库尔班古力·别尔德穆哈梅多夫

Early years.

Berdimuhamedow was born on 29 June 1957 in Babarap, in what is now the Geok Tepe "etrap" ("district") of Ahal Province, to Mälikguly Berdimuhamedowiç Berdimuhamedow (born 12 August 1932) and Ogulabat Ataýewna Kürräýewa. He is the only son in a family of six children. Berdimuhamedow’s father worked as a senior Interior Ministry officer in a prison guard detachment. He retired as a Colonel of police. His grandfather, Berdimuhamed Annayev, was a local teacher who served in the Red Army during the Great Patriotic War as part of the 748th Rifle Regiment of the 206th Rifle Division of the 2nd Ukrainian Front. In September 1943, his unit was one of the first to cross into the Dnepr River. He was later killed in the 1948 Ashgabat earthquake.  Berdimuhamedow graduated from the Turkmen State Medical Institute in 1979 and entered a career in dentistry. He also received a PhD in medical sciences in Moscow. By 1992 he had become part of the dentistry faculty at the Medical Institute. In 1995, during the rule of Saparmurat Niyazov, Berdimuhamedow became head of the dentistry center of the Ministry of Health and Medical Industry. He was appointed to the government as Minister of Health in 1997, and he was additionally appointed as Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers (also referred to as Deputy Prime Minister, despite the lack of a Prime Ministerial post in Turkmenistan), a post akin to that of a Vice-President, in 2001. In April 2004, Niyazov suspended Berdimuhamedow's salary for three months because healthcare workers were not being paid.  The Health Ministry was responsible for carrying out Niyazov's notorious order to close all hospitals outside of the capital city and major regional towns in 2005.

President of Turkmenistan.

Following Niyazov's death in December 2006, the State Security Council of Turkmenistan appointed Berdimuhamedow as acting president. The Council stated in its announcement that Öwezgeldi Ataýew, who, as the Chairman of the Assembly of Turkmenistan was to become the acting president, was not appointed "in view of the fact that the prosecutor-general had instituted criminal proceedings against him".  Article 60 of the Turkmen Constitution stipulated that the acting president "may not stand for election to the Presidency", which would have barred Berdimuhamedow from running in the 2007 presidential elections. However, on 24 December 2006, the People's Council voted to remove this provision, making him eligible for the election as one of the six chosen candidates, all members of the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan. Berdimuhamedov was supported by the political elite, and the official results showed him as winning 89% of the vote.  In his first presidential trip abroad, Berdimuhamedov visited Saudi Arabia in mid-April 2007. There he performed the Umrah pilgrimage and met with King Abdullah. He then visited Russia and President Vladimir Putin at the end of the same month.  After taking office, Berdimuhamedow reversed several of Niyazov's more eccentric policies. Internet cafés offering free and uncensored web access opened in Ashgabat, compulsory education was extended from nine to ten years and classes in sports and foreign languages were re-introduced into the curriculum, and the government announced plans to open several specialised schools for the arts. President Berdimuhamedow has called for reform of education, health care and pension systems, and government officials of non-Turkmen ethnic origin who had been sacked by Niyazov were allowed to return to work. He also restored the pensions of 100,000 elderly people whose pensions Niyazov had slashed in the face of an unspecified budget crisis. Later on, he reopened the Turkmen Academy of Sciences, which had been closed by Niyazov.  In February 2017, he was reelected to a third term as President of Turkmenistan (seven-year term) with nearly 98% of the votes in his favor and with an eligible voter turnout of 97%. In October 2017, he offered a top Turkmen-bred variety of the Central Asian shepherd dog to Vladimir Putin.  He was reelected as president of the National Olympic Committee of Turkmenistan on 22 April 2018.

Criticism.

Accusations of totalitarianism.

Upon taking office, Berdimuhamedow eased travel restrictions and reopened libraries in rural areas. He also took steps to curb Niyazov's extensive personality cult. He called for an end to the elaborate pageants of music and dancing that formerly greeted the president on his arrival anywhere, and said that the Turkmen "sacred oath", part of which states that the speaker's tongue should shrivel if he ever speaks ill of Turkmenistan or its president, should not be recited multiple times a day but reserved for "special occasions." He also gave up his right to rename any landmarks, institutions, or cities, restored the traditional names of the months of the year and days of the week (Niyazov had renamed them after himself and his mother, among other things), and announced plans to move the infamous gold rotating statue of Niyazov from Ashgabat's central square. However, he explicitly ruled out any move toward Western-style democracy.  In 2008, he dismissed Akmyrat Rejepow, the longtime chief of the presidential security detail and one of the main proponents of Niyazov's personality cult. In 2011, he sang a song on a video posted to YouTube.  In July 2013, Jennifer Lopez publicly apologized for singing "Happy birthday!" to Berdimuhamedow during a sponsored concert, stating she was not aware of the human rights issues in Turkmenistan prior to the show. In August 2013, Berdimuhamedow suspended his Democratic Party of Turkmenistan membership for the duration of his presidency, ostensibly to remain "above partisan politics" and "promote a multiparty system."  In May 2013, he fell off his horse during a race. The fall was censored on TV but leaked online. On 11 August 2019, an episode of HBO's "Last Week Tonight with John Oliver" featured a clip of the incident, which was played thrice. This was part of a long piece satirising the dictator, culminating in the unveiling of a 55 sq meter marble cake decorated with a giant image of the president falling off the horse (ironically breaking the world record for the size of marble cakes). According to Oliver, Guinness World Records, which was criticized in the episode for its relations with authoritarian regimes, refused to certify the record unless the show signed a contract prohibiting it from criticizing the company, which Oliver stated that "is clearly ridiculous."  In 2015, a golden statue of Berdimuhamedow riding a horse atop a white-marble cliff was erected in Ashgabat.  According to international observers, Berdimuhamedow now leads "one of the most oppressive" and "closed" regimes in the world. Freedom House has consistently placed Turkmenistan near the bottom of its Freedom in the World rankings since Berdimuhamedow took office; in 2017, the country was one of 11 with the lowest aggregate scores for political and civil rights. Human Rights Watch noted that Berdimuhamedow not only has complete control over public life, but presides over a regime that does not tolerate "alternative political or religious expression" and has complete control over the media. Reporters Without Borders (RSF) has ranked Turkmenistan near the bottom of its Press Freedom Index for most of Berdimuhamedow's tenure. In 2017, RWB ranked Turkmenistan 178th out of 180 countries surveyed, ahead of Eritrea and North Korea. RSF noted that internet access is heavily censored in Turkmenistan, and that satellite dishes have been removed by government officials.  In September 2016, the Turkmenistan Parliament abolished term limits for the presidency, which allowed Berdimuhamedow to run for a third term.  In January 2018, Berdimuhamedow ordered the impounding of black cars in the capital because he considered the color white to be "lucky." Police seized dark-colored vehicles in Ashgabat and their owners were told they must pay to have them repainted silver or white. The capital, known as the 'City of White Marble', holds the world record for the highest concentration of white-marble buildings. Berdimuhamedow is a known lover of the color white, living in a white palace and travelling in white limousines.  In July 2018, he appeared in a rap video with his grandson. He had previously lifted weights on camera, and also acted as DJ.  By decree of Berdymuhamedov in January 2019, the government will gradually end state funding of the Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan; it will be phased out in three years.

Violation of individual rights.

The "Obozrevatel" magazine named Berdimuhamedow the 5th of the 23 worst dictators in the world. In the Press Freedom Index (Reporters Without Borders), Turkmenistan ranks 176 out of 178.  Turkmenistan leads in the number of political prisoners from all countries of the former Soviet Union.

Corruption.

The country's economy is under total state control. Numerous attempts to attract foreign investors into the country often end in lawsuits in international courts. In 2018, the International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (arbitration, part of the World Bank group of organizations) received claims against Turkmenistan from Sece Inşaat (Turkey) and investment company Unionmatex Industrieanlagen GmbH (Germany).  In 2019, the Belarusian construction company Belgorkhimprom also filed a similar claim with the court, to which Turkmenistan should pay about $200 million.  Investors talk about discrimination against the Turkmen authorities, politicized bureaucracy, and a high level of corruption.  In the Transparency International Corruption Perception Index, Turkmenistan ranked 161 among 180 countries in 2018. This is the lowest rating among countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.  In 2019, Turkmenistan ranked 164th among 180 countries in the ranking of economic freedom.

Personal life.

Family.

According to a cable from the U.S. embassy in Ashgabat, Berdimuhamedow is married and has three daughters and one son. One of his sons-in-law, Yhlasgeldi Amanov, headed the Turkmen State Agency for Management and Use of Hydrocarbon Resources in London, was later assigned to the Turkmenistan Embassies in Berlin and London, and as of 23 November 2019 was Turkmenistan's consul general in Dubai. The other son-in-law is also a diplomat, with a prior posting in Paris, but currently assigned to Brussels.  According to the same leaked cables, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow has a mistress, Marina, a Russian nurse that he supposedly met earlier in his dentist career. They have a 14-year old daughter together. Berdimuhamedow's wife has been living in London since 2007. His son, Serdar Berdimuhamedow, is a lieutenant colonel in the Armed Forces. Serdar was appointed governor of Ahal velayat (province) in June 2019. At least three of Berdimuhamedow's grandchildren study in Switzerland: Kerimguly, Ogulbäbek, and Aýgül. According to a biography of Berdimuhamedow's father published in 2012, Berdimuhamedow has five sisters: Durdynabat (born 1960), Gulnabat (born 1962), Mähri (born 1964), Guljamal (born 1969), and Oguljamal (born 1974).

Father and grandfather in cult of personality.

Berdimuhamedow's grand father and father both serve as part of his cult of personality. His grandfather, Berdimuhamed Annayev has since 2018 been a posthumous recipient of the Russian Order of Honour, being one of two awards he holds (the other being the Soviet Order of the Badge of Honour). The Berdimuhamed Annayev 1st Specialized Military School of the Ministry of Defence is named in his honour. a museum in the defence ministry is also named after him. In May 2020, a special delegation from Russia led by Deputy Minister of Defence Alexander Fomin brought the banner of Annayev's unit to Ashgabat, being trooped through the square in front of the Halk Hakydasy Memorial Complex during the inaugural Victory Day Parade in the capital.  On 1 September 2009, secondary school No. 27 was renamed after Berdimuhamed Annaev and was opened with his son at the opening ceremony. In October 2012, the Main Drama Theater of Turkmenistan staged a play based on Berdimuhamedov's book about his grandfather called "Good Name Imperishable". The Military Unit 1001 of the Ministry of Internal Affairs is named in the legacy of Berdimuhamedow's father. In addition, in honor of him, in the village of Yzgant, the Palace of Culture is named after him.

Hobbies.

During his spare time from being President, from his dentistry career and from his political career, he writes books that are popular in Turkmenistan according to Turkmen propaganda. Aside from writing books, he is known for writing songs, DJing and engaging in health activities.

Health.

On 20 July 2019, the YouTube channel of a Turkmen opposition media outlet announced that Berdimuhamedow had reportedly died while on holiday at the age of 61. He was said to have been on leave since 15 July. These reports were published by multiple Russian media outlets on the next day. The Turkmen Ambassador to Kyrgyzstan, Shadurdy Mereov, and the Kyrgyz Ministry of Foreign Affairs denied these claims on 21 July. According to The Chronicle of Turkmenistan, Berdimuhamedow went to Germany because his mother was receiving medical treatment there, and her condition was critical.

Gurbanguly Mälikgulyýewiç Berdimuhamedow (born 29 June 1957) is a Turkmen politician who has been serving as the President of Turkmenistan since February 2007. Berdimuhamedow, a dentist by profession, served in the government under President Saparmurat Niyazov as Minister of Health beginning in 1997 and as Vice-President beginning in 2001. He became Acting President following Niyazov's death on 21 December 2006 and subsequently won the February 2007 presidential election. He faced no meaningful opposition in the vote and won by an overwhelming margin (89.23%). In the February 2012 presidential election, he was re-elected with 97% of the vote. In the February 2017 presidential election, he was re-elected to a third term with 97.69% of the votes.

库尔班古力·米亚里克古雷耶维奇·别尔德穆哈梅多夫(,1957年-6月29日),土库曼斯坦现任总统,曾任土库曼斯坦卫生与医学工业部长、副总统。


The First International Polar Year (1882–1883).

The First International Polar Year was proposed by an Austro-Hungarian naval officer, Karl Weyprecht, in 1875 and organized by Georg Neumayer, director of the German Maritime Observatory. Rather than settling for traditional individual and national efforts, they pushed for a coordinated scientific approach to researching Arctic phenomena. Observers made coordinated geophysical measurements at multiple locations in the Arctic during the same year enabling multiple views of same phenomena, allowing broader interpretation of the available data and a validation of the results obtained.  It took seven years to organize the first IPY which had twelve participating nations: the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Russia, Sweden, United Kingdom, Canada, and United States.  The aforementioned countries operated 12 stations in the Arctic and two in the sub-Antarctic. Six additional meteorological stations were organized by Neumayer at Moravian mission stations on the east coast of Labrador. Observations focused on meteorology, geomagnetism, auroral phenomena, ocean currents, tides, structure and the motion of ice and atmospheric electricity. More than 40 meteorological observatories around the world expanded the IPY programs of observations for this period. Data and images from the first IPY have very recently been made available for browsing and downloading on the internet. These records of the first IPY offer a rare glimpse of the circumpolar Arctic environment as it existed in the past and hold the potential to improve our understanding of historical climate variability and environmental change in the Arctic.

The Second International Polar Year (1932–1933).

The International Meteorological Organization, the predecessor of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), proposed and promoted the second IPY (1932–1933). Shortly after World War I, mysterious behavior in telegraph, radio and electric power and telephone lines convinced engineers and scientists of the fact that the electrical geophysics of the Earth needed more study. The availability of airplanes, motorized sea and land transport and new instruments like radiosondes enabled these phenomena to be investigated.  At an international conference of directors of meteorological services in Copenhagen in 1928 it was decided to undertake another intensive and coordinated international research effort focused on the polar regions during 1932–1933, the 50th anniversary of the First International Polar Year. It was also proposed to explicitly include in the plan for the second IPY the goal to investigate how observations in the polar regions could improve the accuracy of weather forecasts and the safety of air and sea transport.  Forty-four countries participated in the second IPY, which heralded advances in meteorology, magnetism, atmospheric science, and in the “mapping” of ionospheric phenomena that advanced radio science and technology. 27 observation stations were established in the Arctic, a vast amount of data was collected and a world data center was created under the organization that eventually came to be called the World Meteorological Organization. Due to the global financial crisis (“The Great Depression”) at the time, the plan of erecting a network of stations in Antarctica had to be abandoned. Also, a great amount of data generated in this year was lost due to Second World War.

International Geophysical Year (1957–58) (Also referred to as the Third IPY).

See International Geophysical Year

The Fourth International Polar Year (2007–2008).

The fourth IPY (2007–2008) was sponsored by the International Council for Science (ICSU) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), an interdisciplinary body of ICSU assumed responsibility for coordinating all IPY-related Antarctic research, and the International Arctic Science Committee (IASC), an ICSU affiliate body, promoted and helped to plan the Arctic-focused IPY research. Initial planning for the fourth IPY began in 2003 under an International Planning Group (chaired by Professor Chris Rapley and Dr Robin Bell), and the organization and implementation of the main phase of this IPY took place in 2005–2009 with leadership from the newly established ICSU-WMO Joint Committee (co-chaired by Dr Michel Béland and Dr Ian Allison, who was later replaced as co-chair by Prof. Jerónimo López-Martínez), its subcommittees and the International Programme Office (led by Dr David Carlson).  The fourth IPY comprised an intense, coordinated field campaign of observations, research, and analysis. It was the largest, most comprehensive campaign ever mounted to explore the Earth's polar regions. An estimated 50,000 researchers, local observers, educators, students and support personnel from more than 60 countries were involved in the 228 international IPY projects (170 in scientific research, one in data management, and 57 in education and outreach) and related national efforts. The IPY included intensive research and observation periods in the Arctic and Antarctic over a three-year timespan, which started 1 March 2007 and was formally concluded 12 June 2010 at the IPY Oslo Science Conference. However, many activities continued beyond that date. The IPY Science Program covered eleven areas: Polar atmosphere, Arctic ocean, Southern Ocean, Greenland ice sheet and Arctic glaciers, Antarctic ice sheets, Sub-glacial aquatic environments, Permafrost, Earth structure and geodynamics at the poles, Polar terrestrial ecology and biodiversity, Polar societies and social processes and Human health.

IPY Report.

In 2011 the ICSU/WMO Joint Committee for the IPY published a comprehensive summary of IPY activities entitled "Understanding Earth's Polar Challenges: International Polar Year 2007–2008". The report covers the development of IPY 2007–2008 for almost a decade, from 2001 to 2010. It comprises 38 chapters in five parts (Planning, Research, Observations, Outreach, and Legacies) and brings together hundreds of contributing authors from a wide range disciplines and more than 30 countries. This broad overview demonstrates the extensive and essential contribution made by participating nations and organizations, and provides a prospective blueprint for future polar research.

SCAR/IASC Open Science Conference, St. Petersburg, Russia, 2008.

A joint conference organized by SCAR and IASC under the overarching theme “Polar Research – Arctic and Antarctic perspectives in the International Polar Year” was held 8–11 July 2008 in St. Petersburg, Russia, and brought together Arctic and Antarctic researchers as part of the fourth IPY. The four-day meeting comprised 29 sessions with over 1400 attendees, 550 oral presentations and 670 posters.

IPY Science Conferences.

Oslo, Norway 2010.

The IPY Science Conference was held 8–12 June in Oslo, Norway and was organized by the WMO, ICSU, IASC and the Research Council of Norway and marked the official end of the fourth IPY. The conference aim was to celebrate and publish early results from the International Polar Year 2007–2008 (IPY) and enable direct interaction among all IPY science cluster projects. There were over 2000 participants from over 60 countries.

Montréal, Canada, 2012.

Building on the previous IPY Science Conference in Oslo, the IPY steering committee organized a science conference (22–27 April 2012) in Montréal, Canada, with the theme ‘From knowledge to action’. This conference examined the global impact and implications of International Polar Year activities. The aim of the IPY Science Conference in 2012 was to help shape stewardship, sustainable development and environmental protection goals for the strategic and highly valued polar regions. In total the IPY 2012 conference received 2134 abstracts with contributions from over 45 countries.

Polar Educators International.

An important legacy of the IPY 2012 “From Knowledge to Action” Conference Polar Educators Workshop, together with the education and outreach efforts of the International Polar Year 2007 – 2008, was the establishment of Polar Educators International (PEI), a vibrant network promoting polar education and research to a global community. This includes a formal network of professionals involved in science education focused on promoting excellence in teaching polar science. Louise Huffman, co-chair of the IPY Education and Outreach Committee was one of the founding members.

The Association of Polar Early Career Scientists (APECS).

The Association of Polar Early Career Scientists (APECS) was founded during the fourth IPY.  Following a meeting in Stockholm at the end of September 2007, the IPY International Youth Steering Committee (IYSC) and the Association of Polar Early Career Scientists (APECS) merged under a new structure while maintaining the name ‘APECS’. The IPY International Youth Steering Committee (IYSC) had been established in 2004 by Amber Church, Tyler Kuhn, Melanie Raymond and Hugues Lantuit to represent the needs of the youth during the fourth IPY, and the Association of Polar Early Career Scientists (APECS) had been established in 2006 to represent the needs and challenges faced by (post-)graduate students, post-docs, junior faculty, and research associates involved in polar research.  APECS aims to stimulate interdisciplinary and international research collaborations, provide opportunities for professional career development and develop effective future leaders in polar research, education and outreach. Jenny Baeseman, as the Founding Director of APECS, established the organisations first international secretariat in Tromsø, Norway during the IPY.

International Polar Weeks.

In order to provide a platform for a continued focus on the polar regions, the IPY International Programme Office organised Polar Weeks with the theme “What Happens at the Poles Affects Us All” in October 2009 and March 2010.  Twice yearly polar weeks continue to this day and are organized by APECS. These weeks, coinciding with the polar equinoxes, are filled with outreach activities and events designed to engage school children and the wider public in polar science.

International Polar Year Publications Database.

The International Polar Year Publications Database (IPYPD) attempts to identify and describe all publications that result from, or are about, any of the four IPYs that have been undertaken so far. The IPYPD is part of the IPY Data and Information Service (IPYDIS). The IPYPD has been created by the Arctic Science and Technology Information System (ASTIS), the Cold Regions Bibliography Project (CRBP), the Scott Polar Research Institute (SPRI) Library, the Discovery and Access of Historic Literature of the IPYs (DAHLI) project and NISC Export Services (NES). As of February 2016, the database contains 6,724 records.

The International Polar Years (IPY) are collaborative, international efforts with intensive research foci on the polar regions. Karl Weyprecht, an Austro-Hungarian naval officer, motivated the endeavor in 1875, but died before it first occurred in 1882–1883. Fifty years later (1932–1933) a second IPY took place. The International Geophysical Year was inspired by the IPY and was organized 75 years after the first IPY (1957–58). The fourth, and most recent, IPY covered two full annual cycles from March 2007 to March 2009.

国际极地年是一项国际南北极科学考察的重要活动,由国际科学理事会和世界气象组织主办,约五十年举办一次,第一次举办于1882年,最近一次于2007年举办,合共举办了四次。其活动目的是将科学家在极地上各时间、地点的研究整合,并界定重要的项目分工,借以研究冰床消融、气候变迁及极地环境变化等议题,并向普罗大众介绍极地如何影响人类的生活,如何更好的保护环境。


Name.

In English the two syllables of the name are the same, but in Mandarin they differ in tone ( "Gònggōng"), and in other Chinese languages they differ in their vowel and the initial consonant as well (cf. Middle Chinese, also Japanese "kyōkō"). The most common variant of the name,, is identical to the first in English, but in Mandarin differs in tone ("Gōnggōng"), and in other Chinese languages in consonant and vowel as well (cf. Middle Chinese ).  Gonggong's personal name is said to be Kanghui (pronounced either in English, or as Mandarin "Kānghuí" – approximately ).

Legend.

Gonggong is known from the late Warring States period (before 221 BCE). Gonggong appears in the ancient "Heavenly Questions" ("Tianwen") poem of the "Chu Ci", where he is blamed for knocking the earth's axis off center, causing it to tilt to the southeast and the sky to tilt to the northwest. This axial tilt is used to explain why the rivers of China generally flow to the southeast, especially the Yangzi River and the Yellow River, and why the sun, moon, and stars move towards the northwest. Literature from the Han dynasty becomes much more detailed regarding Gonggong.  Gonggong was credited in various mythological contexts as being responsible for great floods, often in concert with his minister Xiangliu (a.k.a. Xiangyao), who has nine heads and the body of a snake.  Gonggong was ashamed that he lost the fight with Zhurong, the Chinese god of fire, to claim the throne of Heaven. In a fit of rage he smashed his head against Buzhou Mountain, one of eight pillars holding up the sky, greatly damaging it and causing the sky to tilt towards the northwest and the earth to shift to the southeast, which caused great floods and suffering.  The goddess Nüwa cut off the legs of the giant turtle Ao and used them in place of the fallen pillar, ending the floods and suffering; she was, however, unable to fully correct the tilted sky and earth and alter their effects on the sun, moon, stars, and rivers in China.

Gonggong is a Chinese water god who is depicted in Chinese mythology and folktales as having a copper human head with an iron forehead, red hair, and the body of a serpent or a human head and torso with the tail of a serpent. He is destructive and is blamed for various cosmic catastrophes. In all accounts, Gonggong ends up being killed or sent into exile, usually after losing a struggle with another major deity such as the fire god Zhurong.

共工,又称共工氏。为中国古代神话中的帝王,也被当成水神。《列子·汤问》:“共工氏与颛顼争为帝,怒而触不周之山,折天柱,绝地维,故天倾西北,日月星辰就焉;地不满东南,故百川水潦归焉。”另外还有一种说法,共工氏是轩辕裔黄帝王朝时代的部落名,把共工与驩兜、三苗、鲧列入四罪。


Production.

Production began in late 1940 at serial number 700,000, as an extension of the serial number range of the Mauser Model 1934 pistol, a much more difficult pistol to manufacture. The early pistols have well-made wooden grips, and are highly polished and richly blued. The first 1350 pistols were made for the commercial market and, because of the low positioning of the grip screws, have become known as the "Low Grip Screw" variety. Approximately half of this initial production was purchased by Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine". All these early low grip pistols are today very rare. At approximately serial number 701345 the grip screws were relocated upward to a more central and sturdier position.  The German Army began HSc procurement with an initial order for 3,000 pistols in early 1941, beginning with serial number 701,345, and, intermittently, ending about #712,000. These pistols are marked with an Eagle/655 inspection stamp on the left rear trigger guard web, a factory firing proof Eagle/N on the right rear trigger guard web and at the front of the right slide. Also a small Army Test Proof stamp was stamped on the left rear grip tang. Subsequent orders were placed by the Army throughout the war, along with pistols procured by the Police and Kriegsmarine, with almost 24% of the total production of 252,000 pistols going to the commercial market.  A second Army variation of about 5,000 pistols consisted of pistols whose serial numbers ranged, intermittently, from about 712,000 to about 745,000. These have an Eagle/655 WaA (Army acceptance) on the left rear trigger guard web and the Eagle/N firing proofs on the right rear trigger guard web and on front of right slide, but have no proof mark on the left rear grip tang. The finish on these pistols is also of the first quality.  The third Army variation of some 4,000 pistols ranged in intermittent serial numbers from about 745,000 to about 790,000. These bear an acceptance mark of Eagle/135 on the left rear trigger guard web and the two Eagle/N firing proofs on the right side. The high quality finish of the earlier pistols starts to decline in this production segment.  The fourth variation consists of 31,000 intermittently numbered pistols from around #790,000 to #886,000. These pistols have an Eagle/135 acceptance and Eagle/N proofs as before. On pistols after #855,000 the left side of the slide now has a three-line device stamped along with the Banner. The polish of these pistols is rougher and the military "dusk blue" is now in evidence. The cross hatched machining inside the top sight channel is no longer there.  The last variation, of some 32,000 intermittently numbered pistols in a serial number range of about #886,000 to #952,000, has the three-line device on the left side of the slide and bears an Eagle/WaA135 acceptance and the Eagle/N proofs. Beginning in the late #940,000 range some pistols were given black plastic grip panels. The very last pistols, in the #949,500 to #952,000 range, were finished with Mauser's phosphate finish, somewhat similar to the U.S. parkerizing finish used on most M-1 rifles, M-1 Carbines and M1911 pistols. The Mauser phosphate finish is variable in color, from a dark grey to an almost green color. These phosphated pistols are quite rare today and, with Eagle/WaA135 acceptance, are highly desirable to military collectors. The Eagle/WaA135 marks are generally "right side up" on the early phosphate pistols but "upside down" on the later pistols. Small parts on many of these very late phosphate pistols are usually a mix of older blued parts and later phosphated parts. HScs with frames and slides of different finishes may exist and would be extremely rare and desirable to military collectors.  Final German World War II production ended with the capture of the Oberndorf area by American troops in late April 1945. After the area was given to the French production resumed for French use and was concluded in 1946.  Military personnel of all ranks not issued sidearms often purchased HSc pistols in the commercial marketplace and carried them in the field. Such commercial pistols often returned with veterans as World War II war souvenirs, often in military proofed HSc holsters.  Distribution of total HSc pistol production (1940–1945):  The HSc pistols made by the French in 1945–46 bear an RW proof. Most of these pistols were destined for French forces fighting in the First Indochina War.  Production of high-quality commercial pistols had been resumed at the Mauser factory in Oberndorf from 1968 to 1977. German police units saw the most use of the Mauser HSc, while others were exported primarily to the North American commercial market where they would be available in both blued and nickel finishes.  The pistol originally chambered the 7.65 mm (.32 ACP) cartridge, but the majority of Mauser HScs manufactured in the 1970s were chambered in 9mm Kurz (.380 ACP).  The full serial number of each pistol is located on the front of the grip frame, just above the magazine. The last three digits of that serial number are located on the bottom of the chamber (stamped) and the flat panel of the slide just under the muzzle (electropenciled).  The model "HSc Super," "HSc Mod. 80," or "SAB-2001 Super" was a variant made by Renato Gamba in Gardone, Italy, under license from Mauser. This pistol was chambered in.32 ACP,.380 ACP and 9×18mm Ultra, and featured a double-column magazine, a recurved trigger guard (on some models), and an "American-style" magazine release behind and below the trigger guard.

The Mauser HSc is a 7.65mm pistol made in Nazi Germany during World War II and post-war. The designation HSc stood for "Hahn Selbstspanner" ("self-cocking hammer") "Pistole", third and final design ""C"". Production was continued in 1945–46 during the French occupation and, later, from 1968 to 1977 by Mauser. It features a semi-exposed hammer, double-action trigger, single-column magazine, and a spring surrounding the barrel.

毛瑟HSc手枪()是一款由纳粹德国研发,在二战期间和战后制造的7.56毫米口径半自动手枪。 其名称HSc是代表德语"Hahn Selbstspanner",即自动复位击锤。它的生产于1945年至46年法国占领德国时期和战后的1968年至1977年仍然继续。它有着半外露击锤、双动扳机、单排弹匣和弹弓环绕枪管等特征。 毛瑟HSc手枪最初是设计为一把商业销售用的手枪。在军用和警用市场上,它的对手有华瑟PP和PPK,绍尔38H手枪等。原本HSc只与海军生产,后来则也被陆军和警察部门生产。而空军和武装亲卫队使用的HSc手枪则是陆军和警察的批次。


History.

The AA-52 general-purpose machine gun was conceived and developed following the French military's experiences in the First Indochina War during the early 1950s. At that time, the French army was equipped with an assortment of weapons from British and American sources, as well as some German weapons from the Second World War.  Effective supply of ammunition and replacement parts was an almost insoluble task and the army decided to adopt a standard machine gun. The result was the AA-52, conceived for ease of production. The construction is of simple welded stamped sheet steel.  The AA-52 was partially withdrawn from the service of the French army in 2008. It was replaced in the 2010s by 10,881 FN MAG general-purpose machine guns.

Design.

The AA-52 is a peculiar weapon among modern machine guns because it uses lever-delayed blowback operation, also seen in the FAMAS rifle, manufactured at the same factory. When firing, the pressure pushing the case head rearward initiates an impulse on a cam that sends the bolt carrier rearward. After a certain distance, a link (in this case the firing pin) pulls the bolt head, hence extracting the spent case. Since there is no primary extraction, the chamber is fluted to allow powder gases to flow back, unsticking the case from the wall chamber as with Heckler & Koch–type roller-delayed blowback weapons.  The feed and trigger mechanisms are derived from the MG 42.  The AA-52 can be used as a light machine gun with a bipod or as a heavy machine gun with a tripod. When used with a tripod for continuous fire, the gun is fitted with a heavier barrel. In the light machine gun configuration, the AA-52 is a relatively light weapon to carry. The AA-52 can be fired from the shoulder but this is slightly awkward because of the position of the handle, however the bipod can be used as a handguard when not in use. The barrel is changed by pressing a latch and rotating it a quarter of a turn. The APX(SOM) telescopic sight used on the MAS-49 and the FR-F1 sniper rifle can be mounted on the AA-52 as well as an infrared night sight.

Variants.

NF-1.

The AA-52 originally used the standard 7.5×54mm French cartridge. The general adoption of the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge reduced the opportunity for export sales, and the gun was adapted for this standard NATO calibre.

MAC-58.

The MAC-58 was a version of the AA-52 chambered in.50 BMG. A few prototypes were tested and one retained for preserial production, but it never reached production due to the large quantity of US M2 Browning machine guns already in service with the French armed forces.

The AA-52 (full designation in French: "Arme Automatique Transformable Modèle 1952", "Transformable automatic weapon model 1952") is one of the first French-produced guns of the post–World War II era. It was manufactured by the French government-owned Manufacture d'armes de Saint-Étienne (MAS) company. The AA-52 is still used today as a vehicle-mounted weapon due to large quantities in service, but has been replaced in the helicopter role by the Belgian FN MAG, starting with the EC 725 Caracal of the special operations units and the Air Force search and rescue teams. The AA-52 had been largely phased out for infantry use in favour of the lighter FN Minimi but remains in use.

AA-52(,,意为:可转换模式的自动武器1952年)是一款由法国自二战过后制造的第一挺通用机枪,主要是由圣-艾蒂安兵工厂(,其中一间法国政府辖下的一些国营武器工厂,简称:MAS)所生产,发射7.5×54毫米法国步枪子弹。


Medical uses.

Salbutamol is typically used to treat bronchospasm (due to any cause—allergic asthma or exercise-induced), as well as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. It is also one of the most common medicines used in rescue inhalers (short-term bronchodilators to alleviate asthma attacks).  As a β agonist, salbutamol also has use in obstetrics. Intravenous salbutamol can be used as a tocolytic to relax the uterine smooth muscle to delay premature labor. While preferred over agents such as atosiban and ritodrine, its role has largely been replaced by the calcium channel blocker nifedipine, which is more effective and better tolerated.  Salbutamol has been used to treat acute hyperkalemia, as it stimulates potassium flow into cells, thus lowering the potassium in the blood.

Adverse effects.

The most common side effects are fine tremor, anxiety, headache, muscle cramps, dry mouth, and palpitation. Other symptoms may include tachycardia, arrhythmia, flushing of the skin, myocardial ischemia (rare), and disturbances of sleep and behaviour. Rarely occurring, but of importance, are allergic reactions of paradoxical bronchospasms, urticaria (hives), angioedema, hypotension, and collapse. High doses or prolonged use may cause hypokalemia, which is of concern especially in patients with kidney failure and those on certain diuretics and xanthine derivatives.

Pharmacology.

The tertiary butyl group in salbutamol makes it more selective for β receptors, which are the predominant receptors on the bronchial smooth muscles. Activation of these receptors causes adenylyl cyclase to convert ATP to cAMP, beginning the signalling cascade that ends with the inhibition of myosin phosphorylation and lowering the intracellular concentration of calcium ions (myosin phosphorylation and calcium ions are necessary for muscle contractions). The increase in cAMP also inhibits inflammatory cells in the airway, such as basophils, eosinophils, and most especially mast cells, from releasing inflammatory mediators and cytokines. Salbutamol and other β receptor agonists also increase the conductance of channels sensitive to calcium and potassium ions, leading to hyperpolarization and relaxation of bronchial smooth muscles.  Salbutamol is either filtered out by the kidneys directly or is first metabolized into 4'-O-sulfate, which is excreted in the urine.

Chemistry.

Structure and activity.

Salbutamol is sold as a racemic mixture. The ("R")-(−)-enantiomer (CIP nomenclature) is shown in the image at right (top), and is responsible for the pharmacologic activity; the ("S")-(+)-enantiomer (bottom) blocks metabolic pathways associated with elimination of itself and of the pharmacologically active enantiomer ("R"). The slower metabolism of the ("S")-(+)-enantiomer also causes it to accumulate in the lungs, which can cause airway hyperreactivity and inflammation. Potential formulation of the "R" form as an enantiopure drug is complicated by the fact that the stereochemistry is not stable, but rather the compound undergoes racemization within a few days to weeks, depending on pH.

History.

Salbutamol was discovered in 1966, by a team led by David Jack at the Allen and Hanburys laboratory (a subsidiary of Glaxo) in Ware, Hertfordshire, England, and was launched as Ventolin in 1969.  The 1972 Munich Olympics were the first Olympics where anti-doping measures were deployed, and at that time beta-2 agonists were considered to be stimulants with high risk of abuse for doping. Inhaled salbutamol was banned from those games, but by 1986 was permitted (although oral beta-2 agonists were not). After a steep rise in the number of athletes taking beta-2 agonists for asthma in the 1990s, Olympic athletes were required to provide proof that they had asthma in order be allowed to use inhaled beta-2 agonists.  In February 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first generic of albuterol sulfate (Albuterol Sulfate Inhalation Aerosol) for the treatment or prevention of bronchospasm in people four years of age and older with reversible obstructive airway disease and the prevention of exercise-induced bronchospasm in people four years of age and older. The FDA granted approval of the generic albuterol sulfate inhalation aerosol to Perrigo Pharmaceutical Co.  In April 2020, The FDA approved the first generic of Proventil HFA (albuterol sulfate) Metered Dose Inhaler, 90 mcg/Inhalation, for the treatment or prevention of bronchospasm in patients four years of age and older who have reversible obstructive airway disease, as well as the prevention of exercise-induced bronchospasm in this age group. The FDA granted approval of this generic albuterol sulfate inhalation aerosol to Cipla Limited.

Society and culture.

Cost.

The wholesale cost of a 200-dose inhaler is between and in the developing world and in the United Kingdom. In the United States, a typical month's supply is between $25 and $50 as of 2015. In 2020, generic versions were approved in the United States.

Names.

Salbutamol is the international nonproprietary name (INN) while albuterol is the United States Adopted Name (USAN). The drug is usually manufactured and distributed as the sulfate salt (salbutamol sulfate).  It was first sold by Allen & Hanburys (UK) under the brand name Ventolin, and has been used for the treatment of asthma ever since. The drug is marketed under many names worldwide.

Doping.

there was no evidence that an increase in physical performance occurs after inhaling salbutamol, but there are various reports for benefit when delivered orally or intravenously. In spite of this, salbutamol required "a declaration of Use in accordance with the International Standard for Therapeutic Use Exemptions" under the 2010 WADA prohibited list. This requirement was relaxed when the 2011 list was published to permit the use of "salbutamol (maximum 1600 micrograms over 24 hours) and salmeterol when taken by inhalation in accordance with the manufacturers' recommended therapeutic regimen."  Abuse of the drug may be confirmed by detection of its presence in plasma or urine, typically exceeding 1000 ng/mL. The window of detection for urine testing is on the order of just 24 hours, given the relatively short elimination half-life of the drug, estimated at between 5 and 6 hours following oral administration of 4 mg.

Research.

Salbutamol has been studied in subtypes of congenital myasthenic syndrome associated with mutations in "Dok-7".  It has also been tested in a trial aimed at treatment of spinal muscular atrophy; it is speculated to modulate the alternative splicing of the "SMN2" gene, increasing the amount of the SMN protein whose deficiency is regarded as a cause of the disease.

Veterinary use.

Salbutamol's low toxicity makes it safe for other animals and thus is the medication of choice for treating acute airway obstruction in most species. It is usually used to treat bronchospasm or coughs in cats and dogs and used as a bronchodilator in horses with recurrent airway obstruction; it can also be used in emergencies to treat asthmatic cats.  Toxic effects require an extremely high dose, and most overdoses are due to dogs chewing on and puncturing an inhaler or nebulizer vial.

Salbutamol, also known as albuterol and marketed as Ventolin among other brand names, is a medication that opens up the medium and large airways in the lungs. It is used to treat asthma, including asthma attacks, exercise-induced bronchoconstriction, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It may also be used to treat high blood potassium levels. Salbutamol is usually used with an inhaler or nebulizer, but it is also available in a pill, liquid, and intravenous solution. Onset of action of the inhaled version is typically within 15 minutes and lasts for two to six hours. Common side effects include shakiness, headache, fast heart rate, dizziness, and feeling anxious. Serious side effects may include worsening bronchospasm, irregular heartbeat, and low blood potassium levels. It can be used during pregnancy and breastfeeding, but safety is not entirely clear. It is a short-acting β adrenergic receptor agonist which works by causing relaxation of airway smooth muscle. Salbutamol was patented in 1966 in Britain and became commercially available in the UK in 1969. It was approved for medical use in the United States in 1982. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system. Salbutamol is available as a generic medication. The wholesale cost in the developing world of an inhaler which contains 200 doses is between and. In the United States, it is between and for a typical month's supply. In 2017, it was the tenth most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 50 million prescriptions.

沙丁胺醇(Salbutamol),常见商品名泛得林(Ventolin),为一种用于扩张肺部大型及中型气管的药物。本品可用于治疗气喘相关病症,例如气喘急性发作、运动诱发性支气管收缩,以及慢性阻塞性肺病(COPD)。本品亦可用于治疗高血钾。沙丁胺醇常配合定量吸入器或雾化器使用,但亦可制成药锭或静脉注射。吸入剂型约15分钟内即可见效,效用可持续2至6小时。 常见副作用包含摇晃、头痛、心跳过速、晕眩,以及焦虑等等。严重副作用则包含恶化支气管痉挛、心律不整,以及低血钾。妊娠和哺乳期间可以给药,但其安全性尚未完全明了。本品属于速效型β肾上腺素受体激动药,可促进平滑肌舒张。 沙丁胺醇最早于1967年于英国发现,并于1969年上市。1982年美国核准用于医药。本品列名于世界卫生组织基本药物标准清单。为基础公卫体系必备药物之一。本品为通用名药物。2014年,每瓶含有200剂量的吸入器于发展中国家的价格约介于1.12至2.64美金之间。在美国,每月剂量约界于25至50美金之间。


Passenger identity registration.

At the time of check-in, one of the agent's primary duties is to check for valid documents. This includes tickets, passports, visas, letters of consent, and in some cases, passengers' address and contact details to comply with immigration requirements.  Some airlines may ask passengers to present the original credit card used for payment.

Baggage registration.

At the time of check-in, the passenger hands over baggage which is checked by the airport security and may be sealed (subject to the security regulations in that country). Anything that is above the weight limit or which is not allowed to be carried by the passenger themselves in the aircraft cabin is usually handed over to the agent at the time of check-in. The baggage allowance, if any, is prescribed by the airline and anything in excess will warrant additional surcharges.

Self-service bag drop.

Some airlines have a self-check-in process allowing passengers with bags to check-in at Self Bag Drop machines. Passengers then attach the baggage tag and drop the bag at the baggage drop belt. Passengers without checked luggage can go straight to the lounge (if entitled to lounge access) and check in at the kiosk there using their ePass (a small RFID device only for its premium customers) or proceed straight to the departure gate. Many airlines use electronic check-in such as ePass, mPass, or similar mobile apps, and these applications serve as the boarding pass.

Seating assignment.

Usually at the time of check-in, an option of selecting a specific seat is offered, with passengers asked if they prefer a window or an aisle seat.

Online check-in.

Online check-in is the process in which passengers confirm their presence on a flight via the Internet and typically print their own boarding passes. Depending on the carrier and the specific flight, passengers may also enter details such as meal options and baggage quantities and select their preferred seating.  This service is generally promoted by the airlines to passengers as being easier and faster because it reduces the time a passenger would normally spend at an airport check-in counter. Some airlines, however, would still require passengers to proceed to a check-in counter at the airport, regardless of preferred check-in method, for document verification (e.g., to travel to countries where a visa is required, or to ensure the credit card used to purchase is genuine and/or matches the identity of the person who made the purchase). If passengers need to continue the check-in process at the airport after performing an online check-in, a special lane is typically offered to them to reduce wait times unless all desks are designated as baggage drop-off points. Furthermore, online check-in for a flight is often available earlier than its in-person counterpart. The process then transfers to passengers' control over their check-in. Airlines may use the system because self-service is frequently more efficient to operate, with a greater ability to cope with surges in passenger numbers. It also lessens activity at the airport, saving airlines money and reducing passenger waiting times.  Ryanair charges passengers a fee which can amount to 60 Euros for "not" using online check-in, except in certain limited circumstances. Furthermore, by the start of 2010, all passengers were required to check in online, therefore abolishing the use of check-in desks. Despite this, passengers are still charged to print their boarding cards out.  Online check-in is increasingly becoming required in other legacy carriers, particularly in Europe as the airport check-in desks are being relegated as baggage drop points only.  Alaska Airlines was the first to offer online check-in. The system was first offered on a limited basis starting in the second quarter of 1999, and was available to the general public on selected flights the following quarter. Since then, a growing number of airlines have introduced the system.  British Airways were the first airline to deploy online check-in globally having sealed approval from both the CAA (Civil Aviation Authority and FAA (Federal Aviation Authority) for use of the 3-D Barcode technology.  Typically, web-based check-in for airline travel is offered on the airline's website not earlier than 24 hours before a flight's scheduled departure or seven days for Internet Check-In Assistant. However, some airlines allow a longer time, such as Ryanair, which opens online check-in 60 and 4 days beforehand (depending on whether the passenger paid for a seat reservation), AirAsia, which opens it 14 days prior to departure, and easyJet, which opens it 30 days beforehand. Depending on the airline, there can be benefits of better seating or upgrades to first class or business class offered to the first people to check in for a flight. In order to meet this demand, some sites have offered travelers the ability to request an airline check-in prior to the 24-hour window and receive airline boarding passes by email when available from the airline. Some airlines charge for the privilege of early check-in before the 24-hour window opens, thus capitalising on the demand for desirable seats such as those immediately behind a bulkhead or emergency exit row.

Mobile check-in.

In the mid-late 2000s, checking in was made possible using a passenger's mobile phone or PDA. A GPRS or 3G-capable smartphone or an internet-capable PDA is required in most instances (Finnair allows check-in by text message), and the check-in feature may be accessed by keying in a website on the mobile phone's browser or by downloading a dedicated application. The process is then similar to that which one would expect when checking in using a personal computer.  At the end of the mobile check-in process, some airlines send a mobile boarding pass to a passenger's mobile device, which can be scanned at the airport during security checks and boarding. However, others send an electronic confirmation with a barcode that can be presented to the staff at check-in or scanned at the kiosks to continue the check-in process (i.e., to have boarding passes issued).  One disadvantage of early check-in is that it puts a restriction on a person's agent changing their flight. As the ticket coupon has to be "opened" again prior to any changes being made, this may take some time to arrange.

Premium check-in and lounge access.

If the passenger carries a first or business class ticket or presents a certain frequent flyer program membership card (usually the higher-level tiers), or any other arrangements with the carrier, access to the premium check-in area and/or the lounge may be offered.  Premium check-in areas vary among airlines and airports. The main airport in which an airline hub is located normally offers a more thorough and exclusive premium check-in experience, normally inside a separate check-in lounge. For example, Air New Zealand's Auckland International premium check-in lounge provides a dedicated customs clearance counter and direct shortcut access to the security checkpoints. Airlines operating in minor airports generally offer an exclusive and separate premium check-in queue lane, often combined for its first, business, and/or premium economy passengers.  Singapore Airlines also offers this service to First Class and Suites passengers, whose flights depart Singapore Changi Airport's Terminal 3. These passengers have a dedicated curb side entrance and can wait at couches while staff assist them in checking-in. They are then led to a dedicated passport control counter.  Emirates provides its first-class/business-class customers with individual and separate check-in lane at its hub DXB, to divide most economy-class customers from main check-in lobby apart, and then ensuring those first-class/business-class customers' privacy.  SkyTeam provides the priority check-in service "SkyPriority", whose members could access the check-in counter to authorize the prioritized check-in service, along with the larger luggage capacity.

In-town check-in.

In some cities (including Bangkok, Dubai, Sharjah, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, New Delhi, Chennai, Seoul, Vienna and Taipei), certain airlines provide in-town check-in services, allowing passengers to check their luggage at check-in counters located in railway or subway terminals as much as a day ahead of time. This service allows passengers to take a train to the airport without the burden of carrying their luggage to the airport terminal. In Seoul, for example, Korean Air, Asiana Airlines and Jeju Air offer check-in services at Seoul Station. In Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Airlines and Cathay Pacific offer in-town check-in at KL Sentral. In Taipei, China Airlines and EVA Air offer in-town check-in at Taipei Main Station.

Airport check-in is the process whereby passengers are accepted by an airline at the airport prior to travel. The airlines typically use service counters found at airports. The check-in is normally handled by an airline itself or a handling agent working on behalf of an airline. Passengers usually hand over any baggage that they do not wish or are not allowed to carry in to the aircraft's cabin and receive a boarding pass before they can proceed to board their aircraft.

登机报到手续亦称值机、英语:Check-in,意指旅客搭乘飞机前所需进行的手续。报到手续通常由航空公司或由地勤代理代为办理,负责查验乘客的旅游文件(包含护照及所需签证),协助托运旅客不愿或不得携带进入客舱的行李,并核发登机证。


大卫·霍威尔·彼得雷乌斯

Early life and family.

Petraeus was born in Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York, the son of Miriam Sweet (née Howell; 1912–1991), a librarian, and Sixtus Petraeus (1915–2008), a Dutch sea captain from Franeker, Netherlands. His mother was American, a resident of Brooklyn, New York. His father had sailed to the United States from the Netherlands at the start of World War II. They met at the Seamen's Church Institute of New York and New Jersey and married. Sixtus Petraeus commanded a Liberty ship for the US for the duration of World War II. The family moved after the war, settling in Cornwall-on-Hudson, where David Petraeus grew up and graduated from Cornwall Central High School in 1970.  Petraeus went on to the United States Military Academy at West Point. Petraeus was on the intercollegiate soccer and ski teams, was a

Education and academia.

Petraeus graduated from West Point in 1974. He earned the General George C. Marshall Award as the top graduate of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Class of 1983 at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, receiving a Bachelor of Science degree in Military Science. He subsequently earned an M.P.A. in 1985 and a Ph.D. in international relations in 1987 from Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, where he was mentored by Richard H. Ullman. At that time, he also served as an Assistant Professor of International Relations at the U.S. Military Academy from 1985 to 1987. His doctoral dissertation was titled "The American Military and the Lessons of Vietnam: A Study of Military Influence and the Use of Force in the Post-Vietnam Era". He also completed a military fellowship at Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service in 1994–1995, although he was called away early to serve in Haiti as the Chief of Operations for NATO there in early 1995.  From late 2005 through February 2007, Petraeus served as Commanding General of Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and the U.S. Army Combined Arms Center (CAC)

Military operations.

1970s.

Upon his graduation from West Point in 1974, Petraeus was commissioned an infantry officer. After completing Ranger School (Distinguished Honor Graduate and other honors), Petraeus was assigned to the 509th Airborne Battalion Combat Team, a light infantry unit stationed in Vicenza, Italy. Ever since, light infantry has been at the core of his career, punctuated by assignments

1980s.

In 1981, Petraeus became aide-de-camp to General John Galvin, then Commanding General of the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized). He spent the next few years furthering his military and civilian education, including spending 1982–83 at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, attending the Command and General Staff College. At graduation in 1983, he was the General George C. Marshall Award winner as the top graduate of the U.S. Army Command

1990s.

Upon promotion to lieutenant colonel, Petraeus moved from the office of the Chief of Staff to Fort Campbell, Kentucky, where he commanded the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault)'s 3rd Battalion 187th Infantry Regiment, known as the "Iron Rakkasans", from 1991 to 1993. During this period, he suffered one of the more dramatic incidents in his career; in 1991 he was accidentally shot in the chest with an M-16 rifle during a live-fire exercise when a soldier tripped and his rifle discharged. He was taken to Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, where he was operated on by future U.S. Senator Bill Frist. The hospital released him early after he did fifty push-ups without resting, just a few days after the accident.  During 1993–94, Petraeus continued his long association with the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault)

2000s.

From the 82nd, he moved on to serve as Chief of Staff of XVIII Airborne Corps at Fort Bragg during 2000–2001. In 2000, Petraeus suffered his second major injury, when, during a civilian skydiving jump, his parachute collapsed at low altitude due to a hook turn, resulting in a hard landing that broke his pelvis. He was selected for promotion to Major General in 2001. During 2001–2002, as a brigadier general, Petraeus served a ten-month tour in Bosnia and Herzegovina as part of Operation Joint Forge. In

Involvement in the Iraq War.

101st Airborne Division.

In 2003, Petraeus, then a major general, saw combat for the first time when he commanded the 101st Airborne Division during V Corps's drive to Baghdad. In a campaign chronicled in detail by Pulitzer Prize-winning author Rick Atkinson of "The Washington Post" in the book "In the Company of Soldiers", Petraeus led his division through fierce fighting south of Baghdad, in Karbala, Hilla and Najaf. Following the fall of Baghdad, the division conducted the longest heliborne assault on record in order to reach Nineveh Governorate, where it would spend much of 2003. The 1st Brigade was responsible for the area south of Mosul, the 2nd Brigade for the city itself, and the 3rd Brigade for the region stretching toward the Syrian border. An

Multi-National Security Transition Command – Iraq.

In June 2004, less than six months after the 101st returned to the U.S., Petraeus was promoted to lieutenant general and became the first commander of the Multi-National Security Transition Command - Iraq. This newly created command had responsibility for training, equipping, and mentoring Iraq's growing army, police, and other security forces as well as developing Iraq's security institutions and building associated infrastructure, such as training bases, police stations, and border forts. During Petraeus's fifteen months at the helm of MNSTC-I, he stood up a three-star command virtually from scratch and in the midst of serious fighting in

Multi-National Force – Iraq (spring 2007).

The intervening time between the Iraq commands was spent at Fort Leavenworth where the General further developed his military doctrine and pursued an important White House contact in Meghan O'Sullivan who was the principal adviser to the President on the war. In January 2007, as part of his overhauled Iraq strategy, President George W. Bush announced that Petraeus would succeed Gen. George Casey as commanding general of MNF-I to lead all U.S. troops in Iraq. In his memoirs, President Bush likened his selection of Petraeus to the elevations of other great generals of American history, writing, "Lincoln discovered Generals Grant and Sherman. Roosevelt had Eisenhower and Bradley. I found David Petraeus and Ray Odierno.” On January 23, the Senate Armed Services Committee held Petraeus's nomination hearing, during which he testified on his ideas for Iraq, particularly the strategy underpinning the "surge" of

Multi-National Force – Iraq (summer and fall 2007).

In July 2007, the White House submitted to Congress the interim report on Iraq, which stated that coalition forces had made satisfactory progress on 6 of 18 benchmarks set by Congress. On September 7, 2007, in a letter addressed to the troops he was commanding, Petraeus wrote that much military progress had been made, but that the national level political progress that was hoped for had not been achieved. Petraeus's Report to Congress on the Situation in Iraq was delivered to Congress on September 10, 2007.  On August 15, 2007, the "Los Angeles Times" stated that, according to unnamed administration officials, the report "would actually be written

Multi-National Force – Iraq (spring 2008).

On February 18, 2008, "USA Today" stated that "the U.S. effort has shown more success" and that, after the number of troops reached its peak in fall 2007, "U.S. deaths were at their lowest levels since the 2003 invasion, civilian casualties were down, and street life was resuming in Baghdad." In light of the significant reduction in violence and as the surge brigades began to redeploy without replacement, Petraeus characterized the progress as tenuous, fragile, and reversible and repeatedly reminded all involved that much work remains to be done. During an early February trip to Iraq, Defense Secretary Robert Gates endorsed the idea of a period of consolidation and evaluation upon completion of the withdrawal of surge brigades from Iraq.  Petraeus and Crocker continued these themes at their two full days of testimony before Congress on April 8 and 9. During his opening statement, Petraeus stated that "there has been significant but uneven security progress in Iraq," while also noting that "the situation in certain areas is still unsatisfactory and that innumerable challenges remain" and that "the progress made since last spring is fragile and reversible." He also

Multi-National Force – Iraq (summer and fall 2008).

In September 2008, Petraeus gave an interview to BBC News stating that he did not think using the term "victory" in describing the Iraq war was appropriate, saying "This is not the sort of struggle where you take a hill, plant the flag and go home to a victory parade... it's not war with a simple slogan."  Petraeus had discussed the term

Change of command.

On September 16, 2008, Petraeus formally gave over his command in Iraq to General Raymond T. Odierno in a government ceremony presided by Defense Secretary Robert Gates. During the ceremony, Gates stated that Petraeus "played a historic role" and created the "translation of a great strategy into a great success in very difficult circumstances". Gates also told Petraeus he believed "history will regard you as one of our nation's greatest battle captains." He presented Petraeus with the Defense Distinguished Service Medal. At the event, Petraeus mentioned the difficulty in getting the Sons of Iraq absorbed in the central Government of Iraq and warned about future consequences if the effort stalls. Indeed, when speaking of these and other challenges, Petraeus is the first to note that "the gains [achieved in Iraq] are tenuous and unlikely to survive without an American effort that outlasts his tenure."

U.S. Central Command (fall 2008 to summer 2010).

On October 31, 2008, Petraeus assumed command of the United States Central Command (USCENTCOM) headquartered in Tampa, Florida. Petraeus was responsible for U.S. operations in 20 countries spreading from Egypt to Pakistan—including Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom. During his time at CENTCOM, Petraeus advocated that countering the terrorist threats in the CENTCOM region requires more than just counter-terrorism forces, demanding instead whole-of-governments, comprehensive approaches akin to those of counterinsurgency. One of his closest colleagues said that Petraeus knew that defeating an insurgency required living among the people, convincing them that we were better than the insurgents. "[Y]ou can't kill 'em all.... [Y]ou can't kill your way out of an insurgency.... You have to find other kinds of ammunition, and it's not always a bullet."  Petraeus reiterated this view in a 2009 interview published in "Parade" magazine. In a recent interview for "Newsweek" magazine's "Interview Issue: The View From People Who Make a Difference", Petraeus expressed his support for President Obama's announced Afghanistan strategy and discussed his view that reconciliation efforts in Afghanistan should for the time being occur "at the lower and midlevels".  In mid-August 2009, Petraeus established the Afghanistan-Pakistan Center of Excellence within the USCENTCOM Directorate of Intelligence to provide leadership to coordinate, integrate and focus analysis efforts in support of operations in Afghanistan and Pakistan.  During a February 2010 World Affairs Council event in Philadelphia, General Petraeus discussed the ways in which diplomacy, history, and culture impact overall military strategy, then explained how these issues informed the

Commander of U.S. and ISAF forces in Afghanistan.

On June 23, 2010, President Obama announced that he would nominate Petraeus to succeed General Stanley A. McChrystal as the commander of U.S. Forces in Afghanistan. The change of command was prompted by McChrystal's comments about the Obama administration and its policies in Afghanistan during an interview with "Rolling Stone" magazine. The nomination was technically a positional step down from his position as commander of Central Command, however the President said that he believed that he was the best man for the job. After being confirmed by the Senate on June 30, Petraeus formally assumed command on July 4.<ref name="CBC-2010/07/03/petraeus-afghanistan"></ref> During the assumption of command remarks, Petraeus provided his vision and goals to NATO, the members of his command, and his Afghan partners. As he was known to do while the Commander in Iraq, Petraeus delivered his first Letter to the Troops on the same day he assumed command.  On August 1, 2010, shortly after the disclosure of the Afghan war logs on WikiLeaks, Petraeus issued his updated Tactical Directive for the prevention of civilian casualties, providing guidance and intent for the use of force by the U.S. military units operating in Afghanistan (replacing the July 1,

Retirement from the U.S. Army.

Petraeus retired from the U.S. Army on August 31, 2011. His retirement ceremony was held at Joint Base Myer–Henderson Hall. During this ceremony, he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal by Deputy Secretary of Defense William J. Lynn. During the ceremony, Lynn noted that Petraeus had played an important

CIA Director.

On April 28, 2011, President Barack Obama announced that he had nominated Petraeus to become the new Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. The nomination was confirmed by the United States Senate 94–0 on June 30, 2011. Petraeus was sworn in at the White House on September 6 and then ceremonially sworn in by Vice President Joe Biden at CIA Headquarters in Langley, Virginia on October 11, 2011.  Petraeus's tenure at the CIA was more low profile than that of his predecessor, Leon Panetta, declining to give media interviews while Director and speaking to Congress in closed sessions. He also differed from Panetta in management style, as an article in "The New York Times" published just days before his resignation said Panetta "wooed the work

Extramarital affair, resignation and criticism.

Petraeus reportedly began an affair with Paula Broadwell, principal author of his biography, "", after Petraeus left his ISAF command on July 18, 2011, to become CIA director. Petraeus reportedly ended the affair in the summer of 2012, around the time that he learned that Broadwell had been sending harassing emails to a longstanding family friend of the Petraeuses, Jill Kelley.  Kelley, a Florida socialite who frequently entertained senior military personnel at her and her husband's Tampa mansion, had approached an acquaintance who worked for the FBI Tampa Field Office in the late spring with regard to anonymous emails she considered threatening. The Bureau traced the emails to Broadwell, and noted that Broadwell appeared to be exchanging intimate messages with an email account belonging to Petraeus, which instigated an investigation into whether that account had been hacked into or was someone posing as Petraeus. According to an Associated Press report, rather than transmit emails to each other's inbox, which would have left a more obvious email trail, Petraeus and Broadwell left messages in a draft folder and the draft messages were then read by the other person when they logged into the same account.  Although US Attorney General Eric Holder was aware that the FBI had discovered the affair, it was not until November 6, 2012, that Petraeus's nominal superior, Director of National Intelligence James R. Clapper, was advised. That same evening Clapper called Petraeus and urged him to resign. Clapper notified the White House the next day, November 7. After being briefed on November 8, President Obama summoned Petraeus to the White House where Petraeus offered his resignation. Obama accepted his resignation on November 9, and Petraeus cited his affair when announcing that same day that he would resign as CIA Director. Eventually, Petraeus pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor charge of mishandling the classified information that he provided to his mistress and biographer.

Criticism after 2012 scandal.

Petraeus had a strategy to influence military conditions by using press relations, both in theater and in Washington, according to critics of his military career. On November 13, 2012, Reagan administration Assistant Secretary of Defense Lawrence Korb, C.I.A. analyst and Veteran Intelligence Professionals for Sanity co-founder Ray McGovern, and investigative journalist Gareth Porter appeared on Al Jazeera English. Together they assessed the general's extensive military-media strategy linking his writings on counterguerrilla operations and subsequent military media efforts, to his downfall with his female biographer. Critics said that the Petraeus media strategy would prove damaging for

Criminal charges and probation.

In January 2015, "The New York Times" reported that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Justice Department had recommended bringing felony charges against Petraeus for providing classified information to Broadwell. Petraeus denied the allegations and was reported to have had no interest in a plea deal. However, on Tuesday, March 3, 2015, the U.S. Justice Department announced that Petraeus agreed to plead guilty in federal court in Charlotte, North Carolina to a charge of unauthorized removal and retention of classified information.  In the 15 page statement of facts filed by the government along with the plea agreement, the government stated that Petraeus had provided Broadwell access to documents containing Top Secret Sensitive Compartmented Information, had later moved those documents to his personal residence and stored them in an unsecured drawer, and had deliberately and intentionally lied to Federal investigators about both providing Broadwell access to the documents and their

Activities in retirement.

In March 2013, Petraeus accepted the role of Honorary Chairman of the OSS Society.  Petraeus was named a visiting professor at Macaulay Honors College at the City University of New York in July 2013. According to a statement from Petraeus, "I look forward to leading a seminar at Macaulay that examines the developments that could position the United States—and our North American partners—to lead the world out of the current global economic slowdown." After his anticipated $200,000 salary for the academic year drew fire from critics, Petraeus agreed to take on the teaching position for just $1 in order to keep the focus on the students and away from any monetary controversy. In September 2013 Petraeus was harassed by students at CUNY while walking on campus.  On May 1, 2013, the University of Southern California named David Petraeus as a Judge Widney Professor, "a title reserved for eminent individuals from the arts, sciences, professions, business and community and national leadership". The president of the Currahee Board of Trustees announced May 6, 2013, that Petraeus agreed to serve on the board of trustees that preserves Camp Toccoa. During WWII, four of the main parachute infantry regiments of the Army trained at Camp Toccoa prior to their deployment.  Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. L.P., a New York investment firm, hired Petraeus as chairman of the firm's newly created KKR Global Institute in May 2013. Petraeus will support its investment teams and portfolio companies when studying new investments, especially in new locations. In December 2014, Petraeus was named a partner at KKR and remains Chairman of the

Secretary of State consideration.

On November 18, 2016, an article by "The Guardian" cited "diplomatic sources" as having said that Petraeus had entered the race for US Secretary of State in the Trump administration. Petraeus confirmed his interest in the position during a BBC Radio 4 interview, stating that he would serve if asked.  Petraeus met with then President-elect Donald Trump at Trump Tower on November 28 to discuss the position and world affairs. Both Petraeus and Trump expressed favorable views of the

Personal life.

According to Petraeus, he does not vote in elections, having stopped following his promotion to major

Recognitions and honors.

Decorations and badges.

Petraeus's decorations and

Additional recognitions.

In 2007, "Time" named Petraeus one of the 100 most influential leaders and revolutionaries of the year as well as one of its four runners up for Time Person of the Year. He was also named the second most influential American conservative by "The Daily Telegraph" as well as "The Daily Telegraph" 2007 Man of the Year. In 2005, Petraeus was identified as one of America's top leaders by "U.S. News & World Report".  In 2008, a poll conducted by "Foreign Policy" and "Prospect" magazines selected Petraeus as one of the world's top 100 public intellectuals. Also in 2008, the Static Line Association named Petraeus as its 2008 Airborne Man of the Year, and "Der Spiegel" named him "America's most respected soldier". As 2008 came to a close, "Newsweek" named him the 16th most powerful person in the world in its December 20, 2008, edition, and "Prospect" magazine named him the "Public Intellectual of the Year". He was also named as one of the "75 Best People in the World" in the October 2009 issue of "Esquire".  The OSS Society awarded Petraeus its Donovan Award May 2, 2009. In his introduction of Petraeus, Maj. Gen. John K. Singlub, USA, Ret., a 2007 award recipient and OSS Society chairman, said "The William J. Donovan Award is given to an individual who has rendered distinguished service in the interests of the democratic process, public service, courage in all its forms and the cause of freedom." The National Committee on American Foreign Policy (NCAFP) during its 35th Anniversary Gala and Award Dinner on May 28, 2009 in New York City, presented the George F. Kennan Award for Distinguished Public Service to Petraeus. The American Legion awarded its highest honor, the Distinguished Service Medal on August 25, 2009 at its 91st National Convention in Louisville, Kentucky.  On February 20, 2010, Petraeus received Princeton University's Madison Medal, named after the fourth president of the United States, who many consider to be Princeton's first graduate student. Established by the Association of Princeton Graduate Alumni, it is presented each year by the University to an alumnus or alumna of the Graduate School who has had a distinguished career, advanced the cause of graduate education or achieved an outstanding record of public service. May 27, 2010, The Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum awarded its Freedom Award to Petraeus. "The Intrepid Museum's mission is to honor the men and women who have served our nation. General Petraeus has led our troops overseas in that exact effort, and we are indebted to his leadership and love of country", said Susan Marenoff, Executive Director of the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum. "This annual event throws a spotlight on individuals who have gone above and beyond the call of duty for our nation." On September 20, the American Political Science Association (APSA) presented Petraeus with its 2010 Hubert H. Humphrey Award in recognition of notable public service by a political scientist. On December 9, 2010, Barbara Walters picked Petraeus for the Most Fascinating Person of 2010. Walters called the top commander in Afghanistan "an American hero". Petraeus was chosen as "one of Time magazine's 50 "People Who Mattered" in December 2010. The same year he was named number 12 of 50 people who mattered in 2010 by the "New Statesmen" magazine, and Petraeus was listed as number 8 of 100 "Foreign Policy" Top 100 Global Thinkers for 2011.  Early January 2011, Pete Hegseth and Wade Zirkle from Vets for Freedom, wrote an Op-Ed for "The Wall Street Journal" making a claim that Petraeus should be promoted to Five-Star, which would make him General of the Army. In April, Petraeus was named in the 2011 "Time" 100. The Institute for the Study of War, 2011, National Security Leadership Award was presented to Petraeus on August 4, 2011. The "New Statesman" annual survey presents the most influential people from pop stars

David Howell Petraeus, (; born November 7, 1952) is a retired United States Army general and public official. He served as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency from September 6, 2011, until his resignation on November 9, 2012. Prior to his assuming the directorship of the CIA, Petraeus served 37 years in the United States Army. His last assignments in the Army were as commander of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and Commander, U.S. Forces – Afghanistan (USFOR-A) from July 4, 2010, to July 18, 2011. His other four-star assignments include serving as the 10th Commander, U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM) from October 13, 2008, to June 30, 2010, and as Commanding General, Multi-National Force – Iraq (MNF-I) from February 10, 2007, to September 16, 2008. As commander of MNF-I, Petraeus oversaw all coalition forces in Iraq.

大卫·霍威尔·彼得雷乌斯(英语:David Howell Petraeus,1952年-11月7日),曾任美国陆军四星上将与政府官员,曾任中央情报局局长,上任期间为2011年9月6日。在此之前,身为上将军阶的他,历任多项重要军职,最重要的任务是在2010年7月4日-2011年7月18日担任美军驻阿富汗部队的总指挥官。2011年4月彼得雷乌斯获奥巴马总统提名出任中央情报局局长,参议院于6月27日通过任命。8月31日彼得雷乌斯卸下军职,于9月6日宣誓就任,接掌中情局。