Construction.

In 1936 the Air Ministry, the British government department responsible for the Royal Air Force, believed that in the event of war enemy aerial bombing of London would cause up to 200,000 casualties per week. British government commissions under Warren Fisher and Sir James Rae in 1937 and 1938 considered that key government offices should be dispersed from central London to the suburbs, and non-essential offices to the Midlands or North West. Pending this dispersal, in May 1938 Sir Hastings Ismay, then Deputy Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence, ordered an Office of Works survey of Whitehall to identify a suitable site for a temporary emergency government centre. The Office concluded the most suitable site was the basement of the New Public Offices (NPO), a government building located on the corner of Horse Guards Road and Great George Street, near Parliament Square. The building now accommodates HM Treasury.  As ultimate authority lay with the civilian government the Cabinet, or a smaller War Cabinet, would require close access to senior military figures. This implied accommodation close to the armed forces' Central War Room. In May 1939 it was decided that the Cabinet would be housed within the Central War Room. In August 1939, with war imminent and protected government facilities in the suburbs not yet ready, the War Rooms became operational on 27 August 1939, only days before the invasion of Poland on 1 September, and Britain's declaration of war on Germany on 3 September.

Wartime use.

During its operational life two of the Cabinet War Rooms were of particular importance. Once operational, the facility's Map Room was in constant use and manned around the clock by officers of the Royal Navy, British army and Royal Air Force. These officers were responsible for producing a daily intelligence summary for the King, Prime Minister and the military Chiefs of Staff.  The other key room was the Cabinet Room. Until the opening of the Battle of France, which began on 10 May 1940, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain's war cabinet met at the War Rooms only once, in October 1939. Following Winston Churchill's appointment as Prime Minister, Churchill visited the Cabinet Room in May 1940 and declared: 'This is the room from which I will direct the war'. In total 115 Cabinet meetings were held at the Cabinet War Rooms, the last on 28 March 1945, when the German V-weapon bombing campaign came to an end.  On 22 October 1940, during the Blitz bombing campaign against Britain, it was decided to increase the protection of the Cabinet War Rooms by the installation of a massive layer of concrete known as 'the Slab'. Up to 5 feet (1.5 metres) thick, the Slab was progressively extended and by spring 1941 the increased protection had enabled the Cabinet War Rooms to expand to three times their original size. While the usage of many of the War Rooms' individual rooms changed over the course of the war, the facility included dormitories for staff, private bedrooms for military officers and senior ministers, and rooms for typists or telephone switchboard operators. Two other notable rooms include the Transatlantic Telephone Room and Churchill's office-bedroom. From 1943, a SIGSALY code-scrambling encrypted telephone was installed in the basement of Selfridges, Oxford Street connected to a similar terminal in the Pentagon building. This enabled Churchill to speak securely with American President Roosevelt in Washington, with the first conference taking place on 15 July 1943.  Later extensions were installed to both 10 Downing Street and the specially constructed Transatlantic Telephone Room within the Cabinet War Rooms. Churchill's office-bedroom included BBC broadcasting equipment; Churchill made four wartime broadcasts from the Cabinet War Rooms. Although the office room was also fitted out as a bedroom, Churchill rarely slept underground, preferring to sleep at 10 Downing Street or the No.10 Annexe, a flat in the New Public Offices directly above the Cabinet War Rooms. His daughter Mary Soames often slept in the bedroom allocated to Mrs Churchill.

Abandonment and preservation.

After the end of the war, the Cabinet War Rooms became redundant and were abandoned. Their maintenance became the responsibility of the Ministry of Works. In March 1948 the question of public access to the War Rooms was raised in Parliament and the Minister responsible, Charles Key MP, considered that 'it would not be practicable to throw open for inspection by the general public accommodation which forms part of an office where confidential work is carried on'. Even so, a tour was organised for journalists on 17 March, with members of the press being welcomed by Lord Ismay and shown around the Rooms by their custodian, Mr. George Rance.  While the Rooms were not open to the general public, they could be accessed by appointment, with access being restricted to small groups. Even so, by the 1970s (with responsibility for the Rooms having passed to the Department for the Environment in 1975) tens of thousands of requests to visit the Rooms were being received every year, of which only 5,000 were successful. Meanwhile, the atmospheric conditions of the site, being dry and dusty, were having a detrimental effect on the rooms' furnishings and historic maps and other documents. The prospect was raised of decanting the contents of the Rooms to an established museum, with the National Army Museum and Imperial War Museum being suggested as candidates. In the event, £7,000 was secured to conserve the material in situ.

Opening and redevelopment.

In 1974, the Imperial War Museum was approached by the government and asked to consider taking over the administration of the site. A feasibility study was prepared but came to nothing, the museum feeling it did not have sufficient resources to commit to the War Rooms. In 1981, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, known as an admirer of Winston Churchill, expressed the hope that the Rooms could be opened before the next general election. The Imperial War Museum was again approached. Initially still reluctant, the museum's trustees decided in January 1982 that the museum would take over the site, on the understanding that the government would make the necessary resources available. The initial costs were to be met by the Department for the Environment and the War Rooms intended to be self-supporting thereafter.  The Rooms were opened to the public by Mrs Thatcher on 4 April 1984 in a ceremony attended by Churchill family members and former Cabinet War Rooms staff. At first the Rooms were administered by the museum on behalf of Department for the Environment; in 1989 responsibility was transferred to the Imperial War Museum.  Following a major expansion in 2003, a suite of rooms used as accommodation by Churchill, his wife and close associates, was added to the museum. The restoration of these rooms, which after the war had been stripped of furnishings and used for storage, cost £7.5 million.

Churchill Museum.

In 2005 the War Rooms were rebranded as the Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms, with 850 m of the site redeveloped as a biographical museum exploring Churchill's life, the development of which cost a further £6 million raised from private funds. The museum makes extensive use of audiovisual technology. The centrepiece is a 15-metre interactive table that enables visitors to access digitised material, particularly from the Churchill Archives Centre, via an 'electronic filing cabinet'. The Churchill Museum won the 2006 Council of Europe Museum Prize. During 2009–2011 the museum received over 300,000 visitors a year. In May 2010 the name of the museum was shortened to Churchill War Rooms.  In June 2012 the museum's entrance was redesigned by Clash Architects with consulting engineers Price & Myers. Intended to act as a 'beacon' for the museum, the new external design included a faceted bronze entranceway, and the interior showed the cleaned and restored Portland stone walls of the Treasury building and Clive Steps. The design was described as 'appropriately martial and bulldog-like' and as 'a fusion of architecture and sculpture'.

The Churchill War Rooms is a museum in London and one of the five branches of the Imperial War Museum. The museum comprises the "Cabinet War Rooms", a historic underground complex that housed a British government command centre throughout the Second World War, and the "Churchill Museum", a biographical museum exploring the life of British statesman Winston Churchill.

丘吉尔战时办公室(英语:Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms)是位于英国伦敦的一座有关温斯顿·丘吉尔的博物馆,也是帝国战争博物馆的分馆之一。这里曾是丘吉尔内阁在战争时期的办公室,西敏市白厅的各政府部门和英国财政部在二战期间都曾在这里办公。1984年之后,丘吉尔战时办公室对外开放。2003年,博物馆的公开展示空间得到了大幅扩张。


Computers.

In computers, entering a sleep state is roughly equivalent to "pausing" the state of the machine. When restored, the operation continues from the same point, having the same applications and files open.

Sleep.

Sleep mode has gone by various names, including "Stand By", "Suspend" and "Suspend to RAM". Machine state is held in RAM and, when placed in sleep mode, the computer cuts power to unneeded subsystems and places the RAM into a minimum power state, just sufficient to retain its data. Because of the large power saving, most laptops automatically enter this mode when the computer is running on batteries and the lid is closed. If undesired, the behavior can be altered in the operating system settings.  A computer must consume some energy while sleeping in order to power the RAM and to be able to respond to a wake-up event. A sleeping PC is a case of a machine on standby power, and this is covered by regulations in many countries, for example in the United States limiting such power under the One Watt Initiative, from 2010. In addition to a wake-up press of the power button, PCs can also respond to other wake cues, such as from keyboard, mouse, incoming telephone call on a modem, or local area network signal.

Hibernation.

Hibernation, also called Suspend to Disk on Linux, saves all computer operational data on the fixed disk before turning the computer off completely. On switching the computer back on, the computer is restored to its state prior to hibernation, with all programs and files open, and unsaved data intact. In contrast with standby mode, hibernation mode saves the computer's state on the hard disk, which requires no power to maintain, whereas standby mode saves the computer's state in RAM, which requires a small amount of power to maintain.

Hybrid sleep.

Sleep mode and hibernation can be combined: the contents of RAM are first copied to non-volatile storage like for regular hibernation, but then, instead of powering down, the computer enters sleep mode. This approach combines the benefits of sleep mode and hibernation: The machine can resume instantaneously, but it can also be powered down completely (e.g. due to loss of power) without loss of data, because it is already effectively in a state of hibernation. This mode is called "hybrid sleep" in Microsoft Windows other than Windows XP.  A hybrid mode is supported by some portable Apple Macintosh computers, compatible hardware running Microsoft Windows Vista or newer, as well as Linux distributions running kernel 3.6 or newer.

ACPI.

ACPI (Advanced Configuration and Power Interface) is the current standard for power management, superseding APM (Advanced Power Management) and providing the backbone for sleep and hibernation on modern computers. Sleep mode corresponds to ACPI mode S3. When a non-ACPI device is plugged in, Windows will sometimes disable stand-by functionality for the whole operating system. Without ACPI functionality, as seen on older hardware, sleep mode is usually restricted to turning off the monitor and spinning down the hard drive.

Reliability.

When sleep mode was first introduced, not all PC hardware supported it correctly, which could cause problems with peripherals that did not detect the transition. This is rarely a problem with newer hardware and operating systems.

Microsoft Windows.

Microsoft Windows 2000 and later support sleep at the operating system level (OS-controlled ACPI S4 sleep state) without special drivers from the hardware manufacturer. Windows Vista's Fast Sleep and Resume feature saves the contents of volatile memory to hard disk before entering sleep mode (aka Hybrid sleep). If power to memory is lost, it will use the hard disk to wake up. The user has the option of hibernating directly if they wish.  In older versions prior to Windows Vista, sleep mode was under-used in business environments as it was difficult to enable organization-wide without resorting to third-party PC power management software. As a result, these earlier versions of Windows were criticized for wasting energy.  There remains a market in third-party PC power management software for newer versions of Windows, offering features beyond those built into the operating system. Most products offer Active Directory integration and per-user/per-machine settings with the more advanced offering multiple power plans, scheduled power plans, anti-insomnia features and enterprise power usage reporting. Vendors include 1E NightWatchman, Data Synergy PowerMAN (Software) and Verdiem SURVEYOR.

macOS.

Sleep on Macs running macOS consist of the traditional sleep, Safe Sleep, and Power Nap. In System Preferences, Safe Sleep is referred to as sleep. Since Safe Sleep also allowed state to be restored in an event of a power outage, unlike other operating systems, hibernate was never offered as an option.  In 2005, some Macs running Mac OS X v10.4 began to support Safe Sleep. The feature saves the contents of volatile memory to the system hard disk each time the Mac enters Sleep mode. The Mac can instantaneously wake from sleep mode if power to the RAM has not been lost. However, if the power supply was interrupted, such as when removing batteries without an AC power connection, the Mac would wake from Safe Sleep instead, restoring memory contents from the hard drive.  Safe Sleep capability is found in Mac models starting with the October 2005 revision of the PowerBook G4 (Double-Layer SD). Mac OS X v10.4 or higher is also required. A hack enabled the feature as well on older Macs running Mac OS X v10.4.  In 2012, Apple introduced Power Nap with OS X Mountain Lion (10.8) and select Mac models. Power Nap allows the Mac to perform tasks silently, such as iCloud syncing and Spotlight indexing. Only low energy tasks are performed when on battery power, while higher energy tasks are performed with AC power.

Unicode.

Because of widespread use of this symbol, a campaign was launched to add a set of power characters to Unicode. In February 2015, the proposal was accepted by Unicode and the characters were included in Unicode 9.0. The characters are in the "Miscellaneous Technical" block, with code points 23FB-FE.  The symbol is ⏾ (⏾) - defined as "Power Sleep Symbol"

Sleep mode (or suspend to RAM) is a low power mode for electronic devices such as computers, televisions, and remote controlled devices. These modes save significantly on electrical consumption compared to leaving a device fully on and, upon resume, allow the user to avoid having to reissue instructions or to wait for a machine to reboot. Many devices signify this power mode with a pulsed or red colored LED power light.

待机指电子设备,如计算机、电视和可以远程控制的设备在低电量模式下运行的状态。待机模式比正常运行显著减少了电力的消耗,并且在恢复时无需用户等待机器重新开机。许多设备以慢闪或红色的电源指示灯指示设备正处于待机状态。


Medical uses.

In addition to birth control, hormonal IUD are used for prevention and treatment of: Advantages  Disadvantages

Effectiveness.

After insertion, Mirena is officially sold as effective for up to five years, although several studies have shown that it remains effective through seven years. It is approved for use up to seven years in Europe. Kyleena is approved for five years and Skyla is approved for three years.  The hormonal IUD is a long-acting reversible contraceptive, and is considered one of the most effective forms of birth control. The first year failure rate for the hormonal IUD is 0.1-0.2% and the five-year failure rate is 0.7-0.9%. These rates are comparable to tubal sterilization, but unlike sterilization the effects of the hormonal IUD are reversible.  The hormonal IUD is considered to be more effective than other common forms of reversible contraception, such as the birth control pill, because it requires little action by the user after insertion. The effectiveness of other forms of birth control is mitigated (decreased) by the users themselves. If medication regimens for contraception are not followed precisely, the method becomes less effective. IUDs require no daily, weekly, or monthly regimen, so their typical use failure rate is therefore the same as their perfect use failure rate.  In women with bicornuate uterus and in need of contraception, two IUDs are generally applied (one in each horn) due to lack of evidence of efficacy with only one IUD. Evidence is lacking regarding progestogen IUD usage for menorrhagia in bicornuate uterus, but a case report showed good effect with a single IUD for this purpose.

Breastfeeding.

Progestogen-only contraceptives such as an IUD are not believed to affect milk supply or infant growth. However, a study in the Mirena application for FDA approval found a lower continuation of breastfeeding at 75 days in hormonal IUD users (44%) versus copper IUD users (79%).  When using Mirena, about 0.1% of the maternal dose of levonorgestrel can be transferred via milk to the nursed infant. A six-year study of breastfed infants whose mothers used a levonorgestrel-only method of birth control found the infants had increased risk of respiratory infections and eye infections, though a lower risk of neurological conditions, compared to infants whose mothers used a copper IUD. No longer-term studies have been performed to assess the long-term effects on infants of levonorgestrel in breast milk.  There are conflicting recommendations about use of Mirena while breastfeeding. The U.S. FDA does not recommend any hormonal method, including Mirena, as a first choice of contraceptive for nursing mothers. The World Health Organization recommends against immediate postpartum insertion, citing increased expulsion rates. It also reports concerns about potential effects on the infant's liver and brain development in the first six weeks postpartum. However, it recommends offering Mirena as a contraceptive option beginning at six weeks postpartum even to nursing women. Planned Parenthood offers Mirena as a contraceptive option for breastfeeding women beginning at four weeks postpartum.

Contraindications.

A hormonal IUD should not be used by women who:  Insertion of an IUD is not recommended for women having had a D&E abortion (second-trimester abortion) within the past four weeks. To reduce the risk of infection, insertion of an IUD is not recommended for women that have had a medical abortion but have not yet had an ultrasound to confirm that the abortion was complete, or that have not yet had their first menstruation following the medical abortion.  A full list of contraindications can be found in the WHO "Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use" and the CDC "United States Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use".

Side effects.

Cancer.

According to a 1999 evaluation of the studies performed on progestin-only birth control by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, there is some evidence that progestin-only birth control reduces the risk of endometrial cancer. The IARC concluded that there is no evidence progestin-only birth control increases the risk of any cancer, though the available studies were too small to be definitively conclusive.  Progesterone is a hormone in the endometrium that counteracts estrogen driven growth. Very low levels of progesterone will cause estrogen to act more, leading to endometrial hyperplasia and adenocarcinoma. These effects can be minimized if treated with progestin, but not in very many cases.  Estrogen and progesterone have an antagonistic relationship. Estrogen promotes the growing of endometrial lining, while progesterone limits it. In the case of endometrial cancer, progesterone can negatively regulate estrogen driven growth. Tumors formed are correlated with insufficient progesterone and excess estrogen. In patients with endometrial cancer who use progestin releasing IUDs concluded mixed results.

Bone density.

No evidence has been identified to suggest Mirena affects bone mineral density (BMD). Two small studies, limited to studying BMD in the forearm, show no decrease in BMD. One of the studies showed at seven years of use, similar BMD at the midshaft of the ulna and at the distal radius as nonusers matched by age and BMI. In addition, BMD measurements were similar to the expected values for women in the same age group as the participants. The authors of the study said their results were predictable, since it is well established that the main factor responsible for bone loss in women is hypoestrogenism, and, in agreement with previous reports, they found estradiol levels in Mirena users to be normal.

Composition and hormonal release.

The hormonal IUD is a small 'T'-shaped piece of plastic, which contains levonorgestrel, a type of progestin. The cylinder of the device is coated with a membrane that regulates the release of the drug. Bayer markets Skyla as Jaydess in the United Kingdom. Jaydess releases six micrograms per day and lasts for three years. In comparison, oral contraceptives can contain 150 micrograms of levonorgestrel. The hormonal IUD releases the levonorgestrel directly into the uterus, as such its effects are mostly paracrine rather than systemic. Most of the drug stays inside the uterus, and only a small amount is absorbed into the rest of the body.

Insertion and removal.

The hormonal IUD is inserted in a similar procedure to the nonhormonal copper IUD, and can only be inserted by a qualified medical practitioner. Before insertion, a pelvic exam is performed to examine the shape and position of the uterus. A current STI at the time of insertion can increase the risk of pelvic infection. However, routine screening for gonorrhea and chlamydia prior to insertion is not recommended. If a person needs screening and there is no evidence of infection on examination or has been previously screened, insertion of the IUD does not need to be delayed.

Insertion.

During the insertion, the vagina is held open with a speculum, the same device used during a pap smear. A grasping instrument is used to steady the cervix, the length of the uterus is measured for proper insertion with a uterine sound for decreasing chance of uterine perforation with the IUD, and the IUD is placed using a narrow tube through the opening of the cervix into the uterus. A short length of monofilament plastic/nylon string hangs down from the cervix into the vagina. The string allows physicians and patients to check to ensure the IUD is still in place and enables easy removal of the device. Mild to moderate cramping can occur during the procedure, which generally takes five minutes or less. Insertion can be performed immediately postpartum and post-abortion if no infection has occurred. Misoprostol is not effective in reducing pain in IUD insertion.

Removal.

Removal of the device should also be performed by a qualified medical practitioner. After removal, fertility will return to previous levels relatively quickly. One study found that the majority of participants returned to fertility within three months.

Mechanisms of action.

Levonorgestrel is a progestogen, i.e. progesterone-receptor agonist. The hormonal IUD's primary mechanism of action is to prevent fertilization. The levonorgestrel intrauterine system has several contraceptive effects, although thickening of the cervical mucus appears to be the primary effect. Other effects include making the inside of the uterus becomes fatal to sperm and thinning of the endometrial lining, but this is not the usual function.  Ovulation is not inhibited.  Numerous studies have demonstrated that IUDs primarily prevent fertilization, not implantation. In one experiment involving tubal flushing, fertilized eggs were found in half of women not using contraception, but no fertilized eggs were found in women using IUDs. IUDs also decrease the risk of ectopic pregnancy, which further implies that IUDs prevent fertilization.

History.

Hormonal IUDs were developed in the 1970s following the development of the copper IUD in the 1960s and 1970s. Dr. Antonio Scommenga, working at the Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago, discovered that administering progesterone inside the uterus could have contraceptive benefits. With knowledge of Scommegna's work, a Finnish doctor, Jouni Valtteri Tapani Luukkainen, created the 'T'-shaped IUD that released progesterone, marketed as the Progestasert System in 1976. This IUD had a short, 1-year lifespan and never achieved widespread popularity. Following this relative lack of success, Dr. Luukkainen replaced the progesterone with the hormone levonorgestrel to be released over a five-year period, creating what is now Mirena.  The Mirena IUD was studied for safety and efficacy in two clinical trials in Finland and Sweden involving 1,169 women who were all between 18 and 35 years of age at the beginning of the trials. The trials included predominantly Caucasian women who had been previously pregnant with no history of ectopic pregnancy or pelvic inflammatory disease within the previous year. Over 70% of the participants had previously used IUDs.  In 2013 Skyla, a lower dose levonorgestrel IUD effective for up to three years, was approved by the FDA. Skyla has a different bleeding pattern than Mirena, with only 6% of women in clinical trials becoming amenorrheic (compared to approximately 20% with Mirena).

Controversies.

In 2009, Bayer, the maker of Mirena, was issued an FDA Warning Letter by the United States Food and Drug Administration for overstating the efficacy, minimizing the risks of use, and making "false or misleading presentations" about the device. From 2000 to 2013, the federal agency received over 70,072 complaints about the device and related adverse effects. As of April 2014, over 1,200 lawsuits have been filed in the United States.

Intrauterine system (IUS) with progestogen, sold under the brand name Mirena among others, is an intrauterine device that releases the hormone levonorgestrel into the uterus. It is used for birth control, heavy menstrual periods, and to prevent excessive build of the lining of the uterus in those on estrogen replacement therapy. It is one of the most effective forms of birth control with a one-year failure rate around 0.2%. The device is placed in the uterus and lasts three to seven years. Fertility often returns quickly following removal. Side effects include irregular periods, benign ovarian cysts, pelvic pain, and depression. Rarely uterine perforation may occur. Use is not recommended during pregnancy but is safe with breastfeeding. The IUD with progestogen is a type of long-acting reversible birth control. It works by thickening the mucus at the opening of the cervix, stopping the buildup of the lining of the uterus, and occasionally preventing ovulation. The IUD with levonorgestrel was first approved for medical use in 1990 in Finland and in the United States in 2000. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US$122.46 each. In the United Kingdom they cost the NHS about £88. In the United States they cost around US$844.00, though birth control and other preventative medical services are at no cost under the Affordable Care Act. More than 120 countries have approved the device and it is used by more than 10 million women.

含孕激素宫内节育器(英语:Intrauterine device with progestogen),商品名为曼月乐(英语:Mirena)等,是一种可以释放左炔诺孕酮的宫内节育器,其用途包括避孕、缓解月经过多、预防雌激素替代疗法可能产生的子宫内膜增生等。这是最为有效的避孕方式之一,其年避孕失败率仅为0.2%左右。该装置经由手术放入子宫中,有效期为三至五年。取出之后,生育能力将很快得以恢复。


Characteristics and criticism.

Under the McCune–Reischauer system, aspirated consonants like "p'<nowiki></nowiki>", "k'<nowiki></nowiki>", and "t'<nowiki></nowiki>" are distinguished by apostrophe from unaspirated ones, which may be falsely understood as a separator between syllables (as in → "twich'agi", which consists of the syllables "twi", "ch'a" and "gi"). The apostrophe is also used to mark transcriptions of ("n'g") as opposed to ("ng"): → "chan'gŭm" vs. → "changŭm"), so these diverse applications of apostrophe made people confused once omitted. Also, the breve ( ̆) is used to differentiate vowels in Korean. So if the apostrophe and breve are omitted, as on the internet, this made it impossible to differentiate between aspirated consonants k',t',p' and ch' and unaspirated consonants k,t,p and ch, separator between syllables, transcriptions of ("n'g") to ("ng") and vowels 어 and 오, and 으 and 우.  An omission of apostrophe in internet and breve ( ̆) in keyboard was the primary reason the South Korean government adopted a revised system of romanization in 2000. However, critics of the revised system claim it fails to represent and in a way that is easily recognizable and misrepresents the way that the unaspirated consonants are actually pronounced. However, the counterargument for this assertion is that it is impossible to find perfectly matching pairs of letters between the two different writing systems, English and Korean, and priority should be given to revised system of romanization created by the help of many Korean linguists at the National Academy of the Korean Language over a five-year period than the McCune–Reischauer system created by two foreigners with the help of three Korean linguists over a two-year period during the Japanese colonial era.  Meanwhile, despite official adoption of the new system in South Korea, North Korea uses a version of McCune–Reischauer, which does not accurately represent the phonetic characteristics of the Korean language.

Guide.

This is a simplified guide for the McCune–Reischauer system. It is often used for the transliteration of names but does not convert every word properly, as several Korean letters are pronounced differently depending on their position.

Consonants.

For ᄀ, ᄃ, ᄇ, and ᄌ, the letters "g", "d", "b", or "j" are used if voiced, "k", "t", "p", or "ch" otherwise. Pronunciations such as those take precedence over the rules in the table above.

North Korean variant.

In North Korea's variant of McCune–Reischauer, aspirated consonants are not represented by an apostrophe but are instead by adding an "h". For example, is written as "Phyŏngsŏng". The original system would have it written as "P'yŏngsŏng".  However, the consonant is transcribed as "ch", and not "chh", while is transcribed as "j". For example, is spelled "Juche", and not "Chuch'e", as it would be transcribed using the original system.  The North Korean variant renders names of people with each syllable capitalized and no hyphenation between syllables of given names: e.g. "Kim Il Sung" for Kim Il-sung. Native Korean names, however, are written without syllabic division.

South Korean variant.

A variant of McCune–Reischauer was in official use in South Korea from 1984 to 2000. The following are the differences between the original McCune–Reischauer and the South Korean variant:  The following table illustrates the differences above.

Other systems.

A third system, the Yale Romanization system, which is a transliteration system, exists but is used only in academic literature, especially in linguistics.  The Kontsevich system, based on the earlier Kholodovich system, is used for transliterating Korean into the Cyrillic script. Like McCune–Reischauer romanization it attempts to represent the pronunciation of a word, rather than provide letter-to-letter correspondence.

McCune–Reischauer romanization () is one of the two most widely used Korean language romanization systems. A modified version of McCune–Reischauer was the official romanization system in South Korea until 2000, when it was replaced by the Revised Romanization of Korean system. A variant of McCune–Reischauer is still used as the official system in North Korea.

马科恩-赖肖尔表记法(,英语:McCune–Reischauer)为朝鲜语的拉丁文字转写方法之一,制定于1937年,以乔治·M·马科恩和埃德温·赖肖尔的名字命名。


Title.

"Leithian" is a word in one of Tolkien's invented languages which derives from "leithia," meaning "release". The title bears a strong resemblance to the word "Leithien," the name for England in earlier versions of Tolkien's legendarium.  The author translated the title as "release from bondage," without making explicit who was released from what form of bondage. There are, accordingly, several possible interpretations.  One likely meaning of the title might be found at one of the key moments in the poem, the point at which one of the Silmarils, the magical gems of Fëanor, is cut from the crown of Morgoth by Beren:  <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Behold! the hope of Elvenland the fire of Fëanor, Light of Morn before the sun and moon were born, thus out of bondage came at last, from iron to mortal hand it passed.</poem>  This moment is also central to the overarching story-line of "The Silmarillion", in which the gem is used to bring hope to the scattered peoples of Middle-earth and is ultimately set in the heavens by the mariner Eärendil as a sign of their coming salvation.  The name of the poem is therefore likely an attempt to underscore the importance of the Lay relative to other tales from the first age. Though honor, bravery and vengeance drive the Elven hosts forward to war with Morgoth, it is only love that can overcome all obstacles to wrest a Silmaril from his crown.  Another interpretation is that Lúthien is released from the bonds of the Eldar to the physical world (the world that is, Arda). In "The Silmarillion" it is said that Lúthien alone among the elves has died indeed, and left the world. By contrast, it is basic to Tolkien's Christian and Catholic conception of Arda that Men, the younger children of Ilúvatar (God), by means of the Gift of Men (death) are able to escape the confines of the world. Note the comfort offered by the mortal King Elessar to his elvish bride Arwen as his death approaches: "we are not bound forever to the circles of the world."  Indeed, the theme of release from imprisonment runs like a thread throughout the story: Lúthien's escape from Doriath, her release from Nargothrond with the aid of Huan, Beren's release from Gaurhoth Isle. In every instance it is love that is the liberating factor: Lúthien's love for Beren drives her on to find some escape from imprisonment by her father, Huan's love for Lúthien is what frees her from Nargothrond, Beren's rescue by Lúthien. One could hazard an interpretation of the title as being suggestive of the immense power of love.  Hence, the theme might find an echo in line 2978 of Canto X, spoken by Beren:  <poem style="margin-left: 2em;">Thy love me drew from bondage drear, but never to that outer fear, that darkest mansion of all dread, shall thy most blissful light be led.</poem>

Synopsis.

After the ruin of his land in the Battle of Sudden Flame the Man Beren fled into the elvish realm of Doriath. There he met the Elf-maiden Lúthien and they fell in love with each other. Thingol, father of Lúthien and the king of the land, did not want his daughter to marry a mortal man. Therefore, he asked Beren for a Silmaril, one of the hallowed jewels which the Dark Lord Morgoth had stolen from the Elves, as the bride price. With the help of Huan and Finrod Felagund, Beren and Lúthien defeated Sauron and came to Angband, where they stole a Silmaril from Morgoth's crown. The unfinished poem ends when they encounter the wolf Carcharoth at the gate of Angband.  Besides the main story the poem also tells of many events which happened before, like the meeting of Thingol and Melian, the oath of Fëanor, the return of the Noldor, the war of Beleriand and the duel of Fingolfin and Morgoth.

Analysis.

The poem consists of over 4200 lines of iambic tetrameter. It is written in rhyming couplets.

Writing.

Tolkien worked on "The Lay of Leithian" from the summer of 1925 until September 1931, when he abandoned it with only thirteen of the seventeen planned cantos completed. During the composition he made many amendments of the already existing parts of the poem, partially based on the criticism of his friend C. S. Lewis who had read the poem in 1929. In the 1950s, after the publishing of "The Lord of the Rings", he resumed working on the poem, of which he rewrote many passages, particularly of the second canto which was expanded and split into two. Nevertheless, the poem never reached a complete or definite form.

Publishing.

In 1937 Tolkien sent the current version of "The Lay of Leithian" together with a prose version of the yet unfinished part of the poem to his publisher Allen & Unwin who had asked for further material of his fictional world after the success of "The Hobbit". As Tolkien did not add any further information on the text the reader who was given it believed the poem to be an attempt to retell the prose version, which he thought to be a Celtic tale. Despite praising the prose he criticised the poem and it was rejected. In 1985 the poem was published posthumously in "The Lays of Beleriand", the third volume of "The History of Middle-earth". The two versions of the poem are given independently, and the development of them is commented on in detail by Christopher Tolkien.

The Lay of Leithian is an unfinished poem written by J. R. R. Tolkien. It tells the tale of Beren and Lúthien, the story of the love of the mortal Man Beren and the immortal Elf maiden Lúthien. The poem consists of over 4200 verses. It was published after Tolkien's death in "The Lays of Beleriand". Its precedents are found in the Welsh tale of "Culhwch and Olwen" in the manuscripts, the "Red Book of Hergest" and the earlier "White Book of Rhydderch".

《丽西安之歌》(英语:The Lay of Leithian)是英国作家J·R·R·托尔金的未完诗作,叙述贝伦与露西安的爱情故事。1985年,这首诗被收录在《中土世界的历史》第三部《贝尔兰没落》中出版。


History.

It was invented by physicist Aikitsu Tanakadate (田中館 愛橘) in 1885, with the intention to replace the Hepburn system of romanization. Tanakadate's intention was to replace the traditional kanji and kana system of writing Japanese completely by a romanized system, which he felt would make it easier for Japan to compete with Western countries. Since the system was intended for Japanese people to use to write their own language, it is much more regular than Hepburn romanization, and unlike Hepburn's system, it makes no effort to make itself easier to pronounce for English speakers.  Nippon-shiki was followed by Kunrei-shiki, which was adopted in 1937, after a political debate over whether Nihon-shiki or Hepburn-shiki should be used by the Japanese government. Kunrei is otherwise nearly identical, but it merges syllable pairs di/zi ぢ/じ, du/zu づ/ず, dya/zya ぢゃ/じゃ, dyu/zyu ぢゅ/じゅ, dyo/zyo ぢょ/じょ, wi/i ゐ/い, we/e ゑ/え, kwa/ka くゎ/か, and gwa/ga ぐゎ/が; their pronunciations in modern standard Japanese have become identical. For example, the word かなづかい, rendered "kanadukai" in Nippon-shiki, is pronounced as "kanazukai" in modern Japanese, and is romanized as such in Kunrei. However, some Japanese speakers distinguish di from zi and du from zu even today, so Nippon-shiki spelling is not entirely obsolete.  Nippon-shiki is considered the most regular of the romanization systems for the Japanese language because it maintains a strict "one kana, two letters" form. Because it has unique forms corresponding to each of the respective pairs of "kana" homophones listed above, it is the only formal system of romanization that can allow (almost) lossless ("round trip") mapping, but the standard does not mandate the precise spellings needed to distinguish ô 王/おう, ou 追う/おう and oo 大/おお. (See the hiragana article for more details.)  Nippon-shiki has been established by the International Organization for Standardization in the ISO 3602 strict form. The JSL system, which is intended for use instructing foreign students of Japanese, is also based on Nippon-shiki.

Nihon-shiki, or Nippon-shiki Rōmaji (, "Japan-style," romanized as "Nihon-siki" or "Nippon-siki" in Nippon-shiki itself), is a romanization system for transliterating the Japanese language into the Latin alphabet. In discussion about romaji, it is abbreviated as Nihon-shiki or Nippon-shiki. Among the major romanization systems for Japanese, it is the most regular one and has a one-to-one relation to the kana writing system.

日本式罗马字()是日语罗马字的一种,由田中馆爱橘在1885年发明。


History.

Early in the year 1057, a preacher named Ariald arrived in the city of Milan and began to preach against the Milanese clerics' custom of marrying. It is possible that he took advantage of the absence at this time of the Archbishop of Milan, Guido, who was in Germany in August at the Council of Tribur.  The Milanese clergy grew concerned by Ariald's attempt to whip up the city against them, and sent envoys to Pope Stephen IX in Rome. On hearing this, Ariald travelled to Rome himself. Pope Stephen IX was sympathetic to Ariald's position, and sent two envoys to Milan, Hildebrand (later Pope Gregory VII) and Anselm of Baggio (later Pope Alexander II). Ariald also returned to Milan, and now began to criticise the Milanese clerics' practice of simony, resulting in urban unrest. Ariald's close associate Landulf Cotta was attacked, and later died from his injuries.  In 1059 Ariald travelled to Rome again to seek advice; Pope Stephen IX again sent envoys to Milan, this time Peter Damian and again Anselm of Baggio, but this did nothing to quell the unrest in the city. In 1063, Landulf Cotta's brother Erlembald went to Rome where he obtained a papal banner from the newly elected Pope Alexander II in support of the Pataria movement. In 1066, Pope Alexander II finally excommunicated Archbishop Guido. Guido used this excommunication however to whip up the citizens' anger against the Paterenes at a public meeting, and Ariald was first chased out of the city of Milan, and then assassinated, in June 1066.  However, when Ariald's body was found in May 1067, it quickly became the object of a cult, and popular opinion in Milan swung back behind the Pataria. Archbishop Guido was forced out of the city, leaving it under the control of Erlembald, and Alexander II formally proclaimed Ariald to be a saint in 1068.  Archbishop Guido resigned in 1068, in favour of his associate Gotofredo da Castiglione, who was also supported by Emperor Henry IV. The papacy and the Pataria however supported a different candidate as archbishop, Attone, and Pope Gregory VII excommunicated Gotofredo in 1074.  Rioting in Milan led to the murder of Erlembald in 1075, and after this point the Pataria movement lost much of its energy. The controversy over the appointment of the archbishop of Milan continued, however, and contributed to the political tensions between Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII.

Medieval historiography.

There are several contemporary and nearly-contemporary sources for the Pataria, each of which offers different and sometimes contradictory perspectives. These include:

Modern historiography.

As Paolo Golinelli has emphasised, modern debates about the Pataria have often centred on whether the Pataria was primarily a religious movement, or whether it was instead the religious expression of social tensions within the city and region of Milan. The Italian historian Gioacchino Volpe, for instance, argued in 1907 that the Pataria was a class conflict between the elites of Milan and the lower-status population. This interpretation was also supported by Ernst Werner in 1956. For Hagen Keller, the Pataria is best understood as part of the history of the emergence of the Italian commune.  More recently, historians such as Herbert Cowdrey have emphasised the movement's essentially religious nature. Many historians have associated the movement with wider reforming trends in the Church. For William North, the Pataria was 'the longest... and most violent of the popular responses to the call for ecclesiastical reform in the eleventh century'. In his article on religious change in the eleventh century, R.I. Moore discussed the Pataria extensively as a major part of the 'appearance of the crowd on the stage of public events', which he sees as being brought into being by religious reform (itself however a response to social change).  In a recent article, Piroska Nagy has suggested a new path of interpretation by analysing the collective emotions of the movement.

The pataria was an eleventh-century movement focused on the city of Milan in northern Italy, which aimed to reform the clergy and ecclesiastic government within the city and its ecclesiastical province, in support of Papal sanctions against simony and clerical marriage. Those involved in the movement were called patarini (singular "patarino"), patarines or patarenes, a word chosen by their opponents, the etymology of which is unclear. The movement, associated with urban unrest in the city of Milan, is generally considered to have begun in 1057 and ended in 1075.

巴塔里亚("pataria")是一个11世纪天主教米兰总教区的宗教运动,目的是改革圣职人员以及教省管理机构,并支持教宗制裁贩卖圣事以及圣职人员婚姻(clerical marriage)。那些参加该运动者被称为巴塔里尼(patarini,亦称 patarines 或patarenes,源自单数形式"patarino"),一个被其反对者选用的词汇,其含义是"ragpickers",源自米兰语(Milanese language)"patee",相当于意大利语"stracci", "抹布"(rags)。总地说来,"patarini"是出于个人虔诚的商人。"patarini"及其支持者与贩卖圣事的总主教们一党之间的冲突最终导致了1070年代中期的内战,大撒克逊起义(Great Saxon revolt)。在米兰的阿努弗(Arnulf of Milan)笔下,它获得了它最可靠的同时代编年史记录。


Personal life.

Nozick was born in Brooklyn to a family of Jewish descent. His mother was born Sophie Cohen, and his father was a Jew from the Russian shtetl who had been born with the name Cohen and who ran a small business.  Nozick attended the public schools in Brooklyn. He was then educated at Columbia University (A.B. 1959, "summa cum laude"), where he studied with Sidney Morgenbesser, and later at Princeton University (Ph.D. 1963) under Carl Hempel, and at Oxford University as a Fulbright Scholar (1963–1964). At one point he joined the youth branch of Norman Thomas's Socialist Party. In addition, at Columbia he founded the local chapter of the Student League for Industrial Democracy, which in 1962 changed its name to Students for a Democratic Society.  That same year, after receiving his bachelor of arts degree in 1959, he married Barbara Fierer. They had two children, Emily and David. The Nozicks eventually divorced and he remarried, to the poet Gjertrud Schnackenberg. Nozick died in 2002 after a prolonged struggle with stomach cancer. He was interred at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Career and works.

Political philosophy.

For "Anarchy, State, and Utopia" (1974) Nozick received a National Book Award in the category Philosophy and Religion. There, Nozick argues that only a minimal state limited to the narrow functions of protection against "force, fraud, theft, and administering courts of law" could be justified without violating people's rights. For Nozick, a distribution of goods is just if brought about by free exchange among consenting adults from a "just" starting position, even if large inequalities subsequently emerge from the process. Nozick appealed to the Kantian idea that people should be treated as ends (what he termed'separateness of persons'), not merely as a means to some other end.  Nozick challenged the partial conclusion of John Rawls' Second Principle of Justice of his "A Theory of Justice", that "social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are to be of greatest benefit to the least-advantaged members of society." "Anarchy, State, and Utopia" claims a heritage from John Locke's "Second Treatise on Government" and seeks to ground itself upon a natural law doctrine, but reaches some importantly different conclusions from Locke himself in several ways.  Most controversially, Nozick argued that a consistent upholding of the non-aggression principle would allow and regard as valid consensual or non-coercive enslavement contracts between adults. He rejected the notion of inalienable rights advanced by Locke and most contemporary capitalist-oriented libertarian academics, writing in "Anarchy, State, and Utopia" that the typical notion of a "free system" would allow adults to voluntarily enter into non-coercive slave contracts.

Epistemology.

In "Philosophical Explanations" (1981), which received the Phi Beta Kappa Society's Ralph Waldo Emerson Award, Nozick provided novel accounts of knowledge, free will, personal identity, the nature of value, and the meaning of life. He also put forward an epistemological system which attempted to deal with both the Gettier problem and those posed by skepticism. This highly influential argument eschewed justification as a necessary requirement for knowledge.  Nozick's four conditions for S's knowing that P were:  Nozick's third and fourth conditions are counterfactuals. He called this the "tracking theory" of knowledge. Nozick believed the counterfactual conditionals bring out an important aspect of our intuitive grasp of knowledge: For any given fact, the believer's method must reliably track the truth despite varying relevant conditions. In this way, Nozick's theory is similar to reliabilism. Due to certain counterexamples that could otherwise be raised against these counterfactual conditions, Nozick specified that:  Where M stands for the method by which S came to arrive at a belief whether or not P.  A major criticism of Nozick's theory of knowledge is his rejection of the principle of deductive closure. This principle states that if S knows X and S knows that X implies Y, then S knows Y. Nozick's truth tracking conditions do not allow for the principle of deductive closure. Nozick believes that the truth tracking conditions are more fundamental to human intuition than the principle of deductive closure.

Later books.

"The Examined Life" (1989), pitched to a broader public, explores love, death, faith, reality, and the meaning of life. According to Stephen Metcalf, Nozick expresses serious misgivings about capitalist libertarianism, going so far as to reject much of the foundations of the theory on the grounds that personal freedom can sometimes only be fully actualized via a collectivist politics and that wealth is at times justly redistributed via taxation to protect the freedom of the many from the potential tyranny of an overly selfish and powerful few. Nozick suggests that citizens who are opposed to wealth redistribution which fund programs they object to, should be able to opt out by supporting alternative government approved charities with an added 5% surcharge.  However, Jeff Riggenbach has noted that in an interview conducted in July 2001, he stated that he had never stopped self-identifying as a libertarian. Roderick Long reported that in his last book, "Invariances", "[Nozick] identified voluntary cooperation as the 'core principle' of ethics, maintaining that the duty not to interfere with another person's 'domain of choice' is '[a]ll that any society should (coercively) demand'; higher levels of ethics, involving positive benevolence, represent instead a 'personal ideal' that should be left to 'a person's own individual choice and development.' And that certainly sounds like an attempt to embrace libertarianism all over again. My own view is that Nozick's thinking about these matters evolved over time and that what he wrote at any given time was an accurate reflection of what he was thinking at that time." Furthermore, Julian Sanchez reported that "Nozick "always" thought of himself as a libertarian in a broad sense, right up to his final days, even as his views became somewhat less 'hardcore.'"  "The Nature of Rationality" (1993) presents a theory of practical reason that attempts to embellish notoriously spartan classical decision theory.  "Socratic Puzzles" (1997) is a collection of papers that range in topic from Ayn Rand and Austrian economics to animal rights. A thesis claims that "social ties are deeply interconnected with vital parts of Nozick's later philosophy", citing these two works as a development of "The Examined Life".  His last production, "Invariances" (2001), applies insights from physics and biology to questions of objectivity in such areas as the nature of necessity and moral value.

Utilitarianism.

Nozick created the thought experiment of the "utility monster" to show that average utilitarianism could lead to a situation where the needs of the vast majority were sacrificed for one individual. He also wrote a version of what was essentially a previously-known thought experiment, the experience machine, in an attempt to show that ethical hedonism was false. Nozick asked us to imagine that "superduper neuropsychologists" have figured out a way to stimulate a person's brain to induce pleasurable experiences. We would not be able to tell that these experiences were not real. He asks us, if we were given the choice, would we choose a machine-induced experience of a wonderful life over real life? Nozick says no, then asks whether we have reasons not to plug into the machine and concludes that since it does not seem to be rational to plug in, ethical hedonism must be false.

Philosophical method.

Nozick was notable for the exploratory style of his philosophizing and for his methodological ecumenism. Often content to raise tantalizing philosophical possibilities and then leave judgment to the reader, Nozick was also notable for drawing from literature outside of philosophy (e.g., economics, physics, evolutionary biology).

Invariances.

In his 2001 work, "Invariances", Nozick introduces his theory of truth, in which he leans towards a deflationary theory of truth, but argues that objectivity arises through being invariant under various transformations. For instance, space-time is a significant objective fact because an interval involving both temporal and spatial separation is invariant, whereas no simpler interval involving only temporal or only spatial separation is invariant under Lorentz transformations. Nozick argues that invariances, and hence objectivity itself, emerged through a theory of evolutionary cosmology across possible worlds.

Robert Nozick (; November 16, 1938 – January 23, 2002) was an American philosopher. He held the Joseph Pellegrino University Professorship at Harvard University, and was president of the American Philosophical Association. He is best known for his books "Philosophical Explanations" (1981), which included his counterfactual theory of knowledge, and "Anarchy, State, and Utopia" (1974), a libertarian answer to John Rawls' "A Theory of Justice" (1971), in which Nozick also presented his own theory of utopia as one in which people can freely choose the rules of the society they enter into. His other work involved ethics, decision theory, philosophy of mind, metaphysics and epistemology. His final work before his death, "Invariances" (2001), introduced his theory of evolutionary cosmology, by which he argues invariances, and hence objectivity itself, emerged through evolution across possible worlds.

罗伯特·诺齐克(英语:Robert Nozick, 1938年-11月16日-2002年-1月23日)是美国的哲学家,也是哈佛大学的教授。


Editions.

"Zaman" was an Istanbul-based daily paper that also prints special international editions for some other countries. It was printed in 11 countries and distributed in 35 countries.  In addition to four locations in Turkey, regional editions were printed and distributed in Australia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Germany, Romania, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Macedonia, Turkmenistan, and the US. Zaman bureaus and correspondents are located in major world capitals and cities like Washington, D.C., New York City, Brussels, Moscow, Cairo, Baku, Frankfurt, Ashgabat, Tashkent, and Bucharest.  Special international editions were distributed in the native alphabets and languages of the countries they are published. "Zaman" has prints in 10 different languages including Kyrgyz, Romanian, Bulgarian, Azeri, Uzbek, Turkmen and Kazakh. Originally also having an English-language edition, since January 16, 2007, that role was taken over by the English-language daily newspaper "Today's Zaman".  "Zaman" headquarters in Istanbul were supported by news bureaus in Ashgabat, Baku, Brussels, Bucharest, Frankfurt, Moscow, New York, and Washington, D.C. "Zaman" also appeared to have a large network of foreign journalists, especially in Russia and Central Asia.

Current position and awards.

As of 2008 its circulation was about 890,000, the highest in Turkey. The total paid circulation of "Zaman" was verified by an independent Media Auditing company, BPA Worldwide, after accusations that the newspaper was being handed out freely to gain market share. The audit report was released in March 2007, revealing that Zaman' circulation was 609,865 between Monday–Saturday, and 678,027 on Sundays, without any non-paid circulation. BPA audit figures also showed that "Zaman" had one of the largest subscriber bases of a national newspaper in Europe.  In May 2011, "Zaman" surpassed its 1 million subscription target. However some newspapers questioned the quality of the subscriptions, claiming that supporters of the paper's outlook had purchased multiple subscriptions of the newspaper in order to artificially inflate its circulation. The circulation of "Zaman" as of January 2014 was more than 1 million, while other newspapers saw mixed results between increase and decrease in circulation.  "Zaman" was awarded several times for its design, including Society for News Design (SND). Zaman's SND awards tally includes three in 2003, five in 2004, 2005, 2006, twenty in 2007, forty-two in 2008, and twenty-three in 2009.

Staff.

Editors-in-chief.

When in March 2016 the newspaper was taken over by Turkish authorities, Abdülhamit Bilici, who had been editor-in-chief since October 2015, was deposed.

Columnists.

The newspaper has attracted number of famous columnists both from liberal and conservative wings of thought.  A columnist had to resign from the newspaper on December 3, 2013 due to non-compliance with editorial line of opposing to the ruling party of Turkey and pressure from editors of the newspaper. The incident caused criticism of the newspaper as standing against freedom of expression.

Online version.

"Zaman" was the first Turkish newspaper to set up an online version, in 1995. Since then, the website has gone through several redesigns, the latest at the end of 2010, and is now positioned as a news portal.

December 2014 crackdown.

On 14 December 2014 Turkish police arrested more than two dozen senior journalists and media executives on charges of "forming, leading and being a member of an armed terrorist organization." Among those detained was the editor-in-chief of "Zaman", Ekrem Dumanli. Police arriving at 7.30 a.m. at the newspaper's office were greeted by scores of protesters shouting "a free media cannot be silenced." They had mounted a vigil after tweets from "Fuatavni"—a reliable but anonymous source—had warned of the raid. Police retreated only to reappear in the afternoon when Dumanli gave himself up voluntarily.  A statement by the US State Department drawing attention to raids against media outlets "openly critical of the current Turkish government", cautioned Turkey not to violate its "own democratic foundations".EU foreign affairs chief Federica Mogherini and EU Enlargement Commissioner Johannes Hahn said that the arrests went "against European values" and "are incompatible with the freedom of media, which is a core principle of democracy".  On 19 December 2014 a court ordered that Dumanlı and seven others be released due to lack of evidence. Thousands gathered outside Çağlayan Courthouse in İstanbul to show support for the detained journalists and police officials. While crowds celebrated the release of Dumanlı in the courtyard of the courthouse, they protested the arrest order for Samanyolu TV General Manager Hidayet Karaca and former police chiefs Tufan Ergüder, Ertan Erçıktı and Mustafa Kılıçaslan.

March 2016 government takeover.

On 4 March 2016 the Turkish government seized control of "Zaman". The government takeover occurred after a court order that was widely criticized by "Zaman" newspaper staff. After the takeover, the "Zaman" website was closed for two days with a message stating that the site was being updated. All archived news and content became inaccessible, with some claiming all the data had been wiped.  Two days later, the first government-controlled edition appeared, with no mention of the events during its seizure and with its front page carrying a series of pro-government articles and a picture of a smiling president Erdogan.

Zaman (, literally "time" or "era"), sometimes stylized as ZAMAN, was a daily newspaper in Turkey. Zaman was a major, high-circulation daily before government seizure on 4 March 2016 (the circulation was around 650,000 as of February 2016) It was founded in 1986 and was the first Turkish daily to go online in 1995. It contains national (Turkish), international, business, and other news. It also has many regular columnists who cover current affairs, interviews, and a culture section.

《时代报》是土耳其其中一份最大型的报纸,成立于1986年,由伊斯兰学者法图拉·葛兰所创报。时代报过往曾与政府关系良好,但自2010年起,两者开始交恶,尤其是埃尔多安一直收紧新闻自由后。2016年3月,土耳其政府强行接管报社,此后该报的报道立场转为强烈亲政府。


Practice.

While each model may not be directly employed by the company they represent, they can be trained to answer questions and provide customer feedback regarding products, services, and brand appeal. The responsibilities of the promotional model depend on the particular marketing campaign being carried out, and may include: increasing product awareness; providing product information; creating an association in the consumer's mind between the product or brand and a particular idea; handing items to consumers, such as a sample of the product itself, a small gift, or printed information. Marketing campaigns that make use of promotional models may take place in retail stores or shopping malls, at trade shows, special promotional events, clubs, or even at outdoor public spaces. Promotional models may also be used as TV host/anchor for interviewing celebrities such as at film awards, sports events, etc. They are often planned at high traffic locations to reach as many consumers as possible, or at venues at which a particular type of target consumer is expected to be present.

Motorsports model.

The motorsports scene often uses promo models as part of a pit crew in certain kinds of motor racing. The first usage of promotional models in motor races was during the late 1960s. It was then that the term "race queen" was coined. Prior to that, women in motor races were mostly wives and girlfriends of drivers and staff, with the exception of some who were drivers. In 1983, the sun tan lotion company Hawaiian Tropic sponsored the 24 Hours of Le Mans. The company brought its models over from the United States wearing bikinis bearing the company's name to appear on the racetrack before the race began. A year later, that practice was imported over to Japan for the Suzuka 8 Hours motorcycle race.  The models, referred as grid girls or pit/paddock girls in Europe, are very common in many series worldwide. In the United States, they are referred to as umbrella girls. Because of the manner of dress of these models, insurance companies regard the models as a safety hazard because of stringent dress codes imposed in the garage and pit areas by many sanctioning bodies; in New Jersey, the stringent dress codes effectively ban the models. In DTM and some other events, organizers have started to recruit male models as in startlines, mostly on female drivers' cars. The Korean term for a race queen is a racing model. Racing models appear in motor shows and racing events.  In Japan, there is a phenomenon of race queens being often regarded as "idols". The average age for these girls is late teens to early twenties and demand for them wanes with age. It is not unusual for some of them to have a background in or a sideline career as a gravure idol. Race queens who operate in prestigious events and with a large fanbase can also be found at auto shows purely to draw crowds where they are nearly as important an attraction as the cars or electronics products that they are promoting. There is a magazine dedicated to them called "Gals Paradise".

Spokesmodel.

"Spokesmodel" is a term used for a model who is employed to be associated with a specific brand or product in advertisements. A spokesmodel may be a celebrity used only in advertisements (in contrast to a "brand ambassador", who is also expected to represent the company at various events), but often the term refers to a model who is not a celebrity in their own right. A classic example of such spokesmodels are the models engaged to be the Marlboro Man between 1954 and 1999, and the Clarion Girl since 1975. Contrary to what the term suggests, a spokesmodel is normally not expected to verbally promote the brand. In Japan, they are known as campaign girls ( or image girls ( and are hired by government agencies.

Trade show model.

A trade show model (also known as a convention model, trade show hostess, booth companion, or booth professional; a term that has been used only in Japan is companion lady but today more often used is event companion ) is an assistant that works with a company's sales representatives at a trade show exhibit, working on the floor space or a booth, and representing a company to attendees. Such models are used to draw in attendees and can provide them with basic information about product or services, and may be used to distribute marketing materials or gather customer information for future promotions. Attire and expected interactions vary depend on the nature of the show and on the image the company would like to portray, and they sometimes wear wardrobe that is particular to the company, product, or service represented.  Trade show models are typically not regular employees of the company, but are hired as they make a company's booth more visibly distinguishable from other booths with which it competes for attendee attention. If needed, they can explain or disseminate information on the company and its product and service, and can assist a company in handling a large number of attendees which the company might otherwise not have enough employees to accommodate, therefore increasing the number of sales or leads resulting from participation in the show. The models can be skilled at drawing attendees into the booth, engaging them in conversation, and at spurring interest in the product, service, or company.

Controversies.

Trade shows.

The slang term booth babe, coined in 1986, or booth bunny, coined in 1989, is widely used to refer to any female trade show model. The models are typically asked to pose for photographs with convention goers, but inappropriate attendee conduct sometimes occurs, such as in case of Electronic Arts' 2009 "Sin to Win" campaign to promote "Dante's Inferno". Since the late 1990s and increasingly so, the practice of employing them has been, controversially, strongly criticized by some journalists and segments of video game industry and consumer electronics communities. Critics of "booth babes" declared it a sexist problem, describing the practice as "outdated", sexually objectifying and demeaning, as well as insulting to and alienating other women, in particular those in the information technology industry. In turn, some others argue that the models and companies are being unfairly targeted, accusing the critics of finger-pointing sensationalism, displaying "extreme" political correctness, being prudish and pro-censorship, and spreading a Puritan-like moral panic.  The moniker "booth babe" is also controversial itself as it is considered offensive and degrading by some, including trade show models themselves. The term nevertheless continues to be often used by journalists and by the people opposed to the presence of the models they define as "booth babes".  Changing social and business standards have resulted in a decrease in the use of promotional models in trade shows, especially in the United States. The largest video gaming business convention, Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3), attempted to ban "conduct that is sexually explicit and/or sexually provocative" in 2006 following Agetec's 2005 "Anti Booth Babe" protest, but reversed on this stance in 2009, after complaints regarding this and other policy changes. GameSpot's Greg Kasavin commented that, with this attempt, the Entertainment Software Association (ESA) was "trying to put a definition to what constitutes scantily clad and what's borderline offensive" as it was "under a lot of pressure these days to clean up the image of games and to at least demonstrate that the video game industry is responsible in regulating itself" in the aftermath of Hot Coffee mod controversy.  China Digital Entertainment Expo & Conference (ChinaJoy) introduced and strictly enforced a dress code in 2012, saying they did not want "to send the wrong message" to their adolescent primary audience, and San Diego Comic-Con International banned the SuicideGirls erotic models from having a booth in 2010. Video game convention Penny Arcade Expo (PAX) adopted a dress codes for both male and female models in what they call a "no booth babes" policy guideline, where "booth babes are defined as staff of ANY gender used by exhibitors to promote their products at PAX by using overtly sexual or suggestive methods. Partial nudity, the aggressive display of cleavage and the navel, and shorts/skirts higher than 4” above the knee are not allowed." Eurogamer Expo did not allow them completely in 2012, saying they wanted to make a more "friendly" show and all visitors "to feel comfortable," with a formal guideline saying "Booth babes are Not OK."  The Consumer Electronics Association (CEA), including its president and CEO Gary Shapiro and senior vice-president Karen Chupka, initially defended the use of female models who were deemed not dressed enough by critics but discouraged the practice in 2014 after a Change.org petition started by a "Forbes" technology journalist Connie Guglielmo demanded a ban on them and reached 250 signatures. The campaigners' proposal to "ban booth babes" was rejected as the CEA refused to "create and impose arbitrary or unenforceable rules, or worse, inch our event towards a Talibanesque ban on exposure of skin," but the new Consumer Electronics Show (CES) exhibitor guidelines stated, "recent news articles show that ‘booth babes’ can reflect poorly on your exhibit, so we ask that you give this thoughtful consideration, to avoid alienating or offending various audience segments."  In 2015, tube tops were among the items banned for booth staff at the RSA Conference, a major trade show/conference association, as part of dress codes that also informed booth staff not to wear minidresses or skintight bodysuits. The previous practice of having barely-clothed booth staffers was seen as creating a culture in which women were seen as "eye-candy or as decorative objects or hypersexualized figures".

Sports.

After a round of talks with broadcasters, the Professional Darts Corporation announced on 27 January 2018 that it would discontinue the use of walk-on girls in darts tournaments. The decision has encountered a backlash from some fans, players and models.  On 31 January 2018, Formula One management announced that it would end the practice of grid girls who accompany the racers to the track, a tradition that "has been a staple of Formula 1 Grands Prix for decades", stating that "[they] feel this custom does not resonate with [their] brand values and clearly is at odds with modern day societal norms." The move has drawn criticism from former grid girls, including British model Kelly Brook. Former F1 executive Bernie Ecclestone and Red Bull Racing leader Christian Horner also expressed disapproval. In February 2018, Formula 1 announced it intended to replace grid girls with a new program called grid kids this season. The children used would be competitors in karting or junior categories, chosen by national motorsport authorities.

A promotional model is a model hired to drive consumer demand for a product, service, brand, or concept by directly interacting with potential customers. Most promotional models are conventionally attractive in physical appearance. They serve to make a product or service more appealing and can provide information to journalists and consumers at trade show and convention events. Promotional models are used in motorsports, other sports (such as dart competitions) or at trade shows, or they can act as "spokesmodels" to promote a specific brand or product in advertisements. During the 2010s, controversies over the used of scantily-clad promotional models in sports events and trade shows, involving claims that the practice is sexist, led to a decrease in the hiring of these models.

宣传模特儿(英语:Promotional model)是指推销产品及服务的模特儿,于各式各样的有宣传需要的场合,例如汽车展、游艇展、音乐会、电脑游戏或产品展、体育赛事等,在展览摊位最吸引游人注意的模特儿以西方俚语又称为展场辣妹。宣传模特儿通常是临时工或兼职,台湾的槟榔西施实际上也是宣传模特儿的一种。但是,当他们面对社会眼光时,却反映出人们对这些工作内容类似,但收入与社会阶级不同的女性有着不同等级的标签与价值判断。


Geography.

The Mount Lebanon range extends along the entire country for about, parallel to the Mediterranean coast. Their highest peak is Qurnat as Sawda', at. The range receives a substantial amount of precipitation, including snow, which averages around deep.  Lebanon has historically been defined by the mountains, which provided protection for the local population. In Lebanon, changes in scenery are related less to geographical distances than to altitudes. The mountains were known for their oak and pine forests. The last remaining old growth groves of the famous Cedar of Lebanon ("Cedrus libani" var. libanii") are on the high slopes of Mount Lebanon, in the Cedars of God World Heritage Site.  The Phoenicians used the forests from Mount Lebanon to build their ship fleet and to trade with their Levantine neighbors. The Phoenicians and successor rulers consistently replanted and restocked the range; even as late as the 16th century, its forested area was considerable.

Etymology.

The name "Mount Lebanon" traces back to the Semitic root "LBN", meaning "white", likely a reference to the snow-covered mountains.

History.

Mount Lebanon is mentioned in the Old Testament numerous times. King Hiram I of Tyre sent engineers with Cedar wood which was abundant in Mount Lebanon, to build the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem. Since then the Cedar species known scientifically as "Cedrus libani" is often associated with Mount Lebanon. The Phoenicians used cedar to build ships in which they sailed the Mediterranean, thus they were the first to establish villages in Mount Lebanon and would live from cutting down Cedars and sending them to the coast.  Eusebius records that the Emperor Constantine destroyed a temple of Venus 'on the summit of Mount Lebanon.' After the 5th century AD, Christian monks who were followers of a hermit named Maron, arrived from the Orontes valley in Northern Syria and began preaching their religion to the inhabitants of the northernmost parts of the mountain range. In the late 8th century a group known as the Mardaites (also Jarajima) settled in North Lebanon following the order of the Byzantine Emperor; their mission was to raid Islamic territories in Syria. They merged with the local population, refusing to leave after the emperor struck a deal with the Muslim Caliph of Damascus; thus, they became part of the Maronite society. In 1291 after the fall of Acre, the last crusader outpost in the Levant, the remnants of the European settlers who succeeded in escaping capture by the Mamelukes, settled in the Northern part of Lebanon and become part of the Maronite society.  In the 9th century AD, tribes from the "Jabal el Summaq" area north of Aleppo in Syria began settling the southern half of the mountain range. These tribes were known as the Tanoukhiyoun and in the 11th century they converted to the Druze faith and ruled the areas of Mount Lebanon stretching from Metn in the north to Jezzine in the south. This entire area became known as the ‘Jabal ad-Duruz’. In the early 17th century, Emir Fakhr-al-Din II ascended the throne in the Druze part of the mountains known as the Chouf. In an effort to unify Mount Lebanon, Emir Fakhreddine opened the door to Christians and in particular the Maronite settlement of the Chouf and Metn.  Throughout the 18th century and into the 19th century more and more Maronites settled in the Druze regions of the Mount. The Druze viewed these Maronite settlements as a threat to their power in Mount Lebanon and in a series of clashes in the 1840s and 1860s, a miniature civil war erupted in the area resulting in the massacre of thousands of Christians. The Druze won militarily, but not politically, because European powers (mainly France and Britain) intervened on behalf of the Maronites and divided Mount Lebanon into two areas; Druze and Maronite. Seeing their authority decline in Mount Lebanon, a few Lebanese Druze began migrating to the new Jabal ad-Duruz in southern Syria. In 1861, the "Mount Lebanon" autonomous district was established within the Ottoman system, under an international guarantee.  For centuries, the Maronites of the region have been protected by the noble Khazen family, which was endowed the responsibility by Pope Clement X and King Louis XIV and given "Cheikh" status in return for guarding the princes Fakhr-al-Din II and Younès al-Maani. The Khazen crest reflects the family's special closeness to Mount Lebanon, with snowy mountains and a cedar tree depicted.

As a political name.

Mount Lebanon also lent its name to two political designations: an semi-autonomous province in Ottoman Syria that was established in 1861 and the central Governorate of modern Lebanon (see Mount Lebanon Governorate). The Mount Lebanon administrative region emerged in a time of rise of nationalism after the civil war of 1860: France intervened on behalf of the local Christian population and Britain on behalf of the Druze after the 1860 massacres, when 10,000 Christians were killed in clashes with the Druze. In 1861 the "Mount Lebanon" autonomous district was established within the Ottoman system, under an international guarantee. It was ruled by a non-Lebanese Christian subject of the Ottoman Empire known locally as the "Mutasarrıf", (one who rules the district Mutasarrifiyya). Christians formed the majority of the population of Mount Lebanon, with a significant number of Druze.  For decades the Christians pressured the European powers, to award them self determination by extending their small Lebanese territory to what they dubbed "Greater Lebanon", referring to a geographic unit comprising Mount Lebanon and its coast, and the Beqaa Valley to its east. After the First World War, France took hold of the formerly Ottoman holdings in the northern Levant, and expanded the borders of Mount Lebanon in 1920 to form Greater Lebanon, which was to be populated by remnants of the Middle Eastern Christian community. While the Christians ended up gaining territorially, the new borders merely ended the demographic dominance of Christians in the newly created territory of Lebanon.

Mount Lebanon (, "jabal lubnān", ;, "", ) is a mountain range in Lebanon. It averages above in elevation.

黎巴嫩山(; "Jabal Lubnān", ; "")是黎巴嫩的一个山脉,平均海拔2,200米,降水丰富,雪的深度平均约四米。它纵贯整个国家,长约,平行于地中海海岸线,最高峰库尔内特—萨乌达山,高达。黎巴嫩国名得名于此山。在黎巴嫩 景色的变化与距离无关,却与高度有关。黎巴嫩山以橡树和松树林著称。在黎巴嫩山的高坡,还有残存的著名的黎巴嫩雪松。腓尼基人使用黎巴嫩山的森林建立自己的船队,与邻国贸易。腓尼基人和后继统治者一贯补植,这样即使到了16世纪,它的森林面积相当大。