-eun. The London Symphony Orchestra premiered both pieces at L'Opéra of the Palace of Versailles in Paris on 8 September 2013 under the baton of the composer. It has been recorded for a planned future release.

Personal life.

He was married to Aet Nyman and has two daughters, Molly and Martha. His first string quartet quotes "Unchained Melody" in homage to Aet, who appears in Greenaway's "The Falls", for which he also composed music. Molly is also a composer and in collaboration with Harry Escott has written several film scores including for "The Road to Guantanamo" by her father's frequent collaborator, Michael Winterbottom. Martha is a development researcher for the BBC.  Nyman is a supporter of Queen's Park Rangers Football Club.

Honours.

Nyman was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2008 Birthday Honours.  Nyman was awarded an honorary doctorate (DLitt) from The University of Warwick on 30 January 2007. At the ceremony The University of Warwick Brass Society and Chamber Choir, conducted by Paul McGrath, premiered a specially composed procession and recession fanfare composed by Nyman.  In 2015, he was awarded the Golden Duke for Lifetime Achievement, the special award of the 6th Odessa International Film Festival.

Collaborations.

In addition to his composing and film-making activities, Nyman has a full international touring schedule with the Michael Nyman Band as well as a series of unique one-off performances with a variety of collaborators, including musicians from outside the western/classical/experimental traditions such as the Orqestra Andalusi de Tetouan, Rajan and Sajan Misra, U. Shrinivas, Estrella Morente, Seijin Noborakawa, Ute Lemper, Evan Parker, Peter Brotzmann, Paolo Fresu, Mike Giles, the Flying Lizards, Dagmar Krause, Sting, Damon Albarn, David McAlmont and Alva Noto.

Michael Laurence Nyman, CBE (born 23 March 1944) is an English composer of minimalist music, pianist, librettist and musicologist, known for numerous film scores (many written during his lengthy collaboration with the filmmaker Peter Greenaway), and his multi-platinum soundtrack album to Jane Campion's "The Piano". He has written a number of operas, including "The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat"; "Letters, Riddles and Writs"; "Noises, Sounds & Sweet Airs"; "Facing Goya"; ""; "Love Counts"; and "Sparkie: Cage and Beyond". He has written six concerti, five string quartets, and many other chamber works, many for his Michael Nyman Band. He is also a performing pianist. Nyman prefers to write opera rather than other forms of music.

迈克尔·尼曼,CBE(英语:Michael Nyman,1944年-3月23日),英国作曲家、钢琴家、音乐学家。出生于伦敦斯特拉德福德一个波兰世俗犹太人家庭,曾就读于伦敦国王学院和英国皇家音乐学院,1965至1966年在罗马尼亚研究民歌。他曾为伯特威斯尔的歌剧写作剧本,还曾导演过短片,而作为乐评人,他则被认为是最早使用“简约主义”一词来形容音乐的人。作为作曲家,他的风格属于明显的简约主义音乐,部分作品与各类流行音乐的界限非常模糊。他的许多作品都是为自己创建于1976年的演奏组“迈克尔·尼曼乐队”而作。他作有大量电影音乐,与著名导演彼得·格林纳威曾有十分成功的合作。


Early life.

Mustafa was born in the Manisa Palace, as the younger brother of Ahmed I (1603–1617). His mother was Halime Sultan, an Abkhazian lady.  Before 1603 it was customary for an Ottoman Sultan to have his brothers executed shortly after he gained the throne (Mustafa's father Mehmed III had executed 19 of his own brothers). But when the thirteen-year-old Ahmed I was enthroned in 1603, he spared the life of the twelve-year-old Mustafa.  A factor in Mustafa's survival is the influence of Kösem Sultan (Ahmed's favorite consort), who may have wished to preempt the succession of Osman, Ahmed’s first-born son from another concubine. If Osman became Sultan, he would likely try to execute his half-brothers, the sons of Ahmed and Kösem. (This scenario later became a reality when Osman II executed his brother Mehmed in 1621.) However, the reports of foreign ambassadors suggest that Ahmed actually liked his brother.  Until Ahmed's death in 1617, Mustafa lived in the Old Palace, along with his mother, and grandmother Safiye Sultan.

First reign (1617–1618).

Ahmed's death created a dilemma never before experienced by the Ottoman Empire. Multiple princes were now eligible for the Sultanate, and all of them lived in Topkapı Palace. A court faction headed by the Şeyhülislam Esad Efendi and Sofu Mehmed Pasha (who represented the Grand Vizier when he was away from Constantinople) decided to enthrone Mustafa instead of Ahmed's son Osman. Sofu Mehmed argued that Osman was too young to be enthroned without causing adverse comment among the populace. The Chief Black Eunuch Mustafa Agha objected, citing Mustafa's mental problems, but he was overruled. Mustafa's rise created a new succession principle of seniority that would last until the end of the Empire. It was the first time an Ottoman Sultan was succeeded by his brother instead of his son. His mother Halime Sultan became the Valide Sultan as well as a regent and wielded great power. Due to Mustafa's mental conditions, she acted as a regent and exercised power more directly.  It was hoped that regular social contact would improve Mustafa's mental health, but his behavior remained eccentric. He pulled off the turbans of his viziers and yanked their beards. Others observed him throwing coins to birds and fish. The Ottoman historian İbrahim Peçevi wrote "this situation was seen by all men of state and the people, and they understood that he was psychologically disturbed."

Deposition.

Mustafa was never more than a tool of court cliques at the Topkapı Palace. In 1618, after a short rule, another palace faction deposed him in favour of his young nephew Osman II (1618–1622), and Mustafa was sent back to the Old Palace. The conflict between the Janissaries and Osman II presented him with a second chance. After a Janissary rebellion led to the deposition and assassination of Osman II in 1622, Mustafa was restored to the throne and held it for another year.

Alleged mental instability.

Nevertheless, according to Baki Tezcan, there is not enough evidence to properly establish that Mustafa was mentally imbalanced when he came to the throne. Mustafa "made a number of excursions to the arsenal and the navy docks, examining various sorts of arms and taking an active interest in the munitions supply of the army and the navy." One of the dispatches of Baron de Sancy, the French ambassador, "suggested that Mustafa was interested in leading the Safavid campaign himself and was entertaining the idea of wintering in Konya for that purpose."  Moreover, one contemporary observer provides an explanation of the coup which does not mention the incapacity of Mustafa. Baron de Sancy ascribes the deposition to a political conspiracy between the grand admiral Ali Pasha and Chief Black Eunuch Mustafa Agha, who were angered by the former's removal from office upon Sultan Mustafa's accession. They may have circulated rumors of the sultan's mental instability subsequent to the coup in order to legitimize it.

Second reign (1622–1623).

He commenced his reign by executing all those who had taken any share in the murder of Sultan Osman. Hoca Ömer Efendi, the chief of the rebels, the kızlar Agha Suleiman Agha, the vizier Dilaver Pasha, the Kaim-makam Ahmed Pasha, the defterdar Baki Pasha, the segban-bashi Nasuh Agha, and the general of the janissaries Ali Agha, were cut into pieces.  The epithet "Veli" (meaning "saint") was used in reference to him during his reign.  His mental condition unimproved, Mustafa was a puppet controlled by his mother and brother-in-law, the grand vizier Kara Davud Pasha. He believed that Osman II was still alive and was seen searching for him throughout the palace, knocking on doors and crying out to his nephew to relieve him from the burden of sovereignty. "The present emperor being a fool" (according to English Ambassador Sir Thomas Roe), he was compared unfavorably with his predecessor. In fact, it was his mother Halime Sultan the de facto-co-ruler as Valide Sultan of the Ottoman empire.

Deposition and last years.

Political instability was generated by conflict between the Janissaries and the sipahis (Ottoman cavalry), followed by the Abaza rebellion, which occurred when the governor-general of Erzurum, Abaza Mehmed Pasha, decided to march to Istanbul to avenge the murder of Osman II. The regime tried to end the conflict by executing Kara Davud Pasha, but Abaza Mehmed continued his advance. Clerics and the new Grand Vizier (Kemankeş Kara Ali Pasha) prevailed upon Mustafa's mother to allow the deposition of her son. She agreed, on condition that Mustafa's life would be spared.  The 11-year-old Murad IV, son of Ahmed I and Kösem, was enthroned on 10 September 1623. In return for her consent to his deposition, the request of Mustafa's mother that he be spared execution was granted. Mustafa was sent along with his mother to the Eski (old) Palace.

Death.

One source states that Mustafa was executed by the orders of his nephew, Sultan Murad IV on 20 January 1640 in order to end the Ottoman dynasty and prevented to give power to his mother Kösem Sultan. Another source states that he died of epilepsy which was caused by being imprisoned for 34 years out of his 48 years of life. He is buried in the courtyard of the Haghia Sophia.

Mustafa I (; ; 1591 – 20 January 1639), called Mustafa the Saint (Veli Mustafa) during his second reign and often called Mustafa the Mad (Deli Mustafa) by modern historians, was the son of Mehmed III and was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1617 to 1618 and from 1622 to 1623.

穆斯塔法一世(1592年-1639年-1月20日)是奥斯曼帝国的苏丹,他的执政时期是1617年至1618年及1622年至1623年。


Early life and playing career.

Herrera was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, to Spanish parents. His father Francisco, who worked as a carpenter, was an exiled anarchist from Andalusia. His mother, Maria Gavilán Martínez, was a cleaner. In 1920, Herrera’s family left Argentina for Casablanca, then a French colonial city, in search of a better life. In Casablanca Herrera started his career as a footballer.  Playing as a central defender, in 1932 he earned a transfer from RC Casablanca to mainland France – CASG Paris. Before World War II, Herrera (or "H.H." as he was known) played in Stade Français, FCO Charleville (where he was called up for the national team twice) and Excelsior Roubaix. During the war, he played for five years more in Red Star Paris, Stade Français, EF Paris-Capitale and Puteaux, where he started his managing career in 1944 as a player-manager. He retired in 1945, and while his playing career was very short of notable successes, his managing career, coinciding with the early beginnings of UEFA competitions, had a marked effect on the game's tactical definitions.

Managing career.

After his first season in Puteaux, Herrera rejoined Stade Français for a third time now as manager. After three seasons with no trophies collected, the club's president opted to sell the club. Herrera moved to Spain, where he spent the next six years with Real Valladolid, Atlético Madrid (where he won La Liga in 1950 and 1951), CD Málaga, Deportivo de La Coruña and Sevilla, before moving to Portugal and entering a two-year tenure with Lisbon side Os Belenenses. Later returning to Spain, he managed giants Barcelona, where he won various titles (including La Liga, twice), but several problems, including disagreements between him and star player Ladislao Kubala, forced him to leave the club in 1960. He immediately emigrated to Italy and signed with Internazionale (where he was to remain until 1968), winning three Serie A titles and two European Cups during his stay with the club, where he used a 5–3–2 formation, and modified a tactic known as the "Verrou" (door bolt) – used by Karl Rappan – to include larger flexibility for counter-attacks; thus, the "Catenaccio" system was born. The side was later nicknamed "Grande Inter", due to the club's successes under Herrera's eight–year spell, which saw the team win back–to–back European Cup titles in 1964 and 1965, as well as three Serie A titles, and two Intercontinental Cup titles. During this time he was also coaching Spain (between 1959 and 1962) and Italy (1966–67).  In 1968, Herrera moved to Roma, where he became the highest paid manager in the world, with a contract worth an estimated £150,000 per year. He won the Coppa Italia in his first season but relations with club president Alvaro Marchini had already soured over the tragic death of his centre-forward Giuliano Taccola in the team dressing room at an away game against Cagliari. The following season, 1969–70, erratic results in the League gave Marchini the excuse to sack him.  He returned to management for a one-year stint with Inter for the 1973–74 season. Herrera then suffered a heart attack, did not want to coach full-time any more and retired in Venice where he lived the rest of his life. While inactive between 1974 and 1978, Herrera returned briefly during the end of the decade, managing Rimini Calcio and finally ending his career with a return to FC Barcelona for one-and-a-half seasons in 1980 and 1981.

Influence.

He pioneered the use of psychological motivating skills – his pep-talk phrases are still quoted today, e.g. "he who doesn't give it all, gives nothing", "with 10 our team plays better than with 11" (after his team had to face the second half of a game with only 10 players on the field) and "Class + Preparation + Intelligence + Athleticism = Championships". These slogans were often plastered on billboards around the ground and chanted by players during training sessions.  He also enforced a strict discipline code, for the first time forbidding players to drink or smoke and controlling their diet – once at Inter he suspended a player after telling the press ""we came to play in Rome"" instead of ""we came to win in Rome"". He also sent club personnel to players' homes during the week to perform '"bed-checks." He introduced the "ritiro", a pre-match remote country hotel retreat that started with the collection of players on Thursday to prepare for a Sunday game.  He was also one of the first managers to call on the support of the "12th player" – the spectators. While indirectly, this led to the appearance of the first "Ultras" movements in the late 60s. While defensive in nature, his understanding of the Catenaccio was slightly different from that practised by other Italian teams and the original "Verrou", as he often used the full backs (particularly Giacinto Facchetti) as half backs (defensively supported by the libero) to launch faster counter-attacks, a staple of Italian tactics – yet, he never denied the heart of his team relied on defence.  In 2004 Herrera's widow Fiora Gandolfi (his third wife) released a book called "Tacalabala". In it was collected sayings, sketches and notes from Herrera's notebooks and journals.

Tactics.

Herrera's standard formation at Inter was the 5–3–2 system, which almost always included a sweeper (usually the team's captain, Armando Picchi), as well as four man-marking defenders. He was openly dismissive of teams that had an obsession for dominating ball possession, declaring that "the ball always moves further, and more quickly, when there isn’t a player behind it".  Although Herrera's Barcelona side was known for playing a fluid, attacking brand of football, his pragmatic catenaccio tactics at Inter were often criticised for producing few goals, and for being dull, overly defensive, or even destructive; Herrera and several of Inter's players at the time refuted these claims, however, with Herrera later stating: "The problem is that most of the ones who copied me copied me wrongly. They forgot to include the attacking principles that my Catenaccio included. I had Picchi as a sweeper, yes, but I also had Facchetti, the first full-back to score as many goals as a forward".  Aside from the team's defensive strength and organisation when defending behind the ball, some of the key elements of Herrera's "Grande Inter" side of the 1960s were the use of vertical football and very quick, efficient counter-attacks, which allowed the team to score with few touches. This was made possible due to Herrera's use of very quick and energetic, attacking full-backs, such as Giacinto Facchetti, and Tarcisio Burgnich, who would often detach themselves from the back-line and catch their opponents by surprise with their overlapping runs. Furthermore, the team's main creative force, Spanish deep-lying playmaker Luis Suárez, played a fundamental part in Inter's success during this period, due to his outstanding work-rate, technical skills, vision and passing range; these attributes enabled him to aid the team to win back possession, and subsequently launch quick attacks with accurate long balls out to the on-running full-backs, who would often go on either to score or assist the strikers.  After successive European Cups in 1964 and 1965, Helenio Herrera's Catenaccio style of play suffered a massive blow in the 1967 final in Lisbon, when they came up against Scottish champions Celtic of Glasgow, – nicknamed the Lisbon Lions – who consisted of a group of players who were all born within 30 miles of Celtic's home ground, Celtic Park. Celtic won the game 2–1 after coming back from a 7th-minute Mazzola penalty, with many pundits claiming this was a 'victory for football' against the defensively-destructive Catenaccio.

Trivia.

Helenio Herrera was nicknamed "il Mago" (the Wizard) and "H.H." (from the initials of his name) by Italian sports journalists (who recognised him as one of the finest coaches in Italian football history) due to his success and tactical prowess, and because on occasion he would provocatively announce the results of Sunday's games and often his prediction turned out to be correct. He is unrelated with the less famous Heriberto Herrera, another football coach who directed Juventus and Inter in the same years.

Helenio Herrera Gavilán (; 10 April 1910 – 9 November 1997) was an Argentine, naturalized French, football player and manager. He is best remembered for his success with the Inter Milan team known as "Grande Inter" in the 1960s.

埃伦尼奥·赫雷拉(Helenio Herrera Gavilán,1910年-4月10日-1997年-11月9日),阿根廷球员和领队,出生于布宜诺斯艾利斯,于威尼斯逝世。赫雷拉在球员时代曾赢得16项锦标,且领导才能也很强。


Antiquity.

The "Was" and other types of staves were signs of authority in Ancient Egypt. For this reason they are often described as "sceptres", even if they are full-length staffs. One of the earliest royal sceptres was discovered in the 2nd Dynasty tomb of Khasekhemwy in Abydos. Kings were also known to carry a staff, and Pharaoh Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called "mks"-staff. The staff with the longest history seems to be the "heqa"-sceptre (the "shepherd's crook").  The sceptre also assumed a central role in the Mesopotamian world, and was in most cases part of the royal insignia of sovereigns and gods. This is valid throughout the whole Mesopotamian history, as illustrated by both literary and administrative texts and iconography. The Mesopotamian sceptre was mostly called "ĝidru" in Sumerian and "ḫaṭṭum" in Akkadian.  The ancient Tamil work of Tirukkural dedicates one chapter each to the ethics of the sceptre. According to Valluvar, "it was not his spear but the sceptre which bound a king to his people."  Among the early Greeks, the sceptre (, "skeptron", "staff, stick, baton") was a long staff, such as Agamemnon wielded ("Iliad", i) or was used by respected elders ("Iliad", xviii. 46; Herodotus 1. 196), and came to be used by judges, military leaders, priests, and others in authority. It is represented on painted vases as a long staff tipped with a metal ornament. When the sceptre is borne by Zeus or Hades, it is headed by a bird. It was this symbol of Zeus, the king of the gods and ruler of Olympus, that gave their inviolable status to the "kerykes", the heralds, who were thus protected by the precursor of modern diplomatic immunity. When, in the "Iliad", Agamemnon sends Odysseus to the leaders of the Achaeans, he lends him his sceptre.  Among the Etruscans, sceptres of great magnificence were used by kings and upper orders of the priesthood. Many representations of such sceptres occur on the walls of the painted tombs of Etruria. The British Museum, the Vatican, and the Louvre possess Etruscan sceptres of gold, most elaborately and minutely ornamented.  The Roman sceptre probably derived from the Etruscan. Under the Republic, an ivory sceptre ("sceptrum eburneum") was a mark of consular rank. It was also used by victorious generals who received the title of "imperator", and its use as a symbol of delegated authority to legates apparently was revived in the marshal’s baton.  In the First Persian Empire, the Biblical Book of Esther mentions the sceptre of the King of Persia. Esther 5:2 "When the king saw Esther the queen standing in the court, she obtained favor in his sight; and the king held out to Esther the golden scepter that was in his hand. So Esther came near, and touched the top of the scepter."  Under the Roman Empire, the "sceptrum Augusti" was specially used by the emperors, and was often of ivory tipped with a golden eagle. It is frequently shown on medallions of the later empire, which have on the obverse a half-length figure of the emperor, holding in one hand the "sceptrum Augusti", and in the other the orb surmounted by a small figure of Victory.

In literature.

The codes of the right and the cruel sceptre are found in the ancient Tamil work of "Tirukkural", dating back to the first century BCE. In Chapters 55 and 56, the text deals with the right and the cruel sceptre, respectively, furthering the thought on the ethical behaviour of the ruler discussed in many of the preceding and the following chapters. The ancient treatise says it was not the king's spear but the sceptre that bound him to his people—and to the extent that he guarded them, his own good rule would guard him.

Christian era.

With the advent of Christianity, the sceptre was often tipped with a cross instead of with an eagle. However, during the Middle Ages, the finials on the top of the sceptre varied considerably.  In England, from a very early period, two sceptres have been concurrently used, and from the time of Richard I, they have been distinguished as being tipped with a cross and a dove respectively. In France, the royal sceptre was tipped with a "fleur de lys", and the other, known as the "main de justice", had an open hand of benediction on the top.  Sceptres with small shrines on the top are sometimes represented on royal seals, as on the great seal of Edward III, where the king, enthroned, bears such a sceptre, but it was an unusual form; and it is of interest to note that one of the sceptres of Scotland, preserved at Edinburgh, has such a shrine at the top, with little images of the Virgin Mary, Saint Andrew, and Saint James the Great in it. This sceptre was, it is believed, made in France around 1536 for James V. Great seals usually represent the sovereign enthroned, holding a sceptre (often the second in dignity) in the right hand, and the orb and cross in the left. Harold Godwinson appears thus in the Bayeux tapestry.  The earliest English coronation form of the 9th century mentions a sceptre ("sceptrum"), and a staff ("baculum"). In the so-called coronation form of Ethelred II a sceptre ("sceptrum"), and a rod ("virga") appear, as they do also in the case of a coronation order of the 12th century. In a contemporary account of Richard I’s coronation, the royal sceptre of gold with a gold cross ("sceptrum"), and the gold rod with a gold dove on the top ("virga"), enter the historical record for the first time. About 1450, Sporley, a monk of Westminster, compiled a list of the relics there. These included the articles used at the coronation of Saint Edward the Confessor, and left by him for the coronations of his successors. A golden sceptre, a wooden rod gilt, and an iron rod are named. These survived until the Commonwealth, and are minutely described in an inventory of the regalia drawn up in 1649, when everything was destroyed.  For the coronation of Charles II of England, new sceptres with the Cross and the Dove were made, and though slightly altered, they are still in use today. Two sceptres for the queen consort, one with a cross, and the other with a dove, have been subsequently added.  The flags of Moldova, and Montenegro have sceptres on them.

A sceptre (British English) or scepter (American English) is a staff or wand held in the hand by a ruling monarch as an item of royal or imperial insignia. Figuratively, it means royal or imperial authority or sovereignty.

权杖是一种长型棍杖,可以是装饰性的或是宗教仪式的道具,是西方贵族或掌权者用来表示自身权力及地位的物品。


Early life and education.

Bernhard Karlgren was born on 15 October 1889 in Jönköping, Sweden. His father, Johannes Karlgren, taught Latin, Greek, and Swedish at the local high school. Karlgren showed ability in linguistics from a young age, and was interested in Sweden's dialects and traditional folk stories. He mastered classical languages and was an accomplished translator of Greek poetry into his native language. He displayed an early interest in China, and wrote a drama, "The White Hind," set in that country in his early teens. His first scholarly article, a phonetic transcription, based on a system devised by Johan August Lundell, of traditional folk stories from his native province of Småland, was completed when he was 14. and published in 1908 when he was only 18 years old. He studied Russian at Uppsala University under Johan August Lundell, a Slavicist interested in comparative linguistics. He graduated in 1909 with a bachelor's degree in Nordic, Greek, and Slavonic languages. Although he initially intended to specialize in the Scandinavian languages, on the advice of his elder brother Anton Karlgren (18821973) he decided to focus on Chinese instead, attracted to it also by the fact that, as Lundell had told him, Chinese contained a great number of dialects. He departed for St. Petersburg, which, under the guidance of Vasily Vasilyev, had created one of the major European centres for the study of Chinese. While there, Karlgren, studying under A. I. Ivanov, won a grant to study Chinese dialects, even though he had no background in Chinese at that point.  Karlgren lived in China from 1910 to 1912. He achieved basic fluency and literacy after only a few months of study, and prepared a questionnaire of 3,100 Chinese characters to gather information on Chinese dialects. After his grant money ran out, Karlgren supported himself by teaching French and, famously, English, which, according to one anecdote, he had never been taught but had picked up from English-speaking passengers on the ship from Europe to China. In fact he had received a high credit in English in his final High School exams. He eventually gathered data on 19 different Mandarin dialects, as well as Shanghainese, the Fuzhou dialect of Eastern Min, and Cantonese, plus the Vietnamese and Japanese pronunciations of the characters in his questionnaire.

Career.

Karlgren returned to Europe in January 1912, first staying in London, then in Paris, before arriving in Uppsala, where in 1915 he produced his doctoral dissertation, ""Études sur la phonologie chinoise"" ("Studies on Chinese Phonology"). Although his dissertation was written in French, most of his subsequent scholarly works were in English. After obtaining his doctorate, Karlgren taught at the University of Gothenburg, serving as its rector from 1931 to 1936.  In 1939, Karlgren succeeded Johan Gunnar Andersson as director of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities (Östasiatiska Museet), a post he held until 1959. This public museum was founded in 1926 on Andersson's pioneering discoveries of prehistoric archaeology made in China in the 1920s, and later expanded to cover later periods as well as other parts of Asia. Karlgren had been in close contact with Andersson for many years, and also succeeded Andersson as editor of the museum's journal, the "Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities" (BMFEA, 1929–) and continued in this position until the 1970s. Karlgren himself first published many of his own major works in this annual journal, or as books in the monograph series of the museum.  In 1946, Karlgren began a far-reaching attack on the then rather loosely argued historiography of ancient China. Reviewing the literature on China's pre-Han history in his article "Legends and Cults in Ancient China", he pointed out that "a common feature to most of these treatises is a curious lack of critical method in the handling of the material". In particular, Karlgren criticised the unselective use of documents from different ages when reconstructing China's ancient history. "In this way very full and detailed accounts have been arrived at—but accounts that are indeed caricatures of scientifically established ones."  In 1950, Karlgren was inducted into the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Death and legacy.

Karlgren died on 20 October 1978 in Stockholm at age 89.  Karlgren was the first scholar to use European-style principles of historical linguistics to study the Chinese language. He was also the first one to reconstruct the sounds of what is now called Middle Chinese and Old Chinese (what he called "Ancient Chinese" and "Archaic Chinese" respectively). Karlgren suggested that at the very earliest stage recoverable, the personal pronouns were declined for case.  Karlgren attempted to unearth Chinese history itself from its linguistic development and diffusion. As he writes in his English adaptation "Sound and Symbol in Chinese" (1923), Chapter I: "Thus, though Chinese traditions give no hint whatever of an immigration from any foreign country, and though there consequently is no external chronological "point d'appui", we are nonetheless able to state, from internal evidence, that the Chinese tradition which places the reign of the emperor Yao in the twenty-fourth century B.C. is correct; that the Chinese even in those remote times were skilled astronomers; that they put down in writing in the Chinese language records of memorable events, and in all probability wrote their accounts soon after the events; in short, that a well-developed Chinese civilization—resting undoubtedly on foundations many centuries old—together with the Chinese language, existed on Chinese soil two thousand years before Christ."  Although important as a pioneer of historical Chinese linguistics, Karlgren's original findings have been surpassed. Today the phonological systems proposed by Karlgren have largely been superseded, as their weaknesses are obvious: "Karlgren saw himself as reconstructing phonetics, not phonology, and paid little attention to phonological structure. As a result, the systems he reconstructed often lack the symmetry and pattern which are in the phonological systems of natural languages." Nevertheless, Karlgren's groundbreaking works laid the foundation of modern Chinese historical linguistics and many of his works are still used as works of reference.

Selected works.

In Swedish he published numerous popular works on Chinese language, culture and history. In the 1940s, he published three novels under the pen name Klas Gullman.

Klas Bernhard Johannes Karlgren (; 15 October 1889 – 20 October 1978) was a Swedish sinologist and linguist who pioneered the study of Chinese historical phonology using modern comparative methods. In the early 20th century, Karlgren conducted large surveys of the varieties of Chinese and studied historical information on rhyming in ancient Chinese poetry, then used them to create the first ever complete reconstructions of what is now called Middle Chinese and Old Chinese.

高本汉(,1889年-10月15日-1978年-10月20日),生于瑞典延雪平,汉学家,语言学家,文字学家。研究而构拟中古汉语、上古汉语的语音系统。


Early life.

Born in Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1963, Papin was the son of a professional football player, Guy Papin. After his parents divorced, he moved to live with his grandmother in Germont, a French city located near the Belgian border.

Club career.

At age 15, Papin started his professional career with Valenciennes, in Northern France, before moving to Club Brugge in Belgium.  Papin had a very successful first season at Club Brugge, scoring 32 goals in 43 games. Although he only played one season for Club Brugge, he was elected as its greatest ever foreign player by the supporters in 2008.  At club level, he played for Valenciennes (1984–1985), Club Brugge (1985–1986), Olympique Marseille (1986–1992), A.C. Milan (1992–1994), FC Bayern Munich (1994–1996), Bordeaux (1996–1998), Guingamp (1998–1999) and Saint-Pierroise (1999–2001).

Olympique de Marseille.

During Papin's hugely successful spell at Marseille, with the Frenchman as striker and skipper Marseille won four French league championships in a row (1989–1992), a league and cup double in 1989 and reached the final of the European Cup in 1991, losing to Red Star Belgrade after on penalties.  During this period, Papin scored 181 goals in 279 games and was the league's top scorer for five consecutive seasons (from 1988 to 1992). While at Marseille he won the Ballon d'Or, awarded to Europe's top footballer, in 1991. He is the only player to win this award while playing for a French club.

A.C. Milan.

Papin was a prolific striker on the French scene but, contrary to many other French great players, never really became dominant abroad.  In 1992, Papin joined Italian giants A.C. Milan for a world record fee of £10 million (equivalent to £ million today), and was the first high-profile French player to join the Italian league since Michel Platini. However, he never established himself as a regular first team member with the "rossoneri" due to injuries and adaptation problems. As a foreign player in the Pre-Bosman rule era, Papin also suffered from the three-foreigner rule that made him compete with other foreign players such as Ruud Gullit, Marco van Basten and Frank Rijkaard for playing time.  He entered as a substitute during the 1993 Champions League final in which Milan lost to his former club, Marseille. He won the Champions League in the next year, but did not play in the final. Nevertheless, Papin has kept good memories of his spell in Italy and frequently cites former Milan managers Fabio Capello and Arrigo Sacchi as his models when coaching is concerned.

Bayern Munich.

In 1994, he was transferred to Bayern Munich for £2.1 million, but his first season was once again plagued by injuries. In his second season in Germany he was part of the side that won the UEFA Cup against Girondins de Bordeaux, a club that Papin would join the following season.

Late career.

With Bordeaux, he lost the 1997 Coupe de la Ligue final against Strasbourg. Papin's professional career ended in 1998 with Second Division side EA Guingamp.  He was twice linked with clubs in England later in his playing career. First, in March 1994, he was a transfer target for Premier League side Tottenham Hotspur. Towards the end of his spell with Bordeaux in 1998, he was a target for ambitious Fulham, then a Division Two (third tier) side, and even expressed his desire to sign for the club. However, neither transfer ever happened and Papin finished his career without having spent any time in England.  Papin finished his career as a player in the amateur club US Cap-Ferret between 2001 and 2004. Then, after five years of managing, he played in another amateur club, AS Facture-Biganos Boïen.

International career.

Papin scored 30 goals for France in 54 matches.  Papin earned his first cap in a friendly match against Northern Ireland in February 1986 and appeared at the 1986 World Cup. He scored twice in four games: first during France opening game against Canada (1–0) and then during France's victory against Belgium (4–2), helping France finish third.  While Papin scored an impressive number of goals during his nine-year international career, his record for France is a mixed one. Papin was part of the "cursed generation" of French players that came between the Platini era of the 80's and the 1998 world champions boasting the likes of Zidane, Thuram and Henry. Despite some talented players, the French national team failed to qualify for the 1988 European Championship and for 1990 and 1994 World Cups – the latter after two humiliating defeats on home soil against Israel and Bulgaria.  The French team did manage to qualify for the Euro 1992 in Sweden, with Papin scoring 9 goals during the qualifying round. However, France fared disappointingly in the final competition and did not make it past the group stage, despite Papin scoring twice.  His last game for the national team was in 1995.

Style of play.

Papin has been described as "a fast and lethal striker, who made goal scoring his signature for club and country" and a player who could score in a variety of situation, "from neat, chipped finishes, low drives into the corner, towering headers and, in particular, thumping volleys."  During his career, the term "Papinade" was used to describe powerful volleys from difficult angles.

Managerial career.

In May 2006, Papin took over from Jacky Duguépéroux as the new coach of RC Strasbourg, who were relegated to the Second Division. He had previously been coaching FC Bassin d'Arcachon, an amateur team, and helped them to be promoted from CFA 2 to CFA.  In 2006–07, he guided Strasbourg back to Ligue 1 with a third-placed finish but came under pressure shortly after the end of the season when internal conflicts at the club surfaced in the press. Several players, including '05 league cup final hero Jean-Christophe Devaux, also openly criticized Papin's methods.  Initially confirmed as manager for the 2007–08 season, he was forced to resign a week later after it was revealed that he had interviewed for the vacant managerial job at RC Lens only hours after his confirmation at Strasbourg. He was replaced by Jean-Marc Furlan, former manager of ES Troyes AC, while Lens selected Guy Roux as their new manager. Ironically, Papin eventually became the manager of Lens after the club lost at Strasbourg, as Roux resigned only five games into the 2007–08 season. In the midst of the season, Lens and Papin were fighting to avoid relegation to the Second Division. Lens was also eliminated in the first round of both the UEFA cup and the "Coupe de France" by, respectively, FC Copenhagen (1–1; 1–2) and Second Division side Chamois Niortais (0–1, at home).  On 29 December 2009, Châteauroux hired the coach to replace Dominique Bijotat. He left his position in May 2010 and was replaced by Didier Tholot.  For the 2014–15 season, Papin once again took the managerial position at FC Bassin d'Archachon in Championnat de France Amateur 2.  On 2 June 2020, Papin was announced as the new manager of Championnat National 2 side C'Chartres Football.

Outside football.

Papin was also iconic in French pop culture because of his caricature in the satirical TV puppet show Les Guignols de l'Info. At first, Papin was depicted as a rather dumb football player (a common stereotype in France), his only obsession being the many different ways to score goals. When Papin experienced difficulties in Italy, the coverage became more sympathetic, especially with the infamous "Reviens JPP!" song where even God Himself would urge Papin to come back to his home country, because "France needs you!".  After his daughter, Emily, was diagnosed with cerebral palsy as an infant, Papin started running the Neuf de coeur (Nine of Hearts) foundation, which provides support to families affected by the neurological disorder.

Honours.

Club Brugge  Marseille  Milan  Bayern Munich  France  Individual  Orders

Jean-Pierre Roger Guillaume Papin (; born 5 November 1963) is a French former professional footballer who played as a forward, and who was named the Ballon d'Or and IFFHS World's Top Goal Scorer of the Year in 1991. Papin is currently manager of French Championnat National 2 club C'Chartres Football

-{zh-hans:让-皮埃尔·帕潘; zh-hant:柏宾;}-(,1963年-11月5日 )出生于滨海布洛涅(Boulogne-sur-Mer),是法国足球运动员,被国际足协评选为FIFA 100成员。世界足坛最佳法国巨星之一。


Origins.

Protective clothing and armour have been used by armies from earliest recorded history; the King James Version of the Bible [Jeremiah 46:4] translates the Hebrew סריון "ÇiRYON" or שריון "SiRYoN" "coat of mail" as "brigandine". Medieval brigandines were essentially a refinement of the earlier coat of plates, which developed in the late 12th century, typically of simpler construction made of larger plates. The Asian-originated armour reached Europe after the Mongol invasion in 1240 that destroyed the Kievan Rus' and generated extensive damage to the Kingdom of Hungary in 1241. The new armour became very popular first in Eastern Europe, especially in Hungary, towards the end of the 13th century and after having proved effective was adopted by the medieval states from West Europe several decades later.  Later brigandines first appeared towards the end of the 14th century, but survived beyond this transitional period between mail and plate, and came into wide use in the 15th century, remaining in use well into the 16th. 15th century brigandines are generally front-opening garments with the nails arranged in triangular groups of three, while 16th century brigandines generally have smaller plates with the rivets arranged in rows.  The brigandine has been confused with the haubergeon, while the name is often confused with the brigantine, a swift small sea vessel.

Construction.

The form of the brigandine is essentially the same as the civilian doublet, though it is commonly sleeveless. However, depictions of brigandine armour with sleeves are known. The small armour plates were sometimes riveted between two layers of stout cloth, or just to an outer layer. Unlike armour for the torso made from large plates, the brigandine was flexible, with a degree of movement between each of the overlapping plates. Many brigandines appear to have had larger, somewhat 'L-shaped' plates over the central chest area. The rivets, or nails, attaching the plates to the fabric were often decorated, being gilt, or of latten, and sometimes embossed with a design. The rivets were also often grouped to produce a repeating decorative pattern. In more expensive brigandines the outer layer of cloth was usually of velvet. The contrast between a richly dyed velvet cloth and gilded rivet heads must have been impressive and, unsurprisingly, such armour was popular with high status individuals.  Modern flak jackets and ballistic vests are based on the same principle: a protective cloth vest containing metal plates.

Use.

It was commonly worn over a gambeson and mail shirt and it was not long before this form of protection was commonly used by soldiers ranging in rank from archers to knights. It was most commonly used by men-at-arms. These wore brigandine, along with plate arm and leg protection, as well as a helmet. Even with the gambeson and the mail shirt, a wearer was not as well protected as when wearing plate armour. However, the brigandine was probably favored by soldiers who preferred the greater degree of mobility this armour afforded.  Brigandines were simple enough in design for a soldier to make and repair his own armour without needing the high skill of an armourer.  A common myth is that brigandines were so-named because they were a popular choice of protection for bandits and outlaws. This is untrue. Originally the term "brigand" referred to a foot soldier. A brigandine was simply a type of armour worn by a foot soldier. It had nothing to do with its alleged ability to be concealed by bandits. In fact, brigandines were highly fashionable and were ostentatiously displayed by wealthy aristocrats both in European and in Asian courts.

Similar types.

European jack of plates.

A similar type of armour was the jack of plates or coat of plates, commonly referred to simply as a "jack" (although this could also refer to any outer garment). This type of armour was used by common Medieval European soldiers and the rebel peasants known as Jacquerie. Like the brigandine, the jack was made of small iron plates between layers of felt and canvas. The main difference is in the method of construction: a brigandine is riveted whereas a jack is sewn. Jacks were often made from recycled pieces of older plate armour, including damaged brigandines and cuirasses cut into small squares.  Jack remained in use as late as the 16th century and was often worn by Scottish Border Reivers. Although they were obsolete by the time of the English Civil War many were taken to the New World by the early Pilgrim settlers as they provided excellent protection from Indian arrows; one dating back to 1607 was recently found at Jamestown.

Indian "coat of ten thousand nails".

The Indian equivalent of the brigandine was the Chihal'Ta Hazar Masha, or "coat of ten thousand nails": a padded leather jacket covered in velvet and containing steel plates which was used until the early 19th century. The skirt was split to the waist, allowing the soldier to ride a horse. Matching vambraces and boots containing metal plates were also used. It was derived from Islamic armour used by the Saracen armies. These were often elaborately decorated with gold lace, silk and satin and are highly prized by European collectors.  Tipu Sultan wore armour of this type during his wars against the East India Company. The Turks used similar armour during the Russo-Turkish Wars.  Two complete suits of armour are preserved in the Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg.

Chinese dingjia.

A type of armour very similar in design to brigandine, known as "dingjia" (Chinese: 釘甲; Pinyin: Dīng jiǎ), was used in medieval China. It consisted of rectangular plates of metal, riveted between the fabric layers with the securing rivet heads visible on the outside.  Russian orientalist and weapon expert Mikhail Gorelik states that it was invented in the 8th century as parade armour for the Emperor's guards by reinforcing a thick cloth robe with overlapping iron plates, but did not come into wide use until the 13th century, when it became widespread in the newborn Mongol Empire under the name of "" ("robe which is as strong as iron"). He also argues that Eastern European and, supposedly, Western European brigandines originate from this armour.  Dingjia brigandines were still used in China as late as the Ming and Qing periods. It was favoured by officers for its rich, expensive look and protection. Later examples, however, often lacked iron plates and were merely a military uniform.

Russian kuyak.

In Muscovy, there was a type of armour known as the "". It is thought to have Mongolian origins and be analogous to the Central Asian, Indian and Chinese brigandine armours. The word "kuyak" is itself a derivative from Mongol, which means "armour" (of any type). No known intact examples of this type of armour survived the tumultuous history of Russia, but historical depictions, textual descriptions and photos remained.  The descriptions, while not offering any in-depth details of the's construction, suggest a textile body armour reinforced with iron plates (usually not specifying directly the placement thereof, only mentioning the "nails" - rivets, which attached the plates to the layer of cloth), often with long armoured faulds, sleeves and/or pauldrons, sometimes covered in expensive textiles like sateen, velvet or damask and decorated with fur.  Some had large "mirror" plates or "shields" attached to the outside. Some descriptions also mention cotton wool padding.  There were also brigandine helmets called "kuyak hats" that used the same principle of construction as the body armour.

Japanese kikko armour.

Kikko is the Japanese form of brigandine. Kikko are hexagonal plates made from iron or hardened leather and sewn to cloth. These plates were either hidden by a layer of cloth or left exposed. Kikko were used only relatively recently, during the 16th century.  Kikko comes in many forms including coats, vests, gloves, arm and thigh protectors, and helmet neck guards. Kikko armour was worn as a standalone defense or under other types of armour as additional protection.

A brigandine is a form of body armour from the Middle Ages. It is a garment, generally heavy cloth, canvas or leather, lined with small oblong steel plates riveted to the fabric.

布面甲,是最外层为布料的盔甲,有些内里会钉上铁片,有些则无铁片。元代以后因火器盛行后开始流行。


Context and description.

Japan levies a tax based on engine displacement, and Japanese auto manufacturers have correspondingly focused their research and development efforts toward improving the performance of their smaller engine designs. One method for increasing performance into a static displacement includes forced induction, as with models such as the Toyota Supra and Nissan 300ZX which used turbocharger applications and the Toyota MR2 which used a supercharger for some model years. Another approach is the rotary engine used in the Mazda RX-7 and RX-8. A third option is to change the cam timing profile, of which Honda VTEC was the first successful commercial design for altering the profile in real-time.  The VTEC system provides the engine with valve timing optimized for both low and high RPM operations. In basic form, the single cam lobe and follower/rocker arm of a conventional engine is replaced with a locking multi-part rocker arm and two cam profiles: one optimized for low-RPM stability and fuel efficiency, and the other designed to maximize high-RPM power output. The switching operation between the two cam lobes is controlled by the ECU which takes account of engine oil pressure, engine temperature, vehicle speed, engine speed and throttle position. Using these inputs, the ECU is programmed to switch from the low lift to the high lift cam lobes when certain conditions are met. At the switch point a solenoid is actuated that allows oil pressure from a spool valve to operate a locking pin which binds the high RPM rocker arm to the low RPM ones. From this point on, the valves open and close according to the high-lift profile, which opens the valve further and for a longer time. The switch-over point is variable, between a minimum and maximum point, and is determined by engine load. The switch-down back from high to low RPM cams is set to occur at a lower engine speed than the switch-up (representing a hysteresis cycle) to avoid a situation in which the engine is asked to operate continuously at or around the switch-over point.  The older approach to timing adjustments is to produce a camshaft with a valve timing profile that is better suited to low-RPM operation. The improvements in low-RPM performance, which is where most street-driven automobiles operate a majority of the time, occur in trade for a power and efficiency loss at higher RPM ranges. Correspondingly, VTEC attempts to combine low-RPM fuel efficiency and stability with high-RPM performance.

History.

VTEC, the original Honda variable valve control system, originated from REV (Revolution-Modulated Valve Control) introduced on the CBR400 in 1983 known as HYPER VTEC. In the regular four-stroke automobile engine, the intake and exhaust valves are actuated by lobes on a camshaft. The shape of the lobes determines the timing, lift and duration of each valve. Timing refers to an angle measurement of when a valve is opened or closed with respect to the piston position (BTDC or ATDC). Lift refers to how much the valve is opened. Duration refers to how long the valve is kept open. Due to the behavior of the working fluid (air and fuel mixture) before and after combustion, which have physical limitations on their flow, as well as their interaction with the ignition spark, the optimal valve timing, lift and duration settings under low RPM engine operations are very different from those under high RPM. Optimal low RPM valve timing lift and duration settings would result in insufficient filling of the cylinder with fuel and air at high RPM, thus greatly limiting engine power output. Conversely, optimal high RPM valve timing lift and duration settings would result in very rough low RPM operation and difficult idling. The ideal engine would have fully variable valve timing, lift and duration, in which the valves would always open at exactly the right point, lift high enough and stay open just the right amount of time for the engine speed and load in use.

DOHC VTEC.

Introduced as a DOHC (Dual overhead camshaft) system in Japan in the 1989 Honda Integra XSi which used the B16A engine. The same year, Europe saw the arrival of VTEC in the Honda Civic and Honda CRX 1.6i-VT, using a B16A1 variant. The United States market saw the first VTEC system with the introduction of the 1991 Acura NSX, which used a 3-litre DOHC C30A V6 with. DOHC VTEC engines soon appeared in other vehicles, such as the 1992 Acura Integra GS-R (B17A1), and later in the 1993 Honda Prelude VTEC ( H22A) and Honda Del Sol VTEC ( B16A3). The Integra Type R (1995–2000) available in the Japanese market produces using a B18C 1.8-litre engine, producing more horsepower per litre than most super-cars at the time. Honda has also continued to develop other varieties and today offers several varieties of VTEC, such as i-VTEC and i-VTEC Hybrid.

SOHC VTEC.

Honda also applied the system to SOHC (single overhead camshaft) engines such as the D-Series and J-Series Engines, which share a common camshaft for both intake and exhaust valves. The trade-off was that Honda's SOHC engines benefited from the VTEC mechanism only on the intake valves. This is because VTEC requires a third center rocker arm and cam lobe (for each intake and exhaust side), and, in the SOHC engine, the spark plugs are situated between the two exhaust rocker arms, leaving no room for the VTEC rocker arm. Additionally, the center lobe on the camshaft cannot be utilized by both the intake and the exhaust, limiting the VTEC feature to one side.  However, beginning with the J37A2 3.7L SOHC V6 engine introduced on all 2009-2012 Acura RL SH-AWD models, SOHC VTEC was incorporated for use with intake and exhaust valves, using a total of six cam lobes and six rocker arms per cylinder. The intake and exhaust rocker shafts contain primary and secondary intake and exhaust rocker arms, respectively. The primary rocker arm contains the VTEC switching piston, while the secondary rocker arm contains the return spring. The term "primary" does not refer to which rocker arm forces the valve down during low-RPM engine operation. Rather, it refers to the rocker arm which contains the VTEC switching piston and receives oil from the rocker shaft.  The primary exhaust rocker arm contacts a low-profile camshaft lobe during low-RPM engine operation. Once VTEC engagement occurs, the oil pressure flowing from the exhaust rocker shaft into the primary exhaust rocker arm forces the VTEC switching piston into the secondary exhaust rocker arm, thereby locking both exhaust rocker arms together. The high-profile camshaft lobe which normally contacts the secondary exhaust rocker arm alone during low-RPM engine operation is able to move both exhaust rocker arms together which are locked as a unit. The same occurs for the intake rocker shaft, except that the high-profile camshaft lobe operates the primary rocker arm.  The J37A2 is able to use both intake and exhaust VTEC by use of a novel design of the intake rocker arm. Each exhaust valve on the J37A2 corresponds to one primary and one secondary exhaust rocker arm. Therefore, there are a total of twelve primary exhaust rocker arms and twelve secondary exhaust rocker arms. However, each secondary intake rocker arm is shaped similar to a "Y" which allows it to contact two intake valves at once. One primary intake rocker arm corresponds to each secondary intake rocker arm. As a result of this design, there are only six primary intake rocker arms and six secondary intake rocker arms.

VTEC-E.

The earliest VTEC-E implementation is a variation of SOHC VTEC which is used to increase combustion efficiency at low RPM while maintaining the mid range performance of non-vtec engines. VTEC-E is the first version of VTEC to employ the use of roller rocker arms and because of that, it forgoes the need for having 3 intake lobes for actuating the two valves—two lobes for non-VTEC operation (one small and one medium-sized lobe) and one lobe for VTEC operation (the biggest lobe). Instead, there are two different intake cam profiles per cylinder: a very mild cam lobe with little lift and a normal cam lobe with moderate lift. Because of this, at low RPM, when VTEC is not engaged, one of the two intake valves is allowed to open only a very small amount due to the mild cam lobe, forcing most of the intake charge through the other open intake valve with the normal cam lobe. This induces swirl of the intake charge which improves air/fuel atomization in the cylinder and allows for a leaner fuel mixture to be used. As the engine's speed and load increase, both valves are needed to supply a sufficient mixture. When engaging VTEC mode, a pre-defined threshold for MPH (must be moving), RPM and load must be met before the computer actuates a solenoid which directs pressurized oil into a sliding pin, just like with the original VTEC. This sliding pin connects the intake rocker arm followers together so that, now, both intake valves are following the "normal" camshaft lobe instead of just one of them. When in VTEC, since the "normal" cam lobe has the same timing and lift as the intake cam lobes of the SOHC non-VTEC engines, both engines have identical performance in the upper powerband assuming everything else is the same. This variant of the VTEC-E is used in some D-series engines.  With the later VTEC-E implementations, the only difference it has with the earlier VTEC-E is that the second normal cam profile has been replaced with a more aggressive cam profile which is identical to the original VTEC high-speed cam profile. This in essence supersedes VTEC and the earlier VTEC-E implementations since the fuel and low RPM torque benefits of the earlier VTEC-E are combined with the high performance of the original VTEC. There are 3 intake cam lobes: 2 for the low-RPM mode (1 for almost closed valve, 1 for normally opened) and 1 for the powerful mode when the VTEC solenoid is activated. The lowest RPM for activating the VTEC is 2500, or it may be higher if the load is weak - ECM dependant. With the VTEC solenoid is on the 3-rd biggest lobe begins to push all the intake valves with the more aggressively profile. This variant of the VTEC-E is used in the F23A engine.

3-Stage VTEC.

3-Stage VTEC is a version that employs three different cam profiles to control intake valve timing and lift. Due to this version of VTEC being designed around a SOHC valve head, space was limited; so VTEC can modify only the opening and closing of the intake valves. The low-end fuel economy improvements of VTEC-E and the performance of conventional VTEC are combined in this application. From idle to 2500-3000 RPM, depending on load conditions, one intake valve fully opens while the other opens just slightly, enough to prevent pooling of fuel behind the valve, also called 12-valve mode. This 12 Valve mode results in swirl of the intake charge which increases combustion efficiency, resulting in improved low end torque and better fuel economy. At 3000-5400 RPM, depending on load, one of the VTEC solenoids engages, which causes the second valve to lock onto the first valve's camshaft lobe. Also called 16-valve mode, this method resembles a normal engine operating mode and improves the mid-range power curve. At 5500-7000 RPM, the second VTEC solenoid engages (both solenoids now engaged) so that both intake valves are using a middle, third camshaft lobe. The third lobe is tuned for high-performance and provides peak power at the top end of the RPM range.  In Newer version of 3-Stage i-VTEC combined VTC and PGM-FI to allow ECU to control full range of mode to archive greater fuel economy improvements and performance. Honda CR-Z able to switch between low-end mode and standard mode from 1000 rpm to 2250 rpm uninterrupted and engage to high cam mode from 2250 rpm upward on SOHC.

i-VTEC.

Honda i-VTEC (intelligent-VTEC) is a system that combines VTEC with Honda's VTC (Variable Timing Control), a continuously variable camshaft phasing system used on the intake camshaft of DOHC VTEC engines. The technology first appeared on Honda's K-series four-cylinder engine family in 2001. Most Honda or Acura 4 cylinder powered vehicles sold in the United States of America used i-VTEC by the 2002 model year with the exception being the 2002 Honda Accord.  VTEC controls of valve lift and valve duration are still limited to distinct low- and high-RPM profiles, but the intake camshaft is now capable of advancing between 25 and 50 degrees, depending upon engine configuration. Phasing is implemented by a computer-controlled, oil-driven adjustable cam sprocket. Both engine load and RPM affect VTEC. The intake phase varies from fully retarded at idle to somewhat advanced at full throttle and low RPM. The effect is further optimization of torque output, especially at low and midrange RPM. There are two types of i-VTEC K series engines which are explained in the next section.  Honda's J-Series SOHC engines use an entirely different system also, confusingly, marketed as i-VTEC. Honda J-Series Engines using i-VTEC combine SOHC VTEC operation with Honda VCM (Variable Cylinder Management) variable displacement technology to improve fuel economy under light loads.

K-series.

The K-Series engines have two different types of i-VTEC system implementations. The first type is for performance engines like the K20A2 or K20Z3 used in the 2002-2006 RSX Type S or the 2006-2011 Civic Si and the second type is for economy engines like the K20A3 or K24A4 used in the 2002-2005 Civic Si or 2003-2007 Accord. The performance i-VTEC system is basically the same as the DOHC VTEC system of the B16A's. Both intake and exhaust cams have 3 cam lobes per cylinder. However, the valvetrain has the added benefit of roller rockers and VTC continuously variable intake cam timing. Performance i-VTEC is a combination of conventional DOHC VTEC with VTC (which operates for intake valves only). The VTC is available in the economy and performance i-VTEC engines.  The economy i-VTEC used in K20A3/K24A4 engines is more like the SOHC VTEC-E in that the intake cam has only two lobes, one very small and one larger, as well as no VTEC on the exhaust cam. At low RPM only one valve on the intake opens fully, promoting combustion chamber swirl and improved fuel atomization. This allows a leaner air/fuel mixture to be used, improving fuel economy. At higher RPM, both intake valves run off the larger intake cam lobe, improving total air flow and top-end power.  The two types of engines are easily distinguishable by the factory rated power output: the performance engines make around or more in stock form, while the economy engines do not make much more than.

R-series.

The i-VTEC system in the R-Series engine uses a modified SOHC VTEC system consisting of one small and two large lobes. The large lobes operate the intake valves directly while the small lobe is engaged during VTEC. Unlike typical VTEC systems, the system in the R-Series engine operates in a'reverse' fashion engaging only at low to mid RPMs. At low RPMs, the small lobe locks onto one of the larger lobes and keeps one of the intake valves partially open during the compression cycle, similar to the Atkinson Cycle. The ability for Honda to switch between Atkinson cycle and normal cycle allows excellent fuel efficiency without sacrificing too much performance.

i-VTEC with Variable Cylinder Management (VCM).

In 2003, Honda introduced an i-VTEC V6 (an update of the J-series) that includes Honda's cylinder deactivation technology which closes the valves on one bank of (3) cylinders during light load and low speed (below ) operation. According to Honda, "VCM technology works on the principle that a vehicle only requires a fraction of its power output at cruising speeds. The system electronically deactivates cylinders to reduce fuel consumption. The engine is able to run on 3, 4, or all 6 cylinders based on the power requirement, essentially getting the best of both worlds. V6 power when accelerating or climbing, as well as the efficiency of a smaller engine when cruising." The technology was originally introduced to the US on the 2005 Honda Odyssey minivan, and can now be found on the Honda Accord Hybrid, the 2006 Honda Pilot, and the 2008 Honda Accord. Example: EPA estimates for the 2011 (271 hp SOHC 3.5L) V6 Accord are 24 mpg combined vs. 27 in the two 4-cylinder-equipped models.  i-VTEC VCM was also used in the 1.3-liter LDA engine used in the 2001-2005 Honda Civic Hybrid.

i-VTEC i.

A version of i-VTEC with direct injection, first used in 2004 Honda Stream. Direct injection 2.0L DOHC i-VTEC I gasoline engine.  •The 2-litre DOHC i-VTEC I integrates the i-VTEC system which uses the VTEC and VTC which uses a direct injection system for an air-fuel ratio of up to 65:1 for an unprecedented level of ultra-lean combustion. Stable combustion is achieved by using less fuel than conventional direct injection engines which have an air-fuel ratio of 40:1.  •Combustion control through the use of high-precision EGR valves and a newly developed high-performance catalyst enable the 2.0 litre DOHC i-VTEC I lean-burn direct injection engine which qualify as an Ultra Low Emissions Vehicle.

AVTEC.

The AVTEC (Advanced VTEC) engine was first announced in 2006. It combines continuously variable valve lift and timing control with continuously variable phase control. Honda originally planned to produce vehicles with AVTEC engines within next 3 years. Although it was speculated that it would first be used in 2008 Honda Accord, the vehicle instead utilizes the existing i-VTEC system. As of late 2017, no Honda vehicles use the AVTEC system.  A related U.S. patent (6,968,819) was filed on 2005-01-05.

VTEC TURBO.

The VTEC TURBO engine series were introduced in 2013 as part of the Earth Dreams Technology range and include new features such as gasoline direct injection, turbochargers, Dual Cam VTC and VTEC on the exhaust profile instead of the intake, marking the end of the 'traditional sound' of VTEC in this engine. VTEC implementation on the exhaust rocker arms causes the turbo to be spooled quicker, eliminating turbo lag. VTEC Turbo engines come in three displacement capacities: a 1.0 liter 3-cylinder, a 1.5 liter 4-cylinder, and a 2.0 liter 4-cylinder.  Initial implementation for European vehicles included 2-litre 4-cylinder turbocharged engine used from 2015 Honda Civic Type R until present, which included Euro 6 emissions compliance.

VTEC in motorcycles.

Apart from the Japanese market-only Honda CB400SF Super Four HYPER VTEC, introduced in 1999, the first worldwide implementation of VTEC technology in a motorcycle occurred with the introduction of Honda's VFR800 sportbike in 2002. Similar to the SOHC VTEC-E style, one intake valve remains closed until a threshold of 7000 RPM is reached, then the second valve is opened by an oil-pressure actuated pin. The dwell of the valves remains unchanged, as in the automobile VTEC-E, and little extra power is produced, but with a smoothing-out of the torque curve. Critics maintain that VTEC adds little to the VFR experience, while increasing the engine's complexity. Honda seemed to agree, as their VFR1200, a model announced in October 2009, came to replace the VFR800, which abandons the VTEC concept in favor of a large capacity narrow-vee "unicam", "i.e.", SOHC, engine. However, the 2014 VFR800 reintroduced the VTEC system from the 2002-2009 VFR motorcycle.  Honda incorporated the technology into the NC700 series, including the NC700D Integra, released in 2012, using a single camshaft to provide two timing routines for the intake valves.

VTEC (Variable Valve Timing & Lift Electronic Control) is a system developed by Honda to improve the volumetric efficiency of a four-stroke internal combustion engine, resulting in higher performance at high RPM, and lower fuel consumption at low RPM. The VTEC system uses two (or occasionally three) camshaft profiles and hydraulically selects between profiles. It was invented by Honda engineer Ikuo Kajitani. It is distinctly different from standard VVT (variable valve timing) systems which change only the valve timings and do not change the camshaft profile or valve lift in any way.

VTEC(日文发音:ブイテック、英文全称:Variable valve Timing and lift Electronic Control system)乃日本本田技研工业所开发的「可变气门正时与扬程的电子控制系统」,英文简称VTEC。