Early life.

Morissette was born June 1, 1974 in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada to teacher Georgia Mary Ann (née Feuerstein) and high-school principal and French teacher Alan Richard Morissette. She has two brothers: older brother Chad is a business entrepreneur, and twin brother (12 minutes older) Wade is a musician. Her father is of French and Irish descent and her mother has Hungarian ancestry. Her parents were teachers in a military school and due to their work often had to move. Between the ages of three and six she lived with her parents in Lahr (Black Forest), Germany.  When she was six years old, she returned to Ottawa and started to play the piano. In 1981, at the age of seven, she began dance lessons. Morissette had a Catholic upbringing. She attended Holy Family Catholic School for elementary school and Immaculata High School for Grades 7 and 8 before completing the rest of her high school at Glebe Collegiate Institute. She appeared on the children's television show "You Can't Do That on Television" for five episodes when she was in junior high school.

Music career.

1987–1992: "Alanis" and "Now Is the Time".

Morissette recorded her first demo called "Fate Stay with Me", produced by Lindsay Thomas Morgan at Marigold Studios in Toronto, engineered by Rich Dodson of Canadian classic rock band The Stampeders. A second demo tape was recorded on cassette in August 1989 and sent to Geffen Records, but the tape has never been heard as it was stolen, among other records, in a burglary of the label's headquarters in October 1989.  In 1991, MCA Records Canada released Morissette's debut album, "Alanis", in Canada only. Morissette co-wrote every track on the album with its producer, Leslie Howe. The dance-pop album went platinum, and its first single, "Too Hot", reached the top 20 on the "RPM" singles chart. Subsequent singles "Walk Away" and "Feel Your Love" reached the top 40. Morissette's popularity, style of music and appearance, particularly that of her hair, led her to become known as the Debbie Gibson of Canada; comparisons to Tiffany were also common. During the same period, she was a concert opening act for rapper Vanilla Ice. Morissette was nominated for three 1992 Juno Awards: Most Promising Female Vocalist of the Year (which she won), Single of the Year and Best Dance Recording (both for "Too Hot").  In 1992, she released her second album, "Now Is the Time", a ballad-driven record that featured less glitzy production than "Alanis" and contained more thoughtful lyrics. Morissette wrote the songs with the album's producer, Leslie Howe, and Serge Côté. She said of the album, "People could go, 'Boo, hiss, hiss, this girl's like another Tiffany or whatever.' But the way I look at it... people will like your next album if it's a suck-ass one." As with "Alanis" (1991), "Now Is the Time" (1992) was released only in Canada and produced three top 40 singles—"An Emotion Away", the minor adult contemporary hit "No Apologies" as well as "(Change Is) Never a Waste of Time". The industry considered it a commercial failure, however, since it sold only a little more than half the copies of her first album. With her two-album deal with MCA Records Canada complete, Morissette was left without a major label contract.

1993–1997: "Jagged Little Pill".

In 1993, Morissette's publisher Leeds Levy at MCA Music Publishing introduced her to manager Scott Welch. Welch told HitQuarters he was impressed by her "spectacular voice", her character and her lyrics. At the time she was still living at home with her parents. Together they decided it would be best for her career to move to Toronto and start writing with other people. After graduating from high school, Morissette moved from Ottawa to Toronto. Her publisher funded part of her development and when she met producer and songwriter Glen Ballard, he believed in her talent enough to let her use his studio. The two wrote and recorded Morissette's first internationally released album, "Jagged Little Pill", and by the spring of 1995, she had signed a deal with Maverick Records. In the same year she learned how to play guitar. According to manager Welch, every label they approached, apart from Maverick, declined to sign Morissette. Maverick Records released "Jagged Little Pill" internationally in 1995. The album was expected only to sell enough for Morissette to make a follow-up, but the situation improved quickly when KROQ-FM, an influential Los Angeles modern rock radio station, began playing "You Oughta Know", the album's first single. The song instantly garnered attention for its scathing, explicit lyrics, and a subsequent music video went into heavy rotation on MTV and MuchMusic.  After the success of "You Oughta Know", the album's other hits helped send "Jagged Little Pill" to the top of the charts. "All I Really Want" and "Hand in My Pocket" followed, and the fourth U.S. single, "Ironic", became Morissette's biggest hit. "You Learn" and "Head over Feet", the fifth and sixth singles, kept "Jagged Little Pill" (1995) in the top 20 on the "Billboard" 200 albums chart for more than a year. "Jagged Little Pill" sold more than 16 million copies in the U.S.; it sold 33 million worldwide, making it the second biggest-selling album by a female artist (behind Shania Twain's "Come On Over").  Morissette's popularity grew significantly in Canada, where the album was certified twelve times platinum and produced four "RPM" chart-toppers: "Hand in My Pocket", "Ironic", "You Learn", and "Head over Feet". The album was also a bestseller in Australia and the United Kingdom.  Morissette's success with "Jagged Little Pill" (1995) was credited with opening doors for female singers such as Shakira, Meredith Brooks and, in the early 2000s, Pink, Michelle Branch, and fellow Canadian Avril Lavigne. She was criticized for collaborating with producer and supposed image-maker Ballard, and her previous albums also proved a hindrance for her respectability. Morissette and the album won six Juno Awards in 1996: Album of the Year, Single of the Year ("You Oughta Know"), Female Vocalist of the Year, Songwriter of the Year and Best Rock Album. At the 1996 Grammy Awards, she won Best Female Rock Vocal Performance, Best Rock Song (both for "You Oughta Know"), Best Rock Album and Album of the Year.  Later in 1996, Morissette embarked on an 18-month world tour in support of "Jagged Little Pill", beginning in small clubs and ending in large venues. Taylor Hawkins, who later joined the Foo Fighters, was the tour's drummer. "Ironic" was nominated for two 1997 Grammy Awards—Record of the Year and Best Music Video, Short Form—and won Single of the Year at the 1997 Juno Awards, where Morissette also won Songwriter of the Year and the International Achievement Award. The video "Jagged Little Pill, Live", which was co-directed by Morissette and chronicled the bulk of her tour, won a 1998 Grammy Award for Best Music Video, Long Form.  Following the tour, Morissette began practicing Iyengar Yoga for balance. After the last December 1996 show, she went to India for six weeks, accompanied by her mother, two aunts and two friends. She said the trip was "incredible".

1998–2000: "Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie" and "Alanis Unplugged".

Morissette was featured as a guest vocalist on Ringo Starr's cover of "Drift Away" on his 1998 album, "Vertical Man", and on the songs "Don't Drink the Water" and "Spoon" on the Dave Matthews Band album "Before These Crowded Streets". She recorded the song "Uninvited" for the soundtrack to the 1998 film "City of Angels". Although the track was never commercially released as a single, it received widespread radio airplay in the U.S. At the 1999 Grammy Awards, it won in the categories of Best Rock Song and Best Female Rock Vocal Performance, and was nominated for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. Later in 1998, Morissette released her fourth album, "Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie", which she wrote and produced with Glen Ballard.  The label hoped to sell 1 million copies of the album on initial release; instead, it debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 chart with first-week sales of 469,000 copies—a record, at the time, for the highest first-week sales of an album by a female artist. The wordy, personal lyrics on "Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie" alienated many fans, and after the album sold considerably less than "Jagged Little Pill" (1995), many labelled it an example of the sophomore jinx. However, it received positive reviews, including a four-star review from "Rolling Stone". In Canada, it won the Juno Award for Best Album and was certified four times platinum. "Thank U", the album's only major international hit single, was nominated for the 2000 Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance; the music video, which featured Morissette nude, generated mild controversy. Morissette herself directed the videos for "Unsent" and "So Pure", which won, respectively, the MuchMusic Video Award for Best Director and the Juno Award for Video of the Year.  Morissette contributed vocals to "Mercy", "Hope", "Innocence" and "Faith", four tracks on Jonathan Elias's project "The Prayer Cycle", which was released in 1999. The same year, she released the live acoustic album "Alanis Unplugged", which was recorded during her appearance on the television show "MTV Unplugged". It featured tracks from her previous two albums alongside four new songs, including "King of Pain" (a cover of The Police song) and "No Pressure over Cappuccino", which Morissette wrote with her main guitar player, Nick Lashley. The recording of the "Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie" track "That I Would Be Good", released as a single, became a minor hit on hot adult contemporary radio in America. Also in 1999, Morissette released a live version of her song "Are You Still Mad" on the charity album "Live in the X Lounge II". For her live rendition of "So Pure" at Woodstock '99, she was nominated for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance at the 2001 Grammy Awards. During summer 1999, Morissette toured with singer-songwriter Tori Amos on the "5 and a Half Weeks Tour" in support of Amos' album "To Venus and Back" (1999).

2001–2005: "Under Rug Swept" and "So-Called Chaos".

In 2001, Morissette was featured with Stephanie McKay on the Tricky song "Excess", which is on his album "Blowback". Morissette released her fifth studio album, "Under Rug Swept", in February 2002. For the first time in her career, she took on the role of sole writer and producer of an album. Her band, comprising Joel Shearer, Nick Lashley, Chris Chaney, and Gary Novak, played the majority of the instruments; additional contributions came from Eric Avery, Dean DeLeo, Flea, and Meshell Ndegeocello.  "Under Rug Swept" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 chart, eventually going platinum in Canada and selling one million copies in the U.S. It produced the hit single "Hands Clean", which topped the Canadian Singles Chart and received substantial radio play; for her work on "Hands Clean" and "So Unsexy", Morissette won a Juno Award for Producer of the Year. A second single, "Precious Illusions", was released, but it did not garner significant success outside Canada or U.S. hot AC radio.  Later in 2002, Morissette released the combination package "Feast on Scraps", which includes a DVD of live concert and backstage documentary footage directed by her and a CD containing eight previously unreleased songs from the "Under Rug Swept" recording sessions. Preceded by the single "Simple Together", it sold roughly 70,000 copies in the U.S. and was nominated for a Juno Award for Music DVD of the Year. Morissette hosted the Juno Awards of 2004 dressed in a bathrobe, which she took off to reveal a flesh-colored bodysuit, a response to the era of censorship in the U.S. caused by Janet Jackson's breast-flash incident during the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show. Morissette released her sixth studio album, "So-Called Chaos", in May 2004. She wrote the songs on her own again, and co-produced the album with Tim Thorney and pop music producer John Shanks. The album debuted at number five on the "Billboard" 200 chart to generally mixed critical reviews, and it became Morissette's lowest seller in the U.S. The lead single, "Everything", achieved major success on Adult Top 40 radio in America and was moderately popular elsewhere, particularly in Canada, although it failed to reach the top 40 on the U.S. Hot 100. Because the first line of the song includes the word "asshole", American radio stations refused to play it, and the single version was changed to include the word "nightmare" instead. Two other singles, "Out Is Through" and "Eight Easy Steps", fared considerably worse, although a dance mix of "Eight Easy Steps" was a U.S. club hit. Morissette embarked on a U.S. summer tour with long-time friends and fellow Canadians Barenaked Ladies, working with the non-profit environmental organization Reverb.  To commemorate the 10th anniversary of "Jagged Little Pill" (1995), Morissette released a studio acoustic version, "Jagged Little Pill Acoustic", in June 2005. The album was released exclusively through Starbucks' Hear Music retail concept through their coffee shops for a six-week run. The limited availability led to a dispute between Maverick Records and HMV North America, who retaliated by removing Morissette's other albums from sale for the duration of Starbucks's exclusive six-week sale., "Jagged Little Pill Acoustic" had sold 372,000 copies in the U.S., and a video for "Hand in My Pocket" received rotation on VH1 in America. The accompanying tour ran for two months in mid-2005, with Morissette playing small theatre venues. During the same period, Morissette was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame. The singer opened for The Rolling Stones for a few dates of their A Bigger Bang Tour in the autumn of 2005.  Morissette released the greatest hits album "" in late 2005. The lead single and only new track, a cover of Seal's "Crazy", was an Adult Top 40 and dance hit in the U.S., but achieved only minimal chart success elsewhere. A limited edition of "The Collection" features a DVD including a documentary with videos of two unreleased songs from Morissette's 1996 Can't Not Tour: "King of Intimidation" and "Can't Not". (A reworked version of "Can't Not" had also appeared on "Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie".) The DVD also includes a ninety-second clip of the unreleased video for the single "Joining You"., "The Collection" had sold 373,000 copies in the U.S., according to Nielsen SoundScan. That same year, Morissette contributed the song "Wunderkind" to the soundtrack of the film "", and she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song.

2006–2010: "Flavors of Entanglement".

2006 marked the first year in Morissette's musical career without a single concert appearance showcasing her own songs, with the exception of an appearance on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" in January when she performed "Wunderkind".  On April 1, 2007, Morissette released a tongue-in-cheek cover of The Black Eyed Peas's selection "My Humps", which she recorded in a slow, mournful voice, accompanied only by a piano. The accompanying YouTube-hosted video, in which she dances provocatively with a group of men and hits the ones who act as if attempting to touch her breasts, had received 16,465,653 views as of February 15, 2009. Morissette did not take any interviews for a time to explain the song, and it was theorized that she did it as an April Fools' Day joke. Black Eyed Peas vocalist Stacy "Fergie" Ferguson responded by sending Morissette a buttocks-shaped cake with an approving note. On the verge of the release of her following album, she finally elaborated on how the video came to be, citing that she became very much emotionally loaded while recording her new songs one after the other and one day she wished she could do a simple song like "My Humps" and the joke just took a life of its own.  Morissette performed at a gig for The Nightwatchman, a.k.a. Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine and Audioslave, at the Hotel Café in Los Angeles in April 2007. The following June, she performed "The Star-Spangled Banner" and "O Canada", the American and Canadian national anthems, in Game 4 of the Stanley Cup Finals between the Ottawa Senators and the Anaheim Ducks in Ottawa, Ontario. (The NHL requires arenas to perform both the American and Canadian national anthems at games involving teams from both countries.) In early 2008, Morissette participated in a tour with Matchbox Twenty and Mutemath as a special guest.  Morissette's seventh studio album, "Flavors of Entanglement", which was produced by Guy Sigsworth, was released in mid-2008. She has stated that in late 2008, she would embark on a North American headlining tour, but in the meantime she would be promoting the album internationally by performing at shows and festivals and making television and radio appearances. The album's first single was "Underneath", a video for which was submitted to the 2007 Elevate Film Festival, the purpose of which festival was to create documentaries, music videos, narratives and shorts regarding subjects to raise the level of human consciousness on the earth. On October 3, 2008, Morissette released the video for her latest single, "Not as We".  Morissette contributed to "1 Giant Leap", performing "Arrival" with Zap Mama and she has released an acoustic version of her song "Still" as part of a compilation from Music for Relief in support of the 2010 Haiti earthquake crisis. In 2008 she contributed a recording of "Versions of Violence" for the album to promote peace. Morissette has also recorded a cover of the 1984 Willie Nelson and Julio Iglesias hit, "To All the Girls I've Loved Before", re-written as "To All the Boys I've Loved Before". Nelson played rhythm guitar on the recording. In April 2010, Morissette released the song "I Remain", which she wrote for the "" soundtrack. On May 26, 2010, the season finale of "American Idol", Morissette performed a duet of her song "You Oughta Know" with Runner Up Crystal Bowersox. Morissette left Maverick Records after all promotion for "Flavors" was completed.

2011–2016: "Havoc and Bright Lights" and "Jagged Little Pill" 20th anniversary.

On November 20, 2011, Morissette appeared at the American Music Awards. When asked about the new album during a short interview, she said she had recorded 31 songs, and that the album would "likely be out next year, probably [in] summertime". On December 21, 2011, Morissette performed a duet of "Uninvited" with finalist Josh Krajcik during the performance finale of the X-Factor.  Morissette embarked on a European tour for the summer of 2012, according to Alanis.com. In early May 2012, a new song called "Magical Child" appeared on a Starbucks compilation called Every Mother Counts.  On May 2, 2012, Morissette revealed through her Facebook account that her eighth studio album, entitled "Havoc and Bright Lights", would be released in August 2012, on new label Collective Sounds, distributed by Sony's RED Distribution. On the same day, "Billboard" specified the date as August 28 and revealed the album would contain twelve tracks. The album's lead single, "Guardian", was released on iTunes on May 15, 2012, and hit the radio airwaves four days prior to this. The single had minor success in North America, charting the "Billboard" Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles in the US and almost reaching the top 40 in Canada. However, the song did become a hit in several countries in Europe. "Receive", the second single off the album, was released early December the same year.  Morissette received the UCLA Spring Sing's George and Ira Gershwin Award on May 16, 2014 at Pauley Pavilion. On her Web site starting in the summer of 2014, in celebration of her fortieth birthday, the LP record for her song "Big Sur" was offered for sale, which was previously available on the Target edition of her 2012 album, "Havoc and Bright Lights". July 25, 2014, was the start of the ten-show Intimate and Acoustic tour.  In celebration of the twentieth anniversary of the release of "Jagged Little Pill", a new four-disc collector's edition was released on October 30, 2015. The four-disc edition includes remastered audio of the original album as well as an entire disc of 10 unreleased demos from the era, handpicked by Morissette from her archives, offering a deeper and more personal look at the classic album. Also included is a previously unreleased concert from 1995 as well as 2005's "Jagged Little Pill Acoustic".

2017–present: "Such Pretty Forks in the Road".

In August 2017, Morissette teased a song called "Aftershow Afterglow" while on tour. On October 27, 2017, she premiered a new song entitled "Rest" and performed "Castle of Glass" with members of the band No Doubt and Mike Shinoda at the Linkin Park and Friends – Celebrate Life in Honor of Chester Bennington memorial concert. In November 2017, she tweeted that she was writing 22 songs with Michael Farrell.  On March 16, 2018, Morissette performed a new song called "Ablaze" during her 2018 tour. In October 2018, she revealed on social media that she had written 23 new songs, and hinted at a new album with hashtag "#alanismorissettenewrecord2019", after a six-year hiatus. Song titles from the writing session include "Reckoning", "Diagnosis", "Her" and "Legacy". Morissette also contributed to the Jagged Little Pill musical two new songs "Smiling" and "Predator", both of which she herself performed live later, on December 2, 2019.  In June 2019, Morissette went into studio in Los Angeles. In an interview, she said that she had written all the songs, and that "Smiling" will be included on the new album, likely to be released early 2020. On August 8, 2019, she revealed that the new album was produced by Alex Hope and Catherine Marks. On December 1, 2019, Morissette announced her first studio album in eight years, "Such Pretty Forks in the Road", set for release on May 1, 2020. The first single off the record, "Reasons I Drink", was released on December 2, 2019.  Morissette is featured on Halsey's song "Alanis' Interlude", released on January 17, 2020. On February 5, 2020, she revealed that her upcoming album was mixed by Chris Dugan. The second single from the album, "Smiling", was released on February 20, 2020.  On April 15, 2020, Morissette announced that the album's release would be postponed due to concerns over the COVID-19 pandemic. Its new release date is set for July 31, 2020.

Acting career.

In 1986, Morissette had her first stint as an actress in five episodes of the children's television show "You Can't Do That on Television". She appeared on stage with the Orpheus Musical Theatre Society in 1985 and 1988.  In 1999, Morissette delved into acting again, for the first time since 1993, appearing as God in the Kevin Smith comedy "Dogma" and contributing the song "Still" to its soundtrack. Morissette reprised her role as God for a post-credits scene in Smith's next film, "Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back", to literally close the book on the View Askewniverse. She also appeared in the hit HBO comedies "Sex and the City" and "Curb Your Enthusiasm", appeared in the play "The Vagina Monologues", and had brief cameos playing herself in the Brazilian hit soap operas "Celebridade" and "Malhação".  In late 2003, Morissette appeared in the Off-Broadway play "The Exonerated" as Sunny Jacobs, a death row inmate freed after proof surfaced that she was innocent. In April 2006, MTV News reported that Morissette would reprise her role in "The Exonerated" in London from May 23 until May 28.  She expanded her acting credentials with the July 2004 release of the Cole Porter biographical film "De-Lovely", in which she performed the song "Let's Do It (Let's Fall in Love)" and had a brief role as an anonymous stage performer. In February 2005, she made a guest appearance on the Canadian television show "" with "Dogma" co-star Jason Mewes and director Kevin Smith. Also in 2005, Morissette, then engaged to Ryan Reynolds, made a cameo appearance as "herself" as a former client of Reynolds' character in the film "Just Friends". This scene was deleted from the theatrical release, and is only available on the DVD.  In 2006, she guest-starred in an episode of Lifetime's "Lovespring International" as a homeless woman named Lucinda, three episodes of FX's "Nip/Tuck", playing a lesbian named Poppy, and the mockumentary-documentary "Pittsburgh" as herself.  Morissette has appeared in eight episodes of "Weeds", playing Dr. Audra Kitson, a "no-nonsense obstetrician" who treats pregnant main character Nancy Botwin. Her first episode aired in July 2009.  In early 2010, Morissette returned to the stage, performing a one-night engagement in "An Oak Tree", an experimental play in Los Angeles. The performance was a sell-out. In April 2010, Morissette was confirmed in the cast of "Weeds" season six, performing again her role as Dr. Audra Kitson.  Morissette also starred in a film adaptation of Philip K. Dick's novel "Radio Free Albemuth". Morissette plays Sylvia, an ordinary woman in unexpected remission from lymphoma. Morissette stated that she is "...a big fan of Philip K. Dick's poetic and expansively imaginative books" and that she "feel[s] blessed to portray Sylvia, and to be part of this story being told in film".  She appeared as Amanda, a former bandmate of main character Ava Alexander (played by Maya Rudolph), in one episode of NBC's "Up All Night" on February 16, 2012. Rudolph officiated as minister for Morissette's wedding with both performing the explicit version of their hit hip hop song "Back It Up (Beep Beep)".  In 2014, Morissette played the role of Marisa Damia, the lover of architect and designer Eileen Gray, in the film "The Price of Desire", directed by Mary McGuckian.

Other work.

In October 2015, "Conversation with Alanis Morissette" features conversations with different individuals from different schools and walks of life discussing everything from psychology to art to spirituality to design to health and well-being, to relationships (whether they be romantic or colleagueship or parent with children relationships). The monthly podcast is currently available to download on iTunes and free to listen to on YouTube.  In January 2016, she began an advice column in "The Guardian" newspaper.  In May 2018, the American Repertory Theater (Cambridge, Massachusetts) premiered "Jagged Little Pill," a musical with music by Morissette and Glen Ballard, lyrics by Morissette, book by Diablo Cody, and directed by Diane Paulus.

Personal life.

Morissette was raised in a devout Roman Catholic family in Canada. She became a US citizen in 2005, while retaining her Canadian citizenship.  Throughout her teen years and 20s, Morissette suffered from depression and various eating disorders. She recovered from them and started to eat a healthier diet. In 2009, she ran a marathon promoting awareness for the National Eating Disorders Association.  Over a period of seven years, Morissette's business manager Jonathan Schwatz stole over $5 million from her. He admitted his guilt in April 2017 and was sentenced to six years in prison.  On October 22, 2019, Morissette shared her nearly decade-long experience with postpartum depression on "CBS This Morning".

Relationships.

Morissette dated actor and comedian Dave Coulier for a short time in the early 1990s. In a 2008 interview, Coulier said he was the ex-boyfriend who inspired Morissette's song "You Oughta Know"; Morissette has not commented on the subject of the song.  Morissette met Canadian actor Ryan Reynolds at Drew Barrymore's birthday party in 2002, and the couple began dating soon afterwards. They announced their engagement in June 2004. In February 2007, representatives for Morissette and Reynolds announced they had decided to end their engagement. Morissette has stated that her album "Flavors of Entanglement" was created out of her grief after the breakup, saying that "it was cathartic."  On May 22, 2010, Morissette married rapper Mario "Souleye" Treadway in a private ceremony at their Los Angeles home. The couple have three children; a son born in 2010, a daughter born in 2016, and another son born in 2019.

Tours.

Opening act  Headlining  Co-headlining

Alanis Nadine Morissette (born June 1, 1974) is a Canadian-American singer, songwriter, record producer, and actress. Known for her emotive mezzo-soprano voice, Morissette began her career in Canada in the early 1990s with two mildly successful dance-pop albums. Afterwards, as part of a recording deal, she moved to Holmby Hills, Los Angeles and in 1995 released "Jagged Little Pill", a more rock-oriented album which sold more than 33 million copies globally and is her most critically acclaimed work. Her follow-up album, "Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie", was released in 1998.

艾拉妮丝·纳丁·莫莉塞特(英语:Alanis Nadine Morissette,1974年-6月1日),出生在渥太华,是一位具有大影响力的美籍加拿大女唱作人,也参演过一些电影、电视剧、舞台剧。


Etymology.

Origin of term.

The term "French Riviera" is typical of English use. It was built by analogy with the term Italian Riviera, which extends east of the French Riviera (from Ventimiglia to La Spezia). As early as the 19th century, the British referred to the region as the "Riviera" or the "French Riviera", usually referring to the eastern part of the coast, between Monaco and the Italian border. Originally, "riviera" is an Italian noun which means "coastline".  The name "Côte d'Azur" was given to the coast by the writer Stéphen Liégeard in his book, "La Côte d’azur", published in December 1887. Liégeard was born in Dijon, in the French department of Côte-d'Or, and adapted that name by substituting the azure colour of the Mediterranean for the gold of Côte-d'Or. In Occitan (Niçard and Provençal) and French, the only usual names are "Còsta d'Azur" in Occitan and "Côte d'Azur" in French. A term like "French Riviera" ("Ribiera Francesa" in Occitan, "Riviera Française" in French) would only be used in literal translation, or adaptations of it. For instance, in French, "Riviera Française" is found in the online Larousse encyclopedia to refer to the holidays of a group of English workers (moreover, in Occitan, the word "ribiera" "coastline" mostly works as a common name, whereas in French, the old-fashioned term "Rivière de Gênes" was used to refer to the Italian Riviera whose center is Genoa).

Disputes over the extent of the Riviera and the Côte d'Azur.

Côte d'Azur and the French Riviera have no official boundaries. Some sources put the western boundary at Saint-Tropez. Others include Saint Tropez, Hyères or Toulon in the Var (departement), or as far as Cassis in the Bouches-du-Rhône departement. In her 1955 novel, "The Talented Mr. Ripley", Patricia Highsmith describes the Riviera as including all of the coast between Toulon and the Italian border.

History.

From prehistory to the Bronze Age.

The region of the French Riviera has been inhabited since prehistoric times. Primitive tools dating to between 1,000,000 and 1,050,000 years ago were discovered in the Grotte du Vallonnet, near Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, with stones and bones of animals, including bovines, rhinoceros, and bison. At Terra Amata (380,000 to 230,000 years ago), near the Nice Port, a fireplace was discovered that is one of the oldest found in Europe.  Stone dolmens, monuments from the Bronze Age, can be found near Draguignan, while the Valley of Marvels (Vallée des Merveilles) near Mount Bégo, at elevation, is presumed to have been an outdoor religious sanctuary, having over 40,000 drawings of people and animals, dated to about 2000 BC.

Greek influence.

Beginning in the 7th century BC, Greek sailors from Phocaea in Asia Minor began to visit and then build emporia along the Côte d'Azur. Emporia were started at Olbia (Hyères); Antipolis (Antibes) and Nikaia (Nice). These settlements, which traded with the inhabitants of the interior, became rivals of the Etruscans and Phoenicians, who also visited the Côte d'Azur.

Roman colonization.

In 8 BC the Emperor Augustus built an imposing trophy monument at La Turbie (the Trophy of the Alps or Trophy of Augustus) to mark the pacification of the region.  Roman towns, monuments and amphitheatres were built along the Côte d'Azur and many still survive, such as the amphitheatre and baths at Cimiez, above Nice, and the amphitheatre, Roman walls and other remains at Fréjus.

Barbarians and Christians.

Roman Provence reached the height of its power and prosperity during the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. In the mid-3rd century, Germanic peoples began to invade the region, and Roman power weakened.  In the same period, Christianity started to become a powerful force in the region. The first cathedrals were built in the 4th century, and bishoprics were established: in Fréjus at the end of the 4th century, Cimiez and Vence in 439, and Antibes in 442. The oldest Christian structure still in existence on the Côte d'Azur is the baptistery of Fréjus Cathedral, built at the end of the 5th century, which also saw the founding of the first monastery in the region, Lerins Monastery on an island off the coast at Cannes.  The fall of the Western Roman Empire in the first half of the 5th century was followed by invasions of Provence by the Visigoths, the Burgundians and the Ostrogoths. There was then a long period of wars and dynastic quarrels, which in turn led to further invasions by the Saracens and the Normans in the 9th century.

The Counts of Provence and the House of Grimaldi.

Some peace was restored to the coast by the establishment in 879 of a new kingdom of Provence, ruled first by the Bosonids dynasty (879–1112), then by the Catalans (1112–1246), and finally by the Angevins (1246–1382, elder branch, 1382–1483 (younger branch). In the 13th century, another powerful political force appeared, the House of Grimaldi. Descended from a Genoese nobleman expelled from Genoa by his rivals in 1271, members of the different branches of the Grimaldis took power in Monaco, Antibes and Nice, and built castles at Grimaud, Cagnes-sur-Mer and Antibes. Albert II, the current Prince of Monaco is a descendant of the Grimaldis.  In 1388, the city of Nice and its surrounding territory, from the mouth of the Var to the Italian border, were separated from Provence and came under the protection of the House of Savoy. The territory was called the "Comté de Nice" after 1526, and thereafter its language, history and culture were separate from those of Provence until 1860, when it was re-attached to France under Napoleon III.  Provence retained its formal independence until 1480, when the last "Comte de Provence", René I of Naples, died and left the Comté to his nephew, Charles du Maine, who in turn left it to Louis XI of France. In 1486, Provence formally became part of France.

Popularity with the British upper class in 18th and 19th centuries.

Until the end of the 18th century, the area later known as the Côte d'Azur was a remote and impoverished region, known mostly for fishing, olive groves and the production of flowers for perfume (manufactured in Grasse).  A new phase began when the coast became a fashionable health resort for the British upper class in the late 18th century. The first British traveller to describe its benefits was the novelist Tobias Smollett, who visited Nice in 1763 when it was still an Italian city within the Kingdom of Sardinia. Smollett brought Nice and its warm winter climate to the attention of the British aristocracy with "Travels through France and Italy", written in 1765. At about the same time, a Scottish doctor, John Brown, became famous for prescribing what he called climato-therapy, a change in climate, to cure a variety of diseases including tuberculosis, known then as consumption. The French historian Paul Gonnet wrote that, as a result, Nice was filled with "a colony of pale and listless English women and listless sons of nobility near death".  In 1834, a British nobleman and politician named Henry Peter Brougham, First Baron Brougham and Vaux, who had played an important part in the abolition of the slave trade, travelled with an unwell sister to the south of France, intending to go to Italy. A cholera epidemic in Italy forced him to stop at Cannes, where he enjoyed the climate and scenery so much that he bought land and built a villa. He began to spend his winters there and, owing to his fame, others followed: Cannes soon had a small British enclave.  Robert Louis Stevenson was a later British visitor who came for his health. In 1882 he rented a villa called La Solitude at Hyères, where he wrote much of "A Child's Garden of Verses".

Railway, gambling and royalty.

In 1864, six years after Nice became part of France following the Second Italian War of Independence the first railway was completed, making Nice and the Riviera accessible to visitors from all over Europe. One hundred thousand visitors arrived in 1865. By 1874, residents of foreign enclaves in Nice, most of whom were British, numbered 25,000. In the mid-19th century British and French entrepreneurs began to see the potential of promoting tourism along the Côte d'Azur. At the time, gambling was illegal in France and Italy. In 1856, the Prince of Monaco, Charles III, began constructing a casino in Monaco, which was called a health spa to avoid criticism by the church. The casino was a failure, but in 1863 the Prince signed an agreement with François Blanc, a French businessman already operating a successful casino at Baden-Baden (southwestern Germany), to build a resort and new casino. Blanc arranged for steamships and carriages to take visitors from Nice to Monaco, and built hotels, gardens and a casino in a place called Spélugues. At the suggestion of his mother, Princess Caroline, Charles III renamed the place Monte Carlo after himself. When the railway reached Monte Carlo in 1870, many thousands of visitors began to arrive and the population of the principality of Monaco doubled.  The French Riviera soon became a popular destination for European royalty. Just days after the railway reached Nice in 1864, Tsar Alexander II of Russia visited on a private train, followed soon afterwards by Napoleon III and then Leopold II, the King of the Belgians. Queen Victoria was a frequent visitor. In 1882 she stayed in Menton, and in 1891 spent several weeks at the Grand Hotel at Grasse. In 1892 she stayed at the Hotel Cost-belle in Hyères. In successive years from 1895 to 1899 she stayed in Cimiez in the hills above Nice. First, in 1895 and 1896, she patronised the Grand Hôtel, while in later years she and her staff took over the entire west wing of the Excelsior Hôtel Régina, which had been designed with her needs specifically in mind (part of which later became the home and studio of the renowned artist Henri Matisse). She travelled with an entourage of between sixty and a hundred, including chef, ladies in waiting, dentist, Indian servants, her own bed and her own food.  The Prince of Wales was a regular visitor to Cannes, starting in 1872. He frequented the Club Nautique, a private club on the Croisette, the fashionable seafront boulevard of Cannes. He visited there each spring for a two-month period, observing yacht races from shore while the royal yacht, Britannia, was sailed by professional crewmen. After he became King in 1901, he never again visited the French Riviera.  By the end of the 19th century the Côte d'Azur began to attract artistic painters, who appreciated the climate, the bright colors and clear light. Among them were Auguste Renoir, who settled in Cagnes-sur-Mer and in Mougins, Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso.

Inter-war period, American visitors and decline of the aristocracy.

The First World War brought down many of the royal houses of Europe and altered the nature and the calendar of the French Riviera. Following the war, greater numbers of Americans began arriving, with business moguls and celebrities eventually outnumbering aristocrats. The 'High Society' scene moved from a winter season to a summer season.  Americans began coming to the south of France in the 19th century. Henry James set part of his novel, "The Ambassadors", on the Riviera. James Gordon Bennett Jr, the son and heir of the founder of the New York Herald, had a villa in Beaulieu. Industrialist John Pierpont Morgan gambled at Monte Carlo and bought 18th-century paintings by Fragonard in Grasse – shipping them to the Metropolitan Museum in New York.  A feature of the French Riviera in the inter-war years was the Train Bleu, an all first-class sleeper train which brought wealthy passengers down from Calais. It made its first trip in 1922, and carried Winston Churchill, Somerset Maugham, and the future King Edward VIII over the years.  While Europe was still recovering from the war and the American dollar was strong, American writers and artists started arriving on the Côte d'Azur. Edith Wharton wrote "The Age of Innocence" (1920) at a villa near Hyères, winning the Pulitzer Prize for the novel (the first woman to do so). Dancer Isadora Duncan frequented Cannes and Nice, but died in 1927 when her scarf caught in a wheel of the Amilcar motor car in which she was a passenger and strangled her. The writer F. Scott Fitzgerald first visited with his wife Zelda in 1924, stopping at Hyères, Cannes and Monte Carlo – eventually staying at Saint-Raphaël, where he wrote much of "The Great Gatsby" and began "Tender is the Night".  While Americans were largely responsible for making summer the high season, a French fashion designer, Coco Chanel, made sunbathing fashionable. She acquired a striking tan during the summer of 1923, and tans then became the fashion in Paris.  During the abdication crisis of the British Monarchy in 1936, Wallis Simpson, the intended bride of King Edward VIII, was staying at the Villa Lou Viei in Cannes, talking with the King by telephone each day. After his abdication, the Duke of Windsor (as he became) and his new wife stayed at the Villa La Croë on the Cap d'Antibes.  The English playwright and novelist Somerset Maugham also became a resident in 1926, buying the Villa La Mauresque toward the tip of Cap Ferrat, near Nice.

Second World War.

When Germany invaded France in June 1940, the remaining British colony was evacuated to Gibraltar and eventually to Britain. American Jewish groups helped some of the Jewish artists living in the south of France, such as Marc Chagall, to escape to the United States. In August 1942, 600 Jews from Nice were rounded up by French police and sent to Drancy, and eventually to death camps. In all about 5,000 French Jews from Nice perished during the war.  Following D-Day in Normandy, Operation Dragoon (initially Operation Anvil), the code name for the Allied invasion of Southern France, commenced on 15 August 1944, when American parachute troops landed near Fréjus, and a fleet landed 60,000 troops of the American Seventh Army and French First Army between Cavalaire and Agay, east of Saint-Raphaël. German resistance crumbled in days.  Saint-Tropez was badly damaged by German mines at the time of the liberation. The novelist Colette organized an effort to assure the town was rebuilt in its original style.  When the war ended, artists Marc Chagall and Pablo Picasso returned to live and work.

Post-war period and late 20th century.

The Cannes Film Festival was launched in September 1946, marking the return of French cinema to world screens. The Festival Palace was built in 1949 on the site of the old Cercle Nautique, where the Prince of Wales had met his mistresses in the late 19th century. The release of the French film "Et Dieu... créa la femme" ("And God Created Woman") in November 1956 was a major event for the Riviera, making an international star of Brigitte Bardot, and making an international tourist destination of Saint-Tropez, particularly for the new class of wealthy international travellers called the jet set.  The marriage of American film actress Grace Kelly to Prince Rainier of Monaco on 18 April 1956, attracted world attention once again. It was viewed on television by 30 million people.  During the 1960s, the Mayor of Nice, Jacques Médecin, decided to reduce the dependence of the Riviera on ordinary tourism, and to make it a destination for international congresses and conventions. He built the "Palais des Congrès" at the Acropolis in Nice, and founded a Chagall Museum and a Matisse Museum at Cimiez. High-rise apartment buildings and real estate developments began to spread.  At the end of August, 1997, Princess Diana and Dodi Fayed spent their last days together on his father's yacht off Pampelonne Beach near Saint-Tropez, shortly before they were killed in a traffic accident in the Alma Tunnel in Paris.

Geography.

Places.

Places on the Côte d'Azur (following the broadest definition), following the coast from south-west to north-east, include:

Tourism.

Some data related to tourism on the Riviera in 2006:

Climate.

The French Riviera has a Mediterranean climate, with sunny, hot, dry summers and mild winters. Winter temperatures are moderated by the Mediterranean; days of frost are rare. The average daily low temperature in Nice in January is ; the January average daily low temperature in Toulon is. The average high temperature in August in Nice is ; in Toulon the average daily high temperature is  The Côte d'Azur receives more rainfall annually than Paris ( annually in Nice and in Toulon compared with in Paris), but the rainy days are much less frequent; 111 rainy days a year in Paris compared with 61 days in Toulon and 63 in Nice. Toulon has 2,793 hours of sunshine a year, Nice has 2,668 hours.  Micro-climates exist in these coastal regions, and there can be great differences in the weather between various locations. Strong winds such as the Mistral, a cold dry wind from the northwest or from the east, are another characteristic, particularly in the winter.

Nice and Alpes-Maritimes.

Nice and the Alpes-Maritimes département are sheltered by the Alps. The winds are usually gentle, from the sea to the land, though sometimes the mistral blows strongly from the northwest, or, turned by the mountains, from the east. In 1956 a mistral from the northwest reached at Nice Airport. Sometimes, in summer, the sirocco brings high temperatures and reddish desert sand from the Sahara. (See Winds of Provence.)  Rain can be torrential, particularly in the autumn, when storms and rain are caused by the difference between the colder air inland and the warm Mediterranean water temperature (). The rainiest months are September ( average rainfall); October (); November () and December ().  Snow on the coast is rare, falling on average once every ten years. 1956 was exceptional, when blanketed the coast. In January 1985 the coast between Cannes and Menton received. In the mountains, snow is present from November to May.

Var.

The département of Var (which includes Saint-Tropez and Hyères) has a climate slightly warmer, drier and sunnier than Nice and Alpes-Maritimes, but is less sheltered from the wind.  The mistral wind, which brings cold and dry air down from the upper Alpine regions via the Rhône valley and extends with diminishing intensity along the Côte d'Azur, blows frequently during the winter. Strong winds blow for about 75 days a year in Fréjus.

Events and festivals.

Several major events take place:

Painters.

The climate and vivid colors of the Mediterranean attracted many famous artists during the 19th and 20th centuries. They included:

The French Riviera (known in French as the, ; ; literal translation "Azure Coast") is the Mediterranean coastline of the southeast corner of France. There is no official boundary, but it is usually considered to extend from Cassis, Toulon or Saint-Tropez on the west to Menton at the France–Italy border in the east, where the Italian Riviera joins. The coast is entirely within the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of France. The Principality of Monaco is a semi-enclave within the region, surrounded on three sides by France and fronting the Mediterranean. Riviera is an Italian word that corresponds to the ancient Ligurian territory, wedged between the Var and Magra rivers. The "Côte d'Azur" is a nickname given by France to the County of Nice after its annexation in 1860, because the rain and cold wind Mistral were stopped by the Alps and the climate was similar to that of the north of Italy, even in winter, with a sky as blue as its sea, the French Riviera. After the 2000s it was extended to the rest of Southern France, although the geography, culture or climate is different. The County of Nice is a mountainous area like Italy which stands out from the South of France. While the Saharan warm wind Sirocco blows over Italy, the Mistral blows over the South of France. As the County of Nice is protected by the Alps, it has the Northern Italian climate.

蓝色海岸(),又称作法国里维耶拉(French Riviera),地处地中海沿岸,属于法国东南沿海普罗旺斯-阿尔卑斯-蓝色海岸大区一部分,为自瓦尔省土伦与意大利接壤的阿尔卑斯省芒通之间相连的大片滨海地区。蓝色海岸被认为是最奢华和最富有的地区之一,世界上众多富人、名人多汇集于此。位于阿尔卑斯省的滨海小城戛纳为戛纳电影节主办地,每年一度的金棕榈奖就在此地颁发。尼斯是此地区的最大城市,同时也是著名的度假圣地。三面被法国环绕的亲王国摩纳哥也位于此处。二战时因纳粹德国和意大利回应盟军火炬行动,法国南部包括蔚蓝海岸及摩纳哥被意大利军事控制及占领。


Advantages.

Without loadable kernel modules, an operating system would have to include all possible anticipated functionality compiled directly into the base kernel. Much of that functionality would reside in memory without being used, wasting memory, and would require that users rebuild and reboot the base kernel every time they require new functionality.

Disadvantages.

One minor criticism of preferring a modular kernel over a static kernel is the so-called "fragmentation penalty". The base kernel is always unpacked into real contiguous memory by its setup routines; thus, the base kernel code is never fragmented. Once the system is in a state in which modules may be inserted, for example once the filesystems have been mounted that contain the modules, it is likely that any new kernel code insertion will cause the kernel to become fragmented, thereby introducing a minor performance penalty by using more TLB entries, causing more TLB misses.

Implementations in different operating systems.

Linux.

Loadable kernel modules in Linux are loaded (and unloaded) by the modprobe command. They are located in /lib/modules and have had the extension.ko ("kernel object") since version 2.6 (previous versions used the.o extension). The lsmod command lists the loaded kernel modules. In emergency cases, when the system fails to boot due to e.g. broken modules, specific modules can be enabled or disabled by modifying the kernel boot parameters list (for example, if using GRUB, by pressing 'e' in the GRUB start menu, then editing the kernel parameter line).

License issues.

In the opinion of Linux maintainers, LKM are derived works of the kernel. The Linux maintainers tolerate the distribution of proprietary modules, but allow symbols to be marked as only available to GNU General Public License (GPL) modules.  Loading a proprietary or non-GPL-compatible module will set a 'taint' flag in the running kernel—meaning that any problems or bugs experienced will be less likely to be investigated by the maintainers. LKMs effectively become part of the running kernel, so can corrupt kernel data structures and produce bugs that may not be able to be investigated if the module is indeed proprietary.

Linuxant controversy.

In 2004, Linuxant, a consulting company that releases proprietary device drivers as loadable kernel modules, attempted to abuse a null terminator in their codice_1, as visible in the following code excerpt: MODULE_LICENSE("GPL\0for files in the \"GPL\" directory; for others, only LICENSE file applies"); The string comparison code used by the kernel at the time tried to determine whether the module was GPLed stopped when it reached a null character (\0), so it was fooled into thinking that the module was declaring its license to be just "GPL".

FreeBSD.

Kernel modules for FreeBSD are stored within /boot/kernel/ for modules distributed with the operating system, or usually /boot/modules/ for modules installed from FreeBSD ports or FreeBSD packages, or for proprietary or otherwise binary-only modules. FreeBSD kernel modules usually have the extension.ko. Once the machine has booted, they may be loaded with the kldload command, unloaded with kldunload, and listed with kldstat. Modules can also be loaded from the loader before the kernel starts, either automatically (through /boot/loader.conf) or by hand.

macOS.

Some loadable kernel modules in macOS can be loaded automatically. Loadable kernel modules can also be loaded by the kextload command. They can be listed by the kextstat command. Loadable kernel modules are located in bundles with the extension.kext. Modules supplied with the operating system are stored in the /System/Library/Extensions directory; modules supplied by third parties are in various other directories.

NetWare.

A NetWare kernel module is referred to as a NetWare Loadable Module (NLM). NLMs are inserted into the NetWare kernel by means of the LOAD command, and removed by means of the UNLOAD command; the modules command lists currently loaded kernel modules. NLMs may reside in any valid search path assigned on the NetWare server, and they have.NLM as the file name extension.

VxWorks.

A downloadable kernel module (DKM) type project can be created to generate a ".out" file which can then be loaded to kernel space using "ld" command. This downloadable kernel module can be unloaded using "unld" command.

Solaris.

Solaris has a configurable kernel module load path, it defaults to /platform/platform-name/kernel /kernel /usr/kernel. Most kernel modules live in subdirectories under /kernel; those not considered necessary to boot the system to the point that init can start are often (but not always) found in /usr/kernel. When running a DEBUG kernel build the system actively attempts to unload modules.

Binary compatibility.

Linux does not provide a stable API or ABI for kernel modules. This means that there are differences in internal structure and function between different kernel versions, which can cause compatibility problems. In an attempt to combat those problems, symbol versioning data is placed within the.modinfo section of loadable ELF modules. This versioning information can be compared with that of the running kernel before loading a module; if the versions are incompatible, the module will not be loaded.  Other operating systems, such as Solaris, FreeBSD, macOS, and Windows keep the kernel API and ABI relatively stable, thus avoiding this problem. For example, FreeBSD kernel modules compiled against kernel version 6.0 will work without recompilation on any other FreeBSD 6.x version, e.g. 6.4. However, they are not compatible with other major versions and must be recompiled for use with FreeBSD 7.x, as API and ABI compatibility is maintained only within a branch.

Security.

While loadable kernel modules are a convenient method of modifying the running kernel, this can be abused by attackers on a compromised system to prevent detection of their processes or files, allowing them to maintain control over the system. Many rootkits make use of LKMs in this way. Note that on most operating systems modules do not help privilege elevation in any way, as elevated privilege is required to load a LKM; they merely make it easier for the attacker to hide the break-in.

Linux.

Linux allows disabling module loading via sysctl option codice_2. An initramfs system may load specific modules needed for a machine at boot and then disable module loading. This makes the security very similar to a monolithic kernel. If an attacker can change the initramfs, they can change the kernel binary.

macOS.

In OS X Yosemite and later releases, a kernel extension has to be code-signed with a developer certificate that holds a particular "entitlement" for this. Such a developer certificate is only provided by Apple on request and not automatically given to Apple Developer members. This feature, called "kext signing", is enabled by default and it instructs the kernel to stop booting if unsigned kernel extensions are present. In El Capitan and later releases, it is part of System Integrity Protection.  In older versions of macOS, or if kext signing is disabled, a loadable kernel module in a kernel extension bundle can be loaded by non-root users if the OSBundleAllowUserLoad property is set to True in the bundle's property list. However, if any of the files in the bundle, including the executable code file, are not owned by root and group wheel, or are writable by the group or "other", the attempt to load the kernel loadable module will fail.

Solaris.

Kernel modules can optionally have a cryptographic signature ELF section which is verified on load depending on the Verified Boot policy settings. The kernel can enforce that modules are cryptographically signed by a set of trusted certificates; the list of trusted certificates is held outside of the OS in the ILOM on some SPARC based platforms. Userspace initiated kernel module loading is only possible from the Trusted Path when the system is running with the Immutable Global Zone feature enabled.

In computing, a loadable kernel module (LKM) is an object file that contains code to extend the running kernel, or so-called "base kernel", of an operating system. LKMs are typically used to add support for new hardware (as device drivers) and/or filesystems, or for adding system calls. When the functionality provided by a LKM is no longer required, it can be unloaded in order to free memory and other resources.

可加载核心模组(英语:Loadable kernel module,缩写为 LKM),又译为加载式核心模组、可装载模块、可加载内核模块,或直接称为内核模块,是一种目的档(object file),在其中包含了能在操作系统内核空间运行的程序码。它们运行在核心基底(base kernel),通常是用来支援新的硬件,新的档案系统,或是新增的系统呼叫(system calls)。


Types of exchange programs.

Short-term exchange.

A short-term exchange program is also known as summer/intensive or cultural exchange program. These focus on homestays, language skills, community service, or cultural activities. High school and university students can apply for the programs through various government or non-governmental organizations that organize the programs. A short-term exchange lasts from one week to three months and doesn’t require the student to study in any particular school or institution. The students are exposed to an intensive program that increases their understanding of other cultures, communities, and languages.

Long-term exchange.

A long-term exchange is one which lasts six to ten months or up to one full year. Participants attend high school or university in their host countries, through a student visa (depending on what host country you choose to go to, you may need to apply for a dual citizenship). Typically, guest students coming to the United States are issued a J-1 cultural exchange visa or an F-1 foreign student visa. Students are expected to integrate themselves into the host family, immersing themselves in the local community and surroundings. Upon their return to their home country they are expected to incorporate this knowledge into their daily lives, as well as give a presentation on their experience to their sponsors. Many exchange programs expect students to be able converse in the language of the host country, at least on a basic level. Some programs require students to pass a standardized test for English language comprehension prior to being accepted into a program taking them to the United States. Other programs do not examine language ability. Most exchange students become fluent in the language of the host country within a few months. Some exchange programs, such as the Congress-Bundestag Youth Exchange, are government-funded programs.  The Council on Standards for International Educational Travel is a not-for-profit organization committed to quality international educational travel and exchange for youth at the high school level.

Application process.

Long-term (10 to 12 month) exchange applications and interviews generally take place 10 months in advance of departure, but sometimes as little as four months. Students generally must be between the ages of 13 and 18. Some programs allow students older than 18 years of age in a specialized work-study program.  Some programs require a preliminary application form with fees, and then schedule interviews and a longer application form. Other programs request a full application from the beginning and then schedule interviews. High school scholarship programs often require a set GPA of around 2.5 or higher. Programs select the candidates most likely to complete the program and serve as the best ambassadors to the foreign nation. Students in some programs, such as Rotary, are expected to go to any location where the organization places them, and students are encouraged not to have strict expectations of their host country. Students are allowed to choose a country, but may live at any spot within that country.  The home country organization will contact a partner organization in the country of the student's choice. Students accepted for the program may or may not be screened by the organization in their home country. Partner organizations in the destination country each have differing levels of screening they require students to pass through before being accepted into their program. For example, students coming to the US may be allowed to come on the recommendation of the organization in their home country, or the hosting partner may require the student to submit a detailed application, including previous school report cards, letters from teachers and administrators, and standardized English fluency exam papers. The US agency may then accept or decline the applicant. Some organizations also have Rules of Participation. For example, almost all US organizations cannot allow an exchange student to drive an automobile during their visit. Some organizations require a written contract that sets standards for personal behavior and grades, while others may be less rigorous. Lower cost programs can result in a student participating without a supervisor being available nearby to check on the student's well-being. Programs provided by agencies that provide compensation for representatives are more likely to retain local representatives to assist and guide the student and keep track of their well-being.

Costs.

The costs of student exchange are determined by the charges from a student exchange program organisation or the university or college. The costs vary depending on the country, length of study and other personal factors. Different programs through the school/university of choice may offer students scholarships that cover the expenses of travel and accommodation and the personal needs of a student.

Australian context.

Australian high school exchange programs.

Each state in Australia provides a different program of student exchange for secondary students. The programmes from each state are different for whether a student in Australia is looking to study internationally or a student from another country is looking to study in Australia. Student exchange in Australia, depending on the state, must be managed by registered exchange organisations or the school chosen for study must be registered. The countries that are most popular for Australian students to choose to study are, Japan, France, Germany, USA, Italy, Canada, Belgium, Spain and Argentina. The main purpose of student exchange in Australia is to allow students to study, engage and experience a new culture. International students who choose to study in Australia are given different opportunities through the programmes at set schools will learn about Australian culture, but also gain English language skills at a high school level.

Australian university students exchange programs.

Exchange programs for University students to study abroad varies depending on the university campus offers. International student exchange programs for university students is aimed to enhance students intercultural skills and knowledge. Student exchange programs for University students gives the opportunity to broaden their knowledge on their study of choice from a different country, this gives university students a chance to develop their work experience by seeing how the profession they are studying is practised in another country. International exchange for tertiary students allows them to gain a cultural experience on their studies, but also giving them a chance to travel abroad while completing their degree.

Foreign students in Spain.

A series of studies conducted within the last decade found similar results in students studying abroad in Spain for a short-term and/or semester long program. These studies found that students can improve their speaking proficiency during one semester, there is a positive relationship between students’ integrative motivation and interaction with second language culture, and student contact with the Spanish language has a great effect on their speaking improvement. We especially see these results in students who live with host families during their program. Anne Reynolds-Case found improvements in understanding and usage of the "vosotros" form after studying in Spain. One study specifically studies culture perceptions of students studying abroad in Spain. Alan Meredith defines culture as consisting “of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts.” Questionnaires were given to students living with host families during a two-month program in Spain. He studies how these groups perceive customs, such as concern for personal appearance, physical contact, cooking styles, politics, etc. The study found a variety of results depending the cultural custom. However, the American students’ perceptions most closely aligned with the Young Spaniards (16–22 years old). At the same time, Angela George’s study found little significance in the adoption of regional features during their semester abroad. Though most of these studies focused on students who came from America to study in Spain, the United States is not the only one sending their students. Brian Denman’s article demonstrates an increase of Saudi student mobility for education, including locations such as Spain.

Drawbacks.

Even though exchange students learn to improve themselves through the experience of studying and staying in another country, there are also many difficulties to be encountered. One of them is when exchange students are unable to adapt to pedagogy followed by the host country. Another is conflicts between the host family (who have provided accommodation) and the students, when it can not be solved by communicating with each other and the student usually will be asked to stay with another host until they find a new match. This process, however, could take time while the students' duration of stay is limited. Even with preparation and knowledge about the new environment, they could still experience culture shock, which can affect them in different ways. Students from a completely different culture can also encounter homesickness for a longer period of time. Lack of transportation can also become a major problem, because the chances students buying a car during a short period of stay is less likely to happen. Moreover, students will find it hard to find a job, even part-time since most exchange visas do not allow students to work and it is difficult to obtain one that does. Another potential drawback is health issues that can occur during the stay in a foreign country. All students are encouraged to consult a travel health expert, and be up to date with their vaccinations. Always have health insurance while traveling abroad, and carry emergency contact details of your local hosts and of multiple family members as well.

A student exchange program is a program in which students from a secondary school or university study abroad at one of their institution's partner institutions.

交换学生,或称交换生、交流生,与留学生类似,但可以由本国学校配合对方的标准进行遴选,通过征选后外派至不同国家或地区的学校,交换到对方国家或地区学校就读的优秀学生(通常是签订了姐妹校协议的每年都会固定派员额),双方交换学习各国精神以及体验当地文化,但是并非要将课程完整读完的学生,通常交换时间为期半年至一年居多,返回原校后仍须将课程、学分修习完毕才可毕业,一些学校会互相承认交换生在对方学校所修习的课程、学分。


Description.

The vicuña is considered more delicate and gracile than the guanaco, and smaller. A key distinguishing element of morphology is the better-developed incisor roots for the guanaco. The vicuña's long, woolly coat is tawny brown on the back, whereas the hair on the throat and chest is white and quite long. The head is slightly shorter than the guanaco's and the ears are slightly longer. The length of head and body ranges from 1.45 to 1.60 m (about 5 ft); shoulder height is from 75 to 85 cm (around 3 ft); its weight is from 35 to 65 kg (under 150 lb). It falls prey to the puma and culpeo, a South American fox.  To prevent poaching, a round-up is held every year, and all vicuñas with fur longer than 2.5 cm are shorn.

Distribution and habitat.

Vicuñas are native to the central Andes in South America. They are found in Peru, northwestern Argentina, Bolivia, and northern Chile. A smaller, introduced population lives in central Ecuador.  Vicuñas live at altitudes of. They feed in daytime on the grassy plains of the Andes Mountains, but spend the nights on the slopes. In these areas, only nutrient-poor, tough, bunch grasses and "Festuca" grow. The sun's rays are able to penetrate the thin atmosphere, producing relatively warm temperatures during the day; however, the temperatures drop to freezing at night. The vicuña's thick but soft coat is a special adaptation which traps layers of warm air close to its body, so it can tolerate freezing temperatures.  Chief predators include pumas and foxes.

Behavior.

The behavior of vicuñas is similar to that of the guanacos. They are very shy animals, and are easily aroused by intruders, due, among other things, to their extraordinary hearing. Like the guanacos, they frequently lick calcareous stones and rocks, which are rich in salt, and also drink salt water. Their diets consist mainly of low grasses which grow in clumps on the ground.  Vicuñas live in family-based groups made up of a male, five to 15 females, and their young. Each group has its own territory of about 18 km, which can fluctuate depending on the availability of food.  Mating usually occurs in March–April, and after a gestation period of about 11 months, the female gives birth to a single fawn, which is nursed for about 10 months. The fawn becomes independent at about 12 to 18 months old. Young males form bachelor groups and the young females search for a sorority to join. This deters intraspecific competition and inbreeding.

Conservation.

From the period of Spanish conquest to 1964, hunting of the vicuña was unrestricted, which reduced its numbers to only 6,000 in the 1960s. As a result, the species was declared endangered in 1974, and its status prohibited the trade of vicuña wool. In Peru, during 1964–1966, the Servicio Forestal y de Caza in cooperation with the US Peace Corps, Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, and the National Agrarian University of La Molina established a nature conservatory for the vicuña called the Pampa Galeras – Barbara D'Achille in Lucanas Province, Ayacucho. During that time, a game warden academy was held in Nazca, where eight men from Peru and six from Bolivia were trained to protect the vicuña from poaching. The estimated population in Peru increased from 6,000 to 75,000 with protection by game wardens. Currently, the community of Lucanas conducts a "chaccu" (herding, capturing, and shearing) on the reserve each year to harvest the wool, organized by the National Council for South American Camelids (CONACS).  The wool is sold on the world market for over $300 per kg, to help support the community. In Bolivia, the Ulla Ulla National Reserve was founded in 1977 partly as a sanctuary for the species. Their numbers grew to 125,000 in Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. Since this was a ready "cash crop" for community members, the countries relaxed regulations on vicuña wool in 1993, enabling its trade once again. While the population levels have recovered to a healthy level, poaching remains a constant threat, as do habitat loss and other threats. Consequently, the IUCN still supports active conservation programs to protect vicuñas, though they lowered their status to least concern. The US Fish and Wildlife Service has reclassified most populations as threatened, but still lists Ecuador's population as endangered.

Vicuña wool.

The wool is popular due to its warmth, and is used for apparel such as socks, sweaters, accessories, shawls, coats, and suits, and home furnishings such as blankets and throws. Its properties come from the tiny scales on the hollow, air-filled fibres. It causes them to interlock and trap insulating air. Vicuñas have some of the finest fibers in the world, at a diameter of 12 μm. The fiber of cashmere goats is 14 to 19 μm, while angora rabbit is 8 to 12 μm and that of shahtoosh from the Tibetan antelope, or chiru, is from 9 to 12 μm. Since it is sensitive to chemical treatment, the wool is usually left in its natural color.  The vicuña only produces about of wool a year, and gathering it requires a certain process. During the time of the Incas, vicuña wool was gathered by means of communal efforts called "chacu", in which multitudes of people herded hundreds of thousands of vicuña into previously laid funnel traps. The animals were shorn and then released; this was only done once every four years. The vicuña was believed to be the reincarnation of a beautiful young maiden who received a coat of pure gold once she consented to the advances of an old, ugly king. Because of this, it was against the law for anyone to kill a vicuña or wear its fleece, except for Inca royalty.  At present, the Peruvian government has a labeling system that identifies all garments that have been created through a government-sanctioned "chacu". This guarantees that the animal was captured, shorn alive, returned to the wild, and cannot be shorn again for another two years. The program also ensures that a large portion of the profits return to the villagers. However, annually, up to 22,500 kg of vicuña wool are exported as a result of illegal activities. Because of this, some countries have banned the importation of the wool to save the animal. There is a limited but growing trend to commercially produce wool from vicuñas in captivity, with growing herds in the Chilean Andes. Biologist Cristian Bonacic has expressed his concern about the possibility of habitat damage and the transmission of disease in the farms.  As of June 2007, prices for vicuña fabrics can range from US$1,800 to US$3,000 per yard. A vicuña wool scarf costs around US$1,500. A vicuña sport coat from the Italian tailoring house Kiton costs at least US$21,000 in 2013.

The vicuña ("Vicugna vicugna") or vicuna (both, very rarely spelled "vicugna", which is actually the name of its genus) is one of the two wild South American camelids which live in the high alpine areas of the Andes, the other being the guanaco. Vicuñas are relatives of the llama, and are now believed to be the wild ancestor of domesticated alpacas, which are raised for their coats. Vicuñas produce small amounts of extremely fine wool, which is very expensive because the animal can only be shorn every three years and has to be caught from the wild. When knitted together, the product of the vicuña's wool is very soft and warm. The Inca valued vicuñas highly for their wool, and it was against the law for anyone but royalty to wear vicuña garments; today, the vicuña is the national animal of Peru and appears in the Peruvian coat of arms.

小羊驼("Vicugna vicugna")主要栖息于南美洲安第斯山脉中段的半干旱草原,外形很像骆驼,但无驼峰,身体细长,头小,尾短,腿与颈都长,耳朵长而尖。上体皮毛浅褐色发亮,下体带白色,颈基部有一撮灰白色长毛。其毛柔滑若丝,细于羊毛而被视为上品,从前印加人曾将其专供王族享用。


History.

Halmstad, at the time part of the Kingdom of Denmark, received its first city charter in 1307, and the city celebrated its 700th anniversary in 2007. The oldest remains of that first town are to be found at "Övraby" upstream on Nissan, just south of and quite close to the present day regiment buildings. The remains of the church can still be seen today between a defunct brick industry and a former landfill.  In the 1320s the town moved to the present day town centre. At this time there were two monasteries in the town and during the 15th century the St. Nikolai church was built. Halland was the object of numerous battles, sieges and occupations by Swedish troops.  During the Kalmar Union – a Nordic Union between Sweden, Norway and Denmark which lasted between 1397 and 1523 – it was in Halmstad that the Union King was to be finally selected.  At the end of the 16th century Christian IV of Denmark ordered the fortification of Halmstad and in the beginning of the 17th century to build a crescent-shaped fort with Nissan as part of the defences.  1619 is an important date in the history of Halmstad. In March of that year, King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden and Christian IV met at the castle. Over a period of a week they celebrated the payment in full of the Älvsborg ransom. August of the same year saw the destruction of Halmstad by fire.  Halland became part of Sweden for a period of thirty years when peace was declared at the Treaty of Brömsebro in 1645 and Danish rule ended. The Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 made this acquisition permanent. Sweden defeated Denmark in the Battle of Fyllebro which took place in 1676 just outside Halmstad.  The first May Day demonstration in Sweden was held in Halmstad in 1897.  The population grew from 48,800 in 1990 to 58,577 in 2010.  In September 2007 the city hosted the Solheim Cup, which was played at the Halmstad Golfklubb.  In 2011 Halmstad was the final port of the Tall Ships' Races.

Climate.

Halmstad has the south Scandinavian variety of the relatively wet humid continental climate ("Dfb") with warm summers and cold winters, closely bordering on an oceanic climate ("Cfb").

Education.

Founded in 1983, Halmstad University is a public higher education institution offering bachelor's and master's programs in various fields of study. In addition, it conducts Ph.D. programs in three fields of research: Information Technology, Innovation Science and Health Science. Halmstad University has more than 9 000 students, including 245 exchange students (2013) and 163 international programme students (2013).

Sport.

Halmstad is host of the ongoing 2018 World Team Table Tennis Championships.

Halmstad () (old ) is a port, university, industrial and recreational city at the mouth of the Nissan river, in the province of Halland on the Swedish west coast. Halmstad is the seat of Halmstad Municipality and the capital of Halland County. The city had a population of 92,797 in 2012, out of a municipal total of over 90,000 (18th most populous - 2012). Halmstad is Sweden's 20th-largest city by population and located about midway between Gothenburg (the second most populous) and Malmö (the third). Timber framing architecture is common.

哈尔姆斯塔德(瑞典语:)是瑞典西南部哈兰省尼桑河河口的一个港口,大学,工业和休闲城市。尼桑河流入卡特加特海峡。城市有58,000人口,包括周边的区域共有88,000居民。


Geography.

Sassari is located in north-western Sardinia, at above sea level. The area rises up on a wide karstic plateau that slopes gently down towards the Gulf of Asinara and the Nurra plain. The city is surrounded by a green belt of thousands of hectares of olive plantations, which from the 19th century have partly replaced the mixed woodlands of oak and other Mediterranean trees as well as the maquis shrubland. The thinly populated Nurra Plain, located to the west, occupies the main part of the region of Sassari, while the urban agglomeration, with a population of about 275,000 inhabitants, is located to the south east. The abundance of water, with about 400 springs and artesian wells, has made for much development of horticulture over the centuries.

Climate.

According to a survey by Weatherwise, Sassari is the city with the fourth best climate in the world.

History.

Prehistory and ancient history.

Although Sassari was founded in the early Middle Ages, the surrounding area has been inhabited since the Neolithic age, and throughout ancient history, by the Nuragics and the Romans. Many archaeological sites and ancient ruins are located inside or around the town: the prehistoric step pyramid of Monte d'Accoddi, a large number of Nuraghes and Domus de Janas (Fairy Houses), the ruins of a Roman aqueduct, the ruins of a Roman villa discovered under San Nicholas Cathedral, and a portion of the ancient road that connected the Latin city of Turrys Lybissonis with Caralis. In the locality of "Fiume Santo" is also found a fossil site where an "Oreopithecus bambolii", a prehistoric anthropomorphic primate, was discovered, dated at 8.5 million years.

Middle Ages.

The origin of the city remains uncertain. Among the theses, according to folk tradition the first village was founded around the 9th-10th century AD by the inhabitants of the ancient Roman port of "Turris Lybisonis" (current Porto Torres), who sought refuge in the mainland to escape the Saracen attacks from the sea.  It developed from the merger of a number of separate villages, such as San Pietro di Silki, San Giacomo di Taniga, and San Giovanni di Bosove. The oldest mention of the village is in an 1131 document in the archive of the Monastery of St. Peter in Silki where is cited a guy named "Jordi de Sassaro" (George of Sassari), a serf from the nearby village of Bosove. Sassari was sacked by the Genoese in 1166. Immigration continued until, in the early 13th century, it was the most populous city in the Giudicato of Torres, and its last capital. After the assassination of Michele Zanche, the latter's last ruler in 1275, Sassari became subject to the Republic of Pisa with a semi-independent status.  In 1284 the Pisans were defeated by the Genoese fleet at the Battle of Meloria, and the city was able to free itself: it became the first and only early independent renaissance city-state of Sardinia, with statutes of its own, allied to Genoa; the Genoese were pleased to see it thus withdrawn from Pisan control. Its statutes of 1316 are remarkable for the leniency of the penalties imposed when compared with the penal laws of the Middle Ages. From 1323 the Republic of Sassari decided to side with the King of Aragon, in whose hands it remained for much of the following centuries, though the population revolted at least three times. The revolts ceased when King Alfonso V of Aragon nominated the town as a Royal Burg, directly ruled by the King and free from feudal taxation, during a period in which it may have been the most populous city in Sardinia. Further attempts made by Genoa to conquer the city failed. In 1391 it was conquered by Brancaleone Doria and Marianus V of Arborea, of the independent Sardinian Giudicato of Arborea, of which it became the last capital. However, in 1420 the city was sold along with the remaining territory for 100,000 florins to the Crown of Aragon, replaced by Spain after 1479 on the joining of the Aragonese and Castilian thrones. During the period of Aragonese and then Spanish domination the city was known as "Sàsser" in Catalan language and "Saçer" in old Spanish.

Renaissance.

The city alternated years of crisis, featuring economic exploitation, the decrease of the maritime trade, made unsafe by the daily raids of Saracen pirates, political corruption of its rulers, the sacking of Sassari in 1527 by the French, and two plagues in 1528 and 1652, with periods of cultural and economic prosperity. The Jesuits founded the first Sardinian university in Sassari in 1562. In the same year the first printing press was introduced and the ideals of Renaissance humanism became more widely known. Several artists of the Mannerist and Flemish schools practiced their art in the city.

Modern history.

After the end of the Spanish period following the European wars of the early 18th century, the brief period of Austrian rule (1708–1717) was succeeded by domination by the Piedmontese, who then took over the Title of Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861). In 1795 an anti-feudal uprising broke out in the town, led by the Emissary of the Viceroy Giovanni Maria Angioy, a Sardinian civil servant, who later fought unsuccessfully against the house of Savoy. The city was occupied by troops at the time. The dynasty of the Piedmontese King of Sardinia went on to the monarchs of Italy. Sassari, along with the rest of Italy, became part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy.  At the end of the 18th century the university was restored. In 1836, after six hundred years, the medieval walls were partially demolished, allowing the town to expand. New urban plans were developed, on the model of the capital of the new regime's, (Turin), with geometric streets and squares.  Sassari became an important industrial center. In the 19th century it was the second most important town in what was to become the future Italy for the production of leather, and in 1848 the Sassarese entrepreneur Giovanni Antonio Sanna gained control of the mine at Montevecchio, becoming the third richest man in the new Kingdom of Italy. The first railway was opened in 1872.  In 1877 the old Aragonese castle was demolished, and on the site the "Caserma La Marmora" was built, where the headquarters of "Brigata Sassari" is still located. Founded in 1915, it still consists mainly of Sardinian soldiers.  At the end of the 19th century new urban developments grew on Cappuccini Hill and to the south of the city, architecturally dominated by Eclecticism, Art Nouveau and Art Deco styles, which created a movement towards the hybrid experimentation of new local architectural styles, known as the "Sassarese Liberty".  During the Fascist dictatorship the town had over fifty thousand inhabitants and new neighbourhoods were built, the most important of these being Monte Rosello and Porcellana, typical examples of Rationalist Architecture. On the other hand, the newspaper "La Nuova Sardegna", considered subversive, was closed down.  During the Second World War three Allied attempts to bomb the town failed: only the railway station was damaged, and there was only one casualty.  Today Sassari is the main cultural, administrative and historical centre of Northern Sardinia.

Culture.

University.

The University of Sassari is the oldest in Sardinia (founded by the Jesuits in 1562), and has a high reputation, especially in Jurisprudence, Veterinary Medicine, Medicine, and Agriculture. Its libraries contain a number of ancient documents, among them the condaghes, Sardinia's first legal codes and the first documents written in the Sardinian language (11th century) and the famous Carta de Logu (the constitution issued by Marianus IV of Arborea and updated later by his daughter the "Giudichessa" Eleanor of Arborea) in the 14th century.  The University of Sassari gained first place in 2009 in the ranking for the best “medium-sized” Italian university, awarded by the Censis Research Institute.

Language.

Sassarese ("Sassaresu" or "Turritanu") is much closer to Corsican and Tuscan language than it is to Sardinian, although this fact has caused some political controversy. It originated as a lingua franca between the first Sardinians, Corsicans, Tuscans and Ligurian people, during the period of the maritime republics. The original Tuscan structure was influenced by the Sardinian Logudorese spoken in the area, with a strong influence that can be felt in its phonetics and vocabulary, and by Catalan and Spanish in vocabulary.  Sassarese is spoken in Sassari and its immediate area by approximately 120,000 people out a total population of 175,000 inhabitants; it is also the language of the north-west of Sardinia, including Stintino, Sorso and Porto Torres; in the mid-northern areas of Sardinia, its "Castellanesi" dialects of Castelsardo, Tergu and Sedini are more similar to the Gallurese.

Notable people.

Notable people born here include the former presidents of the Italian Republic, Antonio Segni and Francesco Cossiga, and Enrico Berlinguer, secretary of the Italian Communist Party.  Sassari is also the birthplace of Domenico Alberto Azuni, a jurist expert in commercial law.

Personalities.

Notable historical personages Contemporary personalities

Government.

The Municipal Council of Sassari is led by a left-wing majority, first elected in May 2005 and confirmed in 2010 and 2014. The mayor is Nicola Sanna, member of the Democratic Party.

Administrative subdivision.

The Municipality of Sassari was subdivided into ten "circoscrizioni" (administrative districts), reduced to six since the elections of May 3, 2000, and four since the elections of May 31, 2010.

Economy.

The economy of town is mainly focused on services and the advanced tertiary sector. It is the principal administrative centre of central and northern Sardinia. The main Sardinian banks (Banco di Sardegna and Banca di Sassari) have head office and presidency in the city.  Several research centers are located in town: the University ones, the Center of Regional Weather Service ("Meteo Sar."), the Regional Agency for Environmental Protection ("ARPA"), the Zooprophylaxis Institute of Sardinia, and many labs of the National Research Center (CNR): the Institute of Biometeorology ("IBIMET"), the Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry ("ICB"), the Institute of Ecosystem Studies ("ISE"), the Institute of Sciences of Food Production ("ISPA"), and the Institute for Animal Production System in Mediterranean Environment ("ISPAAM").  Manufacturing includes construction, pharmaceutical, food, typographic industry, and also, indirectly, petrochemical and the new greenchemicals located in Porto Torres.  Tourism is concentrated mainly along the coasts. Platamona, Porto Ferro, Porto Palmas and Argentiera are the principal seaside tourist spots of the municipality.  Average income in Sassari is 24,006 euros per person.

Transportation.

The nearest airport, Fertilia International Airport, is from the city center, and the closest seaport is located at Porto Torres, away.  Urban and suburban public transport is operated by about 25 bus lines of "Azienda Trasporti Pubblici" (ATP) and by a light rail transit of "Azienda Regionale Sarda Trasporti" (ARST). Two different railway companies connect the town to the rest of the island: Trenitalia links Sassari to Porto Torres, Oristano, Cagliari, Olbia, Golfo Aranci, and the ARST reaches Alghero, Sorso, Nulvi and Palau.  Dual carriage motorways link Sassari to Porto Torres, Platamona, Cagliari ("SS131"), Olbia ("SS199)" and to Alghero("SS291"). High-capacity traffic roads connect Sassari to Tempio Pausania "(SS672)" and Ittiri.

Twin towns - sister cities.

Sassari is twinned with:

Sassari (, ; ; ) is an Italian city and the second-largest of Sardinia in terms of population with 127,525 inhabitants, and a Functional Urban Area of about 222,000 inhabitants. One of the oldest cities on the island, it contains a considerable collection of art.

萨萨里(意大利语:,-{zh-cn:港台又译“萨沙里”;zh-hk:或译萨沙里;zh-tw:或译萨沙里;}-)是位于意大利萨丁尼亚岛屿上北部的一个港口城市,遥对热那亚以南的科西嘉岛,是撒丁岛人口第二多城市。萨萨里省的首府所在地。萨萨里是撒丁岛上历史最古老的城市之一。


Twin laws.

Twin laws are either defined by their twin planes (i.e. {hkl}) or the direction of the twin axes (i.e. [hkl]). If the twin law can be defined by a simple planar composition surface, the twin plane is always parallel to a possible crystal face and never parallel to an existing plane of symmetry (remember that twinning adds symmetry).  If the twin law is a rotation axis, the composition surface will be irregular, the twin axis will be perpendicular to a lattice plane, but will never be an even-fold rotation axis of the existing symmetry. For example, twinning cannot occur on a new 2 fold axis that is parallel to an existing 4-fold axis.

Common twin laws.

In the isometric system, the most common types of twins are the Spinel Law (twin plane, parallel to an octahedron), [111] where the twin axis is perpendicular to an octahedral face, and the Iron Cross [001] which is the interpenetration of two pyritohedrons a subtype of dodecahedron.  In the hexagonal system, calcite shows the contact twin laws {0001} and {0112}. Quartz shows the Brazil Law {1120}, and Dauphiné Law [0001] which are penetration twins caused by transformation and Japan Law {1122} which is often caused by accidents during growth.  In the tetragonal system, cyclical contact twins are the most commonly observed type of twin, such as in rutile titanium dioxide and cassiterite tin oxide.  In the orthorhombic system, crystals usually twin on planes parallel to the prism face, where the most common is a {110} twin which produces cyclical twins, such as in aragonite, chrysoberyl, and cerussite.  In the monoclinic system, twin occur most often on the planes {100} and {001} by the Manebach Law {001}, Carlsbad Law [001], Braveno Law {021} in orthoclase, and the Swallow Tail Twins {001} in gypsum.  In the triclinic system, the most commonly twinned crystals are the feldspar minerals plagioclase and microcline. These minerals show the Albite and Pericline Laws.

Types of twinning.

Simple twinned crystals may be contact twins or penetration twins. "Contact twins" share a single composition surface often appearing as mirror images across the boundary. Plagioclase, quartz, gypsum, and spinel often exhibit contact twinning. "Merohedral twinning" occurs when the lattices of the contact twins superimpose in three dimensions, such as by relative rotation of one twin from the other. An example is metazeunerite. In "penetration twins" the individual crystals have the appearance of "passing through" each other in a symmetrical manner. Orthoclase, staurolite, pyrite, and fluorite often show penetration twinning. If several twin crystal parts are aligned by the same twin law they are referred to as "multiple" or "repeated twins". If these multiple twins are aligned in parallel they are called "polysynthetic twins". When the multiple twins are not parallel they are "cyclic twins". Albite, calcite, and pyrite often show polysynthetic twinning. Closely spaced polysynthetic twinning is often observed as striations or fine parallel lines on the crystal face. Rutile, aragonite, cerussite, and chrysoberyl often exhibit cyclic twinning, typically in a radiating pattern. But in general, based on the relationship between the twin axis and twin plane, there are 3 types of twinning:

Modes of formation.

There are three modes of formation of twinned crystals. "Growth twins" are the result of an interruption or change in the lattice during formation or growth due to a possible deformation from a larger substituting ion. "Annealing" or "transformation twins" are the result of a change in crystal system during cooling as one "form" becomes unstable and the crystal structure must re-organize or "transform" into another more stable form. "Deformation" or "gliding twins" are the result of stress on the crystal after the crystal has formed. If a metal with face-centered cubic (fcc) structure, like Al, Cu, Ag, Au, etc., is subjected to stress, it will experience twinning. The formation and migration of twin boundaries is partly responsible for ductility and malleability of fcc metals.  Deformation twinning is a common result of regional metamorphism. Crystal twinning is also used as an indicator of force direction in mountain building processes in orogeny research.  Crystals that grow adjacent to each other may be aligned to resemble twinning. This "parallel growth" simply reduces system energy and is not twinning.

Mechanisms of formation.

Twinning can occur by cooperative displacement of atoms along the face of the twin boundary. This displacement of a large quantity of atoms simultaneously requires significant energy to perform. Therefore, the theoretical stress required to form a twin is quite high. It is believed that twinning is associated with dislocation motion on a coordinated scale, in contrast to slip, which is caused by independent glide at several locations in the crystal.  Twinning and slip are competitive mechanisms for crystal deformation. Each mechanism is dominant in certain crystal systems and under certain conditions. In fcc metals, slip is almost always dominant because the stress required is far less than twinning stress.  Compared to slip, twinning produces a deformation pattern that is more heterogeneous in nature. This deformation produces a local gradient across the material and near intersections between twins and grain boundaries. The deformation gradient can lead to fracture along the boundaries, particularly in bcc transition metals at low temperatures.

Deposition of twins.

The conditions of crystal formation in solution have an effect on the type and density of dislocations in the crystal. It frequently happens that the crystal is oriented so that there will a more rapid deposition of material on one part than on another; for instance, if the crystal be attached to some other solid it cannot grow in that direction. If the crystal is freely suspended in the solution and material for growth is supplied at the same rate on all sides does an equably developed form result.

Twin boundaries.

Twin boundaries occur when two crystals of the same type intergrow so that only a slight misorientation exists between them. It is a highly symmetrical interface, often with one crystal the mirror image of the other; also, atoms are shared by the two crystals at regular intervals. This is also a much lower-energy interface than the grain boundaries that form when crystals of arbitrary orientation grow together. Twin boundaries may also display a higher degree of symmetry than the single crystal. These twins are called "mimetic" or "pseudo-symmetric" twins.  Twin boundaries are partly responsible for shock hardening and for many of the changes that occur in cold work of metals with limited slip systems or at very low temperatures. They also occur due to martensitic transformations: the motion of twin boundaries is responsible for the pseudoelastic and shape-memory behavior of nitinol, and their presence is partly responsible for the hardness due to quenching of steel. In certain types of high strength steels, very fine deformation twins act as primary obstacles against dislocation motion. These steels are referred to as 'TWIP' steels, where TWIP stands for "twinning-induced plasticity".

Appearance in different structures.

Of the three common crystalline structures bcc, fcc, and hcp, the hcp structure is the most likely to form deformation twins when strained, because they rarely have a sufficient number of slip systems for an arbitrary shape change. High strain rates, low stacking-fault energy and low temperatures facilitate deformation twinning.

Crystal twinning occurs when two separate crystals share some of the same crystal lattice points in a symmetrical manner. The result is an intergrowth of two separate crystals in a variety of specific configurations. The surface along which the lattice points are shared in twinned crystals is called a composition surface or twin plane.

孪晶是指:由两个或者两个以上同种晶体构成的、非平行的规则连生体。又称双晶。在构成孪晶的两个单晶体间,必然会有部分的对应晶面、对应晶棱相互平行,但不可能全部一一平行,然而它们必可通过某一反映、旋转180°或者反伸(倒反)的对称操作而达到彼此重合或者完全平行。