Applications.

Biological.

Cell lysis is a convenient tool to isolate certain macromolecules that exist primarily inside of the cell. Cell membranes consist of hydrophilic and lipophilic endgroups. Therefore, detergents are often used to dissolve these membranes since they interact with both polar and nonpolar endgroups. CTAB has emerged as the preferred choice for biological use because it maintains the integrity of precipitated DNA during isolation. Cells typically have high concentrations of macromolecules, such as glycoproteins and polysaccharides, that co-precipitate with DNA during the extraction process, causing the extracted DNA to lose purity. The positive charge of the CTAB molecule allows it to denature these molecules that would interfere with this isolation.

Medical.

CTAB has been shown to have potential use as an apoptosis-promoting anticancer agent for head and neck cancer (HNC). "In vitro", CTAB interacted additively with γ radiation and cisplatin, two standard HNC therapeutic agents. CTAB exhibited anticancer cytotoxicity against several HNC cell lines with minimal effects on normal fibroblasts, a selectivity that exploits cancer-specific metabolic aberrations. "In vivo", CTAB ablated tumor-forming capacity of FaDu cells and delayed growth of established tumors. Thus, using this approach, CTAB was identified as a potential apoptogenic quaternary ammonium compound possessing "in vitro" and "in vivo" efficacy against HNC models.

Protein electrophoresis.

Glycoproteins form broad, fuzzy bands in SDS-PAGE (Laemmli-electrophoresis) because of their broad distribution of negative charges. Using positively charged detergents such as CTAB will avoid issues associated with glycoproteins. Proteins can be blotted from CTAB-gels in analogy to western blots ("eastern blot"), and Myelin-associated high hydrophobic protein can be analyzed using CTAB 2-DE.

DNA extraction.

CTAB serves as an important surfactant in the DNA extraction buffer system to remove membrane lipids and promote cell lysis. Separation is also successful when the tissue contains high amounts of polysaccharides. CTAB binds to the polysaccharides when the salt concentration is high, thus removing polysaccharides from solution. A typical recipe can be to combine 100 mL of 1 M Tris HCl (pH 8.0), 280 mL 5 M NaCl, 40 mL of 0.5 M EDTA, and 20 g of CTAB then add double distilled water (ddHO) to bring total volume to 1 L.

Nanoparticle synthesis.

Surfactants play a key role in nanoparticle synthesis by adsorbing to the surface of the forming nanoparticle and lowering its surface energy. Surfactants also help to prevent aggregation ("e.g." via DLVO mechanisms).

Au nanoparticle synthesis.

Gold (Au) nanoparticles are interesting to researchers because of their unique properties that can be used in applications such as catalysis, optics, electronics, sensing, and medicine. Control of nanoparticle size and shape is important in order to tune its properties. CTAB has been a widely used reagent to both impart stability to these nanoparticles as well as control their morphologies. CTAB may play a role in controlling nanoparticle size and shape by selectively or more strongly binding to various emerging crystal facets.  Some of this control originates from the reaction of CTAB with other reagents in the gold nanoparticle synthesis. For example, in aqueous gold nanoparticle syntheses, chlorauric acid (HAuCl) may react with CTAB to create a CTA-AuCl complex. The gold complex is then reacted with ascorbic acid to produce hydrochloric acid, an ascorbic acid radical, and CTA-AuCl. The ascorbic acid radical and CTA-AuCl react spontaneously to create metallic Au nanoparticles and other byproducts. An alternative or simultaneous reaction is the substitution of Cl with Br about the Au(III) center. Both complexation with the ammonium cation and/or speciation of the Au(III) precursor influence the kinetics of the nanoparticle formation reaction and therefore influence the size, shape, and (size and shape) distributions of the resulting particles.

Mesoporous materials.

CTAB is used as the template for the first report of ordered mesoporous materials. Microporous and mesoporous inorganic solids (with pore diameters of ≤20 Å and ~20–500 Å respectively) have found great utility as catalysts and sorption media because of their large internal surface area. Typical microporous materials are crystalline framework solids, such as zeolites, but the largest pore dimensions are still below 2 nm which greatly limit application. Examples of mesoporous solids include silicas and modified layered materials, but these are invariably amorphous or paracrystalline, with pores that are irregularly spaced and broadly distributed in size. There is a need to prepare highly ordered mesoporous material with good mesoscale crystallinity. The synthesis of mesoporous solids from the calcination of aluminosilicate gels in the presence of surfactants was reported. The material possesses regular arrays of uniform channels, the dimensions of which can be tailored (in the range of 16 Å to >100 Å) through the choice of surfactant, auxiliary chemicals, and reaction conditions. It was proposed that the formation of these materials takes place by means of a liquid-crystal 'templating' mechanism, in which the silicate material forms inorganic walls between ordered surfactant micelles. CTAB formed micelles in the solution and these micelles further formed a two dimensional hexagonal mesostructure. The silicon precursor began to hydrolyze between the micelles and finally filled the gap with silicon dioxide. The template could be further removed by calcination and left a pore structure behind. These pores mimicked exactly the structure of mesoscale soft template and led to highly ordered mesoporous silica materials.

Toxicity.

CTAB has been used for applications from nanoparticle synthesis to cosmetics. Due to its use in human products, along with other applications, it is essential to be made aware of the hazards this agent contains. The Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc. offers a comprehensive MSDS for CTAB and should be referred to for additional questions or concerns. Animal testing has shown ingestion of less than 150 g of the agent can lead to adverse health effects or possibly death by CTAB causing chemical burns throughout the esophagus and gastrointestinal tract that can be followed by nausea and vomiting. If the substance continues through the gastrointestinal tract, it will be poorly absorbed in the intestines followed by excretion in feces. Toxicity has also been tested on aquatic life including Brachydanio rerio (zebra fish) and Daphnia magna (Water flea). Zebra fish showed CTAB toxicity when exposed to 0.3 mg/L for 96 hours, and water fleas showed CTAB toxicity when exposed to 0.03 mg/L for 48 hours.  CTAB along with other quaternary ammonium salts have frequently been used in cosmetics at concentrations up to 10%. Cosmetics at that concentration must only be used as rinse-off types such as shampoos. Other leave-on cosmetics are considered only safe at or below 0.25% concentrations. Injections into the body cavity of pregnant mice showed embryotoxic and teratogenic effects. Only teratogenic effects were seen with 10 mg/kg doses, while both effects were seen at 35 mg/kg doses. Oral doses of 50 mg/kg/day showed embryotoxic effects as well. Similar tests were completed by giving rats 10, 20, and 45 mg/kg/day of CTAB in their drinking water for one year. At the 10 and 20 mg/kg/day doses, the rats did not have any toxic symptoms. At the highest dose, the rats began experiencing weight loss. The weight loss in the male rats was attributed to less efficient food conversion. The tests showed no microscopic alterations to the gastrointestinal tract of the rats.  Other toxicity tests have been conducted on humans using incubated human skin HaCaT keratinocyte cells. These human cells were incubated with gold nanorods that were synthesized using seed-mediated, surfactant-assisted growth of gold nanoparticles. Gold nanoparticles are shown to be nontoxic, however once the nanoparticles are put through the growth solutions, the newly formed nanorods are highly toxic. This large increase in toxicity is attributed to the CTAB that is used in the growth solutions to cause anisotropic growth. Experiments also showed the toxicity of bulk CTAB and the synthesized gold nanorods to be equivalent. Toxicity tests showed CTAB remaining toxic with concentrations as low as 10 μM. The human cells show CTAB being nontoxic at concentrations less than 1 μM. Without the use of CTAB in this synthesis, the gold nanorods are not stable; they break into nanoparticles or undergo aggregation.  The mechanism for cytotoxicity has not been extensively studied, but there has been possible mechanisms proposed. One proposal showed two methods that led to the cytotoxicity in U87 and A172 glioblastoma cells. The first method showed CTAB exchanging with phospholipids causing rearrangement of the membrane allowing β-galactoside to enter into the cell by way of cavities. At low concentrations, there are not enough cavities to cause death to the cells, but with increasing the CTAB concentration, more phospholipids are displaced causing more cavities in the membrane leading to cell death. The second proposed method is based on the dissociation of CTAB into CTA and Br within the mitochondrial membrane. The positively charged CTA binds to the ATP synthase not allowing H to bind stopping the synthesis of ATP and resulting in cell death.

Cetrimonium bromide ([(CH)N(CH)]Br; cetyltrimethylammonium bromide; hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide; CTAB) is a quaternary ammonium surfactant.

溴化十六烷基三甲铵(又称十六烷基三甲基溴化铵,英语:hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide,cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, 简称CTAB)是一种具有长链烃基的季铵盐,是主要的阳离子表面活性剂,还可以用于纳米粒子的合成、DNA的提取、杀菌剂与家庭用品。


History.

The first tries of coin collecting by the state began shortly after the independence of Greece in Aegina. The collection was enriched after excavations, purchases and donations. The museum was founded in 1838, around the same era with the National Archaeological Museum but it was not until many years after and several decrees that became an independent organization. Initially, the collection was a part of the National Library of Greece and was housed at the main building of the University of Athens and later at the building of the Academy of Athens where the collection was first exhibited. In 1946, the collection was moved at the National Archaeological Museum. The organization of the museum became twice independent, in 1893 and 1965.  The Iliou Melathron was granted in order to house the collection in 1984 and after a major renovation it finally opened in 1998.

The Iliou Melathron.

The Numismatic Museum is housed at the "Iliou Melathron", a three-storey building on Panepistimiou Street. It was built between 1878-1880 for Heinrich Schliemann and the architect was the then famous Ernst Ziller. At the time of its completion, it was considered to be the most magnificent private residence of Athens. Its design was inspired by the Renaissance Revival movement as well as Neoclassicism, while the interior is influenced by the architecture of Pompeii. As a result, the rooms are decorated with mosaics and murals depicting either themes from the Trojan War or Greek mottos. In 1927, the widow of Heinrich Schliemann, Sophia, sold the building to the Greek State and it was subsequently used as the seat of the Council of State and later the Court of Cassation.  The use of the building as a courthouse caused much damage. After the building was chosen to house the Numismatic Museum, it underwent a major renovation under which the floor mosaics and the murals were restored. Finally, the numismatic collection was inaugurated in the partly restored building in 1998 while the whole collection became viewable in 2007.

Collections.

The collection of the museum contains 600,000 objects, mainly coins but also medals, standard masses, dies, stamps and others, from the 14th century BC until modern times. The collection is arranged in such a way so as to follow the history of coinage. The museum holds a very important collection of coins from the 6th century BC until the 5th century CE like those from the Greek Poleis and the Hellenistic and Roman periods. There also major Byzantine and Medieval collections from Western Europe, the East and the Ottoman Empire.  A large portion of the collection is constituted by coins that were found in hoards while the rest comes from the initial collection of Aegina, recent excavations in mainland Greece and donations.  The museum houses a library of 12,000 books specialized in the study of coinage. There is also a perfectly equipped conservation laboratory.

Location and visitors information.

The Numismatic Museum is on 12 Panepistimiou Street near Syntagma Square. It is served by the Syntagma metro station. There is a museum shop and a coffeehouse in the garden.

The Numismatic Museum in Athens () is one of the most important museums of Greece and houses one of the greatest collections of coins, ancient and modern, in the world. The museum itself is housed in the mansion of the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, formally known as "Iliou Melathron" (, "Palace of Ilion").

雅典货币博物馆()是希腊最重要的博物馆之一,收藏有从古至今来自世界各地的过50000多件不同材质的钱币收藏品。最古老的展品可以追溯到公元前14世纪。博物馆分两层。向参观者展示希腊货币史和相关专题以及少量艺术品和文物.


Ranking criteria and alternatives.

The international non-profit organization Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) was formed in 1969 and announces the title of "The World's Tallest Building" and sets the standards by which buildings are measured. It maintains a list of the 100 tallest completed buildings in the world. The organization currently ranks Burj Khalifa in Dubai as the tallest at. However, the CTBUH only recognizes buildings that are complete, and some buildings included within the lists in this article are not considered finished by the CTBUH.  In 1996, as a response to the dispute as to whether the Petronas Towers or the Sears Tower was taller, the council listed and ranked buildings in four categories:  Spires are considered integral parts of the architectural design of buildings, changes to which would substantially change the appearance and design of the building, whereas antennas may be added or removed without such consequences. The Petronas Towers, with their spires, are thus ranked higher than the Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower) with its antennas, despite the Petronas Towers' lower roofs and lower highest point.  Until 1996, the world's tallest building was defined by the height to the top of the tallest architectural element, including spires but not antennae. This led to a rivalry between the Bank of Manhattan Building and the Chrysler Building. The Bank of Manhattan Building (i.e. 40 Wall Street) employed only a short spire and was tall and had a much higher top occupied floor (the second category in the 1996 criteria for tallest building). In contrast, the Chrysler Building employed a very large spire secretly assembled inside the building to claim the title of world's tallest building with a total height of, although it had a lower top occupied floor and a shorter height when both buildings' spires were excluded.  Upset by Chrysler's victory, Shreve & Lamb, the consulting architects of the Bank of Manhattan Building, wrote a newspaper article claiming that their building was actually the tallest, since it contained the world's highest usable floor, at. They pointed out that the observation deck in the Bank of Manhattan Building was nearly above the top floor in the Chrysler Building, whose surpassing spire was strictly ornamental and inaccessible.  At present, the Burj Khalifa tops the list by some margin, regardless of which criterion is applied.

Tallest buildings in the world.

, this list includes all 75 buildings (completed and architecturally topped out) which reach a height of or more, as assessed by their highest architectural feature. Of these, 37 are in China. Six of the last seven buildings to have held the record as 'tallest building' are still found in the list, with the exception being the North Tower of the original World Trade Center at after its destruction in the September 11 attacks of 2001. If the twin towers had not been destroyed and One World Trade Center never built, the WTC towers would rank 34 and 35 on the list today.

Alternative measurements.

Height to pinnacle (highest point).

This measurement disregards distinctions between architectural and non-architectural extensions, and simply measures to the highest point. This measurement is useful for air traffic obstacle determinations, and is also a wholly objective measure. However, this measurement includes extensions that are easily added, removed, and modified from a building and are independent of the overall structure.  This measurement only recently came into use, when the Petronas Towers passed the Sears Tower (now named Willis Tower) in height. The former was considered taller because its spires were considered architectural, while the latter's antennae were not. This led to the split of definitions, with the Sears Tower claiming the lead in this and the height-to-roof (now highest occupied floor) categories, and with the Petronas claiming the lead in the architectural height category.  If the World Trade Center towers were still standing today they would occupy numbers 12 (North Tower at ) and 37 on the list (or 11 and 36, for it can be assumed the rebuilt One World Trade Center would have never been built).

Height to occupied floor.

This height is measured from the level of the lowest, significant, open-air, pedestrian entrance to the highest occupied floor within the building.

Buildings under construction.

This is a list of buildings taller than that are currently under construction. On-hold buildings whose construction was interrupted after it had reached a significantly advanced state are also listed.

List by continent.

The following list shows the tallest completed buildings located in each continent listed by greatest to least height (click on name of continent for continent-specific list):

This list of tallest buildings includes skyscrapers with continuously occupiable floors and a height of at least. Non-building structures, such as towers, are not included in this list (see list of tallest buildings and structures).

以下是全球摩天大楼列表,此列表排名会根据其:


History.

Shimla (then spelt Simla), which was settled by the British shortly after the first Anglo-Gurkha war, is located at in the foothills of the Himalayas. The idea of connecting Shimla by rail was first raised by a correspondent to the Delhi gazette in November 1847.  Shimla became the summer capital of British India in 1864, and was the headquarters of the Indian army. This meant that twice a year it was necessary to transfer the entire government between Calcutta and Shimla by horse and ox drawn carts.  In 1891 the broad-gauge Delhi–Kalka line opened, which made the construction of a branch line up to Shimla feasible.  The earliest survey was made in 1884 followed by another survey in 1885. Based on these two surveys, a project report was submitted in 1887 to the government of British India. Fresh surveys were made in 1892, and 1893 which lead to four alternate schemes being suggested - two adhesion lines and long and two rack lines. Fresh surveys were again made in 1895 from Kalka to Solan with a view to determine whether a 1 in 12 rack or 1 in 25 adhesion line should be chosen. After much debate an adhesion line was chosen in preference to a rack system.  Construction of the Kalka–Shimla railway on narrow-gauge tracks was begun by the privately funded Delhi-Ambala-Kalka Railway Company following the signing of a contract between the secretary of state and the company on 29 June 1898. The contract specified that the line would be built without any financial aid or guarantee from the government. The government however provided the land free of charge to the company. The estimated cost of 8,678,500 rupees doubled by the time the line was opened. The Chief Engineer of the project was H.S. Herlington.  The line opened for traffic on 9 November 1903 and was dedicated by Viceroy Lord Curzon. This line was further extended from Shimla to Shimla Goods (which had once housed the bullock cart office) on 27 June 1909 making it.  The Indian Army were sceptical about the two feet gauge chosen for the line and requested that a wider standard gauge be used for mountain and light strategic railways. Eventually the government agreed that the gauge was too narrow for was essentially a capital city and for military purposes. As a result, the contract with the railway company was revised on 15 November 1901 and the line gauge changed to with the track built to date being regauged. Some sources however state the regauging wasn't undertaken until 1905.  In 1905 the company took delivery of a 10-ton Cowans Sheldon travelling crane to assist with lifting rolling stock back onto the tracks after accidents and for general track maintenance.  Due to the high capital and maintenance costs and difficult working conditions, the railway was allowed to charge higher fares than on other lines. Nevertheless, the company had spent 16,525,000 rupees by 1904 with no sign of the line becoming profitable, which lead to it being purchased by the government on 1 January 1906 for 17,107,748 rupees.  Once it came under the control of the government the line was originally managed as an independent unit from the North West Railway office in Lahore until 1926, when it was transferred to Delhi Division. Since July 1987, the line has been managed by the Ambala Division from Ambala Cantt.  In 2007, the Himachal Pradesh government declared the railway a heritage property. For about a week, beginning on 11 September 2007, a UNESCO team visited the railway to inspect it for possible selection as a World Heritage Site. On 8 July 2008, it became part of the mountain railways of India World Heritage Site with the Darjeeling Himalayan and Nilgiri Mountain Railways.  On 7 July 2011 Indian Railways opened the Baba Bhalku Rail Museum in Shimla to document the history of the railway line and to display related artefacts.

Technical details.

The track has 20 picturesque stations, 103 tunnels, 912 curves, 969 bridges and 3% slope (1:33 gradient). The 1,143.61 m Bagot tunnel at Barog immediately before the Barog station is longest, a 60 ft (18.29m) bridge is the longest and the sharpest curve has a 123 ft (38 m) radius of curvature. The train has an average speed of 25–30 km/hr but the railcar is almost 50–60 km/hr. Both the train and railcar are equipped with vistadomes. The temperature range and annual rainfall are 0–45 C and 200–250 cm respectively.

Operators.

The KSR and its assets, including the stations, line and vehicles, belong to the government of India under the Ministry of Railways. The Northern Railway handles day-to-day maintenance and management, and several programs, divisions and departments of Indian Railways are responsible for repairs.

Route.

The route winds from a height of at Kalka in the Himalayan Shivalik Hills foothills, past Dharampur, Solan, Kandaghat, Taradevi, Barog, Salogra, Totu (Jutogh) and Summerhill, to Shimla at an altitude of. The difference in height between the two ends of line is. The railway line originally used rail, which was later replaced with rail.

Stations.

The stations are as follows:

Bridges and viaducts.

The railway has 988 bridges and viaducts and a ruling gradient of 1 in 33, or three percent. It has 917 curves, and the sharpest is 48 degrees (a radius of ).  The most architecturally complex bridge is No. 226 which spans a deep valley which required that it had to be constructed in five stages with each level having its own stone arched tier.

Tunnels.

One hundred seven tunnels were originally built, but as a result of landslides only 102 remain in use.

Rolling stock.

The first locomotives were two class-B 0-4-0STs from the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. These were built as -gauge engines, but were converted to -gauge in 1901. They were not large enough (they were sold in 1908), and were followed in 1902 by 10 slightly-larger engines with a 0-4-2T wheel arrangement. The locomotives weighed each, and had driving wheels and cylinders. Later classified as B-class by the North Western State Railway, they were manufactured by the British Sharp, Stewart and Company.  Thirty larger 2-6-2T locomotives, with slight variations, were introduced between 1904 and 1910. Built by the Hunslet Engine and North British Locomotive Companies, they weighed about and had drivers and cylinders. Later classed K and K2 by the North Western State Railway, they handled most of the rail traffic during the steam era. A pair of Kitson-Meyer 2-6-2+2-6-2 articulated locomotives, classed TD, were supplied in 1928. However, they quickly fell into disfavour because it often took all day for enough freight to be assembled to justify operating a goods train hauled by one of these locomotives. Shippers looking for faster service began turning to road transport. These locomotives were soon transferred to the Kangra Valley Railway, and were converted to in Pakistan. Regular steam-locomotive operation ended in 1971. The railway's first diesel locomotives, class ZDM-1 manufactured by Arnold Jung Lokomotivfabrik (articulated with two prime movers), began operating in 1955; they were regauged, reclassified as NDM-1 and used on the Matheran Hill Railway during the 1970s. In the 1960s, class ZDM-2 locomotives from Maschinenbau Kiel (MaK) was introduced; they were later transferred to other lines.  The KSR currently operates with class ZDM-3 diesel-hydraulic locomotives (, ), built between 1970 and 1982 by Chittaranjan Locomotive Works with a single-cab road-switcher body. Six locomotives of that class were built in 2008 and 2009 by the Central Railway Loco Workshop in Parel, with updated components and a dual-cab body providing better track vision. The railway opened with conventional four-wheel and bogie coaches. Their tare weight meant that only four bogie coaches could be hauled by the 2-6-2T locomotives. In a 1908 effort to increase capacity, the coach stock was rebuilt as bogie coaches with steel frames and bodies. To further save weight, the roofs were made of aluminium. The weight savings meant that the locomotives could now haul six of the larger coaches. This was an early example of the use of aluminium in coach construction to reduce tare weight.  Goods rolling stock was constructed on a common pressed-steel underframe. Open and covered wagons were provided, with the open wagons having a capacity of and the covered wagons.  During the winter months snow cutters are attached to the engine to clear the snow from the track.

Television.

BBC Four televised "Indian Hill Railways", a series of three programmes which featured the KSR in its third episode, in February 2010; the first two episodes covered the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway and Nilgiri Mountain Railway. The episodes, directed by Tarun Bhartiya, Hugo Smith and Nick Mattingly respectively, were produced by Gerry Troyna. "Indian Hill Railways" won a Royal Television Society award in June 2010. The KSR also featured in the Punjab episode of CNN's "".  In 2018, the KSR was featured in an episode of the BBC Two programme Great Indian Railway Journeys.

The Kalka–Shimla railway is a narrow-gauge railway in North India which traverses a mostly-mountainous route from Kalka to Shimla. It is known for dramatic views of the hills and surrounding villages. The railway was built under the direction of Herbert Septimus Harington between 1898 and 1903 to connect Shimla, the summer capital of India during the British Raj, with the rest of the Indian rail system.

卡尔卡-西姆拉铁路为印度北部一条轨距的窄轨铁路,路线由卡尔卡到西姆拉,多为山地, 以丘陵和周围乡村的壮丽景色而闻名。这条铁路是赫伯特·赛普蒂默斯·哈林顿(Herbert Septimus Harington)所指示,于1898年和1903年之间兴建,以连接西姆拉(英属印度的夏都)与印度铁路系统的其余部分。


Early life.

Born in Barcelona, Catalonia to an Andalusian father and a Catalan mother, Lima's family moved to Andorra when he was two months old.

Club career.

Lima's first years as a senior were spent with FC Andorra, playing one season each in the Spanish third and fourth divisions. Subsequently, he played in both levels with RCD Espanyol B and UE Sant Andreu, splitting the following campaign abroad between Ionikos F.C. of Greece and C.F. Pachuca in Mexico.  In the summer of 2002, Lima returned to Spain, playing one and a half seasons with UD Las Palmas in the second tier, moving in January 2004 to another club in that tier, Polideportivo Ejido, and spending the following campaign with Rayo Vallecano in the third level.  Lima then played four years with U.S. Triestina Calcio in Italy. With the Trieste side, he was occasionally used as a forward at the request of elusive chairman Flaviano Tonellotto. In 2009, aged nearly 30, he switched countries again, signing for AC Bellinzona in the Swiss Super League.  After two seasons in Switzerland and one back at Triestina, Lima signed again for FC Andorra, now of the Primera Catalana, instead of several offers to play in the principality's Primera Divisió. On 12 June 2014, he joined the latter league's champion FC Santa Coloma; he scored for them on 8 July in the first qualifying round of the UEFA Champions League away to FC Banants, as they advanced on away goals.

International career.

Lima made his debut for Andorra aged 17, in the country's second ever game on 22 June 1997, scoring in a 1–4 friendly defeat in Estonia. He went on to lead the national team's scoring charts, and also amassed more than 100 caps.  In June 2009, near the end of the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, Lima scored his first competitive goal for over eight years and six years overall, netting the last goal of a 1–5 away defeat against Belarus. On 9 September 2014, in Andorra's first match of the UEFA Euro 2016 qualification phase, he netted a sixth-minute penalty to give the side a 1–0 lead over Wales, but in an eventual 1–2 home loss.  After Óscar Sonejee, Lima was the second Andorran to reach a century of caps, playing his 100th game on 1 June 2016, a 0–2 friendly loss to Estonia in Tallinn. On 22 February 2017 he opened a 2–0 away win over San Marino in another exhibition game, ending a run of 86 defeats.  Lima surpassed Sonejee's national record of 106 internationals on 16 August 2017, when he played a friendly against Qatar in Burton-on-Trent.

International goals.

(Andorra score listed first, score column indicates score after each Lima goal)

Personal life.

Despite debuting for the Andorran national team when he was 17, Lima only became a citizen when he turned 20 years of residence in the country. His older brother, Toni, was also a footballer and a defender. He too spent most of his career in the lower leagues of Spain, and the pair shared teams at Ionikos.

Ildefons Lima Solà (born 10 December 1979) is a professional footballer who plays as a central defender for Inter Club d'Escaldes and the Andorra national team.

伊迪芬斯·利马(英语:Ildefons Lima,1979年-12月10日),是一名安道尔足球运动员,司职后卫,目前效力安道尔球会艾斯卡迪斯国际,他被认为是安道尔最好的球员。


Internal Western Outland Revolutionary Organization.

The Internal Western Outland Revolutionary Organization (Bulgarian: Вътрешна западнопокрайска революционна организация, "Vatreshna zapadnopokrayska revolyutsionna organizatsiya"), IWORO, was a Bulgarian separatist organization active in the Western Outlands between 1921 and 1941 in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (until 1929), and then its successor, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.  The organization was established in 1921 on the basis of several detachments created straight after the cession of the Western Outlands to Serbia in 1920. The IWORO initially concentrated on propaganda and delivery of Bulgarian literature. The period of armed conflict started in 1922 and the organisation carried out numerous assaults on the Tzaribrod–Belgrade railway, on bridges, Yugoslav garrisons and barracks until 1941 when the region was occupied by Bulgarian troops.  Unlike the other three Bulgarian revolutionary organizations active in the interwar period — the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation in Macedonia, the Internal Thracian Revolutionary Organisation in Thrace and the Internal Dobrujan Revolutionary Organization in Dobruja — IWORO did not put up the tactical slogan demanding autonomy for the region but had an open separatist agenda; it fought “for the liberation of the Western Outlands and their restoration to Bulgaria”.

Controversy.

The Serbian state deems the term controversial, considering that referring to parts of a neighboring country's territory as "western outlands" can imply territorial claims, as in the example of Germany regarding Alsace in France.  For this reason, the term has not been used by Belgrade in contacts with Sofia since 1948. It was mentioned once, in the 1947 Bled Agreement by Josip Broz Tito and Georgi Dimitrov. This was in the period of discussion for a Communist super-state in the Balkans, the Balkan Federative Republic, which was to include Yugoslavia, Albania and Bulgaria. It foresaw the return of the Western Outlands to Bulgaria. The BFR idea was abandoned with the Informbiro Resolution of 1948, when the split between Tito and Stalin occurred. Despite not being used internationally (until the 1990s when it was revived), it is very widely used in internal social and political communication in Bulgaria.

The Western (Bulgarian) Outlands (, transliterated: "Zapadni (Balgarski) pokraynini") is a term used by Bulgarians to describe several regions located in southeastern Serbia.

西部失地 (,转写:"Zapadni (Balgarski) pokraynini")是一个被保加利亚人用来描述一些割让给南斯拉夫,如今位于塞尔维亚东南部和马其顿东部的领土的词。第一次世界大战后保加利亚在1920年的纳伊条约中把这些领土割让给了南斯拉夫。根据南斯拉夫1991年人口普查,西部失地里最大的两个城市博西莱格勒和季米特洛夫格勒的居民主要是保加利亚人。


Personal life.

Thomas Bartholin was the second of the six sons of Caspar Bartholin the Elder, a physician born in Malmö, Scania and his spouse Anne Fincke. Bartholin the Elder published the first collected anatomical work in 1611. This work was later augmented, illustrated and revised by Thomas Bartholin, becoming the standard reference on anatomy; the son notably added updates on Harvey's theory of blood circulation and on the lymphatic system.  Bartholin visited the Italian botanist Pietro Castelli at Messina in 1644. In 1663 Bartholin bought Hagestedgaard, which burned down in 1670 including his library, with the loss of many manuscripts. King Christian V of Denmark appointed Bartholin as his physician with a substantial salary and freed the farm from taxation as recompense for the loss. In 1680 Bartholin's health failed, the farm was sold, and he moved back to Copenhagen, where he died. He was buried in Vor Frue Kirke (Church of Our Lady).  The "Bartholinsgade", a street in Copenhagen, is named for the family. Nearby is the Bartholin Institute ("Bartholin Institutet"). One of the buildings of the University of Aarhus is named after him.

Contributions to medical research.

In December 1652, Bartholin published the first full description of the human lymphatic system. Jean Pecquet had previously noted the lymphatic system in animals in 1651, and Pecquet's discovery of the thoracic duct and its entry into the veins made him the first person to describe the correct route of the lymphatic fluid into the blood. Shortly after the publication of Pecquet's and Bartholin's findings, a similar discovery of the human lymphatic system was published by Olof Rudbeck in 1653, although Rudbeck had presented his findings at the court of Queen Christina of Sweden in April–May 1652, before Bartholin, but delayed in writing about it until 1653 (after Bartholin). As a result, an intense priority dispute ensued. Niels Stensen or Steno became his most famous pupil.  Thomas' publication "De nivis usu medico observationes variae" Chapter XXII, contains the first known mention of refrigeration anaesthesia, a technique whose invention Thomas Bartholin credits to the Italian Marco Aurelio Severino of Naples. According to Bartholin, Severino was the first to present the use of freezing mixtures of snow and ice (1646), and Thomas Bartholin initially learnt about the technique from him during a visit to Naples.  Bartholin–Patau syndrome, first described by Thomas Bartholin, is a congenital syndrome of multiple abnormalities produced by trisomy 13.  Caspar Bartholin the Elder, Thomas Bartholin's father; his brother Rasmus Bartholin; and his son Caspar Bartholin the Younger (who first described "Bartholin's glands"), all contributed to the practice of modern medicine through their discoveries of important anatomical structures and phenomena. Bartholin the Elder started his tenure as professor at Copenhagen University in 1613, and over the next 125 years, the scientific accomplishments of the Bartholins while serving on the medical faculty of the University of Copenhagen won international acclaim and contributed to the reputation of the institution.

Thomas Bartholin (; Latinized: "Thomas Bartholinus"; 20 October 1616 – 4 December 1680) was a Danish physician, mathematician, and theologian. He is best known for his work in the discovery of the lymphatic system in humans and for his advancements of the theory of refrigeration anesthesia, being the first to describe it scientifically.

托马斯·巴托林(,1616年-10月20日-1680年-12月4日),是一位丹麦医师、数学家和神学家。他以发现人类淋巴系统和发展冷冻麻醉理论而闻名,是第一个科学性地描述它的人。


Geography.

The Peak District is at the southern end of the Pennines and much of the area is upland above. Its high point is Kinder Scout at. Despite its name, the landscape generally lacks sharp peaks, and is characterised mostly by rounded hills, plateaus, valleys, limestone gorges and gritstone escarpments (the "edges"). The area, mostly rural, is surrounded by conurbations and large urban areas including Manchester, Huddersfield, Sheffield, Derby and Stoke-on-Trent.  The national park has a formal boundary and covers most of the Dark Peak and White Peak, but the wider Peak District is less well defined. The Dark Peak is largely uninhabited moorland and gritstone escarpments in the northern Peak District and its eastern and western margins. It encloses the central and southern White Peak which is where most settlements, farmland and limestone gorges are located. Three of Natural England's National Character Areas (NCAs) include the landscape. The Dark Peak NCA includes the northern and eastern parts of the Dark Peak while the White Peak NCA covers most of the White Peak. The western margins of the Dark Peak are in the South West Peak NCA, where farmland and pastured valleys are found as well as gritstone edges and moorland. Outside the park, the wider Peak District is often considered to include the area approximately between Disley and Sterndale Moor, and some of the outer fringes and foothills, including the Churnet and lower Derwent Valleys. The region is mostly surrounded by lowlands with gritstone moorlands of the South Pennines to the north.  The national park covers, including most of the region in Derbyshire and extends into Staffordshire, Cheshire, Greater Manchester and South and West Yorkshire. The park's northern limits are on the A62 road between Huddersfield and Oldham, and its southernmost point is on the A52 road near Ashbourne. The park boundaries were drawn to exclude built-up and industrial areas; in particular Buxton and the quarries at the end of the Peak Dale corridor are surrounded on three sides by the park. Bakewell and many villages are in the national park as is much of the rural west of Sheffield. As of 2010, it is the fifth largest national park in England and Wales. In the UK, designation as a national park means that planning and other functions are provided by a national park authority with additional planning restrictions that provide enhanced protection against inappropriate development. Land within this national park as in other UK parks is in a mix of public and private ownership.  The National Trust, a charity that conserves historic and natural landscapes, owns about 12% of the land in the national park. Its three estates (High Peak, White Peak and Longshaw) include ecologically or geologically significant areas at Bleaklow, Derwent Edge, Hope Woodlands, Kinder Scout, the Manifold valley, Mam Tor, Dovedale, Milldale and Winnats Pass. The park authority owns around 5%, and other major landowners include several water companies.

Geology.

The Peak is formed almost exclusively from sedimentary rocks dating from the Carboniferous period. They comprise the Carboniferous Limestone, overlying Gritstone and the Coal Measures which occur only on the extreme margins and infrequent outcrops of igneous rocks including lavas, tuffs and volcanic vent agglomerates. The general geological structure is that of a broad dome, whose western margins have been most intensely faulted and folded. Uplift and erosion have effectively sliced the top off the Derbyshire Dome to reveal a concentric outcrop pattern with Coal Measures rocks on the eastern and western margins, Carboniferous Limestone at the core and with rocks of Millstone Grit outcropping between them. The southern edge of the Derbyshiredome is overlain by sandstones of Triassic age though they barely impinge on the National Park. The White Peak is the central and southern section where Carboniferous Limestone is found at or near the surface. The Dark Peak to the north, east and west is characterised by Millstone Grit outcrops and broad swathes of moorland.  Earth movements after the Carboniferous period resulted in the up-doming of the area and, particularly in the west, the folding of the rock strata along north–south axes. The region was raised in a north–south line which

Ecology.

The gritstone and shale of the Dark Peak supports heather moorland and blanket bog environments, with rough sheep pasture and grouse shooting being the main land uses, although parts of it also support farming, especially the South West Peak NCA. The limestone plateaux of the White Peak are more intensively farmed, with mainly dairy usage of improved pastures. Woodland forms around 8% of the Peak National Park. Natural broad-leaved woodland is found in the steep-sided, narrow dales of the White Peak and the deep cloughs of the Dark Peak, while reservoir margins often have coniferous plantations.

Flora.

Jacob's-ladder ("Polemonium caeruleum"), a relatively rare species characteristic of limestone dales in the White Peak, has been the county flower of Derbyshire since 2002. It grows in grassland, light woodland, on screes, rock ledges and by streams in Lathkill, Wolfscote, Taddington, Wye Dale and other dales. Pollen evidence from peat bogs indicates that it was widespread throughout Britain just after the last ice-age. Much planted in gardens from where it has established itself in other parts of the area, as a native it is restricted to the White Peak and the Yorkshire Dales. Two endemic vascular plants are found nowhere else in the world: Derby hawkweed ("Hieracium naviense"), found only in Winnats Pass, is a native perennial of limestone cliffs that was discovered by J.N. Mills in 1966 and described as a new species in 1968;

Fauna.

Mammals.

Most mammals found in the Peak District are generalists and widespread across the UK, but mountain hares on heather moorland in the Dark Peak constitute the only wild population in England. They were re-introduced in the Victorian era for sporting purposes. A feral population of red-necked wallabies lived around The Roaches from the 1940s onwards but may now be extinct. Red deer herds, assumed to be derived from animals escaped from deer parks at Lyme Park

Birds.

As with its mammals, many of the Peak's current bird species are widespread generalists. The moors of the Dark Peak still support breeding populations of a number of upland specialists, such as twite, short-eared owl, golden plover, dunlin, ring ouzel, northern wheatear and merlin. The populations of twite and golden plover are the southernmost confirmed breeding populations in England, and the Peak District Moors Special Protection Area (SPA) is a European designation for its populations of merlin, golden plover and short-eared owl. The Peak District lacks the concentrations of breeding waders found further north in the Pennines, although the moors and their fringes accommodate breeding curlew and lapwing as well as less noticeable wading birds including dunlin and snipe.  Commercial driven grouse shooting occurs on the heather moorlands of the Dark Peak, where the red grouse population is maintained by gamekeepers employed by shooting estates. A population of black grouse became extinct in 2000, but reintroduction was attempted in 2003. Quarries and rock outcrops provide nest sites for peregrine falcon and common raven.

Other taxa.

Amphibians and reptiles such as common lizards, grass snakes, great crested newts and slow worms are found in the area. The eastern moors are a stronghold for adders.  Native fish in the Peak District include Atlantic salmon, brown trout, European eel, bullhead, brook lamprey and grayling. A possibly unique population of "wild" rainbow trout survives on the Derbyshire Wye, following their introduction at the turn of the 20th century.  Butterflies in the region include the dingy skipper, brown argus, small blue and white-letter hairstreak. Moths include the anomalous, broom moth, dot moth, garden dart, mouse moth and white ermine. Other invertebrates include the bilberry bumblebee, broad groove-head spider, mole cricket, northern yellow splinter, shining guest ant, violet oil beetle and white-clawed crayfish.

History.

The Peak has been inhabited from the earliest periods of human activity as evidenced by finds of Mesolithic flint artefacts and palaeoenvironmental evidence from caves in Dovedale and elsewhere. Evidence of Neolithic activity includes monumental earthworks or barrows such as that at Margery Hill.  In the Bronze Age the area was well populated and farmed, and evidence of these people survives in henges such as Arbor Low near Youlgreave, or the Nine Ladies stone circle at Stanton Moor. In the same period, and into the Iron Age, hillforts such as that at Mam Tor were created. The Romans exploited the area's rich mineral veins, exporting lead from the Buxton area along well-used routes. Buxton was a Roman settlement, known as "Aquae Arnemetiae" in recognition of its spring.  Theories as to the derivation of the Peak name include that it came from the Pecsaetan or peaklanders, an Anglo-Saxon tribe who inhabited the central and northern parts of the area from the 6th century AD when it was part of the Anglian kingdom of Mercia. Barrows from the Anglo-Saxon period are present, including at Benty Grange, where the eponymous helmet was found.

Mining and quarrying.

In medieval and early modern times the area was mainly agricultural with sheep farming, rather than arable, the main activity in upland holdings. From the 16th century, the area's mineral and geological wealth became increasingly significant. Not only lead, but coal, fluorite, copper from Ecton Mines, zinc, iron, manganese and silver have all been mined. Celia Fiennes, describing her journey through the Peak in 1697, wrote of:  Coal measures occur on the Peak's western and eastern fringes and evidence of past workings can be found from Glossop to The Roaches, and from Stocksbridge to Baslow. The coal measures in the east are at the western edge of the South Yorkshire Coalfield and those in the west are part of the Cheshire section of the Lancashire Coalfield. Mining started in medieval times and was at its most productive in the 18th and early 19th centuries and continued into the early 20th century. The earliest mining took place at and close to outcrops where miners

Textiles.

Textiles have been exported for hundreds of years. In the 14th century, the area traded in unprocessed wool. There was a number of skilled hand spinners and weavers in the area. By the 1780s, Richard Arkwright had developed machinery to produce textiles more quickly and to a higher standard. The early Arkwright mills were of light construction, narrow, about wide, and low, the ceiling height was only and were lit by daylight. The new machines were powered by water wheels. The Peak was

Modern history.

The Kinder Trespass in 1932 was a landmark in the campaign for open access to moorland in Britain and eventually led to the formation of Britain's national parks. Before the trespass, open moorland was closed to all. Moorland estates were the private property of landed gentry who used them for only 12 days a year

Economy.

Tourism is estimated to provide 500 full-time jobs, 350 part-time jobs and 100 seasonal jobs. It is a major source of employment for park residents (24%). Manufacturing industries (19%), quarrying (12%) and agriculture (12%) are also important. The cement works at Hope is the largest single employer in the park. Limestone is the most important mineral quarried, mainly for roads and cement; shale is extracted for cement at Hope,

Tourism.

"De Mirabilibus Pecci" or "The Seven Wonders of the Peak" by Thomas Hobbes was an early tourist description published in 1636. Much scorn was poured on the seven wonders by visitors, including Daniel Defoe who described the moors by Chatsworth as "a waste and houling wilderness" and was particularly contemptuous of Peak Cavern near Castleton which was known as the 'Devil's Arse'. Visitor numbers did not increase until the Victorian era when the advent of railways provided access and a cultural appreciation of the Picturesque and Romantic developed. John Mawe's "Mineralogy of Derbyshire" (1802) and William Adam's "Gem of the Peak" (1843) generated interest in the area's unique geology.  A tradition of public access and outdoor recreation grew in the area which is natural hinterland and rural escape for the populations of industrial Manchester and Sheffield, and remains a valuable leisure resource in a largely post-industrial economy. In a 2005 survey of visitors, 85% of respondents mentioned "scenery and landscape" as a reason for visiting.

Buxton.

Buxton developed as a spa town because of its geothermal spring which rises at a constant temperature of 28 °C. It was settled by the Romans around AD 78, when it was known as Aquae Arnemetiae, or the spa of the goddess of the grove. Bess of Hardwick and her husband the Earl of Shrewsbury, "took the waters" in 1569, and brought Mary, Queen of Scots, there in 1573.

Historic buildings.

Historic buildings in the park include Chatsworth House, seat of the Dukes of Devonshire and among Britain's finest stately homes; the medieval Haddon Hall, seat of the Dukes of Rutland; and Lyme Park, an Elizabethan manor house transformed by an Italianate front. Other historic

Museums and attractions.

Inside the park, Eyam Museum has displays about the village's history during the Black Death. Castleton has four show caves; Peak Cavern, Blue John, Treak Cliff and Speedwell. In the outer fringes, the area's industrial heritage is represented by the mining museum at Matlock Bath with the Temple Lead Mine, the Derwent Valley Mills World Heritage Site and Brindley Water Mill at Leek. Preserved railways such as the Peak Rail, Ecclesbourne Valley and Churnet Valley lines, the National Tramway Museum at Crich and the Cromford Canal chart the area's transport history. Matlock Bath also has the show caves and mines of the Heights

Activities.

An extensive network of public footpaths and numerous long-distance trails, over in total, and large open-access areas are available for hillwalking and hiking. The Pennine Way traverses the Dark Peak from Edale to the park's northern boundary just south of Standedge. Bridleways are used by mountain bikers, as well as horse riders. The Tissington Trail and High Peak Trail, which re-use former railway lines, are well used by walkers, horse riders and cyclists. The Peak District Boundary Walk is a circular walking trail around the national park.  Sections of the former rail routes were converted to multi-purpose cycle trails. After the Woodhead Line was closed between Hadfield and Penistone part of the trackbed was used for the Longdendale Trail section of the Trans Pennine Trail between Hadfield and Woodhead. The Manchester, Buxton, Matlock and Midlands Junction Railway between Rowsley and Buxton is part of the Monsal Trail. The trackbed of the Cromford and High Peak Railway is open to the public as the High Peak Trail. The Tissington Trail uses another disused rail line

Transport.

The first roads constructed by the Romans may have followed existing tracks. The Roman network linked the settlements and forts of Aquae Arnemetiae (Buxton), Chesterfield, Ardotalia (Glossop) and Navio (Brough and Shatton), and beyond. Parts of the modern A515 and A53 roads south of Buxton are believed to follow the routes of Roman roads.  Packhorse routes criss-crossed the Peak in the Medieval era, and some paved causeways such as the Long Causeway along Stanage Edge date from this period. No highways were marked on Christopher Saxton's 1579 map of Derbyshire. Bridge-building improved the transport network.  Although the introduction of turnpike roads from 1731 reduced journey times, the journey from Sheffield to Manchester in 1800 still took 16 hours prompting Samuel Taylor Coleridge to remark that "a tortoise could outgallop us!" From around 1815, better quality turnpike roads were built. The Snake Pass, part of the A57, was built under the direction of Thomas Telford in 1819–21.  The main roads are the A57 between Sheffield and Manchester, the A628, Woodhead Pass, between Barnsley and Manchester via Longdendale, the A6 from Derby to Manchester via Buxton, the Cat and Fiddle Road from Macclesfield to Buxton, and in the north, the A635 from Manchester to Barnsley. Roads and lanes are frequently congested and the availability of parking spaces in towns and villages is a significant problem, especially during summer. A congestion charge was proposed in 2005, but was rejected.  The Cromford Canal opened in 1794, to carry coal, lead and iron ore to the Erewash Canal, it was abandoned in 1944. The canal turnpike roads had to compete with railways after 1825. The first railway, the Cromford and High Peak Railway from High Peak Junction to Whaley Bridge, was an industrial line, but passenger services followed, including the Woodhead Line (Sheffield to Manchester via Longdendale) and the Manchester, Buxton, Matlock and Midlands Junction Railway. Several rail lines were closed in the 1960s as a result of the Beeching Axe.

Public transport.

The Peak District is accessible by public transport. Train services operate along the Hope Valley line between Sheffield and Manchester, the Derwent Valley line between Derby and Matlock, the Buxton and Glossop lines, linking them to Manchester, and the Huddersfield line from Manchester to Huddersfield. Coach services provide access to Matlock, Bakewell and Buxton from Derby,

Conservation issues.

The proximity of the Peak to major conurbations and urban areas (an estimated 20 million people live within an hour's drive) poses challenges for managing the area. The park authority, the National Trust and other landowners attempt to keep the upland landscape accessible for recreation while protecting it from intensive farming, erosion and pressure from visitors. Tension exists between the needs of the 38,000 residents, the needs of the millions of people who visit, and conservation requirements.  The uneven distribution of visitors creates stresses. Dovedale alone receives about two million visitors annually. Other highly visited areas include Bakewell, Castleton and the Hope Valley, Chatsworth, Hartington and the reservoirs of the Upper Derwent Valley. More than 60% of visits take place between May and September, with Sunday the busiest day.  Footpath users in the more popular walking areas have contributed to serious erosion problems, particularly on the fragile peat moorlands. The use of some

Peak District in literature and arts.

The landscapes of the Peak have inspired writers for centuries. Various places have been identified by Ralph Elliott and others as locations in the 14th-century poem "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight"; Lud's Church is thought to be the Green Chapel. Key scenes in Jane Austen's 1813 novel "Pride and Prejudice" are set in the Peak. "Peveril of the Peak" (1823) by Sir Walter Scott is a historical novel set at Peveril Castle, Castleton during the reign of Charles II. William Wordsworth was a frequent visitor to Matlock; the Peak inspired several of his poems, including an 1830 sonnet to Chatsworth House. The village of Morton in Charlotte Brontë's 1847 novel "Jane Eyre" is based on Hathersage, where Brontë stayed in 1845, and Thornfield Hall might have been inspired by nearby North Lees Hall. Snowfield in George Eliot's first novel "Adam Bede" (1859) is believed to be based on Wirksworth, where her uncle managed a mill; Ellastone (as Hayslope) and Ashbourne (as Oakbourne) also feature.  Beatrix Potter, the author of Peter Rabbit, visited her uncle Edmund Potter at his printworks in Dinting Vale. She copied cloth samples from his pattern book to dress her characters. Mrs Tiggywinkle's shawl, in The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle, is based on pattern number 222714.  Children's author Alison Uttley (1884–1976) was born at Cromford; her novel "A Traveller in Time", set in Dethick, recounts the Babington Plot to free Mary, Queen of Scots, from imprisonment. Crichton Porteous (1901–91) set several books in locations in the Peak; "Toad Hole", "Lucky Columbell" and "Broken River" are set in the Derwent Valley. Geraldine Brooks's first novel, "Year of Wonders" (2001), blends fact and fiction to tell the story of the plague village of Eyam. Eyam also inspired "Children of Winter" by children's novelist Berlie Doherty who has set several other works in the Peak, including "Deep Secret", based on the drowning of the villages of Derwent and Ashopton by the Ladybower Reservoir, and "Blue John", inspired by the cavern at Castleton. Many works of crime and horror have been set in the Peak. "The Terror of Blue John Gap" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930) recounts terrible events at the Blue John mines, and Sherlock Holmes investigates the kidnapping of a child in "The Adventure of the Priory School". Many horror stories by local author Robert Murray Gilchrist feature Peak settings. Stephen Booth has written a series of crime novels set in real and imagined Peak locations, while "In Pursuit of the Proper Sinner", an Inspector Lynley mystery by Elizabeth George, is set on the fictional Calder Moor.  Other writers and poets who lived in or visited the Peak include Samuel Johnson, William Congreve, Anna Seward, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Lord Byron, Thomas Moore, Richard Furness, D. H. Lawrence, Vera Brittain, Richmal Crompton and Nat Gould. The landscapes and historic houses are popular settings for film and television. The classic 1955 film "The Dam Busters" was filmed at the Upper Derwent Valley reservoirs, where practice flights for the bombing raids on the Ruhr dams had been made during the Second World War.  In adaptations of "Pride and Prejudice", Longnor has featured as Lambton, and Lyme Park and Chatsworth House have stood in for Pemberley. Haddon Hall doubled as Thornfield Hall in two different adaptations of "Jane Eyre" and has appeared in several films including "Elizabeth", "The Princess Bride" and "The Other Boleyn Girl". The television medical drama "Peak Practice" set in the fictional village of Cardale was filmed in Crich, Matlock and other Peak locations. The world's longest-running sitcom, "Last of the Summer Wine", was filmed in Holmfirth and the surrounding Holme Valley.

The Peak District is an upland area in England at the southern end of the Pennines. It is mostly in northern Derbyshire, but also includes parts of Cheshire, Greater Manchester, Staffordshire, West Yorkshire, and South Yorkshire. An area of great diversity, it is mostly split into the Dark Peak, where most of the moorland is found and the geology is gritstone, and the limestone area of the White Peak.

峰区(Peak District)是英格兰中部和北部的高地,主要位于德比郡北部,也覆盖柴郡、大曼彻斯特、斯塔福德郡、约克郡南部和西部等的部分地区。1974年,在地方政府重组前,国家公园位于德比郡、柴郡、斯塔福德郡和约克郡西区的历史县边界线内。


History.

Formation as Airdrie United.

The club was formed in 2002 as Airdrie United, following the bankruptcy of the original Airdrieonians.  Airdrieonians had finished runners-up in the Scottish First Division in the 2001–02 season but went out of business with debts approaching £3 million. The collapse of "The Diamonds", as they were known due to their distinctive kits, created a vacancy in the Scottish Football League (in the Scottish Third Division). Accountant and Airdrieonians fan Jim Ballantyne attempted, with the help of others, to gain entry with a club called "Airdrie United" who were essentially to be a reincarnation of Airdrieonians. Their application however was rejected as the then English Northern Premier League side Gretna were preferred by league members over the new Airdrie United.  Airdrie United then went on to complete a buy-out of the ailing Second Division side Clydebank and with SFL approval the club was relocated to Airdrie, the strips were transformed to resemble that of Airdrieonians, and the name was changed to Airdrie United. While this means that the club is therefore officially a continuation of Clydebank it is almost universally accepted as a reincarnation of Airdrieonians, with Clydebank having been reformed by supporters' groups and entering into the West Region Junior League.

Early years – league title & new manager (2002–2006).

Managed by Sandy Stewart, Airdrie United's first match took place at New Broomfield against Forfar Athletic in August 2002, with captain Stephen Docherty scoring the only goal of the game with Airdrie United winning 1–0. Their debut season saw the club only narrowly fail to achieve promotion by one point due to a late injury-time goal from Brechin City which saw them promoted instead. The club reached the second round of the Challenge Cup, the third round of the Scottish Cup and the third round of the Scottish League Cup having beaten Premier League side Kilmarnock in the second round.  During the rest of Stewart's tenure the club reached the final of the Challenge Cup in 2003 (losing 2–0 to Inverness Caledonian Thistle), and won the Second Division title in 2003–04 season. Having started poorly Airdrie went on a run that saw them unbeaten in the last 18 games of that season, including the final game of the league campaign which saw a crowd of over 5,700 at New Broomfield to watch Airdrie defeat Morton 2–0 and lift the League Championship trophy, the club having been confirmed champions the previous week following their 1–0 victory away to Alloa Athletic at Recreation Park.  In November 2006, Stewart was sacked and replaced by former Airdrieonians player and Airdrie United coach Kenny Black, his first management post.

Mixed fortunes – play-offs, cup win & club changes (2006–2013).

Under Kenny Black the club suffered four successive play-off defeats:  The club won the Challenge Cup in 2008, defeating Ross County 3–2 on penalties after a 2–2 draw, and after this success manager Kenny Black signed a long term contract (until 2012).  After big financial cutbacks saw all players released in May 2010, it was announced the club would be operating on a part-time basis. In June manager Kenny Black was relieved of his duties, with Jimmy Boyle appointed interim manager. Boyle was appointed manager on a permanent basis in September 2010, with the contract running until the end of season 2011–2012, and extended for 2 years from 2012. The club's decision to focus on developing youth was vindicated in January 2011, as Celtic signed teenager Tony Watt for a sum of £80,000 plus add-ons.  The first league game between Airdrie United and local rivals Albion Rovers took place at New Broomfield on 10 September 2011, with Airdrie winning 4–0. After another play-off defeat by 6–2 on aggregate to Dumbarton in the promotion play-off final at the end of 2011–12 season Airdrie were lucky again as the liquidation of the company that operated Scottish Premier League side Rangers and the decision by Scottish Football League clubs that Rangers should play in the Scottish Third Division, meant that an additional team from each tier of Scottish football was promoted for the 2012–13 season. As Airdrie were runners up in the previous season's Second Division promotion play-offs, they were promoted to the Scottish First Division. A season in the First Division came to an end in May 2013, with the club finishing bottom of the league and relegated to Division Two.

Airdrieonians name returns (2013–2015).

In June 2013, the club officially changed its name from Airdrie United Football Club to Airdrieonians Football Club. The name change revived the name of the club it was formed to replace in 2002, following the liquidation of the original Airdrieonians. The Airdrieonians all red club crest was also revived, with an alternate black and red version used for the away kits.  With a poor start to 2013–14 season and the club sitting bottom of the table, manager Jimmy Boyle was relieved of his position in October 2013 and replaced by Gary Bollan. His contract was extended until May 2016 and the club finished 2014–15 season in 5th position.

New ownership at the club (2015–2018).

In June 2015 Jim Ballantyne sold control of the club to Tom Wotherspoon, a Lanarkshire businessman and owner of M & H Logistics (who had previously sponsored Hamilton Academical, East Fife and BSC Glasgow). Wotherspoon became Chairman and Ballantyne Vice-Chairman.  The club made numerous additions to the first team squad during July and appointed former Scottish Sun newspaper Head of Sport Iain King as Chief Executive (King left the club in June 2016). At a meeting with fans Wotherspoon outlined his long term plans for the club including a commitment to youth and the return to full-time football should the club gain promotion to the SPFL Championship. In September 2015 the club appointed Eddie Wolecki Black from Edusport Academy as the new Youth Academy Director of Coaching. Manager Gary Bollan departed the club in December 2015, with Wolecki Black taking charge of the side a day later beginning a -year deal.  Chairman Tom Wotherspoon announced to the media in January 2016 that the club would be returning to full-time football in the summer of 2016 (irrespective of the division they would be playing in) and would be using the Ravenscraig Regional Sports Facility in Motherwell as a training base until at least mid-2019.  In March 2016, Airdrieonians manager Eddie Wolecki Black suffered a stroke during a match against Scottish League One opponents Cowdenbeath. In order to allow Wolecki Black time to recover from his illness, Danny Lennon was appointed as acting head coach of the club until the end of the 2015–16 season, with Kevin McBride then appointed to this role during the close season. During October 2016, former Raith Rovers and Ayr Utd manager Gordon Dalziel was appointed as a club advisor on footballing matters. McBride departed the club on 30 October 2016 and the following day, Dalziel was subsequently appointed Director of football, with Mark Wilson appointed as Head coach. At the same time, the club announced that Eddie Wolecki Black would not be returning to the club, with the former coach featured in the press during November 2016 saying he was suing the club for loss of income.  In December 2016 the Airdrieonians Supporters Trust became the first fans group in the world to sponsor their team's home kit, with the strip paying tribute to Airdrie fan Mark Allison.  Despite retaining his majority shareholding Tom Wotherspoon resigned as chairman and director of Airdrieonians on 5 June 2017, with former chairman Jim Ballantyne taking Wotherspoon's place as chairman.

Takeover (2018).

In January 2018, it was announced that a consortium of various businessmen (including former Airdrieonians manager Bobby Watson) had taken control of Tom Wotherspoon's controlling shares, bringing to an end a tumultuous period for the club. The majority of the previous board was replaced, including Jim Ballantyne, and subsequently Director of Football Gordon Dalziel departed. With Excelsior Stadium representation on the new board the club also indicated that they would be abandoning Ravenscraig Sports Complex and returning to training at the stadium.

Stadium.

Airdrie play their home fixtures at Excelsior Stadium, also unofficially known as New Broomfield, and for sponsorship reasons as the Penny Cars stadium. The ground was built when now defunct Airdrieonians' previous home, Broomfield Park, was sold to supermarket chain Safeway, who were given permission to build a new store on the site. This transaction has been cited as being the cause of the financial ruination of the club, as their old ground was demolished several years before they acquired planning permission for the new stadium. In the intervening years the club ground-shared Broadwood Stadium, in Cumbernauld, the home of Clyde.  The ground is owned by Broomfield Stadium Ltd, previously Excelsior Stadium Ltd, who rent the stadium to Airdrie, with the stadium owners sitting on the Board of the club. It has an all-seated capacity of and at the end of the 2009–10 season, a new 3G artificial surface was installed.  In 2003 a ground share was proposed with Falkirk as their ground did not meet SPL requirements; this was later refused as Falkirk could not prove the SPL fixtures would have priority. Queen of the South played their Uefa Cup tie in 2008 at the stadium, as did Motherwell in 2009. Queen's Park utilised the stadium for their "home" games from December 2013 until May 2014, due to the redevelopment of Hampden Park for the 2014 Commonwealth Games.

Colours and crest.

Colours.

Airdrie United inherited Airdrieonians' distinctive playing colours of a white shirt with a red diamond. The design was the basis of Airdrieonians' nickname, "The Diamonds", which has also been adopted by Airdrie.

Crest.

When Airdrie United were formed, they used a blue double-headed eagle device on a white shield for their badge, with a red scroll below the shield that read "Airdrie United F.C.", amended to bearing "Airdrie F.C." when the club rebranded in 2012. The eagle recalled the Airdrie town arms.  When the club inherited the Airdrieonians name in 2013, they also restored the badge worn by their predecessors: the original AFC bore this emblem from 1974 until their demise in 2002, excepting the 2000–01 season. This badge featured a cockerel sitting atop a shield containing two lions passant and the club's initials. The club were informed by the Lord Lyon King of Arms in March 2015 that as their badge features a shield, it constitutes a heraldic device, and heraldic devices are not permitted to carry lettering. On 19 June 2015, Airdrieonians unveiled a new crest, removing the shield and instead using a chevron–representing the "Airdrie Diamond"–to separate the scroll from the remainder of the badge.

Official club awards.

Hall of Fame.

A "Hall of Fame" was established by the new club in 2002 to honour noted players of the previous entity (some of whom also played for the new club), with more entrants added each year.

Airdrieonians Football Club are a Scottish professional football team in Airdrie, North Lanarkshire, who are members of the Scottish Professional Football League (SPFL) and play in Scottish League One. They were formed in 2002 as Airdrie United Football Club following the liquidation of the original Airdrieonians club, formed in 1878. The club's official name was changed in 2013 with the approval of the Scottish Football Association to the traditional name of Airdrieonians. As with the previous club, this is often colloquially shortened to simply "Airdrie".

艾迪尔人足球会(Airdrieonians Football Club),原称艾迪尔联足球会(Airdrie United Football Club),是位于苏格兰北拉纳克郡艾尔德里(Airdrie)的职业足球会,是苏格兰足球联赛成员之一,现时在苏格兰甲组联赛作赛。


Plot.

The comedic series revolves around the escapades of Haruhi Fujioka, a scholarship student at the prestigious Ouran Academy, a fictitious high school for rich kids located in Bunkyo, Tokyo. Looking for a quiet place to study, Haruhi stumbles upon the abandoned Third Music Room, a place where the Ouran Academy Host Club, a group of six male students, gathers to entertain female "clients" with sweets and tea. During their initial encounter, Haruhi accidentally destroys an antique vase valued at ¥8,000,000 (around US$80,000) and must work off the debt as the club's errand boy. Her short hair, slouching attire, and gender-ambiguous face cause her to be mistaken by the Hosts for a male student, though they soon realize her actual gender and the fact that she's a "natural" in entertaining girls, promoting her to full-Host status.

Media.

Manga.

The "Ouran High School Host Club" manga was serialized in Japan between the September 2002 and November 2010 issues of "LaLa". The individual chapters were collected in 18 "tankōbon" volumes between August 5, 2003 and April 5, 2011. Hakusensha released a fanbook for the series on August 4, 2009 titled. The series is licensed in English North America by Viz Media under its "Shojo Beat" imprint, and in Indonesia in the monthly manga magazine "Hanalala". It is published in Singapore (in both simplified Chinese and English) by Chuang Yi, and in Poland by JPF.

Anime.

A 26-episode anime television series aired between April 5 and September 26, 2006 on NTV. The series was produced by Nippon Television, VAP, Bones and Hakusensha. It was directed by Takuya Igarashi, with Yōji Enokido handling series composition and writing the scripts, Kumiko Takahashi designing the characters and Yoshihisa Hirano composing the music. It features a different cast from the audio dramas, with Maaya Sakamoto as Haruhi Fujioka and Mamoru Miyano as Tamaki Suoh.  The series is licensed for distribution in North America by Funimation Entertainment. Caitlin Glass is the ADR director of the series. The first anime DVD set containing the first thirteen episodes was released on October 28, 2008 in North America. The second volume containing the last thirteen episodes was released on January 6, 2009. On April 27, 2009, the series made its North American television debut on the Funimation Channel.

Music and audio CDs.

Three drama CDs were released in 2003, as well as two tracks included in "LaLa" magazine's 28th and 29th anniversary CDs. Three soundtracks were released by Video and Audio Project for the "Ouran High School Host Club" anime adaptation. The first, "Ouran High School Host Club Soundtrack & Character Song Collection (Part 1)", was released in Japan on July 26, 2006 and contained twenty tracks, including the anime opening theme song. The second, "Ouran High School Host Club Soundtrack & Character Song Collection 2", contained an additional nineteen tracks and was released on August 23, 2006. On September 20, 2007, a third soundtrack, the "Ouran High School Host Club Soundtrack & Character Song Collection Special Edition" was released containing eight songs from the previous two tracks, with four additional songs.

Visual novel.

The "Ouran Host Club" visual novel was released for PlayStation 2 on April 19, 2007 by Idea Factory. Based on the television series, the player makes decisions as Haruhi that affect the other hosts feelings toward her. The game features the characters of Jean-Pierre Léo, a longtime French friend of Tamaki, and Sayuri Himemiya, a childhood friend of Haruhi, designed by the series creator. There are two other original characters. The game has been released exclusively in Japan. A Nintendo DS port of the game, updated with a fully voiced cast and new character-specific scenarios, was released on March 19, 2009.

Live-action TV series and film.

A live-action TV series of "Ouran" began airing in Japan on TBS on July 22, 2011. The live-action adaption features Yusuke Yamamoto as Tamaki Suou and Haruna Kawaguchi as Haruhi Fujioka.  A live-action film of "Ouran" was announced during a fan meeting on August 25, 2011 and continues off from the conclusion of the television series. All actors of the live-action television series reprised their roles. The film was released on March 17, 2012. It was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on October 10, 2012.  The series had a spin-off named "Ouran High School Host Club: Haruhi no Happy Birthday Daisakusen" with the same cast that was originally broadcast on January 6, 2012 by LISMO drama, a mobile drama provided by au. This LISMO drama tells an original story worked on by the author of the manga. The drama revolves around the host club members becoming flustered upon learning that it is Haruhi's birthday. Through their misunderstandings about celebrating her birthday, the members make Haruhi angry. Kawaguchi, who plays Haruhi Fujioka, commented, "You will see an explosion of this well-known bright and silly character! It was fun playing the role, and all the host club members enjoyed the filming." Each episode is approximately five minutes long, and there are four episodes.

Reception.

The series is a parody of otaku culture, especially cross-dressing. The club often dresses up in flamboyant costumes, and Renge Hōshakuji is also identified as an otaku. Rose Bridges, writing for Anime News Network, regards "Ouran" as being the first example of a "fujoshi comedy" genre—loosely defined as humorous anime with predominantly male casts that cater to shipping-obsessed fangirls.  Mangaka Bisco Hatori appeared at Anime Expo 2019 held at the Los Angeles Convention Center in Los Angeles, California, USA. During several interviews and panels, she indicated that she would welcome another project concerning the characters and topics covered in Ouran, but is in no position to produce an anime and advised fans to continue petitioning the studio. When asked about the Boy Love suggested in the series, she stated that Ouran has always been meant to be a parody of "shōjo" manga, but doesn't feel there is a thematic gap between shōjo and BL themes. As for Haruhi being a female, it was revealed that the character was originally meant to be a boy, but one of her editors suggested a gender swap. Thus, Hatori invented a female character that "doesn't need to dress up like a boy other than the fact that those are the clothing she wears and likes" without subtext. She expressed that she isn't hung up on genre parameters or gender orientation because every person should be proud of being unique while remaining true to themselves. In summation, Hatori stressed Ouran being a story about family and friendship, without any intention of being a pioneer of "fujoshi comedy," though admits that it happened just the same.

The manga has been adapted into a series of audio dramas, an animated television series directed by Takuya Igarashi and produced by Bones, a Japanese television drama series, a live action film adaptation and a visual novel by Idea Factory.

《樱兰高校男公关部》(),是日本漫画家叶鸟螺子的一部日本漫画作品。于《LaLa》2002年9月号至2010年11月号期间连载。单行本全18卷,至2012年为止发行数量达1300万册。


History.

The party was founded on 8 July 1943 by Alexander Bustamante as the political wing of the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union. Bustamante had previously been a member of the PNP.  It won the 1944 general elections with 22 of the 32 seats. It went on to win the 1949 elections with a reduced majority, before losing power to the PNP in the 1955 elections. It remained in opposition following the 1959 elections, but was victorious in 1962 and was therefore the Government when Jamaica gained its political independence from Great Britain on 6 August 1962.  Bustamante suffered a stroke in 1964 and largely withdrew from politics. However, he did not relinquish the title of party leader for another decade. Donald Sangster took over as acting prime minister after Bustamante's stroke. He was named First Deputy Leader in 1967, and led the party to victory as of the 21 February 1967 elections. Sangster suffered a brain hemorrhage and died about six weeks after the elections, while he was preparing for his budget presentation.  Hugh Shearer succeeded Sangster as First Deputy Leader and Prime Minister, defeating David Clement (DC) Tavares by two votes in a run-off by of the JLP parliamentarians. Tavares had come out on top in the first ballot, with Shearer and Robert Lightbourne being the other candidates. Under Shearer, the JLP lost power for the first time to the People's National Party and Michael Manley in 1972. Shearer served as Opposition Leader until 1974.  Bustamante finally gave up the post of party leader in 1974, and Edward Seaga was elected his successor. The party lost the 1976 elections, but Seaga became Prime Minister after victory in 1980 when the party won by a landslide, capturing 51 of the then 60 parliamentary seats. In 1983 with the JLP achieving a spike in popularity, in part because of Seaga's support of the US-led military invasion of Grenada, Seaga called early elections and won all sixty seats, the majority by acclamation, mainly because the opposition PNP boycotted those elections. The JLP suffered defeat in the 1989 elections and went on to lose elections in 1993, 1997 and 2002, all under the continued leadership of Seaga.  In 2005 Bruce Golding succeeded Seaga as leader of the party, and led it to victory in the 2007 elections. Golding resigned as head of the party and Prime Minister in October 2011 and was succeeded by current leader Andrew Holness. Soon after becoming leader, Holness called an election over a year before it was constitutionally due, and the party lost by a 2:1 margin to the PNP. Holness was not blamed for the defeat, and continued to lead the party as Opposition Leader  The party held a leadership election on 10 November 2013 where Holness was challenged by his deputy, Shadow Minister for Finance Audley Shaw. Holness defeated Shaw by a margin of 2,704 votes to Shaw's 2,012.  Holness went on to lead the JLP to a one-seat parliamentary majority (32-31) in the February 25, 2016 general elections, reducing the PNP to the opposition benches after one term.

Political positions.

The JLP is a conservative party. It believes in a market-driven economy and individual personal responsibility.  In May 2008, in an interview with Stephen Sackur of the BBC, Bruce Golding PM and Party Leader declared that any cabinet formed by him would exclude any MP known to be gay. In previous statements, Golding stated that he and his party strongly opposed public displays of homosexuality in Jamaica and that he felt that they should continue to be illegal in keeping with Jamaican societal norms. He justified the illegality of homosexual acts by referring to Christian values and the integrity of the family.

The Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) is one of the two major political parties in Jamaica, the other being the People's National Party (PNP). While its name might suggest that it is a social democratic party (as is the case for "Labour" parties in several other Commonwealth realms such as Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom), the JLP is actually a conservative party. However, it has longstanding ties to the Jamaican labour movement.

牙买加工党(英语:Jamaica Labour Party,缩写为JLP)是牙买加的一个政党。它是牙买加的两个主要政党之一,另一个是人民民族党。不同于其他国家的工党,该党的立场属中间偏右,意识形态属保守主义,但仍长期支持该国的劳工运动。


Plot.

Small-time pool hustler "Fast Eddie" Felson travels cross-country with his partner Charlie to challenge the legendary player "Minnesota Fats". Arriving at Fats' home pool hall, Eddie declares he will win $10,000 that night. Fats arrives and he and Eddie agree to play straight pool for $200 a game. After initially falling behind, Eddie surges back to being $1,000 ahead and suggests raising the bet to $1,000 a game; Fats agrees. He sends out a runner, Preacher, to Johnny's Bar, ostensibly for whiskey, but really to get professional gambler Bert Gordon to the hall. Eddie gets ahead $11,000 and Charlie tries to convince him to quit, but Eddie insists the game will end only when Fats says it is over. Fats agrees to continue after Bert labels Eddie a "loser". After 25 hours and an entire bottle of bourbon, Eddie is ahead over $18,000, but loses it all along with all but $200 of his original stake. At their hotel later, Eddie leaves half of the remaining stake with a sleeping Charlie and leaves.  Eddie stashes his belongings at the local bus terminal, where he meets Sarah Packard, an alcoholic who is supported by her father, attends college part-time, and walks with a limp. He meets her again at a bar. They go back to her place but she refuses to let him in, saying he is "too hungry". Eddie moves into a rooming house and starts hustling for small stakes. He finds Sarah again and this time she takes him in, but with reservations. Charlie finds Eddie at Sarah's and tries to persuade him to go back out on the road. Eddie refuses and Charlie realizes he plans to challenge Fats again. Eddie realizes that Charlie held out his percentage and becomes enraged, believing that with that money he could have rebounded to beat Fats. Eddie dismisses Charlie as a scared old man and tells him to "go lie down and die" by himself.  At Johnny's Bar, Eddie joins a poker game where Bert is playing and loses $20. Afterward, Bert tells Eddie that he has talent as a pool player but no character. He figures that Eddie will need at least $3,000 to challenge Fats again. Bert calls him a "born loser" but nevertheless offers to stake him in return for 75% of his winnings; Eddie refuses.  Eddie humiliates a local pool, exposing himself as a hustler, and the other players punish him by breaking his thumbs. As he heals, Sarah cares for him and tells him she loves him, but he cannot say the words in return. When Eddie is ready to play, he agrees to Bert's terms, deciding that a "25% slice of something big is better than a 100% slice of nothing".  Bert, Eddie, and Sarah travel to the Kentucky Derby, where Bert arranges a match for Eddie against a wealthy local socialite named Findley. The game turns out to be three-cushion billiards, not pool. When Eddie loses badly, Bert refuses to keep staking him. Sarah pleads with Eddie to leave with her, saying that the world he is living in and its inhabitants are "perverted, twisted, and crippled"; he refuses. Seeing Eddie's anger, Bert agrees to let the match continue at $1,000 a game. Eddie comes back to win $12,000. He collects his $3,000 share and decides to walk back to the hotel. Bert arrives first and subjects Sarah to a humiliating sexual encounter. Afterwards, she scrawls "PERVERTED", "TWISTED", and "CRIPPLED" in lipstick on the bathroom mirror. Eddie arrives back at the hotel to learn that she has killed herself.  Eddie returns to challenge Fats again, putting up his entire $3,000 stake on a single game. He wins game after game, beating Fats so badly that Fats is forced to quit. Bert demands a share of Eddie's winnings and threatens that Eddie will be injured unless he pays. But Eddie says that if he is not killed he will kill Bert when he recovers; invoking the memory of Sarah, he shames Bert into giving up his claim. Instead, Bert orders Eddie never to walk into a big-time pool hall again. Eddie and Fats compliment each other as players, and Eddie walks out.

Cast.

Cast notes

Production.

The Tevis novel had been optioned several times, including by Frank Sinatra, but attempts to adapt it for the screen were unsuccessful. Director Rossen's daughter Carol Rossen speculates that previous adaptations focused too much on the pool aspects of the story and not enough on the human interaction. Rossen, who had hustled pool himself as a youth and who had made an abortive attempt to write a pool-themed play called "Corner Pocket", optioned the book and teamed with Sidney Carroll to produce the script.  According to Bobby Darin's agent, Martin Baum, Paul Newman's agent turned down the part of Fast Eddie. Newman was originally unavailable to play Fast Eddie regardless, being committed to star opposite Elizabeth Taylor in the film "Two for the Seesaw". Rossen offered Darin the part after seeing him on "The Mike Wallace Interview". When Taylor was forced to drop out of "Seesaw" because of shooting overruns on "Cleopatra", Newman was freed up to take the role, which he accepted after reading just half of the script. No one associated with the production officially notified Darin or his representatives that he had been replaced; they found out from a member of the public at a charity horse race.  Rossen filmed "The Hustler" over six weeks, entirely in New York City. Much of the action was filmed at two now-defunct pool halls, McGirr's and Ames Billiard Academy. Other shooting locations included a townhouse on East 82nd Street, which served as the Louisville home of Murray Hamilton's character Findley, and the Manhattan Greyhound bus terminal. The film crew built a dining area that was so realistic that confused passengers sat there and waited to place their orders. Willie Mosconi served as technical advisor on the film and shot a number of the trick shots in place of the actors. All of Gleason's shots were his own; they were filmed in wide-angle to emphasize having the actor and the shot in the same frames. Rossen, in pursuit of the style he termed "neo-neo-realistic", hired actual street thugs, enrolled them in the Screen Actors Guild and used them as extras. Scenes that were included in the shooting script but did not make it into the final film include a scene at Ames pool hall establishing that Eddie is on his way to town (originally slated to be the first scene of the film) and a longer scene of Preacher talking to Bert at Johnny's Bar which establishes Preacher is a junkie.  Early shooting put more focus on the pool playing, but during filming Rossen made the decision to place more emphasis on the love story between Newman and Laurie's characters. Despite the change in emphasis, Rossen still used the various pool games to show the strengthening of Eddie's character and the evolution of his relationship to Bert and Sarah, through the positioning of the characters in the frame. For example, when Eddie is playing Findley, Eddie is positioned below Bert in a two shot but above Findley while still below Bert in a three shot. When Sarah enters the room, she is below Eddie in two-shot while in a three-shot Eddie is still below Bert. When Eddie is kneeling over Sarah's body, Bert again appears above him but Eddie attacks Bert, ending up on top of him. Eddie finally appears above Bert in two-shot when Eddie returns to beat Fats.

Themes.

"The Hustler" is fundamentally a story of what it means to be a human being, couched within the context of winning and losing. Describing the film, Robert Rossen said: "My protagonist, Fast Eddie, wants to become a great pool player, but the film is really about the obstacles he encounters in attempting to fulfill himself as a human being. He attains self-awareness only after a terrible personal tragedy which he has caused — and then he wins his pool game." Roger Ebert concurs with this assessment, citing "The Hustler" as "one of the few American movies in which the hero wins by surrendering, by accepting reality instead of his dreams."  The film was also somewhat autobiographical for Rossen, relating to his dealings with the House Un-American Activities Committee. A screenwriter during the 1930s and '40s, he had been involved with the Communist Party in the 1930s and refused to name names at his first HUAC appearance. Ultimately he changed his mind and identified friends and colleagues as party members. Similarly, Felson sells his soul and betrays the one person who really knows and loves him in a Faustian pact to gain character.  Film and theatre historian Ethan Mordden has identified "The Hustler" as one of a handful of films from the early 1960s that re-defined the relationship of films to their audiences. This new relationship, he writes, is "one of challenge rather than flattery, of doubt rather than certainty." No film of the 1950s, Mordden asserts, "took such a brutal, clear look at the ego-affirmation of the one-on-one contest, at the inhumanity of the winner or the castrated vulnerability of the loser." Although some have suggested the resemblance of this film to classic film noir, Mordden rejects the comparison based on Rossen's ultra-realistic style, also noting that the film lacks noir's "Treacherous Woman or its relish in discovering crime among the bourgeoisie, hungry bank clerks and lusty wives." Mordden does note that while Fast Eddie "has a slight fifties ring", the character "makes a decisive break with the extraordinarily "feeling" tough guys of the'rebel' era... [b]ut he does end up seeking out his emotions" and telling Bert that he is a loser because he's dead inside.

Reception.

"The Hustler" had its world premiere in Washington, D.C. on September 25, 1961. Prior to the premiere, Richard Burton hosted a midnight screening of the film for the casts of the season's Broadway shows, which generated a great deal of positive word of mouth. Initially reluctant to publicize the film, 20th Century Fox responded by stepping up its promotional activities.  On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 98%, based on 44 reviews, and an average rating of 8.69/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Paul Newman and Jackie Gleason give iconic performances in this dark, morally complex tale of redemption." The film was well-received by critics, although with the occasional reservation. "Variety" praised the performances of the entire main cast but felt that the "sordid aspects" of the story prevented the film from achieving the "goal of being pure entertainment." "Variety" also felt the film was far too long. Stanley Kauffmann, writing for "The New Republic", concurred in part with this assessment. Kauffmann strongly praised the principal cast, calling Newman "first-rate" and writing that Scott's was "his most credible performance to date." Laurie, he writes, gives her part "movingly anguished touches" (although he also mildly criticizes her for over-reliance on Method acting). While he found that the script "strains hard to give an air of menace and criminality to the pool hall" and also declares it "full of pseudo-meaning", Kauffmann lauds Rossen's "sure, economical" direction, especially in regard to Gleason who, he says, does not so much act as "[pose] for a number of pictures which are well arranged by Rossen. It is the best use of a manikin by a director since Kazan photographed Burl Ives as Big Daddy." "The New York Times", despite finding that the film "strays a bit" and that the romance between Newman and Laurie's characters "seems a mite far-fetched", nonetheless found that "The Hustler" "speaks powerfully in a universal language that spellbinds and reveals bitter truths."

Sequel.

Paul Newman reprised his role as "Fast" Eddie Felson in the 1986 film "The Color of Money", for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role. A number of observers and critics have suggested that this Oscar was in belated recognition for his performance in "The Hustler". In 1997, the Library of Congress selected "The Hustler" for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." The Academy Film Archive preserved "The Hustler" in 2003. Carroll and Rossen's screenplay was selected by the Writers Guild of America in 2006 as the 96th best motion picture screenplay of all time.

Legacy.

In the decades since its release, "The Hustler" has cemented its reputation as a classic. Roger Ebert, echoing earlier praise for the performances, direction, and cinematography and adding laurels for editor Dede Allen, cites the film as "one of those films where scenes have such psychic weight that they grow in our memories." He further cites Fast Eddie Felson as one of "only a handful of movie characters so real that the audience refers to them as touchstones." "TV Guide" calls the film a "dark stunner" offering "a grim world whose only bright spot is the top of the pool table, yet [with] characters [who] maintain a shabby nobility and grace." The four leads are again lavishly praised for their performances and the film is summed up as "not to be missed."  In June 2008, AFI released its "Ten top Ten"—the best ten films in ten "classic" American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. "The Hustler" was acknowledged as the sixth best film in the sports genre.  "The Hustler" is credited with sparking a resurgence in the popularity of pool in the United States, which had been on the decline for decades. The film also brought recognition to Willie Mosconi, who, despite having won multiple world championships, was virtually unknown to the general public. Perhaps the greatest beneficiary of the film's popularity was a real-life pool hustler named Rudolf Wanderone. Mosconi claimed in an interview at the time of the film's release that the character of Minnesota Fats was based on Wanderone, who at the time was known as "New York Fatty". Wanderone immediately adopted the Minnesota Fats nickname and parlayed his association with the film into book and television deals and other ventures. Author Walter Tevis denied for the rest of his life that Wanderone had played any role in the creation of the character. Other players would claim, with greater or lesser degrees of credibility, to have served as models for Fast Eddie, including Ronnie Allen, Ed Taylor, Eddie Parker, and Eddie Pelkey.

References.

Notes Bibliography

The Hustler is a 1961 American CinemaScope drama film directed by Robert Rossen from Walter Tevis's 1959 novel of the same name, adapted for the screen by Rossen and Sidney Carroll. It tells the story of small-time pool hustler "Fast Eddie" Felson and his desire to break into the "major league" of professional hustling and high-stakes wagering by high-rollers that follows it. He throws his raw talent and ambition up against the best player in the country, seeking to best the legendary pool player "Minnesota Fats". After initially losing to Fats and getting involved with unscrupulous manager Bert Gordon, Eddie returns to try again, but only after paying a terrible personal price.

《江湖浪子》(英语:"The Hustler")是一部于1961年上映的美国剧情片,由罗伯特·罗森执导,根据沃尔特·特维斯1959年的同名小说改编,罗森和西德尼·卡罗尔担任编剧。影片讲述了一个生活在社会底层,但却很有野心的台球骗子“快枪手艾迪”·费尔森(英语:"Fast Eddie" Felson)的故事:他试图以打败台球界传奇人物“明尼苏达胖子”(英语:Minnesota Fats)来证明自己是全国最棒的台球选手。起初输给“胖子”后,他获得了不择手段经理人伯特·戈登(英语:Bert Gordon)的资助,之后他打败了胖子,但也已付出了惨重的个人代价。