History.

The 9000 was launched to the motoring press at a conference at Kolmården Game Park on 24 May 1984 and 1985 in the European market. This original model was a five-door liftback, sharing much of its appearance and bodywork with the Type Four platform relatives—the Fiat Croma and Lancia Thema. Drag resistance for the original model is C 0.34, very competitive for the time. For MY 1987 a modern ZF automatic with four stages became available (and remained the only available automatic version until the end of production), and the 9000 was rolled out in the most important market for Saab: the US. In 1987 for model year 1988, Saab released a sedan variant of the 9000 known as the CD. With the introduction of the CD, Saab took the opportunity to re-style the front-end for the sedan. This involved smoothing the edges of the headlamps and grille, and sloping the front outwards. Saab adapted the design of the sedan to the current facelift of the Saab 900, which had already received a similar new front for the MY 1987. This re-design marked a departure from the more upright front styling of the 1984 original, which was also similar to the old design of the Saab 900 from 1978-1986. The fact that the older medium class model Saab 900 had received the facelift first seems curiously, also that the 5-door model still retained the old front design. The sloping front came only for MY 1991 with the 5-door model and was only available in this model year. Because the next bigger facelift for the Saab 9000 5-door variant was followed by release of a partially redesigned body for the 1992 model year, known as the CS. At the release of the CS, the original liftback variant from MY 1985-1991 was retrospectively designated CC to differentiate it from the newer version since MY 1992. The CC was continued to sell out of stock alongside in some markets as an entry-level model until early 1992.  The Saab 9000 was awarded Best Prestige Car 1985 by the French magazine L’Action Automobile.  Saab Direct Ignition was introduced 1988 with the 9000 CD and its B202 turbo engine. The same engine in the CC got the DI with MY 1989. Since then all new engine releases for the 9000 got the DI from beginning (except later entry engine B204i without turbo and later V6 which came from GM). For MY 1990 Saab introduced the new developed larger B234 2.3-litre engine, providing in the normally aspirated engine. For MY 1991, the "B234" became available also with a turbocharger, producing and an impressive torque.  From 1988, all 9000 variants were equipped with a Saab Information Display (SID) which showed fuel consumption, distance to an empty fuel tank, alternator output voltage, outside temperature, and lowest battery voltage during vehicle start. If the outside temperature fell to, the temperature display is automatically selected to warn of possible "black ice" road conditions. A separate pictogram monitored door and hatch opening and exterior light bulb condition. 1988 also marked the introduction of pyrotechnic seat belt tensioners for the front seats.  A new turbocharger management system, Trionic 5 and later Trionic 7, was equipped from the 1993 model year onwards (the Trionic system used resistor spark plugs to detect for engine knock in place of the knock sensors incorporated into the engine block in the previous APC system).  For MY 1993 the model range was revised to provide some uniformity to the model designations on all markets. They became CS/CSE and CD/CDE:  - the CS / CD with basis equipment (which in principle already contained more equipment than the German competition in particular offered at the time)  - the CSE / CDE came with already most available equipment from factory  In principle, both equipment lines could be combined with the engines available in the respective MY. This means that even a "simple" CS could be ordered with the 200 HP turbo engine. The face lifted CS models and furthermore "old fashioned" CD were available in MY 1992 in most countries with the same four engines which had also powered the former CC: - the old B202 with and without turbo - the B234 with and without turbo This changed for MY 1993: in the US a new two-litre engine, the B204, with also two balance shafts (like in the B234) became available as light pressure turbo on both CS and CD giving 150hp. The background of the new B204 engine was that Saab needed a suitable engine for the upcoming new Saab 902. Since Saab was always under high cost pressure, the new B204 and a forthcoming newly B234 engine were designed to fit both the new Saab 900/2 and the Saab 9000. So worth paying attention to there were two generations of B234 engine, one made from MY 1990-1993 (called "long block"), the other from 1994 to 1998 ("short block"). The later motors had a revised oil sump system, head, timing cover, and different bell housing pattern.  Therefore over the years three different engine types developed from Saab itself were available for the 9000: B202/B204/B234 (with the old B202 phased out on all markets for at the latest MY 1994). The B204 and B234 both came as non-turbos and turbo variants which additionally split in so called LPT (low pressure turbo, also named "Ecopower") and FPT (full pressure turbo). Both systems used the same Garrett "T25" turbocharger with a base boost pressure of, but the full pressure turbo is equipped with a boost control valve that is manipulated by the ECU. This allows the boost pressure to be increased as the ECU sees fit. Maximum stock boost on a full pressure turbo varies from depending on the year and transmission.  For MY 1995 a 210hp three-litre V6, originating from General Motors and also found on the Opel (and Vauxhall) Omega, was introduced. For MY 1996 the name “Ecopower” was now applied to all turbo engines regardless of FPT or LPT variants. The 2.3 litre injection engine (without turbo) phased out.  End of production: As the CD and the Aero already expired after MY 1997, only 1400 of the Saab 9000 were produced for the last 1998 model year, and of these only 400 were exported to the United States, the main market for Saab. Saab already concentrated on the successor of the Saab 9000, the Saab 9-5.

9000 CC (liftback).

Originally known simply as the 9000, the original liftback variant was later given the CC identifier, standing for "combi coupe", to differentiate it from the CD ("Corps Diplomatique") sedan and later CS liftback. Saab also uses this different identifier for the Saab 900 versions. While originally equipped with an upright front design, this was replaced by the sloped version in MY 1990 that had earlier debuted on the 9000 CD (sedan) in 1988.  The original MY 1985 CC model (for this MY only available in Europe) was powered by an air-cooled, turbocharged, double overhead camshaft, 16-valve inline-four engine, providing 175 bhp without and 160 bhp with catalysator. Earlier on in the development, the PRV engine had also been considered. The 9000 became available in the US for MY 1986, and since MY 1987 onwards the turbo-charger became water-cooled.  As with the Saab 900 CC, the Saab 9000 CC had some special series in some countries, such as the "Saab 9000 turbo 16 SP" in France (SP stands for "Sport and Performance") with 185-204 hp with the B202 turbo engine, supplied by special control units and optimized fuel injection. In Germany and Switzerland there were also a special edition named "Saab 9000 Turbo 16 S", with an airflow kit and the B202 turbo with catalytic converter tuned up to 195hp (for MY 1990), and for MY 1991 and 1992 (also available as CD with the new 195hp B234 Turbo. But the most popular special series is the so called "Talladega" (Europe) or "Carlsson"(UK), both models available as CC and CD (sedan) versions. The “Carlsson” (models) takes its name from legendary Swedish rally ace Erik Carlsson, who secured numerous wins for Saab in the Sixties. In markets outside the UK, it was known as the Talladega in honour of the 19 endurance records set by three standard turbocharged 9000s at Talladega Speedway in the US in 1986. Since MY 1988 it was available both with and without catalytic converter. Saab had scared the power to 175 hp (160 original) in the catalytic converter engine and 192 hp (175) in non-cat. The pressure was around 1.0 bar. Furthermore, a new "black box" (APC) had been installed in the "Talladegas" which allows higher power. In the UK, however, it carried on the tradition of the Saab 900 Carlsson and took its moniker from Swedish rally legend Erik Carlsson. 9000 Carlsson models were produced with a paint-matched airflow body kit, only with a manual transmission, spoiler, and specially tuned turbocharged engine producing 195 bhp (185 bhp with catalytic converter) with the B202 turbo in MY 1990 up to in MY 1991-92 with the B234 turbo. The "Carlsson" was produced from MY 1990 to 1992 (changing from CC to CS design) with engine output up to 225 bhp and can be described as the precursor of the further Aero, which was introduced in MY 1993 with the CS design. A number of the Carlsson editions fitted with the "B202" turbocharged engine were sold into the Australian market. All four series, the "SP 16" (France), "Turbo 16 S" (Germany, Switzerland), "Talladega" (Europe, US) and "Carlsson" are rare items sought today from Saab fans around the world. Unfortunately many of the few remaining specimens are often not in good condition.  Total production numbers as 5 door variant Saab 9000 CC: 216,385 Saab 9000 CC (MY 1985-1991) "(43% of all produced Saab 9000)"

9000 CD (sedan).

The Saab 9000 CD Sedan model was presented in Nice in January 1988. The CD was the four-door sedan body style with from beginning a slightly more aerodynamic nose which the CC get not until MY 1991. Just as in the launch of the CC variant, the 9000 CD was initially available only with the B202 turbo engine, but Saab combined it right from the start with its new "DI ignition system" (the CC B202 turbo got the DI system in MY 1989). At the Birmingham Motor Show in September 1988, Saab premiered the non-turbo model of the CD with the naturally aspirated 2.0-litre inline-four. For MY 1990 Saab introduced the 2.3-litre "B234" normally aspirated engine for both body shapes, the CC and CD. Since then the CD was available with the same basic engines as the CC for all MY (except the 225 PS "Aero" engine). The CD kept its old front and back till MY 1994, when Saab redesigned the CD for the first time since its start now wearing the front and back similar to the CS. The sedan was phased out after MY 1997.  From the beginning, Saab had placed the CD and later the CDE above the hatchback model in terms of equipment and price. This was in keeping with the spirit of the times, which saw an expensive notchback model more as a car for business people (with or without a chauffeur) who did not need the cargo space of the CC. This is why Saab never offered the CD or CDE with a folding rear seat, which would have been at the expense of stability and peace and quiet in the interior. The CDE model was offered initially with only the turbocharged engine.  In 1995, a 3.0-litre "B308" V6 engine with was introduced as standard for the CDE sedan and optional for the CSE liftback. The V6 was discontinued in the United States after one year along with the CDE model, but continued on in Europe until 1997. In some European markets, the V6 engine was offered as a high-spec CDE Griffin model with numerous luxury appointments, such as an optional second air conditioning unit in the boot for the rear occupants and with all available electric options, special eucalyptus green paint, a separate rear-seat air conditioning system, walnut trim and rear window blinds.  Total production numbers of the 4-door Saab 9000 CD/CDE: 112,177 Saab 9000 CD (MY 1988-1997) "(22.3% of all produced Saab 9000)"

9000 CS (liftback).

Saab presented an updated version of the liftback body variant in automn 1991 for the 1992 model year with the so called "CS". This replaced the CC. Featuring a lowered front fascia with new headlights, new grille, some minor changes at the doors and a substantially redesigned rear-end. Although the interior design remained basically the same, there were some changes in detail.  Here is an overview over the different versions of the different engine types used in the Saab 9000 CS Versions.  After the old B202 engine phased out after MY 1993, there were in summary 9 different engine versions for the CS available in the upcoming years. After the 1995 model year, the both naturally aspirated four-cylinder engines were discontinued in the United States.  A limited edition Anniversary model was introduced 1997 to mark Saab's 50th anniversary, featuring leather seats embossed with the classic, aircraft-inspired Saab logo and a colour-keyed body kit. The engine typ was freely selectable from the available turbo engines of MY 1997 except the Aero engine with 225 PS. The "Anniversary" could be ordered till the end of the 9000 production in 1998. In the last MY 1998 the "Anniversary" could be also ordered with the 225 PS engine. Today this model is sought after by aficionados.  A special version of the CS is the so called Saab 9000 CS Aero. Revealed at the Paris Salon in October 1992 for MY 1993, the 9000 Aero was the fastest Saab to date. It was powered by a version of Saab's 2.3-litre "B234" engine, with more power courtesy of a larger Mitsubishi "TD04" turbocharger. Automatic transmission-equipped Aeros were limited to and kept the regular turbocharged models' Garrett AiResearch T25 turbocharger. Aeros were equipped with paint-matched body kit and spoiler, eight-way Recaro-designed heated sports seats, a sport suspension, and 16-inch Super Aero wheels. The Aero's in-gear acceleration was strongly emphasised, and period advertising boasted, “The 5-speed Saab 9000 Aero will streak from 50 to 75 mph faster than a Ferrari Testarossa or a Porsche Carrera 4.” The Aero was discontinued after model year 1997, so in the last MY 1998 the 225 HP engine was available for all Saab 9000.  Total production numbers of the Saab 9000 CS/CSE type: 174,525 Saab 9000 CS (MY 1992-1998) "(34,7% of all produced Saab 9000)"

Convertible (prototype).

A convertible version was constructed by Finnish Valmet, the prototype version is currently on display at the Uusikaupunki car museum near the Valmet factory. Other experiments included fitting of the Yamaha developed V6 engine most famously fitted to the Ford Taurus SHO. This was vetoed by Saab-Scania, Saab's owner at the time, as was the fitting of a VM Motori diesel engine which had been executed with the aim of increasing Saab's sales in central and southern Europe. A station wagon was never truly under consideration due to the expenses involved, not in the least out of concern for the often tiny Saab importers who were thereby saved the trouble of having to keep a larger inventory.

Prometheus (prototype).

In 1993, Saab experimented with steer-by-wire technology as part of the pan-European programme "Prometheus" (Programme for European Traffic with Highest Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety). Their contribution to the programme consisted of a modified 9000 with the steering wheel replaced with a center-mounted joystick. This setup removed the risk of body and facial injury in the event of an accident. It also provided easier and cheaper airbag installation, as well as improved instrument panel visibility. This prototype was tested by Jeremy Clarkson in an episode of "Top Gear"; the segment was revisited in Series 18, Episode 5 of the current "Top Gear" series, where Clarkson and James May paid tribute to the fallen automotive marque.

MPV (prototype).

At a visit to the American Sunroof Company, who helped design the Saab 900 convertible, the engineers spotted the building of a minivan based on the Chrysler's K-car (later launched as Chrysler Voyager). Gunnar Larsson thought it was a neat idea and when he came home he asked the head of bodyworks Dick Ohlsson if they could do something like that based on the Saab 9000. "No problem", was the reply and a small team started working on it in secret. They used the 9000 platform but lengthened and with higher roof and room for seven persons (even if the rear seat was mostly suitable for children). The full-scale model was finished in May 1985 two months after the first idea.

Saab 9000 Limousine.

British coachbuilder Coleman & Milne extended several Saab 9000s into stretch limousine versions.

Engines.

The Saab 9000 was available with a big variety of naturally-aspirated and turbocharged engines. The range consisted mostly of the Saab 2.0 and 2.3 litre engines, but there was also the 3.0-liter V6 made by Isuzu.

The Saab 9000 is an automobile produced by the Swedish company Saab from 1984 to 1998. Representing the company's foray into the executive car scene, it was developed as a result of the successes of the turbocharged 99 and 900 models. The 9000 remained in production until MY 1998 and it was replaced by the Saab 9-5 in late 1997, although some final cars were produced into 1998. The Saab 9000 was only available with petrol engines and never as a convertible (except for one prototype).

绅宝9000是绅宝汽车厂首款推出的主管级轿车,于1985年推出。于1997年秋天被绅宝 9-5 1998年式取代。


Personal life.

Spilsbury was born on 16 May 1877 at 35 Bath Street, Leamington Spa, Warwickshire. He was the eldest of the four children of James Spilsbury, a manufacturing chemist, and his wife, Marion Elizabeth Joy.  On 3 September 1908, Spilsbury married Edith Caroline Horton. They had four children together: one daughter, Evelyn and three sons, Alan, Peter and Richard. Peter, a junior doctor at St Thomas's Hospital in Lambeth, was killed in the Blitz in 1940, while Alan died of tuberculosis in 1945, shortly after the Second World War.  The deaths (of Peter, in particular) were a blow from which Spilsbury never truly recovered. Depression over his finances and his declining health are believed to have been a key factor in his decision to commit suicide by gas in his laboratory at University College, London, in 1947.

Career.

Educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, he took a Bachelor of Arts degree in natural science in 1899, an MB BCh in 1905 and a Master of Arts in 1908. He also studied at St Mary's Hospital in Paddington, London, from 1899. He specialised in the then-new science of forensic pathology.  In October 1905, he was appointed resident assistant pathologist at St Mary's Hospital when the London County Council requested all general hospitals in its area appoint two qualified pathologists to perform autopsies following sudden deaths. In this capacity, he worked closely with coroners such as Bentley Purchase.

Important cases.

The case that brought Spilsbury to public attention was that of Hawley Harvey Crippen in 1910, where he gave forensic evidence as to the likely identity of the human remains found in Crippen's house. Spilsbury concluded that a scar on a small piece of skin from the remains pointed to Mrs Crippen as the victim.  Spilsbury later gave evidence at the trial of Herbert Rowse Armstrong, the solicitor convicted of poisoning his wife with arsenic.  The case that consolidated Spilsbury's reputation as Britain's foremost forensic pathologist was the "Brides in the Bath" murder trial in 1915. Three women had died mysteriously in their baths; in each case, the death appeared to be an accident. George Joseph Smith was brought to trial for the murder of one of these women, Bessie Munday. Spilsbury testified that since Munday's thigh showed evidence of goose bumps and, since she was, in death, clutching a bar of soap, it was certain that she had died a violent deathin other words, had been murdered.  Spilsbury was also involved in the Brighton trunk murder cases. Although the man accused of the second murder, Tony Mancini, was acquitted, he confessed to the killing just before his own death, many years later, vindicating Spilsbury's evidence.  Spilsbury was able to work with minimal remains, such as those involved in the Alfred Rouse case (the "Blazing Car Murder"). Here, a near-destroyed body was found in the wreck of a burnt-out car near Northampton in 1930. Although the victim was never identified, Spilsbury was able to give evidence of how he had died and facilitate Rouse's conviction.  During his career, Spilsbury performed thousands of autopsies, not only of murder victims but also of executed criminals. He was able to appear for the defence in Scotland, where his status as a Home Office pathologist in England and Wales was irrelevant: he testified for the defence in the case of Donald Merrett, tried in February 1927 for the murder of his mother and acquitted as not proven.  Spilsbury was knighted early in 1923. He was a Home Office-approved pathologist and lecturer in forensic medicine at the University College Hospital, the London School of Medicine for Women and at St Thomas's Hospital. He also was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine.  In later years, Spilbury's dogmatic manner and his unbending belief in his own infallibility gave rise to criticism. Judges began to express concern about his invincibility in court and recent researches have indicated that his inflexible dogmatism led to miscarriages of justice.  On 17 July 2008, files containing notes on deaths investigated by Spilsbury were auctioned at Sotheby's and were acquired by the Wellcome Library in London. The files' index cards documented deaths in the County of London and the Home Counties from 1905 to 1932. The hand-written cards, discovered in a lost cabinet, were the notes that Spilsbury apparently accumulated for a textbook on forensic medicine which he was planning, but there is no evidence that he ever started the book.

Legacy.

It was Spilsbury who, together with personnel from Scotland Yard, was responsible for devising the so-called murder bag, the kit containing plastic gloves, tweezers, evidence bags, etc., that detectives attending the scene of a suspicious death are now equipped with.  Spilsbury is commemorated by an English Heritage blue plaque attached to his former home at Marlborough Hill in north London. Also at his birthplace, 35 Bath Street, Leamington Spa, which was his father's chemist and still a chemist shop today.

Media.

Spilsbury is mentioned in the Severed Heads song 'Dead Eyes Open' by the narrator, Edgar Lustgarten as 'a great pathologist with unique experience'. The song uses Edgar Wallace's transcription of Patrick Herbert Mahon's trial for the murder of his lover Emily Beilby Kaye.  In the 1956 film "The Man Who Never Was", about Operation Mincemeat, André Morell played Spilsbury.  The BBC science documentary series "Horizon" cast a critical eye on Spilsbury's work in the 1970 episode "The Expert Witness".  In the 1976 Thames Television series "Killers", Spilsbury was played in three episodes by Derek Waring.  Spilsbury was played by Andrew Johns in the 1980-81 Granada TV series "Lady Killers".  Nicholas Selby played Spilsbury in the 1994 mini-series "Dandelion Dead", a dramatisation of the Armstrong poisoning case.  On 12 June 2008, BBC Radio 4's "Afternoon Drama" play, "The Incomparable Witness" by Nichola McAuliffe, was a drama about the involvement of "Sir Bernard Spilsbury, the father of modern forensics" in the Crippen case as seen from the point of view of Spilsbury's wife Edith. The radio play was directed by Sasha Yevtushenko with Timothy Watson as Spilsbury, Joanna David as Edith, Honeysuckle Weeks as the young Edith and John Rowe (who played Spilsbury in an episode of the short-lived 1984 BBC Scotland TV series "Murder Not Proven?") as the Lord Chief Justice.  In 2019 the BBC1 series "Murder, Mystery and My Family" concluded that the conviction of the then 15-year-old Jack Hewitt (1907-1972) for the murder at Gallowstree Common of Sarah Blake (1877-1922) was unsafe, partly due to Spilsbury's misleading evidence to the jury about the putative murder weapon.

Posthumous reputation.

During Spilsbury's lifetime, and as early as 1925 after the murder conviction of Norman Thorne, concern began to be expressed by informed opinion about his domination of the courtroom and about the quality of his methodology. The influential "Law Journal" expressed 'profound disquiet' at the verdict, noting 'the more than Papal infallibility with which Sir Bernard Spilsbury is rapidly being invested by juries.'.  In more recent years, there has been some reassessment of Spilsbury's reputation, which has raised questions over his degree of objectivity. Professor Sir Sydney Smith judged Spilsbury'very brilliant and very famous, but fallible...and very, very obstinate.' Keith Simpson wrote of Spilsbury 'whose positive evidence had doubtless led to conviction at trials that might have ended with sufficient doubt for acquittal.'. Burney and Pemberton (2010) noted how the "virtuosity" of Spilsbury's performances in the mortuary and the courtroom "threatened to undermine the foundations of forensic pathology as a modern and objective specialism."  He has in particular been criticised for his insistence on working alone, his refusal to train students, and an unwillingness to engage in academic research or peer review. This, according to the article, "lent him an aura of infallibility that for many raised concerns that it was his celebrity rather than his science that persuaded juries to credit his evidence over all others."

Sir Bernard Henry Spilsbury (16 May 1877 – 17 December 1947) was a British pathologist. His cases include Hawley Crippen, the Seddon case and Major Armstrong poisonings, the "Brides in the Bath" murders by George Joseph Smith, Louis Voisin, Jean-Pierre Vaquier, the Crumbles murders, Norman Thorne, Donald Merrett, the Podmore case, the Sidney Harry Fox matricide, Alfred Rouse, Elvira Barney, Tony Mancini, Margaret Lowe and the Vera Page case. Spilsbury's courtroom appearances became legendary for his demeanour of effortless dominance.

伯纳德·亨利·斯皮尔斯伯里爵士(,1877年-5月16日-1947年-12月17日),英国病理学家及司法科学家,被认为是英国的第一位司法科学家。他一生中破过许多著名案件,是当时司法科学界的权威,惟亦曾经因为盲目专断而误判。


Education and early career.

Edwards was born in Batley, Yorkshire, and attended Manchester Central High School on Whitworth Street in central Manchester, after which he served in the British Army, and then completed his undergraduate studies in biology, graduating with an Ordinary degree at Bangor University. He studied at the Institute of Animal Genetics and Embryology at the University of Edinburgh, where he was awarded a PhD in 1955.

Career and research.

After a year as a postdoctoral research fellow at the California Institute of Technology he joined the scientific staff of the National Institute for Medical Research at Mill Hill. After a further year at the University of Glasgow, in 1963 he moved to the University of Cambridge as Ford Foundation Research Fellow at the Department of Physiology, and a member of Churchill College, Cambridge. He was appointed Reader in physiology in 1969.

Human fertilisation.

Circa 1960 Edwards started to study human fertilisation, and he continued his work at Cambridge, laying the groundwork for his later success. In 1968 he was able to achieve fertilisation of a human egg in the laboratory and started to collaborate with Patrick Steptoe, a gynaecological surgeon from Oldham. Edwards developed human culture media to allow the fertilisation and early embryo culture, while Steptoe used laparoscopy to recover ovocytes from patients with tubal infertility. Their attempts met significant hostility and opposition, including a refusal of the Medical Research Council to fund their research and a number of lawsuits. Additional historical information on this controversial era in the development of IVF has been published. Roger Gosden was one of his first graduate students.  The birth of Louise Brown, the world's first 'test-tube baby', at on 1978 at the Oldham General Hospital made medical history: in vitro fertilisation meant a new way to help infertile couples who formerly had no possibility of having a baby. Nurse Jean Purdy was the first to see Brown's embryo dividing.  Refinements in technology have increased pregnancy rates and it is estimated that in 2010 about children have been born by IVF, with approximately 170,000 coming from donated oocyte and embryos. Their breakthrough laid the groundwork for further innovations such as intracytoplasmatic sperm injection ICSI, embryo biopsy (PGD), and stem cell research.  Edwards and Steptoe founded the Bourn Hall Clinic as a place to advance their work and train new specialists. Steptoe died in 1988. Edwards continued on in his career as a scientist and an editor of medical journals.

Honours and awards.

Edwards received numerous honours and awards including:

Personal life.

Edwards married Ruth Fowler Edwards (1930–2013), also a scientist with significant work, granddaughter of 1908 Nobel laureate physicist Ernest Rutherford and daughter of physicist Ralph Fowler, in 1956. The couple had 5 daughters and 12 grandchildren.

Death.

Edwards died at home near Cambridge, England on 10 April 2013 after a long lung illness. A spokesperson for the University of Cambridge said "He will be greatly missed by family, friends and colleagues." "The Guardian" reported that, as of Edwards' death, more than four million births had resulted from IVF. Louise Brown said "His work, along with Patrick Steptoe, has brought happiness and joy to millions of people all over the world by enabling them to have children." According to the BBC, his work was motivated by his belief that "the most important thing in life is having a child."  A plaque was unveiled at the Bourn Hall Clinic in July 2013 by Louise Brown and Alastair MacDonald – the world's first IVF baby boy – commemorating Steptoe and Edwards.

Sir Robert Geoffrey Edwards (27 September 1925 – 10 April 2013) was an English physiologist and pioneer in reproductive medicine, and in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) in particular. Along with the surgeon Patrick Steptoe, and the nurse Jean Purdy, Edwards successfully pioneered conception through IVF, which led to the birth of Louise Brown on 1978. They founded the first IVF programme for infertile patients and trained other scientists in their techniques. Edwards was the founding editor-in-chief of "Human Reproduction" in 1986. In 2010, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for the development of in vitro fertilization".

罗伯特·杰弗里·爱德华兹爵士,CBE,FRS(英语:Sir Robert Geoffrey Edwards,1925年-9月27日-2013年-4月10日),英国生理学家,生殖医学的先驱者,因「开发体外受精技术」的成就被授予2010年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。


History.

Origin.

The origin of the rose window may be found in the Roman oculus. These large circular openings let in both light and air, the best known being that at the top of the dome of the Pantheon. Windows with stone tracery make their emergence in Antiquity. Geometrical patterns of roses are very developed and common in Roman mosaic. In Early Christian and Byzantine architecture, there are examples of the use of circular oculi. They usually occur either around the drum of a dome, as at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, or high in the end of a gable of low-pitched Classical pediment form, as at Sant'Agnese fuori le mura, Rome, and Torcello Cathedral.  A window of the 8th century, now located in Venice, and carved from a single slab, has alternating tracery-like components of two tiers of four "lancets" separated by three oculi. Many semicircular windows with pierced tracery exist from the 6th to the 8th century, and later in Greece.  Small circular windows such as that at S. Agnese and Torcello as well as unglazed decorative circular recesses continued to be used in churches in Italy, gaining increasing popularity in the later Romanesque period.  The German art historian Otto von Simson considered that the origin of the rose window lay in a window with the six-lobed rosettes and octagon which adorned the external wall of the Umayyad palace Khirbat al-Mafjar built in Jordan between 740 and 750 CE. This theory suggests that crusaders brought the design of this attractive window to Europe, introducing it to churches. But the decorative pattern for rose and, independently, the tracery, are very present in vestiges of the early Christian architecture, Byzantine architecture, and especially in Merovingian art, and Visigothic architecture before the Muslim conquest of Spain. But also half roses are known, as with the church of San Juan Bautista in Baños de Cerrato. The scarcity and the brittleness of the vestiges of this time does not make it possible to say that complete rose window in tracery did not exist in early Middle Ages.

The windows of Oviedo.

In the vicinity of Oviedo in Spain are several churches of the late 9th and early 10th century which display a remarkable array of windows containing the earliest examples of roses windows outside the Byzantine Empire. The designs closely resemble the motifs found on the Byzantine relief carvings of marble sarcophagi, pulpits and well heads and pierced decorations of screens and windows of Ravenna and Constantinople. The church of San Pedro has a rectangular window with a pierced decoration of two overlapping circles, the upper containing a "Greek Cross", the window being divided by the circles and the arms of the cross into numerous sections like tracery “lights”.  In another of these churches, San Miguel de Lillo, is the earliest known example of an axially placed oculus with tracery. Several such windows of different sizes exist, and decoration of both Greek Cross and scalloped petal-like form occur, prefiguring both wheel and rose windows.

Romanesque Circular windows.

Circular windows and decorative circular recesses are a feature of many Romanesque churches and cathedrals, particularly in Germany and Italy where the style existed for a prolonged period, overlapping the development of Gothic in France and its arrival with French architects in England.  In Germany, Worms Cathedral, has wheel windows in the pedimental ends of its nave and gables, very similar to the Early Christian Basilica of S. Agnese in Rome. The apsidal western end has a central wheel window with smaller oculi in each face. The Church of the Apostles, Cologne has an array of both ocular and lobed windows forming decorative features in the gables and beneath the Rhenish helm spire. The octagonal dome has a ring of oculi with two in each of the curved faces.  In Trebic, Czech Republic, is the 12th- and 13th-century Romanesque style Basilica of St Procopius with apsidal windows similar to those at Worms, but in this case the openings are filled with tracery of a Gothic form, clearly marking the transition to a new style.  In Italy, the use of circular motifs in various media was a feature of church facades, occurring on Early Christian, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque churches, a well-known example being those great circles in polychrome marble which complement the central circular window on Alberti’s Early Renaissance façade at Santa Maria Novella in Florence. Oculi were also typically used in the drums supporting domes and as upper lights in octagonal baptisteries such as that at Cremona.  Romanesque facades with oculi include San Miniato al Monte, Florence, 11th century, San Michele, Pavia, c. 1117, and Pistoia Cathedral, 1150. As the windows increased in size in the later Romanesque period, wheel windows became a standard feature of which there are fine examples at San Zeno Maggiore, Verona and Monza Cathedral.  On the Romanesque façade of Spoleto Cathedral there is a profusion of recessed and traceried oculi surrounding the central features of a rose window set within a square beneath a large mosaic of 1207.  In England there exist five Romanesque wheel windows, notably those at Barfreston and Castle Hedingham parish churches.

St Denis, Chartres, Mantes, Laon and Paris.

The transition from the Romanesque style to the Gothic was not clear cut, even at the Abbey of St Denis, to the north of Paris, where the Abbot Suger, between 1130 and 1144, gathered the various newly emerging features of Gothic into a single building, thereby “creating” the Gothic style.  Suger’s original rose window in the prototype Gothic façade of St Denis probably pre-dates many of the remaining circular windows in Romanesque buildings such as those in England, at Trebic and Spoleto and that in the façade at Speyer.  Suger’s window was not distinctively Gothic in its appearance. It no longer has its original form, but a mid-19th-century drawing by the restorer Viollet-le-Duc indicates that it had a very large ocular space at the centre, the glass supported by an iron hoop, and surrounded by simple semicircular cusped lobes cut out of flat stone in a technique known as "plate tracery". The window now has Gothic tracery in it, possibly added by Viollet-le-Duc who was very concerned about the lack of stability of the whole façade, and having restored the towers, was impelled to demolish the northern one when it suddenly subsided.  Along with the simple wheel windows of the late Norman period in England, Germany and Italy, a large late 12th-century window still exists at Chartres Cathedral. This remarkable window combines a large roundel at the centre with the radiating spokes of a wheel window, surrounded by a ring of smaller “plate tracery” lights with scalloped borders. The window, depicting the Last Judgement, contains its original scheme of glazing and retains much of the original glass of 1215, despite suffering damage during World War II.  Following the west window of Chartres, more daring Gothic windows were created at the Collegiate Church of Notre-Dame in Mantes and in the dynamically sculptural facade of Laon Cathedral (which also, unusually, has a rose window in its eastern end as well as in it transept ends). These windows have large lights contained in tracery of a semicircular form, like overlapping petals.  The window that is central to the well-known Gothic façade of Notre Dame, Paris, is of more distinctly Gothic appearance, with mullions in two bands radiating from a central roundel, each terminating in pointed arches. It was this window, completed about 1255, that set the pattern for many other rose window including those of the transepts at St Denis and the gigantic and complex window in the south transept at Notre Dame.  At Chartres, the transepts roses follow the style of the original 12th-century rose, elaborating on the theme of contrasting forms. The south rose combines the wheel with circles and semicircles, while the north rose introduces square lights which, rotating around the centre, are all set at different angles, creating a kaleidoscopic effect of great energy.

Further development.

From the building of Chartres the dimensions of the rose window began to increase with the development of more elaborate window styles associated with Gothic architecture. By the middle of the 13th century the rose had attained the greatest possible size – the entire width of the nave or transept, as seen in the transept roses at St Denis and Paris.  In the facades of St Denis, Chartres, Mantes, Laon and Paris, the rose was put under a circular arch. The next important development in its use for the Gothic style was to put it under a pointed arch, as was done in the Notre-Dame de Reims (after 1241), in the transepts as well as in the later roses of the facade. This form probably stemmed from the now destroyed St Nicaise, also in Reims.  The rose window was often placed above a row of vertical lights as the apex of the composition, the small corner "spandrels" between the rose and lower tier being filled by smaller lights of rose form, as in the transepts of St Denis and Notre Dame.  The last step in evolution of the Gothic style was to set the rose into a tier of vertical lights, of staggered height and surmount it by a tapering pointed light so that it became the centre of a vast window composition, covering the whole end of the transepts, as in Rouen or Beauvais Cathedrals. This sort of elaborate composition can also be seen at the east end of Milan Cathedral.  Rose windows were also set into square windows, the spandrels being pierced and filled with smaller lights as at Paris, 1257, or unpierced with sculpture, the form more common in Italy as at Spoleto and also seen in the north transept of Westminster Abbey and at Strasbourg Cathedral, (see pictured above).

Regional examples.

Australia.

A number of Australia's cathedrals have Gothic Revival rose windows including three by William Wardell at St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney and another at St Patrick's Cathedral, Melbourne which form the upper part of a very large seven-light window in the west end.

Ecuador.

Two examples of rose windows are found in the National Basilica, built in 1893 and in the Santa Teresa Church, built in 1934. The cathedral in Cuenca, in the southern Andes, has a notable rose window.

England.

In England, the use of the rose window was commonly confined to the transepts although roses of great span were constructed in the west front of Byland Abbey and in the east front of Old St. Paul's Cathedral in London.  Medieval rose windows occur at the cathedrals of York, Lincoln, Canterbury, Durham and Oxford.  Medieval Beverley Minster has an example of an Early Gothic wheel window with ten spokes, each light terminating in a cusped trefoils and surrounded by decorative plate tracery.  Later windows are to be seen at the nondenominational Abney Park Chapel in London designed in 1838–40 by William Hosking FSA; Holy Trinity Church, Barnes, London; St Nicholas, Richmond; and St Albans Cathedral by George Gilbert Scott.  At Christ Church Appleton-le-Moors, Yorkshire, the 19th-century architect J.L.Pearson appears to have taken as his inspiration the regional floral symbol of the white rose. This unusual plate-tracery window dating from the 1860s has been designed with five double sections like the two-part petals of a simple rose.  The largest rose window in England is believed to be that installed in the chapel of Lancing College in 1978, with a diameter of 32 feet.

France.

France has a great number of medieval rose windows, many containing ancient glass. In northern France, a rose window is usually the central feature of the facade. The transept facades commonly contain rose windows as well. Examples can be seen at Notre Dame, Paris (see left), the Basilica of Saint Denis (see left), Chartres Cathedral (see above), Reims Cathedral, Amiens Cathedral and Strasbourg Cathedral (see introductory pictures.)

Italy.

In Italy, the rose window was particularly used by the Lombard architects, as in San Zeno in Verona, and in the Cathedral of Modena, and in the Tuscan Gothic churches like the Cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto. An outstanding example of a rose window is the thirteen-spoked centrepiece of the Minor Basilica in Larino, Molise (1312). Others are the Basilica of St Francis of Assisi and Santa Maria di Collemaggio (1289) in L'Aquila.

United States.

First United Methodist Church in Lubbock, Texas, houses one of the largest rose windows at 26 and a half feet in diameter. A Baroque oculus without tracery or stained glass can be seen at San Jose Mission in San Antonio, Texas, which was founded by the Franciscan Fathers and dates from 1718–31.  The largest rose window in the United States is "The Great Rose Window" above the main doors of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York City. It is designed in the Gothic Revival style and made from more than 10,000 pieces of stained glass.  Washington National Cathedral has three large rose windows which represent the Creation, Last Judgement, and Glory of God.  In 1954, the French artist Henri Matisse created the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Memorial Rose Window on the east wall of the Union Church of Pocantico Hills, New York.

Symbolism.

In Gothic cathedrals and churches, where a rose is often found above the West Door, the most common subject of the stained glass that it contains is the Last Judgement, which by a long tradition is depicted either in mural or glass on the western wall of the building. In such windows Christ is shown seated in the centre "light" and within the lights around him are the symbols of the four Gospel writers, Apostles, Prophets, Saints and Angels. Some windows show God's dominion over Heaven and Earth by including Zodiacal signs and Labours of the Months.  When rose windows are used in the transept ends, then one of those windows is frequently dedicated to Mary as the Mother of Jesus. In modern Catholic thought, the rose window is often associated with the Virgin Mary because one of her titles, referred to by St Bernard of Clairvaux, is the "Mystical Rose". However, the specific association of Mary with the rose window is unlikely during the Medieval period, because the term "rose window" was not coined until the 17th century, a time when few such windows were being constructed. However, with the revival of the Gothic style in the 19th and 20th centuries, much stained glass that was installed in rose windows, both in new churches and as restoration in old churches, was dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

Timeline.

Special Note to Read First: The styles below, refer to the architectural advancements that occurred in the evolution of the Rose window.  The rose window had incredibly opulent motifs and executed stunningly gorgeous patterns which made it iconic.

Rose window is often used as a generic term applied to a circular window, but is especially used for those found in Gothic cathedrals and churches. The windows are divided into segments by stone mullions and tracery. The term "rose window" was not used before the 17th century and according to the "Oxford English Dictionary", among other authorities, comes from the English flower name rose.

玫瑰窗,广义来说是指圆形的窗口,特指哥特式大教堂中的圆形玻璃窗。在17世纪之前并无玫瑰窗的说法。这个名字可能来源于古代法语中的"roué"(意为辐辏状的车轮),而非英语中的"rose"。 名词“轮辐窗”常常指的是一个窗户,被从中央的凸起或空心辐射出的一些辐辏分割的形态。而“玫瑰窗”指的是那些经过高度繁复设计的像多瓣的玫瑰花的窗户。一个圆形的没有花窗格的窗,像很多在意大利教堂发现的窗户,被定义为一个建筑的开孔或圆孔。


First generation (021A; 1984–1993).

Introduced in the 1984 Paris Motor Show, the SEAT Ibiza Mk1 (codenamed "021A") entered production in the 'Zona Franca' assembly lines on 27 April 1984 and proved to be a success for the Spanish manufacturer, as it sold 1,342,001 units until the launch of its second generation in 1993. The Ibiza's sales success gave the SEAT marque a platform to build on, as it looked to increase sales in following years.  This version, while it established the now classic Ibiza shape, was advertised as having "Italian styling and German engines": having its bodywork been designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro's Italdesign, and being prepared for industrialisation by the German manufacturer Karmann. It was based on the SEAT Ronda, a small family car, which in turn was based on the Fiat Ritmo. The gearbox and powertrain were developed in collaboration with Porsche, thus named under licence "System Porsche". Despite Porsche's direct involvement in the Ibiza's engines, it was only after paying a royalty of 7 German marks per car sold back to Porsche that SEAT gained the right to put the 'System Porsche' inscription on the engine blocks.  By the time Giugiaro was assigned to the Ibiza project, his previous proposal for the second generation of the Volkswagen Golf had been rejected by Volkswagen. So when SEAT approached him with the proposal for a spacious supermini class contender, that particular project was reincarnated as the first generation of the SEAT Ibiza.  Using a compact car as basis, in terms of size, it was larger than most superminis like the Ford Fiesta and Opel Corsa/Vauxhall Nova, but smaller than any small family car such as the Ford Escort and Opel Kadett/Vauxhall Astra. The luggage capacity started from 320 litres and increased to 1,200 litres after folding rear seats.  It was launched on the United Kingdom market in September 1985, when the brand was launched there, along with the Malaga saloon. It largely competed with budget offerings like the Hyundai Pony, and gave budget buyers a more modern alternative to the outdated offerings from Lada, Škoda, Yugo and FSO. After a slow start, sales picked up and reached the 10,000-a-year milestone by the end of the decade.  The interior space was good but styling was fairly unimaginative even though it was known for having a rather quirky interior instrument layout, marked by a lack of control stalks. The indicators were operated by a rocker-switch, and the headlights by a sliding switch. It had three principal trim levels (L, GL and GLX) with bodyworks of 3 and 5 doors and several versions such as Base, Special, Disco, Chrono, Designer, Fashion, SXi etc. As power outputs dropped due to more stringent emissions requirements, a 1.7-litre version of the engine was developed for the Sportline version. For the same reason, a turbocharged version of the 1.5-litre engine was developed for the Swiss market and presented in March 1989.  In the meantime, SEAT had already signed a cooperation agreement with Volkswagen (1982) and in 1986 the German car maker became SEAT's major shareholder. The Ibiza Mark 1 received a very light restyling in early 1989 with a moderate facelift in the exterior, an entirely new, less radical interior, and many mechanical modifications. This is referred to as the second series, although it can be hard to distinguish from the original. Most obvious is the shift from a black plastic grille with seven bars to one with four body-colored ones, with some models receiving new side moldings. The interior was all new, with new seats and a new steering wheel, while the gearbox was thoroughly redesigned, and the brakes and steering improved. At the time, the Ibiza was being produced at a rate of 1100 cars per day, and the cumulative production had reached a half million.  A more thorough restyling was launched in 1991 under the name "New style", although by now an all-new Ibiza was being developed.  The following year, in February 1992, SEAT launched the Ibiza "Serie Olímpica" to celebrate SEAT's participation in the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona as a sponsor, and the SEAT Ibiza Mk1 along with the SEAT Toledo Mk1 became the official cars of the Games. The larger sedan version SEAT Málaga was a closer relative to the SEAT Ronda, although it shared engines with the Ibiza.

Engine specifications.

All engines were inline-four-cylinder units, front transverse mounted: The 0.9-litre and 1.2-litre engines had carburetor, as did the 1.5-litre 85 hp engine, while the 1.5-litre 90 hp and 1.7-litre engines, introduced in 1989, used single-point injection systems. The 1.5-litre 100 hp, introduced in 1988, had multi-point fuel injection. The 1.7-litre diesel was an indirect injection unit.

Motorsport.

The SEAT Ibiza Mk1 took part in several rally events and formed the basis on which the Campeonato SEAT Ibiza de Rallies was organised by the SEAT Sport division in 1985, however its most notable rally version has been the all-wheel drive Ibiza Bimotor, manufactured in 1986 and equipped with two engines each one delivering power to the front and rear axle respectively.

Rebadges.

In 1997, the Ibiza Mk1 design license was bought by a joint venture between Chinese automaker Nanjing Automobile Group and Malaysia's Lion Group. It entered production in June 1999, as the Eagle, and was redeveloped and rebadged into the Nanjing Yuejin Soyat in late 2003. Chinese Ibiza production came to a final end in 2008, after another facelift in 2007.

Derivatives.

The Spanish company "Emelba" produced two derivatives of the SEAT Ibiza Mk1: the pickup derivative of the Ibiza, and the Emelba Siete, a 7-seat MPV derivative.  Other than the Emelba variants, further Ibiza Mk1 derivative models have been produced from several companies, like the Anibal Raider and Podadera models.

Concept cars.

SEAT has also produced on its own a cabriolet version of the SEAT Ibiza Mk1, named Ibiza cabrio, a model which is currently found in its Nave A122 site.

Second generation ("Typ" 6K; 1993–2002).

The Ibiza Mk2 ("Typ" 6K) was the first Ibiza generation fully developed and produced under the Volkswagen Group ownership. It was based on the modified platform of MK3 Golf.  This Ibiza was available in three and five-door models, the saloon/coupé variant was known as the SEAT Córdoba, and the estate was known as the SEAT Córdoba Vario. The Ibiza was regularly the best selling car in Spain and sold relatively well in the rest of Europe, helping SEAT increase its sales figures significantly from 1993 onwards.  In the interior, the pre-facelift Ibiza 6K shared the same dashboard with many other models from SEAT and Volkswagen, such as the SEAT Córdoba Mk1, the Volkswagen Polo Classic, the SEAT Inca, the Volkswagen Polo Mk3 etc.  Before facelift, the trim levels were i, CL, CLX, GLX, Pasion, S and GTI.

1996 revision.

The 6K Ibiza had a minor facelift in 1996, which included changing the general aesthetics of the car, by adding smoother bumpers and changing the grille and headlamps and the trim levels offered (Base, E, S, SE, SXE, Sport, GT, GTI and GTI Cupra Sport).  Other than changing the appearance of the car, the powertrain and running gear changed, with the addition of the 2.0 16v ABF petrol engine, the demise of the 1.8-litre 16v and the 2.0-litre 16v engines, previously in the Volkswagen Golf Mk3.

1999 facelift.

The 1999 Ibiza Mk2 facelift ("Typ" 6K2, also known as 6K GP01, and sometimes referred to in the UK as the Mk3) was the second Ibiza to be produced under Volkswagen Group management. In the exterior, the facelift of the Ibiza Mk2 introduced apart from the revised front and rear end, new styling cues such as the first-seen tailgate-mounted SEAT badge that doubles also as a boot release switch when pushed swinging open the rear door, while in the interior the changes included a newly designed dashboard along with new door panels. The launch of the Cupra models, along with success in rallying gave it a much stronger, sporty image, which helped align SEAT vis-à-vis the Volkswagen Group's recently acquired budget brand Škoda Auto.  The Ibiza's 1.05, 1.4, 1.6 and 1.8 litre petrol, and 1.9-litre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) and Suction Diesel Injection (SDI) diesel engines were the same as those used in the Volkswagen Polo. The Ibiza's powertrain and running gear was also used in the SEAT Córdoba saloon, estate and coupé.  Under Volkswagen's ownership, SEAT was marketed as a sporty and youthful brand, whose cars were sold at competitive prices. The available trim levels were Entry, S, SE, SX, Award, Stella, Signo, Sport (1.8T 20V 156 PS), Cupra and Cupra R.  SEAT later introduced a more powerful hot hatch, dubbed Cupra, and equipped with a turbocharged 1.8-litre engine, followed by the 1.8-litre turbocharged Cupra R, of which only 200 units were produced. The main difference between the two were suspension, Brembo four-opposed piston front disc brake calipers, and a power upgrade from to on the Cupra R model.  By the time production of the second generation Ibiza/Córdoba ceased during 2002, the range had established itself as one of the most popular superminis in Europe of the past decade, having sold 1,522,607 cars from 1993 to 2002.

Motorsport.

SEAT was not involved in the World Rally Championship after the 1977 season, until 1995, when, after an 18-year gap, they returned with an Ibiza 1.8 16v driven by Erwin Weber in the Rally of Portugal, in the two wheel drive category. That same year, Erwin Weber won the first place in the two-wheel drive category in the Acropolis Rally, with Antonio Rius in second place. The Copa Ibiza 16V also made its debut that year. The successes of the 1995 season encouraged SEAT to participate the following year in the World Rally Championship in the 2.0-litre engine category, with the SEAT Ibiza Kit Car, a decision which proved to be successful as SEAT won the 1996 FIA 2 Litre World Rally Cup title, becoming the first brand to win the world title in its debut year. SEAT Sport in the next two seasons reaffirmed its domination, winning two consecutive 2-litre WRC championship titles in 1997 and 1998, with drivers Harri Rovanperä, Oriol Gómez, Toni Gardemeister, Jörgen Jonasson and Gwyndaf Evans.

Safety.

In 2000, the SEAT Ibiza Mk2 was tested for its safety performance under the Euro NCAP assessment scheme and it achieved a 3 star overall rating:

Rebadges.

The Ibiza was also produced in South Africa where it was rebadged as the Volkswagen Polo Playa.

Third generation ("Typ" 6L; 2002–2008).

The Ibiza Mk3 ("Typ" 6L) was the second Ibiza generation model to be fully produced under Volkswagen Group ownership. Built on the same PQ24 platform as the Volkswagen Polo Mk4 ("Typ" 9N), it is styled by the Italian designer Walter de Silva, intended to have a sporty, performance image. The model line up includes two hot hatch variants, the Ibiza FR and Cupra, which compensate for the lack of Polo hot hatch variants (the Polo GTI wasn't launched until 2006).  Its production was initially focused in SEAT's main plant in Martorell, Spain, however in September 2002 a decision was taken by the Volkswagen Group, i.e. SEAT's parent company, that a part of it (up to 50,000 units annually) would be transferred to Volkswagen's own plant in Bratislava, Slovakia.  Apart from the more aggressive styling, it was larger than the previous two generations, with room for five adults, and a spacious (if rather short) boot. The standard trim level on this model is noticeably higher than previous models. This is regarded by some magazines to be the best supermini, with "What Car?" magazine calling it "Car of the Year" in 2003, and their best "Supermini of the Year" for three years in a row.  The SEAT Ibiza Mk3 has also been used for several purposes, from police cars to rally cars  The Ibiza Mk3 pre-facelift model was available with the Award, S, SX, Stylance, Reference, Signo, Stella, Sport, FR and Cupra trim levels.  The facelifted third generation Ibiza was made from 2006 to 2008. In 2006, slight cosmetic changes were made to both the interior and exterior, but is otherwise the model is very similar to the original one. There were also introduced new trim levels (Reference, Stylance, Freerider, Sportrider, Sport, DAB Sport (2006 limited edition), Formula Sport (2007 limited edition), FR and Cupra, as well as engines with increased power (1.2 12v and 1.4 16v) and a new 1.4 litre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel version. The FR and Cupra TDI versions use a 1.9-litre Pumpe-Düse diesel engine with and respectively. The latter engine is a development of the unit used in the Golf GT and Leon FR, modified by SEAT Sport to improve breathing.

Safety.

In 2002, the SEAT Ibiza Mk3 was tested for its safety performance under the Euro NCAP assessment scheme and it achieved a 4 star overall rating:

Concept cars.

In the 2006 Geneva Motorshow SEAT presented the SEAT Ibiza Vaillante concept car which was based on a 3-door SEAT Ibiza Mk3 car.

Fourth generation ("Typ" 6J; 2008–2015, "Typ" 6P, 2015–2017).

The Ibiza Mk4 ("Typ" 6J) was previewed at the 2008 Geneva Motor Show in the form of the Bocanegra concept car. It was styled by the Belgian car designer Luc Donckerwolke with the distinctive 'arrow design', dispensing with the basic Ibiza design language that had been in place since the 1984 original, and being the first among other Volkswagen Group models (Volkswagen Polo Mk5 and Audi A1) to use the latest Volkswagen Group PQ25 platform in the segment of supermini cars,  The model range features a 5-door hatchback, a 3-door version and a 5-door estate, the latter was added in Q4 2010.  The new model first went on sale in the summer of 2008, in the 5 door format, followed by a 3-door variant, marketed as the Ibiza SportCoupé or Ibiza SC. An Ibiza Ecomotive model, powered by an, 1.4-litre diesel engine emitting 98 g/km of, was launched late in 2008.  High-performance Ibiza FR, Cupra and Bocanegra models were launched in June 2009. The Ibiza FR is powered by a 1.4 TSI twincharger (turbo and supercharger) engine with a seven-speed Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG), while the Ibiza Cupra and Bocanegra have the same powertrain tuned to.  In January 2010, SEAT introduced first in the Volkswagen Group on the Ibiza's specific platform the 2.0 TDI Diesel engine in both SportCoupe and five-door Ibiza FR specification. The 2.0 TDI boasts and an average consumption of.  In September 2010, the Ibiza's SportCoupe and 5 door range was extended with the further addition of the new 1.2 TSI engine.  A special version of the Ibiza Mk4, called "25th anniversary", was presented at the Barcelona Motor Show in 2009, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of SEAT's best seller Ibiza.  There are many different trim levels for the Ibiza Mk4. From 2009 onwards, the SEAT Ibiza was used exclusively by the UK-based Young Driver Scheme. The Young Driver Scheme uses a mixture of the SportsCoupe and 5 door variants, powered by the 1.2 engine.  In July 2010, a revised Ibiza Ecomotive was announced, powered by 1.2 TDI common rail diesel engine with emissions of 89 g/km.

Facelift.

The facelift model was launched at the 2012 Geneva Motor Show, and sales began shortly thereafter. The facelift consisted of a light exterior and interior refresh.

Ibiza ST.

A 5-door estate car variant, the Ibiza ST, was announced in March 2010, at the Geneva Motor Show. The preview of the Ibiza ST was shown at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show in the form of the IBZ concept car.  The Ibiza ST is long, which increases the boot volume to 430 litres. Two new engine options were introduced with this model, a 105 PS 1.2 TSI (petrol) and a 75 PS 1.2 TDI diesel.

Ibiza CONNECT.

The CONNECT model was presented at the 2015 Frankfurt Motor Show and is equipped with Full Link connectivity technology, the Samsung Galaxy A3 and the SEAT ConnectApp. This allows the user’s smartphone to be connected to the car’s infotainment system and use connectivity features. The SEAT Ibiza CONNECT has a range of exterior body colours that allow the mirrors and wheels to be customised.

Engine specifications.

Note: (*) Also fitted on the Ibiza ST

Safety.

In 2008, the SEAT Ibiza Mk4 was tested for its safety performance under the Euro NCAP assessment scheme and it achieved a 5 star overall rating:

Second facelift.

The Ibiza received a second, more thorough facelift in 2015. The interior as well as the exterior have been changed. According to SEAT, the interior raw materials used are higher in quality and the overall design is more driver focused and ergonomic. With the steering wheel, gear stick, air vents, radio buttons and door handles it’s possible to personalise with a range of available colours. The centre console is more accessible and there are multiple new technology additions. It is equipped with a multifunctional steering wheel, ambient lighting and an integrated navigation system along with Full Link technology. The Full Link technology allows connectivity with the driver’s mobile phone in a safe and easy way. Mirror Link technology, through the second generation MIB infotainment system, also replicates the smartphone screen when a compatible device is plugged in. Full Link is also compatible with both Android and Apple smartphones.  The safety features included are: day running full LED lights, parking assist with audio warnings and a rear-view camera which provides live video from the rear of the car to make the driver aware of obstacles when reversing.  Externally, the biggest difference is full LED lights. It will be available as a 5-door, sport coupé, and sport tourer, as with the previous Ibiza. A range of Volkswagen Group's new 1.0-litre three-cylinder engines (MPI and TSI) are perhaps the biggest news for the facelifted Ibiza.

Fifth generation KJ (2017–present).

The fifth generation SEAT Ibiza 5-door hatchback was introduced at the 2017 Geneva Motor Show. It is based on the MQB A0 platform. It is 2 mm shorter and 87 mm wider than the preceding generation. It was the first vehicle in the VAG group to use the MQB-A0 platform, before the VW Polo, Skoda Fabia and the Audi A1. Engine options include the 1.0 MPi, 1.0 TSi 3-cylinder petrol, 1.5 TSi EVO and the 1.6 TDi four-cylinder diesel.  The new Ibiza shares its styling with its bigger brother in the SEAT range, the León.  The SEAT Ibiza is currently used by German team Münnich Motorsport in the FIA World Rallycross Championship. Debuting at the 2016 World RX of Portugal, the vehicle has had a best result of fifth in the French round of the 2016 season.

Reliability.

Reliability has been mixed. "Auto Bild" endurance tests from 2011 showed the Ibiza had achieved not only the "best result of any car in the VW Group" but also the "best result for a small car in the history of the AutoBild 100,000 km endurance tests". Warranty Direct list the Ibiza name among the UK's 100 most reliable cars despite recent generations scoring poorly and SEAT being ranked 26th of 40 manufacturers overall.

Sales and production figures.

Since the first generation of the SEAT Ibiza launched in 1984, more than 4 million SEAT Ibiza cars have been sold in its four generations as of 2011.  In the year 2009, the total annual retail sales number of SEAT Ibiza cars was 170,833 vehicles, while the annual production of SEAT Ibiza vehicles made in SEAT's Martorell plant came up to 173,715 units. The total production per year of SEAT Ibiza cars, manufactured in SEAT and other Volkswagen group's plants, is shown in the following table:

The SEAT Ibiza is a supermini car manufactured by Spanish car manufacturer SEAT since 1984. It is SEAT's best-selling car. The Ibiza is named after the Spanish island of Ibiza, and it is the second SEAT model to be named after a Spanish city, after the SEAT Ronda.

西亚特Ibiza是西班牙汽车制造商西亚特自1984年开始生产的一款紧凑型轿车,也是西雅特销量最高的汽车。车名源自西班牙巴利阿里群岛的伊维萨岛。


Early life.

Gwendolyn Elizabeth Brooks was born on June 7, 1917, in Topeka, Kansas. She was the first child of David Anderson Brooks and Keziah (Wims) Brooks. Her father, a janitor for a music company, had hoped to pursue a career as a doctor but sacrificed that aspiration to get married and raise a family. Her mother was a school teacher as well as a concert pianist trained in classical music. Brooks' mother had taught at the Topeka school that later became involved in the famous "Brown v. Board of Education" racial desegregation case. Family lore held that Brooks' paternal grandfather had escaped slavery to join the Union forces during the American Civil War.  When Brooks was six weeks old, her family moved to Chicago during the Great Migration, and from then on, Chicago remained her home. She would closely identify with Chicago for the rest of her life. In a 1994 interview, she remarked,  Living in the city, I wrote differently than I would have if I had been raised in Topeka, KS... I am an organic Chicagoan. Living there has given me a multiplicity of characters to aspire for. I hope to live there the rest of my days. That's my headquarters.  She started her formal education at Forestville Elementary School on Chicago's South Side. Brooks then attended a prestigious integrated high school in the city with a predominantly white student body, Hyde Park High School; transferred to the all-black Wendell Phillips High School; and finished her schooling at integrated Englewood High School.  According to biographer Kenny Jackson Williams, due to the social dynamics of the various schools, in conjunction with the era in which she attended them, Brooks faced much racial injustice. Over time, this experience helped her understand the prejudice and bias in established systems and dominant institutions, not only in her own surroundings but in every relevant American mindset.  Brooks began writing at an early age and her mother encouraged her, saying, "You are going to be the lady Paul Laurence Dunbar." During her teenage years, she began submitting poems to various publications. By the time she had graduated from high school in 1935, she was already a regular contributor to "The Chicago Defender".  After her early educational experiences, Brooks never pursued a four-year college degree because she knew she wanted to be a writer and considered it unnecessary. "I am not a scholar," she later said. "I'm just a writer who loves to write and will always write." She graduated in 1936 from a two-year program at Wilson Junior College, now known as Kennedy-King College, and worked as a typist to support herself while she pursued her career.

Career.

Writing.

Brooks published her first poem, "Eventide", in a children's magazine, "American Childhood", when she was 13 years old. By the age of 16, she had already written and published approximately 75 poems. At 17, she started submitting her work to "Lights and Shadows," the poetry column of the "Chicago Defender", an African-American newspaper. Her poems, many published while she attended Wilson Junior College, ranged in style from traditional ballads and sonnets to poems using blues rhythms in free verse. In her early years, she received commendations on her poetic work and encouragement from James Weldon Johnson, Richard Wright and Langston Hughes. James Weldon Johnson sent her the first critique of her poems when she was only sixteen years old.  Her characters were often drawn from the inner city life that Brooks knew well. She said, "I lived in a small second-floor apartment at the corner, and I could look first on one side and then the other. There was my material."  By 1941, Brooks was taking part in poetry workshops. A particularly influential one was organized by Inez Cunningham Stark, an affluent white woman with a strong literary background. Stark offered writing workshops at the new South Side Community Art Center, which Brooks attended. It was here she gained momentum in finding her voice and a deeper knowledge of the techniques of her predecessors. Renowned poet Langston Hughes stopped by the workshop and heard her read "The Ballad of Pearl May Lee". In 1944, she achieved a goal she had been pursuing through continued unsolicited submissions since she was 14 years old: two of her poems were published in "Poetry" magazine's November issue. In the autobiographical information she provided to the magazine, she described her occupation as a "housewife".  Brooks' published her first book of poetry, "A Street in Bronzeville" (1945), with Harper & Brothers, after a strong show of support to the publisher from author Richard Wright. He said to the editors who solicited his opinion on Brooks' work:  There is no self-pity here, not a striving for effects. She takes hold of reality as it is and renders it faithfully.... She easily catches the pathos of petty destinies; the whimper of the wounded; the tiny accidents that plague the lives of the desperately poor, and the problem of color prejudice among Negroes. The book earned instant critical acclaim for its authentic and textured portraits of life in Bronzeville. Brooks later said it was a glowing review by Paul Engle in the "Chicago Tribune" that "initiated My Reputation". Engle stated that Brooks' poems were no more "Negro poetry" than Robert Frost's work was "white poetry". Brooks received her first Guggenheim Fellowship in 1946 and was included as one of the "Ten Young Women of the Year" in "Mademoiselle" magazine.  Brooks' second book of poetry, "Annie Allen" (1949), focused on the life and experiences of a young Black girl growing into womanhood in the Bronzeville neighborhood of Chicago. The book was awarded the 1950 Pulitzer Prize for poetry, and was also awarded "Poetry" magazine's Eunice Tietjens Prize.  In 1953, Brooks published her first and only narrative book, a novella titled "Maud Martha," which in a series of 34 vignettes follows the life of a black woman named Maud Martha Brown as she moves about life from childhood to adulthood. It tells the story of "a woman with doubts about herself and where and how she fits into the world. Maud's concern is not so much that she is inferior but that she is perceived as being ugly," states author Harry B. Shaw in his book "Gwendolyn Brooks." Maud suffers prejudice and discrimination not only from white individuals but also from black individuals who have lighter skin tones than hers, something that is a direct reference to Brooks' personal experience. Eventually, Maud stands up for herself by turning her back on a patronizing and racist store clerk. "The book is... about the triumph of the lowly," Shaw comments. In contrast, literary scholar Mary Helen Washington emphasizes Brooks's critique of racism and sexism, calling "Maud Martha" "a novel about bitterness, rage, self-hatred, and the silence that results from suppressed anger".  In 1967, the year of Langston Hughes's death, Brooks attended the Second Black Writers' Conference at Nashville's Fisk University. Here, according to one version of events, she met activists and artists such as Imamu Amiri Baraka, Don L. Lee and others who exposed her to new black cultural nationalism. Recent studies argue that she had been involved in leftist politics in Chicago for many years and, under the pressures of McCarthyism, adopted a black nationalist posture as a means of distancing herself from her prior political connections. Brooks's experience at the conference inspired many of her subsequent literary activities. She taught creative writing to some of Chicago's Blackstone Rangers, otherwise a violent criminal gang. In 1968, she published one of her most famous works, "In the Mecca", a long poem about a mother's search for her lost child in a Chicago apartment building. The poem was nominated for the National Book Award for poetry.  Her autobiographical "Report From Part One", including reminiscences, interviews, photographs and vignettes, came out in 1972, and "Report From Part Two" was published in 1995, when she was almost 80.

Teaching.

Brooks said her first teaching experience was at the University of Chicago when she was invited by author Frank London Brown to teach a course in American literature. It was the beginning of her lifelong commitment to sharing poetry and teaching writing. Brooks taught extensively around the country and held posts at Columbia College Chicago, Northeastern Illinois University, Chicago State University, Elmhurst College, Columbia University, and the City College of New York.

Archives.

The Rare Book & Manuscript Library of the University of Illinois acquired Brooks's archives from her daughter Nora Blakely. In addition, the Bancroft Library at UC Berkeley has a collection of her personal papers, especially from 1950 to 1989.

Family life.

In 1939, Brooks married Henry Lowington Blakely, Jr., whom she met after joining Chicago's NAACP Youth Council. They had two children: Henry Lowington Blakely III, and Nora Brooks Blakely. Brooks' husband died in 1996.  From mid-1961 to late 1964, Henry III served in the U.S. Marine Corps, first at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego and then at Marine Corps Air Station Kaneohe Bay. During this time, Brooks mentored his fiancée, Kathleen Hardiman, in writing poetry. Upon his return, Blakely and Hardiman married in 1965. Brooks had so enjoyed the mentoring relationship that she began to engage more frequently in that role with the new generation of young black poets.  Gwendolyn Brooks died at her Chicago home on December 3, 2000, aged 83.

Works.

The Poetry Foundation lists these works among others:  Several collections of multiple works by Brooks were also published.

Gwendolyn Elizabeth Brooks (June 7, 1917 – December 3, 2000) was an American poet, author, and teacher. Her work often dealt with the personal celebrations and struggles of ordinary people in her community. She won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry on May 1, 1950, for "Annie Allen", making her the first African American to receive a Pulitzer Prize.

格温多林·伊丽莎白·布鲁克斯(英语:Gwendolyn Elizabeth Brooks,1917年-6月7日-2000年-12月3日)是一位美国诗人和老师。1950年她凭借自己的第二本诗集《Annie Allen》获得普利策诗歌奖,成为第一位获得此奖的非洲裔美国女性。


Early life.

Nakayama was born on April 13, 1913, in the Yamaguchi prefecture of Japan. He was descended from the Sanada clan, who were known as kenjutsu instructors, from the Nagano region. Nakayama's grandfather was Naomichi Nakayama, a surgeon in Tokyo, who had also been the last of the family to teach kenjutsu. Nakayama's father was Naomichi Nakayama, an army physician and a "judoka" (practitioner of judo). His father was assigned to Taipei, so Nakayama spent some of his formative years there. Apart from his academic studies, he participated in kendo, skiing, swimming, tennis, and track running.  Nakayama entered Takushoku University in 1932 to study Chinese language, and began learning karate under Gichin Funakoshi and his son Yoshitaka (also known as Gigō). He had originally planned to continue his training in kendo, but misread the schedule and arrived at karate training instead—and, interested by what he saw, ended up joining that martial art group. Nakayama graduated from Takushoku University in 1937. That same year, he travelled to China as a military interpreter during the Japanese occupation of China. By the time World War II began, Nakayama had attained the rank of 2nd "dan". Nakayama returned to Japan in May 1946, after the war.

Japan Karate Association.

In May 1949, Nakayama, Isao Obata, and other colleagues helped establish the Japan Karate Association (JKA). Funakoshi was the formal head of the organization, with Nakayama appointed as Chief Instructor. By 1951, Nakayama had been promoted to 3rd "dan", and he held the rank of 5th "dan" by 1955. In 1956, working with Teruyuki Okazaki, he restructured the Shotokan karate training program to follow both traditional karate and methods developed in modern sports sciences. In 1961, Nakayama was promoted to 8th "dan"—a remarkable progression, in part made possible by the consensus-based system of higher "dan" promotion in Japan at the time, according to Pat Zalewski. Nakayama established "kata" (patterns) and "kumite" (sparring) as tournament disciplines. Students of the large JKA "dojo" (training halls) subsequently achieved an unmatched series of tournament successes in the 1950s and 1960s.  Nakayama is widely known for having worked to spread Shotokan karate throughout the world. Together with other senior instructors, he formed the JKA instructor trainee program. Many of this program's graduates were sent throughout the world to form new Shotokan subgroups and increase membership. Nakayama also held positions in the Physical Education department of Takushoku University, beginning in 1952, and eventually becoming head of that department. He also headed the ski team at the university.

Later life.

In 1972, Nakayama, with some help from one of his students, Hirokazu Kanazawa, set up a personal "dojo" in the basement of his apartment building, naming it "Hoitsugan." This "dojo" is located in Ebisu, Tokyo, a short distance from where the JKA "honbu" (headquarters) "dojo" was located. Karate students from outside Japan lived in the dormitory rooms and trained in this "dojo" from the early 1970s.  After rapid promotion through the ranks in the 1950s, Nakayama still held the rank of 8th "dan" in 1974. He was promoted to 9th "dan" in the 1980s, becoming the first Shotokan master to be awarded this rank while still living. Nakayama continued teaching Shotokan karate until his death on April 15, 1987, in Tokyo, Japan.

Legacy.

Nakayama wrote many books on karate, including the 11-volume "Best Karate" series. He also had many video productions credited to him. Nakayama's books include: "Practical Karate: A guide to everyman's self-defense" (1963, co-authored), "Practical Karate: Defense against an unarmed assailant" (1963, co-authored), "Best Karate: Comprehensive" (1977), and "Dynamic Karate" (1986). Martial arts scholar Donn Draeger was one of Nakayama's well-known co-authors.  After Nakayama's death in 1987, the JKA divided into two factions, which subsequently led to a further splintering within the organization. Many senior JKA instructors left to form their own associations, which include the International Shotokan Karate Federation (Teruyuki Okazaki), Japan Karate Shotokai (Tetsuhiko Asai), Japan Shotokan Karate Association (Keigo Abe), Shotokan Karate International Federation (Hirokazu Kanazawa), Japan Karate Association / World Federation America (Shojiro Koyama) and America and Karatenomichi World Federation (Mikio Yahara).

Notes.

a. All sources agree that Nakayama was born in April 1913 and died in April 1987. Most state that he was born on April 13 and died on April 15, but some give his birth date as April 6 or April 15, and some give his death date as April 14.

Japanese master of Shotokan karate. He helped establish the Japan Karate Association (JKA) in 1949, and wrote many textbooks on karate, which served to popularize his martial art. For almost 40 years, until his death in 1987, Nakayama worked to spread Shotokan karate around the world. He was the first master in Shotokan history to attain the rank of 9th "dan" while alive, and was posthumously awarded the rank of 10th "dan".

中山正敏(1913年-1987年),日本山口县人,昭和时代著名空手道家,对松涛馆流有着重要的影响力。