Geography and climate.

Guang'an is located on a gradually rising section along the edge of the Sichuan Basin. The area is. The eastern part of Guang'an is mountainous, the central part hilly, and the western part is relatively flat. The elevation ranges from only 185 to 1704 meters above sea-level. The main rivers are the Qu through the center of the area and the Jialing through the west.  The climate is temperate and the weather is monsoonal. The average temperature is. Winters are mild and summers are hot. The average rainfall is between. The frost-free period lasts 310–324 days. Winter and spring have relatively little rain while in summer there are heavy rain showers. Autumns have almost constant rain and light wind.

Administration.

Guang'an city has 1 (sub)city, 3 counties, 87 towns, and 2886 villages within it, a total population of 3,205,476 in 2010 census. None of the districts are urban in character as of 2010, nevertheless, large scale dense urban building projects and even urban rapid transit are nearing completion as of 2019, remaking the urbanscape entirely, and 2010 census data relegated to dated and unreliable.

Economy.

Guang'an's economy is natural resource based. Mineral resources are plentiful and the soil is ideal for agriculture.

Tourism.

Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping's birthplace and former residence museum is located in Paifang village () in Xiexing town (). Guang'an also has beautiful natural scenery including many mountains and gorges designated as parks.

Guang'an () is a prefecture-level city in eastern Sichuan province. It is most famous as the birthplace of China's former paramount leader Deng Xiaoping. Guang'an lies between the hills of central Sichuan and the gorges area of the east.Guang'an is the only "Sichuan Chongqing Cooperation Demonstration Zone" in Sichuan and the nearest prefecture level city from the main city of Chongqing. It has been incorporated into the 1 hour economic circle of Chongqing. Because of its strategic location, it is called the "Gateway to Eastern Sichuan". Its population as of 2010 census was 3,205,476. whom 858,159 lived in the built-up ("or metro") area made of 2 urban districts.

广安市是中华人民共和国四川省下辖的地级市,位于四川省东北部。市境东面与重庆市垫江县、长寿区相邻,南面与重庆市渝北区、合川区接壤,西与遂宁市相连,西北与南充市毗邻,东北与达州市交界。地处四川盆地中部丘陵区,华蓥山绵延市境。西距成都200公里,南距重庆100余公里。渠江自北往南贯穿市境中部,嘉陵江于西部流过。全市总面积6,339平方公里,人口324.66万,市人民政府驻广安区。广安是四川省农业大市和主要产粮区,亦是中国改革开放总设计师邓小平的家乡。气候温和,雨量充沛,土地肥沃,是川东北主要粮食产地,「所产之稻米包谷香尤滋润,号称金羮玉饭」,故有「金广安」之称。


History.

Colonial Period to the Revolution.

Massachusett sachem Chickatawbut had his seat on a hill called Moswetuset Hummock prior to the settlement of the area by English colonists, situated east of the mouth of the Neponset River near what is now called Squantum. It was visited in 1621 by Plymouth Colony commander Myles Standish and Squanto, a native guide. Four years later, a party led by Captain Wollaston established a post on a low hill near the south shore of Quincy Bay east of present-day Black's Creek. The settlers found the area suitable for farming, as Chickatawbut and his group had cleared much of the land of trees. (The Indians used the name Passonagessit ("Little Neck of Land") for the area.) This settlement was named Mount Wollaston in honor of the leader, who left the area soon after 1625, bound for Virginia. The Wollaston neighborhood in Quincy still retains Captain Wollaston's name.  Upon the departure of Wollaston, Thomas Morton took over leadership of the post, and the settlement proceeded to gain a reputation for debauchery with Indian women and drunkenness. Morton renamed the settlement Ma-re-Mount ("Hill by the Sea") and later wrote that the conservative separatists of Plymouth Colony to the south were "threatening to make it a woefull mount and not a merry mount", in reference to the fact that they disapproved of his libertine practices. In 1627, Morton was arrested by Standish for violating the code of conduct in a way harmful to the colony. He was sent back to England, only to return and be arrested by Puritans the next year. The area of Quincy now called Merrymount is located on the site of the original English settlement of 1625 and takes its name from the punning name given by Morton.  The area was first incorporated as part of Dorchester in 1630 and was briefly annexed by Boston in 1634. The area became Braintree in 1640, bordered along the coast of Massachusetts Bay by Dorchester to the north and Weymouth to the east. Beginning in 1708, the modern border of Quincy first took shape as the North Precinct of Braintree.

Post-Revolution.

Following the American Revolution, Quincy was officially incorporated as a separate town named for Col. John Quincy in 1792, and was made a city in 1888. In 1845 the Old Colony Railroad opened; the Massachusetts Historical Commission stated that the railroad was "the beginning of a trend toward suburbanization". Quincy became as accessible to Boston as was Charlestown. The first suburban land company, Bellevue Land Co., had been organized in northern Quincy in 1870. Quincy's population grew by over 50 percent during the 1920s.  Among the city's several firsts was the Granite Railway, the first commercial railroad in the United States. It was constructed in 1826 to carry granite from a Quincy quarry to the Neponset River in Milton so that the stone could then be taken by boat to erect the Bunker Hill Monument in Charlestown. Quincy granite became famous throughout the nation, and stonecutting became the city's principal economic activity. Quincy was also home to the first iron furnace in the United States, the John Winthrop Jr. Iron Furnace Site (also known as Braintree Furnace), from 1644 to 1653.  In the 1870s, the city gave its name to the Quincy Method, an influential approach to education developed by Francis W. Parker while he served as Quincy's superintendent of schools. Parker, an early proponent of progressive education, put his ideas into practice in the city's underperforming schools; four years later, a state survey found that Quincy's students were excelling.  Quincy was additionally important as a shipbuilding center. Sailing ships were built in Quincy for many years, including the only seven-masted schooner ever built, "Thomas W. Lawson". The Fore River area became a shipbuilding center in the 1880s; founded by Thomas A. Watson, who became wealthy as assistant to Alexander Graham Bell in developing the telephone, many famous warships were built at the Fore River Shipyard. Amongst these were the aircraft carrier ; the battleships, now preserved as a museum ship at Battleship Cove in Massachusetts, and ; and, the world's last all-gun heavy warship, which is still preserved at Fore River as the main exhibit of the United States Naval Shipbuilding Museum. John J. Kilroy, reputed originator of the famous Kilroy was here graffiti, was a rivet inspector at Fore River.  Quincy was also an aviation pioneer thanks to Dennison Field. Located in the Squantum section of town it was one of the world's first airports and was partially developed by Amelia Earhart. In 1910, it was the site of the Harvard Aero Meet, the second air show in America. It was later leased to the Navy for an airfield, and served as a reserve Squantum Naval Air Station into the 1950s.  The Howard Johnson's and Dunkin' Donuts restaurant chains were both founded in Quincy. Celtic punk band Dropkick Murphys got its start in the city's Wollaston neighborhood in 1996. Quincy is also home to the United States' longest-running Flag Day parade, a tradition that began in 1952 under Richard Koch, a former director of Parks and Recreation, who started the "Koch Club" sports organization for kids and had an annual parade with flags.

Geography.

Quincy shares borders with Boston to the north (separated by the Neponset River), Milton to the west, Randolph and Braintree to the south, and Weymouth (separated by the Fore River) and Hull (maritime border between Quincy Bay and Hingham Bay) to the east. Historically, before incorporation when it was called "Mount Wollaston" and later as the "North Precinct" of Braintree, Quincy roughly began at the Neponset River in the north and ended at the Fore River in the south.  Quincy Bay, within city limits to the northeast, is part of Boston Harbor and Massachusetts Bay. There are several beaches in Quincy, including Wollaston Beach along Quincy Shore Drive. Located on the western shore of Quincy Bay, Wollaston Beach is the largest Boston Harbor beach. Quincy's territory includes Hangman Island, Moon Island (restricted access, and all land is owned by the City of Boston), Nut Island (now a peninsula), and Raccoon Island in the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water. The total area is 37.60% water.  Although Quincy is primarily urban, or fully 23 percent of its land area lies within the uninhabited Blue Hills Reservation, a state park managed by the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation. This undeveloped natural area encompasses the southwestern portion of Quincy and includes the city's highest point, Chickatawbut Hill. Other hills within Quincy include Forbes Hill in Wollaston, Presidents Hill in Quincy Center and Penns Hill in South Quincy.

Demographics.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 92,271 people, 38,883 households, and 42,838 families residing in the city, making it the eighth-largest city in the state. The population density was 5,567.9 people per square mile (2,025.4/km). There were 42,838 housing units at an average density of 2,388.7 per square mile (922.5/km). The racial makeup of the city was 65.5% White, 4.6% African American, 0.16% Native American, 24.0% Asian (15.6% Chinese, 3.2% Vietnamese, 2.6% Indian), 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.85% from other races, and 1.76% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.6% of the population. 33.5% were of Irish (making Quincy the most Irish American city in the entire United States), 12.7% Italian and 5.0% English ancestry according to the 2000 Census. 77.1% spoke only English, while 8.0% spoke Chinese or Mandarin, 2.6% Cantonese, 1.9% Spanish, 1.5% Vietnamese and 1.3% Italian in their homes.  There were 38,883 households, out of which 20.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.7% were married couples living together, 10.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 47.2% were non-families. 37.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 3.03.  In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 17.5% under the age of 18, 8.1% from 18 to 24, 36.1% from 25 to 44, 22.1% from 45 to 64, and 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.5 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $59,803, and the median income for a family was $77,514. Males had a median income of $51,925 versus $44,175 for females. The per capita income for the city was $32,786. About 7.3% of families and 9.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.7% of those under age 18 and 10.1% of those age 65 or over.

Asian community.

As of 2010 Quincy has the highest per capita concentration of persons of Asian origin in Massachusetts. As of 2003 about 66% of the Asians in Quincy are ethnic Chinese, giving the city one of the largest Chinese populations in the state. There is also a community of persons of East Indian origins, with most of them working in information technology and other skilled professions. A growing number of people with Vietnamese origins live in the area as well and make up the second largest Asian American group in Quincy.  In 1980 there were 750 persons of Asian origin in Quincy. Most of the Asian immigrants coming in the 1980s originated from Hong Kong and Taiwan. In 1990, Quincy had 5,577 persons of Asian origin, with 143 of them being of East Indian origin. The number of Asians increased to 13,546 in 2000, with about 9,000 of them being ethnic Chinese, and 1,127 of them being ethnic East Indian. The latter group grew by 688%, making it the fastest-growing Asian subgroup in Quincy. Around 2003 most Asian immigrants were coming from Fujian instead of Hong Kong and Taiwan. At that time Quincy had a higher Asian population than the Boston Chinatown. The overall Asian population increased by 64% in the following decade, to 22,174 in 2010. Quincy's Chinese population increased by 60% during that time period.  Historically Quincy residents traveled to shops in Chinatown, Boston, but by 2003 Asian shopping centers became established in Quincy. By 2003 New York City-based Kam Man Food was establishing a supermarket in Quincy. In February 2017, City Councilor Nina Liang presented a motion to designate Quincy as a "Sanctuary City". This motion was voted down by the City Council. Quincy has an estimated 8,000 undocumented residents and has the 11th-highest concentration of immigrants in Massachusetts overall.  As of 2000 about 50% of Asians in Quincy own their own houses; many who rent do so while saving money for down payments for their houses. Sixty-five percent of the Chinese were homeowners while only 10% of the East Indians were homeowners. As of 2003 slightly more than 2,500 Asian Americans in Quincy were registered to vote, making up almost 25% of Asians in the city who were eligible to vote.  In the 1980s there was racial violence against the Asian community by whites, and at the time the city did not employ any Asian police officers, leaving the Asian population to feel a lack of trust in the police. By 2003 the racial tensions had been greatly reduced, and the Quincy Police Department at that time had Asian officers.  By 2003 Quincy Asian Resources Inc. planned to establish a newsletter for Asian residents. In 2011 Boston Chinatown Neighborhood Center, Inc. (BCNC; ) executive director Elaine Ng stated that the center would begin to offer services in Quincy. The number of persons using BCNC services residing in Quincy increased by almost 300% in a period beginning in 2004 and ending in 2005.

Neighborhoods.

Quincy is divided into numerous neighborhoods with individual histories and characteristics.

Economy.

During its history Quincy has been known as a manufacturing and heavy industry center, with granite quarrying dominating employment in the 19th century and shipbuilding at Fore River Shipyard and Squantum Victory Yard rising to prominence in the 20th century. The recent decades have seen a shift in focus to several large employers in the financial services, insurance and health care sectors of the economy. Quincy is the location of the corporate headquarters of several firms, including Boston Financial Data Services, the Stop & Shop supermarket chain, Arbella Insurance Group and "The Patriot Ledger", the publisher of the South Shore's largest regional newspaper.  Other major employers with offices in Quincy are State Street Corporation, Blue Cross Blue Shield of Massachusetts, Harvard Pilgrim Health Care and Boston Scientific. TACV, national flag carrier airline of Cape Verde, has its United States corporate office in Quincy. Icelandair has its North American headquarters in the city as well.

Income.

Data is from the 2009–2013 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.

Government.

Local.

Quincy has a strong mayor government. The incumbent mayor, Thomas P. Koch, has served since 2008; he is the 33rd mayor of the city. Mayors in the city were elected to two-year terms. In 2013, the city's voters opted to extend the mayoral term to four years, beginning after the 2015 election.  In addition to the mayor, the city has a nine-member city council. Six councilors are elected to represent Quincy's wards, and three are elected at large. Councilors serve two-year terms. The city also has a school committee with seven members—the mayor and six members elected to staggered four-year terms.

Public health.

In 2010, the city of Quincy was the first in the US to have its police department carry the nasal spray Narcan (Nalaxone) to combat the overdose outbreak associated with the opioid epidemic in the US. When the program first began, the city’s officers were reviving an overdose victim every four to five days. By 2014, police officers had administered the opioid antagonist over 300 times. Other cities and police departments throughout the US developed their own Narcan-dispensing programs based on the model pioneered by the Quincy PD. In 2017, overdose deaths in the city and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts had declined, it was thought, due to the use of naloxone by the police and others. The state legislature, in 2018, required all pharmacies to keep Narcan in stock and available to anyone, without a prescription.

State.

Quincy is represented in the Massachusetts State Senate by Democrat John F. Keenan. Four members of the Massachusetts House of Representatives represent Quincy: Bruce Ayers, Tackey Chan, Daniel Hunt, and Ronald Mariano. Each representative is a Democrat, and Mariano is the majority leader in the House.

Education.

Quincy is home to various educational institutions, public and private, including one early childhood education center, one Montessori school, one Catholic school, one college-preparatory school, two colleges, Eastern Nazarene College, a private liberal arts and sciences college, and Quincy College, a public, localized college, two public high schools, five public middle schools, and 12 public elementary schools. In the 19th century, the city became an innovator in progressive public education with the Quincy Method, developed by Francis W. Parker while he served as Quincy's superintendent of schools. Four years after its implementation, a state survey found that Quincy students excelled at reading, writing, and spelling, and ranked fourth in their county in math.

Higher education.

The city is home to Eastern Nazarene College, a college of the liberal arts and sciences located in Wollaston Park. The college relocated to the area in 1919 from its original location in Saratoga Springs, New York, where it was established as a holiness college in 1900. Quincy College, a community college in Quincy Center, operates under the auspices of the City of Quincy. The college is unusual in this respect, as it is the only one of Massachusetts' 16 community colleges to be run by a city rather than by the state. It is one of only two colleges in the United States organized this way.

Public primary and secondary education.

Public education at the primary and secondary levels is managed by Quincy Public Schools, a system that includes one early childhood center, eleven elementary schools, five middle schools and two high schools.

Private and alternative education.

Private and alternative education institutions for children in preschool–8th grade include Quincy's three Catholic schools—Sacred Heart, St. Ann, and St. Mary. Because of declining enrollment and the ongoing economic crisis, the three merged to form the Quincy Catholic Academy, which opened in September 2010, at the site of the Sacred Heart school. The Woodward School for Girls is a non-sectarian college preparatory day school for girls in grades 6–12. Campus Kinder Haus (CKH) is operated by the Eastern Nazarene College on its Old Colony campus. The Adams Montessori School is open for children of preschool through elementary school age.  For a number of years, the Fore River Apprentice School was operated at the Fore River Shipyard to teach its students how to work in the shipyard.

Public libraries.

The Thomas Crane Public Library serves as the public library system of Quincy, Massachusetts.

Supplementary education.

Peter Jae established the Quincy Chinese Language School, which offers supplementary education for Chinese children, in 1988. As of 2003 it holds Cantonese-language classes for 150 students at the Sacred Heart School in North Quincy on Saturday mornings. The school at one time had 400 students but the school reduced itself in size when a lack of qualified teachers occurred.  The Chung Yee School is another Chinese school in Quincy. As of 2008 the headmaster is Harry Kwan, who originated from Hong Kong. That year the school had 100 students and charged $100 ($ adjusted for inflation) per child per month for Chinese language and culture after school classes. It was first established around 1996. The school was briefly closed by the Quincy Police Department in November 28, 2008 due to a lack of Massachusetts state and local government permits. After the state and municipal authorities cleared the school of allegations of child abuse, it was scheduled to reopen that year.  In December 2002 the Vrindavana Preservation Society established the Vaisnava Academy which caters to Quincy's East Indian community and offers courses for children. Subjects include the Hindi language, Indian dance and music, and yoga.

Transportation.

As part of Metro Boston, Quincy has easy access to transportation facilities. State highways and the Interstate system connect the Greater Boston area to the airport, port, and intermodal facilities of Boston. Due to its proximity to Boston proper, Quincy is connected not only by these modes of transportation but also to the regional subway system, operated by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA), known locally as "The T". The four subway or "T" stops in Quincy, which are on the MBTA's Red Line, are North Quincy Station, Wollaston Station, Quincy Center Station, and Quincy Adams Station.

Highways and roads.

Interstate 93 and U.S. Route 1 travel south to north concurrently through Quincy beginning in the southwest, where the Quincy–Randolph border bisects the median between the northern and southern halves of the Exit 5 cloverleaf at Massachusetts Route 28. Following a route around the southern extent of the Blue Hills Reservation, this I-93 and US 1 alignment is along the former southern section of Route 128. The highway travels along a wooded wetland region of the Reservation, entering Quincy completely just beyond Exit 5 and then crossing into Braintree as it approaches the Braintree Split, the junction with Massachusetts Route 3. Weekday traffic volume averages 250,000 to 275,000 vehicles per day at this intersection, the gateway from Boston and its inner core to the South Shore and Cape Cod.  As Route 3 joins I-93 and US 1 at the Braintree Split, the three travel north together toward Boston around the eastern extent of the Blue Hills Reservation, entering West Quincy as the Southeast Expressway. The expressway provides access to West Quincy at Exit 8—Furnace Brook Parkway and Exit 9—Bryant Avenue/Adams Street before entering Milton. The Furnace Brook Parkway exit also provides access to Ricciuti Drive and the Quincy Quarries Reservation as well as the eastern entrance to the Blue Hills Reservation Parkways.  Principal numbered state highways traveling within Quincy include: Route 3A south to north from Weymouth via Washington Street, Southern Artery, Merrymount Parkway and Hancock Street to the Neponset River Bridge and the Dorchester section of Boston; Route 28, which travels south to north from Randolph to Milton along Randolph Avenue in Quincy through a remote section of the Blue Hills Reservation; and Route 53, which enters traveling south to north from Braintree as Quincy Avenue, turning right to form the beginning of Southern Artery in Quincy Point before ending at the intersection with Washington Street/Route 3A. In addition to the Blue Hills parkways, Quincy includes two other Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation parkways. Furnace Brook Parkway travels east from I-93 through the center of the city from West Quincy to Quincy Center and Merrymount at Quincy Bay. There the parkway meets Quincy Shore Drive at the mouth of Blacks Creek. Quincy Shore Drive travels in a northerly direction along the shore of Quincy Bay through Wollaston and into North Quincy, with much of its length abutting Wollaston Beach, then turns in a westerly direction upon intersecting with East Squantum Street and continues to meet Hancock Street at the Neponset River Bridge.  As for Quincy's other important city streets, Hancock Street begins at the southern extent of Quincy Center and travels north to Dorchester as a main commercial thoroughfare of Quincy Center, Wollaston and North Quincy. Washington Street enters the city at Fore River Rotary after crossing Weymouth Fore River and continues to Quincy Center, ending at Hancock Street. Along with Quincy Avenue and Southern Artery, other heavily traveled streets include Newport Avenue, which parallels Hancock Street to the west on the opposite side of the MBTA railway, Adams Street heading west from Quincy Center to Milton, and West and East Squantum Streets in the Montclair and North Quincy neighborhoods. Other streets are discussed in several of the neighborhood articles listed above.

Airport.

Boston's Logan International Airport is accessible via MBTA Red Line connections at South Station, directly on the MBTA commuter boat (see below) or by motor vehicle using Interstate 93 or surface roads to the Ted Williams Tunnel.

MBTA rail and other commuter services.

Subway service is available on the Red Line of the MBTA from four stations in Quincy: North Quincy, Wollaston, Quincy Center, and Quincy Adams. Commuter rail service operates out of Quincy Center. Both services serve South Station in Boston with connections to MBTA Commuter Rail and Amtrak intercity lines. Buses are also available for transportation in Quincy, including private bus lines and several lines provided by the MBTA. Most of the MBTA routes funnel through the Quincy Center station, which is the principal hub south of Boston for all MBTA bus lines. The southern bus garage for the MBTA system is adjacent to the Quincy Armory on Hancock Street.  Quincy was a major terminal for the commuter boat system that crosses Boston Harbor to Long Wharf, Hull, Rowe's Wharf, Hingham, and Logan Airport. The commuter boats, which were operated by Harbor Express under license by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, docked at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy Point. Service ended in October 2013 after a water main break damaged the sea wall and wharf. Temporary repairs would have cost $15 million; permanent repairs $50 million. In 2014, the MBTA made the decision to permanently end the service and sell the land.

Sports.

Quincy has had brief flirtations with professional sports. The Quincy Chiefs of the minor league Eastern Basketball Association (the predecessor to the defunct Continental Basketball Association) played a single season in 1977–78, and was coached and managed by former Boston Celtics executive Leo Papile. The Chiefs finished 12–19 in third place, and lost in the playoffs to eventual league champion Wilkes-Barre. Quincy's professional baseball team, the Shipbuilders, competed in the New England League in 1933, recording a 12–6 record before moving to Nashua midseason; a revival of the team played in the NEL from 1941 through to 1944. The final season of the Boston Minutemen of the North American Soccer League was played at Veterans Memorial Stadium in Quincy, in 1976, finishing 7–17.  The Real Boston Rams of the soccer 4th division Premier Development League, an affiliate club of the New England Revolution, has played in Veterans Memorial Stadium since 2014.  In 2019, the Boston Cannons moved their home stadium to the Veterans Memorial Stadium in Quincy.  Quincy has had several football teams in the semi-pro Eastern Football League over the years. The current club, the Quincy Militia, played its inaugural season in the EFL in 2009. Founded in 2009 by long-time Quincy resident Vaughn Driscoll, new owners came into the team picture in 2013. Militia games are played July to October with home games at Veterans Memorial Stadium on Saturday nights. An earlier team, the Quincy Giants, played in the minor league Atlantic Coast Football League between 1969 and 1971.  Quincy's only college sports program is the "Lions" of Eastern Nazarene College, in the D-III Commonwealth Coast Conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC). Games are played at Bradley Field and the Lahue Physical Education Center on-campus, or at Adams and Veterans Memorial Fields in Quincy.  Quincy's high school sports programs are in the Patriot League: the D-III Fisher Division "Red Raiders" of North Quincy High School and the DIIA Keenan Division "Presidents" of Quincy High School, who are rivals. Quincy also hosted the youth baseball Babe Ruth League World Series in 2003, 2005 and 2008. High school baseball and Babe Ruth League games are played at Adams Field. High school football is played at Veterans Memorial Field.

References.

Quincy ( ) is a U.S. city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts. It is the largest city in the county and a part of Metropolitan Boston as one of Boston's immediate southern suburbs. Its population in 2010 was 92,271, making it the eighth-largest city in the state. Known as the "City of Presidents", Quincy is the birthplace of two U.S. presidents—John Adams and his son John Quincy Adams—as well as John Hancock, a President of the Continental Congress and the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, as well as being the first and third Governor of Massachusetts.

昆西(英语:Quincy),是美国马萨诸塞州诺福克县的一座城市,面积69.6平方公里。根据2000年美国人口普查,共有人口88,025。


History.

The first law schools in Europe.

The foundations of the first universities in Europe were the glossators of the 11th century, which were schools of law. The first European university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The first academic title of doctor applied to scholars of law. The University of Bologna served as the model for other law schools of the medieval age. Although it was common for students of law to visit and study at schools in other countries, such was not the case with England because of the English rejection of Roman Law. Although Oxford did teach canonical law, its importance was always superior to civil law in that institution.

Early legal education in England.

In England in 1292, when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, law students merely sat in the courts and observed. Over time, the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences. This practice led to the institution of the Inns of Court system. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, and observation of court proceedings. By the 17th century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to Oxford and Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer's role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew. The apprenticeship program for solicitors emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law, and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. These universities, therefore, did not train lawyers. Professional training in England was unlike that of continental Europe, where the law was viewed as an academic discipline. Legal educators in England stressed practical training.  The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729. William Blackstone became the first lecturer of law at Oxford in 1753. The university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature. Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure obtained through apprenticeship and the Inns of Court.  The Inns of Court continued but became less effective. No significant educational activity or examination was required for bar admission. In 1846, the Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to the legal education provided in Europe and the United States. Therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century. Even then, the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions.

Legal education in the North American colonies and the United States.

Initially there was much resistance to lawyers in colonial North America because of the role they played in hierarchical England. Slowly the colonial governments started using the services of professionals trained in the Inns of Court, and by the end of the Revolution there was a functional bar in each state. As institutions for training developed in the colonies, because of the distrust of a profession only open to the elite in England, the institutions which developed in what would become the United States would be much different from those in England.  Initially in the United States, the legal professionals were trained and imported from England. A formal apprenticeship or clerkship program was established first in New York in 1730—at that time a seven-year clerkship was required, and in 1756 a four-year college degree was required in addition to five years of clerking and an examination. Later the requirements were reduced to require only two years of college education. A system like the Inns did not develop, however, and a college education was not required in England until the 19th century, so the American system was unique.  The clerkship program required much individual study. The mentoring lawyer was expected to carefully select materials for study and to guide the clerk in his study of the law to ensure that the material was being absorbed. The student was supposed to compile his notes of his reading of the law into a "commonplace book", which he would endeavor to memorize. Although those were the ideals, in reality the clerks were often overworked and rarely were able to study the law individually as expected. They were often employed to tedious tasks, such as making handwritten copies of documents. Finding sufficient legal texts was also a seriously debilitating issue, and there was no standardization in the books assigned to the clerk trainees because they were assigned by their mentor, whose opinion of the law may be different greatly from his peers. One famous attorney in the United States, William Livingston, stated in 1745 in a New York newspaper that the clerkship program was severely flawed, and that most mentors "have no manner of concern for their clerk's future welfare... [T]is a monstrous absurdity to suppose, that the law is to be learnt by a perpetual copying of precedents." There were some few mentors that were dedicated to the service, and because of their rarity, they became so sought after that the first law schools evolved from the offices of some of these attorneys who took on many clerks and began to spend more time training than practicing law.  It was seen over the years that the apprenticeship program was not capable of producing lawyers capable of serving their clients. The apprenticeship programs often employed the trainee with menial tasks, and while they were well trained in the day-to-day operations of a law office, they were generally unprepared practitioners or legal reasoners. The establishment of formal faculties of law in U.S. universities did not occur until the latter part of the 18th century. The first law degree granted by a U.S. university was a Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the College of William & Mary, which was abbreviated L.B.; Harvard University was the first university to use the LL.B. abbreviation in the United States.  The first university law programs in the United States, such as that of the University of Maryland established in 1812, included much theoretical and philosophical study, including works such as the Bible, Cicero, Seneca, Aristotle, Adam Smith, Montesquieu and Grotius. It has been said that the early university law schools of the early 19th century seemed to be preparing students for careers as statesmen rather than as lawyers. At the LL.B. programs in the early 1900s at Stanford University and Yale continued to include "cultural study," which consisted of courses in languages, mathematics and economics.  In the 1850s there were many proprietary schools which originated from a practitioner taking on multiple apprentices and establishing a school and which provided a practical legal education, as opposed to the one offered in the universities which offered an education in the theory, history and philosophy of law. The universities assumed that the acquisition of skills would happen in practice, while the proprietary schools concentrated on the practical skills during education.  In part to compete with the small professional law schools, there began a great change in U.S. university legal education. For a short time beginning in 1826 Yale began to offer a complete "practitioners' course" which lasted two years and included practical courses, such as pleading drafting. U.S. Supreme Court justice Joseph Story started the spirit of change in legal education at Harvard when, as a lecturer there in the early 19th century, he advocated a more "scientific study" of the law. Therefore, at Harvard the education was much of a trade school type of approach to legal education, contrary to the more liberal arts education advocated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jefferson at William and Mary. Nonetheless there continued to be debate among educators over whether legal education should be more vocational, as at the private law schools, or through a rigorous scientific method, such as that developed by Story and Langdell. In the words of Dorsey Ellis, "Langdell viewed law as a science and the law library as the laboratory, with the cases providing the basis for learning those 'principles or doctrines' of which 'law, considered as a science, consists.'" Nonetheless, into the year 1900 most states did not require a university education (although an apprenticeship was often required) and most practitioners had not attended any law school or college.  Therefore, the modern legal education system in the U.S. is a combination of teaching law as a science and a practical skill, implementing elements such as clinical training, which has become an essential part of legal education in the U.S. and in the J.D. program of study. Whereas in the 18th and 19th century, few U.S. lawyers trained in an apprenticeship "achieved a level of competence necessary to adequately serve their clients," today as a result of the development of the U.S. legal education system, "law graduates perceive themselves to be prepared upon graduation" for the practice of law.

Faculty.

AALS Faculty Recruitment Conference.

About half of the faculty hired by law schools in the United States result from interviews conducted at the annual AALS Faculty Recruitment Conference at the Marriott Wardman Park Hotel in Washington, D.C.

Academic degrees.

Legal education is typically received through a law school program. The professional degree granted by U.S. law schools is the Juris Doctor (J.D.). Prospective lawyers who have been awarded the J.D. (or other appropriate credential), must fulfill additional, state-specific requirements in order to gain admission to the bar in the United States.  The Juris Doctor (J.D.), like the Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), is a professional doctorate. The American Bar Association issued a Council Statement that the JD is equivalent to the PhD for educational employment purposes. The Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D.) (""Scientiae Juridicae Doctor"" in Latin), and Doctor of Comparative Law (D.C.L.), are research and academic-based doctorate level degrees. In the U.S., the Legum Doctor is only awarded as an honorary degree.  As of July 2012, Yale Law School offers a Ph.D. in Law designed for students who have already earned a J.D. and who wish to pursue extended legal scholarship.  Academic degrees for non-lawyers are available at the baccalaureate and master's level. A common baccalaureate level degree is a Bachelor of Science in Legal Studies (B.S.). Academic master's degrees in legal studies are available, such as the Master of Studies (M.S.), and the Master of Professional Studies (M.P.S.).  Foreign lawyers seeking to practice in the U.S., who do not have a Juris Doctor (J.D.), often seek to obtain a Juris Master (J.M.), Master of Laws (LL.M.), Master of Comparative Law (M.C.L.), or a Master of Jurisprudence (M.J.).

Admission to the bar.

Please see Admission to the bar in the United States. Depending upon their state, attorneys must also satisfy Continuing Legal Education (CLE) credit requirements.

Lawyer credentials, prestige, and career path.

American law firms are often very credential-oriented. Apart from the minimum requirements of a J.D. and admission to the state bar, there are certain credentials recognized within the profession to distinguish lawyers from one another; those credentials are almost always mentioned in lawyer profiles and biographies, which are used to communicate to both fellow attorneys and prospective clients. Chief among them are such honors as being a member of their law school's law review, moot court, or mock trial programs. Judicial clerkships after graduation or law clerk positions at prestigious law firms while in school are also distinguishing marks.  This credential-based system is sown in law school, where high grades are frequently rewarded with law review membership and much sought after summer clerkships (called "summer associateships" in some areas) with large private law firms. These programs are designed to give a firm's summer associates an idea of what the everyday practice of law is like at that particular firm by allowing them to work with the firm's partners and associates on real projects involving real clients. In larger cities, such as New York or Chicago, summer associates at large firms can make as much as $3,000 per week.  Competition to receive a summer offer from a firm is intense, and credentials (a student's GPA and class rank, law review or moot court membership, publications, etc.) play a decisive role in determining who is selected. Most offers are received after a three-step interview process. First, during the early fall of their 2L (second year), students at each law school first submit their resumes to a central paper file or online database (such as CRIS or LexisNexis Martindale-Hubbell), from which interviewers selected candidates they wish to interview, based almost entirely on their 1L GPA and class rank. Second, selected students are notified, usually via email, and then schedule a screening interview, either at the law school or at a local hotel; this interview is usually conducted by one or more attorneys from that firm and is part of most schools' On Campus Interview ("OCI") program, in which firms send recruiters to schools across the country. Finally, students selected from the screening interviews are invited for a final "callback" interview, commonly held at the firm's offices. If the selected student attends school in a place far from the city in which the firm is located, it is not unusual for the firm to fly the student in and pay for accommodations while he is in town. After the callback, a selected candidate will receive a phone call (usually within 48 hours) informing him that he has been extended an offer. After the summer, early into their 3L (third) years, the vast majority of summer associates receive formal offers to join the firm after graduating school and sitting for the bar exam.

Law school rankings.

The "US News and World Report" publishes the most well-known annual ranking of American programs, where Yale Law School has held the #1 spot every year since the inception of the ranking reports. A number of alternative rankings exist, such as the Leiter Reports Law School Rankings. These rankings divide law schools into "tiers" based on the overall quality of each program. A number of factors and statistics are compiled to produce these rankings each year, including academic reputation, the quality of the faculty (usually measured by the quality of its publications), the quality of the student body (usually measured by average Law School Admission Test, or LSAT, score and undergraduate grade point average), the number of volumes in the library, the earnings potential of graduates, bar passage rates, and job placement rates. Most of these measurements are acquired by voluntary self-reporting from each law program; others are compiled through a formal process of polling judges, legal professionals, recent graduates, law professors, and school administrators. The issuance of press releases that dismiss the rankings has become a yearly ritual for many law programs, but all but a handful cooperate in gathering and reporting statistics to the various ranking publications.

First tier.

There are approximately 200 ABA approved law schools in the United States. There is no universally accepted ranking system, but many have attempted to divide law schools into "tiers" consisting of quartiles (50 law schools each) or perhaps eighths (25 law schools each), or have separated out the top 10 or top 20 law schools by U.S. News rank or median LSAT score. "After the JD", a large study of law graduates who passed the bar examination (but were not necessarily practicing law), found that graduates of the top 10 law schools by median LSAT score of incoming classes typically earned incomes exceeding $170,000 within 12 years after graduation. Graduates of the next 10 law schools earned around $158,000, and graduates of schools ranked 21-50 typically earned more than $130,000. Another peer reviewed study found that Law graduates at the 75th percentile of earnings ability typically earned around $80,000 more every year than they would have earned with only a bachelor's degree. Law graduate earnings typically continue to grow and do not peak until their mid 50s; thus graduates of top tier law schools can likely peak at incomes exceeding $250,000 per year.  Though the specific rankings change from year to year, the overall composition of the top schools has remained fairly constant. Most legal professionals (judges, practitioners, or professors) rank the University of Chicago, Columbia, Harvard, NYU, Stanford, and Yale in the top echelon of American law schools, with Yale Law School, Harvard Law School, and Stanford Law School being considered the most prestigious and the most selective schools to gain admission as measured by reputation scores from "U.S. News" surveys and admissions rate. In recent years, many people have used the concept of the T14 (the top 14) to define the top tier of law schools. These schools have consistently ranked in the top 14 in the annual US News ranking of law schools. The T14 is composed of the schools listed above and also Berkeley (Boalt Hall), Cornell, Duke, Georgetown, Michigan, Northwestern, University of Pennsylvania, and Virginia. The most prestigious and sought-after law jobs in the country—U.S. Supreme Court Clerks, legal faculty, Bristow Fellows, Office of Legal Counsel Lawyers, Assistant U.S. Attorneys in cities like New York and Chicago—are more likely to be awarded to students and graduates in one of these programs. Recruiters from elite law firms visit top-tier law schools each fall to recruit new associates for the following summer. In contrast, small and mid-market law firms — which make up the bulk of law firms in the U.S. — cannot predict their labor needs that far in advance, and most new law school graduates who do not graduate from top tier law schools therefore must seek out jobs at law firms during their third year or even after graduation.

Lower tiers.

The majority of law school students do not end up at an elite university, but many can, and often do, find well-paying jobs in law firms, government, or business positions. "After the JD", a large study of law graduates who passed the bar examination (but were not necessarily practicing law), found that even graduates of lower ranked law schools were typically making six figure ($100,000+) incomes within 12 years after graduation., although graduates of higher ranking schools typically earned more. "The Economic Value of a Law Degree", a peer reviewed study which included law graduates who do not pass the bar exam, found that law graduates at the 25th percentile of earnings ability typically earned around $20,000 more every year than they would have earned with only a bachelor's degree, compared to around $80,000 more per year for those at the 75th percentile.

Regional tiers.

Most law schools outside the top tier are more regional in scope and often have very strong regional connections to these post-graduation opportunities. For example, a student graduating from a lower-tier law school may find opportunities in that school's "home market": the legal market containing many of that school's alumni, where most of the school's networking and career development energies are focused. In contrast, an upper-tier law school may be limited in terms of employment opportunities to the broad geographic region that the law school feeds.

State accredited schools.

Some schools are accredited by state governments. They are located in Alabama, California, Massachusetts, and Tennessee. Some state authorized law schools are maintained to offer a non-ABA option eliminating costly ABA requirements seen as unnecessary by many of these states.

Unaccredited schools.

Many schools are not accredited by a state or the American Bar Association. Most are located in California. While graduates of these schools may apply for admission to the California State Bar, they may not necessarily be allowed to apply for admission in other states.

Law school activities and honors.

Within each U.S. law school, students may receive additional credentials. These include:

Court clerkships.

On the basis of these credentials, as well as favorable faculty recommendations and other connections, some students become law clerks with judges after graduation, signing on for one or two-year clerkships. Clerkships may be with state or federal judges. There is a generally recognized hierarchy with regard to clerkships (federal clerkships are considered more prestigious than state court clerkships, and appellate court clerkships are considered more prestigious than trial court clerkships, with United States Supreme Court clerkships considered the most prestigious).  The benefit to the lawyer from clerkships is experience working for a judge. Often, clerks engage in significant legal research and writing for the judge, writing memos to assist a judge in coming to a legal conclusion in some cases, and writing drafts of opinions based on the judge's decisions. Appellate court clerkships, although generally more prestigious, do not necessarily give one a great deal of practical experience in the day-to-day life of a lawyer in private practice. The average litigator might get much more out of a clerkship at the trial court level, where he or she will be learning about motions practices, dealing with lawyers, and generally learning how a trial court works on the inside. What a lawyer might lose in prestige he or she might gain in experience.  By and large, though, clerkships provide other valuable assets to a new lawyer. Judges often become mentors to their clerks, providing the attorney with an experienced individual to whom he or she can go for advice. Fellow clerks can also become lifelong friends and/or professional connections. Those contemplating academia do well to obtain an appellate court clerkship at the federal level, since those clerkships provide a great opportunity to think at a very high level about the law.  Hierarchies aside, clerkships are great experiences for the new lawyers, and law schools encourage graduates to engage in a clerkship to broaden their professional experiences.

United States Supreme Court clerkships.

Some law school graduates are able to clerk for one of the Justices on the Supreme Court. Each Justice takes 4 clerks per year. Almost without exception, these clerks are graduates of elite law schools (with Harvard, Yale, and the University of Chicago being the most highly represented schools) who have already clerked for at least one year with highly selective federal circuit court judges (such as Judges Merrick Garland, Alex Kozinski, Harvie Wilkinson, David Tatel, Richard Posner). It is perhaps the most highly selective and prestigious position a recently graduated lawyer can have, and Supreme Court clerks are often highly sought after by law firms, the government, and law schools. The vast majority of Supreme Court clerks either become academics at elite law schools, enter private practice as appellate attorneys, or take highly selective government positions.

Criticism.

Law school normally consists of only a classroom setting, unlike training in other professions. (For example, medical school in the United States is traditionally two years of class environment and two years of "rotations", or an apprenticeship-type hands-on experience.) Although some countries such as Germany and France require apprenticeship with a practicing attorney, this is not required in any United States jurisdiction. Because of this, many law students graduate with a grasp of the legal doctrines necessary to pass the bar exam, but with no actual hands-on experience or knowledge of the day-to-day practice of law. The American Bar Association called for American law schools to move towards a practice-based approach in the MacCrate Report.  Many law schools have started to supplement classroom education with practical experience. Externship programs allow students to receive academic credit for unpaid work with a judge, government agency, or community legal services office. Several law schools also have law clinic programs in which students counsel actual clients under the supervision of a professor, such as University of Massachusetts School of Law. City University of New York School of Law and Florida Coastal School of Law are some of the few law schools that require student participation in law clinic courses. Similarly, Northeastern University School of Law and Savannah Law School use cooperative education to give their students law office work experience prior to graduation. Washington and Lee University School of Law has completely re-vamped its curriculum to require students to take practicum courses, externships, and clinics in the final year of law school to provide experience in preparation for practice.

Other issues.

Large scale representative studies find that the overwhelming majority of lawyers are satisfied with their careers and their decisions to attend law school. Based on anecdotal evidence, some have claimed that high level of stress, a "culture of hours" and ethical issues common in the legal profession lead to a lower level of job satisfaction relative to many other careers. See, for example, "Money and Ethics: The Young Lawyer's Conundrum", by Patrick J. Schiltz, January 2000 Washington State Bar News

Legal education in the United States generally refers to a graduate degree, the completion of which makes a graduate eligible to sit for an examination for a license to practice as a Lawyer. Around 60 percent of those who complete a law degree typically practice law, with the remainder primarily working in business (especially finance, insurance, real estate, and consulting) or government or policy roles, where their degrees also confer advantages. (Other types of legal education, such as that of paralegals, of Limited Practice Officers (in Washington), and of the citizenry in general, and of the education of lawyers after admission to the bar (continuing legal education) are not covered in this article.)

美国法学教育(legal education in the United States),一般是指在美国为法律实践培养律师的法学教育。


History.

In 1928, according to of Mao Zedong by Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, Chenzhou, along with neighboring Leiyang was razed by troops under the command of Zhu De, who was following directives which originated in Moscow and passed on by higher officials of the Communist Party of China. The strategy was to leave large numbers of peasants with no option but to join communist uprisings.  Chenzhou was the site of a large investigation when its municipal government and party committee, led by Secretary Li Dalun, was charged on multiple counts of corruption in June 2006.

Geography.

Chenzhou is situated at the juncture of Hunan and Guangdong provinces at the foot of Qitianling Hill of the Nanling Mountain Range. Places of interest, natural scenic spots, ancient relics and buildings make for over 100 tourism spots in the city. The major ones are the Suxian Hill, the Wanhuayan, the Dongjiang Lake, and the Wugai Mountain Hunting Field.

Climate.

Chenzhou has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: "Cfa"), with four distinct seasons. Spring is subject to heavy rainfall, while the summers are long, hot, and humid with lesser rainfall, and autumn is comfortable and rather dry. Winter is rather brief, but cold snaps occur with temperatures occasionally dropping below freezing, and while not heavy, rain can be frequent.

Economy.

Major deposits of tungsten, bismuth and molybdenum make Chenzhou a production base for non-ferrous metals.

Government.

The current CPC Party Secretary of Chenzhou is Yi Pengfei and the current Mayor is Liu Zhiren.

Tourism.

The areas of interest in Chenzhou include: Wanhua Rock (), Wugai Mountain Hunting Field, Suxian Hill and Dongjiang Lake.

Chenzhou () is a prefecture-level city located in the south of Hunan province, China, bordering the provinces of Jiangxi to the east and Guangdong to the south. Its administrative area covers, 9.2% of the provincial area, and its total population reached 4,559,600 in 2001, 26% of them living in urban areas, 74% of them live in rural areas.

州市,简称郴,古称桂阳,是中华人民共和国湖南省下辖的地级市,位于湖南省东南部。市境西界永州市,北邻衡阳市,东北临株洲市,东毗江西省赣州市,南接广东省韶关市、清远市。地处湘粤赣三省交界,南岭山脉中段,罗霄山脉西缘。东有诸广山、八面山,西有骑田岭、阳明山、九嶷山。地貌以丘陵为主,间有盆地、河谷。北有湘江支流舂陵水、耒水、永乐江,南有北江支流武水、长乐水、章水。全市总面积19,342平方公里,人口473.03万,市人民政府驻北湖区。


Status.

Chamonix is the fourth largest commune in mainland France, with an area of. Its population of around 8,900 ranks 1,089th within the country of France.

History.

The valley was first mentioned in 1091, when it was granted by the Count of the Genevois to the great Benedictine house of St. Michel de la Cluse, near Turin, which by the early 13th century had established a priory there. However, in 1786 the inhabitants bought their freedom from the canons of Sallanches, to whom the priory had been transferred in 1519.  In 1530, the inhabitants obtained from the Count of the Genevois the privilege of holding two fairs a year, while the valley was often visited by the civil officials and by the bishops of Geneva (first recorded visit in 1411, while St. Francis de Sales came there in 1606). But travellers for pleasure were very rare.  Chamonix was part of the historical land of Savoy emerged as the feudal territory of the House of Savoy during the 11th to 14th centuries. The historical territory is shared between the modern countries of France, Italy, and Switzerland. The House of Savoy became the longest surviving royal house in Europe. It ruled the County of Savoy to 1416 and then the Duchy of Savoy from 1416 to 1860.  The first party to publish (1744) an account of their visit was that of Richard Pococke, William Windham and others, such as the Englishmen who visited the Mer de Glace in 1741. In 1742 came P. Martel and several other Genevese, in 1760 H.B. de Saussure, and rather later Marc Th. Bourrit.  The growth of tourism in the early 19th century led to the formation of the "Compagnie des Guides de Chamonix" in 1821, to regulate access to the mountain slopes (which were communally or co-operatively owned), and this association held a monopoly of guiding from the town until it was broken by French government action in 1892; thereafter guides were required to hold a diploma issued by a commission dominated by civil servants and members of the French Alpine Club rather than local residents.  From the late 19th century on, tourist development was dominated by national and international initiatives rather than local entrepreneurs, though the local community was increasingly dependent upon and active in the tourist industry.  The commune successfully lobbied to change its name from Chamonix to Chamonix-Mont-Blanc in 1916. However, following the loss of its monopoly, the "Compagnie" reformed as an association of local guides, and retained an important role in local society; it provided the services of a friendly society to its members, and in the 20th century many of them were noted mountaineers and popularisers of mountain tourism, for example the novelist Roger Frison-Roche, the first member of the "Compagnie" not to be born in Chamonix. The holding of the first Winter Olympic Games in Chamonix in 1924 further raised Chamonix's profile as an international tourist destination.  During the Second World War, a Children's Home operated in Chamonix, in which several dozens of Jewish children were hidden from the Nazis. Some of those who hid them were recognised as "Righteous Among the Nations".  By the 1960s, agriculture had been reduced to a marginal activity, while the number of tourist beds available rose to around 60,000 by the end of the 20th century, with about 5 million visitors a year.

Geography.

Settlements.

The commune of Chamonix-Mont-Blanc includes 16 villages and hamlets. From north to south: Le Tour, Montroc, Le Planet, Argentière, Les Chosalets, Le Lavancher, Les Tines, Les Bois, Les-Praz-de-Chamonix, Chamonix-Mont-Blanc, Les Pècles, Les Mouilles, Les Barrats, Les Pélerins, Les Gaillands, and Les Bossons.

Climate.

Due to its elevation, Chamonix has a humid continental climate ("Dfb," according to the Köppen climate classification")", with an average annual precipitation of. Summers are mild and winters are cold and snowy.

Mountain and winter sports.

Chamonix is a winter sports resort town. As the highest European mountain west of Russia, Mont Blanc attracts mountain climbers. There is a cable car up to the Aiguille du Midi. Constructed in 1955, it was then the highest cable car in the world and remains the highest vertical ascent cable car in the world.

Transportation.

Roads.

The town of Chamonix is served by French "Route Nationale" 205 (RN 205), nicknamed the "Route blanche", or "white route", due to its snowiness. This is an extension of French "autoroute" 40 (A40), similarly nicknamed the "autoroute blanche", which ends at Le Fayet, a village in the commune of Saint-Gervais-les-Bains. The 11.6-km Mont Blanc Tunnel originates here, linking Chamonix to Courmayeur in Italy. Chamonix is linked to Switzerland by what used to be RN 506a. In 2006, it was converted to a "Route Départementale" 1506, with a part of it integrated into RN 205. The nearest airport to Chamonix is Geneva Cointrin International and it is away.

Rail.

Chamonix is served by the metre-gauge St Gervais-Vallorcine Line, operated by SNCF. The line from Saint Gervais (on the standard-gauge rail network) to Chamonix opened in 1901; it was extended to Vallorcine in 1908. The line holds the record for the steepest gradient on any standard (i.e. adhesion) railway.  From Vallorcine, the rail route continues over the border into Switzerland, meeting the SBB network at Martigny. This latter section, a metre-gauge cog railway, is operated by Transports de Martigny et Régions SA. The train service from Vallorcine to Martigny is known as the Mont Blanc Express. Timetables on the St Gervais-Vallorcine and Vallorcine-Martigny sections are synchronized.  The 5.1-km Montenvers Railway is a cog railway that provides access to the tourist site of Montenvers. Opened in 1909, its rail station was built next to SNCF's Chamonix station on the St Gervais-Vallorcine Line. In fact the two stations are directly linked. Montenvers provides further tourist access to middle and high mountain areas.

Cable cars.

Chamonix has one of the highest cable cars in the world, which links the town to the summit of the Aiguille du Midi at 3842 m. It is based on an older system built in 1920, rebuilt in the first half of the 1950s over five summer seasons, fully modernized in 1979, and upgraded again in 2008. On the other side of the valley, another cable car links Chamonix to the viewpoint of Planpraz. A second line links Planpraz to the summit of Le Brévent at 2525 m. Many other cable cars exist in the valley, and are heavily used by skiers and residents. The Plan Joran chairlift at the base of Les Grands Montets is due to be replaced by a 10-person gondola for the Winter 2014/15 season.

International relations.

Twin towns — Sister cities.

Chamonix is twinned with:

Chamonix-Mont-Blanc, more commonly known as Chamonix, is a commune in the Haute-Savoie department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in south-eastern France. It was the site of the first Winter Olympics in 1924.

勃朗峰霞慕尼(,),简称霞慕尼,又译沙莫尼-蒙勃-{}-朗、沙莫尼或夏慕尼,法国东部城市,奥弗涅-罗讷-阿尔卑斯大区上萨瓦省的一个市镇。勃朗峰霞慕尼位于上萨瓦省东部,其市镇面积为平方公里,时人口数量为人,在法国城市中排名第1,201位。


Description.

Grows to 30m tall with Girths up to 100 cm. The crown pyramidal, but tend to flatten out as they grow to old age. Branches are long and slender during the life time. As you move down to more northern parts of its habitat they tend to grow shorter. hardiness zone of 5 (cold limit is between -23.3 Degree C and -28.8 Degree C)

Distribution.

Been seen at sea level up to 1,650m in different areas, but on Sakhalin Island it sits at elevations of 800-1,100m in pure stands or in mixed forests with Picea jezoensis(Yezo spruce) and Picea glehnii around the treeline. It is also found in lower elevations with broadleaf trees including Betula ermanii (Erman's birch), Castanea crenulata, Kalopanax septemlobus(castor aralia), and Mangnolia hypoleuca.

Habitat.

Cool summers, mild winters, and precipitation around 1,500mm. Half or more falls during the winter. soils tend to be well drained and moist. Does not do well in water logged soil. very shade tolerant when young, growth is slower in dense shade. It likes slightly acidic soils at a PH of around 5.

Uses.

Mainly logged for the production of wood pulp for the paper industry. It is a used for cultivations in gardens and arboreta in Russia, Northern Europe, England, and USA The Abies Sachalinesis is used for dying/tanning, Essential oils, Fibers, Timber, and Medicine. It is also made into products such as Boxes, Crates, Pallets, Posts, Stakes, Fences, wall paneling, and carpentry (exterior/interior). It is an important plantation species in Hokkaido, while the other Abies species are not used for plantation

Barks/needles.

Bark is greyish white, as it grows older the bark starts to get rough to the touch. Needles cover the shoots above and on the sides similar to the "Abies veitchii", Needle length is.5 to 1.4 inches long (1.2-3.5 cm) and.04 to.05 inches wide (1-1.2mm). Soft in texture with a glossy fresh green color.

Seedlings/cones.

Seed cones are cylindric, from 2-3.2 inches long, and 1-1.2 inches wide. When young colors of the cones are brown to dark purple, as they mature they turn blue-black to black-brown.

Root system.

Forms surface root systems because of the moist soils. When soils are very saturated the roots form a well developed tap root

Threats.

There have been no threats to this species. Old growth stands see the most pressure from logging in parts outside of Japan

Abies sachalinensis, the Sakhalin fir, is a species of conifer in the family Pinaceae. It is found in Sakhalin island and southern Kurils (Russia), and also in northern Hokkaido (Japan). The first discovery by a European was by Carl Friedrich Schmidt (1832-1908), the Baltic German botanist, on the Russian island of Sakhalin in 1866, but he did not introduce it to Europe. The plant was re-discovered by the English plant-collector, Charles Maries in 1877 near Aomori on the main Japanese island of Honshū, who initially thought it to be a variety of "Abies veitchii". Abies nephrolepis(khingan fir) is known to be the closest relative. Which is on the mainland just west of the range of Sakhalin fir.

库页冷杉("Abies sachalinensis")是松科冷杉属的树木。于北海道几乎全境以及千岛群岛南部、萨哈林岛、堪察加半岛的针阔混交林至亚寒带林均有分布。


Historical Importance.

Xingcheng has a long and distinguished history, and was established as a county as far back as the Liao Dynasty in CE 990. After being dissolved by the Yuan, it was resurrected during the Ming Dynasty under the name Ningyuan, and gained strategic importance as the first defensive outpost outside the Great Wall. Xingcheng's city walls have stood since they were first constructed in 1428 and were instrumental in helping the Ming defeat the great Manchu commander Nurhaci at the pivotal Battle of Ningyuan in 1626.

Tourist Destination.

In modern times Xingcheng has become a mecca for those seeking relief from the bustling heat of summer in the overcrowded cities of Northern China. The town has attractive swimming beaches and is also blessed with natural hot springs, discovered during the Tang Dynasty. For this reason, a number of spa resorts and sanatoriums have sprung up and the town has been marketed as a health destination, and is frequented by groups of Party cadres on government sponsored training courses during the summer. Xingcheng is home to the largest island in the Bohai Gulf, the beautiful and secluded Juhua Island (; ), once a sanctuary for the Prince of Yan on the run from the ruthless Qin Shihuang. A boat provides access to the island from the passenger terminal at the wharf, where local fisherman dock.  The Xingcheng seaside draws quite a crowd for swimming and other water sports and recreational activities during the summer. Its entrance is marked by a large statue of a local goddess. A pier connecting reef-top pavilions and a temple are located at the south end of the beach.  Liaoning Finance and Trade College in Xingcheng hosted events for the city's first International Swimsuit Festival on August 16, 2011. This event follows the city's receipt of the honorary title “Chinese Swimwear Town” by the China National Textile & Apparel Council and China Garment Association in 2010 for the city's noteworthy swimsuit manufacture.  The old town of Xingcheng is the best preserved of four Ming Dynasty cities in China that retain their original and complete city walls, and is a treasure trove of traditional Ming architecture, containing historical remnants such as the Confucius Temple, the oldest temple in Northeast China and the largest ancient building in Liaoning.  Shoushan (), a mountain located in the east end of Xingcheng, is open to the public for recreation. Visitors can hike to its summit. The area around it features temples on adjacent hills.

Transportation.

Xingcheng is served by rail lines and bus routes that make it accessible from other larger cities. Huludao, a short taxi ride away, also features high speed and other rail lines and additional bus routes that make the area quite accessible. The closest airport is in Jinzhou.  Taxis are metered and are typically easy to hail with fares starting at 5 RMB. The city also provides bus service about twelve hours a day for a fare of 1 RMB per passenger. Routes 1 and 2 connect the east end near the coast to the heart of the city's commercial activity at the South Gate () of the old town and the rail and bus stations on the west end.

Administrative divisions.

There are seven subdistricts, four towns, and two townships, and 15 ethnic townships under the city's administration.  Townships:

Xingcheng (), former name Ningyuan (), is a county-level city of southwest Liaoning province, China, with a population of approximately 140,000 urban inhabitants, and is located on the Liaodong Bay, i.e. the northern coast of the Bohai Sea. Currently under the administration of Huludao City, the area is steeped in history, and contains one of the best preserved Ming Dynasty towns in China, as well as functioning as a laidback summer resort.

兴城市位于辽宁省西南部,兴城市位于葫芦岛市西部,辽东湾西岸,居“辽西走廊”中部。东南部濒临渤海,东北倚热河丘陵,毗邻葫芦岛市龙港区、连山区,西南隔六股河与绥中县相望,西北同建昌县接壤。 是东北华北经济区节点城市,中国优秀旅游城市、中国温泉之城、中国书法之乡、中国泳装名城、是一座集城泉山海岛河、六大自然景观于一体的北方著名休闲疗养胜地。


Design.

The "Derfflinger"-class battlecruisers were a result of the fourth and final Naval Law, which was passed in 1912. Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz used public outcry over the British involvement in the Agadir Crisis of 1911 to pressure the Reichstag into appropriating additional funds to the Navy. The Fourth Naval Law secured funding for three new dreadnoughts, two light cruisers, and an extra 15,000 officers and men in the Navy for 1912. The three dreadnoughts secured in the bill became,, and. Design work on the first two ships began in October 1910 and continued until June 1911; "Hindenburg" was built to a slightly modified design, which was created between May and October 1912.  When design work began, the navy department was asked to submit new requirements to fix deficiencies found in the preceding battlecruiser classes, which primarily covered propulsion systems and the main armament. Previous battlecruisers used a four shaft arrangement for their engines; reducing the number to three would allow the new ships to equip a diesel engine on the central shaft. This would substantially increase the cruising range, and would ease the transfer of fuel and reduce the number of crew needed to operate the ships' machinery. The navy department also argued for an increase in the main battery guns, from 28-centimeter (11 in) guns to 30.5 cm (12 in) weapons. This was because the latest British battleships had thicker main belt armor, up to. Since the German battlecruisers were intended to fight in the line of battle, their armament needed to be sufficiently powerful to penetrate the armor of their British opponents. Weight increases were managed by reducing the number of guns, from 10 to 8—the increase in gun caliber added only 36 tons to the ships' displacement. Tirpitz argued against the increase in gun caliber, for he thought the 28 cm gun was powerful enough.  A new construction technique was employed to save weight. Previous battlecruisers were built with a combination of transverse and longitudinal steel frames; the "Derfflinger"-class ships dispensed with the transverse frames and used only the longitudinal ones. This enabled the ship to retain structural strength and a lower weight. As with all preceding capital ships, the outer hull spaces between the hull wall and the torpedo bulkhead were used for coal storage.  On 1 September 1910, the design board chose the 30.5 cm, to be mounted in four twin turrets on the centerline of the ship. The armor layout was kept the same as in "Seydlitz". In the meantime, pressure from the British public and media had forced the British Parliament to step up ship building. Kaiser Wilhelm II requested that the build time for the new battlecruisers be reduced to two years each, as opposed to three years. This proved unfeasible, because neither the armor or armament firms could supply the necessary materials according to an expedited schedule.

General characteristics.

"Derfflinger" and "Lützow" were long at the waterline and long overall. "Hindenburg" was slightly longer, at at the waterline and overall. All three ships had a beam of, and a draft of between forward and aft. The first two ships were designed to displace with a standard load, and up to at combat weight. "Hindenburg" displaced slightly more, at standard and fully laden. The ships' hulls were constructed from longitudinal steel frames, over which the outer hull plates were riveted. "Derfflinger"s hull contained 16 watertight compartments, though "Lützow" and "Hindenburg" had an additional seventeenth compartment. All three ships had a double bottom that ran for 65% of the length of the hull. This was a decrease from preceding German battlecruisers, which had a double bottom for at least 75% of the hull.  The ships were regarded as excellent sea boats by the German navy. The "Derfflinger"-class ships were described as having had gentle motion, though they were "wet" at the casemate deck. The ships lost up to 65% speed with the twin rudders hard over, and heeled up to 11 degrees. This was greater than any of the preceding battlecruiser designs, and as a result, anti-roll tanks were fitted to "Derfflinger". The three ships had a metacentric height of. The standard crew for one of the vessels was 44 officers and 1,068 men; when serving as the flagship for the I Scouting Group, the ships carried an additional 14 officers and 62 men. The "Derfflinger"s carried smaller craft, including one picket boat, three barges, two launches, two yawls, and two dinghies.

Machinery.

By the time construction work on "Derfflinger" began, it was determined that the diesel engine was not ready for use. Instead, the plan to use a three-shaft system was abandoned and the ships reverted to the standard four-shaft arrangement. Each of the three ships was equipped with two sets of marine-type turbines; each set drove a pair of 3-bladed screws that were in diameter on "Derfflinger" and "Lützow" and in diameter on "Hindenburg". Each set consisted of a high- and low-pressure turbine—the high-pressure machines drove the outer shafts while the low-pressure turbines turned the inner pair. Steam was supplied to the turbines from 14 coal-fired marine-type double boilers and eight oil-fired marine-type double-ended boilers. Each ship was equipped with a pair of turbo-electric generators and a pair of diesel-electric generators that provided a total of 1,660 kilowatts at 220 volts. Each ship was equipped with two rudders.  The engines for first two ships were designed to provide, at 280 revolutions per minute. This would have given the two ships a top speed of. During trials, "Derfflinger"s engines achieved, but a top speed of. "Lützow"s engines reached and a top speed of. "Hindenburg"s power plant was rated at at 290 rpm, for a top speed of. On trials she reached and. "Derfflinger" could carry of coal and of oil; at a cruising speed of, she had a range of. "Lützow" carried of coal and 1,000 tons of oil, though she had no advantage in range over her sister "Derfflinger". "Hindenburg" also stored 3,700 tons of coal, as well as of oil; her range at 14 knots was rated at.

Armament.

The "Derfflinger"-class ships were armed with eight 30.5 cm (12 in) SK L/50 guns in four twin gun turrets, two forward of the main superstructure in a superfiring pair and two to the rear of the ship, in a similar arrangement. The guns were housed in Drh.L C/1912 mounts on the first two ships, and in Drh.L C/1913 mounts on "Hindenburg". The turrets were trained with electric motors, while the guns were elevated hydraulically, up to 13.5 degrees. The guns fired 405.5-kilogram (894 lb) armor-piercing shells at a muzzle velocity of 855 meters per second (2,805 ft/s). At 13.5 degrees, the shells could hit targets out to. The turrets were modified in 1916 to increase the elevation maximum to 16 degrees. This correspondingly increased the range to. The ships carried 720 shells, or 90 per gun; each gun was supplied with 65 armor-piercing (AP) shells and 25 semi-AP shells for use against targets with less armor protection. The 30.5 cm gun had a rate of fire of between 2–3 shells per minute, and was expected to fire 200 shells before replacement was necessary. The guns were also capable of firing 405.9 kg (894.8 lb) high explosive shells. The shells were loaded with two RP C/12 propellant charges: a main charge in a brass cartridge that weighed 91 kg (201 lb) and a fore charge in a silk bag that weighed 34.5 kg (76 lb). The propellant magazines were located underneath the shell rooms for the two forward turrets as well as the rear superfiring turret; the arrangement was reversed for the rearmost turret.  The ships were designed to carry fourteen SK L/45 guns, mounted in casemates along the superstructure. Because "Derfflinger" had to be fitted with anti-roll tanks, two of the casemated guns had to be removed, to allow enough room in the hull. "Lützow" and "Hindenburg" were equipped with the designed number of guns. Each gun was supplied with 160 rounds, and had a maximum range of, though this was later extended to. The guns had a sustained rate of fire of five to seven rounds per minute. The shells were 45.3 kg (99.8 lb), and were loaded with a 13.7 kg (31.2 lb) RPC/12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge. The guns fired at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second (2,740 ft/s). The guns were expected to fire around 1,400 shells before they needed to be replaced.  The three ships carried a variety of SK L/45 guns in several configurations. The "Derfflinger"-class ships were initially equipped with eight of these weapons, all in single mounts; four were placed in the forward superstructure and four in the aft superstructure. The ships also carried four 8.8 cm Flak L/45 anti-aircraft guns, which were emplaced around the forward funnel, with the exception of "Lützow", which carried the Flak guns around the rear funnel. After 1916, the four 8.8 cm guns in the forward superstructure were removed. The Flak guns were emplaced in MPL C/13 mountings, which allowed depression to −10 degrees and elevation to 70 degrees. These guns fired 9 kg (19.8 lb) shells, and had an effective ceiling of at 70 degrees.  The ships were also armed with submerged torpedo tubes in their hulls. "Derfflinger" was equipped with four 50 cm tubes; the later ships were armed with more powerful 60 cm weapons. The tubes were arranged with one in the bow, one in the stern, and two on the broadside. "Derfflinger"s 50 cm torpedoes were the G7 type, 7.02 m (276 in) long and armed with a 195 kg (430 lb) Hexanite warhead. The torpedo had a range of 4,000 m (4,370 yd) when set at a speed of 37 knots, and up to 9,300 m (10,170 yd) at 27 knots. The 60 cm torpedoes were the H8 type, which were 8 m long and carried a 210 kg (463 lb) Hexanite warhead. The torpedoes had a range of 6,000 m (6,550 yd) when set at a speed of 36 knots; at a reduced speed of 30 knots, the range increased significantly to 14,000 m (15,310 yd).

Armor.

The "Derfflinger"-class ships were protected with Krupp cemented steel armor, as was the standard for German warships of the period. They had an armor belt that was thick in the central citadel of the ship, where the most important parts of the ship were. This included the ammunition magazines and the machinery spaces. The belt was reduced in less critical areas, to forward and aft. The belt tapered down to at the bow, though the stern was not protected by armor at all. A thick torpedo bulkhead ran the length of the hull, several meters behind the main belt. The main armored deck ranged in thickness from 30 mm thick in less important areas, to in the sections that covered the more critical areas of the ship.  The forward conning tower was protected with heavy armor: the sides were 300 mm thick and the roof was thick. The rear conning tower was less well armored; its sides were only thick and the roof was covered with of armor plate. The main battery gun turrets were also heavily armored: the turret sides were thick and the roofs were thick. On "Hindenburg", the thickness of the turret roofs was increased to. The 15 cm guns had 150 mm-worth of armor plating in the casemates; the guns themselves had thick shields to protect their crews from shell splinters.

Construction.

Of the three ships in its class, only "Derfflinger" was ordered as an addition to the fleet, under the provisional name "K". The other two ships were to intended to replace obsolete vessels; "Lützow" was ordered as "Ersatz Kaiserin Augusta" for the elderly protected cruiser and the contract for "Hindenburg" was issued under the provisional name "Ersatz Hertha", to replace the protected cruiser.  "Derfflinger" was constructed at Blohm & Voss in Hamburg under construction number 213. She was the least expensive of the three ships, at a cost of 56 million gold marks. The ship was ready to be launched on 14 June 1913, but during the ceremony, one of the wooden sledges upon which the hull rested became jammed. It took until 12 July for her to enter the water. She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 September 1914, shortly after the outbreak of World War I. "Lützow" was built at the Schichau dockyard in Danzig under construction number 885, at the cost of 58 million gold marks. The ship was launched on 29 November 1913, and after lengthy trials, commissioned on 8 August 1915. "Hindenburg", the final member of the class, was built at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven, under construction number 34. The ship was built at a cost of 59 million gold marks, the most expensive of the three vessels. She was launched on 1 August 1915 and commissioned on 10 May 1917.

Units.

SMS "Derfflinger".

Named after Georg von Derfflinger, a German field marshal during the Thirty Years' War, "Derfflinger" was commissioned on 1 September 1914. A dockyard crew transferred the ship from Hamburg to Kiel, via the Skagen. The ship was assigned to the I Scouting Group at the end of October. Damage to the ship's turbines sustained during trials prevented the ship from seeing active service until 16 November. On 15 December, the ship took part in the raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby. She was also present during the battle of Dogger Bank on 24 January 1915. The ship was hit once by a 13.5-inch shell from one of the British battlecruisers; in response, she heavily damaged. Repair work was completed by 16 February, but "Derfflinger"s starboard turbine was accidentally damaged on 28 June, and the ship was again in the dockyard until August. On 24 April 1916, "Derfflinger" took part in the bombardment of Yarmouth.  On 31 May, "Derfflinger" was heavily engaged during the Battle of Jutland, as the second ship in the German battlecruiser line. She sustained 21 major hits during the battle, but dealt considerable damage to the British battlecruiser force as well. At 16:26, sank after a magazine explosion that tore the ship apart; she had been targeted with a hail of heavy-caliber gunfire from "Derfflinger" and "Seydlitz". Two hours later, at 18:30, suffered a similar fate, though "Derfflinger" was assisted by her sister "Lützow". During the engagement, "Derfflinger" had both of her rear turrets knocked out by British gunfire. Her crew suffered 157 men killed and 26 wounded, which was the highest casualty figure for any German ship not sunk. The resilience of the vessel earned her the nickname "Iron Dog" from her British adversaries. Repair work lasted until 15 October, during which the ship had her pole mast removed and replaced with a tripod mast. The ship conducted training operations until November, at which point she returned to active duty with the fleet.  Following the German capitulation in November 1918, "Derfflinger" was interned with a significant portion of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow. On 21 June 1919, with the guard ships of the Royal Navy out on maneuvers, Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter ordered that the fleet be scuttled. The resulting scuttling of the German fleet saw some 66 vessels of various types sunk. Among those was "Derfflinger", which sank at 14:45. The ship was raised in 1939 to be broken up for scrap metal, but the outbreak of World War II intervened. The ship, which remained capsized, was anchored off the island of Risa until 1946, at which point she was sent to Faslane Port, where she was broken up. The ship's bell was delivered to the German Federal Navy on 30 August 1965.

SMS "Lützow".

"Lützow" was named after Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow, a Prussian lieutenant-general who fought during the Napoleonic Wars. The ship was commissioned on 8 August 1915, and then underwent trials. On 25 October, while still running sea trials, "Lützow"s port low pressure turbine was severely damaged. She was sent to Kiel for repairs, which lasted until late January 1916. The ship went on additional trials that lasted until 19 February. "Lützow" was by then fully operational, and assigned to the I Scouting Group on 20 March 1916. She took part in two fleet advances, on 25 March and 21–22 April, without any major incidents. The following day, on 23 April, "Lützow", along with her sister "Derfflinger" and the battlecruisers "Seydlitz",, and, bombarded Yarmouth. While en route to the target, Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper's flagship "Seydlitz" was heavily damaged by mines. As a result, "Lützow" was transferred to the role of squadron flagship. During the operation, the German battlecruisers encountered British light forces, and a running battle ensued. "Lützow" engaged the light cruiser and hit her several times.  At the Battle of Jutland, she was the first ship in the German line, and Hipper's flagship, and drew fire from the British battlecruisers which included hits below her waterline. Shortly after the start of the battlecruiser action, "Lützow" hit her opponent "Lion" several times; one hit knocked out "Lion"s "Q" turret, and the resulting magazine fire nearly destroyed the ship. Shortly after 19:00, the armored cruisers and inadvertently ran into the German line; "Lützow" opened fire immediately, followed by several German dreadnoughts. In a hail of shells, "Defence"s ammunition magazines detonated and the ship was sunk. At around the same time, the fresh battlecruisers of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron engaged their German opposites. Between 19:26 and 19:34, "Lützow" sustained four 12-inch shell hits in her bow from the British battlecruisers; these eventually proved to be fatal. Despite this, at 19:30, the combined fire of "Lützow" and her sister "Derfflinger" destroyed the battlecruiser "Invincible". By 20:15, "Lützow" had been hit five more times, including hits on her two forward turrets.  By 22:15, "Lützow" had shipped nearly 2,400 tons of water, and the ship was dangerously down by the bows. After midnight, attempts were made to steer the ship in reverse. This failed when the bow became submerged enough to bring the stern out of the water; by 02:20, the screws and both rudders were coming out of the water and the ship was no longer able to steer. The order to abandon ship was given, and at 02:47, "Lützow" was sunk by the torpedo boat. The ship was lost because the flooding in the bow could not be controlled; the forward pump system failed and the central system could not keep up with the rising water. The crew was picked up by four torpedo boats that had been escorting the crippled battlecruiser; during the battle the ship suffered 116 men killed.

SMS "Hindenburg".

"Hindenburg" was the last battlecruiser completed for the Imperial German Navy, and as such had a very short career. She was commissioned 10 May 1917, and was fully operational by 20 October 1917, too late to see any major action in World War I. On 17 November "Hindenburg" and "Moltke", along with the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group, were acting as distant support for German minesweepers off the German coast when they were attacked by British battlecruisers. The raid was brief; by the time "Hindenburg" and "Moltke" arrived on the scene, the British ships had broken off the attack and withdrawn. Six days later, "Hindenburg" replaced "Seydlitz" as flagship of the I Scouting Group. On 23 April 1918, the ship took part in an abortive fleet advance into the North Sea that attempted to intercept an Allied convoy. "Moltke" sustained mechanical damage while en route, and as a result, Vice Admiral Hipper decided to cancel the operation. On 11 August, Hipper was promoted to Admiral and given command of the entire High Seas Fleet. Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter replaced Hipper as the commander of the I Scouting Group; he raised his flag on "Hindenburg" the following day.  "Hindenburg" was interned at Scapa Flow, along with her sister "Derfflinger" and the rest of the German battlecruisers. She was scuttled on 21 June 1919, and sank at 17:00. Several unsuccessful attempts to raise her were made; on 23 July 1930 the ship was finally raised. From 1930 to 1932 she was scrapped at Rosyth. Her bell was presented to the German Federal Navy on 28 May 1959.

References.

Online sources

The "Derfflinger" class was a class of three battlecruisers () of the Imperial German Navy. The ships were ordered for the 1912–13 Naval Building Program of the German Imperial Navy as a reply to the Royal Navy's three new s that had been launched a few years earlier. The preceding and the incrementally improved represented the end of the evolution of Germany's first generation of battlecruisers. The "Derfflinger" class had considerable improvements, including a larger primary armament, all of which was mounted on the centerline. The ships were also larger than the preceding classes. The "Derfflinger" class used a similar propulsion system, and as a result of the increased displacement were slightly slower.

德夫林格级大巡洋舰(Große Kreuzer der Derfflinger-Klasse),或译为德弗林格尔级大巡洋舰、德弗林格级大巡洋舰,是德国建造的一种战列巡洋舰。