History.

The show, originally called All Japan Motor Show was first held in an outdoor venue called Hibiya Park, the show was considered a success with 547,000 visitors over ten days and 254 exhibitors displaying 267 vehicles, but of the 267, only 17 of them were passenger cars as the show was dominated by commercial vehicles. In 1958, due to construction of a subway and underground parking lot near Hibiya Park, the show was shifted to the Korakuen Bicycle Racing Track. The show, as the previous year was marred by heavy rain. In 1959 the event moved indoor to its newly

By year.

1950s.

1954.

The first Tokyo Motor Show was held in Hibiya Park from April 20 to April 29, 1954. Of the 267 vehicles on display, only seventeen were passenger cars, which reflected the paucity of personal family transport in Japan at the time. Trucks, buses,

1955.

The second Tokyo Motor Show was held over twelve days, from May 7 to May 18, 1955. Almost 785,000 visitors attended, among them HIH Prince Akihito. The highlights of the passenger cars on display were the new Datsun 110, Toyopet Crown RS and Toyopet Master RR.  The Second All-Japan Motor Show was held in 1955 at Hibiya Park, the same venue as the previous year. The show was extended to 12 days. Exhibitors still focused on commercial vehicles, such as

1956.

Passenger cars began to assume the greatest prominence at the third Tokyo Motor Show which opened on April 20, 1956, over a 10-day period at Hibiya Park. This was primarily due to an initiative spearheaded by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry called the "people's car plan" or the "National Car Project", announced in May 1955. Although its stated target of a four-seat car capable of and available for ¥150,000 was unrealistic — despite being twice the national average income at the time, it was still only one fifth of what a typical vehicle

1957.

Although only 527,000 people visited the fourth show between May 9 and May 19, 1957, significant vehicles made their debut; the first of the long running Toyota Corona and Prince Skyline were introduced, as well as a prototype of the Datsun Sports.  The Fourth All-Japan Motor Show was held at Hibiya Park during an 11-day period from May 9. In the passenger car category, a significant improvement

1958.

It was held from October 10 to October 20, 1958.  For the Fifth Motor Show, the venue was changed to the infield space of Korakuen Bicycle Race Stadium due to construction at Hibiya Park. The time period of the show was also shifted to commence from October 10. The motor show hereafter opens as an autumn event organized by the Japan Motor Industrial Federation, Inc. In the fifth show, a Technical

1959.

The 1959 show opened on October 24 and ran until November 4, 1959. Notable premieres included Mitsubishi's first own passenger car, the Mitsubishi 500.  The Japan Trade Center (indoor exhibition hall), located in Harumi, was newly chosen as the venue for the Sixth Motor Show. The total area of the site was nearly three times that of Hibiya, while the exhibiting space was double that of Hibiya site. The admission fee, which comes with the lottery tickets, also was raised to 50 yen per person.  The number of exhibited vehicles expanded to 317 units in this year's show. In the passenger car category, Japanese automakers displayed attractive models, including the Subaru 360, Mitsubishi 500, Datsun Sports 211, and the all-new Bluebird. Toyota also presented its Mater Line equipped with Japan's first automatic transmission. The Prince Skyline featured a 1,500cc engine with a maximum output of 70 horse-power. In the truck category, The Nissan Datsun Truck G220 and many 3-wheeler models were highlighted.

1960s.

1960.

At the 1964 Motor Show, in September, the Nissan Fairlady 1500 (Datsun Sports 1500, SR311) and

1961.

It was held from October 25 to November 7, 1961.  The "brilliant" Eighth Motor Show featured various sports cars and prototypes. The exhibiting area was double the space of the previous show and a South Gate was newly added. An extended exhibition time (through 8 p.m.) was introduced on two days of this year's show. The total number

1962.

It was held from October 25 to November 7, 1962.  The highlight of this year's Motor Show was Honda's first automobile. The company has already earned a world-class reputation in motorcycle races such as the World Grand Prix, and unveiled its two models on the stage: The Honda Sports 360 and 500. This helped the event attract one

1963.

It was held from October 26 to November 10, 1963.  "To respond to the coming liberalization of automobile import, Japanese carmakers displayed an array of new cars," newspapers reported in regard to the Tenth Motor Show. As part of the 10th anniversary program, the admission fee for the first day of the show was set at 500 yen (100 yen fee plus 400 yen donation for the Community Chest

1964.

It was held from September 26 to October 9, 1964.  Seeing market growth due to the liberalization of automobile import to be introduced in April next year, three foreign carmakers newly participated in the motor show this year. With this international move, the motor show was renamed from the All-Japan Motor Show to the

1965.

It was held from October 29 to November 11, 1965.  A feeling that the time of high economic growth had come was in the air. The 12th Tokyo Motor Show was held immediately after the October 1 introduction of the automobile import liberalization. For this year's motor show, Japanese carmakers thus emphasized sales promotion rather than presenting showy

1966.

It was held from October 26 to November 8, 1966.  The 13th Tokyo Motor Show was held in 1966, the year of "The first year of My Car (one's own car)." As the driving force of the development of Japan's motorization, the Nissan Sunny and Toyota Corolla were unveiled at this year's show. Other carmakers also presented their

1967.

It was held from October 26 to November 8, 1967.  The 14th Tokyo Motor Show provided an opportunity for promoting traffic safety to society. A "Traffic Safety Corner" was created on the second floor of the 8th Hall (space for passenger cars) to allow visitors to experience tests. At the 2nd Hall, another promotion was conducted concerning

1968.

It was held from October 26 to November 11, 1968.  Japanese carmakers experienced industry-wide reorganization this year. Nissan, after the merger with Prince in 1966, announced a business tie-up with Fuji Heavy Industries. Toyota also formed a business alliance with Hino and Daihatsu. With this alliance, Hino stopped producing its Contessa passenger car and Hino vehicles vanished in the passenger car halls

1969.

It was held from October 24 to November 6, 1969.  The Tomei Expressway opened in March this year and the demand for high-speed driving was growing rapidly in Japan. Significant progress was seen in the performance of Japanese vehicles. The 16th Tokyo Motor Show was highlighted by an array of sports cars and vehicles for motor sports. At the same time, many show models were displayed in the futuristic "dream cars" and commuter model categories, which were developed under the key concepts of high-speed and safety. Notably, the president of the motor show Prince Takamatsu showed particular interest in such future cars displayed on the stages as Toyota's EX-I, II and III. Meanwhile, carmakers emphasized displays of technological developments at the show in response to recall problems reported in June this year. They also aggressively promoted countermeasures for some serious social issues: traffic safety and the prevention of air-pollution.

1970s.

1970.

It was held from October 30 to November 12, 1970.  Imported automobiles participated in the 17th Tokyo Motor Show for the first time. A total of 95 imported vehicles were exhibited by 33 foreign carmakers from 7 countries. The latest designs and advanced technologies of imported vehicles helped the Japan show to have a strong international flavor. On the other hand, Japanese carmakers presented

1971.

The 18th Tokyo Motor Show, the second international motor show, attracted many more visitors from overseas countries than the previous year when capital transaction was liberalized in Japan's automotive sector in April this year. Exhibits of carmakers this year also focused on

1972.

The main focus of this year's show was the technological developments of safety vehicles and emission reduction, which were also the primary targets to be addressed. It was held from October 23 to November 5, 1972.  The main focus of this year's show was the technological developments of safety vehicles and emission reduction, which were also the primary targets to be addressed. The auto industry's challenging positions were highlighted

1973.

To commemorate the 20th anniversary, the organizer prepared special events for the Tokyo Motor Show this year. They were the "Development of

1975.

It was held from October 31 to November 10, 1975.  The 21st Tokyo Motor Show, the first event after it changed to an every-other-year cycle, was held under the theme of "Life on Wheels" to present the auto industry's clear visions and attitude toward environmental issues. The Theme Pavilion put on various displays to show the broad connection of daily life and automobiles, as well as the auto industry's contribution (as an export business)

1977.

It was held from October 28 to November 7, 1977.  This year's show saw a rush of new model releases of Japanese vehicles, which have succeeded in meeting exhaust emission regulations. The key slogan of the industry has changed from "low-emission" to "fuel saving." Star models included: Daihatsu Charade, fitted with the world's first 4-cycle 3-cylinder engine, which achieved a fuel economy of

1979.

The theme was "Abundance Towards the 80s --Vehicles Connecting the World". It was held from November 1 to November 12, 1979.  Under the theme of "Abundance Towards the 80s --Vehicles Connecting the World--," the last motor show in the 70s was colored with aggressive visions toward the next decade. Despite the tough challenges of energy saving, carmakers actively presented new technologies at the 23rd Tokyo motor show. The highlighted vehicles were mostly equipped with turbo engines or diesel engines. At the Theme Hall, under the banner of "Japanese Engine Technologies," a total of 77 engines and cut-away models were displayed, ranging from aircraft engines used in World War II to rocket engines for spaceships. The organizer paid a great deal of attention to foreign carmakers due to growing concerns of trade conflict. This was reflected in the number of exhibits at the show. Exhibited foreign passenger cars numbered 123, 27 units more than the previous show. Foreign cars were grouped by country.

1980s.

1981.

It was held from October 30 to November 10, 1981.  The world was struggling with low economic growth and instability. Carmakers, however, displayed an array of new models, reference models, and new technologies, making the motor show much more active. A notable trend was the front-engine, front-wheel-drive (FF) layout for small cars, the lightweight body of which mated with excellent aerodynamic features and helped the small car to achieve a high level of fuel

1983.

The theme was "Vehicles: Past, Present, and Future". It was held from October 28 to November 8, 1983.  Amid the world economy facing hard times over the years, Japanese domestic demand was also sluggish. Exhibitors at the Tokyo Motor Show this year, however, presented abundant displays of prototypes and reference models to visitors. These vehicles adopted new technologies which were soon to be used in production vehicles. Proactive proposals for

1985.

The theme was "The Culture of Motoring: The New

1987.

It was held from

1989.

The theme was "Freedom of Mobility - A Taste of Real Life and Luxury". It was held from October 26 to November 6, 1989.

1990s.

1991.

The theme was "Discovering a New Relationship: People, Cars and

1993.

The theme was "Car Innovation in Free, Natural

1995.

The theme was "Dream the Dream, a Car

1997.

The theme was "One World. One People. One

1999.

The theme was "Eye to the future. Changing vehicles for the earth". It was held from October 22 to November 3, 1999.

2000s.

2000.

The theme was "Vehicle of Character Across the World,

2001.

The theme was "Open the Door! The Automobile's Bright Future". It

2002.

The theme was "Sense the Evolution - Commercial

2003.

The theme was "The Challenge: Driving Toward A

2004.

The theme was "Vehicles for People. Vehicles as

2005.

The theme was "Driving Tomorrow!' from Tokyo". It was held

2007.

The theme was "Catch the News, Touch the Future". It began on Friday, October 26 and ran for 17 days.  The 2007 show saw the following introductions:

2009.

It was held from Oct. 23 (Fri.) - Nov. 4 (Wed.), 2009.  The following were introduced at the 2009 show:

2010s.

2011.

The theme was "Mobility can change the world."

2013.

The theme was "Compete! And shape a new

2015.

The theme was “Your heart will race.” It

2017.

The theme was "Beyond the motor". It

2019.

The theme is "Open Future". It is held from October 24 (Thu.) - November 4 (Mon.), 2019.

The is a biennial auto show held in October–November at the Tokyo Big Sight, Tokyo, Japan for cars, motorcycles and commercial vehicles. Hosted by the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association (JAMA), it is a recognized international show by the Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d'Automobiles, and normally sees more concept cars than actual production car introductions which is the reason why the auto press see the show as one of the motorshow's big five (along with Detroit, Geneva, Frankfurt and Paris).

东京汽车展览(;英语:Tokyo Motor Show,缩写:英语:TMS),是每年在日本东京所举办的汽车展,即了解世界最顶级的汽车工艺、科技、设计、环保及未来发展趋势的汽车情报展览。由于,本展览被世界汽车工业国际协会认定为国际性质的汽车展览,跟一般区域性质的汽车展览相比之下,会场所展示的概念车型种类也更多。因此,让世界众多的汽车相关媒体喻为世界三大车展之一。


History.

Formation.

The airline was formed in 2007 by the merger of Hapag Lloyd Flug and Hapag Lloyd Express as a branch of TUI Travel. The airline codes of its predecessor are still in use, and the former callsign "YELLOWCAB" remained in use until it was changed to "TUIJET" on 24 September 2010.  In the second quarter of 2007, the load factor was at about 79%, after about 92% in the year before. Subsequently, the company closed its Leipzig/Halle and Bremen bases. On 29 January 2008, plans were announced to merge TUIfly with Eurowings and Germanwings (the Lufthansa low-cost brands) into a joint and independent holding company, but were withdrawn as talks turned out to be unsuccessful.  TUI Travel confirmed on 27 March 2009 that it had sealed a strategic partnership with Air Berlin that would see TUI Travel take a 20% stake in Air Berlin, and Air Berlin 20% in TUI fly Germany. Due to regulatory matters, this was changed to 9.9%. Air Berlin will also wet-lease 17 aircraft from TUI fly and take over all of TUI fly Germany's city connections. TUI will focus on serving the charter market with 21 aircraft of the remaining fleet. From 25 October 2009, all German domestic flights previously operated by TUI fly Germany were taken over by Air Berlin, as well as all flights to Austria, Italy and Croatia. Most of these flights are still operated by TUI fly Germany aircraft, but are marketed by Air Berlin.

Development since 2013.

In December 2013, TUI fly Deutschland abandoned their distinctive yellow livery, and replaced it by the new blue design already introduced at TUI fly Netherlands, TUI fly Belgium and TUI Airways. The first plane in the new colours arrived in Hannover on 17 February 2014. The livery has been updated once again, as of 2016, with new revised titles shortened from "TUIfly" to "TUI".  In September 2014, TUI fly Deutschland decided to relocate their operations at Zweibrücken Airport to nearby Saarbrücken Airport as Zweibrücken Airport faced bankruptcy and an uncertain future. In January 2016, TUI fly Deutschland also announced it would leave Hamburg Airport entirely due to the increasing competition from low-cost carriers. The summer seasonal routes have not resumed, and all remaining destinations were cancelled by March 2016.  In September 2016 plans were announced to merge TUI fly Deutschland with the leisure operations of Air Berlin - which were partially operated by TUI fly Germany - as well as Air Berlin's entire Austrian subsidiary Niki. On 5 October 2016, TUI fly Deutschland confirmed to be in talks with Air Berlin and Etihad Airways to create a new holding company for leisure operations. The new company was planned to serve important holiday destinations from Germany, Austria and Switzerland. In June 2017 TUI Group and Etihad Aviation Group announced that they wouldn't continue their negotiations about the planned joint venture.  In July 2018, the airline announced it would close its base at Karlsruhe/Baden-Baden Airport by October 2018.  TUI Group has 70 737 MAXs on order for the group. The order consists of 18 MAX 10 aircraft, with the remaining variants unspecified as of June 2017. In January 2019, it has been stated that TUI fly Deutschland will receive 25 of these 737 MAX until 2023.  After the demise of Germania in early 2019, TUI fly Deutschland announced it would base aircraft at Nuremberg Airport to take over several leisure destinations.  In November 2019, it was announced that the airline would operate its own long-haul flights to destinations in the Caribbean and in Mexico, similar to its sister airlines. Initially, the airline will take on 2 Boeing 787 aircraft to operate these flights with plans to increase this number to 5 in the future. These flights are planned to begin in the Winter 2020/21 season, with scheduled and charter services to the Dominican Republic, Mexico, Jamaica, and Barbados.

Operations.

TUI fly Deutschland offers both charter and scheduled flights with about 60% of all seats sold directly, 30% as a part of a TUI holiday package and 10% by other agencies. TUI fly Deutschland itself offers drinks, snacks, and meals on flights to and from Cape Verde, Egypt, Greece, Israel, southern Italy, Morocco, Portugal, Spain including the Canary Islands, and Tunisia. Hot meals are served on the longest flights, including those to the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Egypt, and Madeira.

Fleet.

, the TUI fly Deutschland fleet consists of the following aircraft:

TUI fly Deutschland, formerly "TUIfly", is a German leisure airline owned by the travel and tourism company TUI Group. It is headquartered at Hannover Airport with bases at several other German airports. TUI fly Deutschland is part of the TUI Airlines airline unit of TUI.

德国途易航空()曾名为途易航空(TUIfly),是德国的一家航空公司,由旅游企业途易股份公司控股,其总部位于下萨克森州的汉诺威-朗根哈根机场,主要经营定期廉价航班服务及包机业务。公司约60%的航班座位采取直接销售,30%作为途易假期旅游产品的一部分,另外10%则通过其它代理机构销售。途易航空目前拥有38架客机,是德国第三大航空公司,其规模仅次于汉莎航空。


Geology.

The soil is alluvial and silty in nature, underlaid by clay or mud, with a peat layer in places.

Etymology.

The first known written mention of the Isle of Dogs is in the ‘Letters & Papers of Henry VIII’. In Volume 3: 1519–1523. 2 October 1520. No. 1009 – ‘Shipping’, there is a list of purchases, which includes:  "A hose for the Mary George, in dock at the Isle of Dogs, 10d"  The 1898 edition of "Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable" attributes the name: "So called from being the receptacle of the greyhounds of Edward III. Some say it is a corruption of the Isle of Ducks, and that it is so called in ancient records from the number of wild fowl inhabiting the marshes." Other sources discount this, believing these stories to all derive from the antiquarian John Strype, and believe it might come from one of the following:

Society.

Following the building of the Docks (especially the West India Docks and the adjacent City Canal), and with an increasing population, locals increasingly referred to the area as "The Island". This area includes Millwall, Cubitt Town, and Blackwall. The south of the isle opposite Greenwich was once known as "North Greenwich", now applied to the area around the Millennium Dome on the Greenwich Peninsula. Between 1986 and 1992 it enjoyed a brief formal existence, as the name "Isle of Dogs" was applied to one of seven neighbourhoods to which power was devolved from the council. The neighbourhood was later abolished.  It was the site of the highest concentration of council housing in England but is now best known as the location of the Canary Wharf office complex. One Canada Square, also known as the Canary Wharf Tower, is the second tallest habitable building in Britain at. The peninsula is an area of social extremes, comprising some of the most prosperous and most deprived areas of the country; in 2004, nearby Blackwall was the 81st most deprived ward in England out of over 8,000, while the presence of Canary Wharf gives the area one of the highest average incomes in the UK. Lincoln Plaza was the 2016 winner of the Carbuncle Cup for the year's "worst new building" and "The Times" described it as "mediocre at best, ugly at worst".

History.

Origins.

The Isle of Dogs is situated some distance downriver from the City of London. The area was originally sparsely populated marshland before its drainage and planting in the 13th century. A catastrophic flood occurred in 1488, resulting in the area returning to its previous marshy condition. This was not reversed until Dutch engineers re-drained it in the 17th century.  One road led across the Marshes to an ancient ferry, at Ferry Road. There was rich grazing on the marsh, and cattle were slaughtered in fields known as the "Killing Fields", south of Poplar High Street.  The western side of the island was known as "Marsh Wall", and the district became known as "Millwall" with the building of the docks, and from the number of windmills constructed along the top of the flood defence.

Docks.

The urbanisation of the Isle of Dogs took place in the 19th century following the construction of the West India Docks, which opened in 1802. This heralded the area's most successful period, when it became an important centre for trade. The East India Docks were subsequently opened in 1806, followed by Millwall Dock in 1868. By the 1880s, the casual employment system caused Dock workers to unionise under Ben Tillett and John Burns. This led to a demand for "6d per hour" (2.5p), and an end to casual labour in the docks. After a bitter struggle, the London Dock Strike of 1889 was settled with victory for the strikers, and established a national movement for the unionisation of casual workers.  The three dock systems were unified in 1909 when the Port of London Authority took control of the docks. With the docks stretching across from East to West with locks at each end, the Isle of Dogs could now once again almost be described as a genuine island.  Dock workers settled on the "island" as the docks grew in importance, and by 1901, 21,000 people lived there, largely dependent on the river trade on the Isle as well as in Greenwich and Deptford across the river to the south and west. The Isle of Dogs was connected to the rest of London by the London and Blackwall Railway, opened in 1840 and progressively extended thereafter. In 1902, the ferry to Greenwich was replaced by the construction of the Greenwich foot tunnel, and Island Gardens park was laid out in 1895, providing views across the river. The London and Blackwall Railway closed in 1926. Until the building of the Docklands Light Railway in 1987, the only public transport accessing and exiting the Island consisted of buses using its perimeter roads. These were frequently and substantially delayed by the movement of up to four bridges which allowed ships access to the West India Docks and Millwall Docks. The insular nature of the Island caused its separateness from the rest of London, and its unique nature.  During World War II, the docks were a key target for the German Luftwaffe and were heavily bombed. A number of local civilians were killed in the bombing and extensive destruction was caused on the ground, with many warehouses being destroyed and much of the dock system being put out of action for an extended period. Unexploded bombs from this period continue to be discovered today. Anti-aircraft batteries were based on Mudchute Farm; their concrete bases remain today.  After the war, the docks underwent a brief resurgence and were even upgraded in 1967. However, with the advent of containerisation, which the docks could not handle, they became obsolete soon afterwards. The docks closed progressively during the 1970s, with the last – the West India and Millwall docks – closing down in 1980. This left the area in a severely dilapidated state, with large areas being derelict and abandoned.

Industry.

In 1802 the West India Docks began to be developed on the Isle of Dogs. Beginning in 1812 the Poplar and Greenwich Ferry Roads Company installed tolls on the East Ferry Road. These proved to be unpopular and after many years of lobbying the Metropolitan Board of Works bought the company and abolished the tolls in 1885.  The Docks brought with them many associated industries, such as flour and sugar processing, and also ship building. On 31 January 1858 the largest ship of that time, the SS "Great Eastern" designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, was launched from the yard of Messrs Scott, Russell & Co, of Millwall. The length was too big for the river so the ship had to be launched sideways. Due to the technical difficulties of the launch this was the last big ship to be built on the Island and the industry fell into a decline. However, parts of the launching slipway and plate works have been preserved in situ and may be seen close to Masthouse Terrace Pier.

London Docklands Development Corporation.

The Isle of Dogs' economic problems led to mass unemployment among the former dockyard workers and caused serious social deprivation. Ted Johns, a local community campaigner, and his supporters, in protest at the lack of social provision from the state, made a unilateral declaration of independence for the area from the United Kingdom as the Republic of the Isles of Dogs and set up an 'Island Council' with Johns himself as its elected president and blocked the two swing-bridges providing the only access to the area by road. Successive Labour and Conservative governments proposed a number of action plans during the 1970s but it was not until 1981 that the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was established to redevelop the area. The Isle of Dogs became part of an enterprise zone, which covered 1.95 km2 of land and encompassed the West India, Millwall and East India Docks. New housing, office space and transport infrastructure were built. This included the Docklands Light Railway and later the Jubilee line extension, which eventually brought access to the London Underground to the area for the first time.  Since its construction in 1987–1991, the area has been dominated by the expanding Canary Wharf development with over of office and retail space having been created; 93,000 now work in Canary Wharf alone.

LDDC legacy.

It has been stated by some, that the redevelopment has not benefited the long-term residents as much as it might, with accusations of a "land grab" of riverside sites for private apartment blocks during the period of relaxation of planning conditions under the LDDC. Some tensions remain, as in most areas of central London, between the close-knit island community and professionals who have more recently moved to the area. Today, this revolves around the former's need for family homes, against further development of small high-priced apartments.

Politics.

The Island achieved notoriety in 1993 when Derek Beackon of the British National Party became a councillor for Millwall ward, in a by-election. This was the culmination of years when race was a prominent issue in local politics, especially with regards to allocation of housing. Labour regained the ward in the full council election of May 1994, and held all three seats until a further by-election in September 2004.

Incidents.

On 9 February 1996, the IRA detonated a truck bomb near South Quay DLR station on the Isle of Dogs that killed two people and injured more than a hundred others.

Education.

There are four state primary schools located on the Isle of Dogs – Cubitt Town Junior School, Arnhem Wharf, Harbinger School and St Edmunds. There is also an independent primary school, River House Montessori, located near South Quay.  George Green's School is a secondary school and Specialist Humanities School at the southern tip of the island.  Canary Wharf College, is a free school on the Island which covers primary, secondary and sixth form education.

Transport.

London Underground and DLR stations.

The nearest London Underground station is Canary Wharf on the Jubilee line. Key areas including Regent's Park, The West End, Westminster, South Bank, Millennium Dome and the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, are all within 20 minutes of Canary Wharf by Tube.  The DLR runs north–south through the Isle of Dogs. Docklands Light Railway stations are Canary Wharf, Heron Quays, South Quay, Crossharbour, Mudchute and Island Gardens. Key areas including the City of London, Tower Hill and Greenwich are all within 20 minutes of the Isle of Dogs by DLR.

Crossrail.

Canary Wharf Crossrail station is currently under construction and is due to open in 2020. Situated at the north of the Island, it will provide high-frequency, fast connections to the heart of the West End, Paddington Station, Heathrow Airport and Abbey Wood.

River bus services.

Regular commuter boat services serve both Masthouse Terrace Pier and Canary Wharf Pier on the Isle of Dogs.  The Thames Clippers provides regular commuter services to Woolwich Arsenal Pier, Greenwich Pier in the east, and the City of London including St. Katherine's Dock, Tower Bridge,, Greater London Authority building, Tate Modern, Blackfriars, as well as the West End of London in the west on the commuter service. There is also a connecting shuttle service to Rotherhithe and the Tate to Tate service from Tate Modern to Tate Britain via London Eye.  From Summer 2007, the service has been enhanced with express boats from central London to the O2 Arena (former Millennium Dome).

Pedestrian and cyclists.

The Thames Path National Trail runs along the riverside. At the southern end of the Isle of Dogs, the Greenwich foot tunnel provides pedestrian access to Greenwich, across the river.  National Cycle Network route 1 runs through the foot tunnel (although cycles must not be ridden in the tunnel itself).

Airport and helipad.

The nearest airport is London City Airport, which is 25 minutes away from Canary Wharf by DLR.  There is also a helipad situated on the west of the Island and next to Ferguson's Wharf, which is privately run by Vanguard.

Sailing and watersports activities.

The presence of docks, some of a considerable size, has enabled a practice of various watersports, like sailing, kayaking, windsurfing and Standup paddleboarding.  Docklands Sailing and Watersports Centre is one of the main reference spots for watersports fans.  The Duchess of Cambridge visited the centre in 2017.

In the media.

"The Isle of Dogs" was the title of an early play by Ben Jonson and Thomas Nashe, briefly performed in 1597 and then thoroughly suppressed as slanderous.  T.S. Eliot's "The Waste Land" contains the lines "The barges wash / Drifting logs / Down Greenwich reach / Past the Isle of Dogs."  In modern times the Isle of Dogs has provided locations for many blockbuster films, including the opening scenes of the James Bond film "The World Is Not Enough", and more recently "Batman Begins", "The Constant Gardener", "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix", and "Love Actually".  The Isle of Dogs featured heavily in the 1980 British film "The Long Good Friday".  In "28 Weeks Later", the Isle of Dogs is the primary location of the film, being the only secure and quarantined area in all of Britain suitable for recivilization after a massive epidemic of the "Rage Virus" kills the entire population of Britain.  The Isle of Dogs was also the setting for the 1986 Channel 4 series "Prospects" starring Gary Olsen and Brian Bovell.  While shooting in East London for his film "Fantastic Mr. Fox", Wes Anderson spotted a road sign directing to the Isle of Dogs. This sparked his imagination, becoming an eponymous source of inspiration for his animated 2018 film "Isle of Dogs".

The Isle of Dogs is a large peninsula bounded on three sides by a large meander in the River Thames in East London, England, which includes the Poplar, Millwall and Canary Wharf districts. The name had no official status until the 1987 creation of the Isle of Dogs Neighbourhood by Tower Hamlets London Borough Council. It has been known locally as simply "the Island" since the 19th century.

道格斯岛(英语:Isle of Dogs)是伦敦东区的一个地区,也是泰晤士河泥沙堆积形成的最大半岛之一。


罗斯托克号小巡洋舰 (1912年)

Design.

"Rostock" was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of forward. She displaced at full combat load. Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two propellers. They were designed to give, but reached in service. These were powered by twelve coal-fired Marine-type water-tube boilers and two oil-fired double-ended boilers. These gave the ship a top speed of. "Rostock" carried of coal, and an additional of oil that gave her a range of approximately at. "Rostock" had a crew of 18 officers and 355 enlisted men.  The ship was armed with twelve 10.5 cm SK L/45 guns in single pedestal mounts. Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle, eight were located amidships, four on either side, and two were side by side aft. The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees, which allowed them to engage targets out to. They were supplied with 1,800 rounds of ammunition, for 150 shells per gun. She was also equipped with a pair of torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside. She could also carry 120 mines. The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was thick amidships. The conning tower had thick sides, and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate.

Service history.

"Rostock" was ordered under the contract name ""Ersatz" " and was laid down at the Howaldtswerke shipyard in Kiel in 1911. She was launched on 12 November 1912; at her launching, she was christened by the mayor of Rostock, Dr. Magnus Maßmann. After completing Fitting-out work, the ship was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 5 February 1914. Following her commissioning in February 1914, "Rostock" was assigned as a torpedo boat flotilla leader with the High Seas Fleet.

World War I.

On 24 January 1915, "Rostock" formed part of the support for Admiral Franz von Hipper battlecruisers in the I Scouting Group during a sortie to destroy British light forces known to be operating near the Dogger Bank. The ship steamed with three other light cruisers and nineteen torpedo boats. "Rostock" and several of the torpedo boats were tasked with screening the port flank of the battlecruiser squadron. The German group encountered five British battlecruisers, resulting in the Battle of Dogger Bank, during which the armored cruiser was sunk. "Rostock" participated in the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 April 1916, and as part of the screen for the I Scouting Group. While the battlecruisers bombarded Lowestoft, "Rostock" and five other cruisers engaged the Harwich Force. Shortly thereafter, the battlecruisers intervened and forced the Harwich Force to withdraw. The German squadron then broke off and returned to port. "Rostock" also participated in the Battle of Jutland, on 31 May 1916. She served as the leader of the torpedo boat flotillas, flying the flag of "Kommodore" Andreas Michelsen. The flotilla was tasked with screening for the battle squadrons of the High Seas Fleet. As the German fleet reached the engagement between the British and German battlecruiser squadrons at 17:30, a pair of destroyers, and attempted to attack the German battle line. "Rostock" and a number of the battleships engaged the destroyers, which were both disabled by the heavy German fire. The battleships destroyed "Nestor" and "Nicator" and their crews were picked up by German torpedo boats.  At 19:32, "Rostock" and several torpedo boats crossed through the German line and began to lay a smoke screen to cover the withdrawal of the German fleet. Some twenty minutes later, Michelsen detached several torpedo boats to assist the badly damaged battlecruiser. By the time the German fleet had assumed its night cruising formation, "Rostock" fell in with the light cruisers of the IV Scouting Group on the port side of the fleet. Shortly before midnight, "Rostock" and the IV Scouting Group came into contact with the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron. Shortly after midnight, the British 4th Destroyer Flotilla attacked the German line, where "Rostock" was positioned. She joined the cannonade directed against the destroyers as they pressed home their attack. The destroyers launched several torpedoes at the Germans, forcing "Rostock" and the other cruisers to turn away to avoid them; this pointed the ships directly at the battleships in the I Battle Squadron. "Rostock" successfully passed through the formation, but the cruiser was rammed by one of the battleships and disabled.  In the chaos of the night engagement, "Rostock"s search lights illuminated the destroyer. Gunfire from "Rostock" and the battleships and smothered the British destroyer; although heavily damaged, she managed to limp back to port. The ship was attacked by the destroyers and ; the two ships each fired a single torpedo at high-speed settings at a range of about. One torpedo struck "Rostock" at 1:30, though it is unknown which destroyer launched it. "Rostock" was also hit by three shells, probably from the destroyer "Broke". The disabled "Rostock" called the destroyer "S54" to join her; "S54" took "Rostock" in tow, at times making up to. The pair was subsequently joined by the destroyers "V71" and "V73", which had been detached from the flotilla to escort "Rostock" back to port.  At around 03:55 on 1 June, the four German ships encountered the British cruiser. The three destroyers went alongside the crippled cruiser and evacuated her crew, while flashing the first two letters of the British signal challenge. Smoke screens were laid to obscure the identity of the German warships. After about ten minutes, "S54" departed with "Rostock"s crew aboard, while "V71" and "V73" remained. Scuttling charges had been set in the cruiser, but to ensure "Rostock" sank faster, the two destroyers fired a total of three torpedoes into the ship. "Rostock" sank bow-first at approximately 04:25, after which "V71" and "V73" made for Horns Reef at high speed. Of "Rostock"s crew, 14 men were killed and 6 were wounded during the battle. In the course of the battle, "Rostock" fired some 500 rounds of 10.5 cm ammunition, more than any other German ship. A second "Rostock", of the, was launched in April 1918, but was not completed before the end of the war.

SMS "Rostock" was a light cruiser of the built by the German "Kaiserliche Marine" (Imperial Navy). She had one sister ship, ; the ships were very similar to the previous s. The ship was laid down in 1911, launched in November 1912, and completed by February 1914. Armed with twelve 10.5 cm SK L/45 guns, "Rostock" had a top speed of and displaced at full load.

陛下之舰罗斯托克号()是德意志帝国海军于1910年代建造的两艘卡尔斯鲁厄级小巡洋舰的末舰,以梅克伦堡-什未林城市罗斯托克命名。其唯一的姊妹舰是卡尔斯鲁厄号;它们与前级马格德堡级非常相似。舰只于1911年在基尔的霍瓦兹-德意志船厂开始,并于1912年11月,至1914年2月完工。罗斯托克号的主舰炮为十二门105毫米45倍径速射炮,最高速度达28.5节。


Medical uses.

Oxytetracycline, like other tetracyclines, is used to treat many infections, both common and rare (see Tetracycline antibiotics group). Its better absorption profile makes it preferable to tetracycline for moderately severe acne at a dosage of 250–500 mg four times a day for usually six to eight weeks at a time, but alternatives should be sought if no improvement occurs by three months. Avoid milk, iron, zinc or indigestion remedies while taking oxytetracycline. Take before food or on an empty stomach. Always follow your doctors' instructions and instruction leaflet.  It is sometimes used to treat spirochaetal infections, clostridial wound infection and anthrax in patients sensitive to penicillin. Oxytetracycline is used to treat infections of the respiratory and urinary tracts, skin, ear, eye and gonorrhoea, although its use for such purposes has declined in recent years due to large increases in bacterial resistance to this class of drugs. The drug is particularly useful when penicillins and/or macrolides cannot be used due to allergy. It may be used to treat Legionnaire's disease as a substitute for a macrolide or quinolone.  Oxytetracycline is especially valuable in treating nonspecific urethritis, Lyme disease, brucellosis, cholera, typhus, tularaemia. and infections caused by "Chlamydia, Mycoplasma" and "Rickettsia". Doxycycline is now preferred to oxytetracycline for many of these indications because it has improved pharmacologic features.  The standard dose is 250–500 mg six-hourly by mouth. In particularly severe infections, this dose may be increased accordingly. Occasionally, oxytetracycline is given by intramuscular injection or topically in the form of creams, ophthalmic ointments or eye drops.

Side effects.

Side effects are mainly gastrointestinal and photosensitive allergic reactions common to the tetracycline antibiotics group. It can also damage calcium-rich organs, such as teeth and bones, although this is very rare. It sometimes causes nasal cavities to erode; quite commonly, the BNF suggests, because of this, tetracyclines should not be used to treat pregnant or lactating women and children under 12 except in certain conditions where it has been approved by a specialist because there are no obvious substitutes. Candidiasis (thrush) is not uncommon following treatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics.

History.

It was first found near Pfizer laboratories in a soil sample yielding the soil actinomycete, "Streptomyces rimosus" by Finlay et al. In 1950, a celebrated American chemist, Robert B Woodward, worked out the chemical structure of oxytetracycline, enabling Pfizer to mass-produce the drug under the trade name, Terramycin. This discovery by Woodward was a major advancement in tetracycline research and paved the way for the discovery of an oxytetracycline derivative, doxycycline, which is one of the most popularly used antibiotics today.

Biosynthesis.

Oxytetracycline belongs to a structurally diverse class of aromatic polyketide antibiotics produced by "Streptomyces" via type II polyketide synthases (PKSs) which are also known as bacterial aromatic polyketides. Other compounds produced via type II PKSs are important bioactive compounds which span from anticancer agents doxorubicin to antibiotics such as tetracycline. The biosynthesis of oxytetracycline can be broken down into three general portions; first is the formation of an amidated polyketide backbone with minimal PKS's, second is the cyclization of the polyketide backbone and finally, the formation of anhydrotetracycline - a shared intermediate with tetracycline - to produce oxytetracycline.  The biosynthesis of oxytetracycline begins with the utilization of PKS enzymes ketosynthase (KS), the chain length factor (CLF), the acyl carrier protein (ACP), and an acyltransferase (encoded as "OxyA", "OxyB", "OxyC" and "OxyP" in the oxytetracycline gene cluster) to catalyze the extension of the malonamyl-CoA starting unit with 8 malonyl-CoA extender units. The process of elongating the polypeptide skeleton occurs through a series of Claisen-like decarboxylation reactions until the linear tetracyclic skeleton is formed. Thus, minimal PKS's form a completed amidated polyketide backbone without any additional post-synthase tailoring enzymes (Figure 1).  Following the formation of the linear tetracyclic skeleton, four successive cyclization reactions must occur in a regioselective manner to produce the aromatic natural product known as pretetramid - a common precursor to both oxytetracycline and other tetracycline antibiotics. In the oxytetracycline gene cluster, these enzymes are encoded as "OxyK" (aromatase), "OxyN" (cyclase), and "OxyI" (cyclase). Formation of pretetramid allows for one of the most important intermediates en route to the biosynthesis of oxytetracycline; this is the generation of anhydrotetracycline. Anhydrotetracycline contains the first functionalized A ring in this biosynthetic pathway.  After the formation of anhydrotetracycline, ATC monooxygenase ("OxyS") oxidizes the C-6 position in an enantioselective manner in the presence of the cofactor NADPH and atmospheric oxygen to produce 5a,11a-dehydrotetracycline. Next, a hydroxylation occurs at the C-5 position of 5a,11a-dehydrotetracycline via the oxygenase encoded as "OxyE" in the oxytetracycline gene cluster. This produces the intermediate 5a,11a-dehydro-oxytetracycline. However, the exact mechanism of this step remains to be unclear. The final step of this biosynthesis occurs through the reduction of a double bond in the α, β - unsaturated ketone of 5a,11a-dehydro-oxytetracycline. In this final step, the cofactor NADPH is employed by "TchA" (reductase) as the reducing agent. Upon reduction, the enol form is favored due to conjugation, thus producing the aromatic polyketide oxytetracycline. Figure 2 shows the biosynthesis as described above, as well as an arrow-pushing mechanism of NADPH being used as the final cofactor in the biosynthesis of oxytetracycline.

Veterinary indications.

Oxytetracycline is used to control the outbreak of American foulbrood and European foulbrood in honeybees.  Oxytetracycline can also be used to correct breathing disorders in livestock. It is administered in a powder or through an intramuscular injection. American livestock producers apply oxytetracycline to livestock feed to prevent diseases and infections in cattle and poultry. The antibiotic is partially absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract of the animal and the remaining is deposited in manure. Researchers at the Agricultural Research Service studied the breakdown of oxytetracycline in manure depending on various environmental conditions. They found the breakdown slowed with increased saturation of the manure and concluded this was a result of decreased oxygen levels. This research helps producers understand the effects of oxytetracycline in animal feed on the environment, bacteria, and antimicrobial resistance.  Oxytetracycline is used to mark fish which are released and later recaptured. The oxytetracycline interferes with bone deposition, leaving a visible mark on growing bones.  Oxytetracycline has also been formulated as a broad-spectrum anti-infective for fish under the name Terramycin 200 (TM200). It is used to control certain diseases that adversely affect salmonids, catfish, and lobsters.

Oxytetracycline was the second of the broad-spectrum tetracycline group of antibiotics to be discovered.

土霉素 Oxytetracycline也称为“地霉素”或“氧四环素”,是第二个被发现的广谱抗菌的四环素类抗生素。


History.

Maryland was first established as a colony of the Maryland State Colonization Society in 1834, but was not granted independence until 1854. The Maryland Society had played a pivotal role on the formation of the larger American Colonization Society years before. Following a referendum in 1853, the colony declared its independence from the Colonization Society across the Atlantic Ocean and formed the Republic of Maryland. It held the land along the south coast between the Grand Cess and San Pedro Rivers.  In 1856, this independent state of Maryland (Africa) requested military aid from nearby Liberia in a war with the Grebo and Kru native tribal peoples who were resisting the Americo-Maryland settlers' efforts to control their trade in slaves. President Roberts assisted the Marylanders, and a joint military campaign by both groups of Americo-Liberian colonists resulted in victory. Following a referendum in February 1857 the Republic of Maryland joined Liberia as Maryland County on 6 April 1857. As of May 2004, a DRC census estimated the county's population to be 107,100.  During the 1970s, Maryland County was terrorized by ritual killings. The crimes have been regarded as "Liberia's most notorious ritual killing case" due to the number of murders, the involvement of high ranking government officials and their subsequent public executions.

Districts.

Districts of Maryland County include (2008 population):

Details.

Farming is the main economic activity in Maryland County, accounting for the employment of approximately 60% of residents. Rice and cassava are the main crops raised in the county. It is roughly estimated that about 98% of the county's population is Christian, 1% Muslim, and 1% Animist.  The flag of Maryland County, Liberia, consists of a drawing of a tree and a lighthouse on a cliff with a small Liberian flag in the upper left corner.  In 2007, WBAL-TV in Baltimore produced a documentary special titled "Africa's Maryland", which focused on this region and its cultural roots to the American state of Maryland.

Maryland County is a county in the southeastern portion of Liberia. One of 15 counties that comprise the first-level of administrative division in the nation, it has two districts. Harper serves as the capital with the area of the county measuring. As of the 2008 Census, it had a population of 136,404, making it the seventh most populous county in Liberia.

马里兰县(英文:Maryland County)是利比里亚15县之一,首府哈珀,马里兰县位于利比里亚东南角,面积2297平方公里,根据2008年的调查,马里兰县有136,404人,为15个县中人口第7位。其东南部以加瓦拉河(Cavalla River)和科特迪瓦相隔。


Authorized uses.

Imidacloprid is the most widely used insecticide in the world. Its major uses include:  When used on plants, imidacloprid, which is systemic, is slowly taken up by plant roots and slowly translocated up the plant via xylem tissue.

Application to trees.

When used on trees, it can take 30–60 days to reach the top (depending on the size and height) and enter the leaves in high enough quantities to be effective. Imidacloprid can be found in the trunk, the branches, the twigs, the leaves, the leaflets, and the seeds. Many trees are wind pollinated. But others such as fruit trees, linden, catalpa, and black locust trees are bee and wind pollinated and imidacloprid would likely be found in the flowers in small quantities. Higher doses must be used to control boring insects than other types.

Background.

On January 21, 1986, a patent was filed and granted on May 3, 1988, for imidacloprid in the United States (U.S. Pat. No. 4,742,060) by Nihon Tokushu Noyaku Seizo K.K. of Tokyo, Japan.  On March 25, 1992, Miles, Inc. (later Bayer CropScience) applied for registration of imidacloprid for turfgrass and ornamentals in the United States. On March 10, 1994, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency approved the registration of imidacloprid.  On January 26, 2005, the Federal Register notes the establishment of the '(Pesticide Tolerances for) Emergency Exemptions' for imidacloprid. It use was granted to "Hawaii (for the) use (of) this pesticide on bananas(,) and the States of Minnesota, Nebraska, and North Dakota to use (of) this pesticide on sunflower(s)".

Biochemistry.

Imidacloprid is a systemic chloronicotinyl pesticide, belonging to the class of neonicotinoid insecticides. It works by interfering with the transmission of nerve impulses in insects by binding irreversibly to specific insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.  As a systemic pesticide, imidacloprid translocates or moves easily in the xylem of plants from the soil into the leaves, fruit, pollen, and nectar of a plant. Imidacloprid also exhibits excellent translaminar movement in plants and can penetrate the leaf cuticle and move readily into leaf tissue.  Since imidacloprid is efficacious at very low levels (nanogram and picogram), it can be applied at lower concentrations (e.g., 0.05–0.125 lb/acre or 55–140 g/ha) than other insecticides. The availability of imidacloprid and its favorable toxicity package as compared to other insecticides on the market in the 1990s allowed the EPA to replace more toxic insecticides including the acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, the organophosphorus compounds, and methylcarbamates.

Environmental fate.

The main routes of dissipation of imidacloprid in the environment are aqueous photolysis (half-life = 1–4 hours) and plant uptake. The major photometabolites include imidacloprid desnitro, imidacloprid olefine, imidacloprid urea, and five minor metabolites. The end product of photodegradation is chloronicotinic acid (CNA) and ultimately carbon dioxide. Since imidacloprid has a low vapor pressure, it normally does not volatilize readily.  Although imidacloprid breaks down rapidly in water in the presence of light, it remains persistent in water in the absence of light. It has a water solubility of.61 g/L, which is relatively high. In the dark, at pH between 5 and 7, it breaks down very slowly, and at pH 9, the half-life is about 1 year. In soil under aerobic conditions, imidacloprid is persistent with a half-life of the order of 1–3 years. On the soil surface the half-life is 39 days. Major soil metabolites include imidacloprid nitrosimine, imidacloprid desnitro and imidacloprid urea, which ultimately degrade to 6-chloronicotinic acid, CO, and bound residues. 6-Chloronicotinic acid is recently shown to be mineralized via a nicotinic acid (vitamin B3) pathway in a soil bacterium.  In soil, imidacloprid strongly binds to organic matter. When not exposed to light, imidacloprid breaks down slowly in water, and thus has the potential to persist in groundwater for extended periods. However, in a survey of groundwater in areas of the United States which had been treated with imidacloprid for the emerald ash borer, imidacloprid was usually not detected. When detected, it was present at very low levels, mostly at concentrations less than 1 part per billion (ppb) with a maximum of 7 ppb, which are below levels of concern for human health. The detections have generally occurred in areas with porous rocky or sandy soils with little organic matter, where the risk of leaching is high — and/or where the water table was close to the surface.  Based on its high water solubility (0.5-0.6 g/L) and persistence, both the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the Pest Management Regulatory Agency in Canada consider imidacloprid to have a high potential to run off into surface water and to leach into ground water and thus warn not to apply it in areas where soils are permeable, particularly where the water table is shallow.  According to standards set by the environmental ministry of Canada, if used correctly (at recommended rates, without irrigation, and when heavy rainfall is not predicted), imidacloprid does not characteristically leach into the deeper soil layers despite its high water solubility (Rouchaud et al. 1994; Tomlin 2000; Krohn and Hellpointner 2002). In a series of field trials conducted by Rouchaud et al. (1994, 1996), in which imidacloprid was applied to sugar beet plots, it was consistently demonstrated that no detectable leaching of imidacloprid to the 10–20 cm soil layer occurred. Imidacloprid was applied to a corn field in Minnesota, and no imidacloprid residues were found in sample column segments below the 0-15.2 cm depth segment (Rice et al. 1991, as reviewed in Mulye 1995).  However, a 2012 water monitoring study by the state of California, performed by collecting agricultural runoff during the growing seasons of 2010 and 2011, found imidacloprid in 89% of samples, with levels ranging from 0.1-3.2 μg/L. 19% of the samples exceeded the EPA threshold for chronic toxicity for aquatic invertebrates of 1.05 μg/L. The authors also point out that Canadian and European guidelines are much lower (0.23 μg/L and 0.067 μg/L, respectively) and were exceeded in 73% and 88% of the samples, respectively. The authors concluded that "imidacloprid commonly moves offsite and contaminates surface waters at concentrations that could harm aquatic invertebrates".

Toxicology.

Based on laboratory rat studies, imidacloprid is rated as "moderately toxic" on an acute oral basis to mammals and low toxicity on a dermal basis by the World Health Organization and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (class II or III, requiring a "Warning" or "Caution" label). It is rated as an "unlikely" carcinogen and as weakly mutagenic by the U.S. EPA (group E). It is not listed for reproductive or developmental toxicity, but is listed on EPA's Tier 1 Screening Order for chemicals to be tested under the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP). Tolerances for imidacloprid residues in food range from 0.02 mg/kg in eggs to 3.0 mg/kg in hops.  Animal toxicity is moderate when ingested orally and low when applied dermally. It is not irritating to eyes or skin in rabbits and guinea pigs (although some commercial preparations contain clay as an inert ingredient, which may be an irritant). The acute inhalation LD in rats was not reached at the greatest attainable concentrations, 69 milligrams per cubic meter of air as an aerosol, and 5,323 mg a.i./m of air as a dust. In rats subjected to a two-year feeding study, no observable effect was seen at 100 parts per million (ppm). In rats, the thyroid is the organ most affected by imidacloprid. Thyroid lesions occurred in male rats at a LOAEL of 16.9 mg a.i./kg/day. In a one-year feeding study in dogs, no observable effect was seen at 1,250 ppm, while levels up to 2,500 ppm led to hypercholesterolemia and elevated liver cytochrome p-450 measurements.

Bees and other insects.

To members of the species "Apis mellifera", the western honey bee, imidacloprid is one of the most toxic chemicals ever created as an insecticide. The acute oral LD of imidacloprid ranges from 5 to 70 nanograms per bee. Honeybee colonies vary in their ability to metabolize toxins, which explains this wide range. Imidacloprid is more toxic to bees than the organophosphate dimethoate (oral LD 152 ng/bee) or the pyrethroid cypermethrin (oral LD 160 ng/bee). The toxicity of imidacloprid to bees differs from most insecticides in that it is more toxic orally than by contact. The contact acute LD is 0.024 μg active ingredient per bee.  Imidacloprid was first widely used in the United States in 1996 as it replaced three broad classes of insecticides. In 2006, U.S. commercial migratory beekeepers reported sharp declines in their honey bee colonies. Such declines had happened in the past; however unlike as was the case in previous losses, adult bees were abandoning their hives. Scientists named this phenomenon colony collapse disorder (CCD). Reports show that beekeepers in most states have been affected by CCD. Although no single factor has been identified as causing CCD, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in their progress report on CCD stated that CCD may be "a syndrome caused by many different factors, working in combination or synergistically." Several studies have found that sub-lethal levels of imidacloprid increase honey bee susceptibility to the pathogen "Nosema".  Dave Goulson (2012) of the University of Stirling showed that trivial effects of imidacloprid in lab and greenhouse experiments can translate into large effects in the field. The research found that bees consuming the pesticide suffered an 85% loss in the number of queens their hives produced, and a doubling of the number of bees who failed to return from food foraging trips.  Lu et al. (2012) reported they were able to replicate CCD with sub-lethal doses of imidacloprid. The imidacloprid-treated hives were nearly empty, consistent with CCD, and the authors exclude "Varroa" or "Nosema" as contributing causes.  In May 2012, researchers at the University of San Diego released a study showing that honey bees treated with a small dose of imidacloprid, comparable to what they would receive in nectar and formerly considered a safe amount, became "picky eaters," refusing nectars of lower sweetness and preferring to feed only on sweeter nectar. It was also found that bees exposed to imidacloprid performed the "waggle dance," the movements that bees use to inform hive mates of the location of foraging plants, at a lower rate.  Researchers from the Canadian Forest Service showed that imidacloprid used on trees at realistic field concentrations decreases leaf litter breakdown owing to adverse sublethal effects on non-target terrestrial invertebrates. The study did not find significant indication that the invertebrates, which normally decompose leaf litter, preferred uncontaminated leaves, and concluded that the invertebrates could not detect the imidacloprid.  A 2012 "in situ" study provided strong evidence that exposure to sublethal levels of imidacloprid in high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) used to feed honey bees when forage is not available causes bees to exhibit symptoms consistent to CCD 23 weeks post imidacloprid dosing. The researchers suggested that "the observed delayed mortality in honey bees caused by imidacloprid in HFCS is a novel and plausible mechanism for CCD, and should be validated in future studies".  Sublethal doses (<10 ppb) to aphids have been found to lead to altered behavior, such as wandering and eventual starvation. Very low concentrations also reduced nymph viability. In bumblebees exposure to 10 ppb imidacloprid reduces natural foraging behaviour, increases worker mortality and leads to reduced brood development. A 2013 study showed that bumblebee colonies exposed to 10 ppb of imidacloprid started failing after three weeks when the death rate increased and the birth rate decreased. The researchers attributed this to exposed colonies performing essential tasks, such as foraging, thermoregulation and brood care, less well than unexposed colonies. This suggests that sublethal imidacloprid causes colony failure through reduced colony function.  In January 2013, the European Food Safety Authority stated that neonicotinoids pose an unacceptably high risk to bees, and that the industry-sponsored science upon which regulatory agencies' claims of safety have relied might be flawed, concluding that, "A high acute risk to honey bees was identified from exposure via dust drift for the seed treatment uses in maize, oilseed rape and cereals. A high acute risk was also identified from exposure via residues in nectar and/or pollen." An author of a "Science" study prompting the EFSA review suggested that industry science pertaining to neonicotinoids may have been deliberately deceptive, and the UK Parliament has asked the manufacturer Bayer Crop Science to explain discrepancies in evidence they have submitted to an investigation.

Birds.

In bobwhite quail ("Colinus virginianus"), imidacloprid was determined to be moderately toxic with an acute oral LD of 152 mg a.i./kg. It was slightly toxic in a 5-day dietary study with an acute oral LC of 1,420 mg a.i./kg diet, a NOAEC of < 69 mg a.i./kg diet, and a LOAEC = 69 mg a.i./kg diet. Exposed birds exhibited ataxia, wing drop, opisthotonos, immobility, hyperactivity, fluid-filled crops and intestines, and discolored livers. In a reproductive toxicity study with bobwhite quail, the NOAEC = 120 mg a.i./kg diet and the LOAEC = 240 mg a.i./kg diet. Eggshell thinning and decreased adult weight were observed at 240 mg a.i./kg diet.  Imidacloprid is highly toxic to four bird species: Japanese quail, house sparrow, canary, and pigeon. The acute oral LD for Japanese quail ("Coturnix coturnix") is 31 mg a.i./kg bw with a NOAEL = 3.1 mg a.i./kg. The acute oral LD for house sparrow ("Passer domesticus") is 41 mg a.i./kg bw with a NOAEL = 3 mg a.i./kg and a NOAEL = 6 mg a.i./kg. The LDs for pigeon ("Columba livia") and canary ("Serinus canaria") are 25–50 mg a.i./kg. Mallard ducks are more resistant to the effects of imidacloprid with a 5-day dietary LC of > 4,797 ppm. The NOAEC for body weight and feed consumption is 69 mg a.i./kg diet. Reproductive studies with mallard ducks showed eggshell thinning at 240 mg a.i./kg diet. According to the European Food Safety Authority, imidacloprid poses a potential high acute risk for herbivorous and insectivorous birds and granivorous mammals. Chronic risk has not been well established. The hypothesis that imidacloprid has a negative impact on insectivorous bird populations is supported by a study of bird population trends in the Netherlands, where correlation has been identified between surface-water concentrations of imidacloprid and population decline. At imidacloprid concentrations of more than 20 nanograms per litre, bird populations tended to decline by 3.5 per cent on average annually. Additional analyses in this study revealed that spatial pattern of bird population decline appeared only after the introduction of imidacloprid to the Netherlands, in the mid-1990s, and that this correlation is not linked to any other land usage factor.

Aquatic life.

Imidacloprid is highly toxic on an acute basis to aquatic invertebrates, with EC values = 0.037 - 0.115 ppm. It is also highly toxic to aquatic invertebrates on a chronic basis (effects on growth and movement): NOAEC/LOAEC = 1.8/3.6 ppm in daphnids; NOAEC = 0.001 in "Chironomus" midge, and NOAEC/LOAEC = 0.00006/0.0013 ppm in mysid shrimp. Its toxicity to fish is relatively low; however, the EPA has requested review of secondary effects on fish with food chains that include sensitive aquatic invertebrates.

Plant life.

Imidacloprid has been shown to turn off some genes that some rice varieties use to produce defensive chemicals. While imidacloprid is used for control of the brown planthopper and other rice pests, there is evidence that imidacloprid actually increases the susceptibility of the rice plant to planthopper infestation and attacks. Imidacloprid has been shown to increase the rate of photosynthesis in upland cotton temperatures above 36 degrees Celsius.

Health impact.

Imidacloprid and its nitrosoimine metabolite (WAK 3839) have been well studied in rats, mice and dogs. In mammals, the primary effects following acute high-dose oral exposure to imidacloprid are mortality, transient cholinergic effects (dizziness, apathy, locomotor effects, labored breathing) and transient growth retardation. Exposure to high doses may be associated with degenerative changes in the testes, thymus, bone marrow and pancreas. Cardiovascular and hematological effects have also been observed at higher doses. The primary effects of longer term, lower-dose exposure to imidacloprid are on the liver, thyroid, and body weight (reduction). Low- to mid-dose oral exposures have been associated with reproductive toxicity, developmental retardation and neurobehavioral deficits in rats and rabbits. Imidacloprid is neither carcinogenic in laboratory animals nor mutagenic in standard laboratory assays.  Imidacloprid is moderately toxic and is linked to neurotoxic, reproductive and mutagenic effects. It has been found to be highly toxic to bees and other beneficial insects. It is also toxic to upland game birds, is generally persistent in soils and can leach to groundwater. Health Canada has stated that the chemical's toxicity to bees and other insects is not in scientific dispute.  Effects of imidacloprid on human health and the environment depend on how much imidacloprid is present and the length and frequency of exposure. Effects also depend on the health of a person and/or certain environmental factors.  A study conducted in tissue culture of neurons harvested from newborn rats showed that Imidacloprid and acetamiprid, another neonicotinoid, excited the neurons in a way similar to nicotine, so the effects of neonicotinoids on developing mammalian brains might be similar to the adverse effects of nicotine.

Overdosage.

People who might orally ingest acute amounts would experience emesis, diaphoresis, drowsiness and disorientation. This would need to be intentional since a large amount would need to be ingested to experience a toxic reaction. In dogs the LD is 450 mg/kg of body weight (i.e., in any sample of medium-sized dogs weighing, half of them would be killed after consuming 5,850 mg of imidacloprid, or about th of an ounce). Blood imidacloprid concentrations may be measured to confirm diagnosis in hospitalized patients or to establish the cause of death in postmortem investigations.

Regulation.

Neonicotinoids banned by the European Union.

In February 2018, the European Food Safety Authority published a new report indicating that neonicotinoids pose a serious danger to bees. In April 2018, the member states of the European Union decided to ban the three main neonicotinoids (clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam) for all outdoor uses.

Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide that acts as an insect neurotoxin and belongs to a class of chemicals called the neonicotinoids which act on the central nervous system of insects. The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect nervous system. Specifically, it causes a blockage of the nicotinergic neuronal pathway. By blocking nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, imidacloprid prevents acetylcholine from transmitting impulses between nerves, resulting in the insect's paralysis and eventual death. It is effective on contact and via stomach action. Because imidacloprid binds much more strongly to insect neuron receptors than to mammal neuron receptors, this insecticide is more toxic to insects than to mammals.

益达胺(Imidacloprid)又名吡虫啉,是新一代类尼古丁超高效杀虫剂,纯品呈无色无味的晶体。主要破坏昆虫的神经系统功能。对昆虫具有广谱、高效、害虫不易产生抗性,对人、哺乳动物、植物和天敌则是低毒、低残留安全等特点。害虫接触药剂后,中枢神经正常传导受阻,使其麻痹死亡。由于药物会经由植物根部、叶面吸收后传送到花朵、花粉中,所以对蜜蜂等传粉昆虫也具有强毒,严重影响农作物收成,已经逐步遭到禁用。2017年台湾将益达胺、可尼丁、赛速安三种类尼古丁农药暂时取消使用在荔枝与龙眼上,2018年6月欧盟决议全面禁用益达胺等三种类尼古丁杀虫剂。欧盟法院,在2018年5月宣判欧盟执委会2013年采「预警原则」禁止在招引蜜蜂的开花植物使用类尼古丁农药有理,驳回农药大厂拜耳与先正达的指控。


History.

In September 1994 alone, 194 members of the Sidama Liberation Movement (commonly known as SLM1 to distinguish it from the pro-government SLM2) were arrested and held in Awasa prison. The chairman of SLM1, Woldeamanuel Dubale, had fled to the United Kingdom after an unsuccessful attempt in 1992 to assassinate him.  The "Addis Tribune" reported 31 May 2002 that government security forces in Awasa on Friday, 24 March, killed 38 farmers who were attempting to demonstrate against the government decided to move the capital of the Sidama Zone from Awasa and make it a chartered city, similar to Dire Dawa. Three thousand demonstrators of the Sidama people, the ethnic group that so far had control of the regional capital, had taken to the streets when police declared their demonstration illegal and opened fire. The regional government recently announced their decision to move the administrative center to Aleta Wendo. Human Rights Watch had documented the deaths of 25 protesters, 12 of whom were children, and identified 26 more injured. These deaths came shortly after police shootings in Shambu, Ambo, and other towns in Oromia, resulting in five acknowledged student deaths. Rapid deployment forces of the federal and regional police also killed two at a meeting in Seraro the previous year.

Population.

Demographics.

Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia, this zone has a total population of 258,808, of whom 133,123 are men and 125,685 women. While 157,879 or 61% are living in the city of Awassa, the rest of the population of this zone is living in surrounding rural kebeles. A total of 61,279 households were counted in this zone, which results in an average of 4.22 persons to a household, and 57,469 housing units. In 2016, a new Industrial Park was built in Awassa to accommodate 60,000 jobs at a (1.3 km2) or 321-acre site.  The five largest ethnic groups reported in Awasa were the Amhara (17.43%), the Sidama (48.67%), the Welayta (13.9%), the Oromo (5.21%), and the Gurage (2.33%); all other ethnic groups made up 12.46% of the population. Amharic is spoken as a first language by 47.97% of the inhabitants, 21.01% speak Sidamo, 9.58% speak Welayta, and 2.07% Oromiffa; the remaining 9.37% spoke all other primary languages reported.  The 1994 census reported this town had a total population of 69,169 of whom 35,029 were men and 34,140 were women.

Economy.

Awassa Industrial Park (HIP), situated on the outskirts of a city flanked by a picturesque Rift Valley lake. The park that got 18 leading global apparel and textile companies by the end of 2017 is inaugurated by Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn on 20 June 2017. Construction of the park is led by Industrial Parks Development Corporation (IPDC), which is chaired by Arkebe Oqubay. The park is the first in its kind in the country, consumed more than US$250 million and built in a time of less than one year. The park is implementing Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) that enables to recycle 90 percent of sewerage disposal water and fulfills international standards. Covering an area of, of which is factory shed build-up area, the park have additional area allocated for shared facilities.

Religion.

59.71% of the population said they were Protestants, 26.99% practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, 8.14% were Muslim and 3.78% embraced Catholicism. The Latin Catholic minority is pastorally served by the missionary Apostolic Vicariate of Awasa, which has its Cathedral of Kidane-Meheret here.

Climate.

Awassa has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen "Aw") though it borders on a subtropical highland climate. There are two seasons: a lengthy though not intense wet season from March to October and a short dry season from November to February. The extra cloudiness of the wet season is sufficient to make it substantially cooler than the dry season despite a higher sun angle; however, the coolest morning temperatures, often close to freezing, occur during the dry season.

Sport.

Football (soccer) and swimming are the most played games in Awassa, but other sports like basketball and skateboarding are becoming popular among the youth. Biking and running competitions are occasionally held on the main streets of the town. Awassa City S.C. (Amharic: አዋሳ ከተማ) is an Ethiopian football club based in Hawassa, and the club is the first to win the Ethiopian Premier League from outside of Addis Ababa, the capital. In addition to winning the league twice, the club took part twice in CAF Champions League.

Education.

Hawassa University, established in 1999 through the merger of a number of higher education institutions, is based in the city. Info link College is the first private engineering college found in Awassa City. Africa Beza College campus is also in the city. Hawassa University is the first university in Ethiopia to offer a Hotel Management degree program.

Awassa (, also spelled Awasa or Hawassa) is a city in Ethiopia, on the shores of Lake Awasa in the Great Rift Valley. It is located south of Addis Ababa via Bishoftu, east of Sodo, and north of Dilla. The town serves as the capital of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region, and is a special zone of this region. It lies on the Trans-African Highway 4 Cairo-Cape Town, and has a latitude and longitude of and an elevation of above sea level. Its name comes from a Sidamic word meaning "wide body of water".

阿瓦萨(Awasa、Awassa或Hawassa)是东非大裂谷阿瓦萨湖旁的埃塞俄比亚城市,是南方各族州的首府。位于阿的斯阿贝巴以南270公里的锡达马地区,座标,海拔1,708米。阿瓦萨大学在1999年由多间高等学府合并成立。


Description.

The golden shower tree is a medium-sized tree, growing to tall with fast growth. The leaves are deciduous, long, and pinnate with three to eight pairs of leaflets, each leaflet long and broad. The flowers are produced in pendulous racemes long, each flower diameter with five yellow petals of equal size and shape. The fruit is a legume, long and broad, with a pungent odor and containing several seeds. The tree has strong and very durable wood, and has been used to construct "Ehela Kanuwa", a site at Adams Peak, Sri Lanka, which is made of "C. fistula" ("ahala, ehela", or "aehaela", ඇහැල in Sinhala ) heartwood.

Cultivation.

"C. fistula" is widely grown as an ornamental plant in tropical and subtropical areas. It blooms in late spring. Flowering is profuse, with trees being covered with yellow flowers, many times with almost no leaf being seen. It grows well in dry climates. Growth for this tree is best in full sun on well-drained soil; it is relatively drought-tolerant and slightly salt-tolerant. It will tolerate light brief frost, but can get damaged if the cold persists. It can be subject to mildew or leaf spot, especially during the second half of the growing season. The tree blooms better with pronounced differences between summer and winter temperatures.

Pollinators and seed dispersal.

Various species of bees and butterflies are known to be pollinators of "C. fistula" flowers, especially carpenter bees ("Xylocopa" sp.). In 1911, Robert Scott Troup conducted an experiment to determine how the seeds of "C. fistula" are dispersed. He found that golden jackals feed on the fruits and help in seed dispersal.

Uses.

Food.

In India, flowers of the golden shower tree are sometimes eaten by people. The leaves have also been used to supplement the diets of cattle, sheep, and goats fed with low-quality forages.

Medical.

In Ayurvedic medicine, the golden shower tree is known as "aragvadha", meaning "disease killer". The fruit pulp is considered a purgative, and self-medication or any use without medical supervision is strongly advised against in Ayurvedic texts. Though it has been used in herbalism for millennia, little research has been conducted in modern times, although it is an ingredient in some mass-produced herbal laxatives. When used as such, it is known as "cassia pods".  In India, a cathartic made from the pulp is sometimes added to tobacco.

Culture.

The golden shower tree is the state flower of Kerala. The flowers are of ritual importance in the Vishu festival of Kerala, and the tree was depicted on a 20-rupee stamp. The golden rain tree is the national flower of Thailand; its yellow flowers symbolize Thai royalty. A 2006–2007 flower festival, the Royal Flora Ratchaphruek, was named after the tree, which is known in Thai as" ratchaphruek" (Thai: ราชพฤกษ์) and the blossoms commonly referred to as "dok khun" (Thai: ดอกคูน). "C. fistula" is also featured on a 2003 joint Canadian-Thai design for a 48-cent stamp, part of a series featuring national emblems. The tree is frequently cultivated in Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka where the Sinhala name is "Ehela", ඇහැල.  In Laos, its blooming flowers known locally as "dok khoun" are associated with the Lao New Year. People use the flowers as offerings at the temple and also hang them in their homes for the New Year in belief that the flowers will bring happiness and good luck to the households.

External links.

(2008): Kerala Symbols

Cassia fistula, commonly known as golden shower, purging cassia, Indian laburnum, or pudding-pipe tree, is a flowering plant in the subfamily, Caesalpiniaceae of the legume family, Fabaceae. The species is native to the Indian subcontinent and adjacent regions of Southeast Asia. It ranges from eastward throughout India to Myanmar and Thailand and south to Sri Lanka and southern Pakistan. It is a popular ornamental plant and is also used in herbal medicine. It is both the national tree and national flower of Thailand. It is the state flower of Kerala in India.

阿勒勃 (;,;《本草拾遗》),讹作阿勃勒(《本草纲目》;台湾通称),又称波斯皂荚(《酉阳杂俎》)、婆罗门皂荚(《本草拾遗》)、腊肠树(《中国植物志》;大陆通称)、猪肠豆(香港通称)、南蛮皂荚(日本通称)、长果子树、牛角树等,或据英语英语:golden shower译作黄金雨、金急雨,是一种豆科苏木亚科的植物。原产于南亚南部,从巴基斯坦南部往东直到印度及缅甸,往南直到斯里兰卡。分布在缅甸、斯里兰卡、印度、台湾以及中国大陆的南部、西南部等地,生长于海拔1,000米的地区。


Explanation.

The Lambda-CDM concordance model describes the evolution of the universe from a very uniform, hot, dense primordial state to its present state over a span of about 13.8 billion years of cosmological time. This model is well understood theoretically and strongly supported by recent high-precision astronomical observations such as WMAP. In contrast, theories of the origin of the primordial state remain very speculative. If one extrapolates the Lambda-CDM model backward from the earliest well-understood state, it quickly (within a small fraction of a second) reaches a singularity. This is known as the "initial singularity" or the "Big Bang singularity". This singularity is not understood as having a physical significance in the usual sense, but it is convenient to quote times measured "since the Big Bang" even though they do not correspond to a physically measurable time. For example, "10 seconds after the Big Bang" is a well-defined era in the universe's evolution. If one referred to the same era as "13.8 billion years minus 10 seconds ago", the precision of the meaning would be lost because the minuscule latter time interval is eclipsed by uncertainty in the former.  Though the universe might in theory have a longer history, the International Astronomical Union presently use "age of the universe" to mean the duration of the Lambda-CDM expansion, or equivalently the elapsed time since the Big Bang in the current observable universe.

Observational limits.

Since the universe must be at least as old as the oldest things in it, there are a number of observations which put a lower limit on the age of the universe; these include the temperature of the coolest white dwarfs, which gradually cool as they age, and the dimmest turnoff point of main sequence stars in clusters (lower-mass stars spend a greater amount of time on the main sequence, so the lowest-mass stars that have evolved away from the main sequence set a minimum age).

Cosmological parameters.

The problem of determining the age of the universe is closely tied to the problem of determining the values of the cosmological parameters. Today this is largely carried out in the context of the ΛCDM model, where the universe is assumed to contain normal (baryonic) matter, cold dark matter, radiation (including both photons and neutrinos), and a cosmological constant. The fractional contribution of each to the current energy density of the universe is given by the density parameters Ω, Ω, and Ω. The full ΛCDM model is described by a number of other parameters, but for the purpose of computing its age these three, along with the Hubble parameter formula_1, are the most important.  If one has accurate measurements of these parameters, then the age of the universe can be determined by using the Friedmann equation. This equation relates the rate of change in the scale factor "a"("t") to the matter content of the universe. Turning this relation around, we can calculate the change in time per change in scale factor and thus calculate the total age of the universe by integrating this formula. The age "t" is then given by an expression of the form where formula_1 is the Hubble parameter and the function "F" depends only on the fractional contribution to the universe's energy content that comes from various components. The first observation that one can make from this formula is that it is the Hubble parameter that controls that age of the universe, with a correction arising from the matter and energy content. So a rough estimate of the age of the universe comes from the Hubble time, the inverse of the Hubble parameter. With a value for formula_1 around, the Hubble time evaluates to formula_5 = billion years.  To get a more accurate number, the correction factor "F" must be computed. In general this must be done numerically, and the results for a range of cosmological parameter values are shown in the figure. For the Planck values (Ω, Ω) = (0.3086, 0.6914), shown by the box in the upper left corner of the figure, this correction factor is about "F" = 0.956. For a flat universe without any cosmological constant, shown by the star in the lower right corner, "F" = is much smaller and thus the universe is younger for a fixed value of the Hubble parameter. To make this figure, Ω is held constant (roughly equivalent to holding the CMB temperature constant) and the curvature density parameter is fixed by the value of the other three.  Apart from the Planck satellite, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) was instrumental in establishing an accurate age of the universe, though other measurements must be folded in to gain an accurate number. CMB measurements are very good at constraining the matter content Ω and curvature parameter Ω. It is not as sensitive to Ω directly, partly because the cosmological constant becomes important only at low redshift. The most accurate determinations of the Hubble parameter "H" come from Type Ia supernovae. Combining these measurements leads to the generally accepted value for the age of the universe quoted above.  The cosmological constant makes the universe "older" for fixed values of the other parameters. This is significant, since before the cosmological constant became generally accepted, the Big Bang model had difficulty explaining why globular clusters in the Milky Way appeared to be far older than the age of the universe as calculated from the Hubble parameter and a matter-only universe. Introducing the cosmological constant allows the universe to be older than these clusters, as well as explaining other features that the matter-only cosmological model could not.

WMAP.

NASA's Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) project's nine-year data release in 2012 estimated the age of the universe to be years (13.772 billion years, with an uncertainty of plus or minus 59 million years).  However, this age is based on the assumption that the project's underlying model is correct; other methods of estimating the age of the universe could give different ages. Assuming an extra background of relativistic particles, for example, can enlarge the error bars of the WMAP constraint by one order of magnitude.  This measurement is made by using the location of the first acoustic peak in the microwave background power spectrum to determine the size of the decoupling surface (size of the universe at the time of recombination). The light travel time to this surface (depending on the geometry used) yields a reliable age for the universe. Assuming the validity of the models used to determine this age, the residual accuracy yields a margin of error near one percent.

Planck.

In 2015, the Planck Collaboration estimated the age of the universe to be billion years, slightly higher but within the uncertainties of the earlier number derived from the WMAP data. By combining the Planck data with external data, the best combined estimate of the age of the universe is old.  In the table below, figures are within 68% confidence limits for the base ΛCDM model.  Legend:

Assumption of strong priors.

Calculating the age of the universe is accurate only if the assumptions built into the models being used to estimate it are also accurate. This is referred to as strong priors and essentially involves stripping the potential errors in other parts of the model to render the accuracy of actual observational data directly into the concluded result. Although this is not a valid procedure in all contexts (as noted in the accompanying caveat: "based on the fact we have assumed the underlying model we used is correct"), the age given is thus accurate to the specified error (since this error represents the error in the instrument used to gather the raw data input into the model).  The age of the universe based on the best fit to Planck 2015 data alone is billion years (the estimate of billion years uses Gaussian priors based on earlier estimates from other studies to determine the combined uncertainty). This number represents an accurate "direct" measurement of the age of the universe (other methods typically involve Hubble's law and the age of the oldest stars in globular clusters, etc.). It is possible to use different methods for determining the same parameter (in this case – the age of the universe) and arrive at different answers with no overlap in the "errors". To best avoid the problem, it is common to show two sets of uncertainties; one related to the actual measurement and the other related to the systematic errors of the model being used.  An important component to the analysis of data used to determine the age of the universe (e.g. from Planck) therefore is to use a Bayesian statistical analysis, which normalizes the results based upon the priors (i.e. the model). This quantifies any uncertainty in the accuracy of a measurement due to a particular model used.

History.

In the 18th century, the concept that the age of the Earth was millions, if not billions, of years began to appear. However, most scientists throughout the 19th century and into the first decades of the 20th century presumed that the universe itself was Steady State and eternal, with maybe stars coming and going but no changes occurring at the largest scale known at the time.  The first scientific theories indicating that the age of the universe might be finite were the studies of thermodynamics, formalized in the mid-19th century. The concept of entropy dictates that if the universe (or any other closed system) were infinitely old, then everything inside would be at the same temperature, and thus there would be no stars and no life. No scientific explanation for this contradiction was put forth at the time.  In 1915 Albert Einstein published the theory of general relativity and in 1917 constructed the first cosmological model based on his theory. In order to remain consistent with a steady state universe, Einstein added what was later called a cosmological constant to his equations. Einstein's model of a static universe was proved unstable by Arthur Eddington.  The first direct observational hint that the universe was not static but expanding came from the observations of'recession velocities', mostly by Vesto Slipher, combined with distances to the 'nebulae' (galaxies) by Edwin Hubble in a work published in 1929. Earlier in the 20th century, Hubble and others resolved individual stars within certain nebulae, thus determining that they were galaxies, similar to, but external to, our Milky Way Galaxy. In addition, these galaxies were very large and very far away. Spectra taken of these distant galaxies showed a red shift in their spectral lines presumably caused by the Doppler effect, thus indicating that these galaxies were moving away from the Earth. In addition, the farther away these galaxies seemed to be (the dimmer they appeared to us) the greater was their redshift, and thus the faster they seemed to be moving away. This was the first direct evidence that the universe is not static but expanding. The first estimate of the age of the universe came from the calculation of when all of the objects must have started speeding out from the same point. Hubble's initial value for the universe's age was very low, as the galaxies were assumed to be much closer than later observations found them to be.  The first reasonably accurate measurement of the rate of expansion of the universe, a numerical value now known as the Hubble constant, was made in 1958 by astronomer Allan Sandage. His measured value for the Hubble constant came very close to the value range generally accepted today.  However Sandage, like Einstein, did not believe his own results at the time of discovery. His value for the age of the universe was too short to reconcile with the 25-billion-year age estimated at that time for the oldest known stars. Sandage and other astronomers repeated these measurements numerous times, attempting to reduce the Hubble constant and thus increase the resulting age for the universe. Sandage even proposed new theories of cosmogony to explain this discrepancy. This issue was more or less resolved by improvements in the theoretical models used for estimating the ages of stars. As of 2013, using the latest models for stellar evolution, the estimated age of the oldest known star is billion years.  The discovery of microwave cosmic background radiation announced in 1965 finally brought an effective end to the remaining scientific uncertainty over the expanding universe. It was a chance result from work by two teams less than 60 miles apart. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson were trying to detect radio wave echoes with a supersensitive antenna. The antenna persistently detected a low, steady, mysterious noise in the microwave region that was evenly spread over the sky, and was present day and night. After testing, they became certain that the signal did not come from the Earth, the Sun, or our galaxy, but from outside our own galaxy, but could not explain it. At the same time another team, Robert H. Dicke, Jim Peebles, and David Wilkinson, were attempting to detect low level noise which might be left over from the Big Bang and could prove whether the Big Bang theory was correct. The two teams realized that the detected noise was in fact radiation left over from the Big Bang, and that this was strong evidence that the theory was correct. Since then, a great deal of other evidence has strengthened and confirmed this conclusion, and refined the estimated age of the universe to its current figure.  The space probes WMAP, launched in 2001, and Planck, launched in 2009, produced data that determines the Hubble constant and the age of the universe independent of galaxy distances, removing the largest source of error.

In physical cosmology, the age of the universe is the time elapsed since the Big Bang. The current measurement of the age of the universe is around 13.8 billion years (as of 2015) – billion years within the Lambda-CDM concordance model (as of 2018.)The uncertainty has been narrowed down to 20 million years, based on a number of studies which all gave extremely similar figures for the age. These include studies of the microwave background radiation by the "Planck" spacecraft, the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe and other space probes. Measurements of the cosmic background radiation give the cooling time of the universe since the Big Bang, and measurements of the expansion rate of the universe can be used to calculate its approximate age by extrapolating backwards in time.

宇宙年龄是指自宇宙大爆炸开始至今所经历的宇宙历史时间,当今天文学界理论和观测皆一致认为这个年龄介于137-138亿年之间。这个不确定的区间是从多个科研项目的研究结果的共识中取得的,其中使用的先进的科研仪器和方法已经能够将这个测量精度提升到相当高的量级。这些科研项目包括对宇宙微波背景辐射的测量以及对宇宙膨胀的多种测量手段。对宇宙微波背景辐射的测量给出了宇宙自大爆炸以来的冷却时间,而对宇宙膨胀的测量则给出了能够计算宇宙年龄的精确数据。2013年时的普朗克卫星所得的观测结果,宇宙大爆炸的时间点落在距今137.98±0.37亿年前;而2015年的更新数据显示为137.87±0.02亿年前。


1980年至1981年德国足球乙级联赛

Nord.

The 1980–81 season saw 1. FC Bocholt, Göttingen 05, SpVgg Erkenschwick and VfB Oldenburg promoted to the 2. Bundesliga from the Oberligas while Hertha BSC, Werder Bremen and Eintracht Braunschweig had been relegated to the 2. Bundesliga Nord from the Bundesliga.

Süd.

The 1980–81 season saw Borussia Neunkirchen, FC Augsburg, Hessen Kassel and VfB Eppingen promoted to the 2. Bundesliga from the Oberligas while no club had been relegated to the 2. Bundesliga Süd from the Bundesliga.

Top scorers.

The league's top scorers:

Promotion play-offs.

The final place in the Bundesliga was contested between the two runners-up in the Nord and Süd divisions. Eintracht Braunschweig won on aggregate and were promoted to the Bundesliga.

Qualification for single-division 2. Bundesliga.

There was a sophisticated system for qualifying for the new single-division 2. Bundesliga. First, the clubs had to meet technical qualification criteria. These stipulated that the stadiums had to accommodate at least 15,000 spectators and had to be equipped with floodlights within a certain period of time. If these requirements were met, sporting criteria would come into play. The non-promoted teams in fourth place and above from the Nord and Süd divisions, along with the three relegated teams from the 1980–81 Bundesliga, automatically qualified. The other participants (teams from 5th to 16th place in the Nord and Süd) were determined by a so-called "placement number" (). This was calculated from the positions achieved by teams in the last three seasons. The lower this number was, the better the club was placed. For the 1978–79 season, the table position was multiplied by one, the 1979–80 season by two and the current 1980–81 season by three. Seasons in the Bundesliga were tallied as zero. For Oberliga seasons in which teams did not achieve promotion, 20 points were added, and 16 points for seasons which teams were promoted. It was also important from which region the three relegated teams of the Bundesliga were from, as well as how many teams were promoted from the respective Nord and Süd divisions. At the end, 10 teams from the Nord and Süd divisions had represented in the next season. Teams in 17th and below from the Nord and Süd were relegated, irrespective of their placement number. There was no promotion for teams from the Oberliga going into the single-division season.

References.

General references

The 1980–81 2. Bundesliga season was the seventh season of the 2. Bundesliga, the second tier of the German football league system. It was played in two regional divisions, Nord and Süd. This was the final season of the original two region 2. Bundesliga, as the DFB sought to integrate the Nord and Süd divisions into a single division for the next campaign. This meant 22 teams faced the drop to the Oberliga (12 from the Nord, 10 from the Süd). There were three promotion spots to the Bundesliga on offer, while the remaining teams would enter the new single league 2. Bundesliga in the next season.

本赛季是德乙南北分区的最后一个赛季。德国足协决定在下一个赛季把两个分区合并,这意味着本赛季将有22支球队降级到高级联赛(北区12支,南区10支)。同时将有3支球队升级到德甲,余下球队留在不分区的德乙联赛。最终云达不来梅、达姆施塔特、布伦瑞克升入德甲。