Life.

Bodindecha was born on 13 January 1776 in modern Phra Nakhon District during the Thonburi Kingdom period, with personal name Sing (lit. "Lion"), as the fourth child to "Chao Phraya" Abhayraja Pin. His mother was Lady Fug. His father, "Chao Phraya" Abhayraja Pin, had served as "Samuha Kalahom" () the Prime Minister of Southern Siam. Abhayraja had his son Sing become a royal page of Prince Isarasundhorn. The prince was later crowned as King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai and Sing was transferred to the service under Prince Maha Senanurak the Front Palace. He joined his lord in the campaign against Burmese Invasion of Phuket in 1809 and rose through ranks in Front Palace Police Bureau. He was later made "Phraya" Ksetraraksa the Head of Agriculture Department of the Front Palace.  In 1816, during one of the royal barge processions, Bodindecha accidentally had his barges passed across in front of one of the royal barges and faced treason charges. Bodindecha was imprisoned and only through the intervention of Prince Chetsadabodin that he was pardoned and released but relieved of his positions. He went on to serve Prince Chetsadabodin in his mercantile affairs. When Prince Chetsadabodin was crowned as King Rama III in 1824, Bodindecha was made "Phraya" Ratchasuphawadi the Head of Conscription Department.

Laotian Rebellion wars.

In 1826, King Anouvong of Vientiane rebelled against Siamese rule in Lao Rebellion. Bodindecha with the title "Phraya" Rajasupawadi was assigned Southern Laos and the Kingdom of Champassak. Bodindecha managed to take the city of Champassak and capture King Nyô and send him to Bangkok. "Chao Phraya" Abhaybhudhorn the "Samuha Nayok" fell ill and died during the campaigns in 1827. King Rama III then elevated Bodindecha to "Chao Phraya" Rajasupawadi and transferred the responsibilities of the "Samuha Nayok" to him. When Prince Maha Sakdi Polsep, the leader of the campaign, returned to Bangkok, Bodindecha was left in charge in Laos. He brought the renowned Lao Buddha image Phra Bang from Vientiane to Bangkok (which would later be returned to Vientiane in 1867).  Upon his return to Bangkok, King Rama III commanded Bodindecha to return to Laos in order to completely destroy the city of Vientiane to prevent further rebellions. During this time, Emperor Minh Mạng sent Vietnamese envoys to bring Anouvong from Nghệ An Province back to Vientiane to negotiate. Anouvong, however, ambushed the Siamese garrisons and retook Vientiane. The position of Bodindecha's encampment at Nong Khai became insecure so Bodindecha decided to retreat south. Anouvong sent his son Raxavong Ngao to lead Lao army to pursue Bodindecha. Bodindecha decided to meet his enemies at Bokwan (modern Nong Khai). "Rattanakosin Chronicles of the Third Reign" from 1931 gives accounts on personal engagements between Bodindecha and Raxavong Ngao. Raxavong Ngao drove Bodindecha off his horse and rushed his spear at the Siamese general that narrowly missed. Raxavong Ngao then slashed Bodindecha with sword but Bodindecha's younger brother ran to aid and received the blow and died. Bodindecha took the opportunity to stab Raxavong's thigh with knife. Siamese soldiers came to rescue and shot Raxavong Ngao at his knee. Lao soldiers then carried Raxavong Ngao off the battlefield.  Bodindecha's victory at the Battle of Bokwan in 1828 caused Anouvong to flee to Xiang Khuoang. Chao Noi the ruler of Muang Phuan told Bodindecha the whereabouts of Anouvong so that Bodindecha managed to send his men to capture Anouvong and sent him as captive to Bangkok. Upon his return to Bangkok, King Rama III officially invested him with the title of "Chao Phraya" Bodindecha the "Samuha Nayok" Prime Minister of Northern Siam. The title name "Bodindecha" was from the king's personal name "Chetsadabodin".

Siamese-Vietnamese Wars.

In 1833, Bodindecha led Siamese armies to attack Saigon and to put the Cambodian Prince Ang Im on the throne at Oudong against the pro-Vietnamese king Ang Chan II, while his colleague "Chao Phraya" Phraklang led the fleet. Bodindecha marched through Cambodia virtually unopposed as King Ang Chan had fled to southern Vietnam along with his court. Bodindecha joined Phraklang at Châu Đốc, An Giang Province in 1834 and they both marched the fleet along the Bassac River to Saigon. Bodindecha met the Vietnamese fleet at Vàm Nao canal in January 1834 and the Battle of Vàm Nao ensued. The Siamese were defeated and Bodindecha and Phraklang retreated to Châu Đốc. After repeated Vietnamese attacks on Châu Đốc, Bodindecha decided to retreat to Battambang, his main base.  Initial Siam's defeat enabled Nguyen dynasty to fully control Cambodia. After the death of King Ang Chan in 1834, Emperor Minh Mạng put Cambodia under direct rule led by Trương Minh Giảng. Bodindecha made Prince Ang Im the governor of Battambang and returned to Bangkok. However, Prince Ang Im switched side to Vietnam in 1838 and gave Siamese officials in Battambang to the Vietnamese. Bodindecha returned to Battambang in 1839 and in 1840 the native Cambodians rose in rebellion against Vietnamese rule. In November 1840, Bodindecha laid siege on Pursat and managed to obtain peaceful surrender. The Vietnamese had retreated from Cambodia to An Giang Province by 1841. Bodindecha then sent Ang Im's younger brother Prince Ang Duong to Oudong as a candidate for Cambodian throne. Bodindecha returned to Bangkok in 1845.  The Vietnamese, however, renewed their attacks in May 1845 and took Phnom Penh. Bodindecha hurriedly marched to Oudong to defend. Nguyễn Văn Chương led the Vietnamese armies to lay siege on Oudong in September 1845. After some fightings and stand-offs, both sides agreed to negotiate. After five-month-long siege, Nguyễn Văn Chương lifted the siege and went back to An Giang. It was agreed that Prince Ang Duong was to be crowned and tributes would be sent to both Siam and Vietnam. Bodindecha presented the royal regalia granted by King Rama III to Ang Duong and crowned him as the King of Cambodia in 1848.

Final years and death.

After many years in Cambodia, Bodindecha finally returned to Bangkok in 1848. On his way to Bangkok, Bodindecha met Phraklang again at Chacheongsao where the Teochew societies had rioted and took over the city. Bodindecha supported Phraklang in his subjugation of Chinese rioters and they together returned to Bangkok. One year after his return to Bangkok, on 24 June 1849, Bodindecha passed away during the Cholera epidemic, aged 73, at his residence near modern Sampheng, Samphanthawong District. King Rama III sponsored his cremation in 1850 at Wat Saket.

Family and Issues.

Bodindecha had several wives, as per the contemporary practice of the era. His main wife was Lady Peng, daughter of "Phra" Pipitsali. Official genealogy of Singhaseni family recognizes his seventeen children but it is believed that he had up to twenty-three children, some of them unrecorded. His notable children include;

Legacy.

Partial list of locations named in his honor, or associated with him:

"Chao Phraya" Bodindecha (,, 13 January 1776 – 24 June 1849), personal name Sing Sinhaseni (), was a prominent military figure of the early Rattanakosin Kingdom period during the reign of King Rama III. Bodindecha hold the post of "Samuha Nayok" () the Prime Minister of Northern Siam from 1827 to 1849. He was known for his leading roles in putting down the Laotian Rebellion of King Anouvong of Vientiane () and Siamese-Vietnamese Wars in 1831–1834 and 1841–1845 (). His descendants bear the surname Singhaseni ().

昭披耶·博丁德差(;1777年-1849年)是泰国拉达那哥欣王国时期的重要「萨穆哈纳优」(สมุหนายก,民政事务大臣)和将领。此人在越南《大南实录》中被称为丑颇祸移、质知。


Background.

Inception.

Power Snooker was created by Rod Gunner and Ed Simons, both producers with backgrounds in the entertainment industry. Gunner had been involved with Michael Flatley's "Lord of the Dance", while Simons was co-producer of the film "The Lawnmower Man". Boxing promoter Frank Warren, a longtime business partner of Simons, also has a non-controlling stake in Power Snooker.  According to Simons, the pair had "come to the conclusion that snooker is in need of a huge transformation". Gunner stated "It had struck me for some time that the game of snooker needed a new and exciting transfusion", and that he took his inspiration from "seeing how Twenty20 cricket had revitalised cricket".  Power Snooker officially launched on 22 July 2010 with former World Champion Ronnie O'Sullivan as the main snooker player endorsement. O'Sullivan said of the new format that "crowd will love it and the public will enjoy it." and that this was "the future of snooker".

Relationship to World Snooker.

Power Snooker is independent of the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association, organisers of the World Snooker Championship and other ranking tournaments, and regulators of the professional game. The format has however been officially sanctioned by the WPBSA's chief shareholder, Barry Hearn. Simons has stated that he sees Power Snooker as simply another format of the game, it being one of many new experimental formats and several new tournaments introduced since Hearn took control of World Snooker, rather than a threat to the established format of the traditional game or a competitor to WPBSA tournaments. Power Snooker advertises itself as part of the World Snooker Calendar of events.  According to "The Guardian", Hearn sees Power Snooker as "an element of [the WPBSA's] ongoing attempt to overhaul the sport and introduce it to new audiences". Hearn stated on the launch that "We are 100% behind Power Snooker. In this new time for World Snooker, it is important for us to embrace new formats and new ideas", stating that he believed it would bring new audiences and fans to snooker. "The Guardian" also stated that Hearn believes these new formats will hopefully draw new fans into the traditional form of the sport, and that he compared it to the Prizefighter series he had recently introduced to boxing, and his recent revamp of the Professional Darts Corporation. Hearn has not invested financially in the format, with Simons stating that "Our feeling is that he'll [Hearn] take a look at the [first tournament], see how it goes, and then we'll have another conversation".

Format.

General play.

Power Snooker is played on traditional size snooker tables, but with a "modern design and a bespoke Power Snooker baize". Unlike traditional snooker, in which are played as the best of a set odd number of irrespective of time taken, Power Snooker matches are played for a fixed 30 minute game play period, with the balls being continually re-racked. The winner is the player who has scored more cumulative points by the end of the fixed game play period, with ties settled with a single. The 30 minute game clock is halted between frames. Also unlike traditional Snooker, which uses 15 racked in a triangle shape, Power Snooker matches use just nine red balls in a diamond shape.

Scoring and shot clock.

Basic play in Power Snooker is scored in the same way as traditional snooker. On the shot however, the starting player keeps his turn at the table as long as two reds hit a. Power Snooker play is kept to a quick pace through the use of a shot clock with all shots having a twenty-second limit. If the player exceeds the shot clock the player is penalised 20 points, and their opponent can resume play, or can elect to let the other player play on. A century break is rewarded with 50 bonus points, and if the player can repeat this in the second consecutive frame, this doubles to 100 points, and in a third consecutive frame, to 200 points. This reward for century breaks was, however, removed in 2011. After a, the opponent gets a "" and can resume play from anywhere in the.

Power Ball, Power Play, and Power Zone.

Power Snooker uses the concepts of the Power Ball, Power Play, and Power Zone. The Power Ball is dark red and is placed in the centre of the diamond rack, identified by a special logo, and is worth two points. When the Power Ball is potted, a two-minute Power Play period starts, where all points values are doubled. If a shot is missed however, the opponent can also benefit from the remaining Power Play time. The Power Ball changed in 2011 to a red striped ball. On the Power Snooker table, the is known as the Power Zone. Any potted from a shot originating in the Power Zone counts as double points, and if potted during a Power Play, quadruple points. In 2011 this was extended to the as well. If a player during a Power Play or in the Power Zone, their points penalty doubles, and if the foul shot originated in a Power Zone and during a Power Play, the penalty quadruples.

Tournament presentation and audience interaction.

In contrast to traditional snooker, in which play occurs in quiet surroundings, with an audience expected to remain silent during shots, Power Snooker aims "to encourage audience interaction with the players", loud music and'spectacular' theatrical lighting are also a feature. Players will also have the option to wear a live microphone during play; "to facilitate and encourage audience interaction". According to the creators, the Power Snooker format "isn't about sitting quietly watching, it's about noise and interaction; we want the audience to feel a part of it and enjoy themselves.".  In order to "add glamour" to the Power Snooker tournaments, players are encouraged to wear designer outfits, while the referees will be exclusively female and will be "dressed to impress". Tournaments will also feature "Power Girls". According to the organisers, "It was important the girls matched the Power Snooker brand criteria; Power Girls are sexy, sassy and very elegant".

Reception.

"The Guardian", while reserving judgement on whether the revamped Power Snooker could emulate the success of Twenty20 cricket, pointed out that on the eve of the inaugural tournament the format had yet to find a bookmaker partner, and also drew an unfavourable comparison with the failure of PowerPlay Golf to generate much money. They also described Ronnie O'Sullivan's comments on launching the format, that the current WPBSA organised World Championship was "really boring", as being "not quite a Gerald Ratner moment", referring to the time when Ratner inadvertently devalued his jewellery business after he publicly criticised his product's value.

Power Snooker was a cue sport. The sport was invented in 2010. Its concept was derived in part from the game of snooker. It also borrowed elements from the game of pool with racks being used and the balls set up in a diamond formation like in nine ball pool. It was first played competitively in October 2010 in the United Kingdom.

强力斯诺克(Power Snooker)是斯诺克台球的一个变体,由英国人巴里·赫恩发明,并得到国际台球联合会掌门人巴里·赫恩(Barry Hearn )推广的一项赛事,与传统斯诺克相比,红球数由15颗减少为9颗,并呈菱形排列在粉色球的下方。并设有强力球(PowerBall)和强力区(PowerZone)。


Background.

The exact year of Li Delin's birth is not known, but in all likelihood he was born during the 530s, perhaps 531, around the time when Northern Wei was divided into Eastern Wei and Western Wei. His grandfather Li Shou (李壽) was a minor provincial official, but his father Li Jingzu (李敬族) was more prominent, serving as both an official and a general during the reign of Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei.  Li Delin was said to be highly intelligent from his childhood, and even before he turned 10 he was able to quickly memorize and recite the lengthy poem "Shudu Fu" (蜀都賦) by Zuo Si (左思), impressing the high-level official Gao Longzhi (高隆之). By age 14, his writing ability already impressed the historian and official Wei Shou. When he was 15, Li Jingzu died, and Li Delin took his father's casket back to his ancestral commandery Boling (博陵, roughly modern Hengshui, Hebei) for burial. Because his mother Lady Zhao was often ill, he declined offers of governmental posts and remained at Boling to care for his mother, until his mother eventually grew better in her physical condition.

During Northern Qi.

Sometime before 557, Gao Jie (高湝) the Prince of Rencheng, the governor of Ding Province (定州, roughly modern Baoding, Hebei) and brother to Emperor Wenxuan of the newly established Northern Qi (Eastern Wei's successor state), impressed with Li Delin's talent, invited Li to his mansion and treated him as a friend, not as a subordinate. In 557, Gao Jie, believing that Li's talent should be employed by the imperial administration, recommended him. The prime minister Yang Yin made Li a low level official, but in a post where Li felt that his talent was not being used properly, so eventually Li resigned (with the excuse that he was ill) and returned to Boling. He turned to imperial government after Emperor Wenxuan's death in 559, and gradually rose in prominence during the succeeding reigns of Emperor Wenxuan's son Emperor Fei and Emperor Wenxuan's brothers Emperor Xiaozhao and Emperor Wucheng. In 573, when Emperor Wucheng's son and successor Gao Wei, who had a love for literature, established Wenlin Hall (文林館) to retain officials with literary talent, he made Li and Yan Zitui (顏子推) co-directors. Meanwhile, Li was responsible for drafting imperial edicts, and his literary abilities became well-known.

During Northern Zhou.

In 577, Northern Qi was conquered by rival Northern Zhou (Western Wei's successor state). Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou, who had previously already been impressed by the edicts that Li Delin drafted for Northern Qi's emperors, made the comment, "I have long heard of Li Delin, and when I read the edicts that he wrote for Qi, I believed him to be a heavenly man. I did not know then that one day I can have him draft my own documents." Li thereafter served in Northern Zhou's imperial government, although not of high rank. During the time of the reign of Emperor Wu's grandson Emperor Jing (579–581), while Emperor Wu's son Emperor Xuan still retained imperial powers as retired emperor, Li was created the Baron of Cheng'an.  In 580, Emperor Xuan died, and his father-in-law Yang Jian seized power as regent. He invited Li to serve as his assistant, and Li pledged loyalty to him. It was at Li's suggestion that Yang immediately made his intentions to eventually take the throne known by assuming particularly elevated titles while serving as regent. When the general Yuchi Jiong rose against Yang at Yecheng, the former Northern Qi capital, Yang particularly entrusted strategic issues with Li, allowing Li to make much of the military decisions during the campaign, which eventually saw Yang defeating Yuchi to affirm his hold on power.

During Sui Dynasty.

In spring 581, Yang Jian had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him, ending Northern Zhou and establishing Sui Dynasty as its Emperor Wen. Emperor Wen reorganized his government into five main branches, and he made Li Delin be the deputy head of the legislative branch "Neishi Sheng" (內史省), under the official Yu Qingze (虞慶則). Yu subsequently recommended to Emperor Wen that the members of Northern Zhou's imperial Yuwen clan be massacred—a suggestion that the other chief advisors to Emperor Wen, Gao Jiong and Yang Hui (楊惠) disagreed with but did not dare to openly oppose. Only Li openly opposed it, but Emperor Wen responded, "You are only a scholar, and you have no qualifications in this matter." Emperor Wen subsequently did slaughter members of the Yuwen clan, and after this incident, he never again promoted Li—and it did not help that Li, who was proud of his own abilities, generally had poor relations with other high-level officials. Li's title, however, was upgraded from baron to viscount. Li had a particularly adversarial relationship with Su Wei, over Su's constant desire to revise the laws that Li drafted along with Yu Yi (于翼) and Gao in 581 and Li's opposition to Su's proposal to create the office of township mayors with authorities over 500 households, on the grounds that it would be difficult to find enough men capable of governing 500 household units. In this conflict, Su, supported by Gao, was largely able to have his opinions adopted by Emperor Wen, over Li's.  In winter 587, when Emperor Wen visited Tong Province (同州, roughly Weinan, Shaanxi), Li initially did not follow him on account of illness. However, Emperor Wen had him summoned from the capital Chang'an to plan together the invasion of rival Chen Dynasty, making the promise to Li, "On the day that Chen is conquered, I will use seven kinds of jewels to decorate you, so that no one east of the Qinling Mountains would be more honored than you would be." When Emperor Wen subsequently launched the invasion in 588, he often had Gao, who was the chief strategist for the campaign, consult Li on strategies. Once Chen was conquered in 589, Emperor Wen initially issued an edict awarding Li a large cache of silk and creating him a duke, but Gao, arguing that doing so would make field generals angry (and because he was jealous of Li's abilities), persuaded Emperor Wen to withdraw the edict.  By 590, Emperor Wen and Su's conflicts with Li had come to the foreground, over several matters. First, when Yuchi Jiong was defeated, at Li's request, Emperor Wen awarded an inn owned by the former Northern Qi official Gao Anagong, who had joined Yuchi's effort, as his reward. Emperor Wen later found out that Gao had himself forcibly seized the land on which the inn sat from the farmers, and Su took the opportunity to accuse Li of being complicit in Gao's seizure. Second, when Yu, after realizing the problems created by township mayors, suggested that the mayoral posts be abolished, Li, while initially opposing the proposal, opposed its abolition, reasoning that laws should not be changed so quickly—using language that caused Emperor Wen to believe that Li was comparing him to Wang Mang. Third, Li had previously falsely stated his father Li Jingzu to have been a far higher-ranked official (fourth rank, second class) than actually was the case (ninth rank, first class), in order to obtain posthumous honors for Li Jingzu. Emperor Wen, citing these issues, removed Li from his post and made him the governor of Hu Province (湖州, roughly modern Huzhou, Zhejiang). Li was later moved to Huai Province (懷州, roughly modern Jiaozuo, Henan) and died as its governor, at age 60, probably in 591. Emperor Wen, apparently remembering his contributions, buried him with honor. His son Li Baiyao later served as an official for Sui and its successor state Tang Dynasty, and completed Northern Qi's history, the "Book of Northern Qi", which Li Delin began but did not complete.

Li Delin (李德林), courtesy name Gongfu (公輔), formally either Duke Wen of Anping (安平文公) (according to the "Book of Sui") or Viscount Wen of Cheng'an (成安文子) (according to the "Zizhi Tongjian"), was an official of the Chinese dynasties Northern Qi, Northern Zhou, and Sui Dynasty. He was a prolific writer whose writing ability was greatly praised by his contemporaries and the emperors that he served under. He began the compilation of the "Book of Northern Qi", a work that he was never able to complete, but his son Li Baiyao later completed the work.

李德林(532年-592年),字公辅,博陵安平人。祖父李寿,官湖州户曹从事。父亲李敬族,官拜镇远将军。


Biography.

Early life.

Liu Zongyuan was born in 773. His courtesy name was Zihou.

Civil service career.

Liu Zongyuan's civil service career was initially successful; but, in 805, he fell out of favour with the imperial government because of his association with a failed reformist movement. He was exiled first to Yongzhou, Hunan, and then to Liuzhou, Guangxi, where he eventually became the city Governor. A park and temple in Liuzhou is dedicated to his memory. His exile allowed his literary career to flourish: he produced poems, fables, reflective travelogues and essays synthesizing elements of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.

Death.

He died in 819.

Works.

Liu's best-known travel pieces are the "Eight Records of Excursions in Yongzhou" (永州八游记). Around 180 of his poems are extant, of which five have been collected in the anthology Three Hundred Tang Poems. Some of his works celebrate his freedom from office, while others mourn his banishment.  One of his most famous poems is ""Jiangxue"" (江雪), sometimes translated into English as "Winter Snow" or "River Snow": this poem has been an inspiration to many works of Chinese painting.  Liu Zongyuan wrote "Fei Guoyu" (T: 非國語, S: 非国语, "Argument against the Harangues of the Various States"), a criticism of "Guoyu". In response, Liu Zhang (, circa 1095–1177); Jiang Duanli (T: 江端禮, S: 江端礼); and Yu Pan (虞 槃 fl. 1300), Yu Ji's (, 1272–1348) younger brother, wrote texts titled "Fei Fei Guoyu" T: 非非國語, S: 非非国语; "Argument against the Argument against the Harangues of the Various States") in opposition to Liu Zongyuan's essay.

Liu Zongyuan (77328 November 819) was a Chinese writer, politician, and poet who lived during the Tang Dynasty. Liu was born in present-day Yongji, Shanxi. Along with Han Yu, he was a founder of the Classical Prose Movement. He has been traditionally classed as one of the "Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song".

柳宗元(773年-819年-11月28日),字子厚,河东(今山西运城)人,唐代著名文学家、思想家,唐宋八大家之一。参加永贞革新失败,被贬为永州司马。为当道者嫉恨,除短暂奉召入京外,终生未再北还。因有《永州八记》等六百多篇文章。寓情山水而不忘国政,因以“寓言”体讽世,留下《三戒》 等小品而别具一格。其文经后人辑为三十卷,名为《柳河东集》。因其出于河东柳氏,人称柳河东,又因终于柳州刺史任上,复号柳柳州。与韩愈同为中唐古文运动的领军人物,并称「韩柳」。


Text.

As commonly found in hymnals today, it comprises twelve stanzas; each consisting of three verses followed by the exclamation "Alleluia":  <poem>1. O filii et filiae Rex caelestis, Rex gloriae Morte surrexit hodie. Alleluia.</poem>  It originally comprised but nine stanzas (those commencing with "Discipulis adstantibus", "Postquam audivit Didymus", "Beati qui non viderunt" being early additions to the hymn). "L'aleluya du jour de Pasques" is a trope on the versicle and response (closing Lauds and Vespers) which it paraphrases in the last two stanzas:  <poem>11. In hoc festo sanctissimo Sit laus et jubilatio: Benedicamus Domino. Alleluia.  12. De quibus nos humillimas Devotas atque debitas Deo dicamus gratias. Alleluia.</poem>  There are several translations into English verse by non-Catholics, notably "O Sons and Daughters" by John Mason Neale. This translation is sometimes reworked as "Ye Sons and Daughter of the King". Catholic translations comprise one by an anonymous author in the "Evening Office", 1748 ("Young men and maids, rejoice and sing"), Father Caswall's "Ye sons and daughters of the Lord" and Charles Kent's "O maids and striplings, hear love's story", all three being given in Shipley, "Annus Sanctus". The Latin texts vary both in the arrangement and the wording of the stanzas. The following is the translation of the above latin verses by Neale as they appear in the New English Hymnal, where some stanzas have been omitted:  <poem>1. Ye sons and daughters of the King, Whom heavenly hosts in glory sing, To-day the grave hath lost its sting. Alleluya!  9. On this most holy day of days, To God your hearts and voices raise In laud, and jubilee, and praise. Alleluya!  10. And we with Holy Church unite, As evermore is just and right, In glory to the King of Light. Alleluya!</poem>

Melody.

The rhythm of the hymn is that of number and not of accent or of classical quantity. However, the melody to which it is sung can scarcely be divorced from the lilt of triple time. As a result, there is sometimes the appearance of a conflict between the accent of the Latin words and the real, if unintentional, stress of the melody. A number of hymnals give the melody in plain-song notation, and (theoretically, at least) this would permit the accented syllables of the Latin text to receive an appropriate stress of the voice. Commonly, however, the hymnals adopt the modern triple time.

History.

The hymn was very popular in France, whence it has spread to other countries. The 19th-century volume "The Liturgical Year" entitles it "The Joyful Canticle" and gives Latin text with English prose translation, with a triple Alleluia preceding and following the hymn. In certain hymnals, however, this triple Alleluia is sung also between the stanzas; and in others, greater particularity is indicated in the distribution of the stanzas and of the Alleluias, which has a great effect, in the words of John Mason Neale, "It is scarcely possible for any one, not acquainted with the melody, to imagine the jubilant effect of the triumphant Alleluia attached to apparently less important circumstances of the Resurrection. It seems to speak of the majesty of that event, the smallest portions of which are worthy to be so chronicled." The conflict of stress and word-accent led Neale to speak of the "rude simplicity" of the poem and to ascribe the hymn to the twelfth century in his volume (although the note prefixed to his own translation assigns the hymn to the thirteenth century). The French priest Jacques Paul Migne also declares it to be very ancient. It is only recently that its true authorship has been discovered, with the Dictionary of Hymnology (2nd ed., 1907) tracing it back only to the year 1659, with earlier sources finding it in a Roman Processional of the sixteenth century.  The hymn was assigned in the various French Paroissiens to the Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, on Easter Sunday.

Musical settings.

The melody has been used as the inspiration for numerous organ pieces, including variations by Naji Hakim and Alexandre Guilmant, and multiple settings by Marc-Antoine Charpentier.

O filii et filiae is a Christian hymn celebrating Easter. It was written by Jean Tisserand, O.F.M. (d. 1494), a preacher.

《复活节歌》,,又名《子兮女兮》、《复活节欢呼颂》和《耶稣复生》,是一首基督宗教复活节圣歌。被收录于众多歌本,这首圣歌由十二个诗节构成,例如:


青蜂侠 (2011年电影)

Plot.

Britt Reid is the playboy son of James Reid, the publisher of the Los Angeles "Daily Sentinel". They have an estranged relationship until James dies from an apparent allergic reaction to a bee sting. After James's funeral, Britt fires the staff aside from his maid, but later rehires Kato, a mechanic, martial artist and friend of James, as his assistant.  Britt and Kato quickly become best friends and get drunk together. Upon agreeing that they both hated James, the two visit the graveyard to decapitate James's memorial statue. After they succeed, they rescue a nearby couple being mugged. When the police mistake Britt and Kato for criminals, Kato evades them in a car chase as he and Britt return to their mansion.  Britt convinces Kato they should become superhero-like crime-fighters posing as criminals. Kato develops a car outfitted with several gadgets and weapons, which they call the Black Beauty. Britt plans to capture Benjamin Chudnofsky, a Russian mobster and gangster uniting the crime families of Los Angeles under his command, and whom his father was trying to expose. To get Chudnofsky's attention, Britt uses the "Daily Sentinel" as a vehicle to publish articles about a "high-profile criminal" he names "The Green Hornet."  Britt hires Lenore Case as his researcher, and uses her unwitting advice to raise the Green Hornet's profile. Britt and Kato blow up several of Chudnofsky's meth labs, leaving calling cards so Chudnofsky can contact them. Throughout all this, the "Daily Sentinel's" managing editor, Mike Axford, fears this single-minded coverage will endanger Britt's life, and District Attorney Frank Scanlon frets over public perception that he cannot stop the Green Hornet.  Britt asks Lenore out for dinner, but she rebuffs him and instead invites Kato, making Britt confused and jealous. Kato learns from her that mobsters often offer a peace summit to rivals in order to get close enough to kill them; Britt then tells Kato that Chudnofsky has offered them such a meeting. Kato tries dissuading him, but Britt, feeling overshadowed, follows his instincts. This nearly proves fatal when Chudnofsky tries to kill them.  Barely escaping to the mansion, Britt and Kato start arguing and the two get into a fight, causing Britt to angrily fire both Kato and Lenore, who he believes are in a relationship. Later, Kato receives an email from Chudnofsky on the Hornet's calling-card email address, offering $1 million and half of Los Angeles to the "Hornet" if he kills Britt. Meanwhile, Britt discovers that Scanlon is corrupt and that he tried to bribe James into downplaying the city's crime level to help his career. Chudnofsky, meanwhile, suffers a midlife crisis and renames himself as a supervillain known as "Bloodnofsky".  Scanlon invites Britt to a meeting in a restaurant, where he reveals to Britt in his eye that he was responsible for the murder of his father as he is shown to be an ally of Chudnofsky. Chudnofsky arrives with his henchmen to kill Britt, but Kato appears and saves Britt before they escape. At the "Daily Sentinel," Britt intends to upload a recording of Scanlon's confession onto the Web - which he belatedly discovers he did not manage to record. Chudnofsky and his men, who followed the duo there, engage them in a firefight, wounding Britt in the process. However, Kato ultimately impales Chudnofsky in the eyes with two large pieces of wood in self-defense before Britt guns him down.  A SWAT team appears and fires at the Green Hornet and Kato, who use the remains of their nearly demolished Black Beauty to run Scanlon out of the building to his death. The Green Hornet and Kato flee to Lenore's house, where she learns their true identities and hides them from the police before trying to help by removing the bullet from Britt. The next morning, Britt promotes Axford to chief editor and lies about being shot by Kato, further establishing the Green Hornet as a vigilante and allowing Britt to get treated by professionals in a hospital.  Later, Britt and Kato weld the head back onto James's statue. Now with Lenore on their side, the two decide to continue protecting Los Angeles by breaking the law while also fighting criminals and saving civilians at the same time.

Production.

Development.

"Variety" reported in October 1992 that "The Green Hornet" was one of the properties represented by Leisure Concepts Inc., and though the trade paper said, without explanation, "rights in limbo", negotiations were ongoing with Universal Pictures. By September 1993, Chuck Pfarrer had finished the screenplay. Rich Wilkes was hired to rewrite Pfarrer's script, which resulted in George Clooney signing a pay-or-play contract. Clooney dropped out in December 1995 to star in "Batman and Robin", and an anonymous source at Universal told "Entertainment Weekly" the following May that Greg Kinnear was being looked at for the title role. Jason Scott Lee by this time had signed on to co-star as Kato. Universal hired music video director Michel Gondry in January 1997 for his feature film directorial debut. Gondry rewrote the Wilkes screenplay with Edward Neumeier, saying that "after one-and-a-half years, it was shelved by the studio.... We already had the designs for the cars, the weapons.... Lawrence Gordon and Lloyd Levin had been signed on to produce by January 1997. Mark Wahlberg was offered the lead role, but the film languished in development hell and Gondry eventually left.  In April 2000, Universal entered early negotiations with Jet Li to star as Kato for $5.2 million against 5% of the film's gross. Dark Horse Entertainment and Charles Gordon joined Larry Gordon and Lloyd Levin as producers. Christopher McQuarrie was writing a script by June 2000, but with it uncompleted by October, Li moved on to work on "The One" while remaining attached to "The Green Hornet". After spending about $10 million in development since 1992, Universal put "The Green Hornet" in turnaround in November 2001, by which time Li and the producers were no longer involved. Paramount and Columbia Pictures showed interest in picking up Universal's option, but Miramax Films won the bidding that month with what "Variety" reported as "a deal approaching $3 million." In May 2003 the studio was working with automobile companies on product placement opportunities for the Black Beauty. As part of the deal, Miramax would receive its "hero car" and $35 million in additional marketing. The car company that would have landed the deal would be given the chance to help develop "The Green Hornet", since a script had yet to be written and no director was attached to the planned 2005 release. "Variety" noted this figure would have tied the record $35 million deal between Ford Motor Company and MGM that featured the company's Aston Martin Vanquish, Jaguar XKR and Ford Thunderbird in the James Bond film "Die Another Day".  In February 2004, Miramax president Harvey Weinstein hired cult filmmaker and comic book writer Kevin Smith to write and direct the film, based on their previous four-film collaborations. "I dig the fact that he kicked off a run of billionaire playboys who decided to put on a mask and fight crime and that he was Batman before there was a Batman," Smith said. "I always said I'd never do a superhero film, based on my limited experience writing on "Superman Lives" and having to answer to the studio, Jon Peters, the comics company and eventually a director. Then there's a fandom that gets up in arms if you even try to stray from their character. Here, there is simplicity in the character and the situation." Jon Gordon and Hannah Minghella were now on as producers, with Harold Berkowitz and George Trendle, son of the character's co-creator, as executive producers.  Smith approached Jake Gyllenhaal for the lead role in March 2004. In mid-November of that year, he said he had written about 100 pages, and estimated another 100 to come. In February 2006, Smith's official website noted, "Kevin officially no longer has anything to do with the "Fletch" or "Green Hornet" projects." Smith went on to write the Dynamite Entertainment comic book "Green Hornet", which has run 11 issues as of late 2010.  In March 2007, producer Neal H. Moritz, who had been trying to acquire the film rights to the character for years, obtained the rights and through his Sony-based production company Original Film optioned them to Columbia Pictures. In July 2007 Seth Rogen, in addition to starring in the lead role, was hired to co-write the script with frequent collaborator Evan Goldberg and named as an executive producer for "The Green Hornet". Rogen in July 2007 said he had not begun writing the screenplay yet, but anticipated the tone would be that of "a buddy action movie" with humor, "like "Lethal Weapon" and "48 Hrs.". In September 2008, Columbia Pictures announced a June 25, 2010, release date, and that Hong Kong star Stephen Chow had signed to direct and to co-star as Kato. Chow, a fan of the TV show as a kid, explained, "The idea of stepping into Bruce Lee's shoes as Kato is both humbling and thrilling, and to get the chance to direct the project as my American movie debut is simply a dream come true." Chow dropped out as director the following December over creative differences. On February 24, 2009, Columbia Pictures announced that Michel Gondry would direct the film, on which Chow had remained as Kato, after impressing Columbia production presidents Doug Belgrad and Matt Tolmach with his pitch. Gondry had previously been involved with "The Green Hornet" when Universal Pictures was planning its version in 1997.  Chow dropped out as Kato in July 2009 over scheduling conflicts with other projects. By this time the release date had been pushed to July 9, 2010. In August, he was replaced with Taiwanese singer-actor Jay Chou. The studio was then in early talks with Nicolas Cage to play the gangster villain, and Cameron Diaz was negotiating to play researcher and love interest Lenore Case. The principal production began on September 2, 2009

Casting.

Nicolas Cage had been in talks to play the role of Benjamin Chudnofsky, saying in 2009, ""The Green Hornet" was something I wanted to do. I think Michel Gondry is very talented and I had hoped it would work. But I think Seth Rogen and Michel had a different direction for the character totally than the way I wanted to go.... I wasn't interested in just being straight-up bad guy who was killing people willy-nilly. I had to have some humanity and try to give it something where you could understand why the character was the way he was. But there wasn't enough time to develop it."  The filmmakers had wanted Van Williams, who played the Green Hornet in the 1960s television series, to make a cameo appearance as a cemetery guard, but Williams turned the part down.

Locations.

Producer Neal H. Moritz considered filming "The Green Hornet" in Michigan, New York and Louisiana, but ultimately chose Los Angeles, California as the primary location shooting. "Ultimately, we made the decision, and thankfully the studio agreed with us, that the creative positives of shooting in Los Angeles outweighed the tax incentives offered to us elsewhere," Moritz said. Principal photography began at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, California on September 2, 2009, for one week. Filming then moved to Chinatown, Los Angeles, for scenes featuring Kato's apartment. Through November, other locations included Sun Valley, Holmby Hills (specifically Fleur de Lys, which played the part of the Reid mansion), Bel-Air, Hawthorne and various locations downtown, including City Hall and the Los Angeles Times Building.

Props.

The production modified 29 Imperial Crown sedans from model years 1964 to 1966 to portray the Green Hornet's luxurious supercar, the Black Beauty. Twenty-six of those cars were wrecked during production and three survived in pristine condition. One such vehicle was given away by the parent company of Carl's Jr. and Hardees as a sweepstakes prize and later consigned to the 2017 Barrett-Jackson auto auction at Mohegan Sun in Connecticut, where it was sold for $29,700.

Release.

Sony replaced the film's June 25, 2010, release date with "Grown Ups", which moved "The Green Hornet" to July 9, 2010. Sony then scheduled the film for December 22, 2010, before announcing on April 23, 2010, that it was pushing to January 14, 2011, to secure more time to convert it to 3D.  In July 2009, Sony presented a panel at San Diego Comic-Con International, where Seth Rogen and director Michel Gondry unveiled the first look for the Black Beauty. The first trailer was released online on June 24, 2010.

Marketing.

Factory Entertainment produced six-inch action figures and a die-cast Black Beauty, among other collectibles. Hollywood Collectibles has made a full-size prop gas gun replica. Mezco Toyz has made a set of 12-inch action figures, with the prototypes donated to the Museum of the Moving Image.  The studio and CKE Restaurants, Inc., the parent company of Carl's Jr. and Hardee's, formed a promotional marketing partnership that included commercials featuring Seth Rogen and Jay Chou in character as the Green Hornet and Kato; a beverage promotion with Dr. Pepper; "The Green Hornet" food items, kids' meal toys, and employee uniforms; and a contest with the grand prize of a Black Beauty car from the film.  A tie-in video game for iPhone and iPad was released, entitled "The Green Hornet: Wheels of Justice". The game is a 3D top-down driving game. It also featured a hidden mini-game fighting game called "The Green Hornet: Crime Fighter", which was also released for browsers and Android phones.  The Discovery Channel television show "MythBusters" aired a "Green Hornet Special" that featured Seth Rogen joining the hosts in testing two "myths" from the movie. The cable network Syfy aired a marathon of the TV series "The Green Hornet" on January 11, 2011, as a tie-in to the film's release.

Home media.

"The Green Hornet" was released on DVD, Blu-ray and Blu-ray 3D on May 3, 2011 by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment.

Reception.

Critical response.

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 44% based on 233 reviews, with an average rating of 5.15/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "It's sporadically entertaining, but "The Green Hornet" never approaches the surreal heights suggested by a Michel Gondry/Seth Rogen collaboration." On Metacritic the film has a score of 39 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B+ on scale of A to F.  Kenneth Turan of the "Los Angeles Times" called it "[a]n anemic, 97-pound weakling of the action comedy persuasion... a boring bromedy that features a hero who has no idea what he's even doing with mumblecore heroics instead of the real thing." Lou Lumenick of the "New York Post" found it "an overblown, interminable and unfunny update (in badly added 3-D)", and called star Rogen "miscast". British critic Peter Bradshaw of the British newspaper "The Guardian", said, "Almost everything about the film is disappointing. Christoph Waltz is under-par as the villain with nothing like the steely charisma of his Nazi in "Inglourious Basterds." Richard Roeper gave the film a D+, calling it "a lazy, sloppy, unfunny comedy that makes almost no use of the 3-D technology", and judging that "it just falls flat." Roger Ebert gave it one star and called it "an almost unendurable demonstration of a movie with nothing to be about. Although it follows the rough storyline of previous versions of the title, it neglects the construction of a plot engine to pull us through." He also noted the poor use of 3-D and suggested it was added solely in order to charge extra.  Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York "Daily News" gave it 3 stars out of 5, and commented that the "irreverently funny" film had "a vibe so casual you half expect star Seth Rogen to amble off screen and put his feet up on the seat next to you," and praising director Gondry's "sense of humor and acute visual skill" even while calling the movie "cheerfully unfocused". Rogen proclaimed the film was a "nightmare", chalking it up to studio executives paying little attention to the most expensive portions of the film and its inflated budget.  Despite the criticism, "Paste" ranked "The Green Hornet" as the 88th greatest superhero movie of all time.  Seth Rogen would later proclaimed the film as a "nightmare" in a 2013 interview with Marc Maron for the "WTF with Marc Maron" podcast while promoting his film "This is the End" with Evan Goldberg, claiming that studio executives was paying little attention to the most expensive portions of the film, and its inflated budget.

Box office.

"The Green Hornet" took in $33,526,876 its opening weekend, and just over $40 million for the four-day Martin Luther King, Jr. Day holiday weekend, topping the box office. In its second weekend, it dropped 47% to $17.7 million, finishing second to "No Strings Attached". In its third weekend, it earned $11.2 million and finished in fourth place. The film ended its theatrical run on April 21, 2011, with a North American domestic gross of $98,780,042 and an international gross of $129,037,206 for a total $227,817,248 worldwide.

Future.

Cancelled sequel.

Producer Neil Moritz said in March 2012 that no sequel would be forthcoming since " The movie did almost $250 million and was actually very well liked, but we made the movie for too much money. One, we made it in L.A. for certain reasons, and two, we decided to go to 3D—that added another $10 million. If I had done it in a tax-rebate state and not done 3D, it would have been considered a huge financial success for the studio. So we're not making a sequel right now."

Reboot.

In 2016, Paramount Pictures and Chernin Entertainment acquired the film rights to the Green Hornet, with developments for a rebooted adaptation. Gavin O'Connor signed on to produce and direct, while Sean O'Keefe will be the screenwriter.  In 2020, Universal Pictures and Amasia Entertainment announced they were partnering on “The Green Hornet and Kato” and are in development on a film based on the classic characters. Amasia won the feature film franchise rights to the Green Hornet in January with Amasia’s co-founders Michael Helfant and Bradley Gallo producing. Helfant is a veteran Hollywood executive who was president and chief operating officer of Marvel Studios for several years starting in 2005.

The Green Hornet is a 2011 American vigilante action comedy film based on the character of the same name by George W. Trendle and Fran Striker that originated in a 1930s radio program and has appeared in movie serials, a television series, comic books and other media. Directed by Michel Gondry from a screenplay by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg, the film stars Rogen in the title role, Jay Chou, Christoph Waltz, Edward James Olmos, David Harbour, Tom Wilkinson and Cameron Diaz.

《青蜂侠》(英语:The Green Hornet),是一部于2011年发布的超级英雄电影,改编自于1930年代至1960年代的同名美国广播电视剧,包括数码、IMAX三维及二维版本。北美于2011年1月14日首映,台湾于1月28日上映,香港及中国大陆分别于2月2日及8日上映。 新版由米歇·龚德里执导,塞斯·罗根身兼编剧及演出主角青蜂侠,女主角由卡麦蓉·狄亚饰演。日裔助手加藤则由台湾艺人周杰伦饰演。


Terminology.

The ancient Greeks had several words to indicate slaves, which leads to textual ambiguity when they are studied out of their proper context. In Homer, Hesiod and Theognis of Megara, the slave was called ("dmōs"). The term has a general meaning but refers particularly to war prisoners taken as booty (in other words, property). During the classical period, the Greeks frequently used ("andrapodon"), (literally, "one with the feet of a man") as

Origins of slavery.

Slaves were present through the Mycenaean civilization, as documented in numerous tablets unearthed in Pylos 140. Two legal categories can be distinguished: "slaves (εοιο)" and "slaves of the god (θεοιο)", the god in this case probably being Poseidon. Slaves of the god are always mentioned by name and own their own land; their legal status is close to that of freemen. The nature and origin of their bond to the divinity is unclear. The names of common slaves show that some of them came from Kythera, Chios, Lemnos or Halicarnassus and were probably enslaved as a result of piracy. The tablets indicate that unions between slaves and freemen were common and that slaves could work and own land. It appears that the major division in Mycenaean civilization was not between a free individual and a slave but rather if the individual was in the palace or not. There is no continuity between the Mycenaean era and the time of Homer, where social structures reflected those of the Greek dark ages. The terminology differs: the slave is no longer "do-e-ro" (doulos) but "dmōs". In the "Iliad", slaves are mainly

Economic role.

All activities were open to slaves with the exception of politics. For the Greeks, politics was the only occupation worthy of a citizen, the rest being relegated wherever possible to non-citizens. It was status that was of importance, not occupation. The principal use of slavery was in agriculture, the foundation of the Greek economy. Some small landowners might own one slave, or even two. An abundant literature of manuals for landowners (such as the "Economy" of Xenophon or that of Pseudo-Aristotle) confirms the presence of dozens of slaves on the larger estates; they could be common labourers or foremen. The extent to which slaves were used as a labour force in farming is disputed. It is certain that rural slavery was very common in Athens, and that ancient Greece did not have the immense slave populations found on the Roman "latifundia".  Slave labour was

Demographics.

Population.

It is difficult to estimate the number of slaves in ancient Greece, given the lack of a precise census and variations in definitions during that era. It is certain that Athens had the largest slave population, with as many as 80,000 in the 6th and 5th centuries BC, on average three or four slaves per household. In the 5th century BC, Thucydides remarked on the desertion of 20,890 slaves during the war of Decelea, mostly tradesmen. The lowest estimate, of 20,000 slaves, during the time of Demosthenes, corresponds to one slave per family. Between 317 BC and 307 BC, the tyrant Demetrius Phalereus ordered a general census of Attica, which arrived at the following figures: 21,000 citizens, 10,000 metics and 400,000 slaves. However, some researchers doubt the accuracy of the figure, claiming 13 slaves per free man appear unlikely in a state where a dozen slaves were a sign

Sources of supply.

There were four primary sources of slaves: war, in which the defeated would become slaves to the victorious unless a more objective outcome was reached; piracy (at sea); banditry (on land); and international trade.

War.

By the rules of war of the period, the victor possessed absolute rights over the vanquished, whether they were soldiers or not. Enslavement, while not systematic, was common practice. Thucydides recalls that 7,000 inhabitants of Hyccara in Sicily were taken prisoner by Nicias and sold for 120 talents in the neighbouring village of Catania. Likewise in 348 BC the population of Olynthus was reduced to slavery, as was that of Thebes in 335 BC

Piracy and banditry.

Piracy and banditry provided a significant and consistent supply of slaves, though the significance of this source varied according to era and region. Pirates and brigands would demand ransom whenever the status of their catch warranted it. Whenever ransom was not paid or not warranted, captives would be sold to a trafficker. In certain areas, piracy was practically a national specialty, described by Thucydides as "the old-fashioned" way of life.

Slave trade.

There was slave trade between kingdoms and states of the wider region. The fragmentary list of slaves confiscated from the property of the mutilators of the "Hermai" mentions 32 slaves whose origins have been ascertained: 13 came from Thrace, 7 from Caria, and the others came from Cappadocia, Scythia, Phrygia, Lydia, Syria, Ilyria, Macedon and Peloponnese. Local professionals sold their own people to Greek slave merchants. The principal centres of the slave trade appear to have been Ephesus, Byzantium, and even faraway Tanais at the mouth of the Don. Some "barbarian" slaves were victims of war or localised piracy, but others were sold by their parents. There is a lack of direct evidence of slave traffic, but corroborating evidence exists. Firstly, certain nationalities are consistently and significantly represented in the slave population, such as the corps of Scythian archers employed by Athens as a police force—originally 300, but eventually nearly a thousand. Secondly, the names given to slaves in

Status of slaves.

The Greeks had many degrees of enslavement. There was a multitude of categories, ranging from free citizen to chattel slave, and including Penestae or helots, disenfranchised citizens, freedmen, bastards, and metics. The common ground was the deprivation of civic rights. Moses Finley proposed a set of criteria for different degrees of enslavement:

Athenian slaves.

Athenian slaves were the property of their master (or of the state), who could dispose of them as he saw fit. He could give, sell, rent, or bequeath them. A slave could have a spouse and child, but the slave family was not recognized by the state, and the master could scatter the family members at any time. Slaves had fewer judicial rights than citizens and were represented by their master in all judicial proceedings. A misdemeanour that would result in a fine for the free man would result in a flogging for the slave; the ratio seems to have been one lash for one drachma. With several minor exceptions, the testimony of a slave was not admissible except

Slaves in Gortyn.

In Gortyn, in Crete, according to a code engraved in stone dating to the 6th century BC, slaves ("doulos" or "oikeus") found themselves in a state of great dependence. Their children belonged to the master. The master was responsible for all their offences, and, inversely, he received amends for crimes committed against his slaves by others. In the Gortyn code, where all punishment was monetary, fines were doubled for slaves committing a

A specific case: debt slavery.

Prior to its interdiction by Solon, Athenians practiced debt enslavement: a citizen incapable of paying his debts became "enslaved" to the creditor. The exact nature of this dependency is a much controversial issue among modern historians: was it truly slavery or another form of bondage? However, this issue primarily concerned those peasants known as "hektēmoroi" working leased land belonging to rich landowners and unable to pay their rents. In theory, those so enslaved would be liberated when their original debts were repaid. The system was developed with variants throughout the Near East and is cited in the Bible. Solon put an end to it with the / "seisachtheia", liberation of debts, which prevented all claim to the person by the debtor and forbade the

Manumission.

The practice of manumission is confirmed to have existed in Chios from the 6th century BC. It probably dates back to an earlier period, as it was an oral procedure. Informal emancipations are also confirmed in the classical period. It was sufficient to have witnesses, who would escort the citizen to a public emancipation of his slave, either at the theatre or before a public tribunal. This practice was outlawed in Athens in the middle of the 6th century BC to avoid

Spartan slaves.

Spartan citizens used helots, a dependent group collectively owned by the state. It is uncertain whether they had chattel slaves as well. There are mentions of people manumitted by Spartans, which was supposedly forbidden for helots, or sold outside of Lakonia: the poet Alcman; a Philoxenos from Cytherea, reputedly enslaved with all his fellow citizens when his city was conquered, later sold to an Athenian; a Spartan cook bought by Dionysius the Elder or by a king of Pontus, both versions being mentioned by Plutarch; and the famous Spartan nurses, much appreciated by Athenian parents.  Some texts

Slavery conditions.

It is difficult to appreciate the condition of Greek slaves. According to Aristotle, the daily routine of slaves could be summed up in three words: "work, discipline, and feeding". Xenophon's advice is to treat slaves as domestic animals, that is to say punish disobedience and reward good behaviour. For his part, Aristotle prefers to see slaves treated as children and to use not only orders but also recommendations, as the slave is capable of understanding reasons when they are explained.  Greek literature abounds with scenes of slaves being flogged; it was a means of forcing them to work, as were control of rations, clothing, and rest. This violence could be meted out by the master or the supervisor, who was possibly also a slave. Thus, at the beginning of Aristophanes' "The Knights" (4–5), two slaves complain of being "bruised and thrashed without respite" by their new supervisor. However, Aristophanes himself cites what is a typical old saw in ancient Greek comedy:  "He also dismissed those slaves who kept on running off, or deceiving someone, or getting whipped. They were always led out crying, so one of their fellow slaves could mock the bruises and ask then: 'Oh you poor miserable fellow, what's happened to your skin?

Views of Greek slavery.

Historical views.

Very few authors of antiquity call slavery into question. To Homer and the pre-classical authors, slavery was an inevitable consequence of war. Heraclitus states that "War is the father of all, the king of all... he turns some into slaves and sets others free". Aristotle also felt this way, stating "the law by which whatever is taken in war is supposed to belong to the victors." He does also state that it might have a few issues though,”For what if the cause of war be unjust?” If the war was because of an unfair or incorrect reason, should the victors of that war be allowed to take the losers as slaves?  During the classical period the main justification for slavery was economic. From a philosophical point of view, the idea of "natural" slavery emerged at the same time; thus, as Aeschylus states in "The

Modern views.

Slavery in Greek antiquity has long been an object of apologetic discourse among Christians, who are typically awarded the merit of its collapse. From the 16th century the discourse became moralizing in nature. The existence of colonial slavery had significant impact on the debate, with some authors lending it civilizing merits and others denouncing its misdeeds. Thus Henri-Alexandre Wallon in 1847 published a "History of Slavery in Antiquity" among his works for the abolition of slavery in the French colonies.  In the 19th century, a politico-economic discourse emerged. It concerned itself with distinguishing the phases in the organisation of human societies and correctly identifying the place of Greek

Further reading.

General studies  Specific studies

Slavery was an accepted practice in ancient Greece, as in other societies of the time. Some Ancient Greek writers (including, most notably, Aristotle) described slavery as natural and even necessary. This paradigm was notably questioned in Socratic dialogues; the Stoics produced the first recorded condemnation of slavery.

奴隶制度是古希腊发展史的一个重要组成部分。大部分古代作家认为奴隶制不仅是必需的而且自然合理,无论斯多葛派还是早期基督教都没有质疑过这种行为。然而早在公元前4世纪,一些独立的争议开始出现,在苏格拉底谈话中尤其明显。


Features.

The Unity user interface consists of several components:

Dash.

Dash is a desktop search utility with preview ability. It enables searching for applications and files. Dash supports search plug-ins, known as Scopes (formerly Lenses). Out of the box, it can query Google Docs, Ubuntu One Music Store, YouTube, Amazon, and social networks (for example, Twitter, Facebook, and Google+). Starting with Ubuntu 13.10, online search queries are sent to a Canonical web service which determines the type of query and directs them to the appropriate third-party web service. Pornographic results are filtered out.  None of Ubuntu's official derivatives (Kubuntu, Xubuntu, Lubuntu, or Ubuntu GNOME) include this feature or any variation of it.  One of the new features of Unity in Ubuntu 12.10 is the shopping lens. As of October 2012, it sends (through a secure HTTPS connection) the user's queries from the home lens to codice_1, which then polls Amazon.com to find relevant products; Amazon then sends product images directly to the user's computer (initially, through unsecured HTTP). If the user clicks on one of these results and then buys something, Canonical receives a small commission on the sale.  Many reviewers criticized it: as the home lens is the natural means to search for content on the local machine, reviewers were concerned about the disclosure of queries that were intended to be local, creating a privacy problem. The feature is active by default (instead of opt-in) and many users could be unaware of it.  On 23 September 2012, Mark Shuttleworth defended the feature. He posted "the Home Lens of the Dash should let you find *anything* anywhere" and that the shopping lens is a step in that direction. He argued that anonymity is preserved because Canonical servers mediate the communication between Unity and Amazon and users could trust Ubuntu. Ubuntu Community Manager Jono Bacon posted "These features are neatly and unobtrusively integrated into the dash, and they not only provide a more useful and comprehensive dash in giving you visibility on this content, but it also generates revenue to help continue to grow and improve Ubuntu." Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols from ZDNet said the feature does not bother him and wrote "If they can make some users happy and some revenue for the company at the same time, that's fine by me." Ted Samson at InfoWorld reported the responses from Shuttleworth and Bacon, but he still criticized the feature.  On 29 October 2012, the Electronic Frontier Foundation criticized the problem. It argued that since product images were (as of October 2012) returned via insecure HTTP then a passive eavesdropper—such as someone on the same wireless network—could get a good idea of the queries. Also, Amazon could correlate the queries with IP addresses. It recommended Ubuntu developers make the feature opt-in and make Ubuntu's privacy settings more fine-grained. It noted that the Dash can be stopped from searching the Internet by switching off "Include online search results" in Ubuntu's privacy settings.  On 7 December 2012, Richard Stallman claimed that Ubuntu contains spyware and should not be used by free software supporters. Jono Bacon rebuked him; he said that Ubuntu responded and implemented many of the requirements the community found important.  Since September 2013, images are anonymized before being sent to the user's computer.  A legal notice in the Dash informs users of the sharing of their data. It states that unless the user has opted out, by turning the searches off, their queries and IP address will be sent to codice_1 and "selected third parties" for online search results. Ubuntu's Third Party Privacy Policies page informs all of the third parties that may receive users' queries and IP addresses, and states: "For information on how our selected third parties may use your information, please see their privacy policies."  Soon after being introduced, doubts emerged on the conformance of the shopping lens with the European Data Protection Directive. By late 2013, these doubts made the grounds for a formal complaint on the shopping lens filed with the Information Commissioner's Office (IOC), the UK data privacy office. Almost one year later the IOC ruled in favour of Canonical, considering the various improvements introduced to the feature in the meantime to render it conformal with the Data Protection Directive. However, the ruling also made clear that at the time of introduction the feature was not legal, among other things, since it lacked a privacy policy statement.  In March 2014, Michael Hall speaking for Canonical Ltd, indicated that in Unity 8 users will have to opt-in for each search, which will be conducted by opening a special scope and then choosing where to search. These changes would address all criticisms leveled at Canonical and Unity in the past. As of April 2016, with the release of Ubuntu 16.04 LTS, the setting is off by default.

Variants.

Unity for Ubuntu TV.

Ubuntu TV, running a Unity variant, was introduced at the 2012 Consumer Electronics Show. Created for SmartTVs, Ubuntu TV provides access to popular Internet services and stream content to mobile devices running Android, iOS and Ubuntu.

Unity for Ubuntu Touch.

On 2 January 2013, Canonical announced a smartphone variant of Unity running on the Mir display server.

Unity 2D.

Initially Canonical maintained two discrete versions of Unity, which were visually almost indistinguishable but technically different.  Unity is written as a plugin for Compiz and uses an uncommon OpenGL toolkit called Nux. Being a plugin for Compiz gives Unity GPU-accelerated performance on compatible systems. It is written in the programming languages C++ and Vala.  Unity 2D was a set of individual applications developed for environments that Compiz does not run on, such as when graphics card does not support OpenGL. They were written in the GUI building language QML from the widespread Qt framework. By default Unity 2D used the Metacity window manager but could also use accelerated window managers like Compiz or KWin. In Ubuntu 11.10, Unity 2D used Metacity's XRender-based compositor to achieve transparency effects. Starting with Ubuntu 11.10, Unity 2D replaced the classic GNOME Panel as the fall-back for users whose hardware could not run the Compiz version of Unity.  Unity 2D was discontinued for the release of Ubuntu 12.10 in October 2012, as the 3D version became more capable of running on lower-powered hardware.

Availability.

As Unity and the supporting Ayatana projects are developed primarily for Ubuntu, Ubuntu is the first to offer new versions.  Outside of Ubuntu, other Linux distributors have tried to pick up Ayatana, with varying success. The Ayatana components require modification of other applications, which increases the complexity for adoption by others.

Development.

Ubuntu originally used the full GNOME desktop environment; Ubuntu founder Mark Shuttleworth cited philosophical differences with the GNOME team over the user experience to explain why Ubuntu would use Unity as the default user interface instead of GNOME Shell, beginning April 2011, with Ubuntu 11.04 (Natty Narwhal).  In November 2010, Ubuntu Community Manager Jono Bacon explained that Ubuntu will continue to ship the GNOME stack, GNOME applications, and optimize Ubuntu for GNOME. The only difference, he wrote, would be that Unity is a different shell for GNOME.  Canonical announced it had engineered Unity for desktop computers as well and would make Unity the default shell for Ubuntu in version 11.04.  GNOME Shell was not included in Ubuntu 11.04 Natty Narwhal because work on it was not completed at the time 11.04 was frozen, but is available from a PPA, and is available in Ubuntu 11.10 and later releases, through the official repositories.  In November 2010, Mark Shuttleworth announced the intention to eventually run Unity on Wayland instead of the currently used X Window System, although this plan has since been dropped, replacing Wayland with Mir for "Unity 8".  In December 2010, some users requested that the Unity launcher (or dock) be movable from the left to other sides of the screen, but Mark Shuttleworth stated in reply, "I'm afraid that won't work with our broader design goals, so we won't implement that. We want the launcher always close to the Ubuntu button." However, with Ubuntu 11.10, the Ubuntu button was moved into the launcher. A third-party plugin that moved Unity 3D's launcher to the bottom was available. An option to move the launcher to the bottom of the screen was officially implemented in Ubuntu 16.04. , the Unity shell interface developers use a toolkit called Nux instead of Clutter. Unity is a plugin of the Compiz window manager, which Canonical states is faster than Mutter, the window manager for which GNOME Shell is a plugin.  On 14 January 2011, Canonical also released a technical preview of a "2D" version of Unity based on Qt and written in QML. Unity-2D was not shipped on the Ubuntu 11.04 CD, instead the classic GNOME desktop was the fall-back for hardware that could not run Unity.  In March 2011, public indications emerged of friction between Canonical (and its development of Unity) and the GNOME developers. As part of Unity development Ubuntu developers had submitted API coding for inclusion in Gnome as an external dependency. According to Dave Neary, "... an external dependency is a non-GNOME module which is a dependency of a package contained in one of the GNOME module sets," and the reasons why libappindicator was not accepted as an external dependency are that "... it does not fit that definition," it has "... duplicate functionality with libnotify," (the current Gnome Shell default) and its CLA does not meet current GNOME policy. Mark Shuttleworth responded,  In April 2011, Mark Shuttleworth announced that Ubuntu 11.10 Oneiric Ocelot would not include the classic GNOME desktop as a fall-back to Unity, unlike Ubuntu 11.04 Natty Narwhal. Instead Ubuntu 11.10 used the Qt-based Unity 2D for users whose hardware cannot support the 3D version. However, the classic GNOME desktop (GNOME Panel) can be installed separately in Ubuntu 11.10 and later versions through codice_3, a package in the Ubuntu repositories.  At the November 2011 Ubuntu Developer Summit, it was announced that Unity for Ubuntu 12.04 would not re-enable the systray, and would have better application integration, and the ability to drag lenses onto the launcher, and that the 2D version of Unity would use the same decoration buttons as the 3D version.  During the planning conference for Ubuntu 12.10 it was announced that Unity 2D would probably be dropped in favour of making Unity 3D run better on lower-end hardware.  In July 2012, at OSCON, Shuttleworth explained some of the historical reasoning behind Unity's development. The initial decision to develop a new interface in 2008 was driven by a desire to innovate and to pass Microsoft and Apple in user experience. This meant a family of unified interfaces that could be used across many device form factors, including desktop, laptop, tablet, smart phones and TV. Shuttleworth said "‘The old desktop would force your tablet or your phone into all kinds of crazy of funny postures. So we said: Screw it. We’re going to move the desktop to where it needs to be for the future. [This] turned out to be a deeply unpopular process."  Initial testing of Unity during development was done in a laboratory setting and showed the success of the interface, despite public opposition. Real world shipping return rates also indicated acceptance. Shuttleworth explained, "ASUS ran an experiment where they shipped half a million [Unity netbooks and laptops] to Germany. Not an easy market. And the return rates on Ubuntu were exactly the same as the return rates on Windows. Which is the key indicator for OEMs who are looking to do this."  Microsoft's development of Windows 8 and its Metro interface became an additional incentive for Unity development, as Shuttleworth explained, "we [had to move] our desktop because if we didn’t we’d end up where Windows 8 is. [In Windows 8] you have this shiny tablet interface, and you sit and you use then you press the wrong button then it slaps you in the face and Windows 7 is back. And then you think OK, this is familiar, so you’re kind of getting into it and whack [Windows 8 is back]."  In March 2013 the plan to use the Mir display server was announced for future development of Unity, in place of the previously announced Wayland/Weston.  In April 2015 it was announced that Unity 8 would ship as part of Ubuntu 16.04 LTS, or possibly later. It was also noted that this version of Unity would not visually differ much from Unity 7.  In April 2016 Ubuntu 16.04 was released with Unity 7, not Unity 8, as the default user interface, though Unity 8 could be installed through the Ubuntu software repositories as an optional, preview package. During an Ubuntu Online Summit, Canonical employees said that their goal is to ship Unity 8 as the default interface for Ubuntu 16.10, to be released in October 2016. These plans are now changed and for now Unity 8 will come preinstalled with 16.10 but not as default.  On 5 April 2017 Mark Shuttleworth announced that Canonical's work on Unity would end and that Ubuntu would employ the GNOME 3 desktop instead. However, the UBports team forked the Unity 8 repository and continued the development. Currently, the Unity 8 project is maintained and developed by UBports.

Reception.

Early versions of Unity received mixed reviews and generated controversy. Some reviewers found fault with the implementation and limitations, while other reviewers found Unity an improvement over GNOME 2 with the further potential to improve over time.  With Ubuntu 12.04, Unity received good reviews. Jack Wallen described it as an "incredible advancement". Jesse Smith described it as "attractive" and said it had grown to maturity. Ryan Paul said Unity was responsive, robust and had the reliability expected from a mature desktop shell.  The Dash feature of Unity in Ubuntu 12.10 generated a privacy controversy.

Ubuntu 10.10.

In reviewing an alpha version of Unity, shortly after it was unveiled in the summer of 2010, Ryan Paul of Ars Technica noted problems figuring out how to launch additional applications that were not on the dock bar. He also mentioned a number of bugs, including the inability to track which applications were open and other window management difficulties. He remarked that many of these were probably due to the early stage in the development process and expected them to be resolved with time. Paul concluded positively, "Our test of the Unity prototype leads us to believe that the project has considerable potential and could bring a lot of value to the Ubuntu Netbook Edition. Its unique visual style melds beautifully with Ubuntu's new default theme and its underlying interaction model seems compelling and well-suited for small screens." In an extensive review of Ubuntu 10.10 shortly after its release in October 2010, Paul made further observations on Unity, noting that "Unity is highly ambitious and offers a substantially different computing experience than the conventional Ubuntu desktop." He concluded that "The [application] selectors are visually appealing, but they are easily the weakest part of the Unity user experience. The poor performance significantly detracts from their value in day-to-day use and the lack of actual file management functionality largely renders the file selector useless. The underlying concepts behind their design are good, however, and they have the potential to be much more valuable in the future as unity matures."

Ubuntu 11.04.

In March 2011, writer Benjamin Humphrey of OMG Ubuntu criticized the development version of Unity then being tested for Ubuntu 11.04 on a number of grounds, including a development process that is divorced from user experiences, the lack of response to user feedback, "the seemingly unbelievable lack of communication the design team has," and a user interface he described as "cluttered and inconsistent". Overall, however, he concluded that "Unity is not all bad... While a number of the concepts in Unity may be flawed from a design point of view, the actual idea itself is not, and Canonical deserve applause for trying to jump start the stagnant open source desktop with Unity when the alternatives do not evoke confidence."  On 14 April 2011 Ryan Paul reviewed Unity as implemented in Ubuntu 11.04 beta, just two weeks before its stable release. He reported that Unity was on track for inclusion in Natty Narwhal, despite the ambitious development schedule. He indicated, "close attention to detail shines through in many aspects of Unity. The menubar is clean and highly functional. The sidebar dock is visually appealing and has excellent default behaviors for automatic hiding." He noted that the interface still had some weak points, especially difficulties browsing for applications not on the dock, as well as switching between application categories. He noted that, in particular, "random packages from the repositories, which are presented as applications that are available for installation in the launcher, are distracting and largely superfluous". Paul concluded, "There is still a lot of room for improvement, but Unity is arguably a strong improvement over the conventional GNOME 2.x environment for day-to-day use. The breadth of the changes may be disorienting for some users, but most will like what they see when Unity lands on their desktop at the end of the month." Two weeks later he added the lack of configurability to his criticisms. In a very detailed assessment of Ubuntu 11.04 and Unity published on 12 May 2011, Paul further concluded Unity was a positive development for Ubuntu, but that more development had to be invested to make it work right. He wrote, "They have done some incredibly impressive work so far and have delivered a desktop that is suitable for day-to-day use, but it is still very far from fulfilling its full potential."  On 25 April 2011, the eve of the release of Ubuntu 11.04, reviewer Matt Hartley of "IT Management" criticized Unity, saying that the "dumbing down of the Linux desktop environment is bordering on insane".  Reviewer Joey Sneddon of "OMG Ubuntu" was more positive about Unity in his review of Ubuntu 11.04, encouraging users, "Sure it's different—but different doesn't mean bad; the best thing to do is to give it a chance." He concluded that Unity on the desktop makes "better use of screen space, intuitive interface layouts and, most importantly, making a desktop that works for the user and not in spite of them."  Following the release of Ubuntu 11.04 Canonical Ltd. founder Mark Shuttleworth indicated that, while he was generally happy with the implementation of Unity, he felt that there was room for improvement. Shuttleworth said, "I recognise there are issues, and I would not be satisfied unless we fixed many of them in 11.10... Unity was the best option for the average user upgrading or installing. There are LOTS of people for whom it isn't the best, but we had to choose a default position... It's by no means perfect, and it would be egotistical to suggest otherwise... I think the bulk of it has worked out fantastically—both at an engineering level (Compiz, Nux) and in the user experience."  In reviewing Unity in Ubuntu 11.04 on 9 May 2011, Jesse Smith of DistroWatch criticized its lack of customization, menu handling and Unity hardware requirements, saying, "There's really nothing here which should demand 3D acceleration." He also noted that "The layout doesn't translate well to large screens or multiple-screen systems." Jack M. Germain of "Linux Insider" reviewed Unity on 11 May 2011, indicating strong dislike for it, saying, "Put me in the Hate It category" and indicating that as development has proceeded he likes it less and less.

Ubuntu 11.10.

More criticism appeared after the release of Ubuntu 11.10. In November 2011 Robert Storey writing in DistroWatch noted that developer work on Unity is now taking up so much time that little is getting done on outstanding Ubuntu bugs, resulting in a distribution that is not as stable or as fast as it should be. Storey concluded "Perhaps it would be worth putting up with the bugs if Unity was the greatest thing since sliced bread — something wonderful that is going to revolutionize desktop computing. But it's not. I tried Unity, and it's kind of cute, but nothing to write home about."  In November 2011 OMG! Ubuntu! conducted a non-scientific poll that asked its readers "which Desktop Environment Are You Using in Ubuntu 11.10?". Of the 15,988 votes cast 46.78% indicated that they were using Unity over GNOME Shell (28.42%), Xfce (7.58%), KDE (6.92%) and LXDE (2.7%).  Developers of Linux distributions based upon Ubuntu have also weighed in on the introduction of Unity in early 2011, when Unity was in its infancy. Some have been critical, including two distributions who base their criticism on usability testing. Marco Ghirlanda, the lead developer of the audio- and video-centric ArtistX, stated, "When I tried Unity on computer illiterates, they were less productive and took ages to understand the concepts behind it. When I show them how to use it, they said that it is pretty to see but hard to use." Stephen Ewen, the lead developer for UberStudent, an Ubuntu-based Linux distribution for higher education and college-bound high school students, stated, "Unity's design decreases both visual and functional accessibility, which tabulates to decreased productivity." Ewen also criticized Unity's menu scheme as much less accessible than on GNOME 2, which he said, "means that the brain cannot map as quickly to program categories and subcategories, which again means further decreased productivity."

Ubuntu 12.04 LTS.

Jesse Smith of DistroWatch said that many people, like him, had questioned Ubuntu's direction, including Unity. But with Ubuntu 12.04 he felt that the puzzle pieces, which individually may have been underwhelming, had come together to form a whole, clear picture. He said "Unity, though a step away from the traditional desktop, has several features which make it attractive, such as reducing mouse travel. The HUD means that newcomers can find application functionality with a quick search and more advanced users can use the HUD to quickly run menu commands from the keyboard." He wrote that Unity had grown to maturity, but said he was bothered by its lack of flexibility.  Jack Wallen of TechRepublic—who had strongly criticized early versions of Unity—said "Since Ubuntu 12.04 was released, and I migrated over from Linux Mint, I’m working much more efficiently. This isn’t really so much a surprise to me, but to many of the detractors who assume Unity a very unproductive desktop... well, I can officially say they are wrong. [...] I realize that many people out there have spurned Unity (I was one of them for a long time), but the more I use it, the more I realize that Canonical really did their homework on how to help end users more efficiently interact with their computers. Change is hard – period. For many, the idea of change is such a painful notion they wind up missing out on some incredible advancements. Unity is one such advancement."  Ryan Paul said Unity was responsive, robust and had the reliability expected from a mature desktop shell. He considered the HUD as one of several excellent improvements that had helped to make Unity "even better in Ubuntu 12.04". Yet he also wrote: "Although Unity's quality has grown to the point where it fulfills our expectations, the user experience still falls short in a number of ways. We identified several key weaknesses in our last two Ubuntu reviews, some of which still haven't been addressed yet. These issues still detract from Unity's predictability and ease of use."

Ubuntu 16.04 LTS.

Jack Wallen of TechRepublic, in reviewing the changes scheduled for Unity in Ubuntu 16.04 LTS, concluded, "Ubuntu Unity is not the desktop pariah you once thought it was. This desktop environment has evolved into a beautiful, efficient interface that does not deserve the scorn and derision heaped upon it by so many."

Unity is a graphical shell for the GNOME desktop environment originally developed by Canonical Ltd. for its Ubuntu operating system. Unity debuted in the netbook edition of Ubuntu 10.10. It was initially designed to make more efficient use of space given the limited screen size of netbooks, including, for example, a vertical application switcher called the "launcher", and a space-saving horizontal multipurpose "top menu bar".

Unity是Canonical公司为GNOME桌面环境所开发的图形用户界面,用于Ubuntu操作系统。Unity在Ubuntu 10.10上网本版中首次推出,最初是为了充分利用上网本有限的屏幕尺寸。 。不同于GNOME、KDE SC,Unity并非一个桌面套件。


Activism and website.

Zhao became a leader in the movement of parents to get restitution and treatment for their children. He called for a national memorial day for the victims. He held a memorial ceremony in his home for parents of harmed children.  He started the "Home for Kidney Stone Babies" (结石宝宝之家, jieshibaobao.com) website from his apartment in Daxing, near Beijing. The website was blocked in China. The site was also shut down by the government so he moved hosting to Japan.  Parents of children harmed by melamine-tainted milk went to the website and could exchange information about how to sue. Zhao also pushed for increased research into the number of kidney stone babies.  The site published a leaked document from the Henan Department of Health, which had allegedly ordered workers to underreport kidney stone cases.  The website also posted claims that autopsies of children were being denied.  In 2009, Zhao posted a petition arguing against accepting the government's compensation plan as inadequate (especially considering the long-term unknowns), and not created in consultation with parents. The petition was signed by several hundred parents.  The police and/or public security bureau harassed him, his wife, his mother, his siblings, and volunteer students. The government also broke up meetings and a press conference.

Arrest, trial, imprisonment.

Zhao was taken by police in mid-November 2009. Arrest papers were given to his wife Li Xuemei on 21 December 2009, on charges, she said, of "picking quarrels and provoking trouble". His case was handed to prosecutors in early 2010. He was tried at Daxing district court in Beijing where he was legally represented by Li Fangping and Peng Jian.  A lawyer's blog claimed the police wrote the following:  From September 2008 to September 2009, Zhao Lianhai used 'protecting rights' as well as the Sanlu milk powder issue as an excuse to hype and agitate people who did not know the truth to disturb social order... by shouting slogans and gathering illegally.  He was sentenced on 10 November 2010 to 21⁄2 years prison. The main charge was inciting social disorder.  Three incidents were used against Zhao at his trial: Amnesty International condemned the sentence and he began a hunger strike in protest. Li Xuemei, his wife, indicated there would be an appeal.  Leung Man-tao, a Hong Kong based writer, wrote an op-ed in "Southern Weekend" in Guangzhou, defending Zhao. He was named as a political prisoner by the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, and as a prisoner of conscience by Amnesty International.  Zhao was subsequently released on medical parole, which normally allows freedom of movement, subject to regular reports to the local police. But Zhao has largely been restricted to his Daxing home and official harassment has continued, such as when he tried to take his children for a day out on 31 May 2011, and the family were surrounded by police and public security officials and held in a nearby restaurant in what onlookers thought was a hostage situation.

Censorship.

Reports and discussions on Chinese websites are restricted. On 30 March 2010, Hong Kong singer Gigi Leung posted about the unjustly jailed Zhao Lianhai on Sina Weibo. After receiving a message from website's administrator, Gigi Leung then deleted the relevant blog, resulted in hundreds of supportive messages from her fans.

2010 Hong Kong journalists assaulted.

On 10 December 2010 several Hong Kong journalists were at Zhao's apartment in Daxing Beijing to interview his supporters. About 40 members of a "Neighbourhood Management Committee" tried to stop the journalists. The journalists were kicked, struck and had their cameras blocked. An ATV journalist's camera was hit. A female RTHK reporter was slapped. The Hong Kong Journalists Association expressed concern about the incident. Hong Kong director of broadcasting Franklin Wong Wah-kay (黃華麒), head of the public broadcaster RTHK, condemned the attack and said the journalists were legally covering the case under mainland law.  On 29 December 2010 the director of the Hong Kong and Macau office of the State Council Wang Guangya said that under the One country, two systems principle Hong Kong should not interfere. He then made a controversial statement that "well water (HK) should not pollute the river water (China)"

Zhao Lianhai (赵连海) is a Chinese dissident and former food safety worker who became an activist for parents of children harmed during the 2008 Chinese milk scandal. In 2010 he was sentenced to 21⁄2 years imprisonment for 'disturbing social order'.

赵连海(1972年-5月21日),北京人,是一个儿童肾结石患者的父亲,三聚氰胺毒奶受害者集体维权联盟“结石宝宝之家”的发起人。他曾在电视台、国家工商总局的广告公司、国家质检总局的《中国质量报》等多家媒体工作过多年。2010年他被以寻衅滋事罪判处有期徒刑两年半。 2010年12月24日,中国广州的《时代周报》评选「2010最有影响力的时代100人」,赵连海获评为「民间十大人士」


History.

The concept of "negligibility" can find its trace back to sound models of analysis. Though the concepts of "continuity" and "infinitesimal" became important in mathematics during Newton and Leibniz's time (1680s), they were not well-defined until the late 1810s. The first reasonably rigorous definition of "continuity" in mathematical analysis was due to Bernard Bolzano, who wrote in 1817 the modern definition of continuity. Later Cauchy, Weierstrass and Heine also defined as follows (with all numbers in the real number domain formula_5):  This classic definition of continuity can be transformed into the definition of negligibility in a few steps by changing parameters used in the definition. First, in the case formula_12 with formula_13, we must define the concept of ""infinitesimal function"":  Next, we replace formula_8 by the functions formula_21 where formula_22 or by formula_23 where formula_24 is a positive polynomial. This leads to the definitions of negligible functions given at the top of this article. Since the constants formula_8 can be expressed as formula_23 with a constant polynomial this shows that negligible functions are a subset of the infinitesimal functions.

Use in cryptography.

In complexity-based modern cryptography, a security scheme is "provably secure" if the probability of security failure (e.g., inverting a one-way function, distinguishing cryptographically strong pseudorandom bits from truly random bits) is negligible in terms of the input formula_15 = cryptographic key length formula_28. Hence comes the definition at the top of the page because key length formula_28 must be a natural number.  Nevertheless, the general notion of negligibility doesn't require that the input parameter formula_15 is the key length formula_28. Indeed, formula_15 can be any predetermined system metric and corresponding mathematical analysis would illustrate some hidden analytical behaviors of the system.  The reciprocal-of-polynomial formulation is used for the same reason that computational boundedness is defined as polynomial running time: it has mathematical closure properties that make it tractable in the asymptotic setting (see #Closure properties). For example, if an attack succeeds in violating a security condition only with negligible probability, and the attack is repeated a polynomial number of times, the success probability of the overall attack still remains negligible.  In practice one might want to have more concrete functions bounding the adversary's success probability and to choose the security parameter large enough that this probability is smaller than some threshold, say 2.

Closure properties.

One of the reasons that negligible functions are used in foundations of complexity-theoretic cryptography is that they obey closure properties. Specifically,  Conversely, if formula_35 is not negligible, then neither is formula_39 for any real polynomial formula_36.

In mathematics, a negligible function is a function formula_1 such that for every positive integer "c" there exists an integer "N" such that for all "x" > "N",

</onlyinclude> 那么我们说这个函数是可忽略的(negligible)。通常我们把“存在一个formula_3,使得对于所有的formula_4”简化为“对于所有足够大的formula_8”。


Life and career.

Born Cheung Fu-sheng in British Hong Kong in 20 October 1954. He was the ninth child of a wealthy New Territories indigenous inhabitant businessman Cheung Yan-lung. His birth mother was Angela Liu Fung-wo. As a child, his family lived in Hawaii for a few years and there he began training in judo and karate.  In 1971, he enrolled at Shaw Brothers Southern Drama School and instantly drew the attention of director Chang Cheh. Cheh had Fu Sheng train with Lau Kar-leung for 6 months. Fu Sheng made his film debut as an extra in the 1972 film "The Fourteen Amazons". His first lead role was in Cheh's "Police Force". Some of his other films include "Heroes Two", "Five Shaolin Masters", "Shaolin Temple" and the "Brave Archer" series. He eventually made a total of 23 films with Cheh.  In 1976, he married singer and actress Jenny Tseng, who had appeared with him in the film "New Shaolin Boxers".  He suffered a series of injuries in 1978 and 1979. On the set of "The Deadly Breaking Sword" a wire suspending him snapped and he fell eight feet landing on his head. While working on "Heroes Shed No Tears", he shattered bones in his right leg.  Fu Sheng was supposed to star in "Snake in the Eagle's Shadow" but was refused by Run Run Shaw; head of the Shaw Brothers Studio. Jackie Chan was eventually cast in the role.  On 7 July 1983, Fu Sheng died as the result of an automobile accident. At the time, he was filming "The Eight Diagram Pole Fighter" in which he was to be the hero. The film was partially re-written and the remainder of the film was shot. In the finished film, Fu Sheng's character abruptly disappears and the focus was put on co-star Gordon Liu's character.  His funeral was organised by the Shaw Brothers committee. His remains were cremated and was interred at Fung Ying Seen Koon at Fanling town, part of Fanling–Sheung Shui New Town in Hong Kong.  He made his final film appearance the film "Wits of the Brats" which was also the only film he directed and was released almost a year after his death.

Alexander Fu Sheng () (born Cheung Fu-sheng (); 20 October 1954 – 7 July 1983), also known as Fu Sheng was a Hong Kong martial arts film star in the 1970s.

傅声(英语:Alexander Fu Sheng,1954年-10月20日-1983年-7月7日),香港电影功夫男演员,原名张景贤,又名张富声,出生于香港。家中共有兄妹十一人,他排行第九,其父亲为香港富商名流、立法局议员兼太平绅士张人龙,妻子为著名女歌星甄妮。