苏莱曼二世 (奥斯曼帝国)

Early life.

Suleiman II was born on 15 April 1642 at Topkapı Palace in Constantinople, the son of Sultan Ibrahim and Aşub Sultan, a Serb woman originally named Katarina. Suleiman was only 3 months younger than his half-brother Mehmed IV, who was born on 2 January 1642. After the deposition and execution of his father in 1648, Suleiman's half-brother Mehmed came to the throne. On 21 October 1649, Suleiman along with his brothers Mehmed and Ahmed were circumcised.  In 1651, Suleiman was confined in "kafes" (cage), a kind of luxurious prison for princes of the blood within the Topkapı Palace (it was designed to ensure that none could organize a rebellion), and he stayed there for 36 years until he took the throne in 1687.  In 1656, Şeyhülislam Hocazade Mesud Efendi and other grand viziers tried to put Suleiman but failed and some were executed some were punished. After the defeat of Vienna in 1683, Suleiman and Ahmed were brought to Istanbul and the Şimşirlik Kasnna was closed.

Reign.

Suleiman II went to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque on 3 December 1687, and a sword was besieged by Şeyhülislam Debbağzade Mehmed Efendi and the Janissary Ağa Mustafa Ağa. The next day, he went to the first Friday salute at the Hagia Sophia Mosque. The Suleymaniye Mosque preacher Aralızade Abdül Efendi, He was appointed every day by the sultan of the Süleymaniye Mosque. Recep Pasha who ran before Suleiman’s accession was found in house at Çatalca and was executed in front of Bab-I-Humayun. In the first months of 1688, when the news of the Venetian invasion of the Peloponnese and the Attic burning, the Austrian border was also invaded. Shortly before he assumed the throne, the Ottomans suffered a major defeat at the second Battle of Mohács in 1687. In 1688, Suleiman II urgently requested the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb for assistance against the rapidly advancing Austrians, during the Ottoman–Habsburg War, but most Mughal forces were engaged in the Deccan Wars and Aurangzeb ignored Suleiman's request to commit to any formal assistance to their desperate Ottoman allies.  In order to cover the treasury deficit, the trust of hamr (drink) started to operate again. It was the public budget deficit, it was banned but people publicly sold drinks in taverns, Istanbul and Galata, in taverns and even at home. While Suleiman managed to demolish the alcohol shops the owners starting bringing more alcohol. The tax on alcohol was 8 gold coins.  Suleiman II shrewdly appointed Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Pasha as his Grand Vizier on 25 October 1689, leading to the reconquest of Belgrade in 1690. Even so, when Russian Empire joined an alliance of European powers, the Ottomans lost the support of their Crimean vassals, who were forced to defend themselves from Russian invasion. Under Köprülü's leadership, the Ottomans halted an Austrian advance into Serbia and crushed an uprising in Macedonia and Bulgaria until Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Pasha was killed in the Battle of Slankamen by Austrian forces.

Death.

Suleiman II was in Coma and was brought to Edirne on 8 June 1691. He died on 22 June 1691 and his body was put in icebox. His brother Ahmed was enthroned and his body was buried in Suleiman the Magnificent’s tomb at Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul.

External links.

<BR>  [aged 49]

Suleiman II (15 April 1642 – 22 June 1691) ( "Süleymān-i sānī") was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1687 to 1691. After being brought to the throne by an armed mutiny, Suleiman and his grand vizier Fazıl Mustafa Pasha were successfully able to turn the tide of the War of the Holy League, reconquering Belgrade in 1690, as well as carrying out significant fiscal and military reforms.

苏莱曼二世(奥斯曼土耳其语:,1642年-4月15日-1691年-6月22日),是奥斯曼帝国的苏丹,他的执政时期是从1687年到1691年。苏莱曼是穆罕默德四世的弟弟,苏莱曼一生大部分时间都在“卡菲斯”(监牢)里,“卡菲斯”是托普卡帕宫(Topkapi Palace)内一个豪华的“监牢”,专门“囚禁”有皇室血脉的皇子(这个计划确保无人可以造反)。


Description.

St Edward's Crown is 22-carat gold, with a circumference of, measures tall, and weighs. It has four fleurs-de-lis and four crosses pattée, supporting two dipped arches topped by a monde and cross pattée, the arches and monde signifying an imperial crown. Its purple velvet cap is trimmed with ermine. It is set with 444 precious and semi-precious stones, including 345 rose-cut aquamarines, 37 white topazes, 27 tourmalines, 12 rubies, 7 amethysts, 6 sapphires, 2 jargoons, 1 garnet, 1 spinel and 1 carbuncle.

Usage.

Although it is regarded as the official coronation crown, only six monarchs have been crowned with St Edward's Crown since the Restoration: Charles II (1661), James II (1685), William III (1689), George V (1911), George VI (1937) and Elizabeth II (1953). Mary II and Anne were crowned with small diamond crowns of their own; George I, George II, George III and William IV with the State Crown of George I; George IV with a large new diamond crown made specially for the occasion; and Queen Victoria and Edward VII chose not to use St. Edward's Crown because of its weight and instead used the lighter 1838 version of the Imperial State Crown. When not used to crown the monarch, St Edward's Crown was placed on the altar during the coronation; however, it did not feature at all at the coronation of Queen Victoria.

In heraldry.

St Edward's Crown is widely used as a heraldic emblem of the United Kingdom, being incorporated into a multitude of emblems and insignia. As the United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with responsible government, the crown can also symbolise "the sovereignty (or authority) of the monarch." It can be found on, amongst others, the Royal Cypher; the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom; the Royal Badges of England; and the badges of the police forces of England and Wales, Her Majesty's Coastguard, the British Army, the Royal Marines, the Royal Air Force and HM Revenue and Customs. It also forms the logo of Royal Mail, the United Kingdom's postal service. (In Scotland, the Crown of Scotland may appear in place of St Edward's Crown).

History.

Origin.

Edward the Confessor wore his crown at Easter, Whitsun, and Christmas. In 1161, he was made a saint, and objects connected with his reign became holy relics. The monks at his burial place of Westminster Abbey claimed that Edward had asked them to look after his regalia in perpetuity for the coronations of all future English kings. Although the claim is likely to have been an exercise in self-promotion on the abbey's part, and some of the regalia probably had been taken from Edward's grave when he was reinterred there, it became accepted as fact, thereby establishing the first known set of hereditary coronation regalia in Europe. A crown referred to as St Edward's Crown is first recorded as having been used for the coronation of Henry III in 1220, and it appears to be the same crown worn by Edward.

Holy relic.

An early description of the crown is "King Alfred's Crown of gold wire-work set with slight stones and two little bells", weighing and valued at £248 in total. It was sometimes called King Alfred's Crown because of an inscription on the lid of its box, which, translated from Latin, read: "This is the chief crown of the two, with which were crowned Kings Alfred, Edward and others". However, there is no evidence to support the belief that it dated from Alfred's time, and in the coronation order it always has been referred to as St Edward's Crown.  St Edward's Crown rarely left Westminster Abbey, but when Richard II was forced to abdicate in 1399, he had the crown brought to the Tower of London, where he symbolically handed it to Henry IV, saying "I present and give to you this crown with which I was crowned king of England and all the rights dependent on it".  It was used in 1533 to crown the second wife of Henry VIII, Anne Boleyn, which was unprecedented for a queen consort. In the Tudor period, three crowns were placed on the heads of monarchs at a coronation: St Edward's Crown, the state crown, and a "rich crown" made specially for the king or queen. After the English Reformation, the new Church of England denounced the veneration of medieval relics and, starting with the coronation of Edward VI in 1547, the significance of St Edward's Crown as a holy relic was played down in the ceremony.  During the English Civil War, Parliament sold the medieval St Edward's Crown, regarded by Oliver Cromwell as symbolic of the "detestable rule of kings".

Restoration.

The monarchy was restored in 1660 and in preparation for the coronation of Charles II, who had been living in exile abroad, a new St Edward's Crown was supplied by the Royal Goldsmith, Sir Robert Vyner. It was fashioned to closely resemble the medieval crown, with a heavy gold base and clusters of semi-precious stones, but the arches are decidedly Baroque.  In the late 20th century, it was assumed to incorporate gold from the original St Edward's Crown, as they are almost identical in weight, and no invoice was produced for the materials in 1661. A crown was also displayed at the lying in state of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England from 1653 until 1658. On the weight of this evidence, writer and historian Martin Holmes, in a 1959 paper for "Archaeologia", concluded that in the time of the Interregnum St Edward's Crown was saved from the melting pot and that its gold was used to make a new crown at the Restoration.  His theory became accepted wisdom, and many books, including official guidebooks for the Crown Jewels at the Tower of London, repeated his claim as fact. In 2008, new research found that a coronation crown and sceptre were made in 1660 in anticipation of an early coronation, which had to be delayed several times. His other regalia were commissioned in 1661 after Parliament increased the budget as a token of their appreciation for the king. The crown at Cromwell's lying in state was probably made of gilded base metal such as tin or copper, as was usual in 17th-century England; for example, a crown displayed at the funeral of James VI and I had cost only £5 and was decorated with fake jewels.  In 1671, Thomas Blood briefly stole the crown from the Tower of London, flattening it with a mallet in an attempt to conceal it. A new monde was created for the coronation of James II, and for William III the base was changed from a circle to an oval. After the coronation of William III in 1689, monarchs chose to be crowned with a lighter, bespoke coronation crown (e.g., the Coronation Crown of George IV) or their state crown, while St Edward's Crown usually rested on the high altar.

20th century to present day.

Edward VII intended to revive the tradition of being crowned with St. Edward's Crown in 1902, but on coronation day he was still recovering from an operation for appendicitis, and instead he wore the lighter Imperial State Crown.  Jewels were hired for use in the crown and removed after the coronation until 1911, when it was permanently set with 444 precious and semi-precious stones. Imitation pearls on the arches and base were replaced with gold beads which at the time were platinum-plated. Its band was also made smaller to fit George V, the first monarch to be crowned with St Edward's Crown in over 200 years, reducing the crown's overall weight from to.  It was used to crown his successor George VI in 1937, and Queen Elizabeth II in 1953, who adopted a stylised image of the crown for use on coats of arms, badges, logos and various other insignia in the Commonwealth realms to symbolise her royal authority. In these contexts, it replaced the Tudor Crown, which had been instated by Edward VII in 1901. Use of the crown's image in this way is by permission of the monarch.  On 4 June 2013, St Edward's Crown was displayed on the high altar in Westminster Abbey at a service to mark the 60th anniversary of Elizabeth II's coronation, which was the first time it had left the Jewel House at the Tower of London since 1953.

St Edward's Crown is the centrepiece of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom. Named after Saint Edward the Confessor, it has been traditionally used to crown English and British monarchs at their coronations since the 13th century.

圣爱德华皇冠(St. Edward's Crown)属于英国皇室,是皇室成员的加冕用皇冠。皇冠为了查理二世的加冕仪式而制作于1661年。


Natural occurrences.

Isoprene is produced and emitted by many species of trees (major producers are oaks, poplars, eucalyptus, and some legumes). Yearly production of isoprene emissions by vegetation is around 600 million metric tons, half from tropical broadleaf trees and the remainder primarily from shrubs. This is about equivalent to methane emissions and accounts for around one-third of all hydrocarbons released into the atmosphere. In deciduous forests, isoprene makes up approximately 80% of hydrocarbon emissions. While their input is small compared to trees, microscopic and macroscopic algae also produce isoprene.

Plants.

Isoprene is made through the methyl-erythritol 4-phosphate pathway (MEP pathway, also called the non-mevalonate pathway) in the chloroplasts of plants. One of the two end products of MEP pathway, dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), is cleaved by the enzyme isoprene synthase to form isoprene and diphosphate. Therefore, inhibitors that block the MEP pathway, such as fosmidomycin, also block isoprene formation. Isoprene emission increases dramatically with temperature and maximizes at around 40 °C. This has led to the hypothesis that isoprene may protect plants against heat stress (thermotolerance hypothesis, see below). Emission of isoprene is also observed in some bacteria and this is thought to come from non-enzymatic degradations from DMAPP.

Regulation.

Isoprene emission in plants is controlled both by the availability of the substrate (DMAPP) and by enzyme (isoprene synthase) activity. In particular, light, CO and O dependencies of isoprene emission are controlled by substrate availability, whereas temperature dependency of isoprene emission is regulated both by substrate level and enzyme activity.

Other organisms.

Isoprene is the most abundant hydrocarbon measurable in the breath of humans. The estimated production rate of isoprene in the human body is 0.15 μmol/(kg·h), equivalent to approximately 17 mg/day for a person weighing 70 kg. Isoprene is common in low concentrations in many foods. Many species of soil and marine bacteria, such as Actinobacteria, are capable of degrading isoprene and using it as a fuel source.

Biological roles.

Isoprene emission appears to be a mechanism that trees use to combat abiotic stresses. In particular, isoprene has been shown to protect against moderate heat stress (around 40 °C). It may also protect plants against large fluctuations in leaf temperature. Isoprene is incorporated into and helps stabilize cell membranes in response to heat stress.  Isoprene also confers resistance to reactive oxygen species. The amount of isoprene released from isoprene-emitting vegetation depends on leaf mass, leaf area, light (particularly photosynthetic photon flux density, or PPFD) and leaf temperature. Thus, during the night, little isoprene is emitted from tree leaves, whereas daytime emissions are expected to be substantial during hot and sunny days, up to 25 μg/(g dry-leaf-weight)/hour in many oak species.

Isoprenoids.

The isoprene skeleton can be found in naturally occurring compounds called terpenes (also known as isoprenoids), but these compounds do not arise from isoprene itself. Instead, the precursor to isoprene units in biological systems is dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and its isomer isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP). The plural 'isoprenes' is sometimes used to refer to terpenes in general.  Examples of isoprenoids include carotene, phytol, retinol (vitamin A), tocopherol (vitamin E), dolichols, and squalene. Heme A has an isoprenoid tail, and lanosterol, the sterol precursor in animals, is derived from squalene and hence from isoprene. The functional isoprene units in biological systems are dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and its isomer isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), which are used in the biosynthesis of naturally occurring isoprenoids such as carotenoids, quinones, lanosterol derivatives (e.g. steroids) and the prenyl chains of certain compounds (e.g. phytol chain of chlorophyll). Isoprenes are used in the cell membrane monolayer of many Archaea, filling the space between the diglycerol tetraether head groups. This is thought to add structural resistance to harsh environments in which many Archaea are found.  Similarly, natural rubber is composed of linear polyisoprene chains of very high molecular weight and other natural molecules.

Impact on aerosols.

After release, isoprene is converted by short-lived free radicals (like the hydroxyl radical) and to a lesser extent by ozone into various species, such as aldehydes, hydroperoxides, organic nitrates, and epoxides, which mix into water droplets and help create aerosols and haze.  While most experts acknowledge that isoprene emission affects aerosol formation, whether isoprene increases or decreases aerosol formation is debated. A second major effect of isoprene on the atmosphere is that in the presence of nitric oxides (NO) it contributes to the formation of tropospheric (lower atmosphere) ozone, which is one of the leading air pollutants in many countries. Isoprene itself is not normally regarded as a pollutant, as it is a natural plant product. Formation of tropospheric ozone is only possible in presence of high levels of NO, which comes almost exclusively from industrial activities. Isoprene can have the opposite effect and quench ozone formation under low levels of NO.

Industrial production.

Isoprene is most readily available industrially as a byproduct of the thermal cracking of naphtha or oil, as a side product in the production of ethylene. About 800,000 metric tons are produced annually. About 95% of isoprene production is used to produce cis-1,4-polyisoprene—a synthetic version of natural rubber.  Natural rubber consists mainly of poly-cis-isoprene with a molecular mass of 100,000 to 1,000,000 g/mol. Typically natural rubber contains a few percent of other materials, such as proteins, fatty acids, resins, and inorganic materials. Some natural rubber sources, called gutta percha, are composed of trans-1,4-polyisoprene, a structural isomer that has similar, but not identical, properties.

Isoprene, or 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene, is a common organic compound with the formula CH=C(CH)−CH=CH. In its pure form it is a colorless volatile liquid. Isoprene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon. It is produced by many plants and animals (including humans) and its polymers are the main component of natural rubber. C. G. Williams named the compound in 1860 after obtaining it from thermal decomposition (pyrolysis) of natural rubber; he correctly deduced the empirical formula CH.

异戊二烯,IUPAC名称2-甲基-1,3-丁二烯,是一种共轭二烯烃,分子式为CH。对于天然产物萜类化合物,就是以分子中含有的异戊二烯单元个数分类的。由一个异戊二烯单元组成的萜称为半萜,两个单元组成的称为单萜,依此类推。


History.

The brewery was founded on 4 February 1803 by Johannes Haas. His father Johann Eberhard Haas was running a tavern in Krombach. According to a regulation of 25 July 1618 the sale of beer was permitted only to restaurants having their own brewery and malt kiln. Therefore, John Haas established the brewery within the family business.  The water for the brewery ("Hasbrauerei") was first brought in barrels from a spring at the foot of Grumberg in the west of the village by ox cart to the brewery. In 1854, the brewery owner Haas had to pay annually 17 guilders (Florin) to the church, because the water pipeline was constructed on church property in the village.  The relocation to its current site is estimated to have occurred between 1858 and 1879/82. In that time, two caverns were created that served as beer cellars.  In 1896, Hermann Haas sold the brewery for 360.000 marks to Otto Eberhardt († 17 August 1924). Eberhardt ran the brewery as a limited partnership called "Hasbrauerei Eberhardt and Co." and converted it to a corporation in 1905.  At the beginning of the 20th century, "Krombacher Pilsener" was introduced, which led to a rapid recovery. In October 1922, Bernhard Schadeberg (the grandfather of current CEO Bernhard Schadeberg) assumed the management of the company, which has been running as a family business to this day. The current owners are Friedrich Schadeberg and his sister Barbara Lambrecht-Schadeberg, his son Bernhard Schadeberg and his daughter Petra Schadeberg-Hermann.  The Krombacher Rock Spring supplying the water for the brewery (together with the "Breitenbach" Dam near Hilchenbach), was discovered by the mountain inspector Fresenius in 1722. The soft, low mineral water is the basis for the brewed beer. The brewery is one of the largest employers in the city. On the emblem of the brewery the Kindelsbergturm (Kreuztal's landmark) and among the Littfe creek is visible.

Location.

Krombach is a suburb of Kreuztal near Siegen, a city in a part of Germany called Siegerland, a part of North Rhine-Westphalia. The small town of Krombach is located at the foot of the Rothaargebirge.

Products.

Krombacher Brewery produces the most consumed Pilsener in Germany, the "Krombacher Pils". An alcohol free variant is also produced. "Krombacher Radler" is a mixture of 50% Krombacher Pils and 50% lemonade. Krombacher brews "Krombacher Weizen", a wheat beer, since 2007 in response to market research.  Targeted at young adults, "Cab" is a brand of beer-based mix drinks. Initially meaning "Cola and Beer", three variants are now produced: Cab Cola and Beer, Cab Banana and Beer, Cab Cherry and Beer. All variants are flavored with dragon fruit.  Krombacher Brewery also produces Rhenania Alt, a dark beer and distributes Schweppes in Germany. All Schweppes products are manufactured by the Krombacher Brauerei under license from Schweppes Germany. Schweppes Germany (and indirectly Krombacher) both control the German and Austrian licenses for Snapple (not available in Germany/Austria), Dr. Pepper (available since 2006) and Orangina.

Regenwaldprojekt.

In 2002, Krombacher Brewery started a Rainforest campaign. It announced that for every crate of Krombacher sold one square meter of rainforest would be saved for at least 100 years. For achieving this, Krombacher Brewery partnered with World Wildlife Fund, famous German television host Günther Jauch promoted the campaign.  The campaign was very successful, but was also criticised. In fact no rainforest was acquired by WWF or Krombacher. Rather, existing nature reserve were supported. Accordingly, a German court decided the campaign was partly anticompetitive.  The campaign was started again in 2008.

Exports.

As of 2005, the company's official exports are as follow:

Krombacher Brauerei () is one of the largest privately owned breweries in Germany and ranks number 1 among Germany's best selling beers.

科隆巴赫是德国最受欢迎的啤酒品牌之一。科隆巴赫口味圆滑香甜,并且有特殊的啤酒花气味。


Cause and effects.

Consider the graph to the right, which represents the computer network. Each line represents an established connection. Therefore, the server "C" is connected directly to "A", which is also connected to "B" and "D".  If a disruption in the connection between "C" and "A" occurs, the connection may be terminated as a result. This can occur either by a socket producing an error, or by excessive lag in which the far server "A" anticipates this case (which is called a timeout).  When the connection between "A" and "C" is severed, users who were connected to other servers that are no longer reachable on the network appear to quit. For example, if user "Sara" is connected to server "A", user "Bob" is connected to server "B", and user "Joe" is connected to "C", and "C" splits, or disconnects, from "A", it will appear to "Joe" as if "Sara" and "Bob" both quit (disconnected from the network), and it will appear to both "Sara" and "Bob" that "Joe" quit. However, "Joe" can still talk to anyone who is connected to the same server (in this case server "C"). This happens because the servers to which they are connected are informed of the change in the network status, and update their local information accordingly to display the change.  Later, server "C" may relink (reconnect) to a server (or servers) on the network and the users who appeared to have quit will rejoin; the process of sending this updated information to all servers on the network is called a netburst (or sync).

Security issues.

Occasionally, users will attempt to use netsplits to gain access to private channels. If none of the channel users were on server C, a user could join a private channel and later gain access when the servers relink. This is commonly known as "split riding" or "riding the split".  Another typical netsplit-oriented IRC attack is Nickname Colliding. In this attack, a user on a split segment of the network would change nicknames to that of a user on the other side of the split network. Upon reconnection, the network would disconnect both users because only one nickname may be in use at one time. Modern IRC server software has largely eliminated this method, but servers using older software may still be vulnerable.

Appearance.

Below are examples of a typical netsplit. When two servers split, a user sees this as large number of users quitting. After the servers are reconnected, a user sees the other users rejoining.

On command-line client irc.

00:00 -!- Netsplit a.irc.net <-> b.irc.net quits: usera, userb, userc 00:00 -!- Netsplit over, joins: usera, userb, userc

In computer networking, specifically Internet Relay Chat (IRC), netsplit is a disconnection between two servers. A split between any two servers splits the entire network into two pieces.

网络断裂(netsplit)是流行于IRC社群中的一个术语,用来形容一个完整的虚拟IRC网络,当其实际的服务器之间断线时,在频道中所发生的孤岛现象。这个现象只会发生在以多个服务器运行单一网域的IRC网络,因为这些服务器之间仍然需要实体的连线,甚至这些连线不是架设在LAN内,而是透过WAN和另一个地方、或另一个国家的服务器沟通。由于Internet路由复杂、延迟(latency)等诸多因素,服务器之间断线是极有可能发生的,并且由于IRC自身是采用无序树的形式连接每一台服务器,只要任何两台服务器之间的连接断开便会将整个网络分裂成两大块。


History.

The city was founded by Juan Rejón on 24 June 1478, with the name "Real de Las Palmas". Rejón was head of the invading Castilian army, which then engaged in war with the locals.  In 1492, Christopher Columbus (Spanish: Cristóbal Colón) anchored in the port of Las Palmas and spent some time on the island on his first trip to the Americas. He also stopped there on the way back to Spain. The museum in the area of the city is named after him.  In 1595, Francis Drake tried to plunder the town, leading to the Battle of Las Palmas. A Dutch raid under vice-admiral Pieter van der Does in 1599 was only slightly more successful; some of the town was destroyed, but the raiders were repelled.  Las Palmas' seaport, "Puerto de la Luz" (known internationally as "La Luz port"), benefited greatly from the closure of the Suez Canal during the Suez Crisis. Many foreign workers migrated to the city at this time.  Las Palmas is a sister city of San Antonio, Texas, in the United States, which was founded in 1718 by about 25 Canary Islanders.

Administrative divisions.

Las Palmas is divided into five administrative districts, which in turn are subdivided into districts, not necessarily consistent with the traditional neighborhoods.

Geography.

The city has four main beaches: Las Canteras, Las Alcaravaneras, La Laja, and El Confital.

Climate.

Las Palmas has a desert climate ("BWh") with warm dry summers and warm enough winters to classify it as a tropical climate. Its average annual temperature is – during the day and at night. In January, the coldest month, the temperature typically ranges from (and sometimes higher) during the day, and around at night, with an average sea temperature at. In the warmest months – August and September – the temperature typically ranges from during the day, above at night, with the average sea temperature at. Large fluctuations in temperature are rare.  August 1990 was the warmest month on record, with the average maximum temperature of the month during the day being. The highest temperature ever recorded was, and the coldest temperature ever recorded was. The highest wind speed ever recorded was on 28 November 2005, measuring. Las Palmas city has never recorded any snow or sleet.  Annual average relative humidity is 66%, ranging from 64% in March to 69% in October. The amount of annual sunshine hours is above 2,800 per year, from around 190 in winter (average of six hours a day) to around 300 in summer (average of 10 hours a day). It rains on average only 22 days a year, with total precipitation per year of only.

Demographics.

, nearly half (45.9%) of Gran Canaria's inhabitants live in Las Palmas, as well as 18.35% of the Canary Islands' total population. According to a study by the National Statistics Institute of Spain Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has a life expectancy of 80.9 years.  Throughout history, Las Palmas received waves of immigrants from mainland Spain and countries from every continent. The majority of the population is Spanish, although large North- and sub-Saharan African and Latin American communities exist (especially the Venezuelan community, which is growing fast), as well as important historical minorities such as Indians (Sindhi) and Koreans and a growing Chinese population. Ethnically, most autochthonous Canarians are descendants of a mixture of aboriginal people ("guanches") of the Canary Islands (now extinct), the Spanish and later European (mainly Spanish, Portuguese, Flemish, Irish, French, Italian, German, and British) colonizers.

Education.

Las Palmas is home to University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria was founded in 1989.  The city also has a wide variety of state and public primary and secondary schools.  International schools include:  The Escuela Complementaria Japonesa de Las Palmas previously provided a weekend supplementary Japanese programme.

Culture.

Las Palmas offers a variety of theater, cinema, opera, concerts, visual arts and dance performances. The city hosts the Canary Islands Music Festival, the Theatre and Dance and the International Film Festival. The main City Festival, celebrating the foundation of the "City Fiestas de San Juan" is held in June. The Carnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is known not only in Spain but also worldwide, and is one of the main attractions for tourists. The city center of Las Palmas, specifically the Vegueta and Triana neighbourhoods, are included in the tentative List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Libraries.

The city has a wide network of libraries. Along with the 11 municipal libraries, there are three specialized centres:  A library is situated in the first floor of Woermann Tower.

Places of worship.

Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Christian churches and temples : Roman Catholic Diocese of Canarias (Catholic Church), Spanish Evangelical Church (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Union of Evangelical Baptists of Spain (Baptist World Alliance), Assemblies of God. There are also Muslim mosques.

Transportation.

Roads and highways.

Urban road infrastructure is overburdened on workdays and in certain areas; the city street plan is not at all rectilinear, and may be confusing even to experienced drivers. However, there are no toll roads; entrances, exits, main streets and important zones are all well-signposted.  Las Palmas, being the centre of the Las Palmas metropolitan area, is the hub for the island's motorway network. The city is linked with three highways: the GC-1 to the south, the GC-2 to the west and GC-3 to the center of the island.  The GC-1 links the capital with Puerto de Mogán in the south. It is the fastest route from the top of the island to the bottom and vice versa with a speed limit of. It is approximately in length and runs along the eastern and the southern coasts, and is also the second longest superhighway in the Canary Islands. The road provides easy access from the Airport to the major cities and resorts, which include Maspalomas and Playa del Inglés. The increase in tourism over the years has necessitated the route's upgrading and widening to cope with traffic growth. The GC-1 begins south of the downtown area of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, the highway runs within the beach of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and south intersects with the GC-2 and later runs with a few clover leaf interchanges and later forms a junction with GC-5 and south, the GC-31. The GC-2 North Highway connects Las Palmas with the small northern port and village of Agaete. The eastern portion – about in length – is a superhighway with interchange numbers, the rest of the highway is a two-laned; the western part is also only two-laned and has exit numbers. The highway begins by the beach area of the island, and runs through the downtown area, linking with the GC31 at a roundabout interchange. The freeway runs within the beaches and the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean for the half part but at around the 20th km, it becomes a highway after the unidirectional parclo interchanges and runs within the coastline, it later has several interchanges and several towns as it passes to the northwest and finally, it ends in Agaete.

Airport.

Las Palmas is served by Gran Canaria Airport, also called "Las Palmas Airport".  The airport is located in the eastern part of the island, about from Las Palmas city centre. In 2008, it handled 10,212,106 passengers and of cargo, and is the fourth busiest in Spain. It is also the only airport on the islands with two runways, thus can accommodate up to 53 landings and take-offs per hour. The lengthy runways made the airport an alternative landing site for the NASA Space Shuttle. This airport is also a base for Binter Canarias and Navegacion y Servicios Aéreos Canarios, airlines which operate regional inter-island flights within the Canary Islands.  An airbase of the Spanish Air Force is located to the east of the runways. Beyond several hangars opposite the passenger terminal, the Gando Air Base ("Base Aérea de Gando") contains ten shelters situated on the southern end of the eastern runway.

Seaport.

Puerto de Las Palmas (Las Palmas Port), also known as "Puerto de la Luz", is a main port for fishing, commercial, passenger and sports in the northwest of the city. It has been the traditional base for scale and supplying ships on their way through the Middle Atlantic for five centuries. The Port of Las Palmas is not only the first port of the Canary Islands, it is one of the main ports of Spain and the first of the geographical area of West Africa. As the leading port in the mid-Atlantic, it serves as the crossroads between Europe, Africa and America. In 2007, the port received some 11,262 ships; it welcomed a total of 907,782 cruise passengers, a 16.26% increase on 2006. In terms of annual TEU, the port of Las Palmas ranks as the 5th in Spain, and is among the first 15 ports of Europe.  The Port of Las Palmas is the first Mid-Atlantic fishing base, with an annual traffic of more than 4,500 stopovers and with some 400,000 tons of frozen fish processed. Despite experiencing some decline in recent years, it retains its dominance in the fishing industry over other ports in the Canary Islands. The port provides of cold storage facilities. At the foot of pier, special refrigerated containers and preparation rooms for frozen products can carry out the entire chain of post-processing and storage of fish, from refrigeration and distribution, to manufacture and supply of industrial ice. The port's EU-approved border inspection post is responsible for inspecting all types of imports and exports between the European Economic Union and its trading partners.

Bus.

Las Palmas boasts a high quality bus system, provided by "Guaguas Municipales". Municipal Bus Lines offers 40 urban transport routes, covering both the bottom and the top of the city. The main lines are the 1 (Teatro – Puerto), 2 (Alameda de Colón – Puerto), 17 (Teatro – El Rincón), 25 (Campus Universitario – El Rincón), 12 (Puerto – Hoya de la Plata) and 30 (Alameda de Colón – Santa Catalina, via Rehoyas). In addition, two circular lines (A: Santa Catalina – Santa Catalina, via Alcaraveneras) and B (Santa Catalina – Santa Catalina, via Ciudad Alta).  The most important bus lines have frequencies of between 3 and 15 minutes during the day and between 10 and 40 minutes at night; most lines have service throughout the night. The bright yellow buses are known simply as 'guaguas'. The unique tariff, paid directly to the driver, is 1.30 euro. A 10-ride ticket is available for €7.50 at official shops in the city. The Tarjeta Insular (Island Card) which offered a 20% discount on both municipal buses and Global buses was discontinued on 1 January 2011.  "Global", inter-hire company, has 119 lines, many to or from the capital. This company was formed in 2000, resulting from the merger of the previous Salcai and interurban lines Utinsa.  There is also the "Guagua Turística", which covers the most interesting sites of the city with a guide in several languages.

Rail.

There is currently no rail transport system on Gran Canaria. Between 1893 and 1944 steam tram ran between Las Palmas and Puerto de La Luz. The line was electrified in 1910, although the line reverted to steam traction in 1944, when trams were hauled by a steam locomotive known as "La Pepa". A reproduction of this locomotive is now on display in the in Las Palmas. In the early 1970s an experimental elevated railway line operated through Las Palmas. Called the "Tren Vertebrado" ("vertebrate train"), it was designed by Basque engineer Alejandro Goicoechea and consisted of an unusual low-profile train running on elevated concrete tracks through the city. The project was unsuccessful and was dismantled in 1974.  In the early 21st century, plans were put forward by the Gran Canaria Cabildo to develop a rapid transit railway line on Gran Canaria. If built, the "Tren de Gran Canaria" (TGC) line would run along the eastern coast and connect Las Palmas with the airport and Maspalomas in the south. In 2004 the Spanish Ministry of Development put a contract out to competitive tender for a feasibility study on a 50 km railway line from Las Palmas to Maspalomas. This railway project is currently abandoned due to funding difficulties.  Another project is the Tramway Palmas (Gran Canaria), which would cover the same journey as the bus line 1, with an average frequency of 5 minutes and a journey time of 35 minutes.

Sports.

Las Palmas is home to three major professional sports teams. These are:  Las Palmas was one of the arenas of 2014 FIBA World Championship for Group D, consisting,,,, and. Matches were played in the new arena – Gran Canaria Arena with a capacity of about 10,000.  Many [mainly] outdoor sports are practised in city and neighbourhood, for example: surfing, windsurfing, kitesurfing, swimming, diving, skydiving, paragliding, running, cycling, rowing, tennis and golf (mainly in "Las Palmeras Golf", "Real Club De Golf De Las Palmas", "El Cortijo Club de Campo" and "Oasis Golf"). Real Club De Golf De Las Palmas, inaugurated on 17 December 1891, is the oldest golf club in Spain.

Health system.

The two general hospitals of Gran Canaria are in Las Palmas. While Hospital Universitario de Gran Canaria Doctor Negrín (Doctor Negrín University Hospital of Gran Canaria) is geared to health care in the north and west of the island, Hospital Universitario Insular de Gran Canaria (Insular University Hospital of Gran Canaria) is geared to health care in the south and east of the island. There are also smaller private hospitals and clinics.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Las Palmas is twinned with:  In addition, the municipality has approved in plenary willingness twinning with the following cities, if they are not well formalized these twinning:

Las Palmas (, ; ), officially Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, is a city and capital of Gran Canaria island, in the Canary Islands, on the Atlantic Ocean.

大加那利岛拉斯帕尔马斯(,)是一个西班牙城市,位于大西洋中加那利群岛的大加那利岛上,距离非洲海岸约210公里。它也是拉斯帕尔马斯省的省会及加那利群岛自治区首府之一(另一个为特内里费岛上的圣克鲁斯-德特内里费)。


Terminology.

The Latin term "sacrificium" (a sacrifice) derived from Latin "sacrificus" (performing priestly functions or sacrifices), which combined the concepts "sacra" (sacred things) and "facere" (to do or perform). The Latin word "sacrificium" came to apply to the Christian eucharist in particular, sometimes named a "bloodless sacrifice" to distinguish it from blood sacrifices. In individual non-Christian ethnic religions, terms translated as "sacrifice" include the Indic "yajna", the Greek "thusia", the Germanic "blōtan", the Semitic "qorban"/"qurban", Slavic, etc.  The term usually implies "doing without something" or "giving something up" (see also self-sacrifice). But the word "sacrifice" also occurs in metaphorical use to describe doing good for others or taking a short-term loss in return for a greater power gain, such as in a game of chess.

Animal sacrifice.

Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing of an animal as part of a religion. It is practiced by adherents of many religions as a means of appeasing a god or gods or changing the course of nature. It also served a social or economic function in those cultures where the edible portions of the animal were distributed among those attending the sacrifice for consumption. Animal sacrifice has turned up in almost all cultures, from the Hebrews to the Greeks and Romans (particularly the purifying ceremony Lustratio), Egyptians (for example in the cult of Apis) and from the Aztecs to the Yoruba. The religion of the ancient Egyptians forbid the sacrifice of animals other than sheep, bulls, calves, male calves and geese.  Animal sacrifice is still practiced today by the followers of Santería and other lineages of Orisa as a means of curing the sick and giving thanks to the Orisa (gods). However, in Santeria, such animal offerings constitute an extremely small portion of what are termed "ebos"—ritual activities that include offerings, prayer and deeds. Christians from some villages in Greece also sacrifice animals to Orthodox saints in a practice known as kourbánia. The practice, while publicly condemned, is often tolerated.

Walter Burkert theory on origins of Greek sacrifice.

According to Walter Burkert, a scholar of sacrifice, Greek sacrifices derived from hunting practices. Hunters, feeling guilty for having killed another living being so they could eat and survive, tried to repudiate their responsibility in these rituals. The primary evidence used to suggest this theory is the Dipolieia, which is an Athenian festival, in limited circulation, during which an ox was sacrificed. The protagonist of the ritual was a plough ox, which it had, at one point, been a crime to kill in Athens. According to his theory, the killer of the ox eased his conscience by suggesting that everybody should participate in the killing of the sacrificial victim.  In the expansion of the Athenian state, numerous oxen were needed to feed the people at the banquets and were accompanied by state festivals. The hecatomb (“hundred oxen”) became the general designation for the great sacrifices offered by the state. These sacrificial processions of hundreds of oxen remove the original ties, which the farmers of an earlier and smaller Athens will have felt with their one ox.

Human sacrifice.

Human sacrifice was practiced by many ancient cultures. People would be ritually killed in a manner that was supposed to please or appease a god or spirit.  Some occasions for human sacrifice found in multiple cultures on multiple continents include:  Human sacrifice was practiced by various Pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica. The Aztec in particular are known for the practice of human sacrifice. Current estimates of Aztec sacrifice are between a couple thousand and twenty thousand per year. Some of these sacrifices were to help the sun rise, some to help the rains come, and some to dedicate the expansions of the great Templo Mayor, located in the heart of Tenochtitlán (the capital of the Aztec Empire). There are also accounts of captured Conquistadores being sacrificed during the wars of the Spanish invasion of Mexico.  In Scandinavia, the old Scandinavian religion contained human sacrifice, as both the Norse sagas and German historians relate. See, e.g. Temple at Uppsala and Blót.  There is evidence to suggest Pre-Hellenic Minoan cultures practiced human sacrifice. Corpses were found at a number of sites in the citadel of Knossos in Crete. The north house at Knossos contained the bones of children who appeared to have been butchered. The myth of Theseus and the Minotaur (set in the labyrinth at Knossos) suggests human sacrifice. In the myth, Athens sent seven young men and seven young women to Crete as human sacrifices to the Minotaur. This ties up with the archaeological evidence that most sacrifices were of young adults or children.  The Phoenicians of Carthage were reputed to practise child sacrifice, and though the scale of sacrifices may have been exaggerated by ancient authors for political or religious reasons, there is archaeological evidence of large numbers of children's skeletons buried in association with sacrificial animals. Plutarch (ca. 46–120 AD) mentions the practice, as do Tertullian, Orosius, Diodorus Siculus and Philo. They describe children being roasted to death while still conscious on a heated bronze idol. Human sacrifice is no longer officially condoned in any country, and any cases which may take place are regarded as murder.  In the "Aeneid" by Virgil, the character Sinon claims (falsely) that he was going to be a human sacrifice to Poseidon to calm the seas.

By religion.

Christianity.

In Trinitarian Christianity, God became incarnate as Jesus, sacrificing his son to accomplish the reconciliation of God and humanity, which had separated itself from God through sin (see the concept of original sin). According to a view that has featured prominently in Western theology since early in the 2nd millennium, God's justice required an atonement for sin from humanity if human beings were to be restored to their place in creation and saved from damnation. However, God knew limited human beings could not make sufficient atonement, for humanity's offense to God was infinite, so God created a covenant with Abraham, which he fulfilled when he sent his only Son to become the sacrifice for the broken covenant. In Christian theology, this sacrifice replaced the insufficient animal sacrifice of the Old Covenant; Christ the "Lamb of God" replaced the lambs' sacrifice of the ancient "Korban Todah" (the Rite of Thanksgiving), chief of which is the Passover in the Mosaic law.  In the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Lutheran Churches, and the Methodist Churches, the Eucharist or Mass, as well as the Divine Liturgy of the Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern Orthodox Church, is seen as a sacrifice. Among the Anglicans the words of the liturgy make explicit that the Eucharist is a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving and is a material offering to God in union with Christ using such words, as "with these thy holy gifts which we now offer unto Thee" (1789 BCP) or "presenting to you from the gifts you have given us we offer you these gifts" (Prayer D BCP 1976) as clearly evidenced in the revised Books of Common Prayer from 1789 in which the theology of Eucharist was moved closer to the Catholic position. Likewise, the United Methodist Church in its Eucharistic liturgy contains the words "Let us offer ourselves and our gifts to God" (A Service of Word and Table I). The United Methodist Church officially teaches that "Holy Communion is a type of sacrifice" that re-presents, rather than repeats the sacrifice of Christ on the Cross; She further proclaims that:  A formal statement by the USCCB affirms that "Methodists and Catholics agree that the sacrificial language of the Eucharistic celebration refers to 'the sacrifice of Christ once-for-all,' to 'our pleading of that sacrifice here and now,' to 'our offering of the sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving,' and to 'our sacrifice of ourselves in union with Christ who offered himself to the Father.'" Roman Catholic theology speaks of the Eucharist not being a separate or additional sacrifice to that Christ on the cross; it is rather exactly the same sacrifice, which transcends time and space ("the Lamb slain from the foundation of the world") (Rev. 13:8), renewed and made present, the only distinction being that it is offered in an unbloody manner. The sacrifice is made present without Christ dying or being crucified again; it is a re-presentation to God, of the "once and for all" sacrifice of Calvary by the now risen Christ, who continues to offer himself and what he has done on the cross as an oblation to the Father. The complete identification of the Mass with the sacrifice of the cross is found in Christ's words at the last supper over the bread and wine: "This is my body, which is given up for you," and "This is my blood of the new covenant, which is shed...unto the forgiveness of sins." The bread and wine, offered by Melchizedek in sacrifice in the old covenant (Genesis 14:18; Psalm 110:4), are transformed through the Mass into the body and blood of Christ (see transubstantiation; note: the Orthodox Church and Methodist Church do not hold as dogma, as do Catholics, the doctrine of transubstantiation, preferring rather to not make an assertion regarding the "how" of the sacraments), and the offering becomes one with that of Christ on the cross. In the Mass as on the cross, Christ is both priest (offering the sacrifice) and victim (the sacrifice he offers is himself), though in the Mass in the former capacity he works through a solely human priest who is joined to him through the sacrament of Holy Orders and thus shares in Christ's priesthood as do all who are baptized into the death and resurrection of Jesus, the Christ. Through the Mass, the merits of the one sacrifice of the cross can be applied to the redemption of those present, to their specific intentions and prayers, and to the release of the souls from purgatory. For Lutherans, the Eucharist is a “sacrifice of thanksgiving and praise...in that by giving thanks a person acknowledges that he or she is in need of the gift and that his or her situation will change only by receiving the gift”.  The concept of self-sacrifice and martyrs are central to Christianity. Often found in Roman Catholicism is the idea of joining one's own sufferings to the sacrifice of Christ on the cross. Thus one can offer up involuntary suffering, such as illness, or purposefully embrace suffering in acts of penance. Some Protestants criticize this as a denial of the all-sufficiency of Christ's sacrifice, but it finds support in St. Paul: "Now I rejoice in my sufferings for your sake, and in my flesh I complete what is lacking in Christ's afflictions for the sake of his body, that is, the church" (Col 1:24). Pope John Paul II explained in his Apostolic Letter "Salvifici Doloris" (11 February 1984):"In the Cross of Christ not only is the Redemption accomplished through suffering, but also human suffering itself has been redeemed...Every man has his own share in the Redemption. Each one is also called to share in that suffering through which the Redemption was accomplished...In bringing about the Redemption through suffering, Christ has also raised human suffering to the level of the Redemption. Thus each man, in his suffering, can also become a sharer in the redemptive suffering of Christ...The sufferings of Christ created the good of the world's redemption. This good in itself is inexhaustible and infinite. No man can add anything to it. But at the same time, in the mystery of the Church as his Body, Christ has in a sense opened his own redemptive suffering to all human suffering" ("Salvifici Doloris" 19; 24).Some Protestants, excluding Methodists, Lutherans and many Anglicans, reject the idea of the Eucharist as a sacrifice, inclining to see it as merely a holy meal (even if they believe in a form of the real presence of Christ in the bread and wine, as Reformed Christians do). The more recent the origin of a particular tradition, the less emphasis is placed on the sacrificial nature of the Eucharist. The Catholic/Orthodox response is that the sacrifice of the Mass in the New Covenant is that one sacrifice for sins on the cross which transcends time offered in an unbloody manner, as discussed above, and that Christ is the real priest at every Mass working through mere human beings to whom he has granted the grace of a share in his priesthood. As "priest" carries connotations of "one who offers sacrifice", some Protestants, with the exception of Anglicans and Lutherans, usually do not use it for their clergy. Evangelical Protestantism emphasizes the importance of a decision to accept Christ's sacrifice on the Cross consciously and personally as atonement for one's individual sins if one is to be saved—this is known as "accepting Christ as one's personal Lord and Savior".  The Orthodox Church sees the celebration of the Eucharist as a continuation, rather than a reenactment, of the Last Supper, as Fr. John Matusiak (of the OCA) says: "The Liturgy is not so much a reenactment of the Mystical Supper or these events as it is a continuation of these events, which are beyond time and space. The Orthodox also see the Eucharistic Liturgy as a bloodless sacrifice, during which the bread and wine we offer to God become the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ through the descent and operation of the Holy Spirit, Who effects the change." This view is witnessed to by the prayers of the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, when the priest says: "Accept, O God, our supplications, make us to be worthy to offer unto thee supplications and prayers and bloodless sacrifices for all thy people," and "Remembering this saving commandment and all those things which came to pass for us: the cross, the grave, the resurrection on the third day, the ascension into heaven, the sitting down at the right hand, the second and glorious coming again, Thine own of Thine own we offer unto Thee on behalf of all and for all," and "... Thou didst become man and didst take the name of our High Priest, and deliver unto us the priestly rite of this liturgical and bloodless sacrifice..."

Hinduism.

The Sanskrit "yajna" (, modern Hindi pronunciation: "yagya") is often wrongly translated as "sacrifice" (also "offering, oblation", or more generically as "worship"). It is especially used to describe the offering of ghee (clarified butter), grains, spices, and wood into a fire along with the chanting of sacred mantras. The fire represents Agni, the divine messenger who carries offerings to the Devas. The offerings can represent devotion, aspiration, and seeds of past karma. In Vedic times, yajna commonly included the sacrifice of milk, ghee, curd, grains, and the "soma" plant—animal offerings were less common. In modern times, yajna is often performed at weddings and funerals, and in personal worship. Sacrifice in Hinduism can also refer to personal surrender through acts of inner and outer worship.

Islam.

An animal sacrifice in Arabic is called "ḏabiḥa" (ذَبِيْحَة) or "Qurban" (قُرْبَان). The term may have roots from the Jewish term "Korban"; in some places such as in Pakistan, "qurbani" is always used for Islamic animal sacrifice. In the Islamic context, an animal sacrifice referred to as "ḏabiḥa" (ذَبِيْحَة) meaning "sacrifice as a ritual" is offered only in Eid ul-Adha. The sacrificial animal may be a sheep, a goat, a camel, or a cow. The animal must be healthy and conscious...."Therefore to the Lord turn in Prayer and Sacrifice. " (Surat Al-Kawthar) Quran, 108.2 Qurban is an Islamic prescription for the affluent to share their good fortune with the needy in the community.  On the occasion of Eid ul Adha (Festival of Sacrifice), affluent Muslims all over the world perform the Sunnah of Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) by sacrificing a cow or sheep. The meat is then divided into three equal parts. One part is retained by the person who performs the sacrifice. The second is given to his relatives. The third part is distributed to the poor.  The Qur'an states that the sacrifice has nothing to do with the blood and gore (Qur'an 22:37: "It is not their meat nor their blood that reaches God. It is your piety that reaches Him..."). Rather, it is done to help the poor and in remembrance of Abraham's willingness to sacrifice his son Ishmael at God's command.  The Urdu and Persian word "Qurbani" comes from the Arabic word 'Qurban'. It suggests that associate act performed to hunt distance to Almighty God and to hunt His sensible pleasure. Originally, the word 'Qurban' enclosed all acts of charity as a result of the aim of charity is nothing however to hunt Allah's pleasure. But, in precise non secular nomenclature, the word was later confined to the sacrifice of associate animal slaughtered for the sake of God.  A similar symbology, which is a reflection of Abraham and Ismael's dilemma, is the stoning of the Jamaraat which takes place during the pilgrimage.

Judaism.

Ritual sacrifice was practiced in Ancient Israel, with the opening chapters of the book Leviticus detailing parts of an overview referring to the exact methods of bringing sacrifices. Although sacrifices could include bloodless offerings (grain and wine), the most important were animal sacrifices. Blood sacrifices were divided into burnt offerings (Hebrew: עלה קרבנות) in which the whole unmaimed animal was burnt, guilt offerings (in which part was burnt and part left for the priest) and peace offerings (in which similarly only part of the undamaged animal was burnt and the rest eaten in ritually pure conditions).  After the destruction of the Second Temple, ritual sacrifice ceased except among the Samaritans. Maimonides, a medieval Jewish rationalist, argued that God always held sacrifice inferior to prayer and philosophical meditation. However, God understood that the Israelites were used to the animal sacrifices that the surrounding pagan tribes used as the primary way to commune with their gods. As such, in Maimonides' view, it was only natural that Israelites would believe that sacrifice was a necessary part of the relationship between God and man. Maimonides concludes that God's decision to allow sacrifices was a concession to human psychological limitations. It would have been too much to have expected the Israelites to leap from pagan worship to prayer and meditation in one step. In the "Guide for the Perplexed", he writes:  In contrast, many others such as Nachmanides (in his Torah commentary on Leviticus 1:9) disagreed, contending that sacrifices are an ideal in Judaism, completely central.  The teachings of the Torah and Tanakh reveal the Israelites's familiarity with human sacrifices, as exemplified by the near-sacrifice of Isaac by his father Abraham (Genesis 22:1-24) and some believe, the actual sacrifice of Jephthah's daughter (Judges 11:31-40), while many believe that Jephthah's daughter was committed for life in service equivalent to a nunnery of the day, as indicated by her lament over her "weep for my virginity" and never having known a man (v37). The king of Moab gives his firstborn son and heir as a whole burnt offering, albeit to the pagan god Chemosh. In the book of Micah, one asks, 'Shall I give my firstborn for my sin, the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul?' (), and receives a response, 'It hath been told thee, O man, what is good, and what the LORD doth require of thee: only to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God.' () Abhorrence of the practice of child sacrifice is emphasized by Jeremiah. See Jeremiah 7:30-32.

Sacrifice is the offering of food, objects or the lives of animals or humans to a higher purpose, in particular divine beings, as an act of propitiation or worship.

牺牲是以祭祀为目而宰杀成为祭品的牲畜,如牛、羊、猪、鸡、鸭、鱼等,谓之牲醴或牺牲酒醴。近现代也引申指“为了他利、正义或公益,舍弃自己的私利甚至生命。”


History.

Land consolidation has existed in Europe for many centuries. In France, the first modern land consolidation took place in Rouvres-en-Plaine in 1707. The practice of private land consolidation began to be visible in the Paris Basin during the nineteenth century. Subsequently, it was usually done with the support of the public authorities. A law of 16 June 1824 authorized the exchange of land between individuals in order to fight against the fragmentation of agricultural parcels and to improve productivity. The concept spread more widely in Europe and the USA in the early 20th century. In the Netherlands the first land consolidation was in 1916 when 3659 plots were reduced to 500. In 1919, however, a further attempt to reduce fragmentation broke down against the opposition of one of the owners. This led to the Land Consolidation Act in 1924 which permitted land consolidation to continue without the cooperation of a small number of the owners. In Spain legal provision on land consolidation was not promulgated until December 20, 1952, but it was enthusiastically received by farmers. Similarly, in Germany legislation was passed in the 1950s as part of an overhaul of German agriculture. Land consolidation, known as Flurbereinigung, made possible landscapes being reshaped, for example with respect to construction of access roads. The process particularly benefitted the wine industry.  Following the collapse of communism in the former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc countries of Europe in 1991, state farms were frequently divided into fragmented parcels. Land was often returned to former owners who, by this time, were elderly, or given in joint ownership to heirs of an original owner. This resulted in a large number of absentee landowners residing in urban areas. In other cases, decollectivization resulted in households receiving several fragmented parcels of different qualities of arable land. Thus the need for consolidation was quickly recognised.

Different approaches.

More recently there have been attempts to promote land consolidation in developing countries. Approaches used include increasing the average size of farms into viable commercial units through sale or lease; consolidation to reduce fragmentation of smallholder plots; and cooperative farming, where farmers retain ownership of their land but farm it jointly. China has been particularly active in promoting consolidation, which involves issuance of land certificates that confirm a person’s entitlement to land, thus permitting sale and lease of land rights. To facilitate the process, land transfer service centers have been set up by local governments to collect information on who is looking to lease out; provide potential clients with information on location, area, major land characteristics, and suggested price of land to be leased out; prepare a formal land contract; and be responsible for contract dispute mediation.  In many countries individual smallholders’ land is distributed among many small fragments. This increases production costs by requiring time for farmers to move between fragments and makes use of machinery almost impossible. A response to this is to restructure land holdings while ensuring that farmers retain the same amount of land. In Uttar Pradesh in India a government program led to field boundaries being straightened and land areas as much as possible being reshaped in rectangular form. This improved ease of cultivation, particularly plowing, and lessened disputes due to unclear border demarcations and encroachments. In the Dinh Hoa commune of Vietnam, land consolidation has also been carried out in order to reduce the number of plots owned by individual farm households, thereby increasing the average size of a plot without changing the total farmland area of each household. This is done with the involvement of the local government and the smallholders. The move has resulted in reduced labour costs and increased mechanization, and has also permitted some restructuring of irrigation systems.

Difficulties.

Successful consolidation has to overcome competing interests of the farmers. There may be objections regarding the initial inventory of ownership, the boundaries between land, and the value attached to different parcels. Consolidation cannot simply involve re-allocating land while ensuring that everyone gets the same amount, as the quality of the land re-allocated has to be taken into account and an owner should not be worse off after consolidation than before. Consolidation programs should aim at ensuring that an owner’s holding after consolidation is equal in value to the original holding; if the value of the holding is less it may sometimes be necessary to pay financial compensation. However, soil quality is not the only factor in valuation as the value of a parcel can be affected by its position relative to roads, water supply, farm buildings and farmers’ homes, as well as the value of trees or vines already planted on the land. Mediation arrangements to resolve these problems are essential. It is important to include respected farmers in the land valuation teams together with valuation experts.

Land consolidation is a planned readjustment and rearrangement of fragmented land parcels and their ownership. It is usually applied to form larger and more rational land holdings. Land consolidation can be used to improve rural infrastructure and to implement developmental and environmental policies (improving environmental sustainability and agriculture).<ref name="10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.07.008">

土地兼并(英语:land consolidation),是一个经济学和历史学的概念,指少数人(通常是这个社会的政治或军事集团)通过经济或暴力等手段拥有越来越多土地的过程。土地兼并的结果是另外一些人只能拥有很少的土地或者完全丧失土地。在社会经济以农业为主的农业社会里,土地兼并会造成严重的社会问题,甚至激发民变。但是在工业社会,土地兼并则能够向工业商品提供市场和劳动力。 英国历史上的圈地运动,就是一个典型的土地兼并运动。但是英国十分幸运,圈地运动成为促发工业革命的原因之一,从而渡过了社会危机。


Etymology.

The word "carburetor" comes from the French "carbure" meaning "carbide". "Carburer" means to combine with carbon (compare also carburizing).

History and development.

The first carburetor was invented by Samuel Morey in 1826. The first person to patent a carburetor for use in a petroleum engine was Siegfried Marcus with his 6 July 1872 patent for a device which mixes fuel with air.  A carburetor was among the early patents by Karl Benz (1888) as he developed internal combustion engines and their components.  Early carburetors were of the surface type, in which air is combined with fuel by passing over the surface of gasoline.  In 1885, Wilhelm Maybach and Gottlieb Daimler developed a float carburetor based on the atomizer nozzle. The Daimler-Maybach carburetor was copied extensively, leading to patent lawsuits. British courts rejected the Daimler company's claim of priority in favor of Edward Butler's 1884 spray carburetor used on his Petrol Cycle.  Hungarian engineers János Csonka and Donát Bánki patented a carburetor for a stationary engine in 1893.  Frederick William Lanchester of Birmingham, England, experimented with the wick carburetor in cars. In 1896, Frederick and his brother built a gasoline-driven car in England, a single cylinder internal combustion engine with chain drive. Unhappy with the car's performance and power, they re-designed the engine the following year using two horizontally-opposed cylinders and a newly designed wick carburetor.  Carburetors were the common method of fuel delivery for most US-made gasoline engines until the late 1980s, when fuel injection became the preferred method. This change was dictated by the requirements of catalytic converters and not due to an inherent inefficiency of carburation. A catalytic converter

Principles.

The carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle: the faster air moves, the lower its static pressure, and higher the dynamic pressure is. The throttle (accelerator) linkage does not directly control the flow of liquid fuel. Instead, it actuates carburetor mechanisms which meter the flow of air being carried into the engine. The speed of this flow, and therefore its (static) pressure, determines the amount of fuel drawn into the airstream.  When carburetors are used in aircraft with piston engines, special designs and features are needed to prevent fuel starvation during inverted flight. Later engines used an early form of fuel injection known as a pressure carburetor.  Most production carbureted engines, as opposed to fuel-injected, have a single carburetor and a matching intake manifold that divides and transports the air/fuel mixture to the intake valves, though some engines (like motorcycle engines) use multiple carburetors on split heads. Multiple carburetor engines were also common enhancements for modifying engines in the USA from the 1950s to mid-1960s, as well as during the following decade of high-performance muscle cars, each carburetor feeding different chambers of the engine's intake manifold.  Older engines used updraft carburetors, where the air enters from below the carburetor and exits through the top. This had the advantage of never flooding the engine,

Operation.

This job would be simple if air and gasoline (petrol) were ideal fluids; in practice, however, their deviations from ideal behavior due to viscosity, fluid drag, inertia, etc. require a great deal of complexity to compensate for exceptionally high or low engine speeds. A carburetor must provide the proper fuel/air mixture across a wide range of ambient temperatures, atmospheric pressures, engine speeds and loads, and centrifugal forces including the following scenarios;  In addition, modern carburetors are required to do this while maintaining low levels of exhaust emissions.  To function correctly under all these conditions, most carburetors contain a complex set of mechanisms to support several different operating modes, called "circuits".

Basics.

A carburetor consists of an open pipe through which the air passes into the inlet manifold of the engine. The pipe is in the form of a venturi: it narrows in section and then widens again, causing the airflow to increase in speed in the narrowest part. Below the venturi is a butterfly valve called the throttle valve — a rotating disc that can be turned end-on to the airflow, so as to hardly restrict the flow at all, or can be rotated so that it

Off-idle circuit.

As the throttle valve is opened slightly from the fully closed position, the throttle plate uncovers additional fuel delivery holes behind the throttle plate where there is a low pressure

Main open-throttle circuit.

As the throttle valve is progressively opened, the manifold vacuum is lessened since there is less restriction of the airflow, reducing the fuel flow through the idle and off-idle circuits. This is when the venturi shape of the carburetor throat comes into play, due to Bernoulli's principle (i.e., as the velocity increases, pressure falls). The venturi increases the air velocity, and this higher speed and thus lower pressure sucks fuel into the airstream through a nozzle or nozzles located in the center of the venturi. Sometimes one or more additional "booster venturis" are placed coaxially within the primary venturi to increase the effect.  As the throttle valve is

Power valve.

For open throttle operation a richer fuel/air mixture will produce more power, prevent pre-ignition detonation, and keep the engine running cooler. This is usually addressed with a spring-loaded "power valve", which is held shut by engine vacuum. As the throttle valve opens up, the manifold vacuum decreases and the spring opens the valve to let more fuel into the main circuit. On two-stroke engines, the operation of the power valve is the reverse of normal — it is normally "on" and at a set rpm it is turned "off". It is activated at high rpm to extend the engine's rev range, capitalizing on a two-stroke's tendency to rev higher momentarily when the mixture is lean.  Alternately to employing a power valve, the carburetor may

Accelerator pump.

Liquid gasoline, being denser than air, is slower than air to react to a force applied to it. When the throttle is rapidly opened, airflow through the carburetor increases immediately, faster than the fuel flow rate can increase. Also the air pressure in the manifold increases, decreasing the evaporation of the fuel, so less fuel vapour is sucked into the engine. This transient oversupply of air relative to the fuel causes a lean mixture, which makes the engine misfire (or "stumble")—an effect opposite to that which was demanded by opening the throttle. This is remedied by the use of a small piston or diaphragm pump which, when actuated by the throttle

Choke.

When the engine is cold, fuel vaporizes less readily and tends to condense on the walls of the intake manifold, starving the cylinders of fuel and making the engine difficult to start; thus, a "richer mixture" (more fuel to air) is required to start and run the engine until it warms up. A richer mixture is also easier to ignite.  To provide the extra fuel, a "choke" is typically used; this is a device that restricts the flow of air at the entrance to the carburetor, before the

Other elements.

The interactions between each circuit may also be affected by various mechanical or air pressure connections and also by temperature sensitive and electrical components. These are introduced for reasons such as engine responsiveness, fuel efficiency or automobile

Fuel supply.

Float chamber.

To ensure a ready mixture, the carburetor has a "float chamber" (or "bowl") that contains a quantity of fuel at near-atmospheric pressure, ready for use. This reservoir is constantly replenished with fuel supplied by a fuel pump. The correct fuel level in the bowl is maintained by means of a float controlling an inlet valve, in a manner very similar to that employed in a cistern (e.g. a toilet tank). As fuel is used up, the float drops, opening the inlet valve and admitting fuel. As the fuel level rises, the float rises and closes the inlet valve.

Diaphragm chamber.

If the engine must be operated in any orientation (for example a chain saw or a model airplane), a float chamber is not suitable. Instead, a diaphragm chamber is used. A flexible diaphragm forms one side of the fuel chamber and is arranged so that as fuel is drawn out into the

Multiple carburetor barrels.

While basic carburetors have only one venturi, many carburetors have more than one venturi, or "barrel". Two barrel and four barrel configurations are commonly used to accommodate the higher air flow rate with large engine displacement. Multi-barrel carburetors can have non-identical primary and secondary barrel(s) of different sizes and calibrated to deliver different air/fuel mixtures; they can be actuated by the linkage or by engine vacuum in "progressive" fashion, so that the secondary barrels do not begin to open until the primaries are almost completely open. This is a desirable characteristic which maximizes airflow through the primary barrel(s) at most engine speeds, thereby maximizing the pressure "signal" from the venturis, but reduces the restriction in airflow at high speeds by adding cross-sectional area for greater airflow. These advantages may not be important in high-performance applications where part throttle operation is irrelevant, and the primaries and secondaries may all open at once, for simplicity and reliability; also, V-configuration engines, with two cylinder banks fed by a single carburetor, may be configured with two identical barrels, each supplying one cylinder bank. In the widely seen V8 and 4-barrel carburetor combination, there are often two primary and two secondary barrels.

Carburetor adjustment.

The fuel and air mixture is too "rich" when it has an excess of fuel, and too "lean" when there is not enough. The mixture is adjusted by one or more needle valves on an automotive carburetor, or a pilot-operated lever on piston-engined aircraft (since the mixture changes with air density and therefore altitude). Independent of air density the (stoichiometric) air to gasoline ratio is 14.7:1, meaning that for each mass unit of gasoline, 14.7 mass units of air are required. There are different stoichiometric ratios for other types of fuel.  Ways to check carburetor mixture adjustment include: measuring the carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, and oxygen content of the exhaust using a gas analyzer, or directly viewing the color of the flame in the combustion chamber through a special glass-bodied spark plug sold under the name "Colortune"; the flame color of stoichiometric burning is described as a "Bunsen blue", turning to yellow if the mixture is rich and whitish-blue if too lean. Another method, widely used in aviation, is to

Feedback carburetors.

In the 1980s, many American-market vehicles used "feedback" carburetors that dynamically adjusted the fuel/air mixture in response to signals from an exhaust gas oxygen sensor to provide a stoichiometric ratio to enable the optimal function of the catalytic converter. Feedback carburetors were mainly used because they were less expensive than

Catalytic carburetors.

A catalytic carburetor mixes fuel vapor with water and air in the presence of heated catalysts such as nickel or platinum. This is generally reported as a 1940s-era product that would allow kerosene to power a gasoline engine (requiring

Constant vacuum carburetors.

Constant vacuum carburetors, also called variable choke carburetors and constant velocity carburetors, are carburetors where the throttle cable was connected directly to the throttle cable plate. Pulling the cord caused raw gasoline to enter the carburetor, creating a large emission of hydrocarbons.  The Constant Velocity carburetor has a variable throttle closure in the intake air stream before the accelerator pedal operated the throttle plate. This variable closure is controlled by intake manifold pressure/vacuum. This pressure controlled throttle provides relatively even intake pressure throughout the engine's speed and load ranges. The most common design of the CV carburetor

Vaporizers.

Internal combustion engines can be configured to run on many kinds of fuel, including gasoline, kerosene, tractor vaporizing oil (TVO), vegetable oil, diesel fuel, biodiesel, ethanol fuel (alcohol), and others. Multifuel engines, such as petrol-paraffin engines, can benefit from an initial vaporization of the fuel when they are running less volatile fuels. For this purpose, a vaporizer (or vaporiser) is placed in the intake system. The vaporizer uses heat from the exhaust manifold to vaporize the fuel. For example, the original Fordson tractor and various subsequent Fordson models had vaporizers. When Henry Ford & Son Inc designed the original Fordson (1916), the vaporizer was used to provide for kerosene operation. When TVO became common in various countries (including the United Kingdom and Australia) in the 1940s and 1950s, the standard vaporizers on Fordson models were equally useful for TVO. Widespread adoption of diesel engines in tractors made the use of tractor vaporizing oil obsolete.

A carburetor (American English) or carburettor (British English) is a device that mixes air and fuel for internal combustion engines in the proper air–fuel ratio for combustion. It is sometimes colloquially shortened to "carb" in the UK and North America or "carby" in Australia. To carburate or carburet (and thus carburation or carburetion, respectively) means to mix the air and fuel or to equip (an engine) with a carburetor for that purpose.

化油器(英语:Carburetor)是汽车、机车里发动机中的一个供油装置,其作用是利用发动机工作产生的真空负压将一定比例的汽油与空气混合,之后将混合气供给发动机的燃烧室。一公斤汽油完全燃烧需要大约15公斤的空气,所以油和气混合很重要。化油器吸进空气的通道中间是一个较窄的喉部,加速引擎吸进的空气,产生文氏管效应将细管中的燃油吸出、雾化、和空气相混合,汽车的化油器通常包括燃油室、阻风门、怠速量孔、主量孔、空气节流喉管和加速泵等部分。


Features.

The Great Sandy Desert contains large ergs, often consisting of longitudinal dunes. In the north east of the desert there is a meteorite impact crater, the Wolfe Creek crater.

Population.

The region is sparsely populated. The main populations consist of indigenous Australian communities and mining centres. The aboriginal people of the desert fall into two main groups, the Martu in the west and the Pintupi in the east. Linguistically, they are speakers of multiple Western Desert languages. Many of these indigenous people were forcibly removed from their lands during the 20th century and relocated to settlements such as Papunya in the Northern Territory. In recent years, some of the original inhabitants have returned.  Young indigenous adults from the Great Sandy Desert region travel to and work in the Wilurarra Creative programs to maintain and develop their culture.

Climate.

Rainfall is low throughout the coast and far north and is strongly seasonal. Areas near the Kimberley have an average rainfall that exceeds, but is patchy. Many drought years end with a monsoon cloud mass or tropical cyclone. Like many of Australia's deserts, rainfall is high by desert standards, with the driest parts recording falls little below. A massive evaporation rate makes up for the higher than normal desert rainfall. This region is one which gives rise to the heat lows which help drive the NW monsoon. Almost all rain comes from monsoon thunderstorms or the occasional tropical cyclone rain depression.  On average for most of the area, there are about 20–30 days where thunderstorms form. However, in the north bordering the Kimberley, 30-40 per year is the average.  Summer daytime temperatures are some of the hottest in Australia. The range on the northern border near the Kimberley at Halls Creek is around, but this would be indicative of the low end of the range. Regions further south average except when monsoonal cloud cover is active. Several people have died in this region after their vehicles have broken down on remote tracks. Winters are short and warm; temperatures range from.  Frost does not occur in most of the area. The regions bordering the Gibson Desert in the far southeast may record a light frost or two every year. Away from the coast winter nights can still be chilly in comparison to the warm days.

Economy.

Indigenous art is a huge industry in central Australia. Mines, most importantly the Telfer Gold Mine and Nifty Copper Mine, and cattle stations are found in the far west. Telfer is one of the largest gold mines in Australia. The undeveloped Kintyre uranium deposit lies south of Telfer.

Fauna and flora.

The vegetation of the Great Sandy Desert is dominated by spinifex.  Animals in the region include feral camels, dingoes, goannas (including the large perentie) and numerous species of lizards and birds. Other animal inhabitants include bilbies, mulgara, marsupial moles, rufous hare-wallabies, thorny devils, bearded dragons, and red kangaroos.  Some of the bird-life found within the desert include the rare Alexandra's parrot, the mulga parrot and the scarlet-chested parrot.

The Great Sandy Desert (GSD) is an interim Australian bioregion, located in the north west of Western Australia straddling the Pilbara and southern Kimberley regions. It is the second largest desert in Australia after the Great Victoria Desert and encompasses an area of. The Gibson Desert lies to the south and the Tanami Desert lies to the east of the Great Sandy Desert.

大沙沙漠(英语:Great Sandy Desert)是位于澳大利亚西北部、大致呈东南走向的荒漠,由广袤的干旱沙丘和盐沼地区组成。面积为284,993平方公里,是继大维多利亚沙漠之后的澳大利亚第二大沙漠。大部分位于西澳大利亚州领土内,处于该州皮尔巴拉和金伯利两处多岩石的区域之间,地势平坦。


Present design.

National flag.

The present design was first used by the Republic of Haiti under President Alexandre Pétion in 1806. It was most recently readopted on 25 February 2012 under Title I, Chapter I, Article 3 of the current Constitution of Haiti:L'emblême de la Nation Haïtienne est le Drapeau qui répond à la description suivante:  The English translation adopted by the Embassy of Haiti in Washington, D.C., reads:The emblem of the Haitian Nation shall be a flag with the following description: Contrary to the constitutional mandate, the white field is rarely (if ever) rendered as a square. A rectangle with an 11:9 ratio has been adopted by the Haitian Ministry of Information and Coordination since 1987 or earlier.

Civil flag.

The civil flag and ensign omits the coat of arms.

History.

The first purely Haitian flag was adopted on 18 May 1803, on the last day of the Congress of Arcahaie, about north of Port-au-Prince. Haitian lore holds that the newly appointed revolutionary leader Jean-Jacques Dessalines created the flag by taking a French tricolor and ripping out the white center, which he discarded. He then asked Catherine Flon, his god-daughter, to sew the remaining bands together. The white pale removed, the blue was taken to represent Haiti's black citizens and the red the "gens de couleur". The story is widely known in Haiti: the anniversary of the date is celebrated as the Flag and Universities Day and images of Catherine Flon have appeared on Haitian currency and stamps.  Following his proclamation as Emperor Jacques I, Dessalines promulgated a new constitution on 20 May 1805. In it, the colors of the flag were altered to black and red. This flag being subsequently adopted by Henri Christophe, the republicans under Alexandre Pétion returned to the colors blue and red, subsequently turning them horizontal and adding the newly adopted Haitian coat of arms.  During the period of the Haitian Empire of Faustin I, his coat of arms was used on the flag and for official functions, but it was subsequently abandoned upon his removal from office.  Between 1964 and 1986, the family dictatorships of François "Papa Doc" and Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier returned to Dessalines' black and red design. They included the national coat of arms, but altered the flags in its trophy to black as well.  Because the coat of arms is only used for national and military flags, whereas the civil flag consists solely of the two unaugmented horizontal bands, it was discovered at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin that Haiti and Liechtenstein were using the same flag. This led to the addition of a crown to the design of the flag of Liechtenstein.

The flag of Haiti (; ) is a bicolour flag featuring two horizontal bands coloured blue and red, defaced by a white panel bearing the coat of arms. The coat of arms depicts a trophy of weapons atop a green hill and a royal palm symbolizing independence. The palm is topped by the Cap of Liberty. The motto "L'Union fait la Force" ("Unity makes strength") appears on a white ribbon below the arrangement. The flag of Haiti—along with those of Afghanistan, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Ecuador, and El Salvador—is one of six national flags whose designs incorporate a depiction of the flag itself.

海地国旗(法语:Drapeau d'Haïti)为一面由蓝、红两条横带组成的旗帜,中间为国徽。启用于1986年2月25日。


Definition.

A Horn clause is a clause (a disjunction of literals) with at most one positive, i.e. unnegated, literal.  Conversely, a disjunction of literals with at most one negated literal is called a dual-Horn clause.  A Horn clause with exactly one positive literal is a definite clause or a strict Horn clause; a definite clause with no negative literals is sometimes called a unit clause, and a unit clause without variables is sometimes called a fact; and a Horn clause without a positive literal is sometimes called a goal clause (note that the empty clause consisting of no literals is a goal clause). These three kinds of Horn clauses are illustrated in the following propositional example: In the non-propositional case, all variables in a clause are implicitly universally quantified with the scope being the entire clause. Thus, for example:  stands for:  which is logically equivalent to:

Significance.

Horn clauses play a basic role in constructive logic and computational logic. They are important in automated theorem proving by first-order resolution, because the resolvent of two Horn clauses is itself a Horn clause, and the resolvent of a goal clause and a definite clause is a goal clause. These properties of Horn clauses can lead to greater efficiencies in proving a theorem (represented as the negation of a goal clause).  Propositional Horn clauses are also of interest in computational complexity. The problem of finding truth value assignments to make a conjunction of propositional Horn clauses true is a P-complete problem, solvable in linear time, and sometimes called HORNSAT. (The unrestricted Boolean satisfiability problem is an NP-complete problem however.) Satisfiability of first-order Horn clauses is undecidable.

Logic programming.

Horn clauses are also the basis of logic programming, where it is common to write definite clauses in the form of an implication:  In fact, the resolution of a goal clause with a definite clause to produce a new goal clause is the basis of the SLD resolution inference rule, used to implement logic programming in the programming language Prolog.  In logic programming a definite clause behaves as a goal-reduction procedure. For example, the Horn clause written above behaves as the procedure:  To emphasize this reverse use of the clause, it is often written in the reverse form:  In Prolog this is written as:  In logic programming and datalog, computation and query evaluation are performed by representing the negation of a problem to be solved as a goal clause. For example, the problem of solving the existentially quantified conjunction of positive literals:  is represented by negating the problem (denying that it has a solution), and representing it in the logically equivalent form of a goal clause:  In Prolog this is written as:  Solving the problem amounts to deriving a contradiction, which is represented by the empty clause (or "false"). The solution of the problem is a substitution of terms for the variables in the goal clause, which can be extracted from the proof of contradiction. Used in this way, goal clauses are similar to conjunctive queries in relational databases, and Horn clause logic is equivalent in computational power to a universal Turing machine.  The Prolog notation is actually ambiguous, and the term “goal clause” is sometimes also used ambiguously. The variables in a goal clause can be read as universally or existentially quantified, and deriving “false” can be interpreted either as deriving a contradiction or as deriving a successful solution of the problem to be solved.  Van Emden and Kowalski (1976) investigated the model theoretic properties of Horn clauses in the context of logic programming, showing that every set of definite clauses D has a unique minimal model M. An atomic formula A is logically implied by D if and only if A is true in M. It follows that a problem P represented by an existentially quantified conjunction of positive literals is logically implied by D if and only if P is true in M. The minimal model semantics of Horn clauses is the basis for the stable model semantics of logic programs.

In mathematical logic and logic programming, a Horn clause is a logical formula of a particular rule-like form which gives it useful properties for use in logic programming, formal specification, and model theory. Horn clauses are named for the logician Alfred Horn, who first pointed out their significance in 1951.

在数理逻辑中,霍恩子句(英语:Horn Clause)是带有最多一个肯定文字的子句(文字的析取)。霍恩子句得名于逻辑学家 Alfred Horn,他在 1951 年首先在文章《On sentences which are true of direct unions of algebras》, Journal of Symbolic Logic, 16, 14-21 中指出这种子句的重要性。