Early life.

Coolidge was born in Boston to Gretchen (née Knauff) and Paul Constant Coolidge, a plastics manufacturer. She was raised in Norwell, Massachusetts, and is one of four children, with a brother, Andrew, and two sisters, Elizabeth and Susannah. Coolidge attended Norwell High School, the Cambridge School of Weston, and pursued university studies at Emerson College in Boston and the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York City.

Career.

1993–1999: Early career.

Coolidge is known for her supporting roles in several comedy movies and guest roles on television. She made her first appearance on television in the "Seinfeld" episode "The Masseuse". Before gaining recognition, she received small roles appearing in such films as "A Bucket of Blood", "Plump Fiction", and "A Night at the Roxbury". She also voiced Luanne's beauty school teacher, Miss Kremzer, in a recurring role on "King of the Hill".

1999–2006: Breakthrough with "American Pie" and "Legally Blonde".

In 1999, Coolidge got her big break playing Jeanine Stifler, or "Stifler's mom" in "American Pie". The film was a box-office hit and took in a gross worldwide revenue of $235,483,004. In 2001, she reprised her role in "American Pie 2". Later in that same year, she had a supporting role in "Legally Blonde" as Paulette Bonafonté Parcelle the manicurist. "Legally Blonde" was a box-office hit, grossing US$96 million domestically. The film's box-office success led to her reprising the role in its 2003 sequel, "", but the movie was not as financially successful as the first film and generated mostly negative reviews. In 2003, she again played Jeanine Stifler in "American Wedding".  In 2003, she played the protagonist's agent Luise in "Testosterone" filmed in Argentina starring David Sutcliffe as Dean Seagrave and Antonio Sabato, Jr. as Pablo.  In 2004, she had a supporting role in the romantic comedy "A Cinderella Story" playing Hilary Duff's character's vain, self-absorbed stepmother. The film went on to become a moderate box office hit despite negative critical reviews.  Coolidge nearly received the role of Lynette Scavo on "Desperate Housewives", but it eventually went to Felicity Huffman. From 2004 to 2006, Coolidge had a role in the NBC comedy series "Joey" as Joey Tribbiani’s oversexed agent Roberta "Bobbie" Morganstern. During its second season, she went from a recurring character to a more prominent role, appearing in 37 out of 46 episodes in the series. NBC officially canceled the series in May 2006 citing low ratings. She originally starred in an episode of "Friends" in its final season as Amanda, an obnoxious acquaintance whom Phoebe Buffay and Monica Geller try to shake off. Prior to her "Friends" appearance she was a regular on "She TV", a short-lived sketch comedy that also featured Nick Bakay, Elon Gold, Simbi Khali, and Linda Kash. She also has appeared on "According to Jim", playing Jim's sister and in an episode of "Sex and the City", and on "Frasier" as Frederica, Martin Crane's new physical therapist. Coolidge also appeared in the children’s comedy "Slappy and the Stinkers", and as the voice of Aunt Fanny in the animated feature "Robots". The film was accompanied by an original short animated film based on "Robots", titled "Aunt Fanny's Tour of Booty", in which she reprised her role.  In late 2005, Coolidge was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. In 2006, she guest starred on an episode of "Top Chef", and played as Adam Sandler's wife's friend, Janine, in the comedy film "Click". From 2000 to 2006 she played comic parts in the improv mockumentaries "Best in Show", "A Mighty Wind", and "For Your Consideration", all directed by Christopher Guest.

2006–2011: Supporting roles in comedies and television work.

She appeared in the 2006 film "Date Movie" as a spoof of Barbra Streisand's "Meet the Fockers" character. The film received unfavorable critic reviews and Rotten Tomatoes ranked the film 77th in the 100 worst reviewed films of the 2000s, with a rating of 6%. However, "Variety" did praise Coolidge for providing a few bright moments with a spot-on spoof of Barbra Streisand, but was otherwise unimpressed describing the film as "padded and repetitious".  "Epic Movie", released in 2007 and made by the same people behind "Date Movie", was the first movie in which she received a starring role. In the film she played the "White Bitch" (the White Witch) of Gnarnia (Narnia), a lampoon of the Disney and Walden Media film "The Chronicles of Narnia: the Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe". A. O. Scott of "The New York Times" called the film "irreverent and also appreciative, dragging its satiric prey down to the lowest pop-cultural denominator" and added, "The humor is coarse and occasionally funny. The archly bombastic score... is the only thing you might call witty. But happily, Jennifer Coolidge and Fred Willard show up... to add some easy, demented class."  During 2007, Coolidge appeared on "Thank God You're Here" and "The Closer", on TNT. In 2008, she guest starred on "The Secret Life of the American Teenager" as a call girl. In the second season, she was a frequently recurring character, now playing the fiance of Ben's dad and future stepmother of Ben. She also starred in the 2008 Lifetime Television film "Living Proof". Coolidge appeared in the 2008 film "Soul Men" as Rosalee.  In 2009, Coolidge took a dramatic role in "" as Genevieve McDonagh. The film premiered on September 9, 2009 at the 66th Venice International Film Festival, and it opened in general release in the United States on November 20, 2009. Also In 2009, she starred alongside Heather Graham and Amber Heard in "ExTerminators", a black comedy about a set of women who form their own "silent revolution", wreaking havoc on the abusive men in their lives.  In 2010, Coolidge appeared in another film starring Hilary Duff titled "Beauty & the Briefcase", an ABC Family television film produced by Image Entertainment that originally aired on April 18, 2010. It was based on the novel "Diary of a Working Girl" by Daniella Brodsky. The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray in the US on February 8, 2011.

2011–2018: "American Reunion" and "2 Broke Girls".

It was reported in that Universal Pictures was planning to produce a third theatrically released sequel to "American Pie". In, the film entered pre-production, and in May 2011, Coolidge signed on to reprise her role of Stifler's Mom. The film opened in North America on April 6, 2012.  In June 2011, Coolidge curated a Blake Nelson Boyd art show in New Orleans. In the same month Coolidge began to do standup comedy. She hosted the “Women in Film” at the Beverly Hills Hotel. It went over so well, that she decided to take an act on the road. Coolidge ended up doing shows all over the country and the world for two years, Scotland included. Coolidge told Australian radio show "The Kyle & Jackie O Show" that she would be touring Australia as part of her "Yours for the Night" stand-up tour.  In October 2011, Coolidge began a recurring role in the CBS sitcom "2 Broke Girls" as Sophie Kaczynski, a Polish neighbor of the two lead characters. She was later promoted to main cast from season 2 up until the show's cancellation in 2017.  During 2013, additional voice cast members were announced for "", including Coolidge as Carol Sue, a transitions-relations officer. Film distributor 20th Century Fox set November 6, 2015 for the film's release date (which was moved a few months later up to September 25), In 2014, "Los Angeles Times" reported that the film had been delayed again, with no replacement release date set. It was reported the film's concept has gone back to development. Also in 2013, Coolidge and actress Megan Mullally joined the cast of "Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day"; Coolidge playing Ms. Suggs, the driving instructor. The film was released in North America on October 10, 2014.  The next year, she had a voice role in "Hell and Back", and had a cameo in "". In 2017, Coolidge lent her voice to portray Mary Meh in "The Emoji Movie". In 2018, Coolidge made an appearance in Ariana Grande's music video for her song "Thank U, Next".

Personal life.

Coolidge dated comedian Chris Kattan.  Interior scenes from "The Beguiled" (2017) were filmed in Coolidge's New Orleans home.  Her charitable work has included a history of supporting AIDS assistance and animal rights.

In popular culture.

Due to her role in "Legally Blonde", Coolidge's voice is the subject of a popular impression. Ariana Grande performed an impression of her on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" in May 2018. Coolidge reacted positively to Grande's impression on Instagram saying; "I'm always so impressed when someone can do a great impression of me but @arianagrande is so good on @fallontonight, I'm afraid she is going to introduce me to myself! ❤👹❤"

Jennifer Audrey Coolidge (born August 28, 1961) is an American actress, comedian, and activist. She is best known her roles as Jeanine Stifler in the "American Pie" film series (1999–2012), as Paulette Bonafonté Parcelle in the "Legally Blonde" film series (2001–2003), and as Fiona in the romantic comedy film "A Cinderella Story" (2004). Coolidge is also a regular actor in Christopher Guest's mockumentary films, such as "Best in Show" (2000), "A Mighty Wind" (2003), "For Your Consideration" (2006), and "Mascots" (2016).

詹妮佛·奥黛莉·库里奇(英语:Jennifer Audrey Coolidge,1961年-8月28日)出生于美国马萨诸塞州波士顿,为美国女演员。


Etymology.

The word "Bhagirathi" (Sanskrit, literally, "caused by Bhagiratha") refers to a mythological Sagar Dynasty prince who, to gain the release of his 60,000 great-uncles from the curse of saint Kapila, brought the goddess "Ganga" in the form of the river Ganges, from the heavens to the earth. Hence, Ganges considered as the daughter of Bhagiratha and Ganges also called Baghirathi. Bhagiratha was the king of Kosala, a kingdom in ancient India. He was a descendant of the great King Sagara of the Suryavanshi, or Surya Dynasty. He was one of the forefathers of Lord Rama, of the Ramayana, the epic in which Bhagiratha's tale is primarily recounted. The story of Bhagiratha explained in Balakhanda of Ramayana.Shiva brought Ganga river to Bindu Sarovar on request of Bhagiratha.

Course.

The headwaters of the Bhagirathi are formed at Gaumukh (elevation ), at the foot of the Gangotri glacier and Khatling glaciers in the Garhwal Himalaya. It is then joined by its tributaries; these are, in order from the source:  The "Bhilangna" itself rises at the foot of the Khatling Glacier (elevation ) approximately south of Gaumukh.  The river flows from its source for before meeting the Alaknanda River at an elevation of in the town of Devprayag. Downstream of this confluence, considered holy by Hindus, the river is known as the Ganga, or Ganges River by westerners. The controversial Tehri dam lies at the confluence of the Bhāgirathi and the Bhilangna, at, near Tehri. Chaukhamba I is the highest point of the Bhagirathi basin.

Dams.

There are 18 dams along the Bhāgirathi River, either in operation, under construction or planned. These are, in order from the source:

The Bhāgīrathī (Pron:/ˌbʌgɪˈɹɑːθɪ/) is a turbulent Himalayan river in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, and one of the two headstreams (or source) of the Ganges, the major river of Northern India and considered holy in Hinduism. In Hindu faith and culture, the Bhagirathi is considered the source stream of the Ganges. However, in hydrology, the other headstream, Alaknanda, is considered the source stream on account of its great length and discharge.

帕吉勒提河是印度的河流,位于北阿坎德邦,是恒河的西源,发源自根戈德里冰川,河道全长205公里,流域面积6,921平方公里,平均流量每秒257.78立方米。帕吉勒提河流至特赫里加瓦尔县南部的德沃普拉耶格,与东源阿勒格嫩达河汇集后,始称恒河。 帕吉勒提河下游有壮观的涌潮现象。


Taxonomy and discovery.

In 1902, "B. thuringiensis" was first discovered in silkworms by Japanese sericultural engineer. He named it "B. sotto", using the Japanese word, here referring to bacillary paralysis. In 1911, German microbiologist Ernst Berliner rediscovered it when he isolated it as the cause of a disease called "" in flour moth caterpillars in Thuringia (hence the specific name "thuringiensis", "Thuringian"). "B. sotto" would later be reassigned as "B. thuringiensis" var. "sotto".  In 1976, Robert A. Zakharyan reported the presence of a plasmid in a strain of "B. thuringiensis" and suggested the plasmid's involvement in endospore and crystal formation. "B. thuringiensis" is closely related to "B. cereus", a soil bacterium, and "B. anthracis", the cause of anthrax; the three organisms differ mainly in their plasmids. Like other members of the genus, all three are aerobes capable of producing endospores.  Tubulin was long thought to be specific to eukaryotes. More recently, however, several prokaryotic proteins have been shown to be related to tubulin.

Subspecies.

There are several dozen recognized subspecies of "B. thuringiensis". Subspecies commonly used as insecticides include "B. thuringiensis" subspecies "kurstaki" (Btk), subspecies "israelensis" (Bti) and subspecies "aizawa".

Mechanism of insecticidal action.

Upon sporulation, "B. thuringiensis" forms crystals of proteinaceous insecticidal δ-endotoxins (called crystal proteins or Cry proteins), which are encoded by "cry" genes. In most strains of "B. thuringiensis", the "cry" genes are located on a plasmid ("cry" is not a chromosomal gene in most strains).  Cry toxins have specific activities against insect species of the orders Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), Diptera (flies and mosquitoes), Coleoptera (beetles) and Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies), as well as against nematodes. Thus, "B. thuringiensis" serves as an important reservoir of Cry toxins for production of biological insecticides and insect-resistant genetically modified crops. When insects ingest toxin crystals, their alkaline digestive tracts denature the insoluble crystals, making them soluble and thus amenable to being cut with proteases found in the insect gut, which liberate the toxin from the crystal. The Cry toxin is then inserted into the insect gut cell membrane, paralyzing the digestive tract and forming a pore. The insect stops eating and starves to death; live Bt bacteria may also colonize the insect, which can contribute to death. The midgut bacteria of susceptible larvae may be required for "B. thuringiensis" insecticidal activity.  It has been shown that a small RNA called BtsR1 can silence the Cry toxin when outside the host by binding to the RBS site of the Cry5Ba toxin transcript and inhibiting its expression. The silencing results in increased ingestion by "C. elegans" and is relieved inside the host, resulting in host death.  In 1996 another class of insecticidal proteins in Bt was discovered: the vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vip; ). Vip proteins do not share sequence homology with Cry proteins, in general do not compete for the same receptors, and some kill different insects than do Cry proteins.  In 2000, a novel subgroup of Cry protein, designated parasporin, was discovered from non-insecticidal "B. thuringiensis" isolates. The proteins of parasporin group are defined as "B. thuringiensis" and related bacterial parasporal proteins that are not hemolytic, but capable of preferentially killing cancer cells. As of January 2013, parasporins comprise six subfamilies: PS1 to PS6.

Use of spores and proteins in pest control.

Spores and crystalline insecticidal proteins produced by "B. thuringiensis" have been used to control insect pests since the 1920s and are often applied as liquid sprays. They are now used as specific insecticides under trade names such as DiPel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly, with little or no effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators, and most other beneficial insects, and are used in organic farming; however, the manuals for these products do contain many environmental and human health warnings, and a 2012 European regulatory peer review of five approved strains found, while data exist to support some claims of low toxicity to humans and the environment, the data are insufficient to justify many of these claims.  New strains of Bt are developed and introduced over time as insects develop resistance to Bt, or the desire occurs to force mutations to modify organism characteristics or to use homologous recombinant genetic engineering to improve crystal size and increase pesticidal activity or broaden the host range of Bt and obtain more effective formulations. Each new strain is given a unique number and registered with the U.S. EPA and allowances may be given for genetic modification depending on "its parental strains, the proposed pesticide use pattern, and the manner and extent to which the organism has been genetically modified". Formulations of Bt that are approved for organic farming in the US are listed at the website of the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) and several university extension websites offer advice on how to use Bt spore or protein preparations in organic farming.

Use of Bt genes in genetic engineering of plants for pest control.

The Belgian company Plant Genetic Systems (now part of Bayer CropScience) was the first company (in 1985) to develop genetically modified crops (tobacco) with insect tolerance by expressing "cry" genes from "B. thuringiensis"; the resulting crops contain delta endotoxin. The Bt tobacco was never commercialized; tobacco plants are used to test genetic modifications since they are easy to manipulate genetically and are not part of the food supply.

Usage.

In 1995, potato plants producing CRY 3A Bt toxin were approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, making it the first human-modified pesticide-producing crop to be approved in the US, though many plants produce pesticides naturally, including tobacco, coffee plants, cocoa, and black walnut. This was the 'New Leaf' potato, and it was removed from the market in 2001 due to lack of interest. For current crops and their acreage under cultivation, see genetically modified crops.  In 1996, genetically modified maize producing Bt Cry protein was approved, which killed the European corn borer and related species; subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae.  The Bt genes engineered into crops and approved for release include, singly and stacked: Cry1A.105, CryIAb, CryIF, Cry2Ab, Cry3Bb1, Cry34Ab1, Cry35Ab1, mCry3A, and VIP, and the engineered crops include corn and cotton.  Corn genetically modified to produce VIP was first approved in the US in 2010.  In India, by 2014, more than seven million cotton farmers, occupying twenty-six million acres, had adopted Bt cotton.  Monsanto developed a soybean expressing Cry1Ac and the glyphosate-resistance gene for the Brazilian market, which completed the Brazilian regulatory process in 2010.

Safety studies.

The use of Bt toxins as plant-incorporated protectants prompted the need for extensive evaluation of their safety for use in foods and potential unintended impacts on the environment.

Dietary risk assessment.

Concerns over the safety of consumption of genetically-modified plant materials that contain Cry proteins have been addressed in extensive dietary risk assessment studies. While the target pests are exposed to the toxins primarily through leaf and stalk material, Cry proteins are also expressed in other parts of the plant, including trace amounts in maize kernels which are ultimately consumed by both humans and animals.

Toxicology studies.

Animal models have been used to assess human health risk from consumption of products containing Cry proteins. The United States Environmental Protection Agency recognizes mouse acute oral feeding studies where doses as high as 5,000 mg/kg body weight resulted in no observed adverse effects. Research on other known toxic proteins suggests that toxicity occurs at much lower doses, further suggesting that Bt toxins are not toxic to mammals. The results of toxicology studies are further strengthened by the lack of observed toxicity from decades of use of "B. thuringiensis" and its crystalline proteins as an insecticidal spray.

Allergenicity studies.

Introduction of a new protein raised concerns regarding the potential for allergic responses in sensitive individuals. Bioinformatic analysis of known allergens has indicated there is no concern of allergic reactions as a result of consumption of Bt toxins. Additionally, skin prick testing using purified Bt protein resulted in no detectable production of toxin-specific IgE antibodies, even in atopic patients.

Digestibility studies.

Studies have been conducted to evaluate the fate of Bt toxins that are ingested in foods. Bt toxin proteins have been shown to digest within minutes of exposure to simulated gastric fluids. The instability of the proteins in digestive fluids is an additional indication that Cry proteins are unlikely to be allergenic, since most known food allergens resist degradation and are ultimately absorbed in the small intestine.

Ecological risk assessment.

Ecological risk assessment aims to ensure there is no unintended impact on non-target organisms and no contamination of natural resources as a result of the use of a new substance, such as the use of Bt in genetically-modified crops. The impact of Bt toxins on the environments where transgenic plants are grown has been evaluated to ensure no adverse effects outside of targeted crop pests.

Persistence in environment.

Concerns over possible environmental impact from accumulation of Bt toxins from plant tissues, pollen dispersal, and direct secretion from roots have been investigated. Bt toxins may persist in soil for over 200 days, with half-lives between 1.6 and 22 days. Much of the toxin is initially degraded rapidly by microorganisms in the environment, while some is adsorbed by organic matter and persists longer. Some studies, in contrast, claim that the toxins do not persist in the soil. Bt toxins are less likely to accumulate in bodies of water, but pollen shed or soil runoff may deposit them in an aquatic ecosystem. Fish species are not susceptible to Bt toxins if exposed.

Impact on non-target organisms.

The toxic nature of Bt proteins has an adverse impact on many major crop pests, but ecological risk assessments have been conducted to ensure safety of beneficial non-target organisms that may come into contact with the toxins. Widespread concerns over toxicity in non-target lepidopterans, such as the monarch butterfly, have been disproved through proper exposure characterization, where it was determined that non-target organisms are not exposed to high enough amounts of the Bt toxins to have an adverse effect on the population. Soil-dwelling organisms, potentially exposed to Bt toxins through root exudates, are not impacted by the growth of Bt crops.

Insect resistance.

Multiple insects have developed a resistance to "B. thuringiensis". In November 2009, Monsanto scientists found the pink bollworm had become resistant to the first-generation Bt cotton in parts of Gujarat, India - that generation expresses one Bt gene, "Cry1Ac". This was the first instance of Bt resistance confirmed by Monsanto anywhere in the world. Monsanto responded by introducing a second-generation cotton with multiple Bt proteins, which was rapidly adopted. Bollworm resistance to first-generation Bt cotton was also identified in Australia, China, Spain, and the United States. Additionally, the Indian mealmoth, a common grain pest, is also developing a resistance since "B. thuringiensis" has been extensively used as a biological control agent against the moth. Studies in the cabbage looper have suggested that a mutation in the membrane transporter ABCC2 can confer resistance to "B. thuringiensis".

Secondary pests.

Several studies have documented surges in "sucking pests" (which are not affected by Bt toxins) within a few years of adoption of Bt cotton. In China, the main problem has been with mirids, which have in some cases "completely eroded all benefits from Bt cotton cultivation". The increase in sucking pests depended on local temperature and rainfall conditions and increased in half the villages studied. The increase in insecticide use for the control of these secondary insects was far smaller than the reduction in total insecticide use due to Bt cotton adoption. Another study in five provinces in China found the reduction in pesticide use in Bt cotton cultivars is significantly lower than that reported in research elsewhere, consistent with the hypothesis suggested by recent studies that more pesticide sprayings are needed over time to control emerging secondary pests, such as aphids, spider mites, and lygus bugs.  Similar problems have been reported in India, with both mealy bugs and aphids although a survey of small Indian farms between 2002 and 2008 concluded Bt cotton adoption has led to higher yields and lower pesticide use, decreasing over time.

Controversies.

There are controversies around GMOs on several levels, including whether making them is ethical, whether food produced with them is safe, whether such food should be labeled and if so how, whether agricultural biotech is needed to address world hunger now or in the future, and more specifically to GM crops—intellectual property and market dynamics; environmental effects of GM crops; and GM crops' role in industrial agricultural more generally. There are also issues specific to Bt transgenic crops.

Lepidopteran toxicity.

The most publicised problem associated with Bt crops is the claim that pollen from Bt maize could kill the monarch butterfly. The paper produced a public uproar and demonstrations against Bt maize; however by 2001 several follow-up studies coordinated by the USDA had asserted that "the most common types of Bt maize pollen are not toxic to monarch larvae in concentrations the insects would encounter in the fields." Similarly, "B. thuringiensis" has been widely used for controlling "Spodoptera littoralis" larvae growth due to their detrimental pest activities in Africa and Southern Europe. However, "S. littoralis" showed resistance to many strains of "B. thuriginesis" and were only effectively controlled by few strains.

Wild maize genetic mixing.

A study published in "Nature" in 2001 reported Bt-containing maize genes were found in maize in its center of origin, Oaxaca, Mexico. In 2002, paper concluded, "the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper." A significant controversy happened over the paper and "Nature"s unprecedented notice.  A subsequent large-scale study in 2005 failed to find any evidence of genetic mixing in Oaxaca. A 2007 study found the "transgenic proteins expressed in maize were found in two (0.96%) of 208 samples from farmers' fields, located in two (8%) of 25 sampled communities." Mexico imports a substantial amount of maize from the U.S., and due to formal and informal seed networks among rural farmers, many potential routes are available for transgenic maize to enter into food and feed webs. One study found small-scale (about 1%) introduction of transgenic sequences in sampled fields in Mexico; it did not find evidence for or against this introduced genetic material being inherited by the next generation of plants. That study was immediately criticized, with the reviewer writing, "Genetically, any given plant should be either non-transgenic or transgenic, therefore for leaf tissue of a single transgenic plant, a GMO level close to 100% is expected. In their study, the authors chose to classify leaf samples as transgenic despite GMO levels of about 0.1%. We contend that results such as these are incorrectly interpreted as positive and are more likely to be indicative of contamination in the laboratory."

Colony collapse disorder.

As of 2007, a new phenomenon called colony collapse disorder (CCD) began affecting bee hives all over North America. Initial speculation on possible causes included new parasites, pesticide use, and the use of Bt transgenic crops. The Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium found no evidence that pollen from Bt crops is adversely affecting bees. According to the USDA, "Genetically modified (GM) crops, most commonly Bt corn, have been offered up as the cause of CCD. But there is no correlation between where GM crops are planted and the pattern of CCD incidents. Also, GM crops have been widely planted since the late 1990s, but CCD did not appear until 2006. In addition, CCD has been reported in countries that do not allow GM crops to be planted, such as Switzerland. German researchers have noted in one study a possible correlation between exposure to Bt pollen and compromised immunity to "Nosema"." The actual cause of CCD was unknown in 2007, and scientists believe it may have multiple exacerbating causes.

Beta-exotoxins.

Some isolates of "B. thuringiensis" produce a class of insecticidal small molecules called beta-exotoxin, the common name for which is thuringiensin. A consensus document produced by the OECD says: "Beta-exotoxins are known to be toxic to humans and almost all other forms of life and its presence is prohibited in "B. thuringiensis" microbial products". Thuringiensins are nucleoside analogues. They inhibit RNA polymerase activity, a process common to all forms of life, in rats and bacteria alike.

Bacillus thuringiensis (or Bt) is a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, commonly used as a biological pesticide. "B. thuringiensis" also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well on leaf surfaces, aquatic environments, animal feces, insect-rich environments, and flour mills and grain-storage facilities. It has also been observed to parasitize other moths such as "Cadra calidella"—in laboratory experiments working with "C. calidella", many of the moths were diseased due to this parasite.

苏云金芽孢杆菌(学名:"Bacillus thuringiensis",专著中简称为Bt),又称苏力菌,是革兰氏阳性的,芽孢杆菌属陆生习性的细菌。另外, 苏云金芽孢杆菌可寄生在一些蛾类和蝶类的幼虫上,甚至是植物表面。


Extraction and purification.

Haematoxylin has been synthesized, although never in commercially viable amounts. Historically the logwood was exported and the haematoxylin extracted in Europe, more recently extraction takes place closer to where the logwood is harvested. Extraction of haematoxylin from logwood on industrial scales has been accomplished by boiling the wood chips in the "French process", or with steam and pressure, in the so-called "American process". Once extracted, the dye can be sold as a liquid concentrate, or dried, and sold in a crystalline form. Modern production methods use water, ether, or alcohol as a solvent, at which point the extracts may be further refined to the level of purity needed.  The commercial product may vary from batch-to batch, and between manufactures in both the level of impurities, and in the ratio of haematoxylin to haematein (an oxidized form of haematoxylin). For histologic use, this variability can affect the stains interaction with biological tissue samples, and is therefore of concern to histologists and pathologists. Haematoxylin, like other biological stains may be "certified" by the Biological Stain Commission signifying that a particular batch of stain works in a standardized test, although this does not specify the dyes actual purity.

Use as a histologic stain.

Haematoxylin stain is commonly followed (or counterstained) with another histologic stain, eosin. When paired, this staining procedure is known as H&E staining, and is one of the most commonly used combinations in histology. Haematoxylin is also a component of the Papanicolaou stain (or PAP stain) which is widely used in the study of cytology specimens, notably in the PAP test used to detect cervical cancer.  Principally used as a nuclear stain (to stain the cell nucleus), haematoxylin will also stain rough endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, collagen, myelin, elastic fibers, and acid mucins. Haematoxylin alone is not an effective stain, but when oxidized to hematein, and combined with a mordant, stains chromatin in cell nuclei dark blue to black. The colour and specificity of haematoxylin stains are controlled by the chemical nature, and amount, of the mordant used, and the pH of the staining solution, thus, a variety of haematoxylin formulations have been developed.

Stain formulations.

Haematoxylin stain formulations can be broadly classified based on how the haematoxylin is oxidized (or "ripened") and by choice of the mordant used. Haematoxylin stain formulations may either be natural oxidized by exposure to air and sunlight, or more commonly, especially in commercially prepared solutions, chemically oxidized using sodium iodate Commonly only enough oxidizer is added to convert one half of the haematoxylin to haematein, allowing the remainder to naturally oxidize during use, this extends the staining solution's useful life as more haematein is produced, while some haematein is further oxidized to oxyhaematein. Of the metallic salts used as mordants, aluminium is the most common, other mordants include salts of iron, tungsten, molybdenum and lead.  Depending on the formulation or staining technique, haematoxylin stains may be used in what is called a "progressive" manner, in which the length of time the tissue remains in contact with the staining solution is used to control the amount of colouration, or in a "regressive" manner, in which the tissue is over-stained, and excess stain is removed in a secondary step of the procedure. Removal of unwanted staining, or "differentiation", typically involves a solution of diluted ethanol and hydrochloric acid.

Early use as a histologic stain.

In 1758, Georg Christian Reichel used haemotoxylin, without a mordant, to stain plant tissues. John Thomas Quekett in a 1852 book, suggests using "logwood" (haematoxylin) to dye translucent material for examination under the microscope. In 1863, Wilhelm von Waldeyer-Hartz used haematoxylin on animal tissue without a mordant (with limited success), and is sometimes credited as being the first to do so, although this is not universally accepted. Franz Böhmer in 1865 published a haematoxylin formula using alum as a mordant, and in 1891, Paul Mayer published a formulation using a chemical oxidizer to convert haematoxylin into haematein. The first use of haematoxylin with eosin as a counterstain, which is currently the most used stain combination in histology, was first suggested by A. Wissowzky in 1876. By the early 1900s, haematoxylin had become widely accepted as a histologic stain.

Shortages and possible alternatives.

During World War I, World War II, the late 1920s, the early 1970s (summer 1973) and in 2008, there were shortages of haematoxylin due to interruptions in its extraction from logwood. These shortages prompted a search for alternative nuclear stains. Several synthetic dyes have been recommended as replacements, notably celestine blue (CI 51050), gallocyanine (CI 51030), gallein (CI 45445) and eriochrome cyanine R also called chromoxane cyanine R and solochrome cyanine (CI 43820). All four have Fe(III) as the mordant. An alternative is the aluminium complex of oxidized brazilin, which differs from haematoxylin by only one hydroxyl group. A replacement stain for haematoxylin in H&E staining must also not disrupt the ability of histologists and pathologists, who have spent years of training with H&E stained slides, to examine the slides and make medical diagnoses. None of proposed replacement stains have been widely adopted.

Use as a textile dye.

Haematoxylin was first used as a dye by the Mayans and Aztecs in Central America where logwood trees grow natively. The dye was first introduced to Europe by the Spanish, and soon after was widely adopted. Haematoxylin was used to produce blacks, blues and purples on various textiles, and remained an important industrial dye until the introduction of suitable replacements in the form of synthetic dyes. As a blue dye (with alum as a mordant), the initial results were not as lightfast as those produced using indigo. In reaction to this perceived inferiority of the quality of the blue colour produced with haematoxylin, its use to dye fabric was barred in England from 1581 to 1662. After the introduction of synthetic black dyes in the late 19th century, haematoxylin was first replaced as a dye for cotton. A 1902 German treatise on the dyeing textiles notes "...logwood in the black dyeing of cotton has suffered considerably from the competition of aniline black". Haematoxylin remained important as a black dye (using copperas or chrome as a mordant) for wool until the 1920s when a black synthetic dye compatible with wool became available. Contemporary usage of haematoxylin includes the dyeing of silk, leather, and sutures.

Use as a writing and drawing ink.

Haematoxylin has been used as the primary component of writing and drawing inks, although the timing of first use as an ink is unclear. Haematoxylin was also added to some iron gall inks, which take time develop to fully darken when applied to paper. In this case the Haematoxylin provided some initial colour before the iron gall reached its full depth of colour. William Lewis in 1763 is credited with first to use haematoxylin as an additive in iron gal inks. In 1848 Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge produced a heamatoxylin ink that was non-acidic using a potassium chromate as the mordant, which had the advantage of not corroding steel pens. Van Gogh is known to have used haematoxylin ink with a chrome mordant in a number of his drawings and letters.

Haematoxylin or hematoxylin (), also called natural black 1 or C.I. 75290, is a compound extracted from heartwood of the logwood tree ("Haematoxylum campechianum") with a chemical formula of. This naturally derived dye has been used as a histologic stain, ink and as a dye in the textile and leather industry. As a dye, haematoxylin has been called Palo de Campeche, logwood extract, bluewood and blackwood. In histology, haematoxylin staining is commonly followed (counterstained), with eosin, when paired, this staining procedure is known as H&E staining, and is one of the most commonly used combinations in histology. In addition to its use in the H&E stain, haematoxylin is also a component of the Papanicolaou stain (or PAP stain) which is widely used in the study of cytology specimens.

苏木精, 或 C.I. 75290,无色或淡灰黄色粉末,本身不是一种染料,由采木的心材提取。氧化形成苏木红,后者与某些特定金属离子(主要为Fe(III)与Al(III))结合形成有色复合物。 用来给细胞核染色从而可在显微镜下观察。


History.

The club was founded on 4 December 1887 by Willhem Friberg and participated in the first football match in Sweden on 22 May 1892. Today, a memorial on Heden in central Gothenburg reminiscent of this match. Another memorial has been erected inside the amusement park Liseberg. Örgryte IS came to dominate the childhood of Swedish football. In 1904 Örgyte IS met a friendly match between the English Corinthian FC, thanks for the hospitality donated a silver cup – Corinthian Bowl that next year became the prize in a contest between Sweden's best teams.  In 1908 Örgyte IS officially opened its facility Walhalla stadium. Hugo Levin, football player and the secretary of Örgyte IS, was one of many involved in the building of Walhalla and had several positions in Gothenburg football. Walhalla was inaugurated by a match between Örgryte and German champions Viktoria Berlin. Between 1910–1924 Örgryte IS played in the Swedish series, a series that lacked national status despite participation by leading teams. Öis won the series in 1910, 1912 and 1924 the team won the 1924 Western series, and then the final against AIK. Player Sven Rydell who became Sweden's first major football star and became known for his fast play and creative dribbling, but above all for his ability to score. Carl-Erik Holmberg was a contributor to its success, with its total of 193 goals in the Swedish League for Örgryte IS. 1926 the team celebrated a major success when beating Aston Villa 5–2, which was unusual.  In the first decades of the 20th Century, Örgryte IS also played bandy. The club became Gothenburg district champions in this sport in 1917.  In the late 1930s the fortunes began to decline for the team. They finished 10th out of 12 teams in both 1938 and 1939, and avoided relegation. In 1940 Örgyte IS relegated from allsvenskan to Division II Västra. During the 1940s and 1950s the team played in Division 2 but would enjoy greater success in the 1950s. Örgryte attracted record crowds despite the low status in the second division. The team recruited Gunnar Gren and in 1956 he becomes the player-coach for the offensive teams that attract large crowds to ÖIS matches. In 1958 the team is becoming more competitive. A young player in the team of this era was Agne Simonsson who later will go on to play in the Swedish National Football Team.  Örgryte IS has won 12 national championship titles and one national cup title. After having economical problems Örgryte Fotboll AB went into bankruptcy in February 2011. The upshot of the bankruptcy was that Örgryte was relegated to the third Swedish division, Division 1 Södra. Their home arena is Gamla Ullevi. The club is affiliated to the Göteborgs Fotbollförbund.  In 2007 the youth part of the football section started to accept girls as well as boys after the men's section having been active for 120 years.  Örgryte IS played for a long time in red shirts and blue shorts, but in 2018 they went back to using their older claret shirts.

Supporters.

The name of the official supporter club is ÖIS Supporterklubb Balders Hage. There are also other groups of fans. The second largest supporter club is the Ultras-influenced Inferno Örgryte.  According to a recent survey, Örgryte IS is the third most popular team in Gothenburg, with 11% of the football fans supporting them. The other local teams with a notable following are IFK Göteborg, GAIS and BK Häcken.  Notable fans of the club include Marcus and Peter Birro, Fredrik Ohlsson, Björn Afzelius and Leif Pagrotsky.

Rivalries.

The strongest rivalry is with IFK Göteborg, also from Gothenburg. The derbies between the two teams have attracted some of the highest attendance in Swedish football. The fixture attracted 52,194 spectators in 1959, an all time Allsvenskan record. The other big rivalry is with GAIS.

Players.

Retired numbers.

4 – Niclas Sjöstedt, defender (1987–2000)

Örgryte Idrottssällskap, commonly referred to as Örgryte IS, Örgryte () or (especially locally) ÖIS or Öis, is a Swedish sports club based in Gothenburg. It consists of four departments, namely bowling, football, athletics and wrestling. However, the club is best known for its football department. It is the oldest football club in Sweden. The club was founded in 1887 which makes it the oldest active sports club in the country.

奥基迪体育会(Örgryte IS,简称奥基迪、ÖIS)是一间位于哥德堡的瑞典体育会,成立于1887年12月4日。奥基迪旗下包含多项运动,包括足球、保龄球、田径和摔角等,其足球部则最广为人所熟悉。奥基迪体育会足球队是其中一队最早于瑞典出现的球队,也是在1892年5月22日,瑞典第一场足球比赛中的其中一队,球会现正于瑞超甲(第二级)角逐。


Saint or heretic.

Since Llull's first writings, there has been confusion in the church regarding whether he was a saint or a heretic. Llull has had a canonization process open in the Vatican since the times of Philip II. King Philip was one of the promoters of this process. The Spanish king was extremely fond of his work and used parts of it in the creation of the monasterio del Escorial. Prior to that, Llull was considered a heretic by most, and the debate regarding both King Philip II and him continued in Rome long afterwards. Llull's works were prohibited by the Spanish Inquisition under the same king Philip, for he considered that "non-initiates could not understand them". Copies of the works were safely stored in the Library of El Escorial and were consulted by Spanish scholars, mostly sympathetic to Llull's views.  Within the Franciscan Order Llull is honoured as a martyr. He was beatified in 1847 by Pope Pius IX. His feast day was assigned to 30 June and is celebrated by the Third Order of St. Francis.

Biography.

Early life and family.

Llull was born into a wealthy family in Palma, the capital of the newly formed Kingdom of Majorca. James I of Aragon founded Majorca to integrate the recently conquered territories of the Balearic Islands (now part of Spain) into the Crown of Aragon. Llull's parents had come from Catalonia as part of the effort to colonize the formerly Almohad ruled island. As the island had been conquered militarily, the Muslim population who had not been able to flee the conquering Christians had been enslaved, even though they still constituted a significant portion of the island's population.  In 1257 Llull married Blanca Picany, with whom he had two children, Domènec and Magdalena. Although he formed a family, he lived what he would later call the licentious and wasteful life of a troubadour.  Llull served as tutor to James II of Aragon, and later became seneschal (the administrative head of the royal household) to the future King James II of Majorca, a relative of his wife.

Religious calling.

In 1263 Llull experienced a religious epiphany in the form of a series of visions. He narrates the event in his autobiography "Vita coaetanea" ("Daily Life"):  The vision came to Llull five times in all, leading him to leave his family, position, and belongings in order to pursue a life in the service of God. Specifically, he realized three intentions: to die in the service of God while converting Muslims to Christianity, to see to the founding of religious institutions that would teach foreign languages, and to write a book on how to overcome someone's objections to being converted.  Following his epiphany Llull became a Franciscan tertiary (a member of the Third Order of Saint Francis), taking inspiration from Saint Francis of Assisi. After a short pilgrimage he returned to Majorca, where he purchased a Muslim slave from whom he wanted to learn Arabic. For the next nine years, until 1274, he engaged in study and contemplation in relative solitude. He read extensively in both Latin and Arabic, learning both Christian and Muslim theological and philosophical thought.  Between 1271 and 1274 Llull wrote his first works, a compendium of the Muslim thinker Al-Ghazali's logic and the "Llibre de contemplació en Déu" ("Book on the Contemplation of God"), a lengthy guide to finding truth through contemplation.  In 1274, while staying at a hermitage on Puig de Randa, the form of the great book Llull was to write was finally given to him through divine revelation: a complex system that he named his "Art", which would become the motivation behind most of his life's efforts.

Missionary work and education.

Llull urged the study of Arabic and other then-insufficiently studied languages in Europe, along with most of his works, to convert Muslims and schismatic Christians. He travelled through Europe to meet with popes, kings, and princes, trying to establish special colleges to prepare future missionaries. In 1276 a language school for Franciscan missionaries was founded at Miramar, funded by the King of Majorca.  About 1291 he went to Tunis, preached to the Saracens, disputed with them in philosophy, and after another brief sojourn in Paris, returned to the East as a missionary. Llull travelled to Tunis a second time in about 1304, and wrote numerous letters to the king of Tunis, but little else is known about this part of his life.  He returned in 1308, reporting that the conversion of Muslims should be achieved through prayer, not through military force. He finally achieved his goal of linguistic education at major universities in 1311 when the Council of Vienne ordered the creation of chairs of Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldean (Aramaic) at the universities of Bologna, Oxford, Paris, and Salamanca as well as at the Papal Court.

Llull and the Immaculate Conception.

Following the favourable attitude of some Franciscan theologians, Llull's position on this subject was of great importance because it paved the way for the doctrine of Duns Scotus, whom he met in 1297, after which he was given the nickname "Doctor Illuminatus", even if it seems that he had no direct influence on him. Llull is the first author to use the expression "Immaculate Conception" to designate the Virgin's exemption from original sin. He appears to have been the first to teach this doctrine publicly at the University of Paris.  To explain this Marian privilege, Llull resorts to three arguments:  1. The Son of God could not become incarnate in a mother who was stained by sin in any way:  2. There had to be a certain likeness between the Son's generation without sin and the generation of his Mother: 3. The second creation, that is the Redemption, which began with Christ and Mary, had to happen under the sign of the most total purity, as was the case with the first creation:  In a sermon entitled "The Fruit of Mary's Womb", Llull states that,

Death.

In 1314, at the age of 82, Llull traveled again to North Africa where he was stoned by an angry crowd of Muslims in Tunis. Genoese merchants took him back to Mallorca, where he died at home in Palma the following year. Though the traditional date of his death has been 29 June 1315, his last documents, which date from December 1315, and recent research point to the first quarter of 1316 as the most probable death date.  It can be documented that Llull was buried at the Church of Saint Francis in Mallorca.  Riber states that the circumstances of his death remain a mystery. Samuel Zwemer, a Protestant missionary and academic, accepted the story of martyrdom, as did William Turner, writing in the "Catholic Encyclopedia". Bonner gives as a reason for Llull's journey to Tunis the information that its ruler was interested in Christianity—false information given to the Kings of Sicily and Aragon and relayed to Llull.

Literature and other works.

Llull was extremely prolific, writing a total of more than 250 works in Catalan, Latin, and Arabic, and often translating from one language to the others. While almost all of his writings after the revelation on Mt. Randa connect to his "Art" in some way, he wrote on diverse subjects in a variety of styles and genres.  The romantic novel "Blanquerna" is considered the first major work of literature written in Catalan, and possibly the first European novel.

Llull's "Art" ("Ars Magna").

Llull's first elucidation of the "Art" was in "Art Abreujada d'Atrobar Veritat" ("The Abbreviated Art of Finding Truth"), in 1290.  After spending some time teaching in France and being disappointed by the poor reception of his "Art" among students, Llull decided to revise it. It is this revised version that he became known for. It is most clearly presented in his "Ars generalis ultima" or "Ars magna" ("The Ultimate General Art" or "The Great Art", published in 1305).  The "Art" operated by combining religious and philosophical attributes selected from a number of lists. It is believed that Llull's inspiration for the "Ars magna" came from observing Arab astrologers use a device called a zairja.  The "Art" was intended as a debating tool for winning Muslims to the Christian faith through logic and reason. Through his detailed analytical efforts, Llull built an in-depth theosophic reference by which a reader could enter any argument or question (necessarily reduced to Christian beliefs, which Llull identified as being held in common with other monotheistic religions). The reader then used visual aids and a book of charts to combine various ideas, generating statements which came together to form an answer.

Mechanical aspect.

One of the most significant changes between the original and the second version of the "Art" was in the visuals used. The early version used 16 figures presented as complex, complementary trees, while the system of the "Ars Magna" featured only four, including one which combined the other three. This figure, a "Lullian Circle," took the form of a paper machine operated by rotating concentrically arranged circles to combine his symbolic alphabet, which was repeated on each level. These combinations were said to show all possible truth about the subject of inquiry. Llull based this notion on the idea that there were a limited number of basic, undeniable truths in all fields of knowledge, and that everything about these fields of knowledge could be understood by studying combinations of these elemental truths.  The method was an early attempt to use logical means to produce knowledge. Llull hoped to show that Christian doctrines could be obtained artificially from a fixed set of preliminary ideas. For example, the most essential table listed the attributes of God: goodness, greatness, eternity, power, wisdom, will, virtue, truth and glory. Llull knew that all believers in the monotheistic religions—whether Jews, Muslims or Christians—would agree with these attributes, giving him a firm platform from which to argue.  The idea was developed further for more esoteric purposes by Giordano Bruno in the 16th century, and in the 17th century by the "Great Rationalist" Gottfried Leibniz, who wrote his dissertation about Llull's "Art" and integrated it into his metaphysics and philosophy of science. Leibniz gave Llull's idea the name ""ars combinatoria"", by which it is now often known.  Some computer scientists have adopted Llull as a sort of founding father, claiming that his system of logic was the beginning of information science.

Other works.

Llull is known to have written at least 265 works, including:

Misattributions.

A considerable body of work on esoteric subjects was misattributed to Llull in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. The oeuvre of the pseudo-Llull (and, by extension, that of the actual Llull) was influential among Hermeticists, Gnostics, and other Esoterics. Llull himself explicitly condemned many of the subjects, such as alchemy, that he is purported to have written about.

Reputation and posthumous reception.

The Roman Catholic inquisitor Nicholas Eymerich condemned 100 theories or ideas of Llull as errors in 1376. Pope Gregory XI also formally condemned 20 of his books in 1376 and the condemnation was renewed by Pope Paul IV, although Pope Martin V reversed the condemnation of Pope Gregory XI in 1416. Despite these condemnations, Llull himself remained in good standing with the Church.  Chairs for the propagation of the theories of Llull were established at the University of Barcelona and the University of Valencia. He is regarded as one of the most influential authors in Catalan; the language is sometimes referred to as "la llengua de Llull", as other languages might be referred to as "Shakespeare's language" (English), "la langue de Molière" (French), "la lengua de Cervantes" (Spanish), "a língua de Camões" (Portuguese), or "die Sprache Goethes" (German).  The logo of the Spanish "Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas" ("Higher Council of Scientific Research") is Llull's Tree of Science. Ramon Llull University, a private university established in Barcelona in 1990, is named after the philosopher.

Mathematics, statistics, voting, and classification.

With the discovery in 2001 of his lost manuscripts, "Ars notandi", "Ars eleccionis", and "Alia ars eleccionis", Llull is given credit for discovering the Borda count and Condorcet criterion, which Jean-Charles de Borda and Nicolas de Condorcet independently proposed centuries later. The terms Llull winner and Llull loser are ideas in contemporary voting systems studies that are named in honor of Llull, who devised the earliest known Condorcet method in 1299.  Also, Llull is recognized as a pioneer of computation theory, especially due to his great influence on Gottfried Leibniz.  Llull's systems of organizing concepts using devices such as trees, ladders, and wheels, have been analyzed as classification systems.

Art and architecture.

The inspiration of Llull's mnemonic graphic cartwheels, reaching into contemporary art and culture, is demonstrated by Daniel Libeskind's architectural construction of the 2003 completed Studio Weil in Port d'Andratx, Majorca. "Studio Weil, a development of the virtuality of these mnemonic wheels which ever center and de-center the universal and the personal, is built to open these circular islands which float like all artwork in the oceans of memory."

Modern fiction.

Paul Auster refers to Llull (as Raymond Lull) in his memoir "The Invention of Solitude" in the second part, "The Book of Memory". Llull, now going under the name 'Cole Hawlings' and revealed to be immortal, is a major character in "The Box of Delights", the celebrated children's novel by poet John Masefield. He is also a major influence on the fictional character Zermano in Thomas Salazar's "The Day of the Bees", and his name, philosophies, and quotes from his writings appear throughout the novel. In Roberto Bolaño's novel "2666", Amalfitano, a Chilean professor, thinks about "Ramon Llull and his fantastic machine. Fantastic in its uselessness." Adán, Leopoldo Marechal's protagonist of the novel "Adán Buenosayres" (1948), mentions Ramon Lulio when he walks past a "curtiembre" (a leather-tanning shop): He says: "Ramon Lulio, que aconsejaba no rehuir del olor de las letrinas a fin de recordar a menudo lo que da el cuerpo de si mismo en su tan frecuentemente olvidada miseria" (Edición Crítica, Colección Archivos, 1997. Page 312) (""Ramon Llull advised not to shy away from the smell of outhouses, in order not to forget that which the body gives out in its often forgotten misery."") In William Gaddis' first novel, "The Recognitions", the final paragraph of Chapter II alludes to "Raymond Lully", as a "scholar, a poet, a missionary, a mystic, and one of the foremost figures in the history of alchemy." Llull is also mentioned in passing in Neil Gaiman's comic-book "Calliope," an issue of the DC/Vertigo series "The Sandman." In "The Commodore", the 17th book in Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey–Maturin series, Stephen Maturin remarks that his daughter "...will learn Spanish, too, Castellano. I am sorry it will not be Catalan, a much finer, older, purer, more mellifluous language, with far greater writers — think of Ramon Llull — but as Captain Aubrey often says, 'You cannot both have a stitch in time and eat it.'"  Harry Harrison, in "Deathworld 2", has his protagonist, Jason dinAlt, use the Book of the Order of Chivalry, along with others, to disable the engines of the spaceship on which he is being held. As the ship starts to blow up, he remarks "I should not have thrown in the Lull book, it is more than even the ship could stomach." This comes at the end of an argument with his kidnapper, in which dinAlt attacks the idea that there are universal laws which apply to all human beings for all time.  W. B. Yeats refers to Llull twice in "Rosa Alchemica", first published in 1897 ("I turned to my last purchase, a set of alchemical apparatus which, the dealer in the Rue le Peletier had assured me, once belonged to Raymond Lully"; and "There were the works [...] of Lully, who transformed himself into the likeness of a red cock"). His "first eight poems in "The Green Helmet and Other Poems" were published under the general title 'Raymond Lully and his wife Pernella'; an erratum-slip corrected this: 'AN ERROR By a slip of the pen when I was writing out the heading for the first group of poems, I put Raymond Lully's name in the room of the later Alchemist, Nicolas Flamel'".  Gordon R. Dickson has the protagonist, Hal Mayne, in the book "The Final Encyclopedia" (1984), refer to Lull and his combination-of-wheels device, which Hal states is ′′nothing less than a sort of primitive computer.′′  In James Blish's fantasy novel "Black Easter" the white magician Fr. Domenico is sent by his Order to observe the works of a black magician. Forbidden to undertake any magic of his own during this commission, he relies on a 'Lull Engine' (a Lullian Circle) to help him decide his next steps, as "it was not in any strict sense, a form of magic".

Disposition toward Judaism.

Llull's mission to convert the Jews of Europe was zealous; his goal was to utterly relieve Christendom of any Jews or Jewish religious influence. Some scholars regard Llull's as the first comprehensive articulation, in the Christian West, of an expulsionist policy regarding Jews who refused conversion. To acquire converts, he worked for amicable public debate to foster an intellectual appreciation of a rational Christianity among the Jews of his time. His rabbinic opponents included Rabbi Shlomo ben Aderet of Barcelona and Moshe ben Shlomo of Salerno.

Ramon Llull (; c. 1232 – c. 1315; Anglicised "Raymond Lully", "Raymond Lull"; in Latin "Raimundus", or "Raymundus Lullus", or "Raimundo Lulio", or "Lullius") was a mathematician, polymath, philosopher, logician, Franciscan tertiary and writer from the Kingdom of Majorca. He is credited with writing the first major work of catalan literature. Recently surfaced manuscripts show his work to have predated by several centuries prominent work on elections theory. He is also considered a pioneer of computation theory, especially given his influence on Leibniz.

拉蒙·柳利(,;,约1235年-1316年),其名于法语中的异体译作雷蒙·吕尔(Raymond Lulle),加泰罗尼亚作家、逻辑学家、方济各第三会会士和神秘主义神学家。他创作了加泰罗尼亚文学第一部重要作品,促进了加泰罗尼亚语的发展。其手稿显示他在选举理论有着超前的研究成果。他还被认为是计算理论的先驱,影响了莱布尼茨等人。


Biography.

He was a retainer of Miyoshi Nagayoshi from the 1540s. He directed the conquest of the province of Yamato in the 1560s and by 1564 had built a sufficient power-base to be effectively independent. It is believed that he was conspiring against Nagayoshi during this period, from 1561 to 1563 three of Nagayoshi's brothers and his son Yoshioki died. This left Miyoshi Yoshitsugu the adopted heir when Nagayoshi died in 1564, too young to rule. Three men shared his guardianship – Miyoshi Nagayuki, Miyoshi Masayasu, and Iwanari Tomomichi.  He then invaded the "shōgun" Ashikaga Yoshiteru's palace, who then committed suicide.  His brother Ashikaga Yoshiaki fled and the shōgun was replaced by his young cousin, Yoshihide.  In 1566, fighting started between Hisahide and the Miyoshi. Initially the forces of Hisahide were unsuccessful and his apparent destruction of the Buddhist Tōdai-ji in Nara was considered an act of infamy.  In 1568 Oda Nobunaga, with the figurehead Yoshiaki, attacked Hisahide. Nobunaga captured Kyoto in November and Hisahide was forced to submit.  Yoshiaki was made shōgun, a post he held only until 1573 when he attempted to remove himself from Nobunaga's power. Hisahide kept control of the Yamato and served Nobunaga in his extended campaigns against the Miyoshi and others, for a while. In 1573 Hisahide briefly allied with the Miyoshi, but when the hope for successes were not achieved he returned to Nobunaga to fight the Miyoshi.  In 1577 Nobunaga besieged him at Shigisan Castle. Defeated but defiant Hisahide committed suicide. A noted tea master, he destroyed his tea bowl denying it to his enemies.  He ordered his head destroyed to prevent it becoming a trophy (in which his son, Matsunaga Kojiro grabbed Hisahide's head and jumped off the castle wall with his sword through his throat). His son, Hisamichi, also committed suicide in siege.  Hisahide often appears as a shriveled and scheming old man in fiction. However, this is a fictitious image propagated in response to the assassinations and the destruction of Tōdai-ji that he was believed to have perpetrated. In truth, he was a tall, handsome, and educated man as well as a patron of arts.

In popular culture.

See People of the Sengoku period in popular culture.

Matsunaga Danjo Hisahide (松永 弾正 久秀 1508 – November 19, 1577) was a "daimyō" and head of the Yamato Matsunaga clan in Japan during the Sengoku period of the 16th century.

松永久秀(1510年-1577年-11月19日),日本战国时期大和国大名,通称松永弹正。


Life.

Chen Wu was from Songzi County (松滋縣), Lujiang Commandery (廬江郡), which is in present-day Susong County, Anhui. He was seven "chi" and seven "cun" tall (approximately 181–186 cm). When he was about 17 years old, he travelled to Shouchun (壽春; present-day Shou County, Anhui) to meet Sun Ce, who was then a subordinate of the warlord Yuan Shu. Chen Wu later accompanied Sun Ce on his conquests in the Jiangdong region in the 190s, and was appointed as a Major of Separate Command (別部司馬) for his contributions in battle. He also followed Sun Ce to attack a minor warlord Liu Xun and helped to recruit many capable men from Lujiang to join Sun Ce's army, with him as their commander.  After Sun Ce's death in the year 200, Chen Wu continued serving under Sun Quan, Sun Ce's younger brother and successor. He was put in command of five regiments. Chen Wu was known to a kind and generous person, and he won the hearts of many people from his hometown and other places. He was deeply favoured by Sun Quan, who visited his house on several occasions. Chen Wu was later promoted to Lieutenant-General (偏將軍) for his achievements.  In 215, Chen Wu followed Sun Quan to attack Hefei, a city under the control of a rival warlord Cao Cao, which led to the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford. Sun Quan's forces suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of Cao Cao's general Zhang Liao, who was defending Hefei. Chen Wu was killed in action.  Sun Quan mourned Chen Wu's death and attended the latter's funeral. Sun Quan also had Chen Wu's favourite concubine sacrificed to join Chen in death, and he awarded Chen's family 200 taxable households in their estate. The historian Sun Sheng criticised Sun Quan's act of forcing Chen Wu's concubine to join Chen in death, citing an earlier negative example of Duke Mu of Qin and a positive example of Wei Ke (魏顆).

Descendants.

Chen Wu had two sons – Chen Xiu (陳脩) and Chen Biao.  Chen Xiu had a personality which resembled his father's. When he was 19 years old, Sun Quan summoned him and appointed him as a Major of Separate Command (別部司馬) and put him in charge of 500 troops. At the time, many newly recruited soldiers were unwilling to serve in the army so they deserted. However, Chen Xiu treated his men well and not a single soldier under him deserted. Sun Quan was surprised and pleased, so he promoted Chen Xiu to Colonel (校尉). In the late 210s, when Sun Quan granted awards to the descendants of his deceased subjects to honour his subjects for their service, Chen Xiu received the title of a Marquis of a Chief Village (都亭侯) in recognition of his father's contributions. He later became a commander in the "jiefan" (解煩) corps, one of the elite units in Sun Quan's military forces. He died in 229, shortly after Sun Quan proclaimed himself emperor and established the state of Eastern Wu.  Chen Biao was born to one of Chen Wu's concubines. He also served in Eastern Wu. After Chen Biao's death, his son Chen Ao (陳敖) was commissioned as a Major of Separate Command (別部司馬) at the age of 16 and was placed in charge of 400 troops.  When Chen Ao died, his military appointment was inherited by his cousin Chen Yan (陳延), who was Chen Xiu's son. Chen Yan had a younger brother, Chen Yong (陳延), who became a general and received a marquis title.

In "Romance of the Three Kingdoms".

Although no details were given on how Chen Wu died at the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford in 215, his death was dramatised in chapter 68 of the historical novel "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" by Luo Guanzhong, which romanticises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. In the novel, Chen Wu encountered Pang De (who had recently joined Cao Cao's forces) in another battle right after the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford. While fighting with Pang De, he was driven into a valley full of thick vegetation and his sleeve was caught in some tree branches. He was killed by Pang De while attempting to free himself.

Chen Wu (died 215), courtesy name Zilie, was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan in the late Eastern Han dynasty. He previously served under Sun Ce, Sun Quan's elder brother and predecessor.

陈武(178年-215年),字子烈,扬州庐江松滋(今安徽宿松)人,东汉末年群雄孙策麾下将领,陈武年轻时仪表堂堂,被孙策破格提掘而跟随孙策征战江东,因战功封为别部司马,孙策击退刘勋并占领庐江降服许多卢江人,孙策将这些人当中挑选为卢江兵,交给陈武训练为卢江精锐;是江东十二虎臣之一。后来在孙权部下任职。由于陈武仁厚好施,故受到上至主君(孙策、孙权),下至乡民的敬爱。陈武又屡建战功,封为偏将军。


Plot.

Nick Marshall, a Chicago advertising executive, was raised by his Las Vegas showgirl mother. Nick is a chauvinist skilled at selling products to men and seducing women. He expects a big promotion at the advertising firm Sloane Curtis, but his manager, Dan, instead announces that he is hiring Darcy McGuire to broaden the firm's appeal to women. Meanwhile, Nick's estranged 15-year-old daughter, Alex, is staying with him while his former wife, Gigi, is on her honeymoon with her new husband Ted. Nick embarrasses Alex, who resents his over-protectiveness when he meets her boyfriend, Cameron, who is 18 years old.  Darcy tasks the staff, including Nick, to develop advertising ideas for a series of feminine products she distributes at the staff meeting. While testing a few items at home, Nick falls into his bathtub while holding an electric hairdryer, shocking himself, and is knocked unconscious. The next morning Nick awakens to discover he has a new gift: he can hear women's thoughts. He has an epiphany, realizing that most women, especially at work, dislike him and consider him sleazy. He makes an impromptu visit to his former therapist, Dr. Perkins (who also disliked him), and she encourages him to use his new-found ability to his advantage.  Nick telepathically eavesdrops on Darcy and purloins her ideas to use as his own, but gradually becomes attracted to her. Alex resents Nick's years of neglect, but they start to bond while he takes her shopping for a prom dress. After Nick telepathically finds out that Alex intends to sleep with Cameron the night of the prom, Nick attempts to give her some advice. He tells her Cameron is not interested in her for who she is, just for what he can do with her in bed. Alex, thinking Nick is being over-protective and trying to sabotage her prom, rejects his advice.  Nick and Darcy spend more time together, becoming romantic. However, he steals Darcy's idea for a new Nike ad campaign aimed at women, though he later regrets his actions, especially as it leads to Dan firing Darcy. Nick persuades Dan to rehire Darcy, saying the ad was her idea and is eventually successful.  Over time, Nick succeeds in repairing his relationships with female acquaintances, especially those at work. Nick loses his gift during a severe thunder and lightning storm while on his way to see company secretary, Erin, who (telepathic ability revealed) has been contemplating suicide. He offers her a position for which he had previously turned her down; she accepts. When Cameron dumps Alex at the prom for refusing to have sex, Nick finds and consoles her, cementing their newly-repaired relationship. Nick visits Darcy and explains everything. She fires him, but then forgives him – and they share a kiss.

Reception.

Critical response.

Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 54% based on 122 reviews, with an average rating of 5.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Even though Gibson is a good sport in his role, "What Women Want" is a rather conventional, fluffy comedy-romance that doesn't make good use of its premise." On Metacritic the film has a score of 47 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.

Awards.

For his portrayal of Nick Marshall, Gibson was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and a Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Actor—Comedy/Romance. Hunt won the latter award in the Favorite Actress—Comedy/Romance category, while Mark Feuerstein and Marisa Tomei each received a nomination in the supporting categories. It also garnered Tomei a nod for the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture, while Ashley Johnson was nominated at the Young Artist Awards.  For his score, composer Alan Silvestri won the ASCAP Award for Top Box Office Films, it received a Saturn Award nomination for "Best Fantasy Film" from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films, US. The film also won the Bogey Award in Platin from the Bogey Awards, Germany. It was also nominated for the Best Casting for Feature Film, Comedy from the Casting Society of America, US. It received the Golden Screen Award in Germany.

Legacy.

Sequel/remake.

In 2009, the website Pajiba published an article reporting that producer and scriptwriter Peter Chiarelli was working on a sequel, which would re-imagine the concept from the viewpoint of a woman who could hear men's thoughts. Cameron Diaz was courted to star as its lead. The film was released in 2019 as "What Men Want" with Taraji P. Henson in the lead role.

Foreign market remake.

A Chinese remake directed by Chen Daming starring Andy Lau and Gong Li was released in 2011. "Aga Bai Arrecha!" in 2004 is a Marathi film directed by Kedar Shinde from India.

What Women Want is a 2000 American romantic fantasy comedy film written by Josh Goldsmith, Cathy Yuspa, and Diane Drake, directed by Nancy Meyers, and starring Mel Gibson and Helen Hunt. The film earned mixed reviews from critics, but was a box office success, with a North American domestic gross of $182 million and a worldwide gross of $374 million against a budget of $70 million. A loose remake, "What Men Want" starring Taraji P. Henson and Aldis Hodge came out in early 2019.

《男人百分百》("What Women Want")是一部在2000年上映的美国浪漫喜剧片,由南希·麦尔斯执导,梅尔·吉勃逊和海伦·杭特主演。


Early life.

Kotto was born in New York City. His mother was Gladys Marie, a nurse and U.S. Army officer. His father is Avraham Kotto (according to his son, originally named Njoki Manga Bell), a businessman from Cameroon who immigrated to the United States in the 1920s. In his autobiography titled "Royalty", Kotto writes that his father was "the crown prince of Cameroon." However, Cameroon is a republic and its local monarchs have limited responsibilities as auxiliaries of the state, which they must support at all times, Cameroon being a typical example of an African state with sub-national monarchies.  Kotto said he learned that his father's family was royal in adult life while studying his family's lineage, and said he is also a descendant of Queen Victoria, through Princess Nakande, daughter of King Doualla Manga Bell of Cameroon, who Kotto says had an affair with Britain's Edward VII while he was the prince of Wales in the late 19th century. According to Kotto, his father was an observant Jew who spoke Hebrew. Kotto's mother, who was of Panamanian descent, converted to Judaism before marrying his father. Kotto claims that his great-grandfather, whom he names "King Alexander Bell" ruled the Douala region of Cameroon in the late-19th century and was also a practicing Jew.  Kotto has said that his paternal family originated from Israel many centuries ago, migrating to Egypt and then Cameroon, and have been African Jews for many generations. His claim of being a descendant of Queen Victoria has been denied by the Buckingham Palace press office, who confirmed Edward VII had never visited Cameroon.  Kotto has said that being a black Jew made it more difficult for him as a child. "It was rough coming up," Kotto said. "And then going to shul, putting a yarmulke on, having to face people who were primarily Baptists in the Bronx meant that on Fridays, I was in some heavy fistfights."

Career.

By the age of sixteen, Kotto was studying acting at the Actors Mobile Theater Studio, and at 19, he made his professional acting debut in "Othello". He was a member of the Actors Studio in New York. Kotto got his start in acting on Broadway, where he appeared in "The Great White Hope," among other productions.  His film debut was in 1963, aged 23, in an uncredited role in "4 For Texas". He performed in Michael Roemer's "Nothing But a Man" (1964) and played a supporting role in the caper film "The Thomas Crown Affair" (1968). He played John Auston, a confused Marine Lance Corporal, in the 1968 episode, "King of the Hill", on the first season of "Hawaii Five-O".  In 1967 he released a single, "Have You Ever Seen The Blues"/"Have You Dug His Scene" (Chisa Records, CH006).  In 1973 he landed the role of the James Bond villain Mr. Big in "Live and Let Die", as well as roles in "Across 110th Street" and "Truck Turner". Kotto portrayed Idi Amin in the 1977 television film "Raid on Entebbe". He starred as an auto worker in the 1978 film "Blue Collar". The following year he played Parker in the sci-fi–horror film "Alien". He followed with a supporting role in the 1980 prison drama "Brubaker". In 1983, he guest-starred as mobster Charlie "East Side Charlie" Struthers in "The A-Team" episode "The Out-of-Towners". In 1987, he appeared in the futuristic sci-fi movie "The Running Man", and in 1988, in the action-comedy "Midnight Run", in which he portrayed Alonzo Moseley, an FBI agent. A memo from Paramount indicates that Kotto was among those being considered for Jean-Luc Picard in "", a role which eventually went to Patrick Stewart.  Kotto was cast as a religious man living in the southwestern desert country in the 1967 episode, "A Man Called Abraham", on the syndicated anthology series, "Death Valley Days", hosted by Robert Taylor. In the story line, Abraham convinces a killer named Cassidy (Rayford Barnes) that Cassidy can change his heart despite past crimes. When Cassidy is sent to the gallows, Abraham provides spiritual solace. Bing Russell also appeared in this segment.  Kotto portrayed Lieutenant Al Giardello in the long-running television series "". He has written the book "Royalty" and also wrote scripts for "Homicide: Life on the Street" (1993–99). In 2014, he voiced "Parker" for the video game "", reprising the same role he played in the movie "Alien" in 1979.

Personal life.

Kotto's first marriage was to a German immigrant, Rita Ingrid Dittman, whom he married in 1959. They had three children together before divorcing in 1976. A week after his divorce, Kotto married Toni Pettyjohn, and they also had three children together, before divorcing in 1989. Kotto married his third wife, Tessie Sinahon, on July 12, 1998.

Yaphet Frederick Kotto (born November 15, 1939) is an American actor known for numerous film roles, as well as starring in the NBC television series "" (1993–99) as Lieutenant Al Giardello. His films include the science-fiction/horror film "Alien" (1979), and the Arnold Schwarzenegger science-fiction/action film "The Running Man" (1987). He portrayed the main villain Dr. Kananga/Mr. Big in the James Bond movie "Live and Let Die" (1973). He appeared opposite Robert De Niro in the comedy thriller "Midnight Run" (1988) as FBI Agent Alonzo Mosley.

耶佛·哥图(英语:Yaphet Kotto,1937年-11月15日)是一位资深美国演员,曾在不同电影中演出一些二线角色,已于2008年息影。最著名的近期作品有ABC电视剧Homocide: Life in the Streets。


Etymology and origin.

The etymology of the ethnonym "Bulgar" is not completely understood and difficult to trace back earlier than the 4th century AD. Since the work of Wilhelm Tomaschek (1873), it is generally said to be derived from the Common Turkic "bulğha", "bulga-" or "bulya" ("to mix"; "to become mixed"), which with the consonant suffix "-r" implies a noun meaning "mixed". Other scholars have added that "bulğha" might also imply "stir", "disturb", "confuse" and Talat Tekin interpreted "bulgar" as the verb form "mixing" (i.e. rather than the adjective "mixed"). Both Gyula Németh and Peter Benjamin Golden initially advocated the "mixed race" theory, but later, like Paul Pelliot, considered that "to incite", "rebel", or "to produce a state of disorder", i.e. the "disturbers", was a more likely etymology for migrating nomads. According to Osman Karatay, if the "mixed" etymology relied on the westward migration of the Oğurs, meeting and merging with the Huns, north of the Black Sea, it was a faulty theory, since the Oghurs were documented in Europe as early as 463, while the Bulgars were not mentioned until 482 – an overly short time period for any such ethnogenesis to occur. However, the "mixing" in question may have occurred before the Bulgars migrated from further east, and scholars such as Sanping Chen have noted analogous groups in Inner Asia, with phonologically similar names, who were frequently described in similar terms: during the 4th century, the "Buluoji" (Middle Chinese "b'uo-lak-kiei"), a component of the "Five Barbarian" groups in Ancient China, were portrayed as both a "mixed race" and "troublemakers". Peter A. Boodberg noted that the "Buluoji" in the Chinese sources were recorded as remnants

History.

Turkic migration.

The origin of the early Bulgars is still unclear. Their homeland is believed to be situated in Kazakhstan and the North Caucasian steppes. Interaction with the Hunnic tribes, causing the migration, may have occurred there, but the Pontic–Caspian steppe seems a more likely location.  The first clear mention and evidence of the Bulgars was in 480, when they served as the allies of the Byzantine Emperor Zeno (474–491) against the Ostrogoths. Anachronistic references about them can also be found in the 7th-century geography work "Ashkharatsuyts" by Anania Shirakatsi, where the "Kup'i Bulgar", "Duč'i Bulkar", "Olxontor Błkar" and immigrant "Č'dar Bulkar" tribes are mentioned as being in the North Caucasian-Kuban steppes. An obscure reference to "Ziezi ex quo Vulgares", with Ziezi being an offspring of Biblical Shem, is in the "Chronography of 354".  According to D. Dimitrov, the 5th-century "History of Armenia" by Movses Khorenatsi speaks about two migrations of the Bulgars, from Caucasus to Armenia. The first migration is mentioned in the association with the campaign of Armenian ruler Valarshak (probably Varazdat) to the lands "named Basen by the ancients... and which were afterwards populated by immigrants of the vh' ndur Bulgar Vund, after whose name they (the lands) were named Vanand". The second migration took place during the time of the ruler Arshak III, when "great disturbances occurred in the range of the great Caucasus mountain, in the land of the Bulgars, many of whom migrated and came to our lands and settled south of Kokh". Both migrations are dated to the second half of the 4th century AD. The

Old Great Bulgaria.

The Turk rule weakened sometime after 600, allowing the Avars to reestablish the control over the region. As the Western Turkic Khaganate declined, finally collapsing in the middle of the 7th century, it was against Avar rule that the Bulgars, recorded as "Onoğundur–Bulğars", reappeared. They revolted under their leader Kubrat (c. 635), who seems to have been prepared by Heraclius (610–641) against the Sasanian–Avar alliance. With his uncle Organa in 619, Kubrat had been baptized in Constantinople. He founded the Old Great Bulgaria ("Magna Bulgaria"), also known as "Onoğundur–Bulğars" state, or "Patria Onoguria" in the "Ravenna Cosmography".  Little is known about

Subsequent migrations.

It is unclear whether the parting ways by brothers was caused by the internal conflicts or strong Khazar pressure. The latter is considered more likely. The Bulgars led by the first two brothers Batbayan and Kotrag remained in the Pontic steppe zone, where they were known as "Black Bulgars" by Byzantine and Rus sources, and became Khazar vassals. The Bulgars led by Kotrag migrated to the middle Volga region during the 7th and 9th centuries, where they founded Volga Bulgaria, with Bolghar as its capital. According to Ahmad ibn Rustah (10th century), the Volga Bulgars were divided into three branches: "the first branch was called

Bulgarian empires.

The First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018) had a significant political influence in the Balkans. In the time of Tervel (700–721) the Bulgars helped Byzantines two times, in 705 the Emperor Justinian II to regain his throne, and 717–718 defeating the Arabs during the siege of Constantinople. Sevar (738–753) was the last ruler from the Dulo clan, and the period until c. 768-772 was characterized by the Byzantino-Bulgar conflict and internal crisis. In the short period followed seven rulers from the Uokil and Ugain clan. Telerig (768–777) managed to establish a pacific policy with Byzantium, and restore imperial power.  During the reign of Khan Krum (803-814), the Empire doubled its size, including new lands in Macedonia and Serbia. He also successfully repelled

Society.

Bulgars had the typical culture of the nomadic equestrians of Central Asia, who migrated seasonally in pursuit of good pastures, as well attraction to economic and cultural interaction with sedentary societies. Being in contact with sedentary cultures, they began mastering the crafts of blacksmithing, pottery, and carpentry. The politically dominant tribe or clan usually gave its name to the tribal confederation. Such confederations were often encouraged by the Imperial powers, for whom it was easier to deal with one ruler than several tribal chieftains.  In nomadic society the tribes were political organizations based on kinship, with diffused power. Tribes developed according to the relation with sedentary states, and only managed to conquer them when had social cohesion. If the raiding by the nomads had negative effect on the economic development of the region it could significantly slow down their own social and cultural development. In a nomadic state the nomad and sedentary integration was limited, and usually had vassal tribute system.  When the Bulgars arrived in the Balkan their first generations probably still lived a nomadic life in yurts, but they quickly adopted the sunken-featured building of rectangular plan and sedentary or seasonal lifestyle of the Slavs and autochthonous population. The Bulgar and Slavic settlements cannot be distinguished other than by the type of biritual cemeteries.

Social structure.

The Bulgars, at least the Danubian Bulgars, had a well-developed clan and military administrative system of "inner" and "outer" tribes, governed by the ruling clan. They had many titles, and according to Steven Runciman the distinction between titles which represented offices and mere ornamental dignities was somewhat vague. Maenchen-Helfen theorized that the titles of the steppe peoples did not reflect the ethnicity of their bearers. According to Magnus Felix Ennodius, the Bulgars did not have nobility, yet their leaders and common men became noblemen on the battle field, indicating social mobility. Tribute-paying sedentary vassals, such as the Slavs and Greek-speaking population, formed a substantial and important part of

Religion.

Very little is known about the religion of the Bulgars, but it is believed to have been monotheistic. In Greek language inscriptions from pagan Danube Bulgaria, Bulgar monarchs describe themselves as "ruler from God", indicating authority from a divine origin, and making an appeal to the deity's omniscience. Presian's inscription from Philippi (837) states:  It is traditionally assumed that the God in question was the Turkic supreme sky deity, Tengri. In the Chinese transcription as "zhenli", and Turkic as "Tangara" and "Tengeri", it represents the oldest known Turco-Mongolian word. Tengri may have originated in the Xiongnu confederacy, which settled on the frontiers of China in the 2nd century BC. The confederacy probably had both pre-Turkic and pre-Mongolian ethnic elements. In modern Turkish, the word for god, "Tanrı", derives from the same root.  Tengrism apparently engaged various shamanic practices. According to Mercia MacDermott, Tangra was the male deity connected with sky, light and the Sun. The cult incorporated Tangra's female equivalent and principle goddess, Umay, the deity

Language.

The origin and language of the Bulgars has been the subject of debate since around the start of the 20th century. It is generally accepted that at least the Bulgar elite spoke a language that was a member of the Oghur branch of the Turkic language family, alongside the now extinct Khazar and the solitary survivor of these languages, Chuvash.  According to P. Golden this association is apparent from the fragments of texts and isolated words and phrases preserved in inscriptions. In addition to language, their culture and state structure retain many Central Asian features. Military and hierarchical terms such as "khan/qan", "kanasubigi", "qapağan", "tarkan", "bagatur" and "boila" appear to be of Turkic origin. The Bulgar calendar within the "Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans" had a twelve-year animal cycle, similar to the one adopted by Turkic and Mongolian peoples from the Chinese, with animal names and numbers deciphered as Turkic. Tengri (in Bulgar "Tangra/Tengre") was their supreme god.  Bulgar inscriptions were written mostly in Greek or Cyrillic characters, most commonly in Greek or Graeco-Bulgar, sometimes with Slavic terms, thus allowing scholars to identify some of the Bulgar glosses. Several Bulgar

Ethnicity.

Due to the lack of definitive evidence, modern scholarship uses an ethnogenesis approach in explaining the Bulgars origin. More recent theories view the nomadic confederacies, such as the Bulgars, as the formation of several different cultural, political and linguistic entities that could dissolve as quickly as they formed, entailing a process of ethnogenesis.  According to Walter Pohl, the existential fate of the tribes and their confederations depended on their ability to adapt to an environment going through rapid changes, and to give this adaptation a credible meaning rooted in tradition and ritual. Slavs and Bulgars succeeded because their form of organization proved as stable and as flexible as necessary, while the Pannonian Avars failed in the end because their model could not respond to new conditions. Pohl wrote that members of society's lower strata did not feel themselves to be part of any large-scale ethnic group; the only distinct classes were within the armies and the ruling elite.  Recent studies consider ethnonyms closely related with warrior elites who ruled over a variety of heterogeneous groups. The groups adopted new ideology and name as political designation, while the elites claimed right to rule and royal descent through origin myths.  When the Turkic tribes began to enter into the Pontic–Caspian steppe in the Post-Hunnic era, or as early as the 2nd century AD, their confederations incorporated an array of ethnic groups of newly joined Turkic, Altaic-Turkic, Caucasian, Iranian, and Finno-Ugric peoples. During their Western Eurasian migrations to the Balkans, they also came into contact with Armenian, Semitic, Slavic, Thracian and Anatolian Greek among other populations. From the 6th to 8th centuries, distinctive Bulgar monuments of the Sivashovka type were built upon ruins of the late Sarmatian culture of the 2nd to 4th centuries AD, and the 6th century Penkovka culture of the Antes and Slavs. Early medieval Saltovo-Mayaki (an Alanic-based culture) settlements in the Crimea since the 8th century were destroyed by the Pechengs during the 10th century.  Although the older Iranian tribes were enveloped by the widespread Turkic migration into the Pontic–Caspian steppe, the following centuries saw a complete disappearance of both the Iranian and Turkic languages, indicating dominance of the Slavic language among the common people.

Anthropology and genetics.

Genetic and anthropological researches have shown that the tribes of the Eurasian steppes were not always ethnically homogeneous, and were often unions of multiple ethnicities. Skeletal remains from Kazakhstan (Central Asia), excavated from different sites dating between the 15th century BC to the 5th century AD, have been analyzed. The distribution of east and west Eurasian lineages through time in the region agrees with available archaeological information. Prior to the 13th - 7th century BC, all samples belong to European lineages, while later, an arrival of East Asian sequences that coexisted with the previous genetic substratum was detected. Hundreds of excavated mummies in the Tarim Basin (West China) have Caucasoid features, revealing the

Legacy.

In modern ethnic nationalism there is some "rivalry for the Bulgar legacy" (see Bulgarism). The Volga Tatars and Chuvash people, are said to be descended from the Volga Bulgars, and there may have been ethnogenic influences on the Bashkirs, Karachays and Balkars also.

The Bulgars (also Bulghars, Bulgari, Bolgars, Bolghars, Bolgari, Proto-Bulgarians) were Turkic semi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in the Pontic–Caspian steppe and the Volga region during the 7th century. They became known as nomadic equestrians in the Volga-Ural region, but some researchers say that their ethnic roots can be traced to Central Asia. During their westward migration across the Eurasian steppe, the Bulgar tribes absorbed other ethnic groups and cultural influences in a process of ethnogenesis, including Indo-European, Finno-Ugric and Hunnic tribes. Modern genetic research on Central Asian Turkic people and ethnic groups related to the Bulgars points to an affiliation with Western Eurasian populations. The Bulgars spoke a Turkic language, i.e. Bulgar language of Oghuric branch. They preserved the military titles, organization and customs of Eurasian steppes, as well as pagan shamanism and belief in the sky deity Tangra.

保加尔人()是从公元二世纪起,在欧洲不同地区定居的游牧民族,分散生活欧洲的东部和东南部地区,为巴尔卡尔人与保加利亚人、楚瓦什人、塔塔尔族的先祖,为突厥人的一支(另一说法是来自帕米尔,与塔吉克斯坦人有关的东伊朗人),使用鄂尔浑文书写他们的保加尔语(他们可能因受匈人统治而接受突厥语),与今天的伏尔加鞑靼人(中国的塔塔尔族大多为伏尔加鞑靼)及楚瓦什人有联系(这支在伏尔加河中游建国)。