Description.

Internal Iterators.

Internal iterators are higher order functions (often taking anonymous functions) such as "map", "reduce" etc., implementing the traversal across a container, applying the given function to every element in turn.

External iterators and the iterator pattern.

An external iterator may be thought of as a type of pointer that has two primary operations: referencing one particular element in the object collection (called "element access"), and modifying itself so it points to the next element (called "element traversal"). There must also be a way to create an iterator so it points to some first element as well as some way to determine when the iterator has exhausted all of the elements in the container. Depending on the language and intended use, iterators may also provide additional operations or exhibit different behaviors.  The primary purpose of an iterator is to allow a user to process every element of a container while isolating the user from the internal structure of the container. This allows the container to store elements in any manner it wishes while allowing the user to treat it as if it were a simple sequence or list. An iterator class is usually designed in tight coordination with the corresponding container class. Usually, the container provides the methods for creating iterators.  A loop counter is sometimes also referred to as a loop iterator. A loop counter, however, only provides the traversal functionality and not the element access functionality.

Generators.

One way of implementing iterators is to use a restricted form of coroutine, known as a generator. By contrast with a subroutine, a generator coroutine can "yield" values to its caller multiple times, instead of returning just once. Most iterators are naturally expressible as generators, but because generators preserve their local state between invocations, they're particularly well-suited for complicated, stateful iterators, such as tree traversers. There are subtle differences and distinctions in the use of the terms "generator" and "iterator", which vary between authors and languages. In Python, a generator is an iterator constructor: a function that returns an iterator. An example of a Python generator returning an iterator for the Fibonacci numbers using Python's codice_1 statement follows:  def fibonacci(limit):  for number in fibonacci(100): # The generator constructs an iterator

Implicit iterators.

Some object-oriented languages such as C#, C++ (later versions), Delphi (later versions), Go, Java (later versions), Lua, Perl, Python, Ruby provide an intrinsic way of iterating through the elements of a container object without the introduction of an explicit iterator object. An actual iterator object may exist in reality, but if it does it is not exposed within the source code of the language.  Implicit iterators are often manifested by a "foreach" statement (or equivalent), such as in the following Python example: for value in iterable:  In Python, an iterable is an object which can be converted to an iterator, which is then iterated through during the for loop; this is done implicitly.  Or other times they may be created by the collection object itself, as in this Ruby example: iterable.each do |value| end This iteration style is sometimes called "internal iteration" because its code fully executes within the context of the iterable object (that controls all aspects of iteration), and the programmer only provides the operation to execute at each step (using an anonymous function).  Languages that support list comprehensions or similar constructs may also make use of implicit iterators during the construction of the result list, as in Python: names = [person.name for person in roster if person.male] Sometimes the implicit hidden nature is only partial. The C++ language has a few function templates for implicit iteration, such as codice_2. These functions still require explicit iterator objects as their initial input, but the subsequent iteration does not expose an iterator object to the user.

Streams.

Iterators are a useful abstraction of input streams – they provide a potentially infinite iterable (but not necessarily indexable) object. Several languages, such as Perl and Python, implement streams as iterators. Alternative implementations of stream include data-driven languages, such as AWK and sed.

Contrasting with indexing.

In procedural languages it is common to use the subscript operator and a loop counter to loop through all the elements in a sequence such as an array. Although indexing may also be used with some object-oriented containers, the use of iterators may have some advantages:  The ability of a container to be modified while iterating through its elements has become necessary in modern object-oriented programming, where the interrelationships between objects and the effects of operations may not be obvious. By using an iterator one is isolated from these sorts of consequences. This assertion must however be taken with a grain of salt, because more often than not, for efficiency reasons, the iterator implementation is so tightly bound to the container that it does preclude modification of the underlying container without invalidating itself.  For containers that may move around their data in memory, the only way to not invalidate the iterator is, for the container, to somehow keep track of all the currently alive iterators and update them on the fly. Since the number of iterators at a given time may be arbitrarily large in comparison to the size of the tied container, updating them all will drastically impair the complexity guarantee on the container's operations.  An alternative way to keep the number of updates bound relatively to the container size would be to use a kind of handle mechanism, that is a collection of indirect pointers to the container's elements that must be updated with the container, and let the iterators point to these handles instead of directly to the data elements. But this approach will negatively impact the iterator performance, since it must effectuate a double pointer following to access the actual data element. This is usually not desirable, because many algorithms using the iterators invoke the iterators data access operation more often than the advance method. It is therefore especially important to have iterators with very efficient data access.  All in all, this is always a trade-off between security (iterators remain always valid) and efficiency. Most of the time, the added security is not worth the efficiency price to pay for it. Using an alternative container (for example a singly linked list instead of a vector) would be a better choice (globally more efficient) if the stability of the iterators is needed.

Classifying iterators.

Iterator categories.

Iterators can be categorised according to their functionality. Here is a (non-exhaustive) list of iterator categories:

Iterator types.

Different languages or libraries used with these languages define iterator types. Some of them are

In different programming languages.

C# and other.NET languages.

Iterators in the.NET Framework are called "enumerators" and represented by the codice_3 interface. codice_3 provides a codice_5 method, which advances to the next element and indicates whether the end of the collection has been reached; a codice_6 property, to obtain the value of the element currently being pointed at; and an optional codice_7 method, to rewind the enumerator back to its initial position. The enumerator initially points to a special value before the first element, so a call to codice_5 is required to begin iterating.  Enumerators are typically obtained by calling the codice_9 method of an object implementing the codice_10 interface. Container classes typically implement this interface. However, the foreach statement in C# can operate on any object providing such a method, even if it doesn't implement codice_10 (duck typing). Both interfaces were expanded into generic versions in.NET 2.0.  The following shows a simple use of iterators in C# 2.0: // explicit version IEnumerator<MyType> iter = list.GetEnumerator(); while (iter.MoveNext())  // implicit version foreach (MyType value in list) C# 2.0 also supports generators: a method that is declared as returning codice_3 (or codice_10), but uses the "codice_14" statement to produce a sequence of elements instead of returning an object instance, will be transformed by the compiler into a new class implementing the appropriate interface.

C++.

The C++ language makes wide use of iterators in its Standard Library, and describes several categories of iterators differing in the repertoire of operations they allow. These include "forward iterators", "bidirectional iterators", and "random access iterators", in order of increasing possibilities. All of the standard container template types provide iterators of one of these categories. Iterators generalize pointers to elements of an array (which indeed can be used as iterators), and their syntax is designed to resemble that of C pointer arithmetic, where the codice_15 and codice_16 operators are used to reference the element to which the iterator points, and pointer arithmetic operators like codice_17 are used modify iterators in traversal of a container.  Traversal using iterators usually involves a single varying iterator, and two fixed iterators that serve to delimit a range to be traversed. The distance between the limiting iterators, in terms of the number of applications of the operator codice_17 needed to transform the lower limit into the upper one, equals the number of items in the designated range; the number of distinct iterator values involved is one more than that. By convention, the lower limiting iterator "points to" the first element in the range, while the upper limiting iterator does not point to any element in the range, but rather just beyond the end of the range. For traversal of an entire container, the codice_19 method provides the lower limit, and codice_20 the upper limit. The latter does not reference any element of the container at all, but is a valid iterator value that can be compared against.  The following example shows a typical use of an iterator. std::vector<int> items; items.push_back(5); // Append integer value '5' to vector 'items'. items.push_back(2); // Append integer value '2' to vector 'items'. items.push_back(9); // Append integer value '9' to vector 'items'.  for (auto it = items.begin(); it!= items.end(); ++it) { // Iterate through 'items'. // In C++11, the same can be done without using any iterators: for (auto x : items){  // Each loops print "529". Iterator types are separate from the container types they are used with, though the two are often used in concert. The category of the iterator (and thus the operations defined for it) usually depends on the type of container, with for instance arrays or vectors providing random access iterators, but sets (which use a linked structure as implementation) only providing bidirectional iterators. A same container type can have more than one associated iterator type; for instance the codice_21 container type allows traversal either using (raw) pointers to its elements (of type codice_22), or values of a special type codice_23, and yet another type is provided for "reverse iterators", whose operations are defined in such a way that an algorithm performing a usual (forward) traversal will actually do traversal in reverse order when called with reverse iterators. Most containers also provide a separate codice_24 type, for which operations that would allow changing the values pointed to are intentionally not defined.  Simple traversal of a container object or a range of its elements (including modification of those elements unless a codice_24 is used) can be done using iterators alone. But container types may also provide methods like codice_26 or codice_27 that modify the structure of the container itself; these are methods of the container class, but in addition require one or more iterator values to specify the desired operation. While it is possible to have multiple iterators pointing into the same container simultaneously, structure-modifying operations may invalidate certain iterator values (the standard specifies for each case whether this may be so); using an invalidated iterator is an error that will lead to undefined behvior, and such errors need not be signalled by the run time system.  Implicit iteration is also partially supported by C++ through the use of standard function templates, such as codice_28, codice_29 and codice_30.  When used they must be initialized with existing iterators, usually codice_31 and codice_32, that define the range over which iteration occurs. But no explicit iterator object is subsequently exposed as the iteration proceeds. This example shows the use of codice_33. ContainerType<ItemType> c; // Any standard container type of ItemType elements.  void ProcessItem(const ItemType& i) { // Function that will process each item of the collection.  std::for_each(c.begin(), c.end(), ProcessItem); // A for-each iteration loop. The same can be achieved using codice_34, passing a codice_35 value as third iterator: std::copy(c.begin(), c.end(), std::ostream_iterator<ItemType>(std::cout, "\n"));  Since C++11, lambda function syntax can be used to specify to operation to be iterated inline, avoiding the need to define a named function. Here is an example of for-each iteration using a lambda function: ContainerType<ItemType> c; // Any standard container type of ItemType elements.  // A for-each iteration loop with a lambda function. std::for_each(c.begin(), c.end(), [](const ItemType& i) { std::cout « i « std::endl; });

Java.

Introduced in the Java JDK 1.2 release, the interface allows the iteration of container classes. Each codice_36 provides a and method, and may optionally support a method. Iterators are created by the corresponding container class, typically by a method named codice_37.  The codice_38 method advances the iterator and returns the value pointed to by the iterator. The first element is obtained upon the first call to codice_38. To determine when all the elements in the container have been visited the codice_40 test method is used. The following example shows a simple use of iterators: Iterator iter = list.iterator(); //Iterator<MyType> iter = list.iterator(); in J2SE 5.0 while (iter.hasNext()) {  To show that codice_40 can be called repeatedly, we use it to insert commas between the elements but not after the last element.  This approach does not properly separate the advance operation from the actual data access. If the data element must be used more than once for each advance, it needs to be stored in a temporary variable. When an advance is needed without data access (i.e. to skip a given data element), the access is nonetheless performed, though the returned value is ignored in this case.  For collection types that support it, the codice_42 method of the iterator removes the most recently visited element from the container while keeping the iterator usable. Adding or removing elements by calling the methods of the container (also from the same thread) makes the iterator unusable. An attempt to get the next element throws the exception. An exception is also thrown if there are no more elements remaining (codice_40 has previously returned false).  Additionally, for there is a with a similar API but that allows forward and backward iteration, provides its current index in the list and allows setting of the list element at its position.  The J2SE 5.0 release of Java introduced the interface to support an enhanced codice_44 (foreach) loop for iterating over collections and arrays. codice_45 defines the method that returns an codice_36. Using the enhanced codice_44 loop, the preceding example can be rewritten as for (MyType obj : list) {  Some containers also use the older (since 1.0) codice_48 class. It provides codice_49 and codice_50 methods but has no methods to modify the container.

Scala.

In Scala, iterators have a rich set of methods similar to collections, and can be used directly in for loops. Indeed, both iterators and collections inherit from a common base trait - scala.collection.TraversableOnce. However, because of the rich set of methods available in the Scala collections library, such as map, collect, filter etc., it is often not necessary to deal with iterators directly when programming in Scala.  Java iterators and collections can be automatically converted into Scala iterators and collections, respectively, simply by adding the single line import scala.collection.JavaConversions._ to the file. The JavaConversions object provides implicit conversions to do this. Implicit conversions are a feature of Scala: methods that, when visible in the current scope, automatically insert calls to themselves into relevant expressions at the appropriate place to make them typecheck when they otherwise wouldn't.

MATLAB.

MATLAB supports both external and internal implicit iteration using either "native" arrays or codice_51 arrays. In the case of external iteration where the onus is on the user to advance the traversal and request next elements, one can define a set of elements within an array storage structure and traverse the elements using the codice_44-loop construct. For example, % Define an array of integers myArray = [1,3,5,7,11,13];  for n = myArray end traverses an array of integers using the codice_44 keyword.  In the case of internal iteration where the user can supply an operation to the iterator to perform over every element of a collection, many built-in operators and MATLAB functions are overloaded to execute over every element of an array and return a corresponding output array implicitly. Furthermore, the codice_54 and codice_55 functions can be leveraged for performing custom or user defined operations over "native" arrays and codice_51 arrays respectively. For example, function simpleFun % Define an array of integers myArray = [1,3,5,7,11,13];  % Perform a custom operation over each element myNewArray = arrayfun(@(a)myCustomFun(a),myArray);  % Echo resulting array to Command Window myNewArray  function outScalar = myCustomFun(inScalar) % Simply multiply by 2 outScalar = 2*inScalar; defines a primary function codice_57 that implicitly applies custom subfunction codice_58 to each element of an array using built-in function codice_54. Alternatively, it may be desirable to abstract the mechanisms of the array storage container from the user by defining a custom object-oriented MATLAB implementation of the Iterator Pattern. Such an implementation supporting external iteration is demonstrated in MATLAB Central File Exchange item Design Pattern: Iterator (Behavioral). This is written in the new class-definition syntax introduced with MATLAB software version 7.6 (R2008a) and features a one-dimensional codice_51 array realization of the List Abstract Data Type (ADT) as the mechanism for storing a heterogeneous (in data type) set of elements. It provides the functionality for explicit forward List traversal with the codice_40, codice_38 and codice_63 methods for use in a codice_64-loop.

PHP.

PHP’s foreach loop was introduced in version 4.0 and made compatible with objects as values in 4.0 Beta 4. However, support for iterators was added in PHP 5 through the introduction of the internal "Traversable" interface. The two main interfaces for implementation in PHP scripts that enable objects to be iterated via the foreach loop are "Iterator" and "IteratorAggregate". The latter does not require the implementing class to declare all required methods, instead it implements an accessor method (codice_65) that returns an instance of "Traversable". The Standard PHP Library provides several classes to work with special iterators. PHP also supports Generators since 5.5.  The simplest implementation is by wrapping an array, this can be useful for type hinting and information hiding. namespace Wikipedia\Iterator;  final class ArrayIterator extends \Iterator  All methods of the example class are used during the execution of a complete foreach loop (codice_66). The iterator’s methods are executed in the following order:  The next example illustrates a PHP class that implements the "Traversable" interface, which could be wrapped in an "IteratorIterator" class to act upon the data before it is returned to the foreach loop. The usage together with the codice_75 constant allows PHP scripts to iterate result sets with billions of rows with very little memory usage. These features are not exclusive to PHP nor to its MySQL class implementations (e.g. the "PDOStatement" class implement the "Traversable" interface as well). mysqli_report(MYSQLI_REPORT_ERROR | MYSQLI_REPORT_STRICT); $mysqli = new \mysqli('host.example.com', 'username', 'password', 'database_name');  // The \mysqli_result class that is returned by the method call implements the internal Traversable interface. foreach ($mysqli->query('SELECT `a`, `b`, `c` FROM `table`', MYSQLI_USE_RESULT) as $row) {

Python.

Iterators in Python are a fundamental part of the language and in many cases go unseen as they are implicitly used in the codice_44 (foreach) statement, in list comprehensions, and in generator expressions. All of Python's standard built-in collection types support iteration, as well as many classes that are part of the standard library. The following example shows typical implicit iteration over a sequence: for value in sequence: Python dictionaries (a form of associative array) can also be directly iterated over, when the dictionary keys are returned; or the "items" method of a dictionary can be iterated over where it yields corresponding key,value pairs as a tuple: for key in dictionary:  for key, value in dictionary.items(): Iterators however can be used and defined explicitly. For any iterable sequence type or class, the built-in function codice_77 is used to create an iterator object. The iterator object can then be iterated with the codice_38 function, which uses the codice_79 method internally, which returns the next element in the container. (The previous statement applies to Python 3.x. In Python 2.x, the codice_38 method is equivalent.) A codice_81 exception will be raised when no more elements are left. The following example shows an equivalent iteration over a sequence using explicit iterators: it = iter(sequence) while True: Any user-defined class can support standard iteration (either implicit or explicit) by defining an codice_82 method that returns an iterator object. The iterator object then needs to define a codice_79 method that returns the next element.  Python's generators implement this iteration protocol.

Ruby.

Ruby implements iterators quite differently; all iterations are done by means of passing callback closures to container methods - this way Ruby not only implements basic iteration but also several patterns of iteration like function mapping, filters and reducing. Ruby also supports an alternative syntax for the basic iterating method codice_84, the following three examples are equivalent: (0...42).each do |n| end...and... for n in 0...42 end or even shorter 42.times do |n| end Ruby can also iterate over fixed lists by using Enumerators and either calling their #next method or doing a for each on them, as above.

Rust.

Rust implements iterators. This language can iterate on element of vectors and you can create own iterators. The iterator has iterator adapters (map, filter, skip, take,...). for n in 0..42 {  Below the fibonacci() is a custom iterator.  for i in fibonacci().skip(4).take(4) {

In computer programming, an iterator is an object that enables a programmer to traverse a container, particularly lists. Various types of iterators are often provided via a container's interface. Though the interface and semantics of a given iterator are fixed, iterators are often implemented in terms of the structures underlying a container implementation and are often tightly coupled to the container to enable the operational semantics of the iterator. An iterator performs traversal and also gives access to data elements in a container, but does not itself perform iteration (i.e., not without some significant liberty taken with that concept or with trivial use of the terminology). An iterator is behaviorally similar to a database cursor. Iterators date to the CLU programming language in 1974.

迭代器(英语:iterator),是确使用户可在容器物件(英语:container,例如链表或阵列)上遍访的对象,设计人员使用此接口无需关心容器物件的内存分配的实现细节。其行为很像数据库技术中的光标(英语:cursor),迭代器最早出现在1974年设计的CLU编程语言中。


Geography.

Greeneville is located at (36.168240, -82.822474). It lies in the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains. These hills are part of the Appalachian Ridge-and-Valley Province, which is characterized by fertile river valleys flanked by narrow, elongate ridges. Greeneville is located roughly halfway between Bays Mountain to the northwest and the Bald Mountains— part of the main Appalachian crest— to the southeast. The valley in which Greeneville is situated is part of the watershed of the Nolichucky River, which passes a few miles south of the town.  Several federal and state highways now intersect in Greeneville, as they were built to follow old roads and trails. U.S. Route 321 follows Main Street through the center of the town and connects Greeneville to Newport to the southwest. U.S. Route 11E (Andrew Johnson Highway), which connects Greeneville with Morristown to the west, intersects U.S. 321 in Greeneville and the merged highway proceeds northeast to Johnson City. Tennessee State Route 107, which also follows Main Street and Andrew Johnson Hwy, Greeneville to Erwin to the east and to the Del Rio area to the south. Tennessee State Route 70 (Lonesome Pine Trail) connects Greeneville with Interstate 81, and Rogersville to the north and Asheville, North Carolina to the south. Tennessee State Route 172 (Baileyton Road) connects Greeneville with Interstate 81 and Baileyton to the north.  Tennessee State Route 93 (Kingsport Highway) connects Greeneville to Interstate 81, Fall Branch and Kingsport to the north.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, all land.

History.

Early history.

Native Americans were hunting and camping in the Nolichucky Valley as early as the Paleo-Indian period (c. 10,000 B.C.). A substantial Woodland period (1000 B.C. - 1000 A.D.) village existed at the Nolichucky's confluence with Big Limestone Creek (now part of Davy Crockett Birthplace State Park). By the time the first Euro-American settlers arrived in the area in the late 18th century, the Cherokee claimed the valley as part of their hunting grounds. The Great Indian Warpath passed just northwest of modern Greeneville, and the townsite is believed to have once been the juncture of two lesser Native American trails.  Permanent European settlement of Greene County began in 1772. Jacob Brown, a North Carolina merchant, leased a large stretch of land from the Cherokee, located between the upper Lick Creek watershed and the Nolichucky River, in what is now the northeastern corner of the county. The "Nolichucky Settlement" initially aligned itself with the Watauga Association as part of Washington County, North Carolina. After voting irregularities in a local election, however, an early Nolichucky settler named Daniel Kennedy (1750–1802) led a movement to form a separate county, which was granted in 1783.  The county was named after Nathanael Greene, reflecting the loyalties of the numerous Revolutionary War veterans who settled in the Nolichucky Valley, especially from Pennsylvania and Virginia. The first county court sessions were held at the home of Robert Kerr, who lived at "Big Spring" (near the center of modern Greeneville). Kerr donated for the establishment of the county seat, most of which was located in the area currently bounded by Irish, College, Church, and Summer streets. "Greeneville" was officially recognized as a town in 1786.

Greeneville becomes capital of the State of Franklin.

In 1784, North Carolina attempted to resolve its debts by giving the U.S. Congress its lands west of the Appalachian Mountains, including Greene County, abandoning responsibility for the area to the federal government. In response, delegates from Greene and neighboring counties convened at Jonesborough and resolved to break away from North Carolina and establish an independent state. The delegates agreed to meet again later that year to form a constitution, which was rejected when presented to the general delegation in December. Reverend Samuel Houston (not to be confused with the later governor of Tennessee and Texas) had presented a draft constitution which restricted the election of lawyers and other professionals. Houston's draft met staunch opposition, especially from Reverend Hezekiah Balch (1741–1810) (who was later instrumental in the creation of Tusculum College). John Sevier was elected governor, and other executive offices were filled.  A petition for statehood for what would have become known as the State of Franklin (named in honor of Benjamin Franklin) was drawn at the delegates session in May 1785. The delegates submitted a petition for statehood to Congress, which failed to gain the requisite votes needed for admission to the Union. The first state legislature of Franklin met in December 1785 in a crude log courthouse in Greeneville, which had been named the capital city the previous August. During this session, the delegates finally approved a constitution which was based on, and quite similar to, the North Carolina state constitution. However, the Franklin movement began to collapse soon thereafter, with North Carolina reasserting its control of the area the following spring.  In 1897, at the Tennessee Centennial Exposition in Nashville, a log house that had been moved from Greeneville was displayed as the capitol where the State of Franklin's delegates met in the 1780s. There is, however, nothing to verify that this building was the actual capitol. In the 1960s, the capitol was reconstructed, based largely on the dimensions given in historian J. G. M. Ramsey's "Annals of Tennessee".

Greeneville and the abolitionist movement.

Greene County, like much of East Tennessee, was home to a strong abolitionist movement in the early 19th century. This movement was likely influenced by the relatively large numbers of Quakers who migrated to the region from Pennsylvania in the 1790s. The Quakers considered slavery to be in violation of Biblical Scripture, and were active in the region's abolitionist movement throughout the antebellum period. One such Quaker was Elihu Embree (1782–1820), who published the nation's first abolitionlist newspaper, "The Emancipator", at nearby Jonesborough.  When Embree's untimely death in 1820 effectively ended publication of "The Emancipator", several of Embree's supporters turned to Ohio abolitionist Benjamin Lundy, who had started publication of his own antislavery newspaper, "The Genius of Universal Emancipation", in 1821. Anticipating that a southern-based abolitionist movement would be more effective, Lundy purchased Embree's printing press and moved to Greeneville in 1822. Lundy remained in Greeneville for two years before moving to Baltimore. He would later prove influential in the career of William Lloyd Garrison, whom he hired as an associate editor in 1829.  Greenevillians involved in the abolitionist movement included Hezekiah Balch, who freed his slaves at the Greene County Courthouse in 1807. Samuel Doak, the founder of Tusculum College, followed in 1818. Valentine Sevier (1780–1854), a nephew of John Sevier who served as Greene County Court Clerk, freed his slaves in the 1830s and offered to pay for their passage to Liberia, which had been formed as a colony for freed slaves. Francis McCorkle, the pastor of Greeneville's Presbyterian Church, was a leading member of the Manumission Society of Tennessee.

Civil War.

In June 1861, on the eve of the Civil War, thirty counties of the pro-Union East Tennessee Convention met in Greeneville to discuss strategy after state voters had elected to join the Confederate States of America. The convention sought to create a separate state in East Tennessee that would remain with the United States. The state government in Nashville rejected the convention's request, however, and East Tennessee was occupied by Confederate forces shortly thereafter. Thomas Dickens Arnold, a Greeneville resident and former congressman who attended the convention, advocated the use of violent force to allow East Tennessee to break away from Tennessee, and taunted other members of the convention who advocated a more peaceful set of resolutions.  Several conspirators involved in the pro-Union East Tennessee bridge burnings lived near what is now Mosheim, and managed to destroy the railroad bridge over Lick Creek in western Greene County on the night of November 8, 1861. Two of the conspirators, Jacob Hensie and Henry Fry, were executed in Greeneville on November 30, 1861.  A portion of James Longstreet's army wintered in Greeneville following the failed Siege of Knoxville in late 1863. Confederate general John Hunt Morgan was killed in Greeneville during a raid by Union soldiers led by Alvan Cullem Gillem on September 4, 1864.

Andrew Johnson.

Andrew Johnson, the 17th President of the United States, spent much of his active life in Greeneville. In 1826, Johnson arrived in Greeneville after fleeing an apprenticeship in Raleigh. Johnson chose to remain in Greeneville after learning that the town's tailor was planning to retire. Johnson purchased the tailor shop, which he moved from Main Street to its present location at the corner of Depot and College streets. Johnson married a local girl, Eliza McCardle, in 1827. The two were married by Mordecai Lincoln (1778–1851), who was Greene County's Justice of the Peace. He was a cousin of Abraham Lincoln, under whom Johnson would serve as Vice President.  In the late 1820s, a local artisan named Blackstone McDannel often stopped by Johnson's tailor shop to debate issues of the day, especially the Indian Removal, which Johnson opposed. Johnson and McDannel decided to debate the issue publicly. The interest sparked by this debate led Johnson, McDannel, and several others to form a local debate society. The experience and influence Johnson gained in debating local issues helped him get elected to the Greeneville City Council in 1829. He was elected mayor of Greeneville in 1834, although he resigned after just a few months in office to pursue a position in the Tennessee state legislature, which he attained the following year. As Johnson rose through the ranks of political office in state and national government, he used his influence to help Greeneville constituents obtain government positions, among them his long-time supporter, Sam Milligan, who was appointed to the Court of Claims in Washington, D.C.  Whilst Andrew Johnson was away from home, during his vice-presidency, both union and confederate armies often used his home as a place to stay and rest during their travel. Soldiers left graffiti on the walls of Johnson's home. Confederate soldiers left notes on the walls expressing their displeasure, to put it delicately, of Johnson. Evidence of this can still be seen at the Andrew Johnson home. Andrew Johnson had to almost completely renovate his home after he returned home from Washington D.C.  The Andrew Johnson National Historic Site, located in Greeneville, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1963. Contributing properties include Johnson's tailor shop at the corner of Depot Street and College Street. The site also maintains Johnson's house on Main Street and the Andrew Johnson National Cemetery (atop Monument Hill to the south). A replica of Johnson's birth home and a life-size statue of Johnson have been placed across the street from the visitor center and tailor shop.

2011 tornadoes.

The rural community of Camp Creek south of Greeneville was severely affected by an EF-3 tornado in 2011 Super Outbreak. Six people were killed immediately and a seventh died later. Horse Creek, southeast of Greeneville, was also hit by an EF-3 tornado during the same outbreak. One person was killed in that community. A total of eight were killed in Greene County..

Demographics.

As of the 2010 census, there were 15,062 people; 6,478 households; 7,399 housing units; and 3,845 families in the town. The population density was. The racial makeup of the city was 89.1% White, 5.6% African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 2.3% from other races, and 2% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 4.4% of the population.  There were 6,506 households out of which 24.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.2% were married couples living together, 14.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.6% were non-families. 36.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.2 and the average family size was 2.86.  The age distribution was 21.2% under 18 and 21% who were 65 or older. The median age was 42.6 years. The median income for a household in the city was $51,692. The per capita income for the city was $24,376. About 13.9% of the population was below the poverty line.

Government.

Greeneville is administered through a Mayor-Alderman-Administrator form of government. The town has a mayor and four alderman, along with the town administrator who is the chief administrative officer and is in charge of supervising all town employees and is required to develop an annual budget and present it to the mayor and aldermen.

Town Officials.

The following is a list of current officials as of October 2017:

Healthcare.

Greeneville has two hospitals, both of which are part of Ballad Health.  Greeneville also has many nursing facilities, including Life Care Center of Greeneville, Laughlin Healthcare Center, Signature HEALTHCARE of Greeneville, Morning Pointe, Wellington Place owned by Brookdale Senior Living, Maxim Healthcare Services and Comcare.

Shopping.

Retail is a major employer in Greeneville. The largest shopping center in Greeneville is Greeneville Commons, which includes Hobby Lobby, Ross, Five Below, Marshall's, Belk, Burke's Outlet and Hibbett Sports. Grocery stores in Greeneville include three K-VA-T Food City Supermarkets, two Ingles Markets, Dollar General Market, Sav-Mor Foods (a Grocery Store owned by Ingles Markets), Publix and Save-A-Lot. Walmart and Lowe's also have stores in Greeneville.

Greene County Fair.

The Greene County Fair is recognized statewide as one of the best of its size. In 2005, it received the Tennessee Association of Fairs highest award, the “Champion of Champions” fair trophy. In 2001 and 2004, it was named the AAA division Champion Fair in the state of Tennessee. In 1994 and 2000, it was named first runner-up for the Champion Fair in the AAA Division, and in 1988, received the award for Most Outstanding Fair in Tennessee.  There has been a fair in some form in Greene County since 1870 when the Farmers and Mechanics Association held its first exposition. The present-day Greene County Fair Association was incorporated in 1949. The Fair exists on the support of countless volunteers, board members and officers since 1949. The fair holds many various events such as the "Fairest of the Fair" event, in which different young ladies are crowned based on voluntary activities and their performance in the pageant.  The fair was also an inspiration for The Band Perry's song "Walk Me Down The Middle", which was featured on their eponymous debut album.

Education.

Greeneville is home to Walters State Niswonger Campus, which is currently being expanded.  Tusculum University is located in nearby Tusculum.  The Town of Greeneville City Schools operates:

Sports.

Greeneville is home to the Greeneville Reds, a Minor League Baseball team of the Appalachian League, which began play in 2018. The team plays at Pioneer Park on the campus of Tusculum College.  Two other minor league teams have hailed from Greeneville. The Greeneville Burley Cubs played in the Appalachian League from 1921 to 1925 and 1938 to 1942. They won the league championship in 1925 and 1928. From 2004 to 2017, Greeneville was represented in the Appalachian League by the Greeneville Astros. They won the Appalachian League championship in 2004 and 2015.

Recreation.

Town of Greeneville Parks and Recreation Department maintains:  Andrew Johnson National Historic Site is located in downtown Greeneville.

Media.

Television.

Greeneville is part of both the and the. One station has Greeneville listed as its city of license (WEMT-Fox Tri-Cities).  WGRV (AM) also has a television station on Comcast Cable channel 18. The channel simulcasts WGRV's live newscasts and other live programs and shows local events.

Radio.

Greeneville has three radio stations: WGRV (AM), WIKQ-FM, and WSMG-AM.

Print.

The Greeneville and Greene County area are served by "The Greeneville Sun", a daily newspaper published Monday through Saturday. "The Greeneville Sun" also publishes a free newspaper, "The Greeneville Neighbor News", which spotlights arts and entertainment.

Greeneville is a town in, and the county seat of Greene County, Tennessee, United States. The population as of the 2010 census was 15,062. The town was named in honor of Revolutionary War hero Nathanael Greene. It is the only town with this spelling in the United States, although there are numerous U.S. towns named "Greenville". The town was the capital of the short-lived State of Franklin in the 18th-century history of the Tennessee region.

格林维尔(Greeneville)位于美国田纳西州东北部,是格林县的首府。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口15,198人,其中白人占92.03%、非裔美国人占5.74%。


History.

The Rockefeller University was founded in June 1901 as The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research—often called simply The Rockefeller Institute—by John D. Rockefeller, who had founded the University of Chicago in 1889, upon advice by his adviser Frederick T. Gates and action taken in March 1901 by his son, John D. Rockefeller Jr. Greatly elevating the prestige of American science and medicine, it was America's first biomedical institute, like France's Pasteur Institute (1888) and Germany's Robert Koch Institute (1891). The Rockefeller Foundation, a philanthropic organization, founded in 1913, is a separate entity, but had close connections mediated by prominent figures holding dual positions. The first director of laboratories was Simon Flexner, who supervised the development of research capacity at the Institute, whose staff made major discoveries in basic research and medicine. While a student at Johns Hopkins University, Flexner had studied under the Institute's first scientific director, William H. Welch, first dean of Hopkins' medical school and known as the dean of American medicine. Flexner retired in 1935 and was succeeded by Herbert Gasser. He was succeeded in 1953 by Detlev Bronk, who broadened The Rockefeller Institute into a university that began awarding the PhD degree in 1954. In 1965 The Rockefeller Institute's name was changed to The Rockefeller University.  For its first six decades, the Institute focused on basic research to develop basic science, on applied research as biomedical engineering, and, since 1910—when The Rockefeller Hospital opened on its campus as America's first facility for clinical research—on clinical science. The Rockefeller Hospital's first director Rufus Cole retired in 1937 and was succeeded by Thomas Milton Rivers. As director of The Rockefeller Institute's virology laboratory, he established virology as an independent field apart from bacteriology.

Notable individuals.

Notable figures to emerge from the institution include Alexis Carrel, Peyton Rous, Hideyo Noguchi, Thomas Milton Rivers, Richard Shope, Thomas Francis Jr, Oswald T. Avery, Rebecca Lancefield, Wendell Meredith Stanley, René Dubos, Ashton Carter, and Cornelius P. Rhoads. Others attained eminence before being drawn to the university. Joshua Lederberg, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1958, served as president of the university from 1978 to 1990. Paul Nurse, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2001, was president from 2003 to 2010. (Before Nurse's tenure, Thomas Sakmar was acting-president from 2002.) In all, as of October 2019, 36 Nobel Prize recipients have been associated with the University. In the mid-1970s, the University attracted a few prominent academicians in the humanities, such as Saul Kripke.  Rockefeller Sr, urged by Rockefeller Jr, his only son, who was enthusiastic about the Institute, visited the University once. Rockefeller Jr's youngest son David would visit with his father. David Rockefeller joined the board of trustees in 1940, was its chairman from 1950 to 1975, chaired the board's executive committee from 1975 to 1995, became honorary chairman and life trustee, and remained active as a philanthropist until his death.

Archives.

The archives of Rockefeller University are at the Rockefeller Archive Center, established in 1974 as part of the university and organized as an independent foundation since 2008.

Reginald Archibald sexual misconduct case.

Dr. Reginald Archibald, an endocrinologist at the university from 1948 to 1982, allegedly abused dozens of boys during his time at the University while studying growth problems in children, including molestation and photographing them naked. Officials at Rockefeller University knew of the legitimacy of the claims for years before notifying the public. The university and hospital issued a statement confirming that Archibald had "engaged in certain inappropriate conduct during patient examinations" and that they "deeply regret[ted]" any "pain and suffering" the former patients felt. Governor Andrew Cuomo stated that he would sign a bill passed by the New York State Legislature that would nullify the statute of limitations for the civil suits of child victims, allowing them to make cases against the University.

Organization and administration.

Governance.

To foster an interdisciplinary atmosphere among its laboratories, faculty members are grouped into one or more of ten interconnecting research areas:

Academics.

Research.

The university is classified among "R-2: Doctoral Universities – High Research Activity".  Rockefeller has a history of research breakthroughs including:

Student life.

The university has periodic events, such as an alumni lecture series featuring individuals such as David J. Anderson, of the Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute.

Student body.

As of 2019, Rockefeller had 218 Ph.D. and M.D.-Ph.D. students.

Promotion of women in science and outreach activities.

The Rockefeller University established a Women in Science initiative in 1998 to address the underrepresentation of women in the field which is founded mainly by female philanthropists. The program includes scholarships and an entrepreneurship found to help increase the low number of female researchers that commercialize their discoveries. In 2004 Rockefeller's professor Paul Greengard donated the full amount of his Nobel Prize to establish the Pearl Meister Greengard Prize given annually to a woman scientist in the field of biology.  Rockefeller also host diverse initiatives to promote science and culture: Parents & Science Initiative, The RockEDU Science Outreach for K-12 students and teachers that includes lab experience and professional development and The Lewis Thomas Prize for writing about science is given annually.  In addition, Rockefeller hosts the Peggy Rockefeller Concerts and in collaboration with Cornell University and Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center it hosts the Tri-Institutional Noon concert Series.  In 2012, Rockefeller began participating in Open House New York's OHNY Weekend.

Notable people.

Nobel laureates.

Award affiliations taken from

Alumni.

There are more than 1,262 alumni.

The Rockefeller University is a private graduate university in New York City. It focuses primarily on the biological and medical sciences and provides doctoral and postdoctoral education. Rockefeller is the oldest biomedical research institute in the United States. The 82-person faculty (tenured and tenure-track, as of 2018) has 37 members of the National Academy of Sciences, 17 members of the National Academy of Medicine, seven Lasker Award recipients, and five Nobel laureates. As of October 2019, a total of 36 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Rockefeller University.

洛克菲勒大学(英语:Rockefeller University)是一所私立大学,主要专注于生物医学领域的研究,位于纽约曼哈顿。


Title.

The original Russian title is "Bésy" (, singular Бес, "bés"), which means "demons". There are three English translations: "The Possessed", "The Devils", and "Demons". Constance Garnett's 1916 translation popularized the novel and gained it notoriety as "The Possessed", but this title has been disputed by later translators. They argue that ""The Possessed"" points in the wrong direction because "Bésy" refers to active subjects rather than passive objects—""possessors"" rather than ""the possessed"". However, 'Demons' refers not to individuals who act in various immoral or criminal ways, but rather to the ideas that possess them: non-material but living forces that subordinate the individual (and collective) consciousness, distorting it and impelling it toward catastrophe. According to

Background.

In late 1860s Russia there was an unusual level of political unrest caused by student groups influenced by liberal, socialist and revolutionary ideas. In 1869, Dostoevsky conceived the idea of a 'pamphlet novel' directed against the radicals. He focused on the group organized by young agitator Sergey Nechayev, particularly their murder of a former comrade—Ivan Ivanov—at the Petrovskaya Agricultural Academy in Moscow. Dostoevsky had first heard of Ivanov from his brother-in-law, who was a student at the academy, and had been much interested in his rejection of radicalism and exhortation of the Russian Orthodox Church and the House of Romanov as the true custodians of Russia's destiny. He was horrified to hear of Ivanov's murder by the Nechayevists, and vowed to write a political novel about what he called "the most important problem of our time." Prior to this Dostoevsky had been working on a philosophical novel (entitled 'The Life of a Great Sinner') examining the psychological and moral implications of atheism. The political polemic and parts of the philosophical novel were merged into a single larger

Narration.

The narrative is written in the first person by a minor character, Anton Lavrentyevich G—v, who is a close friend and confidant of Stepan Verkhovensky. Young, educated, upright and sensible, Anton Lavrentyevich is a local civil servant who has decided to write a chronicle of the strange events that have recently occurred in his town. Despite being a secondary character, he has a surprisingly intimate knowledge of all the characters and events, such that the narrative often seems to metamorphose into that of the omniscient third person. According to Joseph Frank, this choice of narrative perspective enables Dostoevsky "to portray his main figures against

Plot summary.

The novel is in three parts. There are two epigraphs, the first from Pushkin's poem Demons and the second from Luke 8:32–36.

Part I.

After an almost illustrious but prematurely curtailed academic career Stepan Trofimovich Verkhovensky is residing with the wealthy landowner Varvara Petrovna Stavrogina at her estate, Skvoreshniki, in a provincial Russian town. Originally employed as a tutor to Stavrogina's son Nikolai Vsevolodovich, Stepan Trofimovich has been there for almost twenty years in an intimate but platonic relationship with his noble patroness. Stepan Trofimovich also has a son from a previous marriage but he has grown up elsewhere without his father's involvement.  A troubled Varvara Petrovna has just returned from Switzerland where she has been visiting Nikolai Vsevolodovich. She berates Stepan Trofimovich for his financial irresponsibility, but her main preoccupation is an "intrigue" she encountered in Switzerland concerning her son and his relations with Liza Tushina—the beautiful daughter of her friend Praskovya. Praskovya and Liza arrive at the town,

Part II.

News of the events at Skvoreshniki spreads through society surprisingly rapidly. The main participants seclude themselves, with the exception of Pyotr Stepanovich who actively insinuates himself into the social life of the town. After eight days, he calls on Stavrogin and the true nature of their relations begins to become apparent. There was not, as some suspect, an explicit understanding between them. Rather Pyotr Stepanovich is trying to involve Stavrogin in some radical political plans of his own, and is avidly seeking to be of use to him. Stavrogin, while he seems to accept Pyotr Stepanovich acting on his behalf, is largely unresponsive to these overtures and continues to pursue his own agenda.  That night Stavrogin leaves Skvoreshniki in secret and makes his way on foot to Fillipov's house, where Shatov lives. The primary object of his visit is to consult his friend Kirillov, who also lives at the house. Stavrogin has received an extraordinarily insulting letter from Artemy Gaganov, the son of a respected landowner—Pavel Gaganov—whose nose he pulled as a joke some years earlier, and has been left with no choice but to challenge him to a duel. He asks Kirillov to be his second and to make the arrangements. They then discuss philosophical issues arising out of Kirillov's firm intention to commit suicide in the near future. Stavrogin proceeds to Shatov, and once again the background to the events at Skvoreshniki begins to reveal itself. Shatov had guessed the secret

Part III.

The much vaunted literary matinée and ball takes place the next day. Most of the town has subscribed and all the influential people are present for the reading, with the exception of the Stavrogins. Julia Mikhaylovna, who has somehow managed to reconcile Andrey Antonovich, is at the summit of her ambition. But things go wrong from the beginning. Pyotr Stepanovich's associates Lyamshin and Liputin take advantage of their role as stewards to alter proceedings in a provocative way, and allow a lot of low types in without paying. The reading starts with the unscheduled appearance on stage of a hopelessly drunk Captain Lebyadkin, apparently for the purpose of reading some of his poetry. Realizing the Captain is too drunk, Liputin takes it upon himself to read the poem, which is a witless and insulting piece about the hard lot of governesses. He is quickly followed by the literary genius Karmazinov who is reading a farewell to his public entitled ""Merci"". For over an hour the great writer plods through an aimless stream of self-absorbed fantasy, sending the audience into a state of complete stupefaction. The torture only comes to an end when an exhausted listener inadvertently cries out "Lord, what rubbish!" and Karmazinov, after exchanging insults with the audience, finally closes with an ironic ""Merci, merci, merci"." In this hostile atmosphere Stepan Trofimovich takes the stage. He plunges headlong into a passionate exhortation of his own aesthetic ideals, becoming increasingly shrill as he reacts to the derision emanating from the audience. He ends by cursing them and storming off. Pandemonium breaks out as an unexpected third reader, a 'professor' from Petersburg, immediately takes the stage in his place. Apparently delighted by the disorder, the new orator launches into a frenzied

Censored chapter.

The editor of "The Russian Messenger", Mikhail Katkov, refused to publish the chapter "At Tikhon's". The chapter concerns Stavrogin's visit to the monk Tikhon at the local monastery, during which he confesses, in the form of a lengthy and detailed written document, to taking sexual advantage of a downtrodden and vulnerable 11-year-old girl—Matryosha—and then waiting and listening as she goes through the process of hanging herself. He describes his marriage to Marya Lebyadkina as a deliberate attempt to cripple

Themes.

Atheism and belief.

Dostoevsky wrote to Maykov that the chief theme of his novel was "the very one over which, consciously and unconsciously, I have been tormented all my life: it is the existence of God." Much of the plot develops out of the tension between belief and non-belief, and the words and actions of most of the characters seem to be intimately bound to the position they take up within this struggle.  Dostoevsky saw atheism as the root cause of Russia's deepening social problems. He

Suicide.

Dostoevsky saw Russia's growing suicide rate as a symptom of the decline of religious faith and the concomitant disintegration of social institutions like the family. Self-destruction as an end result of atheism or loss of faith is a major theme in "Demons" and further recalls the metaphor of the demon-possessed swine in the epigraph.  In addition to a number of extended dialogues on the subject, mostly involving Kirillov, there are four actual suicides described in the novel. The first is in anecdotal form, told by the narrator after the pranksters associated with Julia Mikaylovna pay a visit to the scene of a suicide. Entrusted with a large sum of money by his family, a hitherto quiet and responsible young man deliberately squanders it all on riotous living over a period of several days. Returning to his hotel, he calmly and politely orders a meal and some wine, writes a short note, and shoots himself through the heart.  The first plot-related suicide is that of Kirillov. Kirillov is a kind of philosopher of suicide and, under questioning from several interlocutors (the narrator, Stavrogin, Pyotr Verkhovensky), expounds his ideas on the subject,

Commentary.

"Demons" as satire.

A common criticism of "Demons", particularly from Dostoevsky's liberal and radical contemporaries, is that it is exaggerated and unrealistic, a result of the author's over-active imagination and excessive interest in the psycho-pathological. However, despite giving freedom to his imagination, Dostoevsky took great pains to derive the novel's characters and story from real people and real ideas of the time. According to Frank, "the book is almost a compressed encyclopedia of the Russian culture of the period it covers, filtered through a witheringly derisive and often grotesquely funny perspective, and it creates a remarkable'myth' of the main

As prophecy.

Kjetsaa claims that Dostoevsky did not regard "Revelation" as "merely a consolatory epistle to first century Christians during the persecution they suffered", but as a "prophecy being fulfilled in his own time". Dostoevsky wrote that "Communism will conquer one day, irrespective of whether the Communists are right or wrong. But this triumph will stand very far from the Kingdom of Heaven. All the same, we must accept that this triumph will come one day, even though none of those who at present steer the world's fate have any idea about it at all."  Since the Russian Revolution, many commentators have remarked on the prophetic nature of "Demons". André Gide, writing in the early 1920s, suggested that "the whole of (the novel) prophesies the revolution of which Russia is presently in the throes". In Soviet Russia, a number of dissident authors found a prototype for the

English translations.

This is a list of the unabridged English translations of the novel:

Demons (pre-reform Russian: ; post-reform ; sometimes also called The Possessed or The Devils) is a novel by Fyodor Dostoevsky, first published in the journal "The Russian Messenger" in 1871–72. It is considered one of the four masterworks written by Dostoevsky after his return from Siberian exile, along with "Crime and Punishment" (1866), "The Idiot" (1869) and "The Brothers Karamazov" (1880). "Demons" is a social and political satire, a psychological drama, and large scale tragedy. Joyce Carol Oates has described it as "Dostoevsky's most confused and violent novel, and his most satisfactorily 'tragic' work." According to Ronald Hingley, it is Dostoevsky's "greatest onslaught on Nihilism", and "one of humanity's most impressive achievements—perhaps even its supreme achievement—in the art of prose fiction."

《群魔》(、"Demons"、"The Possessed")系俄国作家陀思妥耶夫斯基的长篇小说,另译为《附魔者》,发表于1872年左右,有上下两部。


Local contexts.

Local history tends to be less documented than other types, with fewer books and artifacts than that of a country or continent. Many local histories are recorded as oral tales or stories and so are more vulnerable than more well known issues. Artifacts of local history are often collected in local history museums, which may be housed in a historic house or other building. Individual historic sites are inherently local, although they may have national or world history importance as well. Many however have little overall historical impact but add depth to the local area.

Australia.

In Australia, local history is focussed on specific cities and suburbs or country towns and regions. In cities, local history might concentrate on a CBD and its bordering suburbs, on a specific suburb or municipality, or on an agglomeration of suburbs and municipalities (because local government boundaries have changed over time). Outside the larger cities, local history often examines regional towns and surrounding areas.  Records are typically stored at state libraries, public libraries, historical societies and public record offices. For example, the State Library of Victoria holds extensive local history records for Melbourne and other places in Victoria. Many other Melbourne libraries have local history collections, along with the Public Record Office Victoria and the Royal Historical Society of Victoria. In New South Wales, the Royal Australian Historical Society has studied local history as part of its remit since its founding in 1901. It holds local history records along with the State Library of NSW and other state and local libraries and archives.  Historians have examined the ways local history has been written in Australia since the nineteenth century. Early on, the emphasis was on pioneer and settler history. The creative ways that local history contributed to making community has also been argued. Subsequently, local history, urban history, public history and heritage were closely connected in Australia.

United Kingdom.

The British Association for Local History in the United Kingdom encourages and assists in the study of local history as an academic discipline and as a leisure activity by both individuals and groups. Most historic counties in England have record societies and archaeological and historical societies which coordinate the work of historians and other researchers concerned with that area.  Local history in the UK took a long time to be accepted as an academic discipline. In the 18th and 19th centuries, it was widely regarded as an antiquarian pursuit, suitable for country parsons. The Victoria History of the Counties of England project begun in 1899 in honour of Queen Victoria with the aim of creating an encyclopaedic history of each of the historic counties of England. The project is coordinated by the Institute of Historical Research at the University of London. The first academic post related to local history was at Reading University which appointed a research fellow in local history in 1908. There was a department of local history (but without a professor) at Leicester University from 1947. H. P. R. Finberg was the first Professor of English Local History. He was appointed by Leicester in 1964. Local history continues to be neglected as an academic subject within universities. Academic local historians are often found within a more general department of history or in continuing education.  Local history is rarely taught as a separate subject in British schools. In 1908, a Board of Education circular had urged that schools should pay attention "to the history of the town and district" in which they were situated. In 1952, the Ministry of Education suggested schools should use local material to illustrate national themes. Within the current National Curriculum, pupils at level 4 are expected to "show their knowledge and understanding of local, national and international history".  The Alan Ball Local History Awards were established in the 1980s to recognize outstanding contributions in local history publishing in the UK (both in print and in new media), and to encourage the publishing of such works by public libraries and local authorities.  Local history can become a crucial component to policy-making and serve as a marketable resource and this is demonstrated in the case of Northern Ireland. Aside from its contribution to local development, local history is being used as a non-contentious meeting ground in addressing conflicting traditions by reinforcing shared past rather than adversarial political history.

United States.

In the United States, local history is usually concentrated on any history of the place and people from a particular village or township. Several villages and townships would comprise one county or county history. Library records are often divided by State, then county, then township/local history. The American Association for State and Local History is the professional association for history professionals, volunteers, museums, historical societies, and other history-related organizations and public history professionals  In the United States, 79,000 historic sites are identified as listings on its National Register of Historic Places. State and local municipalities often have additional landmark designations to cover sites of more purely local interest.  In addition, many regional and state historical societies maintain regional history and actively seek out missing historical collections.  A new form of local history is the movement of "If This House Could Talk" projects in various urban neighborhoods in the United States. These small scale locally generated history events encourage an interest in history and provide for open-ended participation by the general public. However, there is often no vetting or third-party review of the factual evidence that is presented, and therefore such presentations may require oversight by professional third-party history organizations if they are to be transcribed into ongoing collections of local history.

Slavic countries.

In several Slavic countries there is a related study which may be translated from the local languages as "country lore" or "local lore". In addition to history, it also incorporates other local studies, such as local geography, nature, and ethnography.  In the USSR, Russia and Russian-speaking post-Soviet states local lore is known as "krayevedenie" (). It is taught in primary schools. There are also local lore museums known as "krayevedcheskie muzei". In modern Russia the concept of "regional studies" ( Регионоведение) is also considered.  In Ukraine, the study of local history and regional ethnography is known as "krayeznavstvo" (). The National Union of Local Lore Researchers of Ukraine is a professional society for researchers of ethnology and local studies in Ukraine. It was founded in 1925 and has 3,000 members in 17 chapters. The society has published its journal "Краєзнавство" since 1927.  In Poland, the corresponding concept is called "", the term known since 1902. In modern Poland various organized "krajoznawstwo" activities are carried out by Polskie Towarzystwo Turystyczno-Krajoznawcze, ineptly translated as "Polish Tourist and Sightseeing Society".

Local history is the study of history in a geographically local context and it often concentrates on the local community. It incorporates cultural and social aspects of history. Local history is not merely national history writ small but a study of past events in a given geographical but one that is based on a wide variety of documentary evidence and placed in a comparative context that is both regional and national. Historic plaques are one form of documentation of significant occurrences in the past and oral histories are another.

《本地史》日本称为乡土史 英文: Local History 是研究某个地区历史观点。 本地史是在地理上本地背景下进行的历史研究,它通常集中在本地社区上。它融合了历史的文化和社会方面。地方历史不仅是篇幅很小的民族史,而且是对特定地理区域中过去事件的研究,而是一种基于各种文献证据并置于区域和国家比较背景下的研究。本地史通常是由当地历史学会或团体记录下来的,这些学会或团体形成了保存当地历史建筑或其他历史遗址的形式。许多当地历史著作是由独立工作的业余历史学家或由各种组织聘用的档案员编辑的。本地历史的一个重要方面是出版和分类保存在与特定地区有关的本地或国家记录中的文件。 在许多国家/地区,人们都知道更广泛的本地知识概念,它是对与某个特定位置有关的所有事物的全面研究:历史,人种学,地理,自然历史等。


Typical ChIP.

There are mainly two types of ChIP, primarily differing in the starting chromatin preparation. The first uses reversibly cross-linked chromatin sheared by sonication called cross-linked ChIP (XChIP). Native ChIP (NChIP) uses native chromatin sheared by micrococcal nuclease digestion.

Cross-linked ChIP (XChIP).

Cross-linked ChIP is mainly suited for mapping the DNA target of transcription factors or other chromatin-associated proteins, and uses reversibly cross-linked chromatin as starting material. The agent for reversible cross-linking could be formaldehyde or UV light. Then the cross-linked chromatin is usually sheared by sonication, providing fragments of 300 - 1000 base pairs (bp) in length. Mild formaldehyde crosslinking followed by nuclease digestion has been used to shear the chromatin. Chromatin fragments of 400 - 500bp have proven to be suitable for ChIP assays as they cover two to three nucleosomes.  Cell debris in the sheared lysate is then cleared by sedimentation and protein–DNA complexes are selectively immunoprecipitated using specific antibodies to the protein(s) of interest. The antibodies are commonly coupled to agarose, sepharose or magnetic beads. Alternatively, chromatin-antibody complexes can be selectively retained and eluted by inert polymer discs. The immunoprecipitated complexes (i.e., the bead–antibody–protein–target DNA sequence complex) are then collected and washed to remove non-specifically bound chromatin, the protein–DNA cross-link is reversed and proteins are removed by digestion with proteinase K. An epitope-tagged version of the protein of interest, or "in vivo" biotinylation can be used instead of antibodies to the native protein of interest.  The DNA associated with the complex is then purified and identified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), microarrays (ChIP-on-chip), molecular cloning and sequencing, or direct high-throughput sequencing (ChIP-Seq).

Native ChIP (NChIP).

Native ChIP is mainly suited for mapping the DNA target of histone modifiers. Generally, native chromatin is used as starting chromatin. As histones wrap around DNA to form nucleosomes, they are naturally linked. Then the chromatin is sheared by micrococcal nuclease digestion, which cuts DNA at the length of the linker, leaving nucleosomes intact and providing DNA fragments of one nucleosome (200bp) to five nucleosomes (1000bp) in length.  Thereafter, methods similar to XChIP are used for clearing the cell debris, immunoprecipitating the protein of interest, removing protein from the immunoprecipated complex, and purifying and analyzing the complex-associated DNA.

Comparison of XChIP and NChIP.

The major advantage for NChIP is antibody specificity. It is important to note that most antibodies to modified histones are raised against unfixed, synthetic peptide antigens and that the epitopes they need to recognize in the XChIP may be disrupted or destroyed by formaldehyde cross-linking, particularly as the cross-links are likely to involve lysine e-amino groups in the N-terminals, disrupting the epitopes. This is likely to explain the consistently low efficiency of XChIP protocols compare to NChIP.  But XChIP and NChIP have different aims and advantages relative to each other. XChIP is for mapping target sites of transcription factors and other chromatin associated proteins; NChIP is for mapping target sites of histone modifiers (see Table 1).  Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of NChIP and XChIP

History and New ChIP methods.

In 1984 John T. Lis and David Gilmour, at the time a graduate student in the Lis lab, used UV irradiation, a zero-length protein-nucleic acid crosslinking agent, to covalently cross-link proteins bound to DNA in living bacterial cells. Following lysis of cross-linked cells and immunoprecipitation of bacterial RNA polymerase, DNA associated with enriched RNA polymerase was hybridized to probes corresponding to different regions of known genes to determine the in vivo distribution and density of RNA polymerase at these genes. A year later they used the same methodology to study distribution of eukaryotic RNA polymerase II on fruit fly heat shock genes. These reports are considered the pioneering studies in the field of chromatin immunoprecipitation. XChIP was further modified and developed by Alexander Varshavsky and co-workers, who examined distribution of histone H4 on heat shock genes using formaldehyde cross-linking. This technique was extensively developed and refined thereafter. NChIP approach was first described by Hebbes "et al"., 1988, and also been developed and refined quickly. The typical ChIP assay usually take 4–5 days, and require 10~ 10 cells at least. Now new techniques on ChIP could be achieved as few as 100~1000 cells and complete within one day.  ChIP has also been applied for genome wide analysis by combining with microarray technology (ChIP-on-chip) or second generation DNA-sequencing technology (Chip-Sequencing). ChIP can also combine with paired-end tags sequencing in Chromatin Interaction Analysis using Paired End Tag sequencing (ChIA-PET), a technique developed for large-scale, de novo analysis of higher-order chromatin structures.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a type of immunoprecipitation experimental technique used to investigate the interaction between proteins and DNA in the cell. It aims to determine whether specific proteins are associated with specific genomic regions, such as transcription factors on promoters or other DNA binding sites, and possibly defining cistromes. ChIP also aims to determine the specific location in the genome that various histone modifications are associated with, indicating the target of the histone modifiers.

染色质免疫沉淀(英语:Chromatin Immunoprecipitation,简称为ChIP)被用来研究细胞内DNA与蛋白质相互作用,具体来说就是确定特定蛋白(如转录因子)是否结合特定基因组区域(如启动子或其它DNA结合位点)——可能定义顺反组。ChIP还被用来确定基因组上与组蛋白修饰相关的特定位点(即组蛋白修饰酶类的靶标)。 此方法的简要过程是:细胞裂解液里的蛋白和相关染色质暂时结合;染色质(DNA)-蛋白复合物被剪切,与所研究蛋白相关的DNA片断被选择性免疫沉淀;相关DNA片断被纯化,顺序被测定。一般认为这些DNA顺序在活体内与所研究蛋白结合。


Early life.

Leslie was born in Gardena, California, the daughter of Christine Lauren Leslie, who stood, and Walter Leslie, a semi-professional basketball player. Christine started her own truck driving business to support her three children. Walter left the family when her mother was four months pregnant with her. Leslie has two sisters: Dionne, who is five years older, and Tiffany, who is eight years younger. She also has a brother, Elgin (named after Elgin Baylor of the LA Lakers). She played on an all-girls team with the record 33–1.

Middle school.

During the first few weeks of middle school, a classmate begged Leslie to help out the basketball team. On her first day of basketball tryouts, team members were told to split into two groups for layup drills: lefties and righties. Leslie was the only lefty in the group, so from then on, she decided to become right-hand dominant so she would not have to stand in a line by herself. That decision worked to her advantage, as she became ambidextrous.  In eighth grade, she transferred to a junior high school without a girls' basketball team, and joined a boys' basketball team. Her success there contributed to her confidence in her playing abilities.

High school.

At the age of 14, before Leslie had even started high school at Morningside, she received more than a hundred college recruiting letters, including some from top Division I programs at the University of Tennessee and Stanford University.  Leslie continued her education in 1986 by enrolling at Morningside High School in Inglewood, California. She made an immediate impact on the basketball program, starting every game for the girl's varsity team. She also found time to join the volleyball team and compete in track and field. She ended up being a state qualifier in the 400-meter run and the high jump.  By the time she was a sophomore in high school, she was able to dunk the ball in the open court, even though she was not able to palm the ball. She was her team's leading scorer and rebounder and led them to the 1989 California state championship. Leslie was so talented that she was invited to participate in the USA's Junior World Championship team. Entering her senior year, she developed into the top player in the country. She led her team to a state championship averaging 27 points and 15 rebounds per game.

College career.

Leslie decided to stay close to home and attend women's basketball powerhouse the University of Southern California from 1990–1994. She graduated from USC with a bachelor's degree in communications and later completed her master's degree in business administration from the University of Phoenix.  Leslie played in a total of 120 college games, averaging 20.1 points, hitting 53.4% of her shots, and knocking down 69.8% of her free throws. She set the Pac-10 Conference records for scoring, rebounding, and blocked shots accumulating 2,414 points, 1,214 rebounds, and 321 blocked shots. She also holds the USC single season record for blocked shots (95).  During her college career, USC compiled an impressive 89–31 record. They won one Pac-10 conference championship and earned four NCAA tournament appearances. Leslie was honored with All-Pac-10 recognition all four years, as well as becoming the first player in Pac-10 history to obtain first team all four years and earn the Pac-10 Rookie of the Year award in 1991. Leslie was also honored on the national platform by earning the national freshman of the year award in 1991. In 1994, she won multiple national player of the year awards—the Naismith College Player of the Year award, the USBWA Women's National Player of the Year award, the Honda Sports Award for basketball, and the WBCA Player of the Year award. In 1992, 1993, and 1994, she earned All-American Honors as well.

WNBA career.

The WNBA was incorporated in 1996 and began playing in 1997. Leslie was drafted on January 22 by the Los Angeles Sparks as part of the Initial Allocation phase of the draft. She helped the Sparks make the playoffs five consecutive times, but the team did not win a WNBA title until 2001. That year, Leslie was named the 2001 Sportswoman of the Year (in the team category) by the Women's Sports Foundation.  On July 30, 2002, Leslie became the first woman to dunk the ball in a WNBA game. That same year she became the first WNBA player to score over 3,000 total career points and contributed to the Sparks winning their second straight WNBA championship that season. Two seasons later, she became the first player to reach the 4,000-career point milestone. Leslie remains the Sparks' career scoring and rebounding leader. She is the 4th highest all-time rebound leader, after Rebekkah Brunson, Sylvia Fowles, and Tamika Catchings. Within that same season, she also became the third player in WNBA history to record a triple double, when she had 29 points, 15 rebounds and 10 blocks. In the 2005 WNBA All-Star Game, Leslie had also become the first WNBA player to dunk in an all-star game. On August 11, 2009, Leslie became the first player to score 6,000 points in a career. Earlier that month she was the first player to reach 10,000 career PRA (points + rebounds + assists), a statistic fundamental to the WNBA "Pick One Challenge" fantasy game.  Lisa Leslie announced her retirement effective at the end of the 2009 season on February 4, 2009. The Sparks held a farewell ceremony for Leslie during their final home game of the season in September. She finished holding the league records for points (6,263), rebounds (3,307) and PRA (10,444). In 2011, she was voted in by fans as one of the Top 15 players in the fifteen-year history of the WNBA. In 2016, she was voted into the WNBA Top 20@20, in celebration of the league's 20th anniversary.

National team career.

Leslie was named to the USA Basketball Women's Junior National Team (now called the U19 team). She was 17 at the time, the youngest player on the USA team. The team participated in the second Junior World Championship, held in Bilbao, Spain in July 1989. The USA team lost their opening game to South Korea in overtime, then lost a two-point game to Australia. After winning their next game against Bulgaria, behind 22 points and nine rebounds from Leslie, the USA team again fell in a close game, losing by three points to Czechoslovakia. After beating Zaire in their next game, the USA team played Spain, and fell three points short. Leslie led the team in scoring, rebounds, and blocks, averaging 13.3 points and 7.0 rebounds per game and recording 21 blocks over the course of the event. The USA team finished in seventh place.  Leslie was a member of the USA team competing at the 1991 World University Games held in Sheffield, England. Leslie was the second leading scorer on the USA squad, averaging 13.0 points per game, and helped the Tara VanDerveer-coached team to an 7–0 record and the gold medal.  She competed with USA Basketball as a member of the 1992 Jones Cup Team that won the Gold in Taipei for the first time since 1987.  Leslie has made four consecutive Olympic appearances, and has earned four gold medals. She was the second female basketball player ever to earn that many gold medals, after Teresa Edwards. Leslie has also made appearances with the United States national women's basketball team where she won gold medals in 1996 and 2000, and has also earned a world championship. Leslie scored 35 points against Japan in the semifinals of the 1996 Olympics to set an American Olympic women's scoring record.  Leslie is one of seven USA Basketball's three-time Olympians, and one of two players with four gold medals. She led the U.S. team in scoring during the 2004 Olympic Games. During her third Olympic completion, she became the USA's all-time leading scorer, rebounder, and shot blocker in Olympic competition. Every time she has competed in a major international event, she has compiled double-digit scoring averages. Leslie, at age 20, was also the youngest player to participate at the USA Olympic Trials in 1992.  Leslie has had a fierce rivalry with Lauren Jackson ever since the 2000 Olympics, when the Australian star ripped out Leslie's hair extensions during a game.

Other professional endeavors.

Apart from basketball, Leslie is also a fashion model and an aspiring actress. She has been featured in "Vogue" and "Newsweek", as well as many sports publications. She has been on ESPN numerous times and has been a guest star on several television shows such as "Sister Sister", "The Game", and "One on One". She is a guest commentator for "Sports Zone" on KABC-TV/Los Angeles and wears the Circle 7 logo from the channel when on the show. She has also acted in a variety of commercials. Early in her career she signed a modeling contract with the Wilhelmina modeling agency. Lisa also was on the show, "Superstars", and she and her partner, David Charvet, took 3rd place after David injured his wrist. Leslie also played herself in an episode of the TV-show "The Jersey" called "Nick's a Chick", where she switched bodies with a boy named Nick Lighter (played by Michael Galeota). In addition, she played herself in one episode of "The Simpsons". She also appeared in the movie "Think Like A Man", and played as herself. Leslie is also a playable character in the original Backyard Basketball, alongside Kevin Garnett. She was only the fourth female professional athlete in the Backyard Sports series, after Brianna Scurry, Brandi Chastain, and Tiffeny Milbrett. She also appeared in the 2nd episode of "All in with Cam" with host, Cam Newton. In 2013, Lisa switched places with Downtown Julie Brown on the show Celebrity Wife Swap. On January 28, 2016, it was announced that she would be a contestant in The New Celebrity Apprentice (also known as Celebrity Apprentice 8). Recently, she played septuagenarian Betty Lou in "Uncle Drew" which hit the theaters in June 2018.  In 2009, Leslie earned a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree from the University of Phoenix.  Since her retirement from professional basketball, Leslie has worked as a sports commentator and analyst for several sports networks, such as NBC, ABC and Fox Sports Net. She had also released an autobiography called "Don't Let the Lipstick Fool You". In 2011, she had become a co-owner of the Los Angeles Sparks. In 2018, Leslie joined Fox Sports Florida as a studio analyst on Orlando Magic broadcasts.  Leslie was named coach of Ice Cube's BIG3 expansion team Triplets on January 10, 2019.

Personal life.

On November 5, 2005, Leslie married Michael Lockwood, who played basketball for the Air Force Academy and is currently a pilot for UPS. In 2007, she took a year's leave from professional basketball for a pregnancy. Leslie and Lockwood have a daughter named Lauren Jolie Lockwood, who was born on June 15, 2007. After having the baby, Lisa got back in shape and returned to the WNBA for the 2008 season. Leslie had her second child, Michael Joseph Lockwood II, on April 6, 2010.  Leslie is also a Christian. In a most recent interview, she spoke out about her faith by saying: "As a prayerful kid, I was always putting my faith and goals in the Lord’s name. That was always one of the things that helped me the most. I always wanted to fulfill His purpose. I think that’s really been the saving grace for me. When you have faith, you have to step out on it [and trust God]."  On February 4, 2020, Leslie was interviewed by Gayle King to talk about her friendship with Kobe Bryant, who had recently passed away in a helicopter accident on January 26, 2020. During the interview, Leslie was asked about Bryant's sexual assault case in 2003. Leslie responded that those accusations didn't align with the person she knew.

Lisa Deshaun Leslie (born July 7, 1972) is an American former professional basketball player. She is currently the head coach for Triplets in the BIG3 professional basketball league, as well as a studio analyst for Orlando Magic broadcasts on Fox Sports Florida. Leslie played in the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA). She is a three-time WNBA MVP and a four-time Olympic gold medal winner. The number-seven pick in the 1997 inaugural WNBA draft, she followed her career at the University of Southern California with eight WNBA All-Star selections and two WNBA championships over the course of eleven seasons with the Los Angeles Sparks, before retiring in 2009. Leslie was the first player to dunk in a WNBA game. In 2011, she was voted in by fans as one of the Top 15 players in WNBA history. In 2015, she was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. Leslie was also inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2015.

丽莎·莱斯莉(英语:Lisa Leslie,1972年-7月7日),前美国职业篮球运动员,曾效力于WNBA洛杉矶火花队,司职中锋,WNBA联盟创始球员之一,她是第一位在WNBA正式比赛中成功扣篮的女篮运动员,还曾效力过意大利和俄罗斯的职业女篮联赛。