Equation.

General.

The general equation is where

Understanding the terms involved.

The right-hand side of the equation is the sum of three contributions.

Common simplifications.

In a common situation, the diffusion coefficient is constant, there are no sources or sinks, and the velocity field describes an incompressible flow (i.e., it has zero divergence). Then the formula simplifies to:  In this form, the convection–diffusion equation combines both parabolic and hyperbolic partial differential equations.  In non-interacting material, (for example, when temperature is close to absolute zero, dilute gas has almost zero mass diffusivity), hence the transport equation is simply:  Using Fourier transform in both temporal and spatial domain (that is, with integral kernel formula_4), its characteristic equation can be obtained:  which gives the general solution:  where formula_7 is any differentiable scalar function. This is the basis of temperature measurement for "near" Bose–Einstein condensate via time of flight method.

Stationary version.

The stationary convection–diffusion equation describes the steady-state behavior of a convective-diffusive system. In a steady state,, so the formula is:

Derivation.

The convection–diffusion equation can be derived in a straightforward way from the continuity equation, which states that the rate of change for a scalar quantity in a differential control volume is given by flow and diffusion into and out of that part of the system along with any generation or consumption inside the control volume: where is the total flux and is a net volumetric source for. There are two sources of flux in this situation. First, diffusive flux arises due to diffusion. This is typically approximated by Fick's first law: i.e., the flux of the diffusing material (relative to the bulk motion) in any part of the system is proportional to the local concentration gradient. Second, when there is overall convection or flow, there is an associated flux called advective flux: The total flux (in a stationary coordinate system) is given by the sum of these two: Plugging into the continuity equation:

Complex mixing phenomena.

In general,,, and may vary with space and time. In cases in which they depend on concentration as well, the equation becomes nonlinear, giving rise to many distinctive mixing phenomena such as Rayleigh–Bénard convection when depends on temperature in the heat transfer formulation and reaction–diffusion pattern formation when depends on concentration in the mass transfer formulation.

Velocity in response to a force.

In some cases, the average velocity field exists because of a force; for example, the equation might describe the flow of ions dissolved in a liquid, with an electric field pulling the ions in some direction (as in gel electrophoresis). In this situation, it is usually called the drift–diffusion equation or the Smoluchowski equation, after Marian Smoluchowski who described it in 1915 (not to be confused with the Einstein–Smoluchowski relation or Smoluchowski coagulation equation).  Typically, the average velocity is directly proportional to the applied force, giving the equation: where is the force, and characterizes the friction or viscous drag. (The inverse is called mobility.)

Derivation of Einstein relation.

When the force is associated with a potential energy (see conservative force), a steady-state solution to the above equation (i.e. ) is: (assuming and are constant). In other words, there are more particles where the energy is lower. This concentration profile is expected to agree with the Boltzmann distribution (more precisely, the Gibbs measure). From this assumption, the Einstein relation can be proven:

Smoluchowski convection-diffusion equation.

The Smoluchowski convective-diffusion equation is a stochastic (Smoluchowski) diffusion equation with an additional convective flow-field, In this case, the force describes the conservative interparticle interaction force between two colloidal particles or the intermolecular interaction force between two molecules in the fluid, and it is unrelated to the externally imposed flow velocity. The steady-state version of this equation is the basis to provide a description of the pair distribution function (which can be identified with ) of colloidal suspensions under shear flows.  An approximate solution to the steady-state version of this equation has been found using the method of matched asymptotic expansions. This solution provides a theory for the transport-controlled reaction rate of two molecules in a shear flow, and also provides a way to extend the DLVO theory of colloidal stability to colloidal systems subject to shear flows (e.g. in microfluidics, chemical reactors, environmental flows). The full solution to the steady-state equation, obtained using the method of matched asymptotic expansions, has been developed by Alessio Zaccone and L. Banetta to compute the pair distribution function of Lennard-Jones interacting particles in shear flow.

As a stochastic differential equation.

The convection–diffusion equation (with no sources or drains, ) can be viewed as a stochastic differential equation, describing random motion with diffusivity and bias. For example, the equation can describe the Brownian motion of a single particle, where the variable describes the probability distribution for the particle to be in a given position at a given time. The reason the equation can be used that way is because there is no mathematical difference between the probability distribution of a single particle, and the concentration profile of a collection of infinitely many particles (as long as the particles do not interact with each other).  The "Langevin equation" describes advection, diffusion, and other phenomena in an explicitly stochastic way. One of the simplest forms of the Langevin equation is when its "noise term" is Gaussian; in this case, the Langevin equation is exactly equivalent to the convection–diffusion equation. However, the Langevin equation is more general.

Numerical solution.

The convection–diffusion equation can only rarely be solved with a pen and paper. More often, computers are used to numerically approximate the solution to the equation, typically using the finite element method. For more details and algorithms see: Numerical solution of the convection–diffusion equation.

Similar equations in other contexts.

The convection–diffusion equation is a relatively simple equation describing flows, or alternatively, describing a stochastically-changing system. Therefore, the same or similar equation arises in many contexts unrelated to flows through space. where is the momentum of the fluid (per unit volume) at each point (equal to the density multiplied by the velocity ), is viscosity, is fluid pressure, and is any other body force such as gravity. In this equation, the term on the left-hand side describes the change in momentum at a given point; the first term on the right describes viscosity, which is really the diffusion of momentum; the second term on the right describes the advective flow of momentum; and the last two terms on the right describes the external and internal forces which can act as sources or sinks of momentum.

In biology.

In biology, the reaction–diffusion–advection equation is used to model chemotaxis observed in bacteria, population migration, evolutionary adaptation to changing environments, and the spatiotemporal dynamics of molecular species including morphogenesis. An example is a study of VEGFC patterning in the context of lymphangiogenesis.

In semiconductor physics.

In semiconductor physics, this equation is called the drift–diffusion equation. The word "drift" is related to drift current and drift velocity. The equation is normally written: where  The diffusion coefficient and mobility are related by the Einstein relation as above: where is the Boltzmann constant and is absolute temperature. The drift current and diffusion current refer separately to the two terms in the expressions for, namely:  This equation can be solved together with Poisson's equation numerically. An example of results of solving the drift diffusion equation is shown on the right. When light shines on the center of semiconductor, carriers are generated in the middle and diffuse towards two ends. The drift–diffusion equation is solved in this structure and electron density distribution is displayed in the figure. One can see the gradient of carrier from center towards two ends.

The convection–diffusion equation is a combination of the diffusion and convection (advection) equations, and describes physical phenomena where particles, energy, or other physical quantities are transferred inside a physical system due to two processes: diffusion and convection. Depending on context, the same equation can be called the advection–diffusion equation, drift–diffusion equation, or (generic) scalar transport equation.

漂移-扩散方程是用来描述半导体中载流子的运动规律的方程。它描述了两类运动:扩散电流和漂移电流。漂移扩散方程和泊松方程一起可以用来计算半导体内的电势分布和载流子浓度分布,该模型应用广泛,属于用半经典性模型。


Discovery.

The HATNet Project team initially detected the transits of HAT-P-11b from analysis of 11470 images, taken in 2004 and 2005, by the HAT-6 and HAT-9 telescopes. The planet was confirmed using 50 radial velocity measurements taken with the HIRES radial velocity spectrometer at W. M. Keck Observatory.  At the time of its discovery HAT-P-11b was the smallest radius transiting extrasolar planet discovered by a ground based transit search and was also one of three previously known transiting planets within the initial field of view of the Kepler spacecraft.  There was a linear trend in the radial velocities indicating the possibility of another planet in the system. This planet, HAT-P-11c, was confirmed in 2018.

Characteristics.

This planet orbits about the same distance from the star as 51 Pegasi b is from 51 Pegasi, typical of transiting planets. However, the orbit of this planet is eccentric, at around 0.198, unusually high for hot Neptunes. HAT-P-11b's orbit is also highly inclined, with a tilt of approximately 103 degrees relative to its star's rotation.  The planet fits models for 90% heavy elements. Expected temperature is 878 ± 15K. Actual temperature must await calculations of secondary transit.  On 24 September 2014, NASA reported that HAT-P-11b is the first Neptune-sized exoplanet known to have a relatively cloud-free atmosphere and, as well, the first time molecules, namely water vapor, of any kind have been found on such a relatively small exoplanet.  In 2009 French astronomers observed what was thought to be a weak radio signal coming from the exoplanet. In 2016 scientists from the University of St Andrews set out to solve the mystery. They assumed that the signal was real and was coming from the planet and investigated whether it can be produced by lightning on HAT-P-11b. Assuming that the underlying physics of lightning is the same for all Solar System planets, like Earth and Saturn, as well as on HAT-P-11b, the researchers found that 3.8 × 10^6 lightning flashes of Saturnian lightning-strength in a square kilometre per hour would explain the observed radio signal on HAT-P-11b. This storm would have been so enormous that the largest thunderstorms on Earth or Saturn would have produced <1% of the strength of the signal coming from the planet.

HAT-P-11b (or Kepler-3b) is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star HAT-P-11. It was discovered by the HATNet Project team in 2009 using the transit method, and submitted for publication on 2 January 2009.

HAT-P-11b是一颗环绕视星等为10等的K型恒星HAT-P-11运行的系外行星。科学家使用凌日法发现了该行星,发现结果于2009年1月2日对外公布。该行星位于天鹅座,距离地球123光年。在其发现之时,该行星是已知的最小的会产生凌星现象的系外行星,其真实质量比地球大26倍,半径比地球大4.58倍。类似于飞马座51b,该行星与其中央恒星的距离也很小,仅为0.053天文单位,这是凌星行星的典型特征。不过该行星的轨道离心率为0.198,对于热木星来说显得过高。现今HAT-P-11系统正处于开普勒太空望远镜的观测视场之内。


History.

"Kotaku" was first launched in October 2004 with Matthew Gallant as its lead writer, with an intended target audience of young men. About a month later, Brian Crecente was brought in to try to save the failing site. Since then, the site has launched several country-specific sites for Australia, Japan, Brazil and the UK. Previous contributors to the site include Luke Smith. Crecente was named one of the 20 most influential people in the video game industry over the past 20 years by GamePro in 2009 and one of gaming's Top 50 journalists by Edge in 2006. The site has made CNET's "Blog 100" list and was ranked 50th on "PC Magazine"s "Top 100 Classic Web Sites" list. Its name comes from the Japanese "otaku" (obsessive fan) and the prefix "ko-" (small in size).  In April 2014, Gawker Media partnered with Future plc to launch "Kotaku UK", and with Allure Media to launch "Kotaku Australia".  "Kotaku" is currently run by Stephen Totilo, who replaced Brian Crecente in 2012.  Kotaku was one of several websites that was purchased by Univision Communications in their acquisition of Gawker Media in August 2016; Gizmodo Media Group was subsequently founded to house the Gawker acquisitions, operating under the Fusion Media Group, a division of Univision. The Gizmodo Media Group was later acquired by the private equity firm Great Hill Partners in April 2019, and renamed G/O Media.  The transition to G/O Media had let to several departures from the site, as well as from other sister sites under the form Gawker Media label due to conflicts with G/O Media's management. Cecilia D'Anastasio left "Kotaku" in December 2019 to become a journalist for "Wired". Joshua Rivera and Gita Jackson left in January 2020 stating it was impossible to work with the new management. Jason Schreier, one of "Kotaku"s writers since 2012 known for in-depth coverage of working conditions at various studios and development histories for various games, announced his departure from the site on April 16, 2020, citing the issues surrounding G/O Media which filtered into disruptions at their sister website "Deadspin" around October 2019. Schreier subsequently took a position at "Bloomberg News". In May 2020, senior writer Heather Alexandra departed from Kotaku, similarly citing conflicts with management, and joined Double Fine Productions as their content and community manager.

Controversy.

In 2007, attorney Jack Thompson sued Gawker Media and site editor Brian Crecente over concerns that "Kotaku" declined to remove threatening user comments, but the lawsuit was dismissed the next day. In 2009, Business Insider reported that Hearst Corporation sought to buy "Kotaku" from Gawker Media. In 2010, "Kotaku" criticized Japanese magazine Famitsu's glowing endorsement of a Konami game as a conflict of interest; Konami subsequently revoked "Kotaku"s invitation to the game's launch party. In 2013, "Forbes" criticized "Kotaku" over what they called an inflammatory headline in a story about Hideki Kamiya; "Kotaku" rewrote the headline.

Blacklistings.

In 2007, Kotaku ran a story about rumored upcoming features on the PlayStation 3, and Sony responded by temporarily blacklisting the website. The site claimed in 2015 that they had been blacklisted by major game companies Bethesda Softworks and Ubisoft.

Gamergate controversy.

In 2014, Kotaku was part of the accusations that instigated the Gamergate controversy when a writer from the site, Nathan Grayson, was alleged to have written a favorable review of the game "Depression Quest" due to his relationship with its developer, Zoë Quinn. After conducting an internal review, it was discovered that no review of "Depression Quest" existed and he had only written one article that mentioned her in passing before their relationship began. The subreddit /r/KotakuInAction became a hub for the Gamergate community. Its creator attempted to shut it down in 2018, claiming that it had become a "viral cancer", but it was reinstated by a Reddit administrator due to the site's guidelines.

Kotaku is a video game website and blog that was originally launched in 2004 as part of the Gawker Media network. Univision Communications bought Gawker Media in August 2016 and rebranded it as Gizmodo Media Group, later renamed as G/O Media.

Kotaku是一个以电子游戏为主的博客。其为高客传媒所属“Gawker”网络的站点之一,其它几个站点还包括Gizmodo、Deadspin、Lifehacker、io9和Jezebel。Kotaku被选入了CNET新闻的博客100中,此外还一直排在Technorati百强博客的前40位。Kotaku目前正以Stephen Totilo为首,其他编辑还有布赖恩·阿什克拉夫特,卢克·宾吉和迈克尔·费伊和欧文·古德。Kotaku的前成员包括Bungie工作室的卢克·史密斯,IGN.com的吉姆·莱利,FastCompany.com的亚当·贝伦布莱特,Wired.com的约翰·布朗利(笔名弗洛里安·埃克哈特),Eliza Gauger和VOX游戏Brian Crecente。


History.

The app was first introduced in March 2014 for iPhones, followed on April 3 by a version for Android devices.  In July 2015, FireChat introduced private messaging. Until then, it had only been possible to post messages to public chatrooms.  In May 2016, FireChat introduced FireChat Alerts to allow users to send push alerts during a specific time and place. This feature was aimed for aid workers doing disaster relief and was developed from a partnership with Marikina a city in the Philippines.

Usage.

FireChat first became popular in 2014 in Iraq following government restrictions on internet use, and thereafter during the 2014 Hong Kong protests. In 2015, FireChat was also promoted by protesters during the 2015 Ecuadorian protests. On September 11, 2015, during the pro-independence demonstration called Free Way to the Catalan Republic, FireChat was used 131,000 times.  In January 2016, students protested at the University of Hyderabad, India, following the suicide of a PhD student named Rohith Vemula. Some students were reported to have used Firechat after the university shut down its Wi-Fi.  The current version (Oct 2018) seems to be a fork of riot.im.

Security.

In June 2014, Firechat's developers told "Wired" that "[p]eople need to understand that this is not a tool to communicate anything that would put them in a harmful situation if it were to be discovered by somebody who's hostile... It was not meant for secure or private communications."  As of July 2015, FireChat claims to use end-to-end encryption to protect its one-to-one private messages.

FireChat was a proprietary mobile app, developed by Open Garden, which uses wireless mesh networking to enable smartphones to connect via Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, or Apple's Multipeer Connectivity Framework without an internet connection by connecting peer-to-peer.

FireChat是一个专有的移动应用,由开放花园公司开发。它能使智能手机在没有互联网连接时,经由蓝牙、Wi-Fi或苹果公司的多点连线(Multipeer Connectivity)形成无线网状网络的连线。


History.

Early passive versions simply integrated left, centre and right speakers into one enclosure, sometimes called an "LCR soundbar".  Altec Lansing introduced a multichannel soundbar in 1998 called the Voice Of The Digital Theatre or the ADA106. It was a powered speaker system that offered stereo, Dolby Pro-Logic and AC3 surround sound from the soundbar and a separate subwoofer. The soundbar housed four 3′′ full range drivers and two 1′′ tweeters while the subwoofer housed one 8′′ dual voice coil driver. The Voice Of The Digital Theatre used Altec Lansing’s side-firing technology and algorithms to provide surround sound from the sides, rear and front. This configuration eliminated the wiring of separate speakers and the space they would require.  Pioneer Electronics (U.S.) Inc. announced the PDSP-1 in 2002, the world's first digital sound projector that utilizes a single-source speaker panel to deliver discreet 5.1 channel surround sound audio with more than 500 watts of power.  Polk Audio had a pre-existing method of widening a stereo image by cancelling crosstalk from the left speaker to the right ear and vice versa. They expanded this to give a surround effect from one cabinet which they call a SurroundBar around 2005. The tag-line was "Five channels. One speaker. Zero clutter."  Philips worked on similar technology, called Ambisound, which was spawned in 2007 from an earlier technology called SonoWave. The latter had the sound bar split into two units, with a phased array of three full-range drivers in each.  Yamaha's YSP-1 Digital Sound Projector won the Best of Show award at the January 2005 Consumer Electronics Show. As well as large left and right drivers, it had a phased array of about 40 small centre drivers. These would be configured automatically by running a setup program with included test microphone to control sound reflected from the walls of the room.  HEOS by Denon launched the HEOS HomeCinema system in June 2015. It includes a sub-woofer and soundbar featuring dual 2′′ × 5′′ precision drivers that produce upper bass and mid-range audio for high fidelity sound with response extending to 20 kHz.

Advantages and disadvantages.

Soundbars are relatively small and can be easily positioned under a display, are easy to set up, and are usually less expensive than other stereo sound systems. However, because of their smaller size and lack of flexibility in positioning, soundbars do not fill a room with sound as well as separate speaker stereo systems do.

Soundbar hybrid.

To take advantages both from soundbar and stereo set system, some manufacturers produce soundbar hybrids in which the soundbar represents left, center, and right speakers plus (wireless) subwoofer and rear-left and rear-right speakers. Sometimes producers make soundbars with left, center, and right speakers plus detachable charge rear-left and rear-right speakers.

Usage.

Soundbars were primarily designed to generate strong sound with good bass response. Soundbar usage has increased steadily as the world has moved to flat-screen displays. Earlier television sets and display units were primarily CRT-based; hence the box was bigger, facilitating larger speakers with good response. But with flat-screen televisions the depth of the screen is reduced dramatically, leaving little room for speakers. As a result, the built-in speakers lack bass response. Soundbars help to bridge this gap. Manufacturers such as Bose, Pioneer, Polk, and Yamaha are leaders in the high-performance soundbar segment. Soundbars also eliminate the issue of inherent audio loss, when sound emitted from the rear of a TV or monitor immediately reflects off the wall behind the unit.

Soundbases.

A soundbase is similar to a soundbar but designed for a TV to stand on. Because of their larger size, soundbases typically have better bass sound than soundbars, unless the latter has a separate subwoofer.

Popular Brands.

Popular brands include: Bose, Boston Acoustics, Coby, Denon, Funai, Harman Kardon, Insignia, JBL, Klipsch, LG, Onkyo, Panasonic, Philips, Pioneer, Polk Audio, Yamaha, Zvox Roku, Samsung, Sonos, Sony, Vizio, and Yamaha.

A soundbar, sound bar or media bar is a type of loudspeaker that projects audio from a wide enclosure. It is much wider than it is tall, partly for acoustic reasons, and partly so it can be mounted above or below a display device, e.g., above a computer monitor or under a home theater or television screen. Basically, in a soundbar multiple speakers are placed in a single cabinet, which helps to create surround sound and/or stereo effect. A separate subwoofer is typically included with, or may be used to supplement, a soundbar.

条形音箱(英语:Soundbar)是一个有立体声效的音箱,通常放置于萤幕的上方或下方,基于声学的考虑,此种音箱多为长条形设计,故名。


Description.

This is a medium-sized snake with a rather thin body compared to other cobras. The body color of this species is variable from grey to brown to black, with white spots or stripes. The white patterning can be so prolific that it covers the majority of the snake. The highly distinctive black and white colour phase is common in central Thailand, specimens from western Thailand are mostly black, whereas individuals from elsewhere are usually brown. The hood mark can be spectacle-shaped, irregular or missing altogether, especially in adults. Adults average long, and can reach a maximum of though this is very rare.  This species should not be confused with the monocled cobra ("Naja kaouthia"), which has similar habitat, size and appearance.

Scalation.

There are 25-31 scale rows around the hood, 19-21 just ahead of midbody; 153-174 ventral scales, 45-54 subcaudal scales, and basal pairs are sometimes undivided.

Distribution and habitat.

It is found in Southeast Asia, including Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos. May occur in eastern Myanmar but no records are known. It occupies a range of habitats including lowlands, hills, plains, and woodland. It can also be found in jungle habitat and it is sometimes attracted to human settlements because of the abundant populations of rodents in and around these areas.

Behavior and diet.

It is a primarily nocturnal species. It shows variable temperament depending on the time of day it is encountered. When threatened during daylight hours, the snake is generally timid and seeks refuge in the nearest burrow. However, when the snake is threatened at night, it is more aggressive and is more likely to stand its ground, rear up and display its hood and spit out its venom. If spitting venom doesn't work, it will strike and bite as a last resort. When biting, this species tends to hold on and chew savagely. It usually feeds on rodents, toads, and other snakes.

Reproduction.

The snake is oviparous. The female will lay 13-19 eggs 100 days after oviposition. Eggs will hatch after 48 to 70 days depending on the temperature of incubation. Offspring are independent as soon as they have hatched. Hatchlings are 12–20 cm long and, because they possess fully developed venom delivery systems, should be treated with the same respect as adults.

Venom.

Like most other spitting cobras, its venom is primarily a postsynaptic neurotoxin and cytotoxin (necrotizing or tissue-death). The of its venom is 1.07-1.42 mg/gram of mouse body weight. Bite symptoms include pain, swelling and necrosis around the wound. The bite of this snake is potentially lethal to an adult human. Deaths, which generally happen due to paralysis and consequent asphyxiation, mainly occur in rural areas where the procurement of antivenin is difficult.  If the snake spits venom into the eyes of an individual, the individual will experience immediate and severe pain as well as temporary and sometimes even permanent blindness.

Taxonomy.

This species was long confused with the monocled cobra ("Naja kaouthia") and the Chinese cobra ("Naja atra"), and extensive variation in pattern and scalation contributed to this confusion. Detailed morphological and molecular analyses revealed it to be a distinct species during the 1990s.

The Indochinese spitting cobra ("Naja siamensis") (Thai: งูเห่า, pronounced: nguu hao) also called the Thai spitting cobra, Siamese spitting cobra or black-and-white spitting cobra, is a species of spitting cobra found in Southeast Asia.

泰国眼镜蛇(学名:'),又名暹罗眼镜蛇或中南半岛射毒眼镜蛇、黑白射毒眼镜蛇,是分布在东南亚的一种射毒眼镜蛇。牠们会喷洒毒素到敌人身上,若毒素进入眼睛,就会产生剧毒或失明。


History.

The North Liberty area was first settled in 1838 by John Gaylor and Alonzo C. Dennison. It was originally known as "Big Bottom" or "North Bend" (in reference to its location near the bend of the Iowa River) by its earliest settlers and was later known as "Squash Bend" before the city was platted as North Liberty in 1857.  North Liberty incorporated on November 10, 1913, at which time its population was approximately 190. Population growth accelerated in the 1960s, and the Iowa City Community School District opened Penn Elementary there in 1961. A 1967 special census placed the city's population at 782, and by 1980 the population had grown to over 2,000. In 1984, in response to the population growth, the North Liberty Community Library was founded, and Penn Meadows Park, the city's largest, was opened. By 2000, the population of the city was over 5,000. The city had established its own police and fire departments and built a community center with library and aquatic park, as well as a city administration building. The city has since continued to grow, with a population of 7,224 in a 2004 special census. In 2007, the population was estimated to be 10,982, making North Liberty the second fastest-growing city in Iowa. According to the 2010 U.S. census the population of North Liberty had increased to 13,374.

Geography.

North Liberty is located at (41.743029, -91.607807).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land.  North Liberty is located on the Iowan erosion surface. Drivers on I-380 experience an abrupt transition from the muted topography of the Iowan surface to the rolling hills of the Southern Iowa drift plain, four miles south of North Liberty.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 13,374 people, 5,492 households, and 3,262 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 5,761 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 90.2% White, 4.5% African American, 0.2% Native American, 1.8% Asian, 0.9% from other races, and 2.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.5% of the population.  There were 5,492 households of which 37.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.4% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.6% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.08.  The median age in the city was 29.2 years. 28.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 44% were from 25 to 44; 15.3% were from 45 to 64; and 3.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 5,367 people, 2,259 households, and 1,400 families living in the city. The population density was 791.9 people per square mile (305.6/km2). There were 2,377 housing units at an average density of 350.7/sq mi (135.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 95.38% White, 1.53% African American, 0.17% Native American, 0.82% Asian, 0.11% Pacific Islander, 0.78% from other races, and 1.21% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.38% of the population.  There were 2,259 households out of which 35.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.6% were married couples living together, 9.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.0% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 3.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.95.  26.8% are under the age of 18, 11.5% from 18 to 24, 43.9% from 25 to 44, 13.8% from 45 to 64, and 4.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.2 males.

Education.

A majority of North Liberty residents live within the boundaries of the Iowa City Community School District, while the area west of Jones Boulevard (and the Deerfield Subdivision) belongs to the Clear Creek Amana Community School District.  Public schools in or serving students from North Liberty include the following:  Heritage Christian School is a nondenominational Christian school in North Liberty, Iowa, for students that are in pre-kindergarten to eighth grade. It was founded in 1992.  A 2017 poll by LendEDU gave North Liberty an Education Grade of 84.51, placing it 9th among its Top 500 Most Educated Cities. North Liberty is the only non-coastal city listed in the top 10. According to the study, the number of advanced-degree holding residents has a strong correlation with several social goods, including "a good number of high paying jobs in the area, an excellent schooling system to educate the next generation, nearby higher education institutions, and more."

Infrastructure.

The sewage from the city is treated at a modern and sophisticated treatment plant using Membrane Bio-Reactor(MBR) technology followed by UV sterilization. It is designed to be able to discharge more than 2 million gallons of high-quality effluent to Muddy Creek each day.

VLBA Node.

The radio telescope located northeast of North Liberty (; designation "NL") on Mehaffey Bridge Road is one of ten dishes comprising the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA).

North Liberty is a city in Johnson County, Iowa, United States. It is a suburb of Iowa City and part of the Iowa City Metropolitan Statistical Area.

北利柏提(英语:North Liberty)是一个位于美国爱荷华州约翰逊县的城市。


History.

Non-League beginnings.

Wimbledon Old Central Football Club were formed in 1889, taking its name from the Old Central School on Wimbledon Common where players had been pupils. The club's first match was a 1–0 victory over Westminster, and it only took seven years for success to come to Wimbledon as the club won both the Clapham League and the Herald League in 1895–96. Wimbledon won the Clapham League again in 1900–01, as well as two minor trophies. A meeting was convened on 1 May 1905, and the decision was taken to drop "Old Central" from the club's name – the club became Wimbledon Football Club, and under its new name the club won the South London Charity Cup the same year – however, excessive debts caused the club to fold in 1910. The club was restarted a year later under the name Wimbledon Borough, though "Borough" was dropped from the team's name after barely a year. The club continued to play on Wimbledon Common and at various other locations in the Wimbledon area until 1912, when the side settled at Plough Lane. Wimbledon joined the Athenian League for 1919–20, and in the second season in its new division finished as runners-up. The club then joined the Isthmian League. Winning four Isthmian League titles during the 1930s, and reaching the FA Amateur Cup final in 1934–35, Wimbledon began to prosper. The club reached another FA Amateur Cup final in 1946–47, and finished as runners-up in the league twice over the next few seasons. Wimbledon won the Isthmian League for the fifth time in 1958–59 before starting a period of domination that saw three successive championships – 1961–62, 1962–63 and 1963–64. Wimbledon also lifted the FA Amateur Cup in 1962–63, beating Sutton United 4–2: the club's all-time top goalscorer, Eddie Reynolds, scored all four Wimbledon goals with his head, and in doing so became the only player to have headed in all four of his side's goals in a Wembley match – as of 2012, still a unique feat. Following these successes the decision was taken to turn professional for the 1964–65 season and to enter the Southern League. Wimbledon had continued success in their new league, finishing as runners-up at the first attempt. Wimbledon became nationally famous during an FA Cup run during the 1974–75 season: entering the competition at the first qualifying round, Wimbledon saw off first Bracknell Town, then Maidenhead United, Wokingham Town, Guildford & Dorking United, Bath City and Kettering Town to find themselves in the third round proper. They then became the first non-League team that century to beat a First Division side away from home by defeating Burnley at Turf Moor. In the fourth round the good form continued, as the team held the reigning First Division champions Leeds United to a 0–0 draw at Elland Road. Goalkeeper Dickie Guy saved a penalty from Peter Lorimer to earn a replay, which was narrowly lost 1–0 by an own goal in front of over 40,000 spectators at Selhurst Park. After winning the Southern League three times running from 1974–75 to 1976–77, Wimbledon were elected to The Football League in place of Workington for the 1977–78 season.

The Football League.

The 1977–78 season was a satisfactory Football League debut for Wimbledon, who finished 13th in the Fourth Division. Allen Batsford had resigned as manager on 2 January 1978 to be succeeded by Dario Gradi, who guided the club to promotion in 1978–79. Wimbledon's first stay in the Third Division was not a successful one. The team struggled, and were relegated in bottom place, winning just 10 league games all season. Following relegation, relocation to Milton Keynes was considered – chairman Ron Noades entered talks with the Milton Keynes Development Corporation about the possibility of moving the club to the new town, but the plan was never executed.  Still in south London, 1980–81 saw Wimbledon regain Third Division status at the first attempt, at the end of an eventful season which saw chairman Ron Noades walk out of the club to take over Crystal Palace, taking manager Dario Gradi to Selhurst Park with him. At Plough Lane, assistant manager Dave Bassett was promoted to manager. Under Bassett, Wimbledon were relegated in 22nd place. Just before the survival battle was lost, injured defender Dave Clement committed suicide. Wimbledon once again regained Third Division status at the first time of asking, triumphing as Fourth Division champions in 1982–83, and in the next season the Wimbledon players continued to excel as they achieved a second promotion to the Second Division after finishing runners-up with 97 league goals.  1984–85 was Wimbledon's first season in the Second Division, and everyone at the club was prepared for long and hard struggle to preserve this status. A 12th-place finish was more than satisfactory for a club that was playing at this level for the first time. The next year started well for Wimbledon as Middlesbrough were defeated 3–0 on the opening day of the season – the team was soon looking like a contender for promotion. Promotion in third place was sealed on the final day of the season with an away victory at Huddersfield Town. Thus, Wimbledon had reached the First Division, only four years after playing in the Fourth Division and nine years after being elected into The Football League.

The top flight.

Many observers tipped Wimbledon to go straight back down in 1986–87, but after losing the first game of the season away at Manchester City, Wimbledon won the next four games to perch atop the league table on 1 September. Wimbledon eventually finished sixth, before Dave Bassett moved on to Watford. His successor was Bristol Rovers manager Bobby Gould. Dubbed "The Crazy Gang" because of the eccentric behaviour of its players, fans and chairman, Sam Hammam, the club's greatest moment came in 1988 when, very much against expectation, the team won the FA Cup, beating overwhelming favourites Liverpool 1–0 with a goal from Lawrie Sanchez. 37,000 Wimbledon fans witnessed captain Dave Beasant becoming the first goalkeeper to save a penalty in an FA Cup final, stopping John Aldridge's shot. The only downside of this triumph was the fact that the club would not be able to compete in the European Cup Winners' Cup, as the ban on English teams from European competition following the Heysel Stadium Disaster was still in operation at this time. Just days after the FA Cup triumph, Wimbledon directors announced plans to build a new all-seater stadium in the club's home borough of Merton. In the season following the FA Cup triumph, Gould steered Wimbledon to a secure 12th-place finish in the First Division, and in 1989–90 the side finished eighth. Despite these successes, Bobby Gould was replaced by Ray Harford in 1990, who in the same year as Wimbledon's FA Cup triumph had guided Luton Town to victory in the League Cup. Under Harford's management, Warren Barton was purchased for £300,000 while Wimbledon had another strong season in 1990–91, finishing seventh.  Nothing came of the plans for a new ground and at the end of 1990–91 the club's board decided that Plough Lane was beyond redevelopment to meet the new FA rule requiring all-seater stadiums. Consequently, the club moved to Selhurst Park before the 1991–92 season, ground-sharing with Crystal Palace. Harford suddenly resigned in October 1991, to be replaced by Peter Withe. Withe lasted until just after the turn of the new year, when Joe Kinnear was promoted from the role of youth team coach, initially taking over as interim manager. After guiding Wimbledon to 13th place in the First Division and booking a place in the inaugural FA Premier League, Kinnear got the manager's job on a permanent basis.  1992–93 began as a struggle for Wimbledon – the club were third from bottom on Boxing Day. However, the team recovered well in the new year and finished 12th. The next season was one of Wimbledon's best seasons to date as the side finished sixth in the FA Premier League and reached the quarter-finals of the League Cup. Wimbledon remained hard to beat in 1994–95, finishing ninth in the league. During the close season the Dons made their first and only appearance in a UEFA European competition, being required by the FA to enter the Intertoto Cup. However, after fielding an under-strength side containing reserves, youth team players and unsigned trialists in their group stage games, the club – along with Tottenham Hotspur – were banned from European competition for the following season. Not that it mattered; after losing Barton to Newcastle, 1995–96 saw a drop to 14th. Wimbledon made a fine start to the 1996–97 campaign – after losing the first three fixtures, the players proceeded to win their next seven and reach second place in the FA Premier League. There was delight in early February when they eliminated Manchester United from the FA Cup – Wimbledon reached both the FA Cup semi-finals and the semi-finals of the League Cup. Wimbledon's last hope of qualifying for European competition now lay with a challenge for a top-five league finish, but the team could only manage eighth.

Relegation and relocation.

The 1997–98 season looked highly promising for Wimbledon as late on as Christmas, as the team were regularly in the top five. However, the side's form in the second half of the season was less impressive, and the club dipped to 15th place in the final table – the lowest finish yet for Wimbledon in the top flight. A similar pattern followed in 1998–99 – a good start followed by a slump. As late on as mid-March, the team were on the fringe of a UEFA Cup place. The club record signing of West Ham United striker John Hartson boosted hopes of success for Wimbledon, but a terrible run of form in the final weeks of the season saw the side dip to 16th in the final table. Wimbledon again reached the League Cup semi-finals that season – losing to eventual winners Tottenham Hotspur.  Joe Kinnear stepped down as manager in June 1999 due to ill health, and was succeeded by Norwegian coach Egil Olsen. Wimbledon reached the quarter-finals of the League Cup, but the team's league form slowly deteriorated during the second half of the season. Olsen left in early May with the club threatened by relegation. Long-serving coach Terry Burton took over, but on 14 May 2000, 12 years to the day after the FA Cup win, the side were relegated from the top flight after 14-years after a 2–0 defeat at Southampton and 1–0 win for Bradford City over Liverpool. Burton remained manager of Wimbledon for two seasons in the second tier before he was sacked at the end of 2001–02 after the club had narrowly missed out on the promotion play-offs two seasons in a row.

Relocation, renaming, and foundation of AFC Wimbledon.

In August 2001, the club announced its intent to relocate to Milton Keynes. Despite opposition from the majority of Wimbledon fans, The Football League, and The Football Association, they were given permission to do so on 28 May 2002 after a 2–1 vote by the three-person, independent commission appointed by the F.A. The approval of the decision to move the club caused supporters who were against the move to found a new club, AFC Wimbledon, to which a majority of Wimbledon F.C. fans switched their allegiance.  Goalkeeping coach Stuart Murdoch was promoted to manager, and as attendances plummeted, Murdoch's team finished 10th in the league during the club's last full season at Selhurst Park. Wimbledon entered administration in June 2003, and played their first match in Milton Keynes in September. Although crowds attending the club's games at its new base were bigger than those at Wimbledon, the administrator in charge of the club's financial affairs sold any player who could command a transfer fee and Murdoch's team finished at the bottom of the league.  The club were brought out of administration at the end of the 2003–04 season, and subsequently renamed "Milton Keynes Dons".

Club identity.

The club's nickname was the Dons, though the club were also often referred to in the media as the Wombles from the mid-1970s onwards. Following the FA Cup victory in 1988, the term Crazy Gang also started to be applied; originally to the players, though over time to the club as a whole. The club introduced a character mascot in 2000, a Womble named Wandle the Womble. However, following the relocation of the club in 2003, the owners of the Wombles brand refused to renew the licensing agreement in protest at the move. Three years later, a deal was agreed that saw a similar character named Haydon the Womble appear at AFC Wimbledon.  The colours most associated with the club were blue and yellow. The club's first colours were navy blue and white, though the kit changed several times soon after the club's foundation, between combinations of: brown and blue striped shirts with navy blue shorts; green and white striped shirts with navy blue shorts; green shirts and black shorts; white shirts with navy blue shorts, and finally green and black striped shirts with black shorts. Royal blue shirts with navy blue shorts and socks were finally settled upon in 1918, initially bearing a "W" (for Wimbledon) in the centre of the chest. Wimbledon players then regularly wore royal blue shirts with black shorts and socks until a shift in the 1950s saw the shorts change from black to white. A combination of blue shirts, blue shorts and white socks was introduced in 1966, before being abandoned a year later in favour of an all-blue outfit. The white socks returned in 1970. A blue and yellow combination was first used in 1975, but was replaced after a year with an all-white outfit trimmed with blue, and this was the kit in which the club played its first season in the Football League. In 1978, Yellow shirts, blue shorts and yellow socks were adopted, before the club made the change to an all-blue strip with yellow markings in 1981. The kit underwent only minor changes until 1993, when a darker, deep navy blue replaced the royal blue shade that had been used for the previous twelve years. Wimbledon wore these colours for the remainder of their history. As for change colours, a red kit, with black trim, was a frequent choice in the 1990s. The club had a green away kit for the 2000–01 season. The first crest the club wore was the emblem of the Municipal Borough of Wimbledon. This emblem appeared on Wimbledon shirts from the late 1920s until the mid-1950s, when no badge was worn. The coat of arms returned in the early 1970s, before the club adopted its own badge on election to The Football League in 1977. The crest was very similar to the badge most commonly associated with the club – the difference being the inclusion of white rather than yellow. Yellow replaced white in 1981, and this logo was used until 2003. After the club's relocation to Milton Keynes was confirmed in May 2002, the College of Arms informed the club in August 2002 that its continued use of the Borough arms was illegal. A replacement, given the go-ahead on 12 April 2003, featured a stylised eagle's head – an element from the Wimbledon arms – drawn in navy blue and yellow outline, the yellow forming a stylized rendering of the letters "MK" (for Milton Keynes). Despite being officially adopted in April 2003, the logo's use was inconsistent: the club officially announced that it would be used "on all club kit, merchandise and literature from the start of [the 2003–04] season", including on a new white away kit and on an amended version of the previous season's home outfit, but this did not occur; both the home and away colours from 2002–03 were retained for the following year with the municipal arms still present. Moreover, the old crest continued to appear on official club statements towards the end of the 2003–04 season, making the status of the new badge ambiguous.

Mascot.

From 2000 to June 2003, the original Wimbledon F.C. had used a Womble mascot named ""Wandle"", named after the local River Wandle, as a club mascot. However, in light of the controversy over the moving of the club to Milton Keynes, the licence to use the character was withdrawn by the Wombles' creator, Elisabeth Beresford as a protest.

Stadium.

Wimbledon originally played on Wimbledon Common, using the Fox and Grapes public house in Camp Road as the team's headquarters and changing room. The club moved to Plough Lane in September 1912. During the 1930s and 1940s, crowds of between 7,000 and 10,000 were not uncommon at the ground. Wimbledon's highest attendance at the ground came on 2 March 1935, when 18,080 people were attracted to an FA Amateur Cup tie against HMS Victory. Floodlights were first used on 3 October 1960 in a London Charity Cup match against Arsenal.  The Plough Lane ground remained comparatively basic, and by the time the club had risen to the First Division the stadium had not changed greatly from Wimbledon's recent non-league days. At the time of the club's acceptance into The Football League in 1977, applicants had only to meet minimal stadium criteria, and once in the League these same criteria sufficed regardless of whether the club subsequently found itself in the Fourth or First Division. However, following the Hillsborough disaster and the subsequent Taylor Report, the football authorities introduced far stricter safety rules, which gave top-flight clubs specific deadlines by which to redevelop terraced grounds or to build new all-seater stadiums. The board of the club decided that Plough Lane could not be made to comply with these new requirements economically and, in 1990, they announced plans to temporarily groundshare with Crystal Palace at their Selhurst Park stadium.  Given the location of the Plough Lane ground, at the junction of two major roads and beside the River Wandle, major redevelopment of the site as a modern all-seater stadium might have been difficult, though not impossible. The club's board of directors maintained that it had "searched exhaustively with Merton Council" for a site in or around Merton on which to build a new stadium, looking at "14 different sites over a period of five years", in addition to commissioning feasibility studies for redeveloping both Plough Lane and the neighbouring site at Wimbledon Stadium. Despite this, nothing ever became of the board's continual promises to redevelop the site or to build a new ground within the borough, and the club remained as tenants at Selhurst Park for twelve years.  Wimbledon's first match at the National Hockey Stadium in Milton Keynes was played on 27 September 2003. The club remained there for the rest of its final season, and the ground became the first home of Milton Keynes Dons.

Supporters.

Due to Plough Lane's modest capacity and Wimbledon's unprecedented rise from non-League football to the First Division in under ten years, the club had a much lower level of support than its top-flight rivals. During Wimbledon's first season in The Football League, Wimbledon's average attendance was only 3,135 – however, by the club's appearance in the top flight nine years later the average attendance had risen by 149% to 7,811. Attendances did not immediately change much following the move to Selhurst Park in 1991 – however, the larger capacity gradually started to be used. Average crowds peaked at 18,235 in 1998–99, and during the next season, the team's final year in the FA Premier League, home crowds averaged 17,157. With relegation, attendances dropped to an average of only 7,897 during 2000–01 as organized supporter boycotts of matches in protest at the proposed relocation took effect. Wimbledon averaged 6,961 during the final season before the club's relocation to Milton Keynes was confirmed.  Following the sanctioning of the move, most of the team's support left, in specific protest at the club's relocation, to follow AFC Wimbledon, the new club founded by Wimbledon supporters. During the 2002–03 season, AFC Wimbledon's first and Wimbledon's last full season in south London, average crowds at the new club were actually higher than those at the original club. Attendances during the 2003–04 season, Wimbledon's last, were higher than those at AFC Wimbledon: Wimbledon averaged 4,751 at the National Hockey Stadium, compared to AFC Wimbledon's 2,606.  The club had two main supporters organisations– the long established official Wimbledon F.C. Supporters Club, which was tied to the club, and the more radical Wimbledon Independent Supporters Association (WISA) which was founded in 1995. The WISA was instrumental in the organisation of the supporter boycotts at Selhurst Park, and in the formation of The Dons Trust in March 2002. This trust, created in part to oppose the relocation to Milton Keynes, helped the WISA to found AFC Wimbledon months after its own establishment. Both the WISA and The Dons Trust from this point became affiliated to AFC Wimbledon, while the official Wimbledon F.C Supporters Club became defunct following the relocation.

Rivalries.

During much of Wimbledon's amateur and later semi-professional history, a strong local rivalry existed with neighbouring Tooting & Mitcham United F.C.  From the mid 1980s, the club's main rivals were considered by fans to be fellow south London club Crystal Palace (who were their landlord from 1991 to 2003) and west London-based Chelsea; however, neither of these rivalries was seriously reciprocated. Wimbledon were in the same division as Palace for a total of 11 seasons between 1984 and 2004, and in the same division as Chelsea for all but one season between 1986 and 2000.

Records and statistics.

The record for most appearances for Wimbledon was held by Roy Law, who turned out for the club 644 times between 1958 and 1972; Law's 433 league appearances was also a record. Wimbledon's all-time top goalscorer was Eddie Reynolds, who scored 340 goals in 329 matches between 1957 and 1966. The closest to Reynolds's record was Ian Cooke, who notched 297 between 1964 and 1977; Cooke also made the second highest total number of appearances for the team, having appeared 615 times in a Wimbledon shirt.  The records for most appearances and goals for Wimbledon in The Football League were both held by Alan Cork. Cork scored 145 league goals for the club in 430 matches. Cork also held the record for most Football League goals in a season, with 29 during 1983–84. Wimbledon's most capped player was Kenny Cunningham, who was capped 16 times for the Republic of Ireland during his time at the club. Wimbledon's most expensive signing was John Hartson, for whom the club paid West Ham United £7.5 million on 15 January 1999. The highest fee that the club received was the £7 million Newcastle United parted with to sign Carl Cort on 6 July 2000.  Wimbledon's best win was a 6–0 league victory over Newport County on 3 September 1983, while the worst defeat was an 8–0 League Cup defeat at Everton on 29 August 1978. Wimbledon's longest unbeaten league run was 22 matches between 15 January and 14 May 1984; the longest league run without a win, 14, was set between 19 March and 28 August 2000. Wimbledon's longest run of league wins was seven, set between 9 April and 7 May 1983 and matched from 4 September to 19 October 1996. Wimbledon's longest run of league defeats was the eleven matches lost in a row from 10 January to 27 March 2004.  Wimbledon's highest attendance, 30,115, was set on 9 May 1993 for the FA Premier League match against Manchester United at Selhurst Park but their official home attendance record is 18,080 vs HMS Victory in an FA Amateur Cup tie on 9 March 1935 at Plough Lane due to Selhurst Park being borrowed from Crystal Palace FC.

European record.

Both home matches in this competition were played at Brighton and Hove Albion's Goldstone Ground, as Selhurst Park was unavailable.

Managers.

Prior to the appointment of H. R. Watts as first team manager in 1930, a committee would deal with first team affairs, such as choosing the team on a matchday. Doc Dowden was appointed manager in 1946, and stayed in the position until leaving at the end of the 1954–55 season. Les Henley arrived in his place as first team coach, and stayed at the club for sixteen years in which the club progressed immensely, winning the FA Amateur Cup as well as three Isthmian League championships before turning professional and moving to the Southern League. However, in 1971 Henley was replaced by Mike Everitt, who arrived as player-manager. After two seasons, Everitt left to manage Brentford and Dick Graham arrived as a replacement. Graham remained until March 1974, and a replacement was not appointed until July of that year, when Allen Batsford was made manager. Batsford led Wimbledon to The Football League, but resigned only halfway through the first League season. Dario Gradi was made manager three days later, but after three seasons he too resigned. His replacement was Dave Bassett, who took Wimbledon to sixth in the First Division before moving to Watford. Bobby Gould spent three years as manager before being replaced by Ray Harford, who spent just over a season with Wimbledon. After Harford, Peter Withe had a spell as manager lasting only three months. Joe Kinnear was brought in during January 1992, and managed the club until leaving in 1999 due to ill health. A season was spent under Egil Olsen in which the team was relegated from the FA Premier League before Terry Burton was made manager. Burton's Wimbledon narrowly missed the play-offs twice in a row before he was sacked. Stuart Murdoch managed Wimbledon for the club's final two seasons.  "Managers from Dowden until Batsford sourced to:"  "Managers after Batsford sourced to:"

Honours.

Wimbledon were a successful club even before election to The Football League, winning eight Isthmian League titles (including three in a row from 1962 to 1964) and three successive Southern League titles (from 1975 to 1977). Having also won the FA Amateur Cup in 1963, the run of Southern League titles prompted Football League election in 1977.  Even at the higher level, Wimbledon continued to collect honours; the most notable being the FA Cup victory in 1988, which made Wimbledon only the third club to have won both the FA Cup and its amateur equivalent. Despite swift success in The Football League, the club's rapid ascent combined with short spells in the Second and Third Divisions meant that the team only won a solitary divisional championship within the League – the Fourth Division title of 1982–83.

Notes and references.

Footnotes References

Wimbledon Football Club was an English football club formed in Wimbledon, south-west London, in 1889 and based at Plough Lane from 1912 to 1991. Founded as Wimbledon Old Centrals, the club were a non-League team for most of their history. Nicknamed "the Dons" and latterly also "the Wombles", they won eight Isthmian League titles, the FA Amateur Cup in 1963 and three successive Southern League championships between 1975 and 1977, and were then elected to the Football League. The team rose quickly from obscurity during the 1980s and were promoted to the then top-flight First Division in 1986, just four seasons after being in the Fourth Division.

温布顿足球会(Wimbledon Football Club)是在英格兰西南伦敦的温布顿(Wimbledon)创建的足球会,于1889年以「温布顿旧中央学院」("Wimbledon Old Centrals")名义成立,于1905年更名为温布顿,在历史中大部分时间在非联赛中渡过,直到1970年代末至1980年代初火速升级到英格兰顶级联赛,由1986年到2000年期间先后在甲组联赛及后期重组的超级联赛中作赛。温布顿于1988年在足总杯决赛以1-0击败应届联赛冠军利物浦而夺标,是自嘉尔笃会隐修士旧生(Old Carthusians)后第二支分别赢得足总杯及足总业余杯(FA Amateur Cup)的球队,温布顿于1963年夺得后者的冠军。


Description.

In a paper titled "Traditionalism in Islam: An Essay in Interpretation", Harvard professor William A. Graham explains the ijazah system as follows: The basic system of "the journey in search of knowledge" that developed early in Hadith scholarship, involved travelling to specific authorities ("shaykhs"), especially the oldest and most renowned of the day, to hear from their own mouths their hadiths and to obtain their authorization or "permission" ("ijazah") to transmit those in their names. This ijazah system of personal rather than institutional certification has served not only for Hadith, but also for transmission of texts of any kind, from history, law, or philology to literature, mysticism, or theology. The "isnad" of a long manuscript as well as that of a short hadith ideally should reflect the oral, face-to-face, teacher-to-student transmission of the text by the teacher's ijazah, which validates the written text. In a formal, written ijazah, the teacher granting the certificate typically includes an isnad containing his or her scholarly lineage of teachers back to the Prophet through Companions, a later venerable shaykh, or the author of a specific book.

Hypothesis on origins of doctorate.

According to the "Lexikon des Mittelalters" and "A History of the University in Europe", the origin of the European doctorate lies in high medieval teaching with its roots going back to late antiquity and the early days of Christian teaching of the Bible. This view does not suggest any link between the "ijazah" and the doctorate. George Makdisi has instead stated that the "ijazah" was a type of academic degree or doctorate issued in medieval madrasahs, similar to that which later appeared in European medieval universities. Devin J. Stewart also sees a parallel, and asserts that "the license to teach law and issue legal opinions was clearly an actual document of official or legal standing," while also noting a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the "ijzazah" and a corporate entity in the case of the university). The theory of an Islamic origin of the degree was originally proposed in the 1930s by Alfred Guillaume, who cited the "ijazah" as a precursor to the "licentia docendi", which Syed Farid al-Attas agrees with.  Makdisi, in a 1970 investigation into the differences between the Christian university and the Islamic madrasah, was initially of the opinion that the Christian doctorate of the medieval university was the one element in the university that was the most different from the Islamic "ijazah" certification. In 1989, though, he said that the origins of the Christian medieval doctorate ("licentia docendi") date to the "ijāzah al-tadrīs wa al-iftā"' ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic legal education system. Makdisi proposed that the "ijazat attadris" was the origin of the European doctorate, and went further in suggesting an influence upon the magisterium of the Christian Church. According to the 1989 paper, the ijazat was equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the "Madh'hab" legal schools. To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and at least ten years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses," and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose" which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of "faqih" (meaning "master of law"), "mufti" (meaning "professor of legal opinions") and "mudarris" (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into Latin as "magister", "professor" and "doctor" respectively.  Madrasas issued the "ijazat attadris" in a single field, the Islamic religious law of Sharia. Other academic subjects, including the natural sciences, philosophy and literary studies, were treated "ancillary" to the study of the Sharia. The Islamic law degree in Al-Azhar University, the most prestigious madrasa, was traditionally granted without final examinations, but on the basis of the students' attentive attendance to courses. However, the postgraduate doctorate in law was only obtained after "an oral examination." In a 1999 paper, Makdisi points out that, in much the same way granting the "ijazah" degree was in the hands of professors, the same was true for the early period of the University of Bologna, where degrees were originally granted by professors. He also points out that, much like the "ijazat attadris" was confined to law, the first degrees at Bologna were also originally confined to law, before later extending to other subjects.  However, several other scholars have criticized Makdisi's work. Norman Daniel, in a 1984 paper, criticized an earlier work of Makdisi for relying on similarities between the two education systems rather than citing historical evidence for a transmission. He stated that Makdisi "does not seriously consider the spontaneous recurrence of phenomena", and notes that similarities between two systems do not automatically imply that one has created the other. He further states that there is a lack of evidence for schools in the short-lived Arab settlements of France and mainland Italy, which Makdisi argues may have been links between the Islamic and European educational systems, as well as a lack of evidence of the alleged transmission of scholastic ideas between the two systems altogether. In a discussion of Makdisi's 1989 thesis, Toby Huff argued that there was never any equivalent to the bachelor's degree or doctorate in the Islamic madrasahs, owing to the lack of a faculty teaching a unified curriculum.

An ijazah (, "permission", "authorization", "license") is a license authorizing its holder to transmit a certain text or subject, which is issued by someone already possessing such authority. It is particularly associated with transmission of Islamic religious knowledge. The license usually implies that the student has acquired this knowledge from the issuer of the "ijaza" through first-hand oral instruction, although this requirement came to be relaxed over time. An "ijaza" providing a chain of authorized transmitters going back to the original author often accompanied texts of hadith, fiqh and tafsir, but also appeared in mystical, historical, and philological works, as well as literary collections. While the "ijaza" is primarily associated with Sunni Islam, the concept also appears in the hadith traditions of Twelver Shia.

教统(Silsilah, Ijazah)亦可称道统、道谱,是指伊斯兰教各苏菲主义门宦历代教主承袭系统。


Early life.

Satyarthi was born in Vidisha, a small town in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh into a middle-class family. He was the second child and had an older brother. His father was a retired police head constable and his mother was an uneducated housewife with high morals. As per Satyarthi, this exceptionally idealistic and helpful nature of his mother had a big impact on him. He was raised in a locality ("mohalla") where Hindus and Muslims lived with each other. As a four-year-old toddler, he learned to read Urdu from the Maulvi at the neighboring mosque and learned Hindi and English in school. Satyarthi was significantly affected by the lack of school access for all children and his experiences with poverty in his youth. He made efforts when young to try to change these inequalities due to the circumstances of their birth.  Satyarthi completed his education in Vidisha. He attended Government Boys Higher Secondary School in Vidisha, and completed a undergraduate degree in electrical engineering at Samrat Ashok Technological Institute in Vidisha (then affiliated to the University of Bhopal, (now Barkatullah University) and a post-graduate degree in high-voltage engineering. Satyarthi joined a college in Bhopal as a lecturer for a few years.

Work.

In 1980, Sathyarthi gave up his career as an electrical engineer and then founded the Bachpan Bachao Andolan (Save Childhood Movement). He conceived and led the Global March Against Child Labor and its international advocacy body, the International Center on Child Labor and Education (ICCLE), which are worldwide coalitions of NGOs, teachers and trades unionists. He has served as the President of the Global Campaign for Education from its inception in 1999 to 2011. Sathyarthi is one of its four founders alongside ActionAid, Oxfam and Education International.  In 1998 Satyarthi conceived and led the Global March against Child Labour traversing across 103 countries covering 80,000 km to demand an International Law on Worst Forms of Child Labour. The march eventually led to the adoption of ILO Convention No. 182 on the worst forms of child labour.  He established GoodWeave International (formerly known as Rugmark) as the first voluntary labelling, monitoring and certification system of rugs manufactured without the use of child-labour in South Asia. In the late 1980s and early 1990s he focused its campaigns on raising consumer awareness on issues relating to the accountability of global corporations regarding socially responsible consumerism, trade and supply chains. Satyarthi has highlighted child labour as a human rights issue as well as a welfare matter and charitable cause. He has argued that it perpetuates poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, population growth, and other social problems, his claims have been supported by several studies. He has had a role in linking the movement against child labour with efforts for achieving "Education for All". Satyarthi has been a member of a UNESCO body and has been on the board of the Fast Track Initiative (now known as the Global Partnership for Education). Satyarthi had served on the board and committee of several international organisations including the Center for Victims of Torture (USA), the International Labor Rights Fund (USA), and the International Cocoa Foundation. He brought child labour and slavery into the post-2015 development agenda for the United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals.  Satyarthi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2014 "for the struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education". Satyarthi is the first natural-born Indian Nobel Peace Laureate.

Bharat Yatra.

The Bharat Yatra was launched by KSCF to spread awareness about child trafficking and sexual abuse. The campgain launched in Kanyakumari on 11 September 2017, and marched through seven routes covering 22 Indian states and Union Territories, and over 12,000 km. The campaign was aimed at starting a social dialogue about child sexual abuse and child trafficking, to taboo issues in India, to protect children vulnerable within their homes, communities, schools. The campaign collaborated with 5,000 civil society organizations, 60 Indian faith leaders, 500 Indian political leaders, 600 local, state and national bodies of the Indian government, 300 members of the Indian judiciary, and 25,000 educational institutions across India.  More than 1,200,000 marched for 35 days and led to the Criminal Law Amendment Act 2018 with a strict deterrent against child rape. The Yatra resulted in the Anti-Human Trafficking Bill being passed by the 16th Lok Sabha.

Personal life.

He lives in New Delhi, India. His family includes his wife, a son, daughter-in-law, a grandson, daughter and a son-in-law.

Awards and honours.

Satyarthi has been the subject of documentaries, television series, talk shows, advocacy and awareness films. In September 2017 India Times listed Satyarthi as one of the 11 Human Rights Activists Whose Life Mission Is To Provide Others with a Dignified Life Satyarthi has been awarded the following honours:

Kailash Satyarthi (born 11 January 1954) is an Indian social reformer who campaigned against child labour in India and advocated the universal right to education. In 2014, he was the co-recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, along with Malala Yousafzai, “for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education.” He is the founder of multiple social activist organizations, including Bachpan Bachao Andolan, Global March Against Child Labour, Global Campaign for Education and Kailash Satyarthi Children's Foundation.

凯拉西·萨塔亚提(英语:Kailash Satyarthi,1954年-1月11日),出生于印度中央邦维迪斯哈,印度儿童人权运动家。2014年与马拉拉·优素福扎伊(Malala Yousufzai)共同获得诺贝尔和平奖。


Characteristics.

Italian irredentism was not a formal organization but rather an opinion movement, advocated by several different groups, claiming that Italy had to reach its "natural borders" or unify territories inhabited by Italians. Similar nationalistic ideas were common in Europe in the late 19th century. The term "irredentism", coined from the Italian word, came into use in many countries (see List of irredentist claims or disputes). This idea of "Italia irredenta" is not to be confused with the Risorgimento, the historical events that led to irredentism, nor with nationalism or Imperial Italy, the political philosophy that took the idea further under fascism.  Irredentism in Italy originated as a consequence of the French expansion in Italy that started with the annexation of Corsica in 1768 and was followed by Napoleon's inclusion "–" inside the territories of France's First French Empire "–" of the regions of Piedmont, Liguria and Tuscany. The Corsican revolutionary Pasquale Paoli was called "the precursor of Italian irredentism" by Niccolò Tommaseo because he was the first to promote the Italian language and socio-culture (the main characteristics of Italian irredentism) in his island; Paoli wanted the Italian language to be the official language of the newly founded Corsican Republic. Pasquale Paoli's appeal in 1768 against the French invader said: Paoli's Corsican Constitution of 1755 was written in Italian and the short-lived university he founded in the city of Corte in 1765 used Italian as the official language.  During the 19th century, the Italian irredentism fully developed the characteristic of defending the Italian language from other people's languages like, for example, German in Switzerland and in the Austro-Hungarian Empire or French in Nice and Corsica.  The liberation of "Italia irredenta" was perhaps the strongest motive for Italy's entry into World War I and the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 satisfied many irredentist claims.  Italian irredentism has the characteristic of being originally moderate, requesting only the return to Italy of the areas with Italian majority of population, but after World War I it became aggressive – under fascist influence – and claimed to the Kingdom of Italy even areas where Italians were minority or had been present only in the past. In the first case there were the Risorgimento claims on Trento, while in the second there were the fascist claims on the Ionian Islands, Savoy and Malta.

Origins.

After the Italian unification and Third Italian War of Independence in 1866, there were areas with Italian-speaking communities within the borders of several countries around the newly created Kingdom of Italy. The irredentists sought to annex all those areas to the newly unified Italy. The areas targeted were Corsica, Dalmatia, Gorizia, the Ionian islands, Istria, Malta, County of Nice, Ticino, small parts of Grisons and of Valais, Trentino, Trieste and Fiume.  Different movements or groups born in this period: in 1877 the Italian politician Matteo Renato Imbriani invented the new term "terre irredente" ("unredeemed lands"); in the same year the movement "Associazione in pro dell'Italia Irredenta" ("Association for the Unredeemed Italy") was founded; in the 1885 was founded the "Pro Patria" movement ("For Fatherland") and in 1891 the "Lega Nazionale Italiana" ("Italian National League") was founded in Trento and Trieste (in the Austrian Empire).  Initially, the movement can be described as part of the more general nation-building process in Europe in the 19th and 20th centuries when the multi-national Austro-Hungarian, Russian and Ottoman Empires were being replaced by nation-states. The Italian nation-building process can be compared to similar movements in Germany ("Großdeutschland"), Hungary, Serbia and in pre-1914 Poland. Simultaneously, in many parts of 19th century Europe liberalism and nationalism were ideologies which were coming to the forefront of political culture. In Eastern Europe, where the Habsburg Empire had long asserted control over a variety of ethnic and cultural groups, nationalism appeared in a standard format. The beginning of the 19th century "was the period when the smaller, mostly indigenous nationalities of the empire – Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Ukrainians, Romanians – remembered their historical traditions, revived their native tongues as literary languages, reappropriated their traditions and folklore, in short reasserted their existence as nations". The notion of a single united Italy was related to the aspirations of the "majority populations".

19th century.

A precursor of the "irredentists" was the unification leader Giuseppe Garibaldi, who in 1859 as deputy for his native Nice in the Piedmontese parliament at Turin attacked Cavour for ceding Nice to Napoleon III in order to get French help and approval for Italian Unification. Irredentism grew in importance in Italy in the next years.  On 21 July 1878, a noisy public meeting was held at Rome with Menotti Garibaldi, the son of Giuseppe Garibaldi, as chairman of the forum and a clamour was raised for the formation of volunteer battalions to conquer the Trentino. Benedetto Cairoli, then Prime Minister of Italy, treated the agitation with tolerance.  However, it was mainly superficial, as most Italians did not wish a dangerous policy against Austria and even less against France for the sake of Nice and Corsica, or against Britain for Malta.  One consequence of irredentist ideas outside of Italy was an assassination plot organized against the Emperor Francis Joseph in Trieste in 1882, which was detected and foiled. Guglielmo Oberdan, a Triestine and thus Austrian citizen, was executed. When the irredentist movement became troublesome to Italy through the activity of Republicans and Socialists, it was subject to effective police control by Agostino Depretis.  Irredentism faced a setback when the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881 started a crisis in French–Italian relations. The government entered into relations with Austria and Germany, which took shape with the formation of the Triple Alliance in 1882.  The irredentists' dream of absorbing the targeted areas into Italy made no further progress in the 19th century, as the borders of the Kingdom of Italy remained unchanged and the Rome government began to set up colonies in Eritrea and Somalia in Africa.

World War I.

"See also": "Italian entry into World War I" and "Italy in World War I – from neutrality to intervention"  Italy signed the London Pact and entered World War I with the intention of gaining those territories perceived by irredentists as being Italian under foreign rule. According to the pact, Italy was to leave the Triple Alliance and join the Entente Powers. Furthermore, Italy was to declare war on Germany and Austria-Hungary within a month. The declaration of war was duly published on 23 May 1915. In exchange, Italy was to obtain various territorial gains at the end of the war. In April 1918, in what he described as an open letter "to the American Nation" Paolo Thaon di Revel, Commander in Chief of the Italian navy, appealed to the people of the United States to support Italian territorial claims over Trento, Trieste, Istria, Dalmatia and the Adriatic, writing that "we are fighting to expel an intruder from our home". The outcome of the First World War and the consequent settlement of the Treaty of Saint-Germain met some Italian claims, including many (but not all) of the aims of the "Italia irredenta" party. Italy gained Trieste, Gorizia, Istria and the city of Zara. In Dalmatia, despite the Treaty of London, only territories with Italian majority as Zadar (Zara) with some Dalmatian islands, such as Cres (Cherso), Lošinj (Lussino) and Lastovo (Lagosta) were annexed by Italy because Woodrow Wilson, supporting Yugoslav claims and not recognizing the treaty, rejected Italian requests on other Dalmatian territories.  The city of Rijeka (Fiume) in the Kvarner was the subject of claim and counter-claim because it had an Italian majority, but Fiume had not been promised to Italy in the London Pact, though it was to become Italian by 1924 (see Italian Regency of Carnaro, Treaty of Rapallo, 1920 and Treaty of Rome, 1924).  The stand taken by the irredentist Gabriele D'Annunzio, which briefly led him to become an enemy of the Italian state, was meant to provoke a nationalist revival through corporatism (first instituted during his rule over Fiume), in front of what was widely perceived as state corruption engineered by governments such as Giovanni Giolitti's.  D'Annunzio briefly annexed to this "Regency of Carnaro" even the Dalmatian islands of Krk (Veglia) and Rab (Arbe), where there was a numerous Italian community.

Fascism and World War II.

Fascist Italy strove to be seen as the natural result of war heroism against a "betrayed Italy" that had not been awarded all it "deserved", as well as appropriating the image of Arditi soldiers. In this vein, irredentist claims were expanded and often used in Fascist Italy's desire to control the Mediterranean basin. To the east of Italy, the Fascists claimed that Dalmatia was a land of Italian culture whose Italians, including those of Italianized South Slavic descent, had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy, and supported the return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage. Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries via the Roman Empire and the Republic of Venice. The Fascists especially focused their claims based on the Venetian cultural heritage of Dalmatia, claiming that Venetian rule had been beneficial for all Dalmatians and had been accepted by the Dalmatian population. The Fascists were outraged after World War I, when the agreement between Italy and the Entente Allies in the Treaty of London of 1915 to have Dalmatia join Italy was revoked in 1919.  To the west of Italy, the Fascists claimed that the territories of Corsica, Nice and Savoy held by France were Italian lands. The Fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the island's "italianità". The Fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds. The Fascists quoted Medieval Italian scholar Petrarch who said: "The border of Italy is the Var; consequently Nice is a part of Italy". The Fascists quoted Italian national hero Giuseppe Garibaldi, a native of Nizza (Nice) himself, who said: "Corsica and Nice must not belong to France; there will come the day when an Italy mindful of its true worth will reclaim its provinces now so shamefully languishing under foreign domination". Mussolini initially pursued promoting annexation of Corsica through political and diplomatic means, believing that Corsica could be annexed to Italy through Italy first encouraging the existing autonomist tendencies in Corsica and then independence of Corsica from France, that would be followed by annexation of Corsica into Italy.  In 1923, Mussolini temporarily occupied Corfu, using irredentist claims based on minorities of Italians in the Ionian islands of Greece. Similar tactics may have been used towards the islands around the Kingdom of Italy – through the pro-Italian Maltese, Corfiot Italians and Corsican Italians "–" in order to control the Mediterranean sea (his "Mare Nostrum", from the Latin "Our Sea").  During World War II, large parts of Dalmatia were annexed by Italy into the Governorship of Dalmatia from 1941 to 1943. Corsica and Nice were also administratively annexed by Italy in November 1942. Malta was heavily bombed, but was not occupied due to Erwin Rommel's request of diverting to North Africa the forces that had been prepared for the invasion of the island.

Dalmatia.

The Italian linguist Matteo Bartoli calculated that Italian was the primary spoken language by almost 30% of the Dalmatian population at the beginning of the Napoleonic wars. Bartoli's evaluation was followed by other claims: Auguste de Marmont, the French Governor General of the Napoleonic Illyrian Provinces commissioned a census in 1814–1815 which found that Dalmatian Italians comprised 25% of the total population of Dalmatia. Accordingly, three years later an Austrian census found around 70,000 Italians in a total of 301,000 people living in Austrian Dalmatia.  With the development of Croatian nationalism, critics such as Croatian historian Duško Večerina asserted that these evaluations were not conducted by modern scientific standards and that they took spoken language as the criterion, rather than blood, origin and ethnicity. They pointed out that—according to a report by Imperial court councillor Joseph Fölch in 1827—the Italian language was spoken by noblemen and some citizens of middle and lower classes exclusively in the coastal cities of Zadar, Šibenik and Split. Since only around 20,000 people populated these towns and not all were Italian speakers, their real number was rather smaller, probably around 7% of the total population, as is asserted by the Department of Historical Studies of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts (HAZU).  Not only Italian irredentists (like Gabriele D'Annunzio) but also Italian prominent scholars (like Angelo Vivante) alleged that Joseph Fölch did not include the Dalmatian islands of Cres (Cherso), Lošinj (Lussino), Krk (Veglia), Vis (Lissa), Hvar (Lesina), Korcula (Curzola) and many others islands with significant Italian communities and so in their opinion Folch did only a partial and mistaken estimate of the real number of the Dalmatian Italians. They reasserted that the only official evidence about the Dalmatian population comes from the 1857 Austro-Hungarian census, which showed that in this year there were 369,310 indigenous Croatians and 45,000 Italians in Dalmatia, making Dalmatian Italians 17% of the total population of Dalmatia in the mid-19th century.  Dalmatia was a strategic region during World War I that both Italy and Serbia intended to seize from Austria-Hungary. Italy joined the Triple Entente Allies in 1915 upon agreeing to the London Pact that guaranteed Italy the right to annex a large portion of Dalmatia in exchange for Italy's participation on the Allied side. From 5–6 November 1918, Italian forces were reported to have reached Vis, Lastovo, Šibenik, and other localities on the Dalmatian coast. By the end of hostilities in November 1918, the Italian military had seized control of the entire portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed to Italy by the London Pact and by 17 November had seized Fiume as well. In 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italy's Governor of Dalmatia. Famous Italian nationalist Gabriele d'Annunzio supported the seizure of Dalmatia and proceeded to Zadar in an Italian warship in December 1918.  The last city with a significant Italian presence in Dalmatia was the city of Zadar. In the Habsburg empire census of 1910, the city of Zadar had an Italian population of 9,318 (or 69.3% out of the total of 13,438 inhabitants). Zadar's population grew to 24,100 inhabitants, of which 20,300 were Italians, when in 1942 it was the capital of the Governorate of Dalmatia (the "Governorate" fulfilled the aspirations of Italian irredentism in the Adriatic).  In 1943, Josip Broz Tito informed the Allies that Zadar was a chief logistic centre for German forces in Yugoslavia. By overstating its importance, he persuaded them of its military significance. Italy surrendered in September 1943 and over the following year, specifically between 2 November 1943 and 31 October 1944, Allied Forces bombarded the town fifty-four times.  Nearly 2,000 people were buried beneath rubble: 10–12,000 people escaped and took refuge in Trieste and slightly over 1,000 reached Apulia.  Tito's partisans entered Zadar on 31 October 1944 and 138 people were killed. With the Peace Treaty of 1947, Italians still living in Zadar followed the Italian exodus from Dalmatia and only about 100 Dalmatian Italians now remain in the city.

Post-World War II.

After World War II, Italian Irredentism diminished along with the defeated Fascists and the Monarchy of the House of Savoy. After the Treaty of Paris (1947) and the Treaty of Osimo (1975), all territorial claims were abandoned by the Italian State (see Foreign relations of Italy). Today, Italy, France, Malta, Greece, Croatia and Slovenia are all members of the European Union, while Montenegro and Albania are candidates for accession. They often cited the then-Italian Deputy Gianfranco Fini, who in Senigallia in 2004 gave an interview to the "Slobodna Dalmacija" daily newspaper at the 51st gathering of the Italians who left Yugoslavia after World War II, in which he was reported to have said: "From the son of an Italian from Fiume I learned that those areas were and are Italian, but not because at any particular historical moment our army planted Italians there. This country was Venetian, and before that Roman". Rather than issuing an official rebuttal of those words, Carlo Giovanardi, then Parliamentary Affairs Minister in Berlusconi's government, affirmed Fini's words by saying "that he told the truth".  These sources pointed out that on the 52nd gathering of the same association, in 2005, Carlo Giovanardi was quoted by the "Večernji list" daily newspaper as saying that Italy would launch a cultural, economic and touristic invasion in order to restore "the Italianness of Dalmatia" while participating in a roundtable discussion on the topic "Italy and Dalmatia today and tomorrow". Giovanardi later declared that he had been misunderstood and sent a letter to the Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in which he condemned nationalism and ethnic strife. They underlined that Alleanza Nazionale (a former Italian conservative party) derived directly from the Italian Social Movement (MSI), a neo-fascist party. In 1994, Mirko Tremaglia, a member of the MSI and later of Alleanza Nazionale, described Rijeka, Istria and Dalmatia as "historically Italian" and referred to them as "occupied territories", saying that Italy should "tear up" the 1975 Treaty of Osimo with the former Yugoslavia and block Slovenia and Croatia's accession to European Union membership until the rights of their Italian minorities were respected. In 2001, Italian president Carlo Azeglio Ciampi gave the golden medal (for the aerial bombings endured during World War II) to the last Italian administration of Zadar (Zara in Italian), represented by its Gonfalone, owned by the association "Free municipality of Zara in exile". Croatian authorities complained that he was awarding a fascist institution, even if the motivations for the golden medal explicitly recalled the contribution of the city to the Resistance against Fascism. The motivations were contested by several Italian right-wing associations, such as the same "Free municipality of Zara in exile" and the Lega Nazionale. On 12 December 2007, the Italian post office issued a stamp with a photo of the Croatian city of Rijeka and with the text "Fiume – eastern land once part of Italy" (""Fiume-terra orientale già italiana""). Some Croatian sources affirmed that ""già italiana"" could also mean "already Italian", even if according to Italian syntaxis the correct meaning in this case is only "previously Italian". 3.5 million copies of the stamp were printed, but it was not delivered by the Italian Post Office in order to forestall a possible diplomatic crisis with Croatian and Slovenian authorities. Nevertheless, some of the stamps leaked out and came in official use, and it became widely available.

Italian irredentism () was a nationalist movement during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Italy with irredentist goals which promoted the unification of geographic areas in which indigenous peoples considered to be ethnic Italians and/or Italian-speaking individuals formed a majority, or substantial minority, of the population.

尚未收复的意大利(意大利语:)是意大利在意大利统一后于19世纪末至20世纪初的民族统一主义(收复故土主义)运动,主张将位于各地说意大利语的民族统一起来,受意大利管辖统治,因此需要以国家政府的力量将其他说意大利语的地区并入其版图。此运动又称为“意大利民族统一主义”。第一次世界大战后,意大利得到的里雅斯特、戈里齐亚、伊斯特拉半岛和扎拉,意大利民族统一主义取得重要结果。