History.

Originally designed by Beretta's chief engineer Tullio Marengoni in 1935, the "Moschetto Automatico Beretta" (Beretta Automatic Musket) 38, or MAB 38, was developed from the Beretta "Modello" 18 and 18/30, derived from the Villar Perosa light machine gun of World War I. It is widely acknowledged as the most successful and effective Italian small arm of World War II and was produced in large numbers in several variants. Italy's limited industrial base in World War II was no real barrier toward the development of advanced and effective small arms, since most weapons did require large amounts of artisan and semi-artisan man-hours to be fine-tuned and made reliable by default. Italian specialized workers excelled and the initial slow rate of production meant that the MAB 38 became available in large numbers only in 1943, when the fascist regime was toppled and Italy split between the Allied-aligned co-belligerent forces in the south and German collaborationists of the Italian Social Republic in the north.  The MAB 38 was developed by Beretta to compete in the rich market of machine and sub-machine guns; it was a well-made and sturdy weapon, introducing several advanced features and was suitable for police and special army units. Presented to Italian authorities in 1939, its first customer was the Italian Ministry of Colonies, which purchased several thousands MABs to be issued as standard firearm of the "Polizia dell'Africa Italiana" (Italian Africa Constabulary), the government colonial police force. Army orders were slow to come; although impressed by excellent qualities and firepower of the weapon, the Italian military did not feel the MAB was suitable for standard infantry combat. It was judged ideal for police and assault units and in the beginning of 1941 small orders were placed for "Carabinieri" (military and civilian police), "Guardie di Pubblica Sicurezza" (national state police), and paratroopers. The Italian Army requested minor changes to reduce production costs, notably the changed shape of the recoil compensator and the removal of the bayonet and catch as the MAB 38A. This was the standard army variant, used throughout the war and issued to elite Italian units, paratroopers, Alpini "Monte Cervino" assault battalion, 10th "Arditi" Regiment, "M" Battalions of "Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale" ("MVSN", Blackshirts) and military police.  The Italian Royal Navy also purchased the type and MAB 38A were given to the ""San Marco"" Marine Regiment and naval security troops; The "Regia Aeronautica" (Italian Royal Air Force) issued the MAB 38A to its crack A.D.R.A. Regiment. Orders were still small and the Carcano M1891 rifle remained the standard weapon even in elite units. Until 1943, MAB 38A (and since 1942, the MAB 38/42) was available almost exclusively to paratroopers, Blackshirts, tank crews and Carabinieri military police, given the need of all of the former to express high volumes of firepower in prolonged actions or to keep close-quarters combat superiority. The paratroopers of the 185th Airborne Division "Folgore" were armed exclusively with the weapon. Blackshirt legions (one per infantry division) were regarded and used as elite assault units both for their fanaticism and their Beretta 38s.  After the Italian armistice of September 8, 1943, the Italian armed forces melted away and an Italian army was reconstructed in northern Italy under German sponsorship, the Beretta MAB equipped many units. The Italian Social Republic (R.S.I.) army fought a guerrilla war against partisans from the start, as well as against the Allies. For assault and counterinsurgency units, where firepower at close range was a vital asset, it was the ideal weapon. Production of the MAB became priority and it was supplied in great numbers to R.S.I. formations, especially elite units and it became an iconic weapon, symbolizing the Italian soldier in popular culture. Later in the war, a simplified variant known as the MAB 38/44 was introduced. Regardless of the tables of organization and equipment of a unit, the Beretta 38 was a popular weapon that could eventually find its way into the hands of virtually any soldier, especially amongst officers and higher non-commissioned officers, in any type of unit.  A magazine-holding vest was designed for elite troops (Blackshirts, paratroopers) armed with the Beretta 38; these were dubbed ""Samurai"" due to the similarity of the stacked magazines with traditional Japanese armour. A special canvas holster was issued with the MAB with two magazine-carrier pouches sewn on, to be worn as a belt but only came into use during the brief life of the R.S.I. and by then could be seen in the employ of many different units whose "elite" status could have been reasonably questioned (such as Black Brigades and other militias). The Beretta MAB was highly praised by Italian resistance movement fighters as well, being far more accurate and powerful than the British Sten which was common issue in partisan units, although the smaller Sten was more suited for clandestine operations. German soldiers also liked the Beretta MAB, judging it large and heavy, but reliable and well made.  The 1938 series was extremely robust and proved very popular with Axis forces as well as Allied troops, who used captured examples. Many German soldiers, including elite forces such as the Waffen-SS and Fallschirmjäger forces, preferred the Beretta 38. Germany manufactured 231,193 Beretta M38s in 1944 and 1945. Firing a powerfully loaded Italian version of the widely distributed 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge, the "Cartuccia 9 mm M38", the Beretta was accurate at longer ranges than most other submachine guns. The MAB could deliver an impressive firepower at close range and at longer distances its size and weight was an advantage, making the weapon stable and easy to control. In expert hands, the Beretta MAB allowed accurate short-bursts shooting up to and its effective range with Italian M38 ammunition, was s, an impressive result for a 9 mm submachine gun.

Specifications.

MAB 38, in its first variants, was a fine weapon by any standard, crafted with high quality materials, flawlessly finished and with carefully machined parts. Models 38/42 and 38/44 were easier and faster to build, the finish was sacrificed for speed of production but the quality remained high. The mechanism was a traditional simple blowback recoil but with a novel floating firing pin, an automatic safety on open bolt (both later removed to save production costs), a recoil compensator on the muzzle, a bolt cocking handle with sliding dust cover and a striking trigger gear with no fire selector but with two triggers instead; the fore trigger was for semi-automatic fire and rear trigger for full-auto. The user could shift quickly between methods without switching levers or safety catches, which proved useful in combat. The full-auto trigger had a safety catch on left side, which was eliminated from 1942 and the rear sight was adjustable up to in the MAB 38 and 38A, the 38/42 and 38/44 variants had fixed rear sights. The MAB 38 had a wooden stock, was about long and weighed about when loaded, with an effective range of about.

Variants.

The Model 1938 can be recognized by its machined steel receiver, fine craftsmanship and finish and by the perforated cooling jacket over the barrel. It was produced from 1938 to 1950 and fired 9×19mm Parabellum ammunition at 600 rounds per minute. It used 10, 20, 30 or 40-round magazines; the short 10-round magazine, when used in conjunction with the fixed bayonet, was popular with Allied and Axis forces for guarding prisoners or internal security. In combat, the 30 round magazine was the most common. The original MAB 38, first issued to Italian police in 1939, had a bayonet mount and stock rest for the Carcano M91/38 folding bayonet.  In compliance with Italian army requirements, bayonet mount and rest were eliminated and the recoil compensator was redesigned, the two horizontal muzzle slots substituted by 4 transversal cuttings, judged more effective. This standard army variant was renamed MAB 38A and issued in 1941. Despite its undeniable effectiveness, the Beretta Model 38 proved too time-consuming and expensive to produce during wartime. Marengoni designed a simplified model made from sheet steel, in which the cooling jacket and bayonet mount were eliminated and the separate firing pin mechanism replaced by a fixed firing pin machined on the face of the bolt. The barrel and wooden stock were also shortened to save weight and cost. This new model the Model 38/42 had a fluted barrel to aid cooling and save weight. It also had a slower rate of fire (550 rpm). The Model 38/43, was an intermediate production stage between the 42 and 44 patterns. The 38/42 and 38/43 were adopted by the Wehrmacht as the Maschinenpistole 738(i), abbreviated as MP.738. Models produced for the German Army received German acceptance marks.  The Model 38/44 was a minor revision of the 38/43, in which the bolt was simplified and a large-diameter recoil spring used in place of the operating spring guide. It also eliminated the fluting to save time and increase production. The 38/44 was also adopted by the German army as the MP.739. A variant of the Model 38/44 was fitted with an MP40-style under-folding stock as the Model 1.  After World War II, the 38/44 continued in production in slightly revised form as the 38/49 series: the Model 2 or MP 38/44 Special with an MP40-style under-folding stock and extended magazine well, the Model 3 with an extended magazine well and telescoping steel-wire buttstock and the Model 4 with a standard wooden rifle stock. All of these models have a push-button cross-bolt safety catch at the middle of the stock After Marengoni's death, Beretta engineer Domenico Salza revised the safety system of the Model 38/49 series as the Model 5, identified by a large rectangular grip-safety button located in the stock's finger groove. The Model 5 was produced for the Italian Army, police and the armed forces of several other nations until 1961, when production ceased in favor of the compact, modern Beretta M12.  Unusually, it ejects to the left because of the non-reciprocating cocking/charging handle and slot cover being in the way on the right side.

The MAB 38 ("Moschetto Automatico Beretta Modello 1938"), "Modello" 38, or Model 38 and its variants were a series of official submachine guns of the Royal Italian Army introduced in 1938 and used during World War II. The guns were also used by the German, Romanian, and Argentine armies of the time.

贝瑞塔M1938冲锋枪是意大利军队于1938年采用的冲锋枪。由贝瑞塔研发和生产,发射9毫米鲁格弹。


Discovery.

Nix was discovered by researchers of the Pluto Companion Search Team, using the Hubble Space Telescope. The "New Horizons" team had suspected that Pluto and its moon Charon might be accompanied with other moons, hence they used the Hubble Space Telescope to search for faint moons around Pluto in 2005. Since Nix's brightness is about 5,000 times fainter than Pluto, long exposure images were taken in order to find it.  The discovery images were taken on 15 May 2005 and 18 May 2005. Nix and Hydra were independently discovered by Max J. Mutchler on 15 June 2005 and by Andrew J. Steffl on 15 August 2005. The discoveries were announced on 31 October 2005, after confirmation by precovering archival Hubble images of Pluto from 2002. The two newly announced moons of Pluto were subsequently provisionally designated S/2005 P 1 for Hydra and S/2005 P 2 for Nix. The moons were informally referred to as "P1" and "P2", respectively by the discovery team.

Naming.

The name Nix was approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) and was announced on 21 June 2006 along with the naming of Hydra in the IAU Circular 8723. Nix was named after Nyx, the Greek goddess of darkness and night and mother of Charon, the ferryman of Hades in Greek mythology. The two newly named moons were intentionally named that the order of their initials "N" and "H" honors the "New Horizons" mission to Pluto, similarly to how the first two letters of Pluto's name honors Percival Lowell. The original proposal for the naming of Nix was to use the classical spelling Nyx, but to avoid confusion with the asteroid 3908 Nyx, the spelling was changed to Nix, the Egyptian spelling of the name. The adjectival form of the name is Nictian (cf. Russian Никта "Nikta").  The names of features on the bodies in the Pluto system are related to mythology and the literature and history of exploration. In particular, the names of features on Nix must be related to deities of the night from literature, mythology, and history.

Origin.

Pluto's smaller moons, including Nix, were thought to have formed from debris ejected from a massive collision between Pluto and another Kuiper belt object, similarly to how the Moon is believed to have formed from debris ejected by a large collision of Earth. The ejecta from the collision would then coalesce into the moons of Pluto. However, the collisional hypothesis cannot explain how Nix maintained its highly reflective surface.

Characteristics.

Physical characteristics.

Nix has an elongated shape, with its longest axis measured at across and its shortest axis across. This gives Nix the measured dimensions of.  Early research appeared to show that the surface of Nix is reddish in color. Contrary to this, other studies show that Nix is spectrally neutral, similar to the small moons of Pluto. The neutral spectrum of Nix signifies that water ice is present on its surface. Nix also appeared to vary in brightness and albedo, or reflectivity. The brightness fluctuations were thought to be caused by areas with different albedos on the surface of Nix. Images of Nix from the "New Horizons" spacecraft show a large reddish area approximately across, which could explain the two conflicting measurements of Nix's surface color.  The reddish area is thought to be a large impact crater where the reddish material was ejected from underneath Nix's water ice layer and deposited on its surface. In this case, Nix would likely have regoliths originating from the impact. Another explanation suggests that the reddish material may have originated from a collision with Nix and another object with a different composition. However, there were no significant color variations on other impact craters on Nix.  The water ice present on the surface of Nix is responsible for its high reflectivity. Trace amounts of frozen methane may be also present on the surface of Nix, and could be responsible for the presence of reddish material, likely tholins, on its surface. In this case, tholins on the surface of Nix may have originated from the reaction of methane with ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Derived from crater counting data from "New Horizons", the age of Nix's surface is estimated to be at least four billion years old.

Rotation.

Nix is not tidally locked and tumbles chaotically similarly to all smaller moons of Pluto; the moon's axial tilt and rotation period vary greatly over short timescales. Due to the chaotic rotation of Nix, it can occasionally flip its entire rotational axis. The varying gravitational influences of Pluto and Charon as they orbit their barycenter causes the chaotic tumbling of Pluto's small moons, including Nix. The chaotic tumbling of Nix is also strengthened by its elongated shape, which creates torques that act on the object. At the time of the "New Horizons" flyby, Nix was rotating with a period of 43.9 hours retrograde to Pluto's equator with an axial tilt of 132 degrees — it was rotating backwards in relation to its orbit around Pluto. The rotation rate of Nix had increased by 10 percent since Nix was discovered.

Orbit.

Nix orbits the Pluto-Charon barycenter at a distance of, between the orbits of Styx and Kerberos. All of Pluto's moons including Nix have very circular orbits that are coplanar to Charon's orbit; the moons of Pluto have very low orbital inclinations to Pluto's equator. The nearly circular and coplanar orbits of Pluto's moons suggest that they may have gone through tidal evolutions since their formation. At the time of the formation of Pluto's smaller moons, Nix may have had a more eccentric orbit around the Pluto-Charon barycenter. The present circular orbit of Nix may have been caused by Charon's tidal damping of the eccentricity of Nix's orbit, through tidal interactions. The mutual tidal interactions of Charon on Nix's orbit would cause Nix to transfer its orbital eccentricity to Charon, thus causing the orbit of Nix to gradually become more circular over time.  Nix has an orbital period of approximately 24.8546 days and its orbit is resonant with other moons of Pluto. Nix is in a 3:2 orbital resonance with Hydra, and a 9:11 resonance with Styx (the ratios represent numbers of orbits completed per unit time; the period ratios are the inverses). As a result of this "Laplace-like" 3-body resonance, it has conjunctions with Styx and Hydra in a 2:3 ratio.  Nix's orbital period is close to a 1:4 orbital resonance with Charon, with a timing discrepancy of 2.8%; there is no active resonance. A hypothesis explaining such a near-resonance is that the resonances originated before the outward migration of Charon following the formation of all five known moons, and is maintained by the periodic local fluctuation of 9 percent in the Pluto–Charon gravitational field strength.

Exploration.

The "New Horizons" spacecraft visited the Pluto system and photographed Pluto and its moons during its flyby on 14 July 2015. Of Pluto's smaller moons, only Nix and Hydra were imaged at resolutions high enough for surface features to be visible. Prior to the flyby of the Pluto system, measurements of Nix's size were performed by the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager on board "New Horizons", initially estimating Nix to be about in diameter. The first detailed images of Nix taken by "New Horizons" from a distance of about were downlinked, or received from the spacecraft on 18 July 2015 and released to the public on 21 July 2015. With an image resolution per pixel, Nix's shape was often referred to as a "jelly bean" shape. Enhanced color images from the Ralph MVIC instrument of "New Horizons" show a reddish region on its surface. From those images, another accurate measurement of Nix's dimensions was made, giving the approximate dimensions of.

Nix is a natural satellite of Pluto, with a diameter of across its longest dimension. It was discovered along with Pluto's outermost moon Hydra in June 2005 by the Pluto Companion Search Team. It was named after Nyx, the Greek goddess of the night. Nix is the third moon of Pluto by distance, orbiting between the moons Styx and Kerberos.

冥卫二正式名称为Nix(,尼克斯),是冥王星的一颗卫星。


芒特卡梅尔 (伊利诺伊州)

Employment and environment.

The town had an unemployment rate of 5.4%, as of Dec 2014. The situation has substantially improved since 1992, when the unemployment rate peaked as high as 15.1% with the loss of industrial jobs.  Duke Energy's Gibson Generating Station is the nearest employer of substantial size. The Gibson County, Indiana power plant is located less than a mile away from Mount Carmel, directly across the river. It is the third-largest coal power plant in the world, and the ninth largest power plant in the United States.  Additional nearby employers include Toyota Motor Manufacturing Indiana, which produces the Sequoia, Sienna, Highlander, and Highlander Hybrid lines. Many of TMMI's Suppliers and subsidiaries are also located in and around Princeton, Indiana, 12 miles away. Other employers include Champion Laboratories plant in Albion, Illinois that produces air and fuel filters and an ATS (now TBIL) plant in Lawrenceville, which also supplies TMMI. Local employers include several oil and gas firms, exploiting the Southern Indiana Oil Basin, which extends into Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky. It once had reserves of more than of crude oil.  On April 5, 2007, Foundation Coal Holdings, Inc., of Linthicum Heights, Maryland, announced plans to close the Wabash Mine in nearby Keensburg, Illinois, meaning a loss of nearly 230 jobs in Wabash County. Mount Carmel lost 270 jobs in 2003 due to the closing of a Snap-on Tools factory, which had operated since 1937.

Education.

Mount Carmel is home to Wabash Valley College, part of the Illinois Eastern Community Colleges (IECC). The college has 1375 students, and has an active international student program. The small town atmosphere provides a laid back, comfortable setting in which international students may study English as a second language (ESL). As part of the IECC, residents benefit from a reciprocal agreement where some of the out-of-state fees to attend the University of Southern Indiana are waived, in exchange for similar tuition discounts for Indiana students in IECC schools. Their men's basketball team, the Warriors, won the NJCAA Division I championships in 2001.  Mount Carmel's K-12 school district is Wabash Community Schools District 348. It has two elementary schools, divided by grade (South and North Schools), a new middle school Mount Carmel Middle School, built in 2000, and Mount Carmel High School, the only high school in the county. The high school's football team, The Golden Aces, won the class 3A state championships in 1981, and the team made it to the playoffs 21 years in a row. They play at home in Riverview Stadium, commonly known as "The Snake Pit". The stadium is notable for having been built into the side of a large hill.

History.

Tornado.

On June 4, 1877 a tornado of F4 intensity touched down just west of Mount Carmel and moved east-northeast, devastating the town. The storm's line of destruction wreaked havoc on a large part of the territory between Third and Fifth streets. The velocity of the wind was estimated at 150 miles per hour for a duration of almost two minutes.  As described in a local newspaper at the time: "During its prevalence the air was filled with flying roofs, windows, doors, lumber, rails, clothing, etc. Much of the debris was carried more than a mile away. Thirteen persons were killed outright, and many others will undoubtedly die of their injuries. There are also several others reported missing who are probably buried in the ruins. It being a rainy day, many farmers who could not work at home were in town. The county court was also in session, which caused many people to be in the city.  Men, women and children were blown a distance of 400 feet, as if they were feathers. The better part of the town Is destroyed. Some seventy families were rendered houseless and much distress is anticipated."  Final estimates of the damage indicate that 20 businesses and 100 homes were damaged or destroyed. At least 16 people, and as many as 30, were killed, with 100 injured.

Grand Rapids Hotel and Resort.

In the 1920s, there was a hotel in Wabash County near the Grand Rapids Dam and Hanging Rock on the Wabash River. The hotel was called the Grand Rapids Hotel and was owned by Frederick Hinde Zimmerman. During the hotel's nine-year existence it catered to individuals from all over the United States.

Geography.

Mount Carmel is located at (38.414859, -87.768596) on the Wabash River, which demarcates the Indiana border. According to the 2010 census, the city has a total area of, of which (or 97.20%) is land and (or 2.80%) is water.  The city was featured in Ripley's Believe It or Not! for its once multicolored bridge over the Wabash River, painted white and black on the Illinois and Indiana sides of the state line, respectively. The old twelve span Parker truss bridge, later repainted entirely green, formerly connected Princeton, Indiana to Mount Carmel via Indiana State Road 64 and Illinois Route 15. Illinois Route 1 and Illinois Route 15 meet just a few blocks from the bridge. One rail bridge runs parallel to the IN-64/IL-15 bridge, and another sits just a few miles south, near the southern most edge of the city. The plans to build a new bridge become reality in 2008. After three years of construction the new much wider span opens in January 2011. The new bridge is a milestone as Indiana continues its quest to expand Indiana 64 to a four-lane highway as part of their Major Moves Project. As of February 20, 2011 the new concrete and steel beam bridge is fully carrying traffic. The old bridge has been removed, with the river spans being imploded.

Earthquake.

Mount Carmel is within the Wabash Valley Seismic Zone. On April 18, 2008 at 09:36:56 UTC (04:36:56 Central) an earthquake of 5.2 magnitude was centered near the city, and just hours later an aftershock of 4.6 magnitude shook Mt. Carmel and its residences. It was felt widespread across southern Illinois and eastern portions of Missouri including St. Louis, away. Aftershocks continued into July.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 7,982 people, 3,302 households, and 2,146 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,728.7 people per square mile (667.1/km2). There were 3,653 housing units at an average density of 791.2 per square mile (305.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 97.69% White, 0.48% African American, 0.19% Native American, 0.51% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.29% from other races, and 0.76% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.86% of the population.  There were 3,302 households out of which 29.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.2% were married couples living together, 10.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.0% were non-families. 30.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.95.  In the city the population was spread out with 23.6% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 25.7% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 19.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.4 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $31,715, and the median income for a family was $39,882. Males had a median income of $30,815 versus $17,129 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,391. Median house value was $51,200. About 10.2% of families and 15.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.5% of those under age 18 and 9.3% of those age 65 or over.

Mount Carmel is a city in and the county seat of Wabash County, Illinois, United States. At the time of the 2010 census, the population was 7,284, while the next largest town in Wabash County is Allendale, population 475. Located at the confluence of the Wabash, Patoka, and White Rivers, Mount Carmel borders both Gibson and Knox counties of Indiana. A small community known informally as East Mount Carmel sits near the mouth of the Patoka River on the opposite (Gibson County) side of the Wabash River from Mount Carmel. Mount Carmel is northeast of the Forest of the Wabash, a National Natural Landmark within Beall Woods State Park and about a mile north-northeast of one of its main employers, the Gibson Generating Station. Mount Carmel is also the home of Wabash Valley College, part of the Community College System of Eastern Illinois.

芒特卡梅尔(英语:Mount Carmel)是一个位于美国伊利诺伊州沃巴什县的城市。根据2010年美国人口普查,该地共人口7284人,而该地的面积约为12.94平方千米。同时该地也是沃巴什县的县治。


奥地利的玛丽亚·阿玛丽亚

Life.

Early life.

Maria Amalia was born an Austrian archduchess in Hofburg Palace, Vienna; about eleven weeks after the death of her infant brother Leopold Joseph, her parents' only son. Her mother, Empress Wilhelmine Amalia, was unable to conceive more children after Maria Amalia, supposedly because her father, Emperor Joseph I, had contracted syphilis from one of his mistresses and passed the disease to his wife, rendering the Empress infertile. Maria Amalia's father had a long line of mistresses, both servants and nobles, and several illegitimate children.  When Maria Amalia was nine-years-old, her father died of smallpox and was succeeded by his brother Emperor Charles VI. Charles ignored a decree signed during the reign of his and Joseph's father, Emperor Leopold I, that gave Maria Amali and her sister Maria Josepha precedence in succession as the daughters of Leopold's eldest son. Instead, he promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, which replaced Maria Amalia and Maria Josepha with his own daughter Maria Theresa in the line of succession. The displaced archduchesses were not allowed to marry until they renounced their rights to the Austrian succession.

Marriage.

Maria Amalia was proposed as a bride for the Italian Victor Amadeus, Prince of Piedmont, heir to the Kingdom of Sicily and Duchy of Savoy. The union was supposed to create better relations between Savoy and Austria, but the plan was ignored by the Duke of Savoy. The younger Victor Amadeus subsequently died of smallpox, unmarried, in 1715.  In 1717, Maria Amalia met her future spouse, Charles Albert of Bavaria, when he visited Vienna on his way to participate in the war against the Ottoman Empire in Belgrade. He used the time to become acquainted with the Imperial family, and wished to marry into the Habsburg dynasty for dynastic and economic reasons. They met a second time in 1718. However, Charles Albert initially asked to marry her elder sister Maria Josepha, but she was already engaged at the time of his proposal. Maria Amalia and her sister Maria Josepha were both given a very strict Catholic upbringing with focus on Catholic religious duties by their mother, but Maria Amalia was described as having a more vivid and extrovert personality than the more serious Maria Josepha.  Having agreed to recognize the Pragmatic Sanction, Maria Amalia married Prince-Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria on 5 October 1722 in Vienna. The opera "I veri amici" ("The True Friends") by Tomaso Albinoni was performed at the wedding. Maria Amalia received a grand dowry, including jewelry worth 986.500 gulden, but outside the religious festivities, the wedding was not celebrated as much in Vienna as it would be in Munich, where festivities lasted from 17 October to 4 November.  They lived at Nymphenburg Palace in Munich and had seven children. In May 1727, at the birth of the heir, Maximilian III Joseph, Maria Amalia was given her own residence, the Fürstenried Palace as a puerperal gift; and in 1734, Charles Albert named the Amalienburg in the Nymphenburg Palace Park after her. Similar to her mother, she was forced to accept the infidelity of her spouse: her husband also had six illegitimate children. However, their relationship is described as a moderately happy one, as they had similar personalities and interests. Like Charles Albert, she enjoyed court life, pomp and parties, and together they made the Bavarian court a cultural center. Maria Amalia was interested in politics, had a passion for hunting, and managed to engage also in her interest for travels with the argument that pilgrimages would make it easier for her to give birth to sons. She protected churches and convents and had a close relationship with her sister-in-law Maria Anna, who was a member of the Poor Clares in Munich. She liked the opera and her apartments at the royal Munich residence is regarded as a notable example of the Rococo.  Despite the fact that Maria Amalia had renounced her claims to the Austrian lands upon her marriage, Charles Albert claimed the Habsburg lands by marriage to her during the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740. After an agreement with the spouse of her elder sister Maria Josepha, who would otherwise have a stronger claim than her, her husband invaded Bohemia. Maria Amalia was crowned as Queen of Bohemia in Prague on December 7, 1741. On 12 February 1742, Maria Amalia became Holy Roman Empress following Charles Albert's coronation as Holy Roman Emperor in Frankfurt, where she herself was crowned as Empress Consort. However on 14 February 1742, Bavaria was occupied by Austria.

Death.

Maria Amalia's husband died on 20 January 1745 and was buried at the Theatine Church in Munich. On his death, she persuaded her son Maximilian to make peace with her cousin Maria Theresa. As a widow, she mainly resided at Fuerstenried Palace. In 1754, Maria Amalia founded a medical hospital, managed by the nuns of the Elisabetinerinnen, whom she invited to Munich. This is counted as the first modern hospital in the city.  Maria Amalia died in Munich at the Nymphenburg Palace.  The following anecdote is from the fifth volume of Casanova's "History of My Life":

Maria Amalia of Austria (Maria Amalie Josefa Anna; 22 October 1701 – 11 December 1756) was Holy Roman Empress, Queen of the Germans, Queen of Bohemia, Electress and Duchess of Bavaria etc. as the spouse of Emperor Charles VII. By birth, she was an archduchess of Austria, the daughter of Emperor Joseph I and Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Maria Amalia had seven children, only four of whom lived through to adulthood, including Maximilian III, Elector of Bavaria.

玛丽亚·阿玛丽亚(英语:Maria Amalia,1701年-10月22日-1756年-12月11日)是神圣罗马帝国皇后和奥地利大公国女大公。她的丈夫查理七世是神圣罗马帝国两位出身于维特尔斯巴赫王朝的皇帝之一(另一位是路易四世)。


Early life.

Prince Philippe became the "Prince Royal", heir apparent to the throne, when his father, Prince Ferdinand-Philippe, Duc d'Orléans, died in a carriage accident in 1842. Although there was some effort during the days after the abdication of his grandfather in 1848 to put him on the throne under the name of Louis-Philippe II, with his mother (Helene of Mecklenburg-Schwerin) as Regent, this came to nothing. They fled and the French Second Republic was proclaimed.  A historian, journalist and outspoken democrat, Philippe volunteered to serve as a Union Army officer in the American Civil War along with his younger brother, Prince Robert, Duke of Chartres. He was appointed as an assistant adjutant general with the rank of captain on 24 September 1861 and served under the name of Philippe d'Orléans, the Count of Paris. He served on the staff of the commander of the Army of the Potomac, Major General George McClellan, for nearly a year. He distinguished himself during the unsuccessful Peninsular Campaign. He resigned from the Union Army, along with his brother, on 15 July 1862. Philippe's history of the Civil War is considered a standard reference work on the subject.  During their stay in the United States, the princes were accompanied by their uncle, the Prince of Joinville, who painted many watercolours of their stay. On 10 November 1880 Philippe was elected as a companion of the first class (i.e. a veteran officer) of the Pennsylvania Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States – an organization of Union officers who had served during the American Civil War. He was assigned insignia number 2107. His eldest son, Philippe d'Orleans, was elected as a 2nd class member (i.e. an eldest son of a veteran officer) in 1890 and succeeded to first class membership in the Order upon Philippe's death.

Marriage and issue.

On May 30, 1864 at St. Raphael's Church in Kingston upon Thames, England he married his paternal first cousin, Princess Marie Isabelle d'Orléans (1848–1919), Infanta of Spain. She was daughter of Infanta Luisa Fernanda of Spain and Prince Antoine, Duke of Montpensier (1824–1890), the youngest son of Louis-Philippe of France and Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily. They had eight children:

Restoration of French monarchy.

The Orleans family had been in exile in England since the Revolution of 1848 which toppled King Louis Philippe. During their early married life, the Count and Countess of Paris lived at York House, Twickenham, where the young Rosa Lewis was a member of their household. However, in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War and the downfall of Napoleon III, they were allowed to return to France, and many of their properties were restored to them. In 1873, anticipating a restoration of the monarchy by the largely monarchist National Assembly that had been elected following the fall of Napoleon III, the Count of Paris withdrew his claims to the French throne in favour of the legitimist claimant, Henri V, best known as the "Comte de Chambord". It was assumed by most that the Count of Paris was Chambord's heir, and would thus be able to succeed to the throne upon the childless Chambord's death, reuniting the two claims that had divided French monarchists since 1830. However, Chambord's refusal to recognize the tricolor as the French flag sabotaged hopes of a restoration, and Chambord died in 1883 without ever specifically recognizing his Orléanist rival as his heir.  Upon the Count of Chambord's death, the Count of Paris was recognized by most monarchists as Philippe VII of France. This succession was disputed by the Carlist descendants of the Bourbon kings of Spain, who argued that being descended directly from Louis XIV their claim was greater than that of the Orléanists'; however, this argument pointedly ignored Philip V of Spain's renunciation of his and his descendants' claim to the French throne pursuant to the Treaty of Utrecht.  In 1886 the family was exiled again returning to England, where they first lived at Sheen House, near Richmond. In 1890 they moved to the much grander Stowe House, where he died in 1894. He was succeeded as claimant to the French throne by his son Prince Philippe.

Prince Philippe of Orléans, Count of Paris (Louis Philippe Albert; 24 August 1838 – 8 September 1894), was the grandson of Louis Philippe I, King of the French. He was the Count of Paris as Orléanist claimant to the French throne from 1848 until his death.

路易·菲利普·阿尔伯特(,1838年-8月24日-1894年-9月8日),王号路易-菲利普二世,是法国奥尔良王朝国王路易-菲利普一世的长孙,早逝王储费迪南德·菲利普的长子。


奥勒·居纳尔·索尔斯克亚

Early life.

Solskjær was born in Kristiansund, Møre og Romsdal to Øyvind, a Greco-Roman wrestling champion, and Brita Solskjær. At the age of seven, he joined local football club Clausenengen, who were in the 3. divisjon.

Club career.

Early career at Clausenengen.

Solskjær debuted for Clausenengen (CFK) at 17 years old in 1990. He participated in the Otta Cup, scoring seventeen goals in six matches. On 21 May 1993, CFK faced Molde in the Norwegian Football Cup, with Solskjær scoring Clausenengen's only goal in their 6–1

Molde.

1995 season.

In late 1994, ahead of the start of the next season, he was signed by Åge Hareide, manager of the first-tier club Molde, for a fee of NOK200,000. On 22 April 1995, Solskjær made his debut for Molde against Brann, scoring twice in a 6–0 victory. In his second game on 29 April, Solskjær scored a hat-trick helping Molde 5–4 win over Viking. On 14 May, he scored another brace in a 2–1 win over Hamarkameratene. Two days later, he netted a hat-trick as Molde thrashed Hødd 7–2. Solskjær scored a penalty in Molde's 4–1 victory over Strindheim on 30 July.  On 10 August, Solskjær played in

1996 season.

Solskjær began the 1996 Tippeligaen in defeat, losing 2–0 to Rosenborg. However, in his next match on 21 April 1996 against Moss, he scored a hat-trick as Molde won 8–0. He scored a brace against Tromsø on 19 May in a 3–0 victory, and his goal-scoring form led to interest from Hamburg of Germany and Italian club Cagliari. Molde's then-manager, Åge Hareide, made Solskjær available to both Everton and Hareide's old club Manchester City for £1.2 million. However, neither Everton nor City were willing to take a risk on Solskjær, and the interest from Hamburg and Cagliari fell through after Manchester United submitted a bid of £1.5 million during Euro 1996, which Molde accepted. Solskjær made his final appearance for Molde on 21 July 1996 in a 5–1 win against Start, scoring the fourth goal in the 85th minute, before throwing his shirt to the crowd in celebration and receiving applause as he was substituted. He finished his time at Molde with 41 goals in 54 games in all competitions.

Manchester United.

1996–97 season: Debut.

Solskjær joined Manchester United under Alex Ferguson on 29 July 1996, and was something of a surprise acquisition as he was almost unknown outside his homeland and at the time United were still in the hunt for Blackburn Rovers and England striker Alan Shearer, who then joined Newcastle United for a world-record £15 million. As the only striker to arrive at Old Trafford that year, it was widely expected that his first season would be spent as a backup to Eric Cantona and Andy Cole with only occasional first-team opportunities. However, within weeks of his arrival it was clear that he would be a key part of the first team sooner than had been anticipated, and would also prove himself to be one of the biggest Premier League bargains of the season.  He was issued with the number 20 shirt for the 1996–97 season, a squad number he would retain for the rest of his Manchester United career.

1997–98 season.

Solskjær scored his first goal of the 1997–98 season on 24 September 1997 in a 2–2 draw against Chelsea, equalising in the 86th minute after coming off the bench 20 minutes earlier. On 1 November, he scored a brace against Sheffield Wednesday during a 6–1 victory at Old Trafford, netting in the 41st and 75th minutes. Solskjær got his second brace on 30 November, scoring in the 18th and 53rd minutes of United's 4–0 victory over Blackburn Rovers. On 24 January 1998, he scored his third brace of the season in a 5–1 win against Division Two team Walsall in the FA Cup fourth round, adding the second and fourth goals in the 35th and 67th minutes. Solskjær started in the UEFA Champions League quarter-final second leg at Old Trafford against Monaco

1998–99 season: Continental Treble.

Solskjær stayed at Old Trafford even though other clubs showed interest in the player in 1998. He refused an offer from Tottenham Hotspur, after Manchester United had accepted a £5.5 million bid for him. He scored his first goals of the 1998–99 campaign in a 4–1 victory over Charlton Athletic on 9 September 1998, netting in the 38th and 63rd minutes. On 11 November, Solskjær put two past Nottingham Forest in a 2–1 win, helping United advance to the fifth round of the League Cup. He scored his third brace of the season against Tottenham Hotspur on 12 December, scoring in the 11th and 18th minute of an eventual 2–2 draw. After again turning down a move away from Manchester United, this time to West Ham, Solskjær came on in the 81st minute of Manchester United's FA Cup fourth round tie against rivals Liverpool on 24 January with United 1–0 down at the time; shortly after Dwight Yorke's equaliser, Solskjær scored the winning goal in injury time.

1999–2000 season.

Solskjær scored his first goal of the 1999–2000 season on 11 August 1999, netting in the 84th minute in a 4–0 win over Sheffield Wednesday. On 2 November, he scored a sublime volley during a 2–1 victory against Austrian team Sturm Graz in the UEFA Champions League. Solskjær won the Intercontinental Cup on 30 November, as Manchester United beat Brazilian team Palmeiras 1–0 at the National Stadium in Tokyo, Japan. On 4 December, he put four goals past Everton in a 5–1 victory at Old Trafford, the second of which was Solskjær's 50th goal for the club

2000–01 season.

Solskjær's opportunities were limited at the start of the 2000–01 season, however he scored on his second start of the season on 16 September 2000 as United beat Everton 3–1. On 31 October, he netted a brace during a 3–0 victory against Watford in the League Cup third round, scoring in the 12th and 81st minutes. He scored another brace on 23 December, against Ipswich Town in a 2–0 victory. Three days later, Solskjær helped United snatch a 1–0 win against

2001–02 season.

After a few years of coming on as the super-sub, Solskjær got a chance as a starter in the 2001–02 season, paired up with Dutch striker Ruud van Nistelrooy. He took the opportunity with characteristic incisiveness, forcing Andy Cole and Dwight Yorke onto the bench. He scored his first goals of the season on 22 September 2001, in a 4–0 victory over Ipswich Town, with Solskjær netting two – the second from a difficult angle. On 23 October, Solskjær came off the bench in the 73rd minute against Olympiacos, with the score level at 0–0, and within six minutes broke the deadlock – helping United eventually win 3–0. Four days later, he came off the bench while United were 1–0 down against Leeds United, and snatched an equaliser in the 89th minute – heading in a Ryan Giggs' cross. On 12 December, he scored a brace and

2002–03 season.

By the 2002–03 season, both Andy Cole and Dwight Yorke had left Old Trafford, leaving Solskjær, Diego Forlán and Van Nistelrooy to compete for a place in the starting line-up. Ferguson's persistence in playing Van Nistelrooy up front with Paul Scholes, or as a lone striker, meant that opportunities were limited. Solskjær scored Manchester United's first goal of the season on 17 August 2002, netting the winning goal (his 100th in all competitions) against West Bromwich Albion in

2003–06: Injury-plagued seasons.

At the start of 2003–04, Solskjær found himself as United's first-choice right winger. However, a knee injury suffered against Panathinaikos on 16 September 2003 put Solskjær out of action until February 2004. Solskjær returned from the injury for the season run-in and was man of the match in the FA Cup semi-final victory over Arsenal. He also played in the 2004 FA Cup Final, which the club won. Solskjær was forced to undergo

2006–07 season: Back from injury.

Solskjær made his long-awaited return to action on 5 December 2005, playing for United's reserves against Liverpool. Spectators numbering 2,738 showed up to witness the comeback of the popular Norwegian – an above-average turn-out for a reserve team match. He made his first-team return as a substitute in the match against Birmingham City on 28 December. He then finally made his first start in January 2006 in an FA Cup match against Burton Albion, before playing a full game as a captain in the third round replay. His return to full fitness slowly continued with regular appearances in the reserves, until on 8 March 2006 when, during a game against Middlesbrough, he was accidentally

2008: Testimonial.

On 2 August 2008, a testimonial match was played in honour of Solskjær at Old Trafford against Espanyol. Almost 69,000

Super sub role.

At Manchester United, Solskjær earned wide acclaim for a habit of coming into matches late on as a substitute and scoring goals. Ferguson remarked that Solskjær has a knack of sitting on the bench and studying the game without taking his eye off the action. Reflecting on this aspect of his career years later, Solskjær said: "I had to think about myself, how can I do the most damage for the opposition if I come on? I sat there and I studied football games but I didn't exactly analyse their strikers. [...] Instead I would pay attention to what the defenders and full-backs were doing wrong."

International career.

Solskjær made his international debut in a friendly match against Jamaica on 26 November 1995, just a few months before he joined Manchester United. The game finished in a 1–1 draw with Solskjær scoring the only goal for Norway. He continued his great goal scoring start by scoring three goals in his first competitive appearances for the national team during the 1998 World Cup qualifying campaign.  Solskjær played in both the 1998 FIFA World Cup

Managerial career.

First step into coaching.

Solskjær signed his last player contract with Manchester United on 31 March 2006, with a provision to allow him to develop his coaching awards. He also acted in an ambassadorial role for the club, when he travelled to Hong Kong in 2006 and played with students at the Manchester United Soccer School in Hong Kong. When interviewed by Setanta Sports in August 2007, Solskjær confirmed he would train to be a coach after retiring from professional football, and would start to earn the required badges after his last season with Manchester United. Following his retirement, Solskjær worked for Ferguson at Old Trafford, coaching

Molde.

On 9 November 2010, Solskjær signed a four-year contract with the Norwegian club Molde to take over as manager, where he played prior to moving to Manchester United. Solskjær continued as Manchester United Reserves manager until January 2011, when he took over at Molde for the start of the new season.  On 18 March 2011, Molde played their first league game under Solskjær and suffered an embarrassing 3–0 defeat to newly promoted Sarpsborg 08. They played their first home game of the season on 3 April, where despite coming from 1–0 down to lead 2–1 they were held to a 2–2 draw by league leaders Tromsø. Molde's first goal under Solskjær was scored in this game, by Senegalese striker Pape Paté Diouf. On 17 April 2011, Solskjær won his first Tippeligaen game at Molde with the 3–2 home

Cardiff City.

On 2 January 2014, Solskjær was announced as manager of Cardiff City. He won his first game in charge after coming from behind to beat Newcastle United 2–1 in the third round of the FA Cup two days later. Cardiff then struggled

Return to Molde.

On 21 October 2015, Solskjær returned to Molde, signing a three-and-a-half-year contract to become their new manager. His first match back in charge was the next day, with Molde defeating Celtic 3–1 at home in the Europa League group stage. His first game in the league was a 2–1 away win against Aalesunds on 25 October. He won the next, and final, two games of the 2015 Tippeligaen against Viking and Start, with Molde finishing in sixth. Meanwhile, in the Europe League group stage, Solskjær guided Molde to first place, ahead of Fenerbahçe, Ajax and Celtic. On 14 December, Molde was drawn against the title holders and eventual champions Sevilla in the Round of 32. Molde lost

Manchester United.

Manchester United appointed Solskjær as caretaker manager on 19 December 2018, taking over from José Mourinho for the rest of the 2018–19 season. He was scheduled to return to Molde in May 2019, with his assistant coach Erling Moe acting as caretaker manager during Solskjær's absence in the pre-season and the first matches of the 2019 Eliteserien, which was scheduled to start on 31 March 2019. Solskjær later suggested that he would need to sign a new contract with Molde if he

Personal life.

During his time in England, Solskjær lived in Bramhall with his wife, Silje, and their three children, Noah, Karna and Elijah. He has admitted that he is not his son Noah's favourite player – his former United teammate Wayne Rooney is, while drawing inspiration from Michael Carrick. Noah is also a footballer, who plays as a midfielder for Kristiansund BK and made his professional debut in a friendly against Ole's Manchester United side in July 2019.  On 24 October 2008, Solskjær was awarded the First Class Knighthood of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav by King Harald V

Honours.

Player.

Clausenengen

Manager.

Manchester

Ole Gunnar Solskjær KSO (; born 26 February 1973) is a Norwegian professional football manager and former player. He is currently the manager of English club Manchester United. As a player, he played as a forward and spent most of his career with Manchester United. Solskjær also supervises a training academy for young footballers in his home town of Kristiansund, and is a patron of the Manchester United Supporters' Trust.

奥勒·居纳尔·索尔斯克亚(挪威语:,1973年-2月26日),出生于挪威基士扬松,前职业足球员,退役后任职足球教练,现时任职英超俱乐部曼联领队。


Distribution.

The American flamingo breeds in the Galápagos Islands, coastal Colombia, Venezuela and nearby islands, northern Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago, along the northern coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), the Bahamas, Virgin Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and in extreme southern Florida. The population in the Galápagos Islands differs genetically from that in the Caribbean, and the Galápagos flamingos are significantly smaller, exhibit sexual dimorphism in body shape, and lay smaller eggs. They are sometimes separated as "Phoenicopterus ruber glyphorhynchus".  Its preferred habitats are similar to those of its relatives: saline lagoons, mudflats, and shallow, brackish coastal or inland lakes. An example habitat is the Petenes mangroves ecoregion of the Yucatán.

In Florida.

The American flamingo is also found in South Florida and the Florida Keys, both of which were likely the northernmost extent of its distribution. The existence of flamingo eggs in museum collections labeled as collected from Florida indicates that they likely nested there as well. Since the arrival of Europeans, the population started to decline, up until the 1900s, where it was considered completely extirpated. During the 1950s, birds from the captive population at Hialeah Park frequently escaped, thus leading to the conclusion that all modern flamingos in Florida were escapees, although at least one bird banded as a chick in the Yucatán Peninsula has been sighted in Everglades National Park, and others may be vagrant birds from Cuba.  However, a study published in 2018, involving an abandoned young flamingo named Conchy found in Key West, indicates that the occasional flamingos observed in parts of Florida are in fact natives, with some even permanently staying in Florida Bay year-round. The study also indicated that these flamingos may be increasing in population and reclaiming their lost range, slowly but steadily returning home. Large flocks of flamingos are still known to visit Florida from time to time, most notably in 2014, when a very large flock of over 147 flamingos temporarily stayed at Stormwater Treatment Area 2, on Lake Okeechobee, with a few returning the following year. From a distance, untrained eyes can also confuse it with the roseate spoonbill.

Description.

The American flamingo is a large wading bird with reddish-pink plumage. Like all flamingos, it lays a single chalky-white egg on a mud mound, between May and August; incubation until hatching takes from 28 to 32 days; both parents brood the young for a period up to 6 years when they reach sexual maturity. Their life expectancy of 40 years is one of the longest in birds.  Adult American flamingos are smaller on average than greater flamingos, but are the largest flamingos in the Americas. They measure from tall. The males weigh an average of, while females average. Most of its plumage is pink, giving rise to its earlier name of rosy flamingo and differentiating adults from the much paler greater flamingo. The wing coverts are red, and the primary and secondary flight feathers are black. The bill is pink and white with an extensive black tip. The legs are entirely pink. The call is a goose-like honking.  It is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds applies.

Mating and bonding behaviors.

Mating and bonding behaviors of "P. ruber" individuals have been extensively studied in captivity. The American flamingo is usually monogamous when selecting a nest site, and incubating and raising young; however, extra-pair copulations are frequent. While males usually initiate courtship, females control the process. If interest is mutual, a female walks by the male, and if the male is receptive, he walks with her. Both parties make synchronized movements until one member aborts this process. For low-intensity courtships, males and females walk in unison with their heads raised. In high-intensity courtships, males and females walk at a quick pace with their heads dropped in a false feeding posture. This high-intensity courtship stops at any point if either bird turns and the other does not follow, the heads are raised, unison movements are stopped, or the pace of movement is slowed. If the female is ultimately receptive to copulation, she stops walking and presents for the male. Long-term pairs do not frequently engage in courtship behaviors or in-group display. Pairs often stand, sleep, and eat in close proximity.  Courtship is most often seen among individuals that change partners often or are promiscuous. A spectrum of pairing relationships is seen. Some birds have a long-term partner throughout the year; others form pairs during periods of courtship and nest attendance. How long a relationship lasts is affected by many factors, including addition and removal of adults, maturation of juveniles, and occurrence of trios and quartets. In most pairs, both individuals usually construct and defend the nest site. In rare cases, one individual undertakes both duties. Within trios, the dominant pair begins the nesting process by choosing and then defending the site.  For trios with one male and two females, the subordinate female is tolerated by the male, but often fights with the dominant female. If two females share a nest and both lay an egg, one female will try to destroy the other egg or roll it out of the nest. For trios with two males and one female, the subordinate male is tolerated by both individuals and often becomes the primary incubator and caregiver of the chicks. For quartets, the dominant male and two females take care of the nest, while the subordinate male remains around the periphery, never gaining access to the nest. Less animosity is observed between the dominant and subordinate females in quartets compared to trios.  The egg is attended constantly and equally by alternating parents. Chicks at the nest are attended constantly by alternating parents, up to 7–11 days of age. Most attentive periods during incubation and brooding last 21–60 hours, both in the case where the ‘off-duty’ parents remain in the same lagoon to feed, or (when breeding occurs in lagoons deficient in food), they fly to other lagoons to feed. Nest reliefs during incubation take place predominantly in late afternoon, or early morning.  The time for receiving food from parents decreases from hatching to about 105 days, and the decrease is greatest after the chicks have left the nest at 7–11 days to band into crèches. The frequency and the duration of feeds by male and female partners do not differ significantly. After chicks have left the nest, feeds are predominantly nocturnal.

Adaptations.

The American flamingo has adapted to its shallow-water environment in several ways. It has evolved long legs and large webbed feet to wade and stir up the bottom of the water bed to bring up their food source to then be retrieved. To feed, it has evolved a specialized beak which is hooked downward and features marginal lamellae on the upper mandible, and inner and outer lamellae on both the upper and lower mandibles. These are adapted for filtering out differently sized food from water. Depending on the food source in their area, diets depend on the exact morphology of their beaks on what can and cannot be strained out of them. It submerges its head under water to retrieve its food, and may have its head under water for long times, which requires it to hold its breath. Factors which affect the habitat choice of American flamingos are environmental temperatures, water depth, food source, accessibility of an area, and the presence of vegetation beds in feeding areas. If available food items do not meet the needs of the flamingos or the temperature is not appropriate to their requirements, they move to a better feeding or more temperate area.

Osmoregulation.

The role of osmoregulation—the maintenance of a precise balance of solute and water concentrations within the body—is performed by a number of bodily functions working together. In "P. ruber", the kidney, the lower gastrointestinal tract, and the salt glands work together to maintain the homeostasis between ions and fluids. In mammals, the kidneys and urinary bladder are the primary organs used in osmoregulation. Birds, however, lack a urinary bladder and must compensate using these three organs.  American flamingos are saltwater birds that ingest food with a high salt content and mostly drink salt water (with an osmolarity of usually 1000), hyperosmotic to the bodies cells. Also, though not commonly, they can drink fresh water at near-boiling temperatures from geysers. From their high-salt diet, they would lose more water and have a greater salt uptake. One way in which they osmoregulate is through the use of a salt gland, which is found in their beaks. This salt gland helps excrete excess salt from the body through the nasal openings in the flamingo's beaks. When these birds consume salt, the osmolarity increases in the blood plasma through the gut. This causes water to move out of the cells, increasing extracellular fluids. Both these changes, in turn, activate the salt glands of the bird, but before any activity occurs in the salt glands, the kidney has to reabsorb the ingested sodium from the small intestine. As seen in other saltwater birds, the fluid that is excreted has been seen to have an osmolarity greater than that of the salt water, but this varies with salt consumption and body size.  As food and saltwater are ingested, sodium and water absorption begins through the walls of the gut and into the extracellular fluid. Sodium is then circulated to the kidney, where the plasma undergoes filtration by the renal glomerulus. Although birds' kidneys tend to be larger in size, they are inefficient in producing concentrated urine that is significantly hyperosmotic to their blood plasma. This form of secretion would cause dehydration from water loss. Therefore, sodium and water are reabsorbed into the plasma by renal tubules. This increase in osmotic plasma levels causes extracellular fluid volume to increase, which triggers receptors in both the brain and heart. These receptors then stimulate salt gland secretion and sodium is able to efficiently leave the body through the nares while maintaining a high body water level.  Flamingos, like many other marine birds, have a high saline intake, yet even the glomular filtration rate (GFR) remains unchanged. This is because of the salt glands; high concentrations of sodium are present in the renal filtrate, but can be reabsorbed almost completely where it is excreted in high concentrations in the salt glands. Renal reabsorption can be increased through the output of the antidiuretic hormone called arginine vasotacin (AVT). AVT opens protein channels in the collection ducts of the kidney called aquaporins. Aquaporins increase the membrane permeability to water, as well as causes less water to move from the blood and into the kidney tubules.

Specialized osmoregulatory cells and transport mechanisms.

The salt gland used by the American flamingo has two segments, a medial and lateral segment. These segments are tube shaped glands that consist of two cell types. The first is the cuboidal – peripheral cells which are small, triangular shaped cells which have only a few mitochondria. The second specialized cells are the principal cells which are found down the length of the secretory tubules, and are rich in mitochondria. These cells are similar to the mitochondria rich cells found in teleost fish.  These cells within the salt gland employ several types of transport mechanisms that respond to osmoregulatory loads. Sodium-Potassium ATPase works with a Sodium-Chloride cotransporter (also known as the NKCC), and a basal potassium channel to secrete salt (NaCl) into secretory tubes. The ATPase uses energy from ATP to pump three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions into the cell. The potassium channel allows potassium ions to diffuse out of the cell. The cotransporter pumps one sodium, potassium and two chloride ions into the cell. The chloride ion diffuses through the apical membrane into the secretory tube and the sodium follows via a paracellular route. This is what forms the hyperosmotic solution within the salt glands.

Circulatory system.

Although there has been little investigation on the specific circulatory and cardiovascular system of the phoenicopteridae, they possess the typical features of an avian circulatory system. As is seen in other aves, the flamingo's circulatory system is closed maintaining a separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. This maximizes their efficiency to meet their high metabolic needs during flight. Due to this need for increased cardiac output, the avian heart tends to be larger in relation to body mass than what is seen in most mammals.

Heart type and features.

The avian circulatory system is driven by a four-chambered, myogenic heart contained in a fibrous pericardial sac. This pericardial sac is filled with a serous fluid for lubrication. The heart itself is divided into a right and left half, each with an atrium and ventricle. The atrium and ventricles of each side are separated by atrioventricular valves which prevent back flow from one chamber to the next during contraction. Being myogenic, the hearts pace is maintained by pacemaker cells found in the sinoatrial node, located on the right atrium. The sinoatrial node uses calcium to cause a depolarizing signal transduction pathway from the atrium through right and left atrioventricular bundle which communicates contraction to the ventricles. The avian heart also consists of muscular arches that are made up of thick bundles of muscular layers. Much like a mammalian heart, the avian heart is composed of endocardial, myocardial and epicardial layers. The atrium walls tend to be thinner than the ventricle walls, due to the intense ventricular contraction used to pump oxygenated blood throughout the body.

Organization of circulatory system.

Similar to the atrium, the arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart. Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo vasoconstriction, and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body. As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow. Travelling through the arterioles blood moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur. Capillaries are organized into capillary beds in tissues, it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste. In the capillary beds blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues. Once the blood has become deoxygenated it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure. As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called vasodilation bringing blood back to the heart. Once the blood reaches the heart it moves first into the right atrium, then the left ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body. With respect to thermoregulation, the American flamingo has highly vascularized feet that use a countercurrent exchange system in there legs and feet. This method of thermoregulation keeps a constant gradient between the veins and arteries that are in close proximity in order to maintain heat within the core and minimize heat loss or gain in the extremities. Heat loss is minimized while wading in cold water, while heat gain is minimized in the hot temperatures during rest and flight.

Physical and chemical properties of pumping blood.

Avian hearts are generally larger than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass. This adaptation allows more blood to be pumped to meet the high metabolic need associated with flight. Birds, like the flamingo, have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood; birds have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than mammals. As a result, birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal. The American flamingo's four-chambered heart is myogenic, meaning that all the muscle cells and fibers have the ability to contract rhythmically. The rhythm of contraction is controlled by the pace maker cells which have a lower threshold for depolarization. The wave of electrical depolarization initiated here is what physically starts the heart's contractions and begins pumping blood. Pumping blood creates variations in blood pressure and as a result, creates different thicknesses of blood vessels. The Law of LaPlace can be used to explain why arteries are relatively thick and veins are thin.

Blood composition.

It was widely thought that avian blood had special properties which attributed to a very efficient extraction and transportation of oxygen in comparison to mammalian blood. This is not true; there is no real difference in the efficiency of the blood, and both mammals and birds use a hemoglobin molecule as the primary oxygen carrier with little to no difference in oxygen carrying capacity. Captivity and age have been seen to have an effect on the blood composition of the American flamingo. A decrease in white blood cell numbers was predominate with age in both captive and free living flamingos, but captive flamingos showed a higher white blood cell count than free living flamingos. One exception occurs in free living flamingos with regards to white blood cell count. The number of eosinophils in free living birds are higher because these cells are the ones that fight off parasites with which a free living bird may have more contact than a captive one. Captive birds showed higher hematocrit and red blood cell numbers than the free living flamingos, and a blood hemoglobin increase was seen with age. An increase in hemoglobin would correspond with an adults increase in metabolic needs. A smaller mean cellular volume recorded in free living flamingos coupled with similar mean hemoglobin content between captive and free living flamingos could show different oxygen diffusion characteristics between these two groups. Plasma chemistry remains relatively stable with age but lower values of protein content, uric acid, cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids were seen in free living flamingos. This trend can be attributed to shortages and variances in food intake in free living flamingos.

Blood composition and osmoregulation.

Avian erythrocytes (red blood cells) have been shown to contain approximately ten times the amount of taurine (an amino acid) as mammal erythrocytes. Taurine has a fairly large list of physiological functions; but in birds, it can have an important influence on osmoregulation. It helps the movement of ions in erythrocytes by altering the permeability of the membrane and regulating osmotic pressure within the cell. The regulation of osmotic pressure is achieved by the influx or efflux of taurine relative to changes in the osmolarity of the blood. In a hypotonic environment, cells will swell and eventually shrink; this shrinkage is due to efflux of taurine. This process also works in the opposite way in hypertonic environments. In hypertonic environments cells tend to shrink and then enlarge; this enlargement is due to an influx in taurine, effectively changing the osmotic pressure. This adaptation allows the flamingo to regulate between differences in salinity.

Respiratory system.

Relatively few studies have focused on the flamingo respiratory system, however little to no divergences from the standard avian anatomical design have occurred in their evolutionary history. Nevertheless, some physiological differences do occur in the flamingo and structurally similar species.  The respiratory system is not only important for efficient gas exchange, but for thermoregulation and vocalization. Thermoregulation is important for flamingos as they generally live in warm habitats and their plush plumage increases body temperature. Heat loss is accomplished through thermal polypnea (panting), that is an increase in respiratory rate. It has been seen that the medulla, hypothalamus and mid-brain are involved in the control of panting, as well through the Hering-Breuer reflex that uses stretch receptors in the lungs, and the vagus nerve. This effect of the panting is accelerated by a process called gular fluttering; rapid flapping of membranes in the throat which is synchronized with the movements of the thorax. Both of these mechanisms promote evaporative heat loss, which allows for the bird to push out warm air and water from the body. Increases in respiratory rate would normally cause respiratory alkalosis because carbon dioxide levels are rapidly dropping in the body, but the flamingo is able to bypass this, most likely through a shunt mechanism, which allow it to still maintain a sustainable partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood. Since the avian integument is not equipped with sweat glands, cutaneous cooling is minimal. Because the flamingo's respiratory system is shared with multiple functions, panting must be controlled to prevent hypoxia.  For a flamingo, having such a long neck means adapting to an unusually long trachea. Tracheas are an important area of the respiratory tract; aside from directing air in and out of the lungs, it has the largest volume of dead space in the tract. Dead space in avians is around 4.5 times higher in mammals of roughly the same size. In particular, flamingos have a trachea that is longer than its body length with 330 cartilaginous rings. As a result, they have a calculated dead space twice as high as another bird of the same size. To compensate for the elongation, they usually breathe in deep, slow patterns.  One hypothesis for the bird's adaptation to respiratory alkalosis is tracheal coiling. Tracheal coiling is an overly long extension of the trachea and can often wrap around the bird's body. When faced with a heat load, birds often use thermal panting and this adaptation of tracheal coiling allows ventilation of non-exchange surfaces which can enable the bird to avoid respiratory alkalosis. The flamingo uses a "flushout" pattern of ventilation where deeper breaths are essentially mixed in with shallow panting to flush out carbon dioxide and avoid alkalosis. The increased length of the trachea provides a greater ability for respiratory evaporation and cooling off without hyperventilation.

Thermoregulation.

Thermoregulation is a matter of keeping a consistent body temperature regardless of the surrounding ambient temperature. Flamingos require both methods of efficient heat retention and release. Even though the American flamingo resides mainly close to the equator where there is relatively little fluctuation in temperature, seasonal and circadian variations in temperature must be accounted for.  Like all animals, flamingos maintain a relatively constant basal metabolic rate (BMR); the metabolic rate of an animal in its thermoneutral zone (TNZ) while at rest. The BMR is a static rate which changes depending on factors such as the time of day or seasonal activity. Like most other birds, basic physiological adaptations control both heat loss in warm conditions and heat retention in cooler conditions. Using a system of countercurrent blood flow, heat is efficiently recycled through the body rather than being lost through extremities such as the legs and feet.  Living in the equatorial region of the world, the American flamingo has little variation in seasonal temperature changes. However, as a homeothermic endotherm it is still faced with the challenge of maintaining a constant body temperature while being exposed to both the day (light period) and night (dark period) temperatures of its environments. "Phoenicopterus ruber" have evolved a number of thermoregulatory mechanisms to keep itself cool during the light period and warm during the dark period without expending too much energy. The American flamingo has been observed in a temperature niche between. In order to prevent water loss through evaporation when temperatures are elevated the flamingo will employ hyperthermia as a nonevaporative heat loss method keeping its body temperature between. This allows heat to leave the body by moving from an area of high body temperature to an area of a lower ambient temperature. Flamingos are also able to use evaporative heat loss methods such as, cutaneous evaporative heat loss and respiratory evaporative heat loss. During cutaneous heat loss, "Phoenicopterus ruber" relies on evaporation off of the skin to reduce its body temperature. This method is not very efficient as it requires evaporation to pass through the plumage. A more efficient way to reduce its body temperature is through respiratory evaporative heat loss, where the flamingo engages in panting to expel excessive body heat. During the dark period the flamingos tend to tuck their heads beneath their wing to conserve body heat. They may also elicit shivering as a means of muscular energy consumption to produce heat as needed. One of the most distinctive attribute of "P. ruber" is its unipedal stance, or the tendency to stand on one leg. While the purpose of this iconic posture remains ultimately unanswered, strong evidence supports its function in regulating body temperature. Like most birds, the largest amount of heat is lost through the legs and feet; having long legs can be a major disadvantage when temperatures fall and heat retention is most important. By holding one leg up against the ventral surface of the body, the flamingo lowers the surface area by which heat exits the body. Moreover, it has been observed that during periods of increased temperatures such as mid-day, flamingos will stand on both legs. Holding a bipedal stance multiplies the amount of heat lost from the legs and further regulates body temperature.

Migration.

Like other flamingo species, American flamingos will migrate short distances to ensure that they get enough food or because their current habitat has been disturbed in some way. One habitat disturbance that has been observed to cause flamingos to leave their feeding grounds is elevated water levels. These conditions make it difficult for "Phoenicopterus ruber" to wade, hindering their ability to access food. The flamingos will then abandon their feeding grounds in search of an alternate food source. While the flights are not as long as other migratory birds, flamingos still fly for periods without eating.

Metabolism.

For the most part flamingos are not all that different from other salt water wading birds. They will fast when migrating to a new habitat or the chicks may not receive food daily depending on food availability.

The American flamingo ("Phoenicopterus ruber") is a large species of flamingo closely related to the greater flamingo and Chilean flamingo. It was formerly considered conspecific with the greater flamingo, but that treatment is now widely viewed (e.g. by the American and British Ornithologists' Unions) as incorrect due to a lack of evidence. It is also known as the Caribbean flamingo, although it is also present in the Galápagos Islands. It is the only flamingo that naturally inhabits North America.

美洲红鹳(学名:'),又名加勒比海红鹳,是一种大型的火烈鸟,与大红鹳及智利火烈鸟是近亲。牠们与大红鹳以往被认为是同一物种,但现已广泛否定这个说法。虽然牠们又名加勒比海红鹳,但其实并非分布在加勒比海,而是有分布在科隆群岛造成误会。


History.

The first accordion to feature a piano keyboard was probably the instrument introduced in 1852 by Bouton of Paris. Another source claimed the first piano accordion was introduced in 1854 at the Allegemeine Deutsche Industrieausstellung in Munich. It was showcased by the instrument builder Mattäus Bauer and quickly became a serious competitor to button accordions.  The first chromatic piano-like accordions in Russia were built in 1871 by Nikolay Ivanovich Beloborodov.  In the United States, the piano accordion dramatically increased in popularity between 1900 and 1930 because of its familiarity to students and teachers, and its uniformity, whereby accordion dealers and instructors did not have to support different styles of accordions for many European immigrant groups. The piano keyboard layout was also promoted by the fame of Vaudeville performers Guido Deiro and his brother Pietro who premiered the instrument on stage, recordings and radio. After the Deiro's success, popular chromatic button accordionist Pietro Frosini chose to disguise his accordion's buttons to look like a piano keyboard so as not to appear "old-fashioned." (See Accordion music genres) The piano accordion is the official city instrument of San Francisco  As of 1972 it could be largely said that the piano system dominated the English-speaking North American continent, Scotland, and certain East European countries, while differing button systems are generally to be found in Scandinavia, France, Belgium and former Soviet countries. The piano accordion is also predominant in Italy, New Zealand, Australia and South Africa.

Comparison to chromatic button layout.

Compared to a chromatic button layout, the advantages of using a piano layout on an accordion would be the layout's logical simplicity, the relative size of the buttons for fast legato flows, its similarity in form to other keyboard instruments, and its layout compared to standard notation. However, it has a smaller range, is too big to reach notes far apart, such as two octaves, requires more finger movement to operate, and requires learning twelve fingering patterns to play in every possible key, instead of three as on the chromatic button accordion.

A piano accordion is an accordion equipped with a right-hand keyboard similar to a piano or organ. Its acoustic mechanism is more that of an organ than a piano, as they are both wind instruments, but the term "piano accordion"—coined by Guido Deiro in 1910—has remained the popular name. It may be equipped with any of the available systems for the left-hand manual.

键盘式手风琴(又称为钢琴式手风琴)为手风琴的一种类别,另一种为键钮式手风琴(巴扬手风琴)。中国大陆、台湾、中西欧、北美主要使用键盘式手风琴,而在俄罗斯则较常使用键钮式手风琴。键盘式手风琴由于比较容易上手,因此常作为学习钢琴的基础,可以演奏各种古典或现代音乐。