The name "Principality of the Pindus".

The name "Principality of the Pindus" was given retrospectively and is used in bibliography literature mainly about the events of 1917 in Samarina. It was also used for the activity of Diamanti 25 years later, the so-called "Legion of the Vlachs" in 1942-1943. In sources closer to the events it is not used in 1917 nor in the period from 1942 to 1943. Indicatively, 12 years after the events in 1929, Nicolae Zdrulla wrote in the journal "Revista Aromânească" (Volume 1, No. 2) issued in Bucharest an article entitled "Mişcarea aromânilor din Pind în 1917" ("The movement of Aromanians of Pindos in 1917"). An archival study published in 2007 with documents of the same period (telegrams of the Vlachs to head of states of that time and correspondence of the Italian and Romanian Consulates) was entitled "The events of July–August 1917 in the region Pindos. The effort to create an independent state of Aromanians" mentions the word "Principality" only in the introduction, while there is no reference to it to the documents of the time recorded in this archival study.

Background: Romania's effort after 1860 to win over Vlach populations in the Southern Balkans.

Since Romania's creation in 1859, it has tried to win over Vlach populations of the Ottoman Empire. In the 1860s, it funded the activity of Apostolos Margaritis who founded Romanian schools in the Ottoman territories of Epirus and Macedonia since the Vlach language has much in common with the Romanian language. Romania, with the support of Austro-Hungary, succeeded in the acceptance of Vlachs as a separate millet with the decree (irade) of May 22, 1905 by Sultan Abdulhamid, so the "Ullah millet" (the millet of the Vlachs) could have their own churches and schools. This was a success of the Romanian national agitation policy in European Turkey in the last part of the 19th century.  Romania then funded the construction and operation of many schools in the wider region of Macedonia and Epirus. These schools have continued their operation even when some of the territories of the region of Macedonia and Thrace passed to Greek authority in 1912. Their financing by Romania continued in 1913 with the agreement of the then Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos. In such Romanian schools, there was a coordinated effort to promote the idea of Romanian identity among Vlachs. Graduates of these schools who wanted to continue their education usually went to educational institutions in Romania.

Albania and Epirus at the end of World War I: 1916–1917.

During the First World War, in 1916, the Albanian territory and Northern Epirus were split between the Kingdom of Italy which occupied Gjirokastra and France which occupied Korce, while in northern and central Albania were occupied by troops of Austria-Hungary.  On December 10, 1916 the French founded the Republic of Korca. In response, Austria-Hungary went on proclamation of independence of Albania as a protectorate on January 3, 1917 in Shkodra, while on June 23, 1917 the Italians proclaimed the Italian Protectorate of Albania in Gjirokastra. Then the Italian forces advanced and they captured Ioannina.  In this environment of occupation and fragmentation of territories in Southern Albania and Northwestern Greece, Italian troops occupied Samarina and other villages of Pindus for a few days at the end of August 1917 to the first two days of September 1917.

The events in 1917.

In 1917, during the occupation of the territories of Albania and Northern Epirus, the Italians tried to win over the Vlachs to convert Vlach-Romanian relations in favor of Italy, based on historical and linguistic relations and to change the Romanian-lean Vlachs ("Ρουμανίζοντες Βλάχοι") into Italian-leaning Vlachs.  In the brief period of Italian occupation of southern Albania, when Italian forces also entered Greek territory in 1917, Vlachs from several villages of the Pindos mountain requested autonomy under the protection of Italy, turning to Romania for help. Letters were sent to several countries, from mayors and representatives of 13 villages. A proclamation was sent on August 29, 1917 from Samarina signed by seven representatives, who had the role of a temporary committee and requested assistance / protection from the Italian Consulate of Ioannina. One of the members of the provisionary committee, Alcibiades Diamandi went to Ioannina to get an answer. There was an immediate response the next day from the Romanian and the Italian consulates: A clear answer that these actions were wrong and inappropriate, were not approved by anyone, and could not be supported by any party.  One day later, the Italian army departed from Greek territory. From 3 to 7 September the Greek forces entered all the villages unopposed and, on September 7, they arrested seven men in Samarina, giving an end to the events.  These events are described in later bibliography as an attempt to form a "Principality of the Pindus", while in other sources, no name is assigned to the events of 1917 in Pindus.

Villages and people involved.

A letter to the Prime Minister of Romania Ion C. Brătianu, sent on 27 July 1917, was signed by mayors and notables of the following villages: Samarina, Abella (Avdella), Perivole (Perivoli), Baïassa (Vovousa), Amintchou (Metzova - Metsovo), Paléosseli (Palaioselli), Padzes (Pades), Touria (Kranea), Breazna (Distrato), Laca (Laista), Dobrinova (Iliochori), Armata, Zmixi (Smixi)  Furthermore, the assistance request to the Italian Consulate was signed by the seven members of the Provisional Committee:  The persons arrested by the Greek authorities in Samarina on September 8, 1917 were:

1941–1943: A Vlach "Roman Legion" supports the Italian occupation army.

The Aromanians were part of the projects for the dismemberment of Greece set up by the Italians. When the 11th Army occupied the areas in 1941, their commanders received orders by Palazzo Chigi (the seat of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs at the time) to survey each village recording their ethnicity and its attitude towards the occupiers, finding the Aromanians absorbed and assimilated in the Greek community with the exception of some groups who were recorded as anti-Bulgarian, anti-Greek, pro-Italian and pro-Romanian. A pre-war dossier for the Italian government on the subject of the Aromanians promoted the idea that they were descendants from the Ancient Romans and that the Aromanians had taken shelter in the Pindus mountains against barbarian invasions, to be used at the appropriate moment.  After the fall of Greece to the Germans in spring 1941 and the division of the country among the Axis powers, Alcibiades Diamandi created a collaborationist organisation known as the Roman Legion, with the support of the Italian occupation authorities and promoted the idea of a Vlach canton or semi-independent state, called several decades later by the name "Principality of Pindus" (even if it was never formed, nor proclaimed) that would encompass northwestern Greece. Diamandi also met the Greek collaborationist Prime Minister, Georgios Tsolakoglou, but Tsolakoglou refused to accommodate his demands. In reality Italian "military authorities refused to permit any form of self-administration by the Aromanians in the awareness that their irredentist aspirations, or appeals for annexation to Italy, were a masquerade by a minority movement seeking political and economic revenge".  From mid-1942 on, the armed Greek Resistance also made its presence felt, fighting against the Italians and their collaborators and the leader of the Legionnaires, Diamandi, left for Romania in 1942, to be followed by his second in command and successor Nicolaos Matussis in 1943.  Whatever authority the Legion exercised, it practically ceased to exist after the Italian capitulation in September 1943, when the control of Central Greece was taken over by the German army.

The name Principality of the Pindus (; ; ) is used in literature to describe the attempt and proposal to create an autonomous canton under the protection of Italy during World War I, in July and August 1917, from Vlach-speaking population of Samarina and other villages of the Pindus mountains of Northern Greece during the short period of occupation by Italy of the district of Gjirokastra and regions of Epirus. The attempt was not successful and no such principality was ever officially formed. A declaration was made after the arrival of Italian troops in Samarina. In the immediate withdrawal of Italians a few days later, Greek troops appeared without meeting any resistance.

班都斯亲王国(阿罗马尼亚语: Printsipat di la Pind)是1941年到1943年期间存在的一个国家。该国家是法西斯意大利王国扶持的一个傀儡国,位于希腊王国西北部。


Essentiality in humans.

(*) Pyrrolysine, sometimes considered the "22nd amino acid", is not used by humans.  Eukaryotes can synthesize some of the amino acids from other substrates. Consequently, only a subset of the amino acids used in protein synthesis are essential nutrients.

Recommended daily intake.

Estimating the daily requirement for the indispensable amino acids has proven to be difficult; these numbers have undergone considerable revision over the last 20 years. The following table lists the WHO and United States recommended daily amounts currently in use for essential amino acids in adult humans, together with their standard one-letter abbreviations.  The recommended daily intakes for children aged three years and older is 10% to 20% higher than adult levels and those for infants can be as much as 150% higher in the first year of life. Cysteine (or sulfur-containing amino acids), tyrosine (or aromatic amino acids), and arginine are always required by infants and growing children.

Relative amino acid composition of protein sources.

Foodstuffs that lack essential amino acids are poor sources of protein equivalents, as the body tends to deaminate the amino acids obtained, converting proteins into fats and carbohydrates. Therefore, a balance of essential amino acids is necessary for a high degree of net protein utilization, which is the mass ratio of amino acids converted to proteins to amino acids supplied.  Complete proteins contain a balanced set of essential amino acids for humans. Whole foods plant and natural animal sources provide all of the essential amino acids. Near-complete proteins are also found in some plant sources such as quinoa.  The net protein utilization is profoundly affected by the limiting amino acid content (the essential amino acid found in the smallest quantity in the foodstuff), and somewhat affected by salvage of essential amino acids in the body. It is therefore a good idea to mix foodstuffs that have different weaknesses in their essential amino acid distributions. This limits the loss of nitrogen through deamination and increases overall net protein utilization.  The amino acid distribution profile is less optimal in plant foods than in animal foods. but it is not necessary to consume plant foods containing complete proteins as long as a reasonably varied diet is maintained. Numerous pairs of different plant foods can provide a complete protein profile. Some of the most efficient pairings include sweet corn/tomatoes, apple/coconut and sweet corn/cherry. Certain traditional combinations of foods, such as corn and beans, or beans and rice, contain the essential amino acids necessary for humans in adequate amounts. The official position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics is that protein from an appropriate planned combination of a variety of plant foods eaten during the course of a day can be nutritionally adequate when caloric requirements are met. "Diet for a Small Planet" contains an extensive list of suggested combination (Appendix D).

Protein quality.

Various attempts have been made to express the "quality" or "value" of various kinds of protein. Measures include the biological value, net protein utilization, protein efficiency ratio, protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score and complete proteins concept. These concepts are important in the livestock industry, because the relative lack of one or more of the essential amino acids in animal feeds would have a limiting effect on growth and thus on feed conversion ratio. Thus, various feedstuffs may be fed in combination to increase net protein utilization, or a supplement of an individual amino acid (methionine, lysine, threonine, or tryptophan) can be added to the feed.

Protein per calorie.

Protein content in foods is often measured in protein per serving rather than protein per calorie. For instance, the USDA lists 6 grams of protein per large whole egg (a 50-gram serving) rather than 84 mg of protein per calorie (71 calories total). For comparison, there are 2.8 grams of protein in a serving of raw broccoli (100 grams) or 82 mg of protein per calorie (34 calories total), or the Daily Value of 47.67g of protein after eating 1,690g of raw broccoli a day at 574 cal. An egg contains 12.5g of protein per 100g, but 4 mg more protein per calorie, or the protein DV after 381g of egg, which is 545 cal. The ratio of essential amino acids (the quality of protein) is not taken into account, one would actually need to eat more than 3 kg of broccoli a day to have a healthy protein profile, and almost 6 kg to get enough calories. It is recommended that adult humans obtain between 10–35% of their 2000 calories a day as protein.

Complete proteins in non-human animals.

Scientists had known since the early 20th century that rats could not survive on a diet whose only protein source was zein, which comes from maize (corn), but recovered if they were fed casein from cow's milk. This led William Cumming Rose to the discovery of the essential amino acid threonine. Through manipulation of rodent diets, Rose was able to show that ten amino acids are essential for rats: lysine, tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, valine, and arginine, in addition to threonine. Rose's later work showed that eight amino acids are essential for adult human beings, with histidine also being essential for infants. Longer-term studies established histidine as also essential for adult humans.

Interchangeability.

The distinction between essential and non-essential amino acids is somewhat unclear, as some amino acids can be produced from others. The sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine and homocysteine, can be converted into each other but neither can be synthesized "de novo" in humans. Likewise, cysteine can be made from homocysteine but cannot be synthesized on its own. So, for convenience, sulfur-containing amino acids are sometimes considered a single pool of nutritionally equivalent amino acids as are the aromatic amino acid pair, phenylalanine and tyrosine. Likewise arginine, ornithine, and citrulline, which are interconvertible by the urea cycle, are considered a single group.

Effects of deficiency.

If one of the essential amino acids is less than needed for an individual the utilization of other amino acids will be hindered and thus protein synthesis will be less than adequate. Protein deficiency has been shown to affect all of the body's organs and many of its systems, including the brain and brain function of infants and young children; the immune system, thus elevating risk of infection; gut mucosal function and permeability, which affects absorption and vulnerability to systemic disease; and kidney function. The physical signs of protein deficiency include edema, failure to thrive in infants and children, poor musculature, dull skin, and thin and fragile hair. Biochemical changes reflecting protein deficiency include low serum albumin and low serum transferrin.  The amino acids that are essential in the human diet were established in a series of experiments led by William Cumming Rose. The experiments involved elemental diets to healthy male graduate students. These diets consisted of cornstarch, sucrose, butterfat without protein, corn oil, inorganic salts, the known vitamins, a large brown "candy" made of liver extract flavored with peppermint oil (to supply any unknown vitamins), and mixtures of highly purified individual amino acids. The main outcome measure was nitrogen balance. Rose noted that the symptoms of nervousness, exhaustion, and dizziness were encountered to a greater or lesser extent whenever human subjects were deprived of an essential amino acid.  Essential amino acid deficiency should be distinguished from protein-energy malnutrition, which can manifest as marasmus or kwashiorkor. Kwashiorkor was once attributed to pure protein deficiency in individuals who were consuming enough calories ("sugar baby syndrome"). However, this theory has been challenged by the finding that there is no difference in the diets of children developing marasmus as opposed to kwashiorkor. Still, for instance in Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) maintained by the USDA, lack of one or more of the essential amino acids is described as protein-energy malnutrition.

An essential amino acid, or indispensable amino acid, is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized "de novo" (from scratch) by the organism at a rate commensurate with its demand, and thus must be supplied in its diet. Of the 21 amino acids common to all life forms, the nine amino acids humans cannot synthesize are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.

必需氨基酸(essential amino acid、indispensable amino acid),指只存在食物中,动物无法合成,只能由食物中摄取的氨基酸,这些氨基酸被称为必需氨基酸。动物需摄取必需氨基酸以制造蛋白质。由于不同物种的化合能力不同,对于某一物种是必需氨基酸的,对另一物种则不一定是必需氨基酸。食物中如果含有所有的必需氨基酸,称为完全蛋白质。


Early life.

Glenn has Irish and Native American ancestry. During his childhood he was regularly ill, and for a year was bed-ridden, including having scarlet fever. Through intense training programs he recovered from his illnesses, also overcoming a limp.  After graduating from a Pittsburgh high school, Glenn entered The College of William and Mary where he majored in English. He joined the United States Marine Corps for three years, then worked roughly five months as a reporter for the "Kenosha Evening News", located in Kenosha, Wisconsin. He tried to become an author, but found he could not write dialogue that satisfied the readers. To learn the art of dialogue, he began taking acting classes.  Glenn made his Broadway debut in "The Impossible Years" in 1965. He joined George Morrison's acting class, helping direct student plays to pay for his studies and appearing onstage in La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club productions.  In 1968, he joined The Actors Studio and began working in professional theatre and TV. Two of Glenn's early television roles were as Hal Currin in the 1966 crime series "Hawk", starring Burt Reynolds, and Calvin Brenner on the CBS daytime serial "The Edge of Night". In 1970, director James Bridges offered him his first movie role, in "The Baby Maker", released the same year.

Personal life.

He married Carol Schwartz in 1968 and upon their marriage, Glenn converted to Judaism, his wife's faith, from Catholicism. They have two daughters, Dakota Ann, and Rio Elizabeth.

Career.

Glenn spent eight years in Los Angeles, California, acting in small roles in films and doing TV stints, including a TV movie "Gargoyles." In 1978 Glenn left Los Angeles with his family for Ketchum, Idaho and worked as a barman, huntsman, and mountain ranger, occasionally acting in Seattle stage productions. He appeared in Francis Ford Coppola's "Apocalypse Now" (1979) and worked with directors like Jonathan Demme and Robert Altman.  In 1980, he appeared as ex-convict Wes Hightower in Bridges' "Urban Cowboy". After that he starred in the World War II horror film, "The Keep" (1983), and action films such as "Wild Geese II" (1985) opposite Laurence Olivier, "Silverado" (1985), "The Challenge" (1982) and drama films such as "The Right Stuff" (1983), TV film "Countdown to Looking Glass" (1984), "The River" (1984) and "Off Limits" (1988) as he alternately played good guys and bad guys during the 1980s. He returned to Broadway in "Burn This" in 1987. That same year he tried his hand at gangster movies when he starred as the real-life sheriff turned gunman Verne Miller in the movie "Gangland: The Verne Miller Story" which was given a theatrical release only in Finland and went straight to video in the U.S.  In the beginning of the 1990s Glenn's career was at its peak as he appeared in several well-known films, such as "The Hunt for Red October" (1990), "The Silence of the Lambs" (1991), "Backdraft" (1991) and "The Player" (1992). He played a vicious mob hitman in a critically acclaimed performance in "Night of the Running Man" (1995). Later, he gravitated toward more challenging movie roles, such as in the Freudian farce "Reckless" (1995), tragicomedy "Edie & Pen" (1997) and Ken Loach's socio-political declaration "Carla's Song". In the late 1990s, Glenn alternated between mainstream films ("Courage Under Fire" (1996), "Absolute Power" (1997), independent projects ("Lesser Prophets" (1997) and "Larga distancia" (1998), written by his daughter Dakota Glenn) and TV ("Naked City: A Killer Christmas" (1998). He was also cast in a supporting role in "Training Day" (2001). Glenn was cast in the FX drama "Sons of Anarchy" (2008), as Clay Morrow but he was replaced after an early pilot episode by Ron Perlman. He portrayed" "Eugene van Wingerdt in a leading role, in the thriller film "The Barber". Glenn acted in the 2011 film "Sucker Punch" as Wise Man.  Glenn appeared in the drama "Freedom Writers", in which he played the father of Hilary Swank's character; and in "The Bourne Ultimatum" and "The Bourne Legacy" as CIA Director Ezra Kramer.  He played the character Stick in Netflix's television series "Daredevil" and returned to the character in "The Defenders" series a year later.

Theodore Scott Glenn (born January 26) is an American actor. His roles have included Wes Hightower in "Urban Cowboy" (1980), astronaut Alan Shepard in "The Right Stuff" (1983), Emmett in "Silverado" (1985), Commander Bart Mancuso in "The Hunt for Red October" (1990), Jack Crawford in "The Silence of the Lambs" (1991), John Adcox in "Backdraft" (1991), Montgomery Wick in "Vertical Limit" (2000), Roger in "Training Day" (2001), Ezra Kramer in "The Bourne Ultimatum" (2007), Kevin Garvey, Sr., in "The Leftovers" (2014–2017), and as Stick in both "Daredevil" (2015–2016) and "The Defenders" (2017).

西奥多·史考特·葛伦(英语:Theodore Scott Glenn,-{zh-hans:台译史考特·葛伦;zh-hk:台译史考特·葛伦;zh-tw:中国大陆译斯科特·格伦;}-,1941年-1月26日)是一名美国演员。知名的角色包括:《都市牛郎》中的威斯·海都尔、《太空先锋》中的太空人亚伦·薛弗德、《猎杀红色十月》中的舰长巴特·马可索以及《沉默的羔羊》中的杰克·克劳福。


History.

Early years.

Sing Sing was the fifth prison built by New York state. The first prison, Newgate Prison, was built in 1797 in Greenwich Village and the second in 1816 was named Auburn Prison.  In 1824, the New York Legislature gave Elam Lynds, warden of Auburn Prison and a former United States Army captain, the task of constructing a new, more modern prison. Lynds spent months researching possible locations for the prison, considering Staten Island, The Bronx, and "Silver Mine Farm," an area in the town of Mount Pleasant on the banks of the Hudson River.  By May, Lynds had decided to build a prison on Mount Pleasant, near (and thus named after) a small village in Westchester County named Sing Sing, whose name came from the Native American words "sinck sinck" which translates to'stone upon stone'. The legislature appropriated $20,100 to purchase the site, and the project received the official stamp of approval. Lynds selected 100 inmates from the Auburn prison for transfer and had them transported by barge via the Erie Canal and down the Hudson River to freighters. On their arrival on May 14, the site was "without a place to receive them or a wall to enclose them"; "temporary barracks, a cook house, carpenter and blacksmith's shops" were rushed to completion.  When it was opened in 1826, it was considered a model prison because it turned a profit for the state. By October 1828 Sing Sing was completed. Lynds employed the Auburn system, which imposed absolute silence on the prisoners; the system was enforced by whipping and other punishments. It was John Luckey, the Prison Chaplain around 1843, who held the Principal Keeper of Sing Sing, Elam Lynds, accountable to New York Governor William H. Seward and to President of the Board of Inspectors, John Edmonds, to have Lynds removed. Chaplain Luckey proceeded to create a great religious library. His purpose was to teach correct moral principles. His religious library was challenged in 1844 when John Edmonds placed Eliza Farnham in charge of the women's ward at Sing Sing. In 1844, the New York Prison Association was inaugurated to monitor state prison administration. The NY Prison Association was made up of reformers interested in the rehabilitation and humane treatment of prisoners. Farnham was able to obtain the job largely on the recommendation of these reformers. Farnham overturned the strictly silent practice in prison and introduced social engagement to shift concern more toward the future instead of dwelling on the criminal past. She included novels by Charles Dickens in Chaplain Luckey's religious library, novels the chaplain did not approve. This was the first documented expansion of the prison library to include moral teachings from secular literature.

Since 1900.

Thomas Mott Osborne's tenure as warden of Sing Sing was brief but dramatic. Osborne arrived in 1914 with a reputation as a radical prison reformer. His report of a week-long incognito stay inside New York's Auburn Prison indicted traditional prison administration in merciless detail.  Prisoners who had bribed officers and intimidated other inmates lost their privileges under Osborne's regime. One of them conspired with powerful political allies to destroy Osborne's reputation, even succeeding in getting him indicted for a variety of crimes and maladministration. After Osborne triumphed in court, his return to Sing Sing was a cause for wild celebration by the inmates.  Another notable warden was Lewis Lawes. He was offered the position of warden in 1919, accepted in January 1920, and remained for 21 years as Sing Sing's warden. While warden, Lawes brought about reforms and turned what was described as an "old hellhole" into a modern prison with sports teams, educational programs, new methods of discipline and more. Several new buildings were constructed during the years Lawes was warden. Lawes retired in 1941 and died six years later.  In 1943, the old cell block was closed and the metal bars and doors were donated to the war effort. In 1989, the institution was accredited for the first time by the American Correctional Association, which established a set of national standards by which it judged every correctional facility.  Today, Sing Sing houses more than 2,000 inmates, employs about 1,000 people, and hosts 5,000 visitors per month. The original 1825 cell block is no longer used and in 2002 plans were announced to turn it into a museum. In April 2011 there were talks of closing the prison to take advantage of its valuable real estate.

Executions.

In total, 614 men and women—including four inmates under federal death sentences—were executed by electric chair, "Old Sparky", in the death row house at Sing Sing until the abolition of the death penalty in 1972. High profile executions include Julius and Ethel Rosenberg on June 19, 1953, for espionage for the Soviet Union on nuclear weapon research; and Gerhard Puff on August 12, 1954, for the murder of an Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agent. The last person executed in New York state was Eddie Lee Mays, for murder, on August 15, 1963.  In 1972, the United States Supreme Court ruled in "Furman v. Georgia" that the death penalty was unconstitutional if its application was inconsistent and arbitrary. This led to a temporary "de facto" nationwide moratorium (executions resumed in other states in 1977), but the chair still remained. In the early-1970s, the electric chair was moved to Green Haven Correctional Facility in working condition, but was never used again.

Educational programs.

In 1996, Katherine Vockins founded Rehabilitation Through the Arts (RTA) at Sing Sing. RTA works in collaboration with theater professionals to provide prisoners with a curriculum of year-round theater-related workshops. The RTA program has put on a number of plays at Sing Sing open to prisoners and community guests. The program has shown that the use of dramatic techniques leads to significant improvements in the cognitive behavior of the program's participants inside prison and a reduction in recidivism once paroled. The impact of RTA on social and institutional behavior was formally evaluated by John Jay College for Criminal Justice, in collaboration with the NY State Department of Corrections. Led by Dr. Lorraine Moller, Professor of Speech and Drama at John Jay, the study found that RTA had a positive impact on notable RTA prisoner Pavle Stanimirovic who first participated in the program, showing that "the longer the inmate was in the program, the fewer violations he committed." The RTA program currently operates at five other New York state prisons.  The organization, Hudson Link for Higher Education in Prison, provides college courses to incarcerated people to help reduce recidivism and poverty and strengthen families and communities. In 1998, as part of the get-tough-on-crime campaign, state and federal funding for college programs inside prison was stopped. Understanding the positive effects of education in the transformation and rehabilitation of incarcerated people, inmates at Sing Sing Correctional Facility reached out to religious and academic volunteers to develop a college degree-granting program. Under Anne Reissner, Hudson Link for Higher Education in Prison was founded to restore college education at Sing Sing through private funding.

Football team.

In 1931, new prison reforms gave Sing Sing State Penitentiary prisoners permission to partake in recreation opportunities. The baseball and football teams, and the vaudeville presentations and concerts, were funded through revenue from paid attendance. Tim Mara, the owner of the New York Giants, sponsored the Sing Sing Black Sheep, Sing Sing's football team. Mara provided equipment and uniforms and players to tutor them in fundamentals. He helped coach them the first season. Known as the Black Sheep, they were also sometimes called the Zebras. All games were "home" games, played at Lawes Stadium, named for Warden Lewis E. Lawes. In 1935, the starting quarterback and two other starters escaped the morning before a game.  Alabama Pitts was their starting QB and star for the first four seasons, but then finished his sentence. Upon release, Alabama Pitts played for the Philadelphia Eagles in 1935. In 1932, "graduate" Jumbo Morano was signed by the Giants, and played for the Paterson Nighthawks of the Eastern Football League. In 1934, State Commissioner of Correction, Walter N. Thayer banned the advertising of activities at the prison, including football games. On November 19, 1936, a new rule banned ticket sales. No revenues would be derived from show and sports event ticketing. These funds had been paying for disbursements to prisoners' families, especially the kin of those executed, and for equipment and coaches' salaries. With this new edict, the season ended and prisoners were no longer allowed to play football outside Sing Sing.

Museum.

Plans to turn a portion of Sing Sing into a museum date back to 2002, when local officials sought to turn the old power house into the museum, linked by a tunnel to a retired cell block, at a cost of $5 million. In 2007, the village of Ossining applied for $12.5 million in federal money for the project, at the time expected to cost $14 million. The proposed museum would display the Sing Sing story as it unfolded over time.

Contribution to American English.

The expression "up the river" to describe someone in prison or heading to prison derives from the practice of sentencing people convicted in New York City to serve their terms in Sing Sing, which is located up the Hudson River from the city. The slang expression dates from 1891.

Sing Sing Correctional Facility is a maximum-security prison operated by the New York State Department of Corrections and Community Supervision in the village of Ossining, New York. It is about north of New York City on the east bank of the Hudson River. Sing Sing holds about 1,700 prisoners.

新新惩教所(英语:Sing Sing Correctional Facility,另译声声监狱、星星监狱、兴格监狱)是美国纽约州矫正与社区安全部所辖的最高设防监狱。新新惩教所位于威斯特彻斯特县奥西宁市哈德逊河岸,距离南方纽约市约30英里(50公里)。


Early life.

William Powell Frith was born in Aldfield, near Ripon in North Yorkshire on 9 January 1819. Frith was encouraged to take up art by his father, a hotelier in Harrogate. Frith was great uncle and an advisor to the English school portrait painter Henry Keyworth Raine (1872–1932).  He moved to London in 1835 where he began his formal art studies at Sass's Academy in Charlotte Street, before attending the Royal Academy Schools. Frith started his career as a portrait painter and first exhibited at the British Institution in 1838. In the 1840s he often based works on the literary output of writers such as Charles Dickens, whose portrait he painted, and Laurence Sterne.

Career.

He was a member of The Clique, which also included Richard Dadd. The principal influence on his work was the hugely popular domestic subjects painted by Sir David Wilkie. Wilkie's famous painting "The Chelsea Pensioners" was a spur to the creation of Frith's own most famous compositions. Following the precedent of Wilkie, but also imitating the work of his friend Dickens, Frith created complex multi-figure compositions depicting the full range of the Victorian class system, meeting and interacting in public places. In 'Ramsgate Sands' (also known as 'Life at the Seaside', 1854) he depicted visitors and entertainers at the seaside resort. He followed this with "The Derby Day", depicting scenes among the crowd at the race at Epsom Downs, which was based on photographic studies by Robert Howlett. This 1858 composition was bought by Jacob Bell for £1,500. It was so popular that it had to be protected by a specially installed rail when shown at the Royal Academy of Arts. Another well-known painting was "The Railway Station", a scene of Paddington station. In 1865 he was chosen to paint the "Marriage of the Prince of Wales".  His 1858 painting "The Crossing Sweeper" has been described as breaking "new ground in its description of the collision of wealth and poverty on a London street."  Later in his career he painted two series of five pictures each, telling moral stories in the manner of William Hogarth. These were the "Road to Ruin" (1878), about the dangers of gambling, and the "Race for Wealth" (1880) about reckless financial speculation. He retired from the Royal Academy in 1890 but continued to exhibit until 1902.  Frith was a traditionalist who made known his aversion to modern-art developments in a couple of autobiographies – "My Autobiography and Reminiscences" (1887) and "Further Reminiscences" (1888) – and other writings. He was also an inveterate enemy of the Pre-Raphaelites and of the Aesthetic Movement, which he satirised in his painting "A Private View at the Royal Academy" (1883), in which Oscar Wilde is depicted discoursing on art while Frith's friends look on disapprovingly. Fellow traditionalist Frederic Leighton is featured in the painting, which also portrays painter John Everett Millais and novelist Anthony Trollope.  In his later years, he painted many copies of his famous paintings, as well as more sexually uninhibited works, such as the nude "After the Bath". A well-known raconteur, his writings, most notably his chatty autobiography, were very popular.  In 1856, Frith was photographed at "The Photographed Institute" by Robert Howlett, as part of a series of portraits of "fine artists". The picture was among a group exhibited at the Art Treasures Exhibition in Manchester in 1857.  Frith is buried in Kensal Green Cemetery in London.

Exhibitions and legacy.

The first major retrospective in Frith's native Britain for half a century was staged at the Guildhall Art Gallery, London in November 2006. It transferred to Mercer Art Gallery in Harrogate, North Yorkshire in March 2007. Frith's study for his last major work, "The Private View", 1881, is in the Mercer Art Gallery. Frith has paintings in the collection of several British institutions including Derby Art Gallery, Sheffield, Harrogate and the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Personal life.

Frith was married twice. He had twelve children with his first wife, Isabelle, whilst a mile down the road maintaining a mistress (Mary Alford, formerly his ward) and seven more children – all a marked contrast to the upright family scenes depicted in paintings like "Many Happy Returns of the Day". Frith married Alford a year after the death of Isabelle in 1880. A daughter from his first family, Jane Ellen Panton, published "Leaves of a life" in 1908. It is a book of childhood reminiscences describing her father and the family's set of artist and literary friendships, chiefly members of The Clique. Walter Frith, the third son from William P. Frith's first marriage, was the author of fourteen plays and three novels.

William Powell Frith (9 January 1819 – 2 November 1909) was an English painter specialising in genre subjects and panoramic narrative works of life in the Victorian era. He was elected to the Royal Academy in 1853, presenting "The Sleeping Model" as his Diploma work. He has been described as the "greatest British painter of the social scene since Hogarth".

威廉·鲍威尔·弗里思(William Powell Frith,1819年-1月19日-1909年-12月9日),英国维多利亚时代画家,擅长风俗画和叙述性全景画。1853年,他获选为皇家美术学院院士,在入会时,他提交了自己的作品,Sleeping Model。他被誉为“贺加斯以来,英国最伟大的风俗画家”。


Description.

Casa Malaparte is a red masonry box with reverse pyramidal stairs leading to the roof patio. On the roof is a freestanding curving white wall of increasing height. It sits on a dangerous cliff 32 metres above the sea overlooking the Gulf of Salerno. Access to this private property is either by foot from the town of Capri or by boat and a staircase cut into the cliff. Casa Malaparte's interior and exterior (particularly the rooftop patio) are prominently featured in Jean-Luc Godard's 1963 film, "Contempt" ("Le Mépris").

Renovation.

The house entrance access was carved itself through the outside staircase in its center but the owner bricked the entrance and moved it to the side of the house in 1940. Casa Malaparte was abandoned and neglected after the death of Curzio Malaparte in 1957. It suffered from vandalism and natural elements for many years and was seriously damaged, including the desecration of a cocklestove, before the first serious renovation started in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The building was donated to the Giorgio Ronchi Foundation in 1972.  Malaparte's great-nephew, Niccolò Rositani, is primarily responsible for restoring the house to a livable state. Much of the original furniture is still there, because it is too large to remove. The marble sunken tub in the bedroom of his mistress still exists and functions. His bedroom and book lined study are still intact. Many Italian industrialists have donated materials for the preservation.  Today the house is used for serious study and cultural events.

Access.

The house can only be reached by traversing the island. The last twenty-minute walk is over private property, belonging to the Giorgio Ronchi Foundation. It takes an hour and a half to walk there from Capri's Piazzetta at the summit of the funicular from the Marina Grande. The house can be reached by sea, on calm days only, as the waves are cast upon treacherous rocks and there has not been an official pier for many years. From the sea, one must climb 99 steps to reach the house. Malaparte gave his friend and boatman money to open a restaurant which is run by the boatman's son today. It is the only restaurant one would pass on the path from the Piazzetta to the promontory where Tiberius built his palace, Villa Jovis.  The book "Malaparte: Casa come me" (A House Like Me) edited by Michael McDonough, includes drawings and essays by many prominent artists and architects, such as James Wines, Tom Wolfe, Robert Venturi, Emilio Ambasz, Ettore Sottsass, Michael Graves, Willem Dafoe, Peter Eisenman, Wiel Arets and many other luminaries of arts and letters.

Casa Malaparte (also Villa Malaparte) is a house on Punta Massullo, on the eastern side of the isle of Capri, Italy. It is one of the best examples of Italian modern and contemporary architecture.

马拉帕尔泰别墅("Casa Malaparte"或"Villa Malaparte")是意大利南部卡普里岛东侧悬崖上的一座住宅,是意大利现代和当代建筑的最佳范例之一。


Early life.

Carter was born in Greenville, Mississippi. She is the daughter of the former United States State Department Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs, Hodding Carter III, and his first wife, the former Margaret Ainsworth Wolfe. She graduated from Walnut Hill School for the Performing Arts in Natick, Massachusetts, and Skidmore College in Saratoga Springs, New York, and attended Tulane University in New Orleans, Louisiana.

Career.

Carter began her career in the theatre and was a member of the Circle Repertory Company in New York. She created the role of Effie Herrington at San Diego's Old Globe Theatre in "Up In Saratoga", written by Terrence McNally and directed by Jack O'Brien. Her second West Coast theatre appearance was at the Pasadena Playhouse in a revival of "Biloxi Blues". At the same time, she began acting on television, playing Sierra Estaban Reyes Montgomery in the CBS daytime soap opera, "As the World Turns", from 1985 to 1988 and a short reprise in 1994. After leaving daytime TV, she guest starred in a number of television shows, before making her big screen debut in a starring role in the 1989 romantic comedy film, "How I Got Into College" opposite Anthony Edwards.  In 1990, Carter played Rhonda LeBeck in the western monster film, "Tremors" opposite Kevin Bacon and Fred Ward. She received the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination for her performance in film. She later had the recurring role in the ABC drama series, "China Beach" as nurse Linda Matlock Lanier. In 1992, she played the leading role in the action film "Sweet Justice" and, in 1996, had a supporting part in Rob Reiner's drama, "Ghosts of Mississippi". The following years, she guest starred on "Law & Order", "Murder, She Wrote", "", "ER", "The Outer Limits", "NYPD Blue", "Chicago Hope", "Judging Amy", "Strong Medicine" and "". Carter was also regular cast member in the short-lived Fox sitcom, "Secret Service Guy", in 1997. She also had number of leading roles on many made-for-television movies. Her final screen appearance was in the 2005 independent film "Halfway Decent", co-starring with Ernie Hudson.

Personal life.

Carter was married from 1987 to 1994 to the actor Steven Weber whom she met on the set of "As the World Turns" when he played the character of Kevin Gibson (from 1985 to 1986). Her second marriage to James Woodruff (1997–2007) also ended in divorce. She has two daughters from that marriage.

Legal Matters.

On July 30, 2019, Carter was arrested in Las Vegas, Nevada and booked on one count of possessing a stolen vehicle and fourteen counts of possessing a credit card without the cardholder's consent. Both charges are felonies. Prosecutors have ninety days to file a criminal complaint. Carter was released from custody by a Justice of the Peace with the promise to return for an October court date.

Elizabeth Fearn "Finn" Carter (born 9 March 1960) is an American actress. She is best known for her role in the 1990 film "Tremors".

菲恩·卡特(英文:Finn Carter,1960年3月9日),美国女演员,主要作品有《从地心窜出》。


History.

The ordering of a new Norwegian submersible design stemmed from a 1972 decision to modernise the Royal Norwegian Navy (RNoN) submarine flotilla, which then consisted of the aging submarines. The contract was signed on 30 September 1982 for six boats with Thyssen Nordseewerke, Emden. An option for two more submarines was included in the original deal, however, it was never picked up.  The construction of the vessels was an international project. The combat systems were made in Norway by Kongsberg, the attack sonar is German and the flank sonars French. The hull sections were produced in Norway and assembled in Germany by Thyssen Nordseewerke. In Germany, the design is known as the "U-Boot-Klasse 210".  When commissioned, the "Ula"s were the first Norwegian submarines to have enough bunks for the entire crew and a shower.  The "Ula"-class submarines are among the most silent and maneuverable submarines in the world. This, in combination with their relatively small size, makes them difficult to detect from surface vessels and ideal for operations in coastal areas. The "Ula" class is regarded as both the most effective and cost-effective weapons in the RNoN.

Ship history.

In 1989, while undergoing trials, "Ula" was damaged by a practice torpedo. In March 1991, "Uredd" was involved in an accident while docking. In February 1992, "Uredd" suffered a control room fire.  In recent years, several submarines of the "Ula" class have been deployed in the Mediterranean Sea in support of the NATO Operation Active Endeavour, where their intelligence-gathering ability surpassed expectations. Their operational availability proved to be highest of all ships taking part in the operation. This mission highlighted a need for better temperature regulation for crew comfort in warm waters. As a result, HNoMS "Ula" was "tropicalized" by the installation of new cooling systems, and two more of the class designated for "tropicalization".

Future submarine capability.

During 2006-2008 the "Ula" class was slated for modernisation. Most notably, new communication equipment (Link 11), new electronic warfare support measures and a periscope upgrade. In May 2008, a contract for new sonars was signed, with the first submarine to have new sonar 21 months after that, and the last 52 months later. Furthermore, Kongsberg was contracted in 2012 to upgrade the submarines' combat systems. The "Ula" class will probably be kept in service until 2020.  In 2012 the Norwegian MoD set 2014 as a deadline for deciding whether to further extend the operative life of the Ula class after their slated end-of-life in 2020, or to replace them with a new fleet. In December 2014, the Norwegian Ministry of Defence made the decision to begin the process of replacing the "Ula"s. As part of that decision, the "Ula"-class submarines would be kept in service for a further five years, but would not exceed 35 years total service as that would be too costly.  In 2016, two suppliers (DCNS and Thyssen Krupp) were shortlisted to provide competing options to replace the Ula-class boats. In February 2017, Thyssen Krupp was selected to provide four replacement submarines based on the Type 212-class for service entry starting in the mid-2020s. A firm build contract is anticipated in the first half of 2020.

Vessels.

Six submarines were delivered (1989–1992) to the RNoN. All are based at Haakonsvern in Bergen. The boats are all named after places in Norway, with the exception of "Uredd" ("Fearless" in English), in honour of the World War II submarine. The ship prefix for RNoN vessels is KNM ("Kongelig Norsk Marine", Royal Norwegian Navy), in English HNoMS (His Norwegian Majesty's Ship).

References.

Citations Books

The "Ula" class is a Norwegian submarine type which was assembled in Germany in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The class, consisting of six vessels, is currently the only submarine type in service with the Royal Norwegian Navy.

乌拉级潜艇(U-210型潜艇)、为德国北海公司与挪威康斯堡公司联合设计研发,委托在德国埃姆登生产制造,并于挪威皇家海军服役的常规动力潜艇。


Background.

Böhrnsen was born on 12 June 1949 in Gröpelingen, then a workers' district of Bremen, to parents active in the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and labor unions. His father, Gustav Böhrnsen, a communist turned social democrat, was also an SPD politician and served as chairman of the SPD group in the Parliament of Bremen 1968-1971. Jens Böhrnsen joined the SPD in 1967. At the University of Kiel, he studied law, and concluded his studies with the first "Staatsexamen" in 1973, and the second "Staatsexamen" in 1977 at the University of Hamburg. He worked as an assessor in Bremen's administration, thereafter as a judge for 17 years, before he was elected to the Parliament of Bremen ("Bürgerschaft").

Political career.

In 1999, Böhrnsen was elected head of the SPD group of the Parliament of Bremen. Bremen's legislative assembly decided to elect Böhrnsen as mayor after he had won the Social Democrat primary for the mayoralty, which had become vacant after incumbent Henning Scherf announced on 28 September 2005 that he intended to resign in December. On his election on 8 November 2005 as a mayor and head of senate of Bremen, he took his oath of office.  Recently, Böhrnsen has been involved in the debate revolving around a modernization of Germany's constitution. In the process, he rejected demands for the state of Bremen to merge with Lower Saxony to form a new northern state (a unit within Germany's federal system) — a demand that had been making the rounds as Bremen is not only the smallest German state, but has also been saddled with an extraordinary amount of debt for the past 15 years. After the 2007 state elections, Böhrnsen abandoned the coalition with the Christian Democrats (CDU) and instead started a coalition with the Greens. He is longlisted for the 2008 World Mayor award.  As president of the Senate of Bremen, Böhrnsen was elected President of the German Bundesrat for the year 2009–2010, starting 1 November 2009. This office rotates between the heads of government of the states of Germany following a defined schedule. According to the German constitution, article 57, the head of the Bundresrat is the designated substitute for the President of Germany. When Horst Köhler resigned from the presidency on 31 May 2010, Böhrnsen assumed the functions of head of state of Germany until the election of a successor by a Federal Convention. The successor was Christian Wulff, who assumed office upon his election on 30 June 2010.

Jens Böhrnsen (born 12 June 1949) is a German politician of the SPD. From 2005 to 2015, he has served as the President of the Senate and Mayor of the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen, that is, the head of government of the city-state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen. From 1 November 2009 until 31 October 2010 he was President of the Bundesrat and "ex officio" deputy to the President of Germany. Because of that he was acting head of state of Germany after the resignation of President Horst Köhler on 31 May 2010 and before the election of Christian Wulff as Köhler's successor on 30 June 2010. After voting for the SPD losses of more than five percentage points in the state election on May 10, 2015 Böhrnsen declared the next day that he would retire as head of government. His successor in the office of the Bremen government was Carsten Sieling, who was officially nominated on 18 May 2015 by the Bremen SPD.

延斯·伯恩森(,1949年),德国政治人物。2005年至今,担任不来梅汉萨自由市参议院议长兼市长(即不来梅州州长)。


History.

History and archaeology may be the most valuable resource of Navarino Island and its adjacent sectors. It is considered to have one of the most dense concentrations of archeological sites in the world. The Yahgan were nomadic people, and moved their settlements on a seasonal basis. Their middens show their dependence of fish and shellfish for food, as well as some vegetables that they gathered.  There is a Megalithic Yaghan archaeological site dating to about 10,000 years ago near Wulaia Bay, which C. Michael Hogan terms the "Bahia Wulaia Dome Middens". Numerous remains of huts surrounded by ring middens have been found on the lowland terraces.  Interest in the Yahgan culture attracts tourists. At the regional museum, the Martin Gusinde Anthropological Museum, exhibits of the Yaghan culture: their dwellings, fish traps, and crafts; and the remains of the 19th-century English missions can be seen. Aquatic birds, and the geology and botany of the island, also attract tourists.  The waters around Navarino Island were the location of the Snipe incident a military incident that took place between Chile and Argentina in 1958 as a result of a disputed border line in the Beagle Channel. The Snipe Incident was part of the wider Beagle Conflict between Chile and Argentina which brought both countries to the brink of war in 1978.  Both countries disagreed about the sovereign rights over the zone and Snipe, an uninhabitable islet between Picton Island and Navarino Island, claimed by both. Chileans call the waterway around the islet "Beagle Channel", but in Argentina they called it "Moat channel" on the grounds that the Beagle Channel, allegedly, went south around Navarino Island.

Name.

Jacques l'Hermite's Nassau Fleet were the first Europeans to disembark at the Navarino Island, in 1624. They recorded the native name of the island as "Wulla". HMS "Beagle" visited the island under the command of Phillip Parker King and Robert FitzRoy as part of a survey started in 1829. They named the island after then-recent Battle of Navarino (1827) which was a turning point of the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire.

Features.

The coast of Navarino Island offers opportunities for sea kayaking among small barren islands and channels surrounded by native vegetation and populated by a rich variety of birds.  There is fishing in the Murray Channel. Boat trips can also be taken to visit the glaciers of the northwest arm of the Beagle Channel (located in the Alberto de Agostini National Park), and towards Cape Horn and Chilean Antarctica.  There is a hiking circuit around the jagged pinnacles known as the Dientes de Navarino. The trail passes peaks known as Cerro Clem and Montes Lindenmayer, named in 2001 by the Chilean Ministry of Natural Resources for the author of the Lonely Planet guide. There are also areas for rock climbing.  Several ranches have been established on the island. The northern section of the island is suitable for horseback riding.  Salmon trout are found in abundance in Navarino Lake, and on the north coast of the island, the sea enters deep coves suitable for fishing snook.

Climate.

The island has a polar tundra climate (Köppen: "ET"). On the northern coastal strip, where Puerto Williams is located, the annual average precipitation is, with an average temperature of. The average temperature in the warmest month is, and in the coldest month. Further south, annual precipitation increases to about, with a slight diminution in temperatures. Precipitation is distributed more or less uniformly across the year, and some falls as snow. In the extensive southernmost part of the island, including Lakes Navarino and Windhond, there is an increase in precipitation, a diminution of summer temperatures, and an increase in the winter temperatures through

Flora.

In the North end of the island the vegetation is characterized by the deciduous Magellanic forest, whose characteristic species are Lenga Beech ("Nothofagus pumilio"), with Ñirre Beech ("Nothofagus antarctica") in the driest areas, Coihue of Magallanes ("Nothofagus betuloides") in the wettest areas and some shrublands and Magellanic moorland in areas of poor drainage.  Immediately to the south is the evergreen Magellanic rainforest, probably associated with the increased precipitation, the greater altitude and an improvement in the drainage. The characteristic species is "Nothofagus betuloides" (Coihue of Magallanes), forming pure communities in sectors of greater altitude or coasts exposed to the wind.  The south portion of the island, surrounding Lakes Navarino and Windhond, and the territories of the southern coast, have a vegetation of Magellanic moorland. This includes a series of vegetal communities, the Esfagnosa Tundra ("Sphagnum magellanicum") and the Pulvinada Tundra ("Donatia fascicularis" - "Astelia pumila").  At higher altitudes, the terrain is Andean Desert, which lacks trees or tall shrubs and is less than 30% covered by vegetation.

Fauna.

Like much of surrounding Tierra del Fuego, Navarino Island has been severely affected by invasive beavers. The Canadian beavers were introduced to Tierra del Fuego in the 1940s by the Argentinian government in an effort to kickstart a fur trade in the area. With no natural predators, the beavers quickly spread to neighbouring islands.  Because the trees in Tierra del Fuego and Isla Navarino do not have any natural defences, they are unable to recover once felled by beavers.  Researchers from the University of North Texas, when studying Navarino Island found that the slow-moving water behind beaver damns has attracted two further invasive species to the Island, muskrat and mink. While the mink prey on the muskrats, they also feed on native geese and duck, leading to what they term an "invasive meltdown process".

Natural and cultural features.

Cultural historical sites are Bahia Wulaia and the English Mission of Douglas Creek. The large Stirling House, an iron Meccano construction brought in 1869 from England by the Anglican English missionaries, used to be in Ushuaia. It was moved to Tekenika Bay, and then was installed for mission use at Douglas Creek. In the Yahgan cemetery at Mejillones Bay, tombs dating from the first half of the 20th century show elements of religious syncretism.  Villa Ukika is a district of Puerto Williams where the last few Yaghan people live. Puerto Navarino, a fishing port for king crabs, has wooden buildings, constructed mainly in the 1930s. Puerto Toro is the world's southernmost settlement.  Skiing is available in Cerro La Bandera, near Puerto Williams.  Whales and orcas can be seen in Windhond Bay. The area of Isla Navarino and the surrounding islands have been declared a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in June 2005, called Cabo de Hornos Biosphere Reserve.

Access.

Puerto Williams can be reached by air from Punta Arenas, by DAP through the Guardiamarina Zañartu Airport, daily except Sundays. In addition there is a weekly ferry, crossing the Strait of Magellan and the Brecknock, Cockburn and Beagle Channels. The boat trip takes between 30 and 36 hours. As of January 2011, there was also a commercial connection by motorboat between Ushuaia and Isla Navarino.

Navarino Island () is a Chilean island located between Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, to the north, and Cape Horn, to the south. The island forms part of the Commune of Cabo de Hornos, the southernmost commune in Chile and in the world, belonging to Antártica Chilena Province in the XII Region of Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica. Its population is concentrated primarily in the communal capital, Puerto Williams, and in small settlements like Puerto Navarino, Río Guanaco and Puerto Toro. The highest point of the island is Pico Navarino at. The island is a popular destination for fly-fishers.

纳瓦里诺岛()是智利火地群岛的岛屿,位于麦哲伦-智利南极大区,北面以比格尔海峡与大火地岛分隔,南面是隔相望的伍拉斯顿群岛,西面则是奥斯特岛,是距离南极洲最近的陆地, 面积为2,473平方千米,最高点海拔高度1,195米,北岸平均年降雨量467毫米,而南岸则是800毫米。人口主要集中在靠近比格尔海峡的北面,岛上最大聚落为岛屿北侧的威廉斯港,东北侧则有托罗港。


History.

The first use of agricultural engineering was the introduction of irrigation in large scale agriculture. The practice would not expand until the industrial revolution.  With the rise of tractors and machines in the industrial revolution, a new age in Agricultural Engineering began. Over the course of the industrial revolution, mechanical harvesters and planters would replace field hands in most of the food and cash crop industries. In the 20th century, with the rise in reliable engines in airplanes, cropdusters were implemented to disperse pesticides. The introduction of these engineering concepts into the field of agriculture allowed for an enormous boost in the productivity of crops, dubbed a "second agricultural revolution".  In the late 20th century, Genetically Modified Foods (GMOs) were created, giving another large boost to crop yields and resistance to pests.

Specialties.

Agricultural engineers may engage in any of the following areas:  Crop processing and Storage which deals with post harvest handling of crops

Agricultural engineers.

Agricultural engineers may perform tasks such as planning, supervising and managing the building of dairy effluent schemes, irrigation, drainage, flood water control systems, performing environmental impact assessments, agricultural product processing and interpret research results and implement relevant practices. A large percentage of agricultural engineers work in academia or for government agencies such as the United States Department of Agriculture or state agricultural extension services. Some are consultants, employed by private engineering firms, while others work in industry, for manufacturers of agricultural machinery, equipment, processing technology, and structures for housing livestock and storing crops. Agricultural engineers work in production, sales, management, research and development, or applied science.  In the United Kingdom the term Agricultural Engineer is often also used to describe a person that repairs or modifies agricultural equipment.

ASABE standards.

The American Society of Agricultural Engineers, now known as the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE), was founded in 1907. It is a leading organization in the Agricultural Engineering field. The ASABE provides safety and regulatory standards for the agricultural industry. These standards and regulations are developed on an international scale and include topics on fertilizers, soil conditions, fisheries, biofuels, biogas, feed machinery, tractors, and machinery.

Education.

The first curriculum in agricultural engineering was established at Iowa State University by J. B. Davidson in 1905.  Many universities have graduate programs dedicated to the study of agricultural engineering and bioengineering. These programs are important to the continuation of education and advancement in the field.

Agricultural engineering is the engineering of agricultural production and processing. Agricultural engineering combines the disciplines of mechanical, civil, electrical, Food science and chemical engineering principles with a knowledge of agricultural principles according to technological principles. A key goal of this discipline is to improve the efficacy and sustainability of agricultural practices.

农业工程是把工程科学和技术知识使用于农业生产,加工以及农村生活环境改善与生态维护的工程学科。农业工程学科结合动物生物学、植物生物学和机械、土木、化学工程的知识和原理,研究农业机械化、自动化和电气化,农业水土资源的保护和利用,食品和农产品加工和保鲜,和农业生物环境优化与能源工程等。截至2010年,根据US.News的排名,美国排名第一的农业工程位于伊利诺伊大学香槟分校(Urbana-Champaign)。2013年,US.News的排名,美国农业与生物系统工程专业排名第一的是普渡大学。


Operations.

Motorizing infantry is the first stage towards the mechanization of an army. Civilian trucks are often readily adaptable to military uses of transporting soldiers, towing guns, and carrying equipment and supplies. Motorization greatly increases the strategic mobility of infantry units, which would otherwise rely on marches or railroads. In practice, armies have found it advantageous to develop trucks to military specifications, such as all-wheel drive, to have vehicles that function reliably in extremes of weather and terrain.  Motorization provides no direct tactical advantage in small-unit combat, as trucks and jeeps are vulnerable to artillery and small arms fire. However, in larger battles, motorized infantry has an advantage in mobility allowing them to move to critical sectors of the battlefield faster, allowing better response to enemy movements, and the ability to outmaneuver the enemy.  The disadvantage of motorization is that fuel is critical; if motorized divisions run out of fuel, they may be required to abandon their vehicles.

History.

World War One was the first major war to see use of gas-powered vehicles used to transport supplies and personnel, and to fight the enemy. Unarmored and armored cars were dispatched to attack enemy positions and trains, and were used to patrol the front. However, this was on a small scale and a majority of movement was on foot and logistics with trains and horse-drawn logistics.  The Pancho Villa Expedition was a notable use of the armored car by the United States Cavalry under the command of General Pershing. There a Lieutenant George S. Patton was introduced to mechanized warfare when he led a small group of men against Villa's forces at San Miguelito Ranch.  After the war, the major militaries of the world saw the great benefit that motorized vehicles could have on the logistics and combat effectiveness of their infantry units.  In the 1920s, the British created the Experimental Mechanized Force between the wars to test the capabilities of all-arms formations of mechanized units, this included motorized infantry ("Motor Battalions").  The speed advantages of motorized infantry first became important in World War II in the German Blitzkrieg. While it was no more robust than the regular infantry that moved on foot, its increased speed became decisive in the Blitzkrieg strategy, as it could follow the panzer forces and defend its flanks.  Notwithstanding the obvious advantages of motorization, most countries opted for only partial motorization of their infantry because of the cost and logistical implications caused by the deployment of so many vehicles. Even large armies were affected by such factors. The motorization of Armies required massive industrialization of the economies in order to meet the heavy cost for vehicle production, replacement parts, and fueling.  The bulk of German and Soviet infantry remained on foot. While some units of the Wehrmacht, e.g. armored divisions, were highly mechanized, most of the army was still using horses due to their inconsistent oil supply.  US infantry divisions were able to motorized a major portion of their infantry due to their industrial base. Likewise, infantry divisions of the British Empire could motorize chosen subordinate units, but infantry advanced usually on foot.  Finally, after WW2, most armies completely motorized and partially mechanized their infantry. The engineering improvements throughout the 20th century allowed for increasingly bigger vehicles to be deployed.  In Russia and the former Soviet Union, the term "motostrelki" (мотострелки in Cyrillic) is used to indicate mechanized infantry; that usage, during the Korean War, prevailed in all Warsaw Pact countries. This "motor rifle" divisions were mostly mechanized but had a core of motorized infantry with them. In practice, this meant that the infantry of the Soviet and Russian "Tank" divisions rode in fully tracked BMP vehicles, while those in "Motor Rifle" divisions were equipped with wheeled BTR vehicles.

Present day.

After the Vietnam War, the US military saw the need for light squad based transportation. This project became the Humvee which was used extensively by the Army and Marine Corps in the Gulf War, Early War in Afghanistan, and Early Iraq War. The latter two conflicts resulted in a large scale insurgency and saw the increase in use of IEDs. This soon became the largest source of casualties to NATO forces. The result was a shift away from lightly armored vehicles to more mechanized vehicles or more heavily armored MRAPs. During the duration of the Humvee's use in Iraq and Afghanistan and before the roll-out of MRAPs, it slowly became more heavily armored with larger turret shields, bulletproof glass and extra plating on its doors and components. Less armored but faster and lighter MRAPs were developed under the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle program, which is now phase in the Oshkosh L-ATV and M-ATV. It has been described as "The first vehicle purpose-built for modern battlefield-networks." These vehicles have seen deployments in Rojava, Syria in Operation Inherent Resolve.  For transportation outside of combat, the US military fields a variety of trucks including the Medium Tactical Vehicles replacement for the Marine Corps and the Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles for the Army. The National Guard and other reserve units also field older models such as the M939 5-ton 6x6.

In NATO and most other western countries, motorized infantry is infantry that is transported by trucks or other motor vehicles. It is distinguished from mechanized infantry, which is carried in armoured personnel carriers or infantry fighting vehicles, and from light infantry, which can typically operate autonomously from supporting elements and vehicles for relatively long periods and may be airborne.

摩托化步兵(Motorised Infantry)是在固定编制内以摩托化方式实施机动的步兵,如乘载摩托车、卡车等机动车的移动方式。这区别于传统的徒步步兵(重武器拆解后人背肩扛)、骡马化步兵(重武器是驮载或挽马牵引)。因此,乘载装甲人员输送车(APC)或步兵战车(IFV)的火力和装备更强的机械化步兵、装甲步兵实际上也属于广义的摩托化步兵。例如,二战时的德军的摩托化步兵实际上就是指装甲掷弹兵;而二战时苏军的“机械化军”下辖4个机械化旅与1个坦克旅,实际上这些机械化旅基本没有装甲车可乘,而是乘卡车机动。冷战时期的苏军摩托化步兵是乘载BMP步兵战车或BTR轮式装甲输送车,因此实际上是重型装甲步兵。


History.

Besides the production of microscopes, Carl Zeiss took over repairing optical instruments of other manufacturers. He did this to pursue the rivalries development. At the turn from 19th to the 20th century, the staff of the Carl Zeiss company began to collect optical instruments.  In June 1922, the Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung established the Optical Museum; the exhibition was located in the neighbouring Volkshaus (community hall). Johannes Schreiter and Hans Schlag designed a building for the 1917 founded "college of ophthalmology". The reinforced concrete construction was carried out during 1923/24 by the company Dyckerhoff & Widmann (DYWIDAG) from Nuremberg. In October 1924, the exhibition was moved into the new building at no. 12 Carl-Zeiss-Platz in which it is still housed today. The collections were reserved for a selected group of people for purposes of research and not open to the public.  During the Second World War in 1941/42, the exhibition was relocated to underground production facilities around Jena. The Optical Museum was preserved from the Soviet occupation's dismantling programme 1946. The first permanent exhibition was launched 1965 in the Griesbach Garden House. In 1976/77, the exhibition was returned to the building at no. 12 Carl-Zeiss-Platz. On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the death of Carl Zeiss in December 1988, the historical Zeiss-Workshop (circa 1860) was opened as part of the Optical Museum in the neighboured Volkshaus.  Accompanied with the opening, the museum was renamed as the "Zeiss-Museum" but the name was changed back in 1991. In June 1992, the Optical Museum was taken into the trusteeship of the newly established Ernst-Abbe-Foundation. The historical Zeiss-Workshop was moved in 2002 from the Volkshaus to the Optical Museum.  The Carl Zeiss Foundation, the Ernst Abbe Foundation, Carl Zeiss AG, the city of Jena and the Friedrich Schiller University in Jena joined forces to establish the Deutsches Optisches Museum Foundation on 9 September 2016. The Foundation has been tasked with expanding the existing Optical Museum and turning it into the Deutsches Optisches Museum.

Show-Rooms.

The present exhibition covers an area of 1200 m2 at three floors:

The Deutsches Optisches Museum Jena is a science and technology museum displaying optical instruments from eight centuries. It gives a technical and cultural-historical survey of the development of optical instruments. The development of the city Jena to the centre of the optical industries since the mid-19th-century is integrated in the exhibition, connected with the lifeworks of Ernst Abbe, Carl Zeiss and Otto Schott.

耶拿光学博物馆()是一座位于德国图林根州城市耶拿的科学技术博物馆。这座博物馆展示了五个世纪的光学仪器的历史,藏品包括眼镜、望远镜、显微镜和照相机等,其中收藏的眼镜是全欧洲最多的。光学博物馆成立于1922年6月,由卡尔·蔡司创建。现在耶纳光学博物馆是德国唯一一座以光学为主题的博物馆。


English translations.

In the English language, this work is known under three different titles. Although English publications about Schopenhauer played a role in the recognition of his fame as a philosopher in later life (1851 until his death in 1860) and a three volume translation by R. B. Haldane and J. Kemp, titled "The World as Will and Idea", appeared already in 1883–1886, the first English translation of the expanded edition of this work under this title "The World as Will and Representation" appeared by E. F. J. Payne (who also translated several other works of Schopenhauer) as late as in 1958 (paperback editions in 1966 and 1969). A later English translation by Richard E. Aquila in collaboration with David Carus is titled "The World as Will and Presentation" (2008).  There is some debate over the best way to convey, in English, the meaning of "Vorstellung," a key concept in Schopenhauer's philosophy and used in the title of his main work. Schopenhauer uses "Vorstellung" to describe whatever comes before in the mind in consciousness (as opposed to the "will," which is what the world that appears to us as "Vorstellung" is in itself.) In ordinary usage, "Vorstellung" could be rendered as "idea" (thus the title of Haldane and Kemp's translation.) However, Kant uses the Latin term "repraesentatio" when discussing the meaning of "Vorstellung" ("Critique of Pure Reason" A320/B376). Thus, as is commonly done, one might use the English term'representation' to render "Vorstellung" (as done by E. F. J. Payne in his translation.)  In the introduction to his translation with David Carus (first published 2008), philosopher Richard Aquila argues that the reader will not grasp the details of the philosophy of Schopenhauer properly without rendering "Vorstelling" as "presentation." It is the notion of a performance or theatrical presentation – of which one is the spectator – that is key in this interpretation. The world that we perceive can be understood as a "presentation" of objects in the theatre of our own mind. "Vorstellung" can refer to "what is presented" or to the process of presenting it. Schopenhauer argues that what does the "presenting" – what sets the world as 'presentation' before one – is the cognizant subject itself. The primary sense of "Vorstellung" used by Schopenhauer, Aquila writes, is that of what is presented to a subject: the presented "object" ("qua" presented, as opposed to what it is "in itself"). Aquila argues that translating "Vorstellung" as'representation' fails to "bring out the dual notion of that which is'set before' a cognizant subject as its object, and the presentational activity of the subject therein engaged" and is potentially misleading from Schopenhauer's principal point.

Relationship to earlier philosophical work.

Schopenhauer demands that his doctoral dissertation "On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason", which appeared in 1813, be read before "WWR" as an introduction. Referring to "On the Fourfold Root," Schopenhauer states in the preface to the first edition of "WWR" that it is "absolutely impossible to truly understand the present work unless the reader is familiar with this introduction and propadeutic, and the contents of that essay are presupposed here as much as if they had been included in the book."  Furthermore, Schopenhauer states at the beginning that his book assumes the reader's prior knowledge of the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. Schopenhauer asserted that his philosophy was the natural continuation of Kant's, and is regarded by some as remaining more faithful to Kant's metaphysical system of transcendental idealism, expounded in the "Critique of Pure Reason" (1781), than any of the other later German Idealists. However, "The World as Will and Representation" contains an appendix entitled "Critique of the Kantian philosophy," in which Schopenhauer rejects most of Kant's ethics and significant parts of his epistemology and aesthetics. As Schopenhauer explains: "However much I take the achievements of the great Kant as my point of departure, a serious study of his works has nonetheless enabled me to discover significant errors, and I have had to separate these errors out and show them to be unsound so that I could then presuppose and apply what is true and excellent in his theories in a pure form, freed from these errors."  Schopenhauer saw the human will as our one window to the reality behind the world as representation, i.e. the external world as we experience it through our mental faculties. According to Schopenhauer, the will is the 'inner essence' of the entire world, i.e. the Kantian thing-in-itself ("Ding an sich"), and exists independently of the forms of the principle of sufficient reason that govern the world as representation. Schopenhauer believed that while we may be precluded from direct knowledge of the Kantian noumenon, we may gain knowledge about it to a certain extent (unlike Kant, for whom the noumenon was completely unknowable). This is because, according to Schopenhauer, the relationship between the world as representation and the world as it is 'in itself' can be understood by investigating the relationship between our bodies (material objects, i.e. representations, existing in space and time) and our will. Another important difference between the philosophies of Schopenhauer and Kant is Schopenhauer's rejection of Kant's doctrine of twelve categories of the understanding. Schopenhauer claims that eleven of Kant's categories are superfluous 'blind windows' meant for the purposes of architectonic symmetry. Schopenhauer argues that there are three "a priori" forms by which our minds render our experience of the world intelligible to ourselves: time, space, and causality.  Schopenhauer also states in his introduction that the reader will be at his best prepared to understand the theories in "The World as Will and Representation" if he has lingered in the school of 'the divine Plato': Schopenhauer frequently acknowledges Plato's influence on the development of his theories and, particularly in the context of aesthetics, speaks of the Platonic forms as existing on an intermediate ontological level between the representation and the Will. The reader will be at an even further advantage if they are already familiar with the ancient Indian philosophy contained within the Upanishads.

Development and structure of the work.

The development of Schopenhauer's ideas took place very early in his career (1814–1818) and culminated in the publication of the first volume of "Will and Representation" in 1819. This first volume consisted of four books—covering his epistemology, ontology, aesthetics and ethics, in order. Much later in his life, in 1844, Schopenhauer published a second edition in two volumes, the first a virtual reprint of the original, and the second a new work consisting of clarifications to and additional reflections on the first. His views had not changed substantially.  Schopenhauer states in the preface to the first edition that "The World as Will and Representation" aims to "convey a single thought." The resulting structure of the work is therefore, in his words, "organic rather than chainlike," with all of the book's earlier parts presupposing the later parts "almost as much as the later ones presuppose the earlier." Each of the work's four main parts function as "four perspectives ["Gesichtspunkte"], as it were, on the one thought." Thus Schopenhauer counsels reading the book more than once, with considerable patience the first time. Schopenhauer addresses the structure of the work in the following passage from Book IV, section 54:  His belated fame after 1851 stimulated renewed interest in his seminal work, and led to a third and final edition with 136 more pages in 1859, one year before his death. In the preface to the latter, Schopenhauer noted: "If I also have at last arrived, and have the satisfaction at the end of my life of seeing the beginning of my influence, it is with the hope that, according to an old rule, it will last longer in proportion to the lateness of its beginning."

Volume 1.

Schopenhauer used the word "will" as a human's most familiar designation for the concept that can also be signified by other words such as "desire," "striving," "wanting," "effort," and "urging." Schopenhauer's philosophy holds that all nature, including man, is the expression of an insatiable "will". It is through the will, the in-itself of all existence, that humans find all their suffering. Desire for more is what causes this suffering. He argues that only aesthetic pleasure creates momentary escape from the will. Schopenhauer's concept of desire has strong parallels in Buddhist thought. Buddhism identifies the individual's pervasive sense of dissatisfaction as driving craving, roughly similar to what Schopenhauer would call the will to life. Both assert that remedies for this condition include contemplative, ascetic activities.  The epigraph to volume one is a quotation from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: "Ob nicht Natur zuletzt sich doch ergründe?" ('Might not nature finally fathom itself?'). The quotation comes from a poem to Staatsminister von Voigt, 27 September 1816.

Epistemology (Book I).

The opening sentence of Schopenhauer's work is "Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung": 'the world is my representation' (alternatively, 'idea' or 'presentation.') In the first book, Schopenhauer considers the world as representation. Specifically, the first book deals with representation subject to the principle of sufficient reason (German: "Satz vom Grunde"). In Book III, Schopenhauer returns to considering the world as representation; this time, he focuses on representation "independent" of the principle of sufficient reason (i.e. the Platonic Idea, the immediate and adequate objecthood of the will, which is the object of art).  Schopenhauer begins "WWR" by examining the world as it shows itself to us in our minds: objects ordered necessarily by space and time and by cause-and-effect relationships. In our experience, the world is ordered according to the principle of sufficient reason. We perceive a multiplicity of objects related to one another in necessary ways.

Ontology (Book II).

In Book II, Schopenhauer argues that "will" is the Kantian thing-in-itself: the single essence underlying all objects and phenomena. Kant believed that space and time were merely the forms of our intuition by which we must perceive the world of phenomena, and these factors were absent from the thing-in-itself. Schopenhauer pointed out that anything outside of time and space could not be differentiated, so the thing-in-itself must be one. All things that exist, including human beings, must be part of this fundamental unity. The manifestation of the single will into the multiplicity of objects we experience is the will's "objectivation." Plurality exists and has become possible only through time and space, which is why Schopenhauer refers to them as the "principium individuationis". The will, as thing-in-itself, lies outside of the principle of sufficient reason (in all its forms) and is thus groundless (though each of the will's phenomena is subject to that principle). The will, lying outside the "principium individuationis," is free from all plurality (though its phenomena, existing in space and time, are innumerable).  All phenomena embodies essential striving: electricity and gravity, for instance, are described as fundamental forces of the will. Human capacity for cognition, Schopenhauer asserts, is subordinate to the demands of the will. Moreover, everything that wills necessarily suffers. Schopenhauer presents a pessimistic picture on which unfulfilled desires are painful, and pleasure is merely the sensation experienced at the instant one such pain is removed. However, most desires are never fulfilled, and those that are fulfilled are instantly replaced by more unfulfilled ones.

Aesthetics (Book III).

In Book III, Schopenhauer explores the experience of aesthetic contemplation. When we contemplate something aesthetically, we have knowledge of the object not as an individual thing but rather as a universal Platonic Idea ("die Platonische Idee"). The individual is then able to lose himself in the object of aesthetic contemplation and, for a brief moment, escape the cycle of unfulfilled desire as a "pure, will-less subject of knowledge" ("reinen, willenlosen Subjekts der Erkenntniß"). This entails the abandonment of the method of cognition bound to the principle of sufficient reason (the only mode appropriate to the service of the will and science). During the aesthetic experience, we gain momentary relief from the pain that accompanies our striving. Like many other aesthetic theories, Schopenhauer's centers on the concept of genius. Genius, according to Schopenhauer, is possessed by all people in varying degrees and consists of the capacity for aesthetic experience. Those who have a high degree of genius can be taught to communicate these aesthetic experiences to others, and objects that communicate these experiences are works of art.  We consider objects to be beautiful that best facilitate contemplation that is purely objective by a will-less consciousness and express 'elevated' Ideas (such as those of humanity). Schopenhauer compares the experience of something as beautiful to the experience of something as sublime ("das Erhabene")—in the latter case, we struggle over our natural hostility to the object of contemplation and are elevated above it. An aesthetic experience does not arise from the object "stimulating" our will; hence Schopenhauer criticized depictions of nude women and appetizing food, as these stimulate desire and thus hinder the viewer from becoming "the pure, will-less subject of knowledge."  The rest of the Third Book contains an account of a variety of art forms, including architecture, landscape gardening, landscape painting, animal painting, historical painting, sculpture, the nude, literature (poetry and tragedy), and lastly, music. Music occupies a privileged place in Schopenhauer's aesthetics, as he believed it to have a special relationship to the will. Other artworks objectify the will only indirectly by means of the Ideas (the adequate objectification of the will), and our world is nothing but the appearance of the Ideas in multiplicity resulting from those Ideas entering into the "principium individuationis". Music, Schopenhauer asserts, passes over the Ideas and is therefore independent of the phenomenal world. He writes:

Ethics (Book IV).

In Book IV, Schopenhauer returns to considering the world as will. He claims in this book to set forth a purely descriptive account of human ethical behavior, in which he identifies two types of behavior: the affirmation and denial of the 'will to life' ("Wille zum Leben"), which constitutes the essence of every individual. Schopenhauer subsequently elucidated his ethical philosophy in his two prize essays: "On the Freedom of the Will" (1839) and "On the Basis of Morality" (1840).  According to Schopenhauer, the will conflicts with itself through the egoism that every human and animal is endowed with. Compassion arises from a transcendence of this egoism (the penetration of the illusory perception of individuality, so that one can empathise with the suffering of another) and can serve as a clue to the possibility of going beyond desire and the will. Schopenhauer categorically denies the existence of the "freedom of the will" in the conventional sense, and only adumbrates how the will can be affirmed or negated, but is not subject to change, and serves as the root of the chain of causal determinism.  Schopenhauer discusses suicide at length, noting that it does not actually destroy the Will or any part of it in any substantial way, since death is merely the end of one particular phenomenon of the Will, which is subsequently rearranged. By asceticism, the ultimate denial of the will as practiced by as those practiced by eastern monastics and by saints, one can slowly weaken the individual will in a way that is far more significant than violent suicide, which is, in fact, in some sense an affirmation of the will.  Schopenhauer's praise for asceticism led him to think highly of Buddhism and Vedanta Hinduism, as well as some monastic orders and ascetic practices found in Catholicism. He expressed contempt for Protestantism, Judaism, and Islam, which he saw as optimistic, devoid of metaphysics and cruel to non-human animals. According to Schopenhauer, the deep truth of the matter is that in cases of the over-affirmation of the will—that is, cases where one individual exerts his will not only for its own fulfillment but for the improper domination of others—he is unaware that he is really identical with the person he is harming, so that the Will in fact constantly harms itself, and justice is done in the moment in which the crime is committed, since the same metaphysical individual is both the perpetrator and the victim.  According to Schopenhauer, denial of the will to live is the way to salvation from suffering. Salvation can only result from the recognition that individuality is nothing more than an illusion—the world in itself cannot be divided into individuals—which 'tranquilizes' the will. The human who comprehends this would 'negate' his will and thus be freed from the pains of existence that result from the will's ceaseless striving. "Schopenhauer tells us that when the will is denied, the sage becomes nothing, without actually dying." When willing disappears, both the willer and the world become nothing. "...[T]o one who has achieved the will-less state, it is the world of the willer that has been disclosed as 'nothing'. Its hold over us, its seeming reality, has been 'abolished' so that it now stands before us as nothing but a bad dream from which we are, thankfully, awaking." Schopenhauer concludes the Fourth Book with the following statement: "...to those in whom the will has turned and denied itself, this very real world of ours, with all its Suns and Milky Ways, is—nothing." In a footnote, Schopenhauer associates this 'nothing' with the Prajñāpāramitā of Buddhism: the point where subject and object no longer exist.

Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy (Appendix).

At the end of Book 4, Schopenhauer appended a thorough discussion of the merits and faults of Kant's philosophy. Schopenhauer's "Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie" opens with the following quote from Voltaire from "The Age of Louis XIV": ""C'est le privilège du vrai génie, et surtout du génie qui ouvre une carrière, de faire impunément de grandes fautes" ('It is the privilege of true genius, and above all the genius who opens a new path, to make great errors with impunity.') Schopenhauer asserts that Kant's greatest merit was the distinction between appearance ["Erscheinung"] and the thing-in-itself ["Ding an sich"], proving that the intellect always stands between us and things, and thus we cannot have knowledge of things as they may be in themselves. Among Kant's defects, Schopenhauer argues, is the untenable manner in which Kant choose to introduce the thing-in-itself in his "Critique of Pure Reason". Schopenhauer also argued that Kant failed to distinguish between intuitive and abstract cognition—that is, intuitive representations from concepts thought merely in the abstract—which gave rise to grave confusions and errors. Criticizing Kant's preference for arranging his philosophical system according to an elegant architectonic symmetry, Schopenhauer at one point describes Kant's twelve categories as a "terrible Procrustean bed into which he violently forces everything in the world and everything that happens in humans."

Volume 2.

The second volume consisted of several essays expanding topics covered in the first. Most important are his reflections on death and his theory on sexuality, which saw it as a manifestation of the whole will making sure that it will live on and depriving humans of their reason and sanity in their longing for their loved ones. Less successful is his theory of genetics: he argued that humans inherit their will, and thus their character, from their fathers, but their intellect from their mothers and he provides examples from biographies of great figures to illustrate this theory. The second volume also contains attacks on contemporary philosophers such as Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel.  The contents of Volume II are as follows.

Supplements to the First Book.

First Half: The Doctrine of the Representation of Perception (through § 1 – 7 of Volume I)  Second Half: The Doctrine of the Abstract Representation or of Thinking

Influence.

The first decades after its publication "The World as Will and Representation" was met with near silence. Exceptions were Goethe and Jean Paul. Goethe immediately started to read the magnum opus of Schopenhauer when it arrived and "read it with an eagerness as she [Ottilie von Goethe] had "never" before seen in him". Goethe told his daughter-in-law that he had now pleasure for an entire year, because he would read it completely, contrary to his custom of sampling pages to his liking. The influence of Schopenhauer can be read in "Gespräche mit Goethe" and "".  In the years where the work was largely ignored, Jean Paul praised it as "a work of philosophical genius, bold, universal, full of penetration and profoundness—but of a depth often hopeless and bottomless, akin to that melancholy lake in Norway, in whose deep water, beneath the steep rock-walls, one never sees the sun, but only stars reflected", on which Schopenhauer commented: "In my opinion the praise of one man of genius fully makes good the neglect of a thoughtless multitude".  This neglect came to an end in the last years of his life. Schopenhauer would become the most influential philosopher in Germany until World War I. Especially artists were attracted to the work. No philosopher had given so much importance to art: one fourth of "The World as Will and Representation" is concerned with aesthetics. To be mentioned are Wagner (Influence of Schopenhauer on "Tristan und Isolde"), Schönberg, Mahler, who cites "The World as Will and Representation" as "the most profound writing on music he had ever encountered", Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Jorge Luis Borges, Tolstoy, D. H. Lawrence and Samuel Beckett.  The philosophers Friedrich Nietzsche and Philipp Mainländer both described the discovery of "The World as Will and Representation" as a revelation. Nietzsche commented, "I belong to those readers of Schopenhauer who know perfectly well, after they have turned the first page, that they will read all the others, and listen to every word that he has spoken".  Charles Darwin quoted "The World as Will and Representation" in "The Descent of Man". Some read ideas in it that can be found in the theory of evolution, for example, that sexual instinct is a tool of nature to ensure the quality of the offspring and that intellect is a mere means to preserve life. Schopenhauer argued in favor of transformism by pointing to one of the most important and familiar evidences of the truth of the theory of descent, the homologies in the inner structure of all the vertebrates.  Schopenhauer's ideas on the unconscious can be found in psychoanalysis and the works of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. Whereas Jung acknowledged Schopenhauer's influence, Freud denied to have read Schopenhauer until late in life, a claim which is considered to be doubtful.  Schopenhauer's discussions of language and ethics were a major influence on Ludwig Wittgenstein.  Schopenhauer's views on the independence of spatially separated systems, the "principium individuationis", influenced Einstein, who called him a genius. Schrödinger put the Schopenhauerian label on a folder of papers in his files "Collection of Thoughts on the physical Principium individuationis".

The World as Will and Representation (WWR;, WWV) is the central work of the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. The first edition was published in late 1818, with the date 1819 on the title-page. A second, two-volume edition appeared in 1844: volume one was an edited version of the 1818 edition, while volume two consisted of commentary on the ideas expounded in volume one. A third expanded edition was published in 1859, the year prior to Schopenhauer's death. In 1948, an abridged version was edited by Thomas Mann.

《作为意志和表象的世界》()是德国哲学家亚瑟·叔本华的核心作品。第一版出版于1818年12月,1844年扩充内容后出版了第二版增补版。1948年,托马斯·曼编辑出版了缩减版。


Work.

Pontryagin worked on duality theory for homology while still a student. He went on to lay foundations for the abstract theory of the Fourier transform, now called Pontryagin duality. With René Thom, he is regarded as one of the co-founders of cobordism theory, and co-discoverers of the central idea of this theory, that framed cobordism and stable homotopy are equivalent. This led to the introduction around 1940 of a theory of certain characteristic classes, now called Pontryagin classes, designed to vanish on a manifold that is a boundary. In 1942 he introduced the cohomology operations now called Pontryagin squares. Moreover, in operator theory there are specific instances of Krein spaces called Pontryagin spaces.  Later in his career he worked in optimal control theory. His maximum principle is fundamental to the modern theory of optimization. He also introduced there the idea of a bang-bang principle, to describe situations where the applied control at each moment is either the maximum'steer', or none.  Pontryagin authored several influential monographs as well as popular textbooks in mathematics.  Pontryagin's students include Dmitri Anosov, Vladimir Boltyansky, Revaz Gamkrelidze, Evgeni Mishchenko, Mikhail Postnikov, Vladimir Rokhlin, and Mikhail Zelikin.

Controversy and anti-semitism allegations.

Pontryagin was accused of anti-Semitism on several occasions. For example, he attacked Nathan Jacobson for being a "mediocre scientist" representing the "Zionism movement", while both men were vice-presidents of the International Mathematical Union. He rejected charges of anti-Semitism in an article published in "Science" in 1979, claiming that he struggled with Zionism, which he considered a form of racism. When a prominent Soviet Jewish mathematician, Grigory Margulis, was selected by the IMU to receive the Fields Medal at the upcoming 1978 ICM, Pontryagin, who was a member of the Executive Committee of the IMU at the time, vigorously objected. Although the IMU stood by its decision to award Margulis the Fields Medal, Margulis was denied a Soviet exit visa by the Soviet authorities and was unable to attend the 1978 ICM in person. Pontryagin also participated in a few notorious political campaigns in the Soviet Union, most notably, in the Luzin affair.

Lev Semyonovich Pontryagin (, also written Pontriagin or Pontrjagin) (3 September 1908 – 3 May 1988) was a Soviet mathematician. He was born in Moscow and lost his eyesight due to a primus stove explosion when he was 14. Despite his blindness he was able to become one of the greatest mathematicians of the 20th century, partially with the help of his mother Tatyana Andreevna who read mathematical books and papers (notably those of Heinz Hopf, J. H. C. Whitehead, and Hassler Whitney) to him. He made major discoveries in a number of fields of mathematics, including algebraic topology and differential topology.

列夫·谢苗诺维奇·庞特里亚金(,1908年-9月3日-1988年-5月3日),苏联数学家。他生于莫斯科,并在14岁时因为普里姆斯炉爆炸中失明。1924年进入莫斯科国立大学,1928年毕业,1935获得同校数学、物理博士学位。虽然双目失明,他在母亲塔季扬娜·安德烈耶夫娜(,英语:Tatyana Andreevna)的帮助下成为数学家,是她为他阅读数学书籍。他在很多数学领域作出了巨大的贡献,包括代数拓扑与微分拓扑,1938年发表多项重要论文,获得列宁奖(1962)、苏联国家奖(1975)等前苏联高等荣誉。