History.

The town of Llandudno developed from Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements over many hundreds of years on the slopes of the limestone headland, known to seafarers as the Great Orme and to landsmen as the Creuddyn Peninsula. The origins in recorded history are with the Manor of Gogarth conveyed by King Edward I to Annan, Bishop of Bangor in 1284. The manor comprised three townships, "Y Gogarth" in the south-west, "Y Cyngreawdr" in the north (with the parish church of St Tudno) and "Yr Wyddfid" in the south-east.  Modern Llandudno takes its name from the ancient parish of Saint Tudno but also encompasses several neighbouring townships and districts including Craig-y-Don, Llanrhos and Penrhyn Bay. Also nearby is the small town and marina of Deganwy and these last four are in the traditional parish of Llanrhos. The ancient geographical boundaries of the Llandudno area are complex: although they are on the eastern side of the River Conwy (the natural boundary between north-west and north-east Wales), the ancient parishes of Llandudno, Llanrhos and Llangystennin (which includes Llandudno Junction) were in the medieval commote of Creuddyn in the Kingdom of Gwynedd, and afterwards part of Caernarfonshire. Today, Deganwy and Llandudno Junction are part of the town community of Conwy even though they are across the river and only linked to Conwy by a causeway and bridge.

Great Orme.

Mostly owned by Mostyn Estates, the Great Orme is home to several large herds of wild Kashmiri goats originally descended from a pair given by Queen Victoria to Lord Mostyn. The summit of the Great Orme stands at 679 feet (207 m). The Summit Hotel, now a tourist attraction, was once the home of world middleweight champion boxer Randolph Turpin.  The limestone headland is a haven for flora and fauna, with some rare species such as peregrine falcons and a species of wild cotoneaster ("cambricus") which can only be found on the Great Orme. The sheer limestone cliffs provide ideal nesting conditions for a wide variety of sea birds, including cormorants, shags, guillemots, razorbills, puffins, kittiwakes, fulmars and numerous gulls.  There are several attractions including the Great Orme Tramway and the Llandudno Cable Car that takes tourists to the summit. The Great Orme also has the longest toboggan run in Britain at 750m long.

Development.

By 1847 the town had grown to a thousand people, served by the new church of St George, built in 1840. The great majority of the men worked in the copper mines, with others employed in fishing and subsistence agriculture.  In 1848, Owen Williams, an architect and surveyor from Liverpool, presented Lord Mostyn with plans to develop the marshlands behind Llandudno Bay as a holiday resort. These were enthusiastically pursued by Lord Mostyn. The influence of the Mostyn Estate and its agents over the years was paramount in the development of Llandudno, especially after the appointment of George Felton as surveyor and architect in 1857. Between 1857 and 1877 much of central Llandudno was developed under Felton's supervision. Felton also undertook architectural design work, including the design and execution of Holy Trinity Church in Mostyn Street.

Transport.

The town is just off the North Wales Coast railway line which was opened as the Chester and Holyhead Railway in 1848. It became part of the London and North Western Railway in 1859, and part of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway in 1923. Llandudno was specifically built as a mid-Victorian era holiday destination and is served by a branch railway line opened in 1858 from Llandudno Junction with stations at Deganwy and Llandudno. The town is also served by Arriva Buses Wales, with services to Rhyl, Bangor, Caernarfon and The Great Orme Summit. Also there is Llew Jones with services to Betws-y-coed and Llanrwst.

Trams.

Former.

The Llandudno and Colwyn Bay Electric Railway operated an electric tramway service between Llandudno and Rhos-on-Sea from 1907, this being extended to Colwyn Bay in 1908. The service closed in 1956. In Llandudno the original Tramway went up the middle of Gloddaeth Street and down the North Shore, through Penrhyn Bay and across to Colwyn Bay.

Attractions.

Llandudno Bay and the North Shore.

A beach of sand, shingle and rock curves two miles between the headlands of the Great Orme and the Little Orme.  For most of the length of Llandudno's "North Shore" there is a wide curving Victorian promenade. The road, collectively known as The Parade, has a different name for each block and it is on these parades and crescents that many of Llandudno's hotels are built. Near the centre of the bay is the "Venue Cymru". The Llandudno Sailing Club and a roundabout mark the end of this section of "The Parade" and beyond are more hotels and guest houses but they are in the township of Craig-y-Don.  At Nant-y-Gamar Road, the Parade becomes Colwyn Road with the fields of Bodafon Hall Farm on the landward side but with the promenade continuing until it ends in a large paddling pool for children and finally at Craigside on the lower slopes of the Little Orme.  There is also a Land train that goes from North Shore to West shore running most days. Frequently driven by Kerry and Will Stonehouse. There is also a land train that goes around the Great Orme being refurbished with no finish date yet.

Llandudno Pier.

The pier is on the "North Shore". Built in 1878, it is a Grade II listed building.  The pier was extended in 1884 in a landward direction along the side of what was the Baths Hotel (where the Grand Hotel now stands) to provide a new entrance with the Llandudno Pier Pavilion Theatre, thus increasing the pier's length to ; it is the longest pier in Wales. Attractions on the pier include a bar, a cafe, amusement arcades, children's fairground rides and an assortment of shops & kiosks.  In the summer, Professor Codman's Punch and Judy show (established in 1860) can be found on the promenade near the entrance to the pier.

Happy Valley.

The Happy Valley, a former quarry, was the gift of Lord Mostyn to the town in celebration of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887. The area was landscaped and developed as gardens, two miniature golf courses, a putting green, a popular open-air theatre and extensive lawns. The ceremonies connected with the Welsh National Eisteddfod were held there in 1896 and again in 1963. In June 1969, the Great Orme Cabin Lift, a modern alternative to the tramway, was opened with its base station adjacent to the open-air theatre. The distance to the summit is just over one mile (1.6 km) and the four-seater cabins travel at 6 mph on a continuous steel cable over two miles (3 km) long. It is the longest single-stage cabin lift in Britain, and the longest span between pylons is over. The popularity of the 'Happy Valley Entertainers' open-air theatre having declined, the theatre closed in 1985 and likewise the two miniature golf courses closed and were converted in 1987 to create a artificial ski slope and toboggan run. The gardens were extensively restored as part of the resort's millennium celebrations and remain a major attraction.

Marine Drive.

The first route round the perimeter of the Great Orme was a footpath constructed in 1858 by Reginald Cust, a trustee of the Mostyn Estate. In 1872 the Great Ormes Head Marine Drive Co. Ltd. was formed to turn the path into a carriage road. Following bankruptcy, a second company completed the road in 1878. The contractors for the scheme were Messrs Hughes, Morris, Davies, a consortium led by Richard Hughes of Madoc Street, Llandudno. The road was bought by Llandudno Urban District Council in 1897. The one-way drive starts at the foot of the Happy Valley. After about a side road leads to St. Tudno's Church, the Great Orme Bronze Age Copper Mine and the summit of the Great Orme. Continuing on the Marine Drive the Great Orme Lighthouse (now a small hotel) is passed, and, shortly afterwards on the right, the Rest and Be Thankful Cafe and information centre. Below the Marine Drive at its western end is the site of the wartime Coast Artillery School (1940–1945), now a scheduled ancient monument.

West Shore.

The West Shore is a quiet beach on the estuary of the River Conwy. It was here at Pen Morfa that Alice Liddell (of "Alice in Wonderland" fame) spent the long summer holidays of her childhood from 1862 to 1871. There are a few hotels and quiet residential streets. The West Shore is linked to the North Shore by Gloddaeth Avenue and Gloddaeth Street, a wide dual carriageway.

Mostyn Street.

Running behind the promenade is Mostyn Street leading to Mostyn Broadway and then Mostyn Avenue. These are the main shopping streets of Llandudno and Craig-y-Don. Mostyn Street accommodates the high street shops, the major high street banks and building societies, two churches, amusement arcades and the town's public library. The last is the starting point for the Town Trail, a carefully planned walk that facilitates viewing Llandudno in a historical perspective.

Victorian Extravaganza.

Every year in May bank holiday weekend, Llandudno has a three-day Victorian Carnival and Mostyn Street becomes a funfair. Madoc Street and Gloddaeth Street and the Promenade become part of the route each day of a mid-day carnival parade. The Bodafon Farm fields become the location of a Festival of Transport for the weekend.

Venue Cymru.

The "North Wales Theatre, Arena and Conference Centre", built in 1994, and extended in 2006 and renamed "Venue Cymru", is located near the centre of the promenade on Penrhyn Crescent. It is noted for its productions of opera, orchestral concerts, ballet, musical theatre, drama, circus, ice shows and pantomimes.

Llandudno Lifeboat.

Until 2017, Llandudno was unique within the United Kingdom in that its lifeboat station was located inland, allowing it to launch with equal facility from either the West Shore or the North Shore as needed. In 2017, a new lifeboat station was completed, and new, high-speed, offshore and inshore lifeboats, and a modern launching system, were acquired. This station is close to the paddling pool on North Shore. Llandudno's active volunteer crews are called out more than ever with the rapidly increasing numbers of small pleasure craft sailing in coastal waters. The Llandudno Lifeboat is normally on display on the promenade every Sunday and bank holiday Monday from May until October.

Places of worship.

The ancient parish church dedicated to Saint Tudno stands in a hollow near the northern point of the Great Orme and two miles (3 km) from the present town. It was established as an oratory by Tudno, a 6th-century monk, but the present church dates from the 12th century and it is still used on summer Sunday mornings. It was the Anglican parish church of Llandudno until that status was transferred first to St George’s (now closed) and later to Holy Trinity Church in Mostyn Street.  The principal Christian Churches of Llandudno are members of Cytûn (churches together) and include the Church in Wales (Holy Trinity and also Saint Paul's at Craig-y-Don), the Roman Catholic Church of Our Lady Star of the Sea, Saint John's Methodist Church, Gloddaeth United Church (Presbyterian), Assemblies of God (Pentecostal), Llandudno Baptist Church, St. David's Methodist Church at Craig-y-Don, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Saint Mary and Saint Abasikhiron, and Eglwys Unedig Gymraeg Llandudno (the United Welsh Church of Llandudno). There is also a Christadelphian meeting hall in the town.  A member of the local Methodist community is the Revd Roger Roberts, now Lord Roberts of Llandudno, Liberal Democrat Spokesman for International Development in the House of Lords.  Llandudno is home to a Jewish centre in Church Walks, which serves the local Jewish population – one of few in North Wales. There is also a Buddhist centre, Kalpa Bhadra, on Mostyn Avenue in Craig-y-Don.

Sports.

The town is host to Llandudno F.C. who currently compete in the Cymru North, the second tier of Welsh football. The club plays home matches at Maesdu Park and competed in the Europa League in 2016.  The town is also host to Llandudno Albion, who currently play in the third tier of Welsh football, and Llandudno Amateurs, who play in the fourth tier.  Football in Llandudno dates back to 1878 when a club known as Gloddaeth Rovers for around a decade. Gloddaeth Rovers were then replaced by Llandudno Swifts as the towns main club. Following the demise of Swifts in 1901, a new club, Llandudno Amateurs were formed.  A football club is mentioned in Llandudno as far back as 1865.  Llandudno Rugby Club also plays in the town and was established in 1952.  There are also local pool, snooker and domino tournaments.

Governance.

Llandudno is divided into five electoral wards: Craig-y-Don, Gogarth, Mostyn, Penrhyn and Tudno. The wards elect county councillors to Conwy County Borough Council and four community councillors each to Llandudno Town Council.

Links with Wormhout and Mametz.

Llandudno is twinned with the Flemish town of Wormhout from Dunkirk. It was there that many members of the Llandudno-based 69th Territorial Regiment were ambushed and taken prisoner. Later, at nearby Esquelbecq on 28 May 1940, the prisoners were shot.  The 1st (North Wales) Brigade was headquartered in Llandudno in December 1914 and included a battalion of the Royal Welch Fusiliers, which had been raised and trained in Llandudno. During the 1914–18 war this Brigade, a major part of the 38th Welsh Division, took part in the Battle of the Somme and the Brigade was ordered to take Mametz Wood. Two days of fighting brought about the total destruction of Mametz village by shelling. After the war, the people of Llandudno (including returning survivors from the 38th Welsh Division) contributed generously to the fund for the reconstruction of the village of Mametz.

Cultural connections.

Llandudno hosted the Welsh National Eisteddfod in 1864, 1896 and 1963, and in 2008 welcomed the Urdd National Eisteddfod to Gloddaeth Isaf Farm, Penrhyn Bay. The town also hosted the Liverpool Olympic Festival in 1865 and 1866.  Matthew Arnold gives a vivid and lengthy description of 1860s Llandudno – and of the ancient tales of Taliesin and Maelgwn Gwynedd that are associated with the local landscape — in the first sections of the preface to "On the Study of Celtic Literature" (1867). It is also used as a location for dramatic scenes in the stage play and film "Hindle Wakes" by Stanley Houghton, and the 1911 novel, "The Card", by Arnold Bennett, and its subsequent film version.  Elisabeth of Wied, the Queen Consort of Romania and also known as writer Carmen Sylva, stayed in Llandudno for five weeks in 1890. On leaving, she described Wales as "a beautiful haven of peace". Translated into Welsh as ""hardd", "hafan", "hedd"", it became the town's official motto.  Other famous people with links to Llandudno include the Victorian statesman John Bright and multi-capped Welsh international footballers Neville Southall, Neil Eardley, Chris Maxwell and Joey Jones. Australian ex-Prime Minister Billy Hughes attended school in Llandudno. Gordon Borrie QC (Baron Borrie), Director General of the Office of Fair Trading from 1976 to 1992, was educated at the town's John Bright Grammar School when he lived there as a wartime evacuee.  The international art gallery "Oriel Mostyn" is in Vaughan Street next to the post office. It was built in 1901 to house the art collection of Lady Augusta Mostyn. It was requisitioned in 1914 for use as an army drill hall and later became a warehouse, before being returned to use as an art gallery in 1979. Following a major revamp the gallery was renamed simply 'Mostyn' in 2010.  Llandudno has its own mini arts festival "'LL"AWN' (Llandudno Arts Weekend) which has been running for the past three years ("LL"AWN"01" −2013, "LL"AWN"02 – 2014", "LL"AWN"03 – 2015"). "LLAWN" is a mini festival that rediscovers and celebrates Llandudno’s past in rather a unique way; via art, architecture, artefact, sound, performance, and participation. The festival takes place over three days of the weekend in late September,originally conceived as a way to promote what those in the hospitality sector refer to as the ‘shoulder season’, which means a lull in the tourist calendar. The festival is supported by Arts Council Wales, Mostyn Estates, Conwy County Borough Council, MOSTYN and Llandudno Town Council.  In January 1984 "Brookside" character Petra Taylor (Alexandra Pigg) committed suicide in Llandudno.  In 1997, the English cookery programme "Two Fat Ladies" with Jennifer Patterson and Clarissa Dickson Wright shot an episode in Llandudno.

Freedom of the Town.

The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Town of Llandudno.

Llandudno (, ) is a seaside resort, town and community in Conwy County Borough, Wales, located on the Creuddyn peninsula, which protrudes into the Irish Sea. In the 2011 UK census, the community, which includes Gogarth, Penrhyn Bay, Craigside, Glanwydden, Penrhynside and Bryn Pydew had a population of 20,701. The town's name is derived from its patron saint, Saint Tudno.

兰迪德诺()是一个临海城镇,位于威尔士的康威郡自治市内。维多利亚时代中期时为了设立一个度假胜地而筑成。由于偏离于1848年开设的北威威尔士沿海铁路,遂于1858年开设支线由兰迪德诺交汇站往来兰迪德诺站。


History.

Founding and development.

"The Jakarta Post" was the brainchild of Information Minister Ali Murtopo and politician Jusuf Wanandi. Murtopo and Wanandi were disappointed at the perceived bias against Indonesia in foreign news sources. At the time, there were two English-language dailies, "The Indonesia Times" and "The Indonesian Observer". However, due to negative public perception regarding the existing papers, they decided to create a new one. In order to ensure credibility, the two agreed to convince a group of competing newspapers (the Golkar-backed "Suara Karya", the Catholic-owned "Kompas", the Protestant-owned "Sinar Harapan", and the weekly "Tempo") to back the nascent paper. It was hoped to become a quality English-language paper, similar to "The Straits Times" in Singapore, the "Bangkok Post" in Thailand, and the "New Straits Times" in Malaysia.  After founding PT Bina Media Tenggara to back the paper, Wanandi spent several months contacting influential figures at the targeted newspapers. To receive their cooperation, "Kompas" requested a 25 percent share in the new newspaper, for which it would handle the daily business operations, such as printing, circulation, and advertising. "Tempo" offered to assist with management in return for a 15 percent share, while Sabam Siagian of "Sinar Harapan" was hired as the first chief editor, for which "Sinar Harapan" received stock. The establishment of the paper was further aided by incoming Information Minister Harmoko, who received 5 percent interest for his role in acquiring a license. In total, the start-up cost Rp. 500 million (US$700,000 at the time). Muhammad Chudori, a co-founder of "The Jakarta Post" who formerly reported for Antara, became the newspaper's first general manager.  Further details, including the matter of "Sinar Harapan" share of stock and the publisher, were decided at a meeting at Wanandi's office in March 1983. The next month, on 25 April, the first edition — totalling eight pages — was published. The first newsroom of the new paper were located in "Kompas" former laundry room, a one-story warehouse; the first employees had to do the layout by hand, using pica poles as straight edges. During the first few months, the writers translated and recycled previously published stories from Indonesian media, which were later picked up by foreign wire services. Original reporting was rare as the editors at first did not want to deal with the censorship of Suharto's New Order government.  During the early years of publication, "The Jakarta Post" had difficulty attracting advertisers, to the point that some editions ran without ads. However, circulation increased dramatically, from 8,657 in 1983 to 17,480 in 1988. Although it was originally hoped that the paper would begin to turn a profit within the first three years, the recession in the early 1980s led to the start-up funds being depleted. Eventually, in 1985 the paper took out an interest-free loan and received Rp. 700 million from its owners. After advertising increased, "The Jakarta Post" was able to turn a profit by 1988, and was considered "one of the most credible newspapers" in Indonesia.

Activism.

Susanto Pudjomartono, former chief editor of "Tempo", became "The Jakarta Post" second chief editor on 1 August 1991, after Siagian was chosen to be Indonesia's ambassador to Australia. Under Pudjomartono's leadership, the paper began publishing more original work and doing less translation; reporters were also asked to take a more active role in the day-to-day operations of the paper. The paper also became more vocal regarding politics, taking a pro-democracy stance like "Tempo". It soon converted its offices into a new, two-story building built using the "Kompas" pension fund and expanded to 12 pages.  In 1994, "The Jakarta Post" signed a distribution agreement with the British news service Reuters and the American Dialog Information Services, allowing its stories to be more easily promoted overseas. By the mid-1990s, it had established a workshop to assist its new, foreign-born staff in learning the local culture. By December 1998, "The Jakarta Post" had a circulation of 41,049, and was one of the few English-language dailies in Indonesia after the 1997 Asian financial crisis; six other English-language dailies had failed. That year it also became a founding member of the Asia News Network.

Editors-in-chief.

To date, "The Jakarta Post" has had five editors-in-chief: Sabam Pandapotan Siagian (1983-1991), Susanto Pudjomartono (1991-2001), Raymond Toruan (2001-2004), Endy Bayuni (2004-2010), Meidyatama Suryodiningrat (2010-2016) and Endy Bayuni (2016-2018). The newspaper in late January 2018 announced that Nezar Patria would take over as chief editor on 1 February 2018.

Editions and other publications.

Sunday edition and J+.

"The Jakarta Post" Sunday edition was launched on 18 September 1994. The Sunday edition included more in-depth stories, as well as entertainment and fiction that would not be published in the weekday editions. As part of cost-cutting measures amid declining print advertising revenue, the Sunday edition ceased publication in April 2016. It was replaced by a lifestyle and culture magazine called "J+", which is included with the newspaper's Saturday edition.

Online edition.

"The Jakarta Post" features an online edition, which includes both print and internet exclusive stories that are free to access. There are also news flashes that are developed as they happen. The paper hopes to digitise the entirety of its printed stories, with at least 50,000 articles dating to June 1994 already digitised. In 2017, "The Jakarta Post" began charging subscriptions in order to access "premium" online content.

Bali Daily.

On 9 April 2012 "The Jakarta Post" launched "Bali Daily", a four-page daily newspaper produced in Bali, after noting that 4,900 of the flagship paper's subscribers lived on the resort island. "Bali Daily" ceased printing in 2014.

Market.

"The Jakarta Post" is targeted at Indonesian businesspeople, well-educated Indonesians, and foreigners. In 1991, 62 percent of the paper's readers were expatriates. Under Pudjomartono's leadership, it began targeting more Indonesian readers., approximately half of its 40,000 readers are middle class Indonesians.  In 1996, "The Jakarta Post" faced invigorated competition when media tycoon Peter Gontha bought a controlling stake in rival paper "The Indonesian Observer" and revamped the publication. However, "The Indonesian Observer" was unable to match "The Jakarta Post"'s quality of independent reporting because of Gontha's business connections to the Suharto family. He stopped printing "The Indonesian Observer" in June 2001.  In 2008, "The Jakarta Post" faced new competition, dubbed "a wake up call", when BeritaSatu Media Holdings, an associated company of billionaire James Riady, began publishing a rival English-language daily newspaper, "The Jakarta Globe". "The Jakarta Globe" even hired several defectors from "The Jakarta Post", paying them higher salaries, and the "Globe"'s print run was 40,000. However, by May 2012, "The Jakarta Globe" converted from broadsheet to tabloid size, and in December 2015 it became an online only publication.  When launched in 1983, a single edition of "The Jakarta Post" cost Rp175. By 2018, the newspaper cost Rp7,500 in Jakarta and Rp9,500 in Bali and Nusa Tenggara. As of 2018, subscriptions cost US$11/month for the online version and US$12/month for the printed version.

Layout and style.

"The Jakarta Post" follows a broadsheet format. In the beginning, it featured an index on the front page, as well as short offbeat stories under the title "This Odd World". The lifestyle section had eight comic strips, and it used more photographs and graphics than was normal for Indonesian publications at that time. The editorials tended to be shorter than their Indonesian counterparts.  "The Jakarta Post" uses the inverted pyramid style of reporting, with the most important information at the beginning of the article; during the 1980s, many Indonesian papers put the lede further down. Bill Tarrant attributes this to the different writing styles in English and Indonesian, with English favouring the active voice and direct statements, while respectful Indonesian favours the passive voice and a circuitous approach. Regarding this topic, Wanandi has said that "You cannot bullshit in English, like the Javanese way."

Public opinion.

Peter Gelling, of "The New York Times", notes that "The Jakarta Post" has been considered a "training ground" for local reporters, and offers apprenticeship programs. In 2009, six former "The Jakarta Post" reporters worked for "Bloomberg". In 2014 "The Jakarta Post" was behind "Kompas" in terms of online visits.

Awards and recognition.

In 2006, the Reporters Union of Indonesia recognised "The Jakarta Post" as being one of the Indonesian newspapers that best followed the journalism ethics and standards; other papers so recognised were "Kompas" and "Indo Pos". The paper received the Adam Malik Award in January 2009 for their reporting on foreign politics; the coverage was considered accurate and educated, with good analysis. The following year three reporters received the Adiwarta Award from Sampoerna for excellent photography in the fields of culture, law, and politics. Another journalist received the Adam Malik Award in 2014 for his writings which assisted the ministry to distribute information regarding foreign policy implementation.

The Jakarta Post is a daily English language newspaper in Indonesia. The paper is owned by PT Niskala Media Tenggara and based in the nation's capital, Jakarta.

《雅加达邮报》(英语:"The Jakarta Post")是印度尼西亚的一份英文日报,总部位于首都雅加达,由PT Niskala Media Tenggara主办。


Game series.

The first game, "Double Dragon", was released in the arcades in 1987. A Nintendo Entertainment System version produced by Technōs was released in 1988, followed by a Game Boy version in 1990. Various licensed versions were also produced by other developers for gaming platforms such as the Master System, Atari 2600, Atari 7800, Genesis, Atari Lynx and for home computers. Two "Double Dragon" sequels were released for the arcade: "" in 1988 and "" in 1990. Like the original, Technōs produced versions for the NES ("" in 1989 and "" in 1991 respectively). In 1991 Double Dragon II (Game Boy) was released for the Game Boy which featured an unrelated storyline. A fourth game was released exclusively for the Super NES in 1992, titled "Super Double Dragon". It was the last game produced by the original team at Technōs. The Game Gear game "Double Dragon" is not a port of the original arcade game, but is instead an entirely new entry in the series that has gameplay elements that are more similar to "Streets of Rage".  In 1994, Tradewest released "" for the Super NES and Genesis in North America and Europe, a fighting game developed by Leland Interactive based on the "Double Dragon" animated TV series by Bohbot Entertainment. A Jaguar version was released by Telegames as well.  Another fighting game produced by Technōs, simply titled "Double Dragon", was released for the Neo-Geo arcade and home console in 1995. A Neo-Geo CD version was also released, as well as a PlayStation version by Urban Plant. It was the last "Double Dragon" game produced by Technōs before the company went out of business.  In 2003, a remake of the original "Double Dragon", titled "Double Dragon Advance", was produced by Atlus and Million (the copyrights holder of the "Double Dragon" series at the time) for the Game Boy Advance.  In 2009, a remake was released for the Zeebo, developed by Brizo Interactive and published by Tectoy.  In 2011, another remake was released for the iPhone, developed by Brizo Interactive and published by Aksys Games.  On April 4, 2012, WayForward Technologies announced that it would be developing "Double Dragon Neon", a self-parody of the series. The game was released September 11, 2012, for the PlayStation 3 on PlayStation Network; one day later for the Xbox 360 on Xbox Live; and was released for PC in the first quarter of 2014.  On April 5, 2013, "Double Dragon II: Wander of the Dragons", a 3D remake of the original "Double Dragon II", was released on the Xbox Live Arcade by game developer Gravity.  A compilation of the three arcade titles, titled "Double Dragon Trilogy", was released by DotEmu in 2013 for iOS, Android, GOG, and Steam platforms.  A new title in the series, titled "Double Dragon IV" (not to be confused with "Super Double Dragon"), was released on January 30, 2017, for the PlayStation 4 and PC respectively and September 7, 2017, for the Nintendo Switch. It takes place shortly after "Double Dragon II: The Revenge" and uses an 8-bit artstyle, similar to the NES ports of the earlier entries of the series. The title was developed by Arc System Works and former Technos staff such as producer Takaomi Kaneko, director Yoshihisa Kishimoto, character designer Koji Ogata, composer Kazunaka Yamane, and programmer Kei Oyama.

Related media.

A "Double Dragon" comic book limited series loosely based on the games was published by Marvel Comics in 1991, which lasted six issues from July to December. The comic book was written by Dwayne McDuffie for the first four issues and by Tom Brevoort and Mike Kanterovich for the final two. It features original villains, and a unique story that explains the brothers parentage.  "Double Dragon" is one of the video games featured in the manga, titled "Rock'n Game Boy" by Shigeto Ikehara, in Comic BomBom from October 1989 to December 1991.  A "Double Dragon" animated series was produced by DiC Entertainment and Bohbot Productions, which originally aired in syndication for two seasons from 1993 to 1995, lasting 26 episodes.  A film version of "Double Dragon" was released in theaters in 1994, directed by James Yukich and starring Scott Wolf and Mark Dacascos as the Lee brothers.

Recurring elements.

Characters.

Lee Brothers.

For most of the series, players take control of martial artist Billy Lee, who battles against various adversaries such as gang members and rival fighters. He is often assisted by his elder twin brother Jimmy Lee, who usually serves as the second player's character in most of the games. The Lee brothers are characterized as successors of a fictional martial art known as, which combines techniques from other styles such as karate, tai chi and Shorinji Kempo.  The duo were actually unnamed when the original arcade game was initially released in Japan, although the names Hammer and Spike were given to them in the cabinet and promotional flyer produced by Taito for the overseas version. The names Billy and Jimmy Lee were first established in the Famicom/NES version of the first game and consequently used in other console versions and tie-in products, such as "The Original Sound of Double Dragon" soundtrack album, but were not actually used in the arcade versions until "". Billy Lee's name comes from a combination of Bruce Lee's last name with the first name of his character Billy Lo from the movie "Game of Death", while Jimmy is named after musician Jimmy Page  Because of the differences between the arcade and console versions of the games, the designs of the Lee brothers tend to vary throughout the series. While the original arcade game has Player 1 controlling a blond-haired Lee brother dressed in a blue outfit and Player 2 as a brown-haired brother in red, the NES version had their hair and outfit colors switched around: Billy was now the brown-haired brother in blue, while Jimmy became the blond-haired brother in red. "Super Double Dragon" was the first game to have the Lee brothers sport different hairstyles during gameplay, with Billy being given a laid down hairstyle and Jimmy a spiky flat top, a design convention adopted by later games such as "Double Dragon Advance" and the smartphone versions, although some of the promotional art and in-game visuals for the earlier games (such as the ending photograph of "" and the story sequences/character portraits of "") had already depicted the Lee brothers with differing hairstyles. Other games, such as the Neo-Geo fighting game and "Double Dragon Neon", depict the Lee brothers as identical twins like in the first arcade game.  The two brothers are shown to be romantically interested in a young woman named Marian, a student in their dojo. The arcade version of the first game (along with most console versions) can end with both brothers fighting each other over Marian if two players reach the end together, with the survivor ultimately winning Marian's affections. The Famicom/NES version, which establishes Marian to be Billy's long-term girlfriend, changes the story so that Jimmy was actually the leader of the Black Warriors (a change made as a result of the lack of two-player cooperative play in that version) and was the one who orchestrated Marian's kidnapping.

Enemy characters.

The enemy organization in the original "Double Dragon" are the Black Warriors gang, who are characterized as the dominant criminal organization in New York City after a nuclear war has left the city deprived of any law and order. Much like the Lee brothers themselves, the names of the gang members were established throughout the console versions of the series. The gang's original leader is the machine gun-toting Willy Mackey (commonly known simply as Willy), who wishes to acquire the knowledge of the Lee brothers' martial arts for himself and orders the kidnapping of Marian as ransom. Recurring members of the gang throughout the various versions of the first game include the thugs Williams and Rowper, dominatrix Linda, and bald strongman Abobo. The arcade version also featured two unnamed head swaps of other characters (namely of Abobo and the Lee brothers) as end-stage bosses: although these characters were absent in the NES version, which instead introduced a unique enemy, a Chinese martial artist named Chin Taimei. The Lee brother head swap would later appear in the Mark III/Master System version released by Sega, where he was named Jeff.  The name of the gang would change in later games. While the arcade version of "Double Dragon II: The Revenge" had Willy and the Black Warriors retaliating against their earlier defeat by gunning down Marian, the Famicom version replaced Willy with a nameless fighter who led a mysterious armed group following the dissolution of the original Black Warriors. While unnamed in the Japanese version, the English localization of the NES version would refer to this organization as the Shadow Warriors (or the Black Shadow Warriors in the manual), a name later used for an unrelated enemy group in "Super Double Dragon", as well as Willy's own gang in "Double Dragon Advance". The Shadow Warriors was also the name of the villain group in the "Double Dragon" animated series and its tie-in game, "", where they consisted almost entirely of new characters.  The names Williams and Rowper were derived from the characters played by Jim Kelly and John Saxon respectively in the movie "Enter The Dragon". Other character seem to follow a similar naming convention such as Linda, who shares her name with Bruce Lee's widow Linda Lee Cadwell, and the enemy character Bolo from "Double Dragon II: The Revenge", who shares his name with actor Bolo Yeung.

Gameplay.

The gameplay in most of the games takes place in a pseudo 3D perspective like in "Renegade" and later beat-'em-ups, in which the player character can move in four directions but are always facing left or right. The player can perform a variety of unarmed fighting techniques against their enemies, as well use melee weapons such as baseball bats and throwing knives normally obtained from enemies. In some installments, there are techniques that can be done in combination with another player.

The franchise is now the property of Arc System Works, the company that ported the original "Double Dragon" to the Sega Master System console in 1988.

是日本的Technōs Japan公司所开发出来的一套电子游戏系列,曾在1980年代末期～1990年代初期风靡一时,并成为卷轴式格斗游戏的始祖。北美洲与欧洲发行权由TAITO取得。该系列现在由Arc System Works继续开发制作。


Biographical information.

Faludi was born in 1959 in Queens, New York, and grew up in Yorktown Heights, New York. She was born to Marilyn (Lanning), a homemaker and journalist, and Stefánie Faludi (then known as Steven Faludi, and born István Friedman), who was a photographer. Stefánie Faludi had emigrated from Hungary, was Jewish, and a survivor of the Holocaust; she eventually came out as a transgender woman and later died in 2015. Susan Faludi has dual US-Hungarian citizenship. Faludi's maternal grandfather was also Jewish. Susan graduated from Harvard University with an AB summa cum laude in 1981, where she was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and wrote for "The Harvard Crimson", and became a journalist, writing for "The New York Times", "Miami Herald", "Atlanta Journal Constitution", "San Jose Mercury News", and "The Wall Street Journal", among other publications.  Throughout the eighties she wrote several articles on feminism and the apparent resistance to the movement. Seeing a pattern emerge, Faludi wrote "", which was released in late 1991. In 2008–2009, Faludi was a fellow at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, and during the 2013–2014 academic year, she was the Tallman Scholar in the Gender and Women's Studies Program at Bowdoin College. She is married to fellow author Russ Rymer. Since January 2013, Faludi has been a contributing editor at "The Baffler" magazine in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 2017, she was awarded an honorary doctoral degree from Stockholm University in Sweden.

Faludi and feminism.

Faludi has rejected the claim advanced by critics that there is a "rigid, monolithic feminist 'orthodoxy,'" noting in response that she has disagreed with Gloria Steinem about pornography and Naomi Wolf about abortion.  Like Gloria Steinem, Faludi has criticized the obscurantism prevalent in academic feminist theorizing, saying, "There's this sort of narrowing specialization and use of coded, elitist language of deconstruction or New Historicism or whatever they're calling it these days, which is to my mind impenetrable and not particularly useful." She has also characterized "academic feminism's love affair with deconstructionism" as "toothless", and warned that it "distract[s] from constructive engagement with the problems of the public world".

Susan Charlotte Faludi (; born April 18, 1959) is an American feminist, journalist, and author. She won a Pulitzer Prize for Explanatory Journalism in 1991, for a report on the leveraged buyout of Safeway Stores, Inc., a report that the Pulitzer Prize committee commended for depicting the "human costs of high finance". She was also awarded the Kirkus Prize in 2016 for "In the Darkroom", which was also a finalist for the 2017 Pulitzer Prize in biography.

苏珊·法露迪(英语:Susan Faludi,1959年-4月18日)是一位美国记者和女性主义者,1991年普立兹释义新闻奖(Pulitzer Prize for Explanatory Reporting)得主,因报导喜互惠公司的杠杆收购行为获奖。


Signs and symptoms.

Telangiectasias.

Telangiectasia (small vascular malformations) may occur in the skin and mucosal linings of the nose and gastrointestinal tract. The most common problem is nosebleeds (epistaxis), which happen frequently from childhood and affect about 90–95% of people with HHT. Lesions on the skin and in the mouth bleed less often but may be considered cosmetically displeasing; they affect about 80%. The skin lesions characteristically occur on the lips, the nose and the fingers, and on the skin of the face in sun-exposed areas. They appear suddenly, with the number increasing over time.  About 20% are affected by symptomatic digestive tract lesions, although a higher percentage have lesions that do not cause symptoms. These lesions may bleed intermittently, which is rarely significant enough to be noticed (in the form of bloody vomiting or black stool), but can eventually lead to depletion of iron in the body, resulting in iron-deficiency anemia.

Arteriovenous malformation.

Arteriovenous malformations (AVMs, larger vascular malformations) occur in larger organs, predominantly the lungs (pulmonary AVMs) (50%), liver (30–70%) and the brain (cerebral AVMs, 10%), with a very small proportion (<1%) of AVMs in the spinal cord.  Vascular malformations in the lungs may cause a number of problems. The lungs normally "filter out" bacteria and blood clots from the bloodstream; AVMs bypass the capillary network of the lungs and allow these to migrate to the brain, where bacteria may cause a brain abscess and blood clots may lead to stroke. HHT is the most common cause of lung AVMs: out of all people found to have lung AVMs, 70–80% are due to HHT. Bleeding from lung AVMs is relatively unusual, but may cause hemoptysis (coughing up blood) or hemothorax (blood accumulating in the chest cavity). Large vascular malformations in the lung allow oxygen-depleted blood from the right ventricle to bypass the alveoli, meaning that this blood does not have an opportunity to absorb fresh oxygen. This may lead to breathlessness. Large AVMs may lead to platypnea, difficulty in breathing that is more marked when sitting up compared to lying down; this probably reflects changes in blood flow associated with positioning. Very large AVMs cause a marked inability to absorb oxygen, which may be noted by cyanosis (bluish discoloration of the lips and skin), clubbing of the fingernails (often encountered in chronically low oxygen levels), and a humming noise over the affected part of the lung detectable by stethoscope.  The symptoms produced by AVMs in the liver depend on the type of abnormal connection that they form between blood vessels. If the connection is between arteries and veins, a large amount of blood bypasses the body's organs, for which the heart compensates by increasing the cardiac output. Eventually congestive cardiac failure develops ("high-output cardiac failure"), with breathlessness and leg swelling among other problems. If the AVM creates a connection between the portal vein and the blood vessels of the liver, the result may be portal hypertension (increased portal vein pressure), in which collateral blood vessels form in the esophagus (esophageal varices), which may bleed violently; furthermore, the increased pressure may give rise to fluid accumulation in the abdominal cavity (ascites). If the flow in the AVM is in the other direction, portal venous blood flows directly into the veins rather than running through the liver; this may lead to hepatic encephalopathy (confusion due to portal waste products irritating the brain). Rarely, the bile ducts are deprived of blood, leading to severe cholangitis (inflammation of the bile ducts). Liver AVMs are detectable in over 70% of people with HHT, but only 10% experience problems as a result.  In the brain, AVMs occasionally exert pressure, leading to headaches. They may also increase the risk of seizures, as would any abnormal tissue in the brain. Finally, hemorrhage from an AVM may lead to intracerebral hemorrhage (bleeding into the brain), which causes any of the symptoms of stroke such as weakness in part of the body or difficulty speaking. If the bleeding occurs into the subarachnoid space (subarachnoid hemorrhage), there is usually a severe, sudden headache and decreased level of consciousness and often weakness in part of the body.

Other problems.

A very small proportion (those affected by "SMAD4" (MADH4) mutations, see below) have multiple benign polyps in the large intestine, which may bleed or transform into colorectal cancer. A similarly small proportion experiences pulmonary hypertension, a state in which the pressure in the lung arteries is increased, exerting pressure on the right side of the heart and causing peripheral edema (swelling of the legs), fainting and attacks of chest pain. It has been observed that the risk of thrombosis (particularly venous thrombosis, in the form of deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism) may be increased. There is a suspicion that those with HHT may have a mild immunodeficiency and are therefore at a slightly increased risk from infections.

Genetics.

HHT is a genetic disorder with an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern. Those with HHT symptoms that have no relatives with the disease may have a new mutation. Homozygosity appears to be fatal in utero.  Five genetic types of HHT are recognized. Of these, three have been linked to particular genes, while the two remaining have currently only been associated with a particular locus. More than 80% of all cases of HHT are due to mutations in either "ENG" or "ACVRL1". A total of over 600 different mutations are known. There is likely to be a predominance of either type in particular populations, but the data are conflicting. "MADH4" mutations, which cause colonic polyposis in addition to HHT, comprise about 2% of disease-causing mutations. Apart from "MADH4", it is not clear whether mutations in "ENG" and "ACVRL1" lead to particular symptoms, although some reports suggest that "ENG" mutations are more likely to cause lung problems while "ACVRL1" mutations may cause more liver problems, and pulmonary hypertension may be a particular problem in people with "ACVRL1" mutations. People with exactly the same mutations may have different nature and severity of symptoms, suggesting that additional genes or other risk factors may determine the rate at which lesions develop; these have not yet been identified.

Pathophysiology.

Telangiectasias and arteriovenous malformations in HHT are thought to arise because of changes in angiogenesis, the development of blood vessels out of existing ones. The development of a new blood vessel requires the activation and migration of various types of cells, chiefly endothelium, smooth muscle and pericytes. The exact mechanism by which the HHT mutations influence this process is not yet clear, and it is likely that they disrupt a balance between pro- and antiangiogenic signals in blood vessels. The wall of telangiectasias is unusually friable, which explains the tendency of these lesions to bleed.  All genes known so far to be linked to HHT code for proteins in the TGF-β signaling pathway. This is a group of proteins that participates in signal transduction of hormones of the transforming growth factor beta superfamily (the transforming growth factor beta, bone morphogenetic protein and growth differentiation factor classes), specifically BMP9/GDF2 and BMP10. The hormones do not enter the cell but link to receptors on the cell membrane; these then activate other proteins, eventually influencing cellular behavior in a number of ways such as cellular survival, proliferation (increasing in number) and differentiation (becoming more specialized). For the hormone signal to be adequately transduced, a combination of proteins is needed: two each of two types of serine/threonine-specific kinase type membrane receptors and endoglin. When bound to the hormone, the type II receptor proteins phosphorylate (transfer phosphate) onto type I receptor proteins (of which Alk-1 is one), which in turn phosphorylate a complex of SMAD proteins (chiefly SMAD1, SMAD5 and SMAD8). These bind to SMAD4 and migrate to the cell nucleus where they act as transcription factors and participate in the transcription of particular genes. In addition to the SMAD pathway, the membrane receptors also act on the MAPK pathway, which has additional actions on the behavior of cells. Both Alk-1 and endoglin are expressed predominantly in endothelium, perhaps explaining why HHT-causing mutations in these proteins lead predominantly to blood vessel problems. Both "ENG" and "ACVRL1" mutations lead predominantly to underproduction of the related proteins, rather than misfunctioning of the proteins.

Diagnosis.

Diagnostic tests may be conducted for various reasons. Firstly, some tests are needed to confirm or refute the diagnosis. Secondly, some are needed to identify any potential complications.

Telangiectasias.

The skin and oral cavity telangiectasias are visually identifiable on physical examination, and similarly the lesions in the nose may be seen on endoscopy of the nasopharynx or on laryngoscopy. The severity of nosebleeds may be quantified objectively using a grid-like questionnaire in which the number of nosebleed episodes and their duration is recorded.  Digestive tract telangiectasias may be identified on esophagogastroduodenoscopy (endoscopy of the esophagus, stomach and first part of the small intestine). This procedure will typically only be undertaken if there is anemia that is more marked than expected by the severity of nosebleeds, or if there is evidence of severe bleeding (vomiting blood, black stools). If the number of lesions seen on endoscopy is unexpectedly low, the remainder of the small intestine may be examined with capsule endoscopy, in which the patient swallows a capsule-shaped device containing a miniature camera which transmits images of the digestive tract to a portable digital recorder.

Arteriovenous malformations.

Identification of AVMs requires detailed medical imaging of the organs most commonly affected by these lesions. Not all AVMs cause symptoms or are at risk of doing so, and hence there is a degree of variation between specialists as to whether such investigations would be performed, and by which modality; often, decisions on this issue are reached together with the patient.  Lung AVMs may be suspected because of the abnormal appearance of the lungs on a chest X-ray, or hypoxia (low oxygen levels) on pulse oximetry or arterial blood gas determination. Bubble contrast echocardiography (bubble echo) may be used as a screening tool to identify abnormal connections between the lung arteries and veins. This involves the injection of agitated saline into a vein, followed by ultrasound-based imaging of the heart. Normally, the lungs remove small air bubbles from the circulation, and they are therefore only seen in the right atrium and the right ventricle. If an AVM is present, bubbles appear in the left atrium and left ventricle, usually 3–10 cardiac cycles after the right side; this is slower than in heart defects, in which there are direct connections between the right and left side of the heart. A larger number of bubbles is more likely to indicate the presence of an AVM. Bubble echo is not a perfect screening tool as it can miss smaller AVMs and does not identify the site of AVMs. Often contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT angiography) is used to identify lung lesions; this modality has a sensitivity of over 90%. It may be possible to omit contrast administration on modern CT scanners. Echocardiography is also used if there is a suspicion of pulmonary hypertension or high-output cardiac failure due to large liver lesions, sometimes followed by cardiac catheterization to measure the pressures inside the various chambers of the heart. Liver AVMs may be suspected because of abnormal liver function tests in the blood, because the symptoms of heart failure develop, or because of jaundice or other symptoms of liver dysfunction. The most reliable initial screening test is Doppler ultrasonography of the liver; this has a very high sensitivity for identifying vascular lesions in the liver. If necessary, contrast-enhanced CT may be used to further characterize AVMs. It is extremely common to find incidental nodules on liver scans, most commonly due to focal nodular hyperplasia (FNH), as these are a hundredfold times more common in HHT compared to the general population. FNH is regarded as harmless. Generally, tumor markers and additional imaging modalities are used to differentiate between FNH and malignant tumors of the liver. Liver biopsy is discouraged in people with HHT as the risk of hemorrhage from liver AVMs may be significant. Liver scans may be useful if someone is suspected of HHT, but does not meet the criteria (see below) unless liver lesions can be demonstrated.  Brain AVMs may be detected on computed tomography angiography (CTA or CT angio) or magnetic resonance angiography (MRA); CTA is better in showing the vessels themselves, and MRA provides more detail about the relationship between an AVM and surrounding brain tissue. In general, MRI is recommended. Various types of vascular malformations may be encountered: AVMs, micro-AVMs, telangiectasias and arteriovenous fistulas. If surgery, embolization, or other treatment is contemplated (see below), cerebral angiography may be required to get sufficient detail of the vessels. This procedure carries a small risk of stroke (0.5%) and is therefore limited to specific circumstances. Recent professional guidelines recommend that all children with suspected or definite HHT undergo a brain MRI early in life to identify AVMs that can cause major complications. Others suggest that screening for cerebral AVMs is probably unnecessary in those who are not experiencing any neurological symptoms, because most lesions discovered on screening scans would not require treatment, creating undesirable conundrums.

Genetic testing.

Genetic tests are available for the "ENG", "ACVRL1" and "MADH4" mutations. Testing is not always needed for diagnosis, because the symptoms are sufficient to distinguish the disease from other diagnoses. There are situations in which testing can be particularly useful. Firstly, children and young adults with a parent with definite HHT may have limited symptoms, yet be at risk from some of the complications mentioned above; if the mutation is known in the affected parent, absence of this mutation in the child would prevent the need for screening tests. Furthermore, genetic testing may confirm the diagnosis in those with limited symptoms who otherwise would have been labeled "possible HHT" (see below).  Genetic diagnosis in HHT is difficult, as mutations occur in numerous different locations in the linked genes, without particular mutations being highly frequent (as opposed to, for instance, the ΔF508 mutation in cystic fibrosis). Sequence analysis of the involved genes is therefore the most useful approach (sensitivity 75%), followed by additional testing to detect large deletions and duplications (additional 10%). Not all mutations in these genes have been linked with disease.  Mutations in the "MADH4" gene is usually associated with juvenile polyposis, and detection of such a mutation would indicate a need to screen the patient and affected relatives for polyps and tumors of the large intestine.

Criteria.

The diagnosis can be made depending on the presence of four criteria, known as the "Curaçao criteria". If three or four are met, a patient has "definite HHT", while two gives "possible HHT":  Despite the designation "possible", someone with a visceral AVM and a family history but no nosebleeds or telangiectasias is still extremely likely to have HHT, because these AVMs are very uncommon in the general population. At the same time, the same cannot be said of nosebleeds and sparse telangiectasias, both of which occur in people without HHT, in the absence of AVMs. Someone's diagnostic status may change in the course of life, as young children may not yet exhibit all the symptoms; at age 16, thirteen percent are still indeterminate, while at age 60 the vast majority (99%) have a definite diagnostic classification. The children of established HHT patients may therefore be labeled as "possible HHT", as 50% may turn out to have HHT in the course of their life.

Treatment.

Treatment of HHT is symptomatic (it deals with the symptoms rather than the disease itself), as there is no therapy that stops the development of telangiectasias and AVMs directly. Furthermore, some treatments are applied to prevent the development of common complications. Chronic nosebleeds and digestive tract bleeding can both lead to anemia; if the bleeding itself cannot be completely stopped, the anemia requires treatment with iron supplements. Those who cannot tolerate iron tablets or solutions may require administration of intravenous iron, and blood transfusion if the anemia is causing severe symptoms that warrant rapid improvement of the blood count.  Most treatments used in HHT have been described in adults, and the experience in treating children is more limited. Women with HHT who get pregnant are at an increased risk of complications, and are observed closely, although the absolute risk is still low (1%).

Nosebleeds.

An acute nosebleed may be managed with a variety of measures, such as packing of the nasal cavity with absorbent swabs or gels. Removal of the packs after the bleeding may lead to reopening of the fragile vessels, and therefore lubricated or atraumatic packing is recommended. Some patients may wish to learn packing themselves to deal with nosebleeds without having to resort to medical help.  Frequent nosebleeds can be prevented in part by keeping the nostrils moist, and by applying saline solution, estrogen-containing creams or tranexamic acid; these have few side effects and may have a small degree of benefit. A number of additional modalities has been used to prevent recurrent bleeding if simple measures are unsuccessful. Medical therapies include oral tranexamic acid and estrogen; the evidence for these is relatively limited, and estrogen is poorly tolerated by men and possibly carries risks of cancer and heart disease in women past the menopause. Nasal coagulation and cauterization may reduce the bleeding from telangiectasias, and is recommended before surgery is considered. However, it is highly recommended to use the least heat and time to prevent septal perforations and excessive trauma to the nasal mucosa that are already susceptible to bleeding. Sclerotherapy is another option to manage the bleeding. This process involves injecting a small amount of an aerated irritant (detergent such as sodium tetradecyl sulfate) directly into the telangiectasias. The detergent causes the vessel to collapse and harden, resulting in scar tissue residue. This is the same procedure used to treat varicose veins and similar disorders. It may be possible to embolize vascular lesions through interventional radiology; this requires passing a catheter through a large artery and locating the maxillary artery under X-ray guidance, followed by the injection into the vessel of particles that occlude the blood vessels. The benefit from the procedure tends to be short-lived, and it may be most appropriate in episodes of severe bleeding.  To more effectively minimize recurrence and severity of epistaxis, other options may be used in conjunction with therapies listed above. Intravenously administered anti-VEGF substances such as bevacizumab (brand name Avastin), pazopinab and thalidomide or its derivatives interfere with the production of new blood vessels that are weak and therefore prone to bleeding. Due to the past experiences with prescribing thalidomide to pregnant women to alleviate symptoms of nausea and the terrible birth defects that followed, thalidomide is a last resort therapy. Additionally, thalidomide can cause neuropathy. Though this can be mitigated by tinkering with dosages and prescribing its derivatives such as lenolidomide and pomalidomide, many doctors prefer alternative VEGF inhibitors. Bevacizumab has been shown to significantly reduce the severity of epistaxis without side effects.  If other interventions have failed, several operations have been reported to provide benefit. One is septal dermoplasty or Saunders' procedure, in which skin is transplanted into the nostrils, and the other is Young's procedure, in which the nostrils are sealed off completely.

Skin and digestive tract.

The skin lesions of HHT can be disfiguring, and may respond to treatment with long-pulsed. Skin lesions in the fingertips may sometimes bleed and cause pain. Skin grafting is occasionally needed to treat this problem.  With regards to digestive tract lesions, mild bleeding and mild resultant anemia is treated with iron supplementation, and no specific treatment is administered. There is limited data on hormone treatment and tranexamic acid to reduce bleeding and anemia. Severe anemia or episodes of severe bleeding are treated with endoscopic argon plasma coagulation (APC) or laser treatment of any lesions identified; this may reduce the need for supportive treatment. The expected benefits are not such that repeated attempts at treating lesions are advocated. Sudden, very severe bleeding is unusual—if encountered, alternative causes (such as a peptic ulcer) need to be considered—but embolization may be used in such instances.

Lung AVMs.

Lung lesions, once identified, are usually treated to prevent episodes of bleeding and more importantly embolism to the brain. This is particularly done in lesions with a feeding blood vessel of 3 mm or larger, as these are the most likely to cause long-term complications unless treated. The most effective current therapy is embolization with detachable metal coils or plugs. The procedure involves puncture of a large vein (usually under a general anesthetic), followed by advancing of a catheter through the right ventricle and into the pulmonary artery, after which radiocontrast is injected to visualize the AVMs (pulmonary angiography). Once the lesion has been identified, coils are deployed that obstruct the blood flow and allow the lesion to regress. In experienced hands, the procedure tends to be very effective and with limited side effects, but lesions may recur and further attempts may be required. CTA scans are repeated to monitor for recurrence. Surgical excision has now essentially been abandoned due to the success of embolotherapy.  Those with either definite pulmonary AVMs or an abnormal contrast echocardiogram with no clearly visible lesions are deemed to be at risk from brain emboli. They are therefore counselled to avoid scuba diving, during which small air bubbles may form in the bloodsteam that may migrate to the brain and cause stroke. Similarly, antimicrobial prophylaxis is advised during procedures in which bacteria may enter the bloodstream, such as dental work, and avoidance of air bubbles during intravenous therapy.

Liver AVMs.

Given that liver AVMs generally cause high-output cardiac failure, the emphasis is on treating this with diuretics to reduce the circulating blood volume, restriction of salt and fluid intake, and antiarrhythmic agents in case of irregular heart beat. This may be sufficient in treating the symptoms of swelling and breathlessness. If this treatment is not effective or leads to side effects or complications, the only remaining option is liver transplantation. This is reserved for those with severe symptoms, as it carries a mortality of about 10%, but leads to good results if successful. The exact point at which liver transplantion is to be offered is not yet completely established. Embolization treatment has been attempted, but leads to severe complications in a proportion of patients and is discouraged.  Other liver-related complications (portal hypertension, esophageal varices, ascites, hepatic encephalopathy) are treated with the same modalities as used in cirrhosis, although the use of transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt treatment is discouraged due to the lack of documented benefit.

Brain AVMs.

The decision to treat brain arteriovenous malformations depends on the symptoms that they cause (such as seizures or headaches). The bleeding risk is predicted by previous episodes of hemorrhage, and whether on the CTA or MRA scan the AVM appears to be deep-seated or have deep venous drainage. Size of the AVM and the presence of aneurysms appears to matter less. In HHT, some lesions (high-flow arteriovenous fistulae) tend to cause more problems, and treatment is warranted. Other AVMs may regress over time without intervention. Various modalities are available, depending on the location of the AVM and its size: surgery, radiation-based treatment and embolization. Sometimes, multiple modalities are used on the same lesion.  Surgery (by craniotomy, open brain surgery) may be offered based on the risks of treatment as determined by the Spetzler–Martin scale (grade I-V); this score is higher in larger lesions that are close to important brain structures and have deep venous drainage. High grade lesions (IV and V) have an unacceptably high risk and surgery is not typically offered in those cases. Radiosurgery (using targeted radiation therapy such as by a gamma knife) may be used if the lesion is small but close to vital structures. Finally, embolization may be used on small lesions that have only a single feeding vessel.

Experimental treatments.

Several anti-angiogenesis drugs approved for other conditions, such as cancer, have been investigated in small clinical trials. The anti-VEGF antibody bevacizumab, for instance, has been used off-label in several studies. In a large clinical trial, bevacizumab infusion was associated with a decrease in cardiac output and reduced duration and number of episodes of epistaxis in treated HHT patients. Thalidomide, another anti-angiogenesis drug, was also reported to have beneficial effects in HHT patients. Thalidomide treatment was found to induce vessel maturation in an experimental mouse model of HHT and to reduce the severity and frequency of nosebleeds in the majority of a small group of HHT patients. The blood hemoglobin levels of these treated patients rose as a result of reduced hemorrhage and enhanced blood vessel stabilization.

Epidemiology.

Population studies from numerous areas in the world have shown that HHT occurs at roughly the same rate in almost all populations: somewhere around 1 in 5000. In some areas, it is much more common; for instance, in the French region of Haut Jura the rate is 1:2351 - twice as common as in other populations. This has been attributed to a founder effect, in which a population descending from a small number of ancestors has a high rate of a particular genetic trait because one of these ancestors harbored this trait. In Haut Jura, this has been shown to be the result of a particular "ACVRL1" mutation (named c.1112dupG or c.1112_1113insG). The highest rate of HHT is 1:1331, reported in Bonaire and Curaçao, two islands in the Caribbean belonging to the Netherlands Antilles.  Most people with HHT have a normal lifespan. The skin lesions and nosebleeds tend to develop during childhood. AVMs are probably present from birth, but don't necessarily cause any symptoms. Frequent nosebleeds are the most common symptom and can significantly affect quality of life.

History.

Several 19th century English physicians, starting with Henry Gawen Sutton (1836–1891) and followed by Benjamin Guy Babington (1794–1866) and John Wickham Legg (1843–1921), described the most common features of HHT, particularly the recurrent nosebleeds and the hereditary nature of the disease. The French physician Henri Jules Louis Marie Rendu (1844–1902) observed the skin and mucosal lesions, and distinguished the condition from hemophilia. The Canadian-born Sir William Osler (1849–1919), then at Johns Hopkins Hospital and later at Oxford University, made further contributions with a 1901 report in which he described characteristic lesions in the digestive tract. The English physician Frederick Parkes Weber (1863–1962) reported further on the condition in 1907 with a series of cases. The term "hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia" was first used by the American physician Frederic M. Hanes (1883–1946) in a 1909 article on the condition.  The diagnosis of HHT remained a clinical one until the genetic defects that cause HHT were identified by a research group at Duke University Medical Center, in 1994 and 1996 respectively. In 2000, the international scientific advisory committee of HHT Foundation International published the now widely used Curaçao criteria. In 2006, a group of international experts met in Canada and formulated an evidence-based guideline, sponsored by the HHT Foundation International.

Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT), also known as Osler–Weber–Rendu disease and Osler–Weber–Rendu syndrome, is a rare autosomal dominant genetic disorder that leads to abnormal blood vessel formation in the skin, mucous membranes, and often in organs such as the lungs, liver, and brain.

遗传性出血性血管扩张症是一种遗传病,其会导致各种黏膜、内脏血管病变,由此导致各种出血。大部分患者会出现鼻、脑、肺及胃、肠出血。


History.

Occupied for thousands of years, the "Chinguetti" region was once a broad savannah. The rock paintings of Agrour Amogjar in the nearby Amogjar Pass feature images of giraffes, cows, and people in a green landscape. It is quite different from the sand dunes of the desert found in the region today.  The city was founded in 777, and by the 11th century had become a trading center for a confederation of Berber tribes known as the "Iẓnagen", or "Sanhaja", Confederation. It was at the crossroads of trade routes. Soon after settling "Chinguetti", the Sanhaja first interacted with and eventually melded with the Almoravids, represented by Abdallah ibn Yasin. The Almoravids would eventually control an empire stretching from present-day Senegal to southern Spain (called "al-Andalus", the modern Andalucia). The city's stark unadorned architecture reflects the strict religious beliefs of the Almoravids, who spread the Malikite rite of Sunni Islam throughout the Western Maghreb.  After two centuries of decline, the city was effectively re-founded in the 13th century as a fortified cross-Saharan caravan trading center connecting the Mediterranean with Sub-Saharan Africa. Although the walls of the original fortification disappeared centuries ago, many of the buildings in the old section of the city date from this period.

Religious importance.

For centuries the city was a principal gathering place for pilgrims of the Maghreb to gather on the way to Mecca. It became known as a holy city in its own right, especially for pilgrims unable to make the long journey to the Arab Peninsula. It also became a center of Islamic religious and scientific scholarship in West Africa. In addition to religious training, the schools of "Chinguetti" taught students rhetoric, law, astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For many centuries all of Mauritania was popularly known in the Arab world as "Bilad Shinqit," "the land of Chinguetti." "Chinguetti" is locally said to be the seventh-most holy city of Islam, but there is no recognition of this claim outside of West Africa. The city remains one of the world's most important historical sites both in terms of the history of Islam and the history of West Africa.  Although largely abandoned to the desert, the city features a series of medieval manuscript libraries without peer in West Africa. The area around the Rue des Savants was once famous as a gathering place for scholars to debate the finer points of Islamic law. Today the quiet city still offers the urban and religious architecture of the Moorish empire as it existed in the Middle Ages.

World Heritage Site.

In 1996, UNESCO designated "Chinguetti", along with the cities of Ouadane, Tichitt and Oualata, also in the dunes area, as a World Heritage Site.  The Friday Mosque of Chinguetti is widely considered by Mauritanians to be the national symbol of the country. The recently discovered offshore oilfield was named Chinguetti in its honor.

Chinguetti () (; ) is a "ksar" or a medieval trading center in northern Mauritania, located on the Adrar Plateau east of Atar.

欣盖提(、英语:Chinguetti)是一座阿拉伯风格的城镇(、英语:ksar)与中世纪贸易中心遗迹,位于毛里塔尼亚北部阿塔尔阿德拉尔高原上。


Side effects.

Common side effects include nausea, stomach pain, loss of appetite, poor coordination, increased hair growth, and enlargement of the gums. Potentially serious side effects include sleepiness, self harm, liver problems, bone marrow suppression, low blood pressure, and toxic epidermal necrolysis. There is evidence that use during pregnancy results in abnormalities in the baby. Its use appears to be safe during breastfeeding. Alcohol may interfere with the medication's effects.

Heart and blood vessels.

Severe low blood pressure and abnormal heart rhythms can be seen with rapid infusion of IV phenytoin. IV infusion should not exceed 50 mg/min in adults or 1–3 mg/kg/min (or 50 mg/min, whichever is slower) in children. Heart monitoring should occur during and after IV infusion. Due to these risks, oral phenytoin should be used if possible.

Neurological.

At therapeutic doses, phenytoin may produce nystagmus on lateral gaze. At toxic doses, patients experience vertical nystagmus, double vision, sedation, slurred speech, cerebellar ataxia, and tremor. If phenytoin is stopped abruptly, this may result in increased seizure frequency, including status epilepticus.  Phenytoin may accumulate in the cerebral cortex over long periods of time which can cause atrophy of the cerebellum. The degree of atrophy is related to the duration of phenytoin treatment and is not related to dosage of the medication.  Phenytoin is known to be a causal factor in the development of peripheral neuropathy.

Blood.

Folate is present in food in a polyglutamate form, which is then converted into monoglutamates by intestinal conjugase to be absorbed by the jejunum. Phenytoin acts by inhibiting this enzyme, thereby causing folate deficiency, and thus megaloblastic anemia. Other side effects may include: agranulocytosis, aplastic anemia, decreased white blood cell count, and a low platelet count.

Pregnancy.

Phenytoin is a known teratogen. The syndrome consists of craniofacial anomalies (broad nasal bridge, cleft lip and palate, smaller than normal head) and a mild form of mental retardation (average IQ=71). This syndrome resembles the well-described fetal alcohol syndrome and has also been called the "fetal hydantoin syndrome". Some recommend avoiding polytherapy and maintaining the minimal dose possible during pregnancy, but acknowledge that current data do not provide clear answers. Data now being collected by the Epilepsy and Antiepileptic Drug Pregnancy Registry may one day answer this question definitively.

Cancer.

There is no good evidence that phenytoin is a human carcinogen.

Mouth.

Phenytoin has been associated with drug-induced gingival enlargement (overgrowth of the gums), probably due to above-mentioned folate deficiency; indeed, evidence from a randomized controlled trial suggests that folic acid supplementation can prevent gingival enlargement in children who take phenytoin. Plasma concentrations needed to induce gingival lesions have not been clearly defined. Effects consist of the following: bleeding upon probing, increased gingival exudate, pronounced gingival inflammatory response to plaque levels, associated in some instances with bone loss but without tooth detachment.

Skin.

Hypertrichosis, Stevens–Johnson syndrome, purple glove syndrome, rash, exfoliative dermatitis, itching, excessive hairiness, and coarsening of facial features can be seen in those taking phenytoin.  Phenytoin therapy has been linked to the life-threatening skin reactions Stevens–Johnson syndrome (SJS) and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN). These conditions are significantly more common in patients with a particular HLA-B allele, HLA-B*1502. This allele occurs almost exclusively in patients with ancestry across broad areas of Asia, including South Asian Indians.  Phenytoin is primarily metabolized to its inactive form by the enzyme CYP2C9. Variations within the CYP2C9 gene that result in decreased enzymatic activity have been associated with increased phenytoin concentrations, as well as reports of drug toxicities due to these increased concentrations. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) notes on the phenytoin drug label that since strong evidence exists linking HLA-B*1502 with the risk of developing SJS or TEN in patients taking carbamazepine, consideration should be given to avoiding phenytoin as an alternative to carbamazepine in patients carrying this allele.

Immune system.

Phenytoin has been known to cause drug-induced lupus.  Phenytoin is also associated with induction of reversible IgA deficiency.

Psychological.

Phenytoin may increase risk of suicidal thoughts or behavior. People on phenytoin should be monitored for any changes in mood, the development or worsening depression, and/or any thoughts or behavior of suicide.

Bones.

Chronic phenytoin use has been associated with decreased bone density and increased bone fractures. Phenytoin induces metabolizing enzymes in the liver. This leads to increased metabolism of vitamin D, thus decreased vitamin D levels. Vitamin D deficiency, as well as low calcium and phosphate in the blood cause decreased bone mineral density.

Interactions.

Phenytoin is an inducer of the CYP3A4 and CYP2C9 families of the P450 enzyme responsible for the liver's degradation of various drugs.  A 1981 study by the National Institutes of Health showed that antacids administered concomitantly with phenytoin "altered not only the extent of absorption but also appeared to alter the rate of absorption. Antacids administered in a peptic ulcer regimen may decrease the AUC of a single dose of phenytoin. Patients should be cautioned against concomitant use of antacids and phenytoin."  Warfarin (Coumadin) and trimethoprim increase serum phenytoin levels and prolong the serum half-life of phenytoin by inhibiting its metabolism. Consider using other options if possible.

Mechanism of action.

Phenytoin is believed to protect against seizures by causing voltage-dependent block of voltage gated sodium channels. This blocks sustained high frequency repetitive firing of action potentials. This is accomplished by reducing the amplitude of sodium-dependent action potentials through enhancing steady state inactivation. Sodium channels exist in three main conformations: the resting state, the open state, and the inactive state.  Phenytoin binds preferentially to the inactive form of the sodium channel. Because it takes time for the bound drug to dissociate from the inactive channel, there is a time dependent block of the channel. Since the fraction of inactive channels is increased by membrane depolarization as well as by repetitive firing, the binding to the inactive state by phenytoin sodium can produce voltage-dependent, use-dependent and time-dependent block of sodium-dependent action potentials.  The primary site of action appears to be the motor cortex where spread of seizure activity is inhibited. Possibly by promoting sodium efflux from neurons, phenytoin tends to stabilize the threshold against hyperexcitability caused by excessive stimulation or environmental changes capable of reducing membrane sodium gradient. This includes the reduction of post-tetanic potentiation at synapses which prevents cortical seizure foci from detonating adjacent cortical areas. Phenytoin reduces the maximal activity of brain stem centers responsible for the tonic phase of generalized tonic-clonic seizures.

Pharmacokinetics.

Phenytoin elimination kinetics show mixed-order behaviour at therapeutic concentrations. A small increase in dose may lead to a large increase in drug concentration as elimination becomes saturated. The time to reach steady state is often longer than 2 weeks.

History.

Phenytoin (diphenylhydantoin) was first synthesized by German chemist Heinrich Biltz in 1908. Biltz sold his discovery to Parke-Davis, which did not find an immediate use for it. In 1938, outside scientists including H. Houston Merritt and Tracy Putnam discovered phenytoin's usefulness for controlling seizures, without the sedative effects associated with phenobarbital.  According to "Goodman and Gilman's Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics"  In contrast to the earlier accidental discovery of the antiseizure properties of potassium bromide and phenobarbital, phenytoin was the product of a search among nonsedative structural relatives of phenobarbital for agents capable of suppressing electroshock convulsions in laboratory animals.  It was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1953 for use in seizures.  Jack Dreyfus, founder of the Dreyfus Fund, became a major proponent of phenytoin as a means to control nervousness and depression when he received a prescription for Dilantin in 1966. He has claimed to have supplied large amounts of the drug to Richard Nixon throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s, although this is disputed by former White House aides. Dreyfus' experience with phenytoin is outlined in his book, "A Remarkable Medicine Has Been Overlooked". Despite more than $70 million in personal financing, his push to see phenytoin evaluated for alternative uses has had little lasting effect on the medical community. This was partially because Parke-Davis was reluctant to invest in a drug nearing the end of its patent life, and partially due to mixed results from various studies.  In 2008, the drug was put on the FDA's Potential Signals of Serious Risks List to be further evaluated for approval. The list identifies medications that the FDA has identified a potential safety issue, but does not mean that FDA has identified a causal relationship between the drug and the listed risk. To address this concern, the Warnings and Precautions section of the labeling for Dilantin injection was updated to include additional information about purple glove syndrome in November 2011.

Society and culture.

Cost.

Phenytoin is available as a generic medication and usually not too expensive. Wholesale it costs between US$0.003 and US$0.15 per dose. A month of treatment is about US$30 in the United States.  Since September 2012, the marketing licence in the UK has been held by Flynn Pharma Ltd, of Dublin, Ireland, and the product, although identical, has been called Phenytoin Sodium "xx"mg Flynn Hard Capsules. (The "xx"mg in the name refers to the strength—for example "Phenytoin sodium 25 mg Flynn Hard Capsules"). The capsules are still made by Pfizer's Goedecke subsidiary's plant in Freiburg, Germany and they still have Epanutin printed on them. After Pfizer's sale of the UK marketing licence to Flynn Pharma, the price of a 28-pack of 25 mg phenytoin sodium capsules marked Epanutin rose from 66p (about $0.88) to £15.74 (about $25.06). Capsules of other strengths also went up in price by the same factor—2384%, costing the UK's National Health Service an extra £43 million (about $68.44 million) a year. The companies were referred to the Competition and Markets Authority who found that they had exploited their dominant position in the market to charge "excessive and unfair" prices.  The Competition and Markets Authority (CMA) imposed a record £84.2 million fine on the manufacturer Pfizer, and a £5.2 million fine on the distributor Flynn Pharma and ordered the companies to reduce their prices.

Trade names.

Phenytoin is marketed under many trade names worldwide.

Research.

Tentative evidence suggests that topical phenytoin is useful in wound healing in people with chronic skin wounds. A meta-analysis also supported the use of phenytoin in managing various ulcers.  Some clinical trials have explored whether phenytoin can be used as neuroprotector in multiple sclerosis.

Phenytoin (PHT), sold under the brand name Dilantin among others, is an anti-seizure medication. It is useful for the prevention of tonic-clonic seizures and focal seizures, but not absence seizures. The intravenous form is used for status epilepticus that does not improve with benzodiazepines. It may also be used for certain heart arrhythmias or neuropathic pain. It can be taken intravenously or by mouth. The intravenous form generally begins working within 30 minutes and is effective for 24 hours. Blood levels can be measured to determine the proper dose. Common side effects include nausea, stomach pain, loss of appetite, poor coordination, increased hair growth, and enlargement of the gums. Potentially serious side effects include sleepiness, self harm, liver problems, bone marrow suppression, low blood pressure, and toxic epidermal necrolysis. There is evidence that use during pregnancy results in abnormalities in the baby. It appears to be safe to use when breastfeeding. Alcohol may interfere with the medication's effects. Phenytoin was first made in 1908 by the German chemist Heinrich Biltz and found useful for seizures in 1936. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Phenytoin is available as a generic medication and usually not too expensive. The wholesale cost in the developing world is between US$0.003 and US$0.15 per dose. A month of treatment is about US$30 in the United States. In 2017, it was the 221st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than two million prescriptions.

苯妥英(英语:Phenytoin,或称diphenyl hydantoin),常见商品名大仑丁(Dilantin),是一种抗惊厥药物。该药在治疗强直-阵挛性发作及部分发作有治疗效果,但无法治疗失神性发作。苯妥英能借由口服或静脉注射给药,当癫痫重积状态发生时,可借由静脉注射给予苯妥英,相对的苯二氮䓬类则无法治疗该症状。该药也可治疗特定的心律不整及神经病变性疼痛。静脉注射给药通常会于30分钟内开始作用,药效可维持24小时,注射后可进行浓度监测以维持适当浓度。 常见副作用包含恶心、胃痛、缺乏食欲、肢体协调不良、毛发增长,以及牙龈增生。其他可能的严重副作用则包含嗜睡、自残、肝脏问题、骨髓抑制、低血压,以及毒性表皮溶解症。有证据显示妊娠期间服用该药物可能对胎儿造成不良影响,哺乳期间用药目前没有相关风险显示。服药期间并用乙醇可能-{干}-扰药效。 苯妥英最早于1908年被制造,并于1936年发现其对于癫痫的作用。该药列名于世界卫生组织基本药物标准清单之中,为基础医疗体系必备药物之一。苯妥英目前为学名药,价格不贵。批发价约为每剂0.003至0.15美金之间。在美国,一个月疗程花费约为30美金。


Early life.

Wilhelm von Gloeden's background is something of a mystery. Although Gloeden alleged he was a minor German aristocrat from Mecklenburg, the heirs of the baronial branch of the Gloeden family have always insisted that no such person existed in their family records and that his claim to a barony was without warrant; the barony became extinct in 1885 with the death of Baron Falko von Gloeden.  It is believed he was the son of head forester Carl Hermann Gloeden (1820–1862) and his wife Charlotte Maassen (1824–1901; from 1864 Charlotte von Hammerstein).  After studying art history in Rostock (1876), Gloeden studied painting under at the Weimar Saxon-Grand Ducal Art School (1876–77) until he was forced by lung disease (apparently tuberculosis) to interrupt his studies for a year, convalescing at a sanatorium in the Baltic Sea resort of Görbersdorf, now known as Sokołowsko.

Taormina.

In a search for health, he travelled to Italy (1877–78), first staying in Naples before moving on to Taormina in Sicily. He lodged at the Hotel Vittoria before buying a house near San Domenico Convent. Apart from the period 1915–18, during the First World War, when he was forced to leave Sicily to avoid internment as an enemy alien, he remained in Taormina until his death in 1931.  The mayor of the town in 1872–1882 was the German landscape painter (1843–1939), who had moved there in 1863. Through him, Gloeden became acquainted with the local inhabitants. He set up his photographic studio at first as a hobby and was exhibiting his work internationally by 1893 (London), including Cairo (1897), Berlin (1898–99, including a solo exhibition), Philadelphia (1902), Budapest & Marseilles (1903), Nice (1903 & 1905), Riga (1905), Dresden (1909) and Rome (World Fair 1911). His well-known study of two young boys clinging to an Ionic column was published in "The Studio" (London) in June 1893 (above a nude study by Baron Corvo of Cecil Castle, cousin of Charles Kains Jackson), which brought his work to the notice of a wider public.  In 1895, when his family's fortune was lost through the "Hammerstein affair", Gloeden received as a gift from his friend and patron the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, a large-format plate camera. Soon his work brought him visitors from Europe, including royalty, industrialists, writers, including Oscar Wilde in December 1897, and artists. In 1930, Gloeden ceased work as a photographer and sold his house on the Piazza San Domenico in Taormina in return for an annuity and residence rights. Gloeden scrupulously shared the proceeds of his sales with his models. The names of some of the models are known: Pasquale Stracuzzi (known as "Pasqualino"); Vincenzo Lupicino (known as "Virgilio" & seen in the "Boy with Flying Fish" photographs); Peppino Caifasso or Carafasso (who posed as "Ahmed"); Pietro Caspano or Capanu; Nicola Scilio, also spelt Sciglio; Giuseppe De Cristoforo; and Maria Intelisano (niece of the parish priest of nearby Castelmola).  His cousin Guglielmo Plüschow (1852–1930), also a photographer of nudes, helped von Gloeden get more familiar with the technical side of photography (until then von Gloeden had not been a hobby photographer). Other important teachers of von Gloeden were local photographer (1859–1925) in the Via Teatro Greco and the pharmacist/photographer Giuseppe Bruno (1836–1904) in the Corso.

Works.

While today Gloeden is mainly known for his nudes, in his lifetime he was also famous for his landscape photography that helped popularize tourism to Italy. In addition, he documented damage in from the 1908 Messina earthquake, which may explain why the locals mostly approved of his work.  The majority of Gloeden's pictures were made before the First World War, in the years from 1890 to 1910. During the war, he had to leave Italy. After returning in 1918, he photographed very little but continued to make new prints from his voluminous archives. In total, he took over 3000 images (and possibly up to 7000), which after his death were left to one of his models, Pancrazio Buciunì (also spelled Bucini; his dates sometimes given as – but probably should be 1879–1963), known as'(or ') for his North African looks. "" had been Gloeden's lover since the age of 14 when he had first joined his household. In 1933, some 1,000 glass negatives from Gloeden's collection (inherited by Buciuni) and 2,000 prints were confiscated by Benito Mussolini's Fascist police under the allegation that they constituted pornography, and were destroyed; another 1,000 negatives were destroyed in 1936, but Buciuni was tried and cleared at a court in Messina (1939–1941) of disseminating pornographic images. Most of the surviving pictures (negatives and prints) are now in the Fratelli Alinari photographic archive in Florence (which in 1999 bought 878 glass negatives and 956 vintage prints formerly belonging to Buciuni to add to its existing collection of 106 prints) and further prints (which fetch hundreds of pounds at auction) are in private collections or held by public institutions such as the in Milan.

Attitudes towards his work during his lifetime and later.

Gloeden generally made several different kinds of photographs. The ones that garnered the most widespread attention in Europe and overseas were usually relatively chaste studies of peasants, shepherds, fisherman, etc., featured in clothing like togas or Sicilian traditional costume, and which generally downplayed their homoerotic implications. He also photographed landscapes and some studies were of, or included, women. His models were usually posed either at his house, among the local ancient ruins, or on Monte Ziretto (), located two kilometres to the north of Taormina and famous in antiquity for its quarries of red marble. He wrote in 1898: "The Greek forms appealed to me, as did the bronze-hued descendants of the ancient Hellenes, and I attempted to resurrect the old, classic life in pictures...The models usually remained merry and cheerful, lightly clad and at ease in the open air, striding forward to the accompaniment of flutes and animated chatter. More than a few greatly enjoyed the work and anxiously awaited the moment when I would show them the finished picture."  More explicit photos in which boys aged between about 10 and 20, and occasionally older men, were nude (sometimes with prominent genitalia) and which, because of eye contact or physical contact were more sexually suggestive, were traded "under the counter" and among close friends of the photographer, but "as far as is known, Gloeden's archive contained neither pornographic nor erotically lascivious motifs".

Other similar photographers at the time.

Gloeden's cousin Guglielmo Plüschow also photographed male nudes, working in Rome. Plüschow was already a firmly established photographer when Gloeden started doing photographs of his own in the early 1890s. It is even speculated that Gloeden was taught the (then difficult) art of photography by Plüschow. However, Gloeden soon eclipsed Plüschow, and later works by Plüschow often were erroneously attributed to Gloeden. From an artistic standpoint, Plüschow's work is somewhat inferior to Gloeden's as his lighting is often too harsh and the poses of his models look quite stilted.  Up until 1907, Plüschow's assistant Vincenzo Galdi secretly made work which he tried to pass off as Plüschow's own. However, Galdi's pictures lack elegance, often feature females, and generally tend to border on the pornographic.

Wilhelm Iwan Friederich August Freiherr von Gloeden (September 16, 1856 – February 16, 1931) was a German photographer who worked mainly in Italy. He is mostly known for his pastoral nude studies of Sicilian boys, which usually featured props such as wreaths or amphoras, suggesting a setting in the Greece or Italy of antiquity. From a modern standpoint, his work is commendable due to his controlled use of lighting as well as the often elegant poses of his models. His innovations include the use of photographic filters and special body makeup (a mixture of milk, olive oil, and glycerin) to disguise skin blemishes.

威廉·冯·格鲁登(Wilhelm von Gloeden,1856年-9月16日-1931年-2月16日),是一个德国摄影师,但其工作地点主要在意大利等地中海国家。他被认为是裸体摄影艺术的先驱,因为他的作品主要以南欧的少年裸体为主,并因其完美的采光与少年模特儿优雅的姿势受到后世推崇。同时他也是第一个使用滤镜与人体彩绘技术来使相片看起来更完美的摄影师。