Classification.

"Cryptococcus neoformans" has undergone numerous nomenclature revisions since its first description in 1894. For instance, it once contained two varieties (var.): "C. neoformans "var." neoformans" and "C. neoformans " var." grubii". A third variety, "C. neoformans "var." gattii", was defined as a distinct species, "Cryptococcus gattii". The most recent classification system divides organisms into seven species. "C. neoformans" refers to "C. neoformans " var." grubii". A new species name, "Cryptococcus deneoformans", is used for the former "C. neoformans "var." neoformans". "C. gattii" is divided into five species.

Characteristics.

"C. neoformans" grows as a yeast (unicellular) and replicates by budding. It makes hyphae during mating, and eventually creates basidiospores at the end of the hyphae before producing spores. Under host-relevant conditions, including low glucose, serum, 5% carbon dioxide, and low iron, among others, the cells produce a characteristic polysaccharide capsule. The recognition of "C. neoformans" in Gram-stained smears of purulent exudates may be hampered by the presence of the large gelatinous capsule which apparently prevents definitive staining of the yeast-like cells. In such stained preparations, it may appear either as round cells with Gram-positive granular inclusions impressed upon a pale lavender cytoplasmic background or as Gram-negative lipoid bodies. When grown as a yeast, "C. neoformans" has a prominent capsule composed mostly of polysaccharides. Under the microscope, the India ink stain is used for easy visualization of the capsule in cerebral spinal fluid. The particles of ink pigment do not enter the capsule that surrounds the spherical yeast cell, resulting in a zone of clearance or "halo" around the cells. This allows for quick and easy identification of "C. neoformans". Unusual morphological forms are rarely seen. For identification in tissue, mucicarmine stain provides specific staining of polysaccharide cell wall in "C. neoformans". Cryptococcal antigen from cerebrospinal fluid is thought to be the best test for diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis in terms of sensitivity, though it might be unreliable in HIV-positive patients.  The first genome sequence for a strain of "C. neoformans" (var. "neoformans"; now "C. deneoformans") was published in 2005.  Studies suggest that colonies of "C. neoformans" and related fungi growing on the ruins of the melted down reactor of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant may be able to use the energy of radiation for "radiotrophic" growth.

Pathology.

Infection with "C. neoformans" is termed cryptococcosis. Most infections with "C. neoformans" occur in the lungs. However, fungal meningitis and encephalitis, especially as a secondary infection for AIDS patients, are often caused by "C. neoformans", making it a particularly dangerous fungus. Infections with this fungus are rare in those with fully functioning immune systems. So, "C. neoformans" is sometimes referred to as an opportunistic fungus. It is a facultative intracellular pathogen that can utilize host phagocytes to spread within the body. "Cryptococcus neoformans" was the first intracellular pathogen for which the non-lytic escape process termed vomocytosis was observed. It has been speculated that this ability to manipulate host cells results from environmental selective pressure by amoebae, a hypothesis first proposed by Arturo Casadevall under the term "accidental virulence".  In human infection, "C. neoformans" is spread by inhalation of aerosolized basidiospores, and can disseminate to the central nervous system, where it can cause meningoencephalitis. In the lungs, "C. neoformans" cells are phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages. Macrophages produce oxidative and nitrosative agents, creating a hostile environment, to kill invading pathogens. However, some "C. neoformans" cells can survive intracellularly in macrophages. Intracellular survival appears to be the basis for latency, disseminated disease, and resistance to eradication by antifungal agents. One mechanism by which "C. neoformans" survives the hostile intracellular environment of the macrophage involves upregulation of expression of genes involved in responses to oxidative stress.  Traversal of the blood–brain barrier by "C. neoformans" plays a key role in meningitis pathogenesis. However, precise mechanisms by which it passes the blood-brain barrier are still unknown; one recent study in rats suggested an important role of secreted serine proteases. The metalloprotease Mpr1 has been demonstrated to be critical in blood-brain barrier penetration.  Meiosis (sexual reproduction), another possible survival factor for intracellular "C. neoformans"  The vast majority of environmental and clinical isolates of "C. neoformans" are mating type alpha. Filaments of mating type alpha have haploid nuclei ordinarily, but these can undergo a process of diploidization (perhaps by endoduplication or stimulated nuclear fusion) to form diploid cells termed blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores are able to undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can then be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. Required for this process is a gene designated "dmc1", a conserved homologue of genes "recA" in bacteria, and "rad51" in eukaryotes (see articles recA and rad51). "Dmc1" mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of double-strand breaks in DNA. One benefit of meiosis in "C. neoformans" could be to promote DNA repair in the DNA-damaging environment caused by the oxidative and nitrosative agents produced in macrophages. Thus, "C. neoformans" can undergo a meiotic process, monokaryotic fruiting, that may promote recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA-damaging environment of the host macrophage, and this may contribute to its virulence.

Serious complications.

Infection starts in lungs, disseminates via blood to meninges and then to other parts of the body. Capsule inhibits phagocytosis. Can cause a systemic infection, including fatal meningitis known as "meningoencephalitis" in normal, diabetic and immunocompromised hosts. The infection from "C. neoformans" in the brain can be fatal if untreated. CNS (central nervous system) infection may also be present as a brain abscess known as "cryptococcomas", subdural effusion, dementia, isolated cranial nerve lesion, spinal cord lesion, and ischemic stroke. If cryptococcal meningitis occurs, mortality rate is between 10–30%.

Treatment.

Cryptococcosis that does not affect the central nervous system can be treated with fluconazole alone.  Cryptococcal meningitis should be treated for two weeks with intravenous amphotericin B 0.7–1.0 mg/kg/day and oral flucytosine 100 mg/kg/day (or intravenous flucytosine 75 mg/kg/day if the patient is unable to swallow). This should then be followed by oral fluconazole 400–800 mg daily for ten weeks and then 200 mg daily for at least one year and until the patient's CD4 count is above 200 cells/mcl. Flucytosine is a generic, off-patent medicine. However, a market failure exists, with a two-week cost of flucytosine therapy being about $10,000. As a result, flucytosine is currently universally unavailable in low- and middle-income countries. In 1970, flucytosine was available in Africa.  Intravenous ambisome 4 (mg/kg)/day may be used but is not superior; its main use is in patients who do not tolerate amphotericin B. The dose of 200 mg/kg/day for flucytosine is not more effective, is associated with more side effects and should not be used.  In Africa, oral fluconazole at a rate of 200 mg daily is often used. However, this does not result in cure, because it merely suppresses the fungus and does not kill it; viable fungus can continue to be grown from cerebrospinal fluid of patients not having taken fluconazole for many months. An increased dose of 400 mg daily does not improve outcomes, but prospective studies from Uganda and Malawi reported that higher doses of 1200 mg per day have more fungicidal activity. The outcomes with fluconazole monotherapy have 30% worse survival than amphotericin-based therapies, in a recent systematic review.

Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast and an obligate aerobe that can live in both plants and animals. Its teleomorph is "Filobasidiella neoformans", a filamentous fungus belonging to the class Tremellomycetes. It is often found in bird excrement. "Cryptococcus neoformans" is an encapsulated fungal organism and it can cause disease in apparently immunocompetent, as well as immunocompromised, hosts.

新型隐球菌(学名:"Cryptococcus neoformans")是一种普遍存在的酵母菌,属于担子菌门银耳纲,常在鸽子的粪便中被发现。新型隐球菌会对人类造成伺机性感染,即对健康的人没有感染力,但会对缺乏抵抗力的人造成危害。


History.

Water scooters—as they were originally termed—were first developed in the United Kingdom and Europe in the mid-1950s, with models such as the British 200cc propellor-driven Vincent "Amanda", and the German "Wave Roller". Two thousand Vincent Amandas were exported to Australia, Asia, Europe and the United States. In the 1960s, the idea was developed further by Clayton Jacobson II of Lake Havasu City, Arizona, USA. Originally a motocross enthusiast, Jacobson's idea was designed in the mid-1960s, powered by an internal pump-jet rather than an outboard motor, made of all aluminum, and had a fixed, upright handle. Jacobson eventually quit his job in banking to devote himself to developing the idea, and had a working prototype by 1965. It differed slightly from modern personal watercraft but had definite similarities. He completed a second prototype a year later made of fiberglass. The first Clayton-type PWC to reach the market was designed by Bombardier in the late 1960s. Bombardier's original designs were not very popular and Bombardier left the business before 1970.  Stand-up PWCs were first produced by the Japanese company Kawasaki (under the Jet Ski brand) in 1972, and appeared on the US market in 1973. These were mass-produced boats to be used by only one rider. While they are still produced today, the more popular design, is the sit down variety of PWC. These sit down runabouts have been produced by Kawasaki (Jetski), Bombardier (Sea-Doo), Yamaha (WaveRunner), Honda (AquaTrax), Polaris (Sealion) and Arctic Cat (Tigershark). As of 2010, the major manufacturers of PWCs were Kawasaki, Bombardier and Yamaha. Both Yamaha and Kawasaki continue to sell stand-up models but it is a small percentage of the overall market.

Sports.

PWC racing competitions take place around the world.  P1 AquaX is a personal watercraft racing series, first launched in the UK in May 2011 by London-based sports promoter Powerboat P1. The series attracted a mix of new and current racers to a new type of racing and in 2013, P1 rolled out a second series in the USA. Such was the uptake that the original format needed revising to cope with the influx of new riders and by the end of 2015 over 400 riders from 11 countries had registered to compete in an AquaX event.

Non-recreational uses.

PWCs are small, fast, easily handled, fairly easy to use, affordable, and their propulsion systems do not have external propellers, making them safer for swimmers and wildlife. For these reasons, they are preferred for non-recreational use over small motorboats.  PWCs are used for Jet Ski fishing or PWC fishing and is the fastest growing segments in the industry. They are fast, safe and economical and are being chosen over traditional boats.  Lifeguards use PWCs equipped with rescue platforms to rescue water users who get into difficulties and carry them back to shore. Rescuers use PWCs to pick up flood survivors.  PWCs are used for law enforcement. Due to their speed and excellent maneuverability, police and rangers use them to enforce laws in coastal waters, lakes and rivers.  A PWC combined with a wash-reduction system, carrying waterproof loudspeaker equipment and GPS for instructions and distance measurement, has purportedly been used by assistant coaches for rowing sports on the River Tyne.  PWCs are used by the U.S. Navy as surface targets. Equipped with GPS, electronic compass, radar reflector, and a radio modem, the PWC is fully remotable with a two-way link. Its small shipboard footprint allows it to be stored and deployed from the smallest of vessels, and it has been used for target practice for everything from to small arms.

Emissions.

The American PWC industry reached an agreement with the United States Coast Guard in 1999 (see fall, 1999 BSAC Minutes), agreeing to limit the speed of a PWC to 65 mph in a specified test protocol.  Before 1991, PWC emissions were unregulated in the United States. Many were powered by two-stroke cycle engines, which are smaller and lighter than four-stroke cycle engines but more polluting. Simple two-stroke engines are lubricated on a "total loss" method, mixing lubricating oil with their fuel; they are estimated to create exhaust in excess of 25% of their fuel and oil unburned in addition to the products of incomplete and complete combustion.  The 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act allowed the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to begin regulating all recreational marine engines including PWC, as well as other off-road internal combustion engines. The agency began a dialogue with manufacturers in 1991, resulting in regulations that were enacted in 1996. These regulations, set to phase in between 1998 and 2006, are considered averaging standards, because they allow manufacturers to offset more-polluting engines in their product range by offering other engines that exceed the standard. California and subsequently New York have, in turn, adopted more stringent regulations than the federal standard. Subsequent to 2004 when the maximum emission reductions required by California became effective, the substantial majority of new PWC units sold throughout the United States have met the lower emissions standards established by California. To meet these regulations, manufacturers have adopted a variety of improvements, including increased use of four-stroke engines, the use of direct injection for two-strokes, and the use of catalytic converters and other pollution-curbing measures that overall have reduced emissions by approximately 75% compared to pre-regulation models.  In some areas, such as Lake Tahoe, outboard motors and PWCs are permitted if they meet the 2006 EPA or California Air Resources Board (CARB) 2001 regulations. Some pre-2006 model year PWCs meet this EPA standard, including all four-stroke makes and models and all two-stroke cycle direct-injection (non-carbureted) models. Environmental groups such as the Surfrider Foundation and the Bluewater Network claim that more rapid progress could be made, and that the diminishing numbers of pre-1998 watercraft in use continue to emit substantial pollution.  Against this, industry groups such as the Personal Watercraft Industry Association point out that environmental groups continue to cite pollution levels of pre-regulation watercraft and ignore the improvements made to newer models; and furthermore, that personal watercraft are unfairly singled out when they are no more polluting than other powered boats.

Hazards.

Apart from the obvious hazards of collisions and mechanical breakdowns common to all vehicles, operating or riding a PWC can involve a risk of orifice injuries. These injuries are typical of the kinds of injuries that waterskiers experience as a result of falling into the water at speed. Such injuries can occur from simply falling in the water at speed or they can occur from the output end of the pump jet. A rider who falls (or is ejected) off the back can land directly in the path of the PWC's high-pressure jet of water. Unless a rider is appropriately dressed in garments made out of a strong, thick substance like neoprene (as is commonly found in wetsuits), the jet may penetrate any orifice it reaches. All major PWC manufacturers warn about this risk and recommend that passengers wear wet suit bottoms or equivalent protection. The American Waterski Racing Association recommends that all of their racers wear wet suit bottoms for this same reason.  Such orifice injuries can result in permanent disability or death. For example, in 2006, the California Court of Appeal for the First Appellate District upheld a $3.7 million Napa County jury verdict against Polaris Industries arising out of one such incident (which had devastating effects on the victim's lower abdomen). It is also possible for multiple riders on the same PWC to sustain orifice injuries in a single accident, as actually occurred in a 2007 accident at Mission Bay which resulted in a San Diego County jury verdict affirmed in full on appeal in 2014.  While also rare, spinal injuries can occur while surf jumping and, potentially, wake jumping. The PWC manufacturers owner's manuals all include warnings regarding jumping at excessive heights, or operating a PWC if there is a prior history of back injury. The current on-product labels say "Jumping wakes or waves can increase the risk of spinal/backbone injuries (paralysis)". The current Kawasaki owner's manual provides: "Slow down before crossing waves. Do not ride if you have a back condition. High speed operation in choppy or rough water may cause back injuries."  Another rare, but unique injury risk with jetboats, is being sucked into the intake side of the pump jet. Current PWC products contain on-product warnings that state: ""Keep away from Intake Grate" while the engine is on. Items such as long hair, loose clothing, or PFD straps can become entangled in moving parts and result in severe injury or drowning".  There have been fatal accidents involving PWCs. In a notable case, U.S. astronaut Alan G. Poindexter died in 2012 from injuries sustained in a Jet Ski accident in Florida.

A personal watercraft (PWC), also called water scooter, and comically a boatercycle, is a recreational watercraft that the rider sits or stands on, rather than inside of, as in a boat. PWCs have two style categories, first and most popular being a runabout or "sit down" where the rider uses the watercraft mainly sitting down, and the watercraft typically holds two or more people. The second style is a "stand-up", where the rider uses the watercraft standing up. The stand-up styles are built for one rider and are used more for doing tricks, racing, and use in competitions. Both styles have an inboard engine driving a pump-jet that has a screw-shaped impeller to create thrust for propulsion and steering. Most are designed for two or three people, though four-passenger models exist. Many of today's models are built for more extended use and have the fuel capacity to make long cruises, in some cases even beyond 100 miles (161 km).

水上摩-{}-托车,又称水上电单-{}-车,是一种水上使用的交通工具。是在水上跑的摩托车,又是水上的超级跑车,演进陆上的机车。以喷水推进器作为动力,替代轮胎驱动。属动力船具,而非无动力水中运动项目。驾驶水上摩托车,需取有相应的驾驶执照。由于外型、操控方式及速度与陆上的摩托车相似,因而有这称呼。


Basic types.

Absolute.

An absolute encoder maintains position information when power is removed from the encoder. The position of the encoder is available immediately on applying power. The relationship between the encoder value and the physical position of the controlled machinery is set at assembly; the system does not need to return to a calibration point to maintain position accuracy.  An absolute encoder has multiple code rings with various binary weightings which provide a data word representing the absolute position of the encoder within one revolution. This type of encoder is often referred to as a parallel absolute encoder.  A multi-turn absolute rotary encoder includes additional code wheels and gears. A high-resolution wheel measures the fractional rotation, and lower-resolution geared code wheels record the number of whole revolutions of the shaft.

Incremental.

An incremental encoder will immediately report changes in position, which is an essential capability in some applications. However, it does not report or keep track of absolute position. As a result, the mechanical system monitored by an incremental encoder may have to be homed (moved to a fixed reference point) to initialize absolute position measurements.

Absolute encoder.

Absolute rotary encoder.

Construction.

Digital absolute encoders produce a unique digital code for each distinct angle of the shaft. They come in two basic types: optical and mechanical.

Mechanical absolute encoders.

A metal disc containing a set of concentric rings of openings is fixed to an insulating disc, which is rigidly fixed to the shaft. A row of sliding contacts is fixed to a stationary object so that each contact wipes against the metal disc at a different distance from the shaft. As the disc rotates with the shaft, some of the contacts touch metal, while others fall in the gaps where the metal has been cut out. The metal sheet is connected to a source of electric current, and each contact is connected to a separate electrical sensor. The metal pattern is designed so that each possible position of the axle creates a unique binary code in which some of the contacts are connected to the current source (i.e. switched on) and others are not (i.e. switched off).  Because brush-type contacts are susceptible to wear, encoders using contacts are not common; they can be found in low-speed applications such as manual volume or tuning controls in a radio receiver.

Optical absolute encoders.

The optical encoder's disc is made of glass or plastic with transparent and opaque areas. A light source and photo detector array reads the optical pattern that results from the disc's position at any one time. The Gray code is often used. This code can be read by a controlling device, such as a microprocessor or microcontroller to determine the angle of the shaft.  The absolute analog type produces a unique dual analog code that can be translated into an absolute angle of the shaft.

Magnetic absolute encoders.

The magnetic encoder uses a series of magnetic poles (2 or more) to represent the encoder position to a magnetic sensor (typically magneto-resistive or Hall Effect). The magnetic sensor reads the magnetic pole positions.  This code can be read by a controlling device, such as a microprocessor or microcontroller to determine the angle of the shaft, similar to an optical encoder.  The absolute analog type produces a unique dual analog code that can be translated into an absolute angle of the shaft (by using a special algorithm).  Due to the nature of recording magnetic effects, these encoders may be optimal to use in conditions where other types of encoders may fail due to dust or debris accumulation. Magnetic encoders are also relatively insensitive to vibrations, minor misalignment, or shocks.  Built-in rotary encoders are used to indicate the angle of the motor shaft in permanent magnet brushless motors, which are commonly used on CNC machines, robots, and other industrial equipment. In such cases, the encoder serves as a feedback device that plays a vital role in proper equipment operation. Brushless motors require electronic commutation, which often is implemented in part by using rotor magnets as a low-resolution absolute encoder (typically six or twelve pulses per revolution). The resulting shaft angle information is conveyed to the servo drive to enable it to energize the proper stator winding at any moment in time.

Capacitive absolute encoders.

An asymmetrical shaped disc is rotated within the encoder. This disc will change the capacitance between two electrodes which can be measured and calculated back to an angular value.

Absolute multi-turn encoder.

A multi-turn encoder can detect and store more than one revolution. The term absolute multi-turn encoder is generally used if the encoder will detect movements of its shaft even if the encoder is not provided with external power.

Battery-powered multi-turn encoder.

This type of encoder uses a battery for retaining the counts across power cycles. It uses energy conserving electrical design to detect the movements.

Geared multi-turn encoder.

These encoders use a train of gears to mechanically store the number of revolutions. The position of the single gears is detected with one of the above-mentioned technologies.

Self-powered multi-turn encoder.

These encoders use the principle of energy harvesting to generate energy from the moving shaft. This principle, introduced in 2007, uses a Wiegand Sensor to produce electricity sufficient to power the encoder and write the turns count to non-volatile memory.

Ways of encoding shaft position.

Standard binary encoding.

An example of a binary code, in an extremely simplified encoder with only three contacts, is shown below.  In general, where there are "n" contacts, the number of distinct positions of the shaft is 2. In this example, "n" is 3, so there are 23 or 8 positions.  In the above example, the contacts produce a standard binary count as the disc rotates. However, this has the drawback that if the disc stops between two adjacent sectors, or the contacts are not perfectly aligned, it can be impossible to determine the angle of the shaft. To illustrate this problem, consider what happens when the shaft angle changes from 179.9° to 180.1° (from sector 3 to sector 4). At some instant, according to the above table, the contact pattern changes from off-on-on to on-off-off. However, this is not what happens in reality. In a practical device, the contacts are never perfectly aligned, so each switches at a different moment. If contact 1 switches first, followed by contact 3 and then contact 2, for example, the actual sequence of codes is:  Now look at the sectors corresponding to these codes in the table. In order, they are 3, 7, 6 and then 4. So, from the sequence of codes produced, the shaft appears to have jumped from sector 3 to sector 7, then gone backwards to sector 6, then backwards again to sector 4, which is where we expected to find it. In many situations, this behaviour is undesirable and could cause the system to fail. For example, if the encoder were used in a robot arm, the controller would think that the arm was in the wrong position, and try to correct the error by turning it through 180°, perhaps causing damage to the arm.

Gray encoding.

To avoid the above problem, Gray coding is used. This is a system of binary counting in which any two adjacent codes differ by only one bit position. For the three-contact example given above, the Gray-coded version would be as follows.  In this example, the transition from sector 3 to sector 4, like all other transitions, involves only one of the contacts changing its state from on to off or vice versa. This means that the sequence of incorrect codes shown in the previous illustration cannot happen.

Single-track Gray encoding.

If the designer moves a contact to a different angular position (but at the same distance from the center shaft), then the corresponding "ring pattern" needs to be rotated the same angle to give the same output. If the most significant bit (the inner ring in Figure 1) is rotated enough, it exactly matches the next ring out. Since both rings are then identical, the inner ring can be omitted, and the sensor for that ring moved to the remaining, identical ring (but offset at that angle from the other sensor on that ring). Those two sensors on a single ring make a quadrature encoder with a single ring.  It is possible to arrange several sensors around a single track (ring) so that consecutive positions differ at only a single sensor; the result is the single-track Gray code encoder.

Data output methods.

Depending on the device and manufacturer, an absolute encoder may use any of several signal types and communication protocols to transmit data, including parallel binary, analog signals (current or voltage), and serial bus systems such as SSI, BiSS, Heidenhain EnDat, Sick-Stegmann Hiperface, DeviceNet, Modbus, Profibus, CANopen and EtherCAT, which typically employ Ethernet or RS-422/RS-485 physical layers.

Incremental encoder.

The rotary incremental encoder is the most widely used of all rotary encoders due to its ability to provide real-time position information. The measurement resolution of an incremental encoder is not limited in any way by its two internal, incremental movement sensors; one can find in the market incremental encoders with up to 10,000 counts per revolution, or more.  Rotary incremental encoders report position changes without being prompted to do so, and they convey this information at data rates which are orders of magnitude faster than those of most types of absolute shaft encoders. Because of this, incremental encoders are commonly used in applications that require precise measurement of position and velocity.  A rotary incremental encoder may use mechanical, optical or magnetic sensors to detect rotational position changes. The mechanical type is commonly employed as a manually operated "digital potentiometer" control on electronic equipment. For example, modern home and car stereos typically use mechanical rotary encoders as volume controls. Encoders with mechanical sensors require switch debouncing and consequently are limited in the rotational speeds they can handle. The optical type is used when higher speeds are encountered or a higher degree of precision is required.  A rotary incremental encoder has two output signals, A and B, which issue square waves in quadrature when the encoder shaft rotates. The square wave frequency indicates the speed of shaft rotation, whereas the A-B phase relationship indicates the direction of rotation.  Some rotary incremental encoders have an additional "index" output (typically labeled Z), which emits a pulse when the shaft passes through a particular angle. Once every rotation, the Z signal is asserted, typically always at the same angle, until the next AB state change. This is commonly used in radar systems and other applications that require a registration signal when the encoder shaft is located at a particular reference angle.  Unlike absolute encoders, an incremental encoder does not keep track of, nor do its outputs indicate the absolute position of the mechanical system to which it is attached. Consequently, to determine the absolute position at any particular moment, it is necessary to "track" the absolute position with an incremental encoder interface.  Inexpensive incremental encoders are used in mechanical computer mice. Typically, two encoders are used: one to sense left-right motion and another to sense forward-backward motion.

Other pulse-output rotary encoders.

Rotary encoders with a single output (i.e. tachometers) cannot be used to sense direction of motion but are suitable for measuring speed and for measuring position when the direction of travel is constant. In certain applications they may be used to measure distance of motion (e.g. feet of movement).

See also.

Analogue devices that perform a similar function include the synchro, the resolver, the rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT), and the rotary potentiometer.  A linear encoder is similar to a rotary encoder, but measures position in a straight line, rather than rotation. Linear encoders often use incremental encoding and are used in many machine tools.

A rotary encoder, also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device that converts the angular position or motion of a shaft or axle to analog or digital output signals.

旋转编码器(rotary encoder)也称为轴编码器,是将旋转位置或旋转量转换成模拟或数字信号的机电设备。一般装设在旋转物体中垂直旋转轴的一面。旋转编码器用在许多需要精确旋转位置及速度的场合,如工业控制、机器人技术、专用镜头、电脑输入装置(如鼠标及轨迹球)等。


Plot.

In 1980, Dr. Hannibal Lecter attends an orchestral performance of "A Midsummer Night's Dream" in Baltimore, Maryland. He is irritated by a flute player who repeatedly misses his part. Later, he hosts a dinner party in his townhouse for the orchestra's board of directors. During conversation, the disappearance of the flute player is brought up. When one of the guests asks about the "amuse-bouche" Lecter made, he responds that if he tells her, she might not try it.  Lecter is visited by Will Graham, a gifted FBI agent who has the ability to empathize with psychopaths. Graham has been working with Lecter on a psychological profile of a serial killer nicknamed "The Chesapeake Ripper", who removed edible body parts from his victims, leading Graham to believe him to be a cannibal. During the consultation, Graham discovers evidence implicating Lecter as the Ripper. Lecter immediately attacks Graham with a knife and almost disembowels him, but Graham impales Lecter with several arrows and then empties his handgun into him. Lecter survives and is sentenced to life imprisonment in an institution for the criminally insane. Graham is traumatized by the experience and retires from the FBI.  Several years later, another serial killer, nicknamed "The Tooth Fairy", appears. He has stalked and killed two entire families during sequential full moons. Special Agent Jack Crawford seeks a reluctant Graham's assistance in developing the killer's psychological profile. With the death of another family seemingly weeks away on the next full moon, Graham agrees to help. After visiting the crime scenes and speaking with Crawford, Graham concludes that he must once again consult Lecter. Lecter taunts Graham, but agrees to "consult" with him.  The Tooth Fairy is Francis Dolarhyde, who kills at the behest of his alternate personality whom he calls "The Great Red Dragon". He is obsessed with the William Blake painting "The Great Red Dragon and the Woman Clothed in Sun", and has the painting tattooed on his back. He believes that each victim he "changes" brings him closer to "becoming" the Dragon. His psychopathology was born from the severe abuse he suffered as a child at the hands of his sadistic grandmother.  Meanwhile, Freddy Lounds, a tabloid reporter, who hounded Graham after Lecter's capture, follows him again for leads on The Tooth Fairy. There is a secret correspondence between Lecter and Dolarhyde. Graham's wife and son are endangered when Lecter gives The Tooth Fairy the agent's home address, forcing them to relocate to a farm owned by Crawford's brother. Hoping to lure out The Tooth Fairy, Graham gives Lounds an interview in which he disparages the killer as an impotent homosexual. This provokes Dolarhyde, who kidnaps Lounds and glues him to an antique wheelchair. Dolarhyde forces Lounds to recant his allegations, bites off his lips, and then sets him on fire outside his newspaper's offices.  Later, at his job in a St. Louis photo lab, Dolarhyde falls in love with Reba McClane, a blind co-worker. He takes her home, where they make love. However, his alternate personality demands that he kill her. Desperate to stop the Dragon's "possession" of him, Dolarhyde goes to the Brooklyn Museum, tears apart the original Blake painting, and eats it.  Meanwhile, Graham deduces that the killer knew the layout of his victim's houses from their home videos. He concludes that the killer works for the company that edits the home movies and transfers them to video. He starts searching the company processing plant and asks for the workers' personnel files, overheard by Dolarhyde as he returns from Brooklyn. Dolarhyde then leaves the plant unseen and goes to Reba's house.  Dolarhyde finds that she has spent the evening with a co-worker, Ralph Mandy, whom she actually dislikes. Enraged by this apparent betrayal, Dolarhyde kills Ralph, kidnaps Reba, takes her to his house, and then sets it on fire. Finding himself unable to shoot her, Dolarhyde apparently shoots himself. Reba is able to escape the house as the police arrive.  Dolarhyde, having used Ralph's corpse to stage his own death, turns up at Graham's home in Florida. He holds Graham's son Josh hostage, threatening to kill him. To save Josh, Graham slings insults at the boy, reminding Dolarhyde of his grandmother's abuse. Enraged, Dolarhyde attacks Graham. Both men are severely wounded in a shootout which ends only when Graham's wife Molly kills Dolarhyde. Graham receives a letter from Lecter which praises him for stopping The Tooth Fairy, bids him well, and says he hopes Graham isn’t "too ugly".  Sometime later, Lecter's jailer, Dr. Frederick Chilton, tells him that he has a visitor, a young woman from the FBI. Lecter asks her name.

Soundtrack.

Red Dragon: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was composed by Danny Elfman, and produced by Mark Helfrich and Brett Ratner. Decca Records released it on September 24, 2002, in the United States and Canada.

Reception.

Box office.

"Red Dragon" was released on October 4, 2002, and opened in 3,357 theaters in the United States, grossing $13,478,355 on its opening day and $36,540,945 on its opening weekend, ranking #1 with a per theater average of $10,885. On its second weekend, it remained #1 and grossed $17,655,750 – $5,250 per theater. By its third weekend it dropped down to #3 and made $8,763,545 – $2,649 per theater.  "Red Dragon" grossed $93,149,898 in the United States and Canada and $116,046,400 overseas. In total, the film has grossed $209,196,298 worldwide.

Critical response.

Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives a score of 68% based on reviews from 188 critics. The site's consensus says the film is "competently made, but everything is a bit too familiar", and it has an average score of 6.4/10, making the film "fresh" on the website's rating system. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received an average score of 60% based on 36 reviews, which indicates "mixed or average reviews".  Richard Corliss of "Time" gave the film a positive review, stating: "This darkly seductive, flawlessly acted piece is worlds removed from most horror films. Here monsters have their grandeur, heroes their gravity. And when they collide, a dance of death ensues between two souls doomed to understand each other." Todd McCarthy of "Variety" also gave the film a positive review, saying that the "audiences will be excused for any feelings of déjà vu the new film might inspire. That won't prevent them from watching it in rapt, anxious silence, however, as the gruesome crimes, twisted psychology and deterministic dread that lie at the heart of Harris' work are laid out with care and skill."  Roger Ebert of "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 3 1/2 stars out of four, praising Brett Ratner's directing and the film's atmosphere. He stated: "To my surprise, Ratner does a sure, stylish job, appreciating the droll humor of Lecter's predicament, creating a depraved new villain in the Tooth Fairy (Ralph Fiennes), and using the quiet, intense skills of Norton to create a character whose old fears feed into his new ones. There is also humor, of the uneasy he-can't-get-away-with-this variety, in the character of a nosy scandal-sheet reporter (Philip Seymour Hoffman)." David Sterritt of the "Christian Science Monitor" gave the film a positive review, stated that "the most refreshing aspect of "Red Dragon" is its reliance on old-fashioned acting instead of computer-aided gizmos. Hopkins overdoes his role at times—his vocal tones are almost campy—but his piercing eyes are as menacing as ever, and Ralph Fiennes is scarily good as his fellow lunatic."  David Grove of "Film Threat", who gave the film four stars out of five, said: "Is "Red Dragon" a better film than "Manhunter"? I don't know. I think it stands on its own, but I wonder how much people who are intimately familiar with "Manhunter" will be shocked by it, although the ending is altogether different and much more realized, I think". Rick Kisonak, who also wrote for "Film Threat", also gave the film a positive review, but he gave it three stars out of five, saying: "The only downside to this delectable third course? The regrettable likelihood that Lecter fans will have to make do without dessert."  Edward Guthmann of "San Francisco Chronicle", gave the film mixed review, saying that "in Hollywood, where integrity is rapidly consumed and careers defined by market value, there's trash and there's trash with a pedigree." Stephanie Zacharek, for Salon, also gave the film a mixed review, stating: "If you buy the overprocessed headcheese of the serial killer as refined genius, you'll love "Red Dragon". Or maybe not. Even Hannibal Lecter devotees may lose patience with this picture's grandiose, self-serious ponderousness—that's Lecterese for, 'It's kind of boring in patches, actually.'"  William Arnold of "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" who gave the film a mixed review, said that the film "basically lives up to the old adage that the final work in a trilogy is invariably the weakest."  Michael Atkinson of "The Village Voice" gave the film a negative review, he stated: ""Red Dragon"s formula is so risible and rote by now that the natural reaction to scenes of peril, torture, and suffering is flippant laughter."

Home media.

The film was released on VHS and DVD on April 1, 2003. It was released in two extras-packed DVD editions, a single-disc package and double-disc "Director's Edition". The single-disc package includes deleted scenes, director's commentary by Brett Ratner, Interview with FBI profiler John Douglas, Four featurettes: "The Hannibal Lecter Story," "The Making of Red Dragon," "The Art of Criminal Profiling" and "The Making of a Killer". The Director's Edition includes director Brett Ratner's video diary, featurette "The Red Dragon Tattoo", Screen and film tests and storyboard-to-final-feature comparisons.

Awards.

"Red Dragon" was nominated for 13 awards, and won several, including Empire Award for Best British Actress (Emily Watson) and Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Actor Age Ten or Younger (Tyler Patrick Jones).

Red Dragon is a 2002 German-American psychological horror film based on the 1981 novel of the same name by Thomas Harris. It was directed by Brett Ratner and written for the screen by Ted Tally. The film is a prequel to "The Silence of the Lambs" (1991) and "Hannibal" (2001). Anthony Hopkins stars as psychiatrist and serial killer, Dr. Hannibal Lecter, and Edward Norton as FBI agent Will Graham. The film also stars Ralph Fiennes, Harvey Keitel, Emily Watson, Mary-Louise Parker, and Philip Seymour Hoffman.

是一部2002年上映的美国心理恐惧电影,改编汤玛斯·哈里斯的同名小说。本片为《1987大悬案》的翻拍,是《沉默的羔羊》同系列小说之第一部改编而成。本片由布莱特·拉特纳执导,艾德华·诺顿、安东尼·霍普金斯领衔主演,描述杀人狂医师汉尼拔·莱克特在遇上FBI探员克丽丝·史达琳前的故事。本片是《沉默的羔羊》及《沉默的杀机》的前传。


Biography.

Ginastera was born in Buenos Aires to a Catalan father and an Italian mother. During his later years, he preferred to use the Catalan and Italian pronunciation of his surname –, with an initial soft 'G' like that of English 'George' – rather than with a Spanish 'J' sound ().  Ginastera studied at the Williams Conservatory in Buenos Aires, graduating in 1938. As a young professor, he taught at the Liceo Militar General San Martín. After a visit to the United States in 1945–47, where he studied with Aaron Copland at Tanglewood, he returned to Buenos Aires. He held a number of teaching posts. Among his notable students were Ástor Piazzolla (who studied with him in 1941), Alcides Lanza, Waldo de los Ríos, Jacqueline Nova and Rafael Aponte-Ledée.  In 1968 Ginastera moved back to the United States, and in 1970 to Europe. He died in Geneva, Switzerland, at the age of 67 and was buried in the Cimetière des Rois there.

Music.

Ginastera grouped his music into three periods: "Objective Nationalism" (1934–1948), "Subjective Nationalism" (1948–1958), and "Neo-Expressionism" (1958–1983). Among other distinguishing features, these periods vary in their use of traditional Argentine musical elements. His Objective Nationalistic works often integrate Argentine folk themes in a straightforward fashion, while works in the later periods incorporate traditional elements in increasingly abstracted forms.  Many of Ginastera's works were inspired by the " Gauchesco" tradition. This tradition holds that the Gaucho, or landless native horseman of the plains, is a symbol of Argentina.  His "Cantata para América Mágica" (1960), for dramatic soprano and 53 percussion instruments, was based on ancient pre-Columbian legends. Its West Coast premiere was performed by the Los Angeles Percussion Ensemble under Henri Temianka and William Kraft at UCLA in 1963.

Alberto Evaristo Ginastera (; April 11, 1916June 25, 1983) was an Argentinian composer of classical music. He is considered one of the most important 20th-century classical composers of the Americas.

阿尔伯托·埃瓦里斯托·希纳斯特拉(,1916年-4月11日-1983年-6月25日),阿根廷作曲家。


Presentation.

Bacteremia is typically transient and is quickly removed from the blood by the immune system.  Bacteremia frequently evokes a response from the immune system called Sepsis, which consists of symptoms such as fever, chills, and hypotension. Severe immune responses to bacteremia may result in septic shock and "multiple organ dysfunction syndrome", which are potentially fatal.

Causes.

Bacteria can enter the bloodstream in a number of different ways. However, for each major classification of bacteria (gram negative, gram positive, or anaerobic) there are characteristic sources or routes of entry into the bloodstream that lead to bacteremia. Causes of bacteremia can additionally be divided into healthcare-associated (acquired during the process of receiving care in a healthcare facility) or community-acquired (acquired outside of a health facility, often prior to hospitalization).

Gram positive bacteremia.

Gram positive bacteria are an increasingly important cause of bacteremia. Staphylococcus, streptococcus, and enterococcus species are the most important and most common species of gram-positive bacteria that can enter the bloodstream. These bacteria are normally found on the skin or in the gastrointestinal tract.  "Staphylococcus aureus" is the most common cause of healthcare-associated bacteremia in North and South America and is also an important cause of community-acquired bacteremia. Skin ulceration or wounds, respiratory tract infections, and IV drug use are the most important causes of community-acquired staph aureus bacteremia. In healthcare settings, intravenous catheters, urinary tract catheters, and surgical procedures are the most common causes of staph aureus bacteremia.  There are many different types of streptococcal species that can cause bacteremia. "Group A streptococcus" (GAS) typically causes bacteremia from skin and soft tissue infections. "Group B streptococcus" is an important cause of bacteremia in neonates, often immediately following birth. "Viridans streptococci" species are normal bacterial flora of the mouth. Viridans strep can cause temporary bacteremia after eating, toothbrushing, or flossing. More severe bacteremia can occur following dental procedures or in patients receiving chemotherapy. Finally, "streptococcus bovis" is a common cause of bacteremia in patients with colon cancer.  "Enterococci" are an important cause of healthcare-associated bacteremia. These bacteria commonly live in the gastrointestinal tract and female genital tract. Intravenous catheters, urinary tract infections and surgical wounds are all risk factors for developing bacteremia from enterococcal species. Resistant enterococcal species can cause bacteremia in patients who have had long hospital stays or frequent antibiotic use in the past.

Gram negative bacteremia.

Gram negative bacterial species are responsible for approximately 24% of all cases of healthcare-associated bacteremia and 45% of all cases of community-acquired bacteremia. In general, gram negative bacteria enter the bloodstream from infections in the respiratory tract, genitourinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, or hepatobiliary system. Gram-negative bacteremia occurs more frequently in elderly populations (65 years or older) and is associated with higher morbidity and mortality in this population.  "E.coli" is the most common cause of community-acquired bacteremia accounting for approximately 75% of cases. E.coli bacteremia is usually the result of a urinary tract infection. Other organisms that can cause community-acquired bacteremia include "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "Klebsiella pneumoniae", and "Proteus mirabilis". "Salmonella" infection, despite mainly only resulting in gastroenteritis in the developed world, is a common cause of bacteremia in Africa. It principally affects children who lack antibodies to Salmonella and HIV+ patients of all ages.  Among healthcare-associated cases of bacteremia, gram negative organisms are an important cause of bacteremia in the ICU. Catheters in the veins, arteries, or urinary tract can all create a way for gram negative bacteria to enter the bloodstream. Surgical procedures of the genitourinary tract, intestinal tract, or hepatobiliary tract can also lead to gram negative bacteremia. "Pseudomonas" and "Enterobacter" species are the most important causes of gram negative bacteremia in the ICU.

Bacteremia risk factors.

There are several risk factors that increase the likelihood of developing bacteremia from any type of bacteria. These include:

Mechanism.

Bacteremia can travel through the blood stream to distant sites in the body and cause infection (hematogenous spread). Hematogenous spread of bacteria is part of the pathophysiology of certain infections of the heart (endocarditis), structures around the brain (meningitis), and tuberculosis of the spine (Pott's disease). Hematogenous spread of bacteria is responsible for many bone infections (osteomyelitis).  Prosthetic cardiac implants (for example artificial heart valves) are especially vulnerable to infection from bacteremia.  Prior to widespread use of vaccines, occult bacteremia was an important consideration in febrile children that appeared otherwise well.

Diagnosis.

Bacteremia is most commonly diagnosed by blood culture, in which a sample of blood drawn from the vein by needle puncture is allowed to incubate with a medium that promotes bacterial growth. If bacteria are present in the bloodstream at the time the sample is obtained, the bacteria will multiply and can thereby be detected.  Any bacteria that incidentally find their way to the culture medium will also multiply. For example, if the skin is not adequately cleaned before needle puncture, contamination of the blood sample with normal bacteria that live on the surface of the skin can occur. For this reason, blood cultures must be drawn with great attention to sterile process. The presence of certain bacteria in the blood culture, such as S"taphylococcus aureus", "Streptococcus pneumoniae", and "Escherichia coli" almost never represent a contamination of the sample. On the other hand, contamination may be more highly suspected if organisms like "Staphylococcus epidermidis" or "Cutibacterium acnes" grow in the blood culture.  Two blood cultures drawn from separate sites of the body are often sufficient to diagnose bacteremia. Two out of two cultures growing the same type of bacteria usually represents a real bacteremia, particularly if the organism that grows is not a common contaminant. One out of two positive cultures will usually prompt a repeat set of blood cultures to be drawn to confirm whether a contaminant or a real bacteremia is present. The patient's skin is typically cleaned with an alcohol-based product prior to drawing blood to prevent contamination. Blood cultures may be repeated at intervals to determine if persistent — rather than transient — bacteremia is present.  Prior to drawing blood cultures, a thorough patient history should be taken with particular regard to presence of both fevers and chills, other focal signs of infection such as in the skin or soft tissue, a state of immunosuppression, or any recent invasive procedures.  Ultrasound of the heart is recommended in all those with bacteremia due to "Staphylococcus aureus" to rule out infectious endocarditis.

Definition.

Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream that are alive and capable of reproducing. It is a type of bloodstream infection. Bacteremia is defined as either a primary or secondary process. In primary bacteremia, bacteria have been directly introduced into the bloodstream. Injection drug use may lead to primary bacteremia. In the hospital setting, use of blood vessel catheters contaminated with bacteria may also lead to primary bacteremia. Secondary bacteremia occurs when bacteria have entered the body at another site, such as the cuts in the skin, or the mucous membranes of the lungs (respiratory tract), mouth or intestines (gastrointestinal tract), bladder (urinary tract), or genitals. Bacteria that have infected the body at these sites may then spread into the lymphatic system and gain access to the bloodstream, where further spread can occur.  Bacteremia may also be defined by the timing of bacteria presence in the bloodstream: transient, intermittent, or persistent. In transient bacteremia, bacteria are present in the bloodstream for minutes to a few hours before being cleared from the body, and the result is typically harmless in healthy people. This can occur after manipulation of parts of the body normally colonized by bacteria, such as the mucosal surfaces of the mouth during teeth brushing, flossing, or dental procedures, or instrumentation of the bladder or colon. Intermittent bacteremia is characterized by periodic seeding of the same bacteria into the bloodstream by an existing infection elsewhere in the body, such as an abscess, pneumonia, or bone infection, followed by clearing of that bacteria from the bloodstream. This cycle will often repeat until the existing infection is successfully treated. Persistent bacteremia is characterized by the continuous presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. It is usually the result of an infected heart valve, a central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI), an infected blood clot (suppurative thrombophlebitis), or an infected blood vessel graft. Persistent bacteremia can also occur as part of the infection process of typhoid fever, brucellosis, and bacterial meningitis. Left untreated, conditions causing persistent bacteremia can be potentially fatal.  Bacteremia is clinically distinct from sepsis, which is a condition where the blood stream infection is associated with an inflammatory response from the body, often causing abnormalities in body temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, and white blood cell count.

Treatment.

The presence of bacteria in the blood almost always requires treatment with antibiotics. This is because there are high mortality rates from progression to sepsis if antibiotics are delayed.  The treatment of bacteremia should begin with empiric antibiotic coverage. Any patient presenting with signs or symptoms of bacteremia or a positive blood culture should be started on intravenous antibiotics. The choice of antibiotic is determined by the most likely source of infection and by the characteristic organisms that typically cause that infection. Other important considerations include the patient's past history of antibiotic use, the severity of the presenting symptoms, and any allergies to antibiotics. Empiric antibiotics should be narrowed, preferably to a single antibiotic, once the blood culture returns with a particular bacteria that has been isolated.

Gram positive bacteremia.

The Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) recommends treating uncomplicated methicillin resistant staph aureus (MRSA) bacteremia with a 14-day course of intravenous vancomycin. Uncomplicated bacteremia is defined as having positive blood cultures for MRSA, but having no evidence of endocarditis, no implanted prostheses, negative blood cultures after 2–4 days of treatment, and signs of clinical improvement after 72 hrs.  The antibiotic treatment of choice for streptococcal and enteroccal infections differs by species. However, it is important to look at the antibiotic resistance pattern for each species from the blood culture to better treat infections caused by resistant organisms.

Gram negative bacteremia.

The treatment of gram negative bacteremia is also highly dependent on the causative organism. Empiric antibiotic therapy should be guided by the most likely source of infection and the patient's past exposure to healthcare facilities. In particular, a recent history of exposure to a healthcare setting may necessitate the need for antibiotics with "pseudomonas aeruginosa" coverage or broader coverage for resistant organisms. Extended generation cephalosporins such as ceftriaxone or beta lactam/beta lactamase inhibitor antibiotics such as piperacillin-tazobactam are frequently used for the treatment of gram negative bacteremia.

Catheter-associated infections.

For healthcare-associated bacteremia due to intravenous catheters, the IDSA has published guidelines for catheter removal. Short term catheters (in place <14 days) should be removed if bacteremia is caused by any gram negative bacteria, staph aureus, enterococci or mycobacteria. Long term catheters (>14 days) should be removed if the patient is developing signs or symptoms of sepsis or endocarditis, or if blood cultures remain positive for more than 72 hours.

Bacteremia (also bacteraemia) is the presence of bacteria in the blood. Blood is normally a sterile environment, so the detection of bacteria in the blood (most commonly accomplished by blood cultures) is always abnormal. It is distinct from sepsis, which is the host response to the bacteria.

菌血症意指血液中出现细菌。正常情形下血液中是无菌的, 如果在血液中发现细菌(最常见是经由血液培养发现),即属异常。本词与败血症不同之处,在于败血症意指针对细菌的宿主反应。


Description.

They had a mixture of Old World monkey and ape characteristics, so their placement in the ape superfamily Hominoidea is tentative, with some scientists placing "Proconsul" outside it, before the split of the apes and Old World monkeys.  "Proconsul's" monkey-like features include pronograde postures, indicated by a long flexible back, curved metacarpals, and an above-branch arboreal quadrupedal positional repertoire. The primary feature linking "Proconsul" with extant apes is its lack of a tail; other "ape-like" features include its enhanced grasping capabilities, stabilized elbow joint and facial structure. "Proconsul" could not hang effortlessly from tree branches like gibbons and other nonhuman apes do today.

Discovery and classification.

The first specimen, a partial jaw discovered in 1909 by a gold prospector at Koru, near Kisumu in western Kenya, was also the oldest fossil hominoid known until recently, and the first fossil mammal ever found in sub-Saharan Africa. The name, Proconsul, was devised by Arthur Hopwood in 1933 and means "before Consul"; the name of a famous captive chimp in London. At the time Consul was being used as a circus name for performing chimpanzees. The Folies Bergère of 1903 in Paris had a popular performing chimpanzee named Consul, and so did the Belle Vue Zoo in Manchester, England, in 1894. On the latter's death in that year Ben Brierley wrote a commemorative poem wondering where the "Missing Link" between chimpanzees and men was.  Hopwood in 1931 had discovered the fossils of three individuals while expeditioning with Louis Leakey in the vicinity of Lake Victoria. The Consul that he selected to use in the name was neither of the ones mentioned above, but another located in the London Zoo. Consul is being used Linnaean-style to symbolize the chimpanzee. Proconsul is therefore "ancestral to the Chimpanzee" in Hopwood's words. He also added "africanus" as the species name.  Other fossils discovered later were initially classified as "africanus" and subsequently reclassified; that is, the total pool of fossils originally considered "africanus" was "split" and the fragments "lumped" with other finds to create a new species. For example, Mary Leakey's famous find of 1948 began as "africanus" and was split from it to be lumped with Thomas Whitworth's finds of 1951 as "heseloni" by Alan Walker in 1993. This process creates some confusion for the public, which is told that "africanus" became "heseloni". The finds from Koru and Songhor are still considered "africanus". Four species are still defined even though many fossils have jumped species.  The family of Proconsulidae was first proposed by Louis Leakey in 1963, a decade after he and Wilfrid Le Gros Clark had defined "africanus", "nyanzae" and "major". It was not immediately accepted but ultimately prevailed.  The history of hominoid classification in the second half of the 20th century is sufficiently complex to warrant a few books itself. Most of the palaeoanthropologists have changed their minds at least once as new fossils have come to light and new observations have been made, and will probably continue to do so. The classifications found in the literature of one decade are not generally the same as those of another. For example, in 1987 Peter Andrews and Lawrence Martin, established palaeontologists, took the point of view that Proconsul is not a Hominoid, but is a sister taxon to it.

Reassigned species.

The species "Proconsul heseloni" and "P. nyanzae" have been reclassified in the new genus "Ekembo".

Proconsul is an extinct genus of primates that existed from 23 to 5 million years ago during the Miocene epoch. Fossil remains are present in Eastern Africa including Kenya and Uganda. Four species have been classified to date: "P. africanus", "P. gitongai", "P. major" and "P. meswae". The four species differ mainly in body size. Environmental reconstructions for the Early Miocene "Proconsul" sites are still tentative and range from forested environments to more open, arid grasslands.

原康修尔猿属(学名:"")是一属早期的灵长目,生存于1800-1400万年前中新世的肯尼亚及后来的非洲。目前其下有四个物种,重量约为10-40公斤。牠们都是栖息在雨林中的。


History.

Classic Mac OS programming.

The original Mac OS used Pascal as its primary development platform, and the APIs were heavily based on Pascal's call semantics. Much of the Macintosh Toolbox consisted of procedure calls, passing information back and forth between the API and program using a variety of data structures based on Pascal's variant record concept.  Over time, a number of object libraries evolved on the Mac, notably the Object Pascal library MacApp and the Think Class Library (TCL) in Pascal, and later versions of MacApp and CodeWarrior's PowerPlant in C++. By the mid-1990s, most Mac software was written in C++ using CodeWarrior.

Rhapsody.

With the purchase of NeXT in late 1996, Apple developed a new operating system strategy based largely on the existing OpenStep platform. The new Rhapsody was relatively simple; it retained most of OpenStep's existing object libraries under the name "Yellow Box", ported OpenStep's existing GUI and made it look more Mac-like, ported several major APIs from the Mac OS to Rhapsody's underlying Unix-like system (notably QuickTime and AppleSearch), and added an emulator known as the "Blue Box" that ran existing Mac OS software.  When this plan was revealed at the Worldwide Developers Conference in 1997 there was some push-back from existing Mac OS developers, who were upset that their code bases would effectively be locked into an emulator that was unlikely to ever be updated. They took to calling the Blue Box the "penalty box". Larger developers like Microsoft and Adobe balked outright, and refused to consider porting to OpenStep, which was so different from the existing Mac OS that there was little or no compatibility.  Apple took these concerns to heart. When Steve Jobs announced this change in direction at the 1998 WWDC, he stated that "what developers really wanted was a modern version of the Mac OS, and Apple [was] going to deliver it". The statement was met with thunderous applause.  The original Rhapsody concept, with only the Blue Box for running existing Mac OS software, was eventually released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0. This was the only release based on the original Rhapsody concept.

Cocoa and Carbon.

In order to offer a real and well supported upgrade path for existing Mac OS code bases, Apple introduced the Carbon system. Carbon consists of many libraries and functions that offer a Mac-like API, but running on top of the underlying Unix-like OS, rather than a copy of the Mac OS running in emulation. The Carbon libraries are extensively cleaned up, modernized and better "protected". While the Mac OS was filled with APIs that shared memory to pass data, under Carbon all such access was re-implemented using accessor subroutines on opaque data types. This allowed Carbon to support true multitasking and memory protection, features Mac developers had been requesting for a decade. Other changes from the pre-existing API removed features which were conceptually incompatible with Mac OS X, or simply obsolete. For example, applications could no longer install interrupt handlers or device drivers.  In order to support Carbon, the entire Rhapsody model changed. Whereas Rhapsody would effectively be OpenStep with an emulator, under the new system both the OpenStep and Carbon API would, where possible, share common code. To do this, many of the useful bits of code from the lower-levels of the OpenStep system, written in Objective-C and known as Foundation, were re-implemented in pure C. This code became known as Core Foundation, or CF for short. A version of the Yellow Box ported to call CF became the new Cocoa API, and the Mac-like calls of Carbon also called the same functions. Under the new system, Carbon and Cocoa were peers. This conversion would normally have slowed the performance of Cocoa as the object methods called into the underlying C libraries, but Apple used a technique they called "toll-free bridging" to reduce this impact.  As part of this conversion, Apple also ported the graphics engine from the licence-encumbered Display PostScript to the licence-free Quartz (which has been called "Display PDF"). Quartz provided native calls that could be used from either Carbon or Cocoa, as well as offering Java 2D-like interfaces as well. The underlying operating system itself was further isolated and released as Darwin.

Release and evolution.

Carbon was introduced in incomplete form in 2000, as a shared library backward-compatible with 1997's Mac OS 8.1. This version allowed developers to port their code to Carbon without losing the ability for those programs to run on existing Mac OS machines. Porting to Carbon became known as "Carbonization". Official Mac OS X support arrived in 2001 with the release of Mac OS X v10.0, the first public version of the new OS. Carbon was very widely used in early versions of Mac OS X by almost all major software houses, even by Apple. The Finder, for instance, remained a Carbon application for many years, only being ported to Cocoa with the release of Mac OS X 10.6 in 2009.  The transition to 64-bit Macintosh applications beginning with Mac OS X v10.5, released October 26, 2007, brought the first major limitations to Carbon. Apple does not provide compatibility between the Macintosh graphical user interface and the C programming language in the 64-bit environment, instead requiring the use of the Objective-C dialect with the Cocoa API. Many commentaries took this to be the first sign of Carbon's eventual disappearance, a position that was re-enforced when Apple stated no new major additions would be added to the Carbon system, and further reinforced with its deprecation in 2012.

Transition to Cocoa.

Despite the purported advantages of Cocoa, the need to rewrite large amounts of legacy code slowed the transition of Carbon-based applications, famously with Adobe Photoshop, which was eventually updated to Cocoa in April 2010. This also extended to Apple's own flagship software packages, as iTunes and Final Cut Pro (as well as the features in the QuickTime engine that powers it) remained written in Carbon for many years. Both iTunes and Final Cut Pro X have since been released in Cocoa versions.

Deprecation and discontinuation.

In 2012, with the release of OS X 10.8 Mountain Lion, most Carbon APIs were considered deprecated. The APIs are still accessible to developers and all Carbon applications will run, but the APIs will no longer be updated. On June 28, 2017, Apple announced that 32-bit software for macOS, such as all Carbon applications, would no longer be supported “without compromise” on versions of macOS after macOS 10.13 High Sierra. macOS 10.15 Catalina officially removes support for 32-bit applications, and thus all Carbon applications are no longer supported as well.

Architecture.

Carbon descends from the Toolbox, and as such, is composed of "Managers". Each Manager is a functionally related API, defining sets of data structures and functions to manipulate them. Managers are often interdependent or layered. Carbon consists of a broad set of functions for managing files, memory, data, the user interface, and other system services. It is implemented as any other API: in macOS, it is spread over several frameworks (each a structure built around a shared library), principally codice_1, codice_2, and codice_3, and in classic Mac OS, it resides in a single shared library named codice_4.  As an umbrella term encompassing all C-language API procedures accessing Mac-specific functionality, Carbon is not designed as a discrete system. Rather, it opens nearly all the functionality of macOS to developers who do not know the Objective-C language required for the broadly equivalent Cocoa API.  Carbon is compatible with all of the several executable formats available for PowerPC Mac OS. Binary compatibility between Mac OS X and previous versions requires use of a Preferred Executable Format file, which Apple never supported in their Xcode IDE.  Newer parts of Carbon tend to be much more object-oriented in their conception, most of them based on Core Foundation. Some Managers, such as the HIView Manager (a superset of the Control Manager), are implemented in C++, but Carbon remains a C API.  Some examples of Carbon Managers:

Event handling.

The Mac Toolbox's Event Manager originally used a polling model for application design. The application's main event loop asks the Event Manager for an event using GetNextEvent. If there is an event in the queue, the Event Manager passes it back to the application, where it is handled, otherwise it returns immediately. This behavior is called "busy-waiting", running the event loop unnecessarily. Busy-waiting reduces the amount of CPU time available for other applications and decreases battery power on laptops. The classic Event Manager dates from the original Mac OS in 1984, when whatever application was running was guaranteed to be the "only" application running, and where power management was not a concern.  With the advent of MultiFinder and the ability to run more than one application simultaneously came a new Event Manager call, "WaitNextEvent", which allows an application to specify a sleep interval. One easy trick for legacy code to adopt a more efficient model without major changes to its source code is simply to set the sleep parameter passed to "WaitNextEvent" to a very large value—on macOS, this puts the thread to sleep whenever there is nothing to do, and only returns an event when there is one to process. In this way, the polling model is quickly inverted to become equivalent to the callback model, with the application performing its own event dispatching in the original manner. There are loopholes, though. For one, the legacy toolbox call "ModalDialog", for example, calls the older "GetNextEvent" function internally, resulting in polling in a tight loop without blocking.  Carbon introduces a replacement system, called the Carbon Event Manager. (The original Event Manager still exists for compatibility with legacy applications). Carbon Event Manager provides the event loop for the developer (based on Core Foundation's codice_5 in the current implementation); the developer sets up event handlers and enters the event loop in the main function, and waits for Carbon Event Manager to dispatch events to the application.

Timers.

In the classic Mac OS, there was no operating system support for application level timers (the lower level Time Manager was available, but it executed timer callbacks at interrupt time, during which calls could not be safely made to most Toolbox routines). Timers were usually left to application developers to implement, and this was usually done by counting elapsed time during the "idle" event - that is, an event that was returned by "WaitNextEvent" when any other event wasn't available. In order for such timers to have reasonable resolution, developers could not afford "WaitNextEvent" to delay too long, and so low "sleep" parameters were usually set. This results in highly inefficient scheduling behavior, since the thread will not sleep for very long, instead repeatedly waking to return these idle events. Apple added timer support to Carbon to address this problem—the system can schedule timers with great efficiency.

Open source implementations.

GNUstep contains am implementation of the Carbon API called Boron. It aims to be compatible with non-deprecated parts of ApplicationServices and CoreServices. The name derives the fact that Boron comes before Carbon on the periodic table of elements. Darling also contains a Carbon implementation. Both implementations are highly incomplete and consists mostly of stub functions.

Carbon is one of Apple’s C-based application programming interfaces (APIs) for macOS (formerly Mac OS X), the operating system that powers Macintosh computers. Carbon provided a good degree of backward compatibility for programs that ran on Mac OS 8 and 9. Developers could use the Carbon APIs to port their “classic” Mac software to the Mac OS X platform with little effort, compared to porting the app to the entirely different Cocoa system, which originated in OPENSTEP.

Carbon是苹果电脑操作系统的应用程序编程接口(API)之一。


Biography.

Marmont was born at Châtillon-sur-Seine, the son of an ex-officer in the army who belonged to the "petite noblesse" and adopted the principles of the Revolution. His love of soldiering soon showed itself, and his father took him to Dijon to learn mathematics prior to entering the artillery. There, he made the acquaintance of Napoleon Bonaparte, which he renewed after obtaining his commission when he served in Toulon.  The acquaintance ripened into intimacy; Marmont became General Bonaparte's "aide-de-camp", remained with him during his disgrace and accompanied him to Italy and Egypt, winning distinction and promotion to general of brigade. In 1799, he returned to Europe with his chief. He was present at the "coup d'état" of the 18th Brumaire and organized the artillery for the expedition to Italy, which he commanded with great effect at Marengo. For this he was at once made general of division. In 1801, he became inspector-general of artillery, and in 1804, grand officer of the Legion of Honour. However, he was greatly disappointed at being omitted from the list of officers who were made marshals.

Napoleonic Wars.

In 1805, he received the command of a corps, with which he did good service at Ulm. He was then directed to take possession of Dalmatia with his army and occupied the Republic of Ragusa. For the next five years, he was military and civil governor of Dalmatia, and traces of his beneficent régime still survive both in great public works and in the memories of the people. In 1808, he was made duke of Ragusa.  In the War of the Fifth Coalition, he defeated an Austrian holding force in the Dalmatian Campaign of May 1809 and captured the opposing commander. Breaking out of Dalmatia, he reached Ljubljana (Laibach) in early June. After he defeated Ignaz Gyulai's corps in the Battle of Graz, Napoleon summoned the XI Corps to Vienna. Marmont arrived in time to fight in the Battle of Wagram on 5 and 6 July. In the subsequent pursuit of Archduke Charles, Marmont's corps was in a compromising position and was rescued only by the arrival of Napoleon with heavy reinforcements. Napoleon made him a Marshal of France, though he said, "Between ourselves, you have not done enough to justify entirely my choice." Of the three marshals created after Wagram, the French soldiers said,  MacDonald is France's choice
Oudinot is the army's choice
Marmont is friendship's choice.  Marmont was appointed governor-general of all the Illyrian provinces of the empire. In July 1810, Marmont was hastily summoned to succeed Masséna in the command of the French army in northern Spain. In spite of the presence of the British army, his relief of Ciudad Rodrigo was a great feat. The manoeuvering which preceded the Battle of Salamanca was not successful, however, as Wellington ordered his cavalry to charge Marmont's unsuspecting left flank in the battle and inflicted a great defeat on the French. Marmont and his deputy commander Comte Jean-Pierre François Bonet were both struck by shrapnel very early in the battle. Marmont was gravely wounded in the right arm and side, and command of the battle passed to Bertrand Clauzel. He retired to France to recover.  In April 1813, Napoleon again gave Marmont the command of a corps, which he led at the battles of Lützen, Bautzen and Dresden. He then fought throughout the great defensive campaign of 1814 until the last battle before Paris. Marmont's forces fought a fighting retreat back to the commanding position of Essonne, inflicting high casualties on the enemy.  Marmont then took upon himself a political role, seeking to halt what he now saw as a pointless prolonging of a war which France would now assuredly lose. Marmont contacted the Allies and reached a secret agreement with them. As the Allies closed on Montmartre, Marmont—together with marshals Mortier and Moncey—marched to a position where they were quickly surrounded by Allied troops and then surrendered their forces.

Bourbon Service.

Marmont stayed loyal to the restored Bourbon king Louis XVIII during the Hundred Days, and following Waterloo, voted in favour of the execution of Marshal Ney.  He was made a Peer of France and a major-general of the royal guard, and in 1820, a knight of the Order of the Holy Spirit and a grand officer of the Order of St Louis. He was the major-general of the guard on duty in July 1830 during the July Revolution and was ordered to put down with a strong hand any opposition to the ordinances. Himself opposed to the court policy, he nevertheless tried to do his duty, and only gave up the attempt to suppress the revolution when it became clear that his troops were outmatched. This brought more obloquy upon him, and the Duke d'Angoulême even ordered him under arrest, saying: Marmont accompanied the king into exile and forfeited his marshalate. His desire to return to France was never gratified and he wandered in central and eastern Europe, settling finally in Vienna, where he was well received by the Austrian government. Strangely, he was made tutor to the duke of Reichstadt, the young man who had once for a few weeks been styled Napoleon II. Despite his long friendship with Napoleon, by this time the verb "raguser"—derived from his title, the Duke of Ragusa—was a household word in France that meant "to betray". 30 years later when he was an old man living in Venice, little children in the street would point,"There goes the man who betrayed Napoleon." He died at Venice in March 1852, the last living Napoleonic Marshal.

Works.

In his last years, Marmont spent much of his time working on his "Mémoires", which are of great value to the military history of the time.  His works are:

Family.

In 1798, Marmont married Hortense de Perregaux, the daughter of Jean-Frédéric Perregaux, a Swiss (and Protestant) banker, later a founder and regent of the Banque de France, and Adélaïde de Praël de Surville, herself the natural daughter of the banker to the court of Louis XV, Nicolas Beaujon. They had no children and were divorced in 1817. She outlived him by five years, dying in Paris in 1857.

Evaluation.

Marmont is perhaps one of the most controversial marshals created under the Empire. His reputation, like many French generals in Spain, was tarnished by his defeats in the Peninsular War. However, on the whole Marmont's military career was quite impressive. He was perhaps the most educated of the marshals and one of the few to write a thesis on the art of war. He was a talented strategist, understanding the art of command and the movement of troops. He performed wonderfully in Dalmatia making what John Elting calls "a remarkable 300 mile march through frequently roadless country, scattering two Austrian forces, but clinging to his independent status..." Perhaps even more impressive is his study and evaluation of the Spanish theater of the war. He studied Wellington's nature of war, refusing to give battle against the English unless the ground was of Marmont's choosing. This led to a series of maneuvers where Marmont frequently had the upper hand. Marmont understood the importance of cooperation in the Peninsula by supporting his fellow marshals. Tactically Marmont was deadly and quick to strike, but prone to sloppiness which caused him his two defeats.

Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de Marmont (20 July 1774 – 22 March 1852) was a French general and nobleman who rose to the rank of Marshal of the Empire and was awarded the title (). In the Peninsular War Marmont succeeded the disgraced Andre Masséna in the command of the French army in northern Spain, but lost decisively at the Battle of Salamanca.

奥古斯特·德·马尔蒙,拉古萨公爵(,1774年-7月20日-1852年-7月22日) 法国将军和贵族。1808年被封为拉古萨公爵。1809年晋升为法国元帅。


Name.

The name "Rideau Hall" was chosen by Thomas McKay for his villa, drawing inspiration from the Rideau Canal which he had helped construct, though the house was also known colloquially as "McKay's Castle". Once the house became the official residence of the governor general, it was termed formally as "Government House". But, Rideau Hall stuck as the informal name

History.

McKay villa.

The site of Rideau Hall and the original structure were chosen and built by stonemason Thomas McKay, who immigrated from Perth, Scotland, to Montreal, Lower Canada, in 1817 and later became the main contractor involved in the construction of the Rideau Canal. Following the completion of the canal, McKay built mills at Rideau Falls, making him the founder of New Edinburgh, the original settlement of Ottawa. With his newly acquired wealth, McKay purchased the 100 acre site overlooking both the Ottawa and Rideau Rivers and built a stone villa where he and

Royal and viceroyal home.

After Bytown was chosen as the capital of the Province of Canada, a design competition was launched in 1859 for a new parliamentary campus. The Centre Block, departmental buildings, and a residence for the governor general were each awarded separately. The winning scheme for Government House was a Second Empire design by Toronto architects Cumberland & Storm. However, it was never built, owing to cost overruns on the construction of the parliament buildings.  In 1864, Rideau Hall was leased by the Crown from the McKay family for $4,000 per year and was intended to serve only as a temporary home for the viceroy until a proper government house could be constructed. The next year, Frederick Preston Rubidge oversaw the refinishing of the original villa and designed additions to accommodate the new functions. It

Second World War.

When King George VI and his consort, Queen Elizabeth, arrived at Rideau Hall on 19 May 1939, during their first royal tour of Canada, official royal tour historian Gustave Lanctot stated: "When Their Majesties walked into their Canadian residence, the Statute of Westminster had assumed full reality: the King of Canada had come home." The King, while there, became the first monarch of Canada to personally receive the credentials of an ambassador, that being Daniel Calhoun Roper as the representative of the United States. It was thought for a time, after the outbreak of the Second World War, that the King, Queen, and their two daughters—Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret—would move permanently to Canada for the duration of the conflict in Europe; though, Hatley Castle, in Colwood, British Columbia, was purchased by the King in Right of Canada for this purpose, instead of using Rideau Hall. However, it

Canadian viceregal residents.

At the end of the global war, the first peacetime ball at Rideau Hall was held for President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower, after which life within the household returned to normal. The transition from war to peace was marked by the appointment as governor general of the Viscount Alexander, whose son, Brian, reportedly used the portraits of former governors general throughout the hall as targets for his water pistol. During Alexander's tenure, Government House's first post-war Canadian royal visitors were the heiress presumptive to the throne, Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh (later Queen Elizabeth II), and her husband, Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who came in late 1951 and, amongst other activities, took part in a

Function.

Rideau Hall's main purpose is to house the offices of the Governor General of Canada and his or her household, including the Canadian Heraldic Authority. It is also the Ottawa residence of Canada's monarch. The majority of Rideau Hall's area is dedicated to affairs of state; only 500 m (5,400 sq ft) of the total 9,500 m (102,000 sq ft) being dedicated to private living quarters. Some 200 events are held at Rideau Hall every year, most being Canadian award presentations and investitures. In this way, the palace is where prime ministers and other members

Architecture.

The original 1838 structure was relatively small; only two storeys tall with a full-height, central, curved bay, and an accordingly curved pediment on top, the villa was designed by Thomas McKay (who had also designed and built Earnscliffe) in a Regency style, inspired by the work of architect Sir John Soane, who had himself designed a never realised government house for the then capital of Upper Canada, York, in 1818. Unlike the present arrangement, the rooms of the McKay villa for entertaining, sleeping, and service were dispersed throughout the two floors of the structure, with the main parlour located on the second level, in an oval room behind the curved, south bay, which National Capital Commission Chief Architect David Scarlett said in 2014 was made in such a shape so as to display the advanced abilities of McKay's stonemasons. The main entrance to the house was on the west side and opened into a hall with stairs to the upper floor directly ahead. Along the south front were a library, a dining room, and a boudoir, all with French doors opening onto a narrow balcony; the dining room was served by three of these doors, one of which now opens into the Tent Room's antechamber, one into the Long Gallery, and one that still opens to the outside. The French door originally opening from the boudoir is today the window of the Pauline Vanier Room.  Initially rented from the McKay family as a temporary accommodation for the Canadian viceroy, the house has since been expanded numerous times. The Viscount Monck oversaw the first addition to the villa in 1865: a long wing extending to the east and built in a style that, while attempting to be harmonious with the original, was intended to resemble the governor general's residence in Quebec, Spencer Wood, which Monck greatly preferred over Rideau Hall. The extension was thus done in an overall Norman style of design that was typical in Quebec at the time, and had a similar long, covered verandah, a cross hall, and a new staircase capped by an ornate stained glass lantern. The exterior walls were clad in ashlar limestone masonry and the roof in cedar shingles until replaced by copper in 1913. In 1872, during the tenure of the Earl of Dufferin, the indoor tennis court and the

Art and furnishing.

Rideau Hall has long been a collection point for Canadian art and cabinetry. As early as the first viceregal inhabitants, the hall has held pieces by prominent Canadian cabinet makers, such as Jaques & Hay of Toronto, James Thompson of Montreal, and William Drum of Quebec. Originally, the interior decoration was heavily Victorian, with many Rococo influences. Renovations, however, have turned the interiors into predominantly Georgian spaces, with Adam and Palladian elements. Until the 1960s, the contents and colours of the house changed with each successive royal and viceroyal family; the consort typically seeing it as her duty to update Rideau Hall to suit both her personal and contemporary tastes. As there were few paintings in the palace's permanent collection, the National Gallery would provide works on loan; a relationship that continues into the present.  Today the rooms are furnished both with elements from the history of the residence as well as art and other objects that showcase contemporary Canadian culture, including pieces by the Group of Seven's Lawren Harris, Emily Carr, Jean Paul Lemieux, and Bill Reid. The Long Gallery's Chinoiserie decoration was restored in 1993 at the direction of Gerda Hnatyshyn, wife of Governor General Ray Hnatyshyn, putting back much of the furniture and artifacts that had been collected by the Machioness of Willingdon throughout her tour of China in 1926. The space, used to greet and host functions for ambassadors and high commissioners to Canada, now contains five carpets donated by the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank and a Steinway & Sons baby grand piano that belonged to Glenn Gould. Other consorts left their mark on Rideau Hall, such as Princess Louise's painted apple branches on a 6-panel Georgian door in the first-floor corridor and Nora Michener's donated collection of Inuit sculpture. Governor General Adrienne Clarkson and her husband, John Ralston Saul, not only oversaw the extensive repainting of the state rooms from a consistent white to more historically accurate and polychrome palette, but also worked with Ontario potter Bill Reddick to develop Rideau Hall's first Canadian porcelain state dinner service.  Since Vincent Massey's time as governor general, the viceroy has worked closely with the Department of Public Works and Government Services in repairing and refurbishing Rideau Hall; the department now provides a more systematic approach to the maintenance of the palace, with a full-time building manager in charge of the project. The National Capital Commission is charged with the decoration of the rooms; since 2004 the commission has undertaken a project to restore many of the salons and other state rooms to the period in which they were first built. Many pieces—objets d'art, paintings, sculptures, books, furnishings, and rugs—are drawn from the Crown Collection, so that, in Adrienne Clarkson's words, "the mix of furniture and other objects here now reflects the country, the people who came and settled here, and became part of the Canadian story."

Grounds.

Rideau Hall's property is surrounded by a long Victorian style cast iron and cast stone fence put up in 1928 and contains uniquely Canadian landscapes designed in the natural style, including broad lawns, groves of trees, and meandering roads and pathways. The entire site is divided into five distinct areas: the wooded entrance park (trees, groundcover, daffodils, and lawn), the open parkland (meadow), the sugar bush, the ornamental gardens, and the farm (out-buildings and open area). The last once included a herd of cattle and fields used to grow hay, but today the only remaining agricultural ventures are the working vegetable and herb gardens that have been present on the site since the time of the McKay family. From these fields, plants, fruits, and edible flowers are used in the palace kitchens, and a greenhouse and flower garden provide flowers for the hall and other government buildings in Ottawa. Further, during the early spring months, the maples throughout the property are tapped for syrup making. In total, more than 10,000 trees grow on the grounds. Additionally, there is a long honorary segment of the Trans Canada Trail on the property.  As with the house that sits on them, the grounds too were transformed throughout the decades: Lady Byng created the existing rock garden, with a reflecting pool and wild corner for growing trilliums and orchids; a totem pole by Kwakiutl carver Mungo Martin was gifted to the Earl Alexander of Tunis by the Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia-in-Council; the Fountain of Hope was initiated by Gerda Hnatyshyn to mark the International Year of Disabled Persons, built in front of Rideau Hall, and dedicated to Terry Fox; and an inukshuk by artist Kananginak Pootoogook, from Cape Dorset, Nunavut, was built to commemorate the second National Aboriginal Day, in 1997. The Canadian Heritage Garden is a formal rose garden championed by Gerda Hnatyshyn and constructed to mark the 125th anniversary of Confederation. Also, each member of the Royal Family or visiting dignitary to Rideau Hall is asked to plant a tree; as such, the park, mostly along the main drive, is dotted with nearly 100 trees with small plaques at their bases listing the name and office of the person who planted each particular tree. These include Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother; Diana, Princess of Wales; Prince Charles, Prince of Wales; King George VI; and numerous by Queen Elizabeth II. Foreign dignitaries who have planted trees include John F. Kennedy, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, Richard Nixon, Bill Clinton, Kofi Annan, Boris Yeltsin, Vladimir Putin, Vicente Fox, and Emperor Akihito.  Throughout their history as a royal park, the gardens have hosted numerous activities and events. The earliest governors general added amenities such as a curling rink, a skating pond (which remains in operation, making it one of the oldest rinks in North America), toboggan runs, tennis courts, and the like, and many of the guests at Rideau Hall would partake in these outdoor activities, including prime ministers William Lyon Mackenzie King and Robert Borden, who would often skate on the iced over pond with the viceregal family. Of the tobogganing, Lieutenant William Galwey, a member of the survey team that laid out the Canada–United States border and later visited Rideau Hall in November 1871, said: "It is a most favourite amusement at Government House. Ladies go in for it. I think they like rolling over and over with the gentlemen."  The grounds of Rideau Hall have been open to the public since 1921, when the Lord Byng of Vimy's aide-de-camp resolved to open Government House to "all who had a right to be there," a move that outraged the traditionalists. Today an expanded visitors' centre has been established to facilitate tours. Further, garden parties are held by the viceroy in the summer months, continuing the tradition started by the Lord Lisgar in 1869, and each year the governor general holds a New Year's Levée, an event that traces its roots back to the French royal government and which welcomes guests from the public to attend and participate in skating, sledding, and refreshments. The park also hosts the Rideau Hall Cricket Association and Ottawa Valley Cricket Council, which continues the tradition of cricket being played in the royal residence's gardens, beginning when the cricket pitch was laid out by the Viscount Monck in 1866. Matches continue to be played at the hall during summer weekends.

Other structures.

Other than Rideau Hall itself, there are 27 buildings around the property, including Rideau Cottage (currently serving as a temporary official home for the Prime Minister and his family),

Surrounding properties.

Though not on the grounds of Rideau Hall, St. Bartholomew's Anglican Church is located across MacKay Street on property once belonging to the MacKay Villa estate. It is regularly used by governors general and their families and sometimes by the sovereign and

Rideau Hall (officially Government House) is the official residence in Ottawa of both the Canadian monarch and his or her representative, the Governor General of Canada. It stands in Canada's capital on a estate at 1 Sussex Drive, with the main building consisting of approximately 175 rooms across, and 27 outbuildings around the grounds. Rideau Hall's site lies outside the centre of Ottawa, giving it the character of a private home. It is one of two official royal residences maintained by the federal Crown, the other being the Citadelle of Quebec.

丽都厅(Rideau Hall,正式名称:Government House)是加拿大君主及其代表加拿大总督在渥太华的官邸,自1867年使用至今。 它位于加拿大首都渥太华的苏塞克斯大道1号,面积0.36平方公里(88 英亩),主楼有约175个房间,9,500 m (102,000 sq ft)。丽都厅位于市中心以外,具有私人住宅的特色。


History.

In 2001 the future Krypteria members (Chris Siemons and S.C. Kuschnerus) worked together to record a fantasy-musical CD. There was no vocalist at that time, because they wanted to record the CD with many different voices. In 2003, the album "Krypteria" was released. Approximately one year later, in 2004 a tsunami occurred in India and the German TV station RTL asked them to re-record the song "Liberatio" as a benefit single. Ji-In Cho, was chosen as the lead vocalist for the song and Sony/BMG, decided to re-release an edited version of their first album under the same name.  In 2004, from that project, Krypteria the band was officially born. Although Siemons and Kuschnerus played a leading role in the recording of the album "Liberatio", the band does not consider it an official release. A year later their "true" first album, "In Medias Res", was released.  Krypteria's second recording was the EP entitled "Evolution Principle", released in 2006. A review by the German edition of "Metal Hammer" marked it as an important release of contemporary gothic metal in Germany.  On January 19, 2007, Krypteria released their second full-length studio album entitled "Bloodangel's Cry". The title comes from the track "The Night All Angels Cry"' lyrics.  In early 2008, the band announced that they were working on their third studio album "My Fatal Kiss". The album was released first in Germany on August 28, 2009, then in the rest of Europe on January 29.  The band's fourth studio album "All Beauty Must Die" was released on April 22, 2011 on the band's own label Liberatio Music. Peaking on position 24 in the German Media Control Charts it is Krypteria's most successful release so far.  It was announced in 2012 that the band would be going on hiatus due to Ji-In's pregnancy.

Krypteria was a gothic metal band from Aachen, Germany. Originating from a 2001 "pop musical theatre studio project" of the same name, the idea was to use different vocalists, though German-Korean singer Ji-In Cho assumed the role of lead vocalist in 2004. One self-titled studio album was released under this moniker (later edited and re-released as "Liberatio"). The group went on hiatus in 2012 and later reformed as And Then She Came in 2016.

黑色风暴乐团(Krypteria)是一支来自于德国的力量金属乐团。乐团成立于2001年,现任主唱是韩国籍女主唱Ji-In Cho。一开始乐团是想要与不同的歌手合作,但在2004年Ji-In Cho成为乐团主唱。他们目前发行了四张录音室专辑和一张EP。