Club career.

Early career.

Hoarau started his football career at JS Saint-Pierroise in his native Réunion. In 1995, Le Havre AC scouts considered him too "thin" and signed his then-teammate Florent Sinama Pongolle. After gaining the attention of then-Le Havre manager Jean-François Domergue, Hoarau signed his first professional contract at the age of 20 for Le Havre in January 2004. He made his league debut on 12 May 2004 against Châteauroux in a 1–2 loss, coming on as a substitute.  Despite being signed, Hoarau spent the majority of his career under Domergue playing in the reserves, often earning brief call-ups to the senior squad, then quickly being sent down. He registered his first career goal in just the second match of the 2004–05 season in a 2–1 victory over Amiens. Despite this, his play was heavily limited following the firing of Domergue and the appointment of temporary manager Philippe Hinschberger. During the following season under new manager Thierry Uvenard, his playing time increased—he appeared in 28 matches, scoring five goals. The next season, he only made five appearances for Le Havre before being sent on loan to Gueugnon, where he made 21 appearances and scored eight goals.

Ligue 2 star.

Under new manager Jean-Marc Nobilo, his fourth manager in four years, Hoarau was installed as the lead striker and flourished. Playing in all 38 league matches, he was top scorer with 28 goals and, at one point during the season, scored at least one goal in 12-straight matches. His performances led to the French media naming him the "Karim Benzema of Ligue 2", as Benzema was having a similar season in Ligue 1. His performances caught the eye of several Ligue 1 clubs, such as Auxerre, Marseille, and Paris Saint-Germain to name a few, as well as English clubs Arsenal, Blackburn Rovers and Chelsea, who likened the player to Peter Crouch. Eventually, it was announced in January 2008 that Hoarau had signed with Parisian club Paris Saint-Germain on a four-year deal after reportedly snubbing the club's primary rival, Marseille. PSG paid Le Havre fee of €500,000 and also allowed the player to finish the Ligue 2 season with his former club, whom he helped achieve promotion to Ligue 1.

Paris Saint-Germain.

Hoarau arrived in Paris following the Ligue 2 season with high expectations, as he was expected to replace club legend Pauleta and live up to comments made by former president Alain Cayzac, who referred to Hoarau as being the "signing of the century" for PSG.  He made his debut for the club in a 1–0 defeat at Monaco on 9 August 2008. After going scoreless the first week, Hoarau responded in the second week scoring his first goal for the club on his home debut in a 1–0 victory over Bordeaux. His breakthrough into the team came in the annual "Classique" against rivals Marseille on 26 October 2008. In a huge 4–2 victory for the club, Hoarau scored a brace. He followed this up by scoring another brace, this time against his former club Le Havre in a 3–1 victory. His next set of goals were against Le Mans, earning another brace in another 3–1 victory. Hoarau also continued his solid form on the European stage scoring a brace in the club's first leg match against VfL Wolfsburg on 18 February 2009 in the 2008–09 UEFA Cup. In total for the season, Hoarau made 45 appearances, 32 in league play, and scored 20 goals, 17 in league play, contributing to the club's successful season where they reached as high as the second position in the league and made it to the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup.  Due to his great performances, Hoarau was linked to several clubs, most notably Lyon, who offered €10 million for the player's services. Both Hoarau and PSG, however, downplayed the offer and, two days later, Hoarau signed a contract extension until 2013.  Following his successful first season in Paris, Hoarau struggled to reproduce the same kind of form. The arrival of new striker Mevlüt Erdinç failed to ignite a successful partnership, with both players often injured and profligate in front of goal whenever they managed to play. Since the signing of new striker Kevin Gameiro in the summer of 2011, both Hoarau and Erdinç were relegated to the substitutes' bench, and the former suffered a serious injury on the very first day of the 2011–12 season. Hoarau was linked with a loan move to Saint-Étienne. On the last day of the 2011–12 season, with Montpellier and PSG both chasing the Ligue 1 title, Hoarau suffered an injury in a match against Lorient, with Montpeillier going on to win their first league title.  In the 2012–13 season, Hoarau featured less for the club and was placed on the transfer list despite being out of contract at the end of the season.  Upon his departure to Dalin Aerbin, Hoarau appeared at Parc des Princes, where he made a farewell speech and was left emotional, saying, "Nothing has changed. I'm a little excited. I have a small tear in the eye."

Dalian Aerbin.

On 9 January 2013, Hoarau signed with Chinese Super League side Dalian Aerbin. On the same day, he was presented by the club. His move to China received objection by commentator Jean-Michel Larqué.  Hoarau made his debut in the opening game of the season, coming on as a substitute in the 69th minutes for Zhou Tong, in a 1–0 loss against Shandong Luneng. Hoarau scored his first goal three weeks later, on 30 March 2013, in a 3–3 draw against newly promoted Shanghai East Asia. Two weeks later, on 14 April 2013, Hoarau scored again in a 2–1 loss against reigning league champion Guangzhou Evergrande. Hoarau later struggled to score despite having earned himself as first team regular. His lack of scoring lead the club recruit Nabil Baha as their new striker, with the club considering selling Hoarau during the summer transfer window. Eventually, Hoarau would stay at the club for the season and would help the club finish in fifth in the league table.  Upon the conclusion of the 2013 season, Chinese media Sina Sports reported that Hoarau was among several foreign players to leave Dalian Aerbin. Four days later, the club confirmed the departure of Hoarau, who would return to France.

Bordeaux.

After one season in China, Hoarau returned to France by joining Ligue 1 side Bordeaux until the end of the 2013–14 season. Prior to the move, Hoarau was also linked with Marseille. The move to Marseille did not transpire, as Hoarau preferred moving elsewhere.

Young Boys.

In the summer of 2014, Hoarau left Bordeaux and joined Swiss side BSC Young Boys.  He was part of the Young Boys squad that won the 2017–18 Swiss Super League, their first league title in 32 years.  In the play-off round of the Champions League campaign the following season, Hoarau scored goals in both legs against Dinamo Zagreb, which took Young Boys to the group stages for the first time ever. He scored twice more in the final group game on 12 December, a surprise 2–1 defeat of Italian giants Juventus. Despite the victory, Young Boys still finished bottom of the group on four points.

International career.

On 23 March 2009, Hoarau was called up to the French national team to replace the injured Nicolas Anelka on the squad.

Personal life.

In addition to football, Hoarau has a strong passion for making music and has sung live on French TV.

Honours.

Le Havre  Paris Saint-Germain  Young Boys  Individual

Guillaume Hoarau (born 5 March 1984) is a French professional footballer who plays for Young Boys in the Swiss Super League and formerly for the France national football team as a striker.

纪尧姆·瓦罗(,1984年-8月15日)是一名法国足球运动员,现在效力于瑞士超球队年青人,司职前锋。


Background.

The Italians colonised Eritrea in 1890. In 1936, Italy invaded Ethiopia and declared it part of their colonial empire, which they called Italian East Africa. Italian Somaliland was also part of that entity. There was a unified Italian administration.  Conquered by the Allies in 1941, Italian East Africa was sub-divided. Ethiopia reoccupied its formerly Italian occupied lands in 1941. Italian Somaliland remained under Italian rule until 1960 but as a United Nations protectorate, not a colony, when it united with independence in 1960, to form the independent state of Somalia.  Eritrea was made a British Protectorate from the end of World War II until 1951. However, there was debate as to what should happen with Eritrea after the British left. The British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines with the Christians to Ethiopia and the Muslims to Sudan. This, however, caused great controversy. Then, in 1952, the UN decided to federate Eritrea to Ethiopia, hoping to reconcile Ethiopian claims of sovereignty and Eritrean aspirations for independence. About nine years later, Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie dissolved the federation and annexed Eritrea, triggering a thirty-year armed struggle in Eritrea.

Revolution.

During the 1960s, the Eritrean independence struggle was led by the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). The independence struggle can properly be understood as the resistance to the annexation of Eritrea by Ethiopia long after the Italians left the territory. Additionally, one may consider the actions of the Ethiopian Monarchy against Muslims in the Eritrean government as a contributing factor to the revolution. At first, this group factionalized the liberation movement along ethnic and geographic lines. The initial four zonal commands of the ELF were all lowland areas and primarily Muslim. Few Christians joined the organization in the beginning, fearing Muslim domination.  After growing disenfranchisement with Ethiopian occupation, highland Christians began joining the ELF. Typically these Christians were part of the upper class or university-educated. This growing influx of Christian volunteers prompted the opening of the fifth (highland Christian) command. Internal struggles within the ELF command coupled with sectarian violence among the various zonal groups splintered the organization.  The war started on 1 September 1961 with the Battle of Adal, when Hamid Idris Awate and his companions fired the first shots against the occupying Ethiopian Army and police. In 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia unilaterally dissolved the federation and the Eritrean parliament and annexed the country.

War (1961–1991).

In 1970 members of the group had a falling out, and several different groups broke away from the ELF. During this time, the ELF and the groups that later joined together to form the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) fought a bitter civil war. The two organizations were forced by popular will to reconcile in 1974 and participated in joint operations against Ethiopia.  In 1974, Emperor Haile Selassie was ousted in a coup. The new Ethiopian government, called the Derg, was a Marxist military junta, which eventually came to be controlled by strongman Mengistu Haile Mariam. The new Derg regime took an additional three to four years to get complete control of both Ethiopia, Eritrea, and parts of Somalia. With this change of government and eventually widely known recognition, Ethiopia became directly under the influence of the Soviet Union.  Many of the groups that splintered from the ELF joined together in 1977 and formed the EPLF. By the late 1970s, the EPLF had become the dominant armed Eritrean group fighting against the Ethiopian government. The leader of the umbrella organization was Secretary-General of the EPLF Ramadan Mohammed Nour, while the Assistant Secretary-General was Isaias Afewerki. Much of the equipment used to combat Ethiopia was captured from the Ethiopian Army.  During this time, the Derg could not control the population by force alone. To supplement its garrisons, forces were sent on missions to instill fear in the population. An illustrative example of this policy was the village of Basik Dera in northern Eritrea. On 17 November 1970, the entire village was rounded up into the local mosque and the mosque's doors were locked. The building was then razed and the survivors were shot. Similar massacres took place in primarily Muslim parts of Eritrea, including the villages of She'eb, Hirgigo, Elabared, and the town of Om Hajer; massacres also took place in predominately Christian areas as well. The advent of these brutal killings of civilians regardless of race, religion, or class was the final straw for many Eritreans who were not involved in the war, and at this point many either fled the country or went to the front lines. From 1975 to 1977, the ELF and EPLF outnumbered the Ethiopian army and overran all of Eritrea except Asmara, Massawa, and Barentu. By 1977, the EPLF was poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea, by utilizing a simultaneous military offensive from the east by Somalia to siphon off Ethiopian military resources. The Somali invasion surprised many experts in the west due to the initial successes, however the Soviet Union, Cuba and Yemen came to the government's aid allowing them to prevent the Somalis from coming to the capital. This turnaround was possible thanks mainly to a massive airlift of Soviet arms, the deployment of 18,000 Cubans and two Yemeni brigades to reinforce Harar. After that, using the considerable manpower and military hardware available from the Somali campaign, the Ethiopian Army regained the initiative and forced the EPLF to retreat to the bush. This was most notable in the Battle of Barentu and the Battle of Massawa.  Between 1978 and 1986, the Derg launched eight major offensives against the independence movements, and all failed to crush the guerrilla movement. In 1988, with the Battle of Afabet, the EPLF captured Afabet and its surroundings, then headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around Keren, Eritrea's second-largest city. Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia.  Throughout the conflict Ethiopia used "anti-personnel gas", napalm, and other incendiary devices.  At the end of the 1980s, the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not be renewing its defence and cooperation agreement. With the cessation of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF, along with other Ethiopian rebel forces, began to advance on Ethiopian positions. The joint effort to overthrow the Mengistu, Marxist regime was a joint effort of mostly EPLF forces, united with other Ethiopian faction groups primarily consisting of tribal liberation fronts (for example: the Oromo Liberation Front, the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front – who were jointly in battles against the ELF and other key battles where many Tigrayans were lost in the Eritrean Civil Wars – and the EPRDF, a conglomerate of the current TPLF regime and the marxist Oromo People's Democratic Organization who became prominent for recruiting Derg defectors as the EPLF and EPRDF occupied parts of the provinces of Wollo and Shewa in Ethiopia).

Peace talks.

The former President of the United States, Jimmy Carter, with the help of some U.S. government officials and United Nation officials, attempted to mediate in peace talks with the EPLF, hosted by the Carter Presidential Center in Atlanta, Georgia in September 1989. Ashagre Yigletu, Deputy Prime Minister of the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE), helped negotiate and signed a November 1989 peace deal with the EPLF in Nairobi, along with Jimmy Carter and Al-Amin Mohamed Seid. However, soon after the deal was signed, hostilities resumed. Yigletu also led the Ethiopian government delegations in peace talks with the TPLF leader Meles Zenawi in November 1989 and March 1990 in Rome. He also attempted again to lead the Ethiopian delegation in peace talks with the EPLF in Washington, D.C. until March 1991.

Recognition.

After the end of the Cold War, the United States played a facilitative role in the peace talks in Washington, D.C. during the months leading up to the May 1991 fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian government and went into exile in Zimbabwe, leaving a caretaker government in Addis Ababa. A high-level U.S. delegation was present in Addis Ababa for the 1–5 July 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, the EPLF attended as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia. The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence. The referendum was held in April 1993 and the Eritrean people voted almost unanimously in favour of independence, with the integrity of the referendum being verified by the UN Observer Mission to Verify the Referendum in Eritrea (UNOVER). On 28 May 1993, the United Nations formally admitted Eritrea to its membership. Below are the results from the referendum:

The Eritrean War of Independence was a conflict fought between the Ethiopian government and Eritrean separatists from September 1961 to May 1991.

厄立特里亚独立战争指的是1961年至1991年期间厄立特里亚为脱离埃塞俄比亚而发起的独立战争。这场战争在埃塞俄比亚内战之前就已爆发,在内战之中仍然在继续。埃塞俄比亚内战结束后不久,厄立特里亚自治政府在联合国的主持下发起公投,正式脱离埃塞俄比亚独立建国。


弗谢沃洛德·阿尼西莫维奇·柯切托夫

Biography.

Kochetov was born into a peasant family, the youngest of eight children, all but three of whom died of hunger or illness during the First World War. His impoverished parents were unable to care for him, and he left home in 1927, moving from Novgorod to Leningrad, where he graduated in 1931 from a technical school and worked thereafter as an agronomist, then as director of a Machine Tractor Station and of a state farm. In 1938 he became a reporter for the newspaper "Leningradskaya Pravda". During the Second World War, Kochetov worked as a reporter for various newspapers at the Leningrad Front.  From 1946, he devoted himself to literary activities. ("On the Plains of the Neva" (), described recollections of the war. His writings were characterized from the start with rigorous following of the political line. In 1952 he published the novel "The Zhurbin Family" (), which portrays the life of a worker dynasty. It was adapted as the film "A Big Family". The book was re-published numerous times and translated into a number of languages.  His next novel, "The Brothers Yershov", was composed as a sort of counterpoint to Vladimir Dudintsev’s "Not by Bread Alone", but was criticized even in Pravda for exaggerations. His last important work was the novel "What Do You Want Then?" ().  As a pro-Soviet figure, Kochetov worked for numerous years as a cultural functionary and maintained a militant communist attitude, always wary of liberal or pro-Western influences. For example, when Ilya Ehrenburg's memoirs were published, Kochetov complained of certain writers "burrowing in the rubbish heaps of their crackpot memories."  As a bureaucrat, on the other hand, he managed to help his colleagues in need, including those he strongly disagreed with. Kochetov was awarded a number of awards (Order of Lenin etc.). From 1955 to 1959 he was the editor in chief of "Literaturnaya Gazeta", from 1961 editor in chief of the "Oktyabr" magazine, which was in effect the conservative counterpart to Tvardovsky's "Novyy Mir", a more liberal journal that published texts of dissident authors like Solzhenitsyn.  In the novel "What Do You Want Then?", Kochetov treats mercilessly phenomena that he had always opposed and criticized. The novel has been compared with a pamphlet. The author rejects the values of the Western world, criticizes ‘bourgeois propaganda‘, the alleged lack of vigilance among the Soviet people, that enables the class enemies and Western "imperialists" to further their goal of undermining socialism. The plot includes a number of disguised Western agents, including а former SS man, who have been sent to the USSR to pursue subversive activities and "corrupt" the Soviet youth. The novel was not well received by Pravda and was never again published in Russia. Twenty Soviet intellectuals signed a letter of protest against the publication of such an "obscurantist" work. Kochetov intended the novel as a Soviet version of "The Possessed".  A number of parodies of the novel were written by Russian intellectuals and circulated in samizdat), e.g. ("Why Are You Laughing Then?"), which alludes to the novel "The Brothers Yershov" (in that text referred to as "The Brothers Yezhov").  Kochetov apparently committed suicide in 1973, as pains caused by cancer became intolerable. It is sometimes noted that his stoic, manly decision actually reconciled him with some of his opponents of his lifetime.  Patricia Blake wrote of her 1962 interview with him: In appearance, Kochetov is anything but the rough-and-ready proletarian his novels evoke. Except for his unpleasantly thin lips, he is a handsome man with fine features and a slim figure. He was impeccably dressed in a business-like dark suit, white shirt, and striped tie....  Kochetov was eager to talk but evidently wished to say nothing. Never before had I met a man so composed in the face of disagreeable questions, and so adroit at parrying them.... Here, clearly was a profoundly embittered man. When he spoke about his early life I began to sense the private passions engaged in his battle against the new intelligentsia.... Kochetov made it the hard way, and his novels are paeans to the proletariat, to men of his own experience. What can such a man feel about the young writers who have recently risen to fame by way of no harder school than the Gorky Literary Institute? I put it to him, and he replied: 'This one writes rubbish... that one has no ideas... he is also a fraud... not worth speaking about.'...  We shook hands in the corridor, and he put his hand on my shoulder and said, 'You see, I'm not quite so bad as you imagined, am I? Please tell your readers that I don't eat people, that I don't swallow babies in one gulp!'

Vsevolod Anissimovich Kochetov () (, Novgorod, Russian Empire - 4 November 1973, Moscow) was a Soviet Russian writer and cultural functionary. He has been described as a party dogmatist and as a classic of socialist realism. Some of his writings were not well received by the official press, as Kochetov was considered too "reactionary" even by Soviet standards of the 1960s.

弗谢沃罗德·阿尼西莫维奇·柯切托夫(,1912年-2月4日-1973年-11月4日),苏联作家。


Meteorological history.

Tropical Storm Agatha originated from an area of convection, or thunderstorms, that developed on May 24, off the west coast on Costa Ricaam. At the time, there was a trough in the region that extended into the southwestern Caribbean Sea, associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The system drifted northwestward, and conditions favored further development. On May 25, the convection became more concentrated, and the National Hurricane Center (NHC) noted the potential for a tropical depression to develop. The next day, it briefly became disorganized, as its circulation was broad and elongated; however, the disturbance was in a very moist environment, and multiple low level centers gradually organized into one. The low continued to get better organized; however, there was a lack of a well-defined circulation. On May 29, after further organization of the circulation and convection, the NHC initiated advisories on "Tropical Depression One-E" while the system was located about 295 miles (475 km) west of San Salvador, El Salvador.  Upon becoming a tropical cyclone, the system was located in an environment with little wind shear and waters of 30 °C (86 °F). As such, it was expected to strengthen, although the mountainous terrain of the Central American coastline limited significant intensification. The depression moved slowly northeastward around the western periphery of a ridge located over northern South America. Several hours later, satellites monitoring the system discovered tropical storm-force winds, prompting the NHC to upgrade the depression to Tropical Storm Agatha. Around this time, it was noted that there was a 40% chance of the system undergoing rapid intensification within the following 24 hours as the only limiting factor was its proximity to land. However, the storm failed to intensify much, peaking in intensity with winds of 45 mph (75 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 1001 mbar (hPa; 29.56 inHg). Within two hours of reaching this strength, Agatha abruptly relocated northward and made landfall at 22:30 UTC near Champerico, Guatemala. After landfall, Agatha continued to cause floods and landslides, however it did not bring a lot of tropical storm force winds on shore. The system weakened quickly after coming on shore, dropping its winds to (20 knots, and its pressure to (hPa; ) before dissipating. A burst of convection re-emerged east of Belize, in the Atlantic basin, on May 31. On June 1, the National Hurricane Center stated that the remnants of Tropical Storm Agatha had only a low chance of regeneration in the western Caribbean Sea.

Preparations.

Upon the formation of Tropical Depression One-E on May 29, the Government of Guatemala declared a tropical storm warning for the entire Pacific coastline. Due to the system's proximity to land, tropical storm force winds were expected to reach the coast by the evening hours, making outdoor preparations difficult. Additionally, the depression's slow movement was expected to lead to enormous rainfall totals, exceeding in some areas. This rain was expected to produce large-scale, life-threatening flash flooding and landslides across Guatemala, El Salvador and southeastern Mexico. Once the system intensified into Tropical Storm Agatha, the National Hurricane Center expected areas to the south and east of the landfall location to experience storm surge along with destructive waves. By the late morning of May 29, Guatemalan officials placed all hospitals on high alert and declared a state of calamity. President Álvaro Colom also began to use some of the $85 million allocated as emergency funds by the World Bank. After the storm moved over land and weakened to a tropical depression, the tropical storm warnings along the coast were discontinued.  Throughout El Salvador and Nicaragua, emergency officials evacuated about 2,000 residents due to the threat of flash flooding. In response to the approaching storm, a yellow alert was declared for all of El Salvador and it was estimated that roughly 89% of the country was at risk from flooding. Roughly 52,000 police, emergency rescue personnel and soldiers were placed on standby by the Dirección General de Protección Civil.

Impact.

Nicaragua.

Prior to becoming a tropical depression, the system produced torrential rainfall in Nicaragua, resulting in the death of one person after she was swept away by a swollen river. Many homes and bridges were destroyed across the country. In Estelí Department, the Nicaraguan Air Force had to rescue 24 people trapped in their homes.

Guatemala.

Two days before landfall, on May 27 the Pacaya volcano, roughly south of Guatemala City, erupted, killing one person and forcing over 2,000 people to evacuate, and causing the temporary closing of the main international airport. Excessive rainfall from Agatha in the region could exacerbate the situation and trigger lahars. However, people working in coffee fields considered the rain brought by the storm to be helpful, removing ash from their trees. According to meteorologists in Guatemala, at least of rain had fallen by the evening of May 29. Several landslides blocked roadways across southern areas of the country, hindering traffic. Following the storm, a three-story building was swallowed by a 30-meter (100-ft) diameter sinkhole caused by Agatha's rainfall. A mudslide coming down the Agua volcano left 9 deaths and 12 disappeared in the town of San Miguel Escobar. In the town of Almolonga, department of Quetzaltenango, a mudslide triggered by the storm killed four people after destroying their home, and in total twelve people were killed in Guatemala, while another landslide left 11 people missing. Officials in the country declared a state of emergency during the afternoon of May 29 as conditions worsened. Many rivers in the country were already swollen and close to over-topping their banks. Many other homes were destroyed in widespread floods and dozens of emergency rescues had to be made.  By the afternoon of May 30, reports from the region stated that 15 people had been killed and 22 others were missing throughout Guatemala. Preliminary damage assessments showed that at least 3,500 homes were damaged. A total of 112,000 people were evacuated. Additionally, at least 20,000 people have been left homeless as a result of the storm. Some areas recorded the heaviest rainfall in over 60 years, measuring more than. This also ranks Agatha as the wettest known tropical cyclone to ever strike the country, surpassing Hurricane Mitch. By the next day, the death toll had risen to 92, with another 95 people injured.  In Guatemala City, a sinkhole 30 stories deep collapsed, killing 15 people and placing a further 300 residents in danger. A three-story house and telephone poles were also swallowed, along with a security guard. The sinkhole was formed due to sewage pipes leaking, and flooding from Agatha only exacerbated the problem.

Mexico.

Throughout southern Mexico, Agatha produced strong winds and heavy rain, as well as high waves, estimated between high. At least 120 families were evacuated from southeastern Chiapas, near where the storm made landfall. A yellow alert was also declared for the state as significant flooding was anticipated.

Honduras.

After moving inland over Guatemala and Mexico, torrential rains from the remnants of Agatha triggered flash flooding and landslides in parts of Honduras. At least 45 homes have been destroyed and one person was killed in the country. On May 31, the presidents of both El Salvador and Honduras declared a state of emergency for their respective countries.

El Salvador.

In El Salvador, widespread flooding took place as heavy rains fell across the country. Throughout San Salvador and five other cities threatened by flooding, emergency officials urged residents to evacuate to shelters. A total of 140 landslides occurred. The highest known rainfall total in the country was 400 mm (15.7 in); however, further rains have fallen since this total was reported. A total of six people were killed in the country. At least two other people are reported missing in the country. By May 30, President Mauricio Funes declared a country-wide state of emergency due to the widespread damage caused by Agatha. According to the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, a total of 12 people were killed by Agatha throughout El Salvador and roughly 120,000 individuals were affected across 116 municipalities. At one point, more than 15,000 people were housed in emergency shelters; however, by June 9, this number decreased to just 712. A total of of farmland was flooded by the storm, leaving $6 million in losses. Unlike Guatemala which suffered extreme damage in its educational sector, most schools in El Salvador were functional after the storm's passage. Of the 378 schools affected, 63 sustained severe damage. Overall, Agatha wrought $31.1 million in damage across El Salvador.

Aftermath.

Immediately following reports of fatalities in Guatemala, a state of emergency was declared for the entire country. Later on, President Álvaro Colom stated that, "We believe Agatha could wreak more damage in the country than Hurricane Mitch and Hurricane Stan". These storms were two of the most devastating tropical cyclones to impact the country, killing 384 and 1,513 people respectively. On May 31, national aid started to be deployed by the government and donation centers for victims of the storm were opened across the country. According to the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), schools in Guatemala were to be closed until at least June 4. However, due to the large number of severely damaged or destroyed schools, few buildings can actually allow for classes to take place and 144 of the schools that are intact are being used as shelters.  By June 1, the Government of Guatemala sent an appeal to the United Nations for roughly $100 million in international assistance to deal with damage wrought by Agatha. On June 14, President Colom stated that it would take at least five years to recover from Tropical Storm Agatha due to the widespread nature of the catastrophe. To obtain the necessary resources to recover from the storm, Colom implemented a substantial tax increase. His goal was to increase the revenue from taxes in the country to 9.8% of the gross domestic product.  Throughout the country, roughly 392,600 people were left in need of humanitarian assistance in the wake of Agatha. Most of these people live in rural areas which became isolated from surrounding areas after flood waters washed out roads and destroyed bridges.

International assistance.

As Agatha dissipated over Guatemala, the Government of Mexico expressed their sincere condolences to the two countries and offered to provide the necessary support for them to recover. During the afternoon of May 30, as the true scale of the disaster became apparent, Álvaro Colom requested international assistance. However, due to the eruption of Pacaya, the country's international airport was closed and would remain so for at least another week. In an agreement with the president of El Salvador, it was decided that aid would be flown into El Salvador and transported by ground to Guatemala. However, later reports revealed that two of the four land crossings between the countries were closed off due to flooding and landslides. On May 31, Colombia and the United States offered their assistance by sending aid or helping evacuate residents. By the late morning, six United States military aircraft were en route to Honduras. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Taiwan also stated that they would provide aid to Guatemala if necessary.  The Government of France also passed on their condolences to the countries suffering from the disaster and pledged to send emergency humanitarian aid to the region. This was eventually followed up by June 14 when the French embassy in Guatemala provided $50,000 in relief supplies. The initial response from the World Food Programme was to allocate $500,000 to feed 10,000 over a period of 15 days. Other United Nations departments provided much assistance to Guatemala within two days of Agatha's landfall. UNICEF donated roughly $50,000 to support water and sanitation; UNDP allocated $50,000 for assessments and early recovery; the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation for Development provided roughly $185,000 in general humanitarian aid; and the IFRC and UNFPA planned donate $50,000 each. The United States provided immediate funds of GTQ 900,000 (US$112,000); USAID also planned to deploy relief teams with food and emergency supplies to bring to those affected by the storm. Additionally, several helicopters from the United States Southern Command were to be deployed in the region.  By June 1, the European Union had sent $3.7 million in aid to Guatemala as well as Honduras and El Salvador. The Save the Children organization began distributing hygiene kits and other relief supplies on June 4. Over the following weeks, they planned to provide 46 metric tons of supplies.  Extensive losses of the country's food supply left tens of thousands of residents without sustenance, leading to fears of widespread hunger in the nation. In attempts to lessen the severity of the hunger outbreak, the WFP set up over 200 shelters across the country and was estimated to be serving 50,000 people a day by June 9. On June 11, the United Nations made an appeal to supply Guatemala with $14.5 million to aid survivors of the storm. This appeal followed a $34 million request for the country prior to the storm for malnutrition incidents. By June 14, the Government of Japan had provided roughly $220,000 worth of equipment and building materials. Around the same time, ACT Development announced that it planned to assist roughly 2,000 families with all basic life necessities for a month. To start this operation, a preliminary appeal was made to the United Nations for $881,000; a second, full appeal was planned to be published on June 20.

Tropical Storm Agatha was a weak but catastrophic tropical cyclone that brought widespread floods to much of Central America, and was the deadliest tropical cyclone in the eastern Pacific since Hurricane Pauline in 1997. The first storm of the 2010 Pacific hurricane season, Agatha originated from the Intertropical Convergence Zone, a region of thunderstorms across the tropics. It developed into a tropical depression on May 29 and tropical storm later, it was dissipated on May 30, reaching top winds of 45 mph ( and a lowest pressure of 1000 mbar (hPa; 29.53 inHg). It made landfall near the Guatemala–Mexico border on the evening of May 29. Agatha produced torrential rain all across Central America, which resulted in the death of one person in Nicaragua. In Guatemala, 152 people were killed and 100 left missing by landslides. Thirteen deaths also occurred in El Salvador. Agatha soon dissipated over Guatemala. As of June 15, officials in Guatemala have stated that 165 people were killed and 113 others are missing.

热带风暴阿加莎(英语:Tropical Storm Agatha)是1997年的飓风宝莲过后最致命的东太平洋热带气旋,虽然强度不高,但却在中美洲大面积地区引发洪灾,造成灾难性破坏。气旋源自热带辐合带,是2010年太平洋飓风季的首场风暴。5月29日,气旋发展成热带低气压,不久后又升级成热带风暴并获名“阿加莎”,达到持续风速每小时75公里,最低气压1000毫巴(百帕,29.53英寸汞柱)的最高强度后于当天夜间在危地马拉和墨西哥边境附近登陆,最终于5月30日消散。


Early life and education.

She was born "Mom Chao" Busyanambejra Mahidol (; ; ), but later changed to "Mom Chao" Chakkrityapha Mahidol (), and once again to "Mom Chao" Sirivanvari Mahidol () upon order of Queen Sirikit. She has four full siblings. Following her parents' divorce, her mother moved with her siblings to the United Kingdom, where her father ordered her abduction and return to Thailand.  She graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Chulalongkorn University and a master in design from École de la chambre syndicale de la couture parisienne. She was elevated to Princess status by royal command of her grandfather, King Bhumibol Adulyadej, on 15 June 2005.

Personal life.

Princess Sirivannavari represented Thailand in badminton in 2005 at 23rd South East Asian Games in the Philippines, winning a team gold. In this, she follows in the footsteps of her grandfather, King Bhumibol Adulyadej, who represented his country in international sailing events. A badminton tournament that made its debut in 2016, the Thailand Masters, was named as the Princess Sirivannavari Thailand Masters.  In 2007, she was invited by Pierre Balmain, the French couturier, to present her fashion show in Paris. Her debut Paris collection was titled Presence of the Past, which drew on memories of her royal grandmother as well as giving a modern interpretation to traditional Thai costume. The following year, she presented her own fashion show in Paris. She designed a dress worn by the Thai entrant in the Miss Universe Thailand 2018 pageant. YouTube personality Wanchaleom Jamneanphol was subsequently threatened with prosecution under Thailand's lèse-majesté laws, after describing the dress as ugly.  Sirivannavari began riding horses at age nine. She trained in France at the International Moniteur d'Equitation, Le Cadre Noir de Saumur. She competed as a member of the Thai equestrian sports team in the 2013 and 2017 Southeast Asian Games.  In 2008, she was included as 16th on the list of the "20 Hottest Young Royals", compiled by "Forbes".

Princess Sirivannavari Nariratana Rajakanya (; ; ; born 8 January 1987) is a Princess of the Kingdom of Thailand and is the only daughter of King Vajiralongkorn and his former consort Sujarinee Vivacharawongse (commonly known as Yuvadhida Polpraserth) in the line of succession and to bear royal titles. She has produced works as a fashion designer, and competed in sports as an equestrian and former badminton player. The princess is considered as one of the royal family members who are active in social work.

希里万纳瓦瑞公主殿下(,Sirivannavari Nariratana,1987年-1月8日),泰国公主,泰国国王拉玛十世和余娃希达·丰拉索所生之唯一女儿,其热衷于时装设计,现任泰国女性时装设计师。


Timeline.

Targeted shootings.

In the early hours of 2 June, Bird left his home in Rowrah, drove his Citroën Xsara Picasso to his twin brother David's home in Lamplugh, and shot him eleven times in the head and body with a.22 calibre rifle, killing him.  He then went to Frizington, arriving at the home of the family solicitor, Kevin Commons, whom Bird prevented from driving away by firing twice with a double-barreled shotgun, hitting Commons once in the shoulder. Commons staggered out of his car and onto the entrance to his farmyard, where Bird killed him with two rifle shots to the head. At 10:20 BST, the police were telephoned. Bird then moved on towards Whitehaven. A witness called the Cumbria Constabulary to report the Commons shooting, although her call was delayed by several minutes after she asked neighbours what she should do. She also erroneously described Bird as being armed with an air rifle despite being able to hear the gunshots.  After killing Commons, Bird went to a friend's residence to retrieve a shotgun he had loaned, although he was answered by the friend's wife, who didn't have access to it. Afterwards, at 10:33, Bird drove to a taxi rank on Duke Street, Whitehaven. There, he called over Darren Rewcastle, another taxi driver who was previously known to Bird; Bird had conflicts with Rewcastle over his behaviour, his practice of poaching fares, and an incident wherein Rewcastle damaged the tyres on Bird's taxi and openly boasted about it. When Rewcastle approached Bird's taxi, Bird shot him twice at point-blank range with the rifle, hitting him in the lower face, chest, and abdomen. Rewcastle died of his injuries, becoming the only person to die in Whitehaven due to these attacks.  Soon after killing Rewcastle, Bird drove alongside another taxi driver, Donald Reid, and shot him in the back, wounding him. Bird then made a loop back to the taxi rank and fired twice at Reid as he waited for emergency personnel, missing him. Next, Bird drove away from the taxi rank, stopped alongside another taxi driver named Paul Wilson as he walked down Scotch Street, and called him over to his vehicle as he did with Rewcastle; when Wilson answered his call, Bird shot him in the right side of his face with the shotgun, severely wounding him. As a result of the shootings, unarmed officers at the local police station were informed and began following Bird's taxi as it drove onto Coach Road. There, Bird fired his shotgun at a passing taxi, injuring the male driver, Terry Kennedy, and the female passenger, Emma Percival. Bird was then able to flee the officers after he aimed his shotgun at two of them, forcing them to take cover. However, he did not fire; he instead took advantage of the unarmed officers' distraction to escape.

Random shootings.

In the wake of the Whitehaven shootings, residents there and in the neighbouring towns of Egremont and Seascale were urged to stay indoors. A massive manhunt for Bird was launched by the Cumbria Constabulary, which was assisted by Civil Nuclear Constabulary officers. Bird proceeded to drive through several local towns, firing apparently at random, and calling a majority of the victims over to his taxi before shooting them.  Near Egremont, Bird tried to shoot Jacqueline Williamson as she walked her dog, but she managed to escape without injury. Upon arriving in Egremont, he stopped alongside Susan Hughes as she walked home from shopping, and shot her in the chest and abdomen with the shotgun. He then got out of his taxi and got into a struggle with her before fatally shooting her in the back of the head with his rifle. Then, after driving a short distance onto Bridge End, Bird fired the shotgun at Kenneth Fishburn as he walked in the opposite direction; Fishburn suffered fatal wounds to the head and chest. This was followed by the shooting of Leslie Hunter, who was called over to Bird's taxi before being shot in the face at close range with the shotgun, then a second time in the back after he turned away to protect himself. Hunter survived his injuries.  Bird then went south towards Thornhill, where he fired his shotgun at Ashley Glaister, a teenage girl; however, he missed her. He then passed Carleton and travelled onto the village of Wilton, where he tried to visit Jason Carey, a member of a diving club Bird also belonged to, but Bird left when Carey's wife came to the door. Soon afterward, Bird shot Jennifer Jackson once in the chest with his shotgun and twice in the head with his rifle, killing her. Bird then drove past Town Head Farm, but turned back towards it and fired his shotgun, fatally hitting Jackson's husband James in the head and wounding a woman named Christine Hunter-Hall in the back. He then drove back to Carleton and killed Isaac Dixon, a mole-catcher who was talking to a farmer in a field when he was fatally shot twice at close range by Bird's shotgun. A former semi-professional rugby player, Garry Purdham, was soon shot and killed while working in a field outside the Red Admiral Hotel at Boonwood, near Gosforth.  Bird then drove towards Seascale. Along the way, he began driving slowly and waved other motorists to pass him. He shot a motorist named James "Jamie" Clark, who died of a shotgun wound to the head, although it was not clear at first whether he died from the gunshot wound or the subsequent car crash. Bird then encountered another motorist named Harry Berger at a narrow, one-way passage underneath a railway bridge. When Berger allowed Bird to enter first, Bird fired at him as he passed by, shooting him twice and causing severe injury to his right arm. Three armed response vehicles attempting to pursue Bird were later blocked out of the tunnel by Berger's vehicle; it had to be pushed away to let them pass.  Meanwhile, Bird had driven on to Drigg Road, where he fired twice at Michael Pike, a retired man who was cycling in front of him; the first shot missed, but the second hit Pike in the head and killed him. Seconds later, while on the same street, Bird fatally shot Jane Robinson in the neck and head with his shotgun at point-blank range after apparently calling her over.  After the killing of Robinson, who was the last fatality in the shootings, witnesses described Bird as driving increasingly erratically down the street. At 11:33, Police Constables Phillip Lewis and Andrew Laverack spotted Bird as his car passed by their vehicle. They attempted to pursue him, but were delayed in roadworks and lost sight of him a minute later. Soon afterward, Bird drove into Eskdale valley, where he wounded Jackie Lewis in the neck with his rifle as she was out walking. At this point, his route had become clearer to police during their search for him. Next, Bird stopped alongside Fiona Moretta, who leaned into his passenger window, believing he was going to ask her for directions. Instead, he injured her in the chest with the rifle, then continued onward towards the village of Boot.  Arriving there, Bird briefly stopped at a business premises called Sims Travel and fired his rifle at nearby people, but missed. Continuing further into the village, he continued firing at random people and missing. Bird eventually fired his rifle at two men, hitting and severely wounding Nathan Jones in the face. This was shortly followed by a couple who had stopped their car to take a photo; Samantha Chrystie suffered severe wounds to the face from a rifle bullet. Chrystie's partner, Craig Ross, fled upon Bird's instruction and was then fired at, but escaped uninjured.

Suspect's suicide.

Shortly after firing at two cyclists, Bird crashed his taxi into several vehicles and a stone wall, damaging a tyre. Briefly continuing onward, he abandoned his car at a beauty spot near Boot, called Doctor Bridge, when the damaged tyre deflated. A nearby family of four, who were unaware of the shootings, offered assistance to Bird, but were quickly turned down and advised to leave. He removed the rifle from his taxi and walked over a bridge leading into Oak How Woods. Bird was last seen alive at 12:30; shortly after 12:30, police confirmed that there had been fatalities and that they were searching for a suspect. Police later announced they were searching for the driver of a dark-grey Citroën Xsara Picasso, driven by the suspect, who was identified as Bird. At around 12:36, armed police officers and dog handlers arrived at the scene of Bird's abandoned taxi and began a search in and around the wooded area.  At 14:00, Deputy Chief Constable Stuart Hyde announced that Bird's body had been found in a wooded area, along with a rifle. Police confirmed shortly afterwards that members of the public who had taken shelter during the incident could now resume their normal activities.  During the manhunt, the gates of the nearby Sellafield nuclear reprocessing plant were closed as a precaution, and the afternoon shift was told not to come to work. This was the first lock-down in the history of the plant.

Aftermath.

At 15:00 during his first session of Prime Minister's Questions, David Cameron confirmed that "at least five" people had died, including the gunman. Over the next few hours, Bird's shooting of his brother and solicitor was announced. Later that evening, a police press conference in Whitehaven announced that twelve people had been killed, that a further eleven people were injured, three of them critically, and that the suspect had killed himself. They also confirmed that two weapons (a double-barrelled shotgun and a.22-calibre rifle with a scope and silencer) had been used by the suspect in the attacks and that thirty crime scenes were being investigated. The shootings were considered the worst mass-casualty shooting incident in the UK since the 1996 Dunblane school massacre, which left eighteen people dead. A report later determined that Bird fired at least 47 rounds during the shootings (29 from his shotgun, 18 from his.22 rifle). Six live.22 rounds were also found on Bird's body, while an additional eight were found held inside the rifle. A search in Bird's home later recovered over 750 rounds of live.22 ammunition, 240 live shotgun shells, and a large amount of financial paperwork.  The police stated that the shootings took place along a stretch of the Cumbrian coastline. Helicopters from neighbouring police forces were used in the manhunt, while those from the RAF Search and Rescue Force and the Yorkshire Air Ambulance responded to casualties. A major incident was declared by North Cumbria University Hospitals NHS Trust at West Cumberland Hospital, Whitehaven, with the accident and emergency department at the Cumberland Infirmary, Carlisle, on full incident stand-by.  Bird had been a licensed firearms holder, and the incident sparked debate about further gun control in the United Kingdom; the previous Dunblane school massacre and Hungerford shootings had led to increased firearms controls.

Perpetrator.

Derrick Bird (27 November 1957 – 2 June 2010) was born to Joseph and Mary Bird. He had a twin brother, David, and an older brother. He lived alone in Rowrah, and had two sons with a woman from whom he separated in the mid-1990s. He became a grandfather in May 2010, and was described as a quiet, popular man who worked as a self-employed taxi driver in Whitehaven.  In 2007, Bird was beaten unconscious by four men who tried to run instead of paying him for taxi services. Friends said he changed after the attack.  It was reported that he had previously sought help from a local hospital due to his fragile mental state, although these reports were unconfirmed. Bird had held a shotgun certificate since 1974 and had renewed it several times, most recently in 2005, and had held a firearms certificate for a rifle from 2007 onward. He was being investigated by HM Revenue and Customs. Bird's body was formally identified at Furness General Hospital in Barrow-in-Furness, and he was cremated at a private service on 18 June 2010.

Possible motives.

There has been speculation that Bird may have had a grudge against people associated with the Sellafield nuclear power plant that he worked for as a joiner, resigning in 1990 due to an allegation of theft of wood from the plant. He was subsequently convicted, and given a 12-month suspended sentence. Three of the dead were former employees, although there is no evidence that any were involved with his resignation.  Terry Kennedy, a fellow taxi driver who described himself as one of Bird's best friends, and was wounded by Bird, has claimed that Bird had a relationship with a Thai girl he met on holiday in Pattaya, Thailand. It has been further claimed by another friend of Bird that he had sent £1,000 to the girl, who subsequently ended their relationship via a text message; he added that Bird had been "made a fool out of".  It has also been speculated that Bird had been involved with a family dispute over his father's will. The speculation was heightened when it was revealed that Bird had targeted both his twin, David, and the family's solicitor, Kevin Commons, in his attacks, killing both.  Police investigating the killings have also found that Bird was the subject of an ongoing tax investigation by HM Revenue and Customs for tax evasion and the threat of possible future prosecution and punishment might have contributed to his action. According to Mark Cooper, a fellow taxi driver who had known him for 15 years, Bird had accumulated £60,000 in a secret bank account and was worried he would be sent to prison for hiding the cash from HM Revenue and Customs. He reportedly believed his brother and the solicitor were conspiring to send him to prison for tax evasion; in the three days before the killings, Bird called his brother 44 times.

Reactions.

Official responses and visits.

The Prime Minister, David Cameron, was joined by several other MPs in expressing the House of Commons members' shock and horror at the events during Prime Minister's Questions.  On the evening of 2 June, the Queen said she was "deeply shocked" by the shootings and shared the nation's "grief and horror".  The Home Secretary, Theresa May, expressed her regret at the deaths and paid tribute to the response of the emergency services. The Cabinet met to discuss the shootings and May later made a statement on the Cumbria incident to the House of Commons on 3 June 2010. Cameron and May visited the affected region on 4 June 2010 to meet victims, officials and local people.  Jamie Reed, the local Member of Parliament for Copeland, called the incident the "blackest day in our community's history".  Prince Charles visited Whitehaven on 11 June 2010 to meet members of the community affected by the tragedy.

In popular culture.

BBC One altered their programming to broadcast two BBC News Specials about the shootings, at 14:15 and 19:30 on the same day. ITV soap "Coronation Street" was cancelled on 2, 3, and 4 June as it contained a violent storyline featuring a gun siege in a factory. The episodes were aired the following week.  An edition of the Channel 4 panel game "You Have Been Watching", which was due to be broadcast on 3 June 2010, was postponed because it was a crime special.  Pop singer Lady Gaga came under criticism after performing a murder scene at her concert in Manchester, as part of her Monster Ball Tour, just hours after the shooting spree.  "The Times" journalist Giles Coren suggested, via his Twitter feed, that Bird should have read a copy of his book on anger management. He later tweeted an apology for the remark.

Memorials.

On 9 June 2010, a week after the incident, memorial services were held in the West Cumbria towns affected by the shootings followed by a minute's silence at midday. Soon after the minute's silence taxi drivers on Duke Street sounded their horns for one minute to show their respect. The minute's silence for the Cumbria victims was also marked prior to David Cameron's second Prime Minister's Questions in Parliament. The funerals of the majority of Bird's victims were held at various churches in West Cumbria.

Memorial fund.

A memorial fund was established by the Cumbria Community Foundation to aid victims and communities affected by the West Cumbria shootings.

The Cumbria shootings was a shooting spree which occurred on 2 June 2010 when a lone gunman, taxi driver Derrick Bird, killed twelve people and injured eleven others before killing himself in Cumbria, England, United Kingdom. Along with the 1987 Hungerford massacre, the 1989 Monkseaton shootings, and the 1996 Dunblane school massacre, it is one of the worst criminal acts involving firearms in British history. The shootings ended when Bird was found dead in a wooded area after abandoning his car in the village of Boot.

坎布里亚郡枪击案 发生于2010年6月2日,一位名叫德里克·伯德的枪手在英国坎布里亚郡扫射20多人,造成12人死亡。行凶者在当天中午从兰普拉格小镇开始,先后在弗里京顿,怀特黑文,埃格勒蒙特,戈斯大众和锡斯凯尔等地流窜,疯狂扫射。凶手是一名52岁的当地出租车司机,行凶后举枪自尽。


Preparation.

Potassium "t"-butoxide is commercially available as a solution and as a solid, but it is often generated "in situ" for laboratory use because samples are so sensitive and older samples are often of poor quality. It is prepared by the reaction of dry "tert"-butyl alcohol with potassium metal. The solid is obtained by evaporating these solutions followed by heating the solid. The solid can be purified by sublimation at 220 °C and 1 mmHg.

Structure.

Potassium "tert"-butoxide crystallises from tetrahydrofuran/pentane at −20 °C as [tBuOK·tBuOH], which consists of infinite one-dimensional chains linked by hydrogen bonding. Sublimation of [tBuOK·tBuOH] affords the tetramer [tBuOK], which adopts a cubane-like structure. Mild Lewis basic solvents such as THF and diethyl ether do not break up the tetrameric structure, which persists in the solid, in solution and even in the gas phase.

Applications.

The "tert"-butoxide species is itself useful as a strong, non-nucleophilic base in organic chemistry. It is not as strong as amide bases, e.g. lithium diisopropylamide, but stronger than potassium hydroxide. Its steric bulk inhibits the group from participating in nucleophilic addition, such as in a Williamson ether synthesis or an S2 reaction. Substrates that are deprotonated by potassium "t"-butoxide include terminal acetylenes and active methylene compounds. It is useful in dehydrohalogenation reactions.  Potassium "tert"-butoxide catalyzes the reaction of hydrosilanes and heterocyclic compounds to give the silyl derivatives, with release of H.

Modifications.

Many modifications have been reported that influence the reactivity of this reagent. The compound adopts a complex cluster structure (the adjacent picture is a simplified cartoon), and additives that modify the cluster affect the reactivity of the reagent. For example, DMF, DMSO, hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA), and 18-crown-6 interact with the potassium center, enhancing the basicity of the butoxide. Schlosser's base, a mixture of the alkoxide and an alkyl lithium compound, is a related but stronger base.

Reactions.

Potassium "tert"-butoxide reacts with chloroform yielding dichlorocarbene, the reaction can result in ignition. Potassium "tert"-butoxide should never be added to dichloromethane.  As a base, potassium tert-butoxide can extract a beta-proton and form the Hofmann product via an elimination reaction. This reaction has a high synthetic value as it can set up further reactions of the resultant alkene, especially regiochemical reactions.

Potassium "tert"-butoxide is the chemical compound with the formula K(CH)CO. This colourless solid is a strong base (pKa of conjugate acid around 17), which is useful in organic synthesis. It exists as a tetrameric cubane-type cluster. It is often seen written in chemical literature as potassium "t"-butoxide. The compound is often depicted as a salt, and it often behaves as such, but it is not ionized in solution.

叔丁醇钾(英语:Potassium "tert"-butoxide)是一种常用的醇盐,化学式为(CH)COK。这种无色固体是有机合成中常用的强碱,其共轭酸叔丁醇的pKa大约为17。固态时它以四聚的类立方烷原子簇形式存在。在化学文献中经常用"t"-BuOK来表示叔丁醇钾。


Meaning.

Letters patent are so named from the Latin verb "", to lie open, exposed, accessible. The originator's seal was attached "pendent" from the document, so that it did not have to be broken in order for the document to be read.  "" in Latin meant "that which is written" or "writing", in the sense of letters of the alphabet placed together in meaningful sequence on a writing surface, not a specific format of composition as the modern word "letter" suggests. Thus letters patent do not equate to an open letter but rather to any form of document, deed, contract, letter, despatch, edict, decree, epistle etc. made public.  They are called "letters" (plural) from their Latin name "", used by medieval and later scribes when the documents were written in Latin. This loanword preserves the collective plural "letters" ("litterae") Latin language uses to denote a message as opposed to a single alphabet letter ("littera").

Usage.

Letters patent are a form of open or public proclamation and a vestigial exercise of extra-parliamentary power by a monarch or president. Prior to the establishment of Parliament, the monarch ruled absolutely by the issuing of his personal written orders, open or closed.  They can thus be contrasted with the Act of Parliament, which is in effect a written order by Parliament involving assent by the monarch in conjunction with its members. No explicit government approval is contained within letters patent, only the seal or signature of the monarch.  Parliament today tolerates only a very narrow exercise of the royal prerogative by issuance of letters patent, and such documents are issued with prior informal government approval, or indeed are now generated by government itself with the monarch's seal affixed as a mere formality. In their original form they were simply written instructions or orders from the sovereign, whose order was law, which were made public to reinforce their effect.  For the sake of good governance, it is of little use if the sovereign appoints a person to a position of authority but does not at the same time inform those over whom such authority is to be exercised of the validity of the appointment.  According to the United Kingdom Ministry of Justice, there are 92 different types of letters patent. The Patent Rolls are made up of office copies of English (and later United Kingdom) royal letters patent, which run in an almost unbroken series from 1201 to the present day, with most of those to 1625 having been published.

Form of British letters patent creating peers.

The form of letters patent for creating peerages has been fixed by the Crown Office (Forms and Proclamations Rules) Order 1992 (SI 1992/1730). Part III of the schedule lays down nine "pro forma" texts for creating various ranks of the peerage, lords of appeal in ordinary, and baronets.  The following table organises the text from the letters patent by columns for each rank, with common text spanning multiple columns, depicting some of the similarities and differences among the proclamations. Gender-specific differences are highlighted in italics.  The words "may have hold and possess" to "his heirs male aforesaid successively" and "have heretofore used and enjoyed or as they" (shown in brackets above) were deleted for Dukes and Duchesses, Marquesses and Marchionesses, Earls and Countesses, Viscounts, and hereditary Barons by the Crown Office (Forms and Proclamations Rules) (Amendment) Order 2000.

Commonwealth realms.

In Commonwealth realms, letters patent are issued under the prerogative powers of the head of state, as an executive or royal prerogative. They are a rare, though significant, form of legislation which does not require the consent of parliament. Letters patent may also be used to grant royal assent to legislation.

In the United States.

The primary source of letters patent in the United States are intellectual property patents and land patents, though letters patent are issued for a variety of other purposes. They function dually as public records and personal certificates.  In the United States, the forgery of letters patent granted by the President is a crime subject to fine, imprisonment up to ten years or both (). Without letters patent, a person is unable to assume an appointed office. Such an issue prompted the "Marbury v. Madison" suit, where William Marbury and three others petitioned the United States Supreme Court to order James Madison to deliver their letters for appointments made under the previous administration.

Form of United States letters patent.

United States letters patent generally do not fit a specific form, except for the eschatocol, or formal ending:

Letters patent (always in the plural) are a type of legal instrument in the form of a published written order issued by a monarch, president, or other head of state, generally granting an office, right, monopoly, title, or status to a person or corporation. Letters patent can be used for the creation of corporations or government offices, or for the granting of city status or a coat of arms. Letters patent are issued for the appointment of representatives of the Crown, such as governors and governors-general of Commonwealth realms, as well as appointing a Royal Commission. In the United Kingdom they are also issued for the creation of peers of the realm. A particular form of letters patent has evolved into the modern patent (referred to as a utility patent or design patent in United States patent law) granting exclusive rights in an invention (or a design in the case of a design patent). In this case it is essential that the written grant should be in the form of a public document so other inventors can consult it to avoid infringement and also to understand how to "practice" the invention, i.e., put it into practical use. In the Holy Roman Empire, Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, imperial patent was also the highest form of generally binding legal regulations, e. g. Patent of Toleration, Serfdom Patent etc.

专利特许证或称专利证书是由国家或者国家元首签发的法律文书,以一页公开信模式授权、设立及确立某官方组织、授予某人某种特殊权利、以至授予某人职位、地位或头衔。现代的发明专利发源于专利特许证制度,所谓“专利”指发明人以此获得特别权利。在论述英联邦王国以君主名义发出的特许证时,特别是与发明专利无关的特许证,也称为“君主制诰”、“皇室制诰”或者一般仅针对英国本身的殖民地使用的“英皇制诰”。


Emblem of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

白俄罗斯苏维埃社会主义共和国国徽

Description.

The central feature of the emblem is the crossed hammer and sickle, the universal Communist symbol signifying the unity of the worker and the peasant. Below the hammer and sickle is a globe, which is superimposed atop a rising sun. Wheat ears surround the central device, with flowers on each ear; clover on the left and flax on the right. A red ribbon is wrapped around the wheat ears, signifying the red flag used by the Communist movement. At the base of the emblem, the letters БССР (BSSR) appear, shorthand for the full name of the republic, Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Беларуская Савецкая Сацыялістычная Рэспубліка "Bielaruskaja Savieckaja Sacyjalistyčnaja Respublika"), shown only once, since it reads the same in both Russian and Belarusian. On each side of the ribbon, the USSR State motto ("Workers of the world, unite!") appear in Belarusian on the left (Пралетарыі ўсіх краін, яднайцеся! "Pralietaryi ŭsich krain jadnajciesia!") and in Russian on the right (Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь!). At the top of the emblem, a red star for Communism is present.

History.

The Byelorussian SSR had a coat of arms since 1926, yet the last emblem that was used was adopted in the 1980s. The earliest version also had the text in Yiddish (פּראָלעטאַריער פֿון אַלע לענדער, פֿאַרײניקט זיך!) and Polish (Proletariusze wszystkich krajów, łączcie się!). Other than that, the latest emblem and the earliest emblem only differed in minor details. The 1950s arms was designed by Ivan Dubasov, People's Artist of the USSR. During the first years of the SSR the emblem shared basically the same background as the ones of the Russian SFSR and the Ukrainian SSR before the first version of the arms was used.  After independence, Belarus adopted the Pahonia as the national coat of arms. This changed under the presidency of Alexander Lukashenko after a controversial 1995 referendum in which the basic Soviet design was reintroduced with the outline map of Belarus replacing the hammer and sickle.

The Byelorussian SSR emblem was used as the coat of arms of the Soviet Socialist Republic until the fall of the Soviet Union. The coat of arms is based on the coat of arms of the Soviet Union.

白俄罗斯苏维埃社会主义共和国国徽启用于1926年 (最后使用的版本启用于1950年代,比旧版少了波兰语和意第绪语),与苏联国徽设计相似。


History.

In 1955, Ben Jaffe, an executive of the Fontainebleau Miami Beach, came to Las Vegas and bought a 40-acre parcel at the corner of Las Vegas Boulevard and Bond Road (now Tropicana Avenue). Jaffe aimed to build the finest hotel in Las Vegas, featuring a Cuban ambience, with four room themes for guests to choose from: French Provincial, Far East, Italian Renaissance, and Drexel.  Construction ran over schedule and over budget, due in part to competition for labor with the under-construction Stardust down the road. Jaffe had to sell his interest in the Fontainebleau to complete the project, which finally opened in April 1957.  Jaffe first leased the property to his associate, Phil Kastel. The Gaming Control Board raised suspicions over Kastel's links to organized crime, which were confirmed in May when a note bearing a Tropicana earnings figure was found in the possession of mobster Frank Costello. Jaffe next turned to J. Kell Housells, owner of the Las Vegas Club. By 1959, Housells bought out Jaffe's interest, gaining a majority share in the Tropicana.  The Tropicana Country Club opened in 1961 on of land, across the street from the hotel.  In the early 1970s, the Tropicana fared poorly from competition with larger hotels like Caesars Palace and the Las Vegas Hilton. Houssels sold out in 1968 to Trans-Texas Airways. Deil Gustafson, a Minnesota financier, bought the Tropicana in 1972. He undertook an expansion plan, but ran into financing difficulties. Edward and Fred Doumani took over management on an emergency basis in 1974 after investing $1 million into the property. Mitzi Stauffer Briggs, heir to the Stauffer Chemical fortune, bought a majority interest in the Tropicana in 1975. Briggs began construction of the 22-floor Tiffany Tower in 1977.  The Tropicana became the target of a mob skimming operation in 1978. Joe Agosto, the owner of the casino's Folies Bergere show, oversaw the siphoning of money from the cashier cage to the Kansas City crime family. The scheme was exposed in 1979 by an FBI investigation into hidden mob interests in Las Vegas casinos. Briggs and Gustafson faced revocation of their gaming licenses because they had allowed Agosto to manage the casino without a license. They had little choice but to sell the Tropicana. Hotel chain Ramada Inns purchased the business in December 1979, along with the 50% share of the property's real estate that had been owned by the Doumanis.  A 21-story Island Tower was constructed in 1986.  Ramada spun off its gaming properties, including the Tropicana, in 1989 as Aztar Corporation.  The Tropicana's country club was closed in 1990 after being sold to MGM Grand Inc. to become part of the site of the new MGM Grand casino.  In 2002, Aztar consolidated ownership of the Tropicana by buying the remaining 50% interest in the land and buildings from the Jaffe family for $117.5 million.  Aztar was acquired by Columbia Sussex in January 2007. A $2-billion renovation of the Tropicana was announced, planned to be completed in 2010, making it the largest resort casino in the world. The existing Paradise and Island towers would have received both interior and exterior renovations, and four new towers would have been built on the property, one of which would be branded as a separate hotel.  The plans included a casino, five hotel towers totaling 10,000 rooms, and a sprawling retail promenade. Other amenities included spas and fitness centers; more than 20 restaurants and lounges; a 1,500-seat entertainment venue for big-name headliners; and a water–ride attraction.  All improvements to the property were put on hold because of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, and became moot when Columbia Sussex's gaming arm filed for bankruptcy in 2008. The Tropicana, which had a $440 million secured loan against it, was bought from the bankrupt company in July 2009 by its creditors, led by Canadian private equity firm Onex Corporation and former MGM Mirage CEO Alex Yemenidjian, who took over as CEO.  The remainder of Columbia Sussex's gaming business, reorganized under new ownership as Tropicana Entertainment Inc., promptly sued the Las Vegas property, demanding royalties for use of the Tropicana name. The case was eventually settled, with the Tropicana Las Vegas receiving exclusive rights to use the name in the Las Vegas region, royalty-free.  In August 2009, Yemenidjian announced a $165-million plan to renovate the property around a South Beach theme, to be done in several phases. The first phase would renovate the Tropicana's back office facilities, with completion planned for the end of 2009. The second phase would renovate the conference facilities, rooms, and common areas, with construction to finish at the end of August 2010. The third phase, including a Nikki Beach Night Club and Nikki Beach multimillion-dollar pool renovation was planned to be completed by April 2011.  On November 9, 2010, Tropicana imploded a wing which contained rooms adjacent to Tropicana Avenue. The rooms were the resort's oldest, dating back to 1957. The section was removed to make room for a second entrance to the property and open up space for additional parking.  In February 2011, the Tropicana opened a new sports book, operated by Cantor Gaming.  In 2012, the Tropicana announced an affiliation with DoubleTree by Hilton.  In August 2015, Penn National Gaming purchased the Tropicana for $360 million.  In December 2016, as part of Penn's Interactive Division, the Tropicana created an online experience for customers to play.  During the COVID-19 pandemic, Penn faced the prospect of financial issues brought on by resort closures. As a result, Penn sold the land occupied by the Tropicana to its spin-off company, Gaming and Leisure Properties. Penn sold the land for $337.5 million in rent credits, and the sale was finalized in April 2020. Penn will continue to operate the Tropicana for another two years, or until the resort and land are sold.

Amenities and entertainment.

Shows.

The largest venue at the property is the 1,100-seat Legends in Concert Theater, which features the Prince tribute show "Purple Reign" (since 2017) and the celebrity impersonator revue "Legends in Concert" (since 2019). The venue opened in 1973 as the Superstar Theater. It was renamed as the Tiffany Theatre in 1975. In 2011, it became the Gladys Knight Theater when the singer began a residency at the venue. It was renamed as the Tropicana Theater later that year, after Knight's departure, and then to its current name in 2019. Other productions at the theater have included magician Rick Thomas (1997-2005); magician Dirk Arthur (2005–10); singer Wayne Newton (2009–10); percussion group Recycled Percussion (2010–12); a live production of "Dancing with the Stars" (2012); "Mamma Mia!", the Broadway musical based on the songs of ABBA (2014); "Raiding the Rock Vault", a musical featuring classic rock songs (2014–16); illusionist Jan Rouven (2014–16); and illusionist David Goldrake (2017–18).  A showroom on the Tropicana's mezzanine level is occupied by the Laugh Factory, a comedy club offering two nightly stand-up comedy shows, as well as nightly performances by impressionist Rich Little and comic magician Murray Sawchuck. The space opened in 1988 as Rodney's Place, a comedy club associated with Rodney Dangerfield, which closed after six months. It then operated as the Comedy Stop from 1990 to 2009. The venue next became the Bobby Slayton Room, offering regular shows by the comedian and several other performers. It then opened as Brad Garrett's Comedy Club in 2010. Garrett's club departed in 2011 to move to the MGM Grand. The Laugh Factory took over the space in 2012.  From 1959, the Tropicana hosted the Folies Bergére Show, the longest running revue theater show in Las Vegas. It closed down March 27, 2009, shortly before its 50th anniversary. Dave Brubeck's 1966 live album, "Jackpot!," was recorded at the Tropicana.

Attractions.

From 1999 to 2005, the Tropicana was the home of the Casino Legends Hall of Fame. The facility displayed artifacts and memorabilia from hundreds of casinos, and held induction ceremonies to honor notable Las Vegas entertainers and gaming industry figures. It was quickly replaced by the Las Vegas Historic Museum, which then closed in 2006.  An exhibit space at the Tropicana hosted "Titanic: The Artifact Exhibition" beginning in 2005. It was joined in 2006 by "", a display of preserved human bodies. The two exhibits, both produced by Premier Exhibitions, closed in 2008 to move to the Luxor.  They were replaced in March 2011 by the Las Vegas Mob Experience, an attraction describing the rise and fall of organized crime in Las Vegas, featuring mob artifacts, holograms of famed gangsters such as Bugsy Siegel and Meyer Lansky, and live actors. After being plagued by technical problems, litigation, and low ticket sales, and going through a bankruptcy and partial closure, the exhibit became known as the Mob Attraction Las Vegas in March 2012. It closed in November 2013.

Dining.

Celebrity chef Robert Irvine opened his restaurant at the Tropicana, Robert Irvine's Public House, in July 2017. Other dining options include the Italian restaurant Bacio and Oakville Steakhouse.

Other amenities.

Other amenities at the property include boutique stores; a swimming pool with tropical landscaping, waterfalls and an outdoor bar; and a wedding chapel. The Tropicana also contains the resort office for Virgin Holidays.

The Tropicana Las Vegas is a hotel and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada. It is owned by Gaming and Leisure Properties and operated by Penn National Gaming, and is a franchise of Hilton's DoubleTree chain. It offers 1,467 rooms, a gaming floor, and of convention and exhibit space.

热带花园酒店(Tropicana Resort & Casino)是美国内华达州拉斯维加斯赌城大道上其中一间历史最悠久的赌场酒店。酒店开业于1957年,由阿斯达企业所持有及管理。酒店拥有1,878间客房以及61,000平方米的赌场。


Design.

The "Mahan"-class destroyers emerged as improved versions of the, which incorporated the most up-to-date machinery available. The Navy's General Board had wrestled with the proposed design changes, first they considered 12 torpedo tubes with one fewer /38 caliber gun, and then proposed to retain all five guns with the twelve torpedo tubes, but configure those guns only for surface targets, not air targets. The Chief of Naval Operations objected, and recommended against "subordinating the gun to the torpedo", and a compromise was struck that included a new engineering plant and a new battery arrangement for the "Mahan" class and others. In the final design, No. 3 gun was moved to the aft deckhouse (just ahead of No. 4) to make room for the third quadruple torpedo tube; the two middle torpedo tubes were moved to the sides, and released the centerline space for extension of the aft deckhouse. All five 5 in/38s were kept and remained dual purpose guns, able to target aircraft as well as ships, but only No. 1 and No. 2 had gun shields. The traditional destroyer machinery was replaced with a new generation of land-based machinery. This change ushered in a new steam propulsion system that combined increases in pressure and temperature with a new type of lightweight steam turbine, which proved simpler and more efficient to operate. Double reduction gearing also reduced the size of the faster-turning turbines and allowed cruising turbines to be added. These changes led to a ten percent increase in displacement over the "Farragut"s.  The "Mahan"s typically had a tripod foremast with a pole mainmast. To improve the anti-aircraft field of fire, their tripod foremast was constructed without nautical rigging. In silhouette, they were similar to the larger s that immediately preceded them. The "Mahan"s were fitted with the first emergency generators, which replaced the storage batteries of earlier classes. Gun crew shelters were built for the superimposed weapons, one shelter before the bridge and one atop the shelter deck aft.  The "Mahan"s displaced at standard load and at deep load. The overall length of the class was, the beam was, and the draft. They were powered by General Electric geared steam turbines, driving two shafts that developed a total of for a maximum speed of. Four Babcock & Wilcox or four Foster Wheeler water-tube boilers generated the superheated steam needed for the turbines. The "Mahan"s carried a maximum of of fuel oil, with a range of at. Their peacetime complement was 158 officers and enlisted men. The wartime complement increased to approximately 250 officers and enlisted men.

"Dunlap" class.

The "Dunlap" class was a two-ship destroyer class based on the "Mahan" design, listed as a separate class in some sources. The ships were and, the last two "Mahan"s. Unlike the "Mahan"s, the "Dunlap"s had the new Mark 25 enclosed mounts

Construction.

The construction of the first sixteen vessels was authorised under the NIRA Executive Order on 16 June 1933. The last two were authorised under the Vinson-Trammell Act of 27 March 1934 (as part of a group of 95 destroyers authorised on that date—and covered DD-380 to DD-436 and DD-445 to DD-482). The contracts for the first six "Mahan"s were awarded to three shipbuilders, but none of the builders had what

Service history.

"Mahan".

USS "Mahan" was commissioned on the east coast in September 1936 and served in the Atlantic area until July 1937. She sailed to the Southern California coast for fleet training before moving on to Pearl Harbor. At sea when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, "Mahan" participated in the initial post-attack efforts in search of the strike force. The ship joined Task Force 17 in February 1942, which conducted raids on several atolls in the Marshall and Gilbert Islands. Late in March, she returned to Pearl Harbor and proceeded to the west coast for overhaul. By August 1942, "Mahan" was back operating out of Pearl Harbor. In October 1942, "Mahan" was assigned to Task Force 61 and took part in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands. The engagement cost the Navy 74 aircraft, the aircraft carrier, and one destroyer.

"Cummings".

USS "Cummings" served in the Pacific Fleet in the late 1930s, participating in numerous individual and fleet training exercises. In 1940, she served on security patrols off the west coast. "Cummings" went on a goodwill visit to several ports in the South Pacific, including Auckland, New Zealand, and Tahiti. The destroyer was hit by fragments while docked in Pearl Harbor during the Japanese attack, and suffered a few casualties. She escorted convoys between Pearl Harbor and the west coast for the first six months of World War II. In June 1942, she was transferred to convoy escort duties in the South Pacific until August, when she had an overhaul in San Francisco, and then returned to her role as a convoy escort in the

"Drayton".

USS "Drayton" made her shakedown cruise to Europe late in 1936, and finished her final trials in the United States. She left Norfolk, Virginia, in June 1937 for San Diego, California, to join the Scouting Force. In July, "Drayton" participated in the search for the lost American pilot, Amelia Earhart. For the next two years, she exercised along the west coast, the Hawaiian Islands, and the Caribbean. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, "Drayton" was at sea but able to participate in the post-attack efforts in search of the enemy force. During the succeeding three months, she escorted a convoy to Christmas Island (Kiritimati), screened a carrier in an airstrike on Bougainville Island, and screened a tanker to Suva Harbor, Fiji Islands. In late November 1942 "Drayton" became part of Task Force 67, which intercepted a Japanese

"Lamson".

USS "Lamson" shipped out of Norfolk, Virginia, in June 1937 for San Diego, California, less than a year after her naval service began. She engaged in exercises and tactical training until sailing for Pearl Harbor in October 1939. For the next two years, "Lamson" continued training from her base in Hawaii. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, she joined the post-attack efforts to search for the Japanese strike force. In February 1942 she became part of the newly formed ANZAC Squadron, consisting of Australian, New Zealand, and American warships in Suva, Fiji Islands. In March, she operated with the squadron as a cover group southeast of Papua New Guinea. In late November 1942, "Lamson" was assigned to Task Force 67 and took part

"Flusser".

USS "Flusser" steamed her way to San Diego, California, in July 1937, after spending the first months of her naval service in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. She was based in San Diego until 1939, then reassigned to Pearl Harbor. "Flusser" was at sea when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor, but took part in the post-attack search. For the next six months, she carried out convoy duty between Pearl Harbor and the west coast, and engaged in escort and patrol duty out of southwest Pacific ports. From July 1942 to February 1943, "Flusser" was in overhaul status at Pearl Harbor. She returned to escort and training operations in the Solomon Islands and was later based at Milne Bay, New Guinea. During September, "Flusser" was part of the amphibious landing forces at Lae and Finschhafen, New Guinea. In December 1943, the destroyer participated in the bombardment and landings at Arawe and Cape Gloucester, New Britain. While

"Reid".

USS "Reid" came into naval service in November 1936. From 1937 until 1941, she participated in training and fleet maneuvers in the Atlantic and Pacific. "Reid" was berthed at Pearl Harbor when the Japanese attacked, but escaped without damage while her gunners fired at the enemy attackers. After the attack, "Reid" did patrol duty in the Hawaiian waters, and later escorted convoys to San Francisco, California. Late in May 1942, "Reid" steamed north from Pearl Harbor to bombard the Japanese positions in Kiska and supported landings at Adak, Alaska. While conducting an anti-submarine patrol in August, she brought a Japanese submarine to the surface with a heavy depth charge barrage, and opened fire on it until it capsized and sank. Five of the submarine's crew survived and were rescued by "Reid". By October,

"Case".

USS "Case" began active duty in September 1936 and was assigned to the Pacific Fleet. In April 1940, Pearl Harbor became her home base. The following year, she participated in fleet exercises to Midway Island, Johnston Island, Palmyra Atoll, Samoa, and Auckland. "Case" was berthed at Pearl Harbor when the Japanese struck, but sustained no damage. After the attack, she escorted convoys between the west coast and Pearl Harbor until late May 1942. "Case" went north to support the pre-invasion bombardment of Kiska and do patrol duty off Adak, Alaska. In October, the ship escorted a convoy to Pearl Harbor and then headed to the states for repair, returning to Pearl Harbor in November. In January 1943, she sailed to Espiritu Santo for training and remained there until September. After overhaul in San Francisco, California, "Case" returned to Pearl Harbor in December 1943. She

"Conyngham".

USS "Conyngham" made her maiden voyage to northern Europe in early 1937, shortly after being commissioned. Following an overhaul in Boston, she sailed to San Diego, California. From October 1937 until April 1940, "Conyngham" operated along the west coast, the Hawaiian Islands and the Caribbean, then made her way to Pearl Harbor. In March 1941, "Conyngham" left Pearl Harbor on a goodwill tour to Samoa, Sydney and Brisbane in Australia, and Suva in Fiji, returning in April 1941. Undamaged by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, she put to sea on patrol duty that continued through December. After a brief overhaul at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard, "Conyngham" performed escort duty between the west coast and New Hebrides. Her escort assignment was interrupted to screen carriers in the Battle of Midway Island in June 1942.  During October 1942, "Conyngham" participated in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and supported the attack

"Cassin".

USS "Cassin" began naval service in August 1936, but alterations kept her from sea duty until March 1937. The next year, she joined the forces at Pearl Harbor for annual fleet exercises. In April 1940, "Cassin" was assigned to a Hawaiian unit. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, "Cassin" was in dry-dock with the battleship and the destroyer. Both destroyers were at the southern end of the dock when an incendiary bomb struck "Downes," starting unstoppable fires on both destroyers. "Cassin" slipped off her blocks and rolled over onto the burning "Downes".

"Shaw".

USS "Shaw" crossed the Atlantic on her shakedown cruise in April 1937, and returned to the Philadelphia Navy Yard in June. There, she began a year of yard work before completing acceptance trials. For the remainder of the year, the ship conducted training exercises in the Atlantic. Sailing to the west coast, she was at the Mare Island Navy Yard from January to April 1939. By April 1940, "Shaw" moved on to Hawaiian waters, then back to the west coast in November for overhaul. She returned to Hawaii in February 1941, and later entered the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard for repairs. "Shaw" was still in dry dock when the Japanese attacked, with most of the ship's crew ashore. She was hit by three bombs and severely damaged when her forward magazine exploded. Temporary repairs were made at Pearl Harbor, and in February

"Tucker".

USS "Tucker" was commissioned in July 1936. After her shakedown cruise, she joined the destroyer forces attached to the US Battle Fleet based in San Diego, California. In February 1939 the ship took part in a naval exercise in the Caribbean, personally observed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt from the cruiser. After exercises in Hawaiian waters in early 1940, "Tucker" operated between the west coast and Hawaii until the end of the year. By February 1941, she was back in Pearl Harbor. "Tucker" went on a goodwill tour that included Auckland, during March, before returning to Pearl Harbor. There, she participated in exercises at sea before sailing on to San Diego. By November 1941, "Tucker" was once again in Pearl Harbor. When

"Downes".

USS "Downes" entered service in January 1937. The following November, she sailed from Norfolk, Virginia, to San Diego, California. While based there, "Downes" participated in exercises along the west coast, in the Caribbean and in Hawaiian waters until April 1940. Pearl Harbor then became her homeport. In early 1941, "Downes" joined a cruise to Samoa, the Fiji Islands, and Australia, then visited the west coast later in the year. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, "Downes" was in dry-dock with the battleship "Pennsylvania" and the destroyer "Cassin". Both destroyers were at the southern end of the dock when an incendiary bomb struck "Downes", setting unstoppable fires on both ships. "Cassin" slipped her blocks and rolled over

"Cushing".

USS "Cushing" reported to the Pacific Fleet in August 1936, soon after her Navy service began. She joined the unsuccessful search for the missing Earhart during the month of July 1937. She moved on to San Diego for training exercises, continuing to operate along the west coast for the next several years. "Cushing" was under overhaul at the Mare Island Navy Yard when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor. Following the attack, she did convoy duty between the west coast and Pearl Harbor, and later operated off Midway Island on anti-submarine patrol. In August 1942, "Cushing" sailed to Pearl Harbor for training exercises and later joined operations around Guadalcanal.  With Task Force 61, "Cushing" took part in the bitterly contested Battle of Santa Cruz in October 1942. Outnumbered,

"Perkins".

USS "Perkins" was commissioned in September 1936 and San Diego, California, became her homeport. She operated in the eastern Pacific prior to World War II, and was at the Mare Island Navy Yard when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor. In mid-December, she escorted a convoy to Pearl Harbor, returned to Mare Island for new radar gear, and sailed back to Pearl Harbor the latter part of January 1942. The following month, "Perkins" departed Pearl Harbor and joined Australian, New Zealand, and other US ships in the ANZAC Squadron, charged with protecting the eastern approaches to Australia and New Zealand. She continued operations with ANZAC until April. In May 1942, "Perkins" participated in the Battle of

"Smith".

USS "Smith" began her US naval service in September 1936, and operated along the west coast of the United States for the next five years. From the start of World War II until April 1942, she was based in San Francisco, California, attached to a destroyer squadron. In June, "Smith" was in Pearl Harbor, engaged in training exercises, then escorted a convoy back to San Francisco. After overhaul and sea trials in the bay area, "Smith" returned to Pearl Harbor in August. By October she was part of Task Force 61, participating in the Battle of Santa Cruz. In the course of the battle, a Japanese torpedo plane crashed into her; the explosion ignited the forward part of the ship. The crew eventually extinguished the fires, and "Smith" was able to retain her position in the screen. When the air cleared, 28 were dead and 23 wounded. She was patched up enough in New Caledonia to make her way to Pearl Harbor, where she was under overhaul until February 1943. The next few months, "Smith" performed anti-submarine patrols, did convoy duty, and participated in Navy exercises. In September and October, she was part of the amphibious landings at Lae and Finschhafen, New Guinea. In late December

"Preston".

USS "Preston" was in service from October 1936 until November 1942. Following shakedown, she served briefly under the Chief of Naval Operations, then joined the US Fleet. "Preston" did peacetime training exercises into the month of December 1941, and performed patrol and escort duties along the west coast until June 1942. After that, she screened the carrier to Hawaii, followed by four months of patrol and escort work in Hawaiian waters.

"Dunlap".

USS "Dunlap" became part of the US Navy in June 1937. A year later, she served as an escort at Philadelphia for the steamer, which carried Gustaf Adolf, the Crown Prince of Sweden. By April 1940, Pearl Harbor was "Dunlap"'s homeport. When the Japanese attacked, "Dunlap" was at sea bound for Pearl Harbor; she entered port the following day. In January, she sortied for air strikes on the Marshall Islands, and in February she took part in a raid on Wake Island. Afterward, "Dunlap" patrolled Hawaiian waters, escorted convoys between various ports on the west coast, and returned to Pearl Harbor in October 1942. In December, the destroyer moved on to Noumea, New Caledonia, and operated from there until July 1943. "Dunlap" saw action at Vella Gulf in the Solomon Islands in a nighttime torpedo clash. In "United States Destroyer Operations in World War II"

"Fanning".

USS "Fanning" was occupied with sea trials and minor repairs for the first six months of her naval service. In April 1938, she escorted the light cruiser from Annapolis, Maryland, to the Caribbean with Roosevelt aboard. "Fanning" sailed to New York for overhaul the following month; in September she moved on to her new base in San Diego, California. Over the next three years, her duties took her to the east coast and eventually to Hawaii. The ship was at sea when the Japanese struck Pearl Harbor; she returned the following day. Underway for Tutuila in January 1942, "Fanning" encountered a blinding rainstorm and collided with. Both destroyers suffered bow damage and were forced to return to Pearl Harbor. In April 1942 "Fanning" became part of Task Force 16, which supported the Doolittle Raid on the air strike against Tokyo. After the mission, she

The "Mahan"-class destroyers of the United States Navy were a series of 18 destroyers of which the first 16 were laid down in 1934. The last two of the 18, and (this pair laid down in 1935), are sometimes considered a separate ship class. All 18 were commissioned in 1936 and 1937. was the lead ship, named for Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan, an influential historian and theorist on sea power.

马汉级驱逐舰(Mahan class destroyer)是美国在1934年-1935年间建造的驱逐舰,总共18艘。1935年建造的后两艘和范宁号有时也会被当作另一级。本级以海权论的提倡者阿尔弗雷德·赛耶·马汉为首舰命名。