Career.

Juniors.

As a junior, Andujar compiled a singles win/loss record of 67–16 (and 48–14 in doubles), reaching as high as No. 5 in the combined junior world rankings in June 2004.  Junior Slam results:  Australian Open: -
 French Open: QF (2004)
 Wimbledon: 1R (2004)
 US Open: 1R (2004)

ATP Tour.

He competed at the 2010 Australian Open, but lost to Gilles Simon in the first round. At the French Open (Roland Garros), he defeated Robert Kendrick in the first round, but lost in the second round against Paul-Henri Mathieu of France in three sets. In 2010, he made it to the final of the BCR Open Romania, where he lost to Juan Ignacio Chela.  In 2011, Andujar won his first ATP title at the Grand Prix Hassan II tournament in Morocco, defeating Italian Potito Starace in the final. The Spaniard reached two more ATP-level finals during the 2011 season, one respectively in Stuttgart and the other at the BCR Open Romania.  In January 2012, he was a finalist in doubles with Carlos Berlocq in Viña del Mar, Chile. In February, he was a quarterfinalist in the Abierto Mexicano Telcel. In April, he won his second title in Morocco, defeating Albert Ramos Viñolas in the final.  In May 2013, as a wild-card and as world No. 113 in the ATP Rankings, he reached the semifinals of an ATP World Tour Masters 1000 tournament for the first time in his career in Madrid where he faced Rafael Nadal and lost 6–0, 6–4. His road to the semifinals saw him defeat 10th seed Marin Čilić, John Isner, Daniel Gimeno-Traver and 14th seed Kei Nishikori.  Between March 2016 and April 2017, Andújar underwent three elbow surgeries with three different doctors and considered retirement if the third surgery didn't work. Upon his return in January 2018, Andujar lost five of his first six matches at all levels.  In April 2018, Andújar won his fourth ATP tournament and his first for four years, beating Kyle Edmund in straight sets in the final in Marrakesh, became the lowest-ranked tour-level titlist since then-World No. 550 Lleyton Hewitt at Adelaide in 1998.  In September 2019, Andújar reached the fourth round of a grand slam for the first time, at the US Open.

Performance timelines.

Singles.

"Current through the 2019 Wimbledon Championships."

Pablo Andújar Alba (; born 23 January 1986) is a professional male tennis player from Spain. Andujar began playing tennis at 6 years old and has won four ATP Tour singles titles, reaching a career-high singles ranking of world No. 32 in July 2015. He trained in Valencia, Spain at the Tennis Club El Collao.

巴勃罗·安杜哈尔(Pablo Andújar,1986年-1月23日)是一位西班牙职业网球运动员。


Club career.

Leicester City.

Mattock was a regular for the Leicester under-18 side (playing alongside the likes of Ashley Chambers, Max Gradel, Andy King and Eric Odhiambo) as well as England U17s. He was part of the U18 squad that won the FA Premier Academy League by beating Sunderland U18s 4–3 on penalties in the 2006–07 season, and was voted Leicester's academy player of the season.  He made his senior debut for Leicester in a 2–1 home defeat to Norwich City on 14 April 2007, replacing Gareth McAuley in the 78th minute at left back. He was given the number 30 shirt worn the year before by another promising youngster, James Wesolowski. Mattock went on to start three games against Birmingham City, Preston North End and Barnsley during the close of the 2006–07 season.  On 9 November 2007, during the 2007–08 season, Mattock signed a new three-year contract with Leicester. The club rejected a bid from an unnamed Premier League club for Mattock on 14 January 2008 (later revealed to be West Ham United). Following Leicester's relegation in the 2007–08 season, Aston Villa became interested in Mattock and then-teammate Richard Stearman. While Stearman left for Wolves in the July transfer window, Mattock remained at the club for another year. He did, however, hand in a transfer request during pre-season, but was unable to secure a deal with any club.  Mattock suffered ligament damage to his left ankle in a 1–0 League Cup win over Stockport County on 12 August 2008. Fortunately, there was no fracture, meaning he would be out for several weeks instead of months. On 28 August, three days before the close of the transfer window, Leicester rejected seven-figure offers from two unnamed clubs for Mattock. He scored his first and only goal for Leicester in a 2–0 win over Yeovil Town on 19 January 2009. Leicester went on to regain promotion to the Championship by finishing the season as league champions.

West Bromwich Albion.

On 6 August, while away on international duty, Mattock was ecstatic when informed by his agent that West Bromwich Albion were interested in him. Eager to leave Leicester, he submitted his transfer request to chairman Milan Mandarić. The manner in which Mattock made the request infuriated manager Nigel Pearson. He signed a three-year contract with West Brom four days later for a fee of £1 million, citing Richard Stearman as his motivation for leaving Leicester. The comment angered many Leicester fans and he was booed upon his return to the Walkers Stadium in November.  Mattock made his debut for Albion in the 2–0 League Cup win over Bury.  In January 2011, he joined Sheffield United on loan until end of the 2010–11 Football League Championship season making his first start for "the Blades" away at Coventry City a couple of days later. He went on to make 13 appearances for the Yorkshire club but was unable to help prevent them from being relegated at the end of the season. In November of the same year, Mattock joined Championship team Portsmouth on a loan deal lasting until 2 January 2012, alongside George Thorne. He made his debut two days later, starting in the 1–1 draw against Leicester City.  On 31 January 2012, Mattock signed for Championship side Brighton & Hove Albion on a loan deal lasting until the end of the season. On 17 March, he scored in a 3–1 away defeat to Blackpool. In total, Mattock made 15 league appearances for "the Seagulls" during his loan spell. On 16 May 2012, Mattock was released by West Bromwich Albion after his contract was not renewed.

Sheffield Wednesday.

In June 2012, Mattock was expected to complete a permanent transfer to Brighton following his successful loan spell, but instead agreed a three-year contract at newly promoted Championship side Sheffield Wednesday.  At the end of the 2014–15 season, Mattock was one of eleven players released from their contracts by the club.

Rotherham United.

On 12 June 2015, Mattock signed for Championship club Rotherham United. He made his debut in a 2–1 defeat against Nottingham Forest on 15 August 2015 and scored his first goal for the club in a 2–1 defeat to Brentford on 17 October 2015. On 24 May 2017, Mattock signed a two-year extension to his contract, keeping him at the club until June 2019.

International career.

After making his first team debut, Mattock was named in the England squad for the U17 Championships in Belgium. On 3 October 2007, Mattock was called up to the England U19 squad for the 2008 European U19 Championship. On 12 November, Mattock was called up to the England U21 squad alongside former clubmate Richard Stearman for the 2009 European U21 Championship qualifiers, making his debut in a 2–0 win over Bulgaria U21 on 16 November. In doing so he became the second youngest player to represent the England U21, behind Theo Walcott. However, he did not make the final squad for the tournament and instead played at the U19 European Championships. He scored his first ever international goal in the group stage and helped England to the final where they lost out to the hosts, Ukraine.

Personal life.

Mattock grew up in the Eyres Monsell area of Leicester. On 2 September 2009, he was charged with assaulting four people in the Churchgate area of Leicester. In July 2011, Mattock pleaded guilty to a charge of affray and on 23 October 2011 he was sentenced to ten months in prison, suspended for two years, and ordered to complete 150 hours of unpaid work and pay £1,500 costs.

Honours.

Leicester City  West Bromwich Albion  Rotherham United  England U19  Individual

Joseph William Mattock (born 15 May 1990) is an English professional footballer who plays as a defender for League One club Rotherham United. Mattock is a graduate of the Leicester City youth academy and has also represented England youth teams at nearly every level.

约瑟·威廉·"祖"·麦托克(英语:Joseph William "Joe" Mattock,1990年-5月15日)是一名英格兰足球运动员,司职后卫,现时效力英冠球会锡周三。出身莱斯特城青训系统,其后投效西布朗,曾代表英格兰青少队在不同年龄组别参加国际赛。


Etymology.

The origin of the Sanskrit word'is Tamil. In Prakrit, words such as "Damela", "Dameda", "Dhamila" and "Damila", which later evolved from "Tamila", could have been used to denote an ethnic identity. In the Sanskrit tradition the word'was also used to denote the geographical region of South India. Epigraphic evidence of an ethnic group termed as such is found in ancient India where a number of inscriptions have come to light datable from the 6th to the 5th century BCE mentioning "Damela" or "Dameda" persons. The Hathigumpha inscription of the Kalinga ruler Kharavela refers to a "T(ra)mira samghata" (Confederacy of Tamil rulers) dated to 150 BCE. It also mentions that the league of Tamil kingdoms had been in existence for 113 years by that time. In Amaravati in present-day Andhra Pradesh there is an inscription referring to a "Dhamila-vaniya" (Tamil trader) datable to the 3rd century CE. Another inscription of about the same time in Nagarjunakonda seems to refer to a "Damila". A third inscription in Kanheri Caves refers to a "Dhamila-gharini" (Tamil house-holder). In the Buddhist Jataka story known as "Akiti Jataka" there is a mention to "Damila-rattha" (Tamil dynasty).  While the English word "Dravidian" was first employed by Robert Caldwell in his book of comparative Dravidian grammar based on the usage of the Sanskrit word'in the work "Tantravārttika" by, the word'in Sanskrit has been historically used to denote geographical regions of Southern India as whole. Some theories concern the direction of derivation between'and '; such linguists as Zvelebil assert that the direction is from'to '. The modern word "Dravidian" is devoid of any ethnic significance, and is only used to classify a linguistic family of the referred group.

Ethnic groups.

The largest-Dravidian ethnic groups are the Telugus from Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, the Tamils from Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore, the Kannadigas from Karnataka, the Malayalis from Kerala, and the Tulu people from Karnataka. Certain communities of Marathis from Maharashtra are considered as Scytho-Dravidians.

Language.

The most commonly spoken Dravidian languages are Telugu (తెలుగు), Tamil (தமிழ்), Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ), Malayalam (മലയാളം), Brahui (براہوئی), Tulu (ತುಳು), Gondi and Coorg. There are three subgroups within the Dravidian language family: North Dravidian, Central Dravidian, and South Dravidian, matching for the most part the corresponding regions in the Indian subcontinent.  Dravidian grammatical impact on the structure and syntax of Indo-Aryan languages is considered far greater than the Indo-Aryan grammatical impact on Dravidian. Some linguists explain this anomaly by arguing that Middle Indo-Aryan and New Indo-Aryan were built on a Dravidian substratum. There are also hundreds of Dravidian loanwords in Indo-Aryan languages, and vice versa.  According to David McAlpin and his Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis, the Dravidian languages were brought to India by immigration into India from Elam, located in present-day southwestern Iran. In the 1990s, Renfrew and Cavalli-Sforza have also argued that Proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent, but more recently Heggerty and Renfrew noted that "McAlpin's analysis of the language data, and thus his claims, remain far from orthodoxy", adding that Fuller finds no relation of Dravidian language with other languages, and thus assumes it to be native to India. Renfrew and Bahn conclude that several scenarios are compatible with the data, and that "the linguistic jury is still very much out."  As a proto-language, the Proto-Dravidian language is not itself attested in the historical record. Its modern conception is based solely on reconstruction. It is suggested that the language was spoken in the 4th millennium BCE, and started disintegrating into various branches around 3rd millennium BCE. According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus civilization, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium." Krishnamurti further states that South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian II (including pre-Telugu) split around the eleventh century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time.

History.

Origins.

The origins of the Dravidians are a "very complex subject of research and debate." They may have been indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, but origins in, or influence from, West-Asia have also been proposed. According to Narasimhan et al. (2019), early Dravidians formed as a mixture of Ancient Ancestral South Asians ("AASI" indigenous South Asian hunter-gatherers distantly related to the Andamanese), and Neolithic West Asian farmers from Iran. He notes that there are two scenarios for the origin and spread of Dravidians. Either an origin from the Indus Valley region which is based on genetic data as well as archeological and linguistic evidence, in which proto-Dravidian was spread by peoples of the IVC, or from the pre-Indus groups of eastern peninsular India, which would be consistent with vocabulary about flora and fauna of peninsular India. The present people of the Indian subcontinent, including the Dravidians, are of a mixed genetic origin and have ancestry from indigenous South Asian Hunter Gatherers, Neolithic West Asian farmers from Iran and Steppe Yamnaya pastoralists.  Although in modern times speakers of various Dravidian languages have mainly occupied the southern portion of India, Dravidian speakers must have been widespread throughout the Indian subcontinent before the Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent. According to Horen Tudu, "many academic researchers have attempted to connect the Dravidians with the remnants of the great Indus Valley Civilisation, located in Northwestern India... but [i]t is mere speculation that the Dravidians are the ensuing post–Indus Valley settlement of refugees into South and Central India." The most noteworthy scholar making such claims is Asko Parpola, who did extensive research on the IVC-scripts. The Brahui population of Balochistan in Pakistan has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a relict population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages. Nowadays Tamils, Malayalis, Telugus, Kannadigas that make up around 20% of India's population.

Ancestral components.

Several studies have shown that the Indian subcontinent harbours two major ancestral components,namely the "Ancestral North Indians" (ANI) which is broadly related to West Eurasians and the "Ancestral South Indians" (ASI) which is clearly distinct from ANI. Later, a component termed "AASI" (found to be the predominant element in ASI), was distinguished in subsequent studies. As no "ASI" or "AASI" ancient DNA is available, the indigenous Andamanese (exemplified by the Onge, a possibly distantly related population native to the Andaman Islands) is used as an (imperfect) proxy. The two groups (ANI and ASI) extensively mixed in India between 4,200 and 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE-100 CE). In fact, Dr. David Reich states that sometime between 1,900 to 4,200 years ago, "profound, pervasive convulsive mixture [between the ANI and ASI] occurred, affecting every Indo-European and Dravidian group in India without exception." Because of this mixing, according to Reich et al., both ANI and ASI ancestry are found all over the subcontinent (in both northern and southern India) in varying proportions, and that “ANI ancestry ranges from 39-71% in India, and is higher in traditionally upper caste and Indo-European speakers".  According to a large craniometric study (Raghavan and Bulbeck et al. 2013) the native populations of India and Sri Lanka have distinct craniometric and anthropologic ancestry. Both southern and northern groups are most similar to each other also show deep relations to populations of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. The study further showed that the native South Asians, north and south, form a unique group distinct from “Australo-Melanesians". However Raghavan and Bulbeck et al., while noting the differences of South Asian from Andamanese and Australoid crania, while also noting the distinctiveness of between South Asian and Andamanese crania, explain that this is not in conflict with genetic evidence showing a partial common ancestry and genetic affinity between South Asians and the native Andamanese, stating that "the differences may be in part due the greater craniometric specialization of South Asians compared to Andamanese.  A recent genetic study published in the ""European Journal of Human Genetics"" in Nature (2019) showed that most populations of South Asia, Western Asia, Northern Africa, Europe and parts of Central Asia are closely related to each other. These mentioned groups can be clearly distinguished from most populations in East Asia or Western Africa and Africans south of the Sahara.

Formation of modern Dravidians.

Recent studies have shown that the proto-Dravidians were descendants of neolithic farmers which are suggested to have migrated from the Zagros Mountains in modern day Iran to northern South Asia some 10,000 years ago. According to another study the neolithic farmers ancestry component forms the main ancestry of modern South Asians. These neolithic farmers migrated from the Fertile Crescent, most likely from a region near the Zagros Mountains in modern day Iran, to South Asia some 10,000 years ago. On the other hand, there is also evidence that Dravidian originated from the ASI related populations.</ref>  Moorjani et al. (2013) describe three scenarios regarding the Peopling of India:  According to Gallego Romero et al. (2011), their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. (2009) principally reflects gene flow from Iran and the Middle East." Gallego Romero notes that Indians who are lactose-tolerant show a genetic pattern regarding this tolerance which is "characteristic of the common European mutation." According to Romero, this suggests that "the most common lactose tolerance mutation made a two-way migration out of the Middle East less than 10,000 years ago. While the mutation spread across Europe, another explorer must have brought the mutation eastward to India – likely traveling along the coast of the Persian Gulf where other pockets of the same mutation have been found."  Asko Parpola, who regards the Harappans to have been Dravidian, notes that Mehrgarh (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE), to the west of the Indus River valley, is a precursor of the Indus Valley Civilisation, whose inhabitants migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation. It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia. According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the neolithic and chalcolithic (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the chalcolithic population did not descend from the neolithic population of Mehrgarh, which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow." They further noted that "the direct lineal descendants of the Neolithic inhabitants of Mehrgarh are to be found to the south and the east of Mehrgarh, in northwestern India and the western edge of the Deccan plateau," with neolithic Mehrgarh showing greater affinity with chalocolithic Inamgaon, south of Mehrgarh, than with chalcolithic Mehrgarh.  According to Mondal et al. 2017, based on paternal DNA analysis, Indians are most closely related to southern Europeans and people in the Levant and that this relation existed already before Steppe migration:  A genetic study by Yelmen et al. (2019) shows that the native South Asian genetic component is distinct from the Andamanese and thus that the Andamanese (Onge) are an imperfect and imprecise proxy for "ASI" ancestry in South Asians (there is difficulty detecting ASI ancestry in the North Indian Gujarati when the Andamanese Onge are used). Yemen et al. suggest that the South Indian tribal Paniya people would serve as a better proxy than the Andamanese (Onge) for the "native South Asian" component in modern South Asians.  Two genetic studies (Shinde et al. 2019 and Narasimhan et al. 2019,) analysing remains from the Indus Valley civilisation (of parts of Bronze Age Northwest India and East Pakistan), found them to have a mixture of ancestry: Shinde et al. found their samples to have about 50-98% of their genome from peoples related to early Iranian farmers, and from 2-50% of their genome from native South Asian hunter-gatherers sharing a common ancestry with the Andamanese, with the Iranian-related ancestry being predominant on average. And the samples analyzed by Narasimhan et al. had 45–82% Iranian farmer-related ancestry and 11–50% AASI (or Andamanese-related hunter-gatherer ancestry). The analysed samples of both studies have little to none of the "Steppe ancestry" component associated with later Indo-European migrations into India. The authors found that the respective amounts of those ancestries varied significantly between individuals, and concluded that more samples are needed to get the full picture of Indian population history.

Indus Valley Civilization.

Dravidian identification.

The Indus Valley civilization (2,600-1,900 BCE) located in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent is sometimes identified as having been Dravidian. Already in 1924, when announcing the discovery of the IVC, John Marshall stated that (one of) the language(s) may have been Dravidic. Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchers Henry Heras, Kamil Zvelebil, Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan as being strong evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation. The discovery in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.e. post-dating Harappan decline) stone celt allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian identification.  Yuri Knorozov surmised that the symbols represent a logosyllabic script and suggested, based on computer analysis, an agglutinative Dravidian language as the most likely candidate for the underlying language. Knorozov's suggestion was preceded by the work of Henry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto-Dravidian assumption.  Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan language are "most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family". Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis. Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the "fish" sign with the Dravidian word for fish, "min") but disagreeing on several other readings. A comprehensive description of Parpola's work until 1994 is given in his book "Deciphering the Indus Script".

Decline, migration and Dravidianization.

Paleoclimatologists believe the fall of the Indus Valley Civilisation and eastward migration during the late Harappan period was due to climate change in the region, with a 200-year long drought being the major factor. The Indus Valley Civilisation seemed to slowly lose their urban cohesion, and their cities were gradually abandoned during the late Harappan period, followed by eastward migrations before the Indo-Aryan migration into the Indian subcontinent.  The process of post-Harappan/Dravidian influences on southern India has tentatively been called "Dravidianization", and is reflected in the post-Harappan mixture of IVC and Ancient Ancestral South Indian people.</ref> Yet, according to Krishnamurti, Dravidian languages may have reached south India before Indo-Aryan migrations.

Dravidian and Indo-Aryan interactions.

Dravidian substrate.

The Dravidian language influenced the Indo-Aryan languages. Dravidian languages show extensive lexical (vocabulary) borrowing, but only a few traits of structural (either phonological or grammatical) borrowing from Indo-Aryan, whereas Indo-Aryan shows more structural than lexical borrowings from the Dravidian languages. Many of these features are already present in the oldest known Indo-Aryan language, the language of the "Rigveda" (c. 1500 BCE), which also includes over a dozen words borrowed from Dravidian. The linguistic evidence for Dravidian impact grows increasingly strong as we move from the Samhitas down through the later Vedic works and into the classical post-Vedic literature. This represents an early religious and cultural fusion or synthesis between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans.  According to Mallory there are an estimated thirty to forty Dravidian loanwords in Rig Veda. Some of those for which Dravidian etymologies are certain include "kulāya" "nest", "kulpha" "ankle", "" "stick", "kūla" "slope", "bila" "hollow", "khala" "threshing floor". While J. Bloch and M. Witzel believe that the Indo-Aryans moved into an already Dravidian speaking area after the oldest parts of the Rig Veda were already composed.  According to Thomason and Kaufman, there is strong evidence that Dravidian influenced Indic through "shift", that is, native Dravidian speakers learning and adopting Indic languages. According to Erdosy, the most plausible explanation for the presence of Dravidian structural features in Old Indo-Aryan is that the majority of early Old Indo-Aryan speakers had a Dravidian mother tongue which they gradually abandoned. Even though the innovative traits in Indic could be explained by multiple internal explanations, early Dravidian influence is the only explanation that can account for all of the innovations at once. Early Dravidian influence accounts for several of the innovative traits in Indic better than any internal explanation that has been proposed. According to Zvelebil, "several scholars have demonstrated that pre-Indo-Aryan and pre-Dravidian bilingualism in India provided conditions for the far-reaching influence of Dravidian on the Indo-Aryan tongues in the spheres of phonology, syntax and vocabulary."

Sanskritization.

With the rise of the Kuru Kingdom a process of Sanskritization started which influenced all of India, with the populations of the north of the Indian subcontinent predominantly speaking the Indo-Aryan languages.

Dravidian empires.

The third century BCE onwards saw the development of large Dravidian empires like Chera, Chola, Pandyan, Rashtrakuta, Satavahana, Vijayanagara, Pallava, Chalukya, Hoysala, Kingdom of Mysore and smaller kingdoms like Ay, Alupa, Western Ganga, Eastern Ganga, Kadamba, Kalabhra, Andhra Ikshvaku, Vishnukundina, Western Chalukya, Eastern Chalukya, Sena, Kakatiya, Reddy, Mysore, Jaffna, Travancore, Venad, Cochin, Cannanore, Calicut and the Nayakas.

Medieval trade and influence.

Medieval Tamil guilds and trading organisations like the Ayyavole and Manigramam played an important role in the southeast Asia trade. Traders and religious leaders travelled to southeast Asia and played an important role in the cultural Indianisation of the region. Locally developed scripts such as Grantha and Pallava script induced the development of many native scripts such as Khmer, Javanese Kawi, Baybayin, and Thai.

European contact (1500 onward).

Portuguese explorers like Vasco de Gama were motivated to expand mainly for the spice markets of Calicut (today called Kozhikode) in modern-day Kerala. This led to the establishment of a series of Portuguese colonies along the western coasts of Karnataka and Kerala, including Mangalore. During this time Portuguese Jesuit priests also arrived and converted a small number of people in modern Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu to Catholicism, most notably the Paravars.

Dravidian culture.

Religious belief.

Ancient Dravidian religion constituted of an animistic and non-Vedic form of religion which may have influenced the Āgamas, Vedic and non-Vedic texts which post-date the Vedic texts. The "Agamas" are Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of "murti", worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga. The worship of village deities, as well as sacred flora and fauna in Hinduism is recognized as a survival of the pre-Vedic Dravidian religion. Hinduism can be regarded as a religious and cultural fusion or synthesis between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, and other local elements.  Ancient Tamil grammatical works Tolkappiyam, the ten anthologies Pattuppāṭṭu, and the eight anthologies Eṭṭuttokai shed light on early ancient Dravidian religion. Murugan (also known as Seyyon) was glorified as "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent", as "the favored god of the Tamils". Sivan was also seen as the supreme God. Early iconography of Murugan and Sivan and their association with native flora and fauna goes back to the Indus Valley Civilisation. The Sangam landscape was classified into five categories, "thinais", based on the mood, the season and the land. Tolkappiyam mentions that each of these "thinai" had an associated deity such as Seyyon in "Kurinji" (hills), Thirumaal in "Mullai" (forests), and Kotravai in "Marutham" (plains), and Wanji-ko in the "Neithal" (coasts and seas). Other gods mentioned were Mayyon and Vaali, now identified with Krishna and Balarama, who are all major deities in Hinduism today. This represents an early religious and cultural fusion or synthesis between ancient Dravidians and Indo-Aryans, which became more evident over time with sacred iconography, traditions, philosophy, flora and fauna that went on to influence and shape Indian civilisation.  Throughout Tamilakam, a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance. The king was 'the representative of God on earth' and lived in a "koyil", which means the "residence of a god". The Modern Tamil word for temple is "koil" (). Ritual worship was also given to kings. Modern words for god like "kō" ( "king"), "iṟai" ( "emperor") and "āṇḍavar" ( "conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. These elements were incorporated later into Hinduism like the legendary marriage of Shiva to Queen Mīnātchi who ruled Madurai or Wanji-ko, a god who later merged into Indra. Tolkappiyar refers to the Three Crowned Kings as the "Three Glorified by Heaven", (). In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.  The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. This mother goddess was conceived as a virgin, one who has given birth to all and one, and were typically associated with Shaktism. The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly a goddess. In the Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.  Among the early Dravidians the practice of erecting memorial stones, Natukal and Viragal, had appeared, and it continued for quite a long time after the Sangam age, down to about the 16th century. It was customary for people who sought victory in war to worship these hero stones to bless them with victory"."

Architecture and visual art.

Throughout Tamilakam, a king was considered to be divine by nature and possessed religious significance. The king was 'the representative of God on earth' and lived in a "koyil", which means the "residence of a god". The Modern Tamil word for temple is koil (). Titual worship was also given to kings. Modern words for god like "kō" ( "king"), "iṟai" ( "emperor") and "āṇḍavar" ( "conqueror") now primarily refer to gods. Tolkappiyar refers to the Three Crowned Kings as the "Three Glorified by Heaven", (). In the Dravidian-speaking South, the concept of divine kingship led to the assumption of major roles by state and temple.  "Mayamata" and "Manasara shilpa" texts estimated to be in circulation by the 5th to 7th century AD, are guidebooks on the Dravidian style of Vastu Shastra design, construction, sculpture and joinery technique. "Isanasivagurudeva paddhati" is another text from the 9th century describing the art of building in India in south and central India. In north India, "Brihat-samhita" by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from the 6th century describing the design and construction of "Nagara" style of Hindu temples. Traditional Dravidian architecture and symbolism are also based on Agamas. The Agamas are non-Vedic in origin and have been dated either as post-Vedic texts or as pre-Vedic compositions. The "Agamas" are a collection of Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple construction and creation of "murti", worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines, meditative practices, attainment of sixfold desires and four kinds of yoga.  Chola style temples consist almost invariably of the three following parts, arranged in differing manners, but differing in themselves only according to the age in which they were executed:  Besides these, a south Indian temple usually has a tank called the "Kalyani" or "Pushkarni" – to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests – dwellings for all the grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or convenience.

Theatre, dance and music.

Literary evidence of traditional form of theatre, dance and music dates back to the 3rd century BCE. Ancient literary works, such as the "Cilappatikaram", describe a system of music. The theatrical culture flourished during the early Sangam age. Theatre-dance traditions have a long and varied history whose origins can be traced back almost two millennia to dance-theatre forms like "Kotukotti", Kaapaalam and "Pandarangam", which are mentioned in an ancient anthology of poems entitled the Kaliththokai. Dance forms such as Bharatanatyam are based on older temple dance forms known as "Catir Kacceri", as practised by courtesans and a class of women known as "Devadasis".  Carnatic music originated in the Dravidian region. With the growing influence of Persian and Sufi music on Indian music, a clear distinction in style appeared from the 12th century onwards. Many literary works were composed in Carnatic style and it soon spread wide in the Dravidian regions. The most notable Carnatic musician is Purandara Dasa who lived in the court of Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara empire. He formulated the basic structure of Carnatic music and is regarded as the "Pitamaha" ("lit", "father" or the "grandfather") of Carnatic Music. Kanakadasa is another notable Carnatic musician who was Purandaradasa's contemporary.  Each of the major Dravidian languages has its own film industry like Kollywood (Tamil), Tollywood (Telugu), Sandalwood (Kannada), Mollywood (Malayalam). Kollywood and Tollywood produce most films in India.

Clothing.

Dravidian speakers in Southern India wear varied traditional costumes depending on their region, largely influenced by local customs and traditions. The most traditional dress for Dravidian men is the lungi, or the more formal dhoti, called "veshti" in Tamil, "panche" in Kannada and Telugu, and "mundu" in Malayalam. The lungi consists of a colorful checked cotton cloth. Many times these lungis are tube-shaped and tied around the waist, and can be easily tied above the knees for more strenuous activities. The lungi is usually everyday dress, used for doing labour while dhoti is used for more formal occasions. Many villagers have only a lungi as their article of clothing. The dhoti is generally white in color, and occasionally has a border of red, green or gold. Dhotis are usually made out of cotton for more everyday use, but the more expensive silk dhotis are used for special functions like festivals and weddings.  Traditional dress of Dravidian women is typical of most Indian women, that of the sari. This sari consists of a cloth wrapped around the waist and draped over the shoulder. Originally saris were worn bare, but during the Victorian era, women began wearing blouse (called a ravike) along with sari. In fact, until the late 19th century most Kerala women did not wear any upper garments, or were forced to by law, and in many villages, especially in tribal communities, the sari is worn without the blouse. Unlike Indo-Aryan speakers, most Dravidian women do not cover their head with the pallu except in areas of North Karnataka. Due to the complexity of draping the sari, younger girls start with a skirt called a "pavada". When they get older, around the age when puberty begins, they transition to a "langa voni" or half-sari, which is composed of a skirt tied at the waist along with a cloth draped over a blouse. After adulthood girls begin using the sari. There are many different styles of sari draping varying across regions and communities. Examples are the Madisar, specific to Tamil Brahmin Community, and the Mundum Neriyathum.

Martial arts and sports.

In Mahabaratha, Bhishma claimed that Southerners are skilled with sword-fighting in general and Sahadeva was chosen for the conquest of the southern kingdoms due to his swordsmanship. In South India various types of martial arts are practiced like Kalaripayattu and Silambam.  In ancient times there were "ankams", public duels to the death, to solve disputes between opposing rulers. Among some communities, young girls received preliminary training up until the onset of puberty. In "vadakkan pattukal" ballads, at least a few women warriors continued to practice and achieved a high degree of expertise.  Sports like Kambala, Jallikattu, Kabaddi, Vallam Kali, Lambs and Tigers, Maramadi remain strong among Dravidian ethnic groups.

Dravidian people or Dravidians are the present and past speakers of any of the Dravidian languages. There are around 245 million native speakers of Dravidian languages. Dravidian speakers form the majority of the population of South India and are natively found in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, the Maldives and Sri Lanka. Dravidians are also present in Singapore or the United Arab Emirates through recent migration.

达罗毗荼人,也翻译作德拉维达人(,马拉雅拉姆语:,泰米尔语:,英语:Dravidian peoples),是南亚次大陆上以达罗毗荼语系的语言为母语的种族,人口超过2亿。达罗毗荼人大多分布在印度南部,约占印度人口的25%,其余的分布在中印度、斯里兰卡、孟加拉国、尼泊尔、巴基斯坦和伊朗东南部等地。


Licensing.

Chromium is an entirely free and open-source software project. The Google-authored portion is released under the 3-clause BSD license. Other parts are subject to a variety of licenses, including MIT, LGPL, Ms-PL, and an MPL/GPL/LGPL tri-license.

Differences from Google Chrome.

Chromium provides the vast majority of source code for Google Chrome, including the user interface, the Blink rendering engine, and the V8 JavaScript engine. Thus Google chose the "Chromium" name as an analogy of chromium metal forged into chrome plating.

Features.

Chrome has more features than Chromium. The following list of Chrome features are not present in a default Chromium build. However, some can be enabled or manually added to a Chromium build, which is what many Linux distributions do.

Branding and licensing.

While Chrome has the same user interface functionality as Chromium, it changes the color scheme to the Google-branded one. Unlike Chromium, Chrome is not open-source, so its binaries are licensed as freeware under the "Google Chrome Terms of Service".

History.

Version numbers.

Releases are identified by a four-part version number, e.g. 47.0.2491.0 (Chromium 47 initial release 23 August 2015). The components are major.minor.build.patch.  A "Major.minor" branch point schedule is published. Branch points occur roughly every six to seven weeks. The published dates are a last branch date of each Chromium ("Major") release and are tied to the Google Chrome development cycle. They lag the initial Chromium release by about 40 days and precede the next by about 2. Details are described in Chrome Release cycles.

2008.

Google Chrome was introduced in September 2008, and along with its release, the Chromium source code was also made available, allowing builds to be constructed from it. The initial code release included builds for Windows and macOS, and a build for Linux, at a very early stage of development and lacking complete functionality. Chromium 1.0 was released in December 2008 and with it Chrome was removed from beta status for Windows only.  Upon its first release in September 2008 Chromium was criticized for storing saved passwords in a manner so that any casual user of a computer can easily read them from the GUI. Chromium users have filed many bug reports and feature requests asking for a master password option to access stored passwords, but Chromium developers have consistently insisted that this provides no real security against knowledgeable hackers. Users have argued that it would protect against co-workers or family members borrowing a computer and seeing the stored passwords in clear text. In December 2009, Chromium developer P. Kasting stated: "A master password was issue 1397. That issue is closed. We will not implement a master password. Not now, not ever. Arguing for it won't make it happen. 'A bunch of people would like it' won't make it happen. Our design decisions are not democratic. You cannot always have what you want."

2009.

In January 2009 the first development versions of Chromium 2.0 were made available, featuring a bookmark manager and support for non-standard CSS features, including gradients, reflections and masks.  In May 2009 the first alpha Linux version of Chromium was made available. In reviewing that alpha version Ryan Paul said that it was "still missing features and [has] lots of rendering bugs, but it is clearly moving in the right direction." The first developer releases for Chrome on the Linux and macOS platforms were made available in June 2009, although they were in a very early stage and lacked Adobe Flash, privacy settings, the ability to set the default search provider and even printing at that point. In July 2009 Chromium incorporated native theming for Linux, using the GTK+ toolkit to allow it fit into the GNOME desktop environment.  Chromium 3.0 was released on 28 May 2009 as version 3.0.182.2. Chrome 3.0 followed in September 2009 and introduced a much faster JavaScript engine, a system for user-selectable themes, improvements to the Omnibox and a redesigned "new tab" display page.  Chromium 4.0.212.0 was the first Chromium 4.0 version and appeared on 22 September 2009 with Chrome 4.0 publicly released in December 2009. Both brought support for extensions, plus synchronization of bookmarks along with Chrome beta versions for macOS and Linux. The all-platform market penetration of Chrome/Chromium 4.0 combined was at 6.73% by the end of April 2010.  Gentoo Linux has had Chromium in the official repository since September 2009. FreeBSD has had Chromium available since late 2009 and a port has been available from the FreeBSD ports system since late 2010. OpenBSD has had Chromium available for i386 and amd64 platforms since late 2009. Although OpenBSD supports many browsers, recent releases only officially highlight Chromium and Firefox.

2010.

Chromium 5.0 was released on 26 January 2010 with 5.0.306.0 as the initial version. Google Chrome 5.0 followed on 25 May 2010 and provided stable (non-beta) releases for all platforms. At that time the web magazine, "OMG! Ubuntu!", reported that Chrome/Chromium usage was at 36.53% for Linux browsers, compared to 55.52% for Firefox and 2.82% for Opera.  Lubuntu used Chromium as the default browser since its first release, Lubuntu 10.04 in April 2010, until Lubuntu 13.10 in October 2013 when it moved to Firefox instead. Ubuntu started offering Chromium through the Ubuntu Software Center starting with Ubuntu 10.04 LTS as part of the "universe" repository. The initial version available in April 2010 was 5.0.342.9, with brand-new versions delivered as updates. Puppy Linux has had Chromium available starting with Chromium 5.0.342 on Lucid Puppy 5.0.0, based on the Ubuntu application repository. Maemo, Nokia's former mobile operating system, offered a proof-of-concept version of Chromium with an unmodified user interface which was released on 11 April 2010.  Chromium 6.0 was introduced in May 2010 with the first release version 6.0.397.0. In July 2010 Chromium 6 daily builds introduced new features focusing on user interface minimalism, including a unified single page and tools menu, no home button by default (although user configurable), no "go button", a combined "reload/stop" button, bookmark bar deactivated by default, an integrated PDF reader, WebM and VP8 support for use with HTML5 video, and a smarter URL bar. Chrome 6 was released in both a stable and beta version on 2 September 2010 as version 6.0.472.53. The switch to 6.0 brought security fixes, a slightly updated user interface, improvements to form autofilling, synchronizing of both extensions and autofill data, along with increased speed and stability. Chromium 7.0 was released on 17 August 2010, with 7.0.497.0 as the first version made available. This version boosted HTML5 performance to double the speed of Chromium 6. It also added hardware acceleration, which speeds up the browser in complex graphics situations by a factor of 225 times, integration of instant search, UI Tabs to move all the remaining user interface windows into the browser tabs, including the "options" menu, and has 3% faster JavaScript performance.  7 October 2010 marked the release of Chromium 8.0, seven and a half weeks after that of Chromium 7. The initial release in this series was version 8.0.549.0. The development of Chromium 8.0 focused on improved integration into Chrome OS and improved cloud features. These include background web applications, host remoting (allowing users centrally to control features and settings on other computers) and cloud printing. On 12 January 2011 versions of Chrome and Chromium prior to version 8.0.552.237 were identified by US-CERT as "contain[ing] multiple memory corruption vulnerabilities. These vulnerabilities include a stack corruption vulnerability in the PDF renderer component, two memory corruption vulnerabilities in the Vorbis decoder and a video frame size error resulting in a bad memory access... By convincing a user to view a specially crafted HTML document, PDF file, or video file, an attacker can cause the application to crash or possibly execute arbitrary code." This vulnerability was publicized after Chrome version 8.0.552.237 was released fixing these problems, to alert users to upgrade versions as soon as possible.  Chromium 9.0 was released on 23 October 2010, just 16 days after Chromium 8.0, with 9.0.562.0 as the initial version. The new version introduced an infobar refresh feature with the aim of preventing website spoofing attacks. Reviewer Wolfgang Gruener noted that the first builds of Chrome 9 have now doubled in size between Chrome 3 and Chrome 9 to a compressed download of 28.2 MB, calling it "notably more bloated". Gruener also criticized the seemingly arbitrary numbering breaks between major versions, saying, "even by more progressive standards, the version numbering may be a bit excessive. By the end of this year, Google will have gone through seven or eight different browser versions. Some may doubt the benefit of that strategy." Chromium 9 introduced two new test features in November 2010 intended to load web pages more quickly, "pre-rendering" and "false start", plus sandboxing for Adobe Flash. Stable releases of Chrome and Chromium were version 9.0.597.84 and included features such as "Instant Search" which allows the URL bar to act through Google Instant when Google is the default search. Other features included GPU/hardware acceleration, default 3D graphics though WebGL and access to the Chrome Web Store on the New Tab page.  Chromium 10.0 was released on 3 December 2010, with 10.0.601.0 as the initial version. It introduced 18 new features, including "Instant Type" searching and "GPU accelerated compositing". Development of "Webpage pre-rendering" was reduced to an inactive feature while a selectable "snap start" was introduced.

2011.

Chromium 11.0 was released on 28 January 2011, with 11.0.652.0 as the initial version. Development work in this version centered on cleaning up the "settings" menu, including the Sync menu and eliminating all checkboxes. Reviewer Wolfgang Gruener said "The Settings menu isn't quite as messy anymore and looks much more like what you would expect from a professionally designed software." Language and spell checking support was expanded to 100 languages. Chromium 11 used WebKit 534.18 and V8 3.1.1 which resulted in improved speed in JavaScript and other benchmark tests. In early testing Chromium 11 was faster than Firefox 4 in V8 and Kraken benchmarks, but was 12% slower than Internet Explorer 9 in Sunspider tests.  In February 2011, Google's Jeff Chang announced to Chromium developers that Google was considering further large-scale interface changes. Under consideration were eliminating the "Omnibox" URL bar and combining the two-line layout which has tabs on one line and navigation buttons, a menu and URL bar on a second line into one single line, thus freeing up more screen space for content. (Such a layout was later adopted by Internet Explorer 9.) Chang acknowledged that this would result in URLs not always being visible to the user, that navigation controls and menus may lose their context and that the resulting single line could be quite crowded. Other proposed changes include being able to log into multiple accounts in different windows and improved URL suggestions from the user's history. By the middle of 2011, after some experimentation, the developers decided that eliminating the URL bar was too risky and shelved the idea. Chromium 11 also introduced a new simplified 2D logo that replaced the 3D logo used from the project since its inception.  Mageia first offered Chromium 11 in Mageia v1 during 2011.  Chromium 12.0 was released on 11 March 2011, with 12.0.700.0 as the first version. Initial changes in the first versions of Chromium 12 included codice_1 updates of test features, incorporating an fps counter for hardware acceleration benchmarks, a P2P API that may indicate future platform data exchange features, an enhanced URL bar and small changes to the tabs. Chromium 12 incorporated WebKit 534.24 and V8 JavaScript engine version 3.2.1.1. It is anticipated that a URL bar web app launcher would be added during the development cycle. Early in the Chromium 12 cycle the "history quick provider" was introduced. This feature automatically searches the browser history for websites visited in the past 72 hours looking for matching page titles and URLs. It also searches through URLs that have been typed at least twice and URLs that have been visited at least four times ever.  In March 2011 Google announced directions for the project for the year, including a plan for seven new major versions, planning to end the year with Chrome 17 out. Development priorities focus on reducing the browser's size, integrating web applications and plug-ins, cloud capabilities and touch interface. The size is a concern to developers, who have noted that Chrome 1 was 9.0 MB in Windows download size, compared to Chrome 10 for Windows at 26.2 MB, as a result they have created a "bloat taskforce". Larger download sizes are a problem for a number of reasons, as Chrome Developer Ian Fette explained: "1. We do distribution deals with Chrome, where we bundle Chrome with other products. These get difficult when our binary grows. 2. We see increased download failures/ install dropoffs as the binary grows, especially in countries with poor bandwidth like India. India also happens to be a very good market for Chrome (we have good market share there and growing), so that's also very problematic."  With the release of Chromium 12.0.742.0 on 19 April 2011 the interface incorporated many changes, the most significant since Chromium 6 was released. A multi-profile button was introduced allowing users to log into multiple Google and other accounts in the same browser instance. The new tab page was also redesigned and separated into four horizontally scrollable screens, providing access to "most visited pages", "Google apps", plus two identified pages. The page reload button was also redesigned along with minor changes to the URL bar. The first stable version of Chrome and Chromium 12 released was 12.0.742.91 which brought malware detection and support for hardware-accelerated 3D CSS transforms.  Chromium 13.0 was released on 26 April 2011, with 13.0.748.0 as the initial version. Early versions of Chromium 13 included a menu button to enable users to switch between multiple Google profiles, multi-selection of tabs and an improved omnibox engine. This version also included several minor GUI changes, including a slightly lightened menu bar. By early May 2011 the results of Google's attempts to reduce the file size of Chromium were already being noted. Much of the early work in this area concentrated on shrinking the size of WebKit, by removing Wireless Markup Language (WML), the Image Resizer, datagrids and the Android build system. The largest Chromium nightly build was 35.3 MB on 15 April 2011, but this was reduced to 29.9 MB by 20 April 2011. Later builds of Chromium and Chrome in mid-May 2011 introduced the optional "compact navigation view", aimed at mobile device users. This view combined the tabs, URL bar and menu bar into one bar, by making the URL bar hide when not in use, thus saving 30 pixels of vertical space.  Chromium 14.0 was released on 2 June 2011, with 14.0.783.0 as the initial version. This initial version included codice_1 testing support for preloading instant searches, permitting the user to preload the default search engine used in "instant search" and GPU acceleration on all pages. Default changes include a 2D-accelerated canvas and the task manager incorporated a "frames-per-second" counter. There was also support for the Page Visibility API. By the time development of Chromium 14 had been completed and Chrome 14 stable released this version also incorporated Mac OS X Lion scrollbar compatibility and "presentation mode". It also had support for the new Web Audio API and Google Native Client (NaCl) which permits native code supplied by third parties as platform-neutral binaries to be securely executed within the browser itself.  Chromium 15.0 was released on 28 July 2011, with 15.0.837.0 as the initial version. Work in this version included integrating the profiles and synchronization features, including moving synchronization into the main menu and introducing a profile manager. Synchronization data will be encrypted by default. Chromium 15 also expands webpage pre-rendering. Dan Bailey of "Conceivably Tech" stated about this version and the development of it, "it is obvious that Google is plugging along and is fine-tuning its browser... Chrome isn't surrendering its perception of the most advanced browser today anytime soon." As development wound up in early September 2011 Chromium 15 also gained a "self-crashing" feature that crashes the browser if a close command is not completed in 25 seconds, smooth scrolling when using the space bar, automatic pre- and auto-logins to Google's own web pages, task bar logos to show different profiles, greatly enhanced synchronization customization, including optional search engine synchronization and improvements to the pre-rendering process.  Chromium 16.0 was released on 10 September 2011, with 16.0.877.0 as the initial version. Early in the development of version 16 an experimental Offscreen Tabs Module was incorporated which allows simultaneous user interaction with multiple web pages. This version for macOS included a move to Google's Skia 2D graphics library in place of Apple's core graphics as previously used. This aligned Chromium for macOS with the Windows and Linux versions.  Chromium 17.0 was released on 19 October 2011, with the initial release version 17.0.913.0. This version introduced HTTP pipelining as a test feature to increase web page load speed, starting with build 106364. Development on Chromium 17 near the end of November 2011 included the Gamepad API, specifically intended to allow game inputs from joysticks and other gaming-oriented pointing devices. Other work included being able to move profile icons directly to the desktop in Windows.  Chromium 18.0 was released on 7 December 2011, with the initial release version 18.0.964.0. Nightly builds of Chromium 18 showed that this cycle included work on menu organization. In January 2012 the builds reworked the "Options" menu to eliminate the "Basics, Personal Stuff" and "Under the Hood" pages and unite them into one menu named "options". The new menu simplifies selections and hides privacy and proxy settings and security certificate management. Additional features included omnibox suggestion visualization.

2012.

Chromium 19.0 was released on 2 February 2012, with the initial release version 19.0.1028.0. Support for Android was added. Chromium 19 development led to the release of Chrome 19.0.1084.46 on 15 May 2012, which incorporated many bug fixes along with a tab synchronization feature that allowed users to have the same tabs open on Chrome on different devices through "signing into Chrome".  Chromium 20.0 was released on 29 March 2012, with the initial release version 20.0.1086.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Google Chrome 20.0.1132.43 on 26 June 2012, which was predominately a bug-fix update with few new features.  Chromium 21.0 was released on 11 May 2012, with the initial release version 21.0.1134.0. This development cycle resulted in Google Chrome 21.0.1180.57 for macOS and Linux and Chrome 21.0.1180.60 for Windows and Chrome Frame, released on 31 July 2012. Chrome 21 incorporated a new API to enable high-quality video and audio communication, complete support for Apple's retina display and a large number of bug fixes. The release included the getUserMedia JavaScript API, which permits web applications access the user's webcam and microphone after asking permission to do so.  Chromium 22.0 was released on 21 June 2012, with the initial release version 22.0.1181.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Google Chrome 22.0.1229.79 on 25 September 2012. It incorporated Mouse Lock API availability for JavaScript, Windows 8 and HiDPI/Retina improvements, and many security and bug fixes.  Chromium 23.0 was released on 9 August 2012, with the initial release version 23.0.1231.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 23.0.1271.64 on 6 November 2012, which incorporated easier website permissions, plus GPU accelerated video decoding for Windows.  Chromium 24.0 was released on 20 September 2012, with the initial release version 24.0.1272.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 24.0.1312.52 on 10 January 2013, which incorporated support for MathML which allows mathematical equations to be displayed, HTML5 datalists for date and time and a large number of security and bug fixes. This release marked a total of a 26% increase in page loading speed achieved in the releases over the previous 12 months.  Chromium 25.0 was released on 1 November 2012, with the initial release version 25.0.1313.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 25.0.1364.97 for Windows and Linux and 25.0.1364.99 for macOS on 21 February 2013. This release introduced extension improvements, improved support for HTML5 time and date inputs, JavaScript Web Speech API support and improved WebGL error handling, plus many bug fixes.  Chromium 26.0 was released on 20 December 2012, with the initial release version 26.0.1366.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 26.0.1410.43 on 26 March 2013. This release incorporated a new "Ask Google for suggestions", spell checking feature improvements, which includes grammar and homonym checking, desktop shortcuts for multiple users on Windows, and asynchronous DNS resolver improvements for Mac OS-X and Linux.

2013.

The first new release for 2013 was Chromium 27.0, which first came out on 14 February 2013, as 27.0.1412.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 27.0.1453.93 on 21 May 2013. This version incorporated a page loading speed improvement of an average of 5%, the chrome.syncFileSystem API, improved prediction ranking and Omnibox predictions and improved spelling correction.  Chromium 28.0 was released on 28 March 2013, with the initial release version 28.0.1455.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Google Chrome 28.0.1500.45 for Linux only on 17 June 2013. On Linux this version requires Ubuntu 12.04, Debian 7, openSUSE 12.2 or Fedora Linux 17 and later releases to run.  Chromium 29.0 was released on 9 May 2013, with the initial release version 29.0.1502.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 29.0.1547.57 on 20 August 2013. This version incorporated improved Omnibox suggestions, the ability to reset user profiles, new applications and extension APIs and improvements in stability and performance. The Blink browser engine (a fork of the WebKit engine) was introduced on 4 April 2013 in Chromium 28.0.1463.0.  Chromium 30.0 was released on 27 June 2013, with the initial release version 30.0.1549.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 30.0.1599.66 on 1 October 2013. This incorporated improved image searching, new applications and extension APIs, performance and stability enhancements and 50 bug fixes.  Chromium 31.0 was released on 13 August 2013, with the initial release version 31.0.1600.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 31.0.1650.48 on 12 November 2013. This version of Chrome introduced only bug fixes with no new features.  Chromium was considered as the default browser for Ubuntu 13.10, which was released on 17 October 2013, but Firefox remained the default browser due to problems keeping the Chromium packages up-to-date.  Chromium 32.0 was released on 25 September 2013, with the initial release version 32.0.1651.2. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 32.0.1700.76 for Windows and Chrome Frame and 32.0.1700.77 for Mac and Linux on 14 January 2014. This release incorporated tab indicators for sound, webcam and casting, visual changes to the version for Windows 8 in Metro mode, automatically blocking of files detected as malware, several new apps and extension APIs, and improved stability and performance.  Chromium 33.0 was released on 6 November 2013, with the initial release version 33.0.1701.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 33.0.1750.117 on 20 February 2014, which was predominately a bug-fix release.  Chromium 34.0 was released on 18 December 2013, with the initial release version 34.0.1751.0. This cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 34.0.1847.116 on 8 April 2014. This version included the ability to import supervised users onto new computers, additional new apps/extension APIs and a different appearance for Chrome in Windows 8 Metro mode.

2014.

Chromium 35.0 was released on 20 February 2014, with the initial release version 35.0.1849.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 35.0.1916.114 on 20 May 2014. Chrome 35 incorporated improved developer control over touch input, new JavaScript features, an unprefixed Shadow DOM, some new apps and extension APIs, plus stability and performance enhancements.  Chromium 36.0 was released on 31 March 2014, with the initial release version 36.0.1917.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 36.0.1985.125 on 16 July 2014. The release included improvements to notifications, a new incognito and guest NTP design, a new crash recovery bubble, an application launcher for Linux, improvements to stability and performance and 26 security fixes.  Chromium 37.0 was released on 11 May 2014, with the initial release version 37.0.1986.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 37.0.2062.94 on 26 August 2014. Chrome 37 included Windows DirectWrite support to improve font rendering, new apps/extension APIs, improvements to stability and performance, and 50 security fixes.  Chromium 38.0 was released on 22 June 2014, with the initial release version 38.0.2063.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 38.0.2125.101 on 7 October 2014. Chrome 38 included just bug fixes and improvements to stability and performance.  Chromium 39.0 was released on 17 August 2014, with the initial release version 39.0.2126.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 39.0.2171.65 on 18 November 2014. Chrome 39 included 64-bit support for Mac computers, some new application and extension APIs as well as stability and performance enhancements.  Chromium 40.0 was released on 28 September 2014, with the initial release version 40.0.2172.0. The development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 40.0.2214.91 on 21 January 2015. This version was predominately a bug-fix release with 62 security issues addressed.  Chromium 41.0 was released on 9 November 2014, with the initial release version 41.0.2215.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 41.0.2272.76 on 3 March 2015. This version was predominately a "stability and performance" and bug-fix release with 51 security issues addressed.

2015.

Chromium 42.0 was released on 12 January 2015, with the initial release version 42.0.2273.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 42.0.2311.90 on 14 April 2015. This release included new application and API support and improvements to stability and performance. In deference to its version number Google also claimed that it contained, "the answer to life, the universe and everything".  Chromium 43.0 was released on 22 February 2015, with the initial release version 43.0.2312.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 43.0.2357.65 on 19 May 2015. It was primarily a security-fix update. Chromium 43 was reported by Debian developers as automatically downloading the binary blob "Chrome Hotword Shared Module" extension, a library for Google's OK Google voice recognition feature. Security researchers have indicated that this code carries a risk of invasion of privacy. This was fixed in Chromium 45.0 with newer versions no longer automatically downloading the "Chrome Hotword Shared Module", but the Debian community remained suspicious of the browser and Google.  Chromium 44.0 was released on 7 April 2015, with the initial release version 44.0.2359.0. This development cycle resulted in the release of Chrome 44.0.2403.89 on 21 July 2015. This version included some new apps and extension APIs, some changes to improve stability and performance and 43 security fixes.  The remainder of the Chromium releases for the year were just bug and security fix updates, with no other significant changes.

2016.

Chromium 50.0, released on 18 January 2016, added support for Brotli compression via the codice_3 Accept-encoding header. Chrome 54, released on 12 October 2016 and based upon Chromium 54, introduced support for HTML Custom Elements.  The remainder of the Chromium releases for 2016 were only bug and security fix updates, with no other significant changes.

2017.

Chromium 59.0, released on 4 March 2017, added support for the Animated Portable Network Graphics (APNG) file format.  The remainder of the Chromium releases for 2017 were only bug and security fix updates, with no other significant changes.

2018.

Chromium 66.0, first released on 20 January 2018, introduced audio muting for all autoplaying video content by default.  Chromium 69.0, first released on 19 July 2018 and the stable version on 4 September 2018, introduced a new material theme as part of 10-year project anniversary.  Chromium 71, was first released on 1 September 2018 and resulted in Chrome 71, released on 4 December 2018. This version incorporated new measures aimed at abusive advertising, including misleading advertising and advertising for cell phones that aims to bill users.

Snapshots.

Chromium snapshots are built automatically several times a day by Buildbot "Buildworkers" and made available as binary code releases. Once a snapshot has been built, it is placed in a directory in the chromium-browser-snapshots root directory and it is automatically tested. If the snapshot passes the automated testing, it is placed in a directory in the chromium-browser-continuous root directory.  Chromium builds can be downloaded for most Linux distributions and BSD operating systems from their respective software repositories. Chromium builds for Windows and Mac can be downloaded directly. Unlike Chrome releases, Chromium releases do not automatically update.

Browsers based on Chromium.

In addition to Google Chrome, many other notable web browsers have been based on the Chromium code.

Chromium is a free and open-source software project from Google. The source code can be compiled into a web browser.

Chromium是Google为发展浏览器Google Chrome而开启的免费开源软件项目,以BSD授权条款等数种授权发行并开放源代码。Chromium与Google Chrome共享大部分程序码和功能,但功能和商标之间有一些细微差别。


Early life and career.

Burnham was born in Chicago, Illinois, in 1931, the son of Robert Sr. and Lydia. His family moved to Prescott, Arizona, in 1940, and he graduated from high school there in 1949. That was the culmination of his formal education. Always a shy person, he had few friends, never married, and spent most of his time observing with his home-built telescope.  In the fall of 1957 he received considerable local publicity when he discovered his first comet. This led to his being hired by Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, in 1958 to work on a survey of stellar proper motion using a blink comparator. While Burnham was working at Lowell, he and his co-worker, Norman G. Thomas, discovered five more comets (including 56P/Slaughter-Burnham), and in excess of 1500 asteroids.

"Burnham's Celestial Handbook".

In addition to his regular duties at the observatory, Burnham spent almost all of his free time working on the "Celestial Handbook". His writing and his book were never officially supported by Lowell Observatory.  Subtitled "An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System," the "Celestial Handbook" combines a lengthy introduction to astronomy with catalog information for every constellation in the sky. Thousands of stars and deep sky objects visible in small telescopes are covered in meticulous detail.  Originally self-published in a loose-leaf serial format beginning in 1966, and with a revised edition by Dover Publications in 1978, the "Celestial Handbook" was well reviewed in amateur astronomy magazines and became a best seller in this specialized field. It is still in-print and is considered to be a classic in the literature of amateur astronomy.  Due to the popularity of "Celestial Handbook," Tony Ortega writing in the Phoenix New Times in 1997 described Burnham as an author "whose name has become so familiar to some readers it has become a sort of shorthand, like Audubon to birders, Hoyle to card players, Webster to poor spellers, Robert to parliamentarians." Ortega then described the book series as:  Burnham also mentions the spinthariscope.

Life after Lowell.

In April 1979, the year after "Celestial Handbook" was published by Dover, Burnham received notice that the proper motion survey would soon be completed and that the observatory could not afford to keep him on in the position he had long held. Despite months of warning, he failed to make other arrangements and, after twenty-one years at Lowell, his job ended in December of that year. Unwilling to take the only position that was offered to him, that of janitor at the observatory, he left.  Burnham was never able to recover personally, professionally, or financially after he lost the job at Lowell. Over the next few years, while sales of the "Celestial Handbook" were rapidly growing, Burnham's personal circumstances were steadily worsening. His shyness increased and he shunned all publicity, becoming even more reclusive. He bickered often with Dover about royalties and about the creation of possible new editions or translations of his book. He also worked sporadically on a fantasy novel - which he never completed.  Writing for the "Frosty Drew Observatory" in 2000, Doug Stewart said:  As his situation worsened, Burnham, who was never married, become bitter and depressed, and isolated himself from his few friends and family. He had lived for a time in Phoenix, Arizona, but in May 1986 he left Phoenix and dropped out of sight completely, informing no one but his publisher of his whereabouts. Despite being the author of a successful book, Burnham spent the last years of his life in poverty and obscurity in San Diego, California, selling his paintings of cats at Balboa Park. The fans of "Celestial Handbook" were likely unaware of his personal circumstances; possibly assuming that a different and unrelated Robert Burnham, an editor at "Astronomy" magazine, was the author.

Naming of 3467 Bernheim.

Norm Thomas, Burnham's former co-worker at Lowell Observatory, had told Burnham that he planned to name an asteroid after him. On September 26, 1981, Thomas discovered a main belt asteroid, but since asteroid 834 Burnhamia, named after the unrelated 19th century astronomer Sherburne Wesley Burnham, already carried the name, a different spelling was needed. Thomas chose the spelling "Bernheim", for the Burnham family's ancestral Bohemian surname. Thus the asteroid named to honor Robert Burnham Jr. was named 3467 Bernheim.

Death and posthumous "interview".

Burnham died destitute and alone at the age of sixty-one in 1993. His family did not learn about his death (apparently by his choice) until two years later, and didn't report it to the press even then because they were unaware of his stature in the amateur astronomy community.  After his death, it was realized that he had often attended programs presented by the San Diego Astronomy Association (at the Ruben H. Fleet Space Theater in Balboa Park) without anyone recognizing him. In spite of the tragedy of his later years, Burnham continues to be remembered by a generation of deep sky observers for his unique "Celestial Handbook". His cremated remains are interred at the Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery in San Diego, California.  In 2009 a memorial consisting of a small bronze plaque resembling a page in "Burnham's Celestial Handbook" was installed on the Pluto Walk at Lowell Observatory.  Burnham rarely gave interviews, but at the height of the popularity of "Handbook" in 1982, he wrote a piece where he playfully interviewed himself for the magazine "Astronomy". A much longer version of this essay, "An Interview with the author of The Celestial Handbook," dated April 1983, was discovered among Burnham's papers and it was first published in its entirety by The Village Voice in June 2011, 18 years after his death. It was introduced as follows:

Bibliography.

"Burnham's Celestial Handbook" was originally self-published in a loose-leaf serial format beginning in 1966; it was issued in hardcover and later as a paperback in a three-volume, revised and enlarged edition by Dover Publications beginning in 1978.

Robert Burnham Jr. (June 16, 1931 – March 20, 1993) was an American astronomer, best known for writing the classic three-volume "Burnham's Celestial Handbook". He is the discoverer of numerous asteroids including the Mars crossing asteroid 3397 Leyla, as well as six comets.

小罗伯特·伯纳姆(英语:Robert Burnham Junior,1931年-6月16日-1993年-3月20日)。罗威尔天文台观测员,三卷本《伯纳姆天体手册》作者。


Club career.

Barcelona.

Born in Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Cádiz, Andalusia, Nolito arrived at Barcelona's youth academy at nearly 22 years of age, having appeared with Écija in his native region in two third division seasons. With the Catalans, in the same level, he scored 16 league goals in two seasons combined – 12 in the second– as the B-team returned to the second level after an 11-year absence; still as a youth, he briefly represented Valencia, but quickly returned to his first club Atlético Sanluqueño.  On 3 October 2010, Nolito made his La Liga debut for Barcelona, coming on as a substitute for Pedro in a 1–1 home draw against Mallorca. On 10 November, he opened the scoring in a 5–1 home win over Ceuta in the campaign's Copa del Rey (7–1 on aggregate).

Benfica.

In late May 2011, Nolito rejected Barcelona's offer of a professional contract and instead signed a five-year deal with Portuguese club Benfica, effective as of 1 July. He scored on his official debut on the 27th, a 2–0 home win against Trabzonspor in the UEFA Champions League third qualifying round. He also netted in the second leg, a 1–1 draw.  On 20 August 2011, Nolito scored once in a 3–1 home victory over Feirense, making him alongside Eusébio the only player to score in his first five official matches. He netted 15 goals in 48 competitive appearances in his first season, helping his team to win the Taça da Liga.  Nolito returned to his country and his native region on 29 January 2013, being loaned to Granada for six months and a fee of €600,000, without the possibility of making the move permanent in June. In his first match, four days after signing, he took the corner which resulted in Cristiano Ronaldo's own goal for the game's only goal, giving Granada its first win over Real Madrid in 40 years.

Celta.

Nolito signed with Celta de Vigo on 1 July 2013, penning a four-year deal and reuniting with former Barcelona B boss Luis Enrique. He finished his debut season as team top scorer, with 14.  Nolito was named La Liga Player of the Month for September 2014, with four goals during a month which ended with Celta in sixth position. He created 96 goalscoring opportunities over the campaign, the most in the Spanish league and fourth most in Europe's five leading leagues.  On 23 September 2015, Nolito took his league tally to five after scoring once and providing two assists for Iago Aspas in a 4–1 home defeat of former club Barcelona. He totalled three goals and an assist that month to help his team remain unbeaten, earning him a second Player of the Month accolade; in mid-December, however, he suffered a hamstring injury against Espanyol which sidelined him for two months.  Nolito returned to action on 20 February 2016, featuring roughly 20 minutes in a 3–2 home win over Eibar. In the following round, he scored the game's only goal at Getafe, and his team eventually finished in sixth place.

Manchester City.

On 1 July 2016, Nolito signed with Premier League side Manchester City on a four-year deal for a fee of £13.8 million. He made his debut on 13 August, playing 59 minutes in a 2–1 home win against Sunderland. Three days later he scored his first goal, and also provided an assist to Sergio Agüero in a 5–0 away routing of Steaua București in the Champions League play-off round.  Nolito made a few appearances during his time in Manchester, but he and his family were unsettled by life in England.

Sevilla.

In July 2017, Sevilla signed Nolito on a three-year contract. He spent the better part of the 2018–19 season on the sidelines, nursing a fibula injury.

Return to Celta.

On 18 June 2020, Nolito rejoined Celta on a reported one-year deal. His Sevilla contract was set to expire at the end of the month, and the former were granted an emergency exception to acquire him outside of the transfer window because of a long-term injury to goalkeeper Sergio Álvarez.

International career.

Nolito did not earn a single cap for Spain at youth level. On 7 November 2014, he was called up by full side manager Vicente del Bosque for a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifier against Belarus and a friendly with Germany. He made his debut against the latter on the 18th, starting at his club ground of Balaídos in a 0–1 loss.  On 17 May 2016, Nolito was named in the preliminary squad for the final tournament in France. Twelve days later, in a friendly against Bosnia and Herzegovina, he scored his first goals, striking twice in the first half of a 3–1 win in Switzerland. he repeated the feat the following match, a 6–1 rout of South Korea in Austria.  Selected for the squad of 23, Nolito acted often as starter, scoring from close range in a 3–0 group stage victory over Turkey at the Stade de Nice and also assisting Álvaro Morata for the opener.

Career statistics.

International goals.

(Spain score listed first, score column indicates score after each Nolito goal)

Honours.

Club.

Barcelona  Benfica

Manuel Agudo Durán (; born 15 October 1986), known as Nolito (), is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a winger or a forward for RC Celta de Vigo and the Spain national team.

洛列图(;1986年-10月15日),本名曼努奥尔·阿古多·杜兰(),是一位西班牙足球运动员,在场上的位置是左侧锋或前锋。现效力于西甲球队切尔达。2014年11月首次代表西班牙国家足球队出场。