History.

From 1978 through 1980 the race was held on the island of Oahu, the course combining that of three events already held there: the Waikiki Roughwater Swim (2.4 mi./3.86 km), the Around-Oahu Bike Race (115 mi./185.07 km, originally a two-day event), and the Honolulu Marathon. The bike stage was reduced by 3 miles to link it to the start of the marathon course. In 1981 the race was moved to the less urbanized Big Island, keeping the distances the same: a open water swim in Kailua-Kona Bay, a bike ride across the Hawaiian lava desert to Hāwī and back, and a marathon (26 miles 385 yards, 42.195 km) run along the coast of the Big Island from Keauhou to Keahole Point and back to Kailua-Kona, finishing on Alii Drive.  Since 1982, the race has been held in the fall each year, before which it was held in the spring, giving two races in 1982. The most recent Ironman World Championship took place on 12 October 2019. Qualifying for the World Championship is achieved through placement in one of the other Ironman races or some Ironman 70.3 races. For the 2017 event there were 40 qualifying Ironman races and 4 at the 70.3 distance.  The current Ironman Hawaii course record was set in 2019 by Jan Frodeno (Germany), whose winning time was 7 hrs 51 min 13 sec. The women's course record is 8 hrs 26 mins 18 sec, set in 2018 by Daniela Ryf (Switzerland).  Athletes with disabilities compete in the event in the physically challenged category, which was instituted in 1997, and are required to meet the same cutoff times as able bodied competitors. Australian John Maclean was the first physically challenged athlete to complete the event.  Paula Newby Fraser was a citizen and represented the United States for the 1996 race

Ironman lottery.

Until 2015, individuals could enter a lottery for the chance to participate in the Ironman World Championship. The lottery entry fee was $50 and afforded the chance to win one of 100 berths in the championship race. If selected the winners then had to pay the normal entry fee.  However, according to a sworn complaint filed with the U.S. District Court in Tampa, Florida, Ironman illegally charged athletes for a chance to win the opportunity to compete in the Ironman World Championship. According to Florida law, the state where the World Triathlon Corporation resides, it is illegal to set up and charge for a lottery. Because WTC charged a $50 fee to enter the lottery, instead of giving away the opportunity to win a slot at the championships, they were in violation of this law. Following the complaint WTC cooperated with the United States Attorneys office and the FBI's investigation of the matter and agreed to forfeit $2,761,910, the amount collected from the lottery since 24 October 2012. The attorney representing the United States in the matter was 8-time Ironman finisher James A. Muench.  Winners of the 2015 lottery were notified on 17 March 2015, prior to the announcement of the complaint. WTC stated that these winners would be unaffected by this decision and that their slots for the upcoming championship race would be honored.

The Ironman World Championship has been held annually in Hawaii since 1978, with an additional race in 1982. It is owned and organized by the World Triathlon Corporation. It is the annual culmination of a series of Ironman triathlon qualification races held throughout the world.

自1978年以来, 铁人三项世界锦标赛 每年在 夏威夷 举行一次,1982年加赛一次。赛事所有者和组织者为 世界铁人公司,是一年一度席卷世界铁人爱好者的终极资格赛事。


Properties.

The concept of virtual particles arises in the perturbation theory of quantum field theory, an approximation scheme in which interactions (in essence, forces) between actual particles are calculated in terms of exchanges of virtual particles. Such calculations are often performed using schematic representations known as Feynman diagrams, in which virtual particles appear as internal lines. By expressing the interaction in terms of the exchange of a virtual particle with four-momentum, where is given by the difference between the four-momenta of the particles entering and leaving the interaction vertex, "both momentum and energy are conserved at the interaction vertices" of the Feynman diagram.  A virtual particle "does not precisely obey the energy–momentum relation". Its kinetic energy may not have the usual relationship to velocity. It can be negative. This is expressed by the phrase "off mass shell". The probability amplitude for a virtual particle to exist tends to be canceled out by destructive interference over longer distances and times. As a consequence, a real photon is massless and thus has only two polarization states, whereas a virtual one, being effectively massive, has three polarization states.  Quantum tunnelling may be considered a manifestation of virtual particle exchanges. The range of forces carried by virtual particles is limited by the uncertainty principle, which regards energy and time as conjugate variables; thus, virtual particles of larger mass have more limited range.  Written in the usual mathematical notations, in the equations of physics, there is no mark of the distinction between virtual and actual particles. The amplitudes of processes with a virtual particle interfere with the amplitudes of processes without it, whereas for an actual particle the cases of existence and non-existence cease to be coherent with each other and do not interfere any more. In the quantum field theory view, actual particles are viewed as being detectable excitations of underlying quantum fields. Virtual particles are also viewed as excitations of the underlying fields, but appear only as forces, not as detectable particles. They are "temporary" in the sense that they appear in some calculations, but are not detected as single particles. Thus, in mathematical terms, they never appear as indices to the scattering matrix, which is to say, they never appear as the observable inputs and outputs of the physical process being modelled.  There are two principal ways in which the notion of virtual particles appears in modern physics. They appear as intermediate terms in Feynman diagrams; that is, as terms in a perturbative calculation. They also appear as an infinite set of states to be summed or integrated over in the calculation of a semi-non-perturbative effect. In the latter case, it is sometimes said that virtual particles contribute to a mechanism that mediates the effect, or that the effect occurs through the virtual particles.

Manifestations.

There are many observable physical phenomena that arise in interactions involving virtual particles. For bosonic particles that exhibit rest mass when they are free and actual, virtual interactions are characterized by the relatively short range of the force interaction produced by particle exchange. Confinement can lead to a short range, too. Examples of such short-range interactions are the strong and weak forces, and their associated field bosons.  For the gravitational and electromagnetic forces, the zero rest-mass of the associated boson particle permits long-range forces to be mediated by virtual particles. However, in the case of photons, power and information transfer by virtual particles is a relatively short-range phenomenon (existing only within a few wavelengths of the field-disturbance, which carries information or transferred power), as for example seen in the characteristically short range of inductive and capacitative effects in the near field zone of coils and antennas.  Some field interactions which may be seen in terms of virtual particles are:  Most of these have analogous effects in solid-state physics; indeed, one can often gain a better intuitive understanding by examining these cases. In semiconductors, the roles of electrons, positrons and photons in field theory are replaced by electrons in the conduction band, holes in the valence band, and phonons or vibrations of the crystal lattice. A virtual particle is in a virtual state where the probability amplitude is not conserved. Examples of macroscopic virtual phonons, photons, and electrons in the case of the tunneling process were presented by Günter Nimtz and Alfons A. Stahlhofen.

Feynman diagrams.

The calculation of scattering amplitudes in theoretical particle physics requires the use of some rather large and complicated integrals over a large number of variables. These integrals do, however, have a regular structure, and may be represented as Feynman diagrams. The appeal of the Feynman diagrams is strong, as it allows for a simple visual presentation of what would otherwise be a rather arcane and abstract formula. In particular, part of the appeal is that the outgoing legs of a Feynman diagram can be associated with actual, on-shell particles. Thus, it is natural to associate the other lines in the diagram with particles as well, called the "virtual particles". In mathematical terms, they correspond to the propagators appearing in the diagram.  In the adjacent image, the solid lines correspond to actual particles (of momentum p and so on), while the dotted line corresponds to a virtual particle carrying momentum "k". For example, if the solid lines were to correspond to electrons interacting by means of the electromagnetic interaction, the dotted line would correspond to the exchange of a virtual photon. In the case of interacting nucleons, the dotted line would be a virtual pion. In the case of quarks interacting by means of the strong force, the dotted line would be a virtual gluon, and so on. Virtual particles may be mesons or vector bosons, as in the example above; they may also be fermions. However, in order to preserve quantum numbers, most simple diagrams involving fermion exchange are prohibited. The image to the right shows an allowed diagram, a one-loop diagram. The solid lines correspond to a fermion propagator, the wavy lines to bosons.

Vacuums.

In formal terms, a particle is considered to be an eigenstate of the particle number operator aa, where a is the particle annihilation operator and a the particle creation operator (sometimes collectively called ladder operators). In many cases, the particle number operator does not commute with the Hamiltonian for the system. This implies the number of particles in an area of space is not a well-defined quantity but, like other quantum observables, is represented by a probability distribution. Since these particles do not have a permanent existence, they are called "virtual particles" or "vacuum fluctuations" of vacuum energy. In a certain sense, they can be understood to be a manifestation of the time-energy uncertainty principle in a vacuum.  An important example of the "presence" of virtual particles in a vacuum is the Casimir effect. Here, the explanation of the effect requires that the total energy of all of the virtual particles in a vacuum can be added together. Thus, although the virtual particles themselves are not directly observable in the laboratory, they do leave an observable effect: Their zero-point energy results in forces acting on suitably arranged metal plates or dielectrics. On the other hand, the Casimir effect can be interpreted as the relativistic van der Waals force.

Pair production.

Virtual particles are often popularly described as coming in pairs, a particle and antiparticle which can be of any kind. These pairs exist for an extremely short time, and then mutually annihilate, or in some cases, the pair may be boosted apart using external energy so that they avoid annihilation and become actual particles, as described below.  This may occur in one of two ways. In an accelerating frame of reference, the virtual particles may appear to be actual to the accelerating observer; this is known as the Unruh effect. In short, the vacuum of a stationary frame appears, to the accelerated observer, to be a warm gas of actual particles in thermodynamic equilibrium.  Another example is pair production in very strong electric fields, sometimes called vacuum decay. If, for example, a pair of atomic nuclei are merged to very briefly form a nucleus with a charge greater than about 140, (that is, larger than about the inverse of the fine structure constant, which is a dimensionless quantity), the strength of the electric field will be such that it will be energetically favorable to create positron-electron pairs out of the vacuum or Dirac sea, with the electron attracted to the nucleus to annihilate the positive charge. This pair-creation amplitude was first calculated by Julian Schwinger in 1951.

Compared to actual particles.

As a consequence of quantum mechanical uncertainty, any object or process that exists for a limited time or in a limited volume cannot have a precisely defined energy or momentum. For this reason, virtual particles – which exist only temporarily as they are exchanged between ordinary particles – do not typically obey the mass-shell relation; the longer a virtual particle exists, the more the energy and momentum approach the mass-shell relation.  The lifetime of real particles is typically vastly longer than the lifetime of the virtual particles. Electromagnetic radiation consists of real photons which may travel light years between the emitter and absorber, but (Coulombic) electrostatic attraction and repulsion is a relatively short-range force that is a consequence of the exchange of virtual photons.

In physics, a virtual particle is a transient quantum fluctuation that exhibits some of the characteristics of an ordinary particle, while having its existence limited by the uncertainty principle. The concept of virtual particles arises in perturbation theory of quantum field theory where interactions between ordinary particles are described in terms of exchanges of virtual particles. A process involving virtual particles can be described by a schematic representation known as a Feynman diagram, in which virtual particles are represented by internal lines.

虚粒子(英语:virtual particle),意即虚构粒子、假想粒子,是在量子场论的数学计算中建立的一种解释性概念,指代用来描述亚原子过程例如撞击过程中粒子的数学项。但是,虚粒子并不直接出现在计算过程的那些可观测的输入输出量中,那些输入输出量只代表实粒子。虚粒子项代表那些所谓离质量壳(off mass shell)的粒子。例如,它们沿时间反演、能量不守恒、以超光速移动,每条看起来都和物理基本原理相悖。虚粒子发生在那些大致可被实输出量相消的组合项中,因此才产生了前述那些不实的冲突。虚粒子的虚「事件」通常看起来是一个紧接着另一个发生,例如在一次撞击的时长中,所以他们显得短命。如果在计算中略去那些被诠释为代表虚粒子的数学项,计算结果将变成近似值,有可能较大地偏离完整计算得到的正确而且精确的结果。


Identification.

The length of the body is less than (excluding the tail). The tail is up to twice as long as the body, although it is often partially or wholly lost. The limbs are short, and the head is rather round. Males have more slender bodies than females. The neck and the tail are thick. The collar and other scales seem jagged.  The colour and patterning of this species is variable. The main colour is typically medium brown, but it can be also grey, olive brown or black. Females may have dark stripes on their flanks and down the middle of their backs. Sometimes females also have light-coloured stripes, or dark and light spots along the sides of their backs. Most males and some females have dark spots in their undersides. Males have brightly coloured undersides – typically yellow or orange, but more rarely red. Females have paler, whitish underparts. The throat is white, sometimes blue.

Range.

The viviparous lizard is widely distributed throughout Europe and Asia. Its range extends to the north of the Arctic Circle. It ranges from Ireland to Hokkaido and Sakhalin. It is absent from most of the Mediterranean area, although it occurs in northern Spain, Northern Italy, Serbia, North Macedonia and Bulgaria. It is also absent from the area surrounding the Black Sea.  In the southern parts of its distribution range, the species lives at high elevations, occurring as high as above sea level in the Alps. In these areas, the viviparous lizard lives in damp locations, often near water, including meadows, swamps, rice fields, by brooks and in damp forests. In the northern part of the range, the species is also found in lowlands, where it occurs in drier environments, including open woodland, meadows, moorland, heathland, fens, dunes, rocks, roadsides, hedgerows and gardens. It lives mainly on the ground, although it may climb onto rocks, logs and low-growing vegetation.It is also the only reptile native to the island of Ireland.

Behaviour.

The viviparous lizard feeds on invertebrates, mostly small insects and spiders. It shakes larger prey in its jaws before chewing it and swallowing it whole. In early spring, late autumn, and cool summer days, it basks in the sun to reach its optimum body temperature, which is about.  These lizards mate in April or May. Males take females in their jaws before mating – if the female is not interested, she will bite the male fiercely. The offspring develops inside the female for about three months.  The name of the species is derived from its ability to give birth to live young, an adaptation to a cool climate, but some southern populations are oviparous (egg-laying). The three to ten young (or eggs) are usually produced in July. The blackish young measure about, and when first born are surrounded by egg membrane, from which they break free after about a day. Males reach sexual maturity at the age of two years, females at the age of three years. Individuals from viviparous and oviparous populations may be hybridised, but with significant embryonic malformation. Viviparous "Z. vivipara" do develop placentae to facilitate pregnancy but there is no substantial transport of nutrients as seen in some other species of viviparous reptiles (e.g. Pseudemoia entrecasteauxii).  Due to the cool climate, in northern regions, viviparous lizards begin hibernation in September or October, underground or in log piles. Hibernation ends about mid-February. Further south, the species is active throughout the year.

Colour polymorphism.

The colour polymorphism of female "Zootoca vivipara" has not been thoroughly studied in past years, regardless of the extensive research done on the species itself. Female lizards exhibit three types of body colouration within a population: yellow, orange, and mixture of the two. These discrete traits are inherited maternally and exist throughout the individual's lifetime. The organism's colour morphs are determined by their genotype as well as their environment.  The frequency of multiple morphs occurring in a population varies with the level of population density and frequency-dependent environments. These factors cause the lizards to vary in terms of their fitness (clutch size, sex ratio, hatching success). In lower density populations, colour polymorphism is more prevalent. This is because viviparous lizards thrive in environments where intraspecific competition is low. Increased competition among individuals results in lower survival rates of lizards. Additionally, female lizards disperse through habitats based on the frequency of colour types that are already present in the population. Their reproductive abilities vary according to this frequency-dependent environment. The number of offspring that they produce correlates with the colour morph: yellow females produce the fewest offspring, while orange females produce more than yellow, but fewer than mixed females, which produce the most offspring. The amount of offspring produced varies in regards to colour frequencies in the population; for example, if yellow females have higher density within the population, the clutch size for orange lizards is usually lower.  Orange females are more sensitive to intraspecific and colour-specific competition. They have smaller clutch sizes when the density of the population is high, or when the number of yellow females in the population is high. This could be due to their need to conserve energy for survival and reproductive events. Their colour morph remains in the population due to the trade-off between the size of offspring and the clutch size. Offspring born in smaller clutches are often larger and thus have a higher survival likelihood. Natural selection will favor individuals with larger size because of their advantage in physical competition with others. Yellow females have larger clutch sizes early in their life, but their hatch success decreases as the female ages. Their reproductive viability decreases, resulting in fewer offspring throughout their lifetime. Yellow morphs remain in the population due to their large clutch size, which causes an increased frequency of those females. Selection favors the yellow morph because of the ability to produce large clutch sizes, which increases the female's fitness. In mixed-coloured females, reproductive success is less sensitive to competition and frequency-dependent environments. Since these lizards show a mixture of yellow and orange colouration, they adopt benefits from both of the morphs. As a result, they can maintain high reproductive success and hatching success with large clutch sizes. Their colour morph remains in the population due to its high fitness, which selection will favor.  All three colours have evolutionary advantages in different ways. While yellow females have higher fitness due to their large clutch sizes, orange females enjoy high fitness due to their large body size and increased competitive advantages. Mixed females exhibit both of these advantages.

The viviparous lizard, Zootoca vivipara (formerly "Lacerta vivipara"), is a Eurasian lizard. It lives farther north than any other species of non-marine reptile, and most populations are viviparous (giving birth to live young), rather than laying eggs as most other lizards do. It is the only species in the monotypic genus Zootoca. Both ""Zootoca"" and ""vivipara"" mean "live birth," in Greek and Latin respectively. It was called "Lacerta vivipara" until the genus "Lacerta" was split into nine genera in 2007 by, Arribas & Carranza.

胎生蜥蜴(学名:)为蜥蜴科蜥蜴属的爬行动物。分布于从欧洲向北至北纬73°、向东到俄罗斯、蒙古、日本以及中国大陆的新疆、黑龙江等地,主要生活于针叶林边缘开阔地以及林间草甸或沼泽地带。其生存的海拔范围为280至450米。该物种的模式产地在奥地利维也纳西南。


Early life and education.

Black was born in Bordeaux, France, the sixth of the 12 children of Margaret Gordon ("d". 1747) and John Black. His mother was from an Aberdeenshire family that had connections with the wine business and his father was from Belfast, Ireland and worked as a factor in the wine trade. He was educated at home until the age of 12, after which he attended grammar school in Belfast. In 1746 at the age of 18 he entered the University of Glasgow, studying there for four years before spending another four at the University of Edinburgh, furthering his medical studies. During his studies he wrote a doctorate thesis on the treatment of kidney stones with the salt magnesium carbonate.

Work.

Chemical principles.

Like most 18th-century experimentalists, Black's conceptualisation of chemistry was based on five 'principles' of matter: Water, Salt, Earth, Fire and Metal. He added the principle of 'Air' when his experiments definitely confirmed the presence of carbon dioxide, which he called 'fixed air'. Black's research was guided by questions relating to how the 'principles' combined with each other in various different forms and mixtures. He used the term 'affinity' to describe the force that held such combinations together. Throughout his career he used a variety of diagrams and formulas to teach his University of Edinburgh students how to manipulate 'affinity' through different kinds of experimentation.

Analytical balance.

In about 1750, while still a student, Black developed the analytical balance based on a light-weight beam balanced on a wedge-shaped fulcrum. Each arm carried a pan on which the sample or standard weights was placed. It far exceeded the accuracy of any other balance of the time and became an important scientific instrument in most chemistry laboratories.

Latent heat.

In 1757, Black was appointed Regius Professor of the Practice of Medicine at the University of Glasgow.  In 1761 he deduced that the application of heat to ice at its melting point does not cause a rise in temperature of the ice/water mixture, but rather an increase in the amount of water in the mixture. Additionally, Black observed that the application of heat to boiling water does not result in a rise in temperature of a water/steam mixture, but rather an increase in the amount of steam. From these observations, he concluded that the heat applied must have combined with the ice particles and boiling water and become latent.  The theory of latent heat marks the beginning of thermodynamics. Black's theory of latent heat was one of his more-important scientific contributions, and one on which his scientific fame chiefly rests. He also showed that different substances have different specific heats.  The theory ultimately proved important not only in the development of abstract science but in the development of the steam engine. Black and James Watt became friends after meeting around 1757 while both were at Glasgow. Black provided significant financing and other support for Watt's early research in steam power. Black's discovery of the latent heat of water would have been interesting to Watt, informing his attempts to improve the efficiency of the steam engine invented by Thomas Newcomen and develop the science of thermodynamics.

Carbon dioxide.

Black also explored the properties of a gas produced in various reactions. He found that limestone (calcium carbonate) could be heated or treated with acids to yield a gas he called "fixed air." He observed that the fixed air was denser than air and did not support either flame or animal life. Black also found that when bubbled through an aqueous solution of lime (calcium hydroxide), it would precipitate calcium carbonate. He used this phenomenon to illustrate that carbon dioxide is produced by animal respiration and microbial fermentation.

Professorship.

In 1766, treading in the footsteps of his friend and former teacher at the University of Glasgow, Black succeeded William Cullen as Professor of Medicine and Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh (Cullen had moved to Edinburgh in 1755). His position at Glasgow University was filled by Alexander Stevenson.  At this point he gave up research and devoted himself exclusively to teaching. In this he was successful with audience attendance at his lectures increasing from year to year for more than thirty years. His lectures had a powerful effect in popularising chemistry and attendance at them even came to be a fashionable amusement.  Black was widely recognised as one of the most popular lecturers at the University. His chemistry course regularly attracted an exceptionally high number of students, with many attending two or three times. In addition to regularly introducing cutting-edge topics and meticulously selecting visually impressive experiments, Black employed a wide array of successful teaching tools that made chemistry accessible to his students (many of whom were as young as 14 years old). His students came from across the United Kingdom, its colonies and Europe, and hundreds of them preserved his lectures in their notebooks and disseminated his ideas after they left university.  On 17 November 1783 he became one of the founders of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. From 1788 to 1790 he was President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. He was a member of the revision committee for the editions of the college's Pharmacopoeia Edinburgensis of 1774, 1783, and 1794. Black was appointed principal physician to King George III in Scotland.  Black's research and teaching were reduced as a result of poor health. From 1793 his health declined further and he gradually withdrew from his teaching duties. In 1795, Charles Hope was appointed his coadjutor in his professorship, and in 1797 he lectured for the last time.

Personal life.

Black was a member of The Poker Club. He was 1st cousin, great friend and colleague to Adam Ferguson FRSE who married his niece Katherine Burnett in 1767, and associated with David Hume, Adam Smith, and the literati of the Scottish Enlightenment. He was also close to pioneering geologist James Hutton.  In 1773 he is listed as living on College Wynd on the south side of the Old Town.  Black never married. He died peacefully at his home in Edinburgh in 1799 at the age of 71 and is buried in Greyfriars Kirkyard. The large monument lies in the sealed section to the south-west known as the Covenanter's Prison.  In 2011, scientific equipment believed to belong to Black was discovered during an archaeological dig at the University of Edinburgh.

Joseph Black (16 April 1728 – 6 December 1799) was a Scottish physicist and chemist, known for his discoveries of magnesium, latent heat, specific heat, and carbon dioxide. He was Professor of Anatomy and Chemistry at the University of Glasgow for 10 years from 1756, and then Professor of Medicine and Chemistry at the University of Edinburgh from 1766, teaching and lecturing there for more than 30 years.

约瑟夫·布拉克(Joseph Black, 1728年-4月16日-1799年-12月6日)是英国籍的医生和化学家。他重新发现二氧化碳、比热及解说潜热的概念。他也是格拉斯哥大学的医学教授(同时担任化学讲师)。


Habitat and distribution.

Matsutake mushrooms grow under trees and are usually concealed under litter on the forest floor, forming a symbiotic relationship with roots of various tree species. Matsutakes grow in Canada, China, Estonia, Finland, Japan, Korea, Laos, Norway, the United States, Poland, and Sweden, among other countries. In Korea and Japan, matsutake mushrooms are most commonly associated with "Pinus densiflora".

Similar species.

In the North American Pacific Northwest, "Tricholoma murrillianum" is found in coniferous forests of one or more of the following tree species: Douglas fir, Noble fir, Shasta red fir, Sugar pine, Ponderosa pine, or Lodgepole pine. In California and parts of Oregon, it is also associated with hardwoods, including Tanoak, Madrone, Rhododendron, Salal, and Manzanita. In northeastern North America, the closely related mushroom "Tricholoma magnivelare" is generally found in Jack pine forests. A report published in 2000 indicated that "Tricholoma nauseosum" and "matsutake" ("T. matsutake") are the same species.

Cost and availability.

Though simple to harvest, matsutake are hard to find because of their specific growth requirements and the rarity of appropriate forest and terrain, combined with competition from local folk and wild animals such as squirrel, rabbits and deer for the once-yearly harvest of mushrooms, causing the price to be very high at times or as low as $2 per pound for pickers when the market will bear it. Domestic production of matsutake in Japan has been sharply reduced over the last 50 years due to the pine-killing nematode "Bursaphelenchus xylophilus", which has influenced the price a great deal. The annual harvest of matsutake in Japan is now less than 1,000 tons, and the Japanese mushroom supply is largely made up by imports from China, Korea, the North American Pacific Northwest (Northern California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia), and Northern Europe (Sweden, Finland and Norway). The price for matsutake in the Japanese market is highly dependent on quality, availability, and origin. The Japanese matsutake at the beginning of the season, which is the highest grade, can go up to $1,000 per kilogram. In contrast, the average value for imported matsutake is about $90 per kilogram.

Matsutake ("Tricholoma matsutake" = syn. "T. nauseosum" = syn. "Armillaria ponderosa") is the common name for a highly sought mycorrhizal mushroom that grows in Asia, Europe, and North America. It is prized in Japanese, Korean, and Chinese cuisine for its distinct spicy-aromatic odor.

松口蘑(学名:'),俗称松茸,是属于口蘑科口蘑属下的一种食用蕈,具有独特的浓郁香味。在日本,松茸被视为食用蕈中的极品,可以说松茸之于日本人就犹如松露之于法国人。


Voiced palato-alveolar fricative.

The voiced palato-alveolar fricative or voiced domed postalveolar fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages.

Transcription.

The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is the lower case form of the letter Ezh (), and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is codice_1. An alternative symbol used in some older and American linguistic literature is, a "z" with a caron. In some transcriptions of alphabets such as the Cyrillic, the sound is represented by the digraph zh. Although present in English, the sound is not represented by a specific letter or digraph, but is formed by yod-coalescence of and in words such as measure. It also appears in some loanwords, mainly from French (thus written with and ).  The sound occurs in many languages and, as in English and French, may have simultaneous lip rounding (), although this is rarely indicated in transcription.

Features.

Features of the voiced palato-alveolar fricative:

Occurrence.

The sound in Russian denoted by is commonly transcribed as a palato-alveolar fricative but is actually a laminal retroflex fricative.

Voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative.

The voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the post-alveolar consonants (the same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that aren't palatalized), this sound is usually transcribed (retracted constricted ). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is codice_2.

Features.

However, it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant.

A voiced postalveolar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound. There are several types with significant perceptual differences: This article discusses the first two.

浊颚龈擦音或浊拱龈后擦音(英语:voiced palato-alveolar fricative 或 英语:voiced domed postalveolar fricative)属齿龈后音,表示为,是相应的浊音。是法语、葡萄牙语、罗马尼亚语的J的发音,波兰语某些方言中zi的发音。


威诺纳县 (明尼苏达州)

History.

The Wisconsin Territory was established by the federal government effective July 3, 1836, and existed until its eastern portion was granted statehood (as Wisconsin) in 1848. The federal government set up the Minnesota Territory effective March 3, 1849. The newly organized territorial legislature created nine counties across the territory in October of that year. One of those original counties, Wabasha, had its southern section partitioned off on March 5, 1853, into a new county, Fillmore. On February 23, 1854, the legislature partitioned the northern part of Fillmore County, plus a small section of Wabasha, to create Winona County, with the village of Winona as county seat. The county name was taken from the village name, which is said to derive from a Dakota legend about a woman, Winona, (a relative of Chief Wabasha) who was betrothed to a warrior she did not love. Rather than marry him, she jumped to her death from a rock on Lake Pepin now called "Maiden's Rock". This is known as the Winona legend.  The county boundaries have remained unchanged since 1854.

Geography.

Winona County lies on Minnesota's border with Wisconsin and is part of the driftless area that defines southeastern Minnesota, northeastern Iowa, southwestern Wisconsin and northwestern Illinois. The Mississippi, flowing south-southeast, defines the county's eastern border. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (St. Paul District) maintains the lock and dam system in this region.  The Whitewater River flows north-northeast through the northwest part of the county toward its discharge into the Mississippi just above Winona County. The eastern part of the county is drained into the Mississippi by east-flowing streams including Rollingstone Creek, Garvin Brook, Cedar Creek, and Big Trout Creek. The county terrain consists of low rolling hills with the east portion particularly etched by drainages, and lightly sprinkled with lakes. The land is devoted to agriculture where possible. The terrain slopes to the south and east, with its highest point at 1,365' (416m) ASL on a hill two miles (3 km) east of Wilson. The county has a total area of, of which is land and (2.4%) is water.  Within Minnesota, Winona County borders Wabasha County, Olmsted County, Fillmore County and Houston County.

Demographics.

2018 estimate.

As of the 2018 estimate of Winona County population, there were 50,825 residents. The racial makeup of the county was 94% White, 1% African American, 2% Asian, 2% Hispanic or Latino, below 1% from other races, and 1% from two or more races. The male population constituted 49% of the total.

2000 census.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 49,985 people, 18,744 households, and 11,696 families in the county. The population density was 79.8/sqmi (30.8/km2). There were 19,551 housing units at an average density of 31.2/sqmi (12.1/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 95.80% White, 0.77% Black or African American, 0.19% Native American, 1.87% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.53% from other races, and 0.81% from two or more races. 1.37% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 41.8% were of German, 13.9% Norwegian, 9.9% Polish and 7.4% Irish ancestry.  There were 18,744 households out of which 30.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.30% were married couples living together, 7.80% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.60% were non-families. 28.20% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.04.  The county population contained 22.80% under the age of 18, 18.60% from 18 to 24, 25.10% from 25 to 44, 20.50% from 45 to 64, and 13.10% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females there were 95.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.80 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $38,700, and the median income for a family was $49,845. Males had a median income of $31,926 versus $23,406 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,077. About 5.60% of families and 12.00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.80% of those under age 18 and 9.30% of those age 65 or over.  In 2016, Winona County planning commissioners voted to approve new permits for existing commercial dog breeding operations, also known as "puppy mills", despite overwhelming evidence of animal cruelty and neglect. Due to the high number of kennels in the county, Winona county has earned the dubious title "Puppy Mill Capital of Minnesota".

Micropolitan Statistical Area.

The United States Office of Management and Budget (OMB) has designated Winona County as the Winona, MN Micropolitan Statistical Area (μSA), with Winona as its principal city. The US Census Bureau ranked this μSA as the 582nd most populous Core Based Statistical Area of the United States as of July 1, 2012.

Politics.

Winona County voters tended to vote Democratic until recently. Since 1960 the county selected the Democratic Party candidate in 64% of national elections (as of 2016).  Winona County is represented in the Minnesota House of Representatives by Rep. Steve Drazkowski (R), and Rep. Gene Pelowski (DFL). Winona County is represented in the Minnesota Senate by Sen. Jeremy Miller (R). Winona County is located in Minnesota's 1st Congressional District, represented by Rep. Jim Hagedorn (R). There are five commissioners on the Winona County Board.

Winona County is a county in the U.S. state of Minnesota. As of the 2010 census, its population was 51,461. Its county seat is Winona.

威诺纳县(英语:Winona County)是美国明尼苏达州东南部的一个县,东隔密西西比河与威斯康辛州相望。面积1,662平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口49,985人。县治威诺纳 (Winona)。 成立于1854年2月23日,县名纪念达科他族的一位女酋长 (威诺纳本身是「长女」的意思)。


Chess career.

Junior.

Harikrishna was a highly successful junior player winning the Indian Under-08 (1993), Under-10 (1995), Under-14 (1999), Under-15 (1998) and Under-18 (1998) titles. He won the Under 18 prize at the Commonwealth Chess Championship in 1999. He won the World Under-10 Championship in 1996.  His progress was such that, at the age of 14 years 5 months, he joined the Indian team for the 2000 Chess Olympiad, scoring 6.5 out of 11 rounds and earning his first Grandmaster norm. The second and third norms came soon after with a solid 6.5/13 result placing fifth in Corus Group B and sharing seventh place at the Asian Individual Championship with 7/11. This last norm both qualified him for the FIDE World Chess Championship 2002 (knocked in the first round to Alexander Beliavsky) and secured his Grandmaster title, having reached the required FIDE rating of 2500 in the July 2000 rating list.

2001-2004.

Immediately after that he won on tiebreak the Commonwealth Championship, held in London, then claimed first on tiebreak with Alexei Barsov and Krishnan Sasikiran at Hastings Chess Congress at the start of 2002. Finishing half a point behind Sasikiran in the 2002 National "A" Championship. Despite a series of weaker results costing him 29 rating points between July 2002 and January 2003, Harikrishna regained nearly all of them the next rating period with third place at Hastings and second place at the National "A" Championship in Mumbai. He shared second place with Vasilios Kotronias and Paul Motwani in the 2003 British Championships then shared first with Vasily Yemelin, Smbat Lputian and Pavel Kotsur in Abu Dhabi.  Harikrishna's form continued with shared second at the Sharjah Open half a point behind Kotsur, shared seventh at the Parsvanth Open, shared fifth at the Tata Open and second at the Asian Zonal 3.1b tournament held in Dhaka, a point behind Surya Shekhar Ganguly and shared third at GibTelecom Masters, a point behind Nigel Short. A few months later he came sixth on tiebreaks (a dozen players tied half a point behind Shakriyar Mamedyarov at the strong Dubai Open.  Between the January 2003 and October 2005 rating lists, Harikrishna experienced a steady increase from 2539 to 2673, reaching 2600 in July 2004.  Harikrishna was knocked out of the FIDE World Chess Championship 2004, held in Tripoli in the second round after rapid tiebreaks 3-1 against Vasily Ivanchuk but bounced back with fourth place on tiebreaks at the Abu Dhabi Open, half a point behind Dmitry Bocharov. He came third in the Pune Super GM event, a point behind winner Liviu-Dieter Nisipeanu but winning their individual game and was solid for India at the Chess Olympiad. This string of performances culminated in winning the World Junior Chess Championship held in Kochi, India in November 2004, scoring 10/13 with Tigran L Petrosian and Zhao Jun half a point behind.

2005-2009.

Such success saw invitations to stronger events, such as Bermuda in early 2005 where despite losing to Boris Gelfand in the eighth round, victory in the two last rounds enabled him to catch up with him to tie for first, followed by an even score at Dos Hermanas and fifth on tiebreak at HB Global Challenge. Harikrishna joined up with former Viswanathan Anand coach Elizbar Ubilava, looking to improve his game. He then won the Sanjin Hotel Cup, a point clear of the field with 8.5/11. He tied for second at the Mainz Ordiz Open. An even result at the Lausanne Masters was followed up by winning the Essent Crown Group in October 2005, scoring 4/6. December's Chess World Cup 2005 saw Harikrishna defeat Yu Shaoteng 3-1 and Giovanni Vescovi 4-2 before being knocked out in the third round against Alexei Dreev 2.5-1.5, then tied for second at Pamplona, half a point behind Ruslan Ponomariov.  In March 2006, Harikrishna tied for first (fifth on tiebreak) with winner Gabriel Sargissian, Ahmed Adly, Mamedyarov, and Igor-Alexander Nataf at the Reykjavik Open with 7/9. After competing in the 37th Chess Olympiad, he performed badly a month later with shared last place at Aerosvit, though he bounced back with victory at Marx Gyorgy Memorial then won the Chess960 Junior Chess Championship winning the last four games against Arkadij Naiditsch with the final score 41⁄2–31⁄2.  Harikrishna played tournaments less frequently after 2007 but finished fourth at the 2008 Corus Group B with 7.5/13, followed by several team events and winning on tiebreak in September 2008 at the Spice Cup in Lubbock, United States. He was seeded to the knockout stages of the XXI Carlos Tore Memorial but was eliminated 3-2 by Jan Ehlvest in the quarter finals.  A last round loss to Peter Svidler saw Harikrishna slip from co-leader to shared seventh at the January 2009 Gibraltar Chess Congress, but won the Nancy Rapid event the next month, a point ahead of Georg Meier. He lost three consecutive games at the 39th Bosna Tournament to finish fifth out of six and scoring 4/10, also struggling at Zurich's 200th Anniversary event, finishing shared 27th with 6/9. At the Chigorin Memorial he came fifteenth after tiebreaks in the Open section and won the blitz section. He finished the year helping India win the Asian Team Championships.

2010-2013.

Harikrishna came tied sixth at Corus Chess Group B with 6.5/13 in January 2010 before a poor performance at the Asian Individual Championship, finishing 23rd after tiebreaks and losing 17 rating points Some consolation came with shared first with Ehlvest at the New York International. He shared second place scoring 7/9 at the World Open, half a point behind Viktor Láznička, but lost his rating gains at the Canadian Open with 6/9 sharing 23rd place. His strong performance in the Asian Games and Spanish league (including a win over Maxime Vachier-Lagrave) along with a solid performance in the Chess Olympiad helped recover his rating back to 2667 after a steady fall between April 2009 (2686) and July 2010 (2645).  In January 2011, he came ninth on tiebreak scoring 7/10 at Gibraltar then sixth on tiebreak with 6.5/9 at Cappelle-la-Grande. May 2011 he won the Asian Chess Championship after tying with Yu Yangyi and Nguyen Ngoc Truong Son 6.5/9, shared second place on 7/9 with Robert Hess and Alejandro Ramirez at the Chicago Open half a point behind Timur Gareev. Harikrishna's form dipped at the New York International scoring only 4.5/9 for shared 25th place, but shared third at the World Open scoring 6.5/9. He struggled at the World Team Championships competing against almost exclusively 2700 rated players, scoring 3.5/9 and was eliminated from the Chess World Cup in the second round 1.5-0.5 by Dmitry Jakovenko.  Harikrishna started 2012 in style winning the Group B of Tata Steel, scoring 9/13, half a point ahead of Alexander Motylev and Lazaro Bruzon, earning himself a place in the 2013 Group A followed up with victory at the Cappelle-la-Grande Open on tiebreaks with 7/9. In July, he was third on tiebreaks at the Benasque Open scoring 8/10 and fifth on tiebreaks at the Biel Master event with 7.5/11. Harikrishna rounded off the year with the 40th Chess Olympiad and league games, ending the year at his highest rating so far with 2698.  Making his first appearance in the Tata Steel A group in January 2013, Harikrishna finished in seventh place with 6.5/13 and breaking 2700 for the first time. Despite a collapse of form at the Capablanca Memorial in which Harikrishna scored 3/10, losing four games and failing to win and pushing him back under 2700, his form returned in July with a strong performance in the Greek league, winning at the Biel Masters with 81⁄2/11 and tied fifth place at the HZ Open with an unbeaten 7/9.

2014-2016.

In January 2014, Harikrishna finished seventh in the rejigged Tata Steel Masters with 5.5/11 after a last round loss against Boris Gelfand and came 12th on tiebreak scoring 7/10 at Gibraltar soon after. After claiming silver at the Asian Blitz Championship, he played only league games until July when he finished third on tiebreak at Biel. Despite playing for the Indian team at the previous seven Chess Olympiads, he did not participate in the 2014 edition, taking part in the Turkish league instead. At the inaugural Qatar Masters he scored 5.5/9 to tie for 25th place.  Harikrishna started 2015 by scoring 7.5/10 for ninth place by tiebreak at Gibraltar, with several team events following including the World Team Championships in which he scored 5/9. In June, he won the 10th Edmonton International scoring 7.5/9, including a 5/5 start. An early second round exit from the World Cup against Sethuraman allowed Harikrishna to enter and tied for first from Gabriel Sargissian and Laurent Fressinet at the Isle of Man International on tiebreak, scoring 7/9. He rounded off the year by scoring an unbeaten 6/9 at the Qatar Masters Open for eleventh place on tiebreak.  In February-March 2016, he participated in IMSA Elite Mind Games held in China. He finished the event placed seventh in the rapid and third in blitz events gaining a staggering 113 points in live ratings to reach the career best rating of 2774 in blitz.

Team results.

Harikrishna has represented India at seven Chess Olympiads, making his debut at the age of 14 years 5 months during the 34th Chess Olympiad held in Istanbul with results as follows:  Harikrishna also took part in World Team Chess Championships, Asian Team Chess Championships and Asian Games events with results as follows:

Other team results.

Harikrishna has played for a variety of teams in league events. He played for Baden Baden in three of their title wins from 2007 to 2009.  From 2012 to 2014, GM Harikrishna played first board for chess club Eppingen in Chess Bundesliga, and he is a member of Spanish chess club Solvay since 2007 (first board). Harikrishna is also the first board for BPCL A team, which has won PSPB Inter Unit Chess Tournaments in 2010 and 2011.  In the Professional Rapid Online Chess League 2020, he plays for the India Yogis.

Sample game.

The game shown here was the final knockout match in the Carlos Torre Memorial Tournament 2007, in Mérida, Mexico. Here Harikrishna, with white, is facing Vassily Ivanchuk, who was world number 2 at that time.  1. d4 Nf6 2. Nf3!? g6 3. Nbd2 d5 4. e3 Bg7 5. b4! ( 5. b3 c5 ) 5... O-O 6. Be2 b6 7. Bb2 Nbd7 8. b5! Bb7 9. O-O a6 10. a4 axb5 11. axb5 Rxa1 12. Qxa1 Qa8 13. Ba3 Re8 14. Qb2 Qa7 15. Bb4! Bf8 16. Ra1 Qb8 17. Ne5 e6 18. Bxf8 Nxf8 19. Ndf3 Ne4 20. c4 f6 21. Nc6 Bxc6 22. bxc6 Qd8 23. Qb4 Qd6 24. Qxd6 Nxd6 25. cxd5 exd5 26. Ne1 Ne6 27. Nc2 f5 28. Bd3 Ne4 29. g4! Kf7 ( 29... fxg4 30. Bxe4 dxe4 31. Ra7 Rc8 32. Nb4 with the idea Na6 followed by d5. ) 30. Nb4 Rd8 31. f3 Nd2 32. gxf5 gxf5 33. Kf2 f4 ( 33... Kf6 34. Rd1 Nb3 35. f4 would leave black tied up to the defense of the f5-pawn. ) 34. exf4 Ke7 ( 34... Nxf4 35. Ke3 Nb3 36. Ra7 Ne6 37. Nxd5 Rxd5 38. Bc4 Ra5 39. Rxc7+ Kf6 40. Bxe6 Kxe6 41. Rd7 Nxd4 42. Kxd4 ) 35. Re1 Kd6 36. Re5 Nxf4 37. Ke3 Nxd3 38. Kxd3 Nxf3 39. Rh5! 1-0

Pentala Harikrishna (born 10 May 1986) is a chess Grandmaster from Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India. He became the youngest grandmaster from India on 12 September 2001, a record now held by Gukesh D. He was Commonwealth Champion in 2001, World Junior Champion in 2004 and Asian Individual Champion in 2011. On personal front, he married Nadezda Stojanovic, the Serbian chess prodigy, in 2018.

哈里克里希纳·彭塔拉(Harikrishna Pendyala,1986年-5月10日),印度国际象棋棋手、特级大师。


Phonemic trills.

Trill consonants included in the International Phonetic Alphabet:  In addition,  The bilabial trill is uncommon. The coronal trill is most frequently alveolar, but dental and postalveolar articulations and also occur. An alleged retroflex trill found in Toda has been transcribed (that is, the same as the retroflex flap), but might be less ambiguously written, as only the onset is retroflex, with the actual trill being alveolar. The epiglottal trills are identified by the IPA as fricatives, with the trilling assumed to be allophonic. However, analyzing the sounds as trills may be more economical. There are also so-called strident vowels which are accompanied by epiglottal trill.  The cells in the IPA chart for the velar, (upper) pharyngeal, and glottal places of articulation are shaded as impossible. The glottis quite readily vibrates, but this occurs as the phonation of vowels and consonants, not as a consonant of its own. Dorso-palatal and velar vibratory motions of the tongue are occasionally produced, especially during the release of dorsal stops, and "ingressive" velar trills occur in snoring, but not in normal speech. The upper pharyngeal tract cannot reliably produce a trill, but the epiglottis does, and epiglottal trills are pharyngeal in the broad sense. A partially devoiced pre-uvular (i.e. between velar and uvular) fricative trill has been reported to occur as coda allophone of in Limburgish dialects of Maastricht and Weert. It is in free variation with partially devoiced uvular fricative trill.  Voiceless trills occur phonemically in e.g. Welsh and Icelandic. (See also voiceless alveolar trill, voiceless retroflex trill, voiceless uvular trill.) Mangbetu and Ninde have phonemically voiceless bilabial trills.  The Czech language has two contrastive alveolar trills, one a fricative trill (written "ř" in the orthography). In the fricative trill the tongue is raised, so that there is audible frication during the trill, sounding a little like a simultaneous and (or and when devoiced). A symbol for this sound,, has been dropped from the IPA, and it is now generally transcribed as a raised "r",.  Liangshan Yi ("Cool Mountain" Yi) has two "buzzed" or fricative vowels (written "ṳ, i̤") which may also be trilled,.  A number of languages have trilled affricates such as and. The Chapakuran language Wariʼ and the Muran language Pirahã have a very unusual trilled phoneme, a voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop,.  A nasal trill has been described from some dialects of Romanian, and is posited as an intermediate historical step in rhotacism. However, the phonetic variation of the sound is considerable, and it is not clear how frequently it is actually trilled.

Extralinguistic trills.

A linguolabial trill is not known to be used phonemically, but occurs when blowing a raspberry.  Snoring typically consists of vibration of the uvula and the soft palate (velum), which may be described as an ingressive velic trill. Like the uvular trill, the ingressive velic trill does not involve the tongue; it is the velum that passively vibrates in the airstream. The "Speculative Grammarian" has proposed a jocular symbol for this sound (and also the sound used to imitate a pig's snort), a double-wide with double dot suggesting a pig's snout. (This might be typeset as Cyrillic Ꙫ.) The Extensions to the IPA identifies an egressive fricative pronounced with this same configuration, common with a cleft palate, as velopharyngeal, and with accompanying uvular trill as or.  Lateral trills are also possible. They may be pronounced by initiating or with an especially forceful airflow. There is no symbol for them in the IPA. Lateral coronal trills are sometimes used to imitate bird calls, and are a component of Donald Duck talk. A labiodental trill,, is most likely to be lateral, but laterality is not distinctive among labial sounds.  Ejective trills are not known from any language, despite being easy to produce. They may occur as mimesis of a cat's purr.

In phonetics, a trill is a consonantal sound produced by vibrations between the active articulator and passive articulator. Standard Spanish <rr> as in, for example is an alveolar trill.

在语音学中,颤音(也称滚音)是一类发音器官的颤动发声的辅音。颤音与闪音(弹音)很不同。弹音通过一定的动作,用可活动的发音器官拍打固定的发音器官发声。而颤音发音时,活动的发音器官位置相对固定,通过气流作用使其颤动。一个颤音通常颤动二至三个周期,也有可能达到五个,甚至在双辅音的情况下持续更久。然而,颤音也可以只有一个周期,这时可能听起来会像弹音。无论如何,这两类音的发音方法不同,颤音具有一到多个周期,弹音则没有。


Illustrations.

Lee has illustrated dozens of fantasy books, including some non-fiction, and many more covers. Several works by J.R.R. Tolkien are among his most notable interiors: the Tolkien centenary edition of "The Lord of the Rings" (1992), a 1999 edition of "The Hobbit" that has been boxed with it, and "Narn i Chîn Húrin: The Children of Húrin" (2007). The latter, a first edition, is his work most widely held in WorldCat participating libraries. Other books he has illustrated include "Faeries" (with Brian Froud), "Lavondyss" by Robert Holdstock (as well as the cover of an early print of this book), "The Mabinogion" (two versions), "Castles" and "Tolkien's Ring" (both nonfiction by David Day), "The Mirrorstone" by Michael Palin, "The Moon's Revenge" by Joan Aiken, and "Merlin Dreams" by Peter Dickinson.  He has also illustrated retellings of classics for young people. Two were Rosemary Sutcliff's versions of the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey"—namely, "Black Ships Before Troy" (Oxford, 1993) and "The Wanderings of Odysseus" (Frances Lincoln, 1995). Another was Adrian Mitchell's version of Ovid's "Metamorphoses"—namely, "Shapeshifters" (Frances Lincoln, 2009).  Lee did cover paintings for the 1983 Penguin edition of Mervyn Peake's "Gormenghast" trilogy. He also did the artwork for "Alive!", a CD by the Dutch band Omnia, released on 3 August 2007 during the Castlefest festival.  Watercolour painting and pencil sketches are two of Lee's common media.

Film.

Lee and John Howe were the lead concept artists of Peter Jackson's "Lord of the Rings" films and were recruited by director Guillermo del Toro in 2008 for continuity of design in the subsequent "The Hobbit" films, before joining Jackson when he took over the "Hobbit" films project. Jackson has explained how he originally recruited the reclusive Lee. By courier to Lee's home in the south of England, he sent two of his previous films, "Forgotten Silver" and "Heavenly Creatures", with a note from himself and Fran Walsh that piqued Lee's interest enough to become involved. Lee went on to illustrate and even to help construct many of the scenarios for the movies, including objects and weapons for the actors. He also made two cameo appearances, in the opening sequence of "" as one of the nine kings of men who became the Nazgûl, and in "The Two Towers" as a Rohan soldier in the armory (over the shoulder of Viggo Mortensen as Aragorn and Legolas talk in Elvish).  Lee has also worked as a conceptual designer on the films "Legend", "Erik the Viking", "King Kong" and the television mini-series "Merlin." The art book "Faeries", produced in collaboration with Brian Froud, was the basis of a 1981 animated feature of the same name.  Two years after completion of "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy, Lee released a 192-page collection of his conceptual artwork for the project, entitled "The Lord of the Rings Sketchbook" (HarperCollins, 2005). Film director Peter Jackson said, "His art captured what I hoped to capture with the films."

Awards.

For his 1978 book with Brian Froud, "Faeries", Lee was runner-up for the fantasy Locus Award, year's best art or illustrated book.  For illustrating "Merlin Dreams" by Peter Dickinson (1988), he won the annual Chesley Award for Best Interior Illustration and he was a highly commended runner-up for the Greenaway Medal. He also won the BSFA Award for Best Artwork, for that year's best single new image.  Five years later, he won the Kate Greenaway Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book illustration by a British subject. The book was "Black Ships Before Troy" by Rosemary Sutcliff, a version of the Trojan War story.  For the 60th anniversary edition of "The Hobbit", Tolkien's 1937 classic, Lee won his second Chesley Award for Interior Illustration (he is a finalist eight times through 2011). For that year's work he won the annual World Fantasy Award, Best Artist, at the 1998 World Fantasy Convention.  In 2000, he won the competitive, juried Spectrum Award for fantastic art in the grandmaster category.  Lee, Grant Major and Dan Hennah earned the 2004 Academy Award for Best Art Direction for "", third in the film trilogy.

Personal life.

As of 2007 Lee, his wife, and two children live in Chagford, Dartmoor, Devon, England.

Alan Lee (born 20 August 1947) is an English book illustrator and movie conceptual designer. He was born in Middlesex, England, and studied at the Ealing School of Art.

阿兰·李(英语:Alan Lee,1947年8月20日-)是一名英国的艺术家、图书和电影插画设计师,他出生于英格兰米德塞克斯,在伊灵艺术学院学习绘画。


Experiments.

The work of Kiwako Sakabe, Reiji Okazaki and Tsuneko Okazaki provided experimental evidence supporting the hypothesis that DNA replication is a discontinuous process. Previously, it was commonly accepted that replication was continuous in both the 3' to 5' and 5' to 3' directions. 3' and 5' are specifically numbered carbons on the deoxyribose ring in nucleic acids, and refer to the orientation or directionality of a strand. In 1967, the Tsuneko Okazaki and Toru Ogawa suggested that there is no found mechanism that showed continuous replication in the 3' to 5' direction, only 5' to 3' using DNA polymerase, a replication enzyme. The team hypothesized that if discontinuous replication was used, short strands of DNA, synthesized at the replicating point, could be attached in the 5' to 3' direction to the older strand.  To distinguish the method of replication used by DNA experimentally, the team pulse-labeled newly replicated areas of "Escherichia coli" chromosomes, denatured, and extracted the DNA. A large number of radioactive short units meant that the replication method was likely discontinuous. The hypothesis was further supported by the discovery of polynucleotide ligase, an enzyme that links short DNA strands together.  In 1968, Reiji and Tsuneko Okazaki gathered additional evidence of nascent DNA strands. They hypothesized that if discontinuous replication, involving short DNA chains linked together by polynucleotide ligase, is the mechanism used in DNA synthesis, then "newly synthesized short DNA chains would accumulate in the cell under conditions where the function of ligase is temporarily impaired." "E. coli" were infected with bacteriophage T4 that produce temperature-sensitive polynucleotide ligase. The cells infected with the T4 phages accumulated a large number of short, newly synthesized DNA chains, as predicted in the hypothesis, when exposed to high temperatures. This experiment further supported the Okazakis' hypothesis of discontinuous replication and linkage by polynucleotide ligase. It disproved the notion that short chains were produced during the extraction process as well.  The Okazakis' experiments provided extensive information on the replication process of DNA and the existence of short, newly synthesized DNA chains that later became known as Okazaki fragments.

Pathways.

Two pathways have been proposed to process Okazaki fragments: the short flap pathway and the long flap pathway.

Short Flap Pathway.

In the short flap pathway in eukaryotes the lagging strand of DNA is primed in short intervals. In the short pathway only, the nuclease FEN1 is involved. Pol δ frequently encounters the downstream primed Okazaki fragment and displaces the RNA/DNA initiator primer into a 5′ flap. The FEN1 5’-3’ endonuclease recognizes that the 5’ flap is displaced, and it cleaves, creating a substrate for ligation. In this method the Pol a-synthesized primer is removed. Studies show that in the FEN1 suggest a ‘tracking; model where the nuclease moves from the 5’ flap to its base to preform cleavage. The Pol δ does not process a nuclease activity to cleave the displaced flap. The FEN1 cleaves the short flap immediately after they form. The cleavage is inhibited when the 5’ end of the DNA flap is blocked either with a complementary primer or a biotin-conjugated streptavidin moiety. DNA ligase seals the nick made by the FEN1 and it creates a functional continuous double strand of DNA. PCNA simulates enzymatic functions of proteins for both FEN1 and DNA ligase. The interaction is crucial in creating proper ligation of the lagging DNA strand. Sequential strand displacement and cleavage by Pol δ and FEN1, respectively, helps to remove the entire initiator RNA before ligation. Many displacements need to take place and cleavage reactions are required to remove the initiator primer. The flap that is created and processes and it is matured by the short flap pathway.

Long Flap Pathway.

In some cases, the FEN1 lasts for only a short period of time and disengages from the replication complex. This causes a delay in the cleavage that the flaps displaced by Pol δ become long. When the RPA reaches a long enough length, it can bind stably. When the RPA bound flaps are refactorized to FEN1 cleavage the require another nuclease for processing, this has been identified as an alternate nuclease, DNA2. DNA2 has defects in the DEN1 overexpression. The DNA2 showed to work with FEN1 to process long flaps. DNA2 can dissociate the RPA from a long flap, it does this by using a mechanism like the FEN1. It binds the flap and threads the 5’ end of the flap. The nuclease cleaves the flap making it too short to bind to the RPA, the flap being too short means it is available for FEN1 and ligation. This is known as the long flap method. DNA2 can act as FEN1 as a backup for nuclease activity but it is not an efficient process.

Alternate pathway.

Until recently, there were only two known pathways to process Okazaki fragments. However, current investigations have concluded that a new pathway for Okazaki fragmentation and DNA replication exists. This alternate pathway involves the enzymes Pol δ with Pif1 which perform the same flap removal process as Pol δ and FEN1.

Enzymes involved in fragment formation.

Primase.

Primase adds RNA primers onto the lagging strand, which allows synthesis of Okazaki fragments from 5' to 3'. However, primase creates RNA primers at a much lower rate than that at which DNA polymerase synthesizes DNA on the leading strand. DNA polymerase on the lagging strand also has to be continually recycled to construct Okazaki fragments following RNA primers. This makes the speed of lagging strand synthesis much lower than that of the leading strand. To solve this, primase acts as a temporary stop signal, briefly halting the progression of the replication fork during DNA replication. This molecular process prevents the leading strand from overtaking the lagging strand.

DNA polymerase δ.

DNA polymerase is such a critical part of this because new DNA is made during this phase by enzymes which synthesize DNA in the 5’ to 3’ direction. DNA polymerase is essential for both the leading strand which is made as a continuous strand and lagging strand which is made in small pieces in DNA Synthesis. This process happens for extension of the newly synthesized fragment and expulsion of the RNA and DNA segment. Synthesis occurs in 3 phases with two different polymerases, DNA polymerase α-primase and DNA polymerase δ. This process starts with polymerase α-primase displacing from the RNA and DNA primer by the clamp loader replication Effect, this Effect leads the sliding clamp onto the DNA. After this, DNA polymerase δ begins to go into its holoenzyme form which then synthesis begins. The synthesis process will continue until the 5’end of the previous Okazaki fragment has arrived. Once arrived, Okazaki fragment processing proceeds to join the newly synthesized fragment to the lagging strand. Last function of DNA polymerase δ is to serve as a supplement to FEN1/RAD27 5’ Flap Endonuclease activity. The rad27-p allele is lethal in most combinations but was viable with the rad27-p polymerase and exo1. Both rad27-p polymerase and exo1 portray strong synergistic increases in CAN 1 duplication mutations. The only reason this mutation is viable is due to the double-strand break repair genes RAD50, RAD51 and RAD52. The RAD27/FEN1 creates nicks between adjacent Okazaki fragments by minimizing the amount of strand-expulsion in the lagging strand.

DNA ligase I.

During lagging strand synthesis, DNA ligase I connects the Okazaki fragments, following replacement of the RNA primers with DNA nucleotides by DNA polymerase δ. Okazaki fragments that are not ligated could cause double-strand-breaks, which cleaves the DNA. Since only a small number of double-strand breaks are tolerated, and only a small number can be repaired, enough ligation failures could be lethal to the cell.  Further research implicates the supplementary role of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) to DNA ligase I's function of joining Okazaki fragments. When the PCNA binding site on DNA ligase I is inactive, DNA ligase I's ability to connect Okazaki fragments is severely impaired. Thus, a proposed mechanism follows: after a PCNA-DNA polymerase δ complex synthesizes Okazaki fragments, the DNA polymerase δ is released. Then, DNA ligase I binds to the PCNA, which is clamped to the nicks of the lagging strand, and catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds.

Flap endonuclease 1.

Flap endonuclease 1 (FEN1) is responsible for processing Okazaki fragments. It works with DNA polymerase to remove the RNA primer of an Okazaki fragment and can remove the 5' ribonucleotide and 5' flaps when DNA polymerase displaces the strands during lagging strand synthesis. The removal of these flaps involves a process called nick translation and creates a nick for ligation. Thus, FEN1's function is necessary to Okazaki fragment maturation in forming a long continuous DNA strand. Likewise, during DNA base repair, the damaged nucleotide is displaced into a flap and subsequently removed by FEN1.

Dna2 endonuclease.

Dna2 endonuclease does not have a specific structure and their properties are not well characterized, but could be referred as single-stranded DNA with free ends (ssDNA). Dna2 endonuclease is essential to cleave long DNA flaps that leave FEN1 during the Okazaki Process. Dna2 endonuclease is responsible for the removal of the initiator RNA segment on Okazaki Fragments. Also, Dna2 endonuclease has a pivotal role in the intermediates created during diverse DNA metabolisms and is functional in telomere maintenance.  Dna2 endonuclease becomes active when a terminal RNA segment attaches at the 5’ end, because it translocates in the 5’ to 3’ direction. In the presence of a single stranded DNA-binding protein RPA, the DNA 5' flaps become too long, and the nicks no longer fit as substrate for FEN1. This prevents the FEN1 from removing the 5′-flaps. Thus, Dna2's role is to reduce the 3′ end of these fragments, making it possible for FEN1 to cut the flaps, and the Okazaki fragment maturation more efficient. During the Okazaki Process, Dna2 helicase and endonuclease are inseparable. Dna2 Endonuclease does not depend on the 5’-tailed fork structure of its activity. Unproductive binding has been known to create blocks to FEN1 cleavage and tracking. It is known that ATP reduces activity, but promotes the release of the 3’-end label. Studies have suggested that a new model of Dna2 Endonuclease and FEN1 are partially responsible in Okazaki fragment maturation.

Biological function.

Newly synthesized DNA, otherwise known as Okazaki fragments, are bound by DNA ligase, which forms a new strand of DNA. There are two strands that are created when DNA is synthesized. The leading strand is continuously synthesized and is elongated during this process to expose the template that is used for the lagging strand (Okazaki fragments). During the process of DNA replication, DNA and RNA primers are removed from the lagging strand of DNA to allow Okazaki fragments to bind to. Since this process is so common, Okazaki maturation will take place around a million times during one completion of DNA replication. For Okazaki maturation to occur, RNA primers must create segments on the fragments to be ligated. This is used as a building block for the synthesis of DNA in the lagging strand. On the template strand, polymerase will synthesize in the opposite direction from the replication fork. Once the template becomes discontinuous, it will create an Okazaki fragment. Defects in the maturation of Okazaki fragments can potentially cause strands in the DNA to break and cause different forms of chromosome abnormality. These mutations in the chromosomes can affect the appearance, the number of sets, or the number of individual chromosomes. Since chromosomes are fixed for each specific species, it can also change the DNA and cause defects in the genepool of that species.

Differences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Okazaki fragments are present in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. DNA molecules in eukaryotes differ from the circular molecules of prokaryotes in that they are larger and usually have multiple origins of replication. This means that each eukaryotic chromosome is composed of many replicating units of DNA with multiple origins of replication. In comparison, prokaryotic DNA has only a single origin of replication. In eukaryotes, these replicating forks, which are numerous all along the DNA, form "bubbles" in the DNA during replication. The replication fork forms at a specific point called autonomously replicating sequences (ARS). Eukaryotes have a clamp loader complex and a six-unit clamp called the proliferating cell nuclear antigen. The efficient movement of the replication fork also relies critically on the rapid placement of sliding clamps at newly primed sites on the lagging DNA strand by ATP-dependent clamp loader complexes. This means that the piecewise generation of Okazaki fragments can keep up with the continuous synthesis of DNA on the leading strand. These clamp loader complexes are characteristic of all eukaryotes and separate some of the minor differences in the synthesis of Okazaki fragments in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The lengths of Okazaki fragments in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are different as well. Prokaryotes have Okazaki fragments that are quite longer than those of eukaryotes. Eukaryotes typically have Okazaki fragments that are 100 to 200 nucleotides long, whereas fragments in prokaryotic "E. coli" can be 2,000 nucleotides long. The reason for this discrepancy is unknown.  Each eukaryotic chromosome is composed of many replicating units of DNA with multiple origins of replication. In comparison, the prokaryotic E. coli chromosome has only a single origin of replication. Replication in prokaryotes occurs inside of the cytoplasm, and this all begins the replication that is formed of about 100 to 200 or more nucleotides. Eukaryotic DNA molecules have a significantly larger number of replicons, about 50,000 or more; however, replication does not occur at the same time on all of the replicons. In eukaryotes, DNA replication takes place in the nucleus. A plethora replication form in just one replicating DNA molecule, the start of DNA replication is moved away by the multi-subunit protein. This replication is slow, and sometimes about 100 nucleotides per second are added.  We take from this that prokaryotic cells are simpler in structure, they have no nucleus, organelles, and very little of DNA, in the form of a single chromosome. Eukaryotic cells have nucleus with multiple organelles and more DNA arranged in linear chromosomes. We also see that the size is another difference between these prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The average eukaryotic cell has about 25 times more DNA than a prokaryotic cell does. Replication occurs much faster in prokaryotic cells than in eukaryotic cells; bacteria sometimes only take 40 minutes, while animal cells can take up to 400 hours. Eukaryotes also have a distinct operation for replicating the telomeres at the end of their last chromosomes. Prokaryotes have circular chromosomes, causing no ends to synthesize. Prokaryotes have a short replication process that occurs continuously; eukaryotic cells, on the other hand, only undertake DNA replication during the S-phase of the cell cycle.  The similarities are the steps for the DNA replication. In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, replication is accomplished by unwinding the DNA by an enzyme called the DNA helicase. New strands are created by enzymes called DNA polymerases. Both of these follow a similar pattern, called semi-conservative replication, in which individual strands of DNA are produced in different directions, which makes a leading and lagging strand. These lagging strands are synthesized by the production of Okazaki fragments that are soon joined together. Both of these organisms begin new DNA strands which also include small strands of RNA.

Uses in technology.

Medical concepts associated with Okazaki fragments.

Although cells undergo multiple steps in order to ensure there are no mutations in the genetic sequence, sometimes specific deletions and other genetic changes during Okazaki fragment maturation go unnoticed. Because Okazaki fragments are the set of nucleotides for the lagging strand, any alteration including deletions, insertions, or duplications from the original strand can cause a mutation if it is not detected and fixed. Other causes of mutations include problems with the proteins that aid in DNA replication. For example, a mutation related to primase affects RNA primer removal and can make the DNA strand more fragile and susceptible to breaks. Another mutation concerns polymerase α, which impairs the editing of the Okazaki fragment sequence and incorporation of the protein into the genetic material. Both alterations can lead to chromosomal aberrations, unintentional genetic rearrangement, and a variety of cancers later in life.  In order to test the effects of the protein mutations on living organisms, researchers genetically altered lab mice to be homozygous for another mutation in protein related to DNA replication, flap endonuclease 1, or FEN1. The results varied based on the specific gene alterations. The homozygous knockout mutant mice experienced a "failure of cell proliferation" and "early embryonic lethality" (27). The mice with the mutation F343A and F344A (also known as FFAA) died directly after birth due to complications in birth including pancytopenia and pulmonary hypoplasia. This is because the FFAA mutation prevents the FEN1 from interacting with PCNA (proliferating cell nuclear antigen), consequently not allowing it to complete its purpose during Okazaki fragment maturation. The interaction with this protein is considered to be the key molecular function in the FEN1’s biological function. The FFAA mutation causes defects in RNA primer removal and long-base pair repair, of which cause many breaks in the DNA. Under careful observation, cells homozygous for FFAA FEN1 mutations seem to display only partial defects in maturation, meaning mice heterozygous for the mutation would be able to survive into adulthood, despite sustaining multiple small nicks in their genomes. Inevitably however, these nicks prevent future DNA replication because the break causes the replication fork to collapse and causes double strand breaks in the actual DNA sequence. In time, these nicks also cause full chromosome breaks, which could lead to severe mutations and cancers. Other mutations have been implemented with altered versions of Polymerase α, leading to similar results.

Okazaki fragments are short sequences of DNA nucleotides (approximately 150 to 200 base pairs long in eukaryotes) which are synthesized discontinuously and later linked together by the enzyme DNA ligase to create the lagging strand during DNA replication. They were discovered in the 1960s by the Japanese molecular biologists Reiji and Tsuneko Okazaki, along with the help of some of their colleagues.

冈崎片段(英语:Okazaki fragment)是DNA复制过程中,一段属于不连续合成的延迟股,即相对来说长度较短的DNA片段。名称源自1967年最早发现团队的领导者-日本名古屋大学的冈崎令治与冈崎恒子夫妇的姓氏。其团队在研究大肠杆菌中噬菌体DNA复制情形时发现此现象。


Personal lives.

Nicci Gerrard and Sean French were married in 1990. Since 1999 they have lived in Suffolk in East Anglia, England. Both have studied english literature at Oxford University. The couple has two daughters, Hadley and Molly, and Gerrard has two children from her first marriage, Edgar and Anna.

Biography.

Nicci Gerrard.

Nicola 'Nicci' Gerrard was born on 10 June 1958. She grew up in Worcestershire, together with her two sisters and her brother.  She was educated at The Alice Ottley School in Worcester. She then studied English literature at Oxford University and then an MPhil at Sheffield University in 1986. She went on to teach literature in Los Angeles and London. She founded a women's magazine before becoming a freelance journalist. During that time she married and had two children. Following the failure of this first marriage, she met Sean French whilst working as editor for the "New Statesman" where French wrote a weekly column, but left when she was offered another job at "The Observer".  In November 2014 her father John Gerrard died, his dementia having deteriorated significantly during a five-week stay in hospital for an unrelated problem and with very restricted visiting by his family. As a result of this Gerrard launched John's Campaign for extended visiting rights for carers of patients with dementia.  Since February 2019, Gerrard has supported the 'Save Our Libraries Essex' (SOLE) campaign, speaking out against the proposed closures of libraries by Essex County Council.

Sean French.

Julian Sean French was born on 28 May 1959 in Bristol, the son of Philip French, a radio producer and film critic, and his Swedish-born wife Kerstin (née Molin). He was, like his two younger brothers Patrick and Karl, educated at William Ellis secondary school in north London before studying English literature at Oxford University. The couple never met while there. While at Oxford University, French won a young writers contest organised by "Vogue", and subsequently became a journalist.  In 1987 he gained his first column and until the end of 2000 he wrote a column for the "New Statesman". His solo novel "Start from Here" was published in 2004.

Nicci French is the pseudonym of English husband-and-wife team Nicci Gerrard (born 10 June 1958) and Sean French (born 28 May 1959), who write psychological thrillers together.

妮基·法兰齐是英国悬疑小说作家妮基·杰若德及西恩·法兰齐夫妇所使用的笔名。妮基于1958年出生,法兰齐则于1959年出生,两人于1990年结𦈏后,即合作写小说,1997年推出处女作《The Memory Game》,1999年推出的《Killing Me Softly》及2003年推出的《Secret Smile 》分别被改编成电影及电视系列剧。


Sanskrit Literature.

Dramas, poems and stories were written in Sanskrit language in ancient India. Some of the popular ones are: Panchatantra, Hitopadesha, Rajatarangini, Dashakumaracharita, Mrichakatika, Mudrarakshasa, Ratnavali, Nagananda, Priyadarsika, Mattavilasa Prahasana, Baital Pachisi, Singhasan Battisi (Siṃhāsana Dvātriṃśikā).  Bhasa's Svapna Vasavadattam (Swapnavāsadatta) ("Vasavadatta's dream"), Pancharātra, and Pratijna Yaugandharayaanam ("The vows of Yaugandharayana"), Pratimanātaka, Abhishekanātaka, Bālacharita, Dūtavākya, Karnabhāra, Dūtaghatotkacha, Chārudatta, Madhyamavyayoga and Urubhanga.  Kalidasa's Vikramōrvaśīyam ("Vikrama and Urvashi"), Mālavikāgnimitram ("Malavika and Agnimitra"), Abhijñānaśākuntalam ("The Recognition of Shakuntala"), Raghuvaṃśa ("The Genealogy of Raghu") and Kumarasambhava ("Birth of Kumara"), Ṛtusaṃhāra ("Medley of Seasons") and Meghaduta (The Cloud Messenger).  Kadambari is a romantic novel in Sanskrit. It was substantially composed by Bāṇabhaṭṭa in the first half of the 7th century CE.

Hindu texts.

Hindu Sanskrit texts are manuscripts and historical literature related to any of the diverse traditions of "Shruti", namely the Vedas and the early Upanishads. Many scholars include the Bhagavad Gita and Agamas as Hindu scriptures, while Dominic Goodall includes Bhagavata Purana and Yajnavalkya Smriti.  The "Smriti" Sanskrit texts are a specific body of Hindu texts attributed to an author, as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than "Sruti" in Hinduism. The Smrti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to Vedāngas, the Hindu epics, the Sutras and Shastras, the texts of Hindu philosophies, the Puranas, the Kāvya or poetical literature, the "Bhasyas", and numerous "Nibandhas" (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.  Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, many others in regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in Western languages. Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts. This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.  Mattavilasa Prahasana (Devanagari:मत्तविलासप्रहसन), () is a short one-act Sanskrit play. It is one of the two great one act plays written by Pallava King Mahendravarman I (571– 630CE) in the beginning of the seventh century in Tamil Nadu.  Madura Vijayam (Sanskrit: मधुरा विजयं), (), is a 14th-century C.E Sanskrit poem written by the poet Gangadevi. It is also named "Vira Kamparaya Charitham" by the poet. It chronicles the life of Kumara Kampanna Udayar or Kumara Kampanna II, a prince of the Vijayanagara Empire and the second son of Bukka Raya I. The poem describes in detail, the invasion and conquest of the Madurai Sultanate by the Vijayanagara empire.

Jaina texts.

Tattvartha Sutra is a Jain text written in the Sanskrit language. It is regarded as one of the earliest, most authoritative books on Jainism, and the only text authoritative in both the "Digambara" and "Śvētāmbara" sects.Shant Sudharas Bhavana is a famous book in Jainism written by Jain monk Vinay Vijay also called as Yashovijay.

Modern Sanskrit literature.

Literature in Sanskrit continues to be produced. These works, however, have a very small readership. In the introduction to "Ṣoḍaśī: An Anthology of Contemporary Sanskrit Poets" (1992), Radhavallabh Tripathi writes:  Most current Sanskrit poets are employed as teachers, either pandits in "pāṭhaśāla"s or university professors. However, Tripathi also points out the abundance of contemporary Sanskrit literature:  Similarly,, in "Post-Independence Sanskrit Literature: A Critical Survey", estimates that more than 3000 Sanskrit works were composed in the period after Indian Independence (i.e., since 1947) alone. Further, much of this work is judged as being of high quality, both in comparison to classical Sanskrit literature, and to modern literature in other Indian languages.  Since 1967, the Sahitya Akademi, India's national academy of letters, has had an award for the best creative work written that year in Sanskrit. In 2009, Satyavrat Shastri became the first Sanskrit author to win the Jnanpith Award, India's highest literary award. Vidyadhar Shastri wrote two epic poems ("Mahakavya"), seven shorter poems, three plays and three songs of praise ("stavana kavya"), he received the "Vidyavachaspati" award in 1962. Some other modern Sanskrit composers include Abhiraj Rajendra Mishra (known as "Triveṇī Kavi", composer of short stories and several other genres of Sanskrit literature), Jagadguru Rambhadracharya (known as "Kavikularatna", composer of two epics, several minor works and commentaries on "Prasthānatrayī").  Another great Sanskrit epic that remained largely unrecognised till lately is "Dhruv Charitra" written by Pandit Surya Dev Mishra in 1946. He won laurels of appreciation by renowned Hindi and Sanskrit critics like Hazari Prasad Dwiedi, Ayodhya Singh Upadhyay "Hariaudh", Suryakant tripathi "Nirala", Laldhar Tripathi "Pravasi".

References.

5. ^ Bhattacharji Sukumari, History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, Sangam Books, London, 1993,, p. 148.

Sanskrit literature refers to texts composed in Sanskrit language since the 2nd-millennium BCE. Many of the prominent texts are associated with Indian religions, i.e., Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and were composed in ancient India. However, others were composed central, East or Southeast Asia and the canon includes works covering secular sciences and the arts. Early works of Sanskrit literature were transmitted through an oral tradition for centuries before they were written down in manuscript form.

古典梵语诗歌一段可以分作“大诗”(Mahakavya)和“小诗”(khandakavya)两大类。“大诗”指的是叙事诗,“小诗”指的是抒情诗。古典梵语叙事诗导源于两大史诗,特别是《罗摩衍那》;现存最早的古典梵语叙事诗是一二世纪佛教待人马鸣的《佛所行赞》和《美难陀传》。古典梵语叙孪诗的特点是题材大多取于两大史诗、古代神话和历史传说,声容上一般部少不了关于爱情、战斗和风景的描绘,形式上霍重文彩,讲究修辞。印度传统特边梨陀婆的《罗诂世系》和《鸠摩罗出世》、婆罗维的《野人和阿周那》、摩伽的《童护伏诛记》和室利河奢的《尼套陀王传》视为5部主要的“大诗”。古典梵语抒情诗的按内容分有四种:颂扬神祇的赞颂诗、描写自然风光的风景诗、描写爱情生活的爱情待、表达人生哲理的格言诗。其是爱情诗情浓烈,比喻优美,占据优势地位。古典梵语抒情诗的主要代表作有迎梨陀婆的《云使》、伐致呵利《三百咏》、阿麾罗《百咏》、胜天《牧童歌》等。


Dungan Revolt and establishment of the Kingdom.

By the 1860s, Xinjiang had been under Qing rule for a century. The area had been conquered in 1759 from the Dzungar Khanate whose core population, the Oirats, subsequently became the targets of genocide. However, as Xinjiang consisted mostly of semi-arid or desert lands, these were not attractive to potential Han settlers except some traders, so other people such as Uyghurs settled in the area.  The ethnic group known today as Uyghur people was not known by the term "Uyghur" up to the 20th century. The Uzbeks that dwelled close to present-day Xinjiang were collectively called "Andijanis" or "Kokandis", while the Uyghurs in the Tarim Basin were known as "Turki", probably due to their language. There were also Uyghur immigrants residing in Ili area that were called "Taranchi". The modern term "Uyghur" was assigned to this ethnic group by the newly created Soviet Union in 1921 at a conference in Tashkent. As a result, sources from the period of the Dungan revolt make no mentions of Uyghurs. The conflict was mainly an ethnic and religious war fought by members of the Muslim Hui and other Muslim ethnic groups in China's Shaanxi, Ningxia and Gansu provinces, as well as in Xinjiang, between 1862 and 1877.  The conflict led to a recorded 20.77 million deaths due to migration and war-related death. Many war immigrants also died from starvation on their journey to safety. Thousands of Muslim refugees from Shaanxi fled to Gansu. Some of them formed significant battalions in eastern Gansu, intending to reconquer their lands in Shaanxi. While the Hui rebels were preparing to attack Gansu and Shaanxi, Yaqub Beg, ethnic Uzbek or Tajik commander at the Kokand Khanate, fled from the Khanate in 1865 after losing Tashkent to the Russians, settled in Kashgar and soon managed to take complete control of Xinjiang.

Yaqub beg.

Yakub Beg was born in the town of Piskent, in the Khanate of Kokand (now in Uzbekistan). He had a meteoric rise through the ranks in the service of the Khanate, and by the year 1847, was a commander of the fort at Ak-Mechet until its fall to the Russians in 1853. In 1864, he helped to defend Kokand city of Tashkent during the initial Russian attack.  During the Dungan Revolt, Turkic Sadic Beg entered Kashgar and tried to capture the town from the weakened Chinese. Meanwhile, Burzug Khan left Tashkent and was joined by Yakub Beg. The company crossed the border in the winter of 1865, gained a number of supporters along their journey to Kashgar and as a result Burzug Khan was eventually installed on the throne of his ancestors. Sadic Beg rose against Burzug Khan, but was ultimately defeated by Yakub Beg and thrown out of the Kingdom.  Yakub beg next besieged the Chinese at Yangi Hissar where Sadic Beg reappeared. He was defeated again, but soon agreed to become Yakub's ally. Invaders from Badakshan, the Dungans also joined Yakub Beg. In September 1865, 3000 Chinese defenders of Kashgar surrendered to and joined Yakub's army and converted to Islam. Rebels from the Khanate of Kokand arrived and similarly joined Yakub. Soon Burzug Khan had to declare Yakub a traitor, but failed to win the support from the religious leaders. He was subsequently captured in his own palace.  Yakub Beg on the other hand, had become the master of the Tarim Basin in a little more than a year.

Yettishar.

To prevent the capture of Taranchi Sultanate by Yakub beg and to prevent the growth of British influence in Central Asia, Russian troops occupied the Ili Territory in 1871 and liquidated the local Uyghur state. The troops of Yakub beg made two campaigns against the Dungan Urumqi Sultanate, and in 1870–1872, annexed its territory to Yettishar. Muhammad Ayub, one of the leaders of the Dungan uprising in Shaanxi, who had been forced out by the Chinese troops to the northwest and settled in Urumqi, as well as other Dungan commanders and refugees from the Shaanxi and Gansu provinces, sided with Yakub beg.  Yakub beg carried out a series of progressive reforms. He modernized his 45,000-strong army, simplified the bureaucratic system, sharply reduced taxes, streamlined finances. The ruler of Yettishar encouraged trade, built caravansareis, built new channels and other irrigation systems. Nevertheless, the regime he created was considered severe, and sometimes cruel. When the Qing forces began military operations in Xinjiang in 1873, many of the positive initiatives in Yettishar disappeared due to a sharp increase in military spending.  To strengthen his state, Yakub beg sought to use the contradictions between Russia and Britain, offering his services to both. Britain tried to use the Kashgar Khan against Russia, helping him with weapons and military advisers from India until 1877; the same assistance was given to him by the Ottoman Empire.

Beijing Discussion on the Western Campaign.

Soon after the capture of Tarim basin by Yakub beg, the Qing administration sharply raised the question of the nature of further policies in relation to areas fallen from China. The solution to this problem sparked a lively debate. There were two opposing points of view.  Some top dignitaries and military leaders proposed resolving the issue of returning the lost territories in a peaceful, diplomatic way, through recognition of the independence of East Turkestan. Proponents of this position alluded to political and economic difficulties experienced by Qing China.  Another section of officials in the Qing government advocated the most decisive hostilities and crackdowns. In 1874, it was proposed to arrange a discussion on this topic at the court. It was assumed that all the well-known political figures in China would somehow take part in the discussion.

Fall of the Kingdom.

In mid-April 1877, the Chinese suddenly threw 180 battalions of well-armed forces under the command of Liu Zuntang against Yettishar. Despite the help of the Muhammad Ayub detachments and other Dungan commanders, the troops of Yakub beg were defeated. In May 1877, he was poisoned, and Yettishar fell into three warring estates. The troops of Liu Zuntang captured Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan. In December 1877, all of Kashgar was conquered. Thousands of Muslim were executed, tens of thousands thrown into prison. Muhammad Ayub with the Dungan detachments took refuge in the possessions of Russia. The power of the Qing dynasty was restored over all of Xinjiang, except for the Ili region, which was returned by Russia to China under the Treaty of St.Petersburg.

Yettishar or Yättä Shähär (Uyghur: يەتتىشەر دۆلەتى), literally "Seven cities" in English, was a short-lived Sunni Muslim Turkic state with predominantly Uyghur population, created as a result of the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877), that existed on the territory of East Turkestan in the 1860s and 1870s.

哲德沙尔汗国()是自1864年至1877年期间中亚的一个政教合一的国家,位于清末同治年间的新疆。该国家在阿古柏之乱中由布素鲁克建立,实际控制人为阿古柏。最盛时期占有喀什噶尔、莎车、和田、库车、叶尔羌、阿克苏、吐鲁番,“哲德沙尔”即“七城”之意。1877年,为清朝所灭,以其地置新疆省。