History.

Killer sudoku puzzles were already an established variant of sudoku in Japan by the mid 1990s, where they were known as "samunamupure." The name stemmed from a Japanized form of the English words "sum number place." Killer sudokus were introduced to most of the English-speaking world by "The Times" in 2005.  Traditionally, as with regular sudoku puzzles, the grid layout is symmetrical around a diagonal, horizontal or vertical axis, or a quarter or half turn about the centre. This is a matter of aesthetics, though, rather than obligatory: many Japanese puzzle-makers will make small deviations from perfect symmetry for the sake of improving the puzzle. Other puzzle-makers may produce entirely asymmetrical puzzles.

Rules.

The objective is to fill the grid with numbers from 1 to 9 in a way that the following conditions are met:  In 'Killer X', an additional rule is that each of the long diagonals contains each number once.

Duplicate cell ambiguity.

By convention in Japan, killer sudoku cages do not include duplicate numbers. However, when "The Times" first introduced the killer sudoku on 31 August 2005, the newspaper did not make this rule explicit. Even though the vast majority of killer sudoku puzzles followed the rule anyway, English-speaking solvers were confused about appropriate solving strategies given the ambiguity. On September 16, 2005 The Times added a new ruling that “Within each dotted-line shape, a digit CAN be repeated if the normal row, column and 3x3 box rules are not broken”. But on September 19 the rule changed to “Within each dotted-line shape, a digit CANNOT be repeated if the normal row, column and 3x3 box rules are not broken” - causing even more confusion. This revised rule stuck and the world standard is no duplicates within cages.

Solving strategies.

Fewest possible combinations.

Generally the problem is best tackled starting from the extreme sums—cages with the largest or the smallest sums. This is because these have the fewest possible combinations. For example, 5 cells within the same cage totalling 34 can only be 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Yet, 5 cells within the same cage totaling 25 has twelve possible combinations.  In the early stages of the game, the most common way to begin filling in numbers is to look at such low-sum or high-sum cages that form a'straight line'. As the solver can infer from these that certain numbers are in a certain row or column, they can begin 'cross-hatching' across from them.

The Rule of 45.

A further technique can be derived from the knowledge that the numbers in all houses (rows, columns and nonets) add up to 45. By adding up the cages and single numbers in a particular house, the user can deduce the result of a single cell. If the cell calculated is within the house itself, it is referred to as an 'innie'; conversely if the cell is outside it, it is called an 'outie'. Even if this is not possible, advanced players may find it useful to derive the sum of two or three cells, then use other elimination techniques (see below for an example of this). This '45' technique can also be extended to calculate the innies or outies of N adjacent houses, as the difference between the cage-sums and N*45.

Clock Arithmetic.

A short-cut to calculating or checking the value of a single 'innie' or 'outie' on a large number of cages is to add up the cages using 'clock' arithmetic (correctly, Modular Arithmetic modulo 10), in which all digits other than the last in any number are ignored.  When two numbers are added together, the last digit of the total is not affected by anything other than the last digits of the two original numbers. Adding together a number ending in 7 and a number ending in 8 always results in a number ending in 5, for example. So, for example, 17 + 18 = 35 becomes, in clock arithmetic, 7 + 8 = 5. The biggest number an 'innie' or 'outie' can hold is 9, so adding or subtracting that value will change the last digit of the total in a way that no other value would - allowing the 'innie' or 'outie' to be directly calculated. Clock arithmetic has the advantage that you are only ever dealing with single-digit sums, rather than sums like, say, 58+27 - and even if the concept is initially unfamiliar, it rapidly becomes trivial.  Example: A set of cages form a complete nonet with an 'outie'. The cages have values 8, 10, 14, 7, 14.  Clock arithmetic has the additional bonus that, when the final digits of two cage totals add up to 10 (13 and 27, for example), the pair will make no difference to the overall clock total, and can simply be skipped.  Clock arithmetic should at most be used with caution for houses with more than one 'innie' or 'outie', when more than one set of values may result in the same final number, but may still be useful as a quick arithmetic check.

Consistent numbers within combinations.

Even though some cages can have multiple combinations of numbers available, there can often be one or more numbers that are consistent within all available solutions. For example: a 4 cell cage totaling 13 has the possible combinations of (1, 2, 3, 7), (1, 2, 4, 6), or (1, 3, 4, 5). Even though, initially, there is no way to tell which combination of numbers is correct, every solution available has a 1 in it. The player then knows for certain that one of the numbers within that cage is 1 (no matter which is the final solution). This can be useful if, for example, they have already deduced another cell within a nonet the cage resides in as having the number 1 as its solution. They then know that the 1 can only reside in cells that are outside of this nonet. If there is only one cell available, it is a 1.

Initial analysis of the sample problem.

Fewest possible combinations.

The two cells in the top left must be 1+2. The 3 cells to the right totaling 15 cannot therefore have either a 1 or a 2, so they must be either 3+4+8, 3+5+7, or 4+5+6.  The two vertical cells in the top left of the top right nonet cannot be 2+2 as that would mean duplicates, so they must be 1+3. The 1 cannot be in the top line as that conflicts with our first 2 cells therefore the top cell of this pair is 3 and the lower cell 1. This also means the 3 cell cage 15 to the left cannot contain a 3 and so is 4+5+6.  Similarly the neighbouring 16 must be 9+7.  The four cells in the top right cage (totaling 15) can only include one of 1, 3, 7, or 9 (if at all) because of the presence of 1, 3, 7, and 9 in the top right hand nonet. If any one of 1, 3, 7, or 9 is present then this must be the lone square in the nonet below. Therefore, these 4 cells is one of 1+2+4+8 or 2+3+4+6; the 2 cells in the middle of the left edge must be either 1+5 or 2+4; and so on.

45 rule example.

Looking at the nonet on the left hand side in the middle, we can see that there are three cages which do not cross over into another nonet; these add up to 33, meaning that the sum of the remaining two cells must be 12. This does not seem particularly useful, but consider that the cell in the bottom right of the nonet is part of a 3-cage of 6; it can therefore only contain 1, 2 or 3. If it contained 1 or 2, the other cell would have to contain 11 or 10 respectively; this is impossible. It must, therefore, contain 3, and the other cell 9.

Complements.

With 6-cell, 7-cell or 8-cell cages, correlating the combinations with their 3-cell, 2-cell, or 1-cell complements usually simplifies things. The table for "6 cell" cages is the complement of the "3 cell" table adding up to 45 minus the listed value; similarly, the "7 cell" table complements the "2 cell" table. An 8-cell cage is of course missing only one digit (45 minus the sum of the cage).  For example, the complement of a 7-cell cage totalling 41 is a 2-cell cage totalling 4 (because 9–7=2 and 45–41=4). As a 2-cell cage totalling 4 can contain "only" 1 and 3, we deduce that a 7-cell cage totalling 41 contains "neither" 1 nor 3.

Cage total tables.

The following tables list the possible combinations for various sums.  1: 1  3: 12  6: 123  10: 1234  15: 12345  28: 1234567  36: 12345678  45: 123456789

Killer sudoku (also killer su doku, sumdoku, sum doku, sumoku, addoku, or samunamupure) is a puzzle that combines elements of sudoku and kakuro. Despite the name, the simpler killer sudokus can be easier to solve than regular sudokus, depending on the solver's skill at mental arithmetic; the hardest ones, however, can take hours to crack.

杀手数独(Killer Sudoku)是一种数学智力游戏,是从数独衍生出的变种。它结合了数独(Sudoku)和数和(Kakuro)的玩法。由于起始时的盘面并没有任何数字,


Description.

802.11s extends the IEEE 802.11 MAC standard by defining an architecture and protocol that supports both broadcast/multicast and unicast delivery using "radio-aware metrics over self-configuring multi-hop topologies."

Closely related standards.

802.11s inherently depends on one of 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac, or 802.11ax carrying the actual traffic. One or more routing protocols suitable to the actual network physical topology are required. 802.11s requires Hybrid Wireless Mesh Protocol, or HWMP, be supported as a default. However, other mesh, ad hoc (Associativity-Based Routing, Zone Routing Protocol, and location based routing) or dynamically link-state routed (OLSR, B.A.T.M.A.N.) may be supported or even static routing (WDS, OSPF). "See the more detailed description below comparing these routing protocols."  A mesh often consists of many small nodes. When mobile users or heavy loads are concerned, there will often be a handoff from one base station to another, and not only from 802.11 but from other (GSM, Bluetooth, PCS and other cordless phone) networks. Accordingly, IEEE 802.21, which specifies this handoff between nodes both obeying 802.11s and otherwise, may be required. This is especially likely if a longer-range lower-bandwidth service is deployed to minimize mesh dead zones, e.g. GSM routing based on OpenBTS.  Mesh networking often involves network access by previously unknown parties, especially when a transient visitor population is being served. Thus the accompanying IEEE 802.11u standard will be required by most mesh networks to authenticate these users without pre-registration or any prior offline communication. "Pre-standard captive portal approaches are also common. See the more detailed description below of mesh security."

Timeline.

802.11s started as a Study Group of IEEE 802.11 in September 2003. It became a Task Group in July 2004. A call for proposals was issued in May 2005, which resulted in the submission of 15 proposals submitted to a vote in July 2005. After a series of eliminations and mergers, the proposals dwindled to two (the "SEE-Mesh" and "Wi-Mesh" proposals), which became a joint proposal in January 2006. This merged proposal was accepted as draft D0.01 after a unanimous confirmation vote in March 2006.  The draft evolved through informal comment resolution until it was submitted for a Letter Ballot in November 2006 as Draft D1.00. Draft D2.00 was submitted in March 2008 which failed with only 61% approval. A year was spent clarifying and pruning until Draft D3.00 was created which reached WG approval with 79% in March 2009.  The Task Groups stated goal for the May 2009 802.11 meeting is to start resolving comments from its new Letter Ballot.  In June 2011 the fifth recirculation Sponsor Ballot, on TGs Draft 12.0, was closed. The Draft met with 97.2% approval rate.  The 2012 release of the 802.11 specification (802.11-2012) directly incorporates Mesh Routing functionality. The IEEE page for 802.11s lists that specification as superseded.

802.11 mesh architecture.

An 802.11s wireless mesh network device is labelled as Mesh Station (mesh STA), or simply an ad hoc node. Mesh STAs form mesh links with one another, over which mesh paths can be established using an ad hoc mobile routing protocol. A key aspect of this architecture is the presence of multi-hop wireless links and routing of packets through other nodes towards the destination nodes.

Routing protocols.

"This should be expanded into a treatment of all the compatible routing protocols."  802.11s defines a default mandatory routing protocol (Hybrid Wireless Mesh Protocol, or HWMP), yet allows vendors to operate using alternate routing protocols. HWMP is inspired by a combination of AODV (RFC 3561), which uses on-demand ad hoc routing approach and tree-based routing. Examples of on-demand ad hoc routing are Dynamic Source Routing and Associativity-Based Routing. AODV route discovery and localized route repair approaches are identical to Associativity-based Routing. Prior work has discussed and compared these various routing protocols in detail.  Mesh STAs are individual devices using mesh services to communicate with other devices in the network. They can also collocate with 802.11 Access Points (APs) and provide access to the mesh network to 802.11 stations (STAs), which have broad market availability. Also, mesh STAs can collocate with an 802.11 portal that implements the role of a gateway and provides access to one or more non-802.11 networks. In both cases, 802.11s provides a proxy mechanism to provide addressing support for non-mesh 802 devices, allowing for end-points to be cognizant of external addresses.  802.11s also includes mechanisms to provide deterministic network access, a framework for congestion control and power save.

Mesh security.

There are no defined roles in a mesh — no clients and servers, no initiators and responders. Security protocols used in a mesh must, therefore, be true peer-to-peer protocols where either side can initiate to the other or both sides can initiate simultaneously.

Peer authentication methods.

Between peers, 802.11s defines the secure password-based authentication and key establishment protocol Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE). SAE is based on Diffie–Hellman key exchange using finite cyclic groups which can be a primary cyclic group or an elliptic curve. The problem on using Diffie–Hellman key exchange is that it does not have an authentication mechanism. So the resulting key is influenced by a pre-shared key and the MAC addresses of both peers to solve the authentication problem.  When peers discover each other (and security is enabled) they take part in an SAE exchange. If SAE completes successfully, each peer knows the other party possesses the mesh password and, as a by-product of the SAE exchange, the two peers establish a cryptographically strong key. This key is used with the "Authenticated Mesh Peering Exchange" (AMPE) to establish a secure peering and derive a session key to protect mesh traffic, including routing traffic.

Usage.

IEEE 802.11s amendment is supported by many products such as open80211s, OLPC. In open80211s smaller meshes of under 32 nodes are supported. Some of the projects are based on earlier (draft) versions.

Linux.

A reference implementation of the 802.11s draft is available as part of the mac80211 layer in the Linux kernel, starting with version 2.6.26. The Linux community, with its many diverse distributions, provides a heterogenous testing ground for protocols like Hybrid Wireless Mesh Protocol. OpenWrt, a Linux distribution for routers, supports mesh networking.

BSD.

In FreeBSD, 802.11s draft is supported starting with FreeBSD 8.0.

Google Wifi.

The Google Wifi router uses the 802.11s mesh networking protocol.

MeshPoint.One.

The MeshPoint.One router uses 802.11s mesh networking protocol

IEEE 802.11s is Wireless LAN standard and an IEEE 802.11 amendment for mesh networking, defining how wireless devices can interconnect to create a WLAN mesh network, which may be used for relatively fixed (not mobile) topologies and wireless ad hoc networks. The IEEE 802.11s working group draws upon volunteers from university and industry to provide specifications and possible design solutions for wireless mesh networking. As a standard, the document was iterated and revised many times prior to finalization.

IEEE 802.11s,电机电子工程师学会(IEEE)标准之一,为802.11中对于无线网状网络的延伸与增补标准(amendment)。它规范了无线装置之间如何进行互动,以形成 WLAN网状网络,可以被用来形成无线随意网络。


Improvements.

Streaming.

Generally, file transfer protocols break down a file into a series of "packet"s, and then send them one-at-a-time to the receiver. Each packet is sent with a "checksum" or "cyclic redundancy check" (CRC) that can be used to determine if the packet was received correctly. If the packet is received correctly an ACK message is sent and the sender then starts sending the next packet.  The telephone system introduces a small delay known as "latency" that interferes with this process. Even if the receiver sends the ACK immediately, the delay in the phone lines means there will always be some time before the sender receives it and sends the next packet. As modem speeds increase, this delay represents a larger and larger number of packets that could have been sent during the delay, decreasing the "channel efficiency".  XMODEM used 128-bytes of data, the "payload", in its packet format. In the era of 300 bps modems, a packet took about four seconds to send, and typical latencies were on the order of of a second, so the performance overhead was not significant. However, as speeds increase the problem became acute; at 2400 bps a packet takes about to send, so about of the available bandwidth is wasted waiting for ACKs. At 9600 bps a packet requires only 0.13 seconds to send, so about of the bandwidth is wasted.  One solution to this problem is the use of a sliding window. These protocols address latency by allowing the sender to continue sending a number of packets without waiting for an ACK. The number of packets that it allows to continue is the "window", which was typically between two and sixteen packets in most implementations. A number of new versions of XMODEM with sliding window support appeared in the early 1980s.  Sliding windows are useful for latencies on the order of several packet lengths, which is the case for XMODEM on conventional phone lines. However, it is not enough to address longer latencies found on overseas phone calls or X.25 services such as PC Pursuit, where the latencies are on the order of a second or longer. In other cases, where the reverse channel was much slower than the sending one, as was the case for Telebit or US Robotics modems, even the small number of ACKs might overwhelm the return channel and cause the transfer to pause.  ZMODEM addressed these problems by removing the need for ACKs at all, allowing the sender to send data continually as long as the receiver detected no errors. Only NAKs had to be sent, if and only if there was a problem. Since ZMODEM was often used on links with built-in error correction, like X.25, the receiver would often not send a single message back to the sender. As a result, the system would send the entire file in a continual stream, and ZMODEM referred to itself as a "streaming protocol".  ZMODEM's performance was so improved over previous common protocols that it generally replaced even special protocols such as YMODEM-g, which included no error correction at all and instead relied on error-free links maintained by the modems. Although YMODEM-g was faster, the lack of other features such as restartable transfers made it less appealing.

Restart.

XMODEM, and most protocols based on it, managed packet order by prefixing the data with a packet number from 1 to 255. Windowed versions used this packet number to indicate which packets had been received property, or specify one that had not. Since the packets were 128 bytes long, this meant the maximum amount of data that could be transferred before the packet numbers rolled over was 32 kB.  ZMODEM replaced the packet number with the actual location in the file, indicated by a 32-bit number. This allowed it to send NAK messages that re-wound the transfer to the point of failure, regardless of how long the file might be. This same feature was also used to re-start transfers if they failed or were deliberately interrupted. In this case, the receiver would look to see how much data had been previously received and then send a NAK with that location, automatically triggering the sender to start from that point.

Auto-start.

Auto-starting simplified management by allowing the sending machine to start the transfer. Previously the user had to first request the file from the sender, placing it into a "waiting" state, then return to their local program and invoke a command to start the transfer. With auto-transfer, they simply requested the file, the sender would then automatically trigger the transfer in the user's program.

Variations.

A number of modified versions of ZMODEM appeared. ZedZap was a variant of ZMODEM with 8 kbyte blocks for better performance on high-speed modems. LeechZmodem was a mischievous ZMODEM variant (among similar XMODEM and YMODEM derivatives) that cheated BBS download quotas. A backwards compatible extension of ZMODEM with 32 kbyte and 64 kbyte block lengths was created by ADONTEC in 2002 and 2007 to increase performance on high-speed error free connections like ISDN or TCP/IP networks.  The most notable ZMODEM implementations were from Chuck Forsberg's Omen Technology, Inc. These included DSZ (DOS Send ZMODEM), GSZ (Graphical Send ZMODEM), and the ubiquitous (l)rzsz for Unix variants.  In more current times, the developers of Synchronet have created a modern X/Y/ZMODEM implementation named SEXYZ, loosely based on the zmtx/zmrx package, which runs natively on Windows and Unix variants, supports long filenames and faster, more reliable data transfers. The ZMODEM implementation from SEXYZ has also been incorporated into the SyncTERM project. Synchronet, SEXYZ, and SyncTERM are all open-source, cross-platform, BBS-centric projects.  Forsberg himself collected a number of improvements into ZMODEM-90. The first of these is MobyTurbo, which removed control quoting to further improve performance, about 15%. Even on networks that "eat" control characters, ZMODEM-90 can be tailored to quote only those characters the network actually eats, as opposed to every possible one. A similar improvement allows ZMODEM-90 to work on 7-bit networks, whereas earlier protocols (with the notable exception of Kermit) had all demanded 8-bits to one degree or another. Finally, ZMODEM-90 includes a basic run-length encoding compression system to further improve performance on uncompressed files.

ZMODEM is a file transfer protocol developed by Chuck Forsberg in 1986, in a project funded by Telenet in order to improve file transfers on their X.25 network. In addition to dramatically improved performance compared to older protocols, ZMODEM also offered restartable transfers, auto-start by the sender, an expanded 32-bit CRC, and control character quoting supporting 8-bit clean transfers, allowing it to be used on networks that would not pass control characters.

ZMODEM是由Chuck Forsberg于1986年在由Telenet资助的项目中开发的文件传输协议,用于改进其X.25网络上的文件传输。 除了与旧协议相比显着提高的性能外,ZMODEM还提供可重新启动的传输,发送器自动启动,扩展的32位CRC以及支持8位干净传输的控制字符引用,支持无法传输控制字符的网络。 20世纪90年代初,ZMODEM在公告板系统 (BBS)上变得非常流行,取代了早期的协议,如XMODEM和YMODEM 。


History.

Early years (1950–1954).

The city of Dresden had played a significant part in German football before and during World War II with local club Dresdner SC earning national championships in 1943 and 1944. After the war the occupying Allied authorities dissolved organizations across the country, including sports and football clubs like SC, as part of the process of denazification. DSC was reestablished in 1946 as "SG Friedrichstadt", but with the eastern part of the country, including Dresden, under Soviet control, authorities considered the club to be too bourgeois. After a riot at the final of the 1950 East German championship, the club was dissolved.  The city needed a new, ideologically safe representative, and a new football club as founded, as part of "SG Deutsche Volkspolizei Dresden". A team was assembled with players delegated from 11 other police-affiliated clubs, and quickly established itself as a force in East German football, winning its first cup in 1952. In April 1953, the central sports society SV Dynamo was founded, to which VP Dresden were affiliated, taking the name of "SG Dynamo Dresden". Shortly after this the club claimed its first East German title.  This success, though, proved to be the club's undoing. Erich Mielke, president of SV Dynamo and at the time deputy head of the Stasi, was unhappy that Dresden was enjoying footballing success, while the capital, East Berlin, lacked a strong footballing team. In 1954, Dynamo's team were moved to Berlin, to form SC Dynamo Berlin. Among the players lost to Berlin were Dynamo's first internationals, including Johannes Matzen, Herbert Schoen and Günter Schröter, while the remainder of the club was left to regroup in the second-tier DDR-Liga. Political factors and pressure from Erich Mielke were probably the main reasons behind the relocation. The relocation was meant to provide the capital with a team that could rival Hertha BSC, Blau-Weiß 1890 Berlin and Tennis Borussia Berlin, which were still popular in East Berlin and drew football fans to West Berlin.

Re-emergence (1954–1969).

Dynamo Dresden were left with a team composed of youth and reserve players, and by 1957 had dropped to the fourth tier, playing in the local Bezirksliga. They began to climb the leagues, though, and by 1962 they were back in the DDR-Oberliga, and although this first season ended in relegation, they bounced back immediately. They recovered equally well from another relegation in 1968, and remained in the Oberliga from 1969 until its dissolution in 1991. This relegation came after a fourth-place finish in 1967, which enabled Dynamo's first foray into European football – they entered the 1967–68 Fairs Cup, where they were eliminated by Scottish side Rangers in the first round.  During the 1965–66 season, 11 East German clubs were separated from their parent sports clubs to be designated as Fußballclubs: clubs focused entirely on football, where the country's best talent would be transferred with the object of developing players for the national team. Dynamo Dresden were one of these, although they retained the title of "Sportgemeinschaft (SG)".

Glory years (1969–1978).

During the 1970s, Dynamo established themselves as one of the top teams in East Germany, under the management of Walter Fritzsch. They won five league titles (1971, 1973, 1976, 1977 and 1978), and two cups, (1971 and 1977). They battled with 1. FC Magdeburg for domination of the league, and became the most popular the side in the country, regularly drawing crowds of 25,000, around three times what other clubs were attracting. They also began to establish themselves as a presence in European football – they played in European competition every year during the 1970s, and eliminated some big names – beating FC Porto, Juventus and Benfica on their way to four quarter-final finishes. During this time Dynamo came up against West German opposition for the first time, losing against Bayern Munich 7–6 on aggregate in the last 16 of the 1973–74 European Cup. On three occasions they were eliminated by English side Liverpool, twice in the UEFA Cup and once in the European Cup, and each time Liverpool went on to win the competition. In 1973, Hans-Jürgen Kreische was the first Dynamo Dresden player to be named East German Footballer of the Year, and was followed by Hans-Jürgen Dörner in 1977. Kreische was the league's leading goalscorer on four occasions, and was named in East Germany's squad for the 1974 World Cup, along with teammate Siegmar Wätzlich.  History was to repeat itself, though, at the end of the 1970s. Erich Mielke, again jealous that provincial clubs were dominating the league while his beloved BFC Dynamo were starved of success, allegedly began to manipulate the league in favour of the side from the capital.

Capital dominance (1978–1991).

East German football had generally been set up in favour of the "Fußballclubs", who were usually delegated the best players, but the authorities had usually kept out of on-pitch matters. This changed in the late-1970s and 80s though, as players and referees were allegedly coerced by the Stasi into helping the cause of BFC Dynamo. BFC Dynamo won ten consecutive titles, from 1979 to 1988. Of all clubs, Dynamo Dresden were the most affected by their success, finishing second on six occasions.  However, Dynamo Dresden also had its patrons. According to Hans-Jürgen Dörner, the club was helped to remain a top club by three local politicians. One of them was Hans Modrow, long time SED First secretary in Bezirk Dresden. And another one was Manfred Scheler, the head of the Regional Council, who was active in using his connections to provide players with shortage goods and services, such as a cars and apartments. The club also benefited from support by Stasi Major General Horst Böhm, the Head of the Regional Administration of the Stasi in Dresden, who took involvement in the appointment and dismissal of trainers and the contracts of players. According to Hans-Jürgen Dörner, Horst Böhm put local patriotism first in the rivalry with BFC Dynamo. And the rivalry between fans of the two Dynamo clubs even spread to members of Stasi's own units in Dresden.  Walter Fritzsch had retired in 1978, and was succeeded by Gerhard Prautzsch, who was in turn followed by former players Klaus Sammer (1983–86), Eduard Geyer (1986–90) and Reinhard Häfner (1990–91). The star players of the 1970 were replaced by a new generation, including Torsten Gütschow, Ulf Kirsten, Matthias Sammer, and Andreas Trautmann, although the club lost three key players in 1981: Gerd Weber, who along with teammates Peter Kotte and Matthias Müller had been offered a lucrative contract with 1. FC Köln, intended to flee to the West while in Udine for national team match against Italy in April 1981. The Stasi somehow got wind of this plan, and in January 1981 the three players were arrested at Schönefeld Airport, from where the national team was about depart for Argentina, and banned for life from the DDR-Oberliga. Weber was sentenced to two years' imprisonment. Kotte and Müller, who had decided to stay in Dresden, were nonetheless punished for their knowledge of Weber's plans. Dynamo Dresden managed to win the FDGB-Pokal three times (1982 and 1984, 1985).  During the 1980s, the club continued to be a regular participant in European football, generally earning respectable results. In the 1985–86 Cup Winners' Cup, however, they were on the receiving end of a shocking defeat against Bayer Uerdingen of West Germany: having won the first leg 2–0, they were 3–1 up at half-time in the second leg, when goalkeeper Bernd Jakubowski was injured by Uerdingen's Wolfgang Funkel. Debutant Jens Ramme was introduced, and proceeded to let in six goals, as the team lost 7–3. In addition to this, striker Frank Lippmann took the opportunity of the match in Krefeld to escape to the west. Dynamo recorded their best ever European performance in the 1988–89 UEFA Cup, beating AS Roma on the way to a semi-final defeat against VfB Stuttgart. Their last European campaign was the 1990–91 European Cup, which ended in defeat to eventual winners Red Star Belgrade. Dynamo's fans rioted at the second leg, which resulted in the club being banned from Europe for the following season.  Towards the end of the 1980s, the Stasi's influence over football was waning, and Dynamo Dresden reclaimed the title in 1989, and retained it in 1990, adding a cup win to complete a double. By this point the Berlin Wall had fallen, and many of the top players in East Germany took the opportunity to head west. In the summer of 1990, Dynamo Dresden lost two star players, Ulf Kirsten and Matthias Sammer joining Bayer Leverkusen and VfB Stuttgart respectively. With German reunification looming, many clubs in the East changed their name to shed their Soviet image, and Dynamo Dresden changed from "SG" to the more traditional "1. FC". The Oberliga also changed name for its final season: the league, now called the NOFV-Oberliga, was used to determine which places the East German clubs would take in the unified German league. Dynamo Dresden finished second, behind Hansa Rostock, thus qualifying for the Bundesliga.

Bundesliga (1991–1995).

Having been among the top clubs in the East, Dynamo found life in the Bundesliga much harder, struggling both financially and on the pitch. They spent four years at this level, during which they were in a near-constant battle against relegation. Their highest placing was 13th in 1993–94, but the following year they succumbed to the drop, finishing in last place, having gone through three managers (Sigfried Held, Horst Hrubesch and Ralf Minge) during the season. To add to this, the club had accumulated debts of more than 10 million DM, and were denied a license to play in the 2. Bundesliga, and had to drop down to the third tier Regionalliga Nordost. Rolf-Jürgen Otto, the club's president was jailed for having embezzled around 3 Million DM from the club.  While many of the stars of the 1980s had moved west, some remained for Dynamo's Bundesliga tenure, including Torsten Gütschow and Hans-Uwe Pilz, while the club was able to attract players from other Eastern clubs, including Olaf Marschall, René Müller and Heiko Scholz. The fall of the wall brought the influx of Dynamo's first foreign players, and the club saw internationals from Australia (Mark Schwarzer), Poland (Piotr Nowak), Russia (Stanislav Cherchesov) and Sweden (Johnny Ekström), among others.

Ups and downs (1995–2006).

Dynamo sought to regroup in the Regionalliga, and again looked to former players to manage the team, being led by Hans-Jürgen Kreische (1995–96), Udo Schmuck (1996) and Hartmut Schade (1996–1998), but failed to seriously challenge for promotion. In 1998 they finished second in the table, but with 60 points: 32 behind champions Tennis Borussia Berlin. 1999–2000 saw a restructuring of the Regionalliga: the four leagues were to be reduced to two, and Dynamo would have to finish in the top 7 to avoid relegation. Having finished 11th in the previous season they turned to Colin Bell, an English coach who had had some success with youth football in Germany, but he left in March 2000 after poor results and a player revolt. Cor Pot, a Dutchman, was brought in to replace him, and he turned the team around, but it was too late – they finished in eighth place, and were relegated to the fourth-tier Oberliga Nordost-Süd. By this point Dynamo were not even the top team in Dresden: Dresdner SC had returned after reunification, and finished as runners-up in the Regionalliga Nordost in 2000.  Optimism was high, though, after the way the last season had ended, and the slogan ""Wir kommen wieder"" (we're coming back), was adopted. However, the Oberliga was now highly competitive with VfB Leipzig, 1. FC Magdeburg and FSV Zwickau also having been relegated, and Dynamo couldn't match the consistency of their main promotion rivals Magdeburg and Leipzig. A 2–1 defeat against Magdeburg in February ended their promotion chances, and Pot resigned. With nothing to play for, Dynamo slumped to fifth place. For the following season Christoph Franke was brought in as manager, and led the club to promotion – they won the league with only two defeats, and beat Hertha BSC's reserve team in a playoff to earn their place in the Regionalliga Nord. Dynamo's youth system was particularly successful during this period, with players including Lars Jungnickel, Silvio Schröter, Maik Wagefeld and Daniel Ziebig going on to play at a higher level.  Dynamo finished a respectable 7th in their first season back in the third tier, and followed that with another promotion, finishing second behind Rot-Weiß Essen. Life in the 2. Bundesliga began brightly, with a 3–1 win against MSV Duisburg, but by the halfway point of their first season they were facing relegation, with only 18 points. They recovered strongly in the second half of the season though, and finished in 8th place, thanks in part to signings such as Ansgar Brinkmann, Joshua Kennedy and Klemen Lavric. The 2005–06 season began in a similar way, as Dynamo climbed to third place with a 2–1 win over 1860 Munich in the Allianz Arena, but this was followed by thirteen matches without a win, resulting in the dismissal of Christoph Franke. Austrian manager Peter Pacult was brought in, with results improving temporarily, but Dynamo ultimately still failed to avoid relegation, finishing 15th.

Stabilization (2006–present).

Dynamo were back in the Regionalliga with the immediate aim of promotion, but despite a successful start, Peter Pacult left the club after six matches for a chance to manage his former club, Rapid Vienna. He was replaced by Norbert Meier, but Dynamo could not keep up their promotion bid, and finished seventh, due in part to poor away form. Another re-organisation of the league structure was looming, and Dynamo knew they'd have to finish in the top-10 to qualify for the new national 3. Liga. A number of former star players returned, including Lars Jungnickel, Marek Penksa and Maik Wagefeld, but results were not consistent, and Meier was sacked, replaced by former coach Eduard Geyer. Dynamo secured qualification on the last day, finishing eighth, but Geyer was dismissed due to disagreements with the board. In 2007, the club reverted to the name "SG Dynamo Dresden".  The club turned to Ruud Kaiser, a Dutchman with a good reputation at youth level, as Geyer's replacement. They played in the first ever match of the third Liga, beating Rot-Weiß Erfurt 1–0 with a goal from Halil Savran, but results were not consistent, and they could only finish in mid-table. The 2009–10 season began badly, and Dynamo were in relegation trouble, so Kaiser was sacked and replaced by Matthias Maucksch, a former player who had had some success with the reserve team. Maucksch managed to drag the team safely from relegation, and finished the season in 12th place. Mauksch led the team to contention for a playoff place during the 2010–11 season, but was sacked in April after a run of five games without a win, and was replaced by Ralf Loose. Loose ended the season unbeaten and secured third place, and a playoff against VfL Osnabrück which Dynamo won 4–2 on aggregate to earn promotion to the 2. Bundesliga.  Dynamo Dresden performed well in 2011–12 2. Bundesliga season. Reaching a stable place the team kept always away from struggling against relegation. While Dynamo Dresden had won the first round DFB-Pokal match against Bayer Leverkusen with 4–3 (after 0–3 in deficit), Dynamo was excluded from the 2012/2013 DFB-Pokal due to fan excesses and abuse of fireworks during the second round match against Borussia Dortmund (0–2) in a first trial. The sentence was later turned into one Game behind closed doors and one away game without own fan support. Virtual tickets were offered to reduce the financial loss, creating "the first sold-out Ghost Game in history". The 2012–13 season started poorly for Dynamo and Ralf Loose was sacked in December 2012 after a 3–0 defeat to VfL Bochum with the team in 15th place. He was replaced by Peter Pacult, returning to the club after more than six years. Dynamo's form improved after Pacult's arrival but the team still finished the league as 16th behind Erzgebirge Aue. Both teams had collected the same number of points, so Aue's better goal average made the difference. Due to this Dynamo had to enter relegation play-offs again after just two seasons, incidentally meeting VfL Osnabrück once more—with the roles reversed. Dynamo emerged victorious with 2–1 on aggregate and remains in the second tier for the 2013–14 season. Pacult was sacked in August 2013 after a poor start to the 2013–14 season, and replaced with Olaf Janßen. Jansen was unable to save the club from the drop to the 3. Liga after they lost 3–2 at home to relegation rivals Arminia Bielefeld to drop into 17th place, ultimately costing Jansen his job. Dynamo had drawn half of their matches, winning just five all season.  Under new coach Stefan Böger, the club completely overhauled the squad, and assembled one capable of winning promotion to the 2. Bundesliga. In August 2014, the team managed to knock Bundesliga giants FC Schalke 04 out of the first round of the DFB-Pokal, beating them with 2–1 at the DDV-Stadion. The team advanced to third round after beating VfL Bochum as 2–1 at extra time. But, the club was knocked out by Borussia Dortmund. Böger was sacked in 16 February 2015 and was replaced with Peter Németh. The team finished 3. Liga as 6th in 2014–15 season. Dynamo returned to second level after a 2–2 draw at away match against FC Magdeburg in 16 April 2016. Dynamo crowned as champions of 3. Liga after a 4–0 win against Wehen Wiesbaden at home match in 23 April 2016.

SV Dynamo.

When they were founded as "SG Volkspolizei", the club was sponsored by the East German police force, and in 1953, when they became "Dynamo Dresden" they were part of the SV Dynamo, the sport organization of the security agencies. Dynamo were the most powerful of all the sports societies, and this conferred certain advantages on the club. While many former security service clubs have struggled to shed their negative image, particularly BFC Dynamo, Dynamo Dresden remain popular and well-supported, having come to represent their home city.

Stadium.

Dynamo plays at the Rudolf-Harbig-Stadion, which was opened in 1923, and also originally named the "Rudolf-Harbig-Stadion" after local track and field athlete Rudolf Harbig. The stadium was renamed "Dynamo-Stadion" by the East German authorities in 1971, but reverted to its former name after the reunification. With an original capacity of 24,000 spectators, the stadium was rebuilt in the beginning of the 1990s, in line with DFB and FIFA regulations, and was thoroughly modernised between June 2007 and December 2009. The modernized stadium opened on 15 September 2009 with a friendly match against Schalke 04 and has a capacity of 32,066 spectators.

Supporters.

Dynamo were one of East Germany's best-supported clubs, regularly drawing crowds of around 25,000 during their heyday. Since reunification attendance levels have fluctuated along with the team's fortunes, while they were still one of the most well-supported teams in the lower leagues, drawing an average of around 10–15,000 fans in the 3. Liga. Following their 2011 advance to the 2nd League, they were again drawing crowds of 25,000. The 2013–14 season average attendance reached 27,004. Dynamo's supporters have very close relations with FK Sarajevo fans, Horde zla.

Relationships with other clubs.

Dynamo Dresden have a particularly fractious relationship with BFC Dynamo, who were formed out of the club in 1954, originally as a football section of SC Dynamo Berlin. BFC Dynamo were their main obstacle to success in the 1980s, but the two clubs rarely meet these days. 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig were traditionally Dynamo's main rivals in the battle for Saxon dominance, although this rivalry extends to other clubs including Chemnitzer FC, formerly FC Sachsen Leipzig, Erzgebirge Aue, and most recently upstart RB Leipzig, though the clubs' disparate financial capabilities have so far prevented them from ever playing in the same division, their only official encounter thus far being a first-round match in the 2016–17 DFB-Pokal season, in which Dresden celebrated a hard-fought victory.  Dynamo's most noteworthy rival in their home city are Dresdner SC, although they are perpetually ill-matched, as Dresdner SC are mired in local football leagues. Another club, SC Borea Dresden were formed out of "SG Dynamo Dresden-Heide", a former feeder club for Dynamo, but there is no longer an official connection.

Colours and crest.

When they were formed as "SG Volkspolizei Dresden", the club wore green and white, the state colours of Saxony, but when the team became part of SV Dynamo they adopted the sports society's wine red colour scheme. In 1968, the club adopted its current colours of yellow and black, the city colours of Dresden.  The club's original crest was built around the shield of the Volkspolizei, to whom they were affiliated. In 1953 they adopted the "D" logo of SV Dynamo, which was retained until reunification, when its wine red background was replaced with Saxon green. They reverted to the red background in the early 2000s.

Dynamo Dresden II.

The club's reserve team, Dynamo Dresden II, played until 2015 in the tier five NOFV-Oberliga Süd. It has played at this level since 2009 with a fourth place in 2012 as its best result. In March 2015 the club announced that it would withdraw the reserve team from league competition and instead enter it in a friendlies competition with the reserve teams of Chemnitzer FC, Hallescher FC, Sparta Prague, FC Slovan Liberec and FK Teplice. However, though the competition's name Future League would suggest a more organized and concrete structure, this has so far led to little more than an incoherent series of friendly matches between amateur teams, with the idea appearing to have been largely abandoned by the participating clubs, despite some declarations of intent.  The team also made a losing appearance in the 1995 Saxony Cup final and won the competition in 2009.

Manager history.

"Dynamo" enjoyed its greatest successes under Walter Fritzsch, capturing the first division DDR-Oberliga title in 1971, 1973, 1976, 1977, 1978, as well as finishing as vice-champions four times. The team also took the East German Cup (FDGB Pokal) in 1971 and 1977.

Notable former players.

As one of the leading clubs in East Germany, Dynamo Dresden provided 36 DDR internationals, including the country's second most-capped player, Hans-Jürgen Dörner, and its joint second top scorer, Hans-Jürgen Kreische. Twelve Dynamo players won Olympic medals, including six gold medallists in 1976. After German reunification a number of Dynamo players went on to represent the Germany national team, including Jens Jeremies, Ulf Kirsten, Olaf Marschall and Alexander Zickler.  Five Dynamo Dresden players were named East German Footballer of the Year: Hans-Jürgen Dörner, Hans-Jürgen Kreische, Andreas Trautmann, Ulf Kirsten and Torsten Gütschow. Dörner won the award three times, and the latter three players were its last three winners. Kreische and Gütschow were the leading scorers in the DDR-Oberliga seven times between them.  Perhaps the most notable Dynamo Dresden player is Matthias Sammer. He played for the club from 1985 to 1990, during which he won 23 caps for East Germany. He later made 51 appearances for Germany, winning the European Championship in 1996 and played at club level for VfB Stuttgart, Internazionale and Borussia Dortmund. With the latter he won two German titles, the UEFA Champions League and the Intercontinental Cup, and was named European Footballer of the Year in 1996.

Sportgemeinschaft Dynamo Dresden e.V., commonly known as SG Dynamo Dresden or Dynamo Dresden, is a German football club in Dresden, Saxony. It was founded on 12 April 1953, as a club affiliated with the East German police, and became one of the most popular and successful clubs in East German football, winning eight league titles. After the reunification of Germany, Dynamo played four seasons in the top division Bundesliga (1991–95), but have since drifted between the second and fourth tiers. The club currently plays in the 2. Bundesliga.

德累斯顿迪纳摩体育俱乐部(SG Dynamo Dresden)是一家德国的足球俱乐部。主场设在萨克森州城市德累斯顿。俱乐部成立于1950年,是德意志民主共和国的德国人民警察下属足球俱乐部。德累斯顿迪纳摩是东德最受欢迎和最为成功的足球俱乐部之一,过去曾八次获得东德足球甲级联赛的冠军。但在两德统一后,俱乐部陷入了动荡,在1991-1995年期间,参加过德甲联赛赛事。目前德累斯顿迪纳摩参加德国足球乙级联赛赛事。2013-2014赛季,球队在德乙排名第17名,降级德丙。2015–16赛季,球队摘得德丙冠军,重返德乙。


Structure and synthesis.

The molecule is bent. A double bond exists between N and O (distance = 1.16 Å) and a single bond between N and Cl (distance = 1.96 Å). The O–N–Cl angle is 113°.

Production.

Since nitrosyl chloride is chemically simple and thermally stable, it can be produced in many ways.

Occurrence in aqua regia.

NOCl also arises from the combination of hydrochloric and nitric acids according to the following reaction: In nitric acid, NOCl is readily oxidized into nitrogen dioxide. The presence of NOCl in aqua regia was described by Edmund Davy in 1831.

Reactions.

NOCl behaves as an electrophile and an oxidant in most of its reactions. With halide acceptors, for example antimony pentachloride, converts to nitrosonium salts: In a related reaction, sulfuric acid gives nitrosylsulfuric acid, the mixed acid anhydride of nitrous and sulfuric acid:  NOCl reacts with silver thiocyanate to give silver chloride and the pseudohalogen nitrosyl thiocyanate:  Nitrosyl chloride is used to prepare metal nitrosyl complexes. With molybdenum hexacarbonyl, NOCl gives the dinitrosyldichloride complex:

Applications in organic synthesis.

Aside from its role in the production of caprolactam, NOCl finds some other uses in organic synthesis. It adds to alkenes to afford α-chloro oximes. The addition of NOCl follows the Markovnikov rule. Ketenes also add NOCl, giving nitrosyl derivatives:  Epoxides react with NOCl to give an α-chloronitritoalkyl derivatives. In the case of propylene oxide, the addition proceeds with high regiochemistry:  It converts amides to "N"-nitroso derivatives. NOCl converts some cyclic amines to the alkenes. For example, aziridine reacts with NOCl to give ethene, nitrous oxide and hydrogen chloride.

Industrial applications.

NOCl and cyclohexane react photochemically to give cyclohexanone oxime hydrochloride. This process exploits the tendency of NOCl to undergo photodissociation into NO and Cl radicals. The oxide is converted to caprolactam, a precursor to Nylon-6.

Safety.

Nitrosyl chloride is very toxic and irritating to the lungs, eyes, and skin.

Nitrosyl chloride is the chemical compound with the formula NOCl. It is a yellow gas that is most commonly encountered as a decomposition product of aqua regia, a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid. It is a strong electrophile and oxidizing agent. It is sometimes called Tilden's reagent.

亚硝酰氯(化学式:NOCl)是一个常见的亚硝酰盐。室温下为不稳定的黄色气体,具刺鼻恶臭味,遇水分解,可溶于发烟硫酸中。存在于王水中。用作催化剂、有机化学试剂,也用于合成洗涤剂。具强腐蚀性,有毒,对眼部、皮肤和肺部有刺激性。


Etymology and meaning.

The word "Taṇhā" is derived from the Vedic Sanskrit word "tṛ́ṣṇā" (तृष्णा), which is related to the root "tarś-" (thirst, desire, wish), ultimately descending from Proto-Indo-European "*ters-" (dry). This word has the following Indo-European cognates: Avestan "taršna" (thirst), Ancient Greek "térsomai" (to dry), Gothic "þaursus" (dry), Old High German "durst" (dry), English "thirst". The word appears numerous times in the Samhita layer of the Rigveda, dated to the 2nd millennium BCE, such as in hymns 1.7.11, 1.16.5, 3.9.3, 6.15.5, 7.3.4 and 10.91.7. It also appears in other Vedas of Hinduism, wherein the meaning of the word is "thirst, thirsting for, longing for, craving for, desiring, eager greediness, and suffering from thirst".  "" is an important Buddhist concept, and found in its early texts. It literally means "thirst, longing, greed", either physical or mental.

Relation to Dukkha.

In the second of the Four Noble Truths, the Buddha identified as a principal cause in the arising of "dukkha" (suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness).  The "taṇhā", states Walpola Rahula, or "thirst, desire, greed, craving" is what manifests as suffering and rebirths. However, adds Rahula, it is not the first cause nor the only cause of "dukkha" or "samsara", because the origination of everything is relative and dependent on something else. The Pali canons of Buddhism assert other defilements and impurities (kilesā, sāsavā dhammā), in addition to taṇhā, as the cause of Dukkha. "Taṇhā" nevertheless, is always listed first, and considered the principal, all-pervading and "the most palpable and immediate cause" of "dukkha", states Rahula.  "Taṇhā", states Peter Harvey, is the key origin of "dukkha" in Buddhism. It reflects a mental state of craving. Greater the craving, more is the frustration because the world is always changing and innately unsatisfactory; craving also brings about pain through conflict and quarrels between individuals, which are all a state of Dukkha. It is such "taṇhā" that leads to rebirth and endless Samsara, stated Buddha as the second reality, and it is marked by three types of craving: sensory, being or non-existence. In Buddhist philosophy, there are right view and wrong view. The wrong views, it ultimately traces to "Taṇhā", but it also asserts that "ordinary right view" such as giving and donations to monks, is also a form of clinging. The end of "Taṇhā" occurs when the person has accepted the "transcendent right view" through the insight into impermanence and non-self.  Both appropriate and inappropriate tendencies, states Stephen Laumakis, are linked to the fires of "Taṇhā", and these produce fruits of "kamma" thereby rebirths. Quenching and blowing out these fires completely, is the path to final release from dukkha and samsara, in Buddhism. The Pali texts, states David Webster, repeatedly recommend that one must destroy "Taṇhā" completely, and this destruction is a necessary for nirvana.

Types.

The Buddha identified three types of "taṇhā":

Cessation of Taṇhā.

The third noble truth teaches that the cessation of "" is possible. The "Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta" states:  Cessation of can be obtained by following the Noble Eightfold Path. In Theravada Buddhism, the cessation results from the gaining of true insight into impermanence and non-self. The 'insight meditation' practice of Buddhism, states Kevin Trainor, focuses on gaining "right mindfulness" which entails understanding three marks of existence - "dukkha" (suffering), "anicca" (impermanence) and "anatta" (non-self). The understanding of the reality of non-self, adds Trainor, promotes non-attachment because "if there is no soul, then there is no locus for clinging". Once one comprehends and accepts the non-self doctrine, there are no more desires, i.e. taṇhā ceases.

Tanha versus Chanda.

Buddhism categorizes desires as either Tanha or Chanda. Chanda literally means "impulse, excitement, will, desire for".  Bahm states that Chanda is "desiring what, and no more than, will be attained", while Tanha is "desiring more than will be attained". However, in early Buddhist texts, adds Bahm, the term Chanda includes anxieties and is ambiguous, wherein five kinds of Chanda are described, namely "to seek, to gain, to hoard, to spend and to enjoy". In these early texts, the sense of the word Chanda is the same as Tanha.  Some writers such as Ajahn Sucitto explain Chanda as positive and non-pathological, asserting it to be distinct from negative and pathological Tanha. Sucitto explains it with examples such as the desire to apply oneself to a positive action such as meditation. In contrast, Rhys Davids and Stede state that Chanda, in Buddhist texts, has both positive and negative connotations; as a vice, for example, the Pali text associate "Chanda" with "lust, delight in the body" stating it to be a source of misery.  Chanda, states Peter Harvey, can be either wholesome or unwholesome.

Relation to the three poisons.

and avidya (ignorance) can be related to the three poisons:  According to Rupert Gethin, "taṇhā" is related to aversion and ignorance. Craving leads to aversion, anger, cruelty and violence, states Gethin, which are unpleasant states and cause suffering to one who craves. Craving is based on misjudgement, states Gethin, that the world is permanent, unchanging, stable, and reliable.  For example, in the first discourse of the Buddha, the Buddha identified "taṇhā" as the principal cause of suffering. However, his third discourse, the "Fire Sermon", and other suttas, the Buddha identifies the causes of suffering as the "fires" of "raga", "dosa" ("dvesha"), and "moha"; in the "Fire Sermon", the Buddha states that nirvana is obtained by extinguishing these fires.

' is a Pāli word, which originates from the Vedic Sanskrit word ', which means "thirst, craving, desire", from Proto-Indo-Iranian "*tŕ̥šnas". It is an important concept in Buddhism, referring to "thirst, desire, longing, greed", either physical or mental. It is typically translated as craving, and is of three types: "kāma-taṇhā" (craving for sensual pleasures), "bhava-taṇhā" (craving for existence), and "vibhava-taṇhā" (craving for non-existence).

爱(巴利文与),或译欲、欲、爱欲、贪爱、渴爱等等,字面意思是渴,十二因缘之一。因为得到某种感受(受),对于外境产生需要、不放弃的念头,希望能够得到(取),这是所有有情都会产生的基本冲动。


Club career.

Youth.

Kharja began his career with Paris Saint-Germain's youth side and in 2000 he joined Portuguese side Sporting Clube de Portugal.

Italy.

After only one season for Sporting, he joined Ternana in 2001. He played four impressive Serie B seasons for the "Rossoverdi", gaining a place in the Moroccan national team, and being loaned to Roma in 2005, with option to buy him in co-ownership deal for €3.6 million. Kharja played 12 matches and scored one goal during a 1–1 draw against Juventus.  At the end of the 2005–06 season, Roma decided not to extend Kharja's loan, so the Moroccan player returned to Ternana, but he refused this transfer because in the meantime the "Rossoverdi" had been relegated to Serie C1. Ternana considered him as their own player, and Lega Calcio Serie C even suspended him until 26 April 2007. After appeals, FIGC's court decided that Kharja was a free agent, and so, on 20 March 2007 he signed a three-year contract with Serie B team Piacenza. On January 2008, he was loaned to Siena for the second half of the season, with this deal being turned a permanent one on 11 July.  In June 2009, Genoa announced the club was reaching an agreement to sign the player and on 2 July the transfer from Siena was completed. Genoa got Kharja for €6.5 million, while Siena signed the remain 50% registration rights of Manuel Coppola for €1.5 million and the full rights of Gianluca Pegolo for €1 million.  It was announced on 29 January 2011, that Kharja had joined Internazionale on a loan deal with the option of Inter signing him permanently. He scored his first goal for Internazionale during his second appearance for the club against Bari on 3 February 2011. At the end of his loan spell, Inter decided not to give the player a permanent deal, and so he returned to Genoa.  On 18 August 2011, Fiorentina signed the player on a co-ownership deal, signing a two-year deal.

Qatar.

On 29 June 2012, Kharja signed a two-year deal with Qatari club Al-Arabi.  He was involved in an altercation with Al Gharafa player Nenê on 19 March 2013 in a Qatari Stars Cup match. After Kharja persistently fouled Nenê for the majority of the match, Nenê was sent off in an unrelated incident after a challenge on one of Kharja's teammates. When Nenê attempted to protest the referee's decision, Kharja shoulder-blocked him, preventing him from reaching the referee. Nenê responded by elbowing Kharja in the back of the head. After a delayed reaction, Kharja attacked Nenê, who was then being restrained by teammates. This induced a brawl between the two teams.  Harsh sanctions followed after the match, with four players being fined and banned from match play as well as a member of Al Arabi's staff being fined and warned. Kharja received the most harsh penalty, being fined QR 380,000 and receiving a ten-game ban, the largest penalty in the history of the Qatar Stars League. Later, on 31 March, after a 4–1 defeat to Lekhwiya in the league, Al Arabi terminated his contract as a result of the aftermath of the brawl. He later stated that he had not received notification that his contract was terminated.

France.

On 10 October 2014, Sochaux announced that Kharja had joined on a one-year contract after playing 16 years away from his native France.

Romania.

In September 2015, Kharja joined Romanian defending champions Steaua București on a one-year deal. He made his Liga I debut in the 3–1 win against Concordia Chiajna, three days after signing the contract.

Career statistics.

Club.

Sources:

Honours.

Club.

Inter Milan  Steaua București

Houssine Kharja (; born 9 November 1982) is a Moroccan former international footballer who played as a midfielder.

侯赛因·哈尔贾(Houssine Kharja,1982年-11月9日),是一名出生于法国的摩洛哥足球运动员,司职中场,目前卡塔尔足球甲级联赛俱乐部阿拉比。


Primary sources.

Locusta's career is described by the ancient historians Tacitus ("Annals" 12.66 and 13.15), Suetonius ("Life of Nero", 33 and 47), and Cassius Dio (61.34 and 63.3). Juvenal also mentions Locusta in Book 1, line 71 of his "Satires".

Biography.

Locusta was said to come from Gaul.

Poisons expert.

Locusta served as a poisons expert under empress Agrippina the Younger. According to some historians, in AD 54, already notorious and imprisoned on poisoning charges, Locusta was ordered by the empress Agrippina the Younger to supply a poison for the murder of her husband, Claudius. This was sprinkled on a mushroom and given to the emperor by his food-taster Halotus; when this poison appeared to be ineffectual, the doctor Gaius Stertinius Xenophon murdered Claudius with a poisoned feather ostensibly put down his throat to induce vomiting.  She reportedly advised Agrippina to use "Atropa belladonna" as a poison. Extracts of atropa have been used for poisoning since antiquity, as the plant and its fruits contain tropane alkaloids (primarily hyoscyamine and scopolamine). Atropa-derived poisons were commonly used in ancient Roman murders, and previous empress Livia reportedly used them to murder her contemporaries. The effective doses of atropa needed to cause hallucinations for up to four days, and the ones needed to kill a person were described by a 1st-century writer, Pedanius Dioscorides. Dioscorides called the plant "strychnos manikos" or "thryon".  In AD 55, while still imprisoned, Locusta was called upon by Agrippina's son, the emperor Nero, to concoct a poison to murder Claudius' son Britannicus. When this poison was slow to work, Nero flogged Locusta with his own hand and threatened her with immediate execution, whereupon she supplied a quicker-acting poison that succeeded. Nero rewarded Locusta with a full pardon and large country estates where he sent pupils to learn her craft. Before Nero fled Rome in AD 68, he acquired poison from Locusta for his own use and kept it in a golden box. He eventually died by other means.

Execution.

After Nero's suicide, Locusta was condemned to die by the emperor Galba during his brief reign, which ended 15 January AD 69. Along with Nero's favorites Helius, Patrobius, Narcissus and "others of the scum that had come to the surface in Nero's day", she was led in chains through the city and executed.

Legacy.

Juvenal refers to her in one of his "Satires", describing a poisoner as even more skilled than Locusta.  In the novel "The Count of Monte Cristo" (1844) by Alexandre Dumas, the poisoner Madame de Villefort is frequently compared to Locusta. Chapter 101 is entitled "Locusta".  Locusta was one of the characters depicted in the historical film "Humanity Through the Ages" (1908) by director Georges Méliès. The film was an episodic depiction of humanity's brutality throughout its history, and the historic episodes depicted were chosen because they involved fratricide, murders, religious persecution, physical abuse and public humiliation, prisons and executions of prisoners, torture, and violent criminal subcultures. The film is thought to be among the lost films from its era.  Locusta appears as a character in the 1965 "Doctor Who" story "The Romans", played by Ann Tirard. Described as the 'official poisoner to the court of Caesar Nero', she is portrayed as comically untroubled by the macabre nature of the service she provides.

Locusta or Lucusta (died 69), was a notorious maker of poisons in the 1st-century Roman Empire, active in the final two reigns of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. She supposedly took part in the assassinations of Claudius and Britannicus. She was a favourite of emperor Nero for several years, and Nero had her provide training to other poisoners in his service. Following Nero's death, Locusta was executed by his successor, Galba (reigned 68–69).

洛库斯塔(Locusta,?-69年)是古罗马一位臭名昭著的投毒者。


Taxonomy and systematics.

Placed in the monotypic genus Leucopsar, it appears to be most closely related to "Sturnia" and the brahminy starling which is currently placed in "Sturnus" but will probably soon be split therefrom as "Sturnus" as presently delimited is highly paraphyletic. The specific epithet commemorates the British ornithologist Lord Rothschild.

Description.

The Bali myna is a medium-large bird around in length. It is almost wholly white with a long, drooping crest, black wing-tips and tail tip. It has a yellow bill with blue bare skin around the eyes and legs. The black-winged starling ("Sturnus melanopterus"), a similar species, has a shorter crest and a much larger area of black on wings and tail, plus a yellow eye-ring (without feathers) and legs.

Distribution and habitat.

The Bali myna is restricted to the island of Bali (and its offshore islands) in Indonesia, where it is the island's only endemic vertebrate species. (An endemic subspecies, the Bali tiger, has been extinct since 1937). The bird was discovered in 1910, and in 1991 was designated the faunal emblem of Bali. Featured on the Indonesian 200 rupiah coin, its local name is "jalak Bali".

Behaviour and ecology.

In its natural habitat it is inconspicuous, using tree tops for cover and–unlike other starlings–usually coming to the ground only to drink or to find nesting materials; this would seem to be an adaptation to its noticeability to predators when out in the open. The Bali mynah often gathers in groups when it is young to better locate food and watch out for predators. The vocalizations are a variety of sharp chattering calls and an emphatic twat.  The Bali myna's diet includes fruit, seeds, worms and insects.

Breeding.

During the breeding season (the rainy season of Bali), males attract females by calling loudly and bobbing up and down. The birds nest in tree cavities, with the female laying and incubating two or three eggs. Both males and females bring food to the nest for chicks after hatching.

Status and conservation.

The Bali myna is critically endangered, and the wild population has been close to extinction since at least 1994. As of 2015, less than 100 adults are assumed to exist in the wild, with about 1,000 believed to survive in captivity. The Bali myna is listed in Appendix I of CITES. Trade even in captive-bred specimens is strictly regulated and the species is not generally available legally to private individuals. However, experienced aviculturalists may become affiliated with captive-breeding programs, allowing them to legally keep this species. The number of captive birds bought on the black market is estimated to be twice the number of legally acquired individuals in the captive breeding programs.  There are currently three locations on Bali where the birds exist in the wild: the West Bali National Park; Bali's small island of Nusa Penida and Begawan Foundation's breeding and release site at Melinggih Kelod, Payangan.

Bali myna breeding program.

A "breeding loan" involves 12 breeders who each received 15 male and 15 female from the Association of Starling Conservationists from Bogor, West Java. As collateral every breeder should put up a cow in case all the birds died. The breeders are obliged to release 10 percent of the brood into the national park and the rest can be sold off privately.

West Bali National Park.

There were an estimated 350 birds in the West Bali National Park in the 1980s. During the 1990s over 400 cage-bred birds were released into the park to increase their numbers. But by 2005, the park authorities estimated the number to have fallen to less than 10. This decline was caused primarily by poachers responding to the lucrative demand for rare birds in the caged bird market.

Nusa Penida island.

A population of Bali mynas now exists on the island of Nusa Penida and its sister islands of Nusa Ceningan, Nusa Lembongan, which are 14 km off the south east coast of Bali. The islands have been transformed into an unofficial bird sanctuary by Friends of National Parks Foundation (FNPF), an Indonesian NGO based in Bali. This was achieved by FNPF working for many years with the 40+ villages on the islands and persuading every village to pass a traditional Balinese village regulation to protect birds, and effectively removing the threat of poachers. Since then, FNPF has rehabilitated and released several endangered birds onto the island of Nusa Penida, including many Bali mynas supplied from multiple breeders.  The Begawan Foundation began its Bali Starling Breeding Program in Begawan Giri in 1999 with two pairs, which had grown to a population of 97 in 2005. A release program was started on Nusa Penida, where 64 individuals were released in 2006 and 2007. Monitoring of the released birds suggests that their numbers had increased to +100 by 2009, and had spread across Penida, with small numbers also breeding on Ceningan and Lembongan. A number of further captive-bred individuals have since been rewilded, including 6 individuals on neighboring Nusa Lembongan. The foundation expects to release approximately 10 Bali mynas each year. The birds will continue to be sourced from different breeders to increase the genetic diversity of the growing wild population on Nusa Penida. Begawan Foundation field staff have monitored the released birds on a daily basis since their release and have a dedicated Field Officer since 2010. Findings are regularly reported their findings to the Forestry Department, with photos and films taken of the birds' activities.  However, according to an audit undertaken by Begawan Foundation on both Nusa Penida and Nusa Lembongan in February and March 2015, less than 15 birds were seen to be flying in the wild. Calculations undertaken suggest that by 2015, even taking natural predation and death of older birds into account, there should be at least 200 birds flying on Nusa Penida today, indicating that illegal wildlife trade is heavily impacting the population.

Sibang, Central Bali.

In 2010, Begawan Foundation made a decision to move all its captive breeding Bali starlings from Nusa Penida to a new site at Sibang, near Ubud. The breeding program then recommenced with the aim to research new release sites close by. During 2011, a total of 23 Bali starlings were donated to BF's breeding program. Three birds were donated by Jurong Bird Park, and 20 came from a variety of zoos across Europe, members of the European Endangered Species Program, whose contributions of birds meant that new genetic lines would be introduced when the imported birds were paired with the local birds held at the breeding centre in Bali.  In November 2012, Begawan Foundation released four pairs of Bali starlings at its breeding site in Sibang. These birds were observed and their daily habits recorded by staff of the Foundation and students of the adjacent Green School. A program of conservation was undertaken with the local villages prior to the release and has the full support of the King of Sibang. Each bird has been ringed in order to identify it as it adapts to life in the wild. As this was a soft release, the birds often take the opportunity to return to the breeding site to find food and water. However, it is evident that new sources of fruit and a variety of insects are available in the immediate vicinity that provide a full and healthy diet for these birds and their offspring.  In 2014, there were three releases by Begawan Foundation at their site in Sibang. Three male birds and one female were released in April, with support from the local community. In June, Dr. Jane Goodall, during her visit to Bali, assisted in the release of two Bali starlings.

Melinggih Kelod, Payangan.

In late 2017, Begawan Foundation decided to concentrate its programs in Melinggih Kelod, Payangan, north of Ubud. A community-based conservation program began in the village in late 2017, providing local residents with the opportunity to breed Bali Starlings, and to be able to release F2 generation offspring within two years, and again in subsequent years. It is also envisaged that the community will be responsible for the safety of the Bali Starlings in the wild through serious monitoring and village traditional law enforcement. The Village officiated an “awik-awik” (local law) in November 2018, which has been signed by the Village Head as well as the Kelians (heads) of the banjars (village sections). The local law states that shooting/trapping/hunting the Bali Starling or any other protected wildlife in the area is prohibited. Any person from the community that is caught doing any of the above will pay a penalty of Rp10,000,000. The Foundation also released a number of Starlings in late 2018, creating a wild flock of Bali Starlings in the Village, which is protected by the community. It is hoped that the soft releases will give the offspring the chance to reproduce in the wild and that a program of eco-tourism can be developed to provide income for the village. Along with the community-based conservation program in Melinggih Kelod Village, the Foundation's Breeding and Release Centre has been relocated and is now centred in Banjar Begawan, one of the districts in the Village. This centre is open to the local community and the general public.

The Bali myna ("Leucopsar rothschildi"), also known as Rothschild's mynah, Bali starling, or Bali mynah, locally known as jalak Bali, is a medium-sized (up to long), stocky myna, almost wholly white with a long, drooping crest, and black tips on the wings and tail. The bird has blue bare skin around the eyes, greyish legs and a yellow bill. Both sexes are similar. It is critically endangered and fewer than 100 adults are assumed to currently exist in the wild.

长冠八哥 (学名:"Leucopsar rothschildi"),又名巴厘八哥或罗斯柴尔德八哥,是印尼巴厘岛至今唯一仍然生存的独有鸟类,现时野生数量不足30只,是一种极度濒危的稀有雀鸟。


Techniques.

The main techniques associated with the use of a Schlenk line include:  Glassware are usually connected by tightly fitting and greased ground glass joints. Round bends of glass tubing with ground glass joints may be used to adjust the orientation of various vessels. Glassware is necessarily purged of outside air by alternating application of vacuum and inert gas. The solvents and reagents that are used are also purged of air and water using various methods.  Filtration under inert conditions poses a special challenge that is usually tackled with specialized glassware. A Schlenk filter consists of sintered glass funnel fitted with joints and stopcocks. By fitting the pre-dried funnel and receiving flask to the reaction flask against a flow of nitrogen, carefully inverting the set-up, and turning on the vacuum appropriately, the filtration may be accomplished with minimal exposure to air.

Dangers.

The main dangers associated with the use of a Schlenk line are the risks of an implosion or explosion. An implosion can occur due to the use of vacuum and flaws in the glass apparatus.  An explosion can occur due to the common use of liquid nitrogen in the cold trap, used to protect the vacuum pump from solvents. If a reasonable amount of air is allowed to enter the Schlenk line, liquid oxygen can condense into the cold trap as a pale blue liquid. An explosion may occur due to reaction of the liquid oxygen with any organic compounds also in the trap.

The Schlenk line (also vacuum gas manifold) is a commonly used chemistry apparatus developed by Wilhelm Schlenk. It consists of a dual manifold with several ports. One manifold is connected to a source of purified inert gas, while the other is connected to a vacuum pump. The inert-gas line is vented through an oil bubbler, while solvent vapors and gaseous reaction products are prevented from contaminating the vacuum pump by a liquid-nitrogen or dry-ice/acetone cold trap. Special stopcocks or Teflon taps allow vacuum or inert gas to be selected without the need for placing the sample on a separate line.

舒伦克线,也可称为施伦克线(英文:Schlenk line, vacuum gas manifold),是一种由德国化学家威廉·舒伦克(Wilhelm Schlenk)发明的实验室常用化学仪器。它的核心部件一根带有多个通气接口的玻璃双排管。双排管中的一根与装有惰性气体(实验室一般使用氮气或氩气)的气体钢瓶相连,为连接在舒伦克线上的反应装置提供惰性气氛;另一根与真空泵连接,可为溶剂的脱气和空气敏感化合物的减压蒸馏提供真空环境,也可为反应装置的除水汽和脱氧气提供条件。惰性气体在进入双排管后会经过一个盛有石蜡油(选择石蜡油是因为它是一种化学惰性的高沸点难挥发液体)的鼓泡器,鼓泡器的作用是为了惰性气体的流量流速,同时也提供了一个连通大气环境的泄压通道以保证反应体系内的压力不会因持续通入惰性气体或因反应而产生的气体变得过高,也可保证在反应瓶内部因温度或化学反应产生负压(即瓶内压力小于外界大气压)时防止空气进入。


Gameplay.

"Star Fox 64" is a 3D scrolling shooter game in which the player controls one of the vehicles piloted by Fox McCloud, usually an Arwing. Most of the game takes place in "Corridor Mode", which forces Fox's vehicle down a fixed path straight forward through the environment. The player can maneuver somewhat around the path and slow their vehicle temporarily, but cannot truly stop or change direction. Some stages of the game, including most boss fights, take place in "All-Range Mode" by comparison (as does Multi-Player Mode). In this variant the player can move freely within the confines of a large arena to engage in combat.  In Corridor Mode, the player's vehicle can be maneuvered around the screen to dodge obstacles and shoot incoming enemies with laser cannons, and can also perform a somersault to get behind enemies or dodge projectiles. The Arwing is also capable of deflecting enemy fire while performing a spinning maneuver called a "barrel roll" (actually an aileron roll in real-life aviation terms). The Arwing and Landmaster can charge up their laser cannons to unleash a powerful lock-on laser. The Arwing can perform one new maneuver in All-Range Mode: an Immelmann up-and-over to change direction. In-game, this is called a U-turn.  Throughout the game, the player can fly or drive through power-ups to collect them. These include rings (Silver Ring/Gold Ring) that refills up the vehicle's shields, smart bombs, laser upgrades, wing repairs, and extra lives. Most stages also contain at least three gold rings - collecting three of these increases the vehicle's maximum shield level. If the player successfully collects three additional gold rings in the same stage, an extra life is awarded. Aside from the maximum shield boost, all power-ups carry over to the next stage. If the player runs out of lives, the game is over.  Returning from the original "Star Fox" are wingmen that fly beside the player in Arwings and are sometimes pursued into the player's field of view by enemies. If the player fails to defeat the enemies chasing a wingman, that wingman may be forced to retreat to the mothership "Great Fox" for repairs. The wingman will then be unavailable throughout the next stage. Each wingman provides a different form of assistance to the player: Slippy Toad scans bosses and displays their shields on the player's screen, Peppy Hare provides gameplay advice, and Falco Lombardi occasionally locates alternate routes through stages. Some stages also feature appearances from supporting characters that assist the team.  The game features a branching level system, in which more difficult paths are unlocked by completing certain objectives in the game. You can also change paths as well once the current mission is accomplished. All of the game's possible routes start at Corneria, eventually put the player in contact with the Star Wolf Team, and end in a confrontation with Andross.  To add replay challenge, the game features awardable medals, which are earned by accomplishing a mission with all wingmen intact and having achieved a certain hit total. These totals are often a high percentage of the total enemies on the stage, leaving little room for error. Obtaining medals results in unlocking bonus features, such as a sound test, Landmaster tank, and fight on foot in multiplayer mode. Acquiring all medals unlocks "Expert" mode in which there are more enemies per level, the player's Arwing takes more damage (a single direct collision with solid obstacles will destroy one of the Arwing's wings and rid the player of any laser upgrades), and Fox wears sunglasses like his father James. Acquiring all medals on Expert Mode unlocks a new title screen for the game.

Multiplayer.

"Star Fox 64" features multiplayer support for up to four players simultaneously. At first users can only play using the Arwing spaceship, but by earning certain medals in Story Mode, players can unlock the Landmaster tank and fight on foot as one of the four members of Star Fox equipped with a bazooka. Multiplayer is the only place where players can use a Landmaster with upgraded lasers.  There are three modes of multiplayer play: a "point match" in which the player must shoot down an opponent a certain number of times, a "battle royal" in which the last player left wins, and a "time trial" to destroy enemy fighters.

Vehicles.

The Arwing is the primary craft used by the Star Fox team. The Arwing can use its boost meter to perform four special moves to avoid collisions and get the drop on pursuers: boost, brake, the U-turn, and the aforementioned somersault.  A tanklike vehicle called the Landmaster is used for two levels in the game, Macbeth and Titania. Like the Arwing, the Landmaster can boost and brake but it cannot somersault. It can perform a barrel roll, but since it lacks an Arwing's force field, the Landmaster's barrel roll does not reflect enemy fire. Instead, the barrel roll is used to quickly move across the screen. The Landmaster can also hover a short while.  The Blue-Marine, a submarine designed by Slippy Toad, is available solely on the water planet Aquas. The Blue-Marine can upgrade its twin lasers, but it cannot make use of Smart Bombs. It makes up for this with an unlimited supply of torpedoes which not only damage enemies but also produce bright bursts of light, allowing the player to see in the ocean depths. The torpedoes can also lock-on to enemies just as the charged up lasers can in the other vehicles. The submersible also has a shot-deflecting barrel roll in addition to boost and brake capabilities.

Plot.

Characters.

The game's protagonist and playable character is Fox McCloud, a red fox and leader of the Star Fox team, who defends the Lylat system. His father, James, was part of the original Star Fox team, who was killed by Andross before the start of the game. Andross, a scientist from Corneria who was exiled to Venom after he nearly destroyed the planet, is the main antagonist of the game.  The Star Fox team is a group of mercenaries consisting of: Peppy Hare, a rabbit and member of the original Star Fox team; Slippy Toad, a frog and the mechanical and energetic expert of the team; and Falco Lombardi, a falcon who is cocky but an excellent fighter and is Fox's best friend. Helping the Star Fox team on their quest to defeat Andross are: General Pepper, a dog and leader of a militia force in Corneria; Bill Grey, a bulldog friend of Fox and commander of the Bulldog and Husky units; Katt Monroe, a friend and former fellow gang member of Falco; and ROB 64 (NUS64 in the Japanese version), a robot piloting the "Great Fox", Star Fox's headquarters, who gives them support along their quest.  Andross' henchmen include the Star Wolf mercenary team, consisting of: Wolf O'Donnell; Leon Powalski; Pigma Dengar, a former member of the Star Fox team with James McCloud; and Andrew Oikonny, Andross's nephew.

Story.

In Corneria, the fourth planet of the Lylat System, Andross is driven to madness and nearly destroys the planet using biological weapons. General Pepper exiles Andross to the remote planet Venom. Five years later, Pepper detects suspicious activity on Venom. Pepper hires the Star Fox team (including James McCloud, Peppy Hare, and Pigma Dengar) to investigate. After Pigma betrays the team and Andross captures James, Peppy escapes from Venom and informs Fox McCloud about James' fate.  Five years later, Andross launches an attack across the Lylat system. Defending Corneria, Pepper summons the new Star Fox team, now consisting of Fox, Peppy, Falco Lombardi and Slippy Toad. While traveling through several planets, the team battles with several of Andross' henchmen, including the rival mercenaries, Star Wolf. After the team arrives at Venom, Fox confronts and defeats Andross alone. Reunited with the Star Fox team, Fox returns to Corneria for a victory celebration. Pepper offers Fox the opportunity to join the Cornerian Army, but he declines it on his behalf for the team. The "Great Fox" and the Star Fox team fly off in their Arwings into the skies. Two endings are available depending on whether Fox approaches Venom and defeats Andross. The Easy route ending occurs when Fox arrives from Bolse and destroys a robotic version of Andross, leaving Andross drifting in the Lylat System. In the Hard route ending, Fox reveals Andross' true form as that of a floating brain, and kills him. However, James appears and leads Fox out from Venom.  In a post credits scene, Pepper receives a bill from Star Fox presenting the number of enemies killed and multiplies it by 64, resulting in the amount of money due. If the price is between $50,000 and $69,999 (between 781 and 1,093 enemies killed) he will say, "This is one steep bill...but it's worth it." If the price is over $70,000 (1,094 or more), he says "What?!" At this point, the bill is stamped.

Development.

The unreleased original second game in the "Star Fox" series, titled "Star Fox 2", was developed nearly to completion for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It was featured in several gaming magazines such as "Nintendo Power", but ultimately series creator Shigeru Miyamoto wanted to move the title to the more powerful Nintendo 64 system. Realizing how much of an improvement he could make over the two Super NES games, Miyamoto cancelled "Star Fox 2" in favor of a remake combining elements of the previous games. Miyamoto said: "All-Range Mode, Multi-Player Mode and the Star Wolf scenario all came from "Star Fox 2"."  Shigeru Miyamoto is a fan of English puppet dramas, such as "Thunderbirds". Consequently, when developing the animation sequences for "Star Fox 64", the staff made the characters' mouths pop open and closed like mouths of puppets. This reduced the amount of animation work put into the series.  According to IGN, the game cartridge contains approximately four megabytes of speech data, sampled at 8 kHz, compressed at a ratio of approximately 1:3 or 1:4.  The game was known as "Lylat Wars" in some territories because Nintendo considered that "Star Fox" sounded too similar to the name of the German company "StarVox", and were concerned that a legal dispute over the name might delay the release of the game.

Promotion.

"Nintendo Power" subscribers received a promotional video prior to "Star Fox 64"'s release (the same tactic was used to promote "Donkey Kong Country" as well as "Diddy Kong Racing", "Banjo-Kazooie", and "Hey You, Pikachu!" for the N64) that advertised the game's cinematic presentation, as well as new features like the Rumble Pak and voice acting. It revolves around two agents of Sega and Sony (who, at the time, were Nintendo's biggest competitors) kidnapping Nintendo employees and forcing them to reveal information about the upcoming "Star Fox" title by "torturing" a Mario doll.

Reception and legacy.

"Star Fox 64" received critical acclaim and was one of the top-selling games of 1997, second to "Mario Kart 64". Reviews hailed the level branching system, particularly its hinging on player performance and uncovering of secrets rather than simple path selection, saying it greatly enhances the challenge offered by the game. Most also found that the multiplayer modes were an ample source of replay value, with "Next Generation" in particular stating they "give "StarFox 64" a boost over other shooters." However, Crispin Boyer of "Electronic Gaming Monthly" considered them a waste, contending that the split screen makes targets too small to pinpoint. The game's voice clips were widely complimented, not for the quality of the acting, but for the unprecedented quantity of clips for a cartridge game. Critics also applauded the precise analog control, boss designs, rumble pak implementation, and cinematic cutscenes. "GamePro", which gave the game a perfect 5.0 out of 5 in all four categories, elaborated, "The analog joystick seriously kicks it here with its best performance to date, demonstrating impressively crisp response that enables you to pull the tight, white-knuckle moves you need to survive. The Rumble Pak teams up with the solid controls and scores as an all-time great add-on."  The most common criticism was that "Star Fox 64" was not as much of a leap over the original "Star Fox" as "Super Mario 64" was over previous Mario games, in particular that the gameplay, while offering a bit more freedom to roam, was still on rails. This perceived shortcoming did little to dull critics' response to the game, however. "GameSpot" reviewer Glenn Rubenstein declared "Star Fox 64" "an instant classic" and "a pleasure to look at". "EGM" gave it their "Game of the Month" award, with Dan Hsu calling it "a shooting fan's dream come true" and Shawn Smith "almost as good as Mario 64." IGN reviewer Doug Perry said it "demonstrates that shooters are more alive now than ever."  In the first five days of the game's U.S. launch, more than 300,000 copies were sold, surpassing the record previously held by "Mario Kart 64" and "Super Mario 64". It sold above 1 million units in the United States by the end of 1997, one of five Nintendo 64 games to do so. Sales were considerably less in Japan, where it sold 75,595 copies during the first week of sale. The game also took the #73 spot in "Nintendo Power's" "Top 200 Nintendo Games Ever".  The "GameSpot" review of the Wii Virtual Console version bestows a (7.6/10), praising its simple, enjoyable shooting gameplay, and lots of voice acting. The review says the game is nice to look at regardless of its graphic age, with added replay value in finding hidden paths, but found the lack of rumble support "alarming", especially since it is the first game to support the Rumble Pak.  "Star Fox 64" is listed as the 45th greatest game of all time by Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition in 2009. In 1997 "Electronic Gaming Monthly" ranked it the 39th best console video game of all time, citing its amazing visuals, huge amount of voice acting, and the deep challenge of earning medals on all stages and completing expert mode.

3DS remake.

At E3 2010, Nintendo announced a remake of "Star Fox 64" for the Nintendo 3DS, entitled "Star Fox 64 3D". There was a demo tested the same day at Nintendo's E3 2010 press conference. The demonstration had controls and character dialogue displayed on the touch screen. Nintendo added a kind of control that makes use of the Nintendo 3DS's gyroscope to control the Arwing in space. It supports multiplayer for up to four players via 3DS Download Play; however, the game does not have an online multiplayer mode. In the multiplayer mode, unlike the original version, players use the Arwing solely.  The remake uses eight voice tracks in total, as opposed to the original three: Japanese, English, Canadian French, European French, Latin American Spanish, Iberian Spanish, German, and Italian. These tracks are available as per Nintendo's standard regional localizations.  The players are able to use the inner camera to capture the expression of the player during multiplayer mode. It was released on July 14, 2011 in Japan, September 9, 2011 in both Europe and North America, and September 15, 2011 in Australia to generally favorable reviews. This marked the first time that "Star Fox 64" had been released in PAL territories under the original "Star Fox" name.

"Star Fox 64" was the first Nintendo 64 game to have included support for the Rumble Pak, with which it initially came bundled. The game has sold over 4 million copies since its release, making it one of the best-selling games on the system. The game received critical acclaim for its precise controls, multiplayer modes, voice acting and use of multiple gameplay paths. It has been deemed by many critics and gamers to be one of the greatest video games of all time.

是一款由任天堂情报开发本部制作、任天堂在任天堂64上发行的3D卷轴射击游戏。本游戏于1997年4月27日在日本地区发行,于1997年6月30日在北美地区发行。本游戏是以《星际火狐》重制,是星际火狐系列唯一在任天堂64发行的游戏。