Club career.

Terence Frederick Venables was born in Dagenham on 6 January 1943, the only child of Fred and Myrtle Venables. His father was a Navy petty officer, and originally came from Barking. His mother was Welsh, and her family lived in Clydach Vale. When he was 13, his parents moved to run a pub in Romford, Essex, leaving him to stay with his grandparents, who fostered his love of football. He progressed from representing his county to earning caps for England Schoolboys, and attracted interest from Chelsea, Tottenham Hotspur, West Ham United, and Manchester United.

Chelsea.

Venables left school in the summer of 1958 and signed for Chelsea as an apprentice at the age of 15. He later said that he joined Chelsea as he felt he had a better chance of breaking into the first team at Stamford Bridge, and also because the club offered his father a job as a part-time scout, and he denied West Ham's youth coach Malcolm Allison's claim that he had only joined Chelsea for financial reasons. He delayed becoming a professional player so he could try for a place on the Great Britain squad for the 1960 Summer Olympics, and turned professional after learning that he would not be selected for the squad. He won the FA Youth Cup with Chelsea in consecutive seasons, as they beat Preston North End in 1960 and Everton in 1961. He made his much anticipated senior debut in a 4–2 defeat to West Ham United on 6 February 1960, with newspapers billing him as "the new Duncan Edwards".  Tommy Docherty joined Chelsea as player-coach in September 1961, and went on to replace Ted Drake as manager the following month. Docherty proved to be a successful manager at the club, promoting younger players who became known as "Docherty's Diamonds", and was a highly influential coach in Venables' career. However the pair had a difficult relationship, and Venables believed Docherty to be tactically limited. Chelsea were relegated at the end of the 1961–62 season, but managed to gain promotion out of the Second Division at the first attempt with a second-place finish in 1962–63. They went on to finish fifth in the First Division in the 1963–64 season. He took his FA coaching badges at the age of 24, passing with distinction and a 95% pass mark.  He went on to lift the League Cup with Chelsea, and scored a penalty against Leicester City in the two-legged final. Chelsea also reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup in 1964–65, where they were knocked out by Liverpool. With three games left to play they were also in with an outside chance of overtaking Manchester United and Leeds United to win the league title, but Chelsea lost the first of these games 2–0 to Liverpool at Anfield. Docherty reversed his decision to allow the players a night out after the game, but Venables and seven other players (George Graham, Barry Bridges, John Hollins, Marvin Hinton, Eddie McCreadie, Joe Fascione, and Bert Murray) broke curfew and went out for a brief night out. Upon their return to the team hotel Docherty suspended all eight players for the remainder of the season. Chelsea then lost 6–2 to Burnley, before Docherty reinstated the players for a final day defeat to Blackpool. Venables never forgave Docherty for the punishment, describing it as "crass, stupid and self-defeating". Docherty placed Venables on the transfer list towards the end of the 1965–66, with Chelsea again heading towards a fifth-place finish.

Tottenham Hotspur.

Venables was signed by Tottenham Hotspur for a fee of £80,000, and made his debut for the club in a North London derby defeat to Arsenal on 9 May 1966. His bad start to life at White Hart Lane continued when he punched club legend Dave Mackay during training, though no long-term rift developed because of the incident. Spurs went on to have a good 1966–67 season though, finishing third in the league and beating Millwall (after a replay), Portsmouth, Bristol City, Birmingham City (after a replay) and Nottingham Forest to reach the 1967 FA Cup Final to face his former club Chelsea at Wembley Stadium. Spurs won the cup with a 2–1 victory, Jimmy Robertson and Frank Saul providing the goals before Bobby Tambling scored a late consolation goal for Chelsea. Ironically, earlier in the season Venables had bet £25 on Chelsea to win the cup at odds of 25/1, which would have paid out £500 if Spurs had lost the game, exactly the same figure as the £500 cup bonus he would receive for winning the match; in fact after tax deductions, Venables would have been better off financially if Chelsea had won.  Venables did not enjoy a great relationship with his manager, believing Bill Nicholson to have a negative attitude that drained him of enthusiasm. More significantly, he also felt that he was not appreciated by the Spurs fans. The club dropped to seventh and sixth-place finishes in 1967–68 and 1968–69 and Nicholson accepted an offer of £70,000 for Venables from Queens Park Rangers in June 1969.

Queens Park Rangers.

Venables later said that his transfer to Second Division QPR changed his life, and stated that "I cannot think of a transfer blessed with so much good fortune". Initially however, Rangers could only manage mid-table finishes in the 1969–70 and 1970–71 campaigns, with Venables scoring 18 goals in 83 games. Chairman Jim Gregory opted to sack Les Allen and appoint Gordon Jago as manager, who took Rangers up to fourth-place in 1971–72 – just two points behind promoted Birmingham City. Once coach Bobby Campbell departed Loftus Road for Arsenal, Jago allowed Venables to supervise the club's training sessions. Rangers continued to progress, and won promotion in 1972–73 after securing runners-up spot with an 11-point gap over third-place Aston Villa.

Crystal Palace.

Venables signed with Crystal Palace in 1974; he and Ian Evans were traded to Palace in exchange for Don Rogers. He made 14 Third Division appearances in the 1974–75 season before retiring due to arthritis on New Year's Eve. Manager Malcolm Allison gave him a coaching role for the second half of the campaign.

International career.

As well as receiving two international caps, Venables held the distinction of being the only footballer to play for England at schoolboy, youth, amateur, Under-23, and for the full international team; as the amateur team was disbanded in 1974 no player was ever able to match his record. He was named by Alf Ramsey on the list of 33 "possibles" for the 1966 FIFA World Cup, having won two caps in 1964 – a 2–2 draw with Belgium and a 1–1 draw with the Netherlands, but did not make it into the final squad of 22.

Managerial career.

Crystal Palace.

Venables worked as Malcolm Allison's coach for the 1975–76 season, when Palace reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup; however they lost the semi-final tie with Southampton and their subsequent league form suffered as they slipped back to fifth-place. Venables succeeded Allison as manager in June 1976. It proved to be a busy month for Venables, as he turned down the surprise offer to walk out on Palace to succeed Bertie Mee as Arsenal manager and also had a para-sailing accident in Majorca which required 40 stitches.  As Crystal Palace manager, Venables built a young team of mostly youth team players and free transfer signings which the media dubbed the "Team of the Eighties". Star winger Peter Taylor was sold on to Spurs for £200,000, but most of this sum went on balancing the club's books. Venables spent £1,500 to sign striker Rachid Harkouk from Feltham, coming up with half of this sum out of his own funds on the understanding that he would receive 50% of any future transfer fee for the player. By March 1977, the board found enough money for Venables to purchase Jeff Bourne from Derby County for £30,000, and Bourne ended the 1976–77 campaign with nine goals in 15 games to help Palace to secure the third and final automatic promotion place.  His team adjusted well to the Second Division and finished in ninth-place in 1977–78, before going on to win promotion as champions in 1978–79. They secured the title with a final day victory over Burnley in a rearranged fixture some days after all their promotion rivals had completed their fixtures; the win meant that they leapfrogged Brighton & Hove Albion, Stoke City and Sunderland, and they denied their M23 derby rivals from the south coast what would have been their club's highest honour.  His first season as a manager in the First Division, in the 1979–80 season, started successfully, and on 29 September, Crystal Palace were top of the English Football League for one week. They ended back down in 13th-place, which was at that time the club's highest ever league finish.  The following season started badly for Venables; expensive high-profile signings failed to gel, and by October 1980, Palace were bottom of the First Division, and in financial difficulties. Venables left during October to join Second Division Queens Park Rangers; although the exact reasons behind his sudden departure have never been made clear.

Queens Park Rangers.

Venables left Palace, in the top division, for Queens Park Rangers, who were in the Second Division. His departure from Selhurst Park coincided with a decline in form for Palace, who were relegated at the end of the season and did not regain their top flight status for another eight years. Venables drew a number of players over to Queens Park Rangers which, as reported at the time, gave an additional financial boost to his personal earnings.  He took QPR back into the First Division as Second Division champions in 1983. He also guided Rangers to the FA Cup final in 1982 whilst still a Second Division side, but lost in a replay against his former club Tottenham.  His final season as QPR manager, 1983–84, brought more success as they finished fifth in the league (their highest finish since they were runners-up in 1976) and qualified for the UEFA Cup. Venables then moved to Spain to take over at Barcelona, while Alan Mullery took over from him at Loftus Road in an ill-fated arrangement that lasted just six months.

Barcelona.

Venables gained a good reputation as a manager with his successes at Crystal Palace and QPR, and this attracted offers from some of Europe's most prestigious clubs. In 1984, Venables took the role of manager at Barcelona, earning the sobriquet "El Tel". He was recommended by Bobby Robson, a good friend of the Barcelona Vice-President and who himself, years later, would take over the team. Venables used a very English system, a classic 4–4–2, which took advantage of outstanding defenders like Gerardo, Migueli and Julio Alberto and a hard-working midfield led by German Bernd Schuster. During his three seasons in Catalonia, Venables led the club to the Spanish league title in 1985 (their first since 1974), and led them to the Copa del Rey final in 1986 losing to Real Zaragoza.  Barcelona also reached the 1986 European Cup Final, although they lost to Steaua București in a penalty shoot-out following a 0–0 draw. It was Barcelona's first appearance in a European Cup final since 1961 and had been achieved after one of the most dramatic European Cup semi-finals in the history of the competition. Venables's side overcame a 3–0 first-leg defeat to Swedish club IFK Göteborg, winning the second-leg of the 1986 semi-final at the Camp Nou in a penalty shoot-out after a 3–3 aggregate score.  Venables brought two British strikers to Barcelona in 1986 – Gary Lineker from Everton and Mark Hughes from Manchester United. Lineker was a great success at the Camp Nou, scoring 21 goals during his first season, including a hat-trick in a 3–2 win over Real Madrid. Lineker spent three years at Barcelona, until Venables brought him back to England with his new club Tottenham Hotspur in 1989. Hughes, however, was less successful and spent just one season in the Barcelona side, before being loaned to Bayern Munich.  Venables was dismissed by Barcelona in September 1987, after failing to repeat his title success at the Camp Nou and losing home and away to eventual finalists Dundee United in the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup six months earlier.

Tottenham Hotspur.

On 23 November 1987, he returned to England to manage Tottenham Hotspur. His success with the Spurs team was varied, with the side finishing in mid-table for most of his tenure, though they did win the FA Cup in 1991 and finished third in the league in 1990. Venables had brought both Gary Lineker and Paul Gascoigne to Spurs and was a favourite to replace Bobby Robson as England national football team manager when the job became vacant in 1990, but doubts about his probity led him to be passed over in favour of Graham Taylor. Venables did not even make it onto the shortlist of three managers selected by The Football Association.  After a failed £20m bid to take over Spurs with Larry Gillick, Venables was appointed chief executive by Alan Sugar, who had won the takeover battle against Robert Maxwell in June 1991. Over the next two seasons, the Spurs team was managed by Peter Shreeves and then the joint management team of Ray Clemence and Doug Livermore, with the final arrangement seeing Venables having more involvement with the first team. A clash of personalities developed and Sugar dismissed Venables on 14 May 1993, over his business dealings. After gaining a temporary injunction, he was reinstated, but lost a 3-day high court hearing and ordered to pay costs.

England.

Venables was appointed manager of the England national team on 28 January 1994, having been recommended to the FA by Jimmy Armfield. However he came under intense scrutiny and censure in the media for his business dealings, which led MP Kate Hoey to state in Parliament that Venables was unfit for the post of national team manager. He appointed Don Howe and Mike Kelly as coaches and put Dave Sexton in charge of the England under-21 team. He took England to a second-place finish in the Umbro Cup in June 1995, but froze Paul Ince out of the international set-up after Ince declined to play in the tournament.  As England automatically qualified for UEFA Euro 1996 as hosts, he organised friendlies to allow him to experiment and find his best squad for the tournament, and particularly to find the best tactical system to suit the players. Venables decided to stand down at the end of Euro 1996 after the FA's International Committee chairman Noel White refused to grant Venables a contract extension in December 1995; the FA insisted on evaluating England's performances in competitive fixtures before deciding on his future. In May 1996, Glenn Hoddle was announced as his successor, meaning that Venables would have no choice but to stand down as manager no matter how well England performed at the tournament.  Having selected David Platt as captain during the friendly matches, Venables decided to appoint Tony Adams as captain for Euro 1996. He stood by his players in the face of media criticism before and during the tournament, which grew particularly intense after Paul Gascoigne and several others were photographed drunk in a nightclub during a team stay in Hong Kong; Venables went so far as to accuse some reporters as being "traitors" for what he described as a "witch-hunt" against England players. England went unbeaten throughout the competition, drawing with Switzerland in the opening group game before beating Scotland 2–0 and the Netherlands 4–1. After his retirement, Venables described the win over the Netherlands as "perfection – my most thrilling experience in football". England advanced past Spain in the quarter-finals with a victory on penalties, before being eliminated by Germany on penalties at the semi-finals following a 1–1 draw.  According to Alan Shearer, who played for Venables at Euro '96, "Terry's knowledge and tactical know-how were spot-on and he knew how to get the best out of us too. We responded to him, believed in him and played some outstanding football in that tournament." Another player in the squad, Gareth Southgate, said, "Terry opened my eyes to things that no one else has. He has fantastic tactical awareness. Every senior player in the group went away having learnt a lot from him, which is an achievement." On the Euro '96 team, Rob Smyth wrote in "The Guardian", "Under the managership of Terry Venables, this was an admirably enlightened, flexible and relaxed England side, one for the modern age; they even played a genuine 3-5-2... against Scotland and Germany. But they still weren't actually that good." Smyth argued there were "only two decent performances" by England in the tournament, against Holland and Germany.

Australia.

Venables became manager of Australia in November 1996, following the resignation of Eddie Thomson. In the 1997 Confederations Cup, Venables led Australia to the final before defeat to Brazil. His side swept through the Oceania World Cup qualifiers, but were beaten in a play-off by Iran on away goals. With the team having drawn 1–1 in Tehran, Australia led the second leg 2–0 at half time, but they conceded two late goals to miss out on qualification for the 1998 World Cup on away goals. Venables decided to quit the Socceroos as the National Governing Body had bank-rolled the Federation in the hope of reaching their first World Cup since 1974.

Return to Crystal Palace.

In March 1998, he returned to Crystal Palace who had just been taken over by Mark Goldberg. Venables left acrimoniously in January 1999, as the south-London club went into administration. His appointment had created a media frenzy, with Goldberg boasting that he was going to turn Palace into a European force within the next five years. But the dream was over within a year, and Palace narrowly avoided going out of business, although they did at least finish in a secure position in Division One. Venables did lead Crystal Palace into Europe, via the InterToto Cup, but chose to field youth and ultimately the adventure ended immediately as Palace faced an uncertain future after his dealings in the transfer market.

Middlesbrough.

Despite being linked with vacant managerial positions with Wales and Chelsea, Venables remained out of football for nearly two years until December 2000, when he was appointed Head Coach to assist and co-manage Middlesbrough with the incumbent manager Bryan Robson in a bid to help the club avoid relegation. The club eventually finished 14th and survived. However, Venables felt Teesside was too remote a base for his media and business interests and he left at the same time as Robson in June 2001.

Leeds United.

In July 2002, Venables joined Leeds United as manager. Although the extent of Leeds' disastrous financial problems were only beginning to become clear with club captain Rio Ferdinand sold to Manchester United only a fortnight into Venables appointment, he still inherited a stronger squad than the one that had qualified for the UEFA Champions League two years earlier (effectively, since Ferdinand was bought after qualification.) Despite this, by December of that year the side had crashed out of both the League Cup and the UEFA Cup and were languishing in the bottom half of the table.  Leeds were further weakened in January 2003, when Jonathan Woodgate was sold to Newcastle United without Venables being informed, in an attempt to pay off mounting debts. Venables threatened to leave if Woodgate was sold, but was persuaded to stay by Peter Ridsdale. With the club spiralling towards relegation, and amid later substantiated rumours of further player sales by the board Venables was sacked in March 2003.

Later career.

Venables was linked with Australian club Newcastle Jets in 2005, but his commitments in the UK prevented him from taking up a role within the club, and his agent announced that he did not sign any deal with the club. At the end of the 2005–06 season, he was linked with a return to Middlesbrough, but decided that at his age he would be unable to manage a Premier League club full-time. Later in the year, Venables returned to the England set-up as assistant to new manager Steve McClaren. He was later sacked from this role in November 2007, along with McClaren, after England failed to qualify for Euro 2008.  Since 2007, Venables has been linked in the media with many managerial vacancies, including those at the Republic of Ireland, Bulgaria, Queen's Park Rangers, Hull City, and Wales. In 2012, he was hired by non-League club Wembley as a technical adviser.

Public image and managerial style.

According to Luke Ginnell, writing for football magazine "FourFourTwo", Venables' career "arguably promised more than it delivered," and he was the dubbed the "False Messiah" by sports writer Mihir Bose. "The Times" described Venables as a "wide boy with a history of trouble off the pitch". According to Richard Williams, "those who distrusted Venables were shouted down by those who had actually played under him, and who regard him—with rare unanimity—as possessing one of this country's very few exceptional football intellects." Writing for "The Observer" in 2004, Bill Borrows questioned why Venables, "who has won so little and failed at so much," was "considered by his peers to be'synonymous with success'." Borrows wrote, "He has lost a couple of big games on penalties and even led Spurs to third in the League. But, in truth, his record isn't good enough, certainly when compared to the best managers, such as Brian Clough."  Venables described himself as a "players' man", who gave players freedom off the pitch and defended them if they were criticised in the media. He was reluctant to praise players during his half-time team talks so as to avoid complacency, and felt it was important to keep his words brief and the tone light-hearted so players could take on board key points and remain in good spirits for the second half.

Personal life.

Business interests.

One of his first business ventures was to open a tailors in the West End of London, along with Chelsea teammates George Graham and Ron 'Chopper' Harris; the business proved unsuccessful and eventually filed for bankruptcy.  On 14 January 1998 he was disqualified by the high court from acting as a company director for seven years under section 8 of the Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986 for mismanagement of four companies – the London drinking club Scribes West Ltd, Edenote plc, Tottenham Hotspur plc and Tottenham Hotspur Football and Athletic Company Ltd. The case was brought by the Department of Trade and Industry who cited instances of bribery, lying, deception, manipulation of accounts and taking money that should have been given to creditors. Re Tottenham Hotspur plc  Venables combined his duties with Australia for a period as consultant and then chairman at Portsmouth. He purchased a 51% controlling interest in the club for £1 in February 1997, but left in controversial circumstances 11 months later. His company Vencorp received a £300,000 bonus in the summer of 1997 and he is thought to have been paid around £250,000 upon leaving the club, but he left them bottom of Division One.  Although Portsmouth avoided relegation 1997–98, their financial situation worsened and they were in real danger of bankruptcy, until being taken over by Milan Mandarić in late 1999.  In 2014, together with his wife, Venables opened a boutique hotel and restaurant in Penàguila, in the Alicante region of Spain.

Other work (writing and singing).

Venables served the Professional Footballers' Association as vice-chairman in the 1970s, and represented QPR teammate Dave Thomas at his tribunal against Burnley chairman Bob Lord. He co-authored five novels with writer Gordon Williams: "They Used to Play on Grass" (1973), "The Bornless Keeper" (1974), "Hazell Plays Solomon" (1974), "Hazell and the Three Card Trick" (1975), and "Hazell and the Menacing Jester" (1976). He used the pseudonym "P.B. Yuill" after completing the first book as he felt critics dismissed his contribution to "They Used to Play on Grass" as a gimmick. "They Used to Play on Grass" was voted at #172 in the BBC's "The Big Read" survey in 2003. He is credited as co-creator of the ITV detective series "Hazell". Having been a football pundit for BBC since the mid-80s, he left for ITV in 1994, following a legal dispute with the corporation over allegations made against him in a "Panorama" programme. In 1990, Venables co-devised the board game, "Terry Venables invites you to be... The Manager".  His parents were very good singers, and encouraged Venables to also take up singing. At the age of 17 he entered a singing competition at Butlins in Clacton-on-Sea, though Chelsea did not allow him to compete in the final stages. In 2002, he recorded a single for the World Cup together with the band Rider. "England Crazy" reached number 46 in the UK charts. In 2010, he recorded a cover of the Elvis Presley song "If I Can Dream" in association with British newspaper "The Sun". It featured a 60-piece Royal Philharmonic Orchestra with Harry Redknapp and Ian Wright filmed at Wembley Stadium. The song reached number 23 in the UK charts on 13 June.

Career statistics.

Source:

Honours.

Player.

Chelsea  Tottenham Hotspur  Queens Park Rangers

Manager.

Crystal Palace  Queens Park Rangers  Barcelona  Tottenham Hotspur  Australia  Individual

Terence Frederick Venables (born 6 January 1943), often referred to as "El Tel ", is an English former football player and manager. During the 1960s and 70s, he played for various clubs including Chelsea, Tottenham Hotspur and Queens Park Rangers, and gained two caps for England.

泰伦斯·费特历·"泰利"·云拿保斯(Terence Frederick "Terry" Venables,1943年-1月6日)生于英格兰伦敦达根汉姆(Dagenham),是一名前足球运动员及领队。球员生涯主要效力伦敦球会包括车路士、热刺、昆士柏流浪及水晶宫,曾代表英格兰在每一级国家队参加国际赛,包括两次为成年国家队上阵。退役后转任领队,曾分别执教水晶宫、昆士柏流浪、巴塞罗那及热刺等球会,亦曾领导英格兰及澳洲的国家队。


Club career.

Nottingham Forest.

Walker was spotted playing locally in London and was signed by Forest in 1980 as an apprentice. Known for being unafraid of pitching youngsters into the first team if they were good enough, Forest manager Brian Clough, trying to build a second great side after his past-their-prime European Cup winning team broke up, gave Walker his debut in March 1984 at the age of 18, just two months before the end of the 1983–84 First Division campaign. Forest finished third and qualified for the UEFA Cup. In a minor statistical anomaly in Walker's nine seasons of first team football at Forest, they only finished the league in three different positions - third (three times), eighth (four times) and ninth (twice).  In 1987 Walker earned the first of his club player of the year awards at Forest.  Forest won the Football League Centenary Tournament in April 1988 (their first senior trophy since 1981). They finished third in the league in 1988. That form also carried them to the semi-finals of that season's FA Cup with Walker in outstanding form.  Forest won the 1989 Full Members Cup beating Everton 4–3 in the final after extra time. They won a second cup that season, the League Cup with a 3–1 victory at Wembley over Luton Town.  With Forest now chasing a unique cup treble tragedy struck a week after the League Cup triumph. Forest and Liverpool met for the second season in a row in the FA Cup semi-finals. The Hillsborough disaster claimed the lives of 96 Liverpool fans. When the emotion laden rescheduled game took place Forest struggled as Liverpool won 3–1. Forest finished third in the First Division for a second successive year. However they were unable to compete in the UEFA Cup as the ban on English clubs in European competition, arising from the Heysel tragedy of 1985, still had one season to run. Walker was selected for the PFA Team of the Year for the first time.  Walker won his second League Cup winner's medal when Forest retained the trophy in 1990 with victory over Oldham Athletic. He earned his second Forest player of the year accolade. He was also selected for the PFA Team of the Year for the second successive season.  Despite English clubs being re-admitted to Europe for the 1990–91 season, places in the competition were initially limited, and 1990 League Cup winners Forest were not included; the only UEFA Cup place that season went to league runners-up Aston Villa. Walker was now in his 25th year, and despite playing for one of England's most successful clubs, he had not yet been given a chance to prove himself in European competition.  Walker scored an own goal in the 1991 FA Cup Final that lost 2–1 to Tottenham Hotspur. Roy Keane played in central midfield for Forest; years later in his autobiography, Keane admitted he should not have declared himself fit to play as he had not recovered from injury. Yet again Walker missed the chance of playing in Europe. The otherwise excellent consistency of his form earned him a third successive selection for the PFA Team of the Year.  On New Year's Day 1992, Walker scored his only goal in professional football, the equaliser in a 1–1 draw against Luton. That season Forest won the Full Members Cup for a second time beating Southampton 3-2 after extra time. Forest reached another League Cup final but lost to Manchester United. Forest had now played in seven domestic cup finals at Wembley in five seasons, winning five of the finals. Walker signed off from Forest as their player of the year for the third time in six seasons. He also earned a fourth successive selection for the PFA Team of the Year. One other player was selected in the same four PFA Teams of the Year, Walker's teammate Stuart Pearce who earned selection five seasons in a row.

Sampdoria.

After the Euro 1992 finals, Walker was sold for £1.5 million to Italian side Sampdoria, who were coached by Sven-Göran Eriksson at the time. Sampdoria had been runners-up in the 1992 European Cup Final in the season prior to Walker's arrival, however they finished sixth in Serie A, nor did they win the 1992 Coppa Italia; thus they did not take part in any UEFA competitions in Walker's only season with the team. Although much was expected of Walker upon his arrival in Italy, he endured a difficult season, and did not perform well; moreover, Sampdoria finished the season placed seventh in Serie A, failing once again to qualify for European competitions, and also suffered a second–round elimination in the Coppa Italia. Despite playing 30 of Sampdoria's league games, however, he was largely played out of position at full back. He stayed just one season before returning to England.

Sheffield Wednesday.

Walker joined Sheffield Wednesday for £2.7 million in 1993. He made more than 300 appearances for the club under eight different managers in eight years. He quickly became a favourite of the fans earning their player of the year award at the end of his first season. He also picked up the captain's armband. His time at Sheffield Wednesday brought mixed fortunes, although he played in the overwhelming majority of the club's games following his arrival.  In that first season, Wednesday finished seventh in the Premier League, but were defeated in what was effectively their last chance of silverware in February. They suffered a hefty defeat at the hands of Manchester United in the semi-finals of the League Cup. In 1994–95, Wednesday finished in 13th and 15th in 1995–96. Wednesday were never in any acute danger of relegation on either occasion. In the 1995–96 season, Wednesday played four games in the group stage of the Intertoto Cup.  The 1996–97 season began brilliantly for Wednesday topping the Premier League at the end of August. However they were unable to keep up their excellent form. They finished the season in seventh as they had three seasons before. They also had the best FA Cup run in Walker's time their reaching the last eight. In the next two seasons Wednesday finished 16th and 12th respectively in the top division.  They were then relegated in 1999–2000. Walker played in seven seasons of top-tier football with Wednesday to add to his nine at Forest and one with Sampdoria. In a disappointing 2000–01 season in the 24 team second tier Wednesday finished 17th. Amid Sheffield Wednesday's growing financial strain associated with their fall from the top league, Walker was released from his contract in 2001.  In 2007, he came out top alongside Peter Swan in a poll to find Sheffield Wednesday's two greatest ever centre backs on the website Vital Football.

Return to Forest.

He briefly trained with his ex-Forest teammate Nigel Clough at Burton Albion (where he was manager) and a short stint in the US playing for the MetroStars in their 9/11 benefit matches against D.C. United. Forest manager, Paul Hart then asked if Walker could train with Forest, who were now struggling in the second tier of English football. In July 2002, Walker signed for Forest on a permanent basis.  Walker made almost 60 more appearances in his second spell for Forest, nearly a decade after he had left them, and finally left the club at the age of 38 with a total of 354 appearances for the club to his name – and one goal. His final competitive appearance for Forest came against Wigan Athletic on 7 August 2004.  On 16 May 2005, a testimonial match was held in his honour – this drew 13,886 spectators with guest appearances from Stuart Pearce, Ian Wright, Emile Heskey and Nigel Clough. Controversy was caused when the player was arrested several hours later for being drunk and disorderly. He became first team coach at Forest afterwards but left in January 2005 when Gary Megson was appointed as manager.

International career.

Walker made his international debut as a substitute for Tony Adams in a game against Denmark in 1988. It was not long before Walker was a regular starter in the side against competition from Adams, Terry Butcher and Mark Wright.

1990 World Cup.

At the 1990 FIFA World Cup, Walker started all seven of the games in which England would play, gaining international acclaim. Playing in a three-man defence alongside Wright and Butcher, Walker shrugged off knocks and fatigue to enjoy a superb tournament, which ended when England were knocked out in a penalty shootout by West Germany in the semi-finals. Rob Bagchi, writing for "The Guardian" in 2010, praised his performances, arguing that Walker's "speed, anticipation and mastery of the fair tackle were reminiscent of Bobby Moore."

Euro 1992.

Walker subsequently became England's defensive linchpin after Butcher decided to retire, continuing to feature regularly after Graham Taylor had taken over as manager. As an almost ever-present during a period when England played a relatively large number of internationals, Walker became the fastest player in history to reach 50 caps, a feat he accomplished in just over four years from 53 internationals played by England.  Walker then travelled with the England squad to the 1992 UEFA European Football Championship in Sweden but England failed to get beyond the group stages. Walker's trademark excellent defending made him one of the few bright spots of the England performance.

World Cup 1994 qualification.

On 28 April 1993, in a 1994 World Cup qualifier, England were leading 2–1 against the Netherlands. With four minutes remaining the exceptionally paced Marc Overmars became the first person in Walker's then 52 internationals to beat the defender for speed. With little choice Walker brought the Dutchman down. Peter van Vossen put the penalty away and the game ended 2–2.  A month later on 29 May in Chorzow, Walker was again beaten in a foot race. Poland's Dariusz Adamczuk got to the ball first and with one touch lobbed Chris Woods to score.  Four days later, on 2 June 1993, England's hopes of qualifying were dealt a further blow during a 0–2 loss away to Norway. Walker's defensive authority was compromised by Taylor's imposition of an untested wing back system. Walker was largely at fault for the first goal. After committing a foul near the corner flag Walker began to argue with the referee. He was caught out with a quick free kick leading to a cross for Øyvind Leonhardsen to score.  Walker played in a three-game Summer tour of the host nation of the following year's finals, USA. He then missed other crucial qualifiers, a 3–0 win over Poland and a decisive 0–2 loss against the Netherlands in Rotterdam. Walker played in England's last qualifier in the group in November 1993. San Marino scored the fastest World Cup goal ever after just eight seconds capitalising on an under hit Stuart Pearce pass back. England won 7–1 but failed to make the finals (they had needed to win by seven clear goals and hope that the Netherlands lost in Poland, but the Dutch won anyway so England's result was academic). This was Taylor's last match in charge of the England team. No subsequent England Manager picked Walker despite him continuing to play professionally at club level for the next 11 years.  Walker's international career ended with 59 caps and no goals.

Playing style.

Described as a "stopper," Walker was a pacey and hard-tackling central defender, with a good physique and excellent anticipation, who was regarded for the consistently high quality of his defending through the first half of his playing career. Defensively he was among the best markers and timers of the tackle of the television era in English football. His speed allowed him to repeatedly recover difficult situations for his teams. Gary Lineker named Walker in the best One to Eleven that Lineker played beside during his career. Lineker said of him, "Des wasn't the greatest footballer in the world but he was unbelievably quick and had a brilliant defensive mind. Brian Clough used to stick him on me when we played – he always put man-to-man which was quite unusual in those days – and he used to sing that song 'You'll never beat Des Walker!' – he used to drive you mad when you were playing against him!"  At set pieces for his teams, Walker would stay back to provide defensive cover rather than supplement the attack, reflected in that fact that he only scored once in around 800 senior games.  He played in 20 seasons of senior football, with all but the last three of those in the top flight. Other than a brief spell in the USA he played for only three clubs, with only a few years at Forest being genuine contenders for a league championship. He played in seven cup finals with Nottingham Forest at Wembley, winning five. Perhaps a more useful indication of the consistency of his excellence are the individual accolades he collected when at his peak: in the last six seasons of his first spell at Forest he was Player of the Year three times, in the last four of those seasons he was selected for the PFA Team of the Year each time, on his return from his season in Italy he was Sheffield Wednesday's player of the year in his first season there, and following his full international debut in 1988 he became the quickest player to collect 50 full England caps, taking just over four years to do so.  Walker rarely missed matches. He incurred a remarkably low number of bookings during the first 10 years of his career, despite often dispossessing opponents with sliding challenges from all directions. While not being the tallest centre-back he could leap to beat the tallest forwards in the air, and his pace meant even the quickest and most skilful forwards very rarely got any change from him.  At the height of his career, Forest, Owls and England fans frequently chanted "You'll never beat Des Walker." This was turned into "You'll never "meet" Des Walker" as a private joke among journalists, commenting on Walker's refusal to talk to the press at this point.

Personal life.

Walker has two sons who are both professional footballers. Older son Tyler Walker plays for Nottingham Forest. His younger son, Lewis Walker, plays for Queens Park Rangers.

Desmond Sinclair Walker (born 26 November 1965) is an English football coach and former player, who played as a defender. He is currently an academy coach for Derby County.

德斯·沃克(英语:Des Walker,1965年-11月26日),前英格兰成员,-{zh-hans:诺丁汉森林足球俱乐部; zh-hant:诺定咸森林足球会;}-的著名中坚球员。


Administration.

Administrative history.

The region of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace was established in the 1987 administrative reform as the Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Region (). With the 2010 Kallikratis plan, its powers and authority were redefined and extended, with the preexisting region in many respects inheriting status and weight of the five now abolished prefectures, Drama, Evros, Kavala, Rhodope and Xanthi.  In this special case, the region of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace also succeeds the intermediate structure of the two super-prefectures of Drama-Kavala-Xanthi and of Rhodope-Evros into which the five prefectures had been grouped since 1994.

Current status.

Capital of the region is Komotini, which by population is the fourth largest city, following Alexandroupoli, Kavala and Xanthi. The region is divided into the Macedonian regional units of Drama, Kavala and Thasos and the Thracian regional units of Xanthi, Rhodope and Evros, which coincide with the territory of the former prefectures, except for Thasos, which was part of the Kavala prefecture. Unlike the former prefectures, the regional units however have very limited administrative powers.  Along with Central Macedonia, the region is supervised by the Decentralized Administration of Macedonia and Thrace based at Thessaloniki.

Regional governor.

The political post of the Regional governor () was also created in the course of the Kallikratis reform and can be considered the successor of the former prefects. The current governor is Christos Metios, who succeeded in November 2016 deceased Giorgos Pavlidis (Nea Dimokratia). Pavlidis was elected in the 2014 regional election, beating the incumbent first-ever regional governor and former Prefect of Rhodopi, (PASOK), elected in the 2010 regional election.

Demographics.

The region is home to Greece's main Muslim minority, made up mainly of Pomaks and Western Thrace Turks, whose presence dates to the Ottoman period. Unlike the Muslims of Greek Macedonia, Epirus, and elsewhere in northern Greece, they were exempted from the Greek-Turkish population exchange following the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne (1923). According to the 1991 census, the Muslim minority numbered around 98,000 people or 29% of the population of Western Thrace, of which about half were Western Thrace Turks and the rest (35%) Pomaks and Muslim Romani people (15%). In the 2014 European elections in Greece, 42,533 people from Eastern Macedonia and Thrace voted for the Party of Friendship, Equality and Peace, which represents what it regards as the Muslim minority in Greece. These Muslim minority populations are completely distinct from the Ottoman-era Greek Muslims, such as the Vallahades of western Greek Macedonia, who were almost entirely expatriated to Turkey as part of the 1923-24 Population exchange between Greece and Turkey.

Economy.

The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 7.2 billion € in 2018, accounting for 3.9% of Greek economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 14,300 € or 48% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 61% of the EU average. Eastern Macedonia and Thrace is the region in Greece with the second lowest GDP per capita and one of the poorest regions in the EU.

Eastern Macedonia and Thrace (, ) is one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It consists of the northeastern parts of the country, comprising the eastern part of the region of Greek Macedonia along with the region of Western Thrace, and the islands of Thasos and Samothrace.

东马其顿-色雷斯()是希腊的13个行政大区之一。它由希腊马其顿地区东部和属于希腊的色雷斯组成。


First generation (A20, A30; 1970–1977).

Displayed at the October 1970 Tokyo Motor Show and marketed from December of the same year, the Celica was a two-door hardtop coupe that emphasized styling and driving enjoyment based on a platform shared with the Toyota Carina sedan which is one size above the Toyota Corolla. This car was aimed at the North American market and was Toyota's response to the 1964 Ford Mustang (Pony car) which also was a standard sedan (Ford Falcon) with stylized 2+2 bodywork.  Over the generations the Celica evolved into a "sports car".  In Japan where different dealer chains handle different models the Celica was exclusive to "Toyota Store" Japanese dealerships. The Celica filled a market position previously held by the 1965–1969 Toyota Sports 800, when "Toyota Corolla Store" locations were previously known as "Toyota Public Store" then renamed in 1966 as "Toyota Corolla Store".  The initial trim levels offered were ET (1.4L 4 speed), LT, ST (1.6L 5 speed) and GT (1.6L 5 speed) with GTV added in 1972. For export markets the Celica was available in three different levels of trim; LT, ST, GT.  At its introduction the Celica was only available as a pillarless hardtop notchback coupe, adopting "coke bottle styling". The prototype SV-1 liftback was shown as a concept car at the 1971 Tokyo Motor Show & with slight modifications this was introduced in Japan in April 1973 as the 2.0L RA25 (18R-G) & 1.6L TA27 (2T-G)  The liftback was then exported to many Asian countries & Europe in RHD form as the RA28 / TA28 with either a 18R 2.0 litre or 1.6 litre 2T-B engine. After the October 1975 facelift it was available in both RHD and LHD forms in other markets. The RV-1 "concept" wagon was also shown at the 1971 Tokyo Motor Show but it did not reach production.  The Japanese GT models had various differences from the ET, LT and ST including the hood flutes, power windows, air conditioning and specific GT trim but shared a few things with the ST – A full length center console and oil pressure/ammeter gauges while the LT had warning lights for these functions. With the exception of the American market, the GT had a 1600 cc 2T-G twincam engine or a 2000 cc 18R-G, not available on the ET, LT or ST and always had 5-speed manual gearboxes. Typically for the Japanese market GTs had 18R-G motors that were mated to a Porsche designed closer ratio P51 5 speed gearbox whereas export models had the W-50. For the American market only the GT had only a single cam engine (2000 cc 18R or 2200 cc 20R) with a choice of automatic or 4 speed manual gearboxes on early models then upgrading to the W-50 5 speed in 1974–1977.  There was also the GTV version (2T-G), which introduced in 1972 with slightly less luxurious interior than the GT to reduce weight. The GTV came with the same motor but with a thicker front sway bar & firmer suspension for better handling. Later in 1973 Japanese GTVs had a roof console "OK" monitor with a map light and a basic computer which detected blown brake bulbs, brake fluid level, main fuse & a floor console engine oil temperature gauge.  The first-generation Celicas can be further broken down into two distinctive models. The first of these was the original with slant nose (trapezoid-like shape front corner light). This is for coupe model only, TA22, RA20, RA21 & RA22. These models were produced from 1970 to 1975 and came equipped with the 2T, 2T-G 1.6 litre, or 18R 2.0 litre motor. They had a wheelbase.  The second series had a flat nose (square front corner light) and slightly longer wheelbase ( wheelbase). This facelift model appeared in Japan in 1974 but for export was the 1975 model year being TA23, RA23, RA24, RA25, RA28, TA28 & RA29. The Japanese version had engines under 2.0 litres so as to conform to Japanese regulations concerning engine displacement size, thereby allowing buyers to avoid an additional tax for a larger engine. Japanese buyers did pay a higher annual road tax for engines over 1.5 litres while staying under the 2.0 litre threshold.  In some markets, the lower-end LT was equipped with the single carbureted four-cylinder 2T engine displacing 1600 cc, while the ST came with a twin Solex downdraft carburetor 2T-B engine. The 2T-G that powered the high-end GT / GTV model was a DOHC 1600 cc engine equipped with twin Mikuni-Solex Carburetors.  The first Celica for North America, 1971 ST was powered by 1.9 litre 8R engine. The 1972–1974 models have 2.0 litre 18R-C engines. For 1975–77, the engine for the North American Celica is the 2.2 litre 20R. The Celica GT and LT models were introduced in the US for the 1974 model year. The top-line GT included a 5-speed W-50 manual transmission, rocker panel GT stripes and styled steel wheels with chrome trim rings. The LT was marketed as an economy model. 1974 saw minor changes in the Celica's trim and badges and slightly different wheel arches, the earlier 71-73 arches commonly referred to as thin lipped & the later 74-77 as flat lipped.  The A40 automatic transmission became an option on North American ST and LT models starting in the 1973 model year. For 1975 the 1974 body was used and sturdier chrome and black rubber bumper bars with horizontally mounted shock absorber mounts (Volvo style) replaced the chrome bumpers used in the earlier cars (in accordance with US Federal bumper laws) allowing for unrestrained occupant impacts. Unfortunately the early 8R and 18R series engines proved to be less than durable, with early failures common. The 1974 18R-C engine's durability was improved somewhat, but the 20R introduced for 1975 proved to be a better engine in most respects.

Second generation (A40, A50; 1977–1981).

The second-generation Celica was released for the 1978 model year (production began in late 1977) and was again available in both coupé and liftback forms. It was designed in the United States by Toyota's Calty Research Design studio in California. The coupe was no longer a true hardtop; both coupé and liftback had frameless door glass but featured a thick "B" pillar. David Stollery was responsible for its design.  From 1979 to 1981 the Griffith company in the US offered a Targa-style convertible conversion to the coupé. They were called the SunChaser and had a removable Targa top and a folding rear roof, much like the '67 Porsche 911 soft-window Targa. These were Toyota approved and sold through Toyota dealers. Over 2000 were produced. In Germany, the same SunChaser version but also a full convertible and a traditional targa with a fixed rear window (called the TX22) were offered. Conversions were Toyota-approved and carried out from mid-1980 by a company called Tropic.  The second-generation Celica can also be broken down into two series of release (known as Series A and Series B). These two Celicas were only distinguishable by appearance – both having the same engine capacity. The original Series A Celica (1978–1979) was released with round headlights and chrome bumpers for lower grades. The higher grades such as GT and all US models have black rubber bumpers. The facelift model Series B Celica (1979–1981) was released with square headlights, revised tail lights. They came with chrome bumpers with rubber protectors on each corners, or for certain models with all polyurethane black bumpers such on the GT and all US spec cars.  There were about 70 different variants of second-generation Celica sold in Japan over the model's lifetime. At its pinnacle in 1979, Toyota retailed 49 versions at once.

Markets.

Power for North American models was provided by a 2.2 L 20R engine for both ST and GT models. Japan and other markets had 1.6-, 1.8-, and 2.0-liter power plants. This new generation offered more safety, power and fuel economy than previous models and was awarded Motor Trend's "Import Car of the Year" for 1978. Japanese models were ET, LT, ST, SE, XT, GT, and GTV. The GT and GTV have an 18R-G twincam engine. In August 1978, the GTV was replaced by the GT-Rally, a limited edition model that had a 1.6-liter 2T-GEU or 2.0-liter 18R-GEU engine, special grill, special bumpers, black interior (against the norm of coloured interiors of the time) and was

Celica XX / Celica Supra.

In 1978 Toyota began production of the Mark I Toyota Supra in Japan, as the Toyota Celica XX. The year it debuted in the United States and Japan was

Celica Camry.

Toyota launched the Celica Camry, a four-door sedan, in the Japanese market during January 1980. This model was essentially a second-generation 1977–1981 Toyota Carina (A40 and A50) with an elongated front-end styled

Third generation (A60; 1981–1985).

August 1981 saw the introduction of the third-generation Celica. The car was initially available in notchback coupe and liftback forms with many buyers preferring the liftback. The US-made convertible came in 1984. Styling was changed considerably from previous models and power was provided by a 2.4 L 22R or 22R-E engine in all North American models, while smaller engines were used in other countries. The 2.4 L became the biggest 4-cylinder engine offered in any Celica ever. Other engines were the 1.6-liter 4A, 1.6-liter 2T, 1.8-liter 3T, 1.8-liter 4T, 1.8-liter 1S, 2.0-liter 2S, 2.0-liter 18R-G and 2.0-liter 21R, depending on the particular market. Trim levels for the Japanese market were SV, ST, ST-EFI, SX, GT, and GT Rally. Rack and pinion steering was offered for this generation Celica.  Fuel injection became standard on all North American Celicas started from August 1982, therefore the 22R engine became 22R-E (or 22R-EC with California emissions equipment). In August 1982, Toyota added the GT-S model to the North American market to re-inject the sports image that Celica had lost as it grew larger and heavier with each subsequent model. The GT-S included larger 14x7" wheels and 225/60HR14 tires, fender flares, independent rear suspension, a sports interior including special seats, and a leather-wrapped steering wheel and shifter knob. Most of these came from the Supra. This made sense as the Supra was based on the Celica. From the windshield back, both cars were nearly identical when in liftback form. There were also optional rear louvers for the coupe and liftback.  The Celica was facelifted in August 1983 for the 1984 model year. The revision included fully retractable headlights, restyled grille, and airdam. The rear combination lamps were also revised. The Japanese Celica 1600 GT got new 4A-GE engine, and the 1600 GT-R also powered by the same motor was introduced. Another new model was the turbocharged 1800 GT-TR.  The GT-S convertible, built by American Sunroof Company (ASC) in California, was originally released in a limited 200 units in 1984. 4,248 more were built for the 1985 model year.  The Australian, European, Japanese, and general export model Celicas came with rear side vents, which are highly sought after by North American Celica enthusiasts.  For the European continent, the Celica was offered as 1600 ST with 2T engine, 2000 XT (21R), and 2000 GT (18R-G). The UK models were 2.0 ST for early version and 2.0 XT for the facelift. All the cars for the UK market were powered by the 21R engine.  In Australia, Toyota decided initially to use the 21R-C in the Celica. As a result, the car only turned out. However, for the facelift model, it was replaced by the quicker 2S-C motor and then by the injected 2.4-liter motor (22R-E) which provided. The facelift versions also came with independent rear suspension, rather than the traditional live axle differential.  In 1982, the New York Yankees began using a Celica as their bullpen car.

Fourth generation (T160; 1985–1989).

In August 1985 the Celica was changed completely. It was an all-new vehicle with front wheel drive, a rounded, flowing body and new 2.0 L four-cylinder engines. The Celica was no longer built on the Toyota A platform, and instead realigned with the Toyota T platform underpinning the Toyota Corona. The Toyota A platform was now exclusive to the Toyota Supra. The coupe bodystyle in Japan was used only for the Corona coupe, sold only at Japanese Toyota dealerships "Toyopet Store" without the retractable headlights. An optional feature only offered on the Corona coupe was four-wheel steering, not shared with the Celica during this generation, however, the turbocharged engine on the Celica was not installed in the Corona coupe.  Toyota introduced the "ultimate Celica", the GT-Four (ST165) onto the Japanese market in October 1986. With full-time all-wheel drive, including an electronically controlled central locking differential, and a turbocharged version of the GT-S 2.0 L engine producing (3S-GTE), it immediately took its place as the flagship of the Celica range and became the official Toyota rally car for all years of production. The GT-Four, with a revised viscous coupling central locking differential, began export in 1987 (1988 US model year) and marketed in North America as the All-trac Turbo. It was rated at and. The All-trac system was also offered for a limited time on the Camry, and Corolla in North America without the turbo, as well as the normally aspirated and supercharged Previa.  The ST165 chassis design was quite acclaimed in its time. Toyota chose not to make any drastic suspension changes for the AWD GT-Four. The front suspension comprises MacPherson struts with an anti-swaybar and strut tower brace, while the rear employs struts with a trailing link and twin lateral links per side plus an anti-swaybar.  The ST165 GT-Four made its World Rally debut in the 1988 Tour de Corse and finished 6th. The first victory came in 1988 Cyprus (non-WRC), and the first WRC victory in 1989 Rally Australia.

Japan.

For the Japanese market the fourth-generation Celica started with the 1S-iSU engine in the ST160 and 4A engine in the AT160. The 4A engine was terminated in August 1987 and the 1S-iLU engine was replaced by the 4S-Fi engine in the ST163 in May 1988. The 3S engine in various twincam forms was introduced in August 1987 in the ST162. The 3S-GTE turbo engine was also introduced at the same time in the all-wheel drive ST165 GT-Four. Two months later, a factory convertible (coded ST162C) was offered with the

Australia.

The Australian spec Celica ST162 were the base model ST with 3S-FE engine offered as coupe and liftback, and the top of the line SX liftback with higher performance 3S-GE Twincam engine. Rear spoiler and alloy wheels came standard

Europe.

In most European countries these models were available instead: The convertible

North America.

Trims available were the ST coupe or the GT and GT-S that came as a coupe or liftback; with the GT trim available as a soft-top convertible starting in the 1987 model year. The GT-Four was available as a model year 1988, 2 years after the release in Japan. All trims came standard with a tachometer, oil pressure, voltmeter (replaced with a boost meter in the ST165) gauges and a rear window defogger for the interior.  ST: The ST was the most basic form of the T160 chassis. In 1986, the chassis was designated as the ST161. It had the SOHC 8-valve, 2.0 L 2S-E engine from the Camry, producing at 4,400 rpm and 118 ft-lbs. of torque at 4,000 rpm. However, this only lasted a year as it was changed

Fifth generation (T180; 1989–1993).

The fifth generation Celica was introduced in September 1989 for the 1990 model year. The Celica received new Super Round organic styling, upgraded wheels and tires, more powerful GT-Four (All-Trac Turbo in the US) with better cooling system, and for the Japanese market only, the four-wheel steering (4WS) models. Toyota engineers claimed that the round styling and lack of straight edges increased strength without adding weight. The styling was later copied by other manufacturers. Japanese market models were now S-R, Z-R, GT-R, Active Sports (first Toyota with Toyota Active Control Suspension), and GT-Four. The S-R and Z-R were powered by a 3S-FE engine, while the GT-R and Active Sports came with a 3S-GE. The 3S-GTE in the GT-Four features an air-to-air intercooler and CT26 twin entry turbo to eliminate exhaust gas interference. The Japanese market GT-Four has and of torque, a result of more aggressive ignition advance and ceramic turbine. The Full-time 4WD system in the GT-Four has viscous coupling limited slip center differential and Torsen rear differential.  The North American Celica had fixed door mirrors and amber front corner lights. All other destination models had folding mirrors and front clear corner lights. Driver's side SRS Airbag is standard on all US models. The base model ST has 1.6-liter 4A-FE, the GT and GT-S were powered by the 2.2-liter 5S-FE. The 1.6-liter was similar to the one used in the Corolla. The GT-S was rated more than the GT at. The 2.2-liter was designed for more low-end torque, which appealed to US buyers' preferences as opposed to the high revving engines of the past. This engine was similar to the Camry's engine except for the balance shafts. The All-Trac Turbo was available with the improved 2.0-liter 3S-GTE engine. It was rated at and torque. The GT-S and all export market GT-Four/All-Trac Turbo are wide-body liftbacks with flared fenders. The Japanese market GT-Four was also offered as narrow-body for the pre-facelift model.  Trim levels for the European Celica were 1.6 ST-i, 2.0 GT-i 16, and GT-Four. The 2.0 GT-i 16 cabriolet was offered only in certain European countries. Only the 2.0 GT-i 16 liftback and GT-Four were officially sold in the UK. New for 1992, the wide body liftback 2.0 GT-i 16 was offered in the Netherlands and Belgium. This was basically a GT-S with 3S-GE engine.  Model grades for Australian Celica were SX coupe,

Sixth generation (T200; 1993–1999).

In October 1993, Toyota launched the sixth-generation Celica for the 1994 model year. The styling of the new Celicas was acclaimed by most publications as "Supra-esque" with four round headlights and also had a visual resemblance to the Soarer introduced in 1991. Celicas were available in either notchback coupe or liftback form, the convertible would come later. New safety equipment in the form of driver (and then later passenger) airbags were standard in most markets, and anti-lock brakes were available on all models. Many Celicas also sported CFC-free air conditioning.  For the US market, the Celica was only available in ST and GT trims for the 1994 model year, but the addition of the optional "Sports Package" to the GT Liftback produced GT-S-like handling. All models came with standard dual SRS Airbags. The ST had a new 1.8-liter 7A-FE engine which could also be found in the Corolla, while the GT was powered by the carried-over 2.2-liter 5S-FE engine which featured dual overhead camshafts and fuel injection, could also be found in the Camry. The turbocharged All-Trac was no longer offered in the US. The 7A-FE is rated at and, while the 5S-FE is rated at and. In Canada, the Celica GT liftback with "Sports Package" are badged GT-S.  Initially the Japanese market models were SS-I and SS-II. The ST205 GT-Four was launched in February 1994 and the Convertible in the Autumn of the same year. The width of this generation was no longer in compliance with Japanese Government regulations concerning exterior dimensions, which added an additional tax liability on Japanese buyers. This generation also saw a badge engineered version without the headlight treatment, called the Toyota Curren, and was sold only in Japan at "Toyota Vista Store" locations, allowing the Celica to be sold at different retail sales channels. The Celica was exclusive to "Toyota Corolla Store" locations. Production of the GT-Four (or previously known as All-Trac in the US), continued for the Japanese, Australian, European, and British markets. This ST205 version was to be the most powerful Celica produced to date, producing (export version) or (Japanese market) from an updated 3S-GTE engine. Influenced strongly by Toyota Team Europe, Toyota's factory team in the World Rally Championship, the final version of the GT-Four included improvements such as an all-aluminum hood to save weight, four-channel ABS (with G-force sensor), an improved turbocharger (incorrectly known by enthusiasts as the CT20B), and Super Strut Suspension. The 2500 homologation cars built to allow Toyota to enter the GT-Four as a Group A car in the World Rally Championship also sported extras such as all of the plumbing required to activate an anti-lag system, a water spray bar for the Intercooler's front heat exchanger, a water injection system for detonation protection, a hood spoiler mounted in front of the windscreen to stop hood flex at high speed and the standard rear spoiler mounted on riser blocks. The car proved to be quite competitive in the 1995 World Championship. However, the team was banned from competition for a year after the

Seventh generation (T230; 1999–2006).

In July 1999, Toyota began production of the seventh-generation Celica, with European sales beginning late that year. It closely resembled the XYR concept with the exception of the front bumper and rear spoiler, while omitting the previously available coupe body style. The 2000 model year Celica was an element of Toyota Project Genesis, an effort to bring younger buyers to the marque in the United States. Toyota took time to lighten the car and lower cost wherever possible. Power window and door lock controls were placed in the center console so only 1 set was necessary for both doors. Initial sunroofs were made of polymer plastic instead of the traditional glass. This generation was assembled by Kanto Auto Works at its Higashi-Fuji plant in Susono, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. The Celica came in only one liftback body style with the choice of two different engines. The ZZT230 was powered by a relatively economical 1.8 L 4-cylinder 1ZZ-FE engine and the ZZT231 powered by a higher-performance 1.8 L 4-cylinder (in Europe and Japan) 2ZZ-GE version, co-developed with Yamaha, the latter featuring a two-step variable valve lift control in conjunction with its variable valve timing. In 2004, CNNMoney.com rated the Celica as one of the best cars to purchase for fuel economy.  Exporting of the Celica ceased in July 2005. However, until mid-May, customers could still order one, although it was advised they took action before that time ended.  The last Celica was rolled off production line on 21 April 2006, after 36 years and seven generations. In its last year, the Celica was only officially sold in Japan. There has been no direct successor to the Celica, however, the Scion tC (exclusive to North America) is seen by some people as the spiritual successor to the Celica.

North America.

In the US and Canada, two models were offered; the base model GT and the higher performance GT-S. All models are in liftback only body shape. All models featured dual front airbags, daytime running lights (DRL) with auto-on parking and headlights, and 4 cup holders: two in the front and two in the rear. Power door lock and power window switches were mounted on the center console to reduce costs. Rear seats were contoured for only 2 passengers and can split down 50/50 to increase cargo capacity. Two-speed front wipers had variable intermittent adjustment. The rear wiper had a single speed and fixed intermittent speed. Windshield and rear window washers were also standard. In the interest of light weight, optional sunroof was made of polymer plastics instead of glass. In later models, the

Japan.

The Japanese models continued to carry SS-I and SS-II trim levels. The SS-I is powered by 1ZZ-FE engine, SS-II is motored by 2ZZ-GE engine. The SS-II also can be ordered with Super Strut Package with super strut suspension, rear strut bar, 16-inch alloys, metal pedals, and colored rocker panels. The SS-II has climate control AC with digital display. Options included the choice of the Elegant Sports Version with front lip

Europe.

All the European models have the 6-speed manual transmission and all around disc brakes, and was just marketed as 1.8 VVT-i and 1.8 VVTL-i 190 or T-Sport, which are the GT and GT-S, respectively. Premium and Style Packages were offered for the 1.8 VVT-i

Asia Pacific.

In Australia and New Zealand, the Celica was only offered with 2ZZ-GE engine in two trim levels, SX and ZR. The SX was fitted with 15-inch alloy wheels, CD player, electric windows and mirrors. The ZR has standard ABS, moonroof, SRS side and front airbags, fog lights, 16-inch alloy wheels, 6 stack in dash CD player with cassette, and aluminum pedals. All models have front and rear disc brakes. Optional extras was the 4-speed tiptronic (Automatic), air conditioning, and metallic paint. TRD Sportivo body kits (which is the same

Motorsports.

Rallying.

In motorsports, the Celica is known for its rallying prowess. The first World Rally Championship (WRC) event for the Celica was 1972 RAC Rally when Ove Andersson drove the 1600 GTV (TA22) into the ninth place. The first victory came in the 1982 Rally of New Zealand with Björn Waldegård in a 2000GT (RA63). From 1983 to 1986, the Group B Celica Twincam Turbo (TA64) won all six WRC events in Africa they entered.  Celica GT-Four competed in Group A Rally racing from the 1988 to 1997. Celica GT-Four have won two manufacturer's titles and four driver's titles. Carlos Sainz was the most successful driver, winning WRC titles with the ST165 in 1990 and the ST185 in 1992. The ST185 also won 1993 and 1994

Circuit racing.

The first-generation liftback (known as "Celica LB Turbo") was used to compete in the DRM between 1977 and 1978, the car was capable of producing. The car was entered by Schnitzer via Toyota Deutschland and was driven by Harald Ertl and Rolf Stommelen for the following season. The car had a limited success scoring only 4th and 8th and was plagued with various problems throughout the two seasons before it was sold to TOM'S in Japan which under company founder, Nobuhide Tachi, it had a successful career. Tachi also had a successful career with the second-generation version. Despite its limited success in the series, the DRM liftback was immortalised by Tamiya as a 1/12 radio controlled car and a 1/24 static model. An almost identical Celica GT Coupe Turbo was built in Denmark in 1978–1979 and raced by Peter Hansen in the Danish championship. He came second in 1979 before winning the Danish Championship in 1980. The car had the same 2,148 cc engine block (18R) and the same Mahle forged pistons as the German DRM car but with an 8-valve cylinder head, producing. The Danish-built engine with K-jetronic fuel injection proved more reliable than the mechanically fuel injected Schnitzer built engine. Both engines

The or is an automobile produced by Toyota from 1970 to 2006. The Celica name derives from the Latin word "coelica" meaning "heavenly" or "celestial". In Japan, the Celica was exclusive to the "Toyota Corolla Store" dealer chain.

丰田Celica()是日本丰田汽车公司自1970年迄2006年生产制造、贩售的轿跑车。Celica为西班牙语,意思是「天堂的、天空的、神的」。


Effects.

Etiolation increases the likelihood that a plant will reach a light source, often from under the soil, leaf litter, or shade from competing plants. The growing tips are strongly attracted to light and will elongate towards it. The pale color results from a lack of chlorophyll.  Some of the changes that occur include De-etiolation is the transition of seedlings from below-ground growth to above-ground growth form.

Causes.

Elongation is controlled by the plant hormones called auxins, which are produced by the growing tip to maintain apical dominance. Auxin diffuses, and is transported, downwards from the tip, with effects including suppressing growth of lateral buds. Auxins are active in light; when they are active they stimulate proton pumps in the cell wall which increases the acidity of the cell wall and activates expansin (an enzyme that breaks bonds in the cell wall structure) that weaken the cell wall and allow the cell to expand.  Chloroplasts that have not been exposed to light are called etioplasts (see also plastids).

De-etiolation.

De-etiolation, is a series of physiological and biochemical changes a plant shoot undergoes when emerging from the ground or in response to light after a period of insufficient light exposure. This process is known informally as greening. These changes that are triggered in the plants shoots or already formed leaves and stems occur in preparation for photosynthesis.  Some of the changes that occur include  This process is regulated by the exposure of various photoreceptor pigments to light. Phytochrome A and phytochrome B both respond to an increasing proportion of red light to far-red light which occurs when the shoot comes out into the open. Cryptochrome 1 responds to increasing amounts of blue light when the shoot reaches the surface.

Etiolation is a process in flowering plants grown in partial or complete absence of light. It is characterized by long, weak stems; smaller leaves due to longer internodes; and a pale yellow color (chlorosis). The development of seedlings in the dark is known as "skotomorphogenesis" and leads to etiolated seedlings.

奥卡鲁沙县(英语:Okaloosa County)是美国佛罗里达州西部的一个县,北临亚拉巴马州,南临墨西哥湾。面积2,802平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口170,498。县治克里斯由(Crestview),最大城市为华尔顿堡滩(Fort Walton Beach)。


Prelude.

Cleomenes III ascended the throne of Sparta in 236 BC or 235 BC, after deposing his father, Leonidas II. His accession to power ended a decade-long period of heightened conflict between the two royal families. Sparta's ancient dual kingship was explained by the founding legend that the original conquerors of Sparta were twin brothers and their descendants shared Sparta. During the turmoil, Leonidas II had executed his rival king, the reformist Agis IV.  In 229 BC, Cleomenes took the important cities Tegea, Mantineia, Caphyae, and Orchomenus in Arcadia, who had by then allied themselves with the Aetolian League, a powerful Greek confederation of city states in central Greece. Historians Polybius and Sir William Smith claim that Cleomenes seized the cities by treachery; however, Richard Talbert, who translated Plutarch's account of Sparta, and historian N. G. L. Hammond say Cleomenes occupied them at their own request. Later that year, the ephors sent Cleomenes to seize the Athenaeum, near Belbina. Belbina was one of the entrance points into Laconia and was disputed at the time between Sparta and Megalopolis. Meanwhile, the Achaean League summoned a meeting of her assembly and declared war against Sparta. Cleomenes in return fortified his position.  Aratus of Sicyon, the strategos of the Achaean League, tried to re-take Tegea and Orchomenus in a night attack. Efforts from inside the city failed, though, and Aratus quietly retreated, hoping to remain unnoticed. Cleomenes nonetheless discovered the plan and sent a message to Aratus asking about the goal of his expedition. Aratus replied that he had come to stop Cleomenes from fortifying Belbina. Cleomenes responded to this by saying: "If it's all the same to you, write and tell me why you brought along those torches and ladders."

Early years and Spartan success.

After fortifying Belbina, Cleomenes advanced into Arcadia with 3,000 infantry and a few cavalry. However, he was called back by the ephors, and this retreat allowed Aratus to seize Caphyae as soon as Cleomenes returned to Laconia. Once this news reached Sparta, the ephors sent Cleomenes out again; he managed to capture the Megalopian city Methydrium before ravaging the territory surrounding Argos.  Around this time, the Achaean League sent an army under a new strategos—Aristomachos of Argos, who had been elected in May 228 BC—to meet Cleomenes in battle. The Achaean army of 20,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry advanced on the 5,000-strong Spartan army at Pallantium. Aratus, who had accompanied Aristomachos, advised him to retreat because even 20,000 Achaeans were no match for 5,000 Spartans. Aristomachos, listening to Aratus' advice, retreated with the Achaean army.  Meanwhile, Ptolemy III of Egypt, who had been an ally of the Achaean League in their wars against Macedon, shifted his financial support to Sparta. Ptolemy made this decision after calculating that a resurgent Sparta would be a more valuable ally against Macedon than a failing Achaean League.  In May 227 BC, Aratus was once again elected strategos and attacked Elis. The Elians appealed to Sparta for aid; as the Achaeans were returning from Elis, Cleomenes attacked and routed their entire army near Mount Lycaeum. Taking advantage of a rumour that he had been killed during the fighting, Aratus attacked and seized Mantinea.  Meanwhile, the Eurypontid King of Sparta Eudamidas III, son of Agis IV, died. Pausanias, the Greek writer, claims that Cleomenes had him poisoned. In order to strengthen his position against the ephors, who were opposed to his expansionist policy, Cleomenes recalled his uncle Archidamus V from his exile in Messene to ascend the Eurypontid throne, but as soon as Archidamus returned to the city, he was assassinated. Cleomenes' involvement in the plot is unclear, since ancient sources contradict each other: Polybius claims that Cleomenes ordered the murder, but Plutarch disagrees.

Battle of Ladoceia and reforms.

Later in 227 BC, Cleomenes bribed the ephors to allow him to continue his campaign against the Achaeans. Having succeeded with his bribe, Cleomenes advanced into the territory of Megalopolis and captured the village of Leuctra. In response, an Achaean army arrived, relieved the city, and inflicted a minor defeat on the Spartan army based nearest the city walls. Cleomenes was therefore obliged to retreat with his troops across a series of ravines. Aratus ordered the Achaeans not to pursue the Spartans across the ravine, but Lydiadas of Megalopolis disobeyed the order and charged with the cavalry in pursuit of the Spartans. Taking advantage of the difficult terrain and the scattered cavalry, Cleomenes sent his Cretan and Tarentine soldiers against Lydiadas. They routed the cavalry, and Lydiadas was amongst the dead. The Spartans, encouraged by these events, charged against the main Achaean forces and defeated the entire army. The Achaeans were so outraged and demoralized by Aratus' failure to support Lydiadas that they made no further attacks in that year.  Cleomenes, now confident of the strength of his position, began plotting against the ephors. He first recruited his stepfather, persuading him of the need to do away with the ephors. Cleomenes contended they could then make the ephors' property common to all citizens and work toward the achievement of Spartan supremacy in Greece. Having won over his stepfather, Cleomenes started preparing his revolution. Employing the men he considered most likely to oppose him (probably in an attempt to get them killed), he captured Heraea and Asea. He also brought in food for the citizens of Orchomenus—which the Achaeans were besieging—before camping outside Mantinea. This campaign exhausted his opponents, who asked to remain in Arcadia so they could rest. Cleomenes then advanced upon Sparta with his mercenaries and sent some loyal followers to slay the ephors. Four of the five ephors were killed; the sole survivor was Agylaeus, who managed to escape and sought sanctuary in a temple.  With the ephors vanquished, Cleomenes initiated his reforms. First, he handed over his land to the state; he was soon followed by his stepfather and his friends, and then by the rest of the citizens. He divided up all of the Spartan land, awarding an equal lot to each citizen. He increased the citizen population by granting citizenship to some perioeci, who constituted the Spartan middle class, but did not at that time have Spartan citizenship. Expanding the citizen population meant that Cleomenes could build a larger army; he trained 4,000 hoplites and restored the old Spartan social and military discipline. He also strengthened his army by introducing the Macedonian sarissa (pike). Cleomenes completed his reforms by placing his brother, Eucleidas, in charge, making him the first Agiad king on the Eurypontid throne.

Domination of the Peloponnese.

Ptolemy III of Egypt offered continued assistance to Cleomenes on the condition that the Spartan king would offer his mother and children as hostages. Cleomenes hesitated but his mother, after learning of Ptolemy's offer, went voluntarily to Egypt.  In 226 BC, the citizens of Mantinea appealed to Cleomenes to expel the Achaeans from the city. One night, he and his troops crept into the citadel and removed the Achaean garrison before marching off to nearby Tegea. From Tegea, the Spartans advanced into Achaea, where Cleomenes hoped to force the League to face him in a pitched battle. Cleomenes advanced with his army to Dyme, where he was met by the entire Achaean army. In the Battle of Dyme, the Spartans routed the Achaean phalanx, killing many of the Achaeans and capturing others. Following this victory, Cleomenes captured the city of Lasium and presented it to the Elians.  The Achaeans were demoralized by this battle; Aratus declined the generalship, and when both Athens and the Aetolian League turned down their appeals, they sued Cleomenes for peace. Initially, Cleomenes advanced only minor requests, but as the talks continued, his demands became greater and he eventually insisted that leadership of the League be surrendered to him. In exchange, he would return to the Achaeans the prisoners and strongholds he had seized. The Achaeans invited Cleomenes to Lerna, where they were holding council. While marching there, Cleomenes drank too much water, which caused him to lose his voice and cough up blood—a situation that forced him to return to Sparta.  Aratus took advantage of this incident, and began plotting against Cleomenes with King Antigonus III Doson of Macedon. Previously, in 227 BC, two ambassadors from Megalopolis had been sent to Macedon to request help. Antigonus showed little interest at the time, and these efforts failed. Aratus wanted the Macedonian king to come to the Peloponnese and defeat Cleomenes, but Antigonus asked for control of Acrocorinth in return. This was a sacrifice that the League was not willing to make, however, and they declined to seek help from Macedon.  When the Achaeans arrived at Argos for an assembly, Cleomenes came down from Tegea to meet them. However, Aratus—who had reached an agreement with Antigonus—demanded that Cleomenes present 300 hostages to the Achaeans and enter the city alone, or approach the city with all his forces. When this message reached Cleomenes, he declared that he had been wronged and once again declared war on the Achaeans.  Achaea was now in turmoil, and some cities were close to revolt; many residents were angered at Aratus' decision to invite the Macedonians into the Peloponnese. Some also hoped that Cleomenes would introduce constitutional changes in their cities. Encouraged by this development, Cleomenes invaded Achaea and seized the cities of Pellene, Pheneus, and Penteleium, effectively splitting the Achaean League in half. The Achaeans, concerned about developing treachery in Corinth and Sicyon, dispatched their mercenaries to garrison the cities and then went to Argos to celebrate the Nemean Games.  Cleomenes estimated that Argos would be easier to capture while filled with festival-goers and spectators to cause panic. During the night, he seized the rugged area above the city's theatre. The people of the city were too terrified to offer resistance. They accepted a garrison, delivered twenty hostages to Cleomenes and became Spartan allies. The capture of Argos gave Cleomenes' reputation a massive boost, since no Spartan king had ever managed to seize Argos. Even Pyrrhus of Epirus, one of the most famous generals of the age, had been killed while trying to take the city.  Soon after the seizure of Argos, Cleonae and Phlius surrendered themselves to Cleomenes. Meanwhile, Aratus was in Corinth investigating those suspected of supporting Sparta. When he heard what had happened at Argos, Aratus expected the city to fall to Sparta. He summoned an assembly and, with all the citizens present, he took his horse and fled to Sicyon. The Corinthians did surrender the city to Cleomenes, but the Spartan king criticized them for failing to arrest Aratus. Cleomenes sent his stepfather Megistonous to Aratus, asking for the surrender of Acrocorinth—the citadel of Corinth, which had an Achaean garrison—in return for a large amount of money.  In quick succession, Hermione, Troezen, and Epidaurus surrendered to Cleomenes, who went from Argos to Corinth and started besieging the citadel. He sent a messenger to Aratus proposing that Acrocorinth should be garrisoned jointly by both the Spartans and the Achaeans, and that he would deliver a twelve talent pension. Aratus faced the hard decision of whether to give the city to Antigonus or to let it fall to Cleomenes. He chose to conclude an alliance with Antigonus and sent his son as a hostage to Macedon. Cleomenes invaded the territory of Sicyon and blockaded Aratus inside the city for three months before Aratus was able to escape to attend the Achaean council at Aegium.

Macedonian intervention.

Antigonus, who had brought with him a large force of 20,000 infantry and 1,300 cavalry, was marching through Euboea towards the Peloponnese. The hostile Aetolian League occupying parts of Thessaly had threatened to oppose him if he went further south than Thermopylae, despite their neutrality at that point in the war. Aratus met Antigonus at Pagae, where he was pressured by Antigonus into giving Megara to Boeotia. When Cleomenes heard of the Macedonian advance through Euboea, he abandoned his siege of Sicyon and constructed a trench and palisade running from Acrocorinth to the Isthmus. He chose this location to avoid facing the Macedonian phalanx head-on.  Despite numerous attempts to break through the defensive line and reach Lechaeum, Antigonus' force failed and suffered considerable losses. These defeats took such a toll on Antigonus that he considered abandoning his attack on the palisade and moving his army to Sicyon. However, Aratus was visited one evening by some friends from Argos who invited Antigonus to come to their city. The Argives were ready to revolt under the command of Aristoteles, as they were irritated that Cleomenes had not made any reforms in the city. Antigonus sent 1,500 men under the command of Aratus to sail to Epidaurus and, from there, march to Argos. At the same time the Achaean strategos for the year, Timoxenos, advanced with more men from Sicyon. When the Achaean reinforcements arrived, the entire city except for the citadel was in the hands of the Argives.  When Cleomenes heard about the revolt at Argos, he sent his stepfather with 2,000 men to try and save the situation. Megistonous was killed while assaulting the city, however, and the relief force retreated, leaving the Spartans in the citadel to continue resistance. Cleomenes abandoned his much stronger position at the Isthmus for fear of being encircled and left Corinth to fall into the hands of Antigonus. Cleomenes advanced his troops upon Argos and forced his way into the city, rescuing the men stuck in the citadel. He retreated to Mantinea when he saw Antigonus' army on the plain outside the city.  After retreating into Arcadia and receiving news of his wife's death, Cleomenes returned to Sparta. This left Antigonus free to advance through Arcadia and on the towns that Cleomenes had fortified, including Athenaeum—which he gave to Megalopolis. He continued to Aegium, where the Achaeans were holding their council. He gave a report on his operations and was made chief-in-command of all the allied forces.  Antigonus took the opportunity to revive the Hellenic League of Philip II of Macedon, under the name League of Leagues. Most of the Greek city states took part in the league. These included Macedon, Achaea, Boeotia, Thessaly, Phocis, Locris, Acarnania, Euboea, and Epiros. Peter Green claims that for Antigonus, the League was just a way to further Macedon's power.  In the early spring of 223 BC, Antigonus advanced upon Tegea. He was joined there by the Achaeans and together they laid siege to it. The Tegeans held out for a few days before being forced to surrender by the Macedonians' siege weapons. After the capture of Tegea, Antigonus advanced to Laconia, where he found Cleomenes' army waiting for him. When his scouts brought news that the garrison of Orchomenus was marching to meet Cleomenes, however, Antigonus broke camp and ordered a forced march; this caught the city by surprise and forced it to surrender. Antigonus proceeded to capture Mantinea, Heraea, and Telphusa, which confined Cleomenes to Laconia. Antigonus then returned to Aegium, where he gave another report about his operations before dismissing the Macedonian troops to winter at home.  Knowing that Cleomenes got the money to pay for his mercenaries from Ptolemy, Antigonus, according to Peter Green, seems to have ceded some territory in Asia Minor to Ptolemy in return for Ptolemy withdrawing his financial support of Sparta. Whether this assumption is accurate or not, Ptolemy certainly withdrew his support, which left Cleomenes without money to pay for his mercenaries. Desperate, Cleomenes freed all helots able to pay five Attic minae; in this way he accumulated 500 talents of silver. He also armed 2,000 of the ex-helots in Macedonian style to counter the White Shields, the Macedonian crack troops, before planning a major initiative.

Fall of Megalopolis.

Cleomenes noted that Antigonus had dismissed his Macedonian troops and only traveled with his mercenaries. At the time Antigonus was in Aegium, a three-day march from Megalopolis. Most of the Achaeans of military age had been killed at Mount Lycaeum and Ladoceia. Cleomenes ordered his army to take five days' worth of rations and sent his troops toward Sellasia, to give the appearance of raiding the territory of Argos. From there he went to the territory of Megalopolis; during the night he ordered one of his friends, Panteus, to capture the weakest section of the walls, while Cleomenes and the rest of the army followed. Panteus managed to capture that section of the wall after killing the sentries. This allowed Cleomenes and the rest of the Spartan army to enter the city.  When dawn came, the Megalopolitans realised that the Spartans had entered the city; some of them fled, while others stood and fought against the invaders. Cleomenes' superior numbers forced the defenders to retreat, but their rearguard action allowed most of the population to escape—only 1,000 were captured. Cleomenes sent a message to Messene, where the exiles had gathered, offering to give back their city if they became his allies. The Megalopolitans refused; in retaliation the Spartans ransacked the city and burnt it to the ground. Nicholas Hammond estimated that Cleomenes managed to accumulate around 300 talents of loot from the city.

Battle of Sellasia.

The destruction of Megalopolis shook the Achaean League. Cleomenes set off with his army to raid the territory of Argos, knowing that Antigonus would not resist him due to a lack of men. Cleomenes also hoped that his raid would cause the Argives to lose confidence in Antigonus because of his failure to protect their territory. Walbank describes this raid as being "an impressive demonstration, but it had no effect other than to make it even more clear that Cleomenes had to be defeated in a pitched battle."  In the summer of 222 BC, Antigonus summoned his troops from Macedon, who arrived together with other allied forces. According to Polybius, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 Macedonian infantry, most of them armed as phalangites, 3,000 peltasts, 1,200 cavalry, 3,000 mercenaries, 8,600 Greek allies, and 3,000 Achaean infantry, making a total of 29,200 men.  Cleomenes had fortified all the passes into Laconia with barricades and trenches before setting off with his army of 20,000 men to the pass at Sellasia, on the northern border of Laconia. Overlooking the pass at Sellasia were two hills, Evas and Olympus. Cleomenes positioned his brother, Eucleidas, with the allied troops and the Perioeci on Evas; he stationed himself on Olympus with 6,000 Spartan hoplites and 5,000 mercenaries.  When Antigonus reached Sellasia with his army, he found it well guarded and decided against storming the strong position. Instead he pitched camp near Sellasia and waited for several days. During this time, he sent scouts to reconnoiter the areas and feign attacks on Cleomenes' position.  Unable to force a move from Cleomenes, Antigonus decided to risk a pitched battle. He positioned some of his Macedonian infantry and Illyrians facing the Evas hill in an articulated phalanx. The Epirots, the Acarnanians and 2,000 Achaean infantry stood behind them as reinforcements. The cavalry took a position opposite Cleomenes' cavalry, with 1,000 Achaean and Megalopolitan infantry in reserve. Together with the rest of his Macedonian infantry and mercenaries Antigonus took his position opposite that of Cleomenes.  The battle started when the Illyrian troops on the Macedonian right wing attacked the Spartan force on Evas. The Spartan light infantry and cavalry, noticing that the Achaean infantry was not protected at the rear, launched an assault on the back of the Macedonian right wing, and threatened to rout it. However, at the critical moment, Philopoemon of Megalopolis (who later became one of the greatest heroes of the Achaean League, eventually conquering Sparta), tried to point out the danger to the senior cavalry commanders. When they did not take notice of him, Philopoemon gathered a few other cavalrymen and charged the Spartan cavalry. The Spartans attacking from the rear broke off their engagement with the enemy, which encouraged the Macedonians to charge at the Spartan positions. The Spartans' left flank was eventually forced back and thrown from their position and their commander, Eucleidas, killed; they fled the field.  Meanwhile, the Macedonian phalanx on the left flank engaged the Spartan phalanx and mercenaries. During the initial assault, the Macedonian phalanx gave a considerable amount of ground before its weight drove back the Spartan phalanx. The Spartans, overwhelmed by the deeper ranks of Macedonian phalanx, were routed, but Cleomenes managed to escape with a small group of men. The battle was very costly for the Spartans; only 200 of the 6,000 Spartans that fought survived the battle.

Aftermath.

Following his defeat at Sellasia, Cleomenes briefly returned to Sparta and urged the citizens to accept Antigonus' terms. Under cover of darkness, he fled from Sparta with some friends and went to the city's port of Gythium, where he boarded a ship heading to Egypt.  Antigonus entered Sparta triumphantly, its first foreign conqueror. Nevertheless, he treated the population generously and humanely. He ordered that the reforms of Cleomenes be revoked, and restored the ephors, although he did not force Sparta to join the League. However, Antigonus' failure to restore the Spartan kings suggests to historian Graham Shipley that this restoration of laws was a sham. Within three days, he left Sparta and returned to Macedon to deal with a Dardani invasion, leaving a garrison in Acrocorinth and Orchomenos. With Cleomenes' defeat, Sparta's power collapsed and it fell into the hands of successive tyrants.  On his arrival at Alexandria, Cleomenes was greeted by Ptolemy, who welcomed him with smiles and promises. At first Ptolemy was guarded towards Cleomenes, but soon came to respect him and promised to send him back to Greece with an army and a fleet. He also promised to provide Cleomenes with an annual income of twenty-four talents. However, before he could fulfill his promise, Ptolemy died—and with him any hope for Cleomenes to return to Greece, as the weak Ptolemy IV ascended the throne.  Ptolemy IV began treating Cleomenes with neglect and soon his chief minister, Sosibius, had Cleomenes put under house arrest after he was falsely accused of plotting against the king. In 219 BC, Cleomenes and his friends escaped from house arrest and ran through the streets of Alexandria, trying to encourage an uprising against Ptolemy. When this failed, Cleomenes and all of his friends committed suicide.

The Cleomenean War (229/228–222 BC) was fought by Sparta and its ally, Elis, against the Achaean League and Macedon. The war ended in a Macedonian and Achaean victory.

克里昂米尼战争(公元前229/228 – 222年),是斯巴达及其盟国埃利斯对抗亚该亚同盟、马其顿王国之间的战争。这场战争最终以马其顿王国和亚该亚同盟的胜利告终。