Calculating the probability.

The problem is to compute an approximate probability that in a group of people at least two have the same birthday. For simplicity, variations in the distribution, such as leap years, twins, seasonal, or weekday variations are disregarded, and it is assumed that all 365 possible birthdays are equally likely. (Real-life birthday distributions are not uniform, since not all dates are equally likely, but these irregularities have little effect on the analysis. Actually, a uniform distribution of birth dates is the worst case.)  The goal is to compute, the probability that at least two people in the room have the same birthday. However, it is simpler to calculate, the probability that no two people in the room have the same birthday. Then, because and are the only two possibilities and are also mutually exclusive,  In deference to widely published solutions concluding that 23 is the minimum number of people necessary to have a that is greater than 50%, the following calculation of will use 23 people as an example. If one numbers the 23 people from 1 to 23, the event that all 23 people have different birthdays is the same as the event that person 2 does not have the same birthday as person 1, and that person 3 does not have the same birthday as either person 1 or person 2, and so on, and finally that person 23 does not have the same birthday as any of persons 1 through 22. Let these events respectively be called "Event 2", "Event 3", and so on. One may also add an "Event 1", corresponding to the event of person 1 having a birthday, which occurs with probability 1. This conjunction of events may be computed using conditional probability: the probability of Event 2 is 364/365, as person 2 may have any birthday other than the birthday of person 1. Similarly, the probability of Event 3 given that Event 2 occurred is 363/365, as person 3 may have any of the birthdays not already taken by persons 1 and 2. This continues until finally the probability of Event 23 given that all preceding events occurred is 343/365. Finally, the principle of conditional probability implies that is equal to the product of these individual probabilities: The terms of equation () can be collected to arrive at: Evaluating equation () gives  Therefore, (50.7297%).  This process can be generalized to a group of people, where is the probability of at least two of the people sharing a birthday. It is easier to first calculate the probability that all birthdays are "different". According to the pigeonhole principle, is zero when. When :  where is the factorial operator, is the binomial coefficient and denotes permutation.  The equation expresses the fact that the first person has no one to share a birthday, the second person cannot have the same birthday as the first (), the third cannot have the same birthday as either of the first two (), and in general the th birthday cannot be the same as any of the preceding birthdays.  The event of at least two of the persons having the same birthday is complementary to all birthdays being different. Therefore, its probability is  The following table shows the probability for some other values of (for this table, the existence of leap years is ignored, and each birthday is assumed to be equally likely):  Leap years. If we substitute 366 for 365 in the formula for formula_3, a similar calculation shows that for leap years, the number of people required for the probability of a match to be more than 50% is also 23; the probability of a match in this case is 50.6%.

Approximations.

The Taylor series expansion of the exponential function (the constant )  provides a first-order approximation for for formula_5:  To apply this approximation to the first expression derived for, set. Thus,  Then, replace with non-negative integers for each term in the formula of until, for example, when,  The first expression derived for can be approximated as  Therefore,  An even coarser approximation is given by  which, as the graph illustrates, is still fairly accurate.  According to the approximation, the same approach can be applied to any number of "people" and "days". If rather than 365 days there are, if there are persons, and if, then using the same approach as above we achieve the result that if is the probability that at least two out of people share the same birthday from a set of available days, then:

A simple exponentiation.

The probability of any two people not having the same birthday is. In a room containing "n" people, there are pairs of people, i.e. events. The probability of no two people sharing the same birthday can be approximated by assuming that these events are independent and hence by multiplying their probability together. In short can be multiplied by itself times, which gives us  Since this is the probability of no one having the same birthday, then the probability of someone sharing a birthday is

Poisson approximation.

Applying the Poisson approximation for the binomial on the group of 23 people,  so  The result is over 50% as previous descriptions. This approximation is the same as the one above based on the Taylor expansion that uses formula_17.

Square approximation.

A good rule of thumb which can be used for mental calculation is the relation  which can also be written as  which works well for probabilities less than or equal to. In these equations, is the number of days in a year.  For instance, to estimate the number of people required for a chance of a shared birthday, we get  Which is not too far from the correct answer of 23.

Approximation of number of people.

This can also be approximated using the following formula for the "number" of people necessary to have at least a chance of matching: This is a result of the good approximation that an event with probability will have a chance of occurring at least once if it is repeated times.

Probability table.

The lighter fields in this table show the number of hashes needed to achieve the given probability of collision (column) given a hash space of a certain size in bits (row). Using the birthday analogy: the "hash space size" resembles the "available days", the "probability of collision" resembles the "probability of shared birthday", and the "required number of hashed elements" resembles the "required number of people in a group". One could also use this chart to determine the minimum hash size required (given upper bounds on the hashes and probability of error), or the probability of collision (for fixed number of hashes and probability of error).  For comparison, to is the uncorrectable bit error rate of a typical hard disk. In theory, 128-bit hash functions, such as MD5, should stay within that range until about documents, even if its possible outputs are many more.

An upper bound on the probability and a lower bound on the number of people.

The argument below is adapted from an argument of Paul Halmos.  As stated above, the probability that no two birthdays coincide is  As in earlier paragraphs, interest lies in the smallest such that ; or equivalently, the smallest such that.  Using the inequality in the above expression we replace with. This yields  Therefore, the expression above is not only an approximation, but also an upper bound of. The inequality  implies. Solving for gives  Now, is approximately 505.997, which is barely below 506, the value of attained when. Therefore, 23 people suffice. Incidentally, solving for "n" gives the approximate formula of Frank H. Mathis cited above.  This derivation only shows that "at most" 23 people are needed to ensure a birthday match with even chance; it leaves open the possibility that is 22 or less could also work.

Generalizations.

The generalized birthday problem.

Given a year with days, the generalized birthday problem asks for the minimal number such that, in a set of randomly chosen people, the probability of a birthday coincidence is at least 50%. In other words, is the minimal integer such that  The classical birthday problem thus corresponds to determining. The first 99 values of are given here :  A similar calculation shows that = 23 when is in the range 341–372.  A number of bounds and formulas for have been published. For any, the number satisfies  These bounds are optimal in the sense that the sequence gets arbitrarily close to while it has as its maximum, taken for.  The bounds are sufficiently tight to give the exact value of in 99% of all cases, for example. In general, it follows from these bounds that always equals either where denotes the ceiling function. The formula  holds for 73% of all integers. The formula  holds for almost all, i.e., for a set of integers with asymptotic density 1.  The formula  holds for all, but it is conjectured that there are infinitely many counterexamples to this formula.  The formula  holds for all, and it is conjectured that this formula holds for all.

More than 2 people.

It is possible to extend the problem to ask how many people in a group are necessary for there to be a greater than 50% probability that at least 3/4/5/etc. of the group share the same birthday.  The first few values are as follows: >50% probability of 3 people sharing a birthday - 88 people; >50% probability of 4 people sharing a birthday - 187 people. The full list can be found as sequence A014088 of the Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.

Cast as a collision problem.

The birthday problem can be generalized as follows:  The generic results can be derived using the same arguments given above.  Conversely, if denotes the number of random integers drawn from to obtain a probability that at least two numbers are the same, then  The birthday problem in this more generic sense applies to hash functions: the expected number of -bit hashes that can be generated before getting a collision is not, but rather only. This is exploited by birthday attacks on cryptographic hash functions and is the reason why a small number of collisions in a hash table are, for all practical purposes, inevitable.  The theory behind the birthday problem was used by Zoe Schnabel under the name of capture-recapture statistics to estimate the size of fish population in lakes.

Generalization to multiple types.

The basic problem considers all trials to be of one "type". The birthday problem has been generalized to consider an arbitrary number of types. In the simplest extension there are two types of people, say men and women, and the problem becomes characterizing the probability of a shared birthday between at least one man and one woman. (Shared birthdays between two men or two women do not count.) The probability of no shared birthdays here is  where and are Stirling numbers of the second kind. Consequently, the desired probability is.  This variation of the birthday problem is interesting because there is not a unique solution for the total number of people. For example, the usual 50% probability value is realized for both a 32-member group of 16 men and 16 women and a 49-member group of 43 women and 6 men.

Other birthday problems.

First match.

A related question is, as people enter a room one at a time, which one is most likely to be the first to have the same birthday as someone already in the room? That is, for what is maximum? The answer is 20—if there is a prize for first match, the best position in line is 20th.

Same birthday as you.

In the birthday problem, neither of the two people is chosen in advance. By contrast, the probability that someone in a room of other people has the same birthday as a "particular" person (for example, you) is given by  and for general by  In the standard case of, substituting gives about 6.1%, which is less than 1 chance in 16. For a greater than 50% chance that one person in a roomful of people has the same birthday as "you", would need to be at least 253. This number is significantly higher than : the reason is that it is likely that there are some birthday matches among the other people in the room.  It is not a coincidence that ; a similar approximate pattern can be found using a number of possibilities different from 365, or a target probability different from 50%.

Near matches.

Another generalization is to ask for the probability of finding at least one pair in a group of people with birthdays within calendar days of each other, if there are equally likely birthdays.  The number of people required so that the probability that some pair will have a birthday separated by days or fewer will be higher than 50% is given in the following table:  Thus in a group of just seven random people, it is more likely than not that two of them will have a birthday within a week of each other.

Collision counting.

The probability that the th integer randomly chosen from will repeat at least one previous choice equals above. The expected total number of times a selection will repeat a previous selection as such integers are chosen equals

Average number of people.

In an alternative formulation of the birthday problem, one asks the "average" number of people required to find a pair with the same birthday. If we consider the probability function Pr[ people have at least one shared birthday], this "average" is determining the mean of the distribution, as opposed to the customary formulation, which asks for the median. The problem is relevant to several hashing algorithms analyzed by Donald Knuth in his book "The Art of Computer Programming". It may be shown that if one samples uniformly, with replacement, from a population of size, the number of trials required for the first repeated sampling of "some" individual has expected value, where  The function  has been studied by Srinivasa Ramanujan and has asymptotic expansion:  With days in a year, the average number of people required to find a pair with the same birthday is, somewhat more than 23, the number required for a 50% chance. In the best case, two people will suffice; at worst, the maximum possible number of people is needed; but on average, only 25 people are required  An analysis using indicator random variables can provide a simpler but approximate analysis of this problem. For each pair (i, j) for k people in a room, we define the indicator random variable X, for formula_45, by  formula_46  formula_47  Let X be a random variable counting the pairs of individuals with the same birthday.  formula_48  formula_49  For, if, the expected number of with the same birthday is formula_50 Therefore we can expect at least one matching pair with at least 28 people.  An informal demonstration of the problem can be made from the list of Prime Ministers of Australia, of which there have been 29, in which Paul Keating, the 24th prime minister, and Edmund Barton, the first prime minister, share the same birthday, 18 January.  In the 2014 FIFA World Cup, each of the 32 squads had 23 players. An analysis of the official squad lists suggested that 16 squads had pairs of players sharing birthdays, and of these 5 squads had two pairs: Argentina, France, Iran, South Korea and Switzerland each had two pairs, and Australia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Cameroon, Colombia, Honduras, Netherlands, Nigeria, Russia, Spain and USA each with one pair.  Voracek, Tran and Formann showed that the majority of people markedly overestimate the number of people that is necessary to achieve a given probability of people having the same birthday, and markedly underestimate the probability of people having the same birthday when a specific sample size is given. Further results were that psychology students and women did better on the task than casino visitors/personnel or men, but were less confident about their estimates.

Reverse problem.

The reverse problem is to find, for a fixed probability, the greatest for which the probability is smaller than the given, or the smallest for which the probability is greater than the given.  Taking the above formula for, one has  The following table gives some sample calculations. Some values falling outside the bounds have been colored to show that the approximation is not always exact.

Partition problem.

A related problem is the partition problem, a variant of the knapsack problem from operations research. Some weights are put on a balance scale; each weight is an integer number of grams randomly chosen between one gram and one million grams (one tonne). The question is whether one can usually (that is, with probability close to 1) transfer the weights between the left and right arms to balance the scale. (In case the sum of all the weights is an odd number of grams, a discrepancy of one gram is allowed.) If there are only two or three weights, the answer is very clearly no; although there are some combinations which work, the majority of randomly selected combinations of three weights do not. If there are very many weights, the answer is clearly yes. The question is, how many are just sufficient? That is, what is the number of weights such that it is equally likely for it to be possible to balance them as it is to be impossible?  Often, people's intuition is that the answer is above. Most people's intuition is that it is in the thousands or tens of thousands, while others feel it should at least be in the hundreds. The correct answer is 23.  The reason is that the correct comparison is to the number of partitions of the weights into left and right. There are different partitions for weights, and the left sum minus the right sum can be thought of as a new random quantity for each partition. The distribution of the sum of weights is approximately Gaussian, with a peak at and width, so that when is approximately equal to the transition occurs. 2 is about 4 million, while the width of the distribution is only 5 million.

In fiction.

Arthur C. Clarke's novel "A Fall of Moondust", published in 1961, contains a section where the main characters, trapped underground for an indefinite amount of time, are celebrating a birthday and find themselves discussing the validity of the birthday problem. As stated by a physicist passenger: "If you have a group of more than twenty-four people, the odds are better than even that two of them have the same birthday." Eventually, out of 22 present, it is revealed that two characters share the same birthday, May 23.

In probability theory, the birthday problem or birthday paradox concerns the probability that, in a set of randomly chosen people, some pair of them will have the same birthday. By the pigeonhole principle, the probability reaches 100% when the number of people reaches 367 (since there are only 366 possible birthdays, including February 29). However, 99.9% probability is reached with just 70 people, and 50% probability with 23 people. These conclusions are based on the assumption that each day of the year (excluding February 29) is equally probable for a birthday.

生日问题是指,如果在一个房间要多少人,则两个人的生日相同的概率要大于50%? 答案是23人。 这就意味着在一个典型的标准小学班级(30人)中,存在两人生日相同的可能性更高。对于60或者更多的人,这种概率要大于99%。这个问题有时也被称做生日悖论,但从引起逻辑矛盾的角度来说生日悖论并不是一种悖论,它被称作悖论只是因为这个数学事实与一般直觉相抵触而已。大多数人会认为,23人中有2人生日相同的概率应该远远小于50%。计算与此相关的概率被称为生日问题,在这个问题之后的数学理论已被用于设计著名的密码攻击方法:生日攻击。


History.

The Barossa Valley derives its name from the Barossa Range, which was named by Colonel William Light in 1837. Light chose the name in memory of the British victory over the French in the "Battle of "Barrosa"", in which he fought in 1811. The name "Barossa" was registered in error, due to a clerical error in transcribing the name "Barrosa". The area is approximately.  The three major towns of the Barossa all have distinctive personalities. Tanunda is generally recognised as the most German of the three, with long-standing traditions dating back to the 1840s when the first German settlers arrived in the area. Since many of the German settlers came from Prussian Silesia, they called the Barossa "Neu-Schlesien", or "New Silesia". The German influence survives to this day ("see Barossa German"). Angaston, in contrast, is considered the English town as it was settled predominantly by Cornish miners and others from Britain. The third (and largest) town, Nuriootpa, was influenced by both the German and British settlers, and today is the commercial hub of the Barossa and it is where most of the larger stores are located.  In February 2011, South Australian Premier Mike Rann announced that special legislation would be introduced to protect the unique heritage of the Barossa Valley and McLaren Vale. Premier Rann said: "Barossa and McLaren Vale food and wine are key icons of South Australia. We must never allow the Barossa or McLaren Vale to become suburbs of Adelaide." "The Character Preservation (Barossa Valley) Act 2012" was subsequently passed by the South Australian Parliament.

People.

Currently, the Barossa Valley has a population of about 20,000. Most inhabitants live in Tanunda, Nuriootpa, Angaston, Williamstown and Lyndoch, each having over 1000 people. The remaining population lives in a few smaller towns, such as Moculta and Springton. All of these towns are part of the Barossa local government. Many facilities not available in these towns are usually supplemented in nearby Gawler. In recent years, increased development in the area has seen opposition from the local communities.

Religion.

The region has a strong German Lutheran history, and many residents identify themselves as Lutherans. Some towns have more than one Lutheran church. Tanunda, for example, has Langmeil, St. Paul's, Tabor and St. Johns. Nuriootpa has St. Petri and Holy Trinity. Angaston has Zion and Salem (Penrice).  Each major town also has a Lutheran primary school. Tanunda has Tanunda Lutheran School, Nuriootpa has Redeemer, and Angaston has Good Shepherd. St. Jakobi, the Lutheran primary school at Lyndoch, hosts the Barossa Airshow annually as its fundraiser.

Population.

Major Town Populations: As a rural region, there is also significant population outside of the town centres (not shown here).

Wine industry.

The wine industry plays a major role in the Barossa, being the main source of employment for many residents. The many hectares of vineyards are the most distinctive feature of the area, especially when viewed from the Mengler Hill lookout, which is positioned on the Barossa Range which forms much of the eastern side of the valley. The success of the wine industry has historically been celebrated every two years with a week-long Barossa Valley Vintage Festival. The festival draws visitors from all over the world and has entertainment for all tastes including a huge street parade, concerts and gourmet dining.  The Barossa Valley is primarily known for its red wine, in particular Shiraz. Normally, large proportions of Barossa Shiraz are used in Penfolds Grange, Australia's most famous wine. Other main grape varieties grown in the region include: Riesling; Semillon; Grenache and Cabernet Sauvignon. Fortified wines have been traditionally produced in the region as well.  The Barossa Valley is a rich source of some of the oldest Shiraz vines in the world. Shiraz vines planted as early as 1847 by Johann Frederick August Fiedler on Lot 1, Hundred of Moorooroo (the township of Tanunda) are still in commercial production today by Turkey Flat Vineyards.

Food production.

Although it is overshadowed by the wine industry, significant food production occurs in the Barossa Valley, including:  The Barossa Valley holds a weekly Farmers' Market, supplying local produce which is sold directly by the producer.

Festivals.

Barossa Vintage Festival.

The week-long Barossa Vintage Festival is held biennially, in odd-numbered years. The festival runs for around a week in autumn, and traditionally marks and celebrates the completion of the year's vintage season, at the end of March and beginning of April. A variety of wine-themed events are held during the festival, including wine tastings and competitions, musical events, food events with local produce, balls and parades.  The Barossa Vintage Festival was first held in 1947, to celebrate the end of the grape harvest, and the end of hostilities in World War II, and has run continually since. It is Australia's oldest and longest-running wine festival.

Barossa Gourmet Weekend.

The Barossa Gourmet Weekend is a three-day food, wine and art celebration held in the third weekend of August every year. Local wineries and venues host individual events throughout the Barossa, offering food, wine, music, arts and hospitality.

The Barossa Valley is a valley in South Australia located northeast of Adelaide city centre. The valley is formed by the North Para River. It is notable as a major wine-producing region and tourist destination.

巴罗莎山谷(英语:Barossa Valley)距南澳大利亚州首府阿德莱德东北60公里处,人口2万,是澳大利亚著名的葡萄酒产地和旅游胜地。


Description.

The Japanese spider crab has the greatest leg span of any arthropod, reaching up to from claw to claw. The body may grow to a size of in carapace width and the whole crab can weigh up to —second in mass only to the American lobster among all living arthropod species. The males have the longer chelipeds; females have much shorter chelipeds, which are shorter than the following pair of legs. Apart from its outstanding size, the Japanese spider crab differs from other crabs in a number of ways. The first pleopods of males are unusually twisted, and its larvae appear primitive. The crab is orange with white spots along the legs. It is reported to have a gentle disposition despite its ferocious appearance. The Japanese name for this species is "taka-ashi-gani", (japanese: "たかあしがに"), literally translating to “tall legs crab.” It also has a unique molting behavior that occurs for 103 minutes, in which the crab loses its mobility and starts molting its carapace rear and ends with molting its walking legs. Their armored exoskeletons help protect them from larger predators such as octopuses, but giant spider crabs also use camouflage. The crab's bumpy carapace blends into the rocky ocean floor. To further the illusion, a spider crab will adorn its shell with sponges and other animals. The way in which spider crabs are able to pick up and cover themselves with such organisms is by following a specific routine behavior. Upon picking up the object with the crab’s slender chelipeds, the chelae is used to twist and tear off the organism, such as a worm tube or sponge, from the substrate that it currently resides on. Unlike other species of crab, like the Chilean crab "Acanthonyx petiveri", the Japanese spider crab does not specifically look for matching colors to blend into their environment; they simply camouflage in way that disguises their entire structure. This is most likely because Japanese spider crabs are nocturnally active, so instead of trying to disguise themselves when catching prey, they are actually just trying to avoid predators during the night. Once the material is picked up, it is brought to the crabs’ mouthparts to specifically orient and shape it before it is attached to the exoskeleton. Then, through mechanical adhesion and secretions, the materials attach to the crab, and are able to regenerate, and colonize on the crab.

Distribution and habitat.

Japanese spider crabs are mostly found off the southern coasts of the Japanese island of Honshū, from Tokyo Bay to Kagoshima Prefecture. Outlying populations have been found in Iwate Prefecture and off Su-ao in Taiwan. Adults can be found at depths between. They like to inhabit vents and holes in the deeper parts of the ocean. The temperature preference of adults is unknown, but the species is regular at a depth of in Suruga Bay where the water generally is about. Based on results from public aquariums, Japanese spider crabs tolerate at least between, but are typically maintained at.

Life cycle.

Female crabs carry the fertilized eggs attached to their abdominal appendages until they hatch into tiny planktonic larvae. They can lay up to 1.5 million eggs per season, and these eggs will hatch in 10 days on average.  Once hatched, these larvae undergo four stages of development before they mature into adulthood. The first, or prezoeal stage lasts only a matter of minutes, with most molting within 15 minutes to enter the first zoeal stage. They look very different than their parents at this stage, with small and transparent bodies. Macrocheira Kaempferi undergoes two zoeal stages and a megalopa stage before it reaches adulthood. Each of these stages is influenced greatly by temperature, both in terms of survival and stage length. It is thought that the optimum rearing temperature for all larval stages is be between 15°C-18°C, with survival temperatures ranging from 11°C-20°C. At these temperatures the zoeal stages can last anywhere from 7 to 18 days, with the megalopa stage lasting anywhere from 25 to 45 days. Colder water is associated with longer durations in each stage. During the larval stages, Macrocheira kaempferi is found near the surface as it the planktonic forms drift with ocean currents. This surface water ranges between 12°C and 15°C during the hatching season (January to March). This is much warmer than the waters at depths below 200m where adults are found, with waters steadily around 10°C. Optimal temperatures see a 70% survival though the first zoeal stage which is greatly reduced to a 30% survival in the second zoeal and Megalopa stages.  The Japanese spider crab is an omnivore, consuming both plant matter and animals. It also sometimes acts as a scavenger consuming dead animals. Some have been known to scrape the ocean floor for plants and algae while others pry open the shells of mollusks. They live at depths of or more. The giant spider crabs migrate up to a depth of around during breeding season.

Taxonomic history.

The Japanese spider crab was originally described by Western science in 1836 by Coenraad Jacob Temminck under the name "Maja kaempferi", based on material from Philipp Franz von Siebold collected near the artificial island Dejima. The specific epithet commemorates Engelbert Kaempfer, a German naturalist who lived in Japan from 1690 to 1692 and wrote about the country's natural history. It was moved to the genus "Inachus" by Wilhem de Haan in 1839, but placed in a new subgenus, "Macrocheira". That subgenus was raised to the rank of genus in 1886 by Edward J. Miers. Placed in the family Inachidae, "M. kaempferi" does not fit cleanly into that group, and it may be necessary to erect a new family just for the genus "Macrocheira". As well as the single extant species, four species belonging to the genus "Macrocheira" are known from fossils:  However, there is still evidence that the "Macrocheira" genus does come from this family in some way due to its anatomical arrangements. This genus has a closely related anatomical arrangement as the genus "Oncinopus" which seems to preserve the earliest stage of anatomical evolution in the Inachidae family. The "Onicinopus" genus has a semi-hardened body which allows the basal segment of the antennae, which articulates with the head capsule, to move. The antennulae which are segmented appendages between and below the eye stalks are connected to each other. Like "Oncinopus", the "Macrocheira" genus also has a seven segmented abdomen and a basal segment of antennae that is mobile, "Macrocheira" also has orbital parts, the eye socket and features around it, that are similar to differentiated genera. Another differentiating feature is the supraorbital eave. It is part of the orbital region above the eyestalks. It projects laterally and becomes part of the spine. From the anatomical observations of this genus and others in the Inachidae family, it has been concluded that "Macrochiera" is in the family Inachidae, descending from the "Oncinpus" genus and from it descending the "Oreconia", "Parapleisticantha" and "Pleistincantha" genera.

Anatomy.

"Macrocheira kaempferi" is a giant crab with a pear-shaped carapace that is 350 mm when measured on the median line. Its surface is covered in small like projections or tubercles. The spine of an adult giant crab is short and curves outward at the tip. On the other hand, the spines in young giant crabs are long compared to their carapace, along with a non-curved spine. This proportionality explains, as in other Decapod Crustaceans, that spine size decreases as specimens grow older. As mentioned in the taxonomic section, this genus contains the family's primitive feature of a movable antenna at the basal segment. However, "the development of a spine at the posterior angle of the supraocular eave, and the presence of intercalated spine and antennulary septum seem to attribute a rather high position to this genus." Lastly, there are differences between the sexes. Adult males have very long front legs where the claws are located, but they are still shorter than the ambulatory legs of females, located in the back of the carapace and are used to move.

Fishery and conservation.

Temminck, in his original description, noted that the crab was known to the Japanese for the serious injuries it can cause with its strong claws. The Japanese spider crab is "occasionally collected for food," and even considered a delicacy in many parts of Japan and other areas in the region. A total of were collected in 1976, but only in 1985. The fishery is centred on Suruga Bay. The crabs are typically caught using small trawling nets. The population has decreased in number due to overfishing, forcing fishermen into exploring deeper waters to catch them. The average size caught by fishermen is a leg span of. Populations of this species of crab have diminished over recent years and there are many efforts to protect them. One of the primary methods of recovery of the species being utilized is restocking artificially cultured juvenile crabs in fisheries. Additionally, laws have been put into place in Japan which prohibit fishermen from harvesting spider crabs from January through April, which is during typical mating season when they are in shallower waters, and are more vulnerable to being caught. This is a protection method that seeks to keep natural populations growing, and enables time for juvenile spider crabs to go through the early stages of their life cycle.

The Japanese spider crab ("Macrocheira kaempferi") is a species of marine crab that lives in the waters around Japan. It has the largest leg span of any arthropod. These giants go through three main larval stages along with a prezoeal stage in order to grow to their great size.The genus Macrocheira contains multiple species. Two fossil species belonging to this genus have been found, "Macrocheira ginzanensis" and "Macrocheira yabei", both from the Miocene of Japan. The diverse taxonomic history is an important part of what these creatures are and how they evolved to be what they are today. These creatures are not isolated however, as they are the subject of fishery and are considered a delicacy. To prevent overfishing, conservation efforts are being put forth for to protect these creatures and their population from the dangers of overfishing.

甘氏巨螯蟹("Macrocheira kaempferi")是已知世界上现存体型最大的甲壳动物、十足目短尾下目蜘蛛蟹总科巨螯蟹属唯一的现存种。


打击清洗黑钱财务行动特别组织

History.

FATF was formed by the 1989 G7 Summit in Paris to combat the growing problem of money laundering. The task force was charged with studying money laundering trends, monitoring legislative, financial and law enforcement activities taken at the national and international level, reporting on compliance, and issuing recommendations and standards to combat money laundering. At the time of its formation, FATF had 16 members, which by 2016 had grown to 37.  In its first year, FATF issued a report containing forty recommendations to more effectively fight money laundering. These standards were revised in 2003 to reflect evolving patterns and techniques in money laundering.  The mandate of the organisation was expanded in 2001 to include terrorist financing following the September 11 terror attacks.

FATF Secretariat.

The FATF Secretariat is located at the OECD headquarters in Paris.  Since November 2015, the FATF Secretariat has been led by the Executive Secretary David Lewis.

FATF Recommendations.

Creation and ongoing maintenance.

Together, the Forty Recommendations on Money Laundering and eight (now nine) Special Recommendations on Terrorism Financing set the international standard for anti-money laundering measures and combating the financing of terrorism and terrorist acts. They set out the principles for action and allow countries a measure of flexibility in implementing these principles according to their particular circumstances and constitutional frameworks. Both sets of FATF Recommendations are intended to be implemented at the national level through legislation and other legally binding measures. There are multiple groups to organize the Recommendations; AML/CFT Policies and Coordination, Money Laundering and Confiscation, Terrorist Financing and Financial of Proliferation, Preventive Measures, Transparency and Beneficial Ownership of Legal Persons and Arrangements, Powers and Responsibilities of Competent Authorities and other Institutional Measures, and International Cooperation.  In February 2012, the FATF codified its recommendations and Interpretive Notes into one document that maintains SR VIII (renamed “Recommendation 8”), and also includes new rules on weapons of mass destruction, corruption and wire transfers (“Recommendation 16”).

Forty recommendations on money laundering.

The FATF's Forty Recommendations on money laundering of 1990 are the primary policies issued by FATF and the Nine Special Recommendations (SR) on Terrorism Financing (TF). The Recommendations are seen globally as the world standard in anti-money laundering as well many countries have made a commitment to put the Forty Recommendations in place. The Recommendations cover the criminal justice system and law enforcement, international co-operation, and the financial system and its regulation. The FATF completely revised the Forty Recommendations in 1996 and 2003. By 1996 the Recommendations had to be updated to include more than just drug-money laundering, as well as to keep up with changing techniques. The 2003 Forty Recommendations require states, among other things, to:

NINE Special Recommendations on Terrorism Financing.

The FATF has issued Special Recommendations on Terrorist Financing. In October 2001 the FATF issued the original eight Special Recommendations on Terrorism Financing, following the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States. Among the measures, "Special Recommendation VIII" (SR VIII) specifically targeted nonprofit organizations. This was followed by the International Best Practices Combating the Abuse of Non-Profit Organizations in 2002, released one month before the U.S. Department of Treasury's Anti-Terrorist Financing Guidelines, and the Interpretive Note for SR VIII in 2006. A ninth Special Recommendation was added later. In 2003 the Recommendations, as well as the 9 Special Recommendations were adjusted for the second time. The Recommendations, and Special Recommendations were advocated by over 180 countries.

Compliance mechanism.

In February 2004 (Updated as of February 2009) the FATF published a reference document Methodology for Assessing Compliance with the FATF 40 Recommendations and the FATF 9 Special Recommendations. The 2009 Handbook for Countries and Assessors outlines criteria for evaluating whether FATF standards are achieved in participating countries. FATF evaluates a country’s performance based on its assessment methodology that covers: 1. technical compliance, which is about legal and institutional framework and the powers and procedures of the competent authorities, and 2. effectiveness assessment, which is about the extent to which the legal and institutional framework is producing the expected results.  There are many differences between countries dealing with their legal and financial system, which is taking into consideration by the FATF. There is a set minimum of actions that meet a standard, that all countries can use regarding their own situation. This standard covers all actions that a nation should take within their regulatory systems and their criminal justice systems as well the preventive measures that should be taken by specified businesses, professions, and institutions.  For Non-Profit Organizations (NPOs) there has been a command for more financial transparency, to make sure that they do not become easier for terrorist organizations to launder money through the organizations. This hypothesis was thought of by intergovernmental organizations. These intergovernmental organizations include the World Bank, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Non-Profit Organizations are put under surveillance, especially when they are associated with "suspect communities" or if they are based or working in zones of conflict.

Black/greylisting of non-compliant nations.

In addition to FATF's "Forty plus Nine" Recommendations, in 2000 FATF issued a list of "Non-Cooperative Countries or Territories" (NCCTs), commonly called the FATF Blacklist. This was a list of 15 jurisdictions that, for one reason or another, FATF members believed were uncooperative with other jurisdictions in international efforts against money laundering (and, later, terrorism financing). Typically, this lack of cooperation manifested itself as an unwillingness or inability (frequently, a legal inability) to provide foreign law enforcement officials with information relating to bank account and brokerage records, and customer identification and beneficial owner information relating to such bank and brokerage accounts, shell company, and other financial vehicles commonly used in money laundering. As of October 2006, there are no Non-Cooperative Countries and Territories in the context of the NCCT initiative. However FATF issues updates as countries on High-risk and non-cooperative jurisdictions list have made significant improvements in standards and cooperation. The FATF also issues updates to identify additional jurisdictions that pose Money Laundering/Terrorist Financing risks.  The FATF surveyed 26 jurisdictions to check their ability and willingness to co-operate with other countries in the international fight against money laundering. The Review contained the summaries of these surveys. Fifteen jurisdictions were branded “non-cooperative countries or territories,” because of the high number of harmful practices identified in these jurisdictions.

Categories of members.

As of June 2019 there are 37 member countries of FATF. Starting with its own members, the FATF monitors countries' progress in implementing the FATF Recommendations; reviews money laundering and terrorist financing techniques and counter-measures; and, promotes the adoption and implementation of the FATF Recommendations globally. Countries are subjected to evaluation by FATF to see that they are upholding laws and regulations enforced by FATF.

Full members.

FATF had 39 full members, comprising 37 member jurisdictions and two regional organisations. The FATF also works in close co-operation with a number of international and regional bodies involved in combating money laundering and terrorism financing.

Associate members.

FATF had 8 associated FATF style regional members, that have similar objectives of setting up systems to fight terrorism and money corruption::

FATF regional member delegates.

Members of the FATF regional bodies that are not full FATF members are entitled to attend FATF meetings as individual member-delegates of the regional bodies and to intervene on policy and operational issues.

Observer members.

30 countries and international organisations are observer organisations. These include the International Monetary Fund, the UN with six expert groups and the World Bank.  Indonesia joined the group of observers that take part in upholding law against money laundering, terrorism and illegal funding. The international organisations recorded have, among other objectives, a specific anti-money laundering aim or function.

Evaluating members.

There are still compliance issues in areas that might afford exploitative opportunities for transnational crime and terrorist networks. This can have detrimental effects on a country's national security through increasing risks of money laundering and financing of terrorism as well as wastage due to the implementation of inappropriate regulatory measures. The objective is to increase mitigation strategies that would enable scarce resources in fighting money laundering and terrorism financing threats.  The FATF follows strict criteria to identify potential threats.

Effects of FATF.

The effect of the FATF Blacklist has been significant, and arguably has proven more important in international efforts against money laundering than has the FATF Recommendations. While, under international law, the FATF Blacklist carried with it no formal sanction, in reality, a jurisdiction placed on the FATF Blacklist often found itself under intense financial pressure.  The FATF began to become a big figure shortly after the 9/11 attacks to help combat the financing of terrorist organizations. FATF makes sure funds are not easily accessible by terror organizations that are causing these crimes against humanity. FATF has helped to fight against corruption by ‘grey-listing’ countries that do not meet Recommended Criteria and this helps to cripple economies and states that are aiding terrorist and corrupted organizations. FATF continues to work with other monetary agencies to control terrorist finance activity and to bring an end to illegal financial organizations, terrorism and corruption.  FATF has made it difficult for NGOs in countries to access funds to aid in relief situations due to strict FATF criteria. FATF criteria have mainly impacted NGOs that are located in Middle Eastern and terror-ridden countries. Some argue that the FATF Recommendations do not specifically set out restrictions for NGOs which often results in them going against FATF Recommendation.

FATF style regional bodies.

FATF also has associated FATF style regional bodies, including: GABAC (Central Africa)

The Financial Action Task Force (on Money Laundering) (FATF), also known by its French name, Groupe d'action financière (GAFI), is an intergovernmental organization founded in 1989 on the initiative of the G7 to develop policies to combat money laundering. In 2001, its mandate was expanded to include terrorism financing.

防制洗钱金融行动工作组织 (联合国安全理事会第1617(2005)号决议称之)(英文:Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering,缩写:FATF;法文:Groupe d'action financière,缩写:GAFI)于1989年7月由G7各国代表在法国召开时同意成立,总部位于法国巴黎,为世界上最重要的打击洗钱国际组织之一,旨在发展政策以打击洗钱及资助恐怖份子活动,并且协调各国的打击洗钱的单位。


History.

Campbell Island was discovered in 1810 by Captain Frederick Hasselborough of the sealing brig "Perseverance", which was owned by shipowner Robert Campbell's Sydney-based company Campbell & Co. (whence the island's name). Captain Hasselborough was drowned on 4 November 1810 in Perseverance Harbour on the south of the island, along with a young woman and a boy.  The island became a seal hunting base, and the seal population was almost totally eradicated. The first sealing boom was over by the mid-1810s. The second was a brief revival in the 1820s. The sealing era lasted from 1810 till 1912 during which time 49 vessels are recorded visiting for sealing purposes, one of which was lost off the coast.  The whaling boom extended here in the 1830s and '40s. In 1874, the island was visited by a French scientific expedition intending to view the transit of Venus. Much of the island's topography is named after aspects of, or people connected with, the expedition.  In 1883 the American schooner "Sarah W. Hunt", a whaler, was near Campbell Island. Twelve men in two small whaleboats headed for the island in terrible weather looking for seals. One of the boats disappeared, and the other boat with six men aboard managed to make it ashore. Sanford Miner, the captain of the "Sarah W. Hunt", assumed all the whalers were lost, and sailed away to Lyttelton, New Zealand. Fortunately for the stranded whalers, a seal protection boat, the "Kekeno", happened to arrive at the island, and rescued the castaways. The captain's behaviour caused an international scandal.  In the late 19th century, the island became a pastoral lease. Sheep farming was undertaken from 1896 until the lease, along with the sheep and a small herd of cattle, was abandoned in 1931 because of the Great Depression.  In 1907, a group of scientists spent eight days on the island group surveying. The 1907 Sub-Antarctic Islands Scientific Expedition conducted a magnetic survey and also took botanical, zoological and geological specimens.  During World War II, a coastwatching station was operative at Tucker Cove at the north shore of Perseverance Harbour as part of the Cape Expedition program.  Following the passage of the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998, the name of the island was officially altered to Campbell Island / Motu Ihupuku.  An amateur radio DXpedition organised by the Hellenic Amateur Radio Association of Australia visited Campbell Island during November–December 2012. The team consisted of ten amateur radio operators from around the world, a NZ Department of Conservation Officer and the ship's crew of six including the captain on the sailing vessel "Evohe". The ZL9HR DXpedition team made 42,922 on-air contacts during an eight-day operating period.

Weather station.

After World War II, the coast watching facilities were used as a meteorological station until the summer of 1958, when a new base was established at Beeman Cove, a few hundred metres further east. The new location provided improved exposure for the weather instruments, particularly wind recordings, and more modern accommodation for up to 12 full-time staff.  The new meteorological station (WMO ID 93944) station at Beeman Cove was operated by the New Zealand government with ten full-time staff. Each team undertook 12-month expeditions to the island to undertake three hourly weather reports and twice daily radiosonde flights using hydrogen filled balloons. Weather reports were radioed back to New Zealand using HF radio to ZLW Wellington Radio. In addition to its primary purpose as a meteorological station, staff at the station also made measurements of the earth's magnetic field, the ionosphere, and aurora australis, and undertook Albatross banding and whale counts of primarily Southern Right Whales for the New Zealand Wildlife Service.  In April 1992, staff of the weather station were snorkelling at Northwest Bay when one of them, Mike Fraser, was attacked by a great white shark some offshore from the beach at Middle Bay. Fraser managed to return to shore with the assistance of one of his team, Jacinda Amey, after suffering severe lacerations to both his arms. The team kept Fraser alive at the bay—some from the main base—while a rescue helicopter from Taupo was called and made an emergency flight to the island to repatriate him to Invercargill Hospital. This was the longest ever single-engine helicopter rescue in the world. Jacinda Amey was awarded the New Zealand Cross—the highest bravery medal for civilians—for assisting the injured team member from the water. The rescue helicopter pilot, John Funnell, was awarded the New Zealand Bravery Medal.  In 1995, station staff were permanently withdrawn when the manual weather observation programme was replaced by an automated weather station, and the upper air soundings ceased. Today periodic visits to the island are undertaken by the Royal New Zealand Navy to maintain the weather station and transport conservation staff undertaking field research. Other visitors to the island include occasional summer time eco-tourism cruises.  In May 2018, scientists in New Zealand documented what they believe is the largest wave ever recorded in the Southern Hemisphere to date. The wave was measured by a weather buoy near the island.

The legend of "The Lady of the Heather".

"The Lady of the Heather" is the title of a romantic novel by Will Lawson. The novel is a mixture of facts and fiction elaborating on the incidents surrounding Captain Hasselburg's death on Campbell Island. The story is about a daughter of Bonnie Prince Charlie, exiled to Campbell Island after she is suspected of treachery to the Jacobite cause. Her character was inspired by Elizabeth Farr. Farr was probably what would now be called a "ship girl", but the presence of a European woman at this remote place, and her death, gave rise to "The Lady of the Heather" story.  The accident happened when William Tucker was present on the "Aurora". Tucker was another unusual character in the sealing era who became the source of a legend and a novel. The remoteness and striking appearance of the sealing grounds, whether on mainland New Zealand or the subantarctic islands, and the sealing era's early place in Australasia's European history, supply the elements for romance and legend which are generally absent in the area's colonial history.

Climate.

Campbell Island has a maritime tundra climate (Köppen "ET"). The island receives only 647 hours of bright sunshine annually and it can expect less than an hour's sunshine on 215 days (59%) of the year. The peaks of the island are frequently obscured by clouds. It has an annual rainfall of, with rain, mainly light showers or drizzle (although it occasionally snows in the winter), falling on an average of 325 days a year. It is a windy place, with gusts of over occurring on at least 100 days each year. Variations in daily and annual temperatures are small with a mean annual temperature of, rarely rising above. The warmest temperature ever recorded was and the coldest was.

Flora and fauna.

Important Bird Area.

Campbell Island is the most important breeding area of the southern royal albatross. The island is part of the Campbell Island group Important Bird Area (IBA), identified as such by BirdLife International because of its significance as a breeding site for several species of seabirds as well as the endemic Campbell teal and Campbell snipe. Campbell Island also hosts numerous penguin species that breed on the island, including the yellow-eyed penguin, the rockhopper penguin, and the erect-crested penguin. Other albatross species breed on the island as well, such as the wandering albatross, the light-mantled sooty albatross, and both the Black-browed mollymawk and the grey-headed mollymawk. Other bird species that breed on the island include the sooty shearwater, the grey petrel, the white-chinned petrel, the endemic Campbell Island shag, the grey duck, the southern skua, the southern black-backed gull, the red-billed gull, the Antarctic tern, the song thrush, the Common blackbird, the Dunnock (Hedge sparrow), the New Zealand pipit, the white-eye, the lesser redpoll, the chaffinch, and the starling.

World's most remote tree.

Campbell Island is home to what is believed to be the world's most remote tree - a solitary Sitka spruce, more than 100 years old. The nearest tree is over away on the Auckland Islands. The tree is believed to have been introduced by Lord Ranfurly between 1901 and 1907. The tree has been proposed as a golden spike signal marker for the start of the anthropocene epoch.

Conservation.

In 1954, the island was gazetted as a nature reserve. Feral Campbell Island cattle were eliminated by about 1984 and feral Campbell Island sheep were culled during the 1970s and 1980s, with their eventual extermination in 1992. In 2001, brown rats (Norway rats) were eradicated from the island nearly 200 years after their introduction. This was the world's largest rat eradication programme. The island's rat-free status was confirmed in 2003. Since the eradication, vegetation and invertebrates have been recovering, seabirds have been returning and the Campbell teal, the world's rarest duck, has been reintroduced. An undescribed "Cyanoramphus" parakeet was discovered (in fossil bones) in 2004, along with evidence of a falcon or harrier. Banded dotterel ("Charadrius bicinctus") are also believed to have inhabited the island at one point. Other native landbirds include the New Zealand pipit and the Campbell snipe, a race of the Subantarctic snipe, "Coenocorypha aucklandica", described race perseverance. It was discovered only in 1997 on a tiny rat-free island off the south coast, Jacqeumart Island. The snipe had survived there and began recolonising the main island after the rats had been removed.  Marine mammals have shown gradual recovery in the past decades. Sea lions and southern elephant seals have begun to re-colonize the island. Some southern right whales still come into bays in the winter to winter or calve most notably at Northwest Bay and Perseverance Harbour, but in much smaller number than in the Auckland Islands. Historically, fin whales used to inhabit close to shore.  The area is one of five subantarctic island groups designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Geology.

Campbell Island is an extinct volcanic cone that marine erosion has worn down into its present shape. The volcano has been extinct for some six million years and glacial ice cover prevented vegetation from growing on the island until approximately 15,000 years ago.

Research.

During World War II, the New Zealand government had coastal watchers on the island with trained naturalists who made observations of the geology, flora, and fauna of Campbell Island.  To mark the 200th anniversary of its discovery, the Campbell Island Bicentennial Expedition (CIBE) was undertaken from December 2010 to February 2011. The research expedition was the largest multidisciplinary expedition to the island in over 20 years, and aimed to document the island's human history, assess recovery of the island's flora and invertebrate fauna since the removal of sheep and the world's largest rat eradication programme, study the island's plentiful but little understood streams and characterise the unusual stream fauna, and reconstruct past environmental conditions and deduce long term climate change from tarn sediment cores.  The expedition was run by the 50 Degrees South Trust, a charitable organisation established to further research and education on New Zealand's Subantarctic Islands, and to support the preservation and management of these World Heritage ecosystems. The expedition and the programme outputs can be followed at the CIBE website.

Campbell Island / Motu Ihupuku is an uninhabited subantarctic island of New Zealand, and the main island of the Campbell Island group. It covers of the group's, and is surrounded by numerous stacks, rocks and islets like Dent Island, Folly Island (or Folly Islands), Isle de Jeanette-Marie, and Jacquemart Island, the latter being the southernmost extremity of New Zealand. The island is mountainous, rising to over in the south. A long fjord, Perseverance Harbour, nearly bisects it, opening out to sea on the east coast.

坎贝尔岛(英语:Campbell Island)是新西兰的一个无人岛屿,是坎贝尔群岛之一。位于南纬52度32分、东经169度9分,面积为115平方公里,是世界遗产亚南极群岛的一部分。该岛于1810年被发现,后来成为狩猎海豹的据点,因此该岛上的海豹几乎已经灭绝。到1995年为止,该岛的北部都设有研究人员进驻的观测站。


Name.

The name used in European languages ( ('), ) ultimately derives from Old Persian'(), as found together with Elamite ("Ha-ak-ka-man-nu-iš" or "Hâkamannuiš") and Akkadian ("A-ḫa-ma-ni-iš-ʾ") in the non-contemporaneous trilingual Behistun Inscription of Darius I. The Old Persian proper name is traditionally derived from'(Sanskrit ') "friend" and'"thinking power", yielding "having a friend's mind." A more recent interpretation reads'as "follower", giving "characterized by a follower's spirit." The name is spelled (Haxâmaneš) in Modern Persian.

Historicity.

In the Behistun inscription ("c." 490 BC), Darius I portrays Achaemenes as the father of Teispes, ancestor of Cyrus II (Cyrus the Great) and Darius I. The mid-5th century BC "Histories" (7.11) of Herodotus has essentially the same story, but fuses two parallel lines of descent from "Teispes son of Achaemenes". Beyond such brief mentions of the name, nothing is known of the figure behind it, neither from indigenous sources nor from historiographic ones. It may be that Achaemenes was just a mythical ancestor, not a historical one. Many scholars believe he was a ruler of Parsumash, a vassal state of the Median Empire, and that from there he led armies against the Assyrian king Sennacherib in 681 BC.

Behistun inscription.

It may be that the Behistun inscription's claim of descent from Achaemenes was an invention of Darius I, in order to justify the latter's seizure of the throne. Cyrus II does not mention Achaemenes at all in the detailed genealogy given in the Cyrus cylinder. While the patronym "haxāmanišiya"—"of [the clan of] Achaemenes"—does appear in an inscription at Pasargadae attributed to Cyrus II, this inscription may have been written on the order of Darius I after Cyrus' death. As such, Achaemenes could be a retrograde creation of Darius the Great, made in order to legitimize a dynastic relationship to Cyrus the Great. Darius certainly had much to gain in having an ancestor shared by Cyrus and himself (however, Teispes was already one), and may have felt the need for a stronger connection than that provided by his subsequent marriage to Cyrus' daughter Atossa.

Greek writers.

The Greek writers of antiquity preserve several legends surrounding the figure: The late 4th-century BC "Alcibiades" (120e) of (Pseudo-)Plato portrays Achaemenes as the hero-founder of the Persái in the same way that the Greeks are descended from Heracles, and that both Achaemenes and Hercules were sons of Perseus, son of Zeus. This is generally assumed to be an identification of Achaemenes with Perses (i.e. the son of Perseus and Andromeda) who in Greek mythology was imagined to be the ancestor of the "Persians". Another version of the tale makes Achaemenes the son of Aegeus, yet another founder-hero of legend. The 3rd-century Aelianus ("De nat. anim." 12.21) has Achaemenes being bred by an eagle.

Achaemenes () was the apical ancestor of the Achaemenid dynasty of rulers of Persia.

阿契美尼斯(古波斯语:,现代波斯语:';希腊语:')是波斯帝国阿契美尼德王朝的祖先、波斯人的部落首领、波斯王国的建立者(约公元前705年或者可能更早至前675年在位)。


Overview.

RTP is designed for end-to-end, real-time transfer of streaming media. The protocol provides facilities for jitter compensation and detection of packet loss and out-of-order delivery, which are common especially during UDP transmissions on an IP network. RTP allows data transfer to multiple destinations through IP multicast. RTP is regarded as the primary standard for audio/video transport in IP networks and is used with an associated profile and payload format. The design of RTP is based on the architectural principle known as application-layer framing where protocol functions are implemented in the application as opposed to in the operating system's protocol stack.  Real-time multimedia streaming applications require timely delivery of information and often can tolerate some packet loss to achieve this goal. For example, loss of a packet in audio application may result in loss of a fraction of a second of audio data, which can be made unnoticeable with suitable error concealment algorithms. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), although standardized for RTP use, is not normally used in RTP applications because TCP favors reliability over timeliness. Instead the majority of the RTP implementations are built on the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Other transport protocols specifically designed for multimedia sessions are SCTP and DCCP, although,, they are not in widespread use.  RTP was developed by the Audio/Video Transport working group of the IETF standards organization. RTP is used in conjunction with other protocols such as H.323 and RTSP. The RTP specification describes two protocols: RTP and RTCP. RTP is used for the transfer of multimedia data, and the RTCP is used to periodically send control information and QoS parameters.  The data transfer protocol, RTP, carries real-time data. Information provided by this protocol includes timestamps (for synchronization), sequence numbers (for packet loss and reordering detection) and the payload format which indicates the encoded format of the data. The control protocol, RTCP, is used for quality of service (QoS) feedback and synchronization between the media streams. The bandwidth of RTCP traffic compared to RTP is small, typically around 5%.  RTP sessions are typically initiated between communicating peers using a signaling protocol, such as H.323, the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), RTSP, or Jingle (XMPP). These protocols may use the Session Description Protocol to specify the parameters for the sessions.  An RTP session is established for each multimedia stream. Audio and video streams may use separate RTP sessions, enabling a receiver to selectively receive components of a particular stream. The specification recommends that RTP port numbers are chosen to be even and that each associated RTCP port be the next higher odd number. However, a single port is chosen for RTP and RTCP in applications that multiplex the protocols. RTP and RTCP typically use unprivileged UDP ports (1024 to 65535), but may also use other transport protocols, most notably, SCTP and DCCP, as the protocol design is transport independent.  RTP is used by real-time multimedia applications such as voice over IP, audio over IP, WebRTC and Internet Protocol television

Profiles and payload formats.

One of the design considerations for RTP is to carry a range of multimedia formats and allow new formats without revising the RTP standard. To this end, the information required by a specific application of the protocol is not included in the generic RTP header but is instead provided through separate RTP profiles and associated payload formats. For each class of application (e.g., audio, video), RTP defines a "profile" and one or more associated "payload formats". A complete specification of RTP for a particular application usage requires profile and payload format specifications.  The profile defines the codecs used to encode the payload data and their mapping to payload format codes in the "Payload Type" (PT) field of the RTP header. Each profile is accompanied by several payload format specifications, each of which describes the transport of a particular encoded data. The audio payload formats include G.711, G.723, G.726, G.729, GSM, QCELP, MP3, and DTMF, and the video payload formats include H.261, H.263, H.264, H.265 and MPEG-1/MPEG-2. The mapping of MPEG-4 audio/video streams to RTP packets is specified in, and H.263 video payloads are described in.  Examples of RTP profiles include:

Packet header.

RTP packets are created at the application layer and handed to the transport layer for delivery. Each unit of RTP media data created by an application begins with the RTP packet header. The RTP header has a minimum size of 12 bytes. After the header, optional header extensions may be present. This is followed by the RTP payload, the format of which is determined by the particular class of application. The fields in the header are as follows:

System operation.

A functional network-based system includes other protocols and standards in conjunction with RTP. Protocols such as SIP, Jingle, RTSP, H.225 and H.245 are used for session initiation, control and termination. Other standards, such as H.264, MPEG and H.263, are used to encode the payload data as specified by the applicable RTP profile.  An RTP sender captures the multimedia data, then encodes, frames and transmits it as RTP packets with appropriate timestamps and increasing timestamps and sequence numbers. The sender sets the "payload type" field in accordance with connection negotiation and the RTP profile in use. The RTP receiver detects missing packets and may reorder packets. It decodes the media data in the packets according to the payload type and presents the stream to its user.

The Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a network protocol for delivering audio and video over IP networks. RTP is used in communication and entertainment systems that involve streaming media, such as telephony, video teleconference applications including WebRTC, television services and web-based push-to-talk features.

实时传输协议(英语:Real-time Transport Protocol或简写英语:RTP)是一个网络传输协议,它是由IETF的多媒体传输工作小组1996年在RFC 1889中公布的。


Early life.

Mortensen was born in Watertown, New York, on October 20, 1958, the son of Grace Gamble (; July 8, 1928 – April 25, 2015) and Viggo Peter Mortensen Sr. (May 8, 1929 – March 2, 2017). His mother was American, while his father was Danish; they met in Norway. His maternal grandfather was a Canadian from Nova Scotia. One of his grandmothers was from Trondheim, Norway The family moved to Venezuela, then Denmark, and eventually settled in Argentina in the provinces of Córdoba, Chaco, and Buenos Aires, where Mortensen attended primary school and acquired a fluent proficiency in Spanish while his father managed poultry farms and ranches. He was baptized Lutheran.  When Mortensen was 11 and his brothers 8 and 6, their parents divorced and they and their mother returned to the US, where Viggo spent the rest of his childhood in New York, graduating from Watertown High School in Watertown in 1976. He then attended St. Lawrence University in Canton, earning a bachelor's degree in Spanish Studies and Politics in 1980. Upon graduating, he lived in England and Spain, then moved back to Denmark, where he took various jobs such as driving trucks in Esbjerg and selling flowers in Copenhagen. He eventually returned to the United States to pursue an acting career.

Career.

Acting career.

Mortensen's first film role was in "The Purple Rose of Cairo" (1985), but his scenes were deleted from the final cut. His first onscreen appearance was playing an Amish farmer in Peter Weir's "Witness". He was cast in "Witness" because the director thought he had the right face for the part of an Amish man. He had also been simultaneously cast for another role as a soldier in Shakespeare in the Park's production of "Henry V", but he decided to turn down that one for the film because he wanted to try something new. He credited that decision and the very positive experience on the film as the start of his film career. Also in 1985, he was cast in the role of Bragg on "Search for Tomorrow". Mortensen's 1987 performance in "Bent" at the Coast Playhouse, Los Angeles, won him a Dramalogue Critics' Award. Coincidentally, the play, about homosexual concentration camp prisoners, was originally brought to prominence by Ian McKellen, with whom Mortensen later costarred in "The Lord of the Rings". In 1987, Mortensen guest starred as a police detective on the hit series "Miami Vice."  During the 1990s, Mortensen appeared in supporting roles in a variety of films, including Jane Campion's "The Portrait of a Lady", "Young Guns II", "Prison", "", Sean Penn's "The Indian Runner", Danny Cannon's "The Young Americans", Carl Colpaert's "The Crew", which won the São Paulo Film Festival Audience Award, Brian de Palma's "Carlito's Way", "Crimson Tide", "G.I. Jane", "Daylight", "A Walk on the Moon", "American Yakuza", Charles Robert Carner's remake "Vanishing Point", Philip Ridley's films "The Reflecting Skin" and "The Passion of Darkly Noon", the remake films "A Perfect Murder" and Gus Van Sant's "Psycho" (the 1998 remakes of two Alfred Hitchcock's movies "Dial M for Murder" and "Psycho"), "28 Days", and "The Prophecy", with Christopher Walken. Of these roles, Mortensen was probably best known for playing Master Chief John Urgayle in "G.I. Jane". Another major mainstream breakthrough came in 1999, when Peter Jackson cast him as Aragorn in "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy. According to the Special Extended Edition DVD of "", Mortensen was a last-minute replacement for Stuart Townsend, and would not have taken the part of Aragorn had it not been for his son's enthusiasm for the J. R. R. Tolkien novel. In "" DVD extras, the film's swordmaster, Bob Anderson, described Mortensen as "the best swordsman I've ever trained." Mortensen often performed his own stunts, and even the injuries he sustained during several of them did not dampen his enthusiasm. At one point during shooting of "The Two Towers", Mortensen, Orlando Bloom, and Brett Beattie (scale double for John Rhys-Davies) all had painful injuries, and during a shoot of them, running in the mountains, Peter Jackson jokingly referred to the three as "the walking wounded." Also, according to the Special Extended Edition DVD of "", Mortensen purchased the two horses, Uraeus and Kenny, whom he rode and bonded with over the duration of the films. He received critical acclaim for his portrayal of Aragorn, and was ranked No. 15 on a 2015 survey of "The 100 Greatest Movie Characters" conducted by "Empire".  In 2004, Mortensen starred as Frank Hopkins in "Hidalgo", the story of an ex-army courier who travels to Arabia to compete with his horse, Hidalgo, in a dangerous desert race for a contest prize.  In 2005, Mortensen starred in David Cronenberg's movie "A History of Violence" as a family man revealed to have had an unsavory previous career. He was nominated for a Satellite Award for Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture for this role. In the DVD extras for "A History of Violence", Cronenberg related that Mortensen is the only actor he had come across who would come back from weekends with his family with items he had bought to use as props on the set.  In 2006, he starred as Captain Diego Alatriste in the Spanish language film "Alatriste", based on the series of novels "The Adventures of Captain Alatriste", written by the Spanish writer Arturo Pérez-Reverte.  In September 2007, the film "Eastern Promises", directed by David Cronenberg, was released to critical acclaim for the film itself and for Mortensen's performance as a Russian gangster on the rise in London. His nude fight scene in a steam room was applauded by Roger Ebert: "Years from now, it will be referred to as a benchmark." Mortensen's performance in "Eastern Promises" resulted in his winning the Best Performance by an Actor in a British Independent Film award from the British Independent Film Awards. He was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor.  In 2009, Mortensen appeared as himself in the film "Reclaiming The Blade", in which he discussed his passion for the sword and his sword-work in films such as "The Lord of the Rings" and "Alatriste". Mortensen also talked about his work with Bob Anderson, the swordmaster on "The Lord of the Rings", "Alatriste", "Pirates of the Caribbean" and many others.  In 2009, Mortensen performed in "The People Speak", a documentary feature film that uses dramatic and musical performances of the letters, diaries, and speeches of everyday Americans, based on historian Howard Zinn's "A People's History of the United States".  While it was reported in April 2009 that Mortensen had, at least temporarily, retired from film acting, Mortensen said he was misquoted. In a 2012 interview, he denied that he ever said he was retiring, only that he didn't have "plans to do another movie" at the time and that he was "taking a little break now. I don't have anything lined up."  In 2009 he joined the cast of "The Road", a film adaptation of the Cormac McCarthy novel of the same name, and collaborated with David Cronenberg for a third time on "A Dangerous Method".  After two years, Mortensen returned to theater in 2011, starring in Ariel Dorfman's "Purgatorio" in Madrid.  Mortensen starred in the 2016 film "Captain Fantastic" and the 2018 film "Green Book", for which he received his second and third Academy Award nominations.

Perceval Press.

With part of his earnings from "The Lord of the Rings", Mortensen founded the Perceval Press publishing house—named after the knight from the legend of King Arthur—to help other artists by publishing works that might not find a home in more traditional publishing venues.  "Perceval Press" is also the home of Mortensen's many personal artistic projects in the area of fine arts, photography, poetry, song, and literature (see below).

Bibliography.

Mortensen is also an author, with various books of poetry, photography, and painting published. With anthropologists Federico Bossert and Diego Villar, he has written several works related to ethnography of natives in South America, specifically in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Some of the published books co-authored by Mortensen are "Sons of the Forest" and "Skovbo". Mortensen's bibliography includes:

Visual arts and discography.

Mortensen is a painter and photographer. His paintings are frequently abstract and often contain fragments of his poetry therein. His paintings have been featured in galleries worldwide, and many of the paintings of the artist he portrayed in "A Perfect Murder" are his own.  Mortensen experiments with his poetry and music by mixing the two art forms. He has collaborated with guitarist Buckethead on several albums, mostly released on his own label (Perceval Press) or TDRS Music. Viggo was first introduced to Buckethead's work while working on sounds for an educational CD on Greek mythology. The finished product included a guitar part by Buckethead, which caught Viggo's ear and led him to initiate contact with the guitarist. The collaboration grew from there.  Mortensen's discography includes:  Mortensen is featured on "" soundtrack, singing "Aragorn's Coronation" (the name of the extended version of this song in the 3rd original sound track is "The Return of the King"), the words by Tolkien and the music composed by Mortensen. In the extended DVD edition of the first "Lord of the Rings" movie, "", he sings the song "The Lay of Beren and Lúthien". His poems are written in English, Danish, and Spanish.

Awards and honors.

Following his appearance in the "Lord of the Rings" trilogy, in 2006 he was granted an honorary doctorate by his alma mater, St. Lawrence University.  On October 13, 2006, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Province and the City of León, Spain.  On April 16, 2010, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog. , he has received three Academy Award nominations.

Personal life.

Mortensen holds dual American and Danish citizenship. He speaks fluent Danish, English, French and Spanish; he is also conversational in Italian, and understands Norwegian and Swedish. He has stated that he was raised speaking English and Spanish, and sometimes feels more comfortable expressing himself in Spanish.  Mortensen met actress and singer Exene Cervenka in 1986 on the set of the comedy "Salvation!" The couple married on July 8, 1987. On January 28, 1988, Cervenka gave birth to their son, named Henry Blake Mortensen, who played his on screen son 'Henry Ince' in the film "Crimson Tide" in 1995. Mortensen and Cervenka lived in Idaho for three years. They separated in 1992 and divorced in 1997. Since 2009, he has been in a relationship with Spanish actress Ariadna Gil and currently lives in Spain with her.  Mortensen has expressed a liking for association football, ice hockey and baseball. His favorite teams include Argentine club San Lorenzo de Almagro, English team Fulham FC, Spanish team Real Madrid, Turkish side Beşiktaş, and both the Argentine and Danish national teams. His favorite soccer players are Diego Maradona and Héctor "Bambino" Veira. He is a fan of the Montreal Canadiens and wore a Canadiens shirt underneath his costume throughout the filming of the "Lord of the Rings" trilogy. During the 100th anniversary celebrations of the Montreal Canadiens, Mortensen introduced one of his idols, Guy Lafleur, to the crowd at the Bell Centre in Montreal. He is also a fan of the New York Mets and, in an interview promoting 2009 film "The Road", was seen wearing apparel indicating his support of the Australian Football League's Collingwood Magpies. While appearing on the "Late Show with David Letterman", he held a sign supporting the New York Giants.  Mortensen was a good friend of Icelandic painter Georg Guðni Hauksson until the latter's death in 2011. He had long been an admirer of Georg Guðni's work as a landscape artist, and the two published books together as well as maintaining a close friendship. He was one of the signees of the "Toronto Declaration" protesting against spotlighting Tel-Aviv at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2009. Mortensen has owned property in Sandpoint, Idaho, and spends time there when not filming movies.  Mortensen first endorsed Senator Bernie Sanders for President in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. When Sanders lost the nomination, he endorsed Green Party candidate Jill Stein. He wrote an open letter just before Election Day 2016 where he listed the reasons he disagreed with Hillary Clinton and could not support her in the race against Donald Trump, though he also thought that Clinton would be elected president in the end. He went on to narrate a viral documentary, "The Revolution Televised", about the 2016 presidential election and the protests in the aftermath of the Democratic National Convention.  In 2019, he publicly criticized the use of his character Aragorn by Spanish extreme-right party Vox during the campaign for the 2019 Spanish general election.  In May 2020, during the coronavirus crisis, Mortensen joined other stars from The Lord of the Rings for actor Josh Gad's YouTube series "Reunited Apart", which reunites the cast of popular movies through video-conferencing, and promotes donations to non-profit charities.

Viggo Peter Mortensen Jr. (; ; born October 20, 1958) is a Danish-American actor, author, musician, photographer, poet, and painter. Born in New York to a Danish father and American mother, he was a resident of Venezuela and Argentina during his childhood. He is the recipient of various accolades including a Screen Actors Guild Award and has been nominated for three Academy Awards, three BAFTA Awards, and four Golden Globe Awards.

小维戈·彼得·莫滕森(英语:Viggo Peter Mortensen, Jr,,1958年-10月20日),丹麦裔美国藉男电影演员,在2003年凭电影《魔戒三部曲:王者再临》荣获美国演员工会奖,在2007年凭电影《》获金球奖、奥斯卡金像奖提名、英国独立电影奖(British Independent Film Awards)最佳男主角。除了专注于电影事业,他亦是作家(诗人)、摄影师、画师。2002年,他创办了Perceval Press出版公司,出版一些不太出名的艺术家和作家的作品。


Neuroscience.

Two areas of the brain that are important in retrieving self-knowledge are the medial prefrontal cortex and the medial posterior parietal cortex. The posterior cingulate cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex are thought to combine to provide humans with the ability to self-reflect. The insular cortex is also thought to be involved in the process of self-reference.

Psychology.

The psychology of self is the study of either the cognitive and affective representation of one's identity or the subject of experience. The earliest formulation of the self in modern psychology forms the distinction between the self as "I", the subjective knower, and the self as "Me", the subject that is known. Current views of the self in psychology position the self as playing an integral part in human motivation, cognition, affect, and social identity. Self following from John Locke has been seen as a product of episodic memory but research upon those with amnesia find they have a coherent sense of self based upon preserved conceptual autobiographical knowledge. It is increasingly possible to correlate cognitive and affective experience of self with neural processes. A goal of this ongoing research is to provide grounding and insight into the elements of which the complex multiply situated selves of human identity are composed. The 'Disorders of the Self' have also been extensively studied by psychiatrists.  For example, facial and pattern recognition take large amounts of brain processing capacity but pareidolia cannot explain many constructs of self for cases of disorder, such as schizophrenia or schizo-affective disorder. One's sense of self can also be changed upon becoming part of a stigmatized group. According to Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon (2012), if an individual has prejudice against a certain group, like the elderly and then later becomes part of this group this prejudice can be turned inward causing depression (i.e. deprejudice).  The philosophy of a disordered self, such as in schizophrenia, is described in terms of what the psychiatrist understands are actual events in terms of neuron excitation but are delusions nonetheless, and the schizo-affective or schizophrenic person also believes are actual events in terms of essential being. PET scans have shown that auditory stimulation is processed in certain areas of the brain, and imagined similar events are processed in adjacent areas, but hallucinations are processed in the same areas as actual stimulation. In such cases, external influences may be the source of consciousness and the person may or may not be responsible for "sharing" in the mind's process, or the events which occur, such as visions and auditory stimuli, may persist and be repeated often over hours, days, months or years—and the afflicted person may believe themselves to be in a state of rapture or possession.  What the Freudian tradition has subjectively called, "sense of self" is for Jungian analytic psychology, where one's identity is lodged in the persona or ego and is subject to change in maturation. Carl Jung distinguished, "The self is not only the center, but also the whole circumference which embraces both conscious and unconscious; it is the center of this totality...". The Self in Jungian psychology is "the archetype of wholeness and the regulating center of the psyche... a transpersonal power that transcends the ego." As a Jungian archetype, it cannot be seen directly, but by ongoing individuating maturation and analytic observation, can be experienced objectively by its cohesive wholeness making factor.

Sociology.

The self can be redefined as a dynamic, responsive process that structures neural pathways according to past and present environments including material, social, and spiritual aspects. Self-concept is a concept or belief that an individual has of him or herself as an emotional, spiritual, and social being. Therefore, the self-concept is the idea of who I am, kind of like a self-reflection of one's well being. For example, the self-concept is anything you say about yourself.  A society is a group of people who share a common belief or aspect of self interacting for the maintenance or betterment of the collective. Culture consists of explicit and implicit patterns of historically derived and selected ideas and their embodiment in institutions, cognitive and social practices, and artifacts. Cultural systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of action, and on the other, as conditioning elements of further action. Therefore, the following sections will explore how the self and self-concept can be changed due to different cultures.  Markus and Kitayama's early 1990s theory hypothesized that representations of the self in human cultures would fall on a continuum from "independent" to "interdependent". The independent self is supposed to be egoistic, unique, separated from the various contexts contexts, critical in judgement and prone to self-expression. The interdependent self is supposed to be altruistic, similar with the others, flexible according to contexts, conformist and unlikely to express opinions that would disturb the harmony of his or her group of belonging. This theory enjoyed huge popularity despite its many problems such as being based on popular stereotypes and myths about different cultures rather than on rigorous scientific research as well as postulating a series of causal links between culture and self-construals without presenting any evidence supporting them. A large study from 2016 involving a total of 10,203 participants from 55 cultural groups found that there is no independent versus interdependent dimension of self-construal because traits supposed by Markus & Kitayama to form a coherent construct do not actually correlate, or if they correlate, they have correlations opposite to those postulated by Markus & Kitayama. There are seven separate dimension of self-construal which can be found at both the cultural level of analysis and the individual level of analysis. These dimensions are "difference versus similarity" (if the individual considers himself or herself to be an unique person or to be the same as everybody else), "self-containment versus connection to others" (feeling oneself as being separated from others versus feeling oneself as being together with the others), "self-direction versus receptiveness to influence" (independent thinking versus conformity),  Westerners, Latin Americans and the Japanese are relatively likely to represent their individual self as unique and different from that of others while Arabs, South-East Asians and Africans are relatively likely to represent their self as being similar with that of others. Individuals from Uganda, Japan, Colombia, Namibia, Ghana and Belgium were most likely to represent their selves as being emotionally separated from the community while individuals from Oman, Malaysia, Thailand and central Brazil were most likely to consider themselves as emotionally connected to their communities. Japanese, Belgians, British and Americans from Colorado were most likely to value independent thinking and consider themselves as making their own decisions in life independently from others. On the other hand, respondents from rural Peru, Malaysia, Ghana, Oman and Hungary were most likely to place more value on following others rather than thinking for themselves as well as to describe themselves as being often influenced by others in their decisions. Middle Easterners from Lebanon, Turkey, Egypt and Oman were most likely to value self-reliance and consider themselves as working on their own and being economically independent from others. On the other hand, respondents from Uganda, Japan and Namibia were most likely to consider cooperation between different individuals in economical activities as being important. Chileans, Ethiopians from the highlands, Turks and people from Lebanon placed a relatively high degree of importance on maintaining a stable pattern of behavior regardless of situation or context. Individuals from Japan, Cameroon, the United Kingdom and Sweden were most likely to describe themselves as being adaptable to various contexts and to place value on this ability. Colombians, Chileans, US Hispanics, Belgians and Germans were most likely to consider self expression as being more important than maintaining harmony within a group. Respondents from Oman, Cameroon and Malaysia were most likely to say that they prefer keeping harmony within a group to engaging in self-expression. Sub-Saharan Africans from Namibia, Ghana and Uganda considered that they would follow their own interests even if this means harming the interests of those close to them. Europeans from Belgium, Italy and Sweden had the opposite preference, considering self-sacrifice for other members of the community as being more important than accomplishing selfish goals.  Contrary to the theory of Markus & Kitayama, egoism correlates negatively with individual uniqueness, independent thinking and self-expression. Self-reliance correlates strongly and negatively with emotional self-containment, which is also unexpected given Markus & Kitayama’s theory. The binary classification of cultural self-construals into independent versus interdependent is deeply flawed because in reality, the traits do not correlate according to Markus & Kitayama’s self construal theory, and this theory fails to take into consideration the extremely diverse and complex variety of self-construals present in various cultures across the world.  The way individuals construct themselves may be different due to their culture. The self is dynamic and complex and it will change or conform to whatever social influence it is exposed to. The main reason why the self is constantly dynamic is because it always looks for reasons to not be harmed. The self in any culture looks out for its well being and will avoid as much threat as possible. This can be explained through the evolutionary psychology concept called survival of the fittest.

Philosophy.

The philosophy of self seeks to describe essential qualities that constitute a person's uniqueness or essential being. There have been various approaches to defining these qualities. The self can be considered that being which is the source of consciousness, the agent responsible for an individual's thoughts and actions, or the substantial nature of a person which endures and unifies consciousness over time.  In addition to Emmanuel Levinas writings on "otherness", the distinction between "you" and "me" has been further elaborated in Martin Buber's philosophical work: Ich und Du.

Religion.

Religious views on the self vary widely. The self is a complex and core subject in many forms of spirituality. Two types of self are commonly considered—the self that is the ego, also called the learned, superficial self of mind and body, an egoic creation, and the self which is sometimes called the "True Self", the "Observing Self", or the "Witness". In Hinduism, the Ātman (self) is not an individual, but a representation of the transcendent reality Brahman.  One description of spirituality is the self's search for "ultimate meaning" through an independent comprehension of the sacred. Another definition of spiritual identity is: "A persistent sense of self that addresses ultimate questions about the nature, purpose, and meaning of life, resulting in behaviors that are consonant with the individual’s core values. Spiritual identity appears when the symbolic religious and spiritual value of a culture is found by individuals in the setting of their own life. There can be different types of spiritual self because it is determined by one's life and experiences."  Human beings have a self—that is, they are able to look back on themselves as both subjects and objects in the universe. Ultimately, this brings questions about who we are and the nature of our own importance. Traditions such as Buddhism see the attachment to self is an illusion that serves as the main cause of suffering and unhappiness. Christianity makes a distinction between the true self and the false self, and sees the false self negatively, distorted through sin: 'The heart is deceitful above all things, and desperately wicked; who can know it?' (Jeremiah 17:9)  According to Marcia Cavell, identity comes from both political and religious views. He also identified exploration and commitment as interactive parts of identity formation, which includes religious identity. Erik Erikson compared faith with doubt and found that healthy adults take heed to their spiritual side.

The self is an individual person as the object of its own reflective consciousness. Since "self" is a reference by a subject to the same subject, this reference is necessarily subjective. The sense of having a self—or self-hood—should, however, not be confused with subjectivity itself. Ostensibly, this sense is directed outward from the subject to refer inward, back to its "self" (or itself). Examples of psychiatric conditions where such "sameness" may become broken include depersonalization, which sometimes occurs in schizophrenia: the self appears different from the subject.

自我(、英语:Self),是一个人类,对于其自身个体存在、人格特质、社会形象,所产生的一种认知、意识与意象。通常人类个体会认为他们自身是一个连续性、整合、不可分、而且具备独特的自我,对自己的意象、人格特质会持有的整体知觉与态度。对这一概念的探讨和展现,是作家、文学家、哲学家与心理学家,甚至是宗教(如佛教等)长期关注的课题。


Roman administration.

Princeps is also the (official) short version of Princeps officii, the chief of an officium (the office staff of a Roman dignitary).  "Princeps civitatis" ("First Citizen") was an official title of a Roman Emperor as the title determining the leader in Ancient Rome at the beginning of the Roman Empire. It created the principate Roman imperial system.  This usage of "princeps" derived from the position of "Princeps senatus", the "first among equals" of the Senate. The "princeps senatus" (plural "principes senatus") was the first member by precedence of the Roman Senate, and his opinion would usually be asked first in senatorial debates.  It was first given as a special title to Caesar Augustus in 27 BC, who saw that use of the titles rex (king) or dictator would create resentment amongst senators and other influential men, who had earlier demonstrated their disapproval by supporting the assassination of Julius Caesar. While Augustus had political and military supremacy, he needed the assistance of his fellow Romans to manage the Empire. In his "Res Gestae", Augustus claims auctoritas for the princeps (himself).  Various official titles were associated with the Roman Emperor. These titles included imperator, Augustus, Caesar, and later dominus (lord) and basileus (the Greek word for "sovereign"). The word Emperor is derived from the Roman title "imperator", which was a very high, but not exclusive, military title until Augustus began to use it as his praenomen.  The Emperor Diocletian (284–305), the father of the Tetrarchy, was the first to stop referring to himself as "princeps" altogether, calling himself "dominus" (lord, master), thus dropping the pretense that emperor was not truly a monarchical office. The period when the emperors that called themselves princeps ruled—from Augustus to Diocletian—is called "the Principate", Diocletian's rule began "the Dominate" period.  Ancient Rome knew another kind of "princely" principes too, like "princeps iuventutis" ("the first amongst the young"), which in the early empire was frequently bestowed on eligible successors to the emperor, especially from his family. It was first given to Augustus' maternal grandsons Gaius and Lucius.

Nobiliary legacy.

"Princeps" is the root and Latin rendering of modern words as the English title and generic term "prince" (see that article, also for various equivalents in other languages), as the Byzantine version of Roman law was the basis for the legal terminology developed in feudal (and later absolutist) Europe.

Non-Roman meaning.

"Princeps" is also the name of an obsolete genus of Swallowtail butterflies (now merged with the genus Papilio).

Princeps (plural: principes) is a Latin word meaning "first in time or order; the first, foremost, chief, the most eminent, distinguished, or noble; the first man, first person". As a title, "princeps" originated in the Roman Republic wherein the leading member of the Senate was designated "princeps senatus". It is primarily associated with the Roman emperors as an unofficial title first adopted by Augustus in 23 BC. Its use in this context continued until the reign of Diocletian at the end of the third century. He preferred the title of "dominus", meaning "lord" or "master". As a result, the Roman Empire from Augustus to Diocletian is termed the "principate" ("principatus") and from Diocletian onwards as the "dominate" ("dominatus"). Other historians define the reign of Augustus to Severus Alexander as the Principate, and the period afterwards as the "Autocracy".

第一公民,译自于拉丁语的「Princeps」——该字源自于「Princeps Senatus,元老院首席议员」,中文通常译为第一公民。这原本是古罗马共和时期的元老院的荣誉职衔,后经屋大维所创建的罗马元首制度中,该职衔即是历史俗称罗马皇帝的正式称呼。