Early life.

Lawrence Kohlberg was born in Bronxville, New York. He was the youngest of four children of Alfred Kohlberg, a Jewish German entrepreneur, and of his second wife, Charlotte Albrecht, a Christian German chemist. His parents separated when he was four years old and divorced finally when he was fourteen. From 1933 to 1938, Lawrence and his three other siblings rotated between their mother and father for six months at a time. In 1938 this rotating custody of the Kohlberg children was ended, allowing the children to choose the parent with whom they wanted to live. Kohlberg attended high school at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, which was an elite preparatory school. Kohlberg served in the Merchant Marine at the end of World War II. He worked for a time with the Haganah on a ship smuggling Jewish refugees from Romania through the British Blockade, into Palestine. Captured by the British and held at an internment camp on Cyprus, Kohlberg escaped with fellow crew members. Kohlberg was in Palestine during the fighting in 1948 to establish the state of Israel, but refused to participate and focused on nonviolent forms of activism. He also lived in an Israeli kibbutz during this time, until he was able to return to America in 1948. In the same year he enrolled at the University of Chicago. At this time at Chicago it was possible to gain credit for courses by examination, and Kohlberg earned his bachelor's degree in one year, 1948. He then began study for his doctoral degree in psychology, which he completed at Chicago in 1958. In those early years he read Piaget's work. Kohlberg found a scholarly approach that gave a central place to the individual's reasoning in moral decision making. At the time this contrasted with the current psychological approaches of behaviorism and psychoanalysis that explained morality as simple internalization of external cultural or parental rules, through teaching using reinforcement and punishment or identification with a parental authority.

Career.

Kohlberg's first academic appointment was at Yale University, as an assistant professor of psychology, 1958–1961. In 1955 while beginning his dissertation, he had married Lucille Stigberg, and the couple had two sons, David and Steven. Kohlberg spent a year at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, in Palo Alto, California, 1961–1962, and then joined the Psychology Department of the University of Chicago as assistant, then associate professor of psychology and human development, 1962–1967. He held a visiting appointment at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1967–68, and then was appointed Professor of Education and Social Psychology there, beginning 1968, where he remained until his death.

Stages of moral development.

In his unpublished 1958 dissertation, Kohlberg wrote what are now known as Kohlberg's stages of moral development. These stages are planes of moral adequacy conceived to explain the development of moral reasoning. Created while studying psychology at the University of Chicago, the theory was inspired by the work of Jean Piaget and a fascination with children's reactions to moral dilemmas. Kohlberg proposed a form of "Socratic" moral education and reaffirmed John Dewey's idea that development should be the aim of education. He also outlined how educators can influence moral development without indoctrination and how public school can be engaged in moral education consistent with the United States Constitution.  Kohlberg's approach begins with the assumption that humans are intrinsically motivated to explore, and become competent at functioning in their environments. In social development, this leads us to imitate role models we perceive as competent and to look to them for validation. Thus our earliest childhood references on the rightness of our and others' actions are adult role models with whom we are in regular contact. Kohlberg also held that there are common patterns of social life, observed in universally occurring social institutions, such as families, peer groups, structures and procedures for clan or society decision-making, and cooperative work for mutual defense and sustenance. Endeavoring to become competent participants in such institutions, humans in all cultures exhibit similar patterns of action and thought concerning the relations of self, others, and social world. Furthermore, the more one is prompted to imagine how others experience things and imaginatively to take their roles, the more quickly one learns to function well in cooperative human interactions.  The sequence of stages of moral development thus corresponds to a sequence of progressively more inclusive social circles (family, peers, community, etc.), within which humans seek to operate competently. When those groups function well, oriented by reciprocity and mutual care and respect, growing humans adapt to larger and larger circles of justice, care, and respect. Each stage of moral cognitive development is the realization in conscious thought of the relations of justice, care, and respect exhibited in a wider circle of social relations, including narrower circles within the wider.  Kohlberg's theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental constructive stages – each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than the last. Kohlberg suggested that the higher stages of moral development provide the person with greater capacities/abilities in terms of decision making and so these stages allow people to handle more complex dilemmas. In studying these, Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment beyond the ages originally studied earlier by Piaget, who also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding considerably upon this groundwork, it was determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice and that its development continued throughout the life span, even spawning dialogue of philosophical implications of such research. His model "is based on the assumption of co-operative social organization on the basis of justice and fairness."  Kohlberg studied moral reasoning by presenting subjects with moral dilemmas. He would then categorize and classify the reasoning used in the responses, into one of six distinct stages, grouped into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional. Each level contains two stages. These stages heavily influenced others and have been utilized by others like James Rest in making the "Defining Issues Test" in 1979.

Moral education.

Kohlberg is most well known among psychologists for his research in moral psychology, but among educators he is known for his applied work of moral education in schools. The three major contributions Kohlberg made to moral education were the use of Moral Exemplars, Dilemma Discussions, and Just Community Schools.  Kohlberg's first method of moral education was to examine the lives of moral exemplars who practiced principled morals such as Martin Luther King, Jr., Socrates, and Abraham Lincoln. He believed that moral exemplars' words and deeds increased the moral reasoning of those who watched and listened to them. Kohlberg never tested to see if examining the lives of moral exemplars did in fact increase moral reasoning. Recent research in moral psychology has brought back the value of witnessing moral exemplars in action or learning about their stories. Witnessing the virtuous acts of moral exemplars may not increase moral reasoning, but it has been shown to elicit an emotion known as moral elevation that can increase an individual's desire to be a better person and even has the potential to increase prosocial and moral behavior. Although Kohlberg's hypothesis that moral exemplars could increase moral reasoning might be unfounded, his understanding that moral exemplars have an important place in moral education has growing support.  Dilemma discussions in schools was another method proposed by Kohlberg to increase moral reasoning. Unlike moral exemplars, Kohlberg tested this method by integrating moral dilemma discussion into the curricula of school classes in humanities and social studies. Results of this and other studies using similar methods found that moral discussion does increase moral reasoning and works best if the individual in question is in discussion with a person who is using reasoning that is just one stage above their own.  The final method Kohlberg used for moral education was known as "just communities". In 1974, Kohlberg worked with schools to set up democracy-based programs, where both students and teachers were given one vote to decide on school policies. The purpose of these programs were to build a sense of community in schools in order to promote democratic values and increase moral reasoning. Kohlberg's idea and development of "just communities" were greatly influenced by his time living in an Israeli kibbutz when he was a young adult in 1948 and when he was doing longitudinal cross-cultural research of moral development in another Israeli kibbutz.

Writing.

Some of Kohlberg's most important publications were collected in his "Essays on Moral Development", Vols. I and II, "The Philosophy of Moral Development" (1981) and "The Psychology of Moral Development" (1984), published by Harper & Row. Other works published by Kohlgainz or about Kohlberg's theories and research include "Consensus and Controversy", "The Meaning and Measurement of Moral Development", "Lawrence Kohlberg's Approach to Moral Education" and "Child Psychology and Childhood Education: A Cognitive Developmental View".

Critiques.

Carol Gilligan, a fellow researcher of Kohlberg's in the studies of moral reasoning that led to Kohlberg's developmental stage theory, suggested that to make moral judgments based on optimizing concrete human relations is not necessarily a lower stage of moral judgment than to consider objective principles. Postulating that women may develop an empathy-based ethic with a different, but not lower structure than that Kohlberg had described, Gilligan wrote "In a Different Voice", a book that founded a new movement of care-based ethics that initially found strong resonance among feminists and later achieved wider recognition.  Kohlberg's response to Carol Gilligan's criticism was that he agreed with her that there is a care moral orientation that is distinct from a justice moral orientation, but he disagreed with her claim that women scored lower than men on measures of moral developmental stages because they are more inclined to use care orientation rather than a justice orientation. Kohlberg disagreed with Gilligan's position on two grounds. First, many studies measuring moral development of males and females found no difference between men and women and when differences were found it was attributable to differences in education, work experiences, and role-taking opportunities, but not gender. Second, longitudinal studies of females found the same invariant sequence of moral development as previous studies that were of just males. In other words, Gilligan's criticism of Kohlberg's moral development theory was centered on differences between males and females that did not exist. Kohlberg's detailed responses to numerous critics can be read in his book "Essays on Moral Development: Vol.II. The Psychology of Moral Development: The Nature and Validity of Moral Stages."  Another criticism against Kohlberg's theory was that it focused too much on reason at the expense of other factors. One problem with Kohlberg's focus on reason was that little empirical evidence found a relationship between moral reasoning and moral behavior. Kohlberg recognized this lack of a relationship between his moral stages and moral behavior. In an attempt to understand this, he proposed two sub-stages within each stage, to explain individual differences within each stage. He then proposed a model of the relationship between moral judgments and moral action. According to Kohlberg, an individual first interprets the situation using their moral reasoning, which is influenced by their moral stage and sub-stage. After interpretation individuals make a deontic choice and a judgment of responsibility, which are both influenced by the stage and sub-stage of the individual. If the individual does decide on a moral action and their obligation to do it, they still need the non-moral skills to carry out a moral behavior. If this model is true then it would explain why research was having a hard time finding a direct relationship between moral reason and moral behavior.  Another problem with Kohlberg's emphasis on moral reasoning is growing empirical support that individuals are more likely to use intuitive "gut reactions" to make moral decisions than use reason-based thought. The high use of intuition directly challenges the place of reason in moral experience. This expanding of the moral domain from reason has raised questions that perhaps morality research is entering areas of inquiry that are not considered real morality, which was a concern of Kohlberg when he first started his research.  Scholars such as Elliot Turiel and James Rest have responded to Kohlberg's work with their own significant contributions.

Death.

While doing cross-cultural research in Belize in 1971, Kohlberg contracted a parasitic infection. Due to this, he suffered from extreme abdominal pain. The long-term effects of the infection and the medications took their toll, and Kohlberg's health declined as he also engaged in increasingly demanding professional work, including "Just Community" prison and school moral education programs. Kohlberg sometimes experienced depression as well.  On January 19, 1987, Kohlberg parked at the end of a dead end street in Winthrop, Massachusetts, across from Boston's Logan Airport. He left his wallet with identification on the front seat of his unlocked car and apparently walked into the icy Boston Harbor. His car and wallet were found within a couple of weeks, and his body was recovered some time later, with the late winter thaw, in a tidal marsh across the harbor near the end of a Logan Airport runway.  After Kohlberg's body was recovered and his death confirmed, former students and colleagues published special issues of scholarly journals to commemorate his contribution to developmental psychology.

Lawrence Kohlberg (; October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987) was an American psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development.

劳伦斯·柯尔伯格(英语:Lawrence Kohlberg,,1927年-10月25日-1987年-1月19日),美国心理学家,以道德发展阶段理论而著名。他曾担任芝加哥大学心理学系教授与哈佛大学教育研究所教授。他研究的主力在道德推理,将25年前让·皮亚杰儿童道德发展的诠释进行延伸,这类主题的研究在他的年代当中较为罕见。事实上,在柯尔伯格能够将他的观点阐述在他的文章中并予以公开前,已经花了他5年时间。柯尔伯格的研究不仅延伸了皮亚杰的发现,也受到哲学家乔治·贺伯特·米德与詹姆斯·马克·鲍德温的理论。于此同时,他在心理学当中创造了「道德发展」的新领域。许多学者像是艾略特·图列尔与詹姆斯·雷斯特,响应了柯尔伯格的研究成果,并各自给予此研究独特的贡献。哈格布鲁姆(英语:Haggbloom)曾使用6个标准,如期刊文章与教材引用等进行实证研究,认定柯尔伯格为20世纪第30位最知名的心理学家。


Early life.

After the Binding of Isaac, Sarah died. After taking care of her burial, Abraham went about finding a wife for his son Isaac, who was already 37 years old. He commanded his servant (whom the Torah commentators identify as Eliezer of Damascus) to journey to his birthplace of Aram Naharaim to select a bride from his own family, rather than engage Isaac to a local Canaanite girl. Abraham sent along expensive jewelry, clothing and dainties as gifts to the bride and her family. If the girl had refused to follow him, Abraham stated that Eliezer would be absolved of his responsibility.  The servant devised a test in order to find the right wife for Isaac. As he stood at the central well in Abraham's birthplace with his men and ten camels laden with goods, he prayed to God:  And let it come to pass, that the damsel to whom I shall say, Let down thy pitcher, I pray thee, that I may drink; and she shall say, Drink, and I will give thy camels drink also: let the same be she that thou hast appointed for thy servant Isaac; and thereby shall I know that thou hast shewed kindness unto my master.  To his surprise, a young girl immediately came out and offered to draw water for him to drink, as well as water to fill the troughs for all his camels. Rebecca continued to draw water until all the camels were sated, proving her kind and generous nature and her suitability for entering Abraham's household.  The servant immediately gave her a golden nose ring and two golden bracelets (), which Rebecca hurried to show her mother. Seeing the jewelry, Rebecca's brother Laban ran out to greet the guest and bring him inside. The servant recounted the oath he made to Abraham and all the details of his trip to and meeting with Rebecca in fine detail, after which her brother Laban and her father Bethuel agreed that she could return with him. After hosting the party overnight, however, the family tried to keep Rebecca with them longer. The servant insisted that they ask the girl herself, and she agreed to go immediately. Her family sent her off with her nurse, Deborah (according to Rashi), and blessed her, "Our sister, may you come to be thousands of myriads, and may your offspring inherit the gate of its foes."  As Rebecca and her entourage approached Abraham's home, they spied Isaac from a distance in the fields of Beer-lahai-roi. The Talmud and the Midrash explain that Isaac was praying, as he instituted Mincha, the afternoon prayer. Seeing such a spiritually exalted man, Rebecca immediately dismounted from her camel and asked the accompanying servant who he was. When she heard that this was her future husband, she modestly covered herself with a veil. Isaac brought her into the tent of his deceased mother Sarah, married her, and loved her.  According to Rashi, the three miracles that characterized Sarah's tent while she was alive, and that disappeared with her death, reappeared when Rebecca entered the tent. These were: A lamp burned in her tent from Shabbat eve to Shabbat eve, there was a blessing in her dough, and a cloud hovered over her tent (symbolizing the Divine Presence).

Wedding allusions.

Some of the events leading up to the marriage of Isaac and Rebecca have been institutionalized in the traditional Jewish wedding ceremony. Before the bride and bridegroom stand under the chuppah, they participate in a special ceremony called "badeken" (veiling). The bridegroom is led to the bride by two escorts and, seeing her, covers her face with a veil, similar to the way Rebecca covered her face before marrying Isaac. Then the bridegroom (or the father of the bride, or the officiating rabbi) recites the same blessing over the bride that Rebecca's family recited over her, "Our sister, may you come to be thousands of myriads, and may your offspring inherit the gate of its foes."

Marriage and motherhood.

According to the traditional counting cited by Rashi, Isaac was 37 years old at the time of the Binding of Isaac. The reasoning for that age is that Sarah, who gave birth to Isaac when she was 90, died after the binding when she was 127 years old, making Isaac around 37 at that time. Isaac was 40 years old when he married Rebecca. Twenty years elapsed before they had children; throughout that time, both Isaac and Rebecca prayed fervently to God for offspring. God eventually answered Isaac's prayers and Rebecca conceived.  Rebecca was extremely uncomfortable during her pregnancy and went to inquire of God why she was suffering so. According to the Midrash, whenever she would pass a house of Torah study, Jacob would struggle to come out; whenever she would pass a house of idolatry, Esau would agitate to come out. Thinking that she was carrying one baby who was displaying conflicting propensities, Rebecca sought enlightenment at the yeshiva of Shem and Eber. There she received the prophecy that twins were fighting in her womb and would continue to fight all their lives. The prophecy also said that the older would serve the younger; its statement, "One people will be stronger than the other" has been taken to mean that the two nations will never gain power simultaneously; when one falls, the other will rise, and vice versa. According to tradition, Rebecca did not share the prophecy with her husband.  When the time came for Rebecca to give birth, the first child to come out emerged red and hairy all over, with his heel grasped by the hand of the second to come out. Onlookers named the first עשו, Esau ('Esav or 'Esaw, meaning either "rough", "sensibly felt", "handled", from, asah", "do" or "make"; or "completely developed", from, assui", since Esau had as much hair as a child who was much older) The second was named יעקב, Jacob (Ya'aqob or Ya'aqov, meaning "heel-catcher", "supplanter", "leg-puller", "he who follows upon the heels of one", from, aqab" or aqav", "seize by the heel", "circumvent", "restrain", a wordplay upon, iqqebah" or iqqbah", "heel"). The Bible states that Isaac was sixty years old when the twins were born. The Midrash says that as long as they were young, people did not notice much difference between the boys. But when they reached the age of 13, Jacob busied himself in the house of study, while Esau busied himself with idolatry. The descriptions of the two young men hint at their opposing spiritual natures: "The lads grew up and Esau became one who knows hunting, a man of the field; but Jacob was a wholesome man, abiding in tents". The description of Esau as a "hunter" hints to his skill of trapping his father with his mouth; for example, he would ask Isaac whether tithes should be taken from salt and straw, making his father think he was scrupulous in keeping the mitzvahs. Scripture notes that the attitudes of their parents toward the boys differed: "Isaac loved Esau because he did eat of hunting, but Rebecca loved Jacob".  According to the Talmud, immediately after Abraham died, Jacob prepared a lentil stew as a traditional mourner's meal for his father, Isaac. The Hebrew Bible states that Esau, returning famished from the fields, begged Jacob to give him some of the stew. (Esau referred to the dish as "that red, red stuff", giving rise to his nickname, ("'Edom", meaning "Red").) Jacob offered to give Esau a bowl of stew in exchange for his birthright (the right to be recognized as firstborn), and Esau agreed. The Talmudic dating indicates both men were 15 years old at the time.  At a later time, a famine struck the land of Israel and Isaac moved his family, upon God's command, to Gerar, which was ruled by Abimelech, king of the Philistines. Like Abraham before him, who called Sarah his "sister" rather than his "wife" so that the Egyptians would not kill him and take his wife, Isaac told the people of Gerar that Rebecca was his sister. She was not molested, but one day Abimelech looked through the window and saw Isaac "sporting" (a euphemism for sexual play) with her. Abimelech called Isaac on his lie, and then warned others not to touch Rebecca. Eventually Isaac parted from Abimelech in peace. At the age of 40 (the same age his father had been when he married), Esau took two Hittite wives, Judith the daughter of Beeri, and Basemath the daughter of Elon, who vexed Isaac and Rebecca to no end, as these women were also idol-worshippers. One reason why Isaac became blind in his old age was due to the smoke of the incense that these women offered to their idols.

The deception of Isaac.

Isaac became blind in his old age and decided to bestow the blessing of the firstborn upon Esau. According to the Midrash, Isaac had reached the age of 132, five years past the age of his mother, Sarah, had been at her death. According to Genesis, Isaac had reached the age of 137. At this time, the Sages state that one should begin to think he might not exceed the age of whichever parent died first. Isaac therefore sent Esau out to the fields to trap and cook a piece of game for him, so that he could eat it and bless Esau before he died.  Rebecca overheard this conversation and realized that Isaac's blessings should go to Jacob, since she was told before the twins' birth that the older son would serve the younger. She therefore ordered Jacob to bring her two goats from the flock, which she cooked in the way Isaac loved, and had him bring them to his father in place of Esau.  When Jacob protested that his father would recognize the deception and curse him as soon as he felt him, since Esau was hairy and Jacob smooth-skinned, Rebecca said that the curse would be on her instead. Before she sent Jacob to his father, she dressed him in Esau's garments and laid goatskins on his arms and neck to simulate hairy skin.  Thus disguised, Jacob entered his father's room. Surprised to perceive that Esau was back so soon, Isaac asked how it could be that the hunt went so quickly. Jacob responded, "Because the your God arranged it for me"; Rashi (on ) says Isaac's suspicions were aroused because Esau never used the personal name of God. Isaac demanded that Jacob come close so he could feel him, but the goatskins felt just like Esau's hairy skin. Confused, Isaac exclaimed, "The voice is the voice of Jacob, but the hands are the hands of Esau!" (27:22). Still trying to get at the truth, Isaac asked him point-blank, "Are you really my son Esau?" and Jacob answered simply, "I am" (which can be taken as "I am me", not "I am Esau"). Isaac proceeded to eat the food and to drink the wine that Jacob gave him, and then he blessed him with the dew of the heavens, the fatness of the earth, and rulership over many nations as well as his own brother.  Jacob had scarcely left the room when Esau returned from the hunt to receive the blessing. The realization that he has been deceived shocks Isaac, yet he acknowledged that Jacob received the blessings as sworn, by adding, "Indeed, he will be [or remain] blessed!" (52:8). Rashi explains that Isaac smelled the heavenly scent of Gan Eden (Paradise) when Jacob entered his room. As a contrast, Isaac perceived Gehenna opening beneath Esau when the latter entered the room. Showing Isaac that he had been deceived all along by Esau's show of piety.  Esau was heartbroken by the deception, and begged for his own blessing. Having made Jacob a ruler over his brothers, Isaac could only promise, "By thy sword thou shalt live, and shalt serve thy brother; yet it shall come to pass when thou shalt have the dominion, that thou shalt cast off his yoke from off thy neck" (Gen 27:40).  Esau was filled with hatred toward Jacob for taking away both his birthright and his blessing. He vowed to himself to kill Jacob as soon as Isaac died. Here again, Rebecca prophetically perceived his murderous intentions and ordered Jacob to travel to her brother Laban's house in Haran, until Esau's anger subsided. She then convinced Isaac to send Jacob away, by telling him that she despaired of him marrying a local girl from the idol-worshipping families of Canaan (as Esau had done). After Isaac sent Jacob away (to find a wife), Esau realized that his own Canaanite wives were evil in his father's eyes. Esau therefore took Mahalath, a daughter of Isaac's half-brother Ishmael, as another wife.

Death and burial.

Jacob lived with Laban for twenty years (Gen. 31:41), marrying Laban's two daughters and two maidservants. He returned to Canaan with his large family, servants, and possessions. As he did, Deborah (Rebecca's nurse) died and was buried at a place that Jacob calls "Alon Bachuth" (אלון בכות), "Tree of Weepings" (Gen. 35:8). According to the Midrash, the plural form of the word "weeping" indicates a double sorrow, implying that Rebecca also died at this time.  Rebecca was buried in the cave in the field of Machpelah near Mamre, in the land of Canaan (Gen 49:31).  According to the Talmud, the Torah's explicit dating of the life of Ishmael helps to date various events in Jacob's life and, by implication, the age of Rebecca at her death. Ishmael was born when Abraham was 86 years old (Gen. 16:16) and died at the age of 137 (Gen. 25:17). Isaac was born when Abraham was 100 (Gen. 21:5); at that time Ishmael was 14. Jacob and Esau were born when Isaac was 60 (Gen. 25:26); at that time Ishmael was 74. Right after Jacob receives the blessings and flees to Laban, the Torah states that Esau married "Mahalat, the daughter of Ishmael, son of Abraham, "sister of Nebaiot"" (Gen. 28:9), on which Rashi, quoting Megillah 17a, notes that Ishmael died between the engagement and wedding, so the girl's brother gave her away. If Ishmael was 137 at the time of his death, this means that Jacob and Esau were 63 at the time of the blessings. The Talmud adds that Jacob spent 14 years in the yeshiva of Shem and Eber before proceeding to Laban, arriving when he was 77. Rebecca's death after Jacob's 20 years with Laban indicates that Jacob was 97 when his mother died and Rebecca was either 120 or 134 (based on different Midrashim mentioned earlier about her age at marriage).

Rebecca appears in the Hebrew Bible as the wife of Isaac and the mother of Jacob and Esau. According to biblical tradition, Rebecca's father was Bethuel the Aramean from Paddan Aram, also called Aram-Naharaim. Rebecca's brother was Laban the Aramean, and she was the grand daughter of Milcah and Nahor, the brother of Abraham. Rebecca and Isaac were one of the four couples that some believe are buried in the Cave of the Patriarchs, the other three being Adam and Eve, Abraham and Sarah, and Jacob and Leah.

根据《圣经·创世纪》记载,利百加(希伯来语:רִבְקָה,Rivqa)是以撒(Issac)的妻子,


London Underground map.

Before Beck.

Prior to the Beck diagram (the underground map that he created), the various underground lines had been laid out geographically, often superimposed over the roadway of a city map. This meant the centrally located stations were shown very close together and the out-of-town stations spaced far apart. From around 1909 a new type of'map' appeared inside the train cars; it was a non-geographic linear diagram, in most cases a simple straight horizontal line, which equalized the distances between stations. By the late 1920s most Underground lines and some mainline (especially LNER) services displayed these, many of which had been drawn by George Dow. Some writers and broadcasters have speculated that Dow's maps partly inspired Beck's work. The geographical-based map, used immediately prior to Beck, in 1932, was produced by the underground map designer for the period 1926–1932, F. H. Stingemore. It was Stingemore's idea to slightly expand the central area of the map for ease of reading.

Beck's concept.

It was however Beck who had the idea of creating a full system map in colour. He believed that Underground passengers were not concerned with geographical accuracy and were more interested in how to get from one station to another and where to change trains. While drawing an electrical circuit diagram, Beck came up with a new idea for a map that was based upon the concept of an electrical schematic on which all the stations were more-or-less equally spaced rather than a geographic map. Beck first submitted his idea to Frank Pick of London Underground in 1931 but it was considered too radical because it did not show distances relative from any one station to the others. The design was therefore rejected by the Publicity department at first, but the designer persisted. So, after a successful trial of 500 copies in 1932, distributed via a few select stations, the map was given its first full publication in 1933 (700,000 copies). The positive reaction from customers proved it was a sound design, and a large reprint was required after only one month.  It is suggested by Degani (2013) that one of the configuration techniques employed by Beck was that of an "underlying grid". In some cases the vertical and horizontal grid units are equalised, but on the whole the grid is rectilinear. The result is a "relaxed grid... which has a certain rhythm and charm – somewhat similar to the grid used by modern artists (e.g. Piet Mondrian's painting Composition With Yellow, Blue and Red, 1937–42.)"

The map after Beck.

Beck tried to regain control of the map, threatening legal action until 1965, "bitter and betrayed by the very organisation he had helped, so admirably, to promote."  In 1997, Beck's importance was posthumously recognised, and currently (2018) the statement 'This diagram is an evolution of the original design conceived in 1931 by Harry Beck' is printed on every London Underground map.

Design Icon.

As part of the Transported by Design programme of activities, in 15 October 2015, after two months of public voting, Harry Beck's tube map was elected by Londoners as number 3 of the 10 favourite transport design icons.

Other works.

In 1938 he produced a diagram of the entire rail system of the London region (as far as St Albans in the north, Ongar in the north east, Romford in the east, Bromley in the south east, Mitcham in the south, Hinchley Wood in the south west, Ashford in the west, and Tring in the north west). It included both the Underground and mainlines. It was not published at the time but was seen in Ken Garland's book, first published in 1994; it took until 1973 until any official attempt was made to replicate a rail diagram for the entire London region.  Beck produced at least one map for British Railways. After nationalisation, the Eastern Region commissioned Beck to produce a map of the suburban lines out of Marylebone, King's Cross, Liverpool Street and Fenchurch Street, similar in scope to earlier maps produced by George Dow for the London & North Eastern Railway.  Beck produced at least two versions of a diagram for the Paris Métro. The project, which Beck was never commissioned to do, may have been begun, according to Ken Garland, as early as before the start of World War II. A version dating from approximately 1946 is published in Garland's book. His second version is published for the first time in Mark Ovenden's book about the Paris Métro.

Recognition.

According to some accounts, Beck was never formally commissioned to develop his initial idea and worked on the map only in his spare time. He was thus never actually paid for the map. Other sources report that he was paid a fee of five or ten guineas.  After long failing to acknowledge Beck's importance as the original designer of the Tube map, London Regional Transport finally created the Beck gallery at the London Transport Museum in the early 1990s, where his works are displayed. A commemorative plaque was installed at Finchley Central Underground station. Beck's home at 60 Court House Road, Finchley was marked with a plaque by the Finchley Society in 2003.  In March 2006 viewers of BBC2's "The Culture Show" and visitors to London's Design Museum voted Harry Beck's Tube map as their second-favourite British design of the 20th century in the Great British Design Quest. The winner was Concorde.  GB Railfreight named locomotive 66721 after Beck in January 2007.  In January 2009 the Royal Mail included Beck's map when it issued a set of postage stamps celebrating British design classics.  In March 2013 a blue plaque was unveiled on the house where Beck was born, in Wesley Road in Leyton, to mark the 80th anniversary of the Tube map.

Henry Charles Beck (4 June 1902 – 18 September 1974) was an English technical draughtsman who created the present London Underground Tube map in 1931. Beck drew up the diagram in his spare time while working as an engineering draftsman at the London Underground Signals Office. London Underground was initially sceptical of Beck's radical proposal, an uncommissioned spare-time project, but tentatively introduced it to the public in a small pamphlet in 1933. It was immediately popular, and the Underground has used topological maps to illustrate the network ever since.

亨利·查尔斯·贝克(英语:Henry Charles Beck,1902年-6月4日-1974年-9月18日),通常称作哈利·贝克(英语:Harry Beck),是一名英国的工程绘图师,因为于1931年时设计出了概略式的改良版伦敦地铁路线图而闻名。贝克是在伦敦地铁兼职期间,利用闲暇时间画出了第一份新式地图,虽然上级一开始不认为他的颠覆性设计能够成功,但还是将他的图印制成小册、在1933年公开发行,结果却受到了大众的欢迎。在此之后,伦敦地铁都利用贝克设计的拓扑地图来绘制系统路线。


Description.

"Liliensternus" was approximately long, and may have weighed about. Other estimates suggest that "Liliensternus" was at best long and weighed at most. The remains of two specimens of "Liliensternus" together form a syntype series with inventory number MB.R.2175, and consist of the partial and fragmentary skeletons of at least two individuals, containing elements of the skull, the lower jaws, the vertebrae and the appendicular skeleton. The tibia (409 mm) is shorter than the femur (440 mm) in both "Dilophosaurus" and "Liliensternus", unlike those of coelophysid taxa, such as "Coelophysis". Paul (1988) noted that based on its appearance, "Liliensternus" could be considered to be an intermediate between "Coelophysis" and "Dilophosaurus". Although the skull is not well known, many reconstructions have "Liliensternus" with a crest similar to that observed in "Dilophosaurus". Its ilium (hip bone) is unusually short, as is the case with "Dilophosaurus". "Liliensternus" has five fingers, much like its contemporaries, but its fourth and fifth digits are smaller than the rest, a possible transitional stage between the five fingered theropods of the Triassic and the three fingered theropods of the Jurassic.  Rauhut et al. (1998) noted that the remains may represent a juvenile or subadult individual based on the presence of only two fused sacrals and the fact that the neurocentral sutures are still visible in the vertebrae.  A diagnosis is a statement of the anatomical features of an organism (or group) that collectively distinguish it from all other organisms. Some, but not all, of the features in a diagnosis are also autapomorphies. An autapomorphy is a distinctive anatomical feature that is unique to a given organism or group. According to Rauhut (2000), "Liliensternus" can be distinguished based on the following features: the cervical vertebrae feature a broad rounded ridge that extends from the posterior end of the diapophyses to the posteroventral end of the vertebral centrum, one pair of pleurocoels in the cervical vertebrae, a less developed infradiapophyseal fossa, the absence of a horizontal ridge at the basis of the cervical neural spines, absence of a lateral bulge on the ilium.

Discovery.

The specimens of "Liliensternus", designated as the syntype series HMN BM.R.2175, were recovered near Großen Gleichberg in the Trossingen Formation of the Middle Keuper Group in Thuringia, Germany, together with remains of "Ruehleia". The syntypes were discovered by Count Hugo Rühle von Lilienstern in the winter of 1932/1933 in marlstone (lime-rich mudstone) deposited in the Norian stage of the Late Triassic period, approximately 228 to 208 million years ago. A left metatarsal later assigned to this genus, also deposited in the Norian, was collected in 1834 in the sandstone of the Trossingen Formation in Bayern, Germany. This metatarsal was originally described as a manual or pedal element by Meyer (1855) and a pubic fragment by Huene (1908) of "Plateosaurus", and the material was re-identified as a proximal metatarsal belonging to "Liliensternus" by Moser in 2003. Sander (1992) referred additional material to "Liliensternus", which was thought to have been collected in 1961 grey/green marlstone from the Löwenstein Formation in Aargau, Switzerland, which is considered to also be from the Norian stage of the Late Triassic period. A tooth referred to this "Liliensternus", deposited in the Norian, and collected in 1913 in dark red mudstone from the Löwenstein Formation in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The only material assigned to this genus from later strata was discovered in 1913 in blue claystone from the Rhaetian stage of the Late Triassic, in the Trossingen Formation from Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany, approximately 208 to 201 million years ago. The "Liliensternus" specimens remained in Hugo Rühle von Lilienstern's castle until 1969 when they were transferred to the collection of the Natural History Museum of Berlin, their present location.  The genus and specific names "Liliensternus liliensterni" are derived from the last name of count, amateur paleontologist, and medical doctor, Hugo Rühle von Lilienstern. This dinosaur was named in his honor for his furthering paleontology in Germany by founding a paleontological museum in his castle in Bedheim, on 1 July 1934. "Liliensternus" was described by Friedrich von Huene in 1934. Because it was originally named by von Huene as a member of the genus "Halticosaurus", the type species of the genus "Liliensternus" is "Halticosaurus liliensterni"; the "combinatio nova" is Liliensternus liliensterni.  In 1993 Gilles Cuny and Peter Galton described a new species that they assigned to this genus, "Liliensternus airelensis." Other researchers began to notice differences between "L. airelensis" and the type species, "L. liliensterni", and in 2007, Martin Ezcurra and Cuny assigned the material to its own genus, "Lophostropheus".

Classification.

In 1934, Huene described two skeletons assigning them the name "Halticosaurus liliensterni", but in 1984 Samuel Paul Welles concluded that the type species of "Halticosaurus", "H. longotarsus", was a "nomen dubium". Most what had been written in the literature about "Halticosaurus" in fact regarded "H. liliensterni". Welles therefore erected a new genus: "Liliensternus", the name again honoring Rühle von Lilienstern. The new species name became "Liliensternus liliensterni". Rowe (1989) found that "Liliensternus" is more derived than "Dilophosaurus". A second species named in 1993 by Cuny and Galton for fragmentary remains found in France, "Liliensternus airelensis", which had an extra pair of cervical pleurocoels, was in 2007 reassigned to a separate genus, "Lophostropheus". Originally assigned to the Halticosauridae, "Liliensternus" is today considered a basal member of the Neotheropoda.  The following evolutionary tree illustrates a synthesis of the relationships of the early theropod groups compiled by Hendrickx "et al." in 2015, including the position of "Liliensternus" in which all studies concur.

Paleoecology.

"Liliensternus" was an active bipedal carnivore that could have preyed on the larger herbivores like "Plateosaurus", which were present in its paleoenvironment. The material discovered in Switzerland, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany and the tooth from Baden-Württemberg, Germany, suggest that "Liliensternus" inhabited ancient floodplains that were abundant with reptiles, therapsids, and "Plateosaurus". Paul (1988) noted that "Liliensternus" used its slashing tooth arrays to disable prosauropods and its speed to catch swift ornithischians.

Liliensternus is an extinct genus of basal Neotheropod dinosaur that lived approximately 210 million years ago during the latter part of the Triassic Period in what is now Germany. "Liliensternus" was a moderate-sized, bipedal, ground-dwelling carnivore, that could grow up to long. It is the best represented Triassic theropod from Europe and one of the largest known.

理理恩龙属(属名:)又译流连龙,是兽脚亚目恐龙的一属,生存于三叠纪晚期,约2亿500万年前。理理恩龙的化石是在1922到1923年发现于德国的特罗辛根组(Trossingen Formation),地质年代相当于诺利阶晚期。在1934年,弗雷德里克·冯·休尼将这些化石建立为敏捷龙的第二个种,"H. liliensterni";种名以德国业余古生物学家雨果·吕勒(Hugo Rühle von Lilienstern)博士为名,他发现了这些化石。在图林根的雨果·吕勒古生物博物馆开幕时,冯·休尼将这些化石进行命名。这些化石持续存放在该博物馆,直到1969年转交给柏林自然博物馆。 在1984年,Samuel Paul Welles提出敏捷龙本身是个疑名,而大部分关于敏捷龙的科学文献,多是在谈论"H. liliensterni"。Welles将这个种建立为新属,模式种是理氏理理恩龙("L. liliensterni");属名也是以雨果·吕勒为名。


Description.

"Cerastes" are small snakes, averaging less than in total length (body + tail), but are relatively stout in appearance. The head is broad, flat and distinct from the neck. The head is covered with tubercularly keeled scales, which usually number 15 or more across, and a supraorbital horn may be present over each eye in some species. The snout is short and wide and the eyes, which are set well forward, are small to moderate in size. The body is short, stout and cylindrically depressed. The tail is short and tapers abruptly behind the vent. The dorsal scales are small, keeled, in 23-35 rows at midbody, with the keels of the oblique lateral row being serrated.  Although "Cerastes" are often referred to as horned vipers, only the two larger species, "C. cerastes" and "C. gasperettii", are known to have horns, and even these do not always have them. Individuals with and without horns occur within the same population and even within the same litter.  When present, each horn consists of a single long, spine-like scale that can be folded back into an indentation in the postocular scale. They fold back in response to direct stimulation, thus streamlining the head and easing passage through burrows. Horns occur more often in individuals from sandy deserts as opposed to stony deserts. Specimens without horns have a prominent brow ridge instead.  The purpose of the horns is the subject of much speculation. One theory is that they allow a buildup of sand above the eyes while keeping it out of the eyes themselves. Another, more recent theory is simply that the horns serve to break up the outline of the head, making them harder for prey animals to spot.

Geographic range.

They are found in North Africa eastward through Arabia and Iran. Mallow et al. (2003) describe the genus as being restricted to the deserts of North Africa and southwestern Asia, with the Negev desert acting as a filter zone between the three species mentioned in the table below.

Habitat.

Desert and semi-desert.

Behavior.

This genus is nocturnal and terrestrial (not known to climb into bushes), often hiding by burying themselves in the sand. Although often described as slow moving, these snakes are also capable of sidewinding. When doing so, they can move quickly across the sand.  "Cerastes" species are not known to be particularly ill-tempered ("fairly placid"), but when threatened they will often stand their ground and form C-shaped coils that are rubbed together to produce a rasping or crackling sound, similar to "Echis". This is called stridulation. With enough provocation, they will strike from this position.  These snakes are capable of "sinking" quickly down into loose sand, using their keeled, angled and serrated lateral scales in a rocking motion. This process begins at the tail and moves forward until the entire head is buried and only the eyes and nostrils are exposed. They can bury themselves this way whether in an outstretched or a coiled position. See.

Feeding behavior and diet.

These are ambush predators that lie buried in the sand, waiting for prey to pass by. Their diet consists mainly of rodents, birds, and lizards.

Reproduction.

All three species lay eggs. However, those of "C. vipera" hatch within hours of deposition as opposed to many weeks, something not previously observed in other African snakes, most of which lay eggs that hatch weeks later or give birth to live young.

Species.

") Type species.  In addition to the three above species recognized by "ITIS", the Reptile Database also recognizes "Cerastes boehmei".

Taxonomy.

Although it would seem that Laurenti changed his mind in 1768 and decided to name this genus "Aspis", instead of "Cerastes" as he did earlier, this was eventually rejected. The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) later placed the name "Cerastes" on the Official List of Generic Names in Zoology (name no. 1539), while the name "Aspis" was placed on the Official Index of Invalid Generic Names in Zoology (name no. 1630).

Cerastes is a genus of small, venomous vipers found in the deserts and semi-deserts of northern North Africa eastward through Arabia and Iran. Three species are currently recognized by "ITIS" (Integrated Taxonomic Information System), and an additional recently described species is recognized by the Reptile Database. Common names for members the genus include horned vipers, North African desert vipers, and cerastes vipers.

角蝰属(学名:"Cerastes")是蛇亚目蝰蛇科蝰亚科下的一个有毒蛇属,主要包括分布于非洲北部、阿拉伯半岛及伊朗等沙漠地带的一种蝰蛇。目前有3个品种已被确认。


Design.

"Kolberg" was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of forward. She displaced and up to at full load. Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Melms & Pfenniger steam turbines driving four propellers. They were designed to give. These were powered by fifteen coal-fired Marine water-tube boilers. These gave the ship a top speed of. "Kolberg" carried of coal that gave her a range of approximately at. "Kolberg" had a crew of eighteen officers and 349 enlisted men.  The ship was armed with twelve 10.5 cm SK L/45 guns in single pedestal mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, eight were located amidships, four on either side, and two were side by side aft. These were replaced in 1916–1917 with six 15 cm SK L/45 guns. She also carried four SK L/55 anti-aircraft guns, though these were replaced with a pair of two SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns in 1918. She was also equipped with a pair of torpedo tubes submerged in the hull. Two deck-mounted torpedo tube launchers were added in 1918. She could also carry 100 mines. The conning tower had thick sides, and the deck was covered with up to thick armor plate. The main battery guns were fitted with gun shields that were thick.

Service history.

Pre-war career.

"Kolberg" was ordered under the contract name "Ersatz" and the contract for her construction was awarded to the Schichau-Werke shipyard in Danzig on 24 August 1907. Her keel was laid down on 15 January 1908; work proceeded quickly and she was launched on 14 November. At the launching ceremony, "Oberbürgermeister" (Lord Mayor) of Kolberg Dr. Schmieder christened the ship after his city. Fitting-out work took another twenty months and she conducted builder's trials in early 1910. She was commissioned on 21 June 1910 for full sea trials, though these were delayed twice by crew shortages. During trials she visited her namesake city on 30 April and again from 5 to 8 June 1911. On 13 June, "Kolberg" was finally pronounced ready for service; the following day, her first active duty commander "Fregattenkapitän" (Frigate Captain) Paul Heinrich came aboard the ship.  On 15 June, "Kolberg" steamed from Danzig to Kiel, where she joined the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet, taking the place of the light cruiser. She thereafter was ordered to accompany Kaiser Wilhelm's yacht "Hohenzollern II" to a sailing regatta held in the mouth of the Elbe and then for a visit to Bergen and Balestrand, Norway. She arrived back in Kiel on 2 August and five days later joined the rest of the fleet scouts in the Kattegat for annual fleet training. After the conclusion of the exercises in September, "Kolberg" took part in a naval review held off Swinemünde during a visit of the Austro-Hungarian crown prince, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. "Kolberg" thereafter underwent periodic maintenance, which prevented her from joining the rest of the reconnaissance force on a cruise to Norway.  "Kolberg" began the year 1912 with training exercises in the North Sea in February. In March, she was again assigned to escort "Hohenzollern" for a cruise abroad; the two ships left Kiel on 5 March and steamed south through the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea. They stopped in Gibraltar from 11 to 12 March before proceeding on to Venice, Italy on 17 March. The ships then began a tour of Mediterranean ports that lasted from 26 March to 10 May. During this period, "Kolberg" steamed from the island of Corfu to Brindisi, Italy on 11 April, where she embarked the German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg to carry him to Corfu and then later back to Brindisi. "Kolberg" was in Genoa, Italy when she was recalled to Germany on 12 May. She stopped in Vigo, Spain on 16–17 May and arrived off Helgoland on 23 May, where she rejoined the High Seas Fleet. From 23 June to 9 July, she temporarily served as the flagship of I Scouting Group while the battlecruiser was under repair and the new battlecruiser had not yet entered service. The rest of the year was occupied with peacetime training exercises and routine cruises in the North and Baltic Seas. The same pattern followed in 1913 and the first half of 1914; "Kolberg"s service during this period was uneventful, apart from another period escorting Wilhelm II, who this time cruised aboard the HAPAG steamship, on a tour of Norwegian ports in July 1913.

World War I.

North Sea operations.

Following the outbreak of World War I in July 1914, "Kolberg" and the rest of II Scouting Group were tasked with patrolling the German North Sea coast and supporting the torpedo-boat screen that kept watch for hostile sea forces. On 17–18 August, "Kolberg" and the light cruisers and went on a patrol out to the Broad Fourteens but encountered no British vessels. "Kolberg" was stationed in the mouth of the Ems river on the morning of 28 August, when the sound of distant gunfire alerted the crew to the Battle of Helgoland Bight, then underway. She, "Stralsund", and the light cruiser immediately sortied to reinforce the German vessels in the bight, but they arrived too late to see action with the British cruisers. "Kolberg" reached the burning cruiser and took off her surviving crew before the latter vessel sank. "Kolberg" was erroneously said to have been sunk in the battle in initial reports. On 9 September, "Kolberg" escorted the minelaying cruisers and and the auxiliary minelayer while they laid the defensive minefield "Alpha" on the western side of the German Bight. She escorted "Nautilus" again on 16–18 October to lay an offensive minefield off the Firth of Forth, but the presence of British warships in the Dogger Bank forced the Germans to break off the operation.  Beginning in November, the German fleet began a series of raids on coastal British towns in the hopes of provoking part of the British Grand Fleet to sortie, which could then be cut off and destroyed by the High Seas Fleet. "Kolberg" participated in the first of these, the raid on Yarmouth on 2–4 November, where she supported the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group that were commanded by "Konteradmiral" (Rear Admiral) Franz von Hipper. During the operation, she covered "Stralsund", which had been fitted to carry a load of naval mines that were laid off the British coast. During the subsequent raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby on 15–16 December, "Kolberg" was also modified to carry 100 mines, which she laid off Filey Brigg while the battlecruisers shelled the ports. When the German forces withdrew, the weather became bad enough that Hipper ordered the other light cruisers to steam independently to the rendezvous with the main fleet; "Kolberg" had meanwhile joined up with the battlecruisers and proceeded with them. The heavy weather caused some damage to the ship, and so "Kolberg" had to be repaired from 16 December to 6 January 1915.  A little over a month later, she saw action at the Battle of Dogger Bank, on 24 January 1915. The engagement began when "Kolberg" encountered the British cruiser at about 08:10; both ships opened fire, drawing the British and German battlecruiser squadrons to the action. In the span of about fifteen minutes, "Kolberg" quickly scored three hits on "Aurora", which replied with two hits of her own. One of the shells struck "Kolberg" below the waterline and the other shell hit the ship above the waterline; the hits killed two men and wounded two others. On 26 January, "Kapitän zur See" ("KzS"—Captain at Sea) Karl von Restorff, the II. "Führer der Torpedoboote" (Leader of Torpedo Boats), raised his flag aboard "Kolberg", making her his flagship. For the rest of 1915, she continued in her role with the fleet, participating in the sorties conducted by Admiral Hugo von Pohl and patrolling the German Bight.  In August 1915, she and significant portions of the fleet were transferred to the Baltic for the Battle of the Gulf of Riga. "Kolberg" was part of the covering force for the I Scouting Group battlecruisers, she was assigned to serve as a flotilla leader for three and a half flotillas of torpedo boats, as part of an assault force into the Gulf of Riga. On 10 August she was tasked with bombarding Russian coastal batteries on the island of Utö and the harbor of Hanko in southern Finland. While shelling the positions, Russian destroyers sortied to intercept "Kolberg", and the ensuing battle prompted Hipper to send "Von der Tann" to support her. Numerous reports of submarines in the area convinced the Germans to withdraw. A few days later, on the night of 13–14 August, "Kolberg" was present off the Irbe Strait at the southern entrance to the Gulf of Riga when she was attacked by Russian destroyers and coastal guns. On either 15 or 16 August 1915, a Russian submarine fired a single torpedo at "Kolberg" which missed. On 21 August, she returned to the North Sea, where she resumed patrol duties. "Kolberg" participated in the fleet operation on 11–12 September to cover a group of minelayers off the Swarte Bank, but she was in dock for maintenance during the sortie of 23–24 October, prompting Restorff to temporarily transfer to the cruiser. On 12 November, "KzS" Max Köthner replaced Restorff.

Baltic Sea operations.

In January 1916, "Kolberg" was transferred to the Baltic Sea naval forces. She was occupied with training exercises in February, and on 27 February she steamed to Libau, where she replaced the cruiser as the flagship of VI Scouting Group, which had been formed only on 15 January 1916. "Kommodore" (Commodore) Hugo Langemak raised his flag aboard the ship, though she served as his flagship only briefly, before being replaced by "Strassburg" on 12 September. By 1916, the naval war in the Baltic had become a stalemate, with neither side's fleet willing to engage the other, instead preferring to use minefields. As a result, "Kolberg" was primarily occupied with patrolling the Baltic and supporting minelayers. She operated primarily with "Strassburg", the cruiser, the torpedo boat, and VIII and X Torpedo Boat Flotillas. From 12 to 15 September, now-"KAdm" Langemak attempted to force his way into the Gulf of Riga to destroy the Russian pre-dreadnought battleship, but the Germans failed to break into the gulf.  "Kolberg" was thereafter transferred to Windau and Langemak shifted his flag to "Augsburg". On 11 November, "Kolberg" returned to Libau, and a month later, she went to Kiel on 12 December to be modernized at the "Kaiserliche Werft" (Imperial Shipyard) there. The work lasted from 16 December to 11 May 1917, and included a reconstruction of her bridge that significantly changed her silhouette, the installation of two 50 cm torpedo tubes in deck launchers, and the replacement of her original battery with 15 cm guns. She left Kiel on 7 June to return to her unit, arriving in Libau four days later. Langemak briefly returned to "Kolberg" from 18 to 23 July before transferring back to "Augsburg". Most of 1917 passed uneventfully for "Kolberg" until significant elements of the High Seas Fleet were transferred to the Baltic for Operation Albion, the conquest of the Gulf of Riga after the German Army captured the city during the Battle of Riga the month before. During the operation, "Vizeadmiral" ("VAdm"—Vice Admiral) Albert Hopman—who had replaced Langemak in December 1916—used "Kolberg" as his flagship. At 06:00 on 14 October, "Kolberg", "Strassburg", "Augsburg", and the old aviso, with escorting torpedo boats and minesweepers, sortied from Libau. The ships broke through the Irbe Strait and began minesweeping operations in the Gulf of Riga. They were attacked by Russian coastal guns on their approach and were temporarily forced to turn away. By 08:45, however, they had anchored off the Mikailovsk Bank and the minesweepers began to clear a path in the minefields.  Two days later, "Strassburg" and "Kolberg" joined the dreadnoughts and for a sweep of the Gulf of Riga. In the ensuing Battle of Moon Sound, the battleships destroyed "Slava" and forced the pre-dreadnought to leave the Gulf. Later that day, "Kolberg" moved into the Gulf and engaged a Russian coastal battery at Woi on Moon Island for ten minutes, starting at 13:35. The Russian guns did not return fire, so "Kolberg" ceased firing, and at 14:25, anchored in the Kleinen Sound with "Strassburg". A landing party of forty men was assembled to capture the Russian guns at Woi; they landed on the island at 15:45 and by 17:30, the landing party had captured the guns and rendered them inoperable. On 4 November, "Kolberg" steamed from Arensburg to Windau, where she embarked Prince Leopold of Bavaria, the "Ober Ost", the supreme commander of German forces on the Eastern Front. She carried Leopold back to Arensburg before returning him to Windau on 11 November. From there, "Kolberg" steamed to Libau to reembark Hopman.  "KAdm" Ludolf von Uslar replaced Hopman on 7 December; Uslar raised his flag aboard "Kolberg" that day, but he remained aboard only for a short time before she was recalled to Kiel for an overhaul; she left Libau on 29 December, and the shipyard work lasted from 1 January to 17 March 1918. During this period, she had a pair of 8.8 cm Flak guns installed. The Russian government had agreed to an armistice with the Central Powers in December 1917, and while "Kolberg" was in the shipyard, the Baltic Sea reconnaissance force was dissolved on 24 January. A new command, the "Befehlshaber der Sicherung der Ostsee" ("BSO"—Commander of the Defense of the Baltic Sea) was created, with separate western and eastern divisions. On returning to service, "Kolberg" became the flagship of the western division of the "BSO", "KAdm" Hermann Nordmann, though he was replaced by "KAdm" Walter von Keyserlink on 28 October.  "Kolberg" was transferred to the ""Sonderverband für der Ostsee"" (Special Unit for the Baltic Sea) on 28 March, which was tasked with supporting the German intervention in the Finnish Civil War. "Kolberg" took part in the attack on Hanko by the 14th Jäger Battalion. She later replaced the battleship, which had been stationed in the Åland Islands to support German forces there. She remained there until 19 May, when she was replaced by "Stralsund"; "Kolberg" left Mariehamn in the Ålands the following day, bound for Kiel. She arrived there on 22 May and was returned to the "BSO". The ship briefly patrolled the Little Belt before returning to the Baltic on 18 June, resuming her role as Uslar's flagship. Uslar's command had by that time been renamed the "Befehlshaber der Baltischer Gewässer" ("BBG"—Commander of Baltic Waters). She carried the Chief of the "Marinestation der Ostsee" (Baltic Sea Naval Station), Admiral Gustav Bachmann on a tour of Danzig, Libau, Windau, Reval, and Arensburg before disembarking him in Riga.  From 3 to 23 July, "Kolberg" went to Kiel before returning to Libau. She went on a tour of the Baltic, stopping in Reval, Helsinki, Kotka, Hungerburg, Björkösund, and Hanko. The ship was assigned to IV Scouting Group under "VAdm" Friedrich Boedicker for Operation "Schlußstein", a planned amphibious attack on the Russian capital at St. Petersburg, but the operation was called off on 5 September. "Kolberg" was then transferred back to the "BBG" and assigned as the station ship for Helsinki. On the way there, she stopped in Mariehamn, Jakobstad, and Nikolaistad. On 25 September, the ship went to Reval, where she received orders to return to Kiel, where she was to be decommissioned. She left the city two days later and arrived in Kiel on 29 September. Between 2 and 5 October, parts of her crew were transferred to the Naval Detachment in Crimea. "Kolberg" was decommissioned on 17 December, after the end of the war; she was not included in the list of ships to be interned at Scapa Flow, and so she remained behind in Kiel.

Service with the French Navy.

"Kolberg" was stricken from the naval register on 5 November 1919, and subsequently surrendered to the French in Cherbourg on 28 April 1920, under the name "W". She was commissioned in the French Navy as "Colmar" in 1922. She was not significantly modified in French service, the primary change being the replacement of her 8.8 cm guns with anti-aircraft guns. "Colmar" also had a new aft deckhouse built and the 75 mm guns were installed on its roof. After the work was completed, she underwent sea trials for almost a year. In 1922, she was assigned to a colonial tour in French Indochina that lasted for three years. She left France on 19 June 1922 and arrived in the colony on 7 September. On arrival, she replaced the armored cruiser as the flagship of the "Division Navale de l'Extreme Orient" (Naval Division of the Far East). She was in Vladivostok, Russia in 1923 when the Great Kantō earthquake hit Japan, so she steamed to Yokohama to assist in the relief effort.  Several other cruisers joined her during her deployment, including the armored cruisers,, and. In September 1924, "Colmar" and "Jules Ferry" contributed to a multi-national landing party of around 1,800 men drawn together due to violence in Shanghai. "Colmar" was recalled to France in November, and she arrived back in France on 11 February 1925. She remained in French service for only a few months, being deemed unfit for further service in November, when she was decommissioned. Over the course of 1926 and 1917, she was cannibalized for parts for the other ex-German cruisers in French service, and she was stricken on 21 July 1927. Ultimately, she was broken up for scrap two years later in Brest, France.

SMS "Kolberg" was a light cruiser of the German "Kaiserliche Marine" (Imperial Navy) during the First World War, the lead ship of her class. She had three sister ships,,, and. She was built by the Schichau-Werke; her hull was laid down in early 1908 and she was launched later that year, in November. She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in June 1910. She was armed with a main battery of twelve 10.5 cm SK L/45 guns and had a top speed of.

陛下之舰科尔贝格号()是德意志帝国海军所建造的四艘科尔贝格级小巡洋舰的首舰,以波美拉尼亚城市科尔贝格命名。它由但泽的希肖船厂承建,于1908年初开始、同年11月、至1910年6月投入公海舰队使用。科尔贝格号的主舰炮为十二门105毫米45倍径速射炮,最高速度达25.5节。


Objectives.

AGILE's mission is to observe gamma-ray sources in the universe.  AGILE (Astro rivelatore Gamma a Immagini Leggero) is an Italian high-energy astrophysics mission dedicated to the observation of the gamma-ray Universe. Its very innovative instrumentation is unprecedentedly light (100 kg) and the most compact ever operational for high-energy astrophysics (approximately a cube of about 60 cm size) with excellent detection and imaging capability. Satellite data are collected by the ASI ground station in Malindi (Kenya), then quickly transferred to the Satellite Operations Centre in Fucino, transferred, preprocessed, and stored and analyzed at the ASI Science Data Center (ASDC) in Frascati. In parallel the pre-processed data are transferred at INAF/OAS Bologna for a fast science alert generation, thus assuring a very rapid response to gamma-ray detections, obtained by special quick look analysis programs and coordinated ground-based and space observations.  Key scientific objectives of the AGILE Mission include the study of:

Instrumentation.

AGILE's instrumentation includes a Gamma Ray Imaging Detector (GRID) sensitive in the 30 MeV – 50 GeV energy range, a SuperAGILE (SA) hard X-ray monitor sensitive in the 18–60 keV energy range, a Mini-Calorimeter (MCAL) non-imaging gamma-ray scintillation detector sensitive in the 350 keV – 100 MeV energy range, and an Anti-coincidence System (AC), based on a plastic scintillator, to assist with suppressing unwanted background events.  The SuperAGILE SA is an instrument based on a set of four silicon strip detectors, each equipped with one-dimensional coded mask. The SA is designed to detect X-Ray signals from known sources and burst-like signals. It provides long-term monitoring of flux and spectral features. MCAL can also effectively detect high-energy radiation bursts in its energy band.

Launch and operations.

AGILE was successfully launched on 23 April 2007, from the Indian base of Sriharikota and was inserted in an equatorial orbit with low particle background. On 23 April 2007, ASI made contact with AGILE; its signals were acquired by the ground station at the Broglio Space Centre near Malindi, Kenya and it was placed in a Sun-pointing mode.

Results.

During its operations AGILE surveyed the gamma-ray sky and detected many galactic and extragalactic sources: AGILE discovered gamma-ray emission from the microquasar Cygnus X-3, detected many bright blazars, discovered several new gamma-ray pulsars, surveyed the Galactic plane with simultaneous hard X-ray/gamma-ray capability, discovered emission up to 100 MeV from Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes.  Some transient events detected by AGILE are associated with positions not consistent with a known source (Gamma Ray Burst) and have cosmological origins. Others are due to solar flares, while some are due to Earth atmosphere events (Terrestrial Gamma Flash).  The main results of the AGILE satellite are:  A key aspect of the AGILE data flow is the fastest gamma-ray alert monitoring system of the world. The overall gamma-ray alert monitoring system of AGILE is compound by two independent pipelines that process the data with different data quality results. The INAF/OAS Bologna pipeline processes the data in the fastest possible way, but it generates alert within 0.5–1 hour from the time of the last GRID event acquired in orbit. The ASDC pipeline is more accurate because all events are considered during the analysis but the alerts are generated 3–3.5 hours after.

AGILE (Astro‐Rivelatore Gamma a Immagini Leggero) is an X-ray and Gamma ray astronomical satellite of the Italian Space Agency (ASI).

伽玛射线轻型探测器(,AGILE)是意大利太空总署(意大利语:Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, ASI)用来观测伽玛射线和X射线的天文卫星。卫星本体由米兰的卡罗·加瓦兹航太公司等公司制造,发射重量352公斤。


History.

FCKeditor and CKEditor 3.

The first version of CKEditor, under the name FCKeditor, was released in March 2003 by Frederico Caldeira Knabben, the creator of the editor and the project's Benevolent Dictator for Life. After reaching more than 3 million downloads, FCKeditor was completely reviewed and redesigned into CKEditor 3, with special attention given to performance, accessibility and a new UI.

CKEditor 4.

In December 2012, CKEditor 4 was released with an Inline Editing solution, reformatted source code, enhanced DOM and CSS performance. The server-side implementations were removed.

CKEditor 5.

After five years, in 2018, CKEditor 5 first stable version was introduced. With its code rewritten from scratch, CKEditor 5 has a custom data model and architecture. The editor implements Operational Transformation for the tree-structured model as well as many other mechanisms which were required to create a real-time collaborative UX.  CKEditor 5 is a JavaScript framework offering a rich API to develop any editing solution. CKEditor 5 also offers builds, which are ready-to-use editors; there are currently 5 builds available to download: Classic, Inline, Balloon, Balloon block and Document.

CKEditor Ecosystem.

In October 2017, CKSource launched the CKEditor Ecosystem, which consists of different products, these include:

Features.

CKEditor 4 has features found in desktop word processors such as styles formatting (bold, italic, underline, bulleted and numbered lists), tables, block quoting, web resource linking, safe undo function, image inserting, paste from Word and other common HTML formatting tools. Also CKEditor 4 has built-in spell checker functionality provided as plug-ins by WebSpellChecker LLC. By default, it is available for free with a banner ad.[6] It checks the spelling of the text and marks all errors with a red wavy line and allows the user to choose one of the correct suggestions.  There are currently many plugins available with CKEditor 4 to serve different needs, e.g. CKFinder and Accessibility Checker (the CKSource's plugins). CKFinder is a file manager for including files and images within content created with the editors. It is compatible with both CKEditor 4 and 5 and is available under commercial license.  Accessibility Checker is available under both Open Source and commercial licenses.

Real-time collaborative editing.

CKEditor 5's architecture and custom data model makes it possible to enable real-time collaborative editing.  A custom collaborative solution can be built by using the CKEditor 5 Framework components and real-time collaborative editing can be enabled by connecting to the CKEditor Cloud Services.  A ready to use, drop-in component based on CKEditor 5 (Letters) offers a complete solution for real-time collaborative writing.

Browser compatibility.

CKEditor 4 is fully compatible with most internet browsers, including latest stable releases from Google Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Microsoft Edge, Opera and Internet Explorer 10 and 11. In mobile environments, it has close to full support in Safari (iOS6 +) and Chrome (Android).  CKEditor 5 is also compatible with Google Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Opera and Microsoft Edge. However, it does not support Internet Explorer 11 yet.

CKEditor (formerly known as FCKeditor) is a WYSIWYG rich text editor which enables writing content directly inside of web pages or online applications. Its core code is written in JavaScript and it is developed by CKSource. CKEditor is available under open source and commercial licenses.

CKEditor,旧称FCKeditor,是一个专门使用在网页上属于开放源代码的所见即所得文字编辑器。它志于轻量化,不需要太复杂的安装步骤即可使用。它可和PHP、JavaScript、ASP、ASP.NET、ColdFusion、Java、以及ABAP等不同的程序语言相结合。「FCKeditor」名称中的「FCK」 是这个编辑器的作者的名字Frederico Caldeira Knabben的缩写。


菲律宾科迪勒拉山水稻梯田

Historical description.

The rice terraces of the Cordilleras are one of the few monuments in the Philippines that show no evidence of having been influenced by colonial cultures. Owing to the difficult terrain, the Cordillera tribes are among the few peoples of the Philippines who have successfully resisted any foreign domination and have preserved their authentic tribal culture. The history of the terraces is intertwined with that of its people, their culture, and their traditional practices.  Apart from the idjang stone-fortresses of the Ivatan of the Batanes, the terraces, which spread over five present-day provinces, are the only other form of surviving stone construction from the pre-colonial period. The Philippines alone among south-east Asian cultures is a largely wood-based one: unlike Cambodia, Indonesia, or Thailand, for example, in the Philippines both domestic buildings and ritual structures such as temples and shrines were all built in wood, a tradition that has survived in the terrace hamlets.  It is believed that terracing began in the Cordilleras less than one thousand years ago as taro cultivation. It is evidence of a high level of knowledge of structural and hydraulic engineering on the part of the Ifugao builders. The knowledge and practices, supported by rituals, involved in maintaining the terraces are transferred orally from generation to generation, without written records. Taro was later replaced by rice around 1600 A.D. which is the predominant crop today.

National Cultural Treasures.

The five clusters inscribed as part of the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras are Batad, Bangaan, Hungduan, Mayoyao Central and Nagacadan. Batad and Bangaan are under the jurisdiction of the Municipality of Banaue but are not referred to as the Banaue Rice Terraces.  The Banaue Rice Terraces refer to the cluster close to the Banaue poblacion as seen from the viewpoint. Contrary to popular belief, these terraces are not part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site. They were not included in the UNESCO inscription due to the presence of numerous modern structures, making it score low in the integrity criterion of UNESCO. The Banaue Rice Terraces are however a National Cultural Treasure under Ifugao Rice Terraces, together with the other rice terraces clusters.

A designated Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Site.

"For more information on the Ifugao Rice Terraces see:" Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems  All located in the Ifugao region, the Rice Terraces also feature as one of the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Sites or GIAHS. They are supported by indigenous knowledge management of muyong, a private forest that caps each terrace cluster. The muyong is managed through a collective effort and under traditional tribal practices. The communally managed forestry area on top of the terraces contains about 264 indigenous plant species, mostly endemic to the region. The terraces form unique clusters of microwatersheds and are part of the whole mountain ecology. They serve as a rainwater filtration system and are saturated with irrigation water all year round. A biorhythm technology, in which cultural activities are harmonized with the rhythm of climate and hydrology management, has enabled farmers to grow rice at over 1 000 meters.

The Ifugao epic Hudhud.

Aside from the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras, UNESCO inscribed the Hudhud Chants of the Ifugao, another National Cultural Treasure, on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2008 (originally proclaimed in 2001). The Hudhud consists of narrative chants performed mainly by elder Ifugao women usually during the rice sowing season, at harvest time and at funeral wakes and rituals.

Preservation.

The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras were named as a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO World Heritage Centre in 1995. It has passed by UNESCO’s standards due to the blending of the physical, socio-cultural, economic, religious, and political environment as a living cultural landscape. In 2000, the site was inscribed as one of the most endangered cultural sites in the world by World Monuments Fund but was taken off in 2001.  The Ifugao Rice Terraces have also been inscribed in the List of World Heritage in Danger in 2001 as the dangers of deforestation and climate change threatens to destroy the terraces. Another contributing factor is globalization where the younger generations of the Ifugaos have recently had the opportunity to gain access to media and education, most of the younger Ifugaos have opted to come to the capital for work instead of the traditional farming tradition. The Philippines sought danger listing as a way to raise national and international support and cooperation in the preservation of the heritage site. Critic W.S. Logan described the flight of locals from the land as an example of heritage designations created by bureaucrats and policy makers rather than local communities.  The rice terraces were listed as one of the most endangered monuments in the world by World Monuments Fund in the 2010 World Monuments Watch, along with the Santa Maria Church and San Sebastian Church. All of the sites were taken off the list in 2011 after the passage of the National Cultural Heritage Act.  In 2012, UNESCO has removed the Rice Terraces from the list of sites in danger in recognition of the success of the Philippines in improving its conservation.

UNESCO Extension.

The "Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras" element currently listed in the UNESCO World Heritage List possesses only 5 properties, all of which are in Ifugao province. There are also significant rice terraces in other provinces in the Cordilleras, notably those in Benguet province, Mountain Province, Kalinga province, Abra province, Apayao province, and Nueva Viscaya province. The provincial governments of each province may cooperate with the National Commission for Culture and the Arts, National Museum of the Philippines, or the UNESCO Commission of the Philippines for the inclusion of there respective rice terraces in the UNESCO List as extension of the "Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras".

Cordillera Rice Terraces not included in the World Heritage List.

The following are at least half of the rice terrace clusters in the Cordillera mountain range that have yet to be extended as world heritage sites. Sites can only be extended as world heritage sites if they have retained their outstanding features, including the structures within them (example: traditional houses). Other rice terraces outside the Cordilleras can also be found.

The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras (; Ifugao: "Payyo") were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1995, the first-ever property to be included in the cultural landscape category of the World Heritage List. This inscription has five sites: the Batad Rice Terraces, Bangaan Rice Terraces (both in Banaue), Mayoyao Rice Terraces (in Mayoyao), Hungduan Rice Terraces (in Hungduan) and Nagacadan Rice Terraces (in Kiangan), all in Ifugao Province, Philippines. The Ifugao Rice Terraces reach a higher altitude and were built on steeper slopes than many other terraces. The Ifugao complex of stone or mud walls and the careful carving of the natural contours of hills and mountains to make terraced pond fields, coupled with the development of intricate irrigation systems, harvesting water from the forests of the mountain tops, and an elaborate farming system.

菲律宾科迪勒拉山水稻梯田(; : "Payew";英语:Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras)或称巴拿威梯田指的是位于菲律宾吕宋岛科迪勒拉山脉(英语:Cordilleras)东面的梯田,位于巴拿威镇附近,其梯田规模为世界最大,也拥有世界最大的人造灌溉系统。1995年被联合国教科文组织登录为世界文化遗产。科迪勒拉山脉的梯田,也享有「天国的阶梯」、「通往天堂的天梯」等美誉。


History.

The genesis of the national park was a proposal by early conservationist Myles Dunphy for a Greater Blue Mountains National Park in 1932. This included large areas of what are today the Blue Mountains National Park, and the Wollemi, Kanangra-Boyd, Nattai, Gardens of Stone, and Thirlmere Lakes, along with other smaller nature reserves; all managed by the NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service. In September 1959 the Blue Mountains National Park was gazetted covering. In 2000 it was included as part of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area. In 1999, 37 walking tracks were added to the State Heritage Register, extending from and the Nepean River in the east; to Mount Tomah in the north; to Wolgan Valley and in the northwest; to Jenolan Caves and in the west; and in the south, numerous walks leading down the plateau from Katoomba, Leura and Wentworth Falls.

Geography.

The Blue Mountains National Park lies on the eastern side of the Great Dividing Range. The plateau slopes gently down from west to east from a height of around above sea level near to less than above sea level around Glenbrook. There are four major rivers that have most of their catchment inside the park: the Wollangambe River in the north, the Grose River in the centre, and the Coxs and Wollondilly rivers in the south. The latter two flow into Lake Burragorang, which is located just outside the park and is the site of Warragamba Dam, the major source of drinking water for Sydney. A small section of the Nepean River passes through the park. All of the major rivers flow from west to east.

Geology.

Structurally, the Blue Mountains are part of the greater Sydney Basin. The Sydney Basin consists of layers of sedimentary rocks laid down over the past 300 million years. The Blue Mountains and Great Dividing Range were formed about 50 million years ago, when the area was uplifted. More recently, volcanic flows covered large areas of the mountains in basalt. These have largely worn away, leaving only occasional outcrops on the high peaks.

Biodiversity.

The park contains a small range of eucalypt species across a variety of habitats including wet and dry Sclerophyll, Mallee, swamps, wetlands and grasslands. Some species are of significance to our understanding of plant evolution including the Wollemi Pine, of which fewer than 100 trees are known. Notable plant families include Myrtaceae, Fabaceae and Proteaceae including 114 endemic and 177 threatened species.  This range of habitats supports a rich variety of fauna, including a third of Australia's bird species, and numerous mammals, reptiles and frogs. Notable endangered and endemic species include the Regent Honeyeater, Broad-headed snake and the Blue Mountains water skink.

Tourism.

The Blue Mountains National Park is the most visited National Park in NSW with more than half of domestic visitors originating from Sydney and one of the easiest locations to spot wild kangaroos in Sydney. The majority of tourists to the Blue Mountains see the national park from one of the many lookouts between Wentworth Falls and Blackheath, and many of these never actually set foot in the park. Activities for the visitor include short walks to lookouts above cliffs and waterfalls, overnight and longer walks to more remote areas of the park and more extreme sports such as canyoning, abseiling, rock climbing and mountain biking. A number of Blue Mountains sightseeing and adventure tour companies can assist visitors in safely experiencing these activities. It is also home to the world's steepest railway, the Katoomba Scenic Railway.  The national park is renowned for the Three Sisters rock formation. Both north and south of Blackheath, the cliffs are the most spectacular as the rock faces are several hundreds metres tall. Visitor numbers have increased to 5.2 million in 2016 from 3.6 million in 2008.

Southern Blue Mountains.

The national park extends south as far as the Wollondilly River, west of Mittagong, New South Wales. This area was greatly affected by the construction of Warragamba Dam from 1948 to 1960. This required the flooding of the Burragorang Valley, which created Lake Burragorang and in the process cut the southern part of the Blue Mountains off from areas to the east, for example Camden, Picton and Bargo. Properties and homesteads in the southern part of the mountains were forced to close down, leaving many derelict homes and ruins. These included "Bran Jan House" and "Kowmung House" on Scotts Main Range, as well as "Twin Peaks", south of Yerranderie.  An exclusion zone of approximately three kilometres was created around Lake Burragorang to protect Sydney's water supply, but a through-track was allowed from Yerranderie to Balloon Pass, then further east, for the benefit of bushwalkers. This pass was later incorporated into the long-distance Katoomba to Mittagong Trail.

References.

Notes  Citations

The Blue Mountains National Park is a protected national park that is located in the Blue Mountains region of New South Wales, in eastern Australia. The national park is situated approximately west of Sydney, and the park boundary is quite irregular as it is broken up by roads, urban areas and inholdings. Despite the name mountains, the area is an uplifted plateau, dissected by a number of larger rivers. The highest point in the park is Mount Werong at above sea level; while the low point is on the Nepean River at above sea level as it leaves the park.

蓝山国家公园(英语:Blue Mountains National Park)位于澳大利亚新南威尔士州,距离首府悉尼以西81公里,并且处于大分水岭山的蓝山区域。蓝山国家公园占地面积。国家公园边界呈不规则形状,由道路、城区以及私家花园与外界相隔。尽管名字叫做「山」,这片区域实际上是隆升的高原,由几条大河与外界相隔。公园的海拔最高点位于威容峰(约1215米),海拔最低点则位于皮恩河(约20米)。


History.

Located in Karlskoga, Sweden, the company originates from the hammer mill "Boofors", which was founded as a royal state-owned company in 1646. The modern corporate structure was created in 1873 with the foundation of Aktiebolaget (AB) Bofors-Gullspång.  A leading Swedish steel producer by the early 1870s, when steel began to be used for gun manufacture in Sweden, Bofors initially sold cast and forged steel produced by the Siemens-Martin process to Finspång gun works, but soon started to expand into weapons manufacture. The company's first cannon workshop was opened in 1884. Bofors' most famous owner was Alfred Nobel, who owned the company from 1894 until his death in December 1896. Nobel played a key role in reshaping the former iron and steel producer to a modern cannon manufacturer and chemical industry participant. The powder manufacturer AB Bofors Nobelkrut, later an explosives and general organic-chemical producer, was created in 1898 as a wholly owned subsidiary. By 1911, AB Bofors-Gullspång had outcompeted, bought and closed down its Finspång Swedish competitor in cannon manufacture. The company's name was shortened to AB Bofors in 1919.

Bofors gun scandal.

In 1986, the Government of India and Bofors signed a US$285 million contract for the supply of 410 155 mm field howitzers. In 1987, Swedish Radio alleged that Bofors paid illegal commissions of Rs. 60 crores to top Indian politicians, members of the Congress party and key defence officials to seal the deal. The scandal contributed to the defeat of Rajiv Gandhi government in the elections three years later.

Present ownership.

In 1999, Saab AB purchased the Celsius Group, then the parent company of Bofors. In September 2000, United Defense Industries (UDI) of the United States acquired Bofors Weapons Systems (the heavy weapons division), while Saab retained the missile interests.  BAE Systems acquired UDI and its Bofors subsidiary in 2005, and BAE Systems Bofors is now a business unit of BAE Systems AB; Saab Bofors Dynamics is a unit of Saab AB.

Products.

The name Bofors is strongly associated with the 40 mm anti-aircraft gun used by both sides during World War II. This automatic cannon is often simply called the "Bofors gun" and saw service on both land and sea. It became so widely known that anti-aircraft guns in general were often referred to as Bofors guns. Another well-known gun made by the company was the Bofors 37 mm anti-tank gun, a standard anti-tank weapon used by a variety of armies early in the war. It was built under licence in Poland and the United States and was also used in a variety of tanks, including the 7TP and M3A3 Stuart.

Bofors AB (,, ) is a Swedish and British arms manufacturer. The name has been associated with the iron industry and artillery manufacturing for more than 350 years.

波佛斯(Bofors,又译卜大众)是一家拥有350年历史的世界知名瑞典钢铁及军火工业公司,公司历史可追溯至1646年。在第二次世界大战中,该公司之多项产品曾授权世界众多国家生产,广泛配备于交战双方之军队并获得好评。之中,以波佛斯40毫米高射砲最为闻名。其衍生型,至今仍为世界多国军队之一线配备。


Forms of the name.

In the "Kojiki", the god is known as. He also bears the alternate names and

Descriptions in the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki.

Birth of the gods.

In the Kamiumi ("birth of the gods") episodes of the "Kojiki", the god of creation Izanagi severs the head of the fire deity Kagu-tsuchi, whereupon the blood from the sword (Totsuka-no-Tsurugi) splattered the rocks and gave birth to several deities. The blood from the sword-tip engendered one triad of deities, and the blood from near the base of the blade produced another triad that included Takemikazuchi (here given as "Brave-Awful-Possessing-Male-Deity" by Chamberlain).  The name of the ten-fist sword wielded by Izanagi is given postscripturally as, otherwise known as Itsu-no-ohabari. (Accordingly, Takemikazuchi is referred in some passages as the child of Itsu-no-o habari. See next section).  The "Nihon Shoki" gives the same episode in the same general gist, albeit more vaguely regarding this deity.

Quelling of the Middle Country.

In the episodes where the gods of the heavenly plains (Takama-ga-hara) contemplate and execute the conquest of the terrestrial world known as Middle Country (Ashihara no Nakatsukuni), Takemikazuchi is one of the chief delegates sent down to subjugate the terrestrial deities ("kuni-tsu-kami").  In the "Kojiki" (Conquest of Izumo chapter), the heavenly deities Amaterasu and Takamusubi decreed that either Takemikazuchi or his father ("Heaven-Point-Blade-Extended") must be sent down for the conquest. Itsu-no-ohabari (who appeared previously as a ten-fist sword) here has the mind and speech of a sentient god, and he volunteered his son Takemikazuchi for the subjugation campaign. Takemikazuchi was accompanied by "Deity Heavenly-Bird-Boat" (which may be a boat as well as being a god)  The two deities reached the land of Izumo at a place called, and stuck a "ten-fist sword" (Totsuka-no-Tsurugi) upside-down on the crest of the wave, and sat atop it, while demanding the local god Ōkuninushi to relinquish the Izumo province over to them. Ōkuninushi replied he would defer the decision to his child deities, and would follow suit in their counsel. One of them, Kotoshironushi or Yae-Kotoshironushi ("Eight-Fold-Thing-Sign-Master") who had been out fishing, was easily persuaded to forfeit his authority and retire into seclusion.  The other, Takeminakata would not concede without testing his feats of strength against Takemikazuchi. When the challenger grabbed Takemikazuchi's hand it turned as if into an icicle and then a sword, making him cringe. Takemikazuchi then grabbed Takeminakata's hand, crushing it like a young reed. The challenger, chased to the sea near, asked for clemency on his life, promising to hold himself in exile in that region (in this way, the defeated Takeminakata became chief deity of the Suwa Grand Shrine in Nagano Prefecture).  The hand-to-hand bout between the two deities is considered the mythical origin of sumo wrestling.  The "Nihon Shoki" names a different partner for Takemikazuchi in the task of conquering lands of the Middle Country. That partner is Futsunushi (a god who goes unmentioned in the "Kojiki" in the gods' birth episode as well as this episode).  Just as Takemikazuchi was chief deity of Kashima Shrine, this Futsunushi was the chief of the Katori Shrine. In the early centuries, when the Yamato rulers campaigned in the Kantō and Tōhoku regions, they would pray to these to war gods for military success, so that subsidiary shrines of the two gods are scattered all over these regions. The enshrinement of the deities at Kashima and Katori is mentioned briefly in the "Kogo Shūi" (807).  The "Nihon Shoki" account has other discrepancies. The beach where the gods stuck the "ten-fist sword" is here called "Itasa". The chief god of Izumo (Ōkuninushi) is called by the name of Ōanamuchi. The wrestling match with Takeminakata is missing. In the end, Ōanamuchi/Ōkuninushi gave sign of his obeisance by presenting the broad spear he used to pacify the land with. Jumping to a later passage (after digressing on other matters), the "Nihon Shoki" retells Takemikazuchi and Futsunushi's landing on the beach, this time stating that Ōanamuchi verbally expressed resistance to relinquish his rule, until the heavenly gods promised him palatial residence to recompense his abdication.  Appended to the two passages is the mention of a star deity named Amatsu-Mikaboshi who resisted till the end, and whom Takemikazuchi and Futsunushi were particularly eager to vanquish. The latter passage states that the being who subdued the star god, referred to as is enshrined at Katori, hinting that it might be Futsunushi. However, the earlier passage says a god named was the vanquisher of the star god.

Emperor Jimmu's conquest of the East.

Takemikazuchi's sword aided Emperor Jimmu in his subjugation of the east. At Kumano, the Emperor and his troops were either struck unconscious by the appearance of a bear ("Kojiki") or severely debilitated by the poison fumes spewed out by local gods ("Nihon Shoki"). But a man named Takakuraji presented a gift of a sword, the emperor awoke, and without him hardly brandishing this weapon, the evil deities of Kumano were spontaneously cut down. When Jimmu inquired, Takkuraji explained that he had a vision in a dream where the supreme deities Amaterasu and Takamusubi were about to command Takemikazuchi to descend to earth once again to pacify the lands, this time to assist the emperor. However, Takemizuchi replied that it would be sufficient to send down the sword he used during his campaigns, and, boring a hole through Takakuraji's storehouse, deposited the sword, bidding the man to present it to Emperor Jimmu. That sword bore the names of,, and. This sword is the main dedication (goshintai) kept at Isonokami Shrine.

Commentary.

Takemikazuchi was originally a local god ("kuni-tsu-kami") revered by the, and was a god of maritime travel. However, the Nakatomi clan who also has roots in this region, and when they took over control of priestly duties from the Ō clan, they also instituted Takemikazuchi as the Nakatomi clan's ujigami (clan deity). Or so this is the observation by in his "Jinja to kodai ōken saishi" (1989). He goes on to theorize that the Ō clan was originally, but was usurped by the Nakatomi who were among the "lesser priesthood" (the latter claims descent from the ).  The Nakatomi clan, essentially the priestly branch of the Fujiwara clan, also placed the veneration of Takemikazuchi in the Kasuga-taisha in Nara. (The thunder god is one of several gods enshrined.)  When the expanded control into the easterly dominions, Kashima (Kashima, Ibaraki) became a crucial base. Yamato armies and generals often prayed to the Kashima and Katori deities for military success against the intransigents in the east. In these ways, Takemikazuchi became an important deity for the Yamato dynasty.

He is otherwise known as Kashima-no-kami, the chief deity revered in the Kashima Shrine at Kashima, Ibaraki (and all other subsidiary Kashima shrines). In the "namazu-e" or catfish pictures of the Edo period, Takemikazuchi/Kashima is depicted attempting to subdue the giant catfish supposedly dwelling at the of the Japanese landmass and causing its earthquakes. (See image above right).

建御雷()是日本神话中的一位神祇,被奉为雷神、刀剑之神、弓术之神、武神和军神。在《古事记》里写作建御雷之男神、建御雷神,在《日本书纪》里写作武瓮槌、武瓮雷男神。别名建布都神、丰布都神,在鹿岛神宫的祭祀中则以鹿岛神的名字出现。