Early catadioptric systems.

Catadioptric combinations have been used for many early optical systems. In the 1820s, Augustin-Jean Fresnel developed several catadioptric lighthouse reflectors. Léon Foucault developed a catadioptric microscope in 1859 to counteract aberrations of using a lens to image objects at high power. In 1876 a French engineer, A. Mangin, invented what has come to be called the Mangin mirror, a concave glass reflector with the silver surface on the rear side of the glass. The two surfaces of the reflector have different radii to correct the aberration of the spherical mirror. Light passes through the glass twice, making the overall system act like a triplet lens. Mangin mirrors were used in searchlights, where they produced a nearly true parallel beam. Many Catadioptric telescopes use negative lenses with a reflective coating on the backside that are referred to as “Mangin mirrors”, although they are not single-element objectives like the original Mangin, and some even predate the Mangin's invention.

Catadioptric telescopes.

Catadioptric telescopes are optical telescopes that combine specifically shaped mirrors and lenses to form an image. This is usually done so that the telescope can have an overall greater degree of error correction than their all-lens or all-mirror counterparts, with a consequently wider aberration-free field of view. Their designs can have simple all-spherical surfaces and can take advantage of a folded optical path that reduces the mass of the telescope, making them easier to manufacture. Many types employ “correctors”, a lens or curved mirror in a combined image-forming optical system so that the reflective or refractive element can correct the aberrations produced by its counterpart.

Catadioptric dialytes.

Catadioptric dialytes are the earliest type of catadioptric telescope. They consist of a single-element refracting telescope objective combined with a silver-backed negative lens (similar to a Mangin mirror). The first of these was the Hamiltonian telescope patented by W. F. Hamilton in 1814. The Schupmann medial telescope designed by German optician Ludwig Schupmann near the end of the 19th century placed the catadioptric mirror beyond the focus of the refractor primary and added a third correcting/focusing lens to the system.

Full-aperture correctors.

There are several telescope designs that take advantage of placing one or more full-diameter lenses (commonly called a ""corrector plate"") in front of a spherical primary mirror. These designs take advantage of all the surfaces being "spherically symmetrical" and were originally invented as modifications of mirror based optical systems (reflecting telescopes) to allow them to have an image plane relatively free of coma or astigmatism so they could be used as astrographic cameras. They work by combining a spherical mirror's ability to reflect light back to the same point with a large lens at the front of the system (a corrector) that slightly bends the incoming light, allowing the spherical mirror to image objects at infinity. Some of these designs have been adapted to create compact, long-focal-length catadioptric cassegrains.

Schmidt corrector plate.

The Schmidt corrector, the first full-diameter corrector plate, was used in Bernhard Schmidt's 1931 Schmidt camera. The Schmidt camera is a wide-field photographic telescope, with the corrector plate at the center of curvature of the primary mirror, producing an image at a focus inside the tube assembly at the prime focus where a curved film plate or detector is mounted. The relatively thin and lightweight corrector allows Schmidt cameras to be constructed in diameters up to 1.3 m. The corrector's complex shape takes several processes to make, starting with a flat piece of optical glass, placing a vacuum on one side of it to curve the whole piece, then grinding and polishing the other side flat to achieve the exact shape required to correct the spherical aberration caused by the primary mirror. The design has lent itself to many Schmidt variants.

Meniscus corrector shell.

The idea of replacing the complicated Schmidt corrector plate with an easy-to-manufacture full-aperture spherical meniscus lens (a meniscus corrector shell) to create a wide-field telescope occurred to at least four optical designers in early 1940s war-torn Europe, including Albert Bouwers (1940), Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov (1941), K. Penning, and Dennis Gabor (1941). Wartime secrecy kept these inventors from knowing about each other's designs, leading to each being an independent invention. Albert Bouwers built a prototype meniscus telescope in August 1940 and patented it in February 1941. It used a spherically concentric meniscus and was only suitable as a monochromatic astronomical camera. In a later design he added a cemented doublet to correct chromatic aberration. Dmitri Maksutov built a prototype for a similar type of meniscus telescope, the Maksutov telescope, in October 1941 and patented it in November of that same year. His design corrected spherical and chromatic aberrations by placing a weak negative-shaped meniscus corrector closer to the primary mirror.

Sub-aperture correctors.

In sub-aperture corrector designs, the corrector elements are usually at the focus of a much larger objective. These elements can be both lenses and mirrors, but since multiple surfaces are involved, achieving good aberration correction in these systems can be very complex. Examples of sub-aperture corrector catadioptric telescopes include the Argunov–Cassegrain telescope, the Klevtsov–Cassegrain telescope and sub-aperture corrector Maksutovs, which use as a "secondary mirror" an optical group consisting of lens elements and sometimes mirrors designed to correct aberration, as well as Jones-Bird Newtonian telescopes, which use a spherical primary mirror combined with a small corrector lens mounted near the focus.

Photographic catadioptric lenses.

Various types of catadioptric systems are also used in camera lenses known alternatively as "catadioptric lenses" ("CATs"), "reflex lenses", or "mirror lenses". These lenses use some form of the cassegrain design which greatly reduces the physical length of the optical assembly, partly by folding the optical path, but mostly through the telephoto effect of the convex secondary mirror which multiplies the focal length many times (up to 4 to 5 times). This creates lenses with focal lengths from 250 mm up to and beyond 1000 mm that are much shorter and compact than their long-focus or telephoto counterparts. Moreover, chromatic aberration, a major problem with long refractive lenses, and off-axis aberration, a major problem with reflective telescopes, is almost completely eliminated by the catadioptric system, making the image they produce suitable to fill the large focal plane of a camera. Catadioptric lenses do, however, have several drawbacks. The fact that they have a central obstruction means they cannot use an adjustable diaphragm to control light transmission. This means the lens's F-number value is fixed to the overall designed focal ratio of the optical system (the diameter of the primary mirror divided into the focal length). The inability to stop down the lens results in the catadioptric lens having a short depth of field. Exposure is usually adjusted by the placement of neutral density filters on the front or rear of the lens. Their modulation transfer function shows low contrast at low spatial frequencies. Finally, their most salient characteristic is the annular shape of defocused areas of the image, giving a doughnut-shaped 'iris blur' or bokeh, caused by the shape of the entrance pupil.  Several companies made catadioptric lenses throughout the later part of the 20th century. Nikon (under the Mirror-Nikkor and later Reflex-Nikkor names) and Canon both offered several designs, such as 500 mm 1:8 and 1000 mm 1:11. Smaller companies such as f.e. Tamron, Samyang, Vivitar, and Opteka also offered several versions, with the three latter of these brands still actively producing a number of catadioptric lenses for use in modern system cameras. Sony (formerly Minolta) offered a 500 mm catadioptric lens for their Alpha range of cameras. The Sony lens had the distinction of being the only reflex lens manufactured by a major brand to feature auto-focus (aside from the identical Minolta-manufactured lens that preceded Sony's production).

A catadioptric optical system is one where refraction and reflection are combined in an optical system, usually via lenses (dioptrics) and curved mirrors (catoptrics). Catadioptric combinations are used in focusing systems such as searchlights, headlamps, early lighthouse focusing systems, optical telescopes, microscopes, and telephoto lenses. Other optical systems that use lenses and mirrors are also referred to as "catadioptric", such as surveillance catadioptric sensors.

反射折射这个名词在光学系统中的意思就是既有透镜也有面镜的系统。反射折射的光学系统常用在望远镜和照相机使用的质轻、长焦透镜。 通常的设计是利用特殊形状的透镜来修正反射镜的像差。反射望远镜镜系统的物镜虽然没有色差,但球面反射镜存在球面像差,而且焦距越长的球面反射镜对加工精度要求越高。非球面的抛物面反射镜虽然在光轴中心不存在像差,但在光轴以外存在球差和彗差,而且加工难度大,成本也高。折反射望远镜就是针对反射系统的这些缺点,而试图利用透镜折射系统的优点来补偿。


Biography.

Early years.

Ernesto Sabato was born on June 24, 1911, in Rojas, Buenos Aires Province, son of Francesco Sabato and Giovanna Maria Ferrari, Italian immigrants from Calabria. His father was from Fuscaldo, and his mother was an Arbëreshë (Albanian minority in Italy) from San Martino di Finita. He was the tenth of a total of eleven children. Being born after his ninth brother's death, he carried on his name "Ernesto".  In 1924 he finished primary school in Rojas and settled in the city of La Plata for his secondary education at the Colegio Nacional de La Plata. There he met professor Pedro Henríquez Ureña, an early inspiration for his writing career. In 1929 he started college, attending the School of Physics and Mathematics at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata.  He was an active member in the "Reforma Universitaria" movement, founding "Insurrexit Group" in 1933 – of communist ideals – together with Héctor P. Agosti, Ángel Hurtado de Mendoza and Paulino González Alberdi, among others.  In 1933 he was elected Secretario General of the Federación Juvenil Comunista (Communist Youth Federation). While attending a lecture about Marxism he met Matilde Kusminsky Richter, aged 17, who would leave her parents' house to live with Sabato.  In 1934 he started to doubt communism and Joseph Stalin's regime. The Communist Party of Argentina, which had noted this, sent him to the International Lenin School for two years. According to Sabato, "it was a place where either you recovered or ended up in a gulag or psychiatric hospital". Before arriving at Moscow, he traveled to Brussels as a delegate from the Communist Party of Argentina at the "Congress against Fascism and the War". Once there, fearing not coming back from Moscow, he left the congress to escape to Paris. It was there where he wrote his first novel: "La Fuente Muda", which remains unpublished. Once back in Buenos Aires, in 1936, he married Matilde Kusminsky Richter.

His years as a scientist.

In 1938 he obtained his PhD in physics from the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Thanks to Bernardo Houssay, he was granted a research fellowship in atomic radiation at the Curie Institute in Paris. On May 25, 1938 Jorge Federico Sabato, his first son, was born. While in France he made contact with the surrealist movement, studying the works of Oscar Domínguez, Benjamin Péret, Roberto Matta Echaurren and Esteban Francés among others. This would have a deep influence on his future writing.  In 1939 he transferred to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Once in 1940 he came back to Argentina intent on leaving physics behind. However, serving an obligation to those responsible for his fellowship Sabato started teaching at the Universidad de La Plata for Engineering admission, and relativity and quantum mechanics for post graduate degrees. In 1943, due to an "existential crisis", he left science for good to become a full-time writer and painter.  In 1945, his second son, Mario Sabato was born.

Writing career.

In 1941, Sabato published his first literary work, an article about "La invención de Morel" by Adolfo Bioy Casares, in the magazine "Teseo" from La Plata. Also, in concert with Pedro Henríquez Ureña, he published a collaboration in the renowned "Sur" magazine.  In 1942, working for "Sur" magazine reviewing books, he was put in charge of the "Calendario" section and participated in "Desagravio a Borges" in "Sur" no 94. He also published articles for "La Nación", and his translation of "The Birth and Death of the Sun" by George Gamow was published. The next year he published the translation for "The ABC of Relativity" by Bertrand Russell.  In 1945, his first book, "Uno y el Universo", a series of essays criticizing the apparent moral neutrality of science and warning about dehumanization processes in technological societies, was published; with time he would turn towards a libertarian and humanist standing. That same year he was awarded a prize by the municipality of Buenos Aires for his book and the honor wand of the Sociedad Argentina de Escritores.  In 1948, after being rejected by several Buenos Aires' editors, Sabato published in "Sur" his first novel, "El túnel", a psychological novel narrated in first-person. Framed in existentialism, it was met with enthusiastic reviews by Albert Camus, who had the book translated by Gallimard into French. It has been further translated to more than 10 languages. Others to enjoy the book included Thomas Mann. France's literary industry named his book "Abaddon, el Exterminador" ("The Angel of Darkness") as 1976's best foreign book.  In 1998 his wife died. In 1999 he acquired the Italian citizenship, in addition to his original Argentine one.  Sabato died in Santos Lugares, on April 30, 2011, two months short of his 100th birthday. His death was as a result of bronchitis according to his companion and collaborator Elvira González Fraga. World reaction to his death said he had "surpassed the world of literature to gain a more iconic status". "El Mundo" of Spain said he was "the last survivor of Argentine writers with a capital letter".

Tribute.

On 24 June 2019, on Sábato’s 108th birthday, he was honored with a Google Doodle.

Ernesto Sabato (June 24, 1911 – April 30, 2011) was an Argentine novelist, essayist, painter and physicist. According to the BBC he "won some of the most prestigious prizes in Hispanic literature" and "became very influential in the literary world throughout Latin America". Upon his death "El País" dubbed him the "last classic writer in Argentine literature".

艾内士多·萨巴多(Ernesto Sabato,1911年-6月24日-2011年-4月30日)是一名阿根廷作家兼画家。


Applications.

The main objective of using a motor controller instead of using a simple mechanical switch is to control the speed, start/ stop and rotation of the motor in a more accurate way. The limitation of a mechanical switch is the current limit. A big electric motor can drew up to 30Amp and above were most of the switches are unable to take it. Furthermore we are unable to control the motor speed using pulse-width modulation (PWM). The most common motor controllers in the market are using H-bridge circuit were we are able to control a large motor using a small signal.

Types of motor controller.

Motor controllers can be manually, remotely or automatically operated. They may include only the means for starting and stopping the motor or they may include other functions.  An electric motor controller can be classified by the type of motor it is to drive, such as permanent magnet, servo, series, separately excited, and alternating current.  A motor controller is connected to a power source, such as a battery pack or power supply, and control circuitry in the form of analog or digital input signals.

Motor starters.

A small motor can be started by simply connecting it to power. A larger motor requires a specialized switching unit called a motor starter or motor contactor. When energized, a direct on line (DOL) starter immediately connects the motor terminals directly to the power supply. In smaller sizes a motor starter is a manually operated switch; larger motors, or those requiring remote or automatic control, use magnetic contactors. Very large motors running on medium voltage power supplies (thousands of volts) may use power circuit breakers as switching elements.  A "direct on line" (DOL) or "across the line" starter applies the full line voltage to the motor terminals. This is the simplest type of motor starter. A DOL motor starter also contains protection devices, and in some cases, condition monitoring. Smaller sizes of direct on-line starters are manually operated; larger sizes use an electromechanical contactor to switch the motor circuit. Solid-state direct on line starters also exist.  A direct on line starter can be used if the high inrush current of the motor does not cause excessive voltage drop in the supply circuit. The maximum size of a motor allowed on a direct on line starter may be limited by the supply utility for this reason. For example, a utility may require rural customers to use reduced-voltage starters for motors larger than 10 kW.  DOL starting is sometimes used to start small water pumps, compressors, fans and conveyor belts. In the case of an asynchronous motor, such as the 3-phase squirrel-cage motor, the motor will draw a high starting current until it has run up to full speed. This starting current is typically 6-7 times greater than the full load current. To reduce the inrush current, larger motors will have reduced-voltage starters or adjustable-speed drives in order to minimise voltage dips to the power supply.  A reversing starter can connect the motor for rotation in either direction. Such a starter contains two DOL circuits — one for clockwise operation and the other for counter-clockwise operation, with mechanical and electrical interlocks to prevent simultaneous closure. For three phase motors, this is achieved by swapping the wires connecting any two phases. Single phase AC motors and direct-current motors require additional devices for reversing rotation.

Reduced voltage starters.

Reduced-voltage, star-delta or soft starters connect the motor to the power supply through a voltage reduction device and increases the applied voltage gradually or in steps. Two or more contactors may be used to provide reduced voltage starting of a motor. By using an autotransformer or a series inductance, a lower voltage is present at the motor terminals, reducing starting torque and inrush current. Once the motor has come up to some fraction of its full-load speed, the starter switches to full voltage at the motor terminals. Since the autotransformer or series reactor only carries the heavy motor starting current for a few seconds, the devices can be much smaller compared to continuously rated equipment. The transition between reduced and full voltage may be based on elapsed time, or triggered when a current sensor shows the motor current has begun to reduce. An autotransformer starter was patented in 1908.

Adjustable-speed drives.

An "adjustable-speed drive" (ASD) or "variable-speed drive" (VSD) is an interconnected combination of equipment that provides a means of driving and adjusting the operating speed of a mechanical load. An electrical adjustable-speed drive consists of an electric motor and a speed controller or power converter plus auxiliary devices and equipment. In common usage, the term "drive" is often applied to just the controller. Most modern ASDs and VSDs can also implement soft motor starting.

Intelligent controllers.

An "Intelligent Motor Controller" (IMC) uses a microprocessor to control power electronic devices used for motor control. IMCs monitor the load on a motor and accordingly match motor torque to motor load. This is accomplished by reducing the voltage to the AC terminals and at the same time lowering current and kvar. This can provide a measure of energy efficiency improvement for motors that run under light load for a large part of the time, resulting in less heat, noise, and vibrations generated by the motor.

Overload relays.

A starter will contain protective devices for the motor. At a minimum this would include a thermal overload relay. The thermal overload is designed to open the starting circuit and thus cut the power to the motor in the event of the motor drawing too much current from the supply for an extended time. The overload relay has a normally closed contact which opens due to heat generated by excessive current flowing through the circuit. Thermal overloads have a small heating device that increases in temperature as the motor running current increases.  There are two types of thermal overload relay. In one type, a bimetallic strip located close to a heater deflects as the heater temperature rises until it mechanically causes the device to trip and open the circuit, cutting power to the motor should it become overloaded. A thermal overload will accommodate the brief high starting current of a motor while accurately protecting it from a running current overload. The heater coil and the action of the bi-metallic strip introduce a time delay that affords the motor time to start and settle into normal running current without the thermal overload tripping. Thermal overloads can be manually or automatically resettable depending on their application and have an adjuster that allows them to be accurately set to the motor run current.  A second type of thermal overload relay uses a eutectic alloy, like a solder, to retain a spring-loaded contact. When too much current passes through the heating element for too long a time, the alloy melts and the spring releases the contact, opening the control circuit and shutting down the motor. Since eutectic alloy elements are not adjustable, they are resistant to casual tampering but require changing the heater coil element to match the motor rated current.  Electronic digital overload relays containing a microprocessor may also be used, especially for high-value motors. These devices model the heating of the motor windings by monitoring the motor current. They can also include metering and communication functions.

Loss of voltage protection.

Starters using magnetic contactors usually derive the power supply for the contactor coil from the same source as the motor supply. An auxiliary contact from the contactor is used to maintain the contactor coil energized after the start command for the motor has been released. If a momentary loss of supply voltage occurs, the contactor will open and not close again until a new start command is given. this prevents restarting of the motor after a power failure. This connection also provides a small degree of protection against low power supply voltage and loss of a phase. However, since contactor coils will hold the circuit closed with as little as 80% of normal voltage applied to the coil, this is not a primary means of protecting motors from low voltage operation.

Servo controllers.

Servo controllers are a wide category of motor control. Common features are:  Servo controllers use position feedback to close the control loop. This is commonly implemented with position encoders, resolvers, and Hall effect sensors to directly measure the rotor's position.  Other position feedback methods measure the back EMF in the undriven coils to infer the rotor position, or detect the Kick-Back voltage transient (spike) that is generated whenever the power to a coil is instantaneously switched off. These are therefore often called "sensorless" control methods.  A servo may be controlled using pulse-width modulation (PWM). How long the pulse remains high (typically between 1 and 2 milliseconds) determines where the motor will try to position itself. Another control method is pulse and direction.

Stepper motor controllers.

A stepper, or stepping, motor is a synchronous, brushless, high pole count, polyphase motor. Control is usually, but not exclusively, done open loop, "i.e.", the rotor position is assumed to follow a controlled rotating field. Because of this, precise positioning with steppers is simpler and cheaper than closed loop controls.  Modern stepper controllers drive the motor with much higher voltages than the motor nameplate rated voltage, and limit current through chopping. The usual setup is to have a positioning controller, known as an "indexer", sending step and direction pulses to a separate higher voltage drive circuit which is responsible for commutation and current limiting.

A motor controller is a device or group of devices that can coordinate in a predetermined manner the performance of an electric motor. A motor controller might include a manual or automatic means for starting and stopping the motor, selecting forward or reverse rotation, selecting and regulating the speed, regulating or limiting the torque, and protecting against overloads and electrical faults.

自杀小队(英语:Suicide Squad),是一个DC漫画旗下推出的虚构组织,存在于DC宇宙中,又称X特遣队(英语:Task Force X),初始版本首次出现于《勇敢与大胆》(第1卷)#25(1959年)和《传奇》#3(1987年),最初形式的团队是于《秘密起源》(第2卷)#14(1959年)中开始正式成立,后来也一同纳入DC的新52计划中而重启了故事。


Early life and education.

Doolittle was born in Alameda, California, and spent his youth in Nome, Alaska, where he earned a reputation as a boxer. His parents were Frank Henry Doolittle and Rosa (Rose) Cerenah Shephard. By 1910, Jimmy Doolittle was attending school in Los Angeles. When his school attended the 1910 Los Angeles International Air Meet at Dominguez Field, Doolittle saw his first airplane. He attended Los Angeles City College after graduating from Manual Arts High School in Los Angeles, and later won admission to the University of California, Berkeley where he studied in The School of Mines. He was a member of Theta Kappa Nu fraternity, which would merge into Lambda Chi Alpha during the latter stages of the Great Depression.  Doolittle took a leave of absence in October 1917 to enlist in the Signal Corps Reserve as a flying cadet; he ground trained at the School of Military Aeronautics (an Army school) on the campus of the University of California, and flight-trained at Rockwell Field, California. Doolittle received his Reserve Military Aviator rating and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Signal Officers Reserve Corps of the U.S. Army on March 11, 1918.

Military career.

During World War I, Doolittle stayed in the United States as a flight instructor and performed his war service at Camp John Dick Aviation Concentration Center ("Camp Dick"), Texas; Wright Field, Ohio; Gerstner Field, Louisiana; Rockwell Field, California; Kelly Field, Texas and Eagle Pass, Texas. Doolittle's service at Rockwell Field consisted of duty as a flight leader and gunnery instructor. At Kelly Field, he served with the 104th Aero Squadron and with the 90th Aero Squadron of the 1st Surveillance Group. His detachment of the 90th Aero Squadron was based at Eagle Pass, patrolling the Mexican border. Recommended by three officers for retention in the Air Service during demobilization at the end of the war, Doolittle qualified by examination and received a Regular Army commission as a 1st Lieutenant, Air Service, on July 1, 1920.  On May 10, 1921, he was engineering officer and pilot for an expedition recovering a plane that had force-landed in a Mexican canyon on February 10 during a transcontinental flight attempt by Alexander Pearson Jr. Doolittle reached the plane on May 3 and found it serviceable, then returned May 8 with a replacement motor and four mechanics. The oil pressure of the new motor was inadequate and Doolittle requested two pressure gauges, using carrier pigeons to communicate. The additional parts were dropped by air and installed, and Doolittle flew the plane to Del Rio, Texas himself, taking off from a 400-yard airstrip hacked out of the canyon floor.  Subsequently, he attended the Air Service Mechanical School at Kelly Field and the Aeronautical Engineering Course at McCook Field, Ohio. Having at last returned to complete his college degree, he earned a Bachelor of Arts from the University of California, Berkeley in 1922, and joined the Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity.  Doolittle was one of the most famous pilots during the inter-war period. In September 1922, he made the first of many pioneering flights, flying a de Havilland DH-4 – which was equipped with early navigational instruments – in the first cross-country flight, from Pablo Beach (now Jacksonville Beach), Florida, to Rockwell Field, San Diego, California, in 21 hours and 19 minutes, making only one refueling stop at Kelly Field. The U.S. Army awarded him the Distinguished Flying Cross. Within days after the transcontinental flight, he was at the Air Service Engineering School (a precursor to the Air Force Institute of Technology) at McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio. For Doolittle, the school assignment had special significance: "In the early '20s, there was not complete support between the flyers and the engineers. The pilots thought the engineers were a group of people who zipped slide rules back and forth, came out with erroneous results and bad aircraft; and the engineers thought the pilots were crazy – otherwise they wouldn't be pilots. So some of us who had previous engineering training were sent to the engineering school at old McCook Field. After a year's training there in practical aeronautical engineering, some of us were sent on to MIT where we took advanced degrees in aeronautical engineering. I believe that the purpose was served, that there was thereafter a better understanding between pilots and engineers."  In July 1923, after serving as a test pilot and aeronautical engineer at McCook Field, Doolittle entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In March 1924, he conducted aircraft acceleration tests at McCook Field, which became the basis of his master's thesis and led to his second Distinguished Flying Cross. He received his S.M. in Aeronautics from MIT in June 1924. Because the Army had given him two years to get his degree and he had done it in just one, he immediately started working on his Sc.D. in Aeronautics, which he received in June 1925. His doctorate in aeronautical engineering was the first ever issued in the United States. He said that he considered his master's work more significant than his doctorate.  Following graduation, Doolittle attended special training in high-speed seaplanes at Naval Air Station Anacostia in Washington, D.C.. He also served with the Naval Test Board at Mitchel Field, Long Island, New York, and was a familiar figure in air speed record attempts in the New York area. He won the Schneider Cup race in a Curtiss R3C in 1925 with an average speed of 232 MPH. For that feat, Doolittle was awarded the Mackay Trophy in 1926.  In April 1926, Doolittle was given a leave of absence to go to South America to perform demonstration flights. In Chile, he broke both ankles, but put his P-1 Hawk through aerial maneuvers with his ankles in casts. He returned to the United States, and was confined to Walter Reed Army Hospital for his injuries until April 1927. Doolittle was then assigned to McCook Field for experimental work, with additional duty as an instructor pilot to the 385th Bomb Squadron of the Air Corps Reserve. During this time, in 1927 he was the first to perform an outside loop, previously thought to be a fatal maneuver. Carried out in a Curtiss fighter at Wright Field in Ohio, Doolittle executed the dive from 10,000 feet, reached 280 miles per hour, bottomed out upside down, then climbed and completed the loop.

Instrument flight.

Doolittle's most important contribution to aeronautical technology were his early contributions to instrument flying. He was the first to recognize that true operational freedom in the air could not be achieved unless pilots developed the ability to control and navigate aircraft in flight from takeoff run to landing rollout, regardless of the range of vision from the cockpit. Doolittle was the first to envision that a pilot could be trained to use instruments to fly through fog, clouds, precipitation of all forms, darkness, or any other impediment to visibility; and in spite of the pilot's own possibly convoluted motion sense inputs. Even at this early stage, the ability to control aircraft was getting beyond the motion sense capability of the pilot. That is, as aircraft became faster and more maneuverable, pilots could become seriously disoriented without visual cues from outside the cockpit, because aircraft could move in ways that pilots' senses could not accurately decipher.  Doolittle was also the first to recognize these psycho-physiological limitations of the human senses (particularly the motion sense inputs, "i.e.", up, down, left, right). He initiated the study of the relationships between the psychological effects of visual cues and motion senses. His research resulted in programs that trained pilots to read and understand navigational instruments. A pilot learned to "trust his instruments," not his senses, as visual cues and his motion sense inputs (what he sensed and "felt") could be incorrect or unreliable.  In 1929, he became the first pilot to take off, fly and land an airplane using instruments alone, without a view outside the cockpit. Having returned to Mitchel Field that September, he assisted in the development of fog flying equipment. He helped develop, and was then the first to test, the now universally used artificial horizon and directional gyroscope. He attracted wide newspaper attention with this feat of "blind" flying and later received the Harmon Trophy for conducting the experiments. These accomplishments made all-weather airline operations practical.

Reserve status.

In January 1930, he advised the Army on the construction of Floyd Bennett Field in New York City. Doolittle resigned his regular commission on February 15, 1930, and was commissioned a Major in the Air Reserve Corps a month later, being named manager of the Aviation Department of Shell Oil Company, in which capacity he conducted numerous aviation tests. While in the Reserve, he also returned to temporary active duty with the Army frequently to conduct tests.  Doolittle helped influence Shell Oil Company to produce the first quantities of 100 octane aviation gasoline. High octane fuel was crucial to the high-performance planes that were developed in the late 1930s.  In 1931, Doolittle won the first Bendix Trophy race from Burbank, California, to Cleveland, in a Laird Super Solution biplane.  In 1932, Doolittle set the world's high speed record for land planes at 296 miles per hour in the Shell Speed Dash. Later, he took the Thompson Trophy race at Cleveland in the notorious Gee Bee R-1 racer with a speed averaging 252 miles per hour. After having won the three big air racing trophies of the time, the Schneider, Bendix, and Thompson, he officially retired from air racing stating, "I have yet to hear anyone engaged in this work dying of old age."  In April 1934, Doolittle was selected to be a member of the Baker Board. Chaired by former Secretary of War Newton D. Baker, the board was convened during the Air Mail scandal to study Air Corps organization. In 1940, he became president of the Institute of Aeronautical Science.  The development of 100-octane aviation gasoline on an economic scale was due in part to Doolittle, who had become Aviation Manager of Shell Oil Company. Around 1935 he convinced Shell to invest in refining capacity to produce 100-octane fuel on a scale that nobody needed since no aircraft existed that required a fuel that nobody made. Some fellow employees would call his effort "Doolittle's million-dollar blunder" but time would prove him correct. Before this the Army had considered 100-octane tests using pure octane but at $25 a gallon it did not happen. By 1936 tests at Wright Field using a cheaper alternative to pure octane proved the value of the fuel and both Shell and Standard Oil of New Jersey would win the contract to supply test quantities for the Army. By 1938 the price was down to 17.5 cents a gallon, only 2.5 cents more than 87 octane fuel. By the end of WW II the price would be down to 16 cents a gallon and the U.S. armed forces would be consuming 20 million gallons a day.  Doolittle returned to active duty in the U.S. Army Air Corps on July 1, 1940 with the rank of Major. He was assigned as the assistant district supervisor of the Central Air Corps Procurement District at Indianapolis and Detroit, where he worked with large auto manufacturers on the conversion of their plants for production of planes. The following August, he went to England as a member of a special mission and brought back information about other countries' air forces and military build-ups.

Doolittle Raid.

Following the reorganization of the Army Air Corps into the USAAF in June 1941, Doolittle was promoted to lieutenant colonel on January 2, 1942, and assigned to Army Air Forces Headquarters to plan the first retaliatory air raid on the Japanese homeland following the attack on Pearl Harbor. He volunteered for and received General H.H. Arnold's approval to lead the top secret attack of 16 B-25 medium bombers from the aircraft carrier, with targets in Tokyo, Kobe, Yokohama, Osaka and Nagoya.  After training at Eglin Field and Wagner Field in northwest Florida, Doolittle, his aircraft and volunteer flight crews proceeded to McClellan Field, California for aircraft modifications at the Sacramento Air Depot, followed by a short final flight to Naval Air Station Alameda, California for embarkation aboard the aircraft carrier USS "Hornet". On April 18, Doolittle and his 16 B-25 crews took off from the "Hornet", reached Japan, and bombed their targets. Fifteen of the planes then headed for their recovery airfield in China, while one crew chose to land in Russia due to their bomber's unusually high fuel consumption. As did most of the other crewmen who participated in the one-way mission, Doolittle and his crew bailed out safely over China when their B-25 ran out of fuel. By then, they had been flying for about 12 hours, it was nighttime, the weather was stormy, and Doolittle was unable to locate their landing field. Doolittle came down in a rice paddy (saving a previously injured ankle from breaking) near Chuchow (Quzhou). He and his crew linked up after the bailout and were helped through Japanese lines by Chinese guerrillas and American missionary John Birch. Other aircrews were not so fortunate, although most eventually reached safety with the help of friendly Chinese. Seven crew members lost their lives, four as a result of being captured and murdered by the Japanese and three due to an aircraft crash or while parachuting. Doolittle thought he would be court martialed due to having to launch the raid ahead of schedule after being spotted by Japanese patrol boats and the loss of all the aircraft.  Doolittle went on to fly more combat missions as commander of the 12th Air Force in North Africa, for which he was awarded four Air Medals. He later commanded the 12th, 15th and 8th Air Forces in Europe. The other surviving members of the Doolittle raid also went on to new assignments.  Doolittle received the Medal of Honor from President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the White House for planning and leading his raid on Japan. His citation reads: "For conspicuous leadership above and beyond the call of duty, involving personal valor and intrepidity at an extreme hazard to life. With the apparent certainty of being forced to land in enemy territory or to perish at sea, Lt. Col. Doolittle personally led a squadron of Army bombers, manned by volunteer crews, in a highly destructive raid on the Japanese mainland." He was also promoted to brigadier general.  The Doolittle Raid is viewed by historians as a major morale-building victory for the United States. Although the damage done to Japanese war industry was minor, the raid showed the Japanese that their homeland was vulnerable to air attack, and forced them to withdraw several front-line fighter units from Pacific war zones for homeland defense. More significantly, Japanese commanders considered the raid deeply embarrassing, and their attempt to close the perceived gap in their Pacific defense perimeter led directly to the decisive American victory at the Battle of Midway in June 1942.  When asked from where the Tokyo raid was launched, President Roosevelt coyly said its base was Shangri-La, a fictional paradise from the popular novel "Lost Horizon". In the same vein, the U.S. Navy named one of its "Essex"-class fleet carriers the.

World War II, post-raid.

In July 1942, as a brigadier general—he had been promoted by two grades on the day after the Tokyo attack, bypassing the rank of full colonel—Doolittle was assigned to the nascent Eighth Air Force. This followed his rejection by General Douglas MacArthur as commander of the South West Pacific Area to replace Major General George Brett. Major General Frank Andrews first turned down the position, and, offered a choice between George Kenney and Doolittle, MacArthur chose Kenney. In September, Doolittle became commanding general of the Twelfth Air Force, soon to be operating in North Africa. He was promoted to major general in November 1942, and in March 1943 became commanding general of the Northwest African Strategic Air Force, a unified command of U.S. Army Air Force and Royal Air Force units. In September, he commanded a raid against the Italian town of Battipaglia that was so thorough in its destruction that General Carl Andrew Spaatz sent him a joking message: "You're slipping Jimmy. There's one crabapple tree and one stable still standing."  Maj. Gen. Doolittle took command of the Fifteenth Air Force in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations in November 1943. On June 10, he flew as co-pilot with Jack Sims, fellow Tokyo Raider, in a B-26 Marauder of the 320th Bombardment Group, 442nd Bombardment Squadron on a mission to attack gun emplacements at Pantelleria. Doolittle continued to fly, despite the risk of capture, while being privy to the Ultra secret, which was that the German encryption systems had been broken by the British. From January 1944 to September 1945, he held his largest command, the Eighth Air Force (8 AF) in England as a lieutenant general, his promotion date being March 13, 1944 and the highest rank ever held by an active reserve officer in modern times.

Doolittle's breakthrough in fighter tactics.

Doolittle's major influence on the European air war occurred late in 1943 when he changed the policy requiring escorting fighters to remain with their bombers at all times, allowing fighter escorts to fly far ahead of the bombers' combat box formations in air supremacy mode. Throughout most of 1944, this tactic negated the effectiveness of the twin-engined "Zerstörergeschwader" heavy fighter wings and single-engined "Sturmgruppen" of heavily armed Fw 190As by clearing the Luftwaffe's bomber destroyers from ahead of the bomber formations. After the bombers had hit their targets, the American fighters were free to strafe German airfields and transportation on their return to base. These tasks were initially performed with Lockheed P-38 Lightnings and Republic P-47 Thunderbolts through the end of 1943. They were progressively replaced with the long-ranged North American P-51 Mustangs as the spring of 1944 wore on.

Post-VE Day.

After the end of war on Europe, the Eighth Air Force was re-equipped with B-29 Superfortress bombers and started to relocate to Okinawa in southern Japan. Two bomb groups had begun to arrive on August 7. However, the 8th was not scheduled to be at full strength until February 1946 and Doolittle declined to rush 8th Air Force units into combat saying that "If the war is over, I will not risk one airplane nor a single bomber crew member just to be able to say the 8th Air Force had operated against the Japanese in Asia."

Postwar.

Doolittle Board.

Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson asked Doolittle on March 27, 1946 to head a commission on the relationships between officers and enlisted men in the Army called the "Doolittle Board" or the "GI Gripes Board". The Army implemented many of the board's recommendations in the postwar volunteer Army, though many professional officers and noncommissioned officers thought that the Board "destroyed the discipline of the Army". Columnist Hanson Baldwin said that the Doolittle Board "caused severe damage to service effectiveness by recommendations intended to 'democratize' the Army—a concept that is self-contradictory".

U.S. space program.

Doolittle became acquainted with the field of space science in its infancy. He wrote in his autobiography, "I became interested in rocket development in the 1930s when I met Robert H. Goddard, who laid the foundation [in the US].... While with Shell [Oil] I worked with him on the development of a type of [rocket] fuel.... " Harry Guggenheim, whose foundation sponsored Goddard's work, and Charles Lindbergh, who encouraged Goddard's efforts, arranged for (then Major) Doolittle to discuss with Goddard a special blend of gasoline. Doolittle piloted himself to Roswell, New Mexico in October 1938 and was given a tour of Goddard's workshop and a "short course" in rocketry and space travel. He then wrote a memo, including a rather detailed description of Goddard's rocket. In closing he said, "interplanetary transportation is probably a dream of the very distant future, but with the moon only a quarter of a million miles away—who knows!" In July 1941 he wrote Goddard that he was still interested in rocket propulsion research. The Army, however, was interested only in JATO at this point. Doolittle was concerned about the state of rocketry in the US and remained in touch with Goddard.  Shortly after World War II, Doolittle spoke to an American Rocket Society conference at which a large number interested in rocketry attended. The topic was Robert Goddard's work. He later stated that at that time "... we [the aeronautics field in the US] had not given much credence to the tremendous potential of rocketry.  In 1956, he was appointed chairman of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) because the previous chairman, Jerome C. Hunsaker, thought Doolittle to be more sympathetic to the rocket, which was increasing in importance as a scientific tool as well as a weapon. The NACA Special Committee on Space Technology was organized in January 1958 and chaired by Guy Stever to determine the requirements of a national space program and what additions were needed to NACA technology. Doolittle, Dr. Hugh Dryden and Stever selected committee members, such as Dr. Wernher von Braun from the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, Sam Hoffman of Rocketdyne, Abe Hyatt of the Office of Naval Research and Colonel Norman Appold from the USAF missile program, considering their potential contributions to US space programs and ability to educate NACA people in space science.

Reserve status.

On 5 January 1946, Doolittle reverted to inactive reserve status in the Army Air Forces in the grade of lieutenant general, a rarity in those days when nearly all other reserve officers were limited to the rank of major general or rear admiral, a restriction that would not end in the US armed forces until the 21st century. He retired from the United States Army on 10 May 1946. On 18 September 1947, his reserve commission as a general officer was transferred to the newly established United States Air Force. Doolittle returned to Shell Oil as a vice president, and later as a director.  In the summer of 1946, Doolittle went to Stockholm where he was consulted about the "ghost rockets" that had been observed over Scandinavia.  In 1947, Doolittle also became the first president of the Air Force Association, an organization which he helped create.  In 1948, Doolittle advocated the desegregation of the US military. "I am convinced", emphasized Doolittle, "that the solution to the situation is to forget that they are colored." Industry was in the process of integrating, Doolittle said, "and it is going to be forced on the military. You are merely postponing the inevitable and you might as well take it gracefully."  In March 1951, Doolittle was appointed a special assistant to the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, serving as a civilian in scientific matters which led to Air Force ballistic missile and space programs. In 1952, following a string of three air crashes in two months at Elizabeth, New Jersey, the President of the United States, Harry S. Truman, appointed him to lead a presidential commission examining the safety of urban airports. The report "Airports and Their Neighbors" led to zoning requirements for buildings near approaches, early noise control requirements, and initial work on "super airports" with 10,000 ft runways, suited to 150 ton aircraft.  Doolittle was appointed a life member of the MIT Corporation, the university's board of trustees, an uncommon permanent appointment, and served as an MIT Corporation Member for 40 years.  In 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower asked Doolittle to perform a study of the Central Intelligence Agency; The resulting work was known as the Doolittle Report, 1954, and was classified for a number of years.  In January 1956, Eisenhower asked Doolittle to serve as a member on the first edition of the President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities which, years later, would become known as the President's Intelligence Advisory Board.  From 1957 to 1958, he was chairman of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). This period was during the events of Sputnik, Vanguard and Explorer. He was the last person to hold this position, as the NACA was superseded by NASA. Doolittle was offered the job of being the first administrator of NASA, but he turned it down.  Doolittle retired from Air Force Reserve duty on February 28, 1959. He remained active in other capacities, including chairman of the board of TRW Space Technology Laboratories.

Honors and awards.

On April 4, 1985, the U.S. Congress promoted Doolittle to the rank of full four-star general (O-10) on the U.S. Air Force retired list. In a later ceremony, President Ronald Reagan and U.S. Senator and retired Air Force Reserve Major General Barry Goldwater pinned on Doolittle's four-star insignia.  In addition to his Medal of Honor for the Tokyo raid, Doolittle received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, two Distinguished Service Medals, the Silver Star, three Distinguished Flying Crosses, the Bronze Star Medal, four Air Medals, and decorations from Belgium, China, Ecuador, France, Great Britain, and Poland. He was the first American to be awarded both the Medal of Honor and the Medal of Freedom. He is also the only person to receive both the Medal of Honor and a British knighthood (honorary Knight Commander of the Bath).  In 1972, Doolittle received the Tony Jannus Award for his distinguished contributions to commercial aviation, in recognition of the development of instrument flight.  Doolittle also was awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1959. In 1983, he was awarded the United States Military Academy's Sylvanus Thayer Award. He was inducted in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America as the only member of the air racing category in the inaugural class of 1989, and into the Aerospace Walk of Honor in the inaugural class of 1990.

Namesakes.

The headquarters of the United States Air Force Academy Association of Graduates (AOG) on the grounds of the United States Air Force Academy is named Doolittle Hall, despite the fact Doolittle was not an academy graduate.  On May 9, 2007, The new 12th Air Force Combined Air Operations Center (CAOC), Building 74, at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona, was named in his honor as the "General James H. Doolittle Center". Several surviving members of the Doolittle Raid were in attendance during the ribbon cutting ceremony.

Personal life.

Doolittle married Josephine "Joe" E. Daniels on December 24, 1917. At a dinner celebration after Jimmy Doolittle's first all-instrument flight in 1929, Josephine Doolittle asked her guests to sign her white damask tablecloth. Later, she embroidered the names in black. She continued this tradition, collecting hundreds of signatures from the aviation world. The tablecloth was donated to the Smithsonian Institution. Married for over 70 years, Josephine Doolittle died in 1988, five years before her husband.  The Doolittles had two sons, James Jr., and John. Both became military officers and pilots. James Jr. was an A-26 Invader pilot in the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II and later a fighter pilot in the U.S. Air Force in the late 1940s through the late 1950s. He died by suicide at the age of thirty-eight in 1958. At the time of his death, James Jr. was a Major and commander of the 524th Fighter-Bomber Squadron, piloting the F-101 Voodoo.  His other son, John P. Doolittle, retired from the Air Force as a Colonel, and his grandson, Colonel James H. Doolittle III, was the vice commander of the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards Air Force Base, California.  James H. "Jimmy" Doolittle died at the age of 96 in Pebble Beach, California on September 27, 1993, and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia, near Washington, D.C., next to his wife. In his honor at the funeral, there was also a flyover of Miss Mitchell, a lone B-25 Mitchell, and USAF Eighth Air Force bombers from Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. After a brief graveside service, fellow Doolittle Raider Bill Bower began the final tribute on the bugle. When emotion took over, Doolittle's great-grandson, Paul Dean Crane, Jr., played Taps.  Doolittle was initiated to the Scottish Rite Freemasonry, where he took the 33rd degree, becoming also a Shriner.

Military and civilian awards.

Doolittle's military and civilian decorations include the following:

Medal of Honor citation.

Rank and organization: Brigadier General, U.S. Army Air Corps Place and date: Over Japan Entered service at: Berkeley, Calif. Birth: Alameda, Calif. G.O. No.: 29, 9 June 1942  Citation:For conspicuous leadership above the call of duty, involving personal valor and intrepidity at an extreme hazard to life. With the apparent certainty of being forced to land in enemy territory or to perish at sea, Gen. Doolittle personally led a squadron of Army bombers, manned by volunteer crews, in a highly destructive raid on the Japanese mainland.

Other awards and honors.

Doolittle also received the following awards and honors:  Media

James Harold Doolittle (December 14, 1896 – September 27, 1993) was an American military general and aviation pioneer. He made early coast-to-coast flights, won many flying races, and helped develop instrument flying.

詹姆斯·哈罗德·杜立特(英语:James Harold "Jimmy" Doolittle,1896年-12月14日-1993年-9月27日),昵称“吉米”(Jimmy),美国空军将领、杰出的特技飞行员和航空工程师,第二次世界大战中率编队首次空袭日本东京,史称杜立特空袭,杜立特因此次行动成为美国人心目中的英雄,他也因这次行动中的贡献获颁荣誉勋章。


Early life.

Abraham was born Murray Abraham on October 24, 1939 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the son of Fahrid "Fred" Abraham, an auto mechanic, and his wife Josephine (née Stello) (April 15, 1915 – March 10, 2012), a housewife. His father emigrated with his family from Ottoman Syria at age five due to the famine of Mount Lebanon; his paternal grandfather was a priest in the Antiochian Orthodox Church His mother, one of 14 children, was Italian American, and the daughter of an Italian immigrant who worked in the coal mines of Western Pennsylvania. He had two younger brothers, Robert and Jack, who were killed in separate car accidents.  Abraham was raised in El Paso, Texas, near the Mexican border. Murray and his two younger brothers were altar boys in the St. George Antiochian Orthodox Church in El Paso. He attended Vilas Grammar School, and graduated from El Paso High School in 1958. He was a gang member during his teenage years. In El Paso, Abraham worked in the factory owned by a Lebanese family before launching a career in acting. He attended Texas Western College (later named University of Texas at El Paso), where he was given the best actor award by Alpha Psi Omega for his portrayal of the Indian Nocona in "Comanche Eagle" during the 1959–60 season. He attended the University of Texas at Austin, then studied acting under Uta Hagen at HB Studio in New York City. He began his acting career on the stage, debuting in a Los Angeles production of Ray Bradbury's "The Wonderful Ice Cream Suit".  Abraham added "F." to his stage name in honor of his father Fahrid. He has stated that "Murray Abraham just doesn't seem to say anything. It just is another name, so I thought I'd frame it."

Career.

Film and television.

Abraham made his screen debut as an usher in the George C. Scott comedy "They Might Be Giants" (1971). By the mid-1970s, he had steady employment as an actor, doing commercials and voice-overs. He can be seen as one of the undercover police officers along with Al Pacino in Sidney Lumet's "Serpico" (1973), and in television roles including the bad guy in one fourth-season episode of "Kojak" ("The Godson"). He played a cabdriver in the theatrical version of "The Prisoner of Second Avenue" (1975), a mechanic in the theatrical version of "The Sunshine Boys" (1975), and a police officer in the film "All the President's Men" (1976).  Despite these small roles, Abraham continued to do commercials and voice-over work for income. But in 1978, he decided to give them up. Frustrated with the lack of substantial roles, Abraham said, "No one was taking my acting seriously. I figured if I didn't do it, then I'd have no right to the dreams I've always had." His wife, Kate Hannan, went to work as an assistant and Abraham became a "house husband". He described, "I cooked and cleaned and took care of the kids. It was very rough on my macho idea of life. But it was the best thing that ever happened to me."  Abraham gained greater prominence when he appeared as drug dealer Omar Suárez in the gangster film "Scarface" (1983). Then, in 1984, he played envious composer Antonio Salieri in the Academy Award for Best Picture-winning "Amadeus" (1984), directed by Miloš Forman. Abraham won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role, an award for which his co-star in the film Tom Hulce, playing Mozart, had also been nominated. He won a Golden Globe Award, among other awards, and his role in the film, remains as his most iconic. He later continued his association with classical music by narrating the plot summaries of the operas of Wagner's "Ring Cycle" in the 1990 PBS broadcast from the Metropolitan Opera, to the largest viewing audience of the "Ring Cycle" in history, conducted by James Levine.  After "Amadeus", he next appeared in "The Name of the Rose" (1986), in which he played Bernardo Gui, nemesis to Sean Connery's William of Baskerville. In its DVD commentary, the director of the film, Jean-Jacques Annaud, described Abraham as an "egomaniac" on the set, who considered himself more important than Sean Connery because Connery did not have an Oscar. That said, the film was a critical success. Abraham had tired of appearing as heavies and wanted to return to his background in comedy, as he explained to "People Weekly" in an interview he gave at the time of its release.  Though Abraham had fewer prominent roles in the next decade or so, he became known for his roles in Peter Yates' "An Innocent Man" (1989), Woody Allen's "Mighty Aphrodite" (1995), Ahdar Ru'afo in "" (1998), and Gus Van Sant's "Finding Forrester" (2000), where he again played the nemesis to Connery. He had a significant role in Brian De Palma's adaptation of "The Bonfire of the Vanities" (1990), but chose not to be credited due to a contract dispute.  Abraham's relatively low-profile film career subsequent to his Academy Award win has been considered an example of the "Oscar jinx." According to film critic Leonard Maltin, professional failure following an early success is referred to in Hollywood circles as the "F. Murray Abraham syndrome." Abraham rejected this notion and told Maltin, "The Oscar is the single most important event of my career. I have dined with kings, shared equal billing with my idols, lectured at Harvard and Columbia. If this is a jinx, I'll take two." In the same interview, Abraham said, "Even though I won the Oscar, I can still take the subway in New York, and nobody recognizes me. Some actors might find that disconcerting, but I find it refreshing."  A 2009 guest appearance on "Saving Grace" began a new phase of Abraham's career, wherein he has become gradually more prolific onscreen. Further guest appearances include roles on "", "Louie" and "Curb Your Enthusiasm" as well as a recurring role on "The Good Wife" between 2011 and 2014. Additionally, Abraham was the primary narrator for the PBS series "Nature" between 2007 and 2010, narrating 32 episodes (plus one more in 2013). Abraham's most notable television role came about through Showtime's drama series "Homeland", in which he portrayed black ops specialist Dar Adal. This role resulted in his first Emmy Award nomination in 2015, followed by a second in 2018.  In the 2010s, he has featured prominently in two widely acclaimed films: first as folk music impresario Bud Grossman in the Coen brothers' drama "Inside Llewyn Davis" (2013), then as the mysterious Mr. Moustafa in Wes Anderson's "The Grand Budapest Hotel" (2014). More recently, he has voiced roles in "Isle of Dogs" (2018) and "" (2019) and played Tony in the 2019 live-action "Lady and the Tramp".

Theater.

Since "Amadeus", he has mainly focused on classical theatre, and has starred in many Shakespearean productions such as "Othello" and "Richard III". He was highlighted in many other plays by the likes of Samuel Beckett and Gilbert and Sullivan, and played the lead in Anton Chekhov's "Uncle Vanya" (for which he received an Obie Award).  Abraham has focused on stage work throughout his career, giving notable performances as Pozzo in Mike Nichols's production of "Waiting for Godot", Malvolio in "Twelfth Night" for the New York Shakespeare Festival, and Shylock in "The Merchant of Venice" for the Off-Broadway Theatre for a New Audience (TFANA) in March 2007, which was performed at the Duke Theatre in New York and also at the Swan Theatre, part of the Royal Shakespeare Company. He reprised this role in February 2011, when he replaced Al Pacino in the Public Theater's production. In the 1997/98 Broadway season, he starred in the new chamber musical "Triumph of Love" opposite Betty Buckley, based on Marivaux's classic comedy. The production did not find a large audience, running 85 performances after its pre-opening preview period. He has also taught theater at Brooklyn College. In 2016, he played the title role in Classic Stage Company's production of "Nathan the Wise".  Abraham also joined The Mirror Theater Ltd's Mirror Repertory Company in 1984. He joined MRC the week after winning his Oscar for Best Actor for his work in "Amadeus" because he wanted to work with MRC Artist-in-Residence Geraldine Page (to whom he would eventually present her own Academy Award the following year), and would star opposite her in MRC's "The Madwoman of Chaillot".  In 1994, Abraham portrayed Roy Cohn in the first Broadway production of Tony Kushner's at the Walter Kerr Theater, replacing Ron Leibman in the role.

Personal life.

Abraham has been married to Kate Hannan since 1962; they have two children, Mick and Jamili, and one grandchild, Hannan.  In January 2010, Abraham was the on-the-scene hero of a real-life crime scene at the Classic Stage Company in New York City, when he scuffled with a thief in the dressing room area during a public rehearsal.  Abraham has spoken about his faith: "I've attended many churches. I grew up as an Orthodox Christian and I was an altar boy. I love the Society of Friends, the Quakers. I attended their meetings for almost fifteen years. I'm now [in 2008] attending the First Presbyterian Church of New York because they're such a generous, terrific church with outreach. They reach out to old people, to homeless, to A.A., to cross-dressers; it's truly a church of the teachings of Christ. Religion is essential to my life."

Awards and nominations.

Television.

Audio recording

Honors.

In July 2004, during a ceremony in Rome, he was awarded the ""Premio per gli Italiani nel Mondo"". This is a prize distributed by the Marzio Tremaglia foundation and the Italian government to Italian emigrants and their descendants who have distinguished themselves abroad.  In 2009, he was recognized by the Alumni Association of the City College of New York with John H. Finley Award in recognition of exemplary dedicated service to the City of New York.  In 2010, Abraham was the recipient of The Gielgud Award (Theatre) for that year.  In 2015, Abraham was an inductee to the American Theater Hall of Fame.  He also has an honorary doctorate from Rider University in Lawrenceville, New Jersey.

F. Murray Abraham (born Murray Abraham;; Arabic: فريد مرعي ابرهيم ; October 24, 1939) is an American actor. He became widely known during the 1980s after winning an Oscar for his leading role as Antonio Salieri in the drama film "Amadeus" (1984). Abraham also won a Golden Globe and received a BAFTA Award nomination for the role.

F·莫瑞·亚伯拉罕(英语:F. Murray Abraham,1939年-10月24日-?-?||}}),美国男演员,凭借1984年音乐传记电影《阿玛迪斯》获奥斯卡最佳男主角奖,该片由米洛斯·福曼执导,描述音乐神童沃尔夫冈·阿玛迪斯·莫扎特传奇的一生。


Life.

Early years.

Werner Krolikowski was born into a working-class family. He trained for office work. By the time the war ended the frontier between Poland and Germany had moved west and Krolikowski, along with millions of other Germans, had also moved, the town of his birth now being part of Poland. In 1946 he joined the newly formed Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED / "Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands") in the Soviet occupation zone of what was left of Germany.

Party worker.

He worked till 1950 for the council in the Malchin district, some 75 km (40 miles) south-east of Rostock, then from 1951 till 1952 for the regional party leadership at Mecklenburg. In 1952 he was appointed First secretary of the party district leadership at Ribnitz-Damgarten on the north coast. Then, in December 1952, he was relieved of his functions "on account of gross breach of party rules".  Nevertheless, between 1953 and 1958 he was second and then first secretary to the party district leadership at Greifswald, then till 1960 he was secretary for Agitation and Propaganda for the party district leadership in the Rostock region in succession to before, in 1973, moving to the other end of the country and taking a position as First Secretary of the Dresden district leadership, where his predecessor had been.

National politics.

In 1963 Krolikowski became a member of the Party Central Committee, and in 1970 he became a member of the national People's Chamber "("Volkskammer")", where his responsibilities included membership of the assembly's National Defence Committee. In 1971 he joined the party politburo's central committee. Between 1973 and 1976 he was Secretary of the Party's Central Committee, and from 1976 right up till 1989 he was a member of the Economics Commission and of Central Committee Working Groups on the Balance of Payments and on inter-German Economic Relations. From 1976 till 1988 he was First Deputy Chairman of the German Democratic Republic's Ministerial Council. In 1988, following the sudden death of (who had suffered the misfortune to be identified in western media as a possible successor to First Secretary Erich Honecker) Krolikowski regained the Central Committee secretaryship for agriculture.

Various reverses.

In November 1989 The Wall came down. In November 1989 Werner Krolikowski resigned from his various public offices and on 3 December 1989 he was expelled from what had till very recently been the unchallenged ruling party in East Germany. An investigation was launched, based on "suspicions of abuse of office and corruption" (""Verdachts auf Amtsmißbrauch u. Korruption""). In May 1990 he was charged with "misappropriation of state funds" (""Veruntreuung von Staatsgeldern"") and arrested before being released on bail. However, the case was dropped on health grounds.

The ambassador's insight.

The extent to which East Germany's leader Erich Honecker and his inner circle felt unsettled and undermined by on-going Perestroika in the Soviet Union became more widely known after Honecker himself had retired. The Soviet ambassador in East Berlin from 1983 till 1990 was a man called Vyacheslav Kochemasov, a diplomat whose experience of politics in Moscow and in East Berlin went back a long way. He gave an interview to the western press in 1992 in which he disclosed that as far back as 1986 Werner Krolikowski had told him, in confidence, that the situation in the SED Politburo had become "unbearable": policy decisions were totally driven by dogma, there was no longer any discussion, there was an absurd level of centralisation and an utterly implausible communications strategy. Something must be done: the leader must be replaced.

Werner's brother.

Werner Krolikowski's elder brother, Herbert Krolikowski (1924-2012) was also an East German politician of eminence. Herbert never rose quite as far as Werner, but he did serve as East Germany's deputy foreign minister between 1963 and 1967 and again between 1975 and 1990.

Awards.

After 1966 the "Patriotic Order of Merit", which Krolikowski received " ( was awarded at three different levels, designated respectively bronze, silver and gold, so that particularly long standing providers of exceptional service not infrequently won it more than once.

Werner Krolikowski (born 12 March 1928 ) is an East German political official who became a senior politician. He was a member of the Central Committee of the ruling SED (party) politburo and a deputy chairman of the national Council of Ministers. He also produced a number of political publications.

维尔纳·克罗利科夫斯基(,1928年-3月12日),德国统一社会党政治局委员,中央委员会书记,东德部长会议第一副主席。


Background.

In meetings on 17 and 20 October, the British Defence Committee formally discussed Far East naval reinforcement in response to the fall of the moderate Konoe government on 16 October. In agreement with August-September assessment of Japanese intentions, Churchill and his cabinet favoured the deployment of a modern battleship for deterrent effect. The Royal Navy, as part of its offensive strategy, planned to send the "Nelson" and "Revenge"-class battleships to Singapore, but the "Nelson"s could not deploy. was damaged in the Mediterranean Sea in late-September. Crew leave prevented from deploying until mid-December, and a gun refit scheduled from February to May 1942 was required before she could conduct further operations. With working up, the earliest either could reach the Far East was August 1942. The "King George V"-class was, aside from the "Revenge"s, the only worked-up battleship that could sail east before Spring 1942. On 20 October, the Committee decided to send "Prince of Wales" to Cape Town, South Africa. Once at Cape Town, a review would decide whether to send the ship onward to Singapore; this would keep "Prince of Wales" available to respond to an emergency in home waters.  In December 1941, as a deterrent to Japanese territorial expansion which was recently demonstrated by the invasion of French Indochina, it was proposed that a force of Royal Navy warships be dispatched to the Far East with a view to providing reinforcement for Britain's possessions there, most notably Singapore. First Sea Lord Sir Dudley Pound represented that Singapore could only be adequately defended if the Royal Navy sent the majority of its capital ships there, to achieve parity with an estimated force of nine Japanese battleships. However, dispatching such a large British force was impractical as the British were at war with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Nevertheless, Prime Minister Winston Churchill appeared optimistic about the improving situation in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean; he advocated sending two capital ships along with an aircraft carrier to defend Malaya, Borneo and the Straits Settlements.  Churchill has been criticised for showing "considerable ignorance" and holding an "exaggerated belief in the power of the battleship," along with "a tendency to interfere in naval matters." This may have led him to propose a squadron of three modern ships: one battleship, one battlecruiser, and one carrier. His view was that using the Ultra decrypts that would give Japanese ship locations to the British, they could then use their own ships to form a "fleet in being" to deter Japanese action, as the German battleship "Tirpitz", sister to the lost "Bismarck", was in the North Sea. However, there was no firm plan for such a task. The revised British proposal allocated the new "King George V"-class battleship, the veteran, and the for air cover, though the plan had to be revised when "Indomitable" ran aground in the Caribbean Sea.  The dispatch of capital ships to Singapore had been part of the Admiralty's strategic planning since the naval base had been expanded and fortified beginning in the early 1920s. The scale of this planned deployment had been reduced during the 1930s, since Germany and Italy presented new threats to British interests in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Nevertheless, it was still assumed that a significant force of capital ships would deter Japanese expansion. Churchill's plan presumed that the United States would agree to send its Pacific Fleet, including eight battleships, to Singapore in the event of hostilities with Japan, or that the British force would add to the deterrent value of the US fleet, should it stay at Pearl Harbor. Admiral of the Home Fleet Sir John Tovey was opposed to sending any of the new "King George V" battleships as he believed that they were not suited to operating in tropical waters. Indeed the humid climate of Malaya would negatively affect the capabilities of the "Prince of Wales", such as the breakdown of her surface search radars, deterioration of her anti-aircraft ammunition, and increased crew fatigue due to the lack of air conditioning.

Hostilities commence.

On 8 December 1941, early in the morning, bombers of Mihoro Air Group attacked Singapore. "Prince of Wales" and "Repulse" responded with anti-aircraft fire; no planes were shot down, and the ships sustained no damage. The Japanese made landings on Kota Bharu, Malaya, on 8 December (local time), starting the Japanese invasion of Malaya.  News arrived that Pearl Harbor had been attacked and eight US battleships had been sunk or disabled. Pre-war planning had explored the possibility of the United States Pacific Fleet sending major units to Singapore to reinforce the British when war broke out. That was now impossible. Philips had concluded in an earlier discussion with US General Douglas MacArthur and Admiral Thomas C. Hart that his two capital ships were insufficient to confront the Japanese. However, with the Japanese threatening to overrun Malaya, Philips was pressed to use his ships in an offensive role; he assembled his flotilla to try to intercept and destroy Japanese invasion convoys in the South China Sea.  Admiral Philips believed the Royal Air Force could not guarantee air cover for his ships, as they were equipped with limited numbers of aging fighters. One squadron, No. 453 Squadron RAAF with ten Brewster F2A Buffalos standing by at RAF Sembawang, was available to provide close cover. They were designated the Fleet Defence Squadron for this task, with Flight Lieutenant Tim Vigors given the radio procedures used by Force Z.  Regardless, Phillips elected to proceed. It is believed that four factors entered into his decision: He thought that Japanese planes could not operate so far from land, he believed that his ships were relatively immune from fatal damage via air attack, he was unaware of the quality of Japanese aircraft and torpedoes, and like many Royal Navy officers, Phillips underestimated the fighting abilities of the Japanese. Up to that point, no capital ship at sea had been sunk by air attack. The Italian heavy cruiser "Pola" had been disabled by a torpedo from a Fleet Air Arm Fairey Swordfish at the Battle of Cape Matapan on 29 March 1941, and was later sunk by a torpedo from the destroyer HMS "Jervis". These and other Royal Navy operations in the Mediterranean theater (September 1939 - December 1941) showed that it was risky but possible to operate in waters covered by enemy land-based air, as German and Italian aircraft damaged but could not stop Malta convoys, while no British battleships had been lost. Phillips grossly underestimated the scale of attack, and believed that the majority of enemy attack aircraft would be level bombers rather than land-based naval torpedo bombers. However the Japanese bombers that would be deployed against his ships were specially trained and equipped for “ship killing”, which the British did not realize due to intelligence failures.  His flagship, "Prince of Wales", had one of the most advanced naval anti-aircraft systems of the time, the High Angle Control System (HACS), which demonstrated accurate long-range radar-directed anti-aircraft fire during Operation Halberd in August and September 1941. However, the extreme heat and humidity in Malayan waters rendered her anti-aircraft fire control radars unserviceable and her 2 pounder ammunition had deteriorated as well. Royal Air Force technicians were called in to examine the "Prince's" radars but needed a week to effect repairs, and Force Z would be underway in a few days.  No. 453 Squadron RAAF, which was to provide air cover for Force Z, was not kept informed of the ships' position. No radio request for air cover was sent until one was sent by the commander of "Repulse" an hour after the Japanese attack began. Flight Lieutenant Tim Vigors proposed a plan to keep six aircraft over Force Z during daylight, but this was declined by Phillips. After the war, Vigors remained bitter towards him for his failure to call for air support on time. He later commented, "I reckon this must have been the last battle in which the Navy reckoned they could get along without the RAF. A pretty damned costly way of learning. Phillips had known that he was being shadowed the night before, and also at dawn that day. He did not call for air support. He was attacked and still did not call for help." Daytime air cover off the coast was also offered by Wing Commander Wilfred Clouston of No. 488 Squadron RNZAF, but his plan, "Operation Mobile", was also rejected.  Regarding Phillips' decision to proceed without air cover, naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison wrote:  Those who make the decisions in war are constantly weighing certain risks against possible gains. At the outset of hostilities [U.S.] Admiral Hart thought of sending his small striking force north of Luzon to challenge Japanese communications, but decided that the risk to his ships outweighed the possible gain because the enemy had won control of the air. Admiral Phillips had precisely the same problem in Malaya. Should he steam into the Gulf of Siam and expose his ships to air attack from Indochina in the hope of breaking enemy communications with their landing force? He decided to take the chance. With the Royal Air Force and the British Army fighting for their lives, the Royal Navy could not be true to its tradition by remaining idly at anchor.

Effects of the sinking.

The morning after the battle, Prime Minister Winston Churchill received a phone call at his bedside from Sir Dudley Pound, the First Sea Lord.  Churchill delivered news of the sinking to the House of Commons before noon on 11 December, which was followed by a full review of the situation in Malaya the next day. Singapore had essentially been reduced to a land base after both capital ships were lost, being turned into a land fortress, something it had never been intended to be, rather than a base from which to project naval power. The Eastern Fleet would spend the remainder of the invasion withdrawing their vessels to Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies. They were not reinforced

The ships today.

The wrecks of the two ships were found after the war, "Repulse" in 183 feet (56 m) of water, and "Prince of Wales" in 223 feet (68 m). Both are in a nearly upside-down position. Buoys were attached to the propeller shafts, and flags of the Royal Navy are attached to the lines and are regularly changed by divers. These Royal Navy wrecks are Crown property. "Prince of Wales"' bell was removed from the wreck in 2002 by an authorised team of Royal Navy and British civilian divers in response to fears it would be stolen by unauthorised divers. The bell is now on display at the Merseyside Maritime Museum in Liverpool. It is currently traditional for every passing Royal

Memorial.

A memorial was dedicated on 10 December 2011 at The National Memorial Arboretum the UK's national site of remembrance at Alrewas, near Lichfield, Staffordshire, United Kingdom. The memorial was dedicated in the presence of the few surviving former crew members of the ships.

The sinking of "Prince of Wales" and "Repulse" was a naval engagement in World War II, as part of the war in the Pacific, that took place on 10 December 1941 in the South China Sea off the east coast of the British colony of Malaya (present-day Malaysia), east of Kuantan, Pahang. The Royal Navy battleship and battlecruiser were sunk by land-based bombers and torpedo bombers of the Imperial Japanese Navy. In Japanese, the engagement was referred to as the.

马来亚海战是第二次世界大战中的一场海上战役,这场战役产生了两个重大的影响至今,其一是大舰巨砲主义式微,未来海战上空中优势的重要性将更高以及航空母舰在舰队的有效性;其二是改变了欧洲各国对日本的印象,不再轻视日本的工业技术与战术,将其视为亚洲国家中特别的存在。


Athenian boule.

The original council of Athens was the Areopagus. It consisted of ex-archons and was aristocratic in character.

Solonian boule.

The Athenian boule under Solon heard appeals from the most important decisions of the courts. Those in the poorest class could not serve on the boule of 400. The higher governmental posts, archons (magistrates), were reserved for citizens of the top two income groups.

Reforms of Cleisthenes.

Under the reforms of Cleisthenes enacted in 508/507 BC, the boule was expanded to 500 men, made up of 50 men from each of the ten new tribes also created by Cleisthenes. The 500 men were chosen by lot at the "deme" level, each "deme" having been allotted a certain number of places proportional to population. Membership was restricted at this time to the top three of the original four property classes (the "Pentacosiomedimni", Hippeis and Zeugitae, but not the "Thetes") and to citizens over the age of thirty. The former restriction, though never officially changed, fell out of practice by the middle of the 5th century BC. Members of the boule served for one year and no man could serve more than twice in his life, nor more than once a decade. The leaders of the boule (the "prytany") consisted of 50 men chosen from among the 500, and a new 'prytany' was chosen every month. The man in charge of "prytany" was replaced every day from among the 50 members. The boule met every day except for festival days and ill-omened days. According to Aristotle, Cleisthenes introduced the Bouleutic Oath.

The boule in the democracy of the late 5th-century BC.

After the reforms of Ephialtes and Pericles in the mid-5th century BC, the boule took on many of the administrative and judicial functions of the Areopagus, which retained its traditional right to try homicide cases. It supervised the state's finances, navy, cavalry, sacred matters, building and shipping matters and care for invalids and orphans. Its own members staffed many boards that oversaw the finer points of these many administrative duties. It undertook the examination of public officials both before and after leaving office (most offices lasting one year) to ensure honest accounting and loyalty to the state. It heard some cases of impeachment of public officials for high crimes and mismanagement or serious dereliction of duties. At some point in the late 5th century, pay was instituted for those serving in the boule; this may have been a way to encourage poorer citizens to volunteer, who would otherwise be reluctant to serve. The boule was considered the cornerstone of the democratic constitution, providing a locus for day-to-day activities and holding together the many disparate administrative functions of the government. Because of the rotation of members, it was assumed that the boule was free from the domination of factions of any kind, although there is some evidence that richer citizens served out of proportion to poorer citizens. This may be due to the heavy investment of time required, time that poorer citizens would not have had to spare.

"Boulai" in other Greek states.

Kingdom of Macedonia.

In the Macedonian Kingdom, and later the Macedonian Empire, the body that assisted the king with running the kingdom was called the "synedrion", literally translated as "The Congress". This tradition continued to be in use in the years of Alexander the Great and its members were hereditary. Although not democratic, the members of the Synedrion, including the king were considered equal to one another and had the right of the freedom of speech.

Epirus.

The Epirus, which became a federal republic in 231 BC, was ruled by the "Synedrion", or "The Congress". The Synedrion was dissolved when the Epirote federation fell apart due to internal upheaval during the Third Macedonian War.

Corinth.

The League of Corinth was a federation of Greek states created by king Philip II of Macedon during the winter of 338/337 BC to facilitate his use of unified Greek military forces in his war against Achaemenid Persia. The league guaranteed, among other things, that member states' constitutions in force at the time of joining were guaranteed and that a Synedrion, or congress of representatives, was to meet at Corinth.

In cities of ancient Greece, the Boule (, "boulē"; plural βουλαί, "boulai") was a council of over 500 citizens (βουλευταί, "bouleutai") appointed to run daily affairs of the city. Originally a council of nobles advising a king, "boulai" evolved according to the constitution of the city: In oligarchies boule positions might have been hereditary, while in democracies members were typically chosen by lot (→ Sortition), and served for one year. Little is known about the workings of many "boulai", except in the case of Athens, for which extensive material has survived.

五百人会议(Boule),又译作五百人议事会,是古希腊城邦雅典的民主政制的核心,它的职责是落实公民大会的决策,是一个总司一切事务的行政组织,为前6世纪晚期克利斯提尼改革时创立的机构,此机构一直延续到前3世纪。前身四百人会议,是由雅典传统的四个大部落,各提供一百人所组成,及后经历克利斯提尼改革,传统四大部落被打散,改组成十个新部落,五百人会议亦随之代替四百人会议。


联合国亚洲及太平洋经济社会委员会

History.

The Commission was first established by the Economic and Social Council on 28 March 1947 as the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) to assist in post-war economic reconstruction. Its main mandate was to "initiate and participate in measures for facilitating concerted action for the economic reconstruction and development of Asia and the Far East."  On 1 August 1974, the Commission was renamed to the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) by the Economic and Social Council to reflect both the economic and social aspects of the Commission's work, as well as geographic location of its members.

Scope.

The Commission works to address some of the greatest challenges facing the region through results oriented projects, technical assistance and capacity building to Member States in the following areas:  Additionally, the Commission provides a forum for its Member States to promote regional cooperation and collective action in pursuit of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Member States.

Full members.

The following are all full members of the Commission:

Associate members.

The following are all associate members of the Commission:

Locations.

Headquarters.

The Commission was originally located in Shanghai, Republic of China, from its foundation until 1949, when it moved it headquarters to Bangkok, Thailand.

Subregional Offices.

The Commission maintains five subregional offices in order to better target and deliver programs, given the large size of the region. The subregions are as follow:

Executive Secretaries.

The following is a list of the Executive Secretaries of the Commission since its foundation:

Publications.

The Commission releases a variety of publications detailing its work and updates on its mandate, as well as on a wide variety of issues affecting its Member States. Some of these publications include:

The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) is one of the five regional commissions under the jurisdiction of the United Nations Economic and Social Council. It was established in order to increase economic activity in Asia and the Far East, as well as to foster economic relations between the region and other areas of the world.

联合国亚洲及太平洋经济社会委员会(英语:U.N. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific)简称亚太经社会(ESCAP),为联合国经济社会理事会下属的区域委员会之一,总部位于泰国曼谷,其任务为「是通过开展区域和亚区域的合作和一体化」,是「联合国负责亚洲及太平洋地区经济社会事务的一个区域性职能部门」。