埃斯卡纳巴 (密歇根州)

History.

Escanaba was the name of an Ojibwa village in this area in the early 19th century. The Ojibwa are one of the Anishinaabe, Algonquian-speaking tribes who settled and flourished around the Great Lakes. The word "Escanaba" roughly translates from Ojibwe and other regional Algonquian languages to "land of the red buck", although some people maintain that it refers to "flat rock".  As a European-American settlement, Escanaba was founded in 1863 as a port town by surveyor Eli P. Royce. Early industry was the processing and harvesting of lumber, dominated in this area by Daniel Wells Jr., Jefferson Sinclair, and Nelson Ludington. Ludington later moved his headquarters to Chicago, where he also entered banking. I. Stephenson established a successor lumber company in the area and also became a capitalist.  Before the war, iron ore was being mined from the Marquette Range, which shipped out on barges from Escanaba. By the time of the American Civil War, this port was important to the Union as a shipping point for these ores, in addition to lumber. The Menominee Range and Gogebic Range of Michigan became important for iron ore after the war, in the 1880s. Michigan still produces about 25% of the iron ore nationally. Initially lumber was still integral to shipbuilding, and supported the construction of houses in cities throughout the developing Midwest. Iron ore supported industrialization, and became part of steel and other industries in the Midwest. As shipping increased, a lighthouse was needed to warn of a sand shoals in Little Bay de Noc, which extended from Sand Point, a sandspit located just south of and adjacent to the harbor area. The United States Lighthouse Service approved construction of the Sand Point Lighthouse at a cost of $11,000. Construction began in the fall of 1867 and was completed in early spring 1868.

Present day.

Until 2017, Escanaba continued to serve as an important shipping point for iron ore to other Great Lakes ports, especially south to Chicago and northern Indiana. The local paper mill, for many years owned by Mead Corporation's Publishing Paper Division, is currently operated by Verso Corporation. Located on the outskirts of the city alongside the Escanaba River, it is now Escanaba's largest employer.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water.

Climate.

This climatic region is classified as humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb", according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. It is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. Escanaba is described as being in the banana belt of Michigan's Upper Peninsula. While most of the peninsula is affected by significant lake-effect snow, Escanaba's winter climate is much milder due to its location on the leeward Lake Michigan shoreline.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 12,616 people, 5,622 households, and 3,090 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 6,178 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 93.5% White, 0.4% African American, 2.6% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.2% of the population.  There were 5,622 households of which 26.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.8% were married couples living together, 13.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 45.0% were non-families. Of all households 38.2% were made up of individuals and 17.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.14 and the average family size was 2.82.  The median age in the city was 41.4 years. 21.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.6% were from 25 to 44; 26.4% were from 45 to 64; and 19.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.1% male and 52.9% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 13,140 people, 5,800 households, and 3,294 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,038.3 inhabitants per square mile (400.7/km2). There were 6,258 housing units at an average density of 494.5 per square mile (190.9/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 95.66% White, 0.11% African American, 2.61% Native American, 0.33% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.18% from other races, and 1.09% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.66% of the population. 17.0% were of German, 16.5% French, 11.4% French Canadian, 8.8% Swedish, 6.4% Irish and 5.2% English ancestry, according to Census 2000.  There were 5,800 households out of which 26.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.2% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.2% were non-families. Of all households 37.0% were made up of individuals and 18.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.88.  In the city, the population was spread out with 22.5% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 25.1% from 25 to 44, 21.2% from 45 to 64, and 21.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.3 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $29,125, and the median income for a family was $36,995. Males had a median income of $32,310 versus $21,204 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,589. About 10.8% of families and 13.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.7% of those under age 18 and 9.0% of those age 65 or over.

Culture and contemporary life.

In his poem "The Song of Hiawatha", Henry Wadsworth Longfellow described how Hiawatha "crossed the rushing Esconaba", referring to the river. Although the Upper Peninsula is part of the state of Michigan, Escanaba and the western Upper Peninsula sometimes have closer cultural ties to the state of Wisconsin.

Yooper culture.

Pasties are a significant tourist attraction, and have a particularly unusual history. Many ethnic groups adopted the pasty for use in the Copper Country copper mines; the Finnish immigrants within the region mistook it for the traditional "piiraat" and "kuuko" pastries. The pasty has become strongly associated with all cultures in this area.

Theater and performing arts.

Escanaba is home to the William Bonifas Fine Arts Center, The Waterfront Art Festival, The Players de Noc, The Bay de Noc Choral Society, the Escanaba City Band, and many smaller arts organizations, art galleries, and musical performing groups.

Tourism.

Escanaba is home to one the safest natural harbors in the upper Great Lakes, which makes it a natural destination for boaters. Tourism has become significant for the local economy. Tourist draws include Lake Michigan beaches and local fishing and hunting opportunities. Most visitors come from Wisconsin and Illinois.

Shopping and dining.

The Delta Plaza Mall, is a small enclosed shopping mall in Escanaba, which features Hobby Lobby, Marshalls, and Dunham's as its anchor stores. Other big box retail stores in Escanaba include, Wal-Mart, Menards, Meijer, Aldi, Walgreens, and Tractor Supply Company. The downtown district features many small, locally owned retail stores. Viau's Market and Kobosic's Market are small grocery stores that feature on-site butchers. Eateries include: Stone Cup Coffee House & Deli, Ferdinand's, Crispigna's, Hong Kong Buffet, Hereford and Hops, Swedish Pantry, Rosy's Diner, The Stone House, and The Ludington Grill. Other notable restaurants that are outside the downtown district include The Buck Inn, Family Inn, Drifter's Restaurant, Hudson's Grill, and Thai Express.

Laws and government.

Government.

Escanaba is in Congressional District 1; its Representative since 2017 in Congress is Jack Bergman (R).

Police and corrections.

The Delta County Sheriff's Office along with Escanaba Public Safety, and the Michigan State Police, collaborate with other police agencies in neighboring counties to make up the Upper Peninsula Substance Enforcement Team (UPSET). UPSET utilizes investigators, informants, K-9 units, and other resources to perform clandestine operations to arrest those involved with drug use, distribution and sale across the Upper Peninsula. UPSET is the only federally trained and certified clandestine lab team in the entire Upper Peninsula. The Delta County Jail is an 85-bed facility that employs 13 full-time correction officers, under the supervision of Lt. Jason Thibeault. In September 2017, Delta County secured a $17.9 million loan for the construction of a new jail. The new two story jail will be capable of housing 160 beds.

Courts.

The Delta County Courthouse serves all of Delta County. The courthouse includes the 47th Circuit Court, the 94th District Court, and Probate Court.

Education.

In 2003, the school board opted to completely renovate the historic 1930's junior high school, rather than move it outside of town. Escanaba Area Public Schools operate the public schools in Escanaba, which includes various elementary schools, the middle school, and high school. There is also a private school, Holy Name Catholic School, which teaches pre-school children all the way up to eighth grade. Bay College, a public 2-year college, was founded in the city in 1962. It offers various two year degrees and certificate programs ranging from welding, public safety, business, nursing, among others.

Media.

Local radio stations include KMB Broadcasting's WDBC 680 AM (adult standards) and WYKX 104.7 FM (country music), Lakes Radio's WCHT 600 AM (news/talk), WGLQ 97.1 FM (adult top 40), WCMM 102.5 FM (country), and WGKL 105.5 FM (oldies), and standalone WUPF 107.3 FM (classic hits). Escanaba is also served by low-power translator stations of WNMU translator W296AX from Marquette, MI (at 96.5 FM), WRPP translator W254AG from Sturgeon Bay, WI (at 98.7 FM), and WHWL translator W261AI from Marquette, MI (at 100.1 FM). WJMN-TV, the local television station on channel 3, is mostly a satellite of WFRV in Green Bay and carries CBS programming. WLUC-TV in Marquette also operates a translator station in Escanaba on channel 14.

Infrastructure.

Escanaba's Harbor Tower, an 18-story apartment building, is the tallest building in Michigan's Upper Peninsula.

Escanaba ( ) is a port city in Delta County in the U.S. state of Michigan, located on Little Bay de Noc in the state's Upper Peninsula. The population was 12,616 at the 2010 census, making it the third-largest city in the Upper Peninsula after Marquette and Sault Ste. Marie. It is the seat of government of Delta County.

埃斯卡纳巴(英语:Escanaba)是一个位于美国密歇根州德尔塔县的城市。根据2010年美国人口普查,该地共人口12699人,而该地的面积约为42.39平方千米。同时该地也是德尔塔县的县治。


Career.

Kordan was a former revolutionary guard and a veteran of the Iran–Iraq War. He previously served as deputy labour minister, president of Iran's technical and vocational organization, deputy head of the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB) for provincial and parliamentary affairs, deputy head of IRIB for administrative and financial affairs, and deputy minister for culture and Islamic guidance for administrative and financial affairs.  He also served in the Iranian judiciary. He was appointed deputy oil minister in October 2007, which he had turned down in 2006.  In 2008, President Ahmadinejad nominated Kordan as the interior minister in a cabinet reshuffle. He was confirmed by the Parliament by 169 votes to 100 in August 2008. However, during his confirmation debate in the parliament, questions arose among MPs and in the media over his qualifications and over a doctorate he claimed to have received. Kordan replaced Mostafa Pour Mohammadi in the post.

Controversy.

During his tenure as the deputy head of IRIB in financial affairs, Ali Kordan was accused of a high-profile financial corruption (525 billion Tomans). However the judiciary system did not charge him after a long investigation. "Kayhan" published an article accusing Kordan of corruption in "The Crescent File". Kordan claimed to have an honorary doctorate in law from the University of Oxford. When questioned about this, he released a document stating that such a degree had been conferred on him in June 2000 and under-signed by three Oxford University professors. A copy of the certificate was released. Alef, a website "associated with one of Ahmadinejad's critics", pointed to "typing errors, garbled English and misspellings". The document stated Kordan "has shown a great effort in preparing educational materials and his research in the domain of comparative law, that has opened a new chapter, not only in our university, but, to our knowledge, in this country".  Kordan was granted the degree "to be from scientific privileges"; "entitled" was spelt "intitle", and spaces were left out after commas. Responding to an inquiry by Alef news agency, on 11 August 2008, Oxford University denied it had awarded Kordan an honorary doctorate of law or any other degree. Four days later, the university published an official statement on its website that they had no record of Kordan having received any degree, honorary or otherwise.  It noted that none of the professors whose alleged signatures were on the certificate were working in the field of law, and none of them would sign degree certificates. As a result, chairman of Iranian parliament Ali Larijani initiated an investigation into the validity of Kordan's degree. It was later revealed, according to news service MSNBC, that Kordan did not receive two other degrees he had claimed, a bachelor's degree and a master's degree from Iran's Azad University.  Two days after the Oxford University response, IRNA reported that the Tehran prosecutor's office announced that investigating Alef news website had been "banned based on complaints by legal entities". It was reported that Alef had been blocked by the Iranian "authorities". As of 27 August 2008, the ministry of science, research and technology denied announcing any statement on Kordan's doctorate degree.  On 27 September 2008, in a letter to President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, Kordan admitted that the degree was fake, explaining that he had been deceived by a "person who claimed to represent Oxford University in Tehran". After holding the degree for eight years, he was astonished to learn that "the university did not confirm (the degree) when my representative went there". Kordan said his search for this fraudulent Oxford intermediary had proven fruitless but that he had filed a complaint against the person, whom he did not name, on 14 September. Kordan also accused the media of a smear campaign by portraying him as a "terrorist".

Impeachment.

On 4 November 2008, the Iranian parliament voted to impeach interior minister Ali Kordan for lying about his credentials and presenting a fake degree from Oxford University. Out of 247 MPs present, 188 voted to impeach Kordan, with 14 lawmakers against the motion and 45 abstentions.

Death.

Kordan died of multiple myeloma at Tehran's Masih Daneshvari hospital on 22 November 2009 at the age of 51. He had also suffered from influenza and a brain hemorrhage.

Ali Kordan (23 October 1958 – 22 November 2009) was an Iranian conservative politician who served in the Revolutionary Guards, the judiciary and as deputy oil minister, before becoming interior minister of Iran in 2008 for just 90 days. He was impeached by the Iranian Parliament on 4 November 2008 after a doctorate he claimed to hold turned out to be fraudulent.

阿里·科丹(,1958年-2009年-11月22日)是伊朗的保守派政治家,前内政部长。他在2008年8月5日得到伊朗国会批准其任命,但其实在国会举行听证会审议他的任命时,已经有议员质疑他的牛津大学法律荣誉博士学位。在听证会上,科丹出示他的证书,因而得到国会的任命。不过,有关议员继续向牛津大学查询,并得以确认并没有科丹的学历纪录。事件使执政的伊朗总统马哈茂德·艾哈迈迪内贾德大为尴尬。


Early life and education.

Tracy was born in 1939 to John Charles Tracy and Eileen Marie Tracy (née Rossell) in Yonkers, NY. He had two brothers, John Jr. and Arthur. His father was a union organizer who loved to read Henry Adams to his children.  Feeling an intense call to the priesthood as an adolescent, Tracy started attending the Cathedral School in 1952. The Cathedral School served as a high school and minor seminary for the Archdiocese of New York. In 1960, he left New York for Rome to study at the Gregorianum. His vocation to study theology was profoundly encouraged by the Second Vatican Council taking place at that time. He was ordained in Rome on December 18, 1963, and served in the diocese of Bridgeport, Connecticut in 1963. Tracy received his Licentiate of Sacred Theology from the Pontifical Gregorian University in 1964, after which he spent one year working at a parish in Stamford, CT. Tracy has said that he had always wanted to work in a parish, but during his one year of doing so, he felt a strong call to the academic life. He returned to Rome and received his doctorate from the Gregorian University in 1969.

Career.

Tracy's first academic teaching appointment was a lectureship at the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C., where he began in 1967. In 1968, Tracy joined with Bernard McGinn and twenty other professors at CUA in rejecting Pope Paul VI's encyclical Humanae Vitae. He and the others were tried by CUA's faculty senate and summarily fired. They sued the university, were represented by ACLU lawyers, and ultimately won their case.  In the midst of this trial, Jerald Brauer, then Dean of the University of Chicago Divinity School, convinced Tracy (as well as McGinn) to come to the University of Chicago. In 1985, Tracy was named a Distinguished Service Professor there, and in 1987, a Distinguished Service Professor of Roman Catholic Studies. Tracy also held the Andrew Thomas Greeley and Grace McNichols Greeley Professorship in Roman Catholic Studies, which was established in 1984 by sociologist and novelist Andrew Greeley. He also served on Chicago's Committee on the Analysis of Ideas and Methods and the Committee on Social Thought. Tracy remained at the Divinity School until his retirement in late 2006.  Tracy served as President of the Catholic Theological Society of America from 1976-1977. In 1980, that organization awarded him the John Courtney Murray Award, the highest award of the society. In 1982, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.  In 1999-2000, Tracy gave the Gifford Lectures at the University of Edinburgh. The title of his lectures was "This Side of God". The Gifford Lectures are widely considered to be the highest honor for those working in theology and religious studies.  In 2018, Tracy contributed an essay to the catalog of the Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibition "Heavenly Bodies: Fashion and the Catholic Imagination". Tracy was described by Andrew Bolton, the curator of the exhibition, as "the J. D. Salinger of the theological world."

David Tracy (b. January 6 1939) is an American theologian and Catholic priest. He is Andrew Thomas Greeley and Grace McNichols Greeley Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus of Catholic Studies at the University of Chicago Divinity School. In 2020 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.

大卫·特蕾西 (英语:David Tracy,1939年-1月6日) 是美国神学家和天主教神父。他现任芝加哥大学安德鲁·汤玛士·格里利和格雷斯·麦克尼科尔斯·格里利杰出服务天主教荣誉教授 (英语: Andrew Thomas Greeley and Grace McNichols Greeley Distinguished Service Professor Emeritus of Catholic Studies)。


History.

As a folk practice implement, worry stones have many origins. Variations on the concept originate in ancient Greece, Tibet, Ireland, and multiple Native American tribes. The concept of a worry stone began by the simple action of picking a smooth stone and fiddling with the stone. Worry stones made by sea water were generally used by Ancient Greeks. Native American tribes would continuously give them to younger generations, creating a sense of connection from previous family members. They also believed these worry stones were considered a sacred item and they were extra special if they were made out of quartz.

Usage.

From the perspective of cognitive behavior therapy, the use of worry stones is one of many folk practices that can function as psychologically healthy self-soothing exercises. Such techniques are imparted at an early stage of treatment, displacing any familiar but destructive coping methods (nail-biting, scratching, lip-biting, etc.) that the patient may have developed. This helps ready the patient to safely confront anxiety or trauma. Worry stones are simple and intuitive enough to be useful in therapeutic contexts where complexity and unfamiliarity are paramount concerns, such as when offering short-term treatment to refugees or children with post-traumatic stress disorder. After a patient has mastered a more sophisticated relaxation script for anxiety management, the worry stone itself can serve as a physical'relaxation script reminder'; the patient may notice an impulse to use the object, and thereby become aware of their own anxiety. The rubbing of the stone can create a sense of relaxation making the mind more relaxed and generating a sense of calmness. There are also people that may use them during meditation practices, this is known to center a persons concentration benefiting the meditation.

Worry stones are smooth, polished gemstones, usually in the shape of an oval with a thumb-sized indentation, used for relaxation or anxiety relief. The smoothness of the stone is most often created naturally by running water. The size of a worry stone is often about half the size of a silver dollar coin in the United States. They are used by holding the stone between the index finger and thumb and gently moving one's thumb back and forth across the stone. This action of moving one's thumb back and forth across the stone can reduce stress.

忘忧石(英语:Worry stones)是西方人的一种舒缓精神压力的方法,透过把宝石上刻上一个大拇指大小的压痕,再打磨抛光,让人在感到烦忧时用大拇指在压痕上前后移动,让身心回复轻松自然。这种忘忧石起源于古希腊,并于1970年代再度在西方社会流行。现时除了有用宝石或半宝石制成的忘忧石以外,也有采用现代实心面板材料。


Geography.

Münsterbrücke crosses the Limmat, connecting Münsterhof and Limmatquai at the historical core of the medieval town of Zürich. It is the second bridge over the Limmat, below the Quaibrücke and above the Rathausbrücke.

Transportation.

The Zürich tram lines 2, 4 and 15 run past it on the Limmatquai. The ZSG Zürichsee-Schifffahrtsgesellschaft and its Limmat tour boats pass under it. Individual transportation is limited to road transport use between upper Limmatquai (Bellevueplatz), upstream of the Limmat, and Münsterhof, since the area is part of the pedestrian zone of Zürich.

Architecture.

In 1835, the chief engineer of the merchant society of the city of Zürich, Alois Negrelli, initiated the construction of the bridge in collaboration with the master-builders Conrad Stadler and Johann Jakob Locher-Oeri, who engineered the sophisticated wooden scaffold. The foundations of the bridge were based on 472 oak piles with a length of up to, to bear its weight of about 6,100 tons. The foundation was filled with concrete, and the spaces between the piles were reinforced with rubblestones. Above that, cofferdams and caissons were erected and reinforced by sandstone plates that lay on cement mortar. The structure consists of four flat arches with a inside diameter and a height of above the Limmat level, and a fifth arch of above a former channel into the former "Kornhaus" building opposite the Fraumünster church. The pillars between the arches have a diameter of and are protected by a layer of cement and paneled with black Jura marble. The pillars and cornices and the stones of the traffic lane are made of St. Gotthard granite. The cast-iron railings were produced in the Grand Duchy of Baden.  The present bridge has two lanes and sidewalks on both sides, but it is commonly used as a pedestrian and bicycle bridge as road transport is limited between Limmatquai and Münsterhof.  The Hans Waldmann (1435–1489) equestrian monument in front of the Fraumünster church was unveiled by the Kämbel guild on 6 April 1937 at the site of the former Fraumünster "Kornhaus" (granary), which was torn down in 1897, above the fifth arch of the bridge.

History.

The earliest bridge at the location was built in the Roman era, and in medieval Zürich a wooden bridge, called the "Obere Brücke" (upper bridge), connected the two banks of the Limmat. Between 1836 and 1838, the former wooden bridge was replaced by a stone bridge. Alois Negrelli engineered and supervised the construction of the bridge as it is still present today; it was inaugurated in August 1838. The bridge congested the traffic on the Limmat, so a land connection in the then "modern" Zürich was urgently needed by replacing the narrow medieval "Reichsstrasse" towards the present Rathausbrücke crossing. Thus, sections of the present Limmatquai on the eastern shore of the Limmat were built simultaneously.  Starting in 1861, the Fraumünster "granary" temporarily housed in one of its numerous empty rooms the "Betraum" of the Jewish citizens of Zürich until the Synagoge Zürich Löwenstrasse was built in 1881. Until May 1901 and between 1910 and 1924 there was even a tramway crossing the bridge towards Paradeplatz. The original construction has been repaired several times, most recently in the late 1990s.

Cultural heritage of national importance.

Münsterbrücke is listed in the Swiss inventory of cultural property of national and regional significance as a "Class A" object of national importance.

Münsterbrücke is a pedestrian and road bridge over the Limmat in the city of Zürich, Switzerland. It is listed in the Swiss inventory of cultural property of national and regional significance. It is indirectly named after two "Münster" (minsters), the Fraumünster and Grossmünster.

大教堂桥(Münsterbrücke)是瑞士苏黎世利马特河上的一座重要桥梁,位于苏黎世中世纪老城历史核心区,已被列入瑞士国家和区域重要文化财产名录。该桥得名于桥两侧的两座大教堂:苏黎世圣母大教堂和苏黎世大教堂。


Structure.

All Mexican states are divided into municipalities. Each municipality is autonomous; citizens elect a "municipal president" ("presidente municipal") who heads a municipal council "(ayuntamiento)," responsible for providing all the public services for their constituents. This concept, which originated after the Mexican Revolution, is known as a "municipio libre" ("free municipality").  The municipal president is elected by plurality and cannot be reelected for the next immediate term. The municipal council consists of a "cabildo" (chairman) with a "síndico" and several "regidores" (trustees).  If the municipality covers a large area and contains more than one city or town (collectively called "localidades"), one city or town is selected as a "cabecera municipal" (head city, seat of the municipal government) while the rest elect representatives to a "presidencia auxiliar" or "junta auxiliar" (auxiliary presidency or council). In that sense, a municipality in Mexico is roughly equivalent to the counties of the United States, whereas the auxiliary presidency is equivalent to a township. Nonetheless, auxiliary presidencies are not considered a third-level administrative division since they depend fiscally on the municipalities in which they are located.  North-western and south-eastern states are divided into small numbers of large municipalities (e.g. Baja California is divided into only five municipalities), and therefore they cover large areas incorporating several separated cities or towns that do not necessarily conform to one single conurbation. Central and southern states, on the other hand, are divided into many small municipalities (e.g. Oaxaca is divided into 570 municipalities), and therefore large urban areas usually extend over several municipalities which form one single conurbation. Although an urban area might cover an entire municipality, auxiliary councils might still be used for administrative purposes.  Municipalities are responsible for public services (such as water and sewerage), street lighting, public safety, traffic, supervision of slaughterhouses and the cleaning and maintenance of public parks, gardens and cemeteries. They may also assist the state and federal governments in education, emergency fire and medical services, environmental protection and maintenance of monuments and historical landmarks. Since 1983, they can collect property taxes and user fees, although more funds are obtained from the state and federal governments than from their own collection efforts.

History.

Since the Conquest and colonization of Mexico, the municipality became the basic entity of the administrative organization of New Spain and the Spanish Empire. Settlements located in strategic locations received the status of city (the highest status within the Empire, superior to that of "villas" and "pueblos") and were entitled to form an "ayuntamiento" or municipality. After Independence, the 1824 Constitution did not specify any regulation for the municipalities, whose structure and responsibilities were to be outlined in the constitution of each state of the federation. As such, every state set its own requirements for a settlement to become a municipality (usually based on population). The Constitution of 1917 abolished the "jefatura política" ("political authority"), the intermediate administrative authority between the states and converted all existing municipalities into "municipios libres" ("free municipalities"), that is, gave them full autonomy to manage local affairs, while at the same time restricting the scope of their competencies. However, in 1983 the 115th article was modified to expand the municipalities' authority to raise revenue (through property taxes and other local services) and to formulate budgets.

Ranking of municipalities.

By population.

Data from the 2015 Intercensal Survey by INEGI.

By area.

Data from "Los Municipios con Mayor y Menor Extensión Territorial" by the Instituto Nacional Para el Federalismo y el Desarrollo Municipal

Municipalities of Mexico City.

Mexico City is a special case in that it is not organized as a municipality, but as a federal district as the capital of the federation. It is administered through the Government of the Federal District and it has its own unicameral Legislative Assembly. For administrative purposes, the Federal District is subdivided into "delegaciones", or boroughs. They are not identical to municipalities, but since 2000, they enjoy a certain degree of political autonomy since residents within a borough directly elect a local borough head of government (called "jefe delegacional"). However, boroughs do not form local [municipal] councils, are not constituted by a group of trustees, and do not have regulatory powers, most of which are exercised by the Federal District's government. Most public services are organized by the Federal District even if some responsibilities are carried out by the boroughs. Still, at the federal level, the boroughs are considered a second-level territorial division for statistical data collection and cross-municipal comparisons.  Other municipalities in Mexico have chosen to use a similar administrative internal organization. All municipalities of Baja California are subdivided into boroughs, or "delegaciones". The municipality of Mexicali for example, is divided into 14 boroughs besides the City of Mexicali, which comprises the municipal seat and three additional metropolitan boroughs.  The Municipality of Santiago de Querétaro is subdivided into seven boroughs. Nonetheless, the heads of government of the boroughs are not elected by the residents but rather appointed by the municipal president. Unlike the boroughs of Mexico City, which are second-level administrative divisions, the boroughs of the municipalities are third-level administrative divisions.

Municipalities ("municipios" in Spanish) are the second-level administrative divisions of Mexico, where the first-level administrative division is the "state" (Spanish: estado). As of the establishment of two new municipalities in Chiapas in September 2017, there are 2,448 municipalities in Mexico, not including the 16 "delegaciones" of Mexico City. The internal political organization and their responsibilities are outlined in the 115th article of the 1917 Constitution and detailed in the constitutions of the states to which they belong. are distinct from, a form of Mexican locality; some municipalities as large as states, while cities can be measured in city blocks.

自治区(),为墨西哥二级行政区划,位于州之下。墨西哥全国2,438个自治区,每个自治区平均人口45,616。自治区的组织及职责由1917年宪法确定。


Design.

After the German "Kaiserliche Marine" (Imperial Navy) ordered the four s in 1889, a combination of budgetary constraints, opposition in the "Reichstag" (Imperial Diet), and a lack of a coherent fleet plan delayed the acquisition of further battleships. The former Secretary of the "Reichsmarineamt" (Imperial Navy Office), Leo von Caprivi became the Chancellor of Germany in 1890, and "Vizeadmiral" (Vice Admiral) Friedrich von Hollmann became the new Secretary of the "Reichsmarineamt". Hollmann requested the first in 1892, but the Franco-Russian Alliance, signed the year before, put the government's attention on expanding the Army's budget. Parliamentary opposition forced Hollmann to delay until the following year, when Caprivi spoke in favor of the project, noting that Russia's recent naval expansion threatened Germany's Baltic Sea coastline. In late 1893, Hollmann presented the Navy's estimates for the 1894–1895 budget year, and now the "Reichstag" approved the new ship. A second member of the class, "Kaiser Wilhelm II", was delayed until early 1896, when the "Reichstag" approved the ship for the 1896–1897 budget.  "Kaiser Wilhelm II" was long overall and had a beam of. Her draft was forward and aft. She displaced as designed and up to at full load. The ship was powered by three 3-cylinder vertical triple-expansion steam engines that drove three screw propellers. Steam was provided by four marine-type and eight cylindrical water-tube boilers, all of which burned coal. "Kaiser Wilhelm II"s powerplant was rated at, which generated a top speed of. She had a cruising radius of at a speed of. She had a normal crew of 39 officers and 612 enlisted men; while serving as the fleet flagship, she carried an additional admiral's staff of 12 officers and 51–63 enlisted men.  The ship's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm (9.45 in) SK L/40 guns in twin gun turrets, one fore and one aft of the central superstructure. Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm (5.91 inch) SK L/40 guns and twelve 8.8 cm (3.46 in) SK L/30 quick-firing guns mounted in casemates. She also carried twelve machine cannon, but these were later removed. The armament suite was rounded out with six torpedo tubes, one of which was placed in an above-water swivel mount at the stern, with four submerged on the broadside and one submerged in the bow. The ship's belt armor was thick, and the main armor deck was thick. The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with of armor plating, and the secondary casemates received of armor protection.

Service history.

Construction to 1902.

"Kaiser Wilhelm II"s keel was laid on 26 October 1896, at the Kaiserliche Werft in Wilhelmshaven, under construction number 24. Ordered under the contract name "Ersatz Friedrich der Grosse", to replace the elderly armored frigate, she was launched on 14 September 1897. During the launching ceremony, "Konteradmiral" (Rear Admiral) Prince Heinrich christened the ship for his brother, Kaiser Wilhelm II. She was commissioned on 13 February 1900, assuming the position of fleet flagship, which she held until 1906. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" was the first battleship of the German Navy specifically built to serve as a fleet flagship. After completing her sea trials in June 1900, she was assigned to II Division of I Squadron, where she replaced the old armored corvette in the division and the battleship as flagship of the Active Battle Fleet.  In early July 1900, "Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm" and the other three "Brandenburg"-class battleships, which were assigned to I Division of I Squadron, were ordered to East Asian waters to assist in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion. As a result, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and the other ships of II Division were transferred to I Division on 8 July, under the command of "Konteradmiral" Paul Hoffmann. On 15 August the annual autumn maneuvers began; initially, the fleet practiced tactical maneuvers in the German Bight. A cruise in battle formation through the Kattegat followed, and the maneuvers concluded in the western Baltic on 21 September. During these exercises, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" served as the umpire ship, and so Hoffmann temporarily transferred his flag to her sister ship. He returned to "Kaiser Wilhelm II" on 29 September after the conclusion of the exercises in Kiel. On 1 November 1900, "Kaiser Friedrich III" replaced "Kaiser Wilhelm II" as the I Squadron flagship; the latter, as the fleet flagship, remained assigned to the squadron for tactical purposes. From 4 to 15 December, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and I Squadron went on a winter training cruise to Norway; the ships anchored at Larvik from 10 to 12 December. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" went into drydock in January 1901 for overhaul and some modernization work. This included the reconstruction of a larger bridge and the removal of some of her searchlights. While the ship was laid up, "Admiral" Hans von Koester replaced Hoffmann as the fleet commander, a position he would hold until the end of 1906.  The annual training routine began at the end of March 1901 with squadron exercises in the Baltic. On the night of 1–2 April, "Kaiser Friedrich III" ran hard aground on the Adlergrund, a shoal to the east of Cape Arkona, and "Kaiser Wilhelm II" lightly brushed the bottom. After a short inspection, it was determined that "Kaiser Wilhelm II" was undamaged, and so Prince Heinrich transferred his flag to the ship on 23 April, while "Kaiser Friedrich III" went into drydock for repairs. In the meantime, on 18 April, Wilhelm II commissioned his son Prince Adalbert aboard "Kaiser Wilhelm II". On 27 April, I Squadron conducted gunnery drills and a landing exercise off Apenrade. By 17 June, "Kaiser Wilhelm II"s sister ship had entered service, and so she took over flagship duties for the squadron, while "Kaiser Wilhelm II" returned to serving as only the fleet flagship. The squadron then went on a cruise to Spain, and while docked in Cádiz, rendezvoused with the "Brandenburg"-class battleships returning from East Asian waters. I Squadron was back in Kiel by 11 August, though the late arrival of the "Brandenburg"s delayed the participation of I Squadron in the annual autumn fleet training. The maneuvers began with exercises in the German Bight, followed by a mock attack on the fortifications in the lower Elbe. Gunnery drills took place in Kiel Bay before the fleet steamed to Danzig Bay; there, during the maneuvers, Wilhelm II and Czar Nicholas II of Russia visited the fleet and came aboard "Kaiser Wilhelm II". The autumn maneuvers concluded on 15 September. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and the rest of I Squadron went on their normal winter cruise to Norway in December, which included a stop at Oslo from 7 to 12 December, when the ship was visited by King Oscar II.  In January 1902, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" went into dock at Wilhelmshaven for her annual overhaul. In mid-March, Wilhelm II and his wife, Augusta Victoria, came aboard the ship and waited in the mouth of the Elbe for Wilhelm's brother Prince Heinrich, who was returning from the United States. I Squadron then went on a short cruise in the western Baltic before embarking on a major cruise around the British Isles, which lasted from 25 April to 28 May. Individual and squadron maneuvers took place from June to August, interrupted only by a cruise to Norway in July. During these maneuvers, three of "Kaiser Wilhelm II"s boiler tubes burst, but the damage was repaired by the start of the autumn maneuvers in August. These exercises began in the Baltic and concluded in the North Sea with a fleet review in the Jade. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" took no active part in the exercises; she instead served as an observation ship for the commander of the fleet, as well as her namesake, Kaiser Wilhelm II. The regular winter cruise followed during 1–12 December.

1903–1905.

The first quarter of 1903 followed the usual pattern of training exercises. The squadron went on a training cruise in the Baltic, followed by a voyage to Spain that lasted from 7 May to 10 June. After returning to Germany, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" participated in the Kiel Week sailing regatta. In July, she joined I Squadron for the annual cruise to Norway. The autumn maneuvers consisted of a blockade exercise in the North Sea, a cruise of the entire fleet first to Norwegian waters and then to Kiel in early September, and finally a mock attack on Kiel. The exercises concluded on 12 September. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" finished the year's training schedule with a cruise into the eastern Baltic that started on 23 November and a cruise into the Skagerrak that began on 1 December. During the latter, the ship stopped in the Danish port of Frederikshavn. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" participated in an exercise in the Skagerrak from 11 to 21 January 1904, after which she returned to Kiel. She then went to the Norwegian city of Ålesund to assist with the major fire that devastated the largely wooden city on 23 January. Squadron exercises followed from 8 to 17 March. A major fleet exercise took place in the North Sea in May, and "Kaiser Wilhelm II" was again present at Kiel Week in June, where she was visited by Britain's King Edward VII, Lord William Palmer, and Prince Louis of Battenberg. In June, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" won the Kaiser's "Schießpreis" (Shooting Prize) for excellent gunnery. The following month, I Squadron and I Scouting Group visited Britain, including a stop at Plymouth on 10 July. The German fleet departed on 13 July, bound for the Netherlands; I Squadron anchored in Vlissingen the following day. There, the ships were visited by Queen Wilhelmina. I Squadron remained in Vlissingen until 20 July, when they departed for a cruise in the northern North Sea with the rest of the fleet. The squadron stopped in Molde, Norway, on 29 July, while the other units went to other ports.  The fleet reassembled on 6 August and steamed back to Kiel, where it conducted a mock attack on the harbor on 12 August. During its cruise in the North Sea, the fleet experimented with wireless telegraphy on a large scale and searchlights at night for communication and recognition signals. Immediately after returning to Kiel, the fleet began preparations for the autumn maneuvers, which began on 29 August in the Baltic. The fleet moved to the North Sea on 3 September, where it took part in a major landing operation, after which the ships took the ground troops from IX Corps that participated in the exercises to Altona for a parade for Wilhelm II. The ships then conducted their own parade for the Kaiser off the island of Helgoland on 6 September. Three days later, the fleet returned to the Baltic via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, where it participated in further landing operations with IX Corps and the Guards Corps. On 15 September, the maneuvers came to an end. I Squadron went on its winter training cruise, this time to the eastern Baltic, from 22 November to 2 December.  "Kaiser Wilhelm II" took part in a pair of training cruises with I Squadron during 9–19 January and 27 February – 16 March 1905. Individual and squadron training followed, with an emphasis on gunnery drills. On 12 July, the fleet began a major training exercise in the North Sea. The fleet then cruised through the Kattegat and stopped in Copenhagen, where "Kaiser Wilhelm II" was visited by the Danish King Christian IX. The fleet then stopped in Stockholm, where "Kaiser Wilhelm II", the battleship, and the armored cruiser all ran aground, though only "Friedrich Carl" was seriously damaged. The summer cruise ended on 9 August, though the autumn maneuvers that would normally have begun shortly thereafter were delayed by a visit from the British Channel Fleet that month. The British fleet stopped in Danzig, Swinemünde, and Flensburg, where it was greeted by units of the German Navy; "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and the main German fleet was anchored at Swinemünde for the occasion. The visit was strained by the Anglo-German naval arms race.  As a result of the British visit, the 1905 autumn maneuvers were shortened considerably, from 6 to 13 September, and consisted only of exercises in the North Sea. The first exercise presumed a naval blockade in the German Bight, and the second envisioned a hostile fleet attempting to force the defenses of the Elbe. During October, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" conducted individual training and, in November, joined the rest of I Squadron for a cruise in the Baltic. In early December, I and II Squadrons went on their regular winter cruise, this time to Danzig, where they arrived on 12 December. While on the return trip to Kiel, the fleet conducted tactical exercises.

1906–1914.

"Kaiser Wilhelm II" and the rest of the fleet undertook a heavier training schedule in 1906 than in previous years. The ships were occupied with individual, division and squadron exercises throughout April. Starting on 13 May, major fleet exercises took place in the North Sea and lasted until 8 June with a cruise around the Skagen into the Baltic. The fleet began its usual summer cruise to Norway in mid-July. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and I Squadron anchored in Molde, where they were joined on 21 July by Wilhelm II aboard the steamer SS "Hamburg". The fleet was present for the birthday of Norwegian King Haakon VII on 3 August. The German ships departed the following day for Helgoland, to join exercises being conducted there. The fleet was back in Kiel by 15 August, where preparations for the autumn maneuvers began. On 22–24 August, the fleet took part in landing exercises in Eckernförde Bay outside Kiel. The maneuvers were paused from 31 August to 3 September when the fleet hosted vessels from Denmark and Sweden, along with a Russian squadron from 3 to 9 September in Kiel. The maneuvers resumed on 8 September and lasted five more days.  On 26 September 1906, now-"Großadmiral" (Grand Admiral) von Koester lowered his flag aboard "Kaiser Wilhelm II", ending her tenure as the fleet flagship; the new battleship replaced her in this role. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" was now assigned to I Squadron, where she served as the second command flagship, under "Konteradmiral" Max Rollmann. The ship participated in the uneventful winter cruise into the Kattegat and Skagerrak from 8 to 16 December. The first quarter of 1907 followed the previous pattern and, on 16 February, the Active Battle Fleet was re-designated the High Seas Fleet. From the end of May to early June the fleet went on its summer cruise in the North Sea, returning to the Baltic via the Kattegat. This was followed by the regular cruise to Norway from 12 July to 10 August, during which "Kaiser Wilhelm II" anchored in Trondheim. During the autumn maneuvers, which lasted from 26 August to 6 September, the fleet conducted landing exercises in northern Schleswig with IX Corps. The winter training cruise went into the Kattegat from 22 to 30 November. In May 1908, the fleet went on a major cruise into the Atlantic instead of its normal voyage in the North Sea. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" stopped in Horta in the Azores. The fleet returned to Kiel on 13 August to prepare for the autumn maneuvers, which lasted from 27 August to 7 September. Division exercises in the Baltic immediately followed from 7 to 13 September. At the conclusion of these maneuvers, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" was taken out of service. In 1909–1910, she underwent a major reconstruction in Wilhelmshaven. The superstructure amidships was cut down to reduce top-heaviness, new circular funnels were installed, and the conning tower was enlarged. The fighting tops from the masts were removed, and the secondary battery was significantly revised. Four of the 15 cm guns were removed and two 8.8 cm guns were added; most of the 8.8 cm guns were moved from the upper decks into casemates in the main deck. On 14 October 1910, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" was recommissioned for service in the Baltic reserve division. She underwent short sea trials from 21 to 23 October before proceeding to Kiel, where she was based with her four sister ships.  From 3 to 29 April 1911, the ship participated in maneuvers off Rügen. Together with the North Sea reserve division, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and her sister ships went on a training cruise to Norway, starting on 8 June. During the visit, she stopped in Arendal, Bergen, and Odda. In July, the ship conducted gunnery training near the northern coast of Holstein, followed by training cruises off the coast of Mecklenburg. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" served as the flagship of III Squadron, which was organized for the autumn maneuvers in August. III Squadron was attached to the High Seas Fleet for the maneuvers, which lasted from 28 August to 11 September. The following day, III Squadron was disbanded and "Kaiser Wilhelm II" returned to service with the Baltic reserve division. In February 1912, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" was sent to the Fehmarn Belt to assist in freeing several freighters that were stuck in ice. She and her sisters were again decommissioned on 9 May, and remained out of service until 1914.

World War I.

As a result of the outbreak of World War I, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and her sisters were brought out of reserve and mobilized as V Battle Squadron on 5 August 1914; "Kaiser Wilhelm II" served as the flagship of the squadron. The ships were readied for war very slowly, and they were not ready for service in the North Sea until the end of August. They were initially tasked with coastal defense, though they served in this capacity for a very short time. In mid-September, V Squadron was transferred to the Baltic, under the command of Prince Heinrich. He initially planned to launch a major amphibious assault on Windau, but a shortage of transports forced a revision of the plan. Instead, V Squadron was to carry the landing force, but this too was cancelled after Heinrich received false reports of British warships having entered the Baltic on 25 September. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and her sisters returned to Kiel the following day, disembarked the landing force, and then proceeded to the North Sea, where they resumed guard ship duties. Before the end of the year, V Squadron was once again transferred to the Baltic.  Prince Heinrich ordered a foray toward Gotland. On 26 December 1914, the battleships rendezvoused with the Baltic cruiser division in the Bay of Pomerania and then departed on the sortie. Two days later, the fleet arrived off Gotland to show the German flag, and was back in Kiel by 30 December. The squadron returned to the North Sea for guard duties, but was withdrawn from front-line service in February 1915. Shortages of trained crews in the High Seas Fleet, coupled with the risk of operating older ships in wartime, necessitated the deactivation of "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and her sisters. During this period, her sister briefly served as the squadron flagship, but "Kaiser Wilhelm II" resumed the post starting on 24 February. The following month, on 5 March, her crew was reduced and she steamed to Wilhelmshaven, where she was converted into the headquarters ship for the commander of the High Seas Fleet, commencing on 26 April. The ship had its wireless equipment modernized for use by the commander when the fleet was in port.  After the end of the war, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" continued in her role as headquarters ship for the fleet commander and his staff, along with the commander of the minesweeping operation in the North Sea. She was decommissioned for the last time on 10 September 1920. The naval clauses of the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the war, limited the capital ship strength of the re-formed "Reichsmarine" to eight pre-dreadnought battleships of the and es, of which only six could be operational at any given time. As a result, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" was stricken from the navy list on 17 March 1921 and sold to shipbreakers. By 1922, "Kaiser Wilhelm II" and her sisters had been broken up for scrap metal. The ship's bow ornament () is preserved at the Military History Museum of the Bundeswehr in Dresden.

SMS "Kaiser Wilhelm II" ("His Majesty's Ship Emperor William II") was the second ship of the of pre-dreadnought battleships. She was built at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven and launched on 14 September 1897. The ship was commissioned into the fleet as its flagship on 13 February 1900. "Kaiser Wilhelm II" was armed with a main battery of four guns in two twin turrets. She was powered by triple expansion engines that delivered a top speed of.

德皇威廉二世号战列舰()为德意志帝国海军所建造的五艘德皇腓特烈三世级前无畏战列舰的第二艘。它于1896年10月在威廉港的威廉港帝国船厂开建,至1897年9月14日。1900年2月13日,该舰被列为舰队旗舰投入服役。其主舰炮为安装在两座双联装炮塔内的四门240毫米40倍径速射炮,最高速度为。


Structure.

In biochemical terms, pheophytin is a chlorophyll molecule lacking a central Mg ion. It can be produced from chlorophyll by treatment with a weak acid, producing a dark bluish waxy pigment. The probable etymology comes from this description, with "pheo" meaning "dusky" and "phyt" meaning "vegetation".

History and discovery.

In the 1977s, scientists Klevanik, Klimov, Shuvalov performed a series of experiments to demonstrate that it is pheophytin and not plastoquinone that serves as the primary electron acceptor in photosystem II. Using several experiments, including electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), they were able to show that pheophytin was reducible and, therefore, the primary electron acceptor between P680 and plastoquinone (Klimov, Allakhverdiev, Klevanik, Shuvalov). This discovery was met with fierce opposition, since many believed pheophytin to only be a byproduct of chlorophyll degradation. Therefore, more experiments ensued to prove that pheophytin is indeed the primary electron acceptor of PSII, occurring between P680 and plastoquinone (Klimov, Allakhverdiev, Shuvalov). The data that was obtained is as follows:  These observations are all characteristic of photo-conversions of reaction center components.

Reaction in purple bacteria.

Pheophytin is the first electron carrier intermediate in the photoreaction center (RC P870) of purple bacteria. Its involvement in this system can be broken down into 5 basic steps. The first step is excitation of the bacteriochlorophylls (Chl) or the special pair of chlorophylls. This can be seen in the following reaction. The second step involves the (Chl) passing an electron to pheophytin, producing a negatively charged radical (the pheophytin) and a positively charged radical (the special pair of chlorophylls), which results in a charge separation. The third step is the rapid electron movement to the tightly bound menaquinone, Q, which immediately donates the electrons to a second, loosely bound quinone (Q). Two electron transfers convert Q to its reduced form (QH). The fifth and final step involves the filling of the “hole” in the special pair by an electron from a heme in cytochrome "c". This regenerates the substrates and completes the cycle, allowing for subsequent reactions to take place.

Involvement in photosystem II.

In photosystem II, pheophytin plays a very similar role. It again acts as the first electron carrier intermediate in the photosystem. After P680 becomes excited to P680, it transfers an electron to pheophytin, which converts the molecule into a negatively charged radical. Two negatively charged pheophytin radicals quickly pass their extra electrons to two consecutive plastoquinone molecules. Eventually, the electrons pass through the cytochrome "bf" molecule and leaves photosystem II. The reactions outlined above in the section concerning purple bacteria give a general illustration of the actual movement of the electrons through pheophytin and the photosystem. The overall scheme is:

Pheophytin or phaeophytin (abbreviated Pheo) is a chemical compound that serves as the first electron carrier intermediate in the electron transfer pathway of Photosystem II (PS II) in plants, and the photosynthetic reaction center (RC P870) found in purple bacteria. In both PS II and RC P870, light drives electrons from the reaction center through pheophytin, which then passes the electrons to a quinone (Q) in RC P870 and RC P680. The overall mechanisms, roles, and purposes of the pheophytin molecules in the two transport chains are analogous to each other.

脱镁叶绿素(英语:Pheophytin,中国也称为褐藻素)与光合作用中光反应的电子传递链有关。叶绿素在经过加酸或加热或脱镁作用后会变成脱镁叶绿素,颜色也会改变。在水污染的地方,会造成浮游植物细胞破碎死亡时,其原本所含的叶绿素也跟着被破坏,而转变成脱镁叶绿素。因此脱镁叶绿素的含量比例可以作为水质的指标之一。


圣安妮教堂 (克拉科夫)

History.

The church was first mentioned in 1381 in the deed of donation of Sulisław I Nawoja of Grodziec. In 1407 the church was completely destroyed during a fire, but it was rebuilt the same year in the Gothic style by King Władysław II Jagiełło. The king also attached the Church formally to the Jagiellonian University by giving it the right to nominate the parish priest. In 1428 the choir was reconstructed and enlarged. By a charter dated October 27, 1535 St. Anne's was raised to the rank of a collegiate church.  In 1689 the Gothic edifice was demolished as it proved too small for the growing cult of Saint John Cantius, the patron saint of the Jagiellonian University who's laid to rest there. In 1689-1705 the new Baroque church was erected, modelled on Sant'Andrea della Valle in Rome. The architect was a Polonized Dutchman Tylman van Gameren, a chief architect at the court of John III Sobieski. The interior stucco decoration is the work of Baldassarre Fontana, and the polychromy assisted by painters and brothers Carlo and Innocente Monti and Karl Dankwart of Nysa. The painting of St. Anne in the high altar is the work of Jerzy Siemiginowski-Eleuter, court painter of King John III Sobieski. The 18th-century paintings in the stalls showing the life of Saint Anne are by Szymon Czechowicz. In the transept there is an altar of the adoration of the cross to the left, and the tomb of John Cantius to the right.

The Church of St. Anne () is a Roman Catholic church located at 13 św. Anny Street in the UNESCO-protected historic centre of Kraków, Poland. It is one of the leading examples of Polish Baroque architecture designed by Tylman van Gameren, however, the church's history dates back to 14th century.

圣安妮教堂()是波兰城市克拉科夫的一座教堂。这座教堂是波兰巴洛克式建筑的 代表作之一,其历史可追溯至14世纪。圣安妮教堂首次被提及是在1381年。1407年,圣安妮教堂被大火烧毁,但之后按哥特式风格重建。1689年,哥特式教堂被拆除,取而代之的是现在的巴洛克式教堂。


Origins.

Stories vary on how Skanda was accepted into the traditional Chinese Buddhist pantheon. Some have proposed that Skanda's features were adapted from a Chinese deity who appeared in the Chinese classical Ming novel "Fengshen Yanyi". However, the existence of illustrated Skanda images predating the Ming Dynasty set his origins back to an earlier period in the development of Chinese Buddhism.  Skanda is described as a young man fully clad in the armor and headgear of a Chinese general, and is usually leaning on a vajra staff. Some suggest that Skanda may have come from Tamil Religion as the war deity முருகன் / Muruga /Guhan/ Kandha- கந்தா (Tamil), who bears the title Skanda. Others point out that Skanda might also be a manifestation of Vajrapani, a bodhisattva who bears some relations to Skanda because they both wield vajras as weapons, are portrayed with flaming halos, and are both heavenly protectors of Buddhism. Skanda may be connected through Vajrapani through a theory to his connection to Greco-Buddhism, as Wei Tuo's image is reminiscent of the Heracles depiction of Vajrapani.  Although Skanda is only a deva, he is very often addressed as a bodhisattva.

As Miao Shan's lover.

When the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara was reincarnated as the princess Miao Shan, Skanda (known as Wei Tuo in this story) was one of her cruel father's generals. He loved Miao Shan but realized he could not possibly be a proper partner to her, since she was a pure person. However, Wei Tuo was inspired by Miao Shan's kindness so he decided to stay faithful and devoted to Miao Shan, even if she wasn't his wife. The two escaped Miao Shan's father, and the general-suitor helped build Miao Shan a temple and a kingdom of her own. Soon however, the cruel king found them and killed them both. The general, because of his devotion to Guan Yin, transformed into a bodhisattva himself, who vowed to always serve and protect Guan Yin. His appearance as a Chinese general is the direct forebear to his connection with Miao Shan.

As a warrior.

Another story says that Miao Shan was told to commit suicide by her grandmother. Her grandmother forced Miao Shan to leap into the sea because she was thought to have been an incarnation of a demon, when in fact she was not. The emperor told a loyal soldier named Luo Ping to pretend to throw Miao Shan into the ocean. He brought her with Yin Ma, the mother of Wei Tuo, to her village. Years passed, when an evil fish demon came. A disloyal soldier named Huo Yi was sent by the fish demon to kill Miao Shan. The fish demon wanted revenge on Miao Shan because she was the incarnation of "Ci Hang Da Shi", a Buddhist deva that put the fish in a lotus pond. Huo Yi and his troops went to the village where Miao Shan and Wei Tuo lived and fought. Huo Yi's son killed Wei Tuo. After Miao Shan became the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, she made Skanda a bodhisattva guardian. He became a bodhisattva because he took care of Miao Shan and loved her as a sister.  According to the lunar calendar, his birthday is the 3rd day of the 6th lunar month.

Skanda (Chinese:塞建陀, 室建陀), also known as Wei Tuo (Chinese: 韋馱) and Idaten (Japanese: 韋駄天) is a Mahayana bodhisattva regarded as a devoted guardian of Buddhist monasteries who protects the teachings of Buddhism. He is also sometimes called in the Chinese tradition "Hufa Weituo Zuntian Pusa", meaning "Honored Dharma Protector Skanda Bodhisattva", because he is the leader of the twenty-four celestial guardian deities mentioned in the "Golden Light Sutra".

韦驮(梵语:Skanda),原译作塞建陀、私建陀、室建陀,简称建陀,后“建”被误写为“违”,再简化为“韦”,变成韦陀、韦驮。是佛教的知名护法,执金刚神之一,为菩萨化身,过去为法意太子,因发愿为密迹金刚力士来护持千位兄长成佛,愿力的关系,示现护法相,后来蒙受释迦牟尼佛授记,将于未来贤劫千佛中,最后一位成佛,佛号楼至,韦驮菩萨过去的名号于佛典中有着不同的翻译,《悲华经》称名为「持力捷」、「火净药王」,《大乘悲分陀利经》称名为「持大力童子」、「无垢明药王」。世传祂统领东西南三大洲(东胜神洲、西牛贺洲、南赡部洲)巡游护法事宜,保护出家人,护持佛法,故寺院都会供奉祂,并常将其的形象印在佛经与佛教典籍的末页,冀望韦驮菩萨护持,让正法久昌。


Plot.

After human overpopulation depletes Earth's resources, humanity builds an interstellar ark, the "Elysium". It carries 60,000 people on a 123-year trip to colonize Tanis, an Earth-like planet. The passengers are placed in hypersleep, and a rotating crew wake biennially to maintain the ship. Eight years into the mission, the ship receives a transmission from Earth: "You are all that's left of us".  Some unknown time later, two members of the flight crew, Corporal Bower and Lieutenant Payton, awaken. Improper emergence from the hibernatory state leaves them both with partial amnesia and possibly suffering from pandorum, a space-related disorder that causes psychosis when under emotional duress. The ship experiences power surges caused by an unstable nuclear reactor, and they are unable to enter the bridge. While Payton stays behind to access the ship's computer, Bower uses the ventilation system to search for the reactor.  Bower first finds a disemboweled body and a wounded mechanic who tells him to escape "them". The noise summons a group of cannibalistic humanoids who appear to respond mostly to sound. He continues to encounter a woman, Nadia, and a farmer, Manh, who does not speak English; both are hostile. He encourages them to band together, and the trio flees into a barricaded chamber, where they find a cook named Leland. Leland has been awake for years, living off the water leaking into the ship, the algae it creates, and resorting to cannibalism. Payton encounters Corporal Gallo, who claims the ship is lost in space and that he killed his team in self-defense.  Leland feeds Bower's group and shows them mural drawings depicting what has happened: after Earth vanished following an unknown catastrophe, Gallo went insane, killed his crew, and induced pandorum in other passengers. After goading them into a violent and tribal culture, Gallo went back into hypersleep. Aided by accelerated evolution from an enzyme meant to help colonists adjust to life on Tanis, the descendants have turned into cannibalistic mutants. Leland gases the group, intending to eat them, but Bower convinces him the reactor must be stabilized.  As they search the ship for the reactor, Bower hopes to find his wife in an area for family in hypersleep but remembers that she died with everyone else on Earth when she refused to join him. This revelation almost makes him give up and pushes him closer to insanity. After surviving an encounter with the cannibals, Bower's group finds the reactor. A crowd of mutants sleep under the reactor, and Bower crosses a walkway to reset it. The walkway collapses, and Bower climbs down into the mutant pit to reach a ladder. While Manh distracts the mutants, Bower restarts the reactor, killing many mutants. Leland flees, and Manh is cornered by the mutant leader. Manh kills the leader but is killed by a mutant child he hesitates to slay.  Gallo becomes increasingly agitated, and Payton prepares a sedative. As they wrestle over the sedative, Payton is revealed to have hallucinated Gallo. Gallo killed the real Payton long ago when he developed pandorum upon hearing Earth was gone. Because he went into Payton's pod, Gallo mistakenly believed himself to be Payton when he woke up with amnesia. Leland reaches the bridge, and Gallo kills him with the sedative. When Bower and Nadia confront him, Gallo opens the shutters on the bridge's windows, revealing that the ship is adrift in deep space with no stars visible. The shock pushes Bower further toward insanity. Taking advantage of Bower's mental state, Gallo argues they must maintain the violent society rather than revive civilization.  Nadia observes bioluminescent ocean life through the windows, and the computer displays that 923 years have elapsed since the mission launched. The ship reached Tanis 800 years ago and landed itself in the ocean. Bower hallucinates a mutant attack and breaks a window. As water pours into the ship, Nadia and Bower climb into a hypersleep pod. The flood triggers an emergency protocol which ejects all active pods to the surface, while Gallo and the remaining mutants drown. Bower and Nadia surface near a lush coastline, and they witness the other pods ascend.

Production.

The film began life as a preliminary script written by Travis Milloy in the late 1990s. The story was originally set on a prison ship named "Pandorum", transporting thousands of Earth's deadliest prisoners to another planet; the cannibal hunters were the end result of the prisoners' degeneration. The characters played by Antje Traue and Cung Le were inmates. Ben Foster's character was a non-prisoner who did not trust anyone.  Believing no studio would want to make the film, Milloy thought about making it as a low-budget film shot on video in an abandoned paper mill with unknown actors. However, it attracted the attention of filmmaker Paul W. S. Anderson and Jeremy Bolt, and they gave it to Impact Pictures, who green-lit it. The producers gave the script to director Christian Alvart who was struck by the similarities to his own screenplay titled "No Where". His dramatic story was about four astronauts aboard a settlers' ship who suffer from amnesia. Alvart decided that they should meld the two screenplays together, and the producers and Milloy agreed. With the ship now changed to a settler's ship, the use of the word "Pandorum" was changed from the name of the ship to a type of mental illness caused by sustained deep space travel.  "Pandorum" was announced in May 2008 with Dennis Quaid and Ben Foster in lead roles. Christian Alvart was attached to direct the film, based on a script by Travis Milloy. The movie was financed by Constantin Film through a joint venture deal with subsidiary Impact Pictures. The partnership helped fund the $40 million production. Constantin drew subsidies from Germany's Medienboard Berlin-Brandenburg (MBB) regional film fund, the (FFA) and the (DFFF). The German Federal Film Fund provided $6 million to the production, the fund's second-largest 2008 payout after $7.5 million for "Ninja Assassin". Filming took place at Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam in August 2008.

Release, director's cut, and sequel.

Summit Entertainment handled foreign sales and presented "Pandorum" to buyers at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival, but due to a deal with Contender Films in the UK, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures took over and handled foreign sales to the film. Overture Films distributed "Pandorum" in North America, Icon in the United Kingdom and Australia, Svensk Filmindustri in Scandinavia, and Movie Eye in Japan. The film was set up as a possible franchise. According to Travis Milloy, it was to have a sequel and a prequel. If it performed well, Impact Pictures could green-light one or more sequels.  The DVD and Blu-ray Disc release occurred on 19 January 2010 in the United States over Anchor Bay Entertainment.  The director and producer commentaries on the DVD indicate that an unrated version of the movie exists but has not been released.

Reception.

Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 28% based on 85 reviews and an average rating of 4.21/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "While it might prove somewhat satisfying for devout sci-fi fans, "Pandorum"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s bloated, derivative plot ultimately leaves it drifting in space." At Metacritic, which judges on a 0–100 scale, the film holds a "generally unfavorable" score of 28 based on 13 reviews.  Science fiction magazine "SFX" stated that ""Pandorum" is the finest interstellar horror in years" and awarded the film 4 stars out of 5. "Film Ireland" also gave "Pandorum" a positive review, appreciating the film's synergy of cinematic techniques, set design, and developed characters.  The film grossed $20.6 million worldwide on a $33 million budget. The film opened at No. 6 at the US box office with weekend receipts totaling $4.4 million. Poor return due to lack of promotion was a contributing factor to Overture Films' declaration of bankruptcy several months later.

Soundtrack.

Track listing

Pandorum is a 2009 British-German science fiction horror film, with elements of Lovecraftian horror and survival adventure. The film was directed by Christian Alvart and produced by Robert Kulzer, Jeremy Bolt and Paul W. S. Anderson. Travis Milloy wrote the screenplay from a story by Milloy and Alvart. It stars Dennis Quaid and Ben Foster.

《深空失忆》(英语:"Pandorum")是一部2009年9月25日上映的科幻惊悚电影。


History.

First mausoleum.

The remains of the Báb were buried on March 21, 1909 in a six-room mausoleum made of local stone. In a separate room, the remains of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá were buried in November 1921. In 1929 three rooms were added to the mausoleum.

Final shrine.

In 1949 the first threshold stone of the superstructure was laid by Shoghi Effendi. The construction was completed over the mausoleum in 1953 and was entirely paid for by Baháʼís around the world.  The architect was William Sutherland Maxwell, a Canadian Baháʼí who was a Beaux-Arts architect and the father-in-law of Shoghi Effendi. Shoghi Effendi provided overall guidance, including in the use of Western and Eastern styles, but left the artistic details to Maxwell. Maxwell's design of the Rose Baveno granite colonnade, Oriental-style Chiampo stone arches, and golden dome is meant to harmonize Eastern and Western proportions and style. Maxwell died in 1952, and Shoghi Effendi named the Southern door of the Shrine after him. Some remaining aspects of the dome's structural engineering were designed by Professor H. Neumann of Haifa's Technion University.  In 1952, Leroy Ioas, an American Baháʼí who had been closely associated with the construction of the Baháʼí House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois helped Shoghi Effendi in the construction process. Ioas employed his administrative skills and practical mind to supervise the building of the drum and dome, a task done without the availability of sophisticated machinery. Shoghi Effendi called the door on the octagon after him.  Because of the scarcity of building materials in the area after World War II, most of the stones for the Shrine of the Báb were carved in Italy with the assistance of Ugo Giachery and then shipped to Haifa. One of the doors of the Shrine was named after Giachery. The superstructure was said to be at the time the largest prefabricated building to move from Europe to any point in the world.

Design and composition.

Dome.

The dome is composed of 12,000 fish-scale tiles - in the original version of the 1950s, a Dutch company created a special technology, baking the clay tiles three times, twice with different glazes, and lastly with a 15% gold solution.  After over 50 years of exposure the old tiles were badly broken and damaged, and the new tiles, first uncovered in 2011, are of more than 120 different shapes and sizes, and were made in Portugal by employing an innovative process involving porcelain being repeatedly fire-glazed, covered in gold solution, and sealed with an extremely durable coating.

Octagon and drum.

The main body of the building, centered around the tomb of the Báb, is octagonal.  The cylindrical drum set between the octagon and the dome rises 11 meters and rests on a circular steel-reinforced-concrete ring on the top of the octagon.

Decorations.

The Shrine is decorated with emerald green and scarlet mosaics on the balustrade above, a fire-gilded bronze symbol of the Greatest Name of the Baháʼí Faith at the four corners, and a multitude of intricate decorations and motifs.

Interior.

The Shrine is a place for quiet prayer and meditation where no ceremonies or religious services are held. A special prayer used by Baháʼís when visiting the Shrine, known as the Tablet of Visitation, is hung on the wall in both the original Arabic and an English translation.

Titles.

Shoghi Effendi, in a message dated 19 August 1953, has described the Shrine in the following poetic way: ""...Queen of Carmel enthroned on God's Mountain, crowned in glowing gold, robed in shimmering white, girdled in emerald green, enchanting every eye from air, sea, plain and hill."" He has also called the Shrine the Kúh-i-Núr (Mountain of Light), facing and overshadowed by the Daryá-yi-Núr (Ocean of Light, the Shrine of Baháʼu'lláh).

UNESCO World Heritage site.

On July 8, 2008, the Shrine of the Báb, along with several other Baháʼí holy sites in Haifa and the nearby city of Acre (Akko), were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The Baháʼí shrines "are the first sites connected with a relatively new religious tradition to be recognized by the World Heritage List." The UNESCO World Heritage Committee considers the sites to be "of outstanding universal value [and]...inscribed for the testimony they provide to the Baháʼí's strong tradition of pilgrimage and for their profound meaning for the faith."  "We welcome the UNESCO recognition, which highlights the importance of the holy places of a religion that in 150 years has gone from a small group found only in the Middle East to a worldwide community with followers in virtually every country," said Albert Lincoln, secretary-general of the Baha'i International Community.

Terraced gardens.

Surrounded by terraced gardens, the Shrine is one of the most recognizable landmarks in Haifa and has attracted millions of visitors. The Shrine is enhanced by 19 garden terraces that stretch one kilometre from the base of Mount Carmel to its summit, and both the terraces and the Shrine are illuminated at night. The Baháʼís consider the Shrine of the Báb and the surrounding gardens to be a "gift to humanity."

The Shrine of the Báb is a structure in Haifa, Israel where the remains of the Báb, founder of the Bábí Faith and forerunner of Baháʼu'lláh in the Baháʼí Faith, have been buried; it is considered to be the second holiest place on Earth for Baháʼís, after the Shrine of Baháʼu'lláh in Acre. Its precise location on Mount Carmel was designated by Baháʼu'lláh himself to his eldest son, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, in 1891. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá planned the structure, which was designed and completed several years later by his grandson, Shoghi Effendi.

巴孛陵寝(Shrine of the Báb)是巴哈伊信仰的一处朝圣地点,位于以色列海法的迦密山上,巴哈伊信仰的创立者巴孛的遗体埋葬于此。


Early life (birth–1844).

Táhirih was born Fātemeh Baraghāni in Qazvin, Iran (near Tehran), the oldest of four daughters of Muhammad Salih Baraghani, an Usuli mujtahid who was remembered for his interpretations of the Quran, his eulogies of the tragedies of Karbala, his zeal for the execution of punishments, and his active opposition to the consumption of wine. Her mother was from a Persian noble family, whose brother was the imam of the Shah Mosque of Qazvin. Her mother as well as Táhirih and all her sisters all studied in the Salehiyya, the Salehi madrasa her father had established in 1817, which included a women's section. Táhirih's uncle, Mohammad Taqi Baraghani, was also a mujtahid whose power and influence dominated the court of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar. The lack of contemporary evidence makes it impossible to determine her exact date of birth. Historian and contemporary Nabíl-i-Aʻzam cites that it was in 1817, whilst others claim an earlier date of 1814. Her grandson suggests a much later date of 1819, whilst some modern historians claim she was born about 1815. Shoghi Effendi and William Sears suggest the date of 1817, and other writers agree. This is supported by claims by a chronicler from the 19th century, who wrote that Táhirih was "thirty-six years of age" when she was killed, in accordance to the lunar calendar. After interviewing Táhirih's family and the families of contemporaries as well as reading documents about her life Martha Root believed that the most accurate date of birth was between 1817–1819. These findings are contested in several books and articles, but the evidence does not conclusively support either date.  The Baraghani brothers had migrated from an obscure village near Qazvin to the city where they made their fortunes in ecclesiastical schools. They soon rose to the ranks of high-ranking clerics in the court of the Shah of Persia and even running religious sections of Qazvin. The brothers also involved themselves in the mercantile business accumulating great wealth and royal favour. Her father was himself a noted and respected cleric, as was her older uncle who married a daughter of the monarch. Táhirih's two younger uncles were not as elevated as the older ones but still had reasonable power in the court. Her aunt was a renowned poet and calligrapher in royal circles and wrote government decrees in her "beautiful hand". At the time of her birth, the Baraghani's were one of the most respected and powerful families in Persia.

As a Bábí (1844–1848).

While in Karbala in Iraq, Táhirih continued teaching her new faith. After some of the Shiʻa clergy complained, the government moved her to Baghdad, where she resided at the home of the mufti of Baghdad, Shaykh Mahmud Alusi, who was impressed by her devotion and intellect. Táhirih was stoned as she left for Baghdad. There she started giving public statements teaching the new faith, and challenging and debating issues with the Shiʻa clergy. Táhirih's behaviour was regarded as unbecoming of a woman especially because of her family background and she was received negatively by the clergy. Despite this, many women admired her lessons and she gained a great number of women followers. At some point the authorities in Baghdad argued with the governor that since Táhirih was Persian she should instead be arguing her case in Iran, and in 1847, on instructions from the Ottoman authorities she, along with a number other Bábís, was deported to the Persian border. A reason may have been her increasing note of innovation in religious matters – in his early teachings, the Báb stressed the necessity for his followers to observe the Islamic Sharia, even to perform acts of supererogatory piety. However, his claim as being the Bāb, i.e. the authority direct from God, threatened to conflict with this more conservative position. Táhirih seems to have been particularly conscious of this and to have linked the concept of the Bāb's overriding authority in religious matters with ideas originating in Shaykhism. Táhirih seems to have made this link before the Bāb himself but she received letters supporting her approach soon.  American Martha Root writes about Táhirih: "Picture in your mind one of the most beautiful young women in Iran, a genius, a poet, the most learned scholar of the Quran and the traditions; think of her as the daughter of a jurist family of letters, daughter of the greatest high priest of her province and very rich, enjoying high rank, living in an artistic palace, and distinguished among her...friends for her boundless, immeasurable courage. Picture what it must mean for a young woman like this, still in her twenties, to arise as the first woman disciple of [the Báb]".

Poetry.

After her conversion to the Bábí faith, the poems of Táhirih flourished. In most she talks about her longing to meet the Báb. Her poetry illustrates an impressive knowledge of Persian and Arabic literature which Táhirih possessed, seldom seen in a woman in mid-nineteenth century Iran. One of the most famous poems attributed to her is named "Point by Point". Although it is widely considered her signature poem and a masterpiece, it has been claimed by Mohit Tabátabá'i to be older and by someone else – though in making this claim he offered no proof and any argument to the contrary is not possible in Iran. When Táhirih was killed, hostile family members suppressed or destroyed her remaining poems, whilst her others were spread across Iran. It has been suggested that Táhirih had little interest in putting her poems in print. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá recalls that when he was aged five Táhirih would chant her poetry to him in her beautiful voice. Edward Granville Browne procured her poems

Return to Iran.

During her journey back to Qazvin, she openly taught the Bábí faith, including on stops in Kirand and Kermanshah, where she debated with the leading cleric of the town, Aqa ʻAbdu'llah-i-Bihbihani. Aqa ʻAbdu'llah-i-Bihbihani, at this point, wrote to Táhirih's father asking his relatives to remove her from Kermanshah. She then travelled to the small town

Arriving in Qazvin and escape to Tehran.

After arriving at the family home, her uncle and father endeavoured to convert her away from the Bábí faith, but Táhirih argued and presented religious "proofs" for the validity of the Báb's claims. A few weeks later her husband quickly divorced her, and her uncle Muhammad Taqi Baraghani began publicly denouncing his niece. This was very controversial in Qazvin and further undermined the Baraghani family. Rumours circulated in the court of Táhirih's immorality, but these were most likely hearsay concocted to undermine her position and ruin her reputation. A Qajar chronicler wrote that he was stunned by

Conference of Badasht.

In June–July 1848, a number of Bábí leaders met in the hamlet of Badasht at a conference, organized in part and financed by Baháʼu'lláh, that set in motion the public existence and promulgation of the Bábí movement.  In one account the purpose of the conference was to initiate a complete break in the Babi community with the Islamic past. The same account notes that a secondary account was to find a way to free the Bab from the prison of Chiriq, and it was Tahirih who pushed the notion that there should be an armed rebellion to save the Bab and create the break. Another source states that there was no doubt that prominent Babi leaders wanted to plan an armed revolt. It seems that much of what Tahirih was pushing was beyond what most of the other Babis were about to accept.  Bábís were divided somewhat between those that viewed the movement as a break with Islam, centered around Táhirih, and those with a more cautious approach, centered around Quddus. As an act of symbolism, she took off her traditional veil in front of an assemblage

Imprisonment and Death (1848–1852).

After the conference at Badasht Táhirih and Quddus travelled to Mazandaran province together, where they then separated, very often facing harassment on their journey. There are conflicting reports as to the reason of this harassment. According to Lisan al-Mulk the harassment was due to their staying in the same inns, and using the same public bath. In a different account the Babis are harassed by anti-Babi inhabitants of villages that they pass through. Finally when they arrived in Barfurush, they were given some shelter among the Babis.  Nearby villagers attacked the Bábís and during that time Táhirih was captured, and put under house arrest in Tehran in the home of the Mahmud Khan. Whilst in the house of Mahmud Khan she earned respect from women around Tehran who flocked to see her and even the Mahmud Khan himself. Táhirih seemed to have gained the respect of Mahmud Khan and his family members. This is also her first visibility in western newspapers.

Presentation at Court.

After her capture and arrest, Táhirih was escorted to Tehran. It was in Tehran that Táhirih was presented in the court to the young monarch Nasser-al-Din Shah. He was reported to have remarked "I like her looks, leave her, and let her be". She was then taken to the home of the chief Mahmud Khan. The Shah then wrote her a letter

Final Sentence.

Though a prisoner, Táhirih still had relative freedom in the sense that she still taught her religion to people in the mayor's house. She openly denounced polygamy, the veil and other restraints put upon women. Her words soon made her an influential character and women flocked to see Táhirih, including one princess of the Qajar family who converted. The clergy and members of the court, however, feared that she had grown too influential, and they organized seven conferences with Táhirih to convince her to recant her faith in the Báb. Instead, Táhirih

Execution.

Two years after the execution of the Báb, three Bábís, acting on their own initiative, attempted to assassinate Nasser-al-Din Shah as he was returning from the chase to his palace at Niyávarfin. The attempt failed, but was the cause of a fresh persecution of the Bábís and Táhirih was blamed due to her Bábí faith. She was told shortly beforehand about her execution. Táhirih kissed the hands of the messenger, dressed herself in bridal attire, adorned herself in perfume and said her prayers. To the wife of Mahmud Khan she made one supplication: that she be left in peace to continue her prayers in peace. The young son of Mahmud Khan accompanied Táhirih to the garden. To him she gave a silk white handkerchief with which she had chosen to be strangled.  In the dead of the night in secret,

Legacy.

Táhirih is considered one of the foremost women of the Bábí religion and an important figure in its development. As a charismatic individual, she was able to transcend the restrictions normally placed on women in traditional society where she lived, and thus attracted attention to the Cause. She wrote copiously on Bábí matters, and of that volume about a dozen significant works and a dozen personal letters have survived. They are outlined (including the contents of some further treatises that have been lost) by Denis MacEoin in 'The Sources for Early Babi Doctrines and History' 107–116. Around 50 poems are attributed to her, and are regarded highly in Persian culture.  In addition to being well

In art.

Táhirh has been a focus of some writers of the Baháʼí Faith in fiction. Polish/Russian playwright Isabella Grinevskaya wrote the play "Báb" based on the life and events of the founder of the Bábí religion with a focus on Táhirih. which was performed in St. Petersburg in 1904 and again in 1916/7, and lauded by Leo Tolstoy and other reviewers at the time. In Velimir Khlebnikov's writings and poems she is mentioned frequently (as ); a number of Khlebnikov's poems describes her execution (sometimes mistakingly as a burning on a stake).  About 1908 Constance Faunt Le Roy Runcie attempted to publish a novel about the Bab and "Persia's celebrated poetess Zerryn Taj" (another of Tahirih's names.)  Bahiyyih Nakhjavani published her "La femme qui lisait trop (The Woman Who Reads Too Much)" in 2007, the English edition was published in 2015. It tells the story of Táhirih. The writer adopts the revolving points of view, of mother, sister, daughter and wife respectively, to trace the impact of this woman's actions on her contemporaries and read her prophetic insights.  Nazanin Afshin-Jam is set to play a role as Tahirih in a film by Jack Lenz named "Mona's Dream" about the life story of Mona Mahmudnizhad.  Sarah Bernhardt, the best known French actress of her day, asked two of her contemporary authors Catulle Mendès and Henri Antoine Jules-Bois to write a play about Tahirih and the Babis for her to portray on stage. Catulle Mendes wrote in Le Figaro that it was after reading "Les Religions et les Philosophies dans l ́Asie centrale" written by Arthur de Gobineau that he had the idea to write a drama about Tahéreh Qurrat al-`Ain.  In 2015, during the Adelaide Fringe, Delia Olam co-wrote and staged a one-woman play ""Just let the wind untie my perfumed hair"", based on Tahirih's final days as seen through several eyewitnesses. Some of Tahirih's poetry, in English translation, was sung to cello or dulcimer accompaniment.  Shabnam Tolouei Iranian actress and filmmaker living in France, has made a documentary of 67 minutes about the life of Tahirih Qurratul'Ayn, in April 2016. The film, called Dust-Flower-Flame, is in Persian language with English and French subtitles.  Russell Garcia and Gina Garcia have composed a musical drama titled "The Unquenchable Flame" about Táhirih's life, with Tierney Sutton in the role of Táhirih.

Tahereh (Tāhirih) (, "The Pure One," also called Qurrat al-ʿAyn ( "Solace/Consolation of the Eyes") are both titles of Fatimah Baraghani/Umm-i-Salmih (1814 or 1817 – August 16–27, 1852), an influential poet, women's right activist and theologian of the Bábí faith in Iran. She was one of the Letters of the Living, the first group of followers of the Báb. Her life, influence and execution made her a key figure of the religion. The daughter of Muhammad Salih Baraghani, she was born into one of the most prominent families of her time. Táhirih led a radical interpretation that, though it split the Babi community, wedded messianism with Bábism.

塔荷蕾(,纯洁者),也被称作“所有眼睛的安慰”(),都是法蒂玛·巴拉加尼(1814或1817年-1852年-8月16-27日)的称号。她是伊朗的巴比教有影响力的诗人和神学家。她的生平、影响力和殉道使得她成为巴比教的重要人物。她是哈吉·穆拉·萨利赫的女儿,出生于当时最显赫的家族之一。


Early years.

Horwich was born in 1951. He grew up in Oak Park, west of Chicago. In 1969, he entered Brown University as part of a new program that combined the undergraduate degree with medical school. During medical school, Horwich studied fat cell metabolism in the laboratory of John Fain. Horwich received his A.B. in biomedical sciences in 1972 and his M.D. in 1975. He graduated as valedictorian of the first class to complete the combined program. Horwich went on to do an internship and residency in pediatrics at Yale University. Midway through, Horwich was not sure about an entirely clinical future. After completing his residency, he joined the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California for a postdoctoral position in molecular biology and virology. At Salk, he worked in Walter Eckhart's laboratory alongside Tony Hunter and witnessed Hunter's discovery of tyrosine phosphorylation. He credits this time with sharpening his skills as a scientist. He said, "Tony taught me the nuts and bolts of thinking about a problem."

Research.

In 1981, Horwich moved back to New Haven, Connecticut for a postdoctoral fellowship at Yale University School of Medicine. He worked in the laboratory of Leon Rosenberg.  In 1984, he moved across the hall from Rosenberg's lab to start his own laboratory as an assistant professor in the department of genetics. He still collaborated with members of the Rosenberg laboratory, including Wayne Fenton. As an independent researcher, Horwich asked whether the pathway that imports an enzyme called ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) into the mitochondria of mammalian cells also could work in yeast. In 1987, during a genetic screen in yeast, Horwich and his colleagues stumbled across a protein folding function inside mitochondria. In the mutant strain, proteins entered mitochondria from the cytosol normally but then misfolded and aggregated. They named the protein encoded by the affected gene HSP60, Heat shock protein 60, because it has a mass of 60 kDa and is produced in larger quantity in response to heat. Hsp60 is found in an 850 kDa double ring assembly, each ring containing 7 copies of Hsp60. Such assemblies, known as chaperonins, also exist in other cellular compartments and are essential components, mediating protein folding under both heat shock and normal conditions.  Since 1987, Horwich and his colleagues have been studying these molecules both in "vivo" and "in vitro", with particular emphasis on the Hsp60 homologue in "E. coli" known as GroEL. They and others found early on that a chaperonin-mediated folding reaction can be reconstituted in a test tube, and that has enabled structural and functional studies that have begun to explain how chaperonins work.

Awards and honors.

He has also received two Protein Society awards - the Hans Neurath Award in 2001 and the Stein and Moore Award in 2006.

Arthur L. Horwich (born 1951) is an American biologist and Sterling Professor of Genetics and Pediatrics at the Yale School of Medicine. Horwich has also been a Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator since 1990. His research into protein folding uncovered the action of chaperonins, protein complexes that assist the folding of other proteins. Horwich first published this work in 1989.

阿瑟·L·霍里奇(英语:Arthur L. Horwich,1951年),美国生物学家,在耶鲁大学医学院工作,并且自1990年至今一直在霍华德·休斯医学研究所做研究工作。研究领域主要是蛋白质折叠和分子伴侣("chaperonin"),他早于1989年就发表了这方面的论文。