History.

The Kitsap Peninsula was originally acquired by the U.S. Government in three pieces by three treaties negotiated with the Native American tribes:  Territorial Governor Isaac Stevens represented the United States in all three negotiations.  When the Washington Territory was organized in 1853, the Kitsap Peninsula was divided between King County to the east and Jefferson County to the west. Official public papers were required to be filed at the county seat, which meant Peninsula business people had to travel to either Seattle or Port Townsend to transact business. On the understanding that they would "bring home a new county," area mill operators George Meigs and William Renton supported the candidacies to the Territorial Legislature of two employees from their respective mills: Timothy Duane Hinckley from Meigs' and S.B. Wilson from Renton's.  Upon arrival in Olympia, the two men introduced bills to create a new county, to be named "Madison". Representative Abernathy from Wahkiakum County proposed an amendment to name it "Slaughter", in recognition of Lt. William Alloway Slaughter, who had been killed in 1855 in the Yakima War. The bill passed as amended. It was signed by Governor Isaac Stevens on January 16, 1857. The county seat would be located in Meigs's mill town at Port Madison.  In Slaughter County's first election on July 13, 1857, voters were given the opportunity to rename the county. The options were "Mill", "Madison" or "Kitsap". Slaughter was not one of the options. Kitsap won by an overwhelming majority.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (30%) is water. It is the fourth-smallest county in Washington by land area and third-smallest by total area.  In addition to occupying most of the Kitsap Peninsula, Kitsap County includes both Bainbridge Island and Blake Island. According to Puget Sound Partnership, Kitsap county has over of saltwater shoreline.  The portion of the county north of Silverdale is often referred to as North Kitsap, and the portion south of Bremerton as South Kitsap.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 251,133 people, 97,220 households, and 65,820 families residing in the county. The population density was. There were 107,367 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 82.6% white, 4.9% Asian, 2.6% black or African American, 1.6% American Indian, 0.9% Pacific islander, 1.6% from other races, and 5.8% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 6.2% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 21.3% were German, 14.4% were Irish, 13.8% were English, 7.1% were Norwegian, and 4.2% were American.  Of the 97,220 households, 31.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.2% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 32.3% were non-families, and 25.2% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.97. The median age was 39.4 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $59,549 and the median income for a family was $71,065. Males had a median income of $52,282 versus $38,499 for females. The per capita income for the county was $29,755. About 6.1% of families and 9.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.8% of those under age 18 and 5.3% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Kitsap County is generally been considered to be a relatively Democratic area. In the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Democrat Hillary Clinton received 49.05% of the vote to Republican Donald Trump's 38.07%.  On mainland Kitsap County, politics are dominated by working-class Bremerton, which casts moderate margins for Democratic candidates. However, population shifts have resulted in Bremerton playing less of a role in politics, and unincorporated Kitsap County is a mix of battleground areas and staunchly Republican areas. Non-Bremerton parts of incorporated mainland Kitsap County vary, with Silverdale having become a Republican stronghold, Poulsbo marginally Democratic, and Port Orchard consistently electing Republican candidates over Democrats.  Democrats normally carry the Indian reservations of the area by wide margins; the area around Little Boston (part of the S'Klallam Indian Reservation) regularly gives Democratic candidates landslides of 10-to-1. The multicultural Port Madison Indian Reservation (across from Bainbridge Island) also gives Democrats victories of upwards of 3-to-1.  Democratic electoral control of Kitsap County is partly due to Bainbridge Island, which casts a significant number of votes and is almost 4-to-1 Democratic. Bainbridge Island's growth and Democratic trend offsets population losses of Bremerton, generally resulting in the county as a whole being stable but very close.  The Kitsap County Auditor Website has detailed election results from 1998 to the present. County area political trends can be tracked by analyzing the election precinct data.

Government.

Board of County Commissioners.

Robert Gelder (D) - District #1, North Kitsap Gelder was appointed to replace Steve Bauer, who resigned in March 2011.  Charlotte Garrido (D) - District #2, South Kitsap Garrido was re-elected in Nov. 2012, when she defeated Linda Simpson. Commissioner Garrido previously served on the county commission from 1997 to 2000 and again from 2009 to 2012  Ed Wolfe (R) - District #3, Central Kitsap  Wolfe became the first elected Republican county commissioner since Jan Angel was elected South Kitsap Commissioner in 2004. Wolfe replaced Linda Streissguth (D), who had been appointed in January 2014 to replace Josh Brown (D). Prior to his election, he was a well-known local attorney with years of successful litigation and business law experience. Commissioner Wolfe served with the U.S. State Department during the Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush administrations as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Oceans and Fisheries Affairs with the rank of ambassador.

State legislators.

23rd Legislative District.

Bainbridge Island, East Bremerton, Poulsbo and Silverdale

26th Legislative District.

Bremerton, Gig Harbor and Port Orchard

35th Legislative District.

Bremerton, Shelton and Mason County

Transportation.

Kitsap County is connected to the eastern shore of Puget Sound by several Washington State Ferries routes, including the Seattle-Bremerton Ferry, Southworth to West Seattle via Vashon Island, Bainbridge Island to Downtown Seattle, and from Kingston to Edmonds, Washington.  Kitsap Transit provides local transit service within Kitsap County and connects to other transit systems that continue onto the Olympic Peninsula. The agency launched its fast ferry services to Seattle in July 2017, beginning initially with a Bremerton route and later expanding to Kingston in 2018. Fast ferry service to Southworth is expected to begin in 2020.  The county is connected to Jefferson County and the Olympic Peninsula to the west by the Hood Canal Bridge.  A government-owned rail line, the Bangor-Shelton-Bremerton Navy Railroad, runs through the county. It is a branch off the Puget Sound and Pacific Railroad, with its junction at Shelton. At the Bremerton Junction near Gorst a spur follows Highway 3 along the shore of the Sinclair Inlet terminating at the Puget Sound Naval Ship Yard, the other follows Highway 3 along the western shore of Dyes Inlet, servicing Bangor Naval Submarine Base. The Navy had originally intended to use armored trains to transport nuclear missiles to Bangor for the Trident submarines but protesters and a series of court decisions derailed the plan. Today the railroad is primarily used to transport scrap from PSNS.

In popular culture.

"Walking Tall" with The Rock and Johnny Knoxville was based in Kitsap County, and the City of Port Orchard is the basis for the fictional community of Cedar Cove in the books by Debbie Macomber.

Kitsap County is located in the U.S. state of Washington. As of the 2010 census, its population was 251,133. Its county seat is Port Orchard, and its largest city is Bremerton. The county was formed out of King County and Jefferson County on January 16, 1857, and is named for Chief Kitsap of the Suquamish Tribe. Originally named Slaughter County, it was soon renamed.

基萨普县(英语:Kitsap County)是位于美国华盛顿州基沙普半岛北部、普吉特湾西岸的一个县。根据美国2010年人口普查,共有人口251,133人。县治奥乍得港,最大城市布雷默顿。该郡于于1857年1月16日从金县和杰佛逊县分出,县名来自苏跨米西人的基沙普酋长。该郡原本叫斯劳特郡(英语:Slaughter County)。


History.

The county is presently named after a large estuarine bay near its southwestern corner. On May 7, 1792, Boston fur trader Robert Gray crossed the bar into a bay which he called Bullfinch Harbor, but which later cartographers would label Chehalis Bay, and then Grays Harbor.  The area that now comprises Grays Harbor County was part of Oregon Territory in the first part of the nineteenth century. On December 19, 1845, the Provisional Government of Oregon created two counties (Vancouver and Clark) in its northern portion (which is now the state of Washington). In 1849, the name of Vancouver County was changed to Lewis County, and on April 14, 1854, a portion of Lewis County was partitioned off to become Chehalis County. This county's boundaries have not changed since its creation, but on June 9, 1915, its name was changed to Grays Harbor County, to eliminate confusion, since a town named Chehalis is in a different county.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (14%) is water.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 67,194 people, 26,808 households, and 17,907 families living in the county. The population density was 35 people per square mile (14/km2). There were 32,489 housing units at an average density of 17 per square mile (7/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 88.30% White, 0.34% Black or African American, 4.66% Native American, 1.22% Asian, 0.11% Pacific Islander, 2.27% from other races, and 3.10% from two or more races. 4.85% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 16.3% were of German, 11.9% United States or American, 9.9% English, 9.2% Irish, and 6.1% Norwegian ancestry. 94.1% spoke English and 3.9% Spanish as their first language.  There were 26,808 households out of which 30.50% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.70% were married couples living together, 11.10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.20% were non-families. 26.70% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.60% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 2.98.  In the county, the population was spread out with 25.70% under the age of 18, 7.90% from 18 to 24, 26.00% from 25 to 44, 25.00% from 45 to 64, and 15.40% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 98.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.20 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $34,160, and the median income for a family was $39,709. Males had a median income of $35,947 versus $24,262 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,799. 16.10% of the population and 11.90% of families were below the poverty line, including 21.60% of those under the age of 18 and 40% of those 65 and older.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 Census, there were 72,797 people, 28,579 households, and 18,493 families living in the county. The population density was. There were 35,166 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 84.9% white, 4.6% American Indian, 1.4% Asian, 1.1% black or African American, 0.3% Pacific islander, 3.9% from other races, and 3.9% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 8.6% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 21.0% were German, 13.5% were Irish, 11.7% were English, 6.8% were Norwegian, and 4.2% were American.  Of the 28,579 households, 28.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.8% were married couples living together, 11.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 35.3% were non-families, and 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 2.94. The median age was 41.9 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $41,899 and the median income for a family was $49,745. Males had a median income of $42,998 versus $34,183 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,656. About 11.7% of families and 16.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.1% of those under age 18 and 7.9% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Grays Harbor County was one of the most consistently Democratic in the nation. Until 2016, the last Republican Presidential candidate to carry the county was Herbert Hoover in 1928 and the last Republican gubernatorial candidate to carry the county (until 2016) was Daniel J. Evans in 1964. However, Donald Trump carried the county in the 2016 Presidential Election.  In the United States House of Representatives Grays Harbor is part of Washington's 6th congressional district, which has a Cook Partisan Voting Index of D+5 and is represented by Derek Kilmer. In the Washington State Legislature it lies in the 19th and 24th districts. In the Washington State Senate it is represented by Dean Takko, and Kevin Van De Wege. In the Washington House of Representatives it is represented by Brian Blake, Mike Chapman, Steve Tharinger, and Jim Walsh. All these politicians represent the Democratic Party, except Jim Walsh who is a member of the Republican Party.

Economy.

The principal economic activities are

Grays Harbor County is a county in the U.S. state of Washington. As of the 2010 census, the population was 72,797. The county seat is Montesano, and its largest city is Aberdeen.

格雷斯港县(英语:Grays Harbor County)是美国华盛顿州西部的一个县,西临太平洋。根据美国2010年人口普查,共有人口72,797人。县治蒙特萨诺,最大城市阿伯丁。


History.

The archdiocese was established on 22 November 1886 as the "Mission sui iuris" of the Belgian Congo, from territory taken from both the Apostolic Prefecture of Lower Congo (in Cubango, Angola) and the Apostolic Vicariate of Two Guineas (in Gabon). It was promoted on 11 May 1888 as the Apostolic Vicariate of Belgian Congo. Over time, it lost territory repeatedly: to establish the "Mission sui juris" of Kwango on 18 April 1892, the Apostolic Prefecture of Uélé on 12 May 1898, the "Mission sui juris" of Kasaï Supérieur on 26 July 1901, the Apostolic Prefecture of Stanley Falls on 3 August 1904, the Apostolic Prefecture of Ubangui Belge on 7 April 1911, and the Apostolic Prefecture of Matadi and the Apostolic Prefecture of Northern Katanga on 1 July 1911.  On 3 April 1919, it was renamed the Apostolic Vicariate of Léopoldville. It lost territory several times more: to establish the "Mission sui juris" of Bikoro on 3 January 1931, the Apostolic Vicariate of Boma on 26 February 1934, the Apostolic Prefecture of Kole on 14 June 1951, and the Apostolic Vicariate of Inongo on 29 June 1953. It was elevated on 10 November 1959 as the Archdiocese of Léopoldville, when the city was soon to become the national capital of the newly-independent Republic of the Congo. It was renamed the Archdiocese of Kinshasa on 30 May 1966, when the city's name was changed from Léopoldville to Kinshasa. The archdiocese was visited by Pope John Paul II in May 1980 and again in August 1985.

Suffragan dioceses.

The Archdiocese of Kinshasa is the metropolitan archdiocese of the Ecclesiastical Province of Kinshasa, which includes the following suffragan dioceses:

The Archdiocese of Kinshasa (Latin: "Archidioecesis Kinshasana"; French: "Archidiocèse de Kinshasa") is an archdiocese of the Roman Catholic Church in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its ecclesiastic territory includes the capital city of Kinshasa and surrounding districts. The archdiocese is the metropolitan see for the Ecclesiastical Province of Kinshasa. The current archbishop is Fridolin Ambongo Besungu.

天主教金沙萨总教区(、)是罗马天主教一个总教区,下辖八个教区。


Philosophy.

Being born in the third year of the Meiji period, Nishida was presented with a new, unique opportunity to contemplate Eastern philosophical issues in the fresh light that Western philosophy shone on them. Nishida's original and creative philosophy, incorporating ideas of Zen and Western philosophy, was aimed at bringing the East and West closer. Throughout his lifetime, Nishida published a number of books and essays including "An Inquiry into the Good" and "The Logic of the Place of Nothingness and the Religious Worldview". Taken as a whole, Nishida's life work was the foundation for the Kyoto School of philosophy and the inspiration for the original thinking of his disciples.  The most famous concept in Nishida's philosophy is the logic of basho (Japanese: 場所; usually translated as "place" or "topos"), a non-dualistic concrete logic, meant to overcome the inadequacy of the subject–object distinction essential to the subject logic of Aristotle and the predicate logic of Immanuel Kant, through the affirmation of what he calls the "absolutely contradictory self-identity", a dynamic tension of opposites that, unlike the dialectical logic of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, does not resolve in a synthesis. Rather, it defines its proper subject by maintaining the tension between affirmation and negation as opposite poles or perspectives.  When David A. Dilworth wrote about Nishida's work, he did not mention the debut book in his useful classification. In his book "Zen no kenkyū" (An Inquiry into the Good), Nishida writes about experience, reality, good and religion. He argues that the most profound form of experience is the pure experience. Nishida analyzes the thought, the will, the intellectual intuition and the pure experience among them. According to Nishida's vision as well as to the essence of Asian wisdom, one craves harmony in experience, for unity.

Legacy.

According to Masao Abe, "During World War II right wing thinkers attacked him as antinationalistic for his appreciation of Western philosophy and logic. But after the war left wing thinkers criticized his philosophy as nationalistic because of his emphasis on the traditional notion of "nothingness". He recognized a kind of universality in Western philosophy and logic but did not accept that it was the only universality."

Nishida Kitarō died at the age of 75 of a renal infection. His cremated remains were divided in three and buried at different locations. Part of his remains was buried in the Nishida family grave in his birthplace Unoke, Ishikawa. A second grave can be found at Tōkei-ji Temple in Kamakura, where his friend D. T. Suzuki organized Nishida's funeral and was later also buried in the adjacent plot. Nishida's third grave is at Reiun'in (霊雲院, "Reiun'in"), a temple in the Myōshin-ji compound in Kyoto.

西田 几多郎(,1870年-5月19日-1945年-6月7日),生于日本石川县,哲学家,京都大学教授,为京都学派的开创者与领导者,同时也是一位俳人。1940年,他从京都大学退休后,得到日本文化勋章。台湾心理学家郑发育(1916-1996)是其指导学生,曾于战后翻译其著作《》。


History.

Following the independence of Finland from Russia in 1917 and the defeat of the Finnish Red Guard during the Finnish Civil War, Finland began the process of replacing its obsolete Russian armament. The efforts to modernize Finland's arsenal included the replacement of Russian Nagant M1895 revolvers with the Spanish Ruby Pistols purchased from France in 1919 and later the German P08 Luger purchased from Deutsche Waffen und Munitionsfabriken in 1923. Finland became intent on autonomously producing its own weaponry with the Finnish Volunteer Guards opening the arsenal, Suojeluskuntain ase- ja Konepaja Oy (SAKO) in 1921 and the Government of Finland opening the Valtion Kivääritehdas (VKT) in Jyväskylä in 1929. The Finnish Army soon called for a domestically produced pistol that could withstand Finland's harsh winters. Design began in 1929 under the supervision of Aimo Lahti and a patent was granted for the M1935 Lahti pistol in 1935. The Lahti was originally designed to fire stockpiled 7.65×21mm Parabellum and 9×19mm Parabellum ammunition but was ultimately restricted to 9mm only. The Lahti pistol became formally adopted in 1935 by the Finnish armed forces as the Pistooli L-35. Production was slow for widespread use with only 500 pistols completed before production was halted by the start of the Winter War. Production continued in 1941 with about 4,500 pistols manufactured before the production was interrupted again by the Continuation War. Final production of Finnish Lahti pistols resumed again in 1946 with around 9,000 completed before 1951.

Design.

The M1935 Lahti is considered well manufactured and finished. Although the Lahti is outwardly similar to the P08 Luger (and shares barrel threading with same), the firing mechanism is significantly different and more closely related to the Bergmann–Bayard pistol. The Lahti is a recoil operated, single-action, locked breech firearm fitted with a concealed hammer. The pistol itself is well sealed from dirt and ice but is heavy by modern standards. A manual safety was provided by a lever on the left-hand side of the pistol.

Bolt accelerator.

The addition of a bolt accelerator to the Lahti pistol was to ensure the performance of the pistol in arctic conditions in Finland. Bolt accelerators are more commonly found in machine guns to increase the rate of fire. The bolt accelerator in the Lahti works by having a crank lever strike the bolt of the pistol as it unlocks from firing. This thrusts the bolt mechanically instead of relying on the momentum of firing alone to move the bolt back. The value of the addition of the bolt accelerator was put into question with a batch of guns made without an accelerator being produced. The immediate recall of the pistols without bolt accelerators is thought to indicate the accelerator is not essential but useful in the operation of the gun.

Lahti Husqvarna m/40.

The Husqvarna Model 40 or m/40 was manufactured 1940 to 1946 and was a Swedish copy of the Finnish Lahti pistol. The Swedish army realized there would be a shortage of pistols in the event of large scale military mobilization in Europe. Originally adopting the Walther P38 in 1939, Germany's entry into World War II stopped the export of P38s to Sweden. To compensate, Sweden adopted the Lahti pistol but was unable to import L-35-type guns because of the conflicts between Finland and the USSR. Production was licensed to Svenska Automatvapen AB but the immediate collapse of the company passed the contract to Husqvarna Vapenfabriks. The first m/40s were delivered to the Swedish military by 1942 with slight differences from the Finnish L-35 Lahtis. The grips of the m/40 have the Husqvarna "crown H" motif engraved and the front sight was slightly larger. The barrel is also slightly longer on the m/40 than the Finnish Lahti with the m/40's trigger guard being heavier, and the pistol does not have the loaded chamber indicator and lock-retaining spring of the Finnish Lahti. Other modifications included a change in the gun steel quality specifications that were not successful in the m/40s and led to cracks in the frame. Cracking in the frame became more aggravated as the m/39B-ammunition developed for use in the Carl Gustav m/45 submachine gun were used in the pistols. The m/40 would eventually be taken out of service in the 1980s because of the frame cracks, being completely replaced by the Glock 17 by the early 1990s.

The Lahti L-35 is a semi-automatic pistol designed by Aimo Lahti that was produced between 1935 and 1952. Designed to be manufactured autonomously in Finland, the pistol was used by Finland throughout the Winter War and Continuation War. Considered to be of high quality, the Lahti was well manufactured and worked reliably in cold conditions or when fouled. The use of a bolt accelerator, an uncommon feature in a pistol, helped make the Lahti reliable.

拉赫蒂L-35是由芬兰枪械设计师于1935年设计的一种半自动手枪,该枪于1935年起投产,并在1952年停产,期间此枪一共被生产了9,000多枝。


Biography.

1986–2004: Childhood and youth.

Leah Donna Dizon was born in Las Vegas, Nevada on September 24, 1986. Her mother is of French descent while her father is of Chinese and Filipino descent. Her parents worked as casino dealers. Dizon is the fourth of six children: she has two older brothers, an older sister, and two younger brothers. In an interview, she explains that she listened to rock and R&B music and trained in dance since the age of 12. Dizon has said that her mother was "very strict and monitored [Dizon's] spending habits". When she was 14 years old, she worked at a clothing store and eventually saved enough money to travel to Japan alone for a trip.  She attended the Las Vegas Academy of Performing Arts for her freshman and sophomore years but graduated from the public Eldorado High School in 2004, where she became active in theater. At the age of 18, Dizon relocated to Los Angeles, California and attended college as a film major for her freshman year.

2005–2007: "Destiny Line", early work, and career debut.

While living in Los Angeles, Dizon worked as a promotional model for local car shows. Eventually, her photographs were posted online. It was reported that there were 2 million Google hits within an entire year, with the majority of the viewers being located in China and Japan. Much of the attention received was attributed to her unique looks. She was asked by many Japanese fans—who had seen her photographs—to work in their country, which eventually prompted her to submit several demo tapes and dance videos to Victor Entertainment. An agent offered and signed her to a recording contract.  In March 2006, Dizon moved to Tokyo and began Japanese lessons alongside voice training. She released her first photobook, "Petite Amie" (which means "girlfriend" in French), in October 2006—"Petite Amie" was ranked as the third best-selling photobook of 2006 and 2007. A few pictorials for various magazines followed.  Dizon made her musical debut under Victor Entertainment on February 14, 2007 with the single "Softly". This was followed by "Koi Shiyō", and "L・O・V・E U". which also peaked at number 7 on the Oricon Weekly Chart. The title track is described as a "grooving, up-tempo dance song" and the single features 2 B-sides: "Could you be that one?" and. "Koi Shiyō" was used in a Lotte TV advert, while "Could you be that one?" was featured in a PlayStation 3 Ninja Gaiden Sigma TV advert, with Dizon starring in both commercials. In September 2007, Dizon released her debut album, "Destiny Line", under Victor Entertainment. The CD+DVD Edition contains 14 tracks, 10 of which she penned herself on the single PVs alongside a special album PV "Again and Again". The CD+1 only edition contains the digitally-released remix of "Koi Shiyō", called "Koi Shiyō (Yasutaka Nakata-Capsule Mix)".

2008–2011: "Communication!!!", marriage, and pregnancy.

After the release of "Destiny Line", Dizon continued with two singles: "Love Paradox" and "Vanilla" (both 2008). Her second album, "Communication!!!", was released in August 2008. "Under the Same Sky" was used as the theme song for the Japanese drama "Tokyo Prom Queen", while "Lost At Sea" was used for season 2. She made a guest appearance on the show as Naomi, the prom queen from the previous year, through photos and video snippets. She herself never actually appeared.  In February 2008, Dizon began dating her stylist Bun (born 1979), whom she had met while shooting the music video for "Love Paradox". On October 10, 2008, while three months pregnant, Dizon married Bun in a traditional Japanese ceremony. These initial stages were chronicled and announced during her "Communication!!! Album Tour" several days after the marriage. The couple's daughter,, was born on April 24, 2009.  On February 14, 2010, Dizon appeared on live television and discussed making cookies for Bun. Subsequently, she confessed that their relationship had been aversive ever since the birth. That same month, she was featured in a spread for "Glamorous Magazine", where she discussed motherhood and her hopes to return to the entertainment industry. It was her first magazine cover in nearly two years. On October 31, 2010, she announced that she and Bun had separated and filed for divorce earlier that month, and she was seeking full custody of their child. According to Dizon, the split was due to "busy schedules and inability to meet regularly differing opinions toward raising children" alongside "irreconcilable differences". According to a statement released on February 22, 2011 by Dizon's agency, Dizon received full custody of their daughter Mila and details of their arrangement were private. Their divorce was finalized in December 2010. Dizon subsequently attended the Stella Adler Studio of Acting in New York City, where she graduated in December 2012. After graduating, Dizon stated that she would like to return to Japan for work in the future.  In June 2011, Dizon filmed commercials in Manhattan for Shonan Cosmetic Surgery Clinic. The commercials were released on August 17, 2011.

2012–present: Return to Japan.

On December 14, 2012, Dizon announced that she had signed a contract with a talent agency in the US, and would also be accepting any offers for Japanese work if she were to receive any.  On June 2, 2013, it was reported that Dizon was slated to record the theme song for the upcoming "Samurai & Dragons" video game. The track was released June 26, 2013.  It was reported by the magazine" Joseijishin "in June 2013 that Dizon's ex-husband Bun had stopped paying child support for their daughter, which was the main reason Dizon returned to Japan. "Apparently his business partner went bankrupt. But he needs to continue his responsibility for his daughter," Dizon is reported to have said. She now lives in Las Vegas with her mother and daughter.  As of 2018, Dizon was a senior at Nevada State University, majoring in social psychology, and had plans to attend graduate school.  In June 2019, it was announced that she was resuming her activities and would be releasing a mini-album titled "For The World" with a fan meet to follow. The lead single was released July 16.  On March 23, it was announced that she would be releasing a new EP titled "Only You" slated for March 27.

Leah Donna Dizon (born September 24, 1986) is a "gaijin tarento", singer, and model. Born and raised in Las Vegas, Nevada, she moved to Tokyo, Japan in 2006 to pursue a career in entertainment. She made her recording debut on Victor Entertainment later that same year.

莉亚·多娜·迪桑(英语:Leah Donna Dizon,1986年-9月24日)是一位模特儿和歌手,生于美国拉斯维加斯,父亲为菲律宾华人,母亲为法裔美国人。她有两位胞兄,一位胞姐和两位胞弟,她是家中六人兄弟姊妹中的次女。2008年10月14日,她在舞台上宣布已经怀孕4个月,及与其私人造型师Bun结婚,惟于2010年年底离婚。现是一女之母。


Overview.

Penguin was originally developed in a collaboration between the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (NDRE; Norw. "FFI") and Kongsberg Våpenfabrikk starting in the early 1960s, with financial support from the U.S. and West Germany. US Navy test facilities and technical assistance were made available to facilitate development. It was the first NATO AShM with an IR seeker (instead of the commonly used active radar technology) and both hardware and software has been updated since entering series production in 1972.  Initial installation was in 500 kg deck-mounted box launchers with snap-open doors. These were designed for minimal deck intrusion, so as to be retrofitted to existing small ships. The first such installations were on Snøgg-class and Storm-class patrol boats of the Norwegian Navy. The first airborne installations were on F-104Gs of the Norwegian Air Force, the missiles being fitted to standard Bullpup rails on the two underwing hardpoints.  Fire-control was provided by a Kongsberg SM-3 computer which could cue the missiles based on either active radar or passive ESM data.  The Penguin can be fired singly or in coordinated-arrival salvoes. Once launched the launching craft is free to turn-away as the missile is inertially guided until the autonomous terminal homing phase. Propelled by a solid rocket engine, latest variants of Penguin can perform random weaving maneuvres at target approach and strike the target close to the waterline.  Of NATO's inventory of such missiles, it is the only variant that performs a terminal bunt and weave manoeuvre (although the US Harpoon missile retains its ability to execute a terminal bunt). The 120 kg warhead (originally based on that of the AGM-12 Bullpup, built under license by Kongsberg) detonates inside the target ship by using a delay fuze. The MK3 when launched from high altitudes can initially act as a glidebomb, only firing its rocket engine to extend range, or ideally to achieve maximum speed before hitting the target; for better penetration. In its various versions, the Penguin can be launched from a number of different weapons platforms:  KDA's successor to the Penguin is the Naval Strike Missile (NSM), offered from 2007 onwards. NSM features an imaging IR-seeker, GPS navigation, a turbojet sustainer engine (for much longer ranges: 150+ km), and significantly more computer performance and digital signal processing power.

The Penguin anti-ship missile, designated AGM-119 by the U.S. military, is a Norwegian passive IR seeker-based short-to-medium range anti-ship guided missile, designed for naval use.

AGM-119企鹅反舰导弹是一种反舰导弹,由康斯堡国防与航太(KDA)生产,最早由挪威防卫研发局(NDRE; Norw. "FFI")于1960年代开始研制。 到1970年代之后又有许多升级方案,企鹅导弹是被动红外线导引的短中程反舰导弹,也是西方世界的第一款红外线导引反舰导弹(其他反舰导弹都以雷达导引为主要制导方式)。


History.

Lyman County was created in 1873 and organized in 1893. Oacoma served as its first county seat in 1891; in 1922 the seat was transferred to Kennebec.

Geography.

Lyman County is bordered on the north and east by the Missouri River, which flows southerly along its edge, and the western portion of its south line is also delineated by the White River, which then continued flowing eastward through the county's eastern area to discharge into the Missouri. Its upper central portion is drained by the Bad Horse Creek, which discharges into the Missouri near the midpoint of the county's north boundary.  The county terrain consists of rolling hills, sloping to the river drainages. Its area is largely devoted to agriculture. The county has a total area of, of which is land and (3.8%) is water.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 3,895 people, 1,400 households, and 1,009 families in the county. The population density was 2 people per square mile (1/km2). There were 1,636 housing units at an average density of 1.0 per square mile (0.4/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 64.75% White, 0.08% Black or African American, 33.27% Native American, 0.23% Asian, 0.05% from other races, and 1.62% from two or more races. 0.46% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 1,400 households out of which 36.10% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.40% were married couples living together, 13.80% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.90% were non-families. 24.60% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.29.  The county population contained 32.10% under the age of 18, 7.60% from 18 to 24, 25.90% from 25 to 44, 20.90% from 45 to 64, and 13.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 104.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.10 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $28,509, and the median income for a family was $32,028. Males had a median income of $22,628 versus $18,672 for females. The per capita income for the county was $13,862. About 19.40% of families and 24.30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.00% of those under age 18 and 12.90% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 3,755 people, 1,392 households, and 967 families in the county. The population density was. There were 1,704 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 58.3% white, 38.2% American Indian, 0.3% Asian, 0.1% black or African American, 0.1% from other races, and 2.9% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1.1% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 27.3% were German, 9.2% were Irish, 9.1% were Norwegian, and 1.0% were American.  Of the 1,392 households, 35.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.1% were married couples living together, 15.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 30.5% were non-families, and 27.2% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.19. The median age was 36.1 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $36,323 and the median income for a family was $45,045. Males had a median income of $32,760 versus $25,512 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,930. About 17.4% of families and 18.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.4% of those under age 18 and 5.8% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Lyman County voters have been Republican for decades. In no national election has the county selected a Democratic Party candidate since 1964, although Jimmy Carter, Michael Dukakis, Bill Clinton and Barack Obama have all managed to exceed forty percent. When Hillary Clinton ran on the Democratic ticket in 2016, she won 26 percent of the county’s vote, for the lowest Democratic result since Alton B. Parker in 1904 (22 percent).

Lyman County is a county located in the U.S. state of South Dakota. As of the 2010 census, the population was 3,755. Its county seat is Kennebec.

莱曼县(英语:Lyman County)是位于美国南达科他州中部的一个县,东界密苏里河。面积4,421平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口3,895人。县治肯纳贝克 (Kennebec)。


Early life.

The son of a cardiologist, Trohman was born in Hollywood, Florida. He was raised in South Russell, Ohio before his family moved to the Chicago area. His family is Jewish, although he noted to "JVibe", "I think we were more Jewish culturally than we were religiously because after my brother's bar mitzvah, we stopped going to synagogue entirely." Trohman and Fall Out Boy bassist Pete Wentz attended New Trier High School in Winnetka, Illinois, and Trohman played bass with Wentz in a band called Arma Angelus.

Musical career.

Trohman became involved with the Chicago hardcore punk scene, with his first band being Voices Still Heard he formed with friends. At the age of fifteen he taught himself how to play guitar, and at age sixteen, he joined local band Arma Angelus and spent a summer touring as the group's bassist. He developed a friendship with the group's singer, Pete Wentz, and the pair discussed forming a more melodic band influenced by groups such as Green Day. Trohman then met Patrick Stump in a Borders bookstore, and recruited him to join the band, which was subsequently named Fall Out Boy. With bassist Pete Wentz as Fall Out Boy's primary lyricist and vocalist Patrick Stump as the primary composer, Fall Out Boy reached mainstream success with its major label debut, "From Under the Cork Tree". Released in 2005 by Island Records, the album debuted on the US "Billboard" 200 at No. 9, won several awards and achieved triple platinum status after selling more than 3.5 million albums in the United States. The album spawned two top 10 hits; "Sugar, We're Goin Down" which reached No. 8 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and has sold more than 4.5 million copies in the US as of 2019, as well as "Dance, Dance" which peaked at No. 9 and certified triple platinum. To support the album, the band headlined tours around the world in 2005 and 2006.  In 2007, the band released the follow-up album "Infinity on High", to major chart success, debuting No. 1 on the "Billboard" 200 with first week sales of 260,000. The album was certified platinum one month after its release. "Infinity on High"'s lead single, "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race", reached No. 1 on the defunct-Pop 100, No. 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and later certified platinum. The second single, "Thnks fr th Mmrs", sold more than 2 million copies in the US.  In 2008, the band released their fifth studio album, "Folie à Deux" which debuted at No. 8 on the "Billboard" 200 with 150,000 first week sales and was later certified gold. The band opened for Blink-182's 2009 reunion tour and shortly released their first greatest hits compilation album, "Believers Never Die - Greatest Hits" in November 2009 before announcing an indefinite hiatus. Patrick Stump embarked on a solo career and Pete Wentz created the DJ duo Black Cards. Trohman and Fall Out Boy bandmate Andy Hurley started a band called The Damned Things with Anthrax members Scott Ian and Rob Caggiano and Every Time I Die vocalist Keith Buckley and bassist Josh Newton. They released their debut album in 2010, "Ironiclast". Trohman then began work on a new band With Knives with Newton, releasing a debut EP, "Schadenfreude" in April 2012.  On February 4, 2013, Fall Out Boy unexpectedly announced their return and became Trohman's primary music focus. April 12 of the same year, the band released a new album entitled, "Save Rock and Roll," a new song, "My Songs Know What You Did in the Dark (Light Em Up)," and dates for a new tour. The band played their first show in over three years on the night of February 4 in Chicago. 'Save Rock and Roll' peaked at No. 1 on the "Billboard" 200, selling 154,000 copies in its first week, becoming the band's 4th consecutive top 10 album. The band toured heavily throughout 2013 and 2014 on the album, selling out arenas worldwide with bands like Paramore and Panic! at the Disco In October 2013, they released a new EP, "PAX AM Days" which was an homage to the classic punk music the band grew up on. The entire EP was recorded in two days with producer Ryan Adams.  Their sixth album "American Beauty/American Psycho" was released in January 2015, preceded by the 4x Platinum top 10 single "Centuries". "Uma Thurman" was released to mainstream radio on April 14, 2015 and peaked at 22 on the 'Billboard' Hot 100, and was certified Double-Platinum. The third single from American Beauty/American Psycho "Irresistible" also landed on the 'Billboard' Hot 100 and peaked at number 48, while also later being certified platinum in the US.  In April 2017, Fall Out Boy released Young and Menace, the lead single for the seventh studio album. The band's seventh album "Mania" was officially released January 19, 2018 and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, making it the band's third consecutive and fourth chart-topping debut overall.  In 2018 Fall Out Boy headlined Wrigley Field in the band's hometown of Chicago, marking a milestone in their career as their first headline show at a stadium.

Equipment.

Trohman collects guitars, and has his own Signature guitar made by Squier Guitars by Fender, the Joe Trohman Telecaster. He currently plays Fender Telecasters, and Fender Stratocaster in studio or live. He had previously used Washburn guitars and a Gibson SG.

Personal life.

Trohman is married to Marie Trohman and the couple have two daughters together, Ruby and Zayda Mae.  Trohman's house in Chicago was featured in a 2007 episode of "MTV Cribs".

Joseph Mark Trohman (born September 1, 1984) is an American guitarist, singer, and record producer. He is best known as the lead guitarist and backing vocalist of the American rock band Fall Out Boy, as well as the lead and rhythm guitarist for a heavy metal supergroup The Damned Things. Fall Out Boy began as Trohman and Pete Wentz's side project from the hardcore punk scene they were involved with, and the band has scored four number one albums on the US "Billboard" 200, as well as numerous platinum and multi platinum singles in the US and abroad.

乔瑟夫·马克·特洛曼(英语:Joseph Mark Trohman,1984年-9月1日),美国歌手,出生于美国佛罗里达州好莱坞。是来自芝加哥的流行庞克乐团打倒男孩(Fall Out Boy)的主吉他手。


Economy.

Paraguana currently contains two large oil refineries, and the third largest oil refinery complex in the world, the Paraguaná Refinery Complex. Most of the oil that PDVSA acquires is processed in this complex. Many engineers that worked in the refineries have moved to the United States to work at Citgo.  Paraguana is a duty-free zone, therefore many international shops, notably Arabian, have opened.  While most of the economy is centered on the oil industry, tourism is growing. While most of the tourists come from other parts of Venezuela, many tourists come from surrounding countries such as Colombia, Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, and even a few tourists from the United States. The beaches serve as a large part of tourist attraction. There is a luxury beachfront hotel called Eurobuilding Villa Caribe. Paraguana also takes advantage of the duty-free shopping for tourism and opened a Paraguana Mall which is used for that. Two shopping malls are in the area. The mall, Las Virtudes, attracts a lot of people, and the mall, Sambil Paraguana, attracts many tourists, and has a luxury hotel, Lidotel, in it. Western news sources point to Paraguaná as being an ongoing construction site for launch purposes in connection with Iranian-manufactured and imported ballistic missiles to the Bolivarian Republic under agreement of the late president, Hugo Chavez.  The peninsula is served by Josefa Camejo International Airport in Punto Fijo, among others.  Supermercado La Franco Italiana used to be headquartered in the peninsula, until it was merged with Supermercados De Candido, which maintains branches there.

The Paraguaná Peninsula () is a peninsula in Venezuela, situated in the north of Falcón State, and comprises the municipalities of Carirubana, Los Taques and Falcón. The island of Aruba lies 27 km to the north. Bonaire and Curaçao are slightly further away. The Paraguaná Peninsula is connected to the rest of the state by a natural isthmus of Médanos. The Peninsula contains two oil refineries, in the West city of Punto Fijo. The output of these refineries is shipped internationally through the ports of Amuay and Cardón. The Peninsula of Paraguana lies in the Caribbean.

帕拉瓜纳半岛()也作巴拉瓜纳半岛、帕拉古亚纳半岛,位于委内瑞拉西北部,法尔孔州境内。东临加勒比海,西濒委内瑞拉湾,南北长约60公里,海岸线长约300公里,是委内瑞拉最大的半岛。殖民时期该半岛是海盗和走私客的天堂。半岛地势低缓,土地贫瘠,缺乏淡水,人烟稀少。半岛上主要饲养山羊以取羊奶、奶酪和肉为食。羊皮出口,羊粪则制成肥料。沿岸海滩景色秀丽,是委内瑞拉重要旅游景点。


Early history.

Pohukaina and the House of Kamehameha.

In the early 19th century, the area near an ancient burial site was known as Pohukaina. It is believed to be the name of a chief (sometimes spelled Pahukaina) who according to legend chose a cave in Kanehoalani in the Koʻolau Range for his resting place. The land belonged to Kekauluohi, who later ruled as Kuhina Nui, as part of her birthright. She lived there with her husband Charles Kanaina. Kekūanāoʻa also had his home just west of Kekauluohi called "Haliimaile" and Keoni Ana lived in Kīnaʻu Hale (which was later converted into the residence of the royal chamberlain), all members of the House of Kamehameha.  This area was a sacred burial site for the aliʻi (ruling class). Kekāuluohi and Kanaʻina's original home was similar to that of the other estates in the neighborhood consisting of small buildings used for different purposes. The sitting and sleeping area had a folding door entrance of green painted wood under glass upper panels. The house had two rooms separated by a festooned tent door of chintz fabric and was carpeted with hand crafted makaloa mats. In the front was a lounge area opposite a sideboard and mirror. In the middle they placed a semi circle of armchairs with a center table where the couple would write. Four matching cabinet-bookshelves with glass doors were set in each corner of the room with silk scarves hanging from each. In his book, "A visit to the South Seas, in the U.S. Ship Vincennes: during the years 1829 and 1830", Charles Samuel Stewart describes the area and homes in detail.  Next to their home was an old estate that had been demolished called "Hanailoia". This was the spot oral history told of an ancient heiau (temple to the Hawaiian religion) called Kaʻahaimauli that was destroyed here. In July 1844 Kekūanāoʻa began building a large home here as a gift to his daughter Victoria Kamāmalu. Instead, Kamehameha III would buy the estate and use as his Royal Residence after moving the capitol of the kingdom to Honolulu. It would become the Iolani Palace. As older alii died, the lands were passed down and concentrated into fewer hands. Kekāuluohi's lands were passed down to her from the Kamehameha family. When she died, she left her accumulated lands and wealth to her son, not her husband Kanaʻina however, Lunalilo predeceased his father.

Tomb.

Years after 1825, the first Western-style royal tomb was constructed for the bodies of King Kamehameha II and his queen Kamāmalu. They were buried on August 23, 1825. The idea was heavily influenced by the tombs at Westminster Abbey during Kamehameha II's trip to London. The mausoleum was a small house made of coral blocks with a thatched roof. It had no windows, and it was the duty of two chiefs to guard the iron-locked koa door day and night. No one was allowed to enter the vault except for burials or Memorial Day, a Hawaiian holiday celebrated on December 30.  Over time, as more bodies were added, the small vault became crowded, so other chiefs and retainers were buried in unmarked graves nearby. In 1865 a selected 20 coffins were removed to the Royal Mausoleum of Hawaii called Mauna ʻAla in Nuʻuanu Valley. But many chiefs remain on the site including: Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku, Kalaniopuu, Chiefess Kapiolani, and Timothy Haalilio.  After being overgrown for many years, the Hawaiian Historical Society passed a resolution in 1930 requesting Governor Lawrence Judd to memorialize the site with the construction of a metal fence enclosure and a plaque. Tradition holds that the tomb was on the site of a former cave.

Hale Aliʻi.

The home built by Kekūanāoʻa was a wood and stone building called "Hale Aliʻi" meaning (House of the Chiefs). It had only one-third the floor space of the present palace. Mataio Kekūanāoʻa, who was long-time Royal Governor of Oʻahu and husband of Kīnaʻu, the daughter of Kamehameha I. He built the large home for his daughter Princess Victoria Kamāmalu who, from birth, was expected to rule in some capacity. It was purchased by King Kamehameha III from Kamāmalu (the King's niece) when he moved his capital from Lahaina to Honolulu in 1845.  It was constructed as a traditional aliʻi residence with only ceremonial spaces, no sleeping rooms. It just had a throne room, a reception room, and a state dining room, with other houses around for sleeping and for retainers. Kamehameha III slept in a cooler grass hut around the palace. He called his home "Hoʻihoʻikea", a separate building flanking the palace on the west side in honor of his restoration after the Paulet Affair of 1843. Kamehameha IV build a separate house on the east side of the palace called "Ihikapukalani" (on the mauka side) and "Kauluhinano" (on the makai side).

ʻIolani Palace.

During Kamehameha V's reign Hale Aliʻi's name was changed to "ʻIolani Palace", after his brother Kamehameha IV's given names (his full name was Alexander Liholiho Keawenui ʻIolani). It refers to the ʻIo (royal hawk). The Palace served as the official residence of the monarch during the reigns of Kamehameha III, Kamehameha IV, Kamehameha V, Lunalilo, and the first part of Kalākaua's reign. The original structure was very simple in design and was more of a stately home than a palace, but at the time, it was the grandest house in town. The palace was largely meant for receiving foreign dignitaries and state functions with the monarch preferring to sleep in private homes.

Seat of government.

Kamehameha I formed his official government at Lahaina, Maui in 1802, where he built the kingdom's first royal residence called the Brick Palace. The Lahaina palace remained the seat of government under the first three Kamehameha monarchs until 1845 when Kamehameha III moved the royal court. Lahaina had been the seat of government, where the royal courts of many chiefs of Maui had been located, including Kahekili II until 1794. In 1845 Kamehameha III moved the Royal Court and capitol to Honolulu. Hale Ali'i would become the seat of government and would remain so through the subsequent Kamehameha monarchs. After 1874, the main seat of government was transferred to the new central government building left by Kamehameha V. After the overthrow the provisional government would use the Iolani Palace as the seat of government. While a territory, the palace was called: The Capitol of the Territorial Government. It would also serve as the first state capitol building. The area was culturally significant as a seat of government for many reasons including the palaces size, orientation and other factors of religious importance and bridged the ancient history of Hawaii with the new 19th century monarchy.

Kalākaua's ʻIolani Palace.

By the time David Kalākaua assumed the throne, the original Iolani Palace was in poor condition, suffering from ground termite damage. He ordered the old palace to be razed.  Kalākaua was the first monarch to travel around the world. While visiting Europe, he took note of the grand palaces owned by other monarchs. Like Kamehameha V, he dreamed of a royal palace befitting the monarch of a modern state. He commissioned the construction of a new Iolani Palace, directly across the street from Aliiōlani Hale, to become the official palace of the Hawaiian monarchy.

Design and construction.

Three architects, Thomas J. Baker, Charles J. Wall, and Isaac Moore, contributed to the design; of these, Baker designed the structure, while Wall and Moore offered other details. The cornerstone was laid December 31, 1879 during the administration of Minister of the Interior Samuel Gardner Wilder. It was built of brick with concrete facing. The building was completed in November 1882 and cost over $340,000 — a vast fortune at the time. It measures about by, and rises two stories over a raised basement to high. It has four corner towers and two in the center rising to. On February 12, 1883 a formal European-style coronation ceremony was held, even though Kalākaua had reigned for 9 years. The coronation pavilion officially known as "Keliiponi Hale" was later moved to the southwest corner of the grounds and converted to a bandstand for the Royal Hawaiian Band.  Iolani Palace features architecture seen nowhere else in the world. This unique style is known as American Florentine. On the first floor a grand hall faces a staircase of "koa" wood. Ornamental plaster decorates the interior. The throne room (southeast corner), the blue meeting room, and the dining room adjoin the hall. The blue room included a large 1848 portrait of King Louis Philippe of France and a koa wood piano where Liliuokalani played her compositions for guests. Upstairs are the private library and bedrooms of the Hawaiian monarchs. It had electricity and telephones even before the White House.  It served as the official residence of the Hawaiian monarch until the 1893 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Therein not only Liliuokalani, but, Queen Kapiolani and other royal retainers were evicted from the palace after the overthrow.  The palace is the only official state residence of royalty on U.S. soil.

Royal imprisonment and trial.

Upon the overthrow of the monarchy by the Committee of Safety in 1893, troops of the newly formed Provisional Government of Hawaii took control of Iolani Palace. After a few months government offices moved in and it was renamed the "Executive Building" for the Republic of Hawaii. Government officials carefully inventoried its contents and sold at public auctions whatever furniture or furnishings were not suitable for government operations. Queen Liliuokalani was imprisoned for nine months in a small room on the upper floor after the second of the Wilcox rebellions in 1895. The quilt she made is still there. The trial was held in the former throne room. When a proposed annexation treaty up for ratification, the Hawaiian Patriotic League held a protest rally at the palace on September 6, 1897. They gathered petition signatures in an effort to demonstrate the treaty did not have popular support. On August 12, 1898 U.S. troops from the came ashore and raised the Flag of the United States at the palace to mark the annexation by the Newlands Resolution. The Queen and other Hawaiian nobles did not attend, staying at Washington Place instead. The building served as the capitol of the Territory of Hawaii, the military headquarters during World War II, and the State of Hawaii. During the government use of the palace, the second floor royal bedroom became the governor's office, while the legislature occupied the entire first floor. The representatives met in the former throne room and the senate in the former dining room.  When Liliuokalani died in 1917, territorial governor Lucius E. Pinkham accorded her the honor of a state funeral in the throne room of the palace.

Archives.

After annexation, there was a fear that all records would be moved to the mainland. Since an 1847 effort by Robert Crichton Wyllie, a set of archives had been kept of all kingdom records. A new fireproof building was built in 1906 on the grounds just to the southeast of the palace. It included a vault by with steel shelves. At first it was to be called the Hall of Records, but the name Archives of Hawaii made it clear the documents included those from the kingdom. A new Kekāuluohi building provides digital access to some of the collections.

Palace restoration.

In 1930 the interior of ʻIolani Palace was remodeled, and wood framing replaced by steel and reinforced concrete. The name ʻIolani Palace was officially restored in 1935. During World War II, it served as the temporary headquarters for the military governor in charge of martial law in the Hawaiian Islands.  The Hawaiian soldiers of Japanese ancestry who were accepted for service in the U.S. Army became the core of the 442nd Infantry Regiment. Before leaving Hawaii for training on the mainland, they were sworn in during a mass ceremony on the grounds of the Palace.  Through more than 70 years as a functional but neglected government building, the Palace fell into disrepair. After Hawaii became a state, Governor John A. Burns began an effort to restore the palace in the 1960s. The first step was to move the former ʻIolani Barracks building from its original position northeast of the palace. It now serves as a visitors center for the palace.  ʻIolani Palace was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 29, 1962 and added as site 66000293 to the National Register of Historic Places listings in Oahu on October 15, 1966. Government offices vacated the Palace in 1969 and moved to the newly constructed Hawaii State Capitol building on the former barracks site. In preparation for restoration, the Junior League of Honolulu researched construction, furnishings, and palace lifestyle in nineteenth-century newspapers, photographs and archival manuscripts. Overseeing the restoration was The Friends of ʻIolani Palace, founded by Liliʻuokalani Kawānanakoa Morris, grand-niece of Queen Kapiʻolani. Two wooden additions were removed and the interior was restored based on original plans.  Through the efforts of acquisitions researchers and professional museum staff, and donations of individuals, many original Palace objects have been returned. Government grants and private donations funded reproduction of original fabrics and finishes to restore Palace rooms to their monarchy era appearance. ʻIolani Palace opened to the public in 1978 after structural restoration of the building was completed. In the basement is a photographic display of the Palace, orders and decorations given by the monarchs, and an exhibit outlining restoration efforts.  The grounds of ʻIolani Palace are managed by the Hawaiʻi State Department of Land and Natural Resources but the palace building itself is managed as a historical house museum by the Friends of ʻIolani Palace, a non-profit non-governmental organization. The birthdays of King Kalākaua (November 16) and Queen Kapiʻolani (December 28) are celebrated with ceremonies.  ʻIolani Palace is one of the only places in Hawaii where the flag of Hawaii can officially fly alone without the American flag; the other three places are Puʻuhonua o Hōnaunau Heiau, the Mauna ʻAla and Thomas Square.

Contemporary events.

On January 17, 1993, a massive observation was held on the grounds of ʻIolani Palace to mark the 100th anniversary of the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. A torchlight vigil was held at night, with the palace draped in black.  On April 30, 2008, ʻIolani Palace was overtaken by a group of native Hawaiians who called themselves the Hawaiian Kingdom Government to protest what they view as illegitimate rule by the United States. Mahealani Kahau, "head of state" of the group, said they do not recognize Hawaiʻi as a U.S. state, but would keep the occupation of the palace peaceful. "The Hawaiian Kingdom Government is here and it doesn't plan to leave. This is a continuity of the Hawaiian Kingdom of 1892 to today," Kahau said. Friends of ʻIolani Palace released a statement stating: "We respect the freedom of Hawaiian groups to hold an opinion on the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, we believe that blocking public access to Iolani Palace is wrong and certainly detrimental to our mission to share the Palace and its history with our residents, our "keiki" (children), and our visitors."  An exterior view of the Palace was frequently shown on the TV show "Hawaii Five-O", suggesting it hosted the offices of the fictional state police unit featured on the show. It was also later portrayed in the late 1980s and early nineties as the headquarters of the Honolulu Prosecuting Attorney, including "Jason McCabe" in the TV series "Jake and the Fatman".  A movie titled "Princess Kaiulani" about Princess Victoria Kaʻiulani Cleghorn was filmed at the palace in 2008.

The Iolani Palace was the royal residence of the rulers of the Kingdom of Hawaii beginning with Kamehameha III under the Kamehameha Dynasty (1845) and ending with Queen Liliʻuokalani (1893) under the Kalākaua Dynasty, founded by her brother, King David Kalākaua. It is located in the capitol district of downtown Honolulu in the U.S. state of Hawaii. It is now a National Historic Landmark listed on the National Register of Historic Places. After the monarchy was overthrown in 1893, the building was used as the capitol building for the Provisional Government, Republic, Territory, and State of Hawaii until 1969. The palace was restored and opened to the public as a museum in 1978. The ʻIolani Palace is the only royal palace on US soil.

伊奥拉尼宫(英语:ʻIolani Palace)位于美国夏威夷州的檀香山市,它是由夏威夷王国国王卡拉卡瓦所建造的欧洲风格式皇宫。在1893年夏威夷王国遭到推翻后,伊奥拉尼宫曾陆续作为夏威夷临时政府、共和国、领地乃至于夏威夷州等历代夏威夷治理政权的管理中枢,直到1969年州政府迁入夏威夷州议会大厦办公之后才结束。


Education.

While attending Tamalpais High School, in Mill Valley, California, he placed third in the 1977 USA Mathematical Olympiad. After graduating that year, he won a silver medal at the International Math Olympiad in Yugoslavia (the U.S. team achieved the most points per country that year). He received his B.S. in Mathematics in 1981 for undergraduate work at Caltech, and was a Putnam Fellow in 1978. He earned his Ph.D. in Applied Mathematics from MIT in 1985. His doctoral advisor was F. Thomson Leighton, and his thesis was on probabilistic analysis of bin-packing algorithms.

Career.

After graduating, he spent one year as a postdoctoral researcher at the University of California, Berkeley, and then accepted a position at Bell Laboratories. It was there he developed Shor's algorithm, for which he was awarded the Nevanlinna Prize at the 23rd International Congress of Mathematicians in 1998 and the Gödel Prize in 1999. In 1999 he was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship. In 2017 he received the Dirac Medal of the ICTP and for 2019 the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in Basic Sciences.  Shor began his MIT position in 2003. Currently the Henry Adams Morss and Henry Adams Morss, Jr. Professor of Applied Mathematics in the Department of Mathematics at MIT, he also is affiliated with CSAIL and the Center for Theoretical Physics (CTP).  He received a Distinguished Alumni Award from Caltech in 2007.  On October 1, 2011, he was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was elected as an ACM Fellow in 2019 "for contributions to quantum computing, information theory, and randomized algorithms".

External links.

Lectures and panels

Peter Williston Shor (born August 14, 1959) is an American professor of applied mathematics at MIT. He is known for his work on quantum computation, in particular for devising Shor's algorithm, a quantum algorithm for factoring exponentially faster than the best currently-known algorithm running on a classical computer.

彼得·威利斯顿·秀尔(英语:Peter Williston Shor,1959年-8月14日),出生于美国纽约市,美国计算机科学家,目前为美国麻省理工学院的应用数学系教授,其最伟大的事迹为提出在量子电脑应用上的「秀尔算法」(又称量子质因子分解算法),因其证明量子电脑能做出对数运算,而且速度远胜传统电脑,对于现在通行于银行及网络等处的RSA加密算法可以破解而构成威胁。


Early life.

Serratos was born in Pasadena, California and raised in Burbank, California. Her mother is a jewelry designer, and public relations and marketing agent at ACSPR and is of Mexican descent. Her father is a set construction worker of Italian descent. She began figure skating when she was 3 and continued competitively, saying, "My coaches were talking about the Olympics and it was really crazy. Now, I just do it for fun." At the age of 7, she signed with the Ford Modeling Agency.

Career.

Serratos played Suzie Crabgrass in the Nickelodeon series "Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide", which debuted in 2004 and ended in 2007 after three seasons.  Serratos' role as Angela Weber in "Twilight" won her the "Young Supporting Actress" award in the Best Performance in a Feature Film category at the 30th Young Artist Awards. Serratos reprised the role in "Twilight"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s sequels "" and "". In 2011, she appeared in The Black Keys video for their song "Howlin' for You".  She played the recurring character of Rosita Espinosa in the fourth season of AMC's series "The Walking Dead", making her first appearance at the end of the tenth episode, "Inmates". For her character Rosita, she was upped to series regular in the fifth season, and was added to the series' main credits in the seventh season.

Appearances.

She ranked at No. 65 on "Maxim"s "Hot 100" list for 2010. In the March 2015 issue of "Playboy" magazine, Serratos was featured in the "After Hours" section.

Personal life.

Serratos is an animal activist. She has posed for a number of PETA campaigns promoting a vegan lifestyle.  In March 2017, Serratos revealed that she was expecting her first child with her longtime boyfriend, New Politics singer David Boyd. On May 14, 2017, Serratos revealed a picture of her daughter on Instagram.

Christian Marie Serratos (born Bernardi, ; born September 21, 1990) is an American actress who plays Rosita Espinosa in AMC's "The Walking Dead" TV series, based on the comic book of the same name. She is also known for playing Suzie Crabgrass in the Nickelodeon series "Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide" and Angela Weber in "The Twilight Saga" series. She is cast to play Selena in "", an upcoming Netflix series in 2020.

克莉丝汀·玛莉亚·瑟拉图丝(英语:Christian Marie Serratos;1990年-9月21日),又称为「克莉丝汀·瑟拉图丝」,是一位拥有墨西哥及意大利血统的美国女演员,她因出演2008年的电影《暮光之城:无惧的爱》饰演安琪拉·韦伯一角而知名,2014年更是在《阴尸路》的第四季开始饰演萝西塔·艾丝皮诺瑟一角而亮相。


Name.

Although a crayfish, the species is locally known as the giant freshwater lobster. In Tasmanian Aboriginal language (palawa kani) the giant freshwater lobster is referred to as lutaralipina. Previously, it has been common to use ‘tayatea’ as the Aboriginal name for "A. gouldi". However, historical record does not support the use of this word for this species. The palawa kani Language Program of the Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre has revived ‘lutaralipina’ (pronounced: lu-tar-rah-lee-pee-nah) as the appropriate Tasmanian Aboriginal term for the giant freshwater crayfish ("A. gouldi"); and ‘tayatitja’ (pronounced: tie-yah-tee-tchah) for the small southern freshwater crayfish ("A. franklinii").  The specific epithet of the scientific name, "Astacopsis gouldi", honours the first Tasmanian Government Geological Surveyor Charles Gould (1834-1893), son of the 19th century English ornithologist John Gould and natural history illustrator Elizabeth Gould (née Coxen). Charles Gould was an amateur naturalist and member of the Royal Society of Tasmania who published observations on the giant freshwater lobster's distribution, diet and habits in 1870. "Astacopsis gouldi" was first formally described in 1936 by Ellen Clark, a naturalist specialising in Australia's crustaceans. Prior to Clark's revision in 1936, all three of Tasmania's large stream-dwelling crayfish of the genus "Astacopsis" were collectively known as "Astacopsis franklinii" in honour of the polar explorer and Governor of Van Diemen's Land Sir John Franklin. "Astacopsis franklinii" now refers only to the smaller southern species, while the medium sized western species is known as "Astacopsis tricornis" and "Astacopis gouldi" refers exclusively to the giant northern crayfish. It is a common misconception that "A. gouldi" is named after the convict artist William Buelow Gould. WB Gould's "Sketchbook of fishes" produced at the Macquarie Harbour penal settlement contains an image of the large western Tasmanian freshwater crayfish "A. tricornis not A. gouldi".

Biology and ecology.

"A. gouldi" are omnivorous crustacean, primarily eating decaying wood, leaves and their associated microbes. They may also eat small fish, insects, rotting animal flesh and other detritus when available. Colour varies considerably among individuals, with adults ranging from dark brown-green to black or blue. For undetermined reasons, populations in the Frankland River system on the West Coast are predominantly found to be blue-white in colour. Males can be identified by their larger pincers compared to females. Young juveniles moult several times a year, becoming less frequent as they mature. The species is long lived and known to live up to 60 years of age and attain weights of up to, however in recent years specimens of are considered large.  Results from a genetic study indicated that specimens of "A. gouldi" from a site in the Pipers River catchment (north of Launceston) were significantly genetically distinct from the rest of the species.

Behaviour.

The dispersal and migratory patterns of "A. gouldi" are largely unknown, but they are recorded to be most active during summer and autumn when water temperatures are higher, they are also known to walk over land. A 2004 study found the species appears to have periods of relative inactivity restricted to a "home-pool" for 1–10 days interspersed with movements involving travel over relatively large distances, including one crayfish moving over 700 m in a single night.  Juveniles are suspected to migrate to seasonal creeks or shallow faster-flowing waters known as riffle zones where they are at less risk from predators including other crayfish, fish, platypus and rakali. Larger sub-adults (< carapace length) will move to deeper-flowing straight sections of the catchment. Adults have no natural predators and will take refuge in sheltered deep pools and appear to tolerate each other despite being aggressive elsewhere. Males are territorial and maintain a harem of up to several females.

Reproduction.

Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish have extremely slow maturation rates, with females reaching sexual maturity at approximately 14 years of age, a weight of and a carapace length of. Males are thought to reach maturity more quickly at around 9 years, and carapace length.  Females mate and spawn once every two years in autumn after a summer moult, producing 224–1300 eggs proportional to its size. Gestation of the eggs takes about nine months, with females carrying the eggs on their tail through winter. After hatching in mid-summer, the hatchlings of about attach to the female's swimming legs and will remain with the mother until a few months later in autumn. A long reproductive process means that females spend much of their life attached to their eggs and hatchlings.

Distribution and habitat.

Distribution.

"A. gouldi" inhabit rivers and streams at elevations of approximately above sea level, with upper limits of. Approximately 18% of the waterways in which the species habitat is predicted to occur are protected in a formal reserve.  Formerly, the species was distributed from the Arthur River in the west and eastwards across northern Tasmania, where it was found in all rivers flowing into Bass Strait, except for those of the Tamar catchment. Despite the two disjunct ranges, populations across these are genetically similar. The species has been introduced into the North Esk (St Patricks River) and the Derwent catchments where populations have become established. Today, distribution of "A. gouldi" is fragmented and limited to less disturbed areas. Large declines in numbers or localised extinctions are thought to have occurred in the Welcome, Montagu, Rubicon, Don, Brid, Boobyalla, Pipers, Ringarooma, Duck, Little and Great Forester Rivers and Claytons Rivulet. Eastern populations are particularly reduced.

Habitat.

"A. gouldi" inhabit slow-moving rivers and streams of several sizes including headwaters and rivulets. Water should be of high quality with high dissolved oxygen content, little suspended sediment, and water temperatures between, although relatively low temperatures are preferred. Adults need still, deep pools with submerged decaying logs and overhanging, but not eroding, banks to shelter beneath. Juveniles prefer shallow, faster-flowing stream habitats with distinct cavities to hide under and higher portions of bolder substrate and moss cover.  Excellent habitat requires intact, native riparian vegetation which is densely canopied and shades the waterways. However, the species has been recorded in confines of non-native riparian vegetation (e.g. pine plantations), without riparian vegetation and in farm dams. A 1994 study failed to find crayfish in waterways of established agricultural areas where all riparian vegetation had been removed.

Commercial importance.

Fishing for the giant freshwater crayfish was never a commercial proposition, and its slow growth and aggressive nature suggest that the species is not suitable for aquaculture. As an edible animal, they are further disadvantaged of being so spiny that they can cut hands if carelessly shelled after cooking, and they yield little meat relative to total weight. However, the striking nature of the species makes it a potential tourism drawcard.

Threats and conservation.

The principal causes for the population declines of the Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish have been previous overfishing, continued illegal fishing and habitat disturbance by agricultural, forestry and urban activities. Experts estimate there are less than 100,000 remaining in the wild. Land clearing typically requires approval with a Forest Practices Plan and 10m streamside buffers. Until recently, buffer zones only prohibited machinery operating near waterways with harvesting and burning permitted up to the stream edge.  "A. gouldi" is protected under the federal government Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and Tasmanian state government Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 which prohibit the fishing or handling of the species without permit. The effectiveness of some current conservation efforts are not fully determined and are subject to review in the 2016 Recovery Plan. Population surveys and behavioural research are being undertaken in order to be able to provide improved habitat management and protection.

Overfishing and illegal fishing.

The relative ease of catch, slow maturation (14 years for females), infrequent breeding (once every 2 years) and the removal of young when females are caught make "A. gouldi" highly susceptible to human fishing pressures. The larger individuals were targeted for eating and trophies, which has had a significant effect on breeding stock, completely removing populations from some river systems. The lack of any bag limit until the 1990s allowed overfishing to occur for many years.  In 1998, the species was listed as "vulnerable" under Australian law and an amendment to the Inland Fisheries Act 1995 made it illegal to catch or handle "A. gouldi" without a permit, carrying a maximum fine of A$10,000. Although past fishing pressures are believed to have had a significant impact on populations, a degree of illegal fishing is known to continue and has potential to significantly threaten the remaining populations. The level of illegal fishing is not fully known, but is evidenced by prosecutions, the presence of bait lines and anecdotal reports. New developments of roads and forestry tracks can consequentially allow illegal fishers to access previously unexploited populations.

Habitat disturbance.

Habitat disturbance for "A. gouldi" includes the removal or destruction of native riparian vegetation, bank erosion, removal of, stream flow alterations such as culverts and farm dams, siltation and toxic chemical runoffs.  The clearance of riparian vegetation causes the destabilisation of waterway banks, which impacts the burrowing habitats for "A. gouldi" and increases sediment runoff into waterways. Increased sediment levels arising from agricultural and forestry related land-uses have been correlated with decreased abundances of freshwater crayfish. The increase in turbidity impacts the ability of the crayfish to effectively transpire oxygen through its gills. Sediment depositions arising from upstream forestry operations have been observed to impact in-stream habitat for considerable distances downstream of up to 10 km. Loss of riparian canopy cover allows more light to reach the water and has a negative impact on habitat by increasing water temperatures.  While Tasmanian river basins have been found to be generally less impacted by flow alterations than other catchments across Australia, some river basins (such as the Mersey and Pipers–Ringarooma river basins) are heavily impacted by hydro-electric schemes, with the use of in-stream barriers reducing the dispersal potential of the crayfish. Water extraction for irrigated agriculture and urban water use is of concern to a lesser degree, however there has been an identified lack of contingency plans in the event of reduced environmental flows in waterways. Anecdotal reports indicate that low environmental flows caused the death of giant freshwater crayfish in several catchments in the north-west and north-east of Tasmania in 2006–07

Notable events.

In 1994, a large spill from a holding dam at a pyrethrum extraction plant caused a major kill in the Hogarth Rivulet and the main channel of the Great Forester River. Reports from locals and fisheries officers suggested that there was little life left in much of the main channel, and the incident is believed to have severely harmed any populations that were in the waterways at the time of the spill.  The 2016 Tasmanian floods, which killed 3 people, raised concerns about the future for the Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish after up to 100 carcasses were found washed up along the banks of the Leven River on a property in North West Tasmania, likely caused by the high water flows during the flood. Previous population surveys in the area had revealed already low numbers. There are further concerns that the floods displaced from waterways which are a vital part of the habitat for the species.

Identified important locations.

The "2006–2010 Giant Freshwater Lobster Recovery Plan" highlighted several catchments (or parts of) which had been identified to contain good habitat quality and good crayfish populations and should be considered for conservation efforts. Some areas require renewed evaluation since habitat quality may have changed since surveys were conducted. North-eastern Tasmanian rivers lacked sufficient data to fully determine all areas of importance.

The Tasmanian giant freshwater crayfish ("Astacopsis gouldi"), also called Tasmanian giant freshwater lobster, is the largest freshwater invertebrate and the largest freshwater crayfish species in the world. The species is only found in the rivers below above sea level in northern Tasmania, an island-state of Australia. It is listed as an endangered species on the IUCN Red List due to overfishing and habitat degradation, and it has been prohibited to catch the crayfish since 1998.

塔斯马尼亚巨型螯虾(学名:"")原产于塔斯马尼亚岛的淡水里,是世界上体型最大的淡水虾。其寿命也很长,可达60年。


Basic concepts.

Consider, for purposes of illustration, a mountainous landscape "M". If "f" is the function formula_1 sending each point to its elevation, then the inverse image of a point in formula_2 is a contour line (more generally, a level set). Each connected component of a contour line is either a point, a simple closed curve, or a closed curve with a double point. Contour lines may also have points of higher order (triple points, etc.), but these are unstable and may be removed by a slight deformation of the landscape. Double points in contour lines occur at saddle points, or passes. Saddle points are points where the surrounding landscape curves up in one direction and down in the other. Imagine flooding this landscape with water. Then, the region covered by water when the water reaches an elevation of "a" is formula_3, or the points with elevation less than or equal to "a". Consider how the topology of this region changes as the water rises. It appears, intuitively, that it does not change except when "a" passes the height of a critical point; that is, a point where the gradient of "f" is 0 (that is the Jacobian matrix acting as a linear map from the tangent space at that point to the tangent space at its image under the map "f" does not have maximal rank). In other words, it does not change except when the water either (1) starts filling a basin, (2) covers a saddle (a mountain pass), or (3) submerges a peak. To each of these three types of critical points – basins, passes, and peaks (also called minima, saddles, and maxima) – one associates a number called the index. Intuitively speaking, the index of a critical point "b" is the number of independent directions around "b" in which "f" decreases. More precisely the index of a non-degenerate critical point "b" of "f" is the dimension of the largest subspace of the tangent space to "M" at "b" on which the Hessian of "f" is negative definite. Therefore, the indices of basins, passes, and peaks are 0, 1, and 2, respectively.  Define formula_4 as formula_3. Leaving the context of topography, one can make a similar analysis of how the topology of formula_4 changes as "a" increases when "M" is a torus oriented as in the image and "f" is projection on a vertical axis, taking a point to its height above the plane.  Starting from the bottom of the torus, let "p", "q", "r", and "s" be the four critical points of index 0, 1, 1, and 2, respectively. When "a" is less than "f"("p") = 0, then formula_4 is the empty set. After "a" passes the level of "p", when <math>0, then formula_4 is a disk, which is homotopy equivalent to a point (a 0-cell), which has been "attached" to the empty set. Next, when "a" exceeds the level of "q", and <math>f(q), then formula_4 is a cylinder, and is homotopy equivalent to a disk with a 1-cell attached (image at left). Once "a" passes the level of "r", and "f"("r") < "a" < "f"("s"), then "M" is a torus with a disk removed, which is homotopy equivalent to a cylinder with a 1-cell attached (image at right). Finally, when "a" is greater than the critical level of "s", formula_4 is a torus. A torus, of course, is the same as a torus with a disk removed with a disk (a 2-cell) attached.  One therefore appears to have the following rule: the topology of formula_11 does not change except when formula_12 passes the height of a critical point, and when formula_12 passes the height of a critical point of index formula_14, a formula_14-cell is attached to formula_11. This does not address the question of what happens when two critical points are at the same height. That situation can be resolved by a slight perturbation of "f". In the case of a landscape (or a manifold embedded in Euclidean space), this perturbation might simply be tilting the landscape slightly, or rotating the coordinate system.  One should be careful and verify the non-degeneracy of critical points. To see what can pose a problem, let "M" = R and let "f"("x") = "x". Then 0 is a critical point of "f", but the topology of formula_11 does not change when α passes 0. The problem is that the second derivative of "f" is also 0 at 0, i.e. the Hessian of f vanishes and this critical point is degenerate. Note that this situation is unstable: by slightly deforming "f", the degenerate critical point is either removed or breaks up into two non-degenerate critical points.

Formal development.

For a real-valued smooth function "f" : "M" → R on a differentiable manifold "M", the points where the differential of "f" vanishes are called critical points of "f" and their images under "f" are called critical values. If at a critical point "b", the matrix of second partial derivatives (the Hessian matrix) is non-singular, then "b" is called a non-degenerate critical point; if the Hessian is singular then "b" is a degenerate critical point.  For the functions from R to R, "f" has a critical point at the origin if "b" = 0, which is non-degenerate if "c" ≠ 0 (i.e. "f" is of the form "a" + "cx" +...) and degenerate if "c" = 0 (i.e. "f" is of the form "a" + "dx" +...). A less trivial example of a degenerate critical point is the origin of the monkey saddle.  The index of a non-degenerate critical point "b" of "f" is the dimension of the largest subspace of the tangent space to "M" at "b" on which the Hessian is negative definite. This corresponds to the intuitive notion that the index is the number of directions in which "f" decreases. The degeneracy and index of a critical point are independent of the choice of the local coordinate system used, as shown by Sylvester's Law.

Morse lemma.

Let "b" be a non-degenerate critical point of "f" : "M" → R. Then there exists a chart ("x", "x",..., "x") in a neighborhood "U" of "b" such that formula_19 for all "i" and throughout "U". Here formula_12 is equal to the index of "f" at "b". As a corollary of the Morse lemma, one sees that non-degenerate critical points are isolated. (Regarding an extension to the complex domain see Complex Morse Lemma. For a generalization, see Morse–Palais lemma).

Fundamental theorems.

A smooth real-valued function on a manifold "M" is a Morse function if it has no degenerate critical points. A basic result of Morse theory says that almost all functions are Morse functions. Technically, the Morse functions form an open, dense subset of all smooth functions "M" → R in the "C" topology. This is sometimes expressed as "a typical function is Morse" or "a generic function is Morse".  As indicated before, we are interested in the question of when the topology of "M" = "f"(−∞, "a"] changes as "a" varies. Half of the answer to this question is given by the following theorem.  It is also of interest to know how the topology of "M" changes when "a" passes a critical point. The following theorem answers that question.  These results generalize and formalize the 'rule' stated in the previous section.  Using the two previous results and the fact that there exists a Morse function on any differentiable manifold, one can prove that any differentiable manifold is a CW complex with an "n"-cell for each critical point of index "n". To do this, one needs the technical fact that one can arrange to have a single critical point on each critical level, which is usually proven by using gradient-like vector fields to rearrange the critical points.

Morse inequalities.

Morse theory can be used to prove some strong results on the homology of manifolds. The number of critical points of index γ of "f" : "M" → R is equal to the number of γ cells in the CW structure on "M" obtained from "climbing" "f". Using the fact that the alternating sum of the ranks of the homology groups of a topological space is equal to the alternating sum of the ranks of the chain groups from which the homology is computed, then by using the cellular chain groups (see cellular homology) it is clear that the Euler characteristic formula_22 is equal to the sum  where "C" is the number of critical points of index γ. Also by cellular homology, the rank of the "n" homology group of a CW complex "M" is less than or equal to the number of "n"-cells in "M". Therefore, the rank of the γ homology group,i.e., the Betti number formula_24, is less than or equal to the number of critical points of index γ of a Morse function on "M". These facts can be strengthened to obtain the Morse inequalities:  In particular, for any  one has  This gives a powerful tool to study manifold topology. Suppose on a closed manifold there exists a Morse function "f" : "M" → R with precisely "k" critical points. In what way does the existence of the function "f" restrict "M"? The case "k" = 2 was studied by Georges Reeb in 1952; the Reeb sphere theorem states that "M" is homeomorphic to a sphere formula_28. The case "k" = 3 is possible only in a small number of low dimensions, and "M" is homeomorphic to an Eells–Kuiper manifold. In 1982 Edward Witten developed an analytic approach to the Morse inequalities by considering the de Rham complex for the perturbed operator formula_29

Application to classification of closed 2-manifolds.

Morse theory has been used to classify closed 2-manifolds up to diffeomorphism. If "M" is oriented, then "M" is classified by its genus "g" and is diffeomorphic to a sphere with "g" handles: thus if "g" = 0, "M" is diffeomorphic to the 2-sphere; and if "g" > 0, "M" is diffeomorphic to the connected sum of "g" 2-tori. If "N" is unorientable, it is classified by a number "g" > 0 and is diffeomorphic to the connected sum of "g" real projective spaces "RP". In particular two closed 2-manifolds are homeomorphic if and only if they are diffeomorphic.

Morse homology.

Morse homology is a particularly easy way to understand the homology of smooth manifolds. It is defined using a generic choice of Morse function and Riemannian metric. The basic theorem is that the resulting homology is an invariant of the manifold (i.e., independent of the function and metric) and isomorphic to the singular homology of the manifold; this implies that the Morse and singular Betti numbers agree and gives an immediate proof of the Morse inequalities. An infinite dimensional analog of Morse homology in symplectic geometry is known as Floer homology.

Morse–Bott theory.

The notion of a Morse function can be generalized to consider functions that have nondegenerate manifolds of critical points. A Morse–Bott function is a smooth function on a manifold whose critical set is a closed submanifold and whose Hessian is non-degenerate in the normal direction. (Equivalently, the kernel of the Hessian at a critical point equals the tangent space to the critical submanifold.) A Morse function is the special case where the critical manifolds are zero-dimensional (so the Hessian at critical points is non-degenerate in every direction, i.e., has no kernel).  The index is most naturally thought of as a pair  where formula_31 is the dimension of the unstable manifold at a given point of the critical manifold, and formula_32 is equal to formula_31 plus the dimension of the critical manifold. If the Morse–Bott function is perturbed by a small function on the critical locus, the index of all critical points of the perturbed function on a critical manifold of the unperturbed function will lie between formula_31 and formula_32.  Morse–Bott functions are useful because generic Morse functions are difficult to work with; the functions one can visualize, and with which one can easily calculate, typically have symmetries. They often lead to positive-dimensional critical manifolds. Raoul Bott used Morse–Bott theory in his original proof of the Bott periodicity theorem.  Round functions are examples of Morse–Bott functions, where the critical sets are (disjoint unions of) circles.  Morse homology can also be formulated for Morse–Bott functions; the differential in Morse–Bott homology is computed by a spectral sequence. Frederic Bourgeois sketched an approach in the course of his work on a Morse–Bott version of symplectic field theory, but this work was never published due to substantial analytic difficulties.

In mathematics, specifically in differential topology, Morse theory enables one to analyze the topology of a manifold by studying differentiable functions on that manifold. According to the basic insights of Marston Morse, a typical differentiable function on a manifold will reflect the topology quite directly. Morse theory allows one to find CW structures and handle decompositions on manifolds and to obtain substantial information about their homology.

在微分拓扑中,莫尔斯理论的技术给出了一个非常直接的分析一个流形的拓扑的方法,它是通过研究该流形上的可微函数达成。根据莫尔斯的基本见解,一个流形上的一个可微函数在典型的情况下,很直接的反映了该流形的拓扑。莫尔斯理论允许人们在流形上找到CW结构和柄分解,并得到关于它们的同调群的信息。在莫尔斯之前,凯莱和麦克斯韦在制图学的情况下发展了莫尔斯理论中的一些思想。莫尔斯最初将他的理论用于测地线(路径的能量函数的临界点)。这些技术被拉乌尔·博特用于他的著名的博特周期性定理的证明中。