威尔金森县 (乔治亚州)

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (1.0%) is water. The county is located mainly in the upper Atlantic coastal plain region of the state, but does have some rolling hills due to its close proximity to the fall line.  The entirety of Wilkinson County is located in the Lower Oconee River sub-basin of the Altamaha River basin.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 10,220 people, 3,827 households, and 2,805 families living in the county. The population density was 23 people per square mile (9/km2). There were 4,449 housing units at an average density of 10 per square mile (4/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 57.96% White, 40.70% Black or African American, 0.21% Native American, 0.07% Asian, 0.40% from other races, and 0.66% from two or more races. 0.99% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 3,827 households out of which 33.70% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.60% were married couples living together, 18.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.70% were non-families. 24.10% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the average family size was 3.13.  In the county, the population was spread out with 27.20% under the age of 18, 9.00% from 18 to 24, 28.10% from 25 to 44, 22.70% from 45 to 64, and 13.10% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 90.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.10 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $32,723, and the median income for a family was $39,349. Males had a median income of $31,814 versus $21,461 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,658. About 14.60% of families and 17.90% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.90% of those under age 18 and 18.00% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 9,563 people, 3,666 households, and 2,638 families living in the county. The population density was. There were 4,487 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 58.5% white, 38.4% black or African American, 0.3% Asian, 0.3% American Indian, 1.3% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 2.2% of the population. In terms of ancestry, and 14.7% were American.  Of the 3,666 households, 33.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.9% were married couples living together, 18.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 28.0% were non-families, and 24.8% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.06. The median age was 41.1 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $37,902 and the median income for a family was $49,138. Males had a median income of $39,009 versus $25,935 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,929. About 17.9% of families and 23.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 35.1% of those under age 18 and 21.9% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Wilkinson County Primary/Elementary School  Wilkinson County Middle/High School  Wilkinson County is home of the 9-time state high school basketball class A champions.

Politics.

Wilkinson County voted for every Democratic presidential nominee from 1828 to 1960; note that 1828 was the first year in which Georgia held a popular vote for presidential electors and also the first year in which the Democratic Party ran a presidential candidate. However, there was at least one example of Republican success in the county during Reconstruction: in the 1868 gubernatorial election, which was held in April, the Republican ticket swept the county, with Rufus Bullock receiving 59% of the vote; the Republican candidate for county ordinary won by just 1.7%. Decades later, Harry Truman only won the county by one vote in the 1948 presidential election.  In 1964, Wilkinson County voted overwhelmingly for Barry Goldwater, the first Republican presidential nominee to win the county. It also delivered large victories to segregationist American Independent Party candidate George Wallace and Republican Richard Nixon in 1968 and 1972 respectively. In the presidential elections of both 1976 and 1980, former Georgia governor Jimmy Carter, a Democrat, won the county easily.  In 1984, Democrat Walter Mondale won the county by a 9% margin, which was only the second presidential result in the county within 30% since 1912. This was also the first time since 1848, when Whig Zachary Taylor narrowly won Georgia, that the county voted for a presidential candidate who did not win the state. In the following three presidential elections, Wilkinson continued to give Democratic candidates between 53% and 59% of the vote.  In 2000, Al Gore won Wilkinson County by a margin of 1.3%, or 84 votes, receiving 50.4% to George W. Bush's 48.1%. The county then voted for all three Republican nominees from 2004 to 2012, each time by a margin of less than 1.5%. In 2016, it voted for Donald Trump by a margin of just over 10%. Wilkinson was thus one of many black majority counties in Georgia that demonstrated a significant swing in favor of Republican presidential candidates from 2012 to 2016. Similarly, the county swung from a 0.25% victory for the 2014 Democratic gubernatorial nominee to an 11.63% victory for the 2018 Republican gubernatorial nominee.  Even as it has become more favorable to Republicans at the state and federal level, Wilkinson's county government continues to be dominated by Democrats, to the extent that the Democratic primary is often tantamount to election. In 2016, Democrats won all six county executive offices without Republican opposition, as well as the three school board seats up for election that year. While the Republican district attorney for the district that includes Wilkinson was also unopposed, he received only 65.6% of ballots cast, compared to at least 72.4% for each unopposed Democratic countywide official. In 2018, Democratic incumbents were reelected unopposed to two of the county's five commission seats unopposed and to a third seat by a 25% margin, as well as winning the race for commission chair unopposed. The Democratic candidate in the open first commission district lost, but by just 2.7%. Both school board members up that year were unopposed Democratic incumbents.  Similarly, the overwhelming majority of primary voters in Wilkinson have chosen Democratic ballots even in recent years, presidential primaries excepted. In 2014, 2,022 of 2,174 primary voters (93.0%) chose Democratic ballots. In 2016, 1,726 of 2,033 primary voters (84.9%) did so, and in 2018, 1,186 of the 1,862 primary voters (63.7%) did so, even in the context of a competitive statewide Republican primary for governor. Three incumbent county commissioners faced opponents in their 2018 primaries; the incumbent county commission chair lost, and the District 2 incumbent won by just one vote.

Government.

Current county officials:

Wilkinson County is a county located in the central portion of the U.S. state of Georgia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 9,563. The county seat is Irwinton. The county was created on May 11, 1803 and named for General James Wilkinson (1757–1825).

威尔金森县(英语:Wilkinson County)是美国乔治亚州中部的一个县。面积1,171平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口10,220人。县治欧文敦(Irwinton)。 成立于1803年5月11日,县政府成立于1805年12月。县名纪念美国独立战争和1812年战争时期军官、路易斯安那准州州长詹姆斯·威尔金森。


Refractory materials.

Refractory materials must be chemically and physically stable at high temperatures. Depending on the operating environment, they must be resistant to thermal shock, be chemically inert, and/or have specific ranges of thermal conductivity and of the coefficient of thermal expansion.  The oxides of aluminium (alumina), silicon (silica) and magnesium (magnesia) are the most important materials used in the manufacturing of refractories. Another oxide usually found in refractories is the oxide of calcium (lime). Fire clays are also widely used in the manufacture of refractories.  Refractories must be chosen according to the conditions they face. Some applications require special refractory materials. Zirconia is used when the material must withstand extremely high temperatures. Silicon carbide and carbon (graphite) are two other refractory materials used in some very severe temperature conditions, but they cannot be used in contact with oxygen, as they would oxidize and burn.  Binary compounds such as tungsten carbide or boron nitride can be very refractory. Hafnium carbide is the most refractory binary compound known, with a melting point of 3890 °C. The ternary compound tantalum hafnium carbide has one of the highest melting points of all known compounds (4215 °C).

Uses.

Refractory materials are useful for the following functions:  Refractories have multiple useful applications. In the metallurgy industry, refractories are used for lining furnaces, kilns, reactors, and other vessels which hold and transport hot mediums such as metal and slag. Refractories have other high temperature applications such as fired heaters, hydrogen reformers, ammonia primary and secondary reformers, cracking furnaces, utility boilers, catalytic cracking units, air heaters, and sulfur furnaces.

Classification of refractory materials.

Refractories are classified in multiple ways, based on:

Based on chemical composition.

Acidic refractories.

Acidic refractories are generally impervious to acidic materials but easily attacked by basic materials, and are thuse used with acidic slag in acidic environments. They include substances such as silica, alumina, and fire clay brick refractories. Notable reagents that can attack both alumina and silica are hydrofluoric acid, phosphoric acid, and fluorinated gases (e.g. HF, F). At high temperatures, acidic refractories may also react with limes and basic oxides.

Basic refractories.

Basic refractories are used in areas where slags and atmosphere are basic. They are stable to alkaline materials but can react to acids. The main raw materials belong to the RO group, of which magnesia (MgO) is a common example. Other examples include dolomite and chrome-magnesia. For the first half of the twentieth century, the steel making process used artificial periclase (roasted magnesite) as a furnace lining material.

Neutral refractories.

These are used in areas where slags and atmosphere are either acidic or basic and are chemically stable to both acids and bases. The main raw materials belong to, but are not confined to, the RO group. Common examples of these materials are alumina (AlO), chromia (CrO) and carbon.

Based on method of manufacture.

Shaped.

These have standard size and shapes. These may be further divided into standard shapes and special shapes. Standard shapes have dimension that are conformed by most refractory manufacturers and are generally applicable to kilns or furnaces of the same types. Standard shapes are usually bricks that have a standard dimension of 9 inches (23011464 mm) and this dimension is called a "one brick equivalent". "Brick equivalents" are used in estimating how many refractory bricks it takes to make an installation into an industrial furnace. There are ranges of standard shapes of different sizes manufactured to produce walls, roofs, arches, tubes and circular apertures etc. Special shapes are specifically made for specific locations within furnaces and for particular kilns or furnaces. Special shapes are usually less dense and therefore less hard wearing than standard shapes.

Unshaped (monolithic refractories).

These are without definite form and are only given shape upon application. These types are better known as monolithic refractories. The common examples are plastic masses, Ramming masses, castables, gunning masses, fettling mix, mortars etc.  Dry vibration linings often used in Induction furnace linings are also monolithic, and sold and transported as a dry powder, usually with a magnesia/alumina composition with additions of other chemicals for altering specific properties. They are also finding more applications in blast furnace linings, although this use is still rare.

Based on fusion temperature.

Refractory materials are classified into three types based on fusion temperature (melting point).

Based on refractoriness.

Refractoriness is the property of a refractory's multiphase to reach a specific softening degree at high temperature without load, and is measured with a pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE) test. Refractories are classified as:

Based on thermal conductivity.

Refractories may be classified by thermal conductivity as either conducting, nonconducting, or insulating. Examples of conducting refractories are SiC and ZrC, whereas examples of nonconducting refractories are silica and alumina. Insulating refractories include calcium silicate materials, kaolin, and zirconia.  Insulating refractories are used to reduce the rate of heat loss through furnace walls. These refractories have low thermal conductivity due to a high degree of porosity, with a desired porous structure of small, uniform pores evenly distributed throughout the refractory brick in order to minimize thermal conductivity. Insulating refractories can be further classified into four types:

Refractory anchorage.

All refractories require anchorage systems such as wire formed anchors, formed metal (for example, hexmetal) or ceramic tiles to support the refractory linings. The anchorage used for refractories on roofs and vertical walls are more critical as they must remain able to support the weight of refractories even at the elevated temperatures and operating conditions.  The commonly used anchorages have circular or rectangular cross-sections. Circular cross-sections are used for low thickness refractory and they support less weight per unit area; whereas the rectangular cross-section is used for high thickness refractory and can support higher weight of refractory per unit area. The number of anchors depends on operating conditions and the refractory materials. The choice of an anchor's material, shape, quantity, and size has significant impact on the useful life of the refractory.

A refractory material or refractory is a material that is resistant to decomposition by heat, pressure, or chemical attack, and retains strength and form at high temperatures. Refractories are inorganic, nonmetallic, porous, and heterogeneous. They are typically composed of oxides of the following materials: silicon, aluminium, magnesium, calcium, and zirconium.

耐火材料的定义各国规定有所不同:ISO出版的国际标准中规定,耐火材料是指耐火度至少为1500°C的无机非金属材料;在中国,耐火材料是耐火度不低于1580°C的无机非金属材料。目前有些特定的材料,如炼钢用的保护渣,其耐火度仅1200°C,但传统上也称之为耐火材料。


Background.

Resistors above about 1 ohm in value can be measured using a variety of techniques, such as an ohmmeter or by using a Wheatstone bridge. In such resistors, the resistance of the connecting wires or terminals is negligible compared to the resistance value. For resistors of less than an ohm, the resistance of the connecting wires or terminals becomes significant, and conventional measurement techniques will include them in the result.

Principle of operation.

The operation of the Kelvin bridge is very similar to the Wheatstone bridge, but uses two additional resistors. Resistors "R" and "R" are connected to the outside potential terminals of the four terminal known or standard resistor "R" and the unknown resistor "R" (identified as "P" and "P"′ in the diagram). The resistors "R", "R", "R" and "R" are essentially a Wheatstone bridge. In this arrangement, the parasitic resistance of the upper part of "R" and the lower part of "R" is outside of the potential measuring part of the bridge and therefore are not included in the measurement. However, the link between "R" and "R" ("R") "is" included in the potential measurement part of the circuit and therefore can affect the accuracy of the result. To overcome this, a second pair of resistors "R"′ and "R"′ form a second pair of arms of the bridge (hence 'double bridge') and are connected to the inner potential terminals of "R" and "R" (identified as "P" and "P"′ in the diagram). The detector D is connected between the junction of "R" and "R" and the junction of "R"′ and "R"′.  The balance equation of this bridge is given by the equation  In a practical bridge circuit, the ratio of "R"′ to "R"′ is arranged to be the same as the ratio of R1 to R2 (and in most designs, "R" = "R"′ and "R" = "R"′). As a result, the last term of the above equation becomes zero and the balance equation becomes  Rearranging to make "R" the subject  The parasitic resistance "R" has been eliminated from the balance equation and its presence does not affect the measurement result. This equation is the same as for the functionally equivalent Wheatstone bridge.  In practical use the magnitude of the supply B, can be arranged to provide current through Rs and Rx at or close to the rated operating currents of the smaller rated resistor. This contributes to smaller errors in measurement. This current does not flow through the measuring bridge itself. This bridge can also be used to measure resistors of the more conventional two terminal design. The bridge potential connections are merely connected as close to the resistor terminals as possible. Any measurement will then exclude all circuit resistance not within the two potential connections.

Accuracy.

The accuracy of measurements made using this bridge are dependent on a number of factors. The accuracy of the standard resistor ("R") is of prime importance. Also of importance is how close the ratio of "R" to "R" is to the ratio of "R"′ to "R"′. As shown above, if the ratio is exactly the same, the error caused by the parasitic resistance ("R") is completely eliminated. In a practical bridge, the aim is to make this ratio as close as possible, but it is not possible to make it "exactly" the same. If the difference in ratio is small enough, then the last term of the balance equation above becomes small enough that it is negligible. Measurement accuracy is also increased by setting the current flowing through "R" and "R" to be as large as the rating of those resistors allows. This gives the greatest potential difference between the innermost potential connections ("R" and "R"′) to those resistors and consequently sufficient voltage for the change in "R"′ and "R"′ to have its greatest effect.  There are some commercial bridges reaching accuracies of better than 2% for resistance ranges from 1 microohm to 25 ohms. One such type is illustrated above.  Laboratory bridges are usually constructed with high accuracy variable resistors in the two potential arms of the bridge and achieve accuracies suitable for calibrating standard resistors. In such an application, the'standard' resistor ("R") will in reality be a sub-standard type (that is a resistor having an accuracy some 10 times better than the required accuracy of the standard resistor being calibrated). For such use, the error introduced by the mis-match of the ratio in the two potential arms would mean that the presence of the parasitic resistance "R" could have a significant impact on the very high accuracy required. To minimise this problem, the current connections to the standard resistor ("R"); the sub-standard resistor ("R") and the connection between them ("R") are designed to have as low a resistance as possible, and the connections both in the resistors and the bridge more resemble bus bars rather than wire.  Some ohmmeters include Kelvin bridges in order to obtain large measurement ranges. Instruments for measuring sub-ohm values are often referred to as low-resistance ohmmeters, milli-ohmmeters, micro-ohmmeters, etc.

A Kelvin bridge, also called a Kelvin double bridge and in some countries a Thomson bridge, is a measuring instrument used to measure unknown electrical resistors below 1 ohm. It is specifically designed to measure resistors that are constructed as four terminal resistors.

开尔文电桥(英语:Kelvin bridge),又称汤姆生电桥,用来测量电阻小于1欧姆的未知电阻。其原理与惠司通电桥类似,但多了额外的微小电阻,以降低测量误差,提升精确度。


Structure.

Gene.

The "LDLR" gene resides on chromosome 19 at the band 19p13.2 and is split into 18 exons. Exon 1 contains a signal sequence that localises the receptor to the endoplasmic reticulum for transport to the cell surface. Beyond this, exons 2-6 code the ligand binding region; 7-14 code the epidermal growth factor (EGF) domain; 15 codes the oligosaccharide rich region; 16 (and some of 17) code the membrane spanning region; and 18 (with the rest of 17) code the cytosolic domain.  This gene produces 6 isoforms through alternative splicing.

Protein.

This protein belongs to the LDLR family and is made up of a number of functionally distinct domains, including 3 EGF-like domains, 7 LDL-R class A domains, and 6 LDL-R class B repeats.  The N-terminal domain of the LDL receptor, which is responsible for ligand binding, is composed of seven sequence repeats (~50% identical). Each repeat, referred to as a class A repeat or LDL-A, contains roughly 40 amino acids, including 6 cysteine residues that form disulfide bonds within the repeat. Additionally, each repeat has highly conserved acidic residues which it uses to coordinate a single calcium ion in an octahedral lattice. Both the disulfide bonds and calcium coordination are necessary for the structural integrity of the domain during the receptor's repeated trips to the highly acidic interior of the endosome. The exact mechanism of interaction between the class A repeats and ligand (LDL) is unknown, but it is thought that the repeats act as "grabbers" to hold the LDL. Binding of ApoB requires repeats 2-7 while binding ApoE requires only repeat 5 (thought to be the ancestral repeat).  Next to the ligand binding domain is an EGF precursor homology domain (EGFP domain). This shows approximately 30% homology with the EGF precursor gene. There are three "growth factor" repeats; A, B and C. A and B are closely linked while C is separated by the YWTD repeat region, which adopts a beta-propeller conformation (LDL-R class B domain). It is thought that this region is responsible for the pH-dependent conformational shift that causes bound LDL to be released in the endosome.  A third domain of the protein is rich in O-linked oligosaccharides but appears to show little function. Knockout experiments have confirmed that no significant loss of activity occurs without this domain. It has been speculated that the domain may have ancestrally acted as a spacer to push the receptor beyond the extracellular matrix.  The single transmembrane domain of 22 (mostly) non-polar residues crosses the plasma membrane in a single alpha helix.  The cytosolic C-terminal domain contains ~50 amino acids, including a signal sequence important for localizing the receptors to clathrin-coated pits and for triggering receptor-mediated endocytosis after binding. Portions of the cytosolic sequence have been found in other lipoprotein receptors, as well as in more distant receptor relatives.

Mutations.

Mutations in the gene encoding the LDL receptor are known to cause familial hypercholesterolaemia.  There are 5 broad classes of mutation of the LDL receptor:

Function.

LDL receptor mediates the endocytosis of cholesterol-rich LDL and thus maintains the plasma level of LDL. This occurs in all nucleated cells, but mainly in the liver which removes ~70% of LDL from the circulation. LDL receptors are clustered in clathrin-coated pits, and coated pits pinch off from the surface to form coated endocytic vesicles that carry LDL into the cell. After internalization, the receptors dissociate from their ligands when they are exposed to lower pH in endosomes. After dissociation, the receptor folds back on itself to obtain a closed conformation and recycles to the cell surface. The rapid recycling of LDL receptors provides an efficient mechanism for delivery of cholesterol to cells. It was also reported that by association with lipoprotein in the blood, viruses such as hepatitis C virus, Flaviviridae viruses and bovine viral diarrheal virus could enter cells indirectly via LDLR-mediated endocytosis. LDLR has been identified as the primary mode of entry for the Vesicular stomatitis virus in mice and humans. In addition, LDLR modulation is associated with early atherosclerosis-related lymphatic dysfunction. Synthesis of receptors in the cell is regulated by the level of free intracellular cholesterol; if it is in excess for the needs of the cell then the transcription of the receptor gene will be inhibited. LDL receptors are translated by ribosomes on the endoplasmic reticulum and are modified by the Golgi apparatus before travelling in vesicles to the cell surface.

Clinical significance.

In humans, LDL is directly involved in the development of atherosclerosis, which is the process responsible for the majority of cardiovascular diseases, due to accumulation of LDL-cholesterol in the blood. Hyperthyroidism may be associated with hypocholesterolemia via upregulation of the LDL receptor, and hypothyroidism with the converse. A vast number of studies have described the relevance of LDL receptors in the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis, metabolic syndrome, and steatohepatitis. Previously, rare mutations in LDL-genes have been shown to contribute to myocardial infarction risk in individual families, whereas common variants at more than 45 loci have been associated with myocardial infarction risk in the population. When compared with non-carriers, LDLR mutation carriers had higher plasma LDL cholesterol, whereas APOA5 mutation carriers had higher plasma triglycerides. Recent evidence has connected MI risk with coding-sequence mutations at two genes functionally related to APOA5, namely lipoprotein lipase and apolipoprotein C-III. Combined, these observations suggest that, as well as LDL cholesterol, disordered metabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins contributes to MI risk. Overall, LDLR has a high clinical relevance in blood lipids.

Clinical marker.

A multi-locus genetic risk score study based on a combination of 27 loci, including the LDLR gene, identified individuals at increased risk for both incident and recurrent coronary artery disease events, as well as an enhanced clinical benefit from statin therapy. The study was based on a community cohort study (the Malmö Diet and Cancer study) and four additional randomized controlled trials of primary prevention cohorts (JUPITER and ASCOT) and secondary prevention cohorts (CARE and PROVE IT-TIMI 22).

The Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Receptor (LDL-R) is a mosaic protein of 839 amino acids (after removal of 21-amino acid signal peptide) that mediates the endocytosis of cholesterol-rich LDL. It is a cell-surface receptor that recognizes the apoprotein B100, which is embedded in the outer phospholipid layer of LDL particles. The receptor also recognizes the apoE protein found in chylomicron remnants and VLDL remnants (IDL). In humans, the LDL receptor protein is encoded by the "LDLR" gene on chromosome 19. It belongs to the Low density lipoprotein receptor gene family. It is most significantly expressed in bronchial epithelial cells and adrenal gland and cortex tissue.

低密度脂蛋白受体(Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) Receptor),又称LDL受体,为一种膜镶嵌式蛋白质,全长有839个氨基酸(扣掉21氨基酸长的讯息肽)。本受体调控低密度脂蛋白(LDL)的胞吞作用。此种受体专门辨认LDL颗粒上的B100脂蛋白,也可辨认乳糜微粒残体及中间密度脂蛋白(IDL,极低密度脂蛋白的残体)上的Apo E。人体LDL受体的基因编码为"LDLR"基因。属于低密度脂蛋白受体家族。


Varieties.

Researchers classify the Songhay languages into two main branches; Southern and Northern. Southern Songhay is centered on the Niger River. Zarma (Djerma), the most widely spoken Songhay language with two or three million speakers, is a major language of southwestern Niger (downriver from and south of Mali) including in the capital city, Niamey. Koyraboro Senni, with 400,000 speakers, is the language of the town of Gao, the seat of the old Songhai Empire. Koyra Chiini is spoken to its west. The much smaller Northern Songhay is a group of heavily Berber-influenced dialects spoken in the Sahara. Since the Berber influence extends beyond the lexicon into the inflectional morphology, the Northern Songhay languages are sometimes viewed as mixed languages.

Genetic affiliation.

Diedrich Hermann Westermann, a missionary and linguist, hesitated between assigning it to Gur or considering it an isolate, and Maurice Delafosse grouped it with Mande. At present, Songhay is normally considered to be Nilo-Saharan, following Joseph Greenberg's 1963 reclassification of African languages; Greenberg's argument is based on about 70 claimed cognates, including pronouns. This proposal has been developed further by, in particular, Lionel Bender, who sees it as an independent subfamily of Nilo-Saharan. Roger Blench notes that Songhay shares the defining singulative–plurative morphology typical of Nilo-Saharan languages. As of 2011, he believes that Songhay is closest to the neighboring Saharan languages and is not divergent.  However, a Nilo-Saharan classification is controversial. Greenberg's argument was subjected to serious criticism by Lacroix, who deemed only about 30 of Greenberg's claimed cognates acceptable, and moreover argued that these held mainly between Zarma and the Saharan languages, thus leading one to suspect them of being loanwords. Certain Songhay–Mande similarities have long been observed (at least since Westermann), and Mukarovsky (1966), Denis Creissels (1981) and Nicolaï (1977, 1984) investigated the possibility of a Mande relationship; Creissels made some 50 comparisons, including many body parts and morphological suffixes (such as the causative in "-endi"), while Nicolaï claimed some 450 similar words as well as some conspicuous typological traits. However, Nicolaï eventually concluded that this approach was not adequate, and in 1990 proposed a distinctly novel hypothesis: that Songhay is a Berber-based creole language, restructured under Mande influence. In support of this he proposed 412 similarities, ranging all the way from basic vocabulary ("tasa" "liver") to obvious borrowings ("anzad" "violin", "alkaadi" "qadi".) Others, such as Gerrit Dimmendaal, were not convinced, and Nicolaï (2003) appears to consider the question of Songhay's origins still open, while arguing against Bender's proposed etymologies.  Greenberg's morphological similarities with Nilo-Saharan include the personal pronouns "ai" (cf. Zaghawa "ai"), 'I', "ni" (cf. Kanuri "nyi"), 'you (sg.)', "yer" (e.g. Kanuri "-ye"), 'we', "wor" (cf. Kanuri "-wi"), 'you (pl.)'; relative and adjective formants "-ma" (e.g. Kanuri "-ma") and "-ko" (cf. Maba "-ko"), a plural suffix "-an" (?), a hypothetical plural suffix "-r" (cf. Teso "-r") which he takes to appear in the pronouns "yer" and "wor", intransitive/passive "-a" (cf. Teso "-o").  The most striking of the Mande similarities listed by Creissels are the third person pronouns "a" sg. (pan-Mande "a"), "i" pl. (pan-Mande "i" or "e"), the demonstratives "wo" "this" (cf. Manding "o", "wo") and "no" "there" (cf. Soninke "no", other Mande "na"), the negative "na" (found in a couple of Manding dialects) and negative perfect "mana" (cf. Manding "má", "máŋ"), the subjunctive "ma" (cf. Manding "máa"), the copula "ti" (cf. Bisa "ti", Manding "de/le"), the verbal connective "ka" (cf. Manding "kà"), the suffixes "-ri" (resultative - cf. Mandinka "-ri", Bambara "-li" process nouns), "-ncè" (ethnonymic, cf. Soninke "-nke", Mandinka "-nka"), "-anta" (ordinal, cf. Soninke "-ndi", Mandinka "-njaŋ"...), "-anta" (resultative participle, cf. Soninke "-nte"), "-endi" (causative, cf. Soninke, Mandinka "-ndi"), and the postposition "ra" "in" (cf. Manding "lá", Soso "ra"...)  The Songhay languages are considered to be an independent family by Dimmendaal (2011), although he classifies Saharan as part of Nilo-Saharan.

Grammar.

Songhay is mostly a tonal, SOV group of languages, an exception being the divergent Koyra Chiini of Timbuktu, which is non-tonal and uses SVO order.  Songhay has a morpheme "-ndi" which marks either the causative or the agentless passive. Verbs can even take two instances of the morpheme, one for each meaning. Thus "ŋa-ndi-ndi" figuratively translates to "[the rice] was made to be eaten [by someone: causee] [by someone: causer]".

Reconstruction.

Some Proto-Songhay reconstructions are: Some Proto-Eastern Songhay reconstructions are:

Numerals.

Comparison of numerals in individual languages:

Bibliography.

Publisher and publication abbreviations:

The Songhay or Songhai languages ( or ) are a group of closely related languages/dialects centred on the middle stretches of the Niger River in the West African countries of Mali, Niger, Benin, Burkina Faso and Nigeria. In particular, they are spoken in the cities of Timbuktu and Gao. They have been widely used as a "lingua franca" in that region ever since the era of the Songhai Empire. In Mali, the government has officially adopted the dialect of Gao (east of Timbuktu) as the dialect to be used as a medium of primary education.

桑海语族(Songhay或Songhai,或)是西非尼日尔河流域中部附近居民所说的一类语言,见于马里、尼日尔、贝宁、布基纳法索和尼日利亚。加奥和廷巴克图是最常能听到桑海语的城市。在这片曾被桑海帝国统治的区域,桑海语族的语言至今还作为通用语通行,而官方规定桑海语课程则采用加奥城的口音来传授。


Background.

Koppikar was born in 1976 at Mahim, Bombay (now Mumbai) in a Konkani family of Mangalorean descent. She has one younger brother. She graduated in Life Sciences at Ramnarain Ruia College in Mumbai. While at college she appeared in a photoshoot for Indian photographer Gautam Rajadhyaksha. The shoot led to work in advertising as a model, notably for "L'Oréal", "Rexona", "Camay", "Tips & Toes" and "Coca-Cola". Koppikar competed in the 1995 Miss India contest, winning the Miss Talent Crown. Her modelling work gave her an introduction to the film industry and to her first film appearance in the Telugu movie "Chandralekha" in 1998.

Film career.

Debut in South India (1998–2001).

The 1997 Hindi film "Ek Tha Dil Ek Thi Dhadhkan", directed by Shahrukh Sultan, is often stated to be Koppikar's first film, but there is no evidence the project was ever released. Her career must therefore be said to have begun with the 1998 Telugu film "Chandralekha", co-starring alongside Nagarjuna, and directed by Krishna Vamsi, with music by Maestro Sandeep Chowta. Her first movie in Tamil was "Kadhal Kavidhai" costarring Prashanth for which she won the Filmfare Best Female Debut Award. Her next Tamil movie was "En Swasa Kaatre" [1998] opposite Arvind Swamy, directed by K. S. Ravi, with music by A. R. Rahman followed by a cameo appearance in Praveen Gandhi's "Jodi" starring Prashanth and Simran. In 1999, Koppikar starred in the gangland movie "Nenjinile" starring Vijay and directed by S. A. Chandrasekhar.  By 2000, Koppikar's sights were on Bollywood, but this did not stop her from appearing in three Kannada films with the ruling Sandalwood stars of the time: "Hoo Anthiya Uhoo Anthiya" with Ramesh, "O Nanna Nalle" with Ravichandran and "Surya Vamsha"opposite Vishnuvardhan, all box office successes.  After a brief appearance in Bollywood's "Fiza" and "Rahul", while she came back to the south in 2001 for Sundar C's Tamil project "Kaathal Solla Vanthen" the movie never took off. Koppikar's last two films down South were Telugu comedy "Prematho Raa" starring Venkatesh and Simran, and directed by Uday Shankar, and "Narasimha"starring Vijayakanth.

Bollywood (2000–2008).

In 2000 Koppikar started her Bollywood career with a small role alongside Karisma Kapoor and Hrithik Roshan in Khalid Mohamed's "Fiza" and an item number appearance in Prakash Jha's "Rahul". In 2001 she made her full-fledged Bollywood debut with Rajiv Rai's "Pyaar Ishq Aur Mohabbat", starring Arjun Rampal and Sunil Shetty where she was paired with Shetty. Her next release was K. Raghavendra Rao's urban comedy "Aamdani Atthani Kharcha Rupaiyaa" opposite Govinda. In 2002 Koppikar appeared in an item number in Ram Gopal Verma's underworld movie "Company" starring Ajay Devgan, Vivek Oberoi and Manisha Koirala. The chartbusting item number choreographed by Ganesh Hegde earned her title of "Khallas Girl". Another notable item number "Ishq Samundar", in Sanjay Gupta's "Reservoir Dogs" remake "Kaante" starring Amitabh Bachchan, Sanjay Dutt and Sunil Shetty, raised her profile higher. She also won the Stardust Award for the "Most Exciting New Face" for her "Khallas" number. Koppikar acted in five films in 2003. In "Dil Ka Rishta", she starred opposite Arjun Rampal and Aishwarya Rai. Prawaal Raman's portmanteau film "Darna Mana Hai" saw her opposite Aftab Shivdasani. Chandraprakash Dwivedi cast her alongside Urmila Matondkar and Manoj Bajpai in the critically acclaimed "Pinjar" which went on to win the National Film Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration. A brief role in J. P. Dutta's war movie "LOC Kargil" paired her opposite Sunil Shetty again. And in Harry Baweja's "", she played one of three terrorists fighting off co-stars Ajay Devgan and Sunil Shetty; a role which earned her a Filmfare nomination in the "Best Villain" category.  She had six releases in 2004. Both Mani Shankar's science fantasy "Rudraksh" and Kundan Shah's madcap comedy "Ek Se Bhadkhar Ek" teamed her with Sunil Shetty. In "Krishna Cottage", she was cast opposite Sohail Khan for a creepy ghost story. "Inteqam", directed by Pankaj Parashar and co-starring Manoj Bajpai, saw her revive the role played by Sharon Stone in the original Hollywood version: "Basic Instinct". She made a cameo appearance in Kunal Kohli's "Hum Tum" with Saif Ali Khan and Rani Mukerji. And played the leading role in Karan Razdan's - "Girlfriend" with Amrita Arora and Aashish Chaudhary. The controversial film depicting a lesbian relationship provoked a wide range of public protests.  In 2005, she had four releases. Sangeeth Sivan's bawdy comedy "Kyaa Kool Hai Hum"with Anupam Kher, Ritesh Deshmukh and Tusshar Kapoor saw her getting nominated in three separate award ceremonies (IIFA, Zee Cine Award and Star Screen Awards) for best actor in a comedy role. Two more comedies saw her make guest appearances: David Dhawan's Salman Khan vehicle "Maine Pyaar Kyun Kiya?", and Abbas-Mustan's whodunit, "36 China Town" with Akshaye Khanna and Kareena Kapoor. She also starred in Ram Gopal Varma's gangster flick "D: Underworld Badhshah" alongside Randeep Hooda and Chunky Pandey.  In 2006 Farhan Akhtar directed a remake of the Amitabh Bachchan hit "" with superstar Shahrukh Khan in the lead. Koppikar was cast as Khan's girlfriend 'Anita'. "Don"s tremendous success however did not benefit her checkered career. Vicky Ranawat's "Haseena Smart Sexy and Dangerous" managed a release towards the end of 2006, but Jagdish A Sharma's murder mystery "Gahraee" appeared directly on DVD while Hansal Mehta's "Raakh" and Jahnu Barua's "Har Pal" were shelved. Ram Gopal Varma's much discussed "Shabri" - struggled to attract a distributor.  Koppikar's high profile film of 2007, Nikhil Advani's multi-starrer "Salaam-e-Ishq", had her sharing limited screen time with Sohail Khan. Later in the year came the haunted love triangle, Ram Gopal Varma's "Darling", with Fardeen Khan and Esha Deol. Koppikar's first film release of 2008 was Atul Agnihotri's "Hello", based on the best-selling novel "One Night @ the Call Center" by Chetan Bhagat. This was followed by "Ek Vivaah... Aisa Bhi", a Rajshri Production directed by Khashik Ghatak and co-starring Sonu Sood. None of the films were big successes at the box-office.

After her wedding (2009–).

Koppikar married Timmy Narang in 2009. She had two releases in 2010: "Right Yaaa Wrong" by Neeraj Pathak and Manoj Tiwari's "Hello Darling". Both films fared poorly at the box office.  "Shabri", where she played a woman gangster of Mumbai, was eventually released in 2011. Her performance was praised but the film only had a limited release and failed to make an impact at the box office. In 2013, she made her Marathi debut in "Maat", directed by Manohar Sarvankar. She played the lead role opposite Sameer Dharmadhikari in a story revolving around an ambitious couple.

Other works.

Between filming Koppikar, like many Bollywood actors, performs in stage music shows. In addition to this she has appeared in two music videos: "Patli Kamar" by KK for a private album commissioned by Sony in 2001/2002; and Bandish Projekt's "Bhor (Satyam Shivam Sundaram)" in 2004, choreographed by Bosco-Caesar. In 2006 she appeared onstage in the Indian Idol Grand Final to dance with the two finalists, and 2007 saw her as one of three judges in the celebrity dance competition "Nach Baliye"3, alongside director David Dhawan and Vaibhavi Merchant. She had also owned a restaurant back in 2015. She served as a judge in the Miss Universe 2008 contest, held on 14 July in Vietnam alongside, amongst others, fashion designer Roberto Cavalli and former winner in 2004 Jennifer Hawkins. In August 2009, she presented the new Colors wrestling show "100% De Dana Dan".  She continues to model for fashion designers Anita Dongre and Pria Kataria Puri. In 2007, she became the Indian brand ambassador of the Italian fashion company Police Time and Jewellery. Koppikar is also a spokesperson for the animal rights organisation PETA and received the 10th Anniversary Humanitarian Award in December 2009.

Personal life.

She has a black-belt in Taekwondo.  Following the advice of numerologists, she has changed the spelling of her name twice, first to Ishaa Koppikar and later to Eesha Koppikhar. However, as of 2015 she has reverted to the original spelling of her name.  Leena Mogre and Preity Zinta introduced her to hotelier Timmy Narang, whom she married on 29 November 2009.  She gave birth to their daughter Rianna in July 2014.

Political Career.

She joined the Bharatiya Janata Party in the presence of Union minister Nitin Gadkari. She has been appointed as the working president of the BJP's women transport wing.

Isha Koppikar (born 19 September 1976) is an Indian actress, politician and model who has appeared in Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Marathi films.

伊莎·柯比卡(,英语:Isha Koppikar,1976年-9月19日)是一位宝莱坞的电影演员。


Linguistic features.

Phonology.

Consonants.

There are 20 consonant phonemes:

Vowels.

Dinka has a rich vowel system, with thirteen phonemically contrastive short vowels. There are seven vowel qualities plus a two-way distinction in phonation. The underdots,, mark the breathy voice series, represented in Dinka orthography by diaereses,. Unmarked vowels are modal or creaky voiced.  Four phonetic phonations have been described in Dinka vowels: modal voice, breathy voice, faucalized voice, and harsh voice. The modal series has creaky or harsh voice realizations in certain environments, while the breathy vowels are centralized and have been described as being hollow voiced (faucalized). This is independent of tone.  On top of this, there are three phonemically contrastive vowel lengths, a feature found in very few languages. Most Dinka verb roots are single, closed syllables with either a short or a long vowel. Some inflections lengthen that vowel:

Tone.

The extensive use of tone and its interaction with morphology is a notable feature of all dialects of Dinka. The Bor dialects all have four tonemes at the syllable level: Low, High, Mid, and Fall.  In Bor proper, falling tone is not found on short vowels except as an inflection for the passive in the present tense. In Nyaarweng and Twïc it is not found at all. In Bor proper, and perhaps in other dialects as well, Fall is only realized as such at the end of a prosodic phrase. Elsewhere it becomes High.  In Bor proper and perhaps other dialects, a Low tone is only phonetically low after another low tone. Elsewhere it is falling, but not identical to Fall: It does not become High in the middle of a phrase, and speakers can distinguish the two falling tones despite the fact that they have the same range of pitch. The difference appears to be in the timing: with Fall one hears a high level tone that then falls, whereas the falling allophone of Low starts falling and then levels out. (That is, one falls on the first mora of the vowel, whereas the other falls on the second mora.) This is unusual because it has been theorized that such timing differences are never phonemic.

Morphology.

This language exhibits vowel ablaut or apophony, the change of internal vowels (similar to English "goose/geese"):

Dialects.

Linguists divide Dinka into five languages or dialect clusters corresponding to their geographic location with respect to each other:  Northeastern and western: Padang da Ayuel jiel (Abarlang, Nyiël, Ageer, Dongjol). Luäc da (Akook, Wieu, Aguer), Ngok de Jok (Upper Nile), Rut, Thoi, Western: Ngók de Jok Athuorkok (Abiei), Ngok de Jok da Awet and Kuel of Ruweeng (Panaru, Aloor and Paweny)  South Central: Aliap, Ciëc (Jang), Gok, and Agar  Southeastern Bor (Greater Bor): Bor, Twic (Twi), Nyarweng, and Hol  Southwestern: Rek, Abiëm, Aguók, Apuk, Awan, Kuac, Lóu, Luäc/Luänyjang, Malual (Malualgiėrnyang), Paliët, Paliëupiny, Twïc  These would be largely mutually intelligible if it were not for the importance of tone in grammatical inflection, as the grammatical function of tone differs from one variety to another.  See Ethnologue online map of Sudan for locations of dialects.

Writing system.

Dinka has been written with several Latin alphabets since the early 20th century. The current alphabet is:  Variants in other alphabets include:

Dinka (natively, or simply ) is a Nilotic dialect cluster spoken by the Dinka people, the major ethnic group of South Sudan. There are several main varieties, Padang, Rek, Agaar, Awiel, Twic, Bor, which are distinct enough (though mutually intelligible) to require separate literary standards. Jaang, Jieng or Monyjieng is used as a general term to cover all Dinka languages. Rek is the standard and prestige dialect.

丁卡语是南苏丹最有影响的族群丁卡人的语言。它有约140万使用者,主要有5个方言区。西南方言(Rek)被认为是其中的标准音。


Medical uses.

Rituximab destroys both normal and malignant B cells that have CD20 on their surfaces and is therefore used to treat diseases which are characterized by having too many B cells, overactive B cells, or dysfunctional B cells.  Rituximab is used in combination with fludarabine and cyclophosphamide to treat previously untreated and previously treated CD20-positive chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Rituximab is used in combination with methotrexate to treat moderately-to severely-active rheumatoid arthritis with inadequate response to one or more TNF antagonist therapies. Rituximab is used in combination with glucocorticoids to treat both granulomatosis with polyangiitis and microscopic polyangiitis.  Rituximab in combination with hyaluronidase human, sold as brand name "Rituxan Hycela", is used to treat follicular lymphoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, and chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

Blood cancers.

Rituximab is used to treat cancers of the white blood system such as leukemias and lymphomas, including non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and lymphocyte predominant subtype, of Hodgkin's Lymphoma. This also includes Waldenström's macroglobulinemia a type of NHL.

Autoimmune diseases.

Rituximab has been shown to be an effective rheumatoid arthritis treatment in three randomised controlled trials and is now licensed for use in refractory rheumatoid disease. In the United States, it has been FDA-approved for use in combination with methotrexate (MTX) for reducing signs and symptoms in adult patients with moderately to severely active rheumatoid arthritis (RA) who have had an inadequate response to one or more anti-TNF-alpha therapy. In Europe, the license is slightly more restrictive: it is licensed for use in combination with MTX in patients with severe active RA who have had an inadequate response to one or more anti-TNF therapy.  There is some evidence for efficacy, but not necessarily safety, in a range of other autoimmune diseases, and rituximab is widely used off-label to treat difficult cases of multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy and autoimmune anemias. The most dangerous, although among the most rare, side effect is progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) infection, which is usually fatal; however only a very small number of cases have been recorded occurring in autoimmune diseases.  Other autoimmune diseases that have been treated with rituximab include autoimmune hemolytic anemia, pure red cell aplasia, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), Evans syndrome, vasculitis (e.g., granulomatosis with polyangiitis), bullous skin disorders (for example pemphigus, pemphigoid—with very encouraging results of approximately 85% rapid recovery in pemphigus, according to a 2006 study), type 1 diabetes mellitus, Sjögren syndrome, anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis and Devic's disease, Graves' ophthalmopathy, autoimmune pancreatitis, Opsoclonus myoclonus syndrome (OMS), and IgG4-related disease. There is some evidence that it is ineffective in treating IgA-mediated autoimmune diseases.

Organ transplants.

Rituximab is being used off-label in the management of kidney transplant recipients. This drug may have some utility in transplants involving incompatible blood groups. It is also used as induction therapy in highly sensitized patients going for kidney transplantation. The use of rituximab has not been proven to be efficacious in this setting and like all depleting agents, carries with it the risk of infection.

Adverse events.

Serious adverse events, which can cause death and disability, include:  Two patients with systemic lupus erythematosus died of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) after being treated with rituximab. PML is caused by activation of JC virus, a common virus in the brain which is usually latent. Reactivation of the JC virus usually results in death or severe brain damage.  At least one patient with rheumatoid arthritis developed PML after treatment with rituximab.  Rituximab has been reported as a possible cofactor in a chronic Hepatitis E infection in a person with lymphoma. Hepatitis E infection is normally an acute infection, suggesting the drug in combination with lymphoma may have weakened the body's immune response to the virus.

Mechanisms of action.

The antibody binds to the cell surface protein CD20. CD20 is widely expressed on B cells, from early pre-B cells to later in differentiation, but it is absent on terminally differentiated plasma cells. Although the function of CD20 is unknown, it may play a role in Ca influx across plasma membranes, maintaining intracellular Ca concentration and allowing activation of B cells.  Rituximab is relatively ineffective in elimination of cells with low CD20 cell-surface levels. It tends to stick to one side of B cells, where CD20 is, forming a cap and drawing proteins over to that side. The presence of the cap changes the effectiveness of natural killer (NK) cells in destroying these B cells. When an NK cell latched onto the cap, it had an 80% success rate at killing the cell. In contrast, when the B cell lacked this asymmetric protein cluster, it was killed only 40% of the time.  The following effects have been found:  The combined effect results in the elimination of B cells (including the cancerous ones) from the body, allowing a new population of healthy B cells to develop from lymphoid stem cells.  Rituximab binds to amino acids 170-173 and 182-185 on CD20, which are physically close to each other as a result of a disulfide bond between amino acids 167 and 183.

History.

Rituximab was developed by researcher Nabil Hanna and coworkers at IDEC Pharmaceuticals under the name IDEC-C2B8. The U.S. patent for the drug was issued in 1998 and expired in 2015.  Based on its safety and effectiveness in clinical trials, rituximab was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1997 to treat B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas resistant to other chemotherapy regimens. Rituximab, in combination with CHOP chemotherapy, is superior to CHOP alone in the treatment of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and many other B-cell lymphomas. In 2010, it was approved by the European Commission for maintenance treatment after initial treatment of follicular lymphoma.  Rituximab is currently co-marketed by Biogen and Genentech in the U.S., by Hoffmann-La Roche in Canada and the European Union, Chugai Pharmaceuticals, Zenyaku Kogyo in Japan and AryoGen in Iran.  It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system.  In 2014 Genentech reclassified rituxan as a specialty drug, a class of drugs that are only available through specialty distributors in the US. Because wholesalers discounts and rebates no longer apply, hospitals would pay more.  Originally available for intravenous injection (e.g. over 2.5 hrs), in 2016 it gained EU approval in a formulation for subcutaneous injection for CLL.  Patents on the drug in expired in Europe in February 2013 and in the US in September 2016., several biosimilars had been approved in the US, India, the European Union, Switzerland, Japan and Australia.

Research.

Chronic fatigue syndrome.

Rituximab did not improve symptoms in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome in a trial published in 2019. 22% of participants had serious events. This potential use was investigated after improvements in chronic fatigue syndrome was seen in two cancer patients treated with rituximab.

Intrathecal.

For CNS diseases, rituximab could be administered intrathecally and this possibility is under study.

Other anti-CD20 monoclonals.

The efficacy and success of Rituximab has led to some other anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies being developed:

Rituximab, sold under the brand name Rituxan among others, is a medication used to treat certain autoimmune diseases and types of cancer. It is used for non-Hodgkin lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, rheumatoid arthritis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura, pemphigus vulgaris, myasthenia gravis and Epstein–Barr virus-positive mucocutaneous ulcers. It is given by slow injection into a vein. Common side effects, which often occur within two hours of the medication being given, include rash, itchiness, low blood pressure, and shortness of breath. Other severe side effects include reactivation of hepatitis B in those previously infected, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, and toxic epidermal necrolysis. It is unclear if use during pregnancy is safe for the baby. Rituximab is a chimeric monoclonal antibody against the protein CD20, which is primarily found on the surface of immune system B cells. When it binds to this protein it triggers cell death.

利妥昔单抗(通用名,国际非专利药品名称:Rituximab,由罗氏Roche药厂所生产的商品名为Mabthera (全球)、莫须瘤 (台湾);而由Genentech药厂所生产的商品名为Rituxan(全球)),是一种作用于人类CD20的人鼠嵌合单株抗体。由于CD20主要表现于B淋巴球细胞表面,因此莫须瘤可用来治疗因B淋巴球过多所造成的疾病,包括淋巴癌、白血病、移殖排斥和某些自体免疫疾病。


Etymology and nomenclature.

The "Kumbha" in Kumbha Mela literally means "pitcher, jar, pot" in Sanskrit. It is found in the Vedic texts, in this sense, often in the context of holding water or in mythical legends about the nectar of immortality. The word Kumbha or its derivatives are found in the "Rigveda" (1500–1200 BCE), for example, in verse 10.89.7; verse 19.16 of the "Yajurveda", verse 6.3 of "Samaveda", verse 19.53.3 of the "Atharvaveda", and other Vedic and post-Vedic ancient Sanskrit literature. In astrological texts, the term also refers to the zodiac sign of Aquarius. The astrological etymology dates to late 1st-millennium CE, likely influenced by Greek zodiac ideas.  The word "mela" means "unite, join, meet, move together, assembly, junction" in Sanskrit, particularly in the context of fairs, community celebration. This word too is found in the "Rigveda" and other ancient Hindu texts. Thus, Kumbh Mela means an "assembly, meet, union" around "water or nectar of immortality".

Mythology.

Many devout Hindus believe that the Kumbh mela originated in times immemorial and is attested in the Hindu mythology about Samudra manthan ("lit." churning of the ocean) found in the Vedic texts. Scholars, in contrast, question these claims as none of the ancient or medieval era texts that mention the Samudra Manthan legend ever link it to a "mela" or festival. According to Giorgio Bonazzoli – a scholar of Sanskrit Puranas, these are anachronistic explanations, an adaptation of early legends to a later practice by a "small circle of adherents" who have sought roots of a highly popular pilgrimage and festival. This Hindu legend describes the creation of a "pot of amrita (nectar of immortality)" after the forces of good and evil churn

History.

The earliest mention of Prayag and the bathing pilgrimage is found in "Rigveda Pariśiṣṭa" (supplement to the "Rigveda"). It is also mentioned in the Pali canons of Buddhism, such as in section 1.7 of "Majjhima Nikaya", wherein the Buddha states that bathing in "Payaga" (Skt: Prayaga) cannot wash away cruel and evil deeds, rather the virtuous one should be pure in heart and fair in action. The "Mahabharata" mentions a bathing pilgrimage at Prayag as a means of "prāyaścitta" (atonement, penance) for past mistakes and guilt. In "Tirthayatra Parva", before the great war, the epic states "the one who observes firm [ethical] vows, having bathed at Prayaga during Magha, O best of the Bharatas, becomes spotless and reaches heaven." In "Anushasana parva", after the war, the epic elaborates this bathing pilgrimage as "geographical tirtha" that must be combined with "manasa-tirtha" (tirtha of the heart) whereby one lives by values such as truth, charity, self-control, patience and others.  There are other references to Prayaga and river-side festivals in ancient Indian texts, including at the places where present-day Kumbh Melas are held, but the exact age of the Kumbh Mela is uncertain. The 7th-century Buddhist Chinese traveller Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) mentions king Harsha and his capital of Prayag, which he states to be a sacred Hindu city with hundreds of "deva temples" and two Buddhist institutions. He also mentions the Hindu bathing rituals at the junction of the rivers. According to some scholars, this is the earliest surviving historical account of the Kumbh Mela, which took place in present-day Prayag in 644 CE.  Kama MacLean – an Indologist who has published articles on the Kumbh Mela predominantly based on the colonial archives and English-language media, states based on emails from other scholars and a more recent interpretation of the 7th-century Xuanzang memoir, the Prayag event happened every 5 years (and not 12 years), featured a Buddha statue, involved alms giving and it might have been a Buddhist festival. In contrast, Ariel Glucklich – a scholar of Hinduism and Anthropology of Religion, the Xuanzang memoir includes, somewhat derisively, the reputation of Prayag as a place where people (Hindus) once committed superstitious devotional suicide to liberate their souls, and how a Brahmin of an earlier era successfully put an end to this practice. This and other details such as the names of temples and bathing pools suggest that Xuanzang presented Hindu practices at Prayag in the 7th-century, from his Buddhist perspective and perhaps to "amuse his audience back in China", states Glucklich.  Other early accounts of the significance of Prayag to Hinduism is found in the various versions of the "Prayaga Mahatmya", dated to the late 1st-millennium CE. These Purana-genre Hindu texts describe it as a place "bustling with pilgrims, priests, vendors, beggars, guides" and local citizens busy along the confluence of the rivers ("sangam"). These Sanskrit guide books of the medieval era India were updated over its editions, likely by priests and guides who had a mutual stake in the economic returns from the visiting pilgrims. One of the longest sections about Prayag rivers and its significance to Hindu pilgrimage is found in chapters 103–112 of the "Matsya Purana".

Significance and impact.

The Kumbh melas of the past, albeit with different regional names, attracted large attendance and have been religiously significant to the Hindus for centuries. However, they have been more than a religious event to the Hindu community. Historically the Kumbh Melas were also major commercial events, initiation of new recruits to the "akharas", prayers and community singing, spiritual discussions, education and a spectacle. During the colonial era rule of the East India Company, its officials saw the Hindu pilgrimage as a means to collect vast sums of revenue through a "pilgrim tax" and taxes on the trade that occurred during the festival. According to Dubey, as well as Macclean, the Islamic encyclopaedia "Yadgar-i-Bahaduri" written in 1834 Lucknow, described the Prayag festival and its sanctity to the Hindus. The British officials, states Dubey, raised the tax to amount greater than average monthly income and the attendance fell drastically. The Prayagwal pandas initially went along, according to colonial records, but later resisted as the impact of the religious tax on the pilgrims became clear. In 1938, Lord Auckland abolished the pilgrim tax and vast numbers returned to the pilgrimage thereafter. According to Macclean, the colonial records of this period on the Prayag Mela present a biased materialistic view given they were written by colonialists and missionaries.  Baptist missionary John Chamberlain, who visited the 1824 Ardh Kumbh Mela at Haridwar, stated that a large number of visitors came there for trade. He also includes a 1814 letter from his missionary friend who distributed copies of the Gospel to the pilgrims and tried to convert some to Christianity. According to an 1858 account of the Haridwar Kumbh Mela by the British civil servant Robert Montgomery Martin, the visitors at the fair included people from a number of races and clime. Along with priests, soldiers, and religious mendicants, the fair had horse traders from Bukhara, Kabul, Turkistan as well as Arabs and Persians. The festival had roadside merchants of food grains, confectioners, clothes, toys and other items. Thousands of pilgrims in every form of transport as well as on foot marched to the pilgrimage site, dressed in colorful costumes, some without clothes, occasionally shouting "Mahadeo Bol" and "Bol, Bol" together. At night the river banks and camps illuminated with oil lamps, fireworks burst over the river, and innumerable floating lamps set by the pilgrims drifted downstream of the river. Several Hindu rajas, Sikh rulers and Muslim Nawabs visited the fair. Europeans watched the crowds and few Christian missionaries distributed their religious literature at the Hardwar Mela, wrote Martin. Prior to 1838, the British officials collected taxes but provided no infrastructure or services to the pilgrims. This changed particularly after 1857. According to Amna Khalid, the Kumbh Melas emerged as one of the social and political mobilisation venues and the colonial government became keen in monitoring these developments after the Indian rebellion of 1857. The government deployed police to gain this intelligence at the grassroots level of Kumbh Mela. The British officials in co-operation with the native police also made attempts to improve the infrastructure, movement of pilgrims to avoid a stampede, detect sickness, and the sanitary conditions at the Melas. Reports of cholera led the officials to cancel the pilgrimage, but the pilgrims went on "passive resistance" and stated they preferred to die rather than obey the official orders.

Calendar, locations and preparations.

Types.

The Kumbh Mela are classified as:  For the 2019 Allahabad Kumbh Mela, the Uttar Pradesh chief minister Yogi Adityanath announced that

Locations.

Numerous sites and fairs have been locally referred to be their Kumbh Melas. Of these, four sites are broadly recognised as

Dates.

Each site's celebration dates are calculated in advance according to a special combination of zodiacal positions of Bṛhaspati (Jupiter), Surya (the Sun) and Chandra (the Moon). The relative years

Past years.

Kumbh Mela at Allahabad is celebrated approximately 3 years after Kumbh at Haridwar and

Festival management.

The Kumbh mela attracts tens of millions of pilgrims. Providing for a safe and pleasant temporary stay at the festival site is a complex and challenging task. The camping (santhas/akharas), food, water, sanitation, emergency health care, fire services, policing, disaster management preparations, the movement of people require significant prior planning. Further, assistance to those with special needs and lost family members through "Bhule-Bhatke Kendra" demands extensive onsite communication and co-ordination. In the case of Prayag in particular, the festival site is predominantly submerged during the monsoon months. The festival

Rituals.

Bathing and processions.

Bathing, or a dip in the river waters, with a prayer, is the central ritual of the Kumbh Melas for all pilgrims. Traditionally, on "amavasya" – the most cherished day for bathing – the Hindu pilgrims welcome and wait for the thirteen sadhu akharas to bathe first. This event – called "shahi snan" or "rajyogi snan" – is marked by a celebratory processional march, with banners, flags, elephants, horses and musicians along with the naked or scantily clad monks, some smeared with "bhasma" (ashes). These monastic institutions come from different parts of India, have a particular emblem symbol and deity (Ganesha, Dattatreya, Hanuman, etc.). The largest contingent is the Juna akhara, traced to Adi Shankara, representing a diverse mix from the four of the largest Hindu monasteries in India with their headquarters at Sringeri, Dvarka, Jyotirmatha and Govardhana. The Mahanirbani and Niranjani are the other large contingents, and each akhara has their own lineage of saints and teachers. Large crowds gather in reverence and cheer for these procession of monks. Once these monks have taken the dip, the festival day opens for bathing by

Feasts, festivities and discussions.

Some pilgrims walk considerable distances and arrive barefoot, as a part of their religious tradition. Most pilgrims stay for a day or two, but some stay the entire month of "Magh" during the festival and live an austere life during the stay. They attend spiritual discourses, fast and pray over the month, and these Kumbh pilgrims are called "kalpavasis".  The festival site is strictly vegetarian by tradition, as violence against animals is considered unacceptable. Many pilgrims practice partial (one meal a day) or full "vrata" (day-long fasting), some abstain from elaborate meals. These

Darshan.

Darshan, or viewing, is an important part of the Kumbh Mela. People make the pilgrimage to the Kumbh Mela specifically to observe and experience both the religious and secular aspects of the event. Two major groups that participate in the Kumbh Mela include the Sadhus (Hindu holy men) and pilgrims. Through their continual yogic practices the Sadhus articulate the transitory aspect of life. Sadhus travel to the Kumbh Mela to make themselves available to much

Kumbh Mela in the media.

Kumbh Mela has received extensive media coverage, with several documentaries and films based on it. Kumbh Mela has been theme for many documentaries, including "Kings with Straw Mats" (1998) directed by Ira Cohen, "Kumbh Mela: The Greatest Show on Earth" (2001) directed by Graham Day, "" (2004) directed by Nick Day and produced by "Maurizio Benazzo", "Kumbh Mela: Songs of the River" (2004) by Nadeem Uddin, "Invocation, Kumbh Mela" (2008), "Kumbh Mela 2013: Living with Mahatiagi" (2013) by the Ukrainian Religious Studies Project Ahamot, and "Kumbh Mela: Walking with the Nagas" (2011), "Amrit: Nectar of Immortality" (2012) directed by Jonas Scheu and Philipp Eyer.  In 2007, the National Geographic filmed and broadcast a documentary of the Prayag Kumbh Mela, named "Inside Nirvana", under the direction of Karina Holden with the scholar Kama Maclean as a consultant. In 2013, the National

Threat of terrorism.

In November 2018, Islamic terrorist organisation ISIS threatened to attack the Hindu pilgrims who visit the Kumbh at Allahabad in 2019. The 10 minute audio clip warned of a 2017 Las Vegas style attacks to be carried out by lone wolf attackers. The clip also called on the Mujahideen to use different tactics like poisoning the food, use trucks or at least try to derail a train. The terrorists had threatened to poison the water of river Ganga.

Kumbh Mela or Kumbha Mela () is a major pilgrimage and festival in Hinduism. It is celebrated in a cycle of approximately 12 years at four river-bank pilgrimage sites: the Allahabad (Ganges-Yamuna Sarasvati rivers confluence), Haridwar (Ganges), Nashik (Godavari), and Ujjain (Shipra). The festival is marked by a ritual dip in the waters, but it is also a celebration of community commerce with numerous fairs, education, religious discourses by saints, mass feedings of monks or the poor, and entertainment spectacle. The seekers believe that bathing in these rivers is a means to prāyaścitta (atonement, penance) for past mistakes, and that it cleanses them of their sins.

大壶节(天城体:कुम्भ मेला)是印度教每十二年举行一次的宗教活动,每次择一在印度四个城市(安拉阿巴德、赫尔德瓦尔、乌贾恩、纳西克)举行,另外每六年在安拉阿巴德和赫尔德瓦尔举行半礼,每三年一次小礼。举行的日期可以长达五十五天,2013年的一次预计将有一亿人次参加。


Access.

The island is off-limits to civilians, except from the Japan Meteorological Agency, although reporters, documentary makers, and scientific researchers can sometimes get an entry permit. There are no commercial boat tours or flights to the island, and civilians are currently not allowed access to Minami-Tori-shima for tours or sightseeing, due to its use by the JSDF as an observation station.  Because of its isolation, it is of some interest to amateur radio hobbyists, since the island is counted as a separate country for amateur radio awards based on station contacts.

Geography and geology.

Minami-Tori-shima is very isolated. There is no other land for over in any direction.  The island is triangular in shape, and has a saucer-like profile, with a raised outer rim of between above sea level. The central area of the island is below sea level. Minami-Tori-Shima is surrounded by fringing reefs which ranges from in width, enclosing a shallow lagoon, which is connected with the open ocean by narrow passages on the southern and northeastern sides.  Outside the reef, the ocean depths quickly plunge to over. The island has a total land area of ). It takes about 45 minutes to walk around the island.  The sea is clear in the shallow area around Minami-Tori-Shima. At night, there is no light pollution so rarely-noticed stars are clearly visible in the sky.  The island doesn't have soil adequate to produce substantial crops, so food is brought in by supply ships and planes. The only food grown on the island is papaya, mustard greens, coconuts, and saltwater fish.

Minami-Tori-Shima area rare earth deposits.

After China restricted exports of strategic rare earth oxides (REO) in 2009 Japan started to explore its seabeds for deposits.  In January 2013, a deep-sea research vessel of the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology obtained seven deep-sea mud core samples from the seafloor at 5,600 to 5,800 meters depth, approximately south of the island. The research team found a mud layer 2 to 4 meters beneath the seabed that is extremely concentrated in REO. Analytical results showed that the maximum REO content in the mud was up to 0.66% REO.  In 2018 a scientific study of the seabed mud resulted in an estimate of 16 million tons of rare earth mineralised sediments within the studied area. The calculated rare-earth element and yttrium content for the research area was more than 16 million tons (average = 964ppm).

Wildlife.

A type of Gecko family called Perochirus ateles inhabits the island. In Japan, these are only found in Minami-Tori-Shima and South Iwo Jima. They are thought to have arrived from Micronesia on driftwood.  There are also a large number of land snails called Achatina fulica with parasites which are harmful to humans. There is various marine life in the ocean around the island. This includes sea snakes, tuna, sharks and some rare fish. Small fish are in the shallow area around the island.

Population.

There are no local residents on Minami-Tori-shima: Civilians are not allowed to reside there, and the personnel of the Japan Meteorological Agency, Japan Self-Defense Forces, and the Japan Coast Guard, only serve on the island for a limited period of time, and in limited numbers.

History.

First known sightings.

The first discovery and mention of an island in this area was made by a Spanish Manila galleon captain, Andrés de Arriola in 1694. It was charted in Spanish maps as "Sebastián López", after Spanish Admiral Sebastián López, victorious in the battles of La Naval de Manila in 1646 against the Dutch. Its exact location was left unrecorded until further sightings in the 19th century.  Captain Bourn Russell (1794–1880) in the "Lady Rowena" departed Sydney, NSW, 2 November 1830 on a Pacific whaling voyage. On his return on 27 June 1832, he reported an island, not on his charts, which he named "William the Fourth's Island". The newspaper report gives a description of the size, shape, and orientation of the island and its reef, but unfortunately not only misspells the captain's name but gives the island a south latitude.  The island was sighted again on 16 December 1864 by Captain Charles Gelett of the Hawaiian Evangelical Association's missionary ship "Morning Star", and was called by him "Weeks Island". Its position was recorded by a United States survey ship in 1874 and first sighted by a Japanese national, Kiozaemon Saito in 1879.

Colonization and sovereignty contention.

On 30 June 1886, a Japanese man named Shinroku Mizutani led a group of 46 colonists from Haha-jima in the Ogasawara Islands to settle on Marcus Island. The settlement was named "Mizutani" after the leader of the expedition. The Empire of Japan officially annexed the island 24 July 1898, the previous United States claim from 1889 according to the Guano Islands Act not being officially acknowledged. The island was officially named "Minami-Tori-Shima" and placed administratively under the Ogasawara Subprefecture of Tokyo.  Sovereignty over the island before World War I was apparently disputed as various sources from the time move the island from the American to Japanese domain without specific explanation. In 1902, the United States dispatched a warship from Hawaii to enforce its claims but withdrew on finding the island still inhabited by Japanese, with a Japanese warship patrolling nearby. In 1914, William D. Boyce included Marcus Island as an obviously American island in his book, "The Colonies and Dependencies of the United States". In 1933, by orders of the Japanese government, the civilian inhabitants of Minami-Tori-Shima were evacuated. In 1935, the Imperial Japanese Navy established a meteorological station on the island and built an airstrip.

World War II.

After the start of World War II the Japanese garrison stationed on the island consisted of the 742 man Minami-Tori-shima Guard Unit, under the command of Rear Admiral Masata Matsubara and the 2,005 man 12th Independent Mixed Regiment of the Imperial Japanese Army, under the command of Colonel Yoshiichi Sakata. The United States Navy bombed it repeatedly in 1942 and in 1943, but never attempted to capture it (the island was featured in the U.S. film "The Fighting Lady"). Japan was able to resupply the garrison by submarine, using a channel, still visible today, cut through the reef on the northwest side of the island. The island was subject to repeated U.S. air attacks during World War II and finally surrendered when the destroyer arrived on 31 August 1945.

U.S. occupation.

The Treaty of San Francisco transferred the island to American control in 1952. The island was returned to Japanese control in 1968, but the Americans retained control of the airstrip and LORAN station.  In 1964, after some delays caused by storms that ravaged the island during construction, the U.S. Coast Guard opened a LORAN-C navigation station on Minami-Tori-Shima, whose mast was until 1985 one of the tallest structures in the Pacific area at 1350 ft. Before replacing Loran A for general marine navigation, Loran C was used by submarine-launched Polaris missile systems and the existence and location of Loran C stations was classified. LORANSTA Marcus Island was billeted for 23 U.S. Coast Guard personnel. The commissioning commanding officer was U.S. Coast Guard Lieutenant Commander Louis. C. Snell. A detachment of SeaBees remained on the island for several months making repairs to the island's airstrip.  The island is extremely isolated and Coast Guardsmen stationed on the island served one-year tours that were later modified to allow an R&R visit to mainland Japan at the six-month point. At the end of this isolated tour of duty crew members received an additional 30 days of compensatory leave.  While under U.S. administration, on Thursdays a C-130 Hercules from the 345th Tactical Airlift Squadron, Yokota Air Base, Japan, would resupply the island on weekly missions. (Often Coast Guardsmen would amuse themselves by judging aircraft landings, raising placards painted with large numbers.) An unusually long four-hour ground time was scheduled to allow technicians who flew in to perform maintenance on the transmitter and to offload extra fuel from the C-130 to power the island's generator. It also allowed the Coast Guardsmen to read and answer letters while aircrews would snorkel and collect green glass fishing buoys that wash up on the shore. During the Vietnam war era the weekly log flight was a DC6 flight conducted by the infamous "Air America", operated by the CIA.

Resumed Japanese occupation.

The Marcus Island station was transferred from the U.S. Coast Guard to the Japan Maritime Self Defense Force (JMSDF) on 30 September 1993, and was closed on 1 December 2009.  The island is currently used for weather observation and has a radio station, but little else. The JMSDF garrison was supplied by C-130 from Iruma Air Base, or by C-130 from Haneda or Atsugi Air Base with flights via Iwo Jima on a weekly basis. The runway of Minami Torishima Airport is only long and cannot handle large aircraft.

Climate.

Minami-Tori-shima has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification "Aw"), with warm to hot temperatures throughout the year. The wettest months are July and August, while the driest months are February and March. It has the highest average temperature in Japan of.

, also known as Marcus Island, is an isolated Japanese coral atoll in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, located some southeast of Tokyo and east of the closest Japanese island, South Iwo Jima of the Ogasawara Islands, and nearly on a straight line between mainland Tokyo and Wake Island, further to the east-southeast. The closest island to Minami-Tori-shima is East Island in the Mariana Islands, which is to the west-southwest.

南鸟岛(),亦名马库斯岛(英语:Marcus Island),是日本在太平洋中的一个珊瑚岛,属东京都小笠原村管辖。南鸟岛位于北纬24°18′,东经153°58′,为日本最东端的领土,西距最近的日本领土小笠原群岛1,267公里,西北距东京1,848公里,东南距威克岛1,415公里,西南距马利安纳群岛1,021公里。该岛面积1.52平方公里,除驻守人员外无常住人口。


Location.

Cannon Street is a terminal station, approached across the River Thames by the Cannon Street Railway Bridge. Its approach by rail is through a triangular connection to both and. It is one of eighteen stations in the country that are managed by Network Rail.  There were originally eight platforms; a refurbishment in the late 1990s removed the original platform 1. It has entrances on Cannon Street itself and Dowgate Hill. It is located near London Stone (to the north of the station).  London Buses routes 15, 17, 21, 35, 43, 47, 133, 141, 149, 344, 388, 521 and night routes N8, N11, N15, N21, N25, N26, N133, N199, N242, N550 and N551 serve the station.

History.

Original structure.

Cannon Street station was built on a site where the Hanseatic merchants' steelyard had been based from the 10th century until 1598. The site was proposed in 1860 by the South Eastern Railway (SER) in response to its rival, the London, Chatham & Dover Railway (LC&DR), extending a line into the City of London as far north as Ludgate Hill. The SER had already made plans to extend its line towards, but decided that it should complement this with a terminus in the City.  In 1861, the company obtained an act for a station in Cannon Street, a short distance from Mansion House and the Bank of England. In addition to taking traffic from the LC&DR, the new station would provide a direct railway link between the City and the West End, over which a journey could be made in a fraction of the time taken travelling by road. The approach was a branch of the line to Charing Cross, west of London Bridge. Work started on the station and its approach in July 1863.  The station was opened on 1 September 1866 at a cost of £4 million (now £ million). The original building was designed by Sir John Hawkshaw and John Wolfe-Barry and was characterised by its two Christopher Wren-style towers, square and high, which faced on to the River Thames. The towers supported an iron train shed, long and crowned by a high single arch, almost semicircular, of glass and iron. The station is carried over Upper Thames Street on a brick viaduct, long and containing 27 million bricks. Below this viaduct exist the remains of a number of Roman buildings, which form a scheduled ancient monument. The bridge was open to pedestrians between 1872 and 1877; they paid a toll of 1⁄2d. The five-storey City Terminus Hotel, which fronted the station, was opened in May 1867. It was an Italianate style hotel and forecourt, designed by E. M. Barry, and it provided many of the station's passenger facilities, as well as an appropriate architectural frontispiece to the street. This arrangement was very similar to that put in place at Charing Cross. The hotel was not profitable, and was over £47,000 (now £) in debt by 1870. The City Terminus Hotel was renamed the Cannon Street Hotel in 1879. In July 1920, the hotel was the first meeting point of the Communist Party of Great Britain. Most of the hotel was closed in 1931, but the public rooms were kept open for meetings. The rest were converted into offices and renamed Southern House. The hotel is referred to in The Fire Sermon section of T. S. Eliot's "The Waste Land".  Upon its opening Cannon Street station was a stopping point for all services to and from Charing Cross, including boat trains to Continental Europe. A shuttle service between the two stations ran every 20 minutes and became a popular way of travelling between the City and the West End. However, the opening of the District Railway as far as Blackfriars caused traffic to decline, and its extension to Mansion House the following year reduced it further. The SER's route could not compete with the Underground, which was more direct and reliable, but suburban traffic to Cannon Street remained popular, and the bridge was widened to in the late 1880s, allowing ten tracks with sidings. The rebuilt bridge was opened on 13 February 1892. The signal boxes outside the station were upgraded the following year.  The London and Southwestern Railway (LSWR) became interested in using Cannon Street as a terminus, as it would allow a connection between Waterloo and the City.

War years.

Work on strengthening the bridge, by the addition of six new girders in between the existing ones, was completed in 1913.  Most Cannon Street train services ceased during World War I. Continental boat trains were stopped on 15 November 1914 and rerouted to Victoria. The station stopped being served by through services from Charing Cross on 31 December 1916, and was closed on Sundays. Services were reduced further on 1 May 1918, when it was closed after 3 p.m. on Saturdays and between 11 a.m. and 4 p.m. Mondays to Fridays. This allowed Cannon Street to be used as a goods depot for war supplies.  Between 5 and 28 June 1926, the station was closed to allow the Southern Railway to carry out various works, including the rebuilding of the platforms, relaying of the tracks and installation of a new system of electrical signalling – the four-aspect colour light scheme. The station was also renovated and the glass roof cleaned. The number of platforms was reduced from nine to eight, with five set aside for the new electric trains. The signal box spanning the width of the railway bridge was removed. In July 1939, Cannon Street was closed for a week following a fire in Borough Market which prevented any trains accessing it.  The station, which had been subject to structural neglect prior to World War II, suffered extensive bomb damage and was hit by several incendiary devices which damaged the roof. A high explosive also hit platform 8. The original glass roof had been removed before the war, in an attempt to save it; however, the factory in which the roof was stored was itself badly bombed, destroying the roof.

Redevelopment.

Following in 1948, the station was managed by the Southern Region of British Railways. The station's prime location coupled with the property boom of the 1950s and the need for British Rail to seek alternative revenue streams made war-damaged Cannon Street a key target for property developers. Steam trains stopped running from Cannon Street in 1959.  Various plans were mooted for the reconstruction of the station, from the installation of a new ticket hall and concourse under Southern House in 1955 as part of British Rail's Modernisation Plan to the construction of a car park estimated to cost £125,000 (now £) and even a helipad. In 1962, the British Transport Commission entered into an agreement with Town & Country Properties for the construction of a multi-storey office building above the station with of floor space. The cost of the development was £2.35 million (now £ million) and it was scheduled for completion by June 1965.  In preparation for redevelopment, the remains of the train shed roof had been demolished in 1958, and Barry's hotel (which had been used as offices since 1931) soon followed in 1960. The architect selected to design the new building was John Poulson who was good friends with Graham Tunbridge, a British Rail surveyor whom he had met during the war. Poulson took advantage of this friendship to win contracts for the redevelopment of various British Rail termini. He paid Tunbridge a weekly income of £25 and received in return building contracts, including the rebuilding of Waterloo and East Croydon stations. At his trial in 1974, Poulson admitted that, shortly before receiving the Cannon Street building contract, he had given Tunbridge a cheque for £200 and a suit worth £80. Poulson was later found guilty of corruption charges and given a seven-year concurrent sentence; Tunbridge received a 15-month suspended sentence and a £4,000 fine for his role in the affair.  All that now remains of the original station architecture are the twin yellow brick towers at the country-end and parts of the low flanking walls.

Modern era.

The station's twin brick towers were listed Grade II in 1972. In 1974, the station was closed for five weeks from 2 August to 9 September to enable alterations to be made to the track and the approaches to London Bridge to be resignalled. Traffic was diverted to London Bridge, Charing Cross and. On 4 March 1976, a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) bomb of about 10 lb (4.5 kg) exploded on an empty commuter train leaving Cannon Street, injuring eight people on another train travelling alongside.  On 15 February 1984, it was reported in "The Times" that Cannon Street was to close. At the time, the station had been closed for weekends and evenings, and the publication of British Rail's new timetable for 1984–1985 revealed that it would lose all its direct off-peak services to the south-east. Services from Sevenoaks,,,,,,, Lewisham and Greenwich would instead terminate at except during peak hours. This was denied by British Rail (Southern)'s manager David Kirby, who pointed out that it had invested £10 million in redecking the railway bridge, and that passengers travelling from the south-east during off-peak hours would most likely be visiting the West End and not the City.  In 1986, the twin towers were restored in a project costing £242,000 (now £). The works revealed that the east tower still contained a large water tank which was used during the days of steam traction to replenish locomotives and to power the station's hydraulic systems. The brickwork was repaired, cleaned and repointed, and the weather vanes gilded to complement the dome of nearby St Paul's Cathedral. This work was one of the Railway Heritage Trust's first projects and coincided with an exhibition held in the station in August of the same year to mark its 150th anniversary. In the 1980s, there was another property boom and British Rail again began looking into further commercial uses of the Cannon Street landspace, including of office space. The air rights over the platforms to the rear of Poulson's office were sold to Speyhawk which appointed Bovis Construction to build a free-standing structure comprising two office blocks on a 6,000 tonne steel deck constructed over the station's eight platforms. The Cannons Club, a sports club, was founded beneath the station's arches around this time, and quickly became one of the most prestigious squash clubs in the country. InterCity, the high-speed arm of British Rail, subsequently sponsored the National Squash Championships and National Squash Challenge.  The larger office block, the "Atrium building", provides of office space on six floors and is linked to the smaller building, the "River building", via a glazed link raised through a central glazed atrium. The River building, which has two storeys, is built on the steel deck and contained within the station's two flank walls, which were rebuilt, providing of office space. This building projects slightly beyond the restored twin towers which form the riverside boundary to the development. The Atrium building was later let to the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange (Liffe). The River building has a roof garden. The project cost around £500,000 and was laid to comply with planning restrictions which required the building to be low and flat to maintain the sight lines from St Paul's to Tower Bridge.  Planning permission was granted in March 2007 to replace the Poulson building, with a new air rights building designed by Foggo Associates. Hines, the US developer, led a £360 million project involving the demolition of Poulson's office block, replacing it with a mixed-use development containing more than of office space alongside of station retail space. The redevelopment was part of a larger regeneration programme undertaken by Network Rail to modernise and "unlock the commercial potential" of the main London termini; and were also redeveloped. Network Rail's director of commercial property said that the finished station would be "less congested and more accessible for passengers." Cannon Street won the award for "Major Station of the Year" at the 2013 National Rail Awards.  In January 2015, the station's opening hours were extended to 0500–0100 Monday to Sunday (prior to this, the station had been closed on Sundays and during the evenings), and several services which previously terminated at Charing Cross were diverted to Cannon Street as a result of Thameslink Programme works. Some of these services will revert to terminating at Charing Cross following the completion of the works, while services from the Greenwich line and from New Cross and St Johns will permanently run to Cannon Street due to the removal of the Spa Road Junction.

National Rail.

The station connects the south side of the City to south and south-east London via station. Some services run directly into Cannon Street from Kent and East Sussex, but only during rush hours. Occasionally during the weekends when track maintenance is in progress, the station serves as an intermediate station between London Bridge and. Either trains reverse at the station or rail passengers change trains here. From 1918 to 2015, the station was closed on Sundays; this changed with Southeastern's introduction of a new timetable from January 2015 which resulted in the station's opening hours being extended over the entire week, except when engineering works require its closure and services are diverted to Charing Cross.

Services.

The typical off-peak service from the station is:  During peak hours, there are also services to Hastings, Tunbridge Wells, Ore and to Ramsgate or Broadstairs via Chatham.

London Underground.

The London Underground station is sub-surface, situated immediately below the main line station. It is served by the District and Circle lines. Entrances are located on Cannon Street, Dowgate Hill, and on the main line concourse upstairs at the National Rail station, providing an interconnection for commuters. An out of station interchange with Bank station has been running since 2018.

History.

By 1876, the Metropolitan Railway (MR) and District Railway (DR) had constructed the majority of the Inner Circle (now the Circle line), reaching and respectively. The companies were in dispute over the completion of the route as the DR was struggling financially and the MR was concerned that completion would affect its revenues through increased competition from the DR in the City area. In 1874, city financiers who were keen to see the line completed established the Metropolitan Inner Circle Completion Railway (MICCR) to link Mansion House to Aldgate. Forced into action, the MR bought out the company, and it and the DR began construction of the final section of the Inner Circle in 1879.  On 6 October 1884, the final section of the Inner Circle was opened, along with Cannon Street station. Initially, the station was served by trains of both companies as part of the circular Inner Circle service, but various operational patterns have been used during the station's life. The Inner Circle service achieved a separate identity as the Circle line in 1949, although its trains were still provided by the District or Metropolitan lines.  A station here was part of the abandoned phase two expansion of the Fleet line (now Jubilee line). It had originally been planned in 1943, and was revived as a major transport plan in 1965. London Transport spent £10m (now £m) in 1972 safeguarding the route underneath Cannon Street and building reinforcements for laying a tube in the water-bearing ground around the station. The plan was abandoned in the early 1980s in favour of the current extension further south.  The Underground station underwent major reconstruction at the same time as the main line station, with the work being completed in 2012. From 14 December 2014, the station's opening hours changed significantly, with the station opening on Sundays and no longer closing early in the evenings. The station previously had restricted opening hours because it primarily served the local financial services sector, so there was low demand for services outside office hours. However, with the main line station's opening hours being extended due to the Thameslink Programme, the Underground station's opening hours were changed to accommodate the additional passengers.

References.

Notes Citations Sources

Cannon Street station, also known as London Cannon Street, is a central London railway terminus and connected London Underground station in Travelcard zone 1 located on Cannon Street in the City of London and managed by Network Rail. It is one of two London termini of the South Eastern main line, the other being, while the Underground station is on the Circle and District lines, between Monument and Mansion House. The station runs services by Southeastern, mostly catering for commuters in southeast London and Kent, with occasional services further into the latter.

坎农街站(英语:Cannon Street station)是英国的一个铁路车站,位於伦敦市的南部,泰晤士河北岸。是英国全国铁路和伦敦地铁的共构车站。坎农街站开业于1866年,是由Network Rail直接所有并管理的17个车站之一。在二战期间,坎农街站遭到空袭。战后对车站进行了重建,是当时伦敦重要的都市更新地区。近年坎农街站的再开发仍在继续。