History.

Film was introduced in the late 19th century. The earliest artistic criticism of film emerged in the early 1900s. The first paper to serve as a critique of film came out of "The Optical Lantern and Cinematograph Journal," followed by the "Bioscope" in 1908.  Film is a relatively new form of art, in comparison to music, literature and painting which have existed since ancient times. Early writing on film sought to argue that films could also be considered a form of art. In 1911, Ricciotto Canudo wrote a manifesto proclaiming cinema to be the "Sixth Art" (later "Seventh Art"). For many decades after, film was still being treated with less prestige than longer-established art forms.  By the 1920s, critics were analyzing film for its merit and value as more than just entertainment. The growing popularity of the medium caused major newspapers to start hiring film critics. In the 1930s, the film industry developed concepts of stardom and celebrity in relation to actors, which led to a rise in obsession with critics as well, to the point that they were often seen on "red carpet" and at major events with the actors.  It was in the 1940s that new forms of criticism emerged. Essays analyzing films with a distinctive charm and style to persuade the reader of the critic's argument. It was the emergence of these styles that brought film criticism to the mainstream, gaining the attention of many popular magazines; this made film reviews and critiques an eventual staple among most print media. As the decades passed, the fame for critics grew and gave rise to household names among the craft like James Agee, Andrew Sarris, Pauline Kael and in modern times Roger Ebert and Peter Travers.

Journalistic criticism.

Film critics working for newspapers, magazines, broadcast media, and online publications, mainly review new releases, although also review older films. An important task for these reviews is to inform readers on whether or not they would want to see the film. A film review will typically explain the premise of the film before discussing its merits. The verdict is often summarised with a form of rating. Numerous rating systems exist, such as 5- or 4-star scales, academic-style grades and pictograms (such as in the "San Francisco Chronicle"). Some well-known journalistic critics have included: James Agee ("Time" (magazine), "The Nation"); Vincent Canby ("The New York Times"); Roger Ebert ("Chicago Sun-Times"); Mark Kermode ("BBC", "The Observer"); James Berardinelli; Philip French ("The Observer"); Pauline Kael ("The New Yorker"); Manny Farber ("The New Republic", "Time", "The Nation"); Peter Bradshaw ("The Guardian"); Michael Phillips ("Chicago Tribune"); Andrew Sarris ("The Village Voice"); Joel Siegel ("Good Morning America"); Jonathan Rosenbaum ("Chicago Reader"); and Christy Lemire ("What The Flick?!").  Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel popularised the concept of reviewing films in a television format in the show "Siskel & Ebert At the Movies" which became syndicated in the 1980s. Both critics had established their careers in print media, and continued to write written reviews for their respective newspapers alongside their television show.

Online film criticism.

Aggregators.

Some websites, such as Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic, seek to improve the usefulness of film reviews by compiling them and assigning a score to each in order to gauge the general reception a film receives.

Online film critics.

Blogging has also introduced opportunities for a new wave of amateur film critics to have their opinions heard. These review blogs may focus on one genre, director or actor, or encompass a much wider variety of films. Friends, friends of friends, or strangers are able to visit these blogsites, and can often leave their own comments about the movie and/or the author's review. Although much less frequented than their professional counterparts, these sites can gather a following of like-minded people who look to specific bloggers for reviews as they have found that the critic consistently exhibits an outlook very similar to their own. YouTube has also served as a platform for amateur film critics.  Some websites specialize in narrow aspects of film reviewing. For instance, there are sites that focus on specific content advisories for parents to judge a film's suitability for children. Others focus on a religious perspective (e.g. CAP Alert). Still others highlight more esoteric subjects such as the depiction of science in fiction films. One such example is "Insultingly Stupid Movie Physics" by Intuitor. Some online niche websites provide comprehensive coverage of the independent sector; usually adopting a style closer to print journalism. They tend to prohibit adverts and offer uncompromising opinions free of any commercial interest. Their film critics normally have an academic film background.  The Online Film Critics Society, an international professional association of Internet-based cinema reviewers, consists of writers from all over the world, while New York Film Critics Online members handle reviews in the New York tri-state area.

User-submitted reviews.

A number of websites allow Internet users to submit movie reviews and aggregate them into an average. Community-driven review sites have allowed the common movie goer to express their opinion on films. Many of these sites allow users to rate films on a 0 to 10 scale, while some rely on the star rating system of 1–5, 0–5 or 0–4 stars. The votes are then culled into an overall rating and ranking for any particular film. Some of these community driven review sites include Reviewer, Movie Attractions, Flixster, FilmCrave, Flickchart and Everyone's a Critic. Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic aggregate both scores from accredited critics and those submitted by users.  On these online review sites, users generally only have to register with the site in order to submit reviews. This means that they are a form of open access poll, and have the same advantages and disadvantages; notably, there is no guarantee that they will be a representative sample of the film's audience. In some cases, online review sites have produced wildly differing results to scientific polling of audiences. Likewise, reviews and ratings for many movies can greatly differ between the different review sites, even though there are certain movies that are well-rated (or poorly-rated) across the board.

Academic film criticism.

More often known as film theory or film studies, academic critique explores cinema beyond journalistic film reviews. These film critics try to examine why film works, how it works aesthetically or politically, what it means, and what effects it has on people. Rather than write for mass-market publications their articles are usually published in scholarly journals and texts which tend to be affiliated with university presses; or sometimes in up-market magazines.  Most academic criticism of film often follows a similar format. They usually include summaries of the plot of the film to either refresh the plot to the reader, or reinforce an idea of repetition in the film's genre. After this, there tends to be discussions about the cultural context, major themes and repetitions, and details about the legacy of the film.  Some notable academic film critics include André Bazin, Jean-Luc Godard and François Truffaut (all writers for "Cahiers du Cinéma"); Kristin Thompson, David Bordwell, and Sergei Eisenstein. Godard, Truffaut and Eisenstein were also film directors.

Issues and controversies.

Influence.

In the 2000s, the effect that reviews have on a film's box office performance and DVD rentals/sales have become a matter for debate. Some analysts argue that modern movie marketing, using pop culture convention appearances (e.g., Comicon) and social media along with traditional means of advertising, has led, in part, to a decline in the readership of many reviewers for newspapers and other print publications. There are fewer critics on television and radio in the last thirty years.  However, in recent years, there has been a growing belief in the film industry that critic aggregators (especially Rotten Tomatoes) are increasing the collective influence of film critics. The underperformance of several films in 2017 was blamed on their low scores on Rotten Tomatoes. This has led to studies such as one commissioned by 20th Century Fox claiming that younger viewers give the website more credibility than the major studio marketing, which undercuts its effectiveness.  Today, fan-run film analysis websites like Box Office Prophets, CineBee and Box Office Guru routinely factor more into the opinions of the general public on films produced.

The "undulating curve of shifting expectations".

The "undulating curve of shifting expectations" (UCoSE) refers to both the title of a recurring entertainment industry feature in "New York" magazine by cultural critic Adam Sternbergh and also to a concept of media analysis co-developed by writer Emily Nussbaum.  UCoSE refers to the dynamic tension between pre-release promotional efforts and subsequent audience reactions to entertainment media....what the UCoSE does is provide us a way of analyzing the trajectory of entertainment products as they metamorphize their way through his theorized seven-stage growth chart: Pre-Buzz, Buzz, Rave Reviews, Saturation Point, Overhyped, Backlash, and finally, Backlash To The Backlash.

Female representation.

There have been many complaints against the film-criticism industry for its underrepresentation of women. A study of the top critics on Rotten Tomatoes shows that 91 per cent of writers for movie/entertainment magazines and websites are men, as are 90 per cent of those for trade publications, 80 per cent of critics for general interest magazines like Time, and 70 per cent of reviewers for radio formats such as NPR.  Writing for "The Atlantic", Kate Kilkenny argued that women were better represented in film criticism before the rise of the Internet. In the past, when film was considered less prestigious than visual art and literature, it was easier for women to break into film criticism. Judith Crist and Pauline Kael were two of the most influential film critics of the 1960s and 1970s. The Internet led to a decline in jobs at small newspapers where women were more likely to review films, whereas the more male-dominated jobs at major newspapers survived better. The Internet also encouraged a growth in niche review websites that were even more male-dominated than older media. Kilkenny also suggested that the shortage of female critics was related to the shortage of female opinion columnists.  Clem Bastow, culture writer at "The Guardian Australia", discussed the possible effects of this on the critical response to the 2015 film "The Intern", which received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics:The critical response to "The Intern" was fascinating. There’s a subset of male critics that clearly see Nancy Meyers as code for chick flick and react with according bile. What’s very interesting, though, is that I think female critics, working in an industry that is coded as very male, if not macho, often feel the need to go hard on certain films for women, presumably because they worry that they’ll be dismissed, critically speaking, if they praise a film like "The Intern" as though they’re only reviewing it favorably because they’re women.  Matt Reynolds of Wired pointed out that "men tend to look much more favourably on films with more masculine themes, or male leading actors." On online review sites such as IMDb, this leads to skewed, imbalanced review results as 70 percent of reviewers on the site are men.

Salary.

As of 2013, film critics earn about $82,000 a year. Newspaper and magazine critics would make $27,364-$49,574. Online movie critics would make $2-$200 per review. TV critics would make up to $40,000-$60,000 per month.

Film criticism is the analysis and evaluation of films and the film medium. The concept is often used interchangeably with that of film reviews. A film review implies a recommendation aimed at consumers, however not all film criticism takes the form of reviews.

电影评论是指观影后从艺术性、观赏性、技术性、社会性及政治等方面对一部电影进行评价和批评。


Early years.

Jacob was born the only child of Simon, a merchant, and Thérèse (Franck) Jacob, in Nancy, France. An inquisitive child, he learned to read at a young age. Albert Franck, Jacob's maternal grandfather, a four-star general, was Jacob's childhood role model. At seven he entered the Lycée Carnot, where he was schooled for the next ten years; in his autobiography he describes his impression of it: "a cage". He was antagonized by rightist youth at the Lycée Carnot around 1934.  Though interested (and talented) in physics and mathematics, Jacob was horrified at the prospect of spending two additional years in "an even more draconian regime" to prepare for higher study at the Polytechnique. Instead, after observing a surgical operation that cemented his "slight interest" in medicine, he entered medical school.  During the German occupation of France—and on the heels of his mother's death—Jacob left France for Great Britain to join the war effort. Jacob, who had only completed his second year of medical studies, joined the medical company of the French 2nd Armored Division in 1940. He was injured in a German air attack in 1944 and returned to now-liberated Paris in on 1 August 1944. For his wartime service, he was awarded France's WWII highest decoration for valor, the Cross of Liberation, as well as Légion d'honneur and croix de guerre.  After his recovery, Jacob returned to medical school and began researching tyrothricin and learning the methods of bacteriology in the process. He completed a thesis he described as "replicating American work" on the effectiveness of the antibiotic against local infections, and became a medical doctor in 1947. Though attracted to research as a career, he was discouraged by his own perceived ignorance after attending a microbiology congress that summer. Instead he took a position at the Cabanel Center, where he had done his thesis research; his new work entailed the manufacture of antibiotic, tyrothricin. Later, the center was contracted to convert gunpowder factories for penicillin production (though this proved impossible).  Also in this period, he met and began courting his future wife, Lise Bloch. Jacob remarried in 1999 to Geneviève Barrier.

Research.

In 1961 Jacob and Monod explored the idea that the control of enzyme expression levels in cells is a result of regulation of transcription of DNA sequences. Their experiments and ideas gave impetus to the emerging field of molecular developmental biology, and of transcriptional regulation in particular.  For many years it had been known that bacterial and other cells could respond to external conditions by regulating levels of their key metabolic enzymes, and/or the activity of these enzymes. For instance, if a bacterium finds itself in a broth containing lactose, rather than the simpler sugar glucose, it must adapt itself to the need to 1) import lactose, 2) cleave lactose to its constituents glucose and galactose, and 3) convert the galactose to glucose. It was known that cells ramp up their production of the enzymes that do these steps when exposed to lactose, rather than wastefully producing these enzymes all the time. Studies of enzyme activity control were progressing through theories of the (allosteric) action of small molecules on the enzyme molecule itself (switching it on or off), but the method of controlling the enzyme production was not well understood at the time.  With the earlier determination of the structure and central importance of DNA, it became clear that all proteins were being produced in some way from its genetic code, and that this step might form a key control point. Jacob and Monod made key experimental and theoretical discoveries that demonstrated that in the case of the lactose system outlined above (in the bacterium "E. coli"), there are specific proteins that are devoted to repressing the transcription of the DNA to its product (RNA, which in turn is decoded into protein).  This repressor (the lac repressor) is made in all cells, binding directly to DNA at the genes it controls, and physically preventing the transcription apparatus from gaining access to the DNA. In the presence of lactose, some of the lactose is converted to allolactose, which binds to the repressor making it no longer able to bind to DNA, and the transcriptional repression is lifted. In this way, a robust feedback loop is constructed that allows the set of lactose-digesting proteins products to be made only when they are needed.  Jacob and Monod extended this repressor model to all genes in all organisms in their initial exuberance. The regulation of gene activity has developed into a very large sub-discipline of molecular biology, and in truth exhibits enormous variety in mechanism and many levels of complexity. Current researchers find regulatory events at every conceivable level of the processes that express genetic information. In the relatively simple genome of baker's yeast, ("Saccharomyces cerevisiae"), 405 of its 6,419 protein-encoding genes are directly involved in transcriptional control, compared to 1,938 that are enzymes.

François Jacob (17 June 1920 – 19 April 2013) was a French biologist who, together with Jacques Monod, originated the idea that control of enzyme levels in all cells occurs through regulation of transcription. He shared the 1965 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Jacques Monod and André Lwoff.

方斯华·贾克柏(,1920年-6月17日-2013年-4月19日)是一位犹太裔法国生物学家,他与贾克·莫诺发现了酶在原核生物转录作用调控中的角色,也就是后来所知的乳糖操纵组。两人与安德列·利沃夫共同获得了1965年的诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。


Early life.

Mintzberg was born in Montreal, Quebec, Canada; the son of the Jewish parents: Myer (a manufacturer) and Irene (Wexler) Mintzberg. He completed his undergraduate degree in mechanical engineering at the Faculty of Engineering of McGill University. He completed his Master's degree in Management and PhD from the MIT Sloan School of Management in 1965 and 1968 respectively.

Career.

In 1997, Professor Mintzberg was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. In 1998 he was made an Officer of the National Order of Quebec. He is now a member of the Strategic Management Society.  In 2004 he published a book entitled "Managers Not MBAs" which outlines what he believes to be wrong with management education today. Mintzberg claims that prestigious graduate management schools like Harvard Business School and the Wharton Business School at the University of Pennsylvania are obsessed with numbers and that their overzealous attempts to make management a science are damaging the discipline of management. Mintzberg advocates more emphasis on post graduate programs that educate practicing managers (rather than students with little real world experience) by relying upon action learning and insights from their own problems and experiences.  Mintzberg has twice won the McKinsey Award for publishing the best article in the Harvard Business Review (despite his critical stance about the strategy consulting business). He is also credited with co-creating the organigraph, which is taught in business schools.  From 1991 to 1999, he was a visiting professor at INSEAD.  Mintzberg writes on the topics of management and business strategy, with more than 150 articles and fifteen books to his name. His seminal book, "The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning", criticizes some of the practices of strategic planning today.  Mintzberg runs two programs at the Desautels Faculty of Management which have been designed to teach his alternative approach to management and strategic planning: the International Masters in Practicing Management (I.M.P.M.) in association with the McGill Executive Institute and the International Masters for Health Leadership (I.M.H.L.). With Phil LeNir, he owns Coaching Ourselves International, a private company using his alternative approach for management development directly in the workplace.

Contribution to organization theory.

The organizational configurations framework of Mintzberg is a model that describes six valid organizational configurations (originally only five; the sixth one was added later):  Regarding the coordination between different tasks, Mintzberg defines the following mechanisms:  According to the organizational configurations model of Mintzberg, each organization can consist of a maximum of six basic parts:

Contribution to business strategy theory.

Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Mintzberg’s research findings and writing on business strategy, is that they have often emphasized the importance of emergent strategy, which arises informally at any level in an organisation, as an alternative or a complement to deliberate strategy, which is determined consciously either by top management or with the acquiescence of top management. He has been strongly critical of the stream of strategy literature which focuses predominantly on deliberate strategy.  Mintzberg is cited in Chamberlain's Theory of Strategy as providing one of the four main foundations on which the theory is based.

Henry Mintzberg, (born September 2, 1939) is a Canadian academic and author on business and management. He is currently the Cleghorn Professor of Management Studies at the Desautels Faculty of Management of McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, where he has been teaching since 1968.

亨利·明茨伯格(英语:Henry Mintzberg),加拿大人,管理思想家、学者、教授,经理角色学派的代表人物之一。1939年生于加拿大多伦多。1972年在麦吉尔大学任教至今。明茨伯格先后创立了管理角色学派、战略过程学派和实践管理教育模式,他同时也是美国战略管理协会的创始人和国际实践管理教育联盟创始人。


Life.

Al-Muntasir's mother was Hubshiya, a Greek slave.  Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari records that in A.H. 236 (850 –851) al-Muntasir led a pilgrimage. The previous year al-Mutawakkil had named his three sons as heirs and seemed to favour al-Muntasir. However, afterwards this seemed to change and al-Muntasir feared his father was going to move against him. So, he decided to strike first. Al-Mutawakkil was killed by a Turkish soldier on Wednesday 10 December 861.  On the same day as the assassination, Al-Muntasir succeeded smoothly to the throne of the Caliphate with the support of the Turkic faction. The Turkic party then prevailed on al-Muntasir to remove his brothers from the succession, fearing they would seek revenge for his involvement in the murder of their father. In their place, he was to appoint his son as heir apparent. On 27 April 862 both brothers wrote statements of abdication, although al-Mu'tazz did so after some hesitation.  Al-Muntasir was lauded because, unlike his father, he loved the house of ʻAlī (Shīʻa) and removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn. He sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines.

Death.

Al-Muntasir's reign lasted less than half a year; it ended with his death from unknown causes on Sunday, 7 June 862, at the age of 24 years (solar). There are various accounts of the illness that led to his death, including that he was bled with a poisoned lancet. Al-Tabari (p. 222-3) states that al-Muntasir is the first Abbasid whose tomb is known, that it was made public by his mother, a Greek slave-girl, and that earlier caliphs desired their tombs to be kept secret for fear of desecration. Joel L. Kraemer in his translation of al-Tabari notes on page 223:  "'Ayni comments, citing al-Sibt (b. al-Jawzi), that Tabari's statement here is surprising since the tombs of the Abbasid caliphs are in fact known, e.g., the tomb of al-Saffah is in Anbar beneath the minbar; and those of al-Mahdi in Masabadhan, Harun in Tus, al-Ma'mun in Tarsis, and al-Mu'tasim, al-Wathiq and al-Mu'tawakkil in Samarra."

Abu Ja'far Muhammad (; November 837 – 7 June 862), better known by his regnal title al-Muntasir bi-llah (, "He who triumphs in God") was the Caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate from 861 to 862, during the "Anarchy at Samarra".

蒙塔塞尔(837年-11月-862年-6月7日),伊斯兰教第二十九代哈里发,阿拔斯王朝第十一代哈里发(公元861年-862年在位)。837年11月出生,父亲是阿拔斯王朝第十代哈里发穆塔瓦基勒,861年12月11日继承父亲穆塔瓦基勒,成为哈里发。862年6月7日去世,弟弟穆斯塔因一世即位。


Etymology.

The word "Gwadar" is a combination of two Balochi words – "Guad" meaning "Wind" and "Dar" meaning "Gateway" or "door", thus Gwadar means "The Gate of wind".

History.

Ancient.

The inhabitation of Gwadar, like most areas of Balochistan, appears to be ancient. The area shows inhabitation as early as the Bronze Age with settlements around some of the area's oasis. It is from this settlement pattern that word Makran, the original name of Balochistan, is derived. For a period, it was a region of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. It is believed to have been conquered by the founder of the Persian Empire, Cyrus the Great. The capital of the "satrapy" of Gedrosia was Pura, which is thought to have been located near the modern Bampūr, in Iranian Balochistan. During the homeward march of Alexander the Great, his admiral, Nearchus, led a fleet along the modern-day Makran coast and recorded that the area was dry, mountainous, and inhabited by the "Ichthyophagoi" (or "fish eaters"), an ancient Greek rendering of the ancient Persian phrase ""Mahi khoran"," which has itself become the modern word ""Makran"". After the collapse of Alexander's empire the area was ruled by Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander's generals. The region then came under Mauryan rule around 303 BCE, after Seleucus made peace with Emperor Chandragupta and ceded the territory to the Mauryans.

Omani rule.

The region remained on the sidelines of history for a millennium until the Arab-Muslim army of Umar captured Makran in AD 643 and over the intervening (and nearly equivalent) amount of time the area was contested by various powers. This was then followed by almost two centuries of local rule by the various Baloch tribes. The city was visited by Ottoman Admiral Seydi Ali Reis in the 1550s and mentioned in his book "Mirat ul Memalik" (The Mirror of Countries), 1557. According to Seydi Ali Reis, the inhabitants of Gwadar were Baloch and their chief was Malik Jelaleddin, son of Malik Dinar.  In the 15th century the Portuguese conquered parts of India and Oman. They planned to proceed with annexation of the coastal area of Makran. They attacked Gwadar under the leadership of Vasco de Gama, but under the supervision of Commander Mir Ismaheel Baloch, the Portuguese were defeated by the Baloch. A few times the Portuguese looted and set the coastal villages on fire, but they failed to capture Gwadar. Cannons of the Portuguese army were found lying near the Central Jail of Gwadar, heirless. The grave of Mir Ismaheel Baloch is situated near the Mountain of Batal Gwadar, constructed by Mir Ismaheel Baloch himself during life. He died in 873 Hijri. By the end of the 16th century, Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great conquered the city along with all of Balochistan after the Battle of Sehwan. It remained under Mughal control until early 18th century.  In 1783, the Khan of Kalat Mir Noori Naseer Khan Baloch granted suzerainty over Gwadar to Taimur Sultan, the defeated ruler of Muscat. When the sultan subsequently retook Muscat, he was to continue his rule in Gwadar by appointing a "wali" (or "governor"). This "wali" was then ordered to subjugate the nearby coastal town of Chabahar (now in Iran). The Gwadar fort was built during Omani rule, whilst telegraph lines were later extended into the town courtesy of the British. In the middle of the 18th century, Mir Noori Naseer Khan Baloch captured Gwadar and its surrounding areas after defeating the Gichki Baloch tribe and included it in the Kalat Khanate. However, realizing that maintaining control of the area will be difficult without the support of the Gichkis, Mir Nasir entered into an agreement with the local Gichki Chief, which allowed the Gichkis to maintain administrative control of the area, in return for furnishing half the collected revenues to Kalat, this arrangement continued till 1783. When Saiad Sultan fell out with his brother, the ruler of Muscat, and asked for help, Mir Noori Naseer Khan handed over Gwadar, as part of his share of revenues, to Saiad Sultan for his maintenance with the understanding that the area be returned to Kalat, when Saiad Sultan acquires the throne. Saiad Sultan ascended to the throne of Muscat in 1797 but never returned Gwadar enclave to Kalat. The ensuing struggle between the heirs of the Sultan and Khan of Kalat for possession of Gwadar, allowed the British to intervene. The British after extracting concessions from the Sultan for the use of the area facilitated Muscat to retain Gwadar. Later on, the British claimed that the area was granted to the Sultan by Mir Nasir, however, local accounts and the declassified documents of that time challenge this claim. From 1863 to 1879 Gwadar was the headquarters of a British Assistant Political Agent. Gwadar was a fortnightly port of call for the British India Steamship Navigation Company's steamers and included a combined Post & Telegraph Office. The Sultan of Oman was the sovereign of Gwadar until negotiations led by Prime Minister of Pakistan Feroz Khan Noon and his wife Viqar-un-Nisa Noon resulted in its transfer to the government of Pakistan in the 1950s.

Pakistan.

In 1948, Makran acceded to the newly created Dominion of Pakistan and was made a district — but Gwadar at that time was not included in Makran. In 1958, Gwadar and its surrounding areas were reverted by Oman to Pakistan by the efforts of Prime Minister of Pakistan Feroz Khan Noon and his wife Viqar-un-Nisa Noon. It was given the status of a Tahsil of Makran district. On 1 July 1977, Makran District was upgraded into a division and was divided into three districts of Turbat (Kech since 1994–95), Panjgur and Gwadar.  Gwadar underwent major development from 2002 to 2007. In 2002, Pakistan's National Highway Authority (NHA) began construction of the 653 km-long Makran Coastal Highway linking Gwadar with Karachi via Pasni and Ormara and onwards with the rest of the National Highways of Pakistan, which was completed in 2004. In 2003, the Gwadar Development Authority was established to oversee the planning and development of Gwadar and Gwadar Industrial Estate Development Authority was established to promote industrial activities in mega port city of Gwadar. In 2004, Pakistan's NHA began construction of the 820-km long M8 motorway linking Gwadar with Ratodero in Sindh province via Turbat, Hoshab, Awaran and Khuzdar and onwards with the rest of the Motorways of Pakistan. In 2006, the Gwadar Development Authority conceived, developed and adopted a 50-year Master Plan for Gwadar. In 2007, the Civil Aviation Authority of Pakistan acquired to construct a new greenfield airport, the New Gwadar International Airport, at an estimated cost of US$246 million.

Geography.

Topography.

Gwadar is situated on the southwestern Arabian Sea coast of Pakistan in Gwadar District of Balochistan province. Like Ormara further east, Gwadar is situated on a natural hammerhead-shaped tombolo peninsula forming two almost perfect, but naturally curved, semicircular bays on either side. The city is situated on a narrow and sandy isthmus which connects the Pakistani coast to rocky outcroppings in the Arabian sea known as the Gwadar Promontory, or "Koh-e-Batil," which reach an elevation of and extend east to west with a breadth of. The 800 foot wide isthmus upon which Gwadar is located separates the two almost perfect semicircular bays from one another. The western bay is known as the "Paddi Zirr," and is generally shallow with an average depth of 12 feet, and a maximum depth of 30 feet. To the east of the isthmus is the deepwater "Demi Zirr" harbor, where the Gwadar Port was built.  The area north of the city and Gwadar Promentory is flat and generally barren. The white clay Koh-e-Mehdi (also known as Jabal-e-Mehdi) is a notable exception, and rises sharply from the plans to the northeast of Gwadar. The Koh-e-Mehdi features a two discernible peaks, with heights of, and is approximately wide and features sharp cliffs that drop precipitously into the Arabian Sea. Following an earthquake in September 2013 a small island called Zalzala Jazeera ("Earthquake Island") formed approximately off the coast.

Population.

The population of the city has risen to approximately 85,000 as of 2014. The population of Gwadar is predominantly Baloch.

Climate.

Gwadar has a hot desert climate (Köppen "BWh"), characterised by little precipitation and high variation between summer and winter temperatures. Oceanic influence from the cool currents of the Arabian Sea moderates temperatures, resulting in notably cooler summer temperatures compared to areas inland and cities in the Persian Gulf such as Dubai. The Arabian Sea also moderates winter temperatures, resulting in warmer winter nights as compared to inland areas.  The mean temperature in the hottest month (June) remains between 31 °C and 32 °C. The mean temperature in the coolest month (January) varies from 18 °C to 19 °C. The uniformity of temperature is a unique characteristic of the Makran Coastal region. Occasionally, winds moving down the Balochistan plateau bring brief cold spells, otherwise the winter is pleasant. In Gwadar, winters are shorter than summers. Although Gwadar is situated outside the monsoon belt, it receives light monsoon showers in summer (June–August). However, in winter, Western Disturbance can cause heavy rainfall. Annual rainfall is only 100 mm (3 inches). In June 2010, Gwadar was lashed by Cyclone Phet with record-breaking rains of 372 mm and winds up to 75 mph.

Administration.

Gwadar serves as the headquarters for both, the Gwadar District and Gwadar Tehsil. Gwadar Tehsil is administratively subdivided into five union councils.

Neighbourhoods.

Gwadar is divided into 5 union councils, which are further subdivided into wards:

Culture.

Gwadar's location and history have given it a unique blend of cultures. The Arabic influence upon Gwadar is strong as a consequence of the Omani era and its close proximity to the Arabian peninsula. The Omani legacy is also evident in the Pakistanis of East African ancestry tracing their lineage to Afro-Arabs and Zanji slaves, who settled in the town during Omani rule. Remnants of Oman era buildings can also be found in the city.

Strategic importance.

The port of Gwadar can provide China a Listening Post to Observe the Indian naval activities around the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Aden. Central Asia and South Asia, encompassing the Caspian Region, Central Asian republics, Afghanistan and Iran, and the energy-rich ‘lake’ called the Caspian Sea, is a significant region because of its huge monetary prospective and geographically vital positioning, which has formed the region as a centre piece in the international arena. Iran has also declared support for the development of Gwadar and its port.

Economy.

Gwadar's economy has, in the past, been dependent mostly on fishing. Its economy, however, is undergoing rapid transformation as a small fishing village is being transformed into a major port city of Pakistan with improved communication links with the rest of Pakistan. In 1993, the Government of Pakistan commenced a feasibility study for the construction of a deep-sea port at Gwadar. On 22 March 2002, the Government of Pakistan began construction of Gwadar Port, a modern deep-sea port, the first phase of which was completed in December 2005 and the second in March 2007. Gwadar Port became fully operational in December 2009. The 1400 km Trans-Afghan Gas Pipeline (TAP) from Turkmenistan to Gwadar (Pakistan), a long-dormant project that would pump Turkmen natural gas to markets in South Asia, may finally be poised to begin at a cost of $3 billion.

Gwadar Free Zone.

The construction on a $2 billion 10-square kilometre tax exempt industrial zone began on 20 June 2016. The zone includes a 300MW plant exclusive for the industrial zone.

Gwadar Port.

China has a great strategic interest in Gwadar. In 2013, the state-owned China Overseas Port Holdings Limited acquired Gwadar Port. The port is strategically important for China as sixty percent of China's oil comes from the Persian Gulf by ships traveling over 16,000 kilometres in two to three months, confronting pirates, bad weather, political rivals, and other risks up to its only commercial port, Shanghai. Gwadar will reduce the distance to a mere 5000 kilometres and also serve round the year.  China has been instrumental in the design of the project. China is providing approximately 80% of the cost of the port in the shape of grants and soft loans. Over 500 Chinese workers have worked on the project on a 24-hour basis to complete the port setup. There are still a large number of Chinese workers and engineers working on the project. China is setting up a dry port at the Pakistan–China border to take advantage of a shorter route to sea through Gwadar. China paid US$360 million to Pakistan for expansion and an upgrade for all weather trafficability of Karakoram Highway linking Pakistan with China. The contract has been awarded to Frontier Works Organization, who has also started the project. Feasibility and engineering studies to connect China with Gwadar through a pipeline and railway track have already begun.  China is heavily dependent on Persian Gulf oil which passes through the Strait of Malacca all the way through the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Once the oil reaches China's east coast ports, it is transported thousands of kilometres inland to western China. The Gwadar port-Karakoram Highway (KKH) route is sometimes said to be safer, cheaper and shorter than transporting the oil by ocean tanker. However, research suggests that transporting oil by roadways from Gwadar to China would be very expensive, would encounter numerous logistical difficulties such as mountainous terrain, earthquakes, disputes with India, and potential terrorist attacks, and would barely make any impact on China's overall energy security, though Pakistan intends to build an oil pipeline to northern Pakistan that may allay much of these concerns.  Chinese goods flowing in the opposite direction may be able to find an easier, shorter and secure route to the Middle East. The city is also being developed as an export processing zone for foreign companies to manufacture in Gwadar before exporting to various countries in the region. The Government of Pakistan has committed to providing a base to China in Gwadar with the intention of helping secure the area.  Although some analysts claim that China intends to establish a naval presence at Gwadar, others argue that China will be cautious about such a development. A Chinese military presence in Gwadar may provoke a significant reaction from both the United States and India.

New Gwadar International Airport.

Due to the Chinese interest in the Gwadar port, Pakistan believes that Gwadar will become a regional hub, Prime Minister Imran Khan has laid down the foundation stone for the New Gwadar International Airport (NGIAP) at Gwadar on 29 March 2019. New Gwadar international airport is located in Gurandani which is around 26 kilometers northeast of Gwadar city in Balochistan province. It is expected to cost $246 million with an area of 4,300 acres and it will be able to handle big aircraft such as A380. The new airport will cater to domestic and international flights and will have open skies policy.  It will be a Greenfield airport with a cargo terminal handling capacity of 30,000 tones a year. It will have a single runway of 3,658 meters length and width of 75 meters to accommodate wide body aircraft, however an option to build a 2nd runway in future is also feasible. CAA Pakistan has awarded the design and construction contract to the China Communications Construction Company (CCCC), It is expected to be completed in 2022.

Gwadar (Balochi and ; ) is a port city on the southwestern coast of Balochistan, Pakistan. The city is located on the shores of the Arabian Sea opposite Oman. Gwadar was an overseas possession of Oman from 1783 to 1958. It is about southwest of Turbat, while the sister port city of Chabahar in Iran's Sistan and Baluchestan Province is about to the west of Gwadar.

瓜达尔(、英语:Gwadar)位于巴基斯坦西南沿海,靠近波斯湾的霍尔木兹海峡,在盛产石油的中东地区,人口稠密的南亚和新兴经济和资源丰富的中亚地区之间。瓜达尔港的修建,预计会带来数十亿美元的收入,创造2万个就业岗位。目前有一新兴建的港口,可以连通南亚及西亚。


Names.

Former names of the Taiwan Strait include the or from a dated name for Taiwan; the or Fujian, from the Chinese province forming the strait's western shore; and the, a calque of the strait's name in Hokkien and Hakka.

Geography.

The Taiwan Strait is the body of water separating Fujian Province from Taiwan Island.  Current international agreement does not define the Taiwan Strait but places its waters within the South China Sea, whose northern limit runs from Cape Fugui (the northernmost point on Taiwan Island) to Niushan Island to the southernmost point of Pingtan Island and thence westward along the parallel N. to the coast of Fujian Province.  The still-unapproved draft for a new edition of the IHO's "Limits of Oceans and Seas" does precisely define the Taiwan Strait, classifying it as part of the North Pacific Ocean. It makes the Taiwan Strait a body of water "between" the East and South China Seas and delimits it:  Both the People's Republic of China (PRC) on the mainland and the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan Island espouse a One-China Policy that considers the strait part of the exclusive economic zone of a single "China". In practice, a maritime border of control exists, known as the Cross-Strait Median "Hǎixiá Zhōngxiàn").  The entire strait is on Asia's continental shelf. It is almost entirely less than deep, with a short ravine of that depth off the south-west coast of Taiwan. As such, there are many islands in the strait. The largest and most important islands off the Fujianese coast are Xiamen, Gulangyu, Pingtan (the "Haitan" of the IHO delineation), Kinmen, and Matsu. The first three are controlled by the PRC; the last two by the ROC. Within the strait lie the Penghu or Pescadores, also controlled by the ROC. There is a major underwater bank north of the Penghu Islands.  All of Fujian Province's rivers except the Ting run into the Taiwan Strait. The largest two are the Min and the Jiulong.

Geology.

Sediment distribution.

Every year Taiwan rivers deliver up to 370 million tons sediments to the sea, among them, there are 60-150 million tons are delivered into the Taiwan Strait. During the past 10 kyr, there has been 600 billion tons riverine sediments deposited in the Taiwan Strait, forming locally an up-to 40-m thick lobe in the southern part of the Taiwan Strait. see the Holocence mud distribution map.

History.

The Strait mostly separated the Han culture of the Chinese mainland from Taiwan Island's aborigines for millennia, although the Hakka and Hoklo traded and migrated across it. A Fujianese shamaness named Lin Mo is said to have drowned in the strait while rescuing members of her family in the 10th century; by the 12th century, her story had given rise to the cult of "Mazu" still celebrated on both sides of the strait.  Early modern Taiwan was a haven by Chinese and Japanese pirates. European explorers, principally the Spanish and Dutch, also took advantage of the strait to establish forward bases for trade with the mainland during the Ming; the bases were also used for raiding both the Chinese coast and the trading ships of rival countries.  Widespread Chinese migration across the strait began in the late Ming. During the Qing conquest, Ming refugees fled to Taiwan. Zheng Chenggong (Koxinga) expelled the Dutch and established the Kingdom of Tungning in 1661, planning to launch a reconquest of the mainland in the name of the Southern Ming branches of the old imperial dynasty. Dorgon and the Kangxi Emperor were able to consolidate their control over southern mainland China; Koxinga found himself limited to raiding across the strait. His grandson Zheng Keshuang surrendered to the Qing after his admiral lost the 1683 Battle of the Penghu Islands in the middle of the strait.  The Manchu-led Qing Empire faced constant revolts among the Han, Hoklo, and Hakka on Taiwan over the next 200 years. They never exerted much control over the aboriginal tribes on the eastern half of the island, prompting international incidents and American and Japanese invasions when the natives massacred the survivors of shipwrecks.  Japan seized the Penghu Islands during the First Sino-Japanese War and gained control of Taiwan at its conclusion in 1895. Control of the eastern half of the strait was used to establish control of the southern Chinese coast during the Second World War. The strait protected Japanese bases and industry on Taiwan from Chinese attack and sabotage, but aerial warfare reached the island by 1943. The 1944 Taiwan Air Battle gave the United States Pacific Fleet air supremacy from its carrier groups and Philippine bases; subsequently, bombing was continuous until Japan's surrender in 1945.  During and after the Chinese Civil War, uprisings and peaceful dissent against the Nationalist government of the Republic of China were met with martial law and brutal repression now known as the "White Terror". The rapid advance of the Communist PLA in 1949 provoked the government's panicked retreat across the Taiwan Strait. The PLA's successful amphibious conquest of Hainan Island in 1950 suggested Taiwan would soon fall as well but the PRC's entrance into the Korean War in the autumn of that year provoked the United States into resuming its support of the Nationalists.  The US Seventh Fleet patrolled the strait both to protect the island from Communist assault and to prevent the Taiwanese from beginning international incidents through assaults on the mainland expected to be fruitless. Chinese assaults led to "Taiwan Strait Crises" in 1954 & 1955 and 1958 that were ended by threat of war with the US; Chiang Kai-shek's plans for China's reconquest were mostly abandoned after a failed landing at Magong in 1965. Hopes for immediate military reunification of China gave way to a One-China Policy espoused by both Chinas and the international community; most international recognition switched from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China in the 1970s. A third Taiwan Strait Crisis occurred in 1995 & 1996 and cross-Strait relations remain strained, with a strengthening PRC economy also strengthening its military and deployments on the straits.

Economy.

Fishermen have used the strait as a fishing resource since time immemorial. In the modern world, it hosts major shipping lanes.  As part of the People's Republic of China's National Expressway Plan, a tunnel, or possibly a bridge, was proposed in 2005 to link the city of Fuzhou with Taipei across the strait. If such an extreme construction were ever built, it would by far exceed the length of any man-made tunnel in the world today. Engineers in Beijing state that a tunnel is technically feasible. However, the Republic of China government in Taiwan has refused to open direct links out of concern for Taiwan's security and in fear that by doing so it would have to recognize the People's Republic of China's one-China policy, since China split into two in the Chinese Civil War and they still have an adversarial relationship.

The Taiwan Strait, also known as the Formosa Strait, is a -wide strait separating Taiwan and mainland China. The strait is currently part of the South China Sea and connects to the East China Sea to the north. The narrowest part is wide.

台湾海峡(简称台海;欧洲早期称福尔摩沙海峡)指的是介于中国大陆东南沿海的福建与台湾之间的海域和海峡。


Early life.

Sonnenfeld was born and raised in New York City, the son of Irene "Kelly" (Kellerman), an art teacher, and Sonny Sonnenfeld, a lighting salesman, educator, and architectural lighting designer. He was raised in a Jewish family. After he received his bachelor's degree from Hampshire College, he graduated from New York University Film School in 1978.

Career.

He began working on pornographic films before starting work as director of photography on the Oscar-nominated "In Our Water" (1982). Then Joel Coen and Ethan Coen hired him for "Blood Simple" (1984). This film began his collaboration with the Coen brothers, who used him for their next two pictures, "Raising Arizona" (1987) and "Miller's Crossing" (1990). He also worked with Danny DeVito on "Throw Momma from the Train" (1987) and Rob Reiner on "When Harry Met Sally..." (1989) and "Misery" (1990).  Sonnenfeld gained his first work as a director from Paramount Pictures on "The Addams Family", a box-office success released in November 1991. Its sequel, "Addams Family Values" (1993), was not as successful at the box office, but he received critical acclaim for his fourth directorial outing, "Get Shorty" (1995). Produced by Jersey Films and based on a novel by Elmore Leonard, the film won a Golden Globe for John Travolta (Best Actor in a Comedy or Musical). The film was also entered into the 46th Berlin International Film Festival. Following Tim Burton and the Coen brothers, Sonnenfeld's films would tell stories about unusual and unorthodox people who are into the unexpected and the strange. His films would often use his trademark filmmaking techniques such as his unusual camera angles, offbeat dialogue and, in certain films, strange behavior and weird creatures.  In 1996, Steven Spielberg asked him to direct "Men in Black" (1997). Starring Tommy Lee Jones and Will Smith, the film was a critical and financial smash. In 1998, Jon Peters asked him to direct "Wild Wild West" (1999). Starring Smith and Kevin Kline, the film was a critical and financial flop. He also directed the comedy "Big Trouble" (2002), after which he made his most successful film sequel to that point, "Men in Black II" (2002). He is also a contributing editor for "Esquire". He also co-produced (alongside his partner Barry Josephson) the 2007 film "Enchanted" for Walt Disney Pictures that starred Amy Adams. In 2008, Sonnenfeld earned an Emmy for directing "Pushing Daisies". Sonnenfeld returned for "Men in Black 3"; released in 2012, the third installment received positive reviews and became the highest-grossing film in the series worldwide.

Personal life.

Sonnenfeld lives in Telluride, Colorado with his wife Susan and their daughter Chloe and have permanent resident status in Canada.  In 1999, he was unhurt in a plane crash at Van Nuys Airport, when his business jet veered off the runway upon landing, crashing into five parked planes.

Future projects.

He is working on new projects, among them include "Things a Man Should Never Do Past 30": a single-camera comedy from executive producer/director Sonnenfeld, the Tannenbaum Company and Sony Pictures Television. The project mostly is based on the personal experiences of "Esquire" writer David Katz and "Esquire" editor at large A. J. Jacobs. The show is about a man working at a men's magazine who is reluctant to embrace adulthood and his friend who is an immersion journalist. Al Higgins ("Malcolm in the Middle") is set to serve as showrunner/head writer if the project is picked up.  He has become attached to a movie adaptation of "The Spellman Files" by Lisa Lutz, about a family of private investigators. Sonnenfeld will direct the movie adaptation of the fantasy novel "Gil's All Fright Diner" in partnership with DreamWorks Animation. He is also developing a sitcom for ABC, "Funny in Farsi", based on the book of the same name.  In 2012, it was stated that he was appointed to direct "Lore", an adaptation based on the comic by T.P. Louise and Ashley Wood of the same name. But, in 2013, Indie director Dave Green has signed on to replace Barry Sonnenfeld as director, Sonnenfeld will take part as executive producer on the project.  Barry is also in talks with Warner Bros. to make a live action film adaptation of the DC Comics characters, The Metal Men. Sonnenfeld also agreed to direct the "Beverly Hills Cop" pilot for CBS and serve as an executive producer as well. However, Paramount Pictures dropped the idea in favor of a fourth film directed by Adil El Arbi and Bilall Fallah.

External links.

Barry Sonnenfeld (born April 1, 1953) is an American filmmaker and television director. He originally worked as a cinematographer for the Coen brothers before directing films such as "The Addams Family" (1991) and its sequel "Addams Family Values" (1993) alongside the "Men in Black" trilogy (1997–2012), "Wild Wild West" (1999) and "Get Shorty" (1995). Sonnenfeld has collaborated with actor and singer Will Smith four times.

巴里·索南菲尔德(Barry Sonnenfeld,1953年-4月1日)是一名美国电影导演和电视剧导演。他曾为科恩兄弟的摄影师,后来他作为制片人和导演并执导了一些经典电影,如《亚当斯一家》及其续集,和连同广受好评的《关人矮事》以及《黑衣人》三部曲。


Overview.

Like black holes, white holes have properties like mass, charge, and angular momentum. They attract matter like any other mass, but objects falling towards a white hole would never actually reach the white hole's event horizon (though in the case of the maximally extended Schwarzschild solution, discussed below, the white hole event horizon in the past becomes a black hole event horizon in the future, so any object falling towards it will eventually reach the black hole horizon). Imagine a gravitational field, without a surface. Acceleration due to gravity is the greatest on the surface of any body. But since black holes lack a surface, acceleration due to gravity increases exponentially, but never reaches a final value as there is no considered surface in a singularity.  In quantum mechanics, the black hole emits Hawking radiation and so can come to thermal equilibrium with a gas of radiation (not compulsory). Because a thermal-equilibrium state is time-reversal-invariant, Stephen Hawking argued that the time reverse of a black hole in thermal equilibrium is again a black hole in thermal equilibrium. This may imply that black holes and white holes are the same object. The Hawking radiation from an ordinary black hole is then identified with the white-hole emission. Hawking's semi-classical argument is reproduced in a quantum mechanical AdS/CFT treatment, where a black hole in anti-de Sitter space is described by a thermal gas in a gauge theory, whose time reversal is the same as itself.

Origin.

The possibility of the existence of white holes was put forward by Russian cosmologist Igor Novikov in 1964. White holes are predicted as part of a solution to the Einstein field equations known as the maximally extended version of the Schwarzschild metric describing an eternal black hole with no charge and no rotation. Here, "maximally extended" refers to the idea that the spacetime should not have any "edges": for any possible trajectory of a free-falling particle (following a geodesic) in the spacetime, it should be possible to continue this path arbitrarily far into the particle's future, unless the trajectory hits a gravitational singularity like the one at the center of the black hole's interior. In order to satisfy this requirement, it turns out that in addition to the black hole interior region which particles enter when they fall through the event horizon from the outside, there must be a separate white hole interior region, which allows us to extrapolate the trajectories of particles which an outside observer sees rising up "away" from the event horizon. For an observer outside using Schwarzschild coordinates, infalling particles take an infinite time to reach the black hole horizon infinitely far in the future, while outgoing particles which pass the observer have been traveling outward for an infinite time since crossing the white hole horizon infinitely far in the past (however, the particles or other objects experience only a finite proper time between crossing the horizon and passing the outside observer). The black hole/white hole appears "eternal" from the perspective of an outside observer, in the sense that particles traveling outward from the white hole interior region can pass the observer at any time, and particles traveling inward which will eventually reach the black hole interior region can also pass the observer at any time.  Just as there are two separate interior regions of the maximally extended spacetime, there are also two separate exterior regions, sometimes called two different "universes", with the second universe allowing us to extrapolate some possible particle trajectories in the two interior regions. This means that the interior black-hole region can contain a mix of particles that fell in from either universe (and thus an observer who fell in from one universe might be able to see light that fell in from the other one), and likewise particles from the interior white-hole region can escape into either universe. All four regions can be seen in a spacetime diagram which uses Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates (see figure).  In this spacetime, it is possible to come up with coordinate systems such that if you pick a hypersurface of constant time (a set of points that all have the same time coordinate, such that every point on the surface has a space-like separation, giving what is called a'space-like surface') and draw an "embedding diagram" depicting the curvature of space at that time, the embedding diagram will look like a tube connecting the two exterior regions, known as an "Einstein-Rosen bridge" or Schwarzschild wormhole. Depending on where the space-like hypersurface is chosen, the Einstein-Rosen bridge can either connect two black hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the black hole region of the spacetime), or two white hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the white hole region). It is impossible to use the bridge to cross from one universe to the other, however, because it is impossible to enter a white hole event horizon from the outside, and anyone entering a black hole horizon from either universe will inevitably hit the black hole singularity.  Note that the maximally extended Schwarzschild metric describes an idealized black hole/white hole that exists eternally from the perspective of external observers; a more realistic black hole that forms at some particular time from a collapsing star would require a different metric. When the infalling stellar matter is added to a diagram of a black hole's history, it removes the part of the diagram corresponding to the white hole interior region. But because the equations of general relativity are time-reversible – they exhibit Time reversal symmetry – general relativity must also allow the time-reverse of this type of "realistic" black hole that forms from collapsing matter. The time-reversed case would be a white hole that has existed since the beginning of the universe, and which emits matter until it finally "explodes" and disappears. Despite the fact that such objects are permitted theoretically, they are not taken as seriously as black holes by physicists, since there would be no processes that would naturally lead to their formation; they could exist only if they were built into the initial conditions of the Big Bang. Additionally, it is predicted that such a white hole would be highly "unstable" in the sense that if any small amount of matter fell towards the horizon from the outside, this would prevent the white hole's explosion as seen by distant observers, with the matter emitted from the singularity never able to escape the white hole's gravitational radius.

Big Bang/Supermassive White Hole.

A view of black holes first proposed in the late 1980s might be interpreted as shedding some light on the nature of classical white holes. Some researchers have proposed that when a black hole forms, a Big Bang may occur at the core/singularity, which would create a new universe that expands outside of the "parent universe". See also Fecund universes.  The Einstein–Cartan-Sciama-Kibble theory of gravity extends general relativity by removing a constraint of the symmetry of the affine connection and regarding its antisymmetric part, the torsion tensor, as a dynamical variable. Torsion naturally accounts for the quantum-mechanical, intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of matter.  According to general relativity, the gravitational collapse of a sufficiently compact mass forms a singular black hole. In the Einstein–Cartan theory, however, the minimal coupling between torsion and Dirac spinors generates a repulsive spin–spin interaction which is significant in fermionic matter at extremely high densities. Such an interaction prevents the formation of a gravitational singularity. Instead, the collapsing matter on the other side of the event horizon reaches an enormous but finite density and rebounds, forming a regular Einstein–Rosen bridge. The other side of the bridge becomes a new, growing baby universe. For observers in the baby universe, the parent universe appears as the only white hole. Accordingly, the observable universe is the Einstein–Rosen interior of a black hole existing as one of possibly many inside a larger universe. The Big Bang was a nonsingular Big Bounce at which the observable universe had a finite, minimum scale factor.  A 2012 paper argues that the Big Bang itself is a white hole. It further suggests that the emergence of a white hole, which was named a 'Small Bang', is spontaneous—all the matter is ejected at a single pulse. Thus, unlike black holes, white holes cannot be continuously observed; rather, their effects can be detected only around the event itself. The paper even proposed identifying a new group of gamma-ray bursts with white holes.  In 2014, the idea of the Big Bang being produced by a supermassive white hole explosion was explored in the framework of a five dimensional vacuum by Madriz Aguilar, Moreno and Bellini.

In popular culture.

The idea of white holes was explored in an episode of the British science fiction sitcom "Red Dwarf" entitled "White Hole". In the episode, the cast encounter an unusual space-time phenomenon that appears to be spewing time into the universe, causing events to happen in a non-linear way, as illustrated when the character Kryten tries to explain the phenomenon to the others:

In general relativity, a white hole is a hypothetical region of spacetime and singularity which cannot be entered from the outside, although energy-matter and light can escape from it. In this sense, it is the reverse of a black hole, which can be entered only from the outside and from which energy-matter and light cannot escape. White holes appear in the theory of eternal black holes. In addition to a black hole region in the future, such a solution of the Einstein field equations has a white hole region in its past. However, some believe this region does not exist for black holes that have formed through gravitational collapse, nor are there any known physical processes through which a white hole could be formed. Although information and evidence regarding white holes remains inconclusive, the 2006 GRB 060614 has been proposed as the first documented observance of a white hole.

在广义相对论中,白洞(英语:White hole)是一种理论推测出来的时空区域,物质与光线无法进入这个区域中,但是可以从这个区域中向外出现。白洞的性质与黑洞相反,光与物质可以进入黑洞中,但是无法从黑洞中离开。这个理论最早由伊戈尔·德米特里耶维奇·诺维科夫在1964年根据对史瓦西解的计算,而提出这个假设。目前已经有许多证据显示黑洞存在,到现在还没有任何证据表明白洞存在,因此白洞仍然只是一种由理论推导而出的假想星体。白洞的存在也违反热力学定理,因为热力学认为熵不是保持不变就是增加,但白洞会使熵减少。于2012年发表的一篇论文认为宇宙形成最初的大爆炸是短暂喷发的白洞。在论文中,作者还认为白洞理论可以解释2006年发现的伽玛射线暴——GRB 060614。假设黑洞和白洞彼此连接,在其中连接的通道叫虫洞,这成为许多科幻小说的主题。


Name.

In modern Hungarian, the script is known formally as ('Szekler script'). The writing system is generally known as,, and (or simply 'notch, score').

History.

Origins.

Scientists cannot give an exact date or origin for the script. Linguist András Róna-Tas derives Old Hungarian from the Old Turkic script, itself recorded in inscriptions dating from. The origins of the Turkic scripts are uncertain. The scripts may be derived from Asian scripts such as the Pahlavi and Sogdian alphabets, or possibly from Kharosthi, all of which are in turn remotely derived from the Aramaic script. Alternatively, according to some opinions, ancient Turkic runes descend from primaeval Turkic graphic logograms.  Speakers of Proto-Hungarian would have come into contact with Turkic peoples during the 7th or 8th century, in the context of the Turkic expansion, as is also evidenced by numerous Turkic loanwords in Proto-Hungarian.  All the letters but one for sounds which were shared by Turkic and Ancient Hungarian can be related to their Old Turkic counterparts. Most of the missing characters were derived by script internal extensions, rather than borrowings, but a small number of characters seem to derive from Greek, such as 'eF'.  The modern Hungarian term for this script (coined in the 19th century),, derives from the verb ('to score') which is derived from old Uralic, general Hungarian terminology describing the technique of writing ( 'to write', 'letter', 'knife, also: for carving letters') derive from Turkic, which further supports transmission via Turkic alphabets.

Medieval Hungary.

Epigraphic evidence for the use of the Old Hungarian script in medieval Hungary dates to the 10th century, for example, from Homokmégy The latter inscription was found on a fragment of a quiver made of bone. Although there have been several attempts to interpret it, the meaning of it is still unclear.  In 1000, with the coronation of Stephen I of Hungary, Hungary (previously an alliance of mostly nomadic tribes) became a Kingdom. The Latin alphabet was adopted as official script; however, Old Hungarian continued to be used in the vernacular.  The runic script was first mentioned in the 13th century Chronicle of Simon of Kéza, where he stated that the Székelys may use the script of the Blaks.

Early Modern period.

The Old Hungarian script became part of folk art in several areas during this period. In Royal Hungary, Old Hungarian script was used less, although there are relics from this territory, too. There is another copy – similar to the Nikolsburg Alphabet – of the Old Hungarian alphabet, dated 1609. The inscription from Énlaka, dated 1668, is an example of the "folk art use".  There are a number of inscriptions ranging from the 17th to the early 19th centuries, including examples from Kibéd, Csejd, Makfalva, Szolokma, Marosvásárhely, Csíkrákos, Mezőkeresztes, Nagybánya, Torda, Felsőszemeréd, Kecskemét and Kiskunhalas.

Scholarly discussion.

Hungarian script was first described in late Humanist/Baroque scholarship by János Telegdy in his primer. Published in 1598, Telegdi's primer presents his understanding of the script and contains Hungarian texts written with runes, such as the Lord's Prayer.  In the 19th century, scholars began to research the rules and the other features of the Old Hungarian script. From this time, the name ('runic writing') began to re-enter the popular consciousness in Hungary, and script historians in other countries began to use the terms "Old Hungarian",, and so on. Because the Old Hungarian script had been replaced by Latin, linguistic researchers in the 20th century had to reconstruct the alphabet from historic sources. Gyula Sebestyén, an ethnographer and folklorist, and Gyula (Julius) Németh, a philologist, linguist, and Turkologist, did the lion's share of this work. Sebestyén's publications, ("Runes and runic writing", Budapest, 1909) and ("The authentic relics of Hungarian runic writing", Budapest, 1915) contain valuable information on the topic.

Popular revival.

Beginning with Adorján Magyar in 1915, the script has been promulgated as a means for writing modern Hungarian. These groups approached the question of representation of the vowels of modern Hungarian in different ways. Adorján Magyar made use of characters to distinguish "a"/"á" and "e"/"é" but did not distinguish the other vowels by length. A school led by Sándor Forrai from 1974 onward did, however, distinguish "i"/"í", "o"/"ó", "ö"/"ő", "u"/"ú", and "ü"/"ű". The revival has become part of a significant ideological nationalist subculture present not only in Hungary (largely centered in Budapest), but also amongst the Hungarian diaspora, particularly in the United States and Canada.  Old Hungarian has seen other usages in the modern period, sometimes in association with or referencing Hungarian neopaganism, similar to the way in which Norse neopagans have taken up the Germanic runes, and Celtic neopagans have taken up the ogham script for various purposes. The use of the script sometimes has a political undertone, as they can be found from time to time in graffiti with a variety of content.

Epigraphy.

The inscription corpus includes:

Characters.

The runic alphabet included 42 letters. As in the Old Turkic script, some consonants had two forms, one to be used with back vowels (a, á, o, ó, u, ú) and another for front vowels (e, é, i, í, ö, ő, ü, ű). The names of the consonants are always pronounced with a vowel. In the old alphabet, the consonant-vowel order is reversed, unlike today's pronunciation ("ep" rather than "pé"). This is because the oldest inscriptions lacked vowels and were rarely written down, similar to other ancient languages' consonant-writing systems (Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic, etc.). The alphabet did not contain letters for the phonemes dz and dzs of modern Hungarian, since these are relatively recent developments in the language's history. Nor did it have letters corresponding to the Latin q, w, x and y. The modern revitalization movement has created symbols for these; in Unicode encoding, they are represented as ligatures.  For more information about the transliteration's pronunciation, see Hungarian alphabet.  The Hungarian runes also include some non-alphabetical runes which are not ligatures but separate signs. These are identified in some sources as "" (likely a misspelling of ). Further research is needed to define their origin and traditional usage. Some examples:

Features.

Old Hungarian letters were usually written from right to left on sticks. Later, in Transylvania, they appeared on several media. Writings on walls also were right to left and not boustrophedon style (alternating direction right to left and then left to right).  The numbers are almost the same as the Roman, Etruscan, and Chuvash numerals. Numbers of livestock were carved on tally sticks and the sticks were then cut in two lengthwise to avoid later disputes.

Text example.

Text from Csíkszentmárton, 1501. "Runes originally written as ligatures are underlined."  Unicode transcription: 𐲪𐲢𐲙𐲔⁝𐲥𐲬𐲖𐲦𐲤𐲦𐲬𐲖⁝𐲌𐲛𐲍𐲮𐲀𐲙⁝𐲐𐲢𐲙𐲔⁝𐲯𐲢𐲞𐲦 ⁝𐲥𐲀𐲯𐲎⁝𐲥𐲦𐲙𐲇𐲞𐲂𐲉⁝𐲘𐲀𐲨𐲤⁝𐲒𐲀𐲙𐲛𐲤⁝𐲤𐲨𐲦𐲙⁝𐲓𐲛𐲮𐲀𐲆⁝𐲆𐲐𐲙𐲀𐲖𐲦𐲔⁝𐲘𐲀𐲨𐲀𐲤𐲘𐲤𐲦𐲢⁝𐲍𐲢𐲍𐲗𐲘𐲤𐲦𐲢𐲆𐲐𐲙𐲀𐲖𐲦𐲀𐲔 𐲍·𐲐𐲒·𐲀·𐲤·𐲐·𐲗·𐲗·𐲖𐲦·𐲀·  Interpretation in old Hungarian: "ÚRNaK SZÜLeTéSéTÜL FOGVÁN ÍRNaK eZeRÖTSZÁZeGY eSZTeNDŐBE MÁTYáS JÁNOS eSTYTáN KOVÁCS CSINÁLTáK MÁTYáSMeSTeR GeRGeLYMeSTeRCSINÁLTÁK G IJ A aS I LY LY LT A" (The letters actually written in the runic text are written with uppercase in the transcription.)  Interpretation in modern Hungarian: "(Ezt) az Úr születése utáni 1501. évben írták. Mátyás, János, István kovácsok csinálták. Mátyás mester (és) Gergely mester csinálták gijas ily ly lta"  English translation: "(This) was written in the 1501st year of our Lord. The smiths Matthias, John (and) Stephen did (this). Master Matthias (and) Master Gregory did [uninterpretable]"

Unicode.

After many proposals Old Hungarian was added to the Unicode Standard in June, 2015 with the release of version 8.0.  The Unicode block for Old Hungarian is U+10C80–U+10CFF:

Pre-Unicode encodings.

A set of closely related 8-bit code pages exist, devised in the 1990s by Gabor Hosszú. These were mapped to Latin-1 or Latin-2 character set fonts. After installing one of them and applying their formatting to the document – because of the lack of capital letters – runic characters could be entered in the following way: those letters which are unique letters in today's Hungarian orthography are virtually lowercase ones, and can be written by simply pressing the specific key; and since the modern digraphs equal to separate rovás letters, they were encoded as 'uppercase' letters, i.e. in the space originally restricted for capitals. Thus, typing a lowercase "g" will produce the rovás character for the sound marked with Latin script "g", but entering an uppercase "G" will amount to a rovás sign equivalent to a digraph "gy" in Latin-based Hungarian orthography.

The Old Hungarian script or Hungarian runes (,'székely-magyar runiform', or ) is an alphabetic writing system used for writing the Hungarian language. Modern Hungarian is written using the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet. The term "old" refers to the historical priority of the script compared with the Latin-based one. The Old Hungarian script is a child system of the Old Turkic alphabet.

古匈牙利字母是马札尔人于中世纪时所使用的一种字母。


Historical context.

In the 1930s many Americans, arguing that the involvement in World War I had been a mistake, were adamantly against continued intervention in European affairs. With the Neutrality Acts established after 1935, U.S. law banned the sale of armaments to countries that were at war and placed restrictions on travel with belligerent vessels.  When World War II began in September 1939, the neutrality laws were still in effect and ensured that no substantial support could be given to Britain and France. With the revision of the Neutrality Act in 1939, Roosevelt adopted a "methods-short-of-war policy" whereby supplies and armaments could be given to European Allies, provided no declaration of war could be made and no troops committed. By December 1940, Europe was largely at the mercy of Adolf Hitler and Germany's Nazi regime. With Germany's defeat of France in June 1940, Britain and its overseas Empire stood alone against the military alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan. Winston Churchill, as Prime Minister of Britain, called for Roosevelt and the United States to supply them with armaments in order to continue with the war effort.  The 1939 New York World's Fair had celebrated Four Freedoms - religion, speech, press, and assembly - and commissioned Leo Friedlander to create sculptures representing them. Mayor of New York City Fiorello La Guardia described the resulting statues as the "heart of the fair". Later Roosevelt would declare his own "Four Essential Freedoms" and call on Walter Russell to create a "Four Freedoms Monument" that was eventually dedicated at Madison Square Garden in New York City.  They also appeared on the reverse of the AM-lira, the Allied Military Currency note issue that was issued in Italy during WWII, by the Americans, that was in effect occupation currency, guaranteed by the American dollar.

Declarations.

The Four Freedoms Speech was given on January 6, 1941. Roosevelt's hope was to provide a rationale for why the United States should abandon the isolationist policies that emerged from World War I. In the address, Roosevelt critiqued Isolationism, saying: "No realistic American can expect from a dictator's peace international generosity, or return of true independence, or world disarmament, or freedom of expression, or freedom of religion–or even good business. Such a peace would bring no security for us or for our neighbors. "Those, who would give up essential liberty to purchase a little temporary safety, deserve neither liberty nor safety."  The speech coincided with the introduction of the Lend-Lease Act, which promoted Roosevelt's plan to become the "arsenal of democracy" and support the Allies (mainly the British) with much-needed supplies. Furthermore, the speech established what would become the ideological basis for America's involvement in World War II, all framed in terms of individual rights and liberties that are the hallmark of American politics.  The speech delivered by President Roosevelt incorporated the following text, known as the "Four Freedoms":  The declaration of the Four Freedoms as a justification for war would resonate through the remainder of the war, and for decades longer as a frame of remembrance. The Freedoms became the staple of America's war aims and the center of all attempts to rally public support for the war. With the creation of the Office of War Information (1942), as well as the famous paintings by Norman Rockwell, the Freedoms were advertised as values central to American life and examples of American exceptionalism.

Opposition.

The Four Freedoms Speech was popular, and the goals were influential in postwar politics. However, in 1941 the speech received heavy criticism from anti-war elements. Critics argued that the Four Freedoms were simply a charter for Roosevelt's New Deal, social reforms that had already created sharp divisions within Congress. Conservatives who opposed social programs and increased government intervention argued against Roosevelt's attempt to justify and depict the war as necessary for the defense of lofty goals.  While the Freedoms did become a forceful aspect of American thought on the war, they were never the exclusive justification for the war. Polls and surveys conducted by the United States Office of War Information (OWI) revealed that "self-defense", and vengeance for the attack on Pearl Harbor were still the most prevalent reasons for war.

Limitations.

In a 1942 radio address, President Roosevelt declared the Four Freedoms embodied "rights of men of every creed and every race, wherever they live."  On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt authorized Japanese American internment and internment of Italian Americans with Executive Order 9066, which allowed local military commanders to designate "military areas" as "exclusion zones," from which "any or all persons may be excluded." This power was used to declare that all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from the entire Pacific coast, including all of California and much of Oregon, Washington, and Arizona, except for those in internment camps. By 1946, the United States had incarcerated 120,000 individuals of Japanese descent, of whom about 80,000 had been born in the United States.

United Nations.

The concept of the Four Freedoms became part of the personal mission undertaken by First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt regarding her inspiration behind the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly Resolution 217A. Indeed, these Four Freedoms were explicitly incorporated into the preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which reads, ""Whereas" disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy the freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed the highest aspiration of the common people..."

Disarmament.

FDR called for "a world-wide reduction of armaments" as a goal for "the future days, which we seek to make secure" but one that was "attainable in our own time and generation." More immediately, though, he called for a massive build-up of U.S. arms production:

Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park.

The Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park is a park designed by the architect Louis Kahn for the south point of Roosevelt Island. The Park celebrates the famous speech, and text from the speech is inscribed on a granite wall in the final design of the Park.

Awards.

The Roosevelt Institute honors outstanding individuals who have demonstrated a lifelong commitment to these ideals. The Four Freedoms Award medals are awarded at ceremonies at Hyde Park, New York and Middelburg, Netherlands during alternate years. The awards were first presented in 1982 on the centenary of President Roosevelt's birth as well as the bicentenary of diplomatic relations between the United States and the Netherlands.  Among the laureates have been:

Norman Rockwell's paintings.

Roosevelt's speech inspired a set of four paintings by Norman Rockwell.

Paintings.

The members of the set, known collectively as "The Four Freedoms", were published in four consecutive issues of "The Saturday Evening Post". The four paintings subsequently were displayed around the US by the United States Department of the Treasury.

Essays.

Each painting was published with a matching essay on that particular "Freedom":

Postage stamps.

Rockwell's "Four Freedoms" paintings were reproduced as postage stamps by the United States Post Office in 1943, in 1946, and in 1994, the centenary of Rockwell's birth.

The Four Freedoms were goals articulated by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt on Monday, January 6, 1941. In an address known as the (technically the 1941 State of the Union address), he proposed four fundamental freedoms that people "everywhere in the world" ought to enjoy:

四大自由()是美国总统富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福于1941年1月6日星期一阐明的目标。在「四大自由演讲」(准确而言是1941年国情咨文演讲)中,他提出了「世界各地(everywhere in the world)」的人们应该享有的四项基本自由:


Development.

Following the successful inauguration of the Intercity-Express system in 1991 and the order to develop the ICE 2, in 1994 DB started plans to upgrade long-distance services using conventional lines, with higher speeds and a comfort level close to the ICE standard, using tilting electric multiple units to replace locomotive-hauled InterCity (IC) and InterRegio (IR) trains. DB assigned the name "IC T" to the project, with "T" standing for "Triebzug" (multiple unit).  Later, Deutsche Bahn also saw the need for a similar new train for its non-electrified routes, and started the "ICT-VT" project, with "VT" standing for "Verbrennungstriebwagen" (internal combustion motor car). This development resulted in the diesel-powered ICE TD.  Deutsche Bahn developed the ICE 3, IC T and ICT-VT projects in parallel. The trains share a general styling concept, notably a lounge section in the front separated only by a glass wall from the driver's compartment, with a view forward over the tracks. Technically, the trains share a lot of components and technical layout, as well as the concept of distributed traction: in contrast to the ICE 1 and ICE 2 designs, the new units were planned not with power cars, but with peripheral underfloor motors, to reduce axle load (important for tilting trains) and increase tractive effort.  At first plans were made for a three-car EMU, but in the end, capacity considerations led to a decision to create trains of two different lengths, five (later class 415) and seven (later class 411) cars, the combinations of which allow a sufficient variety of train lengths with a maximum of three trains coupled (possible variations are: 5, 7, 10, 12, 14, 15 cars total).

Production.

In 1994, Deutsche Bahn placed an order for 40 trains, revised to 43 trains (32 of the 7-car, 11 of the 5-car version) in 1997.  The trains were produced by a consortium led by DWA and including Siemens, DUEWAG and Fiat Ferroviaria. DWA (later taken over by Bombardier) produced the end cars, DUEWAG (owned by Siemens, later merged into the parent company) the middle cars, Siemens supplied the electronics and other main parts, and Fiat Ferroviaria (later bought by Alstom) supplied the bogies and the tilting technology.  The tilting technology is a hydraulic actuator system based on that of the Italian ETR 460 and ETR 470 second-generation Pendolino trains. In Pendolino bogies, only one axle is driven. In class 411 and class 415 motor cars, the inside axle of both bogies is motorised (configuration (1A)'(A1)').  After the German government abandoned the project of a Transrapid (maglev) line between Hamburg and Berlin, Deutsche Bahn decided to upgrade its conventional line between the two cities to 230 km/h. To serve this line and increase capacity on other lines, in 2002 DB ordered an additional 28 seven-car trains from a consortium consisting of the successors of the companies in the previous one, but this time led by Siemens. This brought the total number of Class 411 trains to 60. The main changes were aimed at reducing costs.

Class 411.

The second (411.1), third (411.2), fifth (411.7) and sixth (411.6) cars are motorised, while the end cars (411.0 and 411.5) carry transformers supplying the next two cars. Thus each train consists of two power units of three coaches plus one unpowered middle car (411.8). The middle car can be removed, and theoretically the trains can be supplemented with an additional middle car.

Class 411, second batch.

The second batch of trains (with car numbers of 411 x51-411 x78) display a number of smaller modifications, mainly to reduce purchase and maintenance costs. The most visible differences outside were the lack of a through window band with tinted glass, and LED matrix headlights. The most apparent differences inside were the scrapping of on-board radio and the replacement of the restaurant with a standing bar. The trains also offer 8 additional seats for a total of 390.

Class 415.

Each five-car train forms a single power unit, with three motorised middle cars (415.1, 415.7, 415.6) between two end cars (415.0, 415.5) carrying transformers.  Six trains are intended for domestic service, the other five (car numbers 415 x80-415 x84) for international service towards Switzerland, therefore they were also equipped with the Swiss train safety system and additional narrower pantographs for the Swiss network.  The first class 415 train was assembled in the summer of 1998, when testing began. Trials with the activated tilting system started in October 1998. Software errors delayed the commissioning. The first class 411 was delivered in early 1999.  Shortly before entering service, the product name of the trains was changed to "ICE T", with "T" now standing for the English word "tilt(ing)". (At the same time, the ICT VT became the ICE TD.)

Service history.

Class 415 entered service on 31 May 1999 between Stuttgart and Zurich. Class 411 entered service on 19 December 1999 between Berlin and Düsseldorf via Magdeburg. Later, the Berlin-Munich and Frankfurt-Leipzig-Dresden routes were added.  On 6 January 2004, one unit (with cars numbered 411 x06) burnt out. Only the end cars remained intact, and have been used as temporary replacements for damaged end cars of other units.  Starting in December 2004, DB took the second batch of 28 more class 411 units into service on the upgraded line between Berlin and Hamburg. This was the first time the ICE T reached its top speed of 230 km/h in regular service. DB accepted the additional trains only after they proved themselves reliable in service, with all trains delivered by the 2006 FIFA World Cup. The trains were delivered with a standing bar in place of a restaurant; however, from 2007, all have been rebuilt with a restaurant.  Most trains have been assigned city names.  When the capacity of the Switzerland-enabled five-car trains became too low for the Stuttgart-Zürich services, in 2006 the class 415 end cars (which carry the pantographs and the train safety equipment) were switched with that of class 411 trains, thus forming seven-car trains suitable for services to Switzerland.  From the timetable change at the end of 2007, 15 class 411 trains modified for service in Austria (three of them sold to the Austrian Federal Railways, see section ÖBB Class 4011 below) connect Frankfurt and Vienna every two hours. Some of these trains come from Dortmund and go via Frankfurt to Vienna.

Service disruption.

On 24 October 2008, DB temporarily removed all ICE-T trains from service after a crack was found in an axle of one of the company's fleet of trains. All the trains were to be inspected for similar cracks and repaired as necessary before DB returned them to service. DB decided to sideline the trains after consultation with Siemens, Bombardier and Alstom revealed only "unclear information" about the expected life span of the axles.  At the start of November 2008, a quarter of the trains were back in service. The ultrasonic tests progressed at a speed of two trains a week, with tests on all trains expected to be finished by February 2009. Until the reason for the axle breaks is identified, the checked trains are operated with deactivated tilting system.  In January 2009, Deutsche Bahn CEO Hartmut Mehdorn suggested that the axles would have to be replaced with a new design. Development, production and installation of the new axles would take up to two years.

ÖBB 4011.

Three class 411 units from the first batch have been sold to Austria's ÖBB as class 4011. They have undergone a few changes.

DBAG Class 411 and Class 415 are German tilting electric multiple-unit high-speed trains in service with DB Fernverkehr, commonly known as ICE T.

ICE-T是德国国铁411及415型铁路列车的代号。此系列是德国 城际列车特快(Inter City Express)家族最新推出的列车。但与其他家族成员不同的是,它不是以速度为设计重点;它是唯一拥有倾斜技术的ICE列车。


Life.

Youth.

Franz Overbeck was born in Saint Petersburg as a German citizen to Franz Heinrich Herrmann Overbeck, a German-British merchant, and his wife, Jeanne Camille Cerclet, who was born in Saint Petersburg to a French family. Consequently, his upbringing was European and humanistic: first taking place in Saint Petersburg, then in Paris from 1846 until the February Revolution of 1848, once again in Saint Petersburg, and after 1850 in Dresden. This international education helped him gain fluency in the most important European languages.  From 1856 until 1864, Overbeck studied theology in Leipzig, Göttingen, Berlin, and Jena. Primarily through the lectures of Karl Schwarz and in conjunction with the historical theology of Ferdinand Christian Baur, his studies situated him at the beginning of academic criticism against the official theology. In 1859, he received his doctorate degree, after which he worked on his Habilitation on Hippolytus until 1864. After 1864, he taught as a Privatdozent in Jena.  During his student time in Leipzig, he became close friends with Heinrich von Treitschke, and in Göttingen, Overbeck had become a member of the Burschenschaft 'Hannovera'.

Theologian in Basel.

In 1870, Overbeck became professor of New Testament Exegesis and Old Church History at the University of Basel. From that time until 1875, he lived in the same house (one floor under) as his colleague Friedrich Nietzsche, the Professor of Classical Philology at the same university. During this time, the housemates developed a friendship that would remain crucial for each other.  In 1873, Overbeck published his most important work 'How Christian is Our Present-Day Theology?' ("Über die Christlichkeit unserer heutigen Theologie"), in which he argued that the "historical" Christianity, as developed by the fathers of the church, neither did nor could have to do with the original ideas of Christ. He observed that early Christianity had opposed itself to every type of history, culture, and science, which made a "Christian theology" impossible. In this work, Overbeck criticized the conservative ("apologetic") theology, which stuck dogmatically to doctrines, as much as the "liberal" theology, which asserted that belief and knowledge could be reconciled. According to Overbeck, both failed to capture an essence of Christianity, which excludes every type of scientific knowledge.  This work was primarily incited by David Strauss's "The Old and New Faith" ("Vom alten und neuen Glauben", 1872) and Paul de Lagarde's 'On the Relationship of the German State to Theology, Church, and Religion' ('Über das Verhältnis des deutschen Staates zu Theologie, Kirche und Religion', 1873). Both authors attempted to shape a modern Christian religion with the help of theological scholarship. Overbeck regarded this project as impossible and fundamentally in error. In his afterword for the second edition in 1903, he renewed this critique against theologian Adolf von Harnack and his work 'The Essence of Christianity' ('Das Wesen des Christentums', 1900).  The publication of this book practically destroyed all his chances to become professor at a German university. He remained in Basel, and for more than ten years, he held the same introductory lecture without addressing his provocative theses.  In private, Overbeck made voluminous notes for a 'Church Lexicon' ("Kirchenlexikon"), in which he develops personal accounts, principally theological but also political, cultural, philosophical, and a literature bibliography with commentary. The goal of this collection fulfilled the only purpose Overbeck saw for a scholarly theologian: a profane history of the church. Exactly what Christianity itself would not explain or could not understand, moreover what it would deny, Overbeck documented, thereby demonstrating his primary dilemma: that a "Christian theology" is impossible.  In 1876, Overbeck married Ida Rothpletz, and for one year was Rector of the University of Basel.

Friendship with Nietzsche.

'How Christian is Our Present-Day Theology?' was published at the same time as the first of Nietzsche's "Untimely Meditations". Both writings were critical of David Strauss and shared similar main theses. Although these were the only books Nietzsche and Overbeck published together, theses similar to Overbeck's can be found in Nietzsche's writings through 'The Antichrist'.  After Nietzsche left Basel in 1879, he and Overbeck continued a personal friendship through regular correspondence. In a letter from 1881, Nietzsche wrote to Overbeck:  At the beginning of January 1889, Nietzsche sent letters to friends that exhibited symptoms of a mental collapse. After Overbeck received such a letter, he travelled to Turin the same day to retrieve the sick Nietzsche and his manuscripts. He continued to visit Nietzsche until the latter's death in 1900.  To remain sincere to his friend, Overbeck maintained a critical distance from the content of Nietzsche's writings, and denounced the beginnings of a hero-worship and revisionism. He refused to cooperate with Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche and her Nietzsche-Archiv and, mostly in private notes and letters, accused her of misinterpreting Nietzsche. He refused to give her his correspondence with Nietzsche - which turned out to be right, as she would forge other correspondents' letters.

Old Age and Legacy.

After long periods of sickness, in 1897 Overbeck became an Emeritus professor, and in the following year, noticeably weakened, he gave up this honorary appointment at Basel. In 1903 and after long hesitation, he accepted an honorary doctorate degree from the University of St Andrews. In 1905, Franz Overbeck died in Basel.  After his death, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche continued to pursue Overbeck and his reputation. In 1907, she revived a campaign against him, which in turn was rebuffed by his wife Ida and his longtime friend Carl Albrecht Bernoulli.  It was not until several decades after Overbeck's death that his (anti-)theological views were taken seriously, notably by Karl Barth, Karl Löwith, and Martin Heidegger. Since c. 1980, interest in Overbeck has grown, at least in German academic circles, as is shown by the increasing number of publications in that country.

Works.

Although a critical edition of Overbeck's publications (including many of his notes for his lexicon) has been published in Germany, few of his writings have been available in English translation until recently. However, there are now two English translations of 'Über die Christlichkeit unserer heutigen Theologie':

Notes.

1. http://www.thenietzschechannel.com/correspondence/eng/nlett-1881.htm#november-14-1881 The Nietzsche Channel: Nietzsche's Letters: 1881

Franz Camille Overbeck (16 November 1837 – 26 June 1905) was a German Protestant theologian. In Anglo-American discourse, he is perhaps best known in regard to his friendship with Friedrich Nietzsche; in German theological circles, Overbeck remains discussed for his own contributions.

弗朗茨·奥韦尔贝克全名是弗朗茨·卡米耶·奥韦尔贝克(,1837年-11月16日-1905年-6月26日),德国教会史学家、诠释学神学家、瑞士巴塞尔大学教授──他也是思想家尼采在该所大学中的同事及朋友。