Publication history.

Debut.

The character first appeared in a full-page in-house ad for "All-Star Western" No. 10 which was published in various November/December 1971-dated DC comics, including a few of DC's war comics line, as well as a half-page version of the same house ad in "Batman" No. 237. This house ad contains the first published images of Jonah Hex, as well as two dialogue-filled comic strip panels not used in his first full-story appearance.  His first full-story appearance was published a few weeks later in volume two of "All-Star Western" No. 10 (February–March 1972), which was

"Hex".

"Jonah Hex" was canceled during "Crisis on Infinite Earths" (in which Jonah also appeared along with Scalphunter and other western heroes in issue No. 3, but in the same year Jonah moved to a new eighteen-issue series titled

Limited series.

Three "Jonah Hex" miniseries have been published under DC's Vertigo imprint. These series, written by Joe R. Lansdale and drawn by Tim

"Jonah Hex" vol. 2.

A new monthly "Jonah Hex" series debuted in November 2005 (cover date January 2006), written by Justin Gray and Jimmy Palmiotti with interior art by varying (and occasionally recurring) artists. In assorted postings on their message board, Gray and Palmiotti have stated their intent was to depict various adventures from across the full length of Hex's life and career. The main artistic difference is that the series is published without the external restraints

"All-Star Western" vol. 3.

In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. With this change, "Jonah Hex" volume 2 was canceled and Jonah transitioned as the lead story

Fictional character biography.

Origins.

Born November 1, 1838 in northwestern Missouri, to Woodson and Virginia Hex, Jonah was a regular victim of physical abuse as a child at the hands of his father. In 1851 his father sold him into slavery to an Apache tribe. They worked him constantly until one day when he saved their chieftain from a puma and he was welcomed as a full-fledged member of the tribe.

American Civil War.

As Jonah grew into adulthood, he joined the United States Army as a cavalry scout. By 1861, the country was radically divided. When war erupted between the Northern states and the Southern states, Jonah shifted his loyalties to the newly formed Confederate States Army and earned a commission as a lieutenant in the 4th CS Cavalry. During this time, Jonah met a fellow soldier named Jeb Turnbull and the two became close friends.  As time went on, Hex found himself increasingly torn between his loyalties to the South and his feelings towards the treatment of slaves. In September 1862, President Abraham Lincoln announced his Emancipation Proclamation – a proposed bill that would outlaw slavery in most slave-holding states. Jonah realized that he could no longer support a system that elected to hold his fellow man in bondage, however, he had no intention of betraying his comrades by cooperating with the Union. Therefore, he felt that the best option available to him was to surrender and wait out the war. He abandoned his post and went to the Union camp at Fort Charlotte, sneaking into the Camp captain's quarters to

Mark of the Demon.

Eventually returning to his village in 1866, Jonah found that Noh-Tante had married White Fawn. He declared Noh-Tante's betrayal to the chieftain, but the accusations were denied and it was decided that they would deliberate through trial by combat. Noh-Tante sabotaged Jonah's tomahawk, forcing him to cheat and end the fight with his knife. For breaking the rules of combat and killing his son,

Bounty hunter.

Jonah Hex was inspired to become a bounty hunter after murdering his first criminal, the outlaw Lucas "Mad Dog" McGill. He gunned down Mad Dog while the man was beating his wife outside of a saloon; in his inebriated stupor, Hex believed him to be his own father, Woodson Hex, abusing his mother, Virginia Hex. The local deputy insisted that, even drunk, it was the fastest draw he had ever seen and gave him the massive bounty on McGill's head. Hex accepted the money and scattered it on

"Weird Western Tales".

Jonah received a wolf named Iron Jaws when he tried to rescue a peaceful Pawnee tribe from their local town and failed to save the girl who owned him. His former mentor, Windy Taylor, called Jonah to help find his son, Tod Taylor, who had turned outlaw. Tod gunned down his father and Hex avenged the man who taught him. Iron Jaws died after venturing into the desert to rescue Hex from dying of exposure where two outlaws had tied him up. Hex next took down a corrupt sheriff who was scamming his town, and then a corrupt hanging judge at the next. Briefly he became the bodyguard to a sideshow attraction whose owner

Five Warriors from Forever.

The Lord of Time assembled a team, known as the Five Warriors from Forever, when he believed that his time machine, the Eternity Brain, would end all existence. This team included Jonah Hex alongside Black Pirate, Enemy Ace, Miss Liberty, and the Viking Prince; to make them powerful enough to become a threat, they were each energized with a special force. Their purpose was to fight the Justice League and Justice Society to strengthen their resolve through defeat, which they succeeded in doing. Eventually, the Five Warriors

Crisis on Infinite Earths.

Hex became involved in the first Crisis when he was summoned, along with several other heroes, to fight for the Monitor. Jonah Hex fought against the

Hex.

Jonah Hex disappeared in a flash of light one night at a saloon in 1875. He was abducted from his own era by the villainous Reinhold Borsten (and with a little unintentional help from Access), who transported him into a post-apocalyptic Seattle, Washington in the 21st century. His intention was to use the time-traveling gunfighter as a warrior, but instead Jonah escaped and met a motorcycle gang named the Road Reapers. They immediately took him in after he rescued their warrior Stiletta, and he obtained a zonesuit to protect himself from radiation by killing their cowardly leader, Falcon, in self-defense. His next companions were a group

Two-Gun Mojo.

Jonah began to take up with another bounty hunter named Slow Go Smith who became his friend. Smith was killed by gun-toting zombies in a barn, and Hex was framed for his murder. Following their trail, Hex discovered that it was the work of a snake oil merchant

Riders of the Worm and Such.

Following the slaying of Stove Belly Jack's gang, Hex met a giant worm in the desert. He teamed up with a local ranch who'd been under attack by the creatures. It is explained that the

Shadows West.

Jonah became a member of Buffalo Will's traveling Wild West Show after a trick-shooting midget named Long Tom saved his life. He reconnected with an old friend named Spotted Balls and met a local squaw prostitute who gave birth to a Bear Boy. She claimed to have given birth after mating with a bear spirit. Hex decided to leave the camp

Face Full of Violence.

When a rich family hired him to track down their kidnapped son, he found the boy had become part of an underground dog-fighting ring and was forced to put him down when he contracted rabies. In a conflict involving a stolen gold crucifix, he burned an entire mining town to the ground. Bat Lash helped him

Death.

Jonah Hex continued to act as a bounty hunter until the age of 66 in 1904, when he was married to a Native American woman named Tall Bird. His life story was documented by Michael Wheeler. The entertainer L.B. Farnham approached him to become part of a Wild West Revue show in his old age, but Hex angrily refused to let them turn him into a sideshow. Hex's last bounty was a gang run by bank robber George Barrow; he succeeded in wiping them out, but Barrow returned for revenge several days later. Playing cards in a Cheyenne saloon, Hex was murdered with Barrow's double-barreled shotgun while fumbling to put on his spectacles. His death was immediately avenged by the lawman Hank Crawford, who gunned down the unarmed Barrow in cold blood. In his dying moments, Hex hallucinated and reflected

Post-Mortem.

Many years later, a supermodel and actress named Hex seemed to become possessed when her right eye was cut out by members of the Agenda. She assisted Superboy and displayed psionic powers when she repeatedly fired an unloaded energy weapon, but this change in consciousness seems to have been temporary. Eventually she decided to become a bounty hunter like

The New 52.

During the 1880s in "The New 52", Amadeus Arkham is recruited by Detective Lofton of the Gotham City Police Department to help solve the case of the Gotham Butcher. Police Chief John Cromwell did not take kindly to Arkham's theories, nor to the eventual recruitment of bounty hunter Jonah Hex, who had recently caused a stir by coming to town. Even so, recognizing Hex's street smarts, Arkham suggests that the two of them join forces in performing a separate investigation into the case. Together, they

DC Rebirth.

A robotic/alien version of Jonah Hex appears on a planet called Leone-5, modeled after the Wild West. He is introduced in the mini-series, Adventures of the

Powers and abilities.

In most of his stories, Jonah Hex displays no supernatural or superhuman powers; however, he does possess some exceptional abilities, acquired through a combination of talent and training.  Despite being blind in his right eye, Hex is an outstanding marksman who rarely misses his target. He is extremely fast on the draw and can be seen in many stories gunning down multiple foes before any of them can get off a shot. He can wield two guns, one in each hand, with equal proficiency. He is also a resourceful combatant, often relying on stealth, tricks, and improvised weapons and traps to defeat enemies akin to fellow DC Comics character Deathstroke (who is also blind in his right eye). Hex was taught to shoot by the legendary gunslinger Windy Taylor. His reflexes are strong enough that he has proven to be faster on the draw than both Wild Bill Hickok and Batman. Hex became an expert at driving various motor vehicles during his time in the 21st Century.  In the DC Universe, he is known as having almost superhuman ability and marksmanship with 19th-century weapons, mostly revolvers. After Jonah Hex is transported to the future in "Hex", he acquires a pair of Ruger Blackhawk.357 Magnums. He chooses these because they are single action revolvers like the ones he used in the Wild West, but he still manages to outshoot everybody armed with more modern weaponry.  Hex is an exceptional tracker, able to follow trails several days old through rain and mud

Supporting cast.

Being a "non-superhero", Jonah did not have a "Rogues gallery" comparable to costumed comic-book heroes, though he had a few adversaries who returned from time to time. The first and most notable of these to date was Quentin Turnbull, known at first as simply the man with the eagle-topped cane.  Turnbull was the father of Hex's best friend in the Confederate army, Jeb Turnbull. During the American Civil War, Jonah surrendered himself to the Union forces after the passage of the Emancipation Proclamation, but he refused to betray where his fellow soldiers were camped. A Union soldier was able to determine the location of that camp by examining the dirt in the hooves of Jonah's horse. The Union soldiers captured all of Jonah's fellow soldiers and then later massacred most of them; Jonah's former

Appearances.

Core series.

The following are publications in

Collected editions.

Various trade paperback collections are being released,

In other media.

Novels.

Jonah Hex is one of several DC Comics western characters who appear

Lawsuit.

In 1996, musicians Johnny and Edgar Winter filed suit against DC and the creators of the "Jonah Hex: Riders of the Worm and Such" limited series, claiming, amongst other things, defamation: two characters named the Autumn Brothers in the series strongly resemble the Winters. Writer Joe Lansdale said

Reception.

IGN ranked Jonah Hex as the 73rd Greatest Comic Book Hero of All Time stating that "his distinctive appearance and engrossing adventures set Hex apart from the rest of the cowboy crowd".

Jonah Woodson Hex is a fictional antihero appearing in comic books published in the USA by DC Comics. The character was created by writer John Albano and artist Tony DeZuniga. Hex is a surly and cynical bounty hunter whose face is horribly scarred on the right side. Despite his poor reputation and personality, Hex is bound by a personal code of honor to protect and avenge the innocent.

约拿·海克斯(英语:Jonah Hex)是一位由DC漫画发行出版的虚构西部反英雄。


Structure.

The most common form of FePO adopts the structure of α-quartz. As such the P and Fe have tetrahedral molecular geometry. At high pressures, a phase change occurs to a more dense structure with octahedral Fe centres. Two orthorhombic structures and a monoclinic phase are also known. In the two polymorphs of the dihydrate, the Fe center is octahedral with two mutually cis water ligands.

Uses.

Iron(III) phosphate can be used in steel and metal manufacturing processes. When bonded to a metal surface, iron phosphate prevents further oxidation of the metal. Its presence is partially responsible for the corrosion resistance of the Iron pillar of Delhi.  Iron phosphate coatings are commonly used in preparation for painting or powder coating, in order to increase adhesion to the iron or steel substrate, and prevent corrosion, which can cause premature failure of subsequent coating processes. It can also be used for bonding fabrics, wood, and other materials to iron or steel surfaces.  Anhydrous iron phosphate has been investigated as an intercalation electrode in a lithium-ion battery despite having low electronic conductivity.

Pesticide.

Iron phosphate is one of the few molluscicides approved for use in the practice of organic farming.  Pesticide pellets containing iron phosphate plus a chelating agent, such as EDTA, leach heavy metals from soil into groundwater. The Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) reported the EDTA content and stated products were likely to be no safer than metaldehyde baits. Ferric phosphate slug and snail baits marketed in the U.S. contain EDTA.

Legislation.

Iron(III) phosphate is not allowed as food additive in the European Union. It was withdrawn from the list of allowed substances in the directive 2002/46/EC in 2007.

Iron(III) phosphate, also ferric phosphate, is the inorganic compound with the formula FePO. Several related materials are known, including four polymorphs of FePO and two polymorphs of the dihydrate FePO·(HO). These materials find several technical applications as well as occurring in the mineral kingdom.

磷酸铁是一种无机化合物,化学式为FePO。已知有几种相关的物质,包括四晶型的FePO和双晶型的二水合物FePO·(HO)。这些物质在技术上有几处的应用,同时也能在采矿中见到。


Optical properties.

When the pH of the environment is 3.5, acridine orange becomes excited by blue light (460 nm). When acridine orange is excited by blue light, the fluorescent dye can differentially stain human cells green and prokaryotic cells orange (600 nm), allowing for rapid detection with a fluorescent microscope. The differential staining capability of acridine orange provides quick scanning of specimen smears at lower magnifications of 400x compared to Gram stains that operate at 1000x magnification. The differentiation of cells is aided by a dark background that allows colored organisms to be easily detected. The sharp contrast provides a mechanism for counting the number of organisms present in a sample. When acridine orange binds to DNA, the dye exhibits a maximum excitation at 502 nm producing a maximum emission of 525 nm. When bound to RNA, acridine orange displays a maximum emission value of 650 nm and a maximum excitation value of 460 nm. The maximum excitation and emission value that occur when acridine orange is bound to RNA are the result of electrostatic interactions and the intercalation between the acridine molecule and nucleic acid-base pairs present within RNA and DNA.

Preparation.

Acridine dyes are prepared via the condensation of 1,3-diaminobenzene with suitable benzaldehydes. Acridine orange is derived from dimethylaminobenzaldehyde and "N","N"-dimethyl-1,3-diaminobenzene. It may also be prepared by the Eschweiler–Clarke reaction of 3,6-Acridinediamine.

History.

Acridine orange is derived from the organic molecule acridine, which was first discovered by Carl Grabe and Heinrich Caro, who isolated acridine by boiling coal in Germany during the late nineteenth century. Acridine has antimicrobial factors useful in drug-resistant bacteria and isolating bacteria in various environments. Acridine orange in the mid-twentieth century was used to examine the microbial content found in soil and direct counts of aquatic bacteria. Additionally, the method of acridine orange direct count (AODC) proved useful in the enumeration of bacteria found within landfills. Direct epifluorescent filter technique (DEFT) using acridine orange is a method known for examining the microbial content within food and water. The use of acridine orange in clinical applications has become widely accepted, mainly focusing on highlighting bacteria in blood cultures. Past and present studies comparing acridine orange staining with blind subcultures for the detection of positive blood cultures showed that the acridine orange is a simple, inexpensive, rapid staining procedure that appeares to be more sensitive than the Gram stain for detecting microorganisms in cerebrospinal fluid and other clinical and non-clinical materials.

Applications.

Acridine orange has been widely accepted and used in many different areas, such as epifluorescence microscopy, and the assessment of sperm chromatin quality. Acridine orange is useful in the rapid screening of ordinarily sterile specimens. When acridine orange is used with flow cytometry, the differential stain is used to measure DNA denaturation and the cellular content of DNA versus RNA in individual cells, or detect DNA damage in infertile sperm cells. Acridine orange is recommended for the use of fluorescent microscopic detection of microorganisms in smears prepared from clinical and non-clinical materials. Acridine orange staining has to be performed at an acidic pH to obtain the differential staining, which allows bacterial cells to stain orange and tissue components to stain yellow or green.  Acridine orange is also used to stain acidic vacuoles (lysosomes, endosomes, and autophagosomes), RNA, and DNA in living cells. This method is a cheap and easy way to study lysosomal vacuolation, autophagy, and apoptosis. The emission color of acridine orange changes from yellow, to orange, to red as the pH drops in an acidic vacuole of the living cell. Under specific conditions of ionic strength and concentration, acridine orange emits red fluorescence when it binds to RNA by stacking interactions, and green fluorescence when it binds to DNA by intercalation. Depending on acridine orange concentration, nuclei may emit yellowish-green fluorescence in untreated cells, and green fluorescence when RNA synthesis is inhibited by compounds such as chloroquine. Acridine orange can be used in conjunction with ethidium bromide or propidium iodide to differentiate between viable, apoptotic, and necrotic cells. Additionally, acridine orange may be used on blood samples causing bacterial DNA to fluoresce, aiding in the clinical diagnosis of bacterial infections, such as meningitis.

Acridine orange is an organic compound that serves as a nucleic acid-selective fluorescent dye with cationic properties useful for cell cycle determination. Acridine orange is cell-permeable, which allows the dye to interact with DNA by intercalation, or RNA via electrostatic attractions. When bound to DNA, acridine orange is very similar spectrally to an organic compound known as fluorescein. Acridine orange and fluorescein have a maximum excitation at 502nm and 525 nm (green). When acridine orange associates with RNA, the fluorescent dye experiences a maximum excitation shift from 525 nm (green) to 460 nm (blue). The shift in maximum excitation also produces a maximum emission of 650 nm (red). Acridine orange is able to withstand low pH environments, allowing the fluorescent dye to penetrate acidic organelles such as lysosomes and phagolysosomes that are membrane-bound organelles essential for acid hydrolysis or for producing products of phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. Acridine orange is used in epifluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. The ability to penetrate the cell membranes of acidic organelles and cationic properties of acridine orange allows the dye to differentiate between various types of cells (i.e., bacterial cells and white blood cells). The shift in maximum excitation and emission wavelengths provides a foundation to predict the wavelength at which the cells will stain.

吖啶橙呈橙色,粉末状。溶于水、乙醇。溶液为橙黄色带绿色荧光。pH值为8.4～10.4则无荧光。能镶嵌于两个相邻的碱基对之间,使部分双螺旋DNA松开,该两个碱基对的距离拉大一倍。这样的DNA复制过程中,会使DNA链增加或缺失一个碱基,造成移码突变。


Background and derivation.

Bloch's theorem and wavevectors.

According to quantum mechanics (in the single-electron approximation), the quasi-free electrons in any solid are characterized by wavefunctions which are eigenstates of the following stationary Schrödinger equation: where p is the quantum-mechanical momentum operator, "V" is the potential, and "m" is the vacuum mass of the electron. (This equation neglects the spin–orbit effect; see below.)  In a crystalline solid, "V" is a periodic function, with the same periodicity as the crystal lattice. Bloch's theorem proves that the solutions to this differential equation can be written as follows: where k is a vector (called the "wavevector"), "n" is a discrete index (called the "band index"), and "u" is a function with the same periodicity as the crystal lattice.  For any given "n", the associated states are called a band. In each band, there will be a relation between the wavevector k and the energy of the state "E", called the band dispersion. Calculating this dispersion is one of the primary applications of "k"·"p" perturbation theory.

Perturbation theory.

The periodic function "u" satisfies the following Schrödinger-type equation (simply, a direct expansion of the Schrödinger equation with a Bloch-type wave function): where the Hamiltonian is Note that k is a vector consisting of three real numbers with dimensions of inverse length, while p is a vector of operators; to be explicit, In any case, we write this Hamiltonian as the sum of two terms: This expression is the basis for perturbation theory. The "unperturbed Hamiltonian" is "H", which in fact equals the exact Hamiltonian at k = 0 (i.e., at the gamma point). The "perturbation" is the term formula_7. The analysis that results is called "k·p perturbation theory", due to the term proportional to k·p. The result of this analysis is an expression for "E" and "u" in terms of the energies and wavefunctions at k = 0.  Note that the "perturbation" term formula_7 gets progressively smaller as k approaches zero. Therefore, k·p perturbation theory is most accurate for small values of k. However, if enough terms are included in the perturbative expansion, then the theory can in fact be reasonably accurate for any value of k in the entire Brillouin zone.

Expression for a nondegenerate band.

For a nondegenerate band (i.e., a band which has a different energy at k = 0 from any other band), with an extremum at k = 0, and with no spin–orbit coupling, the result of k"·"p perturbation theory is (to lowest nontrivial order):  Since k is a vector of real numbers (rather than a vector of more complicated linear operators), the matrix element in these expressions can be rewritten as: Therefore, one can calculate the energy at "any" k using only a "few" unknown parameters, namely "E" and formula_12. The latter are called "optical matrix elements", closely related to transition dipole moments. These parameters are typically inferred from experimental data.  In practice, the sum over "n" often includes only the nearest one or two bands, since these tend to be the most important (due to the denominator). However, for improved accuracy, especially at larger k, more bands must be included, as well as more terms in the perturbative expansion than the ones written above.

Effective mass.

Using the expression above for the energy dispersion relation, a simplified expression for the effective mass in the conduction band of a semiconductor can be found. To approximate the dispersion relation in the case of the conduction band, take the energy "E" as the minimum conduction band energy "E" and include in the summation only terms with energies near the valence band maximum, where the energy difference in the denominator is smallest. (These terms are the largest contributions to the summation.) This denominator is then approximated as the band gap "E", leading to an energy expression: which applies within about 15% or better to most group-IV, III-V and II-VI semiconductors.  In contrast to this simple approximation, in the case of valence band energy the "spin–orbit" interaction must be introduced (see below) and many more bands must be individually considered. The calculation is provided in Yu and Cardona. In the valence band the mobile carriers are "holes". One finds there are two types of hole, named "heavy" and "light", with anisotropic masses.

k·p model with spin–orbit interaction.

Including the spin–orbit interaction, the Schrödinger equation for "u" is: where where formula_16 is a vector consisting of the three Pauli matrices. This Hamiltonian can be subjected to the same sort of perturbation-theory analysis as above.

Calculation in degenerate case.

For degenerate or nearly degenerate bands, in particular the valence bands in certain materials such as gallium arsenide, the equations can be analyzed by the methods of degenerate perturbation theory. Models of this type include the "Luttinger–Kohn model" (a.k.a. "Kohn–Luttinger model"), and the "Kane model".  Generally, an effective Hamiltonian formula_17 is introduced, and to the first order, its matrix elements can be expressed as  After solving it, the wave functions and energy bands are obtained.

See also.

Electronic band structure Band properties  Wavefunctions Fundamental theory

In solid-state physics, the k·p perturbation theory is an approximated semi-empirical approach for calculating the band structure (particularly effective mass) and optical properties of crystalline solids. It is pronounced "k dot p", and is also called the "k·p method". This theory has been applied specifically in the framework of the Luttinger–Kohn model (after Joaquin Mazdak Luttinger and Walter Kohn), and of the Kane model (after Evan O. Kane).

在固体物理中,K·p微扰论或K·p微扰法,是一种用来计算固体能带结构和光学性质的微扰方法,因微扰哈密顿算符中出现了正比于简约波矢(k)与动量算符(p)内积的项而得名。通过这种方法可以估计半导体中的电子在导带底(或空穴在价带顶)的有效质量。


Background.

In 1879 Georges Seurat enlisted as a soldier in the French army and was back home by 1880. Later, he ran a small painter's studio in Paris, and in 1883 showed his work publicly for the first time. The following year, Seurat began to work on "La Grande Jatte" and exhibited the painting in the spring of 1886 with the Impressionists. With "La Grande Jatte", Seurat was immediately acknowledged as the leader of a new and rebellious form of Impressionism called Neo-Impressionism.  Seurat painted "A Sunday Afternoon" between May 1884 and March 1885, and from October 1885 to May 1886, focusing meticulously on the landscape of the park. He reworked the original and completed numerous preliminary drawings and oil sketches. He sat in the park, creating numerous sketches of the various figures in order to perfect their form. He concentrated on issues of colour, light, and form. The painting is approximately 2 by 3 meters (7 by 10 feet) in size.  Inspired by optical effects and perception inherent in the color theories of Michel Eugène Chevreul, Ogden Rood and others, Seurat adapted this scientific research to his painting. Seurat contrasted miniature dots or small brushstrokes of colors that when unified optically in the human eye were perceived as a single shade or hue. He believed that this form of painting, called Divisionism at the time (a term he preferred) but now known as Pointillism, would make the colors more brilliant and powerful than standard brushstrokes. The use of dots of almost uniform size came in the second year of his work on the painting, 1885–86. To make the experience of the painting even more vivid, he surrounded it with a frame of painted dots, which in turn he enclosed with a pure white, wooden frame, which is how the painting is exhibited today at the Art Institute of Chicago.  The Island of la Grande Jatte is located at the very gates of Paris, lying in the Seine between Neuilly and Levallois-Perret, a short distance from where La Défense business district currently stands. Although for many years it was an industrial site, it is today the site of a public garden and a housing development. When Seurat began the painting in 1884, the island was a bucolic retreat far from the urban center.  The painting was first exhibited at the eighth (and last) Impressionist exhibition in May 1886, then in August 1886, dominating the second Salon of the Société des Artistes Indépendants, of which Seurat had been a founder in 1884. Seurat was extremely disciplined, always serious, and private to the point of secretiveness—for the most part, steering his own steady course. As a painter, he wanted to make a difference in the history of art and with "La Grand Jatte", succeeded.

Interpretation.

Seurat's painting was a mirror impression of his own painting, "Bathers at Asnières", completed shortly before, in 1884. Whereas the bathers in that earlier painting are doused in light, almost every figure on "La Grande Jatte" appears to be cast in shadow, either under trees or an umbrella, or from another person. For Parisians, Sunday was the day to escape the heat of the city and head for the shade of the trees and the cool breezes that came off the river. And at first glance, the viewer sees many different people relaxing in a park by the river. On the right, a fashionable couple, the woman with the sunshade and the man in his top hat, are on a stroll. On the left, another woman who is also well dressed extends her fishing pole over the water. There is a small man with the black hat and thin cane looking at the river, and a white dog with a brown head, a woman knitting, a man playing a horn, two soldiers standing at attention as the musician plays, and a woman hunched under an orange umbrella. Seurat also painted a man with a pipe, a woman under a parasol in a boat filled with rowers, and a couple admiring their infant child.  Some of the characters are doing curious things. The lady on the right side has a monkey on a leash. A lady on the left near the river bank is fishing. The area was known at the time as being a place to procure prostitutes among the bourgeoisie, a likely allusion of the otherwise odd "fishing" rod. In the painting's center stands a little girl dressed in white (who is not in a shadow), who stares directly at the viewer of the painting. This may be interpreted as someone who is silently questioning the audience: "What will become of these people and their class?" Seurat paints their prospects bleakly, cloaked as they are in shadow and suspicion of sin.  In the 1950s, historian and Marxist philosopher Ernst Bloch drew social and political significance from Seurat's "La Grande Jatte". The historian's focal point was Seurat's mechanical use of the figures and what their static nature said about French society at the time. Afterward, the work received heavy criticism by many that centered on the artist's mathematical and robotic interpretation of modernity in Paris.  According to historian of Modernism William R. Everdell:  The border of the painting is, unusually, in inverted color, as if the world around them is also slowly inverting from the way of life they have known. Seen in this context, the boy who bathes on the other side of the river bank at Asnières appears to be calling out to them, as if to say, "We are the future. Come and join us".

Painting materials.

Seurat painted the "La Grande Jatte" in three distinct stages. In the first stage, which was started in 1884, Seurat mixed his paints from several individual pigments and was still using dull earth pigments such as ochre or burnt sienna. In the second stage, during 1885 and 1886, Seurat dispensed with the earth pigments and also limited the number of individual pigments in his paints. This change in Seurat's palette was due to his application of the advanced color theories of his time. His intention was to paint small dots or strokes of pure color that would then mix on the retina of the beholder to achieve the desired color impression instead of the usual practice of mixing individual pigments.  Seurat's palette consisted of the usual pigments of his time such as cobalt blue, emerald green and vermilion. Additionally, Seurat used then new pigment zinc yellow (zinc chromate), predominantly for yellow highlights in the sunlit grass in the middle of the painting but also in mixtures with orange and blue pigments. In the century and more since the painting's completion, the zinc yellow has darkened to brown—a color degeneration that was already showing in the painting in Seurat's lifetime. The discoloration of the originally bright yellow zinc yellow (zinc chromate) to brownish color is due to the chemical reaction of the chromate ions to orange-colored dichromate ions. In the third stage during 1888–89 Seurat added the colored borders to his composition.  The results of investigation into the discoloration of this painting have been combined with further research into natural aging of paints to digitally rejuvenate the painting.

Acquisition by the Art Institute of Chicago.

In 1923, Frederic Bartlett was appointed trustee of the Art Institute of Chicago. He and his second wife, Helen Birch Bartlett, loaned their collection of French Post-Impressionist and Modernist art to the museum. It was Mrs. Bartlett who had an interest in French and avant-garde artists and influenced her husband's collecting tastes. "Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte" was purchased on the advice of the Art Institute of Chicago's curatorial staff in 1924.  In conceptual artist Don Celender's 1974–75 book "Observation and Scholarship Examination for Art Historians, Museum Directors, Artists, Dealers and Collectors", it is claimed that the institute paid $24,000 for the work (over $354,000 in 2018 dollars).  In 1958, the painting was loaned out for the only time: to the Museum of Modern Art in New York. On 15 April 1958, a fire there, which killed one person on the second floor of the museum, forced the evacuation of the painting, which had been on a floor above the fire in the Whitney Museum, which adjoined MoMA at the time.

In popular culture.

The May 1976 issue of "Playboy" magazine featured Nancy Cameron—Playmate of the Month in January 1974—on its cover, superimposed on the painting in similar style. The often hidden bunny logo was disguised as one of the millions of dots.  The painting and the life of its artist were the basis for the 1984 Broadway musical "Sunday in the Park with George" by Stephen Sondheim and James Lapine. Subsequently, the painting is sometimes referred to by the misnomer ""Sunday in the Park"".  The painting is prominently featured in the 1986 comedy film "Ferris Bueller's Day Off". Such use is parodied, among others, in "", "Family Guy", and "Muppet Babies".  In the "Simpsons" episode "Mom and Pop Art" (10x19), Barney Gumble offers to pay for a beer with a handmade reproduction of the painting.  In Topiary Park (formerly Old Deaf School Park) in Columbus, Ohio, sculptor James T. Mason re-created the painting in topiary form; the installation was completed in 1989.  The painting was the inspiration for a commemorative poster printed for the 1993 Detroit Belle Isle Grand Prix, with racing cars and the Detroit skyline added.  In 2011, the cast of the US version of "The Office" re-created the painting for a poster to promote the show's seventh-season finale.  The cover photo of the June 2014 edition of "San Francisco" magazine, "The Oakland Issue: Special Edition", features a scene on the shore of Lake Merritt that re-creates the poses of the figures in Seurat's painting.

A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte () painted from 1884 to 1886, is Georges Seurat's most famous work. It is a leading example of pointillist technique, executed on a large canvas. Seurat's composition includes a number of Parisians at a park on the banks of the River Seine.

《大碗岛的星期天下午》(或译《大杰特岛的星期日下午》;)是法国画家乔治·修拉最著名的代表作之一,同时也是一幅典型的点彩画派作品。


History.

Foundation.

While the earliest date listed for the founding to be June 25, 1998, the group registered the party on June 28, 1998 when US President Bill Clinton was visiting China. Wang Youcai, one of the main activists during the 1989 Tiananmen protest along with Wang Donghai and Lin Hui went to the Civil Public Affair Hall of Hangzhou in Zhejiang Province to officially register this party. The registration was declined.

Communist Party response.

The next day on June 29, 1998, Wang was arrested by the state police at his home. He was charged with creating opposition against the Chinese government. His trial began on December 18, and as he had no lawyer defense, his trial lasted only a few hours. He was quickly sentenced on December 21, 1998 to 11 years of imprisonment and three years of deprivation of political rights for subversion.  On the same day, Xu Wenli, a 55-year-old member was also sentenced to 13 years for overthrowing the Communist party.  On December 22, 1998, Qin Yongmin was sentenced to 12 years in prison for harming state securities.  Li Peng, Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress at the time proclaimed, "If a group is designed to negate the leadership of the Communist Party, then it will not be allowed to exist."  The Communist party declared the DPC an "illegal organization", followed by a crackdown in Beijing in 1998. After the sentencing on December 23, 1998, the Supreme People's Court then declared that, "anyone who knowingly publishes, prints, copies, or distributes material containing incitement to overthrow state power and the socialist system or split the country" could be tried for crimes. Such charges could result in life sentences for film directors, computer software developers, writers and artists, and media and publishing personnel, all of whom are subject to the new directive.

Crackdown on other members.

There were hundreds of DPC members who were detained, arrested, and sentenced to prison. Among them:  The above are some of the members of the party. Internet dissident He Depu was also arrested and detained in a correctional facility.

Present.

Later Xu Wenli and Wang Youcai were exiled to the US on December 24, 2002 and March 4, 2004. On August 13, 2006, the first congress of the DPC was convened in the Sheraton Hotel of Flushing, Queens, New York in the United States. Ni Yu Xian, the leader of China's democracy movement, one of the founders of DPC and the China Freedom & Democracy Party, presided over the congress. A total of 111 delegates from all the provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions of China attended the Congress. The congress passed the Statutes of Democracy Party of China, Party Program, and some important resolutions.  Democracy Party of China Coordinative Service Platform was founded by the members of Democracy Party of China members who are in China, overseas students, and exiled Democracy Party of China members. The initiative group members are Wang Youcai, Lin Hui, Chen Shuqing, Chen Zhiwei, Gao Yeju, Lv Gengsong, Xu Guang, Shan Chenfeng, along with many other members.  In January 2008, party member Zheng Cunzhu established the Local Committee of Democracy Party of China. Zheng Cunzhu is a former student leader during 1989's pre-democratic movements in Anhui province, and he published an open letter to the leaders of China to advocate the restarting of political reform.

Party summary.

The DPC suggests the ideas of "Prosperity, Fairness, Democracy" (富裕 公平 民主) and "Freedom, Rule-of-Law, Human rights" (自由 法制 人权/人權). The DPC has four features:

The Democracy Party of China (DPC; ) is a political party that started in the People's Republic of China, and was banned by the Communist Party of China (CPC). The history of the DPC and its foundation date is unclear because it has many historical paths under different groups of founders. It is generally recognized to have assembled in 1998 by democracy activists and former student leaders from the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests according to western sources.

中国民主党是中华人民共和国民主运动中第一个公开宣布成立政党的组织,成立于1998年6月25日,在中华人民共和国民政部申请注册未获批准。


梅斯罗普·马什托茨写本研究所

Name.

The word մատենադարան, "matenadaran" is a compound composed of the words մատեան ("matean", "book" or "parchment") and դարան ("daran", "repository"). According to Hrachia Acharian both words are of Middle Persian (Pahlavi) origin. Though it is sometimes translated as "scriptorium" in English, a more accurate translation is "library of manuscripts." The Matenadaran is often called a library. In medieval Armenia, the term "matenadaran" was used in the sense of a library as all books were manuscripts.  Currently, there are several manuscript repositories around the world known as "matenadaran" such as the ones at the Mekhitarist monastery in San Lazzaro, Venice and the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople, and the Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Manuscript Depository at the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin. To distinguish it from others, it is often referred to as the Matenadaran of Yerevan, the Yerevan Matenadaran or Mashtots Matenadaran.

History.

Historic predecessors.

The earliest mention of a manuscript repository in Armenia was recorded in the writings of the fifth century historian Ghazar Parpetsi, who noted the existence of such a repository at the Etchmiadzin catholicosate in Vagharshapat, where Greek and Armenian language texts were kept. Sources remain silent on the fate of the Etchmiadzin "matenadaran" until the 15th century, when the catholicosate returned from Sis in Cilicia. Manuscript repositories existed at major monasteries in medieval Armenia, such as at Haghpat (), Sanahin, Saghmosavank, Tatev, Geghard, Kecharis, Hromkla, and Bardzraberd. In some cases, monastic complexes have separate structures as manuscript repositories. Sometimes manuscripts would be transferred to caves to avoid destruction by foreign invaders. Thousands of manuscripts in Armenia were destroyed over the course of the tenth to fifteenth centuries during the Turkic and Mongol invasions. According to the medieval Armenian historian Stepanos Orbelian, the Seljuk Turks were responsible for the burning of over 10,000 Armenian manuscripts in Baghaberd in 1170.

Modern Matenadaran.

As a result of Armenia being a constant battleground between two major powers, the Matenadaran in Etchmiadzin was pillaged several times, the last of which took place in 1804, during the Russo-Persian War. Eastern Armenia's annexation by the Russian Empire in the early 19th century provided a more stable climate for the preservation of the remaining manuscripts. Whereas in 1828 the curators of the Matenadaran catalogued a collection of only 1,809 manuscripts, in 1863 the collection had increased to 2,340 manuscripts, and in 1892 to 3,338 manuscripts. Prior to World War I, in 1914, the collected had reached 4,660 manuscripts. The collection was sent to Moscow for safekeeping since Etchmiadzin was close to the war zone.  Thousands of Armenian manuscripts were destroyed during the genocide in the Ottoman Empire.  On December 17, 1920, just two weeks after the demise of the First Republic of Armenia and Sovietization of Armenia, the new Bolshevik government of Armenia issued a decree nationalizing all cultural and educational institutions in Armenia. The issue, signed by Minister of Education Ashot Hovhannisyan, declared the manuscript repository of Etchmiadzin the "property of the working peoples of Armenia." It was put under the supervision of, an art historian and the newly appointed commissar of all cultural and educational institutions of Etchmiadzin. In March 1922 the manuscripts from Etchmiadzin that had been sent to Moscow during World War I were ordered to be returned to Armenia by Alexander Miasnikian. 1,730 manuscripts were added to the original 4,660 manuscripts held at Etchmiadzin once they returned to Armenia.  In 1939 the entire collection of manuscripts of Etchmiadzin were transferred to the State Public Library in Yerevan (what later became the National Library of Armenia) by the decision of the Soviet Armenian government. In the same year there were 9,382 cataloged manuscripts at the Matenadaran. On March 3, 1959, the Council of Ministers of Soviet Armenian officially established the Matenadaran as an "institute of scientific research with special departments of scientific preservation, study, translation and publication of manuscripts" in a new building. It was named after Mesrop Mashtots, the creator of the Armenian alphabet, in 1962.

Architecture.

Old building.

The Matenadaran is located at the foot of a small hill on the northern edge of Mashtots Avenue, the widest road in central Yerevan. The building has been variously described by observers as monumental, imposing, and stern. Herbert Lottman called it "solemn and solid-looking." Soviet travel writer Nikolai Mikhailov noted that "In its dimensions and architecture it is a palace." The building is listed as a national monument by the government of Armenia.  It was built in gray basalt from 1945 to 1958, however, construction was put on hold from 1947 to 1953 due to unavailability of skilled laborers. Designed by Yerevan's chief architect Mark Grigorian, it is influenced by medieval Armenian architecture. According to Murad Hasratyan, the façade of the Matenadaran is influenced by the 11th century Holy Apostles (Arakelots) church of Ani, the grand capital of Bagratid Armenia. However, Grigorian noted that the facade design (an entrance in the middle with two decorative niches on the two sides) has ancient roots, appearing at the ancient Egyptian Temple of Edfu, and then at the Holy Apostles church and the of Ani. Grigorian designed the entrance hall in line with the "gavit" (narthex) of Sanahin Monastery. The building was renovated in 2012.  A 1960 mural by (Vanik Khachatrian) depicting the Battle of Avarayr is located in the entrance hall. Three murals created by Khachatur in 1959 that depict three periods of Armenian history: Urartu, Hellenism, and the Middle Ages—surround the steps leading to the main exhibition hall. A large ivory medallion with a diameter of 2 meters depicting the portrait of Vladimir Lenin by Sergey Merkurov was originally erected in the lecture hall of the Matenadaran. The building has a total floor area of. In the 1970s American archivist Patricia Kennedy Grimsted noted that Matenadaran is one of the few places in Soviet Armenia with air conditioning.  From 1963 to 1967, the statues of historical Armenian scholars, Toros Roslin, Grigor Tatevatsi, Anania Shirakatsi, Movses Khorenatsi, Mkhitar Gosh and Frik, were erected on the left and right wings of the building's exterior. They each represent one field: manuscript illumination, philosophy, cosmology, history, jurisprudence, and poetry, respectively. The statues of Mesrop Mashtots and his disciple Koryun (1962) are located below the terrace where the main building stands. Since the 1970s an open-air exhibition is located near the entrance of the building. On display there are "khachkars" from the 13th-17th centuries, a tombstone from the Noratus cemetery, a "vishap" dated 2nd-1st millennia BC, a door from Teishebaini (Karmir Blur), a Urartian archaeological site.

New building.

The new building of the Matenadaran was designed by Arthur Meschian, an architect better known as a musician, to house the increasing number of manuscripts. A five-story building, it is three times larger than the old one. It is equipped with a high-tech laboratory, where manuscripts are preserved, restored and digitized. Meschian noted that he designed the new building in a way to not compete with the old one, but instead be a continuation of it. It was initially planned to be constructed in the late 1980s, but was not realized because of the 1988 Armenian earthquake, the Karabakh War and the economic crisis that ensued. Financed by Moscow-based Armenian businessman Sergei Hambartsumian (US$10 million) and Maxim Hakobian, director of the Zangezur Copper and Molybdenum Combine (US$4 million), it was built from May 2009 to September 2011. It was inaugurated on September 20, 2011 on the eve of celebrations of the 20th anniversary of Armenia's independence in attendance of President Serzh Sargsyan, Catholicoi Karekin II of Etchmiadzin and Aram I of Cilicia, Artsakh President Bako Sahakyan, and others.

Collection.

Currently, the Matenadaran contains a total of some 23,000 manuscripts and scrolls—including fragments. It is, by far, the single largest collection of Armenian manuscripts in the world. Furthermore, over 500,000 documents such as imperial and decrees of catholicoi, various documents related to Armenian studies, and archival periodicals. The manuscripts cover a wide array of subjects: religious and theological works (Gospels, Bibles, lectionaries, psalters, hymnals, homilies, and liturgical books), texts on history, mathematics, geography, astronomy, cosmology, philosophy, jurisprudence, medicine, alchemy, astrology, music, grammar, rhetoric, philology, pedagogy, collections of poetry, literary texts, and translations from Greek and Syriac. The writings of classical and medieval historians Movses Khorenatsi, Yeghishe and Koryun are preserved here, as are the legal, philosophical and theological writings of other notable Armenian figures. The preserved writings of Grigor Narekatsi and Nerses Shnorhali at the Matenadaran form the cornerstone of medieval Armenian literature.  The manuscripts previously held at Etchmiadzin constitute the core of the Matenadaran collection. The rest came from the Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages in Moscow, the Nersisian Seminary and the Armenian Ethnographic Society, both in Tbilisi, and the Yerevan Museum of Literature. When it was established as a distinct institution in 1959, the Matenadaran had around 10,000 Armenian manuscripts and 4,000 fragments (partial volumes or isolated pages) dating as early as the 5th century. At the time there were some one thousand manuscripts in other languages, such as Persian, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Georgian, Russian, Hebrew, Hindi, Tamil, Latin, Ethiopian (Amharic), and other languages. Some originals, written in other languages, have been saved only in their Armenian translations.  There has been steady growth in the number of manuscripts preserved at the Matenadaran, mostly from gifts from private individuals from the Armenian diaspora. In 1972 there were already 12,960 Armenian manuscripts and nearly two thousand manuscripts in other languages. Among the major donors of the Matenadaran include Harutiun Hazarian from New York (397 manuscripts), Varouzhan Salatian from Damascus (150 manuscripts), Rafael Markossian from Paris (37 manuscripts). Rouben Galichian from London has donated old maps. In 1969 Tachat Markossian, 95, from the village of Gharghan, near Isfahan, in central Iran, donated a 1069 manuscript to the Matenadaran. Written at Narekavank monastery, it is a copy of a Gospel written by Mashtots.

Notable manuscripts.

Among the most significant manuscripts of the Matenadaran are the (9th century), the Echmiadzin Gospel (10th century) and the Mughni Gospel (11th century). The first, so called because it was brought from the Lazarian Institute, is from 887 and is one of the Matenadaran's oldest complete volumes. The Echmiadzin Gospel, dated 989, has a 6th-century, probably Byzantine, carved ivory cover. The Cilician illuminated manuscripts by Toros Roslin (13th century) and Sargis Pitsak (14th century), two prominent masters, are also held with high esteem.  Three manuscripts are allowed to leave the Matenadaran on a regular basis. The first is the Vehamor Gospel, donated to the Matenadaran by Catholicos Vazgen I in 1975. It probably dates to the 7th century and is, thus, the oldest complete extant Armenian manuscript. The name refers to the mother of the Catholicos ("vehamayr"), to whose memory Vazgen I dedicated the manuscript. Since Levon Ter-Petrosyan in 1991, all president of Armenia have given their oath on this book. The other two, the Shurishkani Gospel (1498, Vaspurakan) and the Shukhonts' Gospel (1669) are annually taken to the churches of Mughni and Oshakan and venerated by those gathered there.

Other items.

Besides manuscripts, the Matenadaran holds a copy of the "Urbatagirk", the first published Armenian book (1512, Venice) and all issues of the first Armenian magazine "Azdarar" ("Herald"), published in Madras, India from 1794 to 1796. The first map printed in Armenian—in Amsterdam in 1695—is also kept at the Matenadaran.

Publications.

Catalogs.

The first complete catalog of the Matenadaran manuscripts («Ցուցակ ձեռագրաց») were published in two volumes in 1965 and 1970 with a supplementary volume in 2007. These three volumes listed 11,100 manuscripts kept at the Matenadaran with short descriptions. Since 1984, a more detail catalog has been published, titled "The Main List of Armenian Manuscripts" («Մայր ցուցակ հայերէն ձեռագրաց»). As of 2019, ten volumes have been published.

"Banber Matenadarani".

The Matenadaran publishes the scholarly journal "Banber Matenadarani" (Բանբեր Մատենադարանի, "Herald of the Matenadaran") since 1941. The articles are usually devoted to the manuscripts and editions of texts contained in the collection. The journal has been praised for its high quality of scholarship.

Significance and recognition.

According to Nora Dudwick, in the Soviet period, the Matenadaran "symbolized the central values of Armenian culture [and signified] to Armenians the high level of culture and learning their ancestors achieved as early as the fifth century." Anthropologist Levon Abrahamian noted that the secular Matenadaran continued the traditions of the monastery museums within a state atheistic state. Thomas de Waal notes that alongside several other institutions (e.g. the Opera, National Gallery) the Matenadaran was central in the Soviet efforts to make Yerevan a "repository of Armenian myths and hopes." Karen Demirchyan, the Soviet Armenian leader, wrote in a 1984 book that "For the first time there was no need to save Armenian books and manuscripts from destruction by endless wanderings, for they are preserved in the temple of priceless creations of the people's mind and talent, the Yerevan Matenadaran." The Communist Party's official newspaper, "Pravda", wrote in 1989 that no educated Soviet citizen can "imagine spiritual life without the capital's Tretyakov Gallery, the Leningrad Hermitage, and the Yerevan Matenadaran."  American diplomat John Brady Kiesling described the Matenadaran as a "world-class museum [...] primarily for its status as the eternal (one hopes) repository for Armenia's medieval written culture." The Matenadaran collection was inscribed by the UNESCO into the Memory of the World Register in 1997. It effectively recognized the Matenadaran as a valuable collection of international significance.  The Matenadaran has become one of the landmarks and major touristic attractions of Yerevan since its establishment. In 2016 it received some 89,000 visitors, and some 112,000 visitors in 2018. Tourists come from Russia, Germany, Italy, Spain, France, Poland, and elsewhere. Many foreign dignitaries have visited the Matenadaran, such as Indira Gandhi, Leonid Brezhnev, Charles, Prince of Wales, Vladimir Putin, Sirindhorn, Boris Tadić, Sergio Mattarella, José Manuel Barroso, Bronisław Komorowski, Heinz Fischer, Valdis Zatlers, Rumen Radev, and others.

The Matenadaran (), officially the Mesrop Mashtots Institute of Ancient Manuscripts, is a museum, repository of manuscripts, and a research institute in Yerevan, Armenia. It is the world's largest repository of Armenian manuscripts.

梅斯罗普·马什托茨写本研究所(,"Mesrop Mashtots'i anvan hin dzeragreri institut"),也称亚美尼亚国立写本馆、马捷纳达兰()研究所,位于亚美尼亚首都埃里温的一所以亚美尼亚文字创造者梅斯罗普·马什托茨名字命名的古代写本储存库、 科学研究所及博物馆。它是世界上拥有最丰富的中世纪手抄本和书籍的储存库之一,其收藏神学、哲学、史学、医学、文学和宇宙学等多个领域的亚美尼亚语及多种其他语言古籍。


Composition.

One night in 1967, the phrase "words are flowing out like endless rain into a paper cup" came to Lennon after hearing his then-wife Cynthia, according to Lennon, "going on and on about something". Later, after "she'd gone to sleep – and I kept hearing these words over and over, flowing like an endless stream", Lennon went downstairs and turned it into a song. He began to write the rest of the lyrics and when he was done, he went to bed and forgot about them.  The flavour of the song was heavily influenced by Lennon's and the Beatles' interest in Transcendental Meditation in late 1967 – early 1968, when the song was composed. Based on this, he added the mantra "Jai guru deva om" (Sanskrit: जय गुरुदेव ॐ) to the piece, which became the link to the chorus. The Sanskrit phrase is a sentence fragment whose words could have many meanings. Literally it approximates as "glory to the shining remover of darkness" and can be paraphrased as "Victory to God divine", "Hail to the divine guru", or the phrase commonly invoked by the late Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in referring to his spiritual teacher, "All glory to Guru Dev".  The song's lyrical structure is straightforward: three repetitions of a unit consisting of a verse, the line "Jai guru deva om" and the line "Nothing's gonna change my world" sung four times. The lyrics are highly image-based, with abstract concepts reified with phrases like thoughts "meandering", words "slithering", and undying love "shining". The title phrase "across the universe" appears at intervals to finish lines, although it never cadences, always appearing as a rising figure, melodically unresolved. It finishes on the leading note; to the Western musical ear, the next musical note would be the tonic and would therefore sound complete.  In his 1970 interview with "Rolling Stone", Lennon referred to the song as perhaps the best, most poetic lyric he ever wrote: "It's one of the best lyrics I've written. In fact, it could be the best. It's good poetry, or whatever you call it, without chewin' it. See, the ones I like are the ones that stand as words, without melody. They don't have to have any melody, like a poem, you can read them."

Musical structure.

On a standard-tuned guitar (EADGBE) the song is played in the key of D; however, the recording was slowed electronically, resulting in a lower C# tuning to the ear. The verse beginning ""Words" are flowing out" (I (D) chord) is notable for a prolonged vi (Bm)–iii (F#m) to ii7 (Em7) minor drop to the dominant chord V7 (A7) on "across the universe" in the 4th bar. On the repeat of this chord sequence a turn following the ii7 (Em7) through a iv minor (Gm) brings the verse to a close before moving on directly to the tonic on the "Jai Guru Deva Om" refrain. The vi–ii minor drop leading to V had been used earlier in "I Will" (on "how long I've loved you") and George Harrison utilised a shorter vi–iii minor alternation to delay getting back to the dominant (V) in "I Need You". The verse beginning "Words are flowing out like endless rain..." is also notable for the suitably breathless phrasing and almost constant 8th-note rhythm (initially four D melody notes, then C#, B, A, B).

Recording and version history.

February 1968 recordings.

In February 1968, the Beatles convened at the EMI Abbey Road studios to record a single for release during their absence on their forthcoming trip to India. Paul McCartney had written "Lady Madonna", and Lennon had "Across the Universe". Both tracks were recorded along with Lennon's "Hey Bulldog" and the vocal track for Harrison's "The Inner Light" between 3 and 11 February.  The basic track was taped on 4 February. Along with acoustic guitar, percussion and tambura, it featured an overdubbed sitar introduction by Harrison. Two teenage fans, Lizzie Bravo and Gayleen Pease, so-called Apple scruffs, were invited in off the street to provide backup vocals.  Lennon was still not satisfied with the feel of the track, and several sound effects were taped, including 15 seconds of humming and a guitar and a harp-like sound, both to be played backwards; however, none of these were used on the released version. The track was mixed to mono and put aside as the group had decided to release "Lady Madonna" and "The Inner Light" as the single. On their return from India, the group set about recording the many songs they had written there, and "Across the Universe" remained on the shelf. In the autumn of 1968, the Beatles seriously considered releasing an EP including most of the songs for the "Yellow Submarine" album and "Across the Universe", and went as far as having the EP mastered.

World Wildlife Fund version.

During the February 1968 recording sessions, Spike Milligan dropped into the studio and, on hearing the song, suggested the track would be ideal for release on a charity album he was organising for the World Wildlife Fund. At some point in 1968, the Beatles agreed to this proposal. In January 1969, the best mono mix was remixed for the charity album. In keeping with the "wildlife" theme of the album, sound effects of birds were added to the beginning and end. The original (mono) mix from February 1968 is 3:37 in length. After the effects were added, the track was speeded up so that even with 20 seconds of effects, it is only 3:49. Speeding up the recording also raised the key to E-flat. By October 1969, it was decided that the song needed to be remixed into stereo. This was done by Geoff Emerick immediately prior to the banding of the album. "Across the Universe" was first released in this version on the Regal Starline SRS 5013 album "No One's Gonna Change Our World" in December 1969.  This version was issued, in its stereo form, on four Beatles compilation albums: the British version of "Rarities", the different American version of "Rarities", "The Beatles Ballads", and the second disc of the two-CD "Past Masters" album, released in 1988. The January 1969 mono mix, which had been considered for an aborted "Yellow Submarine" EP, was finally released on "Mono Masters", part of "The Beatles in Mono" box set, in 2009.

"Let It Be" version.

The Beatles took the song up again during the "Get Back"/"Let It Be" rehearsal sessions of January 1969; footage of Lennon playing the song appeared in the "Let It Be" movie. Bootleg recordings from the sessions include numerous full group performances of the song, usually with Lennon–McCartney harmonies on the chorus. To ensure the album tied in with the film, it was decided that the song must be included on what by January 1970 had become the "Let It Be" album. Also, Lennon's contributions to the sessions were sparse, and this unreleased piece was seen as a way to fill the gap.  Although the song was extensively rehearsed on the Twickenham Studios soundstage, the only recordings were mono transcriptions for use in the film soundtrack. No multitrack recordings were made after the group's move to Apple Studios. Thus in early January 1970 Glyn Johns remixed the February 1968 recording. The new mix omitted the teenage girls' vocals and the bird sound effects of the World Wildlife Fund version. As neither of the Glyn Johns "Get Back" albums were officially released, the version most are familiar with came from Phil Spector, who in late March and early April 1970 remixed the February 1968 recording yet again and added orchestral and choral overdubs. Spector also slowed the track to 3:47, close to its original duration. According to Lennon, "Spector took the tape and did a damn good job with it".

Other versions.

A previously unreleased February 1968 alternate take of the song (recorded before the master), without heavy production, appeared on "Anthology 2" in 1996. This is often referred to as the "psychedelic" recording because of the strong Indian sitar and tambura sound, and illustrates the band's original uncertainty over the best treatment for the song.  The February 1968 master was remixed again for inclusion on "Let It Be... Naked" in 2003, at the correct speed but stripped of most of the instrumentation and digitally processed to correct tuning issues.  In 2018, another take, Take 6 was released on "The Beatles (the White Album)" 50th anniversary release. This version is a bit more sparse than the "Let It Be... Naked" version but clocks in at 15 seconds longer.

Critical reception and legacy.

Music critic Richie Unterberger of AllMusic said the song was "one of the group's most delicate and cosmic ballads" and "one of the highlights of the "Let It Be" album". Music critic Ian MacDonald was critical of the song, calling it a "plaintively babyish incantation" and saying "its vague pretensions and listless melody are rather too obviously the products of acid grandiosity rendered gentle by sheer exhaustion".  Lennon himself was unhappy with the song as it was recorded. In his 1980 "Playboy" interview, Lennon says that the Beatles "didn't make a good record of it" and says of the "Let It Be" version that "the guitars are out of tune and I'm singing out of tune... and nobody's supporting me or helping me with it and the song was never done properly". He further accused McCartney of ruining the song:  On 4 February 2008, at 00:00 UTC, NASA transmitted the Interstellar Message "Across the Universe" in the direction of the star Polaris, 431 light years from Earth. The transmission was made using a 70m antenna in the Deep Space Network's Madrid Deep Space Communication Complex, located outside of Madrid, Spain. It was done with an "X band" transmitter, radiating into the antenna at 18 kW. This was done to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the song's recording, the 45th anniversary of the Deep Space Network (DSN), and the 50th anniversary of NASA. The idea was hatched by Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn, who encouraged all Beatles fans to play the track as it was beamed to the distant star. The event marked the first time a song had ever been intentionally transmitted into deep space, and was approved by McCartney, Yoko Ono, and Apple Corps.

Personnel.

"No One's Gonna Change Our World" / "Past Masters" version:  "Let It Be" version:  "Let It Be... Naked" version:  "Anthology 2" version:  "White Album" Anniversary Edition version:  Production  Elements of the performance recorded on 8 February 1968 were replaced by an orchestra and choir recorded on 1 April 1970.

Cover versions.

There have been several recordings of "Across the Universe" released by the Beatles as well as covers by other artists. Velvet Revolver featuring Stevie Wonder performed it during the 47th Grammy Awards. The musicians included Slash playing a 12-string Gibson Les Paul; along with Bono; Norah Jones; Alicia Keys; Tim McGraw; Steven Tyler; Brian Wilson; Billie Joe Armstrong; Alison Krauss on fiddle; and Stevie Wonder on lead vocals and harmonica. The performance was recorded as a tribute to the 2004 tsunami victims. It was released on 13 February 2005 and debuted at number 22 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart as a digital download.

"Across the Universe" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles. It was written by John Lennon and credited to Lennon–McCartney. The song first appeared on the 1969 various artists' charity compilation album "No One's Gonna Change Our World" and later, in a different form, on their 1970 album "Let It Be", the group's final released album.

《Across the Universe》(穿越苍穹)是一首英国摇滚乐队披头士乐队的歌曲。歌曲由约翰·列侬创作,但按惯例标记为列侬–麦卡特尼共同创作。 歌曲于1969年首次收录在群星慈善合辑《No One's Gonna Change Our World》中。随后在1970年,歌曲的另一个版本被收录在乐队最后一张发行的专辑《Let it Be》中。


Problems with blood transfusion.

The first person found to have the Bombay phenotype had a blood type that reacted to other blood types in a way never seen before. The serum contained antibodies that attacked all red blood cells of normal ABO phenotypes. The red blood cells appeared to lack all of the ABO blood group antigens and to have an additional antigen that was previously unknown.  Individuals with the rare Bombay phenotype (hh) do not express H antigen (also called substance H), the antigen which is present in blood group O. As a result, they cannot make A antigen (also called substance A) or B antigen (substance B) on their red blood cells, whatever alleles they may have of the A and B blood-group genes, because A antigen and B antigen are made from H antigen. For this reason people who have Bombay phenotype can donate red blood cells to any member of the ABO blood group system (unless some other blood factor gene, such as Rh, is incompatible), but they cannot receive blood from any member of the ABO blood group system (which always contains one or more of A, B or H antigens), but only from other people who have Bombay phenotype.  Receiving blood which contains an antigen which has never been in the patient's own blood causes an immune reaction due to the immune system of a hypothetical receiver producing immunoglobulins not only against antigen A and B, but also against H antigen. The most common immunoglobulins synthesized are IgM and IgG (and this seems to have a very important role in the low frequency of hemolytic disease of the newborn among non-Bombay offspring of Bombay mothers).  It is very important, in order to avoid any complications during a blood transfusion, to detect Bombay phenotype individuals, because the usual tests for ABO blood group system would show them as group O. Since Anti-H immunoglobulins can activate the complement cascade, it will lead to the lysis of red blood cells while they are still in the circulation, provoking an acute hemolytic transfusion reaction. This, of course, cannot be prevented unless the lab technologist that is involved is aware of the existence of the Bombay blood group and has the means to test for it.

Incidence.

This very rare phenotype is generally present in about 0.0004% (about 4 per million) of the human population, though in some places such as Mumbai (formerly Bombay) locals can have occurrences in as much as 0.01% (1 in 10,000) of inhabitants. Given that this condition is very rare, any person with this blood group who needs an urgent blood transfusion will probably be unable to get it, as no blood bank would have any in stock. Those anticipating the need for blood transfusion may bank blood for their own use, but of course this option is not available in cases of accidental injury. For example, by 2017 only one Colombian person was known to have this phenotype, and blood had to be imported from Brazil for a transfusion.

Biochemistry.

Biosynthesis of the H, A and B antigens involves a series of enzymes (glycosyl transferases) that transfer monosaccharides. The resulting antigens are oligosaccharide chains, which are attached to lipids and proteins that are anchored in the red blood cell membrane. The function of the H antigen, apart from being an intermediate substrate in the synthesis of ABO blood group antigens, is not known, although it may be involved in cell adhesion. People who lack the H antigen do not suffer from deleterious effects, and being H-deficient is only an issue if they need a blood transfusion, because they would need blood without the H antigen present on red blood cells.  The specificity of the H antigen is determined by the sequence of oligosaccharides. More specifically, the minimum requirement for H antigenicity is the terminal disaccharide fucose-galactose, where the fucose has an alpha(1-2)linkage. This antigen is produced by a specific fucosyl transferase (Galactoside 2-alpha-L-fucosyltransferase 2) that catalyzes the final step in the synthesis of the molecule. Depending upon a person's ABO blood type, the H antigen is converted into either the A antigen, B antigen, or both. If a person has group O blood, the H antigen remains unmodified. Therefore, the H antigen is present more in blood type O and less in blood type AB.  Two regions of the genome encode two enzymes with very similar substrate specificities: the H locus (FUT1) which encodes the Fucosyl transferase and the Se locus (FUT2) that instead indirectly encodes a soluble form of the H antigen, which is found in bodily secretions. Both genes are on chromosome 19 at q.13.3. - FUT1 and FUT2 are tightly linked, being only 35 kb apart. Because they are highly homologous, they are likely to have been the result of a gene duplication of a common gene ancestor.  The H locus contains four exons that span more than 8 kb of genomic DNA. Both the Bombay and para-Bombay phenotypes are the result of point mutations in the FUT1 gene. At least one functioning copy of FUT1 needs to be present (H/H or H/h) for the H antigen to be produced on red blood cells. If both copies of FUT1 are inactive (h/h), the Bombay phenotype results. The classical Bombay phenotype is caused by a Tyr316Ter mutation in the coding region of FUT1. The mutation introduces a stop codon, leading to a truncated enzyme that lacks 50 amino acids at the C-terminal end, rendering the enzyme inactive. In Caucasians, the Bombay phenotype may be caused by a number of mutations. Likewise, a number of mutations have been reported to underlie the para-Bombay phenotype. The Se locus contains the FUT2 gene, which is expressed in secretory glands. Individuals who are "secretors" (Se/Se or Se/se) contain at least one copy of a functioning enzyme. They produce a soluble form of H antigen that is found in saliva and other bodily fluids. "Non-secretors" (se/se) do not produce soluble H antigen. The enzyme encoded by FUT2 is also involved in the synthesis of antigens of the Lewis blood group.

Genetics.

Bombay phenotype occurs in individuals who have inherited two recessive alleles of the H gene (i.e.: their genotype is hh). These individuals do not produce the H carbohydrate that is the precursor to the A and B antigens, meaning that individuals may possess alleles for either or both of the A and B alleles without being able to express them. Because both parents must carry this recessive allele to transmit this blood type to their children, the condition mainly occurs in small closed-off communities where there is a good chance of both parents of a child either being of Bombay type, or being heterozygous for the h allele and so carrying the Bombay characteristic as recessive. Other examples may include noble families, which are inbred due to custom rather than local genetic variety.

Hemolytic disease of the newborn.

In theory, the maternal production of anti-H during pregnancy might cause hemolytic disease in a fetus who did not inherit the mother's Bombay phenotype. In practice, cases of HDN caused in this way have not been described. This may be possible due to the rarity of the Bombay phenotype but also because of the IgM produced by the immune system of the mother. Since IgMs are not transported across the microscopic placental blood vessels (like IgG are) they cannot reach the blood stream of the fetus to provoke the expected acute hemolytic reaction.

hh, or the Bombay blood group, is a rare blood type. This blood phenotype was first discovered in Bombay, now known as Mumbai, in India, by Dr. Y. M. Bhende in 1952. It is mostly found in Indian sub-continent (India, Bangladesh, Pakistan) and parts of Middle East such as Iran.

Hh血型系统或Hh抗原系统,又称孟买血型系统(英语:Hh/Bombay antigen system),是根据红血球表面是否存在H抗原而对血液分型的人类血型系统。Hh血型系统是人类最重要的血型系统——ABO系统的基础。


Occurrence.

Germane has been detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter.

Synthesis.

Germane is typically prepared by reduction of germanium compounds, notably germanium dioxide, with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride, potassium borohydride, lithium borohydride, lithium aluminium hydride, sodium aluminium hydride. The reaction with borohydrides is catalyzed by various acids and can be carried out in either aqueous or organic solvent. On laboratory scale, germane can be prepared by the reaction of Ge(IV) compounds with these hydride reagents. A typical synthesis involved the reaction of NaGeO with sodium borohydride.  Other methods for the synthesis of germane include electrochemical reduction and a plasma-based method. The electrochemical reduction method involves applying voltage to a germanium metal cathode immersed in an aqueous electrolyte solution and an anode counter-electrode composed of a metal such as molybdenum or cadmium. In this method, germane and hydrogen gases evolve from the cathode while the anode reacts to form solid molybdenum oxide or cadmium oxides. The plasma synthesis method involves bombarding germanium metal with hydrogen atoms (H) that are generated using a high frequency plasma source to produce germane and digermane.

Reactions.

Germane is weakly acidic. In liquid ammonia GeH is ionised forming NH and GeH. With alkali metals in liquid ammonia GeH reacts to give white crystalline MGeH compounds. The potassium (potassium germyl KGeH) and rubidium compounds (rubidium germyl RbGeH) have the sodium chloride structure implying a free rotation of the GeH anion, the caesium compound, CsGeH in contrast has the distorted sodium chloride structure of TlI.

Use in semiconductor industry.

The gas decomposes near 600K to germanium and hydrogen. Because of its thermal lability, germane is used in the semiconductor industry for the epitaxial growth of germanium by MOVPE or chemical beam epitaxy. Organogermanium precursors (e.g. isobutylgermane, alkylgermanium trichlorides, and dimethylaminogermanium trichloride) have been examined as less hazardous liquid alternatives to germane for deposition of Ge-containing films by MOVPE.

Safety.

Germane is a highly flammable, potentially pyrophoric, and a highly toxic gas. In 1970, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) published the latest changes and set the occupational exposure threshold limit value at 0.2 ppm for an 8-hour time weighted average. The LC50 for rats at 1 hour of exposure is 622 ppm. Inhalation or exposure may result in malaise, headache, dizziness, fainting, dyspnea, nausea, vomiting, kidney injury, and hemolytic effects.  The US Department of Transportation hazard class is 2.3 Poisonous Gas.

Germane is the chemical compound with the formula GeH, and the germanium analogue of methane. It is the simplest germanium hydride and one of the most useful compounds of germanium. Like the related compounds silane and methane, germane is tetrahedral. It burns in air to produce GeO and water. Germane is a group 14 hydride.

甲锗烷是锗烷(GeH)中最简单的一种,分子式为GeH。和同族的甲烷、甲硅烷一样,甲锗烷也是正四面体结构。甲锗烷在空气中燃烧生成二氧化锗和水。


History.

In 1936, Fiat released the front engine Fiat 500 economy car. In 1949 to meet the demands of the post-war market, production resumed as the 500C with revised front and rear bodywork. It had a 2-door coupe body with sun-roof, which was later complemented by an Estate version. Both continued until 1957 when they were replaced by an all-new, lighter car. The new car had a rear-mounted engine, on the pattern of the Volkswagen Beetle, just like its bigger brother the 1955 Fiat 600. Several car makers followed the now uncommon rear engine configuration at the time and were quite successful. The Neckar version of the 500 was manufactured in Heilbronn under a complicated deal involving NSU, and was introduced in October 1961. Steyr-Puch produced cars based on the Fiat 500 under license in Graz, Austria.  Despite its very small size, the 500 proved to be an enormously practical vehicle with large sales throughout Europe. Besides the two-door coupé, it was also available as the "Giardiniera" estate; this variant featured the standard engine laid on its side, the wheelbase lengthened by to provide a more convenient rear seat, a full-length sunroof, and larger brakes from the Fiat 600.  Sports models were produced by Abarth, as well as by Giannini. An Austrian variant, produced by Steyr-Daimler-Puch, the 1957–1973 Steyr-Puch 500, had a motorcycle-derived Puch boxer twin motor, a sports model of which was the 1965–1969 Steyr-Puch 650 TR2.  Production of the 500 ended in 1975, although its replacement, the Fiat 126, was launched two years earlier. The 126 was not as successful as its predecessor in Italy, but sold well in the Eastern Bloc countries, being assembled and manufactured in Poland as a Polski Fiat. The Fiat 500 has a Cx (aerodynamic resistance coefficient) of 0,38, a very good performance for its time.

Models.

"Nuova" 500 (1957–1961).

The 500 features a 479 cc (500cc nominal) two-cylinder engine, hence the name, producing just 13 horsepower. This model also features a fabric roof, foldable to the rear of the vehicle, like that of a Citroën 2CV — rather than the later roof design, which only folds half way back along the roof. The Nuova 500 is one of three models featuring "suicide doors."  Including the Sport model, in total 181,036 examples of the "Nuova" 500 were produced from 1957 to 1960.

"Nuova" 500 Sport (1958–1960).

In mid-1958 Fiat introduced the Nuova 500 Sport, featuring a more powerful engine and a two-tone livery—white with a red stripe along the flanks. Unique to the Sport was an all-metal rigid roof with three longitudinal grooves. A short-open-roof model was added a year later, in 1959.  Coded type "110.004", the 500 Sport's two-cylinder engine had been bored out to 499.5 cc from the original 479 cc (bore and stroke now ), giving it a very respectable horsepower with the same block:. Top speed was over.

500 D (1960–1965).

Replacing the original Nuova in 1960, the D looks very similar to the Nuova, but there are two key differences. One is the engine size (the D features an uprated 499 cc engine producing 17 bhp as standard—this engine is used right through until the end of the L in 1973) and the other is the roof: the standard D roof does not fold back as far as the roof on the Nuova, though it was also available as the "Transformable" with the same roof as the Nuova. The D also features "suicide doors".  In New Zealand, where it was locally assembled by Torino Motors, the 500 D was sold as the "Fiat Bambina" (Italian for "baby"), a name that is still in use there to describe this car.

500 Giardiniera (1960–1968).

The 500 Giardiniera (500 K on some markets) estate version of the Fiat 500 is the longest running model. The engine is laid under the floor of the boot to create a flat loading surface. The roof on this model also stretches all the way to the rear, not stopping above the driver and front passenger as it does in other models of the same period. The Giardiniera also features "suicide doors" and was the only model to continue to use this door type into the 1970s. In 1966 production was transferred to Desio where the Giardiniera was built by Fiat subsidiary Autobianchi under their marque from 1968 to 1977. A total of 327,000 Giardinieras were produced, and from 1968 sold only as Autobianchi Giardiniera.

500 Furgoncino.

A panel van variant of the "Giardiniera" (estate) was offered as the "Furgoncino".

500 F or "Berlina" (1965–1973).

The F spans two periods of 500 production, the D and the L. As such, it is the most frequently misidentified model. Between 1965 and 1969 the F carried the same badging as the D, but the two models are distinguishable by the positioning of their door hinges. The D has "suicide doors": the F, produced from June 1965, at last featured front-hinged doors. Between 1969 and 1972 the F was sold alongside the "Lusso" model as a cheaper "base model" alternative. While the F and L are mechanically very similar, the key differences are the bumpers (the L has an extra chrome nudge bar) and the interior (the F interior is nearly identical to the original 1957 design while the L sports a much more modern look).

500 L or "Lusso" (1967—71).

In September 1968 Fiat put on sale the 500 L or "Lusso" ("tipo 110 F/L"), a more richly trimmed and better appointed version of the standard 500 F. The 500 L remained on sale until 1972, when the new Fiat 126 was introduced.  Perhaps the most obvious new feature of the 500 L were tubular guards protecting the front bumper and the corners of the rear one. As a result, the car was about longer than the 500 F at. Other model-specific exterior items were a new Fiat badge at the front, redesigned hubcaps, chrome plastic mouldings covering the roof drip rails, and bright trim around windscreen and rear window. Inside the dashboard was entirely covered in black anti-glare plastic material instead of being bare painted metal, and was fitted with a new trapezoid instrument binnacle replacing the round one used on all other 500 models. The steering wheel was black plastic with metal spokes. The door cards—upholstered in the same pleated pattern leatherette used on the seats—carried redesigned and relocated door handles and new door pockets. More storage space was provided in the form of a tray on the centre tunnel, which like the rest of the floor was covered in carpet rather than rubber mats. Except for radial instead of bias ply tires, from a mechanical standpoint the 500 L was identical to the coeval 500 F.

500 R or "Rinnovata" (1971—1976).

The last incarnation of the Fiat 500 was the R model. It had the same 594 cc engine of the Fiat 126, however, the power rating is the same as the L but at lower rpm (4000 instead of 4400) and with a bit more torque; a full synchromesh gearbox is still missing. The floor-pan which was from either the 'L', or later, the new 126. It was also more comfortable, but more simply trimmed and equipped than before — the fuel gauge was omitted and only the low fuel indicator remained. The 500 R was also a stop-gap for Fiat prior to the launch of the Fiat 126, and when the new 126 was launched, sales of the old Fiat 500 R plummeted. It was sold alongside the Fiat 126 for another two years before Fiat retired the 500.

Fiat 500 "America".

During the years in which it was produced the 500 in Italy, Fiat designed and produced a US-market version of the car with prominent headlamps (also used on the American 500 Jolly). About 300 were made between 1958 and 1962.

Derivatives.

Abarth 695 SS (1964–1971).

Of all the performance-oriented models created by Karl Abarth, later known as Carlo Abarth, perhaps the 695 "esse esse" is the best representation of the scorpion-branded firm's collaboration with Fiat. Around 1,000 Fiat Abarth 695 SS were produced and only 150 are believed to remain.  Abarth introduced its 695 SS version in 1966, after the previous presentation back in 1964. The rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout Fiat 500 was the basis of the project. When compared to the production version of the 500, aesthetically the 695 was virtually identical except for the logo, badge on the radiator grille and the coat of arms on both sides of the car. The 695 SS was the only version to feature flared arches and the need to raise the engine cover for extra stability and cooling.  Like all Abarths, the differences are found in the mechanical upgrades that helped to increase its top speed to around. The OHV 2 valves per cylinder inline-two engine, exhaust pipe, head and valve-springs were upgraded and specially designed pistons and camshaft fitted. It had an equal square bore and stroke ratio of for a total displacement of and the original single Solex 34PBIC carburetor was increased in size with a compression ratio of 9.8:1 developing at 5200 rpm and of torque at 4000 rpm.

Fiat 500 Jolly Ghia.

Carrozzeria Ghia custom manufactured a "Jolly" variant of the 500, inspired by the limited edition Fiat 600 Jolly, and featuring an open-air, doorless design with wicker seats and a removable fabric canopy roof — similar in concept to the Citroën Méhari, BMC Mini Moke and Volkswagen Type 181.

2007 Fiat 500.

First announced in May 2006, Fiat previewed an all-new four-seat three-door hatchback 500 model in March 2007 – fifty years after the first Fiat 500 was presented. The design of the 2007 Fiat 500 is based on the 2004 Fiat Trepiùno concept.  The new model features a distinctive retro style - following the pattern of the Volkswagen New Beetle and BMW MINI - as modern reinterpretation of Dante Giacosa's 1957 original rear-engined Fiat 500. Production started in mid-2007 in Fiat facilities in Tychy, Poland, and later in Toluca, Mexico. Numerous trim, equipment, and performance versions are offered with a convertible body style available starting in 2009.  The 500 is also offered in Abarth trim, with 1.4L Turbo Petrol engine, sport exhaust, suspension, and transmission.  The Fiat 500 automobile platform is the basis of the second-generation Ford Ka.

The Fiat 500 (, ) is a rear-engined, four-seat, small city car that was manufactured and marketed by Fiat Automobiles from 1957 to 1975 over a single generation in two-door saloon and two-door station wagon bodystyles.

菲亚特500(Fiat 500)是意大利菲亚特车厂于1957年至1975年间生产的一款经济车型,属小型车款。


Origins.

The phrase originated as a result of the Buenos Aires Convention of 1910. Article 3 of the Convention granted copyright in all signatory countries to a work registered in any signatory country, as long as a statement "that indicates the "reservation" of the property "right"" (emphasis added) appeared in the work. The phrase "all rights reserved" was not specified in the text, but met this requirement.  Other copyright treaties did not require this formality. For example, in 1952 the Universal Copyright Convention (UCC) adopted the © symbol as an indicator of protection. (The symbol was introduced in the US by a 1954 amendment to the Copyright Act of 1909.) The Berne Convention rejected formalities altogether in Article 4 of the 1908 revision, so authors seeking to protect their works in countries that had signed on to the Berne Convention were also not required to use the "all rights reserved" formulation. However, because not all Buenos Aires signatories were members of Berne or the UCC, and in particular the United States did not join UCC until 1955, a publisher in a Buenos Aires signatory seeking to protect a work in the greatest number of countries between 1910 and 1952 would have used both the phrase "all rights reserved" and the copyright symbol.

Obsolescence.

The requirement to add the "all rights reserved" notice became essentially obsolete on August 23, 2000, when Nicaragua became the final member of the Buenos Aires Convention to also become a signatory to the Berne Convention. As of that date, every country that was a member of the Buenos Aires Convention (which is the only copyright treaty requiring this notice to be used) was also a member of Berne, which requires protection be granted without any formality of notice of copyright.  The phrase continues to hold popular currency and serves as a handy convention widely used by artists, writers, and content creators to prevent ambiguity and clearly spell out the warning that their content cannot be copied freely.

"All rights reserved" is a copyright formality indicating that the copyright holder "reserves", or holds for its own use, all the rights provided by copyright law. Originating in the Buenos Aires Convention of 1910, it is unclear if it has any legal effect in any jurisdiction. However, it is still used by many copyright holders.

保留所有权利(英语:all rights reserved),是一种著作权手续,表示著作权持有人保留著作权法规定的所有权利。这种著作权手续起源于1910年的《布宜诺斯艾利斯公约》,但现在在任何司法管辖区不再具有任何法律效力。然而,这种著作权手续仍被许多著作权持有人使用。


Classification.

The classification within the species is not settled. One classification uses nine botanical varieties:

Cultivated varieties.

Improved cultivars include:  According to research at the University of Saskatchewan, each variety can be distinguished by the size of berries, taste, and bush dimensions.

Common names.

"Lonicera caerulea" is known by several common names:

Distribution and habitat.

The species is circumpolar, primarily found in or near wetlands of boreal forests in heavy peat soils. However, it also can be found in high-calcium soils, in mountains, and along the coasts of northeastern Asia and northwestern North America. The plant is winter-hardy and can tolerate temperatures below minus 47 degrees Celsius.

Cultivation.

Haskap variety "edulis" has been used frequently in breeding efforts, but other varieties have been bred with it to increase productivity and flavor. In several haskap breeding programs, the variety "emphyllocalyx" has been the dominant one used.  Plants of many haskap cultivars grow to be 1.5 to 2 meters tall and wide, can survive a large range of soil acidity, from 3.9-7.7 (optimum 5.5-6.5), requiring high organic matter, well drained soils, and plentiful sunlight for optimum productivity. "Lonicera caerulea" plants are more tolerant of wet conditions than most fruit species.  Each berry has approximately 20 seeds that resemble tomato seeds based on their size and shape, but the seeds are not noticeable during chewing.

Disease.

Powdery mildew is one disease documented to affect "Lonicera caerulea", usually after fruit maturity in mid– to late summer. When the plant is affected, it is common for the leaves to turn white with brown patches eventually developing.

Harvest and uses.

Honeysuckle is harvested in late spring or early summer two weeks before strawberries for Russian type varieties, with Japanese types ripening at a similar time to strawberries. The berries are ready to harvest when the inner layer is dark purple or blue. The outer layer is dark blue and looks ripened, but the inner layer may be green with a sour flavor. Two compatible varieties are needed for cross pollination and fruit set. In North America, most Russian varieties are adapted to hardiness zones 1 to 4. The plants may take three or four years to produce an abundant harvest. Average production on a good bush is about and can maintain productivity for 30 years.  Honeysuckle can be used in various processed products, such as pastries, jams, juice, ice cream, yogurt, sauces, candies and a wine similar in color and flavor to red grape or cherry wine.

Phytochemicals.

As a blue pigmented fruit, "Lonicera caerulea" contains polyphenol compounds, including cyanidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin 3-rutinoside, and peonidin 3-glucoside. Other phytochemicals present are proanthocyanidins and organic acids, including a high content of citric acid.

Traditional medicine.

Over centuries in East Asian countries, "Lonicera caerulea" has been used for supposed therapeutic applications in traditional medicine.

Lonicera caerulea, also known by its common names blue honeysuckle, sweetberry honeysuckle, fly honeysuckle (blue fly honeysuckle), blue-berried honeysuckle, or the honeyberry, is a non-climbing honeysuckle native throughout the cool temperate Northern Hemisphere in countries such as Canada, Japan, Russia, and Poland.

蓝靛果忍冬(学名:'),又名蓝靛果、蓝果忍冬,忍冬科忍冬属落叶植物。原产于北半球温带地区。分布在亚洲、欧洲等地,生长于海拔300米至3,500米的地区。