Etymology.

The word is derived from the medieval Italian phrase "capo corporale" ("head of a body"). It may also be derived from an appointment as an officer's bodyguard, originally being an adjective pertaining to the word "body".

Argentina.

All three branches of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic use two or three ranks of corporal, or "cabo". Corporals in the Argentine military are considered "suboficiales subalternos" (subaltern sub-officers/lower non-commissioned officers), superior only to all ranks of Volunteers (enlisted members of the Army and Air Force) and Seamen (enlisted members of the Navy).  In the Argentine Army, there are two ranks of corporal, junior and senior: "Cabo" ("corporal") and "cabo primero" ("first corporal").  While the Argentine Navy has three corporal ranks, from junior to senior: "Cabo segundo" (corporal second class), "Cabo primero" (corporal first class) and "cabo principal" (principal corporal), which is equal to the army rank of "sargento" (sergeant). The Air Force has the same number of corporal ranks as the navy, and keeps the same titles, with the exception of "cabo" (corporal) instead of the navy's "cabo segundo" (corporal second class).  The rank is also used by the Argentine National Gendarmerie and the Argentine Federal Police, which use the rank in the same manner as the Army, as well as the Argentine Naval Prefecture.

Australia.

Corporal is the second lowest of the non-commissioned officer ranks in the Australian Army, falling between lance-corporal and sergeant. A corporal is usually appointed as a section commander, and is in charge of 7–14 soldiers of private rank. They are assisted by a second-in-command, usually a lance-corporal or senior private. A Corporal within Artillery is known as a bombardier. Corporal is also a rank of the Royal Australian Air Force, being equal to both the Australian Army and Royal Air Force rank of corporal.

Bangladesh.

Army  Corporal is a non-commissioned officer rank in the Bangladesh Air Force, falling between lance-corporal and sergeant. Air Force  Corporal is a non-commissioned officer rank in the Bangladesh Army, falling between Leading aircraftman and sergeant.

Belgium.

The branches of the Belgian Armed Forces use three ranks of corporal: corporal (, ), master corporal (, ) and 1st master corporal (, ). Corporal is equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-3, whereas master corporal and 1st master corporal are equivalent to OR-4. The rank immediately below corporal is 1st private and the rank directly above 1st master corporal is sergeant.  Units with a cavalry, artillery or Logistic Corps (Transport unit) tradition replace Corporal by "Brigadier".  The equivalent of these ranks in the Naval Component are quartermaster, chief quartermaster and 1st chief quartermaster.

Belorussia.

The Byelorussian Home Defence (February 23, 1944 – April 28, 1945) used the Kapral (), in the meanig of Corporal as enlisted grade, equivalet to Obergefreiter (OR-3b), Hauptgefreiter (OR-3a) or Stabsgefreiter (OR-4) of the German Nazi-Wehrmacht (1933-1945).

Brazil.

Corporal (in Portuguese "cabo") is the first NCO rank of the Army, Navy, Air Force and states military police forces. Soldiers who successfully complete the corporal course may be promoted to the rank of corporal should they excel in the course. A corporal in the Brazilian Army will lead the smallest fractions of units as machine gun squads, mortar and infantry squads.

Canada.

Corporal is an Army and Air Force non-commissioned member rank of the Canadian Forces. Its Naval equivalent is leading seaman. It is senior to the rank of private and its naval equivalent able seaman, and junior to master corporal ("caporal-chef") and its equivalent master seaman ("matelot-chef"). It is part of the cadre of junior non-commissioned officers, and one of the junior ranks. In French, the rank is "caporal".  The rank insignia of a corporal is a two-bar chevron, point down, worn in gold thread on both upper sleeves of the service dress jacket; in rifle green (army) or dark blue (air force) thread on CADPAT slip-ons for operational dress; in old gold thread on blue slip-ons on other air force uniforms; and in gold metal and green enamel miniature pins on the collars of the army dress shirt and outerwear coats. On army ceremonial uniforms, it is usually rendered in gold braid (black for rifle regiments), on either both sleeves, or just the right, depending on unit custom. Corporal is the first non-commissioned officer rank, and the lowest rank officially empowered to issue a lawful command. Corporals can lead troops if they have the formal qualifications to be promoted to master corporal but have not been promoted yet. However, the rank of corporal was severely downgraded after Unification, along with the attendant responsibilities. A corporal in the Canadian Army in 1967 had the same duties and responsibilities that a sergeant has today. In an infantry section, a corporal will sometimes command an assault team if a master corporal is leading the section or they are pending promotion to master corporal.  Another effect of Unification was to delete the appointments of lance-corporal and lance-sergeant (a corporal holding the acting rank of sergeant). The former is still common in other Commonwealth militaries.  Corporal is deemed to be the substantive rank of the members carrying the appointment of master corporal. On pay documents, corporal was formerly listed as "Cpl (A)" and master corporal as "Cpl (B)".  The rank of corporal in artillery units follows the British convention and is styled bombardier – thus a master corporal is a master bombardier.  In rifle regiments, a distinction was historically drawn between a corporal and an acting corporal; The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada had a special insignia to distinguish between the two.

Chile.

In the Army, Navy, Air Force and Police, there are three grades of Corporal: Corporal, Corporal 2nd. and Corporal 1st. The next level is Sergeant 2nd. grade.

People's Republic of China.

Corporal (Chinese: 下士, literally "junior NCO") is the lowest among the ranks of the non-commissioned officer of the People's Liberation Army. This rank was once replaced by the rank "level one non-commissioned officer" (Chinese:一级士官, 1998–2009), but was re-introduced in 2009.

Denmark.

In the Danish military, the rank of corporal ("korporal" in Danish) is the lowest rank of the NCO group. Professional (non-conscripted) soldiers, often those with the rank of "overkonstabel" (somewhat similar to "specialist" in the U.S. Army) may sometimes get selected for the rank of corporal, if they have unique experience or skills. This can't be given as a battlefield appointment and the aspiring corporal has to take a course in order to be promoted (6 weeks in the Army, 3 weeks in the Airforce and Navy). A corporal will often be given a task similar to that of other countries corporals; i.e. ad hoc assistance of squad-commanders. In the homeguard, a private can after completing a 10-day course get promoted to the rank of corporal and function as second in command of an infantry squad. The rank of corporal was phased out but was reintroduced into the Danish Army in October 2008.

Estonia.

In the Estonian Defence Forces, the rank of corporal ("kapral" in Estonian) is not an NCO rank, but an enlisted one and is equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-2.

Egypt.

In the Egyptian Army, the rank of corporal (""arif عريف) is an enlisted one and is equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-4.

Finland.

"Alikersantti" is an OR-4 rank and the lowest NCO rank of the Finnish Defence Forces. "Alikersantti" carries two-chevron rank insignia. In translations from English to Finnish, the corporal rank is often mistranslated as lance corporal, which is called "korpraali" in Finnish. In direct translation, the rank name basically means "junior sergeant" or "sub-sergeant". Typical duties of "alikersantti" are leading the squad or being second-in-command of the squad.

France.

There are three ranks of corporal ("caporal" in French). In the French Army, these are not NCO ranks, but enlisted ones. The corporals are called "ranked" ("gradés"). NCO start at the rank of "sergent" (OR-5).  With the exception of Troupes de Marine, which uses "caporaux" whether the men are infantry, cavalry or artillery, regiments with a cavalry tradition use "brigadier".

Germany.

Historically, the German army rank of "Unteroffizier" was the traditional German equivalent to the British Army corporal rank, and this grade has existed as a military rank since at least the 18th century. The German ranks of "Stabsgefreiter" and "Oberstabsgefreiter" are sometimes considered to be equivalent to a corporal rank in the US and other armies. The deputy to an Unteroffizier usually held the rank of Obergefreiter or Gefreiter (but others in the gruppe—squad/section—could as well) and as such is comparable to a British Army or Royal Marine lance corporal. Gefreiter and Obergefreiter ranks are based on experience and not on positions. The additional German rank of "Obergefreiter" was historically considered a senior lance corporal otherwise second corporal in the foot artillery which replaced the bombardier rank.  In modern-day "Bundeswehr" usage, the German rank of "Unteroffizier" is classified as OR-5 within the combined NATO-standard rank scale and is considered to be more a US sergeant rank than that of a corporal, with "Oberstabsgefreiter" and "Stabsgefreiter" now considered the equivalent ranks to the corporal (OR-4). The British Army does not use OR 5 and considers sergeants to be OR-6.  In the years between 1934 and 1945, there was also a corresponding paramilitary "Schutzstaffel" (SS) rank grade of "Unterscharführer", it was considered equivalent to a Germany Army "Unteroffizier" rank.

India.

These ranks are still used in the Indian Air Force. it is a rank given to an airman who is senior to leading aircraftman but junior to a sergeant. A corporal is designated as a Non-Commissioned Officer in the Indian Air Force.

Indonesia.

In the Indonesian Military, the rank "Corporal" is known as. In Indonesia, "Corporal" has three levels, which are: Second Corporal (Lance Corporal), First Corporal (Corporal), and Master Corporal. After this rank, the rank: Sergeant is promoted.

Iran.

Corporal (in Persian سرجوخه "Sarjukhe") is one of the lower ranks of the Islamic Republic of Iran Army. A "sarjukhe" is usually responsible for four or five soldiers.

Ireland.

Corporal ("ceannaire" in Irish) is the lowest rank of non-commissioned officer within the Irish Army and Air Corps. The Naval Service equivalent is leading seaman.

Army.

The main role of an infantry corporal is either to command a section as the section commander or to command the fire support group as the second in command of the section. All corporals are qualified instructors on drill, section weapons, and fieldcraft.  In the Artillery Corps, the corporal is normally assigned to a gun detachment as a layer, or a detachment commander. Artillery corporals can also find themselves in charge of the battery signals section.  The army rank insignia consists of two winged chevrons (or "stripes"), the dress uniform being red chevrons with a yellow border.

Air Corps.

Before 1994, the Air Corps was considered part of the army and wore army uniforms with distinct corps badges but the same rank insignia. With the introduction of a unique Air Corps blue uniform in 1994, the same rank markings in a white colour were worn, before the introduction of a new two-chevron badge with wing rank marking.

Israel.

In the Israel Defense Forces, soldiers are promoted from private to corporal ("rav-turai' 'רב טוראי or "rabat' 'רב״ט) after 7–10 months of service (7 for combatants, 8 for combat support and 10 for non-combatants), if they performed their duties appropriately during this time. Soldiers who take a commander's course, are prisoner instructors or practical engineers become corporals earlier. Corporals get a symbolic pay raise of 3.60 NIS and those who are also non-commissioned officers ("mashak") are able to command privates in their respective units.  A corporal may be promoted to sergeant about 11 or 12 months after becoming a corporal, or to the rank of second lieutenant if they complete an officer's course.

Italy.

A soldier could be promoted from private ("soldato") to corporal rank ("caporale") after 3 months of service until 2014, now they have to pass a selection to be promoted to corporal. The title was use as a senior office in the Italian Kingdom during World War II.

Mexico.

Corporal (in Spanish "cabo") is one of the lower ranks of the Mexican army.

New Zealand.

The New Zealand Defence Force awards the corporal rank to soldiers or airmen after 6 or 7 years of service. There is substantial responsibility on the part of a corporal in the New Zealand Army and Royal New Zealand Air Force. They usually command a small team and work closely with their sergeants. A pay increase is also given.  Like their British, Canadian and Australian counterparts, they wear two chevrons to distinguish their rank.  Corporals have what is termed 'power of arrest', and is impressed on recruits in RNZAF basic training. Basically, this power means that any airman or private disobeying or ignoring an order from a corporal will be subject to military arrest by that individual. Needless to say, power of arrest is used by higher ranks to enforce their orders, corporal in the RNZAF being the lowest rank with this power.

Norway.

In the Norwegian Armed Forces, promotion to the rank of "korporal" is an acknowledgement for good service by conscripted personnel. The rank does give some commanding authority, and corporals may be given increased informal responsibilities by senior officers and non-commissioned officers. The rank carries two chevrons and a slight pay increase.  All conscripted personnel in the military police are awarded the rank after the five-month learning period is over.

Pakistan.

These ranks are still used in the Pakistan Air Force. it is a rank given to an airman who is senior to leading aircraftsman but junior to a sergeant.

Poland.

In the Polish Land Forces, the rank of "kapral" is the lowest rank in the NCO corps (OR-3 in NATO code). Most commonly the rank is held by a NCO commanding an infantry squad, tank or gun crew, or a similar unit. The equivalent rank in the Polish Navy is "mat".  As with many other military ranks, direct comparison between various armies might be misleading. Before World War II, the Polish Army's "kapral" was more or less equivalent to the British rank of lance corporal, while the British rank of corporal was named "plutonowy" (lit. "platooner"). In modern times, the rank is still equivalent to a UK lance corporal or a private first class in the U.S. Army (OR-3), while the British and American rank of corporal (OR-4) is equivalent to the Polish rank of "starszy kapral" (lit. "senior corporal"), which was introduced in 1971.  Historically, the rank was first introduced in Poland in the 17th century, together with mercenary troops of Italian origin. In foreign troops on the royal payroll, a "kapral" commanded four ranks of musketeers or part of a company of pikemen. In the 20th century, between the world wars, the rank of corporal was held by both conscripted NCOs and professional soldiers alike. This was changed after World War II, when the Polish Army was under Soviet command and the rank of "kapral" was modified to resemble that of Soviet "junior sergeant", reserved for conscripted NCOs. In the modern Polish Army, the rank is exclusively reserved for professional soldiers.  The insignia of "kapral" (worn on shoulder straps or badge above breast pocket) are two bars.

Portugal.

The Portuguese Navy has the rank of "cabo da Armada" (corporal of the Navy). All other branches of the Portuguese Armed Forces have several ranks of corporal ("cabo" in Portuguese). The Portuguese Army and the Portuguese Air Force have the ranks of "segundo cabo" (second corporal), "primeiro cabo" (first corporal) and "cabo-adjunto" (corporal adjudant). The National Republican Guard has the ranks of "cabo" (corporal), "cabo-chefe" (chief corporal) and "cabo-mor" (corporal-major).  The several ranks of corporal correspond to the several pay grades, above that of private, that can be reached inside the enlisted rank professional category of the Army, the Air Force and the National Republican Guard. In the Navy, the rank of "cabo da Armada" is the highest pay grade in the enlisted rank category.

Russia.

The rank of corporal () existed in the Russian Army from 1647 to 1798, when it was replaced with that of non-commissioned officer (, from, literally "sub-officer"). Soviet and modern Russian armies have the rank of junior sergeant () that is not equivalent to the rank of corporal, as junior sergeants are assigned as squad leaders.

Singapore.

Singapore Armed Forces.

The Corporal rank in the Singapore Armed Forces is between the rank of Lance Corporal and Corporal First Class. National Servicemen are usually promoted to this rank within the 2nd year of their service.  Prior to 1992, the SAF followed the British model where corporals were non-commissioned officers often holding the appointment of section leader. Today, a corporal is not a specialist (NCO-equivalent). Corporals are usually given higher responsibilities/ appointments as a section 2IC, or 2nd-in-command.  The rank insignia of a SAF corporal is two chevrons pointing downwards with an arc on top.

Home Team.

In the Singapore Police Force, Singapore Civil Defence Force, Singapore Prison Service, Immigration and Checkpoints Authority and Singapore Customs, a corporal is a rank below sergeant.  The rank insignia for a corporal (中士) is two chevrons pointing downwards.

Uniformed youth organisations.

For the National Cadet Corps (NCC), the rank of Corporal is below the rank of Third Sergeant, and above the rank of Lance Corporal. For the National Police Cadet Corps (NPCC) and the National Civil Defence Cadet Corps (NCDCC), the rank of Corporal is below the rank of Sergeant, and above the rank of Lance Corporal.  For NCC, the rank insignia is same as that of an SAF CPL, except that the letters 'NCC' are below the insignia, so as to differentiate NCC cadets from SAF personnel. As for NPCC and NCDCC, the rank insignia is two pointed-down chevrons with the letters 'NPCC' and 'NCDCC' below the insignia, so as to differentiate NPCC and NCDCC cadets from Singapore Police Force and Singapore Civil Defence Force personnel, respectively.  The rank of Corporal is generally awarded to cadets in Secondary Two, or Secondary Three. Corporals, after being appointed, are given training to command a squad.

Spain.

In the Spanish Armed Forces, "cabo" (corporal) is the rank between "soldado de primera" (first class private) and "cabo primero" (first corporal). It actually equates to a NATO OR-3, with "cabo primero" equating to an OR-4 and "cabo mayor" to an OR-5.

Sweden.

In the Swedish Army, Navy and Air Force, the rank of "korpral" is a rank for soldiers with a specialization, and often in charge of a group six to ten men.

Taiwan (Republic of China).

Corporal (Chinese: 下士, literally "junior NCO") is the lowest among the ranks of the non-commissioned officer of the Taiwan Army, Marines, Air Force and Military Police. The rank wears an insignia with a broad chevron along with a narrow one, representing the NCO character and the juniority of the rank, respectively.

Turkey.

In Turkey, the rank of "Onbaşı" (Corporal) is above the rank of the private. "Onbaşı" literally translated to "Head of 10"

Ukraine.

Since 2015, the Corporal (), an OR4-rank, was introduced in the National Police of Ukraine, that is a special rank of junior quarterdeck. It corresponds to former junior sergeant of militia. Also since 2018-19, the Corporal () was introduced in the Court Security Service (), and the DBR() as a special rank of junior quarterdeck.

United Kingdom.

The rank of corporal, which falls between lance-corporal and sergeant is used by the British Army, Royal Marines, and Royal Air Force. A corporal is often regarded as a slightly more senior rank in the UK services than in other countries: although British corporals are classified as OR-4 under the NATO system, they usually fill posts held by an OR-5 equivalent in other countries, such as section Commander. The badge of rank is a two-bar chevron (also known as "stripes", "tapes", or "hooks"). A corporal's role varies between regiments; but, in the standard infantry role, a corporal commands a section, with a lance-corporal as second-in-command (2ic). When the section is split into fire teams, they command one each. In the Royal Armoured Corps, a corporal commands an individual tank. Their duties therefore largely correspond to those of staff sergeants in the United States Army and corporals are often described as the "backbone" of the British Army.  In the Household Cavalry, all non-commissioned ranks are designated as different grades of corporal up to regimental corporal major (who is a warrant officer class 1). There is no effective actual rank of corporal, however, and the ranks progress directly from lance-corporal to lance-corporal of horse (who is effectively equivalent to a corporal; technically, a lance-corporal of horse holds the rank of corporal but is automatically give the appointment of lance-corporal of horse). Similarly, in the Foot Guards and in the Honourable Artillery Company, every Corporal is appointed as a lance-sergeant meaning they wear three chevrons rather than the regular two, with a lance-corporal wearing two chevrons instead of one: this is sometimes said to have originated with Queen Victoria who did not like "her own guardsmen" having only one chevron.  Royal Artillery corporals are called bombardiers; although, until 1920, the Royal Artillery had corporals and bombardier was a lower rank. The rank of second corporal existed in the Royal Engineers and Royal Army Ordnance Corps until 1920.  A common nickname for a corporal is a "full screw", with lance-corporals being known as "lance-jacks". Corporal is the lowest NCO rank in the Royal Air Force (aside from the RAF Regiment who have lance-corporals), coming between junior technician or Senior aircraftman technician and sergeant in the technical trades, or senior aircraftman and sergeant in the non-technical trades. Between 1950 and 1964, corporals in technical trades were known as "corporal technicians" and wore their chevrons point up.  In the Royal Navy, the equivalent to corporal is leading hand or leading rate.  The Army Cadet Force, Combined Cadet Force, Air Training Corps, Royal Marines sections of the Sea Cadet Corps and the Combined Cadet Force all have the rank of corporal, reflecting the structure of their parent service; therefore it is the second NCO rank of the ACF, CCF (including the RAF Section, which has the rank of lance corporal) and marine cadets, and the first NCO rank in the ATC.

United States.

United States Army.

In the U.S. Army, corporal is preceded by the first three forms of private and the rank of specialist. A corporal rank (hard stripe) shares the same pay grade (E-4) as a specialist. Unlike a specialist, however, a corporal is a non-commissioned officer and may direct the activities of other soldiers.

United States Marine Corps.

Corporal is the fourth enlisted rank in the U.S. Marine Corps, ranking immediately above lance corporal and immediately below sergeant. The Marine Corps, unlike the Army, has no other rank at the pay grade of E-4. Corporal is the lowest grade of non-commissioned officer in the U.S. Marine Corps, though promotion to corporal traditionally confers a significant jump in authority and responsibility compared to promotion from private through lance corporal. Marine infantry corporals generally serve as "fire-team leaders", leading a four-man team or weapons crew of similar size (e.g., assault weapons squad, medium machine gun team, or LWCMS mortar squad).  In practice, however, the billet of fire team leader is generally held by a lance corporal, while corporals serve in the squad leader billet that would normally be held by a sergeant (E-5) in infantry units. In support units, corporals generally serve in "journeyman" level roles in which they direct the activities of junior Marines and provide technical supervision, on a very limited scope, under the direct supervision of a sergeant or SNCO.  Due to its emphasis on small-unit tactics, its infantry-centric ethos, and its tradition of empowering junior NCOs to exercise first-level leadership, the U.S. Marine Corps' Tables of Organization (TOs) usually places corporals (as well as sergeants and staff sergeants) in billets where other services would normally have higher ranking NCOs in authority. For example, the USMC Table of Organization "billet" rank for rifle fire team leader, rifle squad leader, and rifle platoon sergeant is corporal (E-4), sergeant (E-5), and staff sergeant (E-6), respectively. However, the same positions (Table of Organization and Equipment "slots") in US Army infantry units are one grade higher and, except in fire teams (both services with four men in each team), the equivalent Army units are smaller (viz., USMC rifle squad and rifle platoon – 13 men and 43 men, respectively, vice US Army rifle squad and rifle platoon – 9 men and 34 men, respectively). Specifically, for the Army rifle units, the rank of the fire team, squad leader, and platoon sergeant are: sergeant (E-5), staff sergeant (E-6), and sergeant first class (E-7), respectively. Similarly, the term "strategic corporal" refers to the special responsibilities conferred upon a Marine corporal over against the normal responsibilities, and usual authority, of service members in the grade of E-4 in the other branches of the U.S. Armed Forces.  Until the mid-to-late 1980s, corporals were the lowest USMC rank eligible for selection as a drill instructor for USMC recruit training.  The history of the rank of corporal in the USMC roughly parallels that of the U.S. Army until 1942. From 1775 until WWII, the Marine Corps used essentially the same rank and organizational structure as its common British and colonial forebears with the Army, as well as the later Continental and U.S. armies. In 1942, as the Army modified its triangular division infantry organization to best fight in the European/North African/Middle Eastern Theatre the Marine Corps began modifying the triangular division plan to best employ its amphibious warfare doctrine in the Pacific Theatre. This meant that for the Corps, squad leaders would remain as sergeants and that the rifle squad would be sub-divided into three four-man fire teams each led by a corporal.

Vietnam.

In the Vietnam People's Army, corporal ("Hạ sĩ") is the lowest rank in non-commissioned officer. Corporal is below sergeant and above private 2nd class.

Venezuela.

The rank is used by the National Bolivarian Armed Forces of Venezuela.

Corporal in navies.

In some navies, a "ship's corporal" is a position used in place of a leading seaman.

Corporal is a military rank in use in some form by many militaries and by some police forces or other uniformed organizations. Within NATO, each member nation's corresponding military rank of corporal is combined under the NATO-standard rank scale code OR-3 or OR-4. However, there are often differences in how each nation (or service in each nation) employs corporals. Some militaries don't have corporals, but may instead have a Junior Sergeant.

下士是一种军衔,在中华民国国军军阶制度中,下士为士官的最低阶,下士之下的阶级为上等兵,下士之上的阶级为中士,在军队中通常担任班长或副班长职务。


贝尔恩德·阿洛伊斯·齐默尔曼

Life.

Zimmermann was born in Bliesheim (now part of Erftstadt) near Cologne. He grew up in a rural Catholic community in western Germany. His father worked for the German Reichsbahn (Imperial Railway) and was also a farmer. In 1929, Zimmermann began attending a private Catholic school, where he had his first real encounter with music. After the National Socialists (or Nazis) closed all private schools, he switched to a public Catholic school in Cologne where, in 1937, he received his Abitur, the German equivalent of a high school diploma.  In the same year, he fulfilled his duty for the Reichsarbeitsdienst and spent the 1937/1938 winter semester studying pedagogy at the Hochschule für Lehrerausbildung (lit. University for Teacher Training) in Bonn.  He began studying Music Education, Musicology and Composition in the winter of 1938 at the University for Music in Cologne. In 1940, he was drafted in the Wehrmacht (the German Army) but was released in 1942 due to a severe skin illness. After he returned to his studies, he didn't receive a degree until 1947 due to the ending of the war. However, he was already busy as a free-lance composer in 1946, predominantly for radio. From 1948 to 1950, he was a participant in the Kranichsteiner/Darmstädter Ferienkursen für Neue Musik (lit. Kranichstein/Darmstadt Vacation Course for New Music) where he studied under René Leibowitz and Wolfgang Fortner, among others.  In 1957, he received a scholarship to spend time at the German Academy Villa Massimo in Rome. He also assumed the position of Professor of Composition (from Frank Martin) as well as Film and Broadcast Music at the Cologne Music University. In the 60s, he received more attention and success as a composer (including a second scholarship to the Villa Massimo in 1963 and a fellowship in the Academy of Arts, Berlin), especially after his opera "Die Soldaten" (The Soldiers) finally premiered in 1965. The opera had previously not been performed due to the enormous number of people required and the musical difficulty—the Cologne Opera had considered it "unspielbar" (not performable). The composer's depressive tendencies increased to a more physical level, compounded by a quickly deteriorating eye problem. On 10 August 1970, Zimmermann committed suicide at his home in Königsdorf near Cologne – just five days after completing the score of his last composition, "Ich wandte mich und sah an alles Unrecht das geschah unter der Sonne". At the time, he was preparing another opera, "Medea", after Hans Henny Jahnn.

Music.

In his own compositional growth, he took his place in the progression of new music, from which the German composers were mostly separated during the Nazi regime. He began writing works in the neoclassical style, continued with free atonality and twelve-tone music and eventually arrived at serialism (in 1956). His affection for jazz can sometimes be heard in some of his compositions (more so in his Violin Concerto or Trumpet Concerto).  In contrast to the so-called Darmstadt School (Stockhausen, Boulez, Nono, etc.), Zimmermann did not make a radical break with tradition. At the end of the 1950s, he developed his own personal compositional style, the pluralistic ""Klangkomposition"" (German word referring to the compositional style that focuses on planes – or areas – of sound and tone-colors). The combination and overlapping of layers of musical material from various time periods (from Medieval to Baroque and Classical to Jazz and Pop music) using advanced musical techniques is characteristic of "Klangkomposition". Zimmermann's use of this technique ranged from the embedding of individual musical quotes (seen somewhat in his orchestral work "Photoptosis") to pieces that are built entirely as a collage (the ballet "Musique pour les soupers du Roi Ubu"). In his vocal works, especially his "Requiem for a Young Poet", the text is used to progress the piece by overlapping texts from various sources. He created his own musical stance using the metaphor "the spherical form of time".

Bernd Alois Zimmermann (20 March 1918 – 10 August 1970) was a German composer. He is perhaps best known for his opera "Die Soldaten", which is regarded as one of the most important German operas of the 20th century, after those of Berg. As a result of his individual style, it is hard to label his music as avant-garde, serial or postmodern. His music employs a wide range of methods including the twelve-tone row and musical quotation.

贝尔恩德·阿洛伊斯·齐默尔曼(,1918年-3月20日-1970年-8月10日),本名Bernhard Alois Zimmermann,德国20世纪作曲家,主要活跃于二战后的西德。他的作曲风格有别于当时普遍的先锋派音乐,广泛采用了从序列主义到电子音乐的各种技法。但他更以拼贴音乐(Collage)的先驱者著称。他在其音乐作品中混合多种音乐,包括引用前人作品片断。他最著名的作品是歌剧《士兵们》(Die Soldaten)。1970年8月10日,齐默尔曼自杀身亡。


Biography.

Life.

Autobiographical works are by nature subjective. The inability—or unwillingness—of the author to accurately recall memories has in certain cases resulted in misleading or incorrect information. Some sociologists and psychologists have noted that autobiography offers the author the ability to recreate history.

Spiritual autobiography.

Spiritual autobiography is an account of an author's struggle or journey towards God, followed by conversion a religious conversion, often interrupted by moments of regression. The author re-frames his or her life as a demonstration of divine intention through encounters with the Divine. The earliest example of a spiritual autobiography is Augustine's "Confessions" though the tradition has expanded to include other religious traditions in works such as Zahid Rohari's "An Autobiography" and "Black Elk Speaks". The spiritual autobiography works as an endorsement of his or her religion.

Memoirs.

A memoir is slightly different in character from an autobiography. While an autobiography typically focuses on the "life and times" of the writer, a memoir has a narrower, more intimate focus on his or her own memories, feelings and emotions. Memoirs have often been written by politicians or military leaders as a way to record and publish an account of their public exploits. One early example is that of Julius Caesar's "Commentarii de Bello Gallico", also known as "Commentaries on the Gallic Wars". In the work, Caesar describes the battles that took place during the nine years that he spent fighting local armies in the Gallic Wars. His second memoir, "Commentarii de Bello Civili" (or "Commentaries on the Civil War") is an account of the events that took place between 49 and 48 BC in the civil war against Gnaeus Pompeius and the Senate.  Leonor López de Córdoba (1362–1420) wrote what is supposed to be the first autobiography in Spanish. The English Civil War (1642–1651) provoked a number of examples of this genre, including works by Sir Edmund Ludlow and Sir John Reresby. French examples from the same period include the memoirs of Cardinal de Retz (1614–1679) and the Duc de Saint-Simon.

Fictional autobiography.

The term "fictional autobiography" signifies novels about a fictional character written as though the character were writing their own autobiography, meaning that the character is the first-person narrator and that the novel addresses both internal and external experiences of the character. Daniel Defoe's "Moll Flanders" is an early example. Charles Dickens' "David Copperfield" is another such classic, and J.D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye" is a well-known modern example of fictional autobiography. Charlotte Brontë's "Jane Eyre" is yet another example of fictional autobiography, as noted on the front page of the original version. The term may also apply to works of fiction purporting to be autobiographies of real characters, e.g., Robert Nye's "Memoirs of Lord Byron".

Autobiography through the ages.

The classical period: Apologia, oration, confession.

In antiquity such works were typically entitled "apologia," purporting to be self-justification rather than self-documentation. John Henry Newman's Christian confessional work (first published in 1864) is entitled "Apologia Pro Vita Sua" in reference to this tradition.  The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus introduces his autobiography ("Josephi Vita", c. 99) with self-praise, which is followed by a justification of his actions as a Jewish rebel commander of Galilee.  The pagan rhetor Libanius (c. 314–394) framed his life memoir ("Oration I" begun in 374) as one of his orations, not of a public kind, but of a literary kind that could not be aloud in privacy.  Augustine (354–430) applied the title "Confessions" to his autobiographical work, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau used the same title in the 18th century, initiating the chain of confessional and sometimes racy and highly self-critical, autobiographies of the Romantic era and beyond. Augustine's was arguably the first Western autobiography ever written, and became an influential model for Christian writers throughout the Middle Ages. It tells of the hedonistic lifestyle Augustine lived for a time within his youth, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits; his following and leaving of the anti-sex and anti-marriage Manichaeism in attempts to seek sexual morality; and his subsequent return to Christianity due to his embracement of Skepticism and the New Academy movement (developing the view that sex is good, and that virginity is better, comparing the former to silver and the latter to gold; Augustine's views subsequently strongly influenced Western theology). "Confessions" will always rank among the great masterpieces of western literature.  In the spirit of Augustine's "Confessions" is the 12th-century "Historia Calamitatum" of Peter Abelard, outstanding as an autobiographical document of its period.

Early autobiographies.

In the 15th century, Leonor López de Córdoba, a Spanish noblewoman, wrote her "Memorias", which may be the first autobiography in Castillian.  Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur, who founded the Mughal dynasty of South Asia kept a journal "Bāburnāma" (Chagatai/; literally: ""Book of Babur"" or ""Letters of Babur"") which was written between 1493 and 1529.  One of the first great autobiographies of the Renaissance is that of the sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571), written between 1556 and 1558, and entitled by him simply "Vita" (Italian: "Life"). He declares at the start: "No matter what sort he is, everyone who has to his credit what are or really seem great achievements, if he cares for truth and goodness, ought to write the story of his own life in his own hand; but no one should venture on such a splendid undertaking before he is over forty." These criteria for autobiography generally persisted until recent times, and most serious autobiographies of the next three hundred years conformed to them.  Another autobiography of the period is "De vita propria", by the Italian mathematician, physician and astrologer Gerolamo Cardano (1574).  The earliest known autobiography written in English is the Book of Margery Kempe, written in 1438. Following in the earlier tradition of a life story told as an act of Christian witness, the book describes Margery Kempe's pilgrimages to the Holy Land and Rome, her attempts to negotiate a celibate marriage with her husband, and most of all her religious experiences as a Christian mystic. Extracts from the book were published in the early sixteenth century but the whole text was published for the first time only in 1936.  Possibly the first publicly available autobiography written in English was Captain John Smith's autobiography published in 1630 which was regarded by many as not much more than a collection of tall tales told by someone of doubtful veracity. This changed with the publication of Philip Barbour's definitive biography in 1964 which, amongst other things, established independent factual bases for many of Smith's "tall tales", many of which could not have been known by Smith at the time of writing unless he was actually present at the events recounted.  Other notable English autobiographies of the 17th century include those of Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1643, published 1764) and John Bunyan ("Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners", 1666).  Jarena Lee (1783–1864) was the first African American woman to have a published biography in the United States.

18th and 19th centuries.

Following the trend of Romanticism, which greatly emphasized the role and the nature of the individual, and in the footsteps of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's "Confessions", a more intimate form of autobiography, exploring the subject's emotions, came into fashion. Stendhal's autobiographical writings of the 1830s, "The Life of Henry Brulard" and "Memoirs of an Egotist", are both avowedly influenced by Rousseau. An English example is William Hazlitt's "Liber Amoris" (1823), a painful examination of the writer's love-life.  With the rise of education, cheap newspapers and cheap printing, modern concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop, and the beneficiaries of this were not slow to cash in on this by producing autobiographies. It became the expectation—rather than the exception—that those in the public eye should write about themselves—not only writers such as Charles Dickens (who also incorporated autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, but also politicians (e.g. Henry Brooks Adams), philosophers (e.g. John Stuart Mill), churchmen such as Cardinal Newman, and entertainers such as P. T. Barnum. Increasingly, in accordance with romantic taste, these accounts also began to deal, amongst other topics, with aspects of childhood and upbringing—far removed from the principles of "Cellinian" autobiography.

20th and 21st centuries.

From the 17th century onwards, "scandalous memoirs" by supposed libertines, serving a public taste for titillation, have been frequently published. Typically pseudonymous, they were (and are) largely works of fiction written by ghostwriters. So-called "autobiographies" of modern professional athletes and media celebrities—and to a lesser extent about politicians—generally written by a ghostwriter, are routinely published. Some celebrities, such as Naomi Campbell, admit to not having read their "autobiographies". Some sensationalist autobiographies such as James Frey's "A Million Little Pieces" have been publicly exposed as having embellished or fictionalized significant details of the authors' lives.  Autobiography has become an increasingly popular and widely accessible form. "A Fortunate Life" by Albert Facey (1979) has become an Australian literary classic. With the critical and commercial success in the United States of such memoirs as "Angela’s Ashes" and "The Color of Water", more and more people have been encouraged to try their hand at this genre. Maggie Nelson's book "The Argonauts" is one of the recent autobiographies. Maggie Nelson calls it "autotheory"—a combination of autobiography and critical theory.  A genre where the "claim for truth" overlaps with fictional elements though the work still purports to be autobiographical is autofiction.

An autobiography (from the Greek, αὐτός-"autos" self + βίος-"bios" life + γράφειν-"graphein" to write; also informally called an autobio) is a self-written account of the life of oneself. The word "autobiography" was first used deprecatingly by William Taylor in 1797 in the English periodical "The Monthly Review", when he suggested the word as a hybrid, but condemned it as "pedantic". However, its next recorded use was in its present sense, by Robert Southey in 1809. Despite only being named early in the nineteenth century, first-person autobiographical writing originates in antiquity. Roy Pascal differentiates autobiography from the periodic self-reflective mode of journal or diary writing by noting that "[autobiography] is a review of a life from a particular moment in time, while the diary, however reflective it may be, moves through a series of moments in time". Autobiography thus takes stock of the autobiographer's life from the moment of composition. While biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints, autobiography may be based entirely on the writer's memory. The memoir form is closely associated with autobiography but it tends, as Pascal claims, to focus less on the self and more on others during the autobiographer's review of his or her life.

自传是一个人写的关于自己的成长经历传记式文学体裁。主要是以回忆为主,中间夹杂一些自己的想法,抒发某种情绪,自传基本上是回忆录的一种。


Characteristics.

Topaz in its natural state is a golden brown to yellow – a characteristic which means it is sometimes confused with citrine, a less valuable gemstone. A variety of impurities and treatments may make topaz wine red, pale gray, reddish-orange, pale green, or pink (rare), and opaque to translucent/transparent. The pink and red varieties come from chromium replacing aluminium in its crystalline structure.  Orange topaz, also known as precious topaz, is the conventional birthstone for November, the symbol of friendship, and the state gemstone of the U.S. state of Utah.  Imperial topaz is yellow, pink (rare, if natural) or pink-orange. Brazilian imperial topaz can often have a bright yellow to deep golden brown hue, sometimes even violet. Many brown or pale topazes are treated to make them bright yellow, gold, pink, or violet colored. Some imperial topaz stones can fade on exposure to sunlight for an extended period of time.  Blue topaz is the state gemstone of the US state of Texas. Naturally occurring blue topaz is quite rare. Typically, colorless, gray, or pale yellow and blue material is heat treated and irradiated to produce a more desired darker blue.  Mystic topaz is colorless topaz which has been artificially coated via a vapor deposition process giving it a rainbow effect on its surface.  Although very hard, topaz must be treated with greater care than some other minerals of similar hardness (such as corundum) because of a weakness of atomic bonding of the stone's molecules along one or another axial plane (whereas diamonds, for example, are composed of carbon atoms bonded to each other with equal strength along all of its planes). This gives topaz a tendency to break along such a cleavage plane if struck with sufficient force.  Topaz has a relatively low index of refraction for a gemstone, and so stones with large facets or tables do not sparkle as readily as stones cut from minerals with higher refractive indices, though quality colorless topaz sparkles and shows more "life" than similarly cut quartz. When given a typical "brilliant" cut, topaz may either show a sparkling table facet surrounded by dead-looking crown facets or a ring of sparkling crown facets with a dull well-like table.

Localities and occurrence.

Topaz is commonly associated with silicic igneous rocks of the granite and rhyolite type. It typically crystallizes in granitic pegmatites or in vapor cavities in rhyolite lava flows including those at Topaz Mountain in western Utah and Chivinar in South America. It can be found with fluorite and cassiterite in various areas including the Ural and Ilmensky Mountains of Russia, in Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, Czech Republic, Germany, Norway, Pakistan, Italy, Sweden, Japan, Brazil, Mexico; Flinders Island, Australia; Nigeria and the United States.  Brazil is one of the largest producers of topaz, some clear topaz crystals from Brazilian pegmatites can reach boulder size and weigh hundreds of pounds. The Topaz of Aurangzeb, observed by Jean Baptiste Tavernier weighed 157.75 carats. The American Golden Topaz, a more recent gem, weighed a massive 22,892.5 carats. Large, vivid blue topaz specimens from the St. Anns mine in Zimbabwe were found in the late 1980s.  Colorless and light-blue varieties of topaz are found in Precambrian granite in Mason County, Texas within the Llano Uplift. There is no commercial mining of topaz in that area.

Synthetic topaz.

It is possible to synthesize topaz. However, naturally occurring topaz is so abundant that this is probably not economically viable.

Etymology.

The name "topaz" is usually derived (via Old French: Topace and Latin: Topazus) from the Greek "Τοπάζιος" (Τοpáziοs) or "Τοπάζιον" (Τοpáziοn), from Τοπαζος, the ancient name of St. John's Island in the Red Sea which was difficult to find and from which a yellow stone (now believed to be chrysolite: yellowish olivine) was mined in ancient times; topaz itself (rather than "topazios") was not really known before the classical era. Ancient Sri Lanka (Tamraparni) exported native oriental topazes to Greece and ancient Egypt, which led to the etymologically related names of the island by Alexander Polyhistor ("Topazius") and the early Egyptians ("Topapwene") – "land of the Topaz". Pliny said that Topazos is a "legendary" island in the Red Sea and the mineral "topaz" was first mined there. Alternatively, the word "topaz" may be related to the Sanskrit word तपस् "tapas", meaning "heat" or "fire".

Historical usage.

Nicols, the author of one of the first systematic treatises on minerals and gemstones, dedicated two chapters to the topic in 1652. In the Middle Ages, the name topaz was used to refer to any yellow gemstone, but in modern times it denotes only the silicate described above.  Many English translations of the Bible, including the King James Version, mention "topaz". However, because these translations as "topaz" all derive from the Septuagint translation "topazi[os]", which referred to a yellow stone that was not topaz, but probably "chrysolite" (chrysoberyl or peridot), topaz is likely not meant here.

Superstition.

An English superstition also held that topaz cured lunacy. The ancient Romans believed that topaz provided protection from danger while traveling. During the Middle Ages, it was believed that attaching the topaz to the left arm protected the owner from any curse and warded off the evil eye. It was also believed that wearing increased body heat, which would enable people to relieve a cold or fever. In Europe in the Middle Ages, topaz was believed to enhance mental powers.

Topaz is a silicate mineral of aluminium and fluorine with the chemical formula AlSiO(F, OH). Topaz crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, and its crystals are mostly prismatic terminated by pyramidal and other faces. It is one of the hardest naturally occurring minerals (Mohs hardness of 8) and is the hardest of any silicate mineral. This hardness combined with its usual transparency and variety of colors means that it has acquired wide use in jewellery as a cut gemstone as well as for intaglios and other gemstone carvings.

黄玉(英语:topaz),也称呼为黄宝石、托帕石,为含有铝和氟的硅酸盐矿物是11月的诞生石,分布于巴西、墨西哥、萨克森、苏格兰、日本、乌拉山脉及其他地方。


IUPAC definition.

According to the IUPAC definition, solubility is the analytical composition of a saturated solution expressed as a proportion of a designated solute in a designated solvent. Solubility may be stated in various units of concentration such as molarity, molality, mole fraction, mole ratio, mass (solute) per volume (solvent) and other units.

Qualifiers used to describe extent of solubility.

The extent of solubility ranges widely, from infinitely soluble (without limit) (miscible) such as ethanol in water, to poorly soluble, such as silver chloride in water. The term "insoluble" is often applied to poorly or very poorly soluble compounds. A number of other descriptive terms are also used to qualify the extent of solubility for a given application. For example, U.S. Pharmacopoeia gives the following terms:  The thresholds to describe something as insoluble, or similar terms, may depend on the application. For example, one source states that substances are described as "insoluble" when their solubility is less than 0.1 g per 100 mL of solvent.

Molecular view.

Solubility occurs under dynamic equilibrium, which means that solubility results from the simultaneous and opposing processes of dissolution and phase joining (e.g. precipitation of solids). The solubility equilibrium occurs when the two processes proceed at a constant rate.  The term "solubility" is also used in some fields where the solute is altered by solvolysis. For example, many metals and their oxides are said to be "soluble in hydrochloric acid", although in fact the aqueous acid irreversibly degrades the solid to give soluble products. It is also true that most ionic solids are dissolved by polar solvents, but such processes are reversible. In those cases where the solute is not recovered upon evaporation of the solvent, the process is referred to as solvolysis. The thermodynamic concept of solubility does not apply straightforwardly to solvolysis.  When a solute dissolves, it may form several species in the solution. For example, an aqueous suspension of ferrous hydroxide,, will contain the series [(OH)] as well as other species. Furthermore, the solubility of ferrous hydroxide and the composition of its soluble components depend on pH. In general, solubility in the solvent phase can be given only for a specific solute that is thermodynamically stable, and the value of the solubility will include all the species in the solution (in the example above, all the iron-containing complexes).

Factors affecting solubility.

Solubility is defined for specific phases. For example, the solubility of aragonite and calcite in water are expected to differ, even though they are both polymorphs of calcium carbonate and have the same chemical formula.  The solubility of one substance in another is determined by the balance of intermolecular forces between the solvent and solute, and the entropy change that accompanies the solvation. Factors such as temperature and pressure will alter this balance, thus changing the solubility.  Solubility may also strongly depend on the presence of other species dissolved in the solvent, for example, complex-forming anions (ligands) in liquids. Solubility will also depend on the excess or deficiency of a common ion in the solution, a phenomenon known as the common-ion effect. To a lesser extent, solubility will depend on the ionic strength of solutions. The last two effects can be quantified using the equation for solubility equilibrium.  For a solid that dissolves in a redox reaction, solubility is expected to depend on the potential (within the range of potentials under which the solid remains the thermodynamically stable phase). For example, solubility of gold in high-temperature water is observed to be almost an order of magnitude higher (i.e. about ten times higher) when the redox potential is controlled using a highly oxidizing FeO-FeO redox buffer than with a moderately oxidizing Ni-NiO buffer. Solubility (metastable, at concentrations approaching saturation) also depends on the physical size of the crystal or droplet of solute (or, strictly speaking, on the specific surface area or molar surface area of the solute). For quantification, see the equation in the article on solubility equilibrium. For highly defective crystals, solubility may increase with the increasing degree of disorder. Both of these effects occur because of the dependence of solubility constant on the Gibbs energy of the crystal. The last two effects, although often difficult to measure, are of practical importance. For example, they provide the driving force for precipitate aging (the crystal size spontaneously increasing with time).

Temperature.

The solubility of a given solute in a given solvent is function of temperature. Depending on the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG) of the dissolution reaction, "i.e.", on the endothermic (ΔG > 0) or exothermic (ΔG < 0) character of the dissolution reaction, the solubility of a given compound may increase or decrease with temperature. The van 't Hoff equation relates the change of solubility equilibrium constant (K) to temperature change and to reaction enthalpy change (ΔH). For most solids and liquids, their solubility increases with temperature because their dissolution reaction is endothermic (ΔG > 0). In liquid water at high temperatures, (e.g. that approaching the critical temperature), the solubility of ionic solutes tends to decrease due to the change of properties and structure of liquid water; the lower dielectric constant results in a less polar solvent and in a change of hydration energy affecting the ΔG of the dissolution reaction.  Gaseous solutes exhibit more complex behavior with temperature. As the temperature is raised, gases usually become less soluble in water (exothermic dissolution reaction related to their hydration) (to minimum, which is below 120 °C for most permanent gases), but more soluble in organic solvents (endothermic dissolution reaction related to their solvatation).  The chart shows solubility curves for some typical solid inorganic salts (temperature is in degrees Celsius i.e. kelvins minus 273.15). Many salts behave like barium nitrate and disodium hydrogen arsenate, and show a large increase in solubility with temperature (ΔG > 0). Some solutes (e.g. sodium chloride in water) exhibit solubility that is fairly independent of temperature (ΔG ≈ 0). A few, such as calcium sulfate (gypsum) and cerium(III) sulfate, become less soluble in water as temperature increases (ΔG < 0). This is also the case for calcium hydroxide (portlandite), whose solubility at 70 °C is about half of its value at 25 °C. The dissolution of calcium hydroxide in water is also an exothermic process (ΔG < 0) and obeys the van 't Hoff equation and Le Chatelier's principle. A lowering of temperature favors the removal of dissolution heat from the system and thus favors dissolution of Ca(OH): so portlandite solubility increases at low temperature. This temperature dependence is sometimes referred to as "retrograde" or "inverse" solubility. Occasionally, a more complex pattern is observed, as with sodium sulfate, where the less soluble decahydrate crystal (mirabilite) loses water of crystallization at 32 °C to form a more soluble anhydrous phase (thenardite) because the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG), of the dissolution reaction.  The solubility of organic compounds nearly always increases with temperature. The technique of recrystallization, used for purification of solids, depends on a solute's different solubilities in hot and cold solvent. A few exceptions exist, such as certain cyclodextrins.

Pressure.

For condensed phases (solids and liquids), the pressure dependence of solubility is typically weak and usually neglected in practice. Assuming an ideal solution, the dependence can be quantified as:  where the index i iterates the components, N is the mole fraction of the i component in the solution, P is the pressure, the index T refers to constant temperature, V is the partial molar volume of the i component in the solution, V is the partial molar volume of the i component in the dissolving solid, and R is the universal gas constant.  The pressure dependence of solubility does occasionally have practical significance. For example, precipitation fouling of oil fields and wells by calcium sulfate (which decreases its solubility with decreasing pressure) can result in decreased productivity with time.

Solubility of gases.

Henry's law is used to quantify the solubility of gases in solvents. The solubility of a gas in a solvent is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the solvent. This relationship is similar to the Raoult's law and can be written as: where "k" is a temperature-dependent constant (for example, 769.2 L·atm/mol for dioxygen (O) in water at 298 K), "p" is the partial pressure (atm), and "c" is the concentration of the dissolved gas in the liquid (mol/L).  The solubility of gases is sometimes also quantified using Bunsen solubility coefficient.  In the presence of small bubbles, the solubility of the gas does not depend on the bubble radius in any other way than through the effect of the radius on pressure (i.e. the solubility of gas in the liquid in contact with small bubbles is increased due to pressure increase by Δp = 2γ/r; see Young–Laplace equation).  Henry's law is valid for gases that do not undergo change of chemical speciation on dissolution. Sieverts' law shows a case when this assumption does not hold.  The carbon dioxide solubility in seawater is also affected by temperature, pH of the solution, and by the carbonate buffer. The decrease of solubility of carbon dioxide in seawater when temperature increases is also an important retroaction factor (positive feedback) exacerbating past and future climate changes as observed in ice cores from the Vostok site in Antarctica. At the geological time scale, because of the Milankovich cycles, when the astronomical parameters of the Earth orbit and its rotation axis progressively change and modify the solar irradiance at the Earth surface, temperature starts to increase. When a deglaciation period is initiated, the progressive warming of the oceans releases CO in the atmosphere because of its lower solubility in warmer sea water. On its turn, higher levels of CO in the atmosphere increase the greenhouse effect and carbon dioxide acts as an amplifier of the general warming.

Polarity.

A popular aphorism used for predicting solubility is ""like dissolves like"" also expressed in the "Latin" language as ""Similia similibus solventur"". This statement indicates that a solute will dissolve best in a solvent that has a similar chemical structure to itself. This view is simplistic, but it is a useful rule of thumb. The overall solvation capacity of a solvent depends primarily on its polarity. For example, a very polar (hydrophilic) solute such as urea is very soluble in highly polar water, less soluble in fairly polar methanol, and practically insoluble in non-polar solvents such as benzene. In contrast, a non-polar or lipophilic solute such as naphthalene is insoluble in water, fairly soluble in methanol, and highly soluble in non-polar benzene.  In even more simple terms a simple ionic compound (with positive and negative ions) such as sodium chloride (common salt) is easily soluble in a highly polar solvent (with some separation of positive (δ+) and negative (δ-) charges in the covalent molecule) such as water, as thus the sea is salty as it accumulates dissolved salts since early geological ages.  The solubility is favored by entropy of mixing (Δ"S") and depends on enthalpy of dissolution (Δ"H") and the hydrophobic effect. The free energy of dissolution (Gibbs energy) depends on temperature and is given by the relationship: Δ"G" = Δ"H" – TΔ"S".  Chemists often exploit differences in solubilities to separate and purify compounds from reaction mixtures, using the technique of liquid-liquid extraction. This applies in vast areas of chemistry from drug synthesis to spent nuclear fuel reprocessing.

Rate of dissolution.

Dissolution is not an instantaneous process. The rate of solubilization (in kg/s) is related to the solubility product and the surface area of the material. The speed at which a solid dissolves may depend on its crystallinity or lack thereof in the case of amorphous solids and the surface area (crystallite size) and the presence of polymorphism. Many practical systems illustrate this effect, for example in designing methods for controlled drug delivery. In some cases, solubility equilibria can take a long time to establish (hours, days, months, or many years; depending on the nature of the solute and other factors).  The rate of dissolution can be often expressed by the Noyes–Whitney equation or the Nernst and Brunner equation of the form:  where:  For dissolution limited by diffusion (or mass transfer if mixing is present), "C" is equal to the solubility of the substance. When the dissolution rate of a pure substance is normalized to the surface area of the solid (which usually changes with time during the dissolution process), then it is expressed in kg/ms and referred to as "intrinsic dissolution rate". The intrinsic dissolution rate is defined by the United States Pharmacopeia.  Dissolution rates vary by orders of magnitude between different systems. Typically, very low dissolution rates parallel low solubilities, and substances with high solubilities exhibit high dissolution rates, as suggested by the Noyes-Whitney equation.

Quantification of solubility.

Solubility is commonly expressed as a concentration; for example, as g of solute per kg of solvent, g per dL (100mL) of solvent, molarity, molality, mole fraction, etc. The maximum equilibrium amount of solute that can dissolve per amount of solvent is the solubility of that solute in that solvent under the specified conditions. The advantage of expressing solubility in this manner is its simplicity, while the disadvantage is that it can strongly depend on the presence of other species in the solvent (for example, the common ion effect).  Solubility constants are used to describe saturated solutions of ionic compounds of relatively low solubility (see solubility equilibrium). The solubility constant is a special case of an equilibrium constant. It describes the balance between dissolved ions from the salt and undissolved salt. The solubility constant is also "applicable" (i.e. useful) to precipitation, the reverse of the dissolving reaction. As with other equilibrium constants, temperature can affect the numerical value of solubility constant. The solubility constant is not as simple as solubility, however the value of this constant is generally independent of the presence of other species in the solvent.  The Flory–Huggins solution theory is a theoretical model describing the solubility of polymers. The Hansen solubility parameters and the Hildebrand solubility parameters are empirical methods for the prediction of solubility. It is also possible to predict solubility from other physical constants such as the enthalpy of fusion.  The octanol-water partition coefficient, usually expressed as its logarithm (Log P) is a measure of differential solubility of a compound in a hydrophobic solvent (1-octanol) and a hydrophilic solvent (water). The logarithm of these two values enables compounds to be ranked in terms of hydrophilicity (or hydrophobicity).  The energy change associated with dissolving is usually given per mole of solute as the enthalpy of solution.

Applications.

Solubility is of fundamental importance in a large number of scientific disciplines and practical applications, ranging from ore processing and nuclear reprocessing to the use of medicines, and the transport of pollutants.  Solubility is often said to be one of the "characteristic properties of a substance", which means that solubility is commonly used to describe the substance, to indicate a substance's polarity, to help to distinguish it from other substances, and as a guide to applications of the substance. For example, indigo is described as "insoluble in water, alcohol, or ether but soluble in chloroform, nitrobenzene, or concentrated sulfuric acid".  Solubility of a substance is useful when separating mixtures. For example, a mixture of salt (sodium chloride) and silica may be separated by dissolving the salt in water, and filtering off the undissolved silica. The synthesis of chemical compounds, by the milligram in a laboratory, or by the ton in industry, both make use of the relative solubilities of the desired product, as well as unreacted starting materials, byproducts, and side products to achieve separation.  Another example of this is the synthesis of benzoic acid from phenylmagnesium bromide and dry ice. Benzoic acid is more soluble in an organic solvent such as dichloromethane or diethyl ether, and when shaken with this organic solvent in a separatory funnel, will preferentially dissolve in the organic layer. The other reaction products, including the magnesium bromide, will remain in the aqueous layer, clearly showing that separation based on solubility is achieved. This process, known as liquid–liquid extraction, is an important technique in synthetic chemistry. Recycling is used to ensure maximum extraction.

Differential solubility.

In flowing systems, differences in solubility often determine the dissolution-precipitation driven transport of species. This happens when different parts of the system experience different conditions. Even slightly different conditions can result in significant effects, given sufficient time.  For example, relatively low solubility compounds are found to be soluble in more extreme environments, resulting in geochemical and geological effects of the activity of hydrothermal fluids in the Earth's crust. These are often the source of high quality economic mineral deposits and precious or semi-precious gems. In the same way, compounds with low solubility will dissolve over extended time (geological time), resulting in significant effects such as extensive cave systems or Karstic land surfaces.

Solubility of ionic compounds in water.

Some ionic compounds (salts) dissolve in water, which arises because of the attraction between positive and negative charges (see: solvation). For example, the salt's positive ions (e.g. Ag) attract the partially negative oxygens in HO. Likewise, the salt's negative ions (e.g. Cl) attract the partially positive hydrogens in HO. Note: oxygen is partially negative because it is more electronegative than hydrogen, and vice versa (see: chemical polarity).  However, there is a limit to how much salt can be dissolved in a given volume of water. This amount is given by the solubility product, K. This value depends on the type of salt (AgCl vs. NaCl, for example), temperature, and the common ion effect.  One can calculate the amount of AgCl that will dissolve in 1 liter of water, some algebra is required.  [Ag] = [Cl], in the absence of other silver or chloride salts,  The result: 1 liter of water can dissolve 1.34 × 10 moles of AgCl at room temperature. Compared with other types of salts, AgCl is poorly soluble in water. In contrast, table salt (NaCl) has a higher K and is, therefore, more soluble.

Solubility of organic compounds.

The principle outlined above under polarity, that "like dissolves like", is the usual guide to solubility with organic systems. For example, petroleum jelly will dissolve in gasoline because both petroleum jelly and gasoline are non-polar hydrocarbons. It will not, on the other hand, dissolve in ethyl alcohol or water, since the polarity of these solvents is too high. Sugar will not dissolve in gasoline, since sugar is too polar in comparison with gasoline. A mixture of gasoline and sugar can therefore be separated by filtration or extraction with water.

Solid solution.

This term is often used in the field of metallurgy to refer to the extent that an alloying element will dissolve into the base metal without forming a separate phase. The solvus or solubility line (or curve) is the line (or lines) on a phase diagram that give the limits of solute addition. That is, the lines show the maximum amount of a component that can be added to another component and still be in solid solution. In the solid's crystalline structure, the'solute' element can either take the place of the matrix within the lattice (a substitutional position; for example, chromium in iron) or take a place in a space between the lattice points (an interstitial position; for example, carbon in iron).  In microelectronic fabrication, solid solubility refers to the maximum concentration of impurities one can place into the substrate.

Incongruent dissolution.

Many substances dissolve congruently (i.e. the composition of the solid and the dissolved solute stoichiometrically match). However, some substances may dissolve incongruently, whereby the composition of the solute in solution does not match that of the solid. This solubilization is accompanied by alteration of the "primary solid" and possibly formation of a secondary solid phase. However, in general, some primary solid also remains and a complex solubility equilibrium establishes. For example, dissolution of albite may result in formation of gibbsite.  In this case, the solubility of albite is expected to depend on the solid-to-solvent ratio. This kind of solubility is of great importance in geology, where it results in formation of metamorphic rocks.

Solubility prediction.

Solubility is a property of interest in many aspects of science, including but not limited to: environmental predictions, biochemistry, pharmacy, drug-design, agrochemical design, and protein ligand binding. Aqueous solubility is of fundamental interest owing to the vital biological and transportation functions played by water. In addition, to this clear scientific interest in water solubility and solvent effects; accurate predictions of solubility are important industrially. The ability to accurately predict a molecule's solubility represents potentially large financial savings in many chemical product development processes, such as pharmaceuticals. In the pharmaceutical industry, solubility predictions form part of the early stage lead optimisation process of drug candidates. Solubility remains a concern all the way to formulation. A number of methods have been applied to such predictions including quantitative structure–activity relationships (QSAR), quantitative structure–property relationships (QSPR) and data mining. These models provide efficient predictions of solubility and represent the current standard. The draw back such models is that they can lack physical insight. A method founded in physical theory, capable of achieving similar levels of accuracy at an sensible cost, would be a powerful tool scientifically and industrially.  Methods founded in physical theory tend to use thermodynamic cycles, a concept from classical thermodynamics. The two common thermodynamic cycles used involve either the calculation of the free energy of sublimation (solid to gas without going through a liquid state) and the free energy of solvating a gaseous molecule (gas to solution), or the free energy of fusion (solid to a molten phase) and the free energy of mixing (molten to solution). These two process are represented in the following diagrams.  These cycles have been used for attempts at first principles predictions (solving using the fundamental physical equations) using physically motivated solvent models, to create parametric equations and QSPR models and combinations of the two. The use of these cycles enables the calculation of the solvation free energy indirectly via either gas (in the sublimation cycle) or a melt (fusion cycle). This is helpful as calculating the free energy of solvation directly is extremely difficult. The free energy of solvation can be converted to a solubility value using various formulae, the most general case being shown below, where the numerator is the free energy of solvation, R is the gas constant and T is the temperature in kelvins.  Well known fitted equations for solubility prediction are the general solubility equations. These equations stem from the work of Yalkowsky "et al". The original formula is given first followed by a revised formula which takes a different assumption of complete miscibility in octanol. These equations are founded on the principles of the fusion cycle.

Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid or gaseous chemical substance called "solute" to dissolve in a solid, liquid or gaseous solvent. The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the physical and chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as on temperature, pressure and presence of other chemicals (including changes to the pH) of the solution. The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is measured as the saturation concentration, where adding more solute does not increase the concentration of the solution and begins to precipitate the excess amount of solute.

溶解性或溶解度()是指定温、定压时,每单位饱和溶液中所含溶质的量;也就是一种物质能够被溶解的最大程度或饱和溶液的浓度。通常用体积莫耳浓度、质量百分浓度或「每100公克溶剂能溶解的溶质重」表示之。溶解度主要取决于溶质在溶剂中的溶解平衡常数(溶度积)、温度、极性、和-{zh-hans:压强; zh-hk:压强; zh-tw:压力}-。相同溶质在不同溶剂下的溶解度不尽相同;相同溶剂在不同溶质下的溶解度不尽相同;即便是相同的溶质和溶液,在不同的环境因素下溶解度也不尽相同。


Description.

A mistress is in a long-term relationship with her attached lover, and is often referred to as the other woman. Generally, the relationship is stable and at least semi-permanent, but the couple does not live together openly and the relationship is usually, but not always, secret. There is often also the implication that the mistress is sometimes “kept"i.e. that her lover is contributing to her living expenses.  A mistress is usually not considered a prostitute: while a mistress, if "kept", may, in some sense, be exchanging sex for money, the principal difference is that a mistress has sex with fewer men and there is not so much of a direct "quid pro quo" between the money and the sex act. There is usually an emotional and possibly social relationship between a man and his mistress, whereas the relationship between a prostitute and their client is predominantly sexual. It is also important that the "kept" status follows the establishment of a relationship of indefinite term as opposed to the agreement on price and terms established prior to any activity with a prostitute.  Historically the term has denoted a "kept woman", who was maintained in a comfortable (or even lavish) lifestyle by a wealthy man so that she would be available for his sexual pleasure. Such a woman could move between the roles of a mistress and a courtesan depending on her situation and environment.  In modern times the word "mistress" is used primarily to refer to the female lover of a man who is married to another woman; in the case of an unmarried man, it is usual to speak of a "girlfriend" or "partner".  The term "mistress" was originally used as a neutral feminine counterpart to "mister" or "master".

History.

The historically best known and most-researched mistresses are the royal mistresses of European monarchs, for example, Agnès Sorel, Diane de Poitiers, Barbara Villiers, Nell Gwyn and Madame de Pompadour. The keeping of a mistress in Europe was not confined to royalty and nobility, but permeated down through the social ranks, essentially to any man who could afford to do so. Any man who could afford a mistress could have one (or more), regardless of social position. A wealthy merchant or a young noble might have had a kept woman. Being a mistress was typically an occupation for a younger woman who, if she were fortunate, might go on to marry her lover or another man of rank.  The ballad "The Three Ravens" (published in 1611, but possibly older) extolls the loyal mistress of a slain knight, who buries her dead lover and then dies of the exertion, as she was in an advanced stage of pregnancy. The ballad-maker assigned this role to the knight's mistress ("leman" was the term common at the time) rather than to his wife.  In the courts of Europe, particularly Versailles and Whitehall in the 17th and 18th centuries, a mistress often wielded great power and influence. A king might have numerous mistresses, but have a single "favourite mistress" or "official mistress" (in French, "maîtresse en titre"), as with Louis XV and Madame de Pompadour. The mistresses of both Louis XV (especially Madame de Pompadour) and Charles II were often considered to exert great influence over their lovers, the relationships being open secrets. Other than wealthy merchants and kings, Alexander VI is but one example of a Pope who kept mistresses. While the extremely wealthy might keep a mistress for life (as George II of England did with "Mrs Howard", even after they were no longer romantically linked), such was not the case for most kept women.  In 1736, when George II was newly ascendant, Henry Fielding (in "Pasquin") has his Lord Place say, "[...] but, miss, every one now keeps and is kept; there are no such things as marriages now-a-days, unless merely Smithfield contracts, and that for the support of families; but then the husband and wife both take into keeping within a fortnight".  Occasionally the mistress is in a superior position both financially and socially to her lover. As a widow, Catherine the Great was known to have been involved with several successive men during her reign; but, like many powerful women of her era, in spite of being a widow free to marry, she chose not to share her power with a husband, preferring to maintain absolute power alone.  In literature, D. H. Lawrence's 1928 novel "Lady Chatterley's Lover" portrays a situation where a woman becomes the mistress of her husband's gamekeeper. Until recently, a woman's taking a socially inferior lover was considered much more shocking than the reverse situation.

20th century.

During the 20th century, as many women became better educated and more able to support themselves, fewer women found satisfaction in the position of being a mistress and were more likely to be in relationships with unmarried men. As divorce became more socially acceptable, it was easier for men to divorce their wives and marry the women who, in earlier years, might have been their mistresses. The practice of having a mistress continued among some married men, especially the wealthy. Occasionally, men married their mistresses. The late Sir James Goldsmith, on marrying his mistress, Lady Annabel Birley, declared, "When you marry your mistress, you create a job vacancy". One recent example of a mistress is Camilla Parker-Bowles.

Male equivalent.

For male mistress, the term "mister" can be used. "Paramour" is sometimes used, but this term can apply to either partner in an illicit relationship, so it is not exclusively male. If the man is being financially supported, especially by a wealthy older woman or man, he is a kept man. The term "mister-ess" has been suggested.  In 18th and 19th-century Italy, the terms "cicisbeo" and "cavalier servente" were used to describe a man who was the professed gallant and lover of a married woman. Another word that has been used for a male mistress is "gigolo", though this carries connotations of brief duration and expectation of payment, i.e. prostitution.

In literature.

In both John Cleland's 1748 novel "Fanny Hill" and Daniel Defoe's 1722 "Moll Flanders", as well as in countless novels of feminine peril, the distinction between a "kept woman" and a prostitute is all-important.  Apologists for the practice of mistresses referred to the practice in the ancient Near East of keeping a concubine; they frequently quoted verses from the Old Testament to show that mistress-keeping was an ancient practice that was, if not acceptable, at least understandable. John Dryden, in "Annus Mirabilis", suggested that the king's keeping of mistresses and production of bastards was a result of his abundance of generosity and spirit. In its more sinister form, the theme of being "kept" is never far from the surface in novels about women as victims in the 18th century in England, whether in the novels of Eliza Haywood or Samuel Richardson (whose heroines in "Pamela" and "Clarissa" are both put in a position of being threatened with sexual degradation and being reduced to the status of a kept object).  With the Romantics of the early 19th century, the subject of "keeping" becomes more problematic, in that a non-marital sexual union can occasionally be celebrated as a woman's free choice and a noble alternative. Maryann Evans (better known as George Eliot) defiantly lived "in sin" with a married man, partially as a sign of her independence of middle-class morality. Her independence required that she not be "kept".  Charlotte Brontë's novel "Jane Eyre" (1848) presents impassioned arguments on both sides of this question, as Rochester, unable to be free of his insane wife, tries to persuade Jane Eyre to live with him, which she resists.  Margaret Mitchell's novel "Gone with the Wind" (1936) also implies that Scarlett O'Hara should be the mistress of Rhett Butler, which was thought of as prostitution by O'Hara as she said she would be no better than Belle Watling.

A mistress is a relatively long-term female lover and companion who is not married to her partner, especially when her partner is married to someone else.

情妇是指和已婚男性发生婚外情的女性,中国俗称二奶,含有贬义。雅称为外室、外妇,南方地区如江西、福建等地,俗称情妇为伙计。


History.

Schaffhausen was a city-state in the Middle Ages; it is documented that it struck its own coins starting in 1045. It was then documented as "Villa Scafhusun". Around 1049 Count Eberhard von Nellenburg founded a Benedictine monastery which led to the development of a community. This community achieved independence in 1190. In 1330 the town lost not only all its lands but also its independence to the Habsburgs. In 1415 the Habsburg Duke Frederick IV of Austria sided with the Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, and was banned by the Emperor Sigismund. As a result of the ban and Frederick's need of money, Schaffhausen was able to buy its independence from the Habsburgs in 1418. The city allied with six of the Swiss confederates in 1454 and allied with a further two (Uri and Unterwalden) in 1479. Schaffhausen became a full member of the Old Swiss Confederation in 1501. The first railroad came to Schaffhausen in 1857. In 1944 Schaffhausen suffered from a bombing raid by United States Army Air Forces planes that accidentally strayed from Germany into neutral Switzerland.  The cantonal constitution was written in 1876 and revised in 1895.  The distinctive coat of arms bears the "Schaffhauser Bock" (billy goat of Schaffhausen).

Geography.

Schaffhausen is the northernmost canton of Switzerland and lies almost entirely on the right bank of the Rhine, with only part of Stein am Rhein on the left bank. It lies west of Lake Constance and has an area of. Much of the canton is productive agricultural land, with (about 45%) of the canton used for agriculture while an additional (about 43%) is wooded. Most of the rest of the canton, (about 10%), is developed, while only (1.3%) of the canton is unproductive (rivers, lakes or mountains).  The canton's territory is divided into three non-contiguous segments where German territory reaches the Rhine. The large central part, which includes the capital Schaffhausen, in turn separates the German exclave of Büsingen am Hochrhein from the rest of Germany. The small exclave of Rüdlingen-Buchberg lies to the southwest, and the third part contains Ramsen and Stein am Rhein to the east. With the exception of Vor der Brugg, part of Stein am Rhein, all three segments are separated from the rest of Switzerland by the Rhine.  The canton of Schaffhausen is bordered by the Swiss cantons of Zurich and Thurgau, as well as the German districts of Waldshut, Schwarzwald-Baar-Kreis and Konstanz, Baden-Württemberg.  Most of the canton lies on a plateau dominated by the Hoher Randen. The summit of this mountain is at. The slopes of the mountain are gentle towards the south where it reaches the Rhine valley. Short and narrow valleys intersect these gentle slopes. The Klettgau is one such valley.  The Rhine Falls are the largest waterfalls in Europe and lie on the border of the cantons of Schaffhausen and Zürich.

Municipalities.

There are 26 municipalities in the canton.

Demographics.

The population of the canton (as of ) is., the population included 16,323 foreigners, or about 21.9% of the total population. The German language and Protestant faith predominate. The majority of the population () is Protestant (50%) while a large minority is Roman Catholic (24%).

Politics.

Cantonal government.

The legislature is the Cantonal Council ("Kantonsrat") of Schaffhausen, which consists of 60 members elected proportionally every four years. Until 2008, it consisted of 80 members.  The executive branch is the Government Council ("Regierungsrat"), which consists of 5 members elected every four years.

Compulsory Voting.

Swiss citizens who live in Canton Schaffhausen are required to vote in elections. Compulsory voting has never existed at the national level in Switzerland. It was introduced in several cantons starting in the late 19th century but by 1974, it has been abolished everywhere except in Schaffhausen. Citizens who do not vote are invoiced with a fine.

Economy.

Schaffhausen is a part of the Zürcher Wirtschaftsraum (Zurich economic region) and the canton's economy is well integrated with that of the wider region.  Well-regarded white Riesling wine is grown here as well as several other varieties. The main industries, however, are the production of machinery and metal goods. There is also watch making and jewellery. Minor industrial branches are textiles, leather goods, glass, cement, paper and chemicals. There is a brewery in the canton.  At Rheinau there is a hydro electrical power plant generating electricity for the canton and for export. Major electricity customers are the chemical industry in Rheinfelden and the aluminium plant at Neuhausen am Rheinfall. The city of Schaffhausen also uses much of the electricity produced at Rheinau.  Schaffhausen lies on the busy Milan-Zurich-Stuttgart rail line which is serviced by trains from both the Swiss Federal Railways and German Railways.  The largest companies are Tyco International, Tyco Electronics, SIG, Georg Fischer AG, International Watch Company and Cilag AG.

The canton of Schaffhausen, also canton of Schaffouse () is the northernmost canton of Switzerland. The principal city and capital of the canton is Schaffhausen. The canton's territory is divided into three non-contiguous segments, where German territory reaches the Rhine. The large central part, which includes the capital, in turn separates the German exclave of Büsingen am Hochrhein from the rest of Germany.

沙夫豪森州 (;;),位于瑞士最北部,在莱茵河的北岸。该州属于瑞士德语区,首府为沙夫豪森市。