History.

The County of Barcelona was created by Charlemagne after he had conquered lands north of the river Ebro. These lands, called the "Marca Hispanica", were partitioned into various counties, of which the count of Barcelona, usually holding other counties simultaneously, eventually obtained the primacy over the region. As the county became hereditary in one family, the bond of the counts to their Frankish overlords loosened, especially after the Capetian dynasty supplanted the Carolingians.  In the 12th century, the counts of Barcelona became kings of Aragon through inheritance, establishing the Crown of Aragon. In 1258, the king of France relinquished his feudal authority over the county in the Treaty of Corbeil. The counts were also hereditary kings of Castile from the 16th century, eventually forming the Kingdom of Spain. The title of count of Barcelona remained one of the many hereditary titles of the Spanish monarchy.  In the 20th century, the title regained some prominence when Juan de Borbón, the exiled heir to the Spanish throne, adopted the title of count of Barcelona. In doing so, he claimed a historical royal title without claiming to be the current king of Spain, especially after his son Juan Carlos became the prospective successor of the then-ruler of Spain, Francisco Franco. In 1977, after Juan Carlos had become king upon Franco's death in 1975, he officially awarded the comital title to his father, who had renounced his rights to the throne. Juan held that title until his death in 1993, when it reverted to Juan Carlos. Juan de Borbón's widow used the title countess of Barcelona until her death in 2000.

List of counts of Barcelona.

House of Sunifred, 878–1162.

The succession of Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronilla led to the creation of the Crown of Aragon.

House of Barcelona, 1164–1410.

Martin was the last direct descendant of Wilfred the Hairy to rule; died without legitimate heirs ("interregnum" 31 May 1410 – 24 June 1412). By the Compromise of Caspe of 1412 the County of Barcelona and all its associated dominions passed to a branch of the House of Trastámara.  The County of Barcelona formed a constituent part of the Crown of Spain under the rule of the House of Habsburg, until the Nueva Planta decrees (1707 and 1716), when Philip de Bourbon declared that all the territories from the Crown of Aragon should merge into Castile, building the centralized Kingdom of Spain. In Barcelona this was promulgated in 1716, and the title of Count of Barcelona became one of the many unused hereditary titles of the modern Spanish monarchy.

Reapers' War, 1641-1659.

During the Reapers' War, the States-General ("Braços Generals") on 21 January 1641 declared the French king Louis XIII Count of Barcelona as Louis I. Despite the reconquest of Barcelona by Spain in 1652, the kings of France held on to the part of Catalonia north of the Pyrénées, where Catalan institutions remained. This lasted until the conclusion of the Franco-Spanish War and the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, where French authorities renounced Catalonia, but received Northern Catalonia, which became the French province of Roussillon.

The Count of Barcelona (,, ) was the ruler of the County of Barcelona and the Principality of Catalonia for much of Catalan history, from the 9th century until the 15th century.

巴塞罗那伯爵(加泰罗尼亚语:comtes de Barcelona;西班牙语:condes de Barcelona;法语:comtes de Barcelone)是欧洲历史上的一个贵族称号。开始时它是统治巴塞罗那城及周边地区的领主的称号,但从12世纪中叶起,这一头衔为阿拉贡历代国王所拥有。


Early life.

Jimmy Collins was born in Niagara Falls, New York. After graduating from St. Joseph's Collegiate Institute, he went to work for the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad and played baseball in the Buffalo City League.

Playing career.

Minor leagues.

Collins began his professional baseball career with the minor league Buffalo Bisons of the Eastern League, the forerunner of the current International League, in 1893. That season, he was used primarily as a shortstop, batting.286 in 76 games.  In 1894, Collins was moved to the outfield by the Bisons. He batted.352 with nine home runs in 125 games, and after the season his contract was purchased by the Boston Beaneaters for $500.

Major league debut.

Collins began his major league career as a right fielder, playing ten games at the position with the Beaneaters in 1895. On May 19, he was loaned to the Louisville Colonels, again for $500. He was soon made the team's starting third baseman, batting.279 over the remainder of the season. However, his larger impact was on defense, where he played in on the grass rather than back to cut down on the number of bunt hits.

National League star.

Collins was returned to the Beaneaters after the 1895 season. Joe Harrington was the club's starting third baseman at the beginning of the season, but Collins soon asserted himself as the starter, and Harrington was released in July. Collins asserted himself as a skilled player in 1897 when he held a.346 batting average and knocked in 132 runs. He led the league in both putouts and assists as well, a feat he would duplicate in 1900. He followed with an equally impressive 1898 season, in which he hit.328—seventh in the league—drove in 111 runs and belted a league-high 15 home runs.

Jumping to the American League.

Following the 1900 season, Collins, who was by now regarded as the best third baseman in the game, was offered the manager's job with the Boston Americans of the new American League. He accepted the job, which came with a salary of $5,500, a $3,500 signing bonus, and a cut of the team's profits, despite efforts by Beaneaters owner Arthur Soden to keep him. The two traded accusations in the press, and Collins went further, accusing National League owners of conspiring to hold down salaries, stating "I would not go back now if they offered me the whole outfit." Collins recruited other National League stars for the Americans' roster, including Cy Young, and in his first season as player-manager guided the team to a second-place finish, four games behind the Chicago White Sox.

First World Series.

In 1902, Collins was limited to 108 games by injury, and the Americans finished third. He did hit the team's first ever inside-the-park grand slam however. The next season, Collins led the Americans to their first American League pennant, winning the league by 141⁄2 games over the Philadelphia Athletics.  With an agreement in place for the champions of the American and National Leagues to meet in a best-of-nine "World Series", Boston represented the Junior Circuit. After losing two out of three at home to start the series, then losing the first game in Pittsburgh, the Americans won the next three in Pittsburgh, then returned home to win Game Eight in Boston to become the first-ever World Series Champions. Collins himself batted.250 in the Series, with a pair of triples and five runs scored.

Remaining career.

The Americans won the pennant again in 1904, with Collins batting.271 and leading the league in putouts for the fifth time in eight seasons. However, the Americans would not get the opportunity to defend their title, as John McGraw and the New York Giants refused to play them in the postseason.  In 1905, the Americans slipped to fourth place, and Collins clashed with team president John I. Taylor, reportedly quitting on the team during the season. As a player, Collins batted.276, but again missed time due to injury. In 1906, Collins found himself in hot water, as not only were the Americans in last, but he himself was suspended twice, and was eventually was replaced as manager by Chick Stahl. He also missed the end of the season with a knee injury.  Collins began the 1907 season with Boston, but it was only a matter of time before he departed. For reasons that have never become clear, Stahl had committed suicide during spring training; instead of Collins, the Americans turned to Cy Young as manager, following by George Huff, and then Bob Unglaub, all within the first three months of the season. After playing 41 games with the Americans, Collins was traded to the Philadelphia Athletics in June for infielder John Knight. While he batted.278, he had a career-low (to that point).330 slugging percentage, and failed to hit a home run for the first time in his career. In 1908, he slumped even further, batting just.217, and was let go.  After his major league career ended, Collins continued to play and manage in the minor leagues. He spent 1909 with the Minneapolis Millers of the American Association, then spent two seasons with the Providence Grays in the Eastern League before retiring.

Honors.

When Collins was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1945, he was the first to be chosen primarily as a third baseman. In 1981, Lawrence Ritter and Donald Honig included him in their book "The 100 Greatest Baseball Players of All Time". Collins became a charter member of the Buffalo Baseball Hall of Fame in 1985.  In a 1976 "Esquire" magazine article, sportswriter Harry Stein published an "All Time All-Star Argument Starter", consisting of five ethnic baseball teams. Because of space limitations the Irish team, including Collins as third baseman, was omitted.

Personal life.

Jimmy Collins married Sarah Murphy in 1907, and the couple had two daughters. After his retirement from baseball, they moved back to Buffalo, where Collins worked for the Buffalo Parks Department. Collins died of pneumonia on March 6, 1943 at the age of 73.

In popular culture.

Boston-based Celtic punk band Dropkick Murphys recorded the song "Jimmy Collins' Wake" on their 2013 album "Signed and Sealed in Blood". The song, originally written by Richard Johnson, recounts Collins' wake in Buffalo, New York, at what is currently K.O. Bar and Grill on Delaware Ave.

James Joseph Collins (January 16, 1870 – March 6, 1943) was an American professional baseball player. He played fourteen seasons in Major League Baseball. Collins was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1945.

詹姆斯·约瑟夫·科林斯(英语:James Joseph Collins,1870年-1月16日-1943年-3月6日)是19世纪末、20世纪初期美国职棒大联盟的球员,他被认为是布鲁克斯·罗宾森之前最好的三垒手。他的防守十分出色,特别是守备触击球的能力──在科林斯出现之前,常常是由游击手来处理三垒边线方向的触击球──他被认为是现代三垒手守备的先驱。


盖奇县 (内布拉斯加州)

Geography.

Gage County lies on the south line of Nebraska. Its south boundary line abuts the north boundary line of the state of Kansas. The Big Blue River runs SSE through the central part of the county.  According to the US Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (1.0%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 22,993 people, 9,316 households, and 6,204 families in the county. The population density was 27 people per square mile (10/km2). There were 10,030 housing units at an average density of 12 per square mile (5/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 97.69% White, 0.32% Black or African American, 0.58% Native American, 0.28% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.26% from other races, and 0.84% from two or more races. 0.85% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 56.6% were of German, 6.9% Irish, 6.3% English and 6.3% American ancestry.  There were 9,316 households out of which 30.30% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.70% were married couples living together, 7.10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.40% were non-families. 29.20% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.91.  The county population contained 24.00% under the age of 18, 7.70% from 18 to 24, 26.30% from 25 to 44, 22.80% from 45 to 64, and 19.20% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 94.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.40 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $34,908, and the median income for a family was $43,072. Males had a median income of $29,680 versus $21,305 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,190. About 6.60% of families and 8.70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.70% of those under age 18 and 8.00% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Prior to 1940, Gage County was a swing county, backing the national winner in every presidential election from 1900 to 1936. Since then, it has become a Republican stronghold, aside from the 1964 election in which Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson won the county in the midst of his national landslide victory.

Gage County is a county in the U.S. state of Nebraska. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 22,311. Its county seat is Beatrice. The county was created in 1855 and organized in 1857. It was formed from land taken from the Otoe in an 1854 treaty. The county was named for W.D. Gage, a Methodist minister.

盖奇县(英语:Gage County)是美国内布拉斯加州东南部的一个县,南邻堪萨斯州。面积2,227平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口22,993人。县治比阿特丽斯(Beatrice)。


Geology.

The rock formations of Angola are met with in three distinct regions:  The central plateau consists of ancient crystalline rocks with granites overlain by non-fossiliferous sandstones and conglomerates of Paleozoic age. The outcrops are largely hidden under laterite. The median zone is composed largely of crystalline rocks with granites and some Palaeozoic unfossiliferous rocks. The littoral zone contains the only fossiliferous strata. These are of Tertiary and Cretaceous ages, the latter rocks resting on a reddish sandstone of older date. The Cretaceous rocks of the Dombe Grande region (near Benguela) are of Albian age and belong to the "Acanthoceras mamillari" zone. The beds containing "Schloenbachia inflata" are referable to the Gault. Rocks of Tertiary age are met with at Dombe Grande, Moçâmedes and near Luanda. The sandstones with gypsum, copper and sulfur of Dombe are doubtfully considered to be of Triassic age. Recent eruptive rocks, mainly basalts, form a line of hills almost bare of vegetation between Benguela and Moçâmedes. Nepheline basalts and liparites occur at Dombe Grande. The presence of gum copal in considerable quantities in the superficial rocks is characteristic of certain regions.  The geology and outline of the west coast of Angola is related to the opening of South Atlantic that started in the Early Cretaceous and continued until the Eocene, which is reflected in the invertebrate and vertebrate fossil fauna. The diamond mine of Catoca preserved unexpected ancient dinosaur, mammal and crocodylomorph tracks with 128 Million years.

Location.

Central Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Namibia and Democratic Republic of the Congo  Geographic coordinates:  Continent: Africa  "country comparison to the world:" 30

Land boundaries.

Coastline: 1,600 km  Maritime claims:

Climate.

Like the rest of tropical Africa, Angola experiences distinct, alternating rainy and dry seasons. The coastal strip is tempered by the cool Benguela Current, resulting in a climate similar to coastal Peru or Baja California. It is semiarid in the South and along the coast to Luanda. There are two rainy seasons in the steppe; the short rains from November to February, and the high rains from March and April. Summers are hot and humid, while winters are mild and dry. The north has a cool, dry season. The climate is greatly influenced by the prevailing winds, which arc W., S.W. and S.S.W. Two seasons are distinguished – the cool, from June to September; and the rainy, from November to April. The heaviest rainfall occurs in April, and is accompanied by violent storms. The far north and Cabinda have the highest annual rainfall.

Terrain.

Angola has four principal natural regions: the arid coastal lowland, stretching from Namibia to Luanda and characterized by low plains and terraces; green hills and mountains, rising inland from the coast into a great escarpment; a large area of high inland plains of dry savanna, called the high plateau (planalto), which extends eastward and south-east from the escarpment; and rain forest in the north and in Cabinda. The highest point in Angola is Morro de Môco, at 2,620 m. Elevations generally range from.

Coastal lowland.

The coast is for the most part flat, with occasional low cliffs and bluffs of red sandstone. There is but one deep inlet of the sea – Great Fish Bay (or Baía dos Tigres). Farther north are Port Alexander, Little Fish Bay and Lobito Bay, while shallower bays are numerous. Lobito Bay has water sufficient to allow large ships to unload close inshore. The coastal lowland rises from the sea in a series of low terraces. This region varies in width from about 25 km near Benguela to more than 150 km in the Cuanza River Valley just south of Angola's capital, Luanda, and is markedly different from Angola's highland mass. The Atlantic Ocean's cold, northwardflowing Benguela Current substantially reduces precipitation along the coast, making the region relatively arid or nearly so south of Benguela (where it forms the northern extension of the Namib Desert), and quite dry even in its northern reaches. Even where, as around Luanda, the average annual rainfall may be as much as fifty centimeters, it is not common for the rains to fail. Given this pattern of precipitation, the far south is marked by sand dunes, which give way to dry scrub along the middle coast. Portions of the northern coastal plain are covered by thick brush.

Hills and mountains.

The approach to the great central plateau of Africa is marked by the west-central highlands, a series of irregular escarpments and cuestas parallel to the coast at distances ranging from 20 km to 100 km inland as Tala Mugongo (), Chella and Vissecua (). The Cuanza River divides the mountain zone into two parts. The northern part rises gradually from the coastal zone to an average elevation of 500 meters, with crests as high as 1,000 to 1,800 meters. South of the Cuanza River, the hills rise sharply from the coastal lowlands and form a high escarpment, extending from a point east of Luanda and running south through Namibia. The highest peak is Mount Moco (), and the escarpment is steepest in the far south in the Serra da Chella mountain range. In Benguela Province other high points are Loviti (), in 12° 5' S., and Mt. Elonga (). South of the Cuanza is the volcanic mountain Caculo-Cabaza ().

High plateau.

The high plateau, with an altitude ranging from, lies to the east of the hills and mountains and dominates Angola's terrain. This plateau dominates the land.

Drainage.

The Zambezi River and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola. A large number of rivers originate in the central uplands, but their patterns of flow are diverse and their ultimate outlets varied. A number flow in a more or less westerly course to the Atlantic Ocean, providing water for irrigation in the dry coastal strip and the potential for hydroelectric power, only some of which had been realized by 1988. Two of Angola's most important rivers, the Cuanza (Kwanza) and the Cunene (Kunene), take a more indirect route to the Atlantic, the Cuanza flowing north and the Cunene flowing south before turning west. The Cuanza is the only river wholly within Angola that is navigable—for nearly 200 kilometers from its mouth- -by boats of commercially or militarily significant size. The Congo River, whose mouth and western end form a small portion of Angola's northern border with Zaire, is also navigable.  North of the Lunda Divide the Kwango and many other streams flow north from the tableland to join the Kasai River (one of the largest affluents of the Congo), which in its upper course forms for fully the boundary between Angola and the Congo. South of the divide some rivers flow into the Zambezi River system and thence to the Indian Ocean, others to the Okavango River (as the Cubango River is called along the border with Namibia and in Botswana) and thence to Lake Ngami and the Okavango Swamp in Botswana. The tributaries of the Cubango River and several of the southern rivers flowing to the Atlantic are seasonal, completely dry much of the year.

Land use and hazards.

Natural resources: petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, copper, feldspar, gold, bauxite, uranium  Irrigated land: (2012)  Total renewable water resources: (2011)  Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)  Natural hazards: locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau

Environment—current issues.

Overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion attributable to population pressures; desertification; deforestation of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical timber and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of biodiversity; soil erosion contributing to water pollution and silting of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water.  Environment—international agreements:

Flora and fauna.

Both flora and fauna are those characteristic of the greater part of tropical Africa. As far south as Benguela the coast region is rich in oil palms and mangroves. In the northern part of the province are dense forests. In the South towards the Kunene are regions of dense thorn scrub. Rubber vines and trees are abundant, but in some districts their number has been considerably reduced by the primitive methods adopted by native collectors of rubber. The species most common are various root rubbers, notably the "Carpodinus chylorrhiza". This species and other varieties of carpodinus are very widely distributed. Landolphias are also found. The coffee, cotton and Guinea pepper plants are indigenous, and the tobacco plant flourishes in several districts. Among the trees are several which yield excellent timber, such as the tacula ("Pterocarpus tinctorius"), which grows to an immense size, its wood being blood-red in colour, and the Angola mahogany. The bark of the musuemba ("Albizzia coriaria") is largely used in the tanning of leather. The mulundo bears a fruit about the size of a cricket ball covered with a hard green shell and containing scarlet pips like a pomegranate.  The fauna includes the lion, leopard, cheetah, elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, buffalo, zebra, kudu and many other kinds of antelope, wild pig, ostrich and crocodile. Angola previously served as a habitat for the endangered African wild dog, which is now deemed to be extinct within the entire country, stemming from human activities during the period 1965 to 1991. Among fish are the barbel, bream and African yellow fish.

Ecoregions.

The following ecoregions have been described in Angola:  Geography – note: the province of Cabinda is an exclave, separated from the rest of the country by the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Extreme points.

This is a list of the extreme points of Angola, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.  Angola  Angola (mainland)

Angola is located on the western Atlantic Coast of Central Africa between Namibia and the Republic of the Congo. It also is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia to the east. The country consists of a sparsely watered and somewhat sterile coastal plain extending inland for a distance varying from. Slightly inland and parallel to the coast is a belt of hills and mountains and behind those a large plateau. The total land size is. It has an Exclusive Economic Zone of.

安哥拉位于南部非洲的西部,地处纳米比亚和刚果共和国之间的大西洋沿岸,此外在东部还和刚果民主共和国及赞比亚接壤。安哥拉的人口主要集中在沿海地区。而内地则多是高原。安哥拉的国土面积是1246700平方公里,略大于五个英国的大小。首都位于罗安达,也是安哥拉重要的港口。安哥拉大多数地区地处热带。安哥拉在地形上可分为四个地理大区,在地质上可分为三个区域。


Professional wrestling career.

Early career (19891992).

Gutiérrez made his debut in Mexico on April 30, 1989, when he was 14 years old. He was trained by his uncle Rey Misterio Sr. and wrestled early on in Mexico where he learned

Asistencia Asesoría y Administración (1992–1995).

In Asistencia Asesoría y Administración (AAA), Mysterio feuded with Juventud Guerrera. Mysterio's uncle Misterio

Extreme Championship Wrestling (1995–1996).

Mysterio signed with Paul Heyman's Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) in 1995. He debuted in September at Gangstas Paradise, defeating Psicosis, who was also making his ECW

World Championship Wrestling.

Cruiserweight division (1996–1998).

Mysterio made his World Championship Wrestling (WCW) debut on June 16, 1996, at The Great American Bash, challenging Dean Malenko for the WCW Cruiserweight Championship, which Malenko retained by winning. In July at Bash at the Beach, he defeated longtime rival Psicosis in a number one contender's match to earn another opportunity at the Cruiserweight title. The next night, on the July 8 episode of "WCW Monday Nitro", he defeated Malenko to win his first Cruiserweight Championship. He reigned as champion for three months, which included title

Giant Killer and unmasking (1998-1999).

In 1999, after the two factions of nWo reformed, they demanded that the LWO disband. Mysterio refused to take off his LWO colors and was attacked by the nWo as a result. This led to a match at SuperBrawl IX where Mysterio and tag partner Konnan lost a "Hair vs. Mask match" against Kevin Nash and Scott Hall, forcing Mysterio to remove his mask. After the match, he phoned his uncle to tell him the news. Mysterio has publicly expressed his disappointment over being unmasked:  Mysterio later became a "giant killer" by defeating large opponents such as Kevin Nash, Bam Bam Bigelow, and Scott Norton. He faced Nash at Uncensored in a match where Lex Luger interfered and helped Nash in winning the match. Although he participated in several notable matches with some of the heavyweight top card wrestlers, it was made very clear to him that he would never receive a push to become a main eventer. This

No Limit Soldiers and Filthy Animals (1999–2001).

In mid-1999, Mysterio and Konnan joined Master P's No Limit Soldiers, and began feuding with The West Texas Rednecks. At The Great American Bash, they defeated Rednecks members Curt Hennig and Bobby Duncum Jr. in a tag team match. At Bash at the Beach, they defeated the Rednecks in a four-on-four elimination tag team match when Mysterio pinned Hennig. After Master P's departure from WCW, Mysterio formed a stable with Eddie Guerrero and Billy Kidman known as the Filthy Animals, thus turning heel in the process. This was Mysterio's only heel turn in his career. The three wrestlers soon began a feud with the Dead Pool. The Filthy Animals defeated the Dead Pool in a six-man tag team match at Road Wild and at Fall Brawl. On the August 19 episode of "Thunder", Mysterio lost the Cruiserweight Title to Lenny Lane.  On the October 18 episode of "Nitro", Mysterio and Konnan teamed up together to defeat Harlem Heat for the World Tag Team Championship. Mysterio, however, was injured during the match and was sidelined as a result. Billy Kidman substituted for Mysterio and teamed with Konnan

Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (2001–2002).

After WCW closed down, Mysterio started wrestling independently in Mexico. He made his first ever Consejo Mundial

Independent circuit and Puerto Rico (2001–2002).

Upon his return to the USA, he worked in IWA Mid-South, the Xcitement Wrestling Federation and the Heartland Wrestling Association, with the

World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE.

Championship reigns (2002–2004).

In June 2002, Mysterio signed with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), and promos that hyped his debut began airing. The "Jr." was dropped from his name and was billed simply as Rey Mysterio. At the insistence of Vince McMahon, Mysterio agreed to wear his mask again. While this angered lucha libre fans in Mexico as it violated tradition, Mysterio did receive permission from an official lucha libre commission to wear his mask again, as he had not lost his mask in a traditional mask vs. mask match. WWE has normally censored footage of Mysterio being unmasked in

Teaming and feuding with Eddie Guerrero (2004–2005).

After an unsuccessful attempt at regaining the Cruiserweight Title, Mysterio formed a tag team with Rob Van Dam, and went on to win the Tag Team Championship from Kenzo Suzuki and René Duprée on the December 9 episode of "SmackDown!". They successfully defended the title against the former champions at Armageddon, before losing the title to the Basham Brothers on the January 13, 2005, episode of "SmackDown!" after Van Dam was injured.  Mysterio then teamed up with Eddie Guerrero to win the Tag Team Championship back from the Bashams at No Way Out. During this time Mysterio had a video camera, which was called the "619 cam", during his entrance he taped members of the audience with this. In a departure from traditional booking, the new champions did not defend their title at WrestleMania 21, but instead had a match against each other which Mysterio won. Two months later, at ECW One Night Stand, Mysterio faced and defeated long-time rival Psicosis for the first time in nearly five years. The match at WrestleMania was part of a storyline

World Heavyweight Champion (2005–2007).

Mysterio participated in the main event of Survivor Series as part of Team SmackDown! along with Randy Orton, Bobby Lashley, Batista, and John "Bradshaw" Layfield who defeated Team Raw (Shawn Michaels, Kane, Big Show, Carlito, and Chris Masters). After Survivor Series, Mysterio started a feud with Big Show after Mysterio eliminated Big Show at Survivor Series, Mysterio would face Big Show in a match billed as "David vs. Goliath" in a "SmackDown!" special show, and ended as a "no contest" when Big Show's tag team partner Kane interfered in the match. Mysterio continued to feud with Raw's World Tag Team Champions, and found a tag team partner in World Heavyweight Champion Batista. They were booked to face Raw's Kane and Big Show in a tag match at Armageddon. Before Armageddon, Batista and Mysterio defeated MNM on the December 16 episode of "SmackDown!" to win the WWE Tag Team Championship in a match they both dedicated to Eddie Guerrero. Now the Tag Team Champions, Mysterio and Batista's match with Big Show and Kane was billed as "Champions vs.

Various feuds (2007–2010).

Mysterio then began a feud with Finlay, an opponent chosen by JBL. The rivalry was marked as "Fight vs. Flight", contrasting the fighting styles of both wrestlers – Finlay's physicality, versus the high-flying Mysterio. After fighting to a "no contest" at No Mercy, followed by a double-disqualification in a number one contender's match for Batista's World Heavyweight Championship on the next "SmackDown!" he defeated Finlay in a Stretcher match at Cyber Sunday. During this feud, he lost a match to Finlay on the November 9 episode of "SmackDown!" and was part of the winning team at Survivor Series which consisted of both wrestlers on opposing sides (although Mysterio was second to be eliminated).  He re-entered the World Heavyweight Championship picture on the January 4, 2008 episode of "SmackDown!" when he emerged victorious in the Beat the Clock challenge for the chance to face the World Heavyweight Champion Edge at the Royal Rumble. He was unsuccessful in winning the championship. WWE's official website announced on February 14 that Mysterio suffered a biceps injury during an overseas tour. Despite the injury, Mysterio faced Edge for the title in a rematch at No Way Out,

World championship reigns and pursuits (2010–2011).

On the May 28 episode of "SmackDown", Mysterio unsuccessfully fought The Undertaker to qualify for the World Heavyweight Championship title match at Fatal 4-Way. The Undertaker suffered a legitimate injury during the match, and a storyline was introduced to explain his absence on television, stating he had been found in a vegetative state by his brother Kane. On June 4, Mysterio won a Battle Royal to earn The Undertaker's place at Fatal 4-Way by last eliminating Kane, and went on to win the World Heavyweight Championship for the second time. At Money in the Bank, Mysterio defeated Jack Swagger to retain the World title, however, Swagger attacked him after the match. Kane, who had won his Money in the Bank ladder match earlier that night, cashed

Teaming with Sin Cara (2012–2013).

On April 26, 2012, WWE reported that Mysterio had been suspended for 60 days due to his second violation of the company's Talent Wellness Program policy and that his suspension would expire on June 25.  After an absence of almost a year, Mysterio returned on the July 16 episode of "Raw", saving Zack Ryder from his old rival, Alberto Del Rio. On August 19 at SummerSlam, Mysterio unsuccessfully challenged The Miz for the Intercontinental Championship. During the match, Mysterio suffered a legitimate concussion, rendering him inactive for a week, but he returned to "SmackDown" on the August 31 episode. On September 16 at Night Of Champions, Mysterio failed again to capture the Intercontinental Championship from The Miz in a fatal four-way match, also involving Cody Rhodes and Sin Cara. The following night on "Raw", Mysterio and Sin Cara teamed up to defeat Primo and Epico in a tag team match, after which they were attacked by The Prime Time Players (Darren Young and Titus O'Neil). According to Mysterio, he took the decision to leave WWE when he saw

Final storylines and departure (2013–2015).

After eight months, Mysterio returned at a WWE live event on October 17, 2013, and returned to television as part of the Spanish commentary team at Hell in a Cell. On the November 18 episode of "Raw", Mysterio saved CM Punk and Daniel Bryan from an attack by The Wyatt Family and The Real Americans (Jack Swagger and Antonio Cesaro), which led to Mysterio being part of a 10-man elimination tag team match at Survivor Series in which Mysterio's team lost after he was eliminated by sole survivor Roman Reigns. At, Mysterio teamed with Big Show to unsuccessfully challenge Cody Rhodes and Goldust for

Return to AAA (2015–2016).

On March 3, 2015, five days after being released from WWE, it was announced that Mysterio had agreed to work for Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide for the first time since 1995. He made his in-ring return as part of AAA's 2015 pay-per-view Rey de Reyes ("King of Kings") on March 18, 2015. Mysterio teamed up with Myzteziz (formerly Sin Cara in WWE) to defeat the "Los Perros del Mal" team of El Hijo del Perro Aguayo and Pentagón Jr., with Mysterio scoring the winning pin. This match is notorious for showing wrestler Perro Aguayo Jr.'s death in the ring following a drop kick from Mysterio. Mysterio delivered a dropkick to Perro's back, causing him to fall to the second rope, setting him up for Mysterio's signature "619" wrestling move, which involve Mysterio running towards the rope, grabbing it, and spinning around 180°, hitting the person on the face with his legs. Mysterio, seeing that something was wrong

Return to Independent circuit (2015–2018).

Mysterio has also appeared on a number of independent shows, facing Amazing Red in House of Glory, Ricochet in Drive Wrestling, PJ Black in Black Destiny Wrestling, AJ Styles at a 5 Star Wrestling show in the UK, Alberto El Patron in Qatar Pro Wrestling, amongst others.  Mysterio faced fellow WWE alumnus Kurt Angle on March 20, 2016 for the upstart URFight promotion. Mysterio successfully defeated Angle in a two-falls match with assistance from rapper Riff Raff. In January 2017, Mysterio noted in an interview that he may consider opening up his own wrestling school. During the interview, he said: "I just thought

Lucha Underground (2015–2018).

Mysterio signed with Lucha Underground on December 12, 2015 and appeared on the second season. On January 10, 2016, Mysterio teamed with Dragon Azteca Jr. and Prince Puma to defeat Ivelisse, Johnny Mundo and Son of Havoc and Fénix, Jack Evans, and PJ Black and Cortez Castro, Joey Ryan and Mr. Cisco in a 4-way Trio Tag Team Elimination Match for the Lucha Underground Trios Championship. Mysterio was the second competitor to enter the second ever Aztec Warfare match and was the final elimination by the eventual winner Matanza. On January 31, 2016, at Ultima Lucha Dos, Rey Mysterio defeated Prince Puma in a singles match. Mysterio defeated Chavo Guerrero

New Japan Pro-Wrestling (2018).

Rey Mysterio made his New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) debut on June 9, 2018 as part of NJPW's Dominion

Second return to AAA (2018).

On June 3, 2018, Mysterio returned to Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA) at "Verano

Return to WWE.

United States Champion (2018–2019).

On January 28, 2018, at the Royal Rumble, Mysterio was a surprise entrant in the men's Rumble match as part of a one-time deal with WWE. He entered at number 27, eliminating Adam Cole before later being eliminated by Finn Bálor. On April 27, Mysterio participated in the 50-man Royal Rumble match at the Greatest Royal Rumble event. He entered at number 28, eliminating Luke Gallows but was eliminated by Baron Corbin. On June 26, Mysterio was revealed as one of the pre-order bonus character for WWE 2K19. On September 19, it was confirmed Mysterio had signed a two-year contract with WWE.  On October 16 as part of "SmackDown 1000", Mysterio competed in his first singles match with the company since April 2014. He defeated United States Champion Shinsuke Nakamura to qualify for the WWE World Cup. During the World Cup at Crown Jewel event, Mysterio defeated Randy Orton in the first round, but was attacked by Orton after the match. Later in the night, Mysterio lost to The Miz in the semi-finals. On the November 6 episode of "SmackDown Live", Mysterio defeated

World Championship Pursuits (2019–present).

Mysterio returned on the July 8 edition of "Raw" and issued an open challenge which was accepted by Bobby Lashley where he was defeated by him and also suffered a post-match assault from Lashley. In August, Mysterio teased his retirement due to multiple losses and amounting injuries, with his son trying to persuade him to not give up.  On the September 30 edition of "Raw", Mysterio was meant to take on Seth Rollins in a match for the Universal Championship, which he earned recently by winning a multi-man match. However, he was greeted by Brock Lesnar and Paul Heyman, and Lesnar attacked Mysterio. He then beat up Dominick who was in the front row, resulting in a storyline injury for the latter. On October 4, the premiere episode of "SmackDown" on Fox, Mysterio assisted the debut of Cain Velasquez to attack Lesnar after the latter's WWE Championship win. Mysterio, Velasquez and Lesnar continued with the Dominick injury storyline leading to the Crown Jewel match for the WWE Championship on October 31. After defeating Velasquez at Crown Jewel, Mysterio attacked Lesnar with a steel chair. This led to Lesnar quitting the SmackDown brand on the November 1 episode of "SmackDown" so he could challenge "RAW" superstar Mysterio. On the November 4 episode of "Raw", after causing destruction in his attempt to find Mysterio,

Other media.

Mysterio has been a subject of several DVDs during his wrestling career, including "Rey Mysterio: 619", a 2003 documentary of Mysterio's career and personal life. WWE also produced "Rey Mysterio: The Biggest Little Man", a three disc set featuring Mysterio's best matches that was released on October 23, 2007. He was also featured on the DVD "Before They Were Wrestling Stars: Rey Mysterio Jr." in 2007 which featured matches from his time in Mexico. "Rey Mysterio: The Life of a Masked Man" was issued on July 12, 2011. In the UK, Silver Vision released a Mysterio DVD as part of their Best of WWE collection. This featured his matches from SummerSlam 2005, WrestleMania 22, No Mercy 2006, and SummerSlam 2007. Mysterio was later announced as the pre-order bonus character for the WWE 2K19 videogame to be released on October 5.

Movies.

Mysterio appeared in the 2000 film

Music.

Mysterio, along with rapper Mad One, performed the original version of "Booyaka 619", which Mysterio used as his WWE entrance theme around

Video games.

Mysterio is a playable character in numerous video games: "", "WCW/nWo Revenge", "WCW Mayhem", "WCW Backstage Assault", "WCW Nitro", "WCW/nWo Thunder", "WWE WrestleMania XIX", "WWE SmackDown! Here Comes The Pain", "WWE Day of Reckoning", "WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw", "WWE Day of Reckoning

Personal life.

Gutierrez and his wife Angie have two children: a son Dominic (born April 5, 1997) and a daughter (born August 20, 2001). He has tattoos of his children's names on his right and left biceps, tattoos dedicated to his wife, Angie, and a tattoo with the initials EG for his best friend and fellow wrestler, Eddie Guerrero, who died in 2005. He is a devout Roman Catholic, frequently crossing himself before every match and bearing numerous religious tattoos on his body, most notably a cross on his chest attached to rosaries as well as other crosses and allusions to God.  Gutiérrez is part of an extended family of wrestlers, including his son Dominic Gutiérrez, uncle Rey Misterio Sr.

Perro Aguayo Jr. incident.

On March 20, 2015, Mysterio partnered with Extreme Tiger in a match against the tag team of Perro Aguayo Jr. and Manik. Mysterio scored the winning pin on Manik while all involved were unaware that Aguayo was dead (rather than just knocked out) following a dropkick to Aguayo by Mysterio to the middle rope. Mysterio then attempted the 619 on Aguayo and Manik, but did not connect. Aguayo was rushed to a hospital and doctors attempted to revive him, officially pronouncing him dead at 1:00 AM on March 21.

Óscar Gutiérrez (born December 11, 1974), better known by his ring name Rey Mysterio, is a Mexican-American professional wrestler currently signed to WWE, where he performs on the Raw brand. According to ESPN, he is "widely regarded as the greatest cruiserweight in pro wrestling history".

雷·密斯特里欧(英语:Rey Mysterio,1974年-12月11日),本名奥斯卡·古铁雷斯(英语:Oscar Gutierrez),墨西哥裔美国职业摔角手,目前效力于世界摔角娱乐下的WWE Raw阵营。由于加入世界摔角娱乐之前之冠军纪录过于辉煌,所以在此不提,4次WWE双打冠军、3次WWE轻量级冠军、2次WWE洲际冠军、2次WWE美国冠军、2次世界重量级冠军、1次WWE冠军。终结技是619和西岸坐击。


History.

American cartridge manufacturer Union Metallic Cartridge Company most likely introduced the.22 Long Rifle cartridge as early as 1884. The round owes its origin to the.22 BB Cap of 1845 and the.22 Short of 1857. It combined the casing of the.22 Long of 1871 with a 45 gr bullet, giving it a longer overall length, a higher muzzle velocity and superior performance as a hunting and target round, rendering both the.22 Long and.22 Extra Long cartridges obsolete. The.22 LR uses a heeled bullet, which means that the bullet is the same diameter as the case, and has a narrower "heel" portion that fits in the case. It is one of the few cartridges that are accepted by a large variety of rifles and handguns.

Popularity in the United States.

The.22 LR cartridge is popular with both novice shooters and experts. Its minimal recoil and relatively low noise make it an ideal cartridge for recreational shooting, small-game hunting, and pest control..22 LR cadet rifles are commonly used by military cadets and others for basic firearms and marksmanship training. It is used by the Boy Scouts of America for the rifle shooting merit badge.  The low recoil of the cartridge makes it ideal for introductory firearms courses. Novice shooters can be surprised or frightened by the noise and recoil of more powerful rounds. Beginners shooting firearms beyond their comfort level frequently develop a habit of flinching in an attempt to counter anticipated recoil. The resulting habit impedes correct posture and follow-through at the most critical phase of the shot and is difficult to correct. With high recoil eliminated, other errors in marksmanship technique are easier to identify and correct.  Available for this round are AR-15 upper receivers and M1911 slide assemblies. Many handgun manufacturers have an upper pistol conversion kit to make it shoot.22 LR ammunition. These conversions allow shooters to practice inexpensively while retaining the handling characteristics of their chosen firearms (with reduced recoil and muzzle blast). Additionally,.22 LR cartridge conversion kits allow practice at indoor ranges which prohibit high-power firearms. Owners of guns that use gas systems, such as AR-15 sport style rifles, normally avoid firing non-jacketed.22 LR cartridge ammunition, as the use of unjacketed ammunition may cause lead-fouling of the gas-port inside the barrel and costly gunsmithing procedures. This can usually be mitigated by swapping the conversion kit for the standard bolt carrier group, and firing several full-powered rounds to clear the gas port and tube of any accumulated lead fouling. While not 100% effective, the extremely hot incandescent gasses produced by centerfire rifle ammunition will help to clear any lead fouling from the.22LR ammunition.  A wide variety of.22 LR ammunition is available commercially, and the available ammunition varies widely both in price and performance. Bullet weights among commercially available ammunition range from, and velocities vary from..22 LR is the least costly cartridge ammunition available. Promotional loads for plinking can be purchased in bulk for significantly less cost than precision target rounds. The low cost of ammunition has a substantial effect on the popularity of the.22 LR. For this reason, rimfire cartridges are commonly used for target practice. .22 LR cartridges are commonly packaged in boxes of 50 or 100 rounds, and is often sold by the 'brick', a carton containing either 10 boxes of 50 rounds or loose cartridges totaling 500 rounds, or the 'case' containing 10 bricks totaling 5,000 rounds. Annual production is estimated by some at 2–2.5 billion rounds. The NSSF estimates that a large percentage of the US production of 10 billion cartridges is composed of.22 LR. Despite the high production figures there have occasionally been shortages of.22 LR cartridge in the contiguous United States, most notably during the U.S. ammunition shortage of the late 2000s and early 2010s.

Performance.

Performance depends on barrel length and the type of action. For example, it will often perform differently in a bolt-action rifle than in a semiautomatic rifle. The.22 LR is effective to, though practical ranges tend to be less. After 150 yd, the ballistics of the round are such that it will be difficult to compensate for the large "drop". The relatively short effective range, low report, and light recoil have made it a favorite for use as a target-practice cartridge. The accuracy of the cartridge is good, but not exceptional; various cartridges are capable of the same or better accuracy. A contributing factor in rifles is the transition of even a high-velocity cartridge projectile from supersonic to subsonic within. As the bullet slows, the shock wave caused by supersonic travel overtakes the bullet and can disrupt its flight path, causing minor but measurable inaccuracies.  When zeroed for, the arc-trajectory of the standard high-velocity.22 LR with a 40-gr bullet has a rise at, and a drop at. A.22 LR rifle needs to be zeroed for to avoid overshooting small animals like squirrels at intermediate distances.  As a hunting cartridge, rimfires are mainly used to kill small game up to the size of coyotes. Although proper shot placement can kill larger animals such as deer or hog, it is not recommended because its low power may not guarantee a humane kill. The largest recorded animal killed with a.22 LR rifle was a grizzly bear in 1953. In 2013, an elephant was killed by multiple shots from a.22 LR rifle.  Because a.22 LR bullet is less powerful than larger cartridges, its danger to humans is often underestimated. In fact, a.22 LR bullet is easily capable of killing or injuring humans. Even after flying, a.22 bullet is still traveling about. Ricochets are more common in.22 LR projectiles than for more powerful cartridges as the combination of unjacketed lead and moderate velocities allows the projectile to deflect – not penetrate or disintegrate – when hitting hard objects at a glancing angle. A.22 LR bullet can ricochet off the surface of water at a low angle of aim. Severe injury may result to a person or object in the line of fire on the opposite shore, several hundred yards away. A.22 LR bullet is capable of traveling, which is more than.  Rimfire bullets are generally either plain lead with a wax coating (for standard-velocity loads) or plated with copper or gilding metal (for high-velocity or hyper-velocity loads). The thin copper layer on plated bullet functions as a lubricant reducing friction between the bullet and the barrel, thus reducing barrel wear. Plating also prevents oxidation of the lead bullet. Lead tends to oxidize if stored for long periods. On a plain lead bullet, oxide on the bullet's surface can increase its diameter enough to either prevent insertion of the cartridge into the chamber, or – with high velocity rounds – cause dangerously high pressures in the barrel, potentially rupturing the cartridge case and injuring the shooter; for that reason, standard and subsonic cartridges usually use a wax lubricant on lead bullets.

Variants.

The variety of.22 LR loads are often divided into four distinct categories, based on nominal velocity:

Subsonic.

Subsonic rounds have a muzzle velocity of less than the speed of sound (about ). These rounds are sometimes equipped with extra-heavy bullets of to improve the terminal ballistics of the slower projectile. Conversely, these rounds may contain little more than a primer and an extra-light bullet.  Subsonic rounds are favored by some shooters due to slightly superior accuracy and reduction in noise. Supersonic rounds produce a loud crack which can scare away animals when hunting. Accuracy is reportedly improved with subsonic rounds because a supersonic bullet (or projectile) that slows from supersonic to subsonic speed undergoes drastic aerodynamic changes in this transonic zone that might adversely affect the stability and accuracy of the bullet.  Because the speed of sound in air at 68 °F (20 °C) is about, the subsonic round's muzzle velocity is slightly below the speed of sound under many hunting conditions. However, under cold air conditions at 32 °F (0 °C), the speed of sound drops to, approximately muzzle velocity. Hence, a "subsonic" round used below this temperature may be supersonic, and during the transition from supersonic to subsonic velocity, it may become unstable, reducing accuracy. To counteract this, some cartridge manufacturers have lowered the speed of their subsonic ammunition to or less.  Various combinations of subsonic rounds and semiautomatic.22 LR firearms result in unreliable cycling of the firearms' actions, as the result of insufficient recoil energy. Some subsonic rounds use heavier bullets (achieving lower velocities) to ensure, as a result of increased bullet mass, that enough energy is produced to cycle common blow-back actions. As an example, the Aguila.22 LR SSS "Sniper SubSonic" round, has a 60-gr bullet on a.22 short case, providing the cartridge the same overall dimensions as a.22 long rifle round. However, other problems may be encountered: the heavier and longer bullet of the Aguila cartridge requires a faster barrel twist (by the Greenhill formula) to ensure the bullet remains stable in flight.  Two performance classes of.22 rimfire subsonic rounds exist. Some subsonic rounds, such as various.22 short and.22 long "CB" rounds, give about velocity with a 29-gr bullet providing relatively low impact energy (41 J at muzzle). These may not use any, or only small amounts of gunpowder, and have the characteristics of rounds intended only for indoor training or target practice rather than hunting. Where these are in.22 LR form, it is only to aid feeding in firearms designed for the cartridge, rather than older.22 CB shooting gallery rifles. The Aguila SSS gives about velocity with a 60-gr bullet offering energy (163 Joules) equivalent to many high velocity.22 long rifle rounds using standard 40-gr bullets. Other heavy-bullet subsonic rounds give similar performance, and are intended for hunting of small game, or control of dangerous animals, while avoiding excessive noise.

Standard velocity.

The velocity of standard-velocity.22 LR rounds varies between manufacturers. Some standard velocity ammo may be slightly supersonic-around, other ammo such as CCI Standard Velocity.22 LR ammunition is rated at. Most standard velocity ammo has a bullet weight of. Standard-velocity cartridges generate near or slightly supersonic velocities. These rounds generally do not develop these velocities in handguns because their short barrels do not take full advantage of the slower burning powder.

High velocity.

The.22 long rifle round was originally loaded with black powder. The first smokeless powder loads were intended to match the standard velocity of the original black-powder rounds. Smokeless powder is more efficient than black powder, and the cartridge cases could hold more powder. Smokeless powder loads, called "high speed" or "high velocity", were offered by the major ammunition makers, giving a typical velocity increase of 8% ( to ) while still using the standard 40-gr solid or 36-gr hollow-point lead bullet.

Hyper-velocity.

Many.22 LR cartridges use bullets lighter than the standard 40 gr, fired at even higher velocities. Hyper-velocity bullets usually weigh around and can have a muzzle velocity of. This higher velocity is partially due to the use of lighter bullets.  The CCI Stinger was the first hyper-velocity.22 LR cartridge, and provided a significant increase in velocity and energy over standard rimfire rounds. The Stinger case is longer than that of the long rifle; about "versus" for the long rifle, but the plated hollow point bullet is lighter and shorter at, giving the same overall length as the long rifle cartridge. This longer case can cause ejection problems in some guns. A powder with a slower burning rate is used to make the most use of the length of a rifle barrel. Most.22 long rifle powders increase velocity up to about of barrel. The powder used in the Stinger increases velocity up to the longest.22 barrel length tested by the NRA,.  Later hyper-velocity rounds were introduced by other makers, based on the long rifle case with lighter bullets in the 30-gr weight range and slow-burning rifle powder loadings. The overall length of many of these cartridges was less than the overall length of the standard 40-gr bullet long rifle cartridge. One example is the Remington Viper; another is the Federal Spitfire.  The CCI Velocitor hyper-velocity round uses the standard long rifle case size and a standard weight bullet of proprietary hollow-point design to augment expansion and trauma. This cartridge has a muzzle velocity of and matches the overall length of the standard long rifle cartridge.

Shot cartridges.

Special.22 LR caliber shot cartridges (No. 1 bore), usually loaded with No. 12 shot, have also been made. These are often called "snake shot," "bird shot" and "rat-shot" due to their use in very short range pest control. Such rounds have either a longer brass case that is crimped closed, or a translucent plastic "bullet" that contains the shot and shatters upon firing. In specially made.22-bore shotguns, the shot shells can be used for short-range skeet shooting and trap shooting at special, scaled-down, clay targets.

Full metal jacket.

During World War II, a full metal jacket bullet version of the.22 LR was developed as the T-42 for the silenced High Standard HDM pistol. The US Army Air Corps procured the Savage Model 24.22 LR/.410 combination gun as an air crew survival weapon included in the E series of survival and sustenance kits, primarily to forage for game for food. The.22 LR full metal jacket bullet ammunition was issued with these firearms for military use to comply with treaty restrictions on expanding bullets.  The 1961 Army/Air Force Technical Manual/Order on ammunition lists three types of rimfire CARTRIDGE, CALIBER.22: Ball, Long Rifle: The first type specifies standard or target velocity.22 LR while the second is common high velocity commercial ammo. While these soft lead round nose bullet types were suitable for training or target practice, they are not legal for use in a war zone. Since.22 LR air crew survival weapons would probably be used in a war zone and could be used for defense, the M24 round is loaded with a hard lead-antimony alloy core bullet with a gilding metal jacket.

Tracer.

Tracer ammunition is also available in rimfire.

Cartridge construction.

The traditional.22 rimfire cartridges (BB, CB, short, long, extra long, and long rifle) differ in construction from more modern cartridges in the way the bullet is constructed and held in the case. Bullets for traditional.22 rimfires are the same outside diameter as the case but are constructed with a narrower cupped "heel" on the base of the bullet which is inserted into the case. The case mouth is then crimped around the heel, leaving exposed the majority of the bullet bearing surface that contacts the barrel of the gun. The bearing surface of.22 rimfire bullets is often lubricated and the surface is exposed to contamination. This was a common design in the early black powder cartridge era.  In later cartridges including the.22 WRF and.22 WMR rimfires and modern centerfires, the bullet body is a uniform diameter and the bearing surface is inserted completely within the neck of the cartridge case, held in place by tension from the case neck around the bullet bearing surface (in some cartridges the case mouth maybe also be crimped into a cannelure (groove) in the bullet). The heeled bullet cartridge is considered weaker than the uniform diameter bullet cartridge which encloses the bearing surface of the bullet within the cartridge neck. Overall reliability of heeled bullet rimfire ammunition is high, but it is lower than the reliability of most centerfire ammunition.

Cartridge length.

The.22 LR uses a straight-walled case. Depending upon the type and the feed mechanism employed, a firearm that is chambered for.22 LR may also be able to safely chamber and fire the following shorter rimfire cartridges: The.22 Long Rifle may also be used in firearms chambered for the obsolete.22 Extra Long.

Usage.

Today, rimfire rounds are mainly used for hunting small pests, for sports shooting, for plinking, and for inexpensive training. The.22 LR is the choice for several shooting events: biathlon, bullseye, plus divisions of benchrest shooting, metallic silhouette and pin shooting, most high school, collegiate, Boy Scouts of America, Project Appleseed, 4H shooting events, and many others. It is also used in the precision Rifle and Pistol shooting events at the Olympic Games. Good quality rimfire ammunition can be quite accurate. The main advantages are low cost, low recoil, low noise and high accuracy-to-cost ratio. The main disadvantage is its low power; it is better suited for use on small game and other small animals.  As a defensive cartridge, it is considered inadequate, though the small size allows very lightweight, easily concealable handguns which can be carried in circumstances where anything larger would be impractical. Despite their limitations, people can use.22 LR pistols and rifles for defense, and are common simply because they are prevalent, inexpensive, and widely available.  Most semi-automatic rifles firing.22 LR cartridges will often only work properly when firing standard or high velocity rimfire ammunition, as the low recoil of subsonic rounds is insufficient to cycle the weapon's action. Rifles with manual actions do not have this problem. Due to the low bolt thrust of the.22 LR cartridge, most self-loading firearms chambered for the cartridge use the direct blowback operation system.  The tiny case of the.22 LR and the subsonic velocities (when using subsonic ammunition) make it well suited for use with a firearm suppressor (also known as silencers or sound moderators). The low volume of powder gases means that.22 LR suppressors are often no larger than a bull barrel; the Ruger 10/22 and Ruger MK II are common choices, because of their reliability and low cost, and the resulting product is often nearly indistinguishable from a bull barrel model (although weighing far less). Where firearm suppressors are only minimally restricted, a.22 LR firearm with a suppressor is often favored for plinking, as it does not require hearing protection or disturb the neighbors. Local government agencies sometimes use suppressed rimfire weapons for animal control, since dangerous animals or pests can be dispatched in populated areas without causing undue alarm.  The.22 LR has also seen limited usage by police and military snipers. Its main advantage in this role is its low noise, but it is usually limited to urban operations because of its short range.<ref name="Ruger 10/22 Suppressed Sniper Rifle"></ref>  The Israeli military used a suppressed.22 LR rifle in the 1990s for riot control and to "eliminate disturbing dogs prior to operations", though it is now used less often as it has been shown to be more lethal than previously suspected. Some other examples include the use of suppressed High Standard HDM pistols by the American OSS, which was the predecessor organization of the CIA. Francis Gary Powers was issued a suppressed High Standard for the flight in which he was shot down. Suppressed Ruger MK II pistols were used by the US Navy SEALs in the 1990s.

Cartridge dimensions.

.22 long rifle maximum C.I.P. cartridge dimensions. All sizes in millimetres (mm).  The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 406 mm (1:16 in), six grooves, land width = 2.16 mm, Ø lands = 5.38 mm, Ø grooves = 5.58 mm.  According to the official C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives) rulings the.22 long rifle can handle up to P piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers.  Because the.22 long rifle round commonly uses a heeled lead or lightly plated bullet, the nominal bullet diameter is larger than the nominal bore diameter to prevent excessive lead fouling that can occur when shooting lead bullets that are the same or slightly smaller than the groove diameter. SAAMI specifies a nominal bullet diameter of 0.2255 with a tolerance of -0.004, while the specified bore diameter is 0.222. In practice, 0.224 or slightly larger bullets are common, with barrel groove diameters commonly around 0.223.

Muzzle velocity (nominal).

Note: actual velocities are dependent on many factors, such as barrel length of a given firearm and manufacturer of a given batch of ammunition, and will vary widely in practice. The above velocities are typical.

The.22 Long Rifle or simply.22 LR (metric designation: 5.6×15mmR) is a long-established variety of.22 caliber rimfire ammunition, and in terms of units sold is still by far the most common ammunition in the world today. It is used in a wide range of rifles, pistols, revolvers, smoothbore shotguns (No. 1 bore), and even submachine guns.

.22口径长步枪弹(英语:.22 Long Rifle cartridge,简称.22 LR),也称5.6×15mmR,在中国大陆也称5.6毫米运动步枪弹,是一历史悠久的口径凸缘式底火子弹。如以销售记录来说,.22 LR到目前仍然是全世界最普遍的子弹。被使用于许多步枪、手枪、左轮手枪、甚至于滑膛霰弹枪。数十年来是全世界最受欢迎的子弹。也是少数同时被广泛使用于步枪与手枪的子弹之一。超过一世纪以来,几乎每家枪械制造厂最少都会制造一型使用.22 LR的枪械。


Scripts, media, and languages.

Hieroglyphs, hieratic, and Demotic.

By the Early Dynastic Period in the late 4th millennium BC, Egyptian hieroglyphs and their cursive form hieratic were well-established written scripts. Egyptian hieroglyphs are small artistic pictures of natural objects. For example, the hieroglyph for door-bolt, pronounced "se", produced the "s" sound; when this hieroglyph was combined with another or multiple hieroglyphs, it produced a combination of sounds that could represent abstract concepts like sorrow, happiness, beauty, and evil. The Narmer Palette, dated "c". 3100 BC during the last phase of Predynastic Egypt, combines the hieroglyphs for catfish and chisel to produce the name of King Narmer.  The Egyptians called their hieroglyphs "words of god" and reserved their use for exalted purposes, such as communicating with divinities and spirits of the dead through funerary texts. Each hieroglyphic word represented both a specific object and embodied the essence of that object, recognizing it as divinely made and belonging within the greater cosmos. Through acts of priestly ritual, like burning incense, the priest allowed spirits and deities to read the hieroglyphs decorating the surfaces of temples. In funerary texts beginning in and following the Twelfth dynasty, the Egyptians believed that disfiguring, and even omitting

Writing implements and materials.

Egyptian literature was produced on a variety of media. Along with the chisel, necessary for making inscriptions on stone, the chief writing tool of ancient Egypt was the reed pen, a reed fashioned into a stem with a bruised, brush-like end. With pigments of carbon black and red ochre, the reed pen was used to write on scrolls of papyrus—a thin material made from beating together strips of pith from the "Cyperus papyrus" plant—as well as on small ceramic or limestone potsherds known as ostraca. It is thought that papyrus rolls were moderately expensive commercial items, since many are palimpsests,

Preservation of written material.

Underground Egyptian tombs built in the desert provide possibly the most protective environment for the preservation of papyrus documents. For example, there are many well-preserved "Book of the Dead" funerary papyri placed in tombs to act as afterlife guides for the souls of the deceased tomb occupants. However, it was only customary during the late Middle Kingdom and first half of the New Kingdom to place non-religious papyri in burial chambers. Thus, the majority of well-preserved literary papyri are dated to this period.  Most settlements in ancient Egypt were situated on the alluvium of the Nile floodplain. This moist environment was unfavorable for long-term preservation of papyrus documents. Archaeologists have discovered a larger quantity of papyrus documents in desert settlements on land elevated above the floodplain, and in settlements that lacked irrigation works, such as Elephantine, El-Lahun, and El-Hiba. Writings on more permanent media have also been lost in several ways. Stones with inscriptions were frequently re-used as building materials, and

Classical, Middle, Late, and Demotic Egyptian language.

Although writing first appeared during the very late 4th millennium BC, it was only used to convey short names and labels; connected strings of text did not appear until about 2600 BC, at the beginning of the Old Kingdom. This development marked the beginning of the first known phase of the Egyptian language: Old Egyptian. Old Egyptian remained a spoken language until about 2100 BC, when, during the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, it evolved into Middle Egyptian. While Middle Egyptian was closely related to Old Egyptian, Late Egyptian was significantly different in grammatical structure. Late Egyptian possibly appeared

Literary functions: social, religious and educational.

Throughout ancient Egyptian history, reading and writing were the main requirements for serving in public office, although government officials were assisted in their day-to-day work by an elite, literate social group known as scribes. As evidenced by Papyrus Anastasi I of the Ramesside Period, scribes could even be expected, according to Wilson, "...to organize the excavation of a lake and the building of a brick ramp, to establish the number of men needed to transport an obelisk and to arrange the provisioning of a military mission". Besides government employment, scribal services in drafting letters, sales documents, and legal documents would have been frequently sought by illiterate people. Literate people are thought to have comprised only 1% of the population, the remainder being illiterate farmers, herdsmen, artisans, and other laborers, as well as merchants who required the assistance of scribal secretaries. The privileged status of the scribe over illiterate manual laborers was the subject of a popular Ramesside Period instructional text, "The Satire of the Trades", where lowly, undesirable occupations, for example, potter, fisherman, laundry man, and soldier, were mocked and the scribal profession praised. A similar demeaning attitude towards the illiterate is expressed in the Middle Kingdom "Teaching of Khety", which is used to reinforce the scribes' elevated position within the social hierarchy. The scribal class was the social group responsible for maintaining, transmitting, and canonizing literary classics, and writing new compositions. Classic works, such as the "Story of Sinuhe" and "Instructions of Amenemhat", were copied by schoolboys as pedagogical exercises in writing and to instill the required ethical and moral values that distinguished the scribal social class. Wisdom texts of the "teaching" genre represent the majority of pedagogical texts written on ostraca during the Middle Kingdom; narrative tales, such as "Sinuhe" and "King Neferkare and General Sasenet", were rarely copied for school exercises until the New Kingdom. William Kelly Simpson describes narrative tales such as "Sinuhe" and "The shipwrecked sailor" as "...instructions or teachings in the guise of narratives", since the main protagonists of

Dating, setting, and authorship.

Richard B. Parkinson and Ludwig D. Morenz write that ancient Egyptian literature—narrowly defined as "belles-lettres" ("beautiful writing")—was not recorded in written form until the early Twelfth dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. Old Kingdom texts served mainly to maintain the divine cults, preserve souls in the afterlife, and document accounts for practical uses in daily life. It was not until the Middle Kingdom that texts were written for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual curiosity. Parkinson and Morenz also speculate that written works of the Middle Kingdom were transcriptions of the oral literature of the Old Kingdom. It is known that some oral poetry was preserved in later writing; for example, litter-bearers' songs were preserved as written verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom.  Dating texts by methods of palaeography, the study of handwriting, is problematic because of differing styles of hieratic script. The use of orthography, the study of writing systems and symbol usage, is also problematic, since some texts' authors may have copied the characteristic style of an older archetype. Fictional accounts were often set in remote historical settings, the use of contemporary settings in fiction being a relatively recent phenomenon. The style of a text provides

Literary genres and subjects.

Modern Egyptologists categorize Egyptian texts into genres, for example "laments/discourses" and narrative tales. The only genre of literature named as such by the ancient Egyptians was the "teaching" or "sebayt" genre. Parkinson states that the titles of a work, its opening statement, or key words found in the body of text should be used as indicators of its particular genre. Only the genre of "narrative tales" employed prose, yet many of the works of that genre, as well as those of other genres, were written in verse. Most ancient Egyptian verses were written in couplet form, but sometimes triplets and quatrains were used.

Instructions and teachings.

The "instructions" or "teaching" genre, as well as the genre of "reflective discourses", can be grouped in the larger corpus of wisdom literature found in the ancient Near East. The genre is didactic in nature and is thought to have formed part of the Middle Kingdom scribal education syllabus. However, teaching texts often incorporate narrative elements that can instruct as well as entertain. Parkinson asserts that there is evidence that teaching texts were not created primarily for use in scribal education, but for ideological purposes. For example, Adolf Erman (1854–1937) writes that the fictional instruction given by Amenemhat I (r. 1991–1962 BC) to his sons "...far exceeds the bounds of school philosophy, and there is nothing whatever to do with school in a great warning his children to be loyal to the king". While narrative literature, embodied in works such as "The Eloquent Peasant", emphasize the individual hero who challenges society and its accepted ideologies, the teaching texts instead

Narrative tales and stories.

The genre of "tales and stories" is probably the least represented genre from surviving literature of the Middle Kingdom and Middle Egyptian. In Late Egyptian literature, "tales and stories" comprise the majority of surviving literary works dated from the Ramesside Period of the New Kingdom into the Late Period. Major narrative works from the Middle Kingdom include the "Tale of the Court of King Cheops", "King Neferkare and General Sasenet", "The Eloquent Peasant", "Story of Sinuhe", and "Tale of the shipwrecked sailor". The New Kingdom corpus of tales includes the "Quarrel of Apepi and Seqenenre", "The Taking of Joppa", "Tale of the doomed prince", "Tale of Two Brothers", and the "Report of Wenamun". Stories from the 1st millennium BC written in Demotic include the story of the Famine Stela (set in the Old Kingdom, although written during the Ptolemaic dynasty) and short story cycles of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods that transform well-known historical figures such as Khaemweset (Nineteenth Dynasty) and Inaros (First Persian Period) into fictional, legendary heroes. This is contrasted with many stories written in Late Egyptian, whose authors frequently chose divinities as protagonists and mythological places as

Laments, discourses, dialogues, and prophecies.

The Middle Kingdom genre of "prophetic texts", also known as "laments", "discourses", "dialogues", and "apocalyptic literature", include such works as the "Admonitions of Ipuwer", "Prophecy of Neferti", and "Dispute between a man and his Ba". This genre had no known precedent in the Old Kingdom and no known original compositions were produced in the New Kingdom. However, works like "Prophecy of Neferti" were frequently copied during the Ramesside Period of the New Kingdom, when this Middle Kingdom genre was canonized but discontinued. Egyptian prophetic

Poems, songs, hymns, and afterlife texts.

The funerary stone slab stela was first produced during the early Old Kingdom. Usually found in mastaba tombs, they combined raised-relief artwork with inscriptions bearing the name of the deceased, their official titles (if any), and invocations.  Funerary poems were thought to preserve a monarch's soul in death. The Pyramid Texts are the earliest surviving religious literature incorporating poetic verse. These texts do not appear in tombs or pyramids originating before the reign of Unas (r. 2375–2345 BC), who had the Pyramid of Unas built at Saqqara. The Pyramid Texts are chiefly concerned with the function of preserving and nurturing the soul of the sovereign in the afterlife. This aim eventually included safeguarding both the sovereign and his subjects in the afterlife. A variety of textual traditions evolved from the original Pyramid Texts: the Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom, the so-called "Book of the Dead", "Litany of Ra", and "Amduat" written on papyri from the New Kingdom until the end of ancient Egyptian civilization.  Poems were also written to celebrate kingship. For example, at the Precinct of Amun-Re at Karnak, Thutmose III (r. 1479–1425 BC) of the Eighteenth dynasty erected a stela

Private letters, model letters, and epistles.

The ancient Egyptian model letters and epistles are grouped into a single literary genre. Papyrus rolls sealed with mud stamps were used for long-distance letters, while ostraca were frequently used to write shorter, non-confidential letters sent to recipients located nearby. Letters of royal or official correspondence, originally written in hieratic, were sometimes given the exalted status of being inscribed on stone in hieroglyphs. The various texts written by schoolboys on wooden writing boards include model letters. Private letters could be used as epistolary model letters for schoolboys to copy, including letters written by their teachers or their families. However, these models were rarely featured in educational manuscripts; instead fictional letters found in numerous manuscripts were used. The common epistolary formula used in these model letters was "The official A. saith to the scribe B".  The oldest-known private letters on papyrus were found in a funerary temple dating to the reign of Djedkare-Izezi (r. 2414–2375 BC) of the Fifth dynasty. More letters are dated to the Sixth dynasty, when the epistle subgenre began. The educational text "Book of Kemit", dated to the Eleventh dynasty, contains a list of epistolary greetings

Biographical and autobiographical texts.

Catherine Parke, Professor Emerita of English and Women's Studies at the University of Missouri in Columbia, Missouri, writes that the earliest "commemorative inscriptions" belong to ancient Egypt and date to the 3rd millennium BC. She writes: "In ancient Egypt the formulaic accounts of Pharaoh's lives praised the continuity of dynastic power. Although typically written in the first person, these pronouncements are public, general testimonials, not personal utterances." She adds that as in these ancient inscriptions, the human urge to "...celebrate, commemorate, and immortalize, the impulse of life against death", is the aim of biographies written today.  Olivier Perdu, a professor of Egyptology at the Collège de France, states that biographies did not exist in ancient Egypt, and that commemorative writing should be considered autobiographical. Edward L. Greenstein, Professor of Bible at the Tel Aviv University and Bar-Ilan University, disagrees with Perdu's terminology, stating that the ancient world produced no "autobiographies" in the modern sense, and these should be distinguished from 'autobiographical' texts of the ancient world. However, both Perdu and Greenstein assert that autobiographies of the ancient Near East should not be equated with the modern concept

Decrees, chronicles, king lists, and histories.

Modern historians consider that some biographical—or autobiographical—texts are important historical documents. For example, the biographical stelas of military generals in tomb chapels built under Thutmose III provide much of the information known about the wars in Syria and Palestine. However, the annals of Thutmose III, carved into the walls of several monuments built during his reign, such as those at Karnak, also preserve information about these campaigns. The annals of Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 BC), recounting the Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites include, for the first time in Egyptian literature, a narrative epic poem, distinguished from all earlier poetry, which served to celebrate and instruct.

Tomb and temple graffiti.

Fischer-Elfert distinguishes ancient Egyptian graffiti writing as a literary genre. During the New Kingdom, scribes who traveled to ancient sites often left graffiti messages on the walls of sacred mortuary temples and pyramids, usually in commemoration of these structures. Modern scholars do not consider these scribes to have been mere tourists, but pilgrims visiting sacred sites where the extinct cult centers could be used for

Legacy, translation and interpretation.

After the Copts converted to Christianity in the first centuries AD, their Coptic Christian literature became separated from the pharaonic and Hellenistic literary traditions. Nevertheless, scholars speculate that ancient Egyptian literature, perhaps in oral form, influenced Greek and Arabic literature. Parallels are drawn between the Egyptian soldiers sneaking into Jaffa hidden in baskets to capture the city in the story "The Taking of Joppa" and the Mycenaean Greeks sneaking into Troy inside the Trojan Horse. The "Taking of Joppa" has also been compared to the Arabic story of Ali Baba in "One Thousand and One Nights". It has been conjectured that "Sinbad the Sailor" may have been inspired by the pharaonic "Tale of the shipwrecked sailor". Some Egyptian literature was commented on by scholars of the ancient world. For example, the Jewish Roman historian Josephus (37–"c". 100 AD) quoted and provided commentary on Manetho's historical texts.  The most recently carved hieroglyphic inscription of ancient Egypt known today is found in a temple of Philae, dated precisely to 394 AD during the reign of Theodosius I (r. 379–395 AD). In the 4th century AD, the Hellenized Egyptian Horapollo compiled a survey of almost two hundred Egyptian hieroglyphs and provided his interpretation of their meanings, although his understanding was limited and he was unaware of the phonetic uses of each hieroglyph. This survey was apparently lost until 1415, when the Italian Cristoforo Buondelmonti acquired it at the island of Andros. Athanasius Kircher (1601–1680) was the first in Europe to realize that Coptic was a direct linguistic descendant of ancient Egyptian. In his "Oedipus Aegyptiacus", he made the first concerted European effort to interpret the meaning of Egyptian hieroglyphs, albeit based on symbolic inferences.  It was not until 1799, with the Napoleonic discovery of a trilingual (i.e. hieroglyphic, Demotic, Greek) stela inscription on the Rosetta Stone, that modern scholars were able to decipher ancient Egyptian literature. The first major effort to translate the hieroglyphs of the Rosetta Stone was made by Jean-François Champollion (1790–1832) in 1822. The earliest translation efforts of Egyptian literature during the 19th century were attempts to confirm Biblical events.  Before the 1970s, scholarly consensus was that ancient Egyptian literature—although sharing similarities with modern literary categories—was not an independent discourse, uninfluenced by the ancient sociopolitical order. However, from the 1970s onwards, a growing number of historians and literary scholars have questioned this theory. While scholars before the 1970s treated ancient Egyptian literary works as viable historical sources that accurately reflected the conditions of this ancient society, scholars now caution against this approach. Scholars are increasingly using a multifaceted hermeneutic approach to the study of individual literary works, in which not only the style and content, but also the cultural, social and historical context of the work are taken into account. Individual works can then be used as case studies for reconstructing the main features of ancient Egyptian literary discourse.

Ancient Egyptian literature was written in the Egyptian language from ancient Egypt's pharaonic period until the end of Roman domination. It represents the oldest corpus of Egyptian literature. Along with Sumerian literature, it is considered the world's earliest literature.

古埃及文学,意为古埃及法老时代至罗马统治晚期间,以埃及语着成的文学。它是埃及文学中最古老的文献记载。同苏美文学,古埃及文学被认为是世上最早的文学。


History.

When ground was broken for the Wrigley Building in 1920, there were no major office buildings north of the Chicago River. The Michigan Avenue Bridge, which spans the river just south of the building, was still under construction. The land was selected by chewing gum magnate William Wrigley Jr. for the headquarters of his company. The building was designed by the architectural firm of Graham, Anderson, Probst & White using the shape of the Giralda tower of Seville's Cathedral combined with French Renaissance details. The south tower was completed in April 1921 and the north tower in May 1924. Walkways between the towers were added at the ground level and the third floor. In 1931, another walkway was added at the fourteenth floor to connect to offices of a bank in accordance with a Chicago statute concerning bank branch offices. The two towers, not including the levels below Michigan Avenue, have a combined area of.  The two towers are of differing heights, with the south tower rising to 30 stories and the north tower to 21 stories. On the south tower is a clock with faces pointing in all directions. Each face is in diameter. The building is clad in glazed terra-cotta, which provides its gleaming white façade. On occasion, the entire building is hand washed to preserve the terra cotta. At night, the building is brightly lit with floodlights.  The Wrigley Building was Chicago's first air-conditioned office building. If one walks through the center doors, they will find themselves in a secluded park area overlooking the Chicago River.  In the 1957 science fiction film "Beginning of the End", giant grasshoppers attack Downtown Chicago, and in one scene are shown climbing up the side of the Wrigley Building.  The Wrigley Building was sold in 2011 to a group of investors that includes Zeller Realty Group and Groupon co-founders Eric Lefkofsky and Brad Keywell. The new owners made the building more attractive to businesses by adding a Walgreens, a coffee shop, a fitness center and a nursing room for mothers.  In 2017, Lego Architecture did a skyline of Chicago and the Wrigley Building was one of buildings featured.

Tenants.

Addresses at 400 North Michigan Avenue:  Addresses at 410 North Michigan Avenue:

The Wrigley Building is a skyscraper located at 400–410 North Michigan Avenue on Chicago's Near North Side. It is located on the Magnificent Mile directly across Michigan Avenue from the Tribune Tower. It was built to house the corporate headquarters of the Wrigley Company.

箭牌大厦(Wrigley Building)是一座建于1920年代的摩天大楼,位于美国芝加哥近北区密歇根大街(华丽一英里)北400-410号,论坛报大厦的正对面,为箭牌公司总部所在地。


Writings.

Ronald Inglehart's numerous writings have become extremely influential, with translations published in German, Italian, Spanish, French, Swedish, Brazilian Portuguese, Russian, Polish, Croatian, Japanese, Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean, Persian, Urdu and Indonesian. Brief descriptions of some of his most influential works include:

"The Silent Revolution".

In "The Silent Revolution" (1977) Inglehart discovered a major intergenerational shift in the values of the populations of advanced industrial societies.

"Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society".

"Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society" (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990). Economic, technological, and sociopolitical changes have been transforming the cultures of advanced industrial societies in profoundly important ways during the past few decades. This ambitious work examines changes in religious beliefs, in motives for work, in the issues that give rise to political conflict, in the importance people attach to having children and families, and in attitudes toward divorce, abortion, and homosexuality. Ronald Inglehart's earlier book, The Silent Revolution (Princeton, 1977), broke new ground by discovering a major intergenerational shift in the values of the populations of advanced industrial societies. This new volume demonstrates that this value shift is part of a much broader process of cultural change that is gradually transforming political, economic, and social life in these societies. Inglehart uses a massive body of time-series survey data from twenty-six nations, gathered from 1970 through 1988, to analyze the cultural changes that are occurring as younger generations gradually replace older ones in the adult population. These changes have far-reaching political implications, and they seem to be transforming the economic growth rates of societies and the kind of economic development that is pursued.

"Modernization and Postmodernization".

In "Modernization and Postmodernization" (1997) Inglehart argued that economic development, cultural change, and political change go together in coherent and, to some extent, predictable patterns. Inglehart theorised that industrialization leads to related changes such as mass mobilization and diminishing differences in gender roles. Changes in worldviews seem to reflect changes in the economic and political environment, but take place with a generational time lag. Following industrialization, advanced industrial society leads to a basic shift in values, de-emphasizing instrumental rationality. Postmodern values then bring new societal changes, including democratic political institutions and the decline of state socialist regimes.

"Rising Tide".

Written with Pippa Norris, "Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Cultural Change Around the World" (New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003) examines how the twentieth century gave rise to profound changes in traditional sex roles. This study reveals how modernization has changed cultural attitudes towards gender equality and analyzes the political consequences. It systematically compares attitudes towards gender equality worldwide, comparing almost 70 nations, ranging from rich to poor, agrarian to postindustrial. This volume is essential reading to gain a better understanding of issues in comparative politics, public opinion, political behavior, development and sociology.

"Sacred and Secular".

Inglehart's 2004 book with Pippa Norris, "Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide" reexamines the secularization thesis. This book draws on a base of new evidence generated by four waves of the World Values Survey executed from 1981 to 2001 in eighty societies, covering most of the world’s major faiths. Examining religiosity from a broader perspective and in a wider range of countries than have been done before, this book argues that religiosity persists most strongly among vulnerable populations, especially those in poorer nations and in failed states, facing personal survival-threatening risks. Exposure to physical, societal and personal risks drives religiosity. Conversely, a systematic erosion of traditional religious practices, values and beliefs may have occurred among the more prosperous strata in rich nations. But at the same time, a growing proportion of the population—in both rich and poor countries—spends time thinking about the meaning and purpose of life. It is argued that in developed countries, the established churches are losing their ability to tell people how to live their lives, but spiritual concerns, broadly defined, may be becoming increasingly important.

"Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy".

Written with Christian Welzel, "Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy: The Human Development Sequence" (2005) demonstrates that people's basic values and beliefs are changing, in ways that affect their political, sexual, economic, and religious behavior. These changes are roughly predictable because they can be interpreted on the basis of a revised version of modernization theory presented here. Drawing on evidence from societies containing 85% of the world's population, the authors argue that modernization is a process of human development, in which economic development triggers cultural changes that make individual autonomy, gender equality, and democracy increasingly likely.

"Cosmopolitan Communications".

Written with Pippa Norris. In "Cosmopolitan Communications: Cultural Diversity in a Globalized World" (New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) he argues that societies around the world have experienced a flood of information from diverse channels originating beyond local communities and even national borders, transmitted through the rapid expansion of cosmopolitan communications. For more than half a century, conventional interpretations, Norris and Inglehart argue, have commonly exaggerated the potential threats arising from this process. A series of fire-walls protect national cultures. This book develops a new theoretical framework for understanding cosmopolitan communications and uses it to identify the conditions under which global communications are most likely to endanger cultural diversity. The authors analyze empirical evidence from both the societal level and the individual level, examining the outlook and beliefs of people in a wide range of societies. The study draws on evidence from the World Values Survey, covering 90 societies in all major regions worldwide from 1981 to 2007. The conclusion considers the implications of their findings for cultural policies.

"Cultural Evolution".

The book "Cultural Evolution: People's Motivations Are Changing, and Reshaping the World" (Cambridge University Press, 2018) updates the results and theories published in Inglehart's previous books, presenting the first full statement of Inglehart's Evolutionary Modernization theory, describing how social values and human priorities have evolved through history as a consequence of rising existential security. The book culminates with and explanation of the recent rise of xenophobic authoritatian populist parties, driven by rapid cultural change, large-scale immigration and the rapidly-rising economic inequality due to an inherent tendency for knowledge socieities to have winner-takes-all economies. In December 16, 2018, Fareed Zakaria chose Cultural Evolution as his book of the week, describing it as "really brilliant work. The presentation is based on longitudinal survey data from more than a hundred countries in the World Values Survey collected in six waves from 1981 to 2014. Evolutionary modernization theory holds that economic and physical insecurity elicits an authoritarian reflex leading to xenophobia, strong in-group solidarity, authoritarian politics and rigid adherence to traditional cultural norms. Modernization and economic development has led to a degree of security in many countries after World War II where people take survival for granted. This has led to decreasing authoritarianism and the rise of "Postmaterialist Values": egalitarian norms, secularization, tolerance of foreigners, gender equality, and tolerance of divorce, homosexuality, and abortion. The existential security and the egalitarian norms that develop under the feeling of security are necessary for democracy to develop. The freedom of choice in postmaterialist societies also leads to improved happiness. Inglehart now sees a backlash in terms of increasing authoritarianism, political populism, and erosion of democracy as a consequence of the decreasing economic security that follows the growing economic inequality.

"Trump and the Populist Authoritarian Parties: The Silent Revolution in Reverse. ".

The essay 'Trump and the populist authoritarian parties: the silent revolution in reverse' is a piece by co-written by Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris and explores the themes that led to the rise in Populist parties in the modern world. This is explored through various examples, such as Brexit, France's National Party and the rise of Trumpism in the Republican Party in the USA. Inglehart states that the economic gains of the last 3 decades have gone almost entirely to those at the top, whilst those lower down the ladder have instead dealt with declining real wages as well as cutting costs decreasing the security of their jobs. Inglehart and Norris also explain two questions that arise during their piece. First being what motivates people to support populist parties, and why has the votes for populist parties risen so high compared to three decades ago.

Awards and recognitions.

Inglehart has received the following honors:

Bibliography.

Inglehart has written more than 250 publications, including:

Ronald F. Inglehart (born September 5, 1934) is a political scientist and professor emeritus at the University of Michigan. He is director of the World Values Survey, a global network of social scientists who have carried out representative national surveys of the publics of over 100 societies on all six inhabited continents, containing 90 percent of the world's population. The first wave of surveys for this project was carried out in 1981 and the latest wave was completed in 2019. Since 2010 Inglehart has also been co-director of the Laboratory for Comparative Social Research at the National Research University - Higher School of Economics in Moscow and St Petersburg. This laboratory has carried out surveys in Russia and eight ex-Soviet countries and is training PhD-level students in quantitative cross-national research methods.

罗纳德·英格尔哈特(英语:Ronald Inglehart,1934年-9月5日),美国著名的政治学家,美国密歇根大学勒文施泰因政治学讲席教授,社会研究所研究员,俄罗斯高等经济学院(圣彼得堡)比较社会研究实验室指导人之一,美国艺术与科学院院士、美国社会和政治科学院院士,主要研究领域有比较政治,政治发展,政治哲学等。


Background.

The series followed a unit of the United States Army's 3rd Infantry Division on its first tour of duty in Iraq, and chronicled the war's effects on the soldiers' families in the United States. The Iraq sequences were filmed in the California desert, while the homefront scenes are shot in and around the Greater Los Angeles area.  The pilot was developed by Steven Bochco (who also created such acclaimed series as "NYPD Blue", "L.A. Law" and "Hill Street Blues"). Originally, the show was to be produced by UPN, who subsequently decided that the prospects for international sales were not good and withdrew from the project. However, the series was seen around the world on pay cable channels in about 100 territories, according to Reuters.  The title of the series echoes "Over There", George M. Cohan's 1917 song about U.S. soldiers serving abroad during World War I. The theme song used for the series is Chris Gerolmo's "Over There".  The show (Bochco's first for basic cable) was the first scripted television series set in a current, ongoing military action involving the United States. In another unusual move, the pilot episode was released on DVD on August 2, 2005, less than a week after the show's premiere.

Reception.

The show's critics complained that the show "bends over backward not to express any opinion whatsoever about the conflict." Also, given the show's subject matter, it is not surprising that some criticized it as one of the most graphically–violent television programs ever. Accordingly, the program was tagged with the television rating TV-MA for language and violence, and warning notices such as "VIEWER DISCRETION ADVISED." FX advertised the show as being "...TV's most controversial series."

Home media.

In an unusual move, the pilot episode of the series was released on DVD on August 2, 2005, less than a week after the series' premiere. The complete series was released on DVD in the United States and Canada on March 21, 2006.

Over There was an American action/drama/war television series co-created by Steven Bochco and Chris Gerolmo and produced by 20th Century Fox Television. It premiered in the United States on July 27, 2005 on FX and in Canada on September 6, 2005 on the History Television channel. The series was presented in widescreen format in the United States and the United Kingdom, and mastered in high definition.

那时那地(Over There)是一部由FX电视网制作的战争电视剧。该剧于2005年7月27日在美国播出,在加拿大历史频道播出的时间是2005年9月6日。在美国和英国播出的时候,该剧是以16:9比例的高清画质播出的。