History.

Origin of the concept.

The Avogadro constant is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), who, in 1811, first proposed that the volume of a gas (at a given pressure and temperature) is proportional to the number of atoms or molecules regardless of the nature of the gas.  The name "Avogadro's number" was coined in 1909 by the physicist Jean Perrin, who defined it as the number of molecules in exactly 32 grams of oxygen. The goal of this definition was to make the mass of a mole of a substance, in grams, be numerically equal to the mass of one molecule relative to the mass of the hydrogen atom; which, because of the law of definite proportions, was the natural unit of atomic mass, and was assumed to be 1/16 of the atomic mass of oxygen.

First measurements.

The value of Avogadro's number (still not known by that name) was first obtained indirectly by Josef Loschmidt in 1865, by estimating the number of particles in a given volume of gas. This value, the number density "n" of particles in an ideal gas, is now called the Loschmidt constant in his honor, and is related to the Avogadro constant, "N", by where "p" is the pressure, "R" is the gas constant, and "T" is the absolute temperature. Because of this work, the symbol "L" is sometimes used for the Avogadro constant, and, in German literature, that name may be used for both constants, distinguished only by the units of measurement. (However, "N" should not to be confused with the entirely different Loschmidt constant in the English language literature.)  Perrin himself determined Avogadro's number by several different experimental methods. He was awarded the 1926 Nobel Prize in Physics, largely for this work.  The electric charge per mole of electrons is a constant called the Faraday constant and had been known since 1834 when Michael Faraday published his works on electrolysis. In 1910, Robert Millikan obtained the first measurement of the charge on an electron. Dividing the charge on a mole of electrons by the charge on a single electron provided a more accurate estimate of the Avogadro number.

SI definition of 1971.

In 1971 the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) decided to regard the amount of substance as an independent dimension of measurement, with the mole as its base unit in the International System of Units (SI). Specifically, the mole was defined as an amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12.  By this definition, the common rule of thumb "one gram of matter contains "N" nucleons" was exact for carbon-12, but slightly inexact for other elements and isotopes. On the other hand, one mole of any substance contained exactly as many molecules as one mole of any other substance.  As a consequence of this definition, in the SI system the Avogadro constant "N" had the dimensionality of reciprocal of amount of substance rather than of a pure number, and had the approximate value with units of mol. By this definition, the value of "N" inherently had to be determined experimentally.  The IBPM also named "N" the "Avogadro "constant"", but the term "Avogadro number" continued to be used especially in introductory works.

SI redefinition of 2019.

In 2017, the IBPM decided to change the definitions of mole and amount of substance. The mole was redefined as being the amount of substance containing exactly elementary entities. One consequence of this change is that the mass of a mole of C atoms is no longer exactly 0.012 kg. On the other hand, the dalton ( universal atomic mass unit) remains unchanged as 1/12 of the mass of C. Thus, the molar mass constant is no longer exactly 1 g/mol, although the difference ( in relative terms, as of March 2019) is insignificant for practical purposes.

The Avogadro constant in other unit systems.

In other measurement systems where the unit of amount of substance is not the SI mole, the Avogadro constant "N" is taken to mean the number of particles in said unit, and will have a different value.  For example, if quantities of a substance are measured in pound-mole (lb-mol), then the Avogadro constant "N" is lb-mol. If the ounce-mole (oz-mol) is used instead, "N" is oz-mol. However, these units are hardly used nowadays.

Connection to other constants.

The Avogadro constant, "N" is related to other physical constants and properties.

The Avogadro constant ("N" or "L") is the proportionality factor that relates the number of constituent particles (usually molecules, atoms or ions) in a sample with the amount of substance in that sample. Its SI unit is the reciprocal mole, and it is defined as It is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro.

在物理学和化学中,阿伏伽德罗常数(符号:formula_1或formula_2;英语:Avogadro number)的定义是一莫耳物质中所含的组成粒子数(一般为原子或分子),记做"N"。因此,它是联系粒子摩尔质量(即一摩尔时的质量),及其质量间的比例系数。其数值为:


History.

Contrary to the previous Game Boy models, which have the "portrait" form factor of the original Game Boy (designed by Gunpei Yokoi), the Game Boy Advance was designed in a "landscape" form factor, putting the buttons to the sides of the device instead of below the screen. The Game Boy Advance was designed by the French designer Gwénaël Nicolas and his Tokyo-based design studio Curiosity Inc.  News of a successor to the Game Boy Color (GBC) first emerged at the Nintendo Space World trade show in late August 1999, where it was reported that two new handheld systems were in development. An improved version of the GBC with wireless online connectivity was codenamed the Advanced Game Boy (AGB), and a brand-new 32-bit system was not set for release until the following year. On September 1, 1999, Nintendo officially announced the Game Boy Advance, revealing details about the system's specifications including online connectivity through a cellular device and an improved model of the Game Boy Camera. Nintendo teased that the handheld would first be released in Japan in August 2000, with the North American and European launch dates slated for the end of the same year. Simultaneously, Nintendo announced a partnership with Konami to form Mobile 21, a development studio that would focus on creating technology for the GBA to interact with the GameCube, Nintendo's home console which was also in development at the time under the name "Dolphin". On August 21, 2000, IGN showed off images of a GBA development kit running a demonstrational port of "Yoshi Story", and on August 22, pre-production images of the GBA were revealed in an issue of "Famitsu" magazine in Japan. On August 24, Nintendo officially revealed the console to the public in a presentation, revealing the Japanese and North American launch dates, in addition to revealing that 10 games would be available as launch titles for the system. The GBA was then featured at Nintendo Space World 2000 from August 24 to 26 alongside several peripherals for the system, including the GBA Link cable, the GameCube - Game Boy Advance link cable, a rechargable battery pack for the system, and an infrared communications adaptor which would allow systems to exchange data with each other. In March 2001, Nintendo revealed details about the system's North American launch, including the suggested price of $99.99 and the 15 launch games. Nintendo estimated that around 60 games would be made available for the system by the end of 2001.

Project Atlantis.

In 1996, magazines including "Electronic Gaming Monthly", "Next Generation", issues 53 and 54 of "Total!" and the July 1996 issue of "Game Informer" featured reports of a new Game Boy, codenamed Project Atlantis. Although Nintendo's expectations of releasing the system in at least one territory by the end of 1996 would make that machine seem to be the Game Boy Color, it was described as having a 32-bit RISC processor, a 3-by-2-inch color LCD screen, and a link port—a description that more closely matches the Game Boy Advance. It also may have referred to the unnamed, unreleased Game Boy Color successor prototype that was revealed at 2009's Game Developers Conference. It was announced that Nintendo of Japan was working on a game for the system called "Mario's Castle", ultimately unreleased. Nintendo suspended the project in 1997, since the original Game Boy's 80% of the handheld market share was too high to merit the release of a successor.

Hardware.

Technical specifications.

The technical specifications of the original Game Boy Advance are, as provided by Nintendo:  Backward compatibility for Game Boy and Game Boy Color games is provided by a custom 4.194/8.388 MHz 8080-based coprocessor (Game Boy Advance software can use the audio tone generators to supplement the primary sound system), while a link port at the top of the unit allows it to be connected to other devices using a Game Link cable or GameCube link cable. When playing Game Boy or Game Boy Color games on the Game Boy Advance, the L and R buttons can be used to toggle between a stretched widescreen format and the original screen ratio of the Game Boy. Game Boy games can be played using the same selectable color palettes as on the Game Boy Color. Every Nintendo handheld system following the release of the Game Boy Advance SP has included a built-in light and rechargeable battery.  The Game Boy Advance 2D graphics hardware has scaling and rotation for traditional tiled backgrounds in its modes 1 and 2 and scaling and rotation for bitmaps in modes 3 through 5 (used less often on the GBA because of technical limitations). On each machine supporting this effect, it is possible to change the scaling and rotation values during the horizontal blanking period of each scanline to draw a flat plane in a perspective projection. More complex effects such as fuzz are possible by using other equations for the position, scaling, and rotation of each line. The "character mode" supports up to 4 tile map background layers per frame, with each tile being 8x8 pixels in size and having 16 or 256 colors. The "character mode" also supports up to 128 hardware sprites per frame, with any sprite size from 8x8 to 64x64 pixels and with 16 or 256 colors per sprite.

Color variants.

The Game Boy Advance has been available in numerous colors and limited editions throughout its production. It was initially available in Arctic, Black, Orange, Fuchsia (translucent pink), Glacier (translucent blue/purple) and Indigo. Later in the system's availability, additional colors and special editions were released, including: Red, Clear Orange/Black, Platinum, White, Gold, Hello Kitty edition (pink with Hello Kitty and logo on bezel), "The King of Fighters" edition (black with images on bezel and buttons), "Chobits" edition (translucent light blue, with images on bezel and buttons), "Battle Network Rockman EXE 2" (light blue with images on bezel), "Mario Bros." edition (Glacier with Mario and Luigi on bezel) and Yomiuri Giants edition (Glacier with images on bezel).  A number of "Pokémon"-themed limited-edition systems were made available in Pokémon Center stores in Japan. These editions include: Gold Pokémon edition (Gold with Pikachu and Pichu on bezel), Suicune edition (blue/grey with greyscale Pikachu and Pichu on bezel, and a Pokémon Center sticker on the back), Celebi edition (olive green with Celebi images on bezel), and Latias/Latios edition (pink/red and purple, with images of Latias and Latios on bezel).

Games.

With hardware performance comparable to the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, the Game Boy Advance represents progress for sprite-based technology. The system's library includes platformers, SNES-like role-playing video games, and games ported from various 8-bit and 16-bit systems of the previous generations. This includes the "Super Mario Advance" series, as well as the system's backward compatibility with all earlier Game Boy titles. While most GBA games employ 2D graphics, developers have ambitiously designed some 3D GBA games that push the limits of the hardware, including first-person shooters like a port of "Doom" and racing games like "GT Advance Championship Racing".  In Japan, the final game to have been released on the system is "Final Fantasy VI Advance" on November 30, 2006, which is also the final game published by Nintendo on the system. In North America, the last game for the system is "Samurai Deeper Kyo", released on February 12, 2008. Lastly, in Europe, "2 Games in 1: Columns Crown & ChuChu Rocket!" is the last game for the system (and also the last one released on the system overall), released on November 28, 2008. The Japan-only "Rhythm Tengoku", the first game in what would eventually become known outside Japan as the "Rhythm Heaven"/"Rhythm Paradise" series, is the final first-party-developed game for the system, released on August 3, 2006.

Compatibility with other systems.

An accessory for the GameCube, known as the Game Boy Player, was released in 2003 as the successor to the Super Game Boy peripheral for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The accessory allows Game Boy Advance games, as well as Game Boy and Game Boy Color games, to be played on the GameCube. However, some games may have compatibility issues due to certain features requiring extra hardware. For example, games with built-in motion sensors (such as "Yoshi's Topsy-Turvy") would require players to manipulate the console itself.  The GBA is the last of the three Nintendo handheld systems to bear the Game Boy name, games developed for it are incompatible with older Game Boy systems, and each game's box carries a label indicating that the game is "not compatible with other Game Boy systems". However, games designed for older Game Boy systems are conversely compatible with the Game Boy Advance, with options to play such games on either their standard aspect ratios or a stretched fullscreen.  Game Boy Advance games are compatible with Nintendo DS models that support them with a dedicated GBA cartridge slot beneath the touch screen, (specifically the original model and the Nintendo DS Lite), although they cannot support multiplayer or features involving the use of GBA accessories because they do not have the GBA's external peripheral port that these features require to function. The Nintendo DSi and Nintendo DSi XL do not have backwards compatibility with the GBA.

Virtual Console.

As part of an Ambassador Program for early adopters of the Nintendo 3DS system, ten Game Boy Advance games were made available free for players who bought a system before August 2011. Unlike other Virtual Console games for the system, features such as the Home menu or save states are missing, since the games are running natively instead of in emulation. 3DS systems that have custom firmware installed can also install the ten available games available to Ambassador Program members. Many other Game Boy Advance games can also be played via custom firmware by injecting a different game into one of the released Game Boy Advance games. Satoru Iwata stated Game Boy Advance games will be available on the Wii U Virtual Console sometime during April 2014. On April 3, 2014, the first of the announced GBA games, "Advance Wars", "Metroid Fusion", and "", were released for the Wii U Virtual Console. A Virtual Console library of Game Boy Advance games was launched for the Wii U console. All of the Virtual Console releases are single player only, as they do not emulate multiplayer features enabled by Game Link cables.

Accessories.

Official.

Nintendo released various addons for the Game Boy Advance, which include:

Unofficial.

Other accessories for the Game Boy Advance include:

Revisions.

Game Boy Advance SP.

In early 2003, Nintendo introduced a new form-factor for the handheld, known as the Game Boy Advance SP (model AGS-001). The redesigned unit resembles a pocket-size laptop computer, including a folding case approximately one-half the size of the original unit. It also supports a rechargeable lithium-ion battery, a significantly brighter LCD screen, and an internal front-light that can be toggled on and off. The redesign was intended to address some common complaints about the original Game Boy Advance, which had been criticized for being somewhat uncomfortable to use, especially due to an overly dark screen.

Backlight model (AGS-101).

Around the same time as the release of the Game Boy Micro, Nintendo released a new backlit version of the SP (model AGS-101). The switch that controls the light now toggles between "normal" (which itself is already brighter than the original Game Boy Advance SP's screen), and "bright", an intense brightness level similar to an LCD television.

Game Boy Micro.

In September 2005, Nintendo released a second redesign of the Game Boy Advance. This model, dubbed the Game Boy Micro, is similar in style to the original Game Boy Advance's horizontal orientation, but is much smaller and sleeker. The Game Boy Micro also allows the user to switch between several colored faceplates to allow customization, a feature which Nintendo advertised heavily around the Game Boy Micro's launch. Nintendo also hoped that this "fashion" feature would help target audiences outside of typical video game players. Unlike the previous Game Boy Advance models, the Game Boy Micro is unable to support Game Boy and Game Boy Color titles. The Game Boy Micro did not make much of an impact in the video game market as it was overshadowed by Nintendo's other portable, the Nintendo DS, which also played Game Boy Advance cartridges.

Reception.

Upon its North American release, IGN praised the Game Boy Advance's graphical capabilities and battery life, but criticized the system's shoulder button placement and noted the system's high price tag which "may be a tad bit too high to swallow," ultimately scoring the system with in "8.0" out of 10. They also pointed out the system's lack of a backlight which occasionally got in the way of playing games. ABC News praised the Game Boy Advance's graphics, grip and larger screen, stating that "You've never had as much fun playing old games."  Reviewing for CNET, Darren Gladstone scored the system with a 7.0 out of 10, praising its graphical performance and backwards compatibility but being considerably critical of the system's lack of a backlit screen, noting that it makes it "nearly impossible" to play in normal lighting conditions. Gladstone ultimately suggested the sleeker and backlit Game Boy Advance SP over the system despite noting that its cheaper price may "appeal to gamers on a lower budget."

Sales.

Nintendo hoped to sell 1.1 million Game Boy Advance units by the end of March with the system's Japanese debut, and anticipated sales of 24 million units before the end of 2001; many marketing analysts believed for this to be a realistic goal due to the company's lack of major competition in the handheld video game market. Within the first week of its North American launch in June, the Game Boy Advance sold 500,000 units, making it the fastest-selling video game console in the United States at the time. In response to strong sales, Nintendo ordered 100,000 units to ship to retail stores, hoping to ship another half million of them by the end of June. The Game Boy Advance also became the fastest-selling system in the United Kingdom, selling 81,000 units in its first week of release and beating the PlayStation 2's previous record of 20,000 units. In 2004, the system's sales in the United Kingdom surpassed one million units.  On December 1, 2006, Nintendo of America released launch-to-date information indicating that the company had sold 33.6 million units of the Game Boy Advance series in the United States. In a Kotaku article published on January 18, 2008, Nintendo revealed that the Game Boy Advance series had sold 36.2 million units in the United States, as of January 1, 2008. As of December 31, 2009, the Game Boy Advance series has sold 81.51 million units worldwide, 43.57 million of which are Game Boy Advance SP units and 2.42 million of which are Game Boy Micro units.  After the Game Boy Advance's support lessened, the most popular software became mostly games oriented to younger gamers.

The (GBA) is a 32-bit handheld game console developed, manufactured and marketed by Nintendo as the successor to the Game Boy Color. It was released in Japan on March 21, 2001, in North America on June 11, 2001, in Australia and Europe on June 22, 2001, and in mainland China on June 8, 2004 as iQue Game Boy Advance. The GBA is part of the sixth generation of video game consoles. The original model does not have an illuminated screen; Nintendo addressed that with the release of a redesigned model with a frontlit screen, the Game Boy Advance SP, in 2003. A newer revision of the redesign was released in 2005, with a backlit screen. The final redesign, the Game Boy Micro, was released in 2005.

是任天堂公司于2001年3月21日发售的便携式游戏机,最大特点是采用了彩色的TFT液晶屏幕。售价9800日元,可向下兼容上一代的的Game Boy和Game Boy Color的游戏。Game Boy Advance是任天堂经历了上一代拥有彩色液晶显示屏的Game Boy Color后推出的。


History.

Opioid peptides in the brain were first discovered in 1974 by two independent groups of investigators:  Studies have subsequently distinguished between enkephalins, endorphins, and endogenously produced morphine, which is not a peptide.

Etymology.

The word "endorphin" is derived from / meaning "within" (endogenous, /, "proceeding from within"), and morphine, from Morpheus (), the god of dreams in the Greek mythology. Thus, endorphin is a contraction of 'endo(genous) (mo)rphin' (morphin being the old spelling of morphine).

Types.

The class of endorphins consists of three endogenous opioid peptides: α-endorphin, β-endorphin, and γ-endorphin. α-endorphin is the smallest, and β-endorphin is the largest.

Synthesis.

Endorphins are produced in the pituitary gland. All three types of endorphins are fragments of the precursor protein proopiomelanocortin (POMC). POMC is fragmented into many different smaller proteins, including beta-lipotropin (β-LPH). β-LPH, a pituitary hormone with little opiate activity, is then continually fragmented into different peptides, including α-endorphin, β-endorphin, and γ-endorphin.

Mechanism of action.

Endorphins are released from the pituitary gland in response to pain and can act in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). In the PNS, β-endorphin is the primary endorphin released from the pituitary gland. Endorphin binding at μ-receptors inhibits pain signals in peripheral nerves by blocking the neurotransmitter substance P. The mechanism in the CNS is similar but works by blocking a different neurotransmitter: gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). In turn, inhibition of GABA increases the production and release of dopamine, the neurotransmitter associated with pleasure.

Functions.

Endorphins play a major role in the body's inhibitory response to pain. For example, endorphin release is responsible for producing the euphoric state in cases such as runner's high, sex, orgasm, listening to music, and eating appetizing food such as chocolate. Research has demonstrated that meditation by trained individuals can be used to trigger endorphin release. Laughter may also stimulate endorphin production and elevate one's pain threshold.  Endorphin production can also be triggered by vigorous aerobic exercise. β-endorphin release contributes to a phenomenon known as a "runner's high." Endorphins may contribute to the positive effect of exercise on anxiety and depression. The same phenomenon may also play a role in exercise addiction. Regular intense exercise may cause the brain to downregulate the production of endorphins in periods of rest to maintain homeostasis, causing a person to exercise more intensely in order to receive the same feeling.

Endorphins (contracted from "endogenous morphine") are endogenous opioid neuropeptides and peptide hormones in humans and other animals. They are produced and stored in the pituitary gland. The classification of molecules as endorphins is based on their pharmacological activity, as opposed to a specific chemical formulation.

内啡肽,亦称脑内啡、脑内吗啡或音译安多酚(来自英文 endorphin),是可于动物体内自行生成的类吗啡生物化学合成物,是由脊椎动物的脑下垂体和丘脑下部所分泌的氨基化合物(肽)。


Etymology.

"Karate" was originally written as "Chinese hand" (唐手 literally "Tang dynasty hand") in kanji. It was changed to a homophone meaning "empty hand" (空手) in 1935. The original use of the word "karate" in print is attributed to Ankō Itosu; he wrote it as "唐手". The Tang Dynasty of China ended in AD 907, but the kanji representing it remains in use in Japanese language referring to China generally, in such words as "唐人街" meaning Chinatown. Thus the word "karate" was originally a way of expressing "martial art from China."  The first documented use of a homophone of the logogram pronounced "kara" by

History.

Okinawa.

Karate began as a common fighting system known as "te" (Okinawan: ti) among the Pechin class of the Ryukyuans. After trade relationships were established with the Ming dynasty of China in 1372 by King Satto of Chūzan, some forms of Chinese martial arts were introduced to the Ryukyu Islands by the visitors from China, particularly Fujian Province. A large group of Chinese families moved to Okinawa around 1392 for the purpose of cultural exchange, where they established the community of Kumemura and shared their knowledge of a wide variety of Chinese arts and sciences, including the Chinese martial arts. The political centralization of Okinawa by King Shō Hashi in 1429

Japan.

Gichin Funakoshi, founder of Shotokan karate, is generally credited with having introduced and popularized karate on the main islands of Japan. In addition many Okinawans were actively teaching, and are thus also responsible for the development of karate on the main islands. Funakoshi was a student of both Asato Ankō and Itosu Ankō (who had worked to introduce karate to the Okinawa Prefectural School System in 1902). During this time period, prominent teachers who also influenced the spread of karate in Japan included Kenwa Mabuni, Chōjun Miyagi, Motobu

Practice.

Karate can be practiced as an art (budō), self defense or as a combat sport. Traditional karate places emphasis on self-development (budō). Modern Japanese style training emphasizes the psychological elements incorporated into a proper "kokoro" (attitude) such as perseverance, fearlessness, virtue, and leadership skills. Sport karate places emphasis on exercise and competition. Weapons are an important training activity in some styles of karate.  Karate training is commonly divided into "kihon" (basics or fundamentals), "kata" (forms), and "kumite" (sparring).

Kihon.

Kihon means basics and these form the base for everything else in the style including stances, strikes, punches, kicks and blocks. Karate styles place

Kata.

Kata (型:かた) means literally "shape" or "model." Kata is a formalized sequence of movements which represent various offensive and defensive postures. These postures are based on idealized combat applications. The applications when applied in a demonstration with real opponents is

Kumite.

Sparring in Karate is called kumite (組手:くみて). It literally means "meeting of hands." Kumite is practiced both as a sport and as self-defense training. Levels of physical contact during sparring vary considerably. Full contact karate has several variants. Knockdown karate (such as Kyokushin) uses full power techniques to bring an opponent to the ground. In kickboxing variants (for example K-1), the preferred win is by knockout. Sparring in armour, "bogu kumite", allows full power techniques with some safety. Sport kumite in many international competition under the World Karate Federation is free or structured with light contact or semi contact and points are awarded by a referee.  In structured kumite ("yakusoku", prearranged), two participants

Dōjō Kun.

In the bushidō tradition "dōjō kun" is a set of guidelines

Conditioning.

Okinawan karate uses supplementary training known as "hojo undo". This utilizes simple equipment made of wood and stone. The "makiwara" is a striking post. The "nigiri game" is a

Sport.

said, "There are no contests in karate." In pre–World War II Okinawa, kumite was not part of karate training. Shigeru Egami relates that, in 1940, some karateka were ousted from their "dōjō" because they adopted sparring after having learned it in Tokyo.  Karate is divided into style organizations. These organizations sometimes cooperate in non-style specific sport karate organizations or federations. Examples of sport organizations include AAKF/ITKF, AOK, TKL, AKA, WKF, NWUKO, WUKF and WKC. Organizations hold competitions (tournaments) from local to international level. Tournaments are designed to match members of opposing schools or styles against one another in kata, sparring and weapons demonstration. They are often separated by age, rank and sex with potentially different rules or standards based on these factors. The tournament may be exclusively for members of a particular style (closed) or one in which any martial artist from any style may participate within the rules of the tournament (open).  The World Karate Federation (WKF) is the largest sport karate organization and is recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as being responsible for karate competition in the Olympic Games. The WKF has

Rank.

In 1924 Gichin Funakoshi, founder of Shotokan Karate, adopted the Dan system from the judo founder Jigoro Kano using a rank scheme with a limited set of belt colors. Other Okinawan teachers also adopted this practice. In the Kyū/Dan system the beginner grades start with a higher numbered kyū ("e.g.", 10th Kyū or Jukyū) and progress toward a lower numbered kyū. The Dan progression continues from 1st Dan (Shodan, or 'beginning dan') to the higher dan grades. Kyū-grade karateka are referred to as "color belt" or mudansha ("ones

Philosophy.

In "Karate-Do Kyohan," Funakoshi quoted from the Heart Sutra, which is prominent in Shingon Buddhism: "Form is emptiness, emptiness is form itself" ("shiki zokuze kū kū zokuze shiki"). He interpreted the "kara" of Karate-dō to mean "to purge oneself of selfish and evil thoughts... for only with a clear mind and conscience can the practitioner understand the knowledge which he receives." Funakoshi believed that one should be "inwardly humble and outwardly gentle." Only by behaving humbly can one be open to Karate's many lessons. This is done by listening

Influence outside Japan.

Africa.

Karate has grown in popularity

Canada.

Karate began in Canada in the 1930s and 1940s as Japanese people immigrated to the country. Karate was practised quietly without a large amount of organization. During the Second World War, many Japanese-Canadian families were moved to the interior of British Columbia. Masaru Shintani, at the age of 13, began to study Shorin-Ryu karate in the Japanese camp under Kitigawa. In 1956 after 9 years of training with Kitigawa, Shintani travelled to Japan and met Hironori Otsuka (Wado Ryu). In 1958 Otsuka invited Shintani to join his organization Wado Kai, and in 1969 he asked Shintani to officially call his

Europe.

In the 1950s and 1960s, several Japanese karate masters began to teach the art in Europe, but it was not until 1965 that the Japan Karate Association (JKA) sent to Europe four

France.

France Shotokan Karate was created in 1964 by Tsutomu Ohshima. It is affiliated with another of his organizations, Shotokan Karate of

Italy.

Hiroshi Shirai, one of the original instructors sent by the JKA to Europe along with Kase, Enoeda and Kanazawa, moved to Italy in 1965 and quickly established a Shotokan enclave that spawned several instructors

Korea.

Due to past conflict between Korea and Japan, most notably during the Japanese occupation of Korea in the early 20th century, the influence of karate in Korea is a contentious issue. From 1910 until 1945, Korea was annexed by the Japanese Empire. It was during this time that many of the Korean martial arts masters of the 20th century were exposed to Japanese karate. After regaining independence from Japan, many Korean martial arts schools that opened up in the 1940s and 1950s were founded by masters who had trained in karate in Japan as part of their martial arts training.  Won Kuk Lee, a Korean student of Funakoshi, founded the first martial arts school after the Japanese occupation of Korea

Soviet Union.

Karate appeared in the Soviet Union in the mid-1960s, during Nikita Khrushchev's policy of improved international relations. The first Shotokan clubs were opened in Moscow's universities. In 1973, however, the government banned karate—together with all other foreign martial arts—endorsing only the Soviet martial art of sambo. Failing to

United Kingdom.

Vernon Bell, a 3rd Dan Judo instructor who had been instructed by Kenshiro Abbe introduced Karate to England in 1956, having attended classes in Henry Plée's Yoseikan "dōjō" in Paris. Yoseikan had been founded by Minoru Mochizuki, a master of multiple Japanese martial arts, who had studied Karate with Gichin Funakoshi, thus the Yoseikan style was heavily influenced by Shotokan. Bell began teaching in the tennis courts of his parents' back garden in Ilford, Essex and his group was to become the British Karate Federation. On 19 July 1957, Vietnamese Hoang Nam 3rd Dan, billed as "Karate champion of Indo China", was invited to teach by Bell at Maybush Road,

United States.

After World War II, members of the United States military learned karate in Okinawa or Japan and then opened schools in the US. In 1945 Robert Trias opened the first "dōjō" in the United States in Phoenix, Arizona, a Shuri-ryū karate "dōjō". In the 1950s, William J. Dometrich, Ed Parker, Cecil T. Patterson, Gordon Doversola, Donald Hugh Nagle, George Mattson and Peter Urban all began instructing in the US.  Tsutomu Ohshima began studying karate under Shotokan's founder, Gichin Funakoshi, while a student at Waseda University, beginning in 1948. In 1957 Ohshima received his

In film and popular culture.

Karate spread rapidly in the West through popular culture. In 1950s popular fiction, karate was at times described to readers in near-mythical terms, and it was credible to show Western experts of unarmed combat as unaware of Eastern martial arts of this kind. By the 1970s, martial arts films had formed a mainstream genre that propelled karate and other Asian martial arts into mass popularity.  "The Karate Kid" (1984) and its sequels "The Karate Kid, Part II" (1986), "The Karate Kid, Part III" (1989) and "The Next Karate Kid" (1994) are films relating the fictional story of an American adolescent's introduction into karate. "Karate Kommandos" is an animated children's show, with Chuck Norris appearing to reveal the moral lessons contained in every episode.  Many other film stars such as Bruce Lee, Chuck Norris, Jackie Chan, Sammo Hung, and Jet Li come from a range of other martial arts.

The Empire of Japan annexed the Ryukyu Kingdom in 1879. Karate came to the Japanese archipelago in the early 20th century during a time of migration as Ryukyuans, especially from Okinawa, looked for work in Japan. It was systematically taught in Japan after the Taishō era of 1912–1926. In 1922 the Japanese Ministry of Education invited Gichin Funakoshi to Tokyo to give a karate demonstration. In 1924 Keio University established the first university karate club in mainland Japan, and by 1932 major Japanese universities had karate clubs. In this era of escalating Japanese militarism, the name was changed from ("Chinese hand" or "Tang hand") to ("empty hand") – both of which are pronounced "karate" in Japanese – to indicate that the Japanese wished to develop the combat form in Japanese style. After World War II, Okinawa became (1945) an important United States military site and karate became popular among servicemen stationed there.

空手道(),亦称「空手」(,英语:Karate ),旧称「唐手」,是发源于琉球国(今琉球群岛)的一种武术。空手道中包含踢、打、摔、拿、投、锁、绞、逆技、点穴等多种技术,一些流派中还练习武器术。空手道比赛大致分为型及自由对打两大类。型是以假设的对手为目标,单人进行空手道技术的预定动作表演练习;自由对打即为对打比赛,各种规则中,世界空手道联盟(WKF)采用先中即得分,后中不得分的规则,强调技术运用的速度和技巧。


星舰迷航记VIII:战斗巡航

Plot.

In the 24th century, Captain Jean Luc Picard awakens from a nightmare in which he relived his assimilation by the cybernetic Borg. He is contacted by Admiral Hayes, who informs him of a new Borg threat against Earth. Picard's orders are for his ship,, to patrol the Neutral Zone in case of Romulan aggression; Starfleet is worried that Picard is too emotionally involved with the Borg to join the fight.  Learning the fleet is losing the battle, the "Enterprise" crew disobeys orders and heads for Earth, where a single Borg Cube ship holds its own against a group of Starfleet vessels. "Enterprise" arrives in time to assist the crew of and its captain, the Klingon Worf. Picard takes control of the fleet and directs the surviving ships to concentrate their firepower on a seemingly unimportant point on the Borg ship. The Cube is destroyed after launching a smaller sphere ship towards the planet. "Enterprise" pursues the sphere into a temporal vortex. As the sphere disappears, "Enterprise" discovers Earth has been altered – it is now populated entirely by Borg. Realizing the Borg have used time travel to change the past, "Enterprise" follows the sphere through the vortex.  "Enterprise" arrives hundreds of years in its past on April 4, 2063, the day before humanity's first encounter with alien life after Zefram Cochrane's historic warp drive flight; the crew realizes the Borg are trying to prevent first contact. After destroying the Borg sphere, an away team transports down to Cochrane's ship, "Phoenix", in Montana.

Cast.

"First Contact" is the first film in the "Star Trek" film series in which none of the main characters from "" appear. Rather, the main cast of "" play the following characters:  Several of "The Next Generation"s recurring characters also appeared in the film; Dwight Schultz reprised his role of Lieutenant Reginald Barclay and Patti Yasutake briefly appeared as Nurse. Whoopi Goldberg was not asked to return as Guinan, a wise bartender whose homeworld was destroyed by the Borg. Goldberg only learned about the decision through the newspapers. "What can I say? I wanted to do it because I didn't think you could do anything about the Borg without [my character]", she said, "but apparently you can, so they don't need me."  Michael Horton appears as a bloodied and stoic Starfleet Security Officer; his character would be given the name Lt. Daniels in the. Neal McDonough plays

Production.

Development.

In December 1992, Paramount Pictures executives approached "Star Trek: The Next Generation" producer Rick Berman and engaged him to create two films featuring the cast of the television series. Berman decided to develop two screenplays simultaneously, and prioritize the most promising one for the first film. The effort of writers Brannon Braga and Ronald D. Moore was chosen and developed into "Star Trek Generations". Two months after the release of "Generations", Paramount decided to produce the second feature for a winter holiday 1996 release. Paramount wanted Braga and Moore, who had written the "Generations" script and a number of "Next Generation" episodes, to pen the screenplay. Berman told Braga and Moore that he wanted them to think about doing a story involving time travel. Braga and Moore, meanwhile, wanted to use the Borg. "Right on the spot, we said maybe we can do both, the Borg and time travel," Moore recalled. The Borg had not been seen in full force since the fourth-season episode of "The Next Generation", "", and

Design.

"First Contact" was the first "Star Trek" film to make significant use of computer-generated starship models, though physical miniatures were still used for the most important vessels. With the "Enterprise"-D destroyed during the events of "Generations", the task of creating a new starship fell to veteran "Star Trek" production designer Herman Zimmerman. The script's only guide on the appearance of the vessel was the line "the new "Enterprise" sleekly comes out of the nebula". Working with illustrator John Eaves, the designers conceived the new "Sovereign"-class "Enterprise"-E as "leaner, sleeker, and mean enough to answer any Borg threat you can imagine". Braga and Moore intended it to be more muscular and militaryesque. Eaves looked at the structure of previous "Enterprise" iterations, and designed a more streamlined, capable war vessel than the "Enterprise"-D, reducing the neck area of the ship and lengthening the nacelles. Eaves produced 30 to 40 sketches before he found a final design he liked and began making minor changes. Working from blueprints created by Paramount's Rick Sternbach, the model shop at effects house Industrial

Costumes and makeup.

The Starfleet uniforms were redesigned for the film by longtime "Star Trek" costumer Bob Blackman to give a more militaristic feel, with grey padded shoulders and colored undershirts. Since Blackman was also handling the costumes for the television series, non-Starfleet design clothes were delegated to Deborah Everton, a newcomer to "Star Trek" who was responsible for more than 800 costumes during production. Everton was tasked with updating the Borg's costumes to something new, but reminiscent of the television series. The bulky suits were made sleeker and outfitted with fiber optic lights. The time-travel aspect of the story also required period costumes for the mid

Filming.

Principal photography took a more leisurely pace than on "The Next Generation" because of a less hectic schedule; only four pages of script had to be filmed each day, as opposed to eight on the television series. "First Contact" saw the introduction of cinematographer Matthew F. Leonetti to the "Star Trek" franchise; Frakes hired him out of admiration for some of his previous work on films such as "Poltergeist" and "Strange Days". Leonetti was unfamiliar with the "Star Trek" mythos when Frakes approached him; to prepare for the assignment, he studied the previous four films in the franchise, each with a different cinematographer—"" (Donald Peterman), "" (Andrew Laszlo), "" (Hiro Narita), and "Generations" (John Alonzo). The cameraman also spent several days at the sets of "Voyager" and "Deep Space Nine" to observe filming.  Leonetti devised multiple lighting methods for the "Enterprise" interiors for ship standard operations, "Red alert" status, and emergency power. He reasoned that since the ship was being taken over by a foreign entity, it required more dramatic lighting and framing. While much of the footage was shot at 50–70 mm focal lengths using anamorphic lenses, 14 mm spherical lenses were used for Borg's-eye-view shots. Leonetti preferred shooting with long lenses to provide a more claustrophobic feel, but made sure the length did not flatten the image. Handheld cameras were used for battle

Effects.

The majority of "First Contact"s effects were handled by Industrial Light & Magic under the supervision of John Knoll. Smaller effects sequences, such as phaser fire, computer graphics, and transporter effects, were delegated to a team led by visual-effects supervisor David Takemura. Accustomed to directing episodes for the television series, Frakes was frequently reminded by effects artist Terry Frazee to "think big, blow everything up". Most of the effects sequences were planned using low-resolution computer-generated animatics. These rough animated storyboards established length, action and composition, allowing the producers and director to ascertain how the sequences would play out before they were shot.  "First Contact" was the last film to feature a physical model of the "Enterprise". For the ship's dramatic introduction, the effects team combined motion control shots of the "Enterprise" model with a computer-generated background. Sequence supervisor Dennis Turner, who had created "Generations" energy ribbon and specialized in creating natural phenomena, was charged with creating the star cluster, modeled after the Eagle Nebula. The nebular columns and solid areas were modeled with basic wireframe geometry, with surface shaders applied to make the edges of the

Music.

Film composer Jerry Goldsmith scored "First Contact", his third "Star Trek" feature. Goldsmith wrote a sweeping main title which begins with Alexander Courage's "Star Trek" fanfare. Instead of composing a menacing theme to underscore the Borg, Goldsmith wrote a pastoral theme linked to humanity's hopeful first contact. The theme uses a four-note motif used in Goldsmith's "" score, which is used in "First Contact" as a friendship theme and general thematic link. A menacing march with touches of synthesizers was used to represent the Borg. In addition to composing new music, Goldsmith used music from his previous "Star Trek" scores, including his theme from "The Motion Picture". The Klingon theme from the same film is used to represent Worf.  Because of delays with Paramount's "The Ghost and the Darkness", the already-short four-week production schedule was cut to just three weeks. While Berman was concerned about the move, Goldsmith hired his son, Joel, to assist. The young composer provided additional music for the film, writing three cues based on his father's motifs and a total of 22 minutes of music. Joel used variations of his

Themes.

Frakes believes that the main themes of "First Contact"—and "Star Trek" as a whole—are loyalty, friendship, honesty, and mutual respect. This is evident in the film when Picard chooses to rescue Data rather than evacuate the ship with the rest of the crew. The film makes a direct comparison between Picard's hatred of the Borg and refusal to destroy the "Enterprise" and that of Captain Ahab in Herman Melville's novel "Moby-Dick". The moment marks a turning point in the film as Picard changes his mind, symbolized by his putting down his phaser. A similar "Moby-Dick" reference was made in "", and although Braga and Moore did not want to repeat it, they decided it worked so well they could not leave it out.  In "First Contact", the individually inscrutable and faceless Borg fulfil the role of the similarly unreadable whale in Melville's work. Picard, like Ahab, has been hurt by his nemesis, and author Elizabeth Hinds said it makes sense that Picard should "opt for

Release.

1996 marked the 30th anniversary of the "Star Trek" franchise. The franchise was on rocky ground; ratings for "Deep Space Nine" and "Voyager" had shed millions of viewers, being bested by "" as the highest-rated syndicated series. Some fans remained upset Paramount cancelled "The Next Generation" at the height of its popularity, and "Generations" was a commercial success but not critically praised.  "First Contact" was heavily marketed, to an extent not seen since the release of "" in 1979. Several novelizations of the film were written for different age groups. Playmates Toys produced six and nine-inch action figures in addition to ship models and a phaser. Two "making of" television specials premiered on HBO and the Sci-Fi Channel, as well as being promoted during a 30th-anniversary television special on UPN. The theatrical trailer to the film was included on a "Best of Star Trek" music compilation, released at the same time as the "First Contact" soundtrack. Simon & Schuster Interactive developed a Borg-themed video game for Macintosh and Windows personal computers. The game, "", functioned as an interactive movie with scenes filmed at the same time as "First Contact" production. A video game adaptation of the film was also announced by Spectrum HoloByte, and would have taken the form of a real-time strategy game set entirely on the "Enterprise" during the Borg takeover, though it was never released. Paramount heavily marketed the film on the internet via a "First Contact" web site, which averaged 4.4 million hits a week during the film's opening run, the largest amount of traffic ever on a motion-picture site.  The film premiered on November 18, 1996 at Mann's Chinese Theater in Hollywood, Los Angeles. The main cast save Spiner were in attendance, as were Moore, Braga, Jerry Goldsmith, and producer Marty Hornstein. Other "Star Trek" actors present included DeForest Kelley, René Auberjonois, Avery Brooks, Colm Meaney, Armin Shimerman, Terry Farrell, Kate Mulgrew, Roxann Dawson, Jennifer Lien, Robert Duncan McNeill, Ethan Phillips, Tim Russ, Garrett Wang and Robert Picardo. After the screening, 1,500 guests crossed the street to the Hollywood Colonnade, where the interiors had been dressed to match settings from the film: the holodeck nightclub, part of the bridge, a "star room", the Borg hive and the "crash 'n' burn lounge". The film received a royal premiere in the United Kingdom, with the first screening attended by Charles, Prince of Wales.

Box office.

"First Contact" opened in 2,812 theaters beginning November 22, grossing $30.7 million its first week and making it the top movie at the US box office. The film was knocked out of the top place the following week by "101 Dalmatians", earning $25.5 million. The film went on to gross $77 million in its first four weeks, remaining in the top-ten box office during that time. It closed with a US & Canadian gross of $92,027,888

Critical response.

"First Contact" garnered positive reviews on release. Ryan Gilbey of "The Independent" considered the film wise to dispense with the cast of "The Original Series:" "For the first time, a "Star Trek" movie actually looks like something more ambitious than an extended TV show," he wrote. Conversely, critic Bob Thompson felt that "First Contact" was more in the spirit of the 1960s television series than any previous installment. "The Globe and Mail" Elizabeth Renzeti said that "First Contact" succeeded in improving on the "stilted" previous entry in the series, and that it featured a renewed interest in storytelling. Kenneth Turan of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, ""First Contact" does everything you'd want a "Star Trek" film to do, and it does it with cheerfulness

Home media.

"Star Trek: First Contact" was first released on VHS in late 1997 as one of several titles expected to boost sluggish sales at video retailers. A LaserDisc version was also released. "First Contact" was among the first titles announced for the DVD-alternative rental system Digital Video Express in 1998. It was launched with five other test titles in the select markets of Richmond and San Francisco.  When Paramount announced its first slate of DVD releases in August 1998, "First Contact" was one of the first ten titles released in October, announced in a conscious effort to showcase effects-driven films. This version contained the feature and two trailers, but no other special features. The film was presented in its original 2.35:1 anamorphic aspect ratio, with

Legacy.

"", a 2003 episode of "", depicts the

References.

Notes Bibliography

Star Trek: First Contact is a 1996 American science fiction film directed by Jonathan Frakes (in his motion picture directorial debut) and based on the franchise "Star Trek". It is the eighth film in the "Star Trek" film series, as well as the second to star the cast of "". In the film, the crew of the USS "Enterprise"-E travel back in time from the 24th century to the mid-21st century in order to stop the cybernetic Borg from conquering Earth by changing their past.

《星舰迷航记VIII:战斗巡航》(英语:Star Trek: First Contact),由派拉蒙影业于1996年拍摄的电影。该部电影是《星际旅行》科幻系列的第8部电影,也是以《星际旅行》的第二代剧集《下一代》为基础的第二部电影。在西方通常简写作“ST:FC”或“ST8”。


Breeding: selection by breeders.

The breeder (or group of breeders) who initially establishes a breed does so by selecting individual animals from within a gene pool that they see as having the necessary qualities needed to enhance the breed model they are aiming for. These animals are referred to as foundation stock. Furthermore, the breeder mates the most desirable representatives of the breed from his or her point of view, aiming to pass such characteristics to their progeny. This process is known as selective breeding. A written description of desirable and undesirable breed representatives is referred to as a breed standard.

Breed characteristics.

Breed specific characteristics, also known as breed traits, are inherited, and purebred animals pass such traits from generation to generation. Thus, all specimens of the same breed carry several genetic characteristics of the original foundation animal(s). In order to maintain the breed, a breeder would select those animals with the most desirable traits to achieve further maintenance and developing of such traits. At the same time, the breed would avoid animals carrying characteristics undesirable or not typical for the breed, including faults or genetic defects. The population within the same breed should consist of a sufficient number of animals to maintain the breed within the specified parameters without the necessity of forced inbreeding.  Domestic animal breeds commonly differ from country to country, and from nation to nation. Breeds originating in a certain country are known as "native breeds" of that country.

A breed is a specific group of domestic animals having homogeneous appearance (phenotype), homogeneous behavior, and/or other characteristics that distinguish it from other organisms of the same species. In literature, there exist several slightly deviating definitions. Breeds are formed through genetic isolation and either natural adaptation to the environment or selective breeding, or a combination of the two. Despite the centrality of the idea of "breeds" to animal husbandry and agriculture, no single, scientifically accepted definition of the term exists. It was shown by set-theoretic means that for the term breed an infinite number of different definitions, which more or less meet the common requirements found in literature, can be given. A breed is therefore not an objective or biologically verifiable classification but is instead a term of art amongst groups of breeders who share a consensus around what qualities make some members of a given species members of a nameable subset.

动物中的品种(英语:breed)是指由人类培育的具有某些相同特征的家养动物的种下类群。非专业人士常将种(即物种)错误地称作品种,但动物品种是种之下的类群单位。此外,家养动物品种与品系("strain",或称「株」)不是等义词,后者之间的差异不一定足以被认定为一个品种。


Description.

The leaves are sessile, but have a narrow part near the stem which is a pseudo-petiole. They have three or five parallel veins that diverge in the wider part of the leaf. Leaves are broad or narrow, depending on the species. The inflorescences are borne on stalks typically tall, and can be a short cone or a long spike, with numerous tiny wind-pollinated flowers.

Distribution.

They are found all over the world, including the Americas, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Africa and Europe. Many species in the genus are cosmopolitan weeds. They are found in many different habitats, most commonly in wet areas like seepages or bogs. They can also be found in alpine and semi-alpine or coastal areas. The cosmopolitan weeds can be frequently seen at the side of roads.

Species.

The boundaries of the genus "Plantago" have been fairly stable, with the main question being whether to include "Bougueria" (one species from the Andes) and "Littorella" (2–3 species of aquatic plants).  There are about 200 species of "Plantago", including: The genus name "Plantago" descends from the classical Latin name, which in classical Latin meant some "Plantago" species, including "Plantago major" and "Plantago media". In Latin the name was formed from the classical Latin word = "sole of the foot". The name was so formed in Latin because the leaves of these species grow out near flat at ground level. The suffix in Latin means "a sort of".

Ecology.

Plantains are used as food plants by the larvae of some species of Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth)—see list of Lepidoptera that feed on plantains.

Uses.

"Plantago" species have been used since prehistoric times as herbal remedies. The herb is astringent, anti-toxic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-histamine, as well as demulcent, expectorant, styptic and diuretic. Externally, a poultice of the leaves is useful for insect bites, poison-ivy rashes, minor sores, and boils. In folklore it is even claimed to be able to cure snakebite and was used by the Dakota Indian tribe of North America for this. Internally, it is used for coughs and bronchitis, as a tea, tincture, or syrup. The broad-leaved varieties are sometimes used as a leaf vegetable for salads, green sauce, and so on.  Plantain seed husks expand and become mucilaginous when wet, especially those of "P. psyllium", which is used in common over-the-counter bulk laxative and fiber supplement products such as Metamucil. "P. psyllium" seed is useful for constipation, irritable bowel syndrome, dietary fiber supplementation, and diverticular disease. Plantain has been consumed as human food since prehistory. For example, archaeological recovery along California's Central Coast has demonstrated use of this species as a food since the Millingstone Horizon. In particular, tender young plantain leaves can be eaten raw, and older leaves can be cooked. The seeds can be cooked like rice.  Psyllium supplements are typically used in powder form, along with adequate amounts of fluids. A dose of at least 7 grams daily taken with adequate amounts of fluid (water, juice) is used by some for management of elevated cholesterol. There are a number of psyllium products used for constipation. The usual dose is about 3.5 grams twice a day. Psyllium is also a component of several ready-to-eat cereals.  Mucilage from desert indianwheat ("Plantago ovata") is obtained by grinding off the husk. This mucilage, also known as psyllium, is commonly sold as Isabgol, a laxative which is used to control irregular bowel syndrome and constipation. It has been used as an indigenous Ayurvedic and Unani medicine for a whole range of bowel problems.  As Old English "Wegbrade" the plantago is one of the nine plants invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon "Nine Herbs Charm", recorded in the 10th century. In Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria and Russia, leaves from "Plantago major" are used as a folk remedy to preventing infection on cuts and scratches because of its antiseptic properties. In Slovenia and other Central European regions, the leaves were traditionally used topically as a cure for blisters resulting from friction (such as caused by tight shoes etc.) and as relief on mosquito bites in eastern Westphalia, as well as western Eastphalia.  There may also be a use for plantains in the abatement of enteric methane from ruminants, as the natural compounds present (e.g. condensed tannins; ~14 g/kg DM), affect the acetate-propionate ratio in the rumen, which is a primary mechanism by which methanogenesis is restricted. Currently this is not a viable option in any significant scale due to agronomic difficulties.

Plantago is a genus of about 200 species of small, inconspicuous plants commonly called plantains or fleaworts. The common name plantain is shared with the unrelated cooking plantain, a kind of banana. Most are herbaceous plants, though a few are subshrubs growing to tall.

车前属(学名:)包括大约200种植物,遍布全世界,有的品种本身就分布在世界各地,绝大部分为草本,也有少数品种是能长到60厘米高的灌木,叶座生,但在近茎端变窄,形成假叶柄,有3-5条平行叶脉;花茎上生有4-40厘米长的穗状或锥形花序,花小,风媒;种子小。


History.

The development of Gōjū-ryū goes back to Higaonna Kanryō, (1853–1916), a native of Naha, Okinawa. Higaonna began studying Shuri-te as a child. He was first exposed to martial arts in 1867 when he began training in Luohan or "Arhat boxing" under Arakaki Seishō, a fluent Chinese speaker and translator for the court of the Ryukyu Kingdom.  In 1870, Arakaki went to Beijing to translate for Ryukyuan officials. It was then that he recommended Higaonna to Kojo Taitei, under whom Higaonna began training.  With the help of Taitei and a family friend, Yoshimura Chomei (who was an Udun or Prince) Higaonna eventually managed to set up safe passage to China, lodging, and martial arts instruction. In 1873 he left for Fuzhou in Fujian, China, where he began studying Chinese martial arts under various teachers. In 1877 he began to study under Ryū Ryū Ko. Tokashiki Iken has identified him as Xie Zhongxiang, founder of Whooping Crane Kung Fu. Zhongxiang taught several Okinawan students who went on to become karate legends. However, since Ryu Ryu Ko had died by 1915 when Chojun Miyagi went to Fuzhou in search of him, and Xie Zhong Xiang died in 1926, the two may not be the same person.  Higaonna returned to Okinawa in 1882 and continued in the family business of selling firewood, while teaching a new school of martial arts, distinguished by its integration of "gō-no" (hard) and "jū-no" (soft) kenpō into one system. Higaonna's style was known as a type of Naha-te. Naha-te included other earlier teachers such as Arakaki Seisho and the Kojo family style. However, after Japan annexed Okinawa and defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War, the Patron of Naha-te, Yoshimura Udun, and his pro-China faction lost power in Okinawan politics, they migrated to Fuzhou, Taiwan or Hawaii and the older schools of Naha-te were largely lost. Through this period until 1905 when karate was openly taught in Okinawan schools, Kanryo Higaonna kept Naha-te alive by giving students private lessons at his home.  Gōjū-kai history considers that "Chinese Nanpa Shorin-ken" was the strain of kung fu that influenced this style.  Higaonna Morio (no relation with Kanryo's family) noted that in 1905, Higaonna Kanryō taught martial arts in two different ways, according to the type of student: At home, he taught Naha-te as a martial art whose ultimate goal was to be able to kill the opponent; however, at Naha Commercial High School, he taught karate as a form of physical, intellectual and moral education.  Higaonna Kanryo's most prominent student was Chōjun Miyagi (1888–1953), the son of a wealthy shop owner in Naha, who began training under Higaonna at the age of 14. Miyagi had begun his martial arts training under Ryuko Arakaki at age 11, and it was through Ryuko Arakaki that he was introduced to Higaonna. Miyagi trained under Higaonna for 15 years until Higaonna's death in 1916.  In 1915 Miyagi and a friend, Gokenki, went to Fuzhou in search of Higaonna's teacher. They stayed for a year and studied under several masters but the old school was gone due to the Boxer Rebellion. Shortly after their return, Higaonna died. In 1917 Chojun Miyagi once again went to Fuzhou for a short visit to explore local martial arts schools. After he returned, many of Higaonna's students continued to train with Miyagi and he introduced a kata called Tensho around 1918, which he had adapted from Rokkishu of Fujian White Crane.  In 1929 delegates from around Japan were meeting in Kyoto for the All Japan Martial Arts Demonstration. Miyagi was unable to attend, and so he in turn asked his top student Jin’an Shinzato to go. While Shinzato was there, one of the other demonstrators asked him the name of the martial art he practiced. At this time, Miyagi had not yet named his style. Not wanting to be embarrassed, Shinzato improvised the name "hanko-ryu" ("half-hard style"). On his return to Okinawa Prefecture, he reported this incident to Chōjun Miyagi, who decided on the name "Gōjū-ryū" ("hard soft style") as a name for his style. Chojun Miyagi took the name from a line of the poem "Hakku Kenpo", which roughly means: "The eight laws of the fist," and describes the eight precepts of the martial arts. This poem was part of the "Bubishi" and reads, "Ho wa Gōjū wa Donto su" "the way of inhaling and exhaling is hardness and softness," or "everything in the universe inhales soft and exhales hard."  In March 1934, Miyagi wrote "Karate-do Gaisetsu" ("Outline of "Karate-do" (Chinese Hand Way)"), to introduce karate-do and to provide a general explanation of its history, philosophy, and application. This handwritten monograph is one of the few written works composed by Miyagi himself.  Miyagi's house was destroyed during World War II. In 1950, several of his students began working to build a house and dojo for him in Naha, which they completed in 1951. In 1952, they came up with the idea of creating an organization to promote the growth of Gōjū-ryū. This organization was called "Gōjū-ryū Shinkokai" ("Association to Promote Gōjū-ryū"). The founding members were Seko Higa, Keiyo Matanbashi, Jinsei Kamiya, and Genkai Nakaima.  In 1940 Chojun Miyagi created the kata Geki-Sai-dai-Ichi and Geki-Sai-dai-ni. Geki-sai-dai-Ichi was also incorporated into the Okinawan Karate tradition as Fukyugata-Dai-Ni. Fukyugata-Dai-Ni is practiced by other schools such as Kobayashi Shorin-Ryu and Matsubayashi Shorin-Ryu.  There are two years that define the way Gōjū-ryū has been considered by the Japanese establishment: the first, 1933, is the year Gōjū-ryū was officially recognized as a budō in Japan by the DNBK Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, in other words, it was recognized as a modern martial art, or gendai budō by the Japanese Government. The second year, 1998, is the year the semi-governmental Nippon Kobudo Kyokai (Japan Traditional Martial Arts Association), under the Cultural Ministry of Japan, recognized Gōjū-ryū Karate-do as an ancient form of traditional martial art ("koryū") and as a bujutsu. This recognition as a "koryū bujutsu" shows a change in how Japanese society sees the relationships between Japan, Okinawa and China.  After Miyagi's death (1953), the family communicated that the founder of the style wanted Eiichi Miyazato to succeed him. the Goju Ryu committee, formed by major students of Miyagi (which included among others Nakaima, Madanbashi, Meitoku Yagi, Iha Koshin) at a meeting in February 1954 voted almost unanimously Eiichi Myzato as the official successor to Chojun Miyagi.  Until 1998, the only karate styles recognized as Koryu Bujutsu were newer styles founded in mainland Japan such as Wado Ryu and Itosu Ryu. Goju Ryu was the first style recognized by the NKK(Nippon Kobudo Kyokai), and Goju-Ryu's official representative with the NKK was Morio Higaonna, and the organization he founded, the IOGKF was Goju Ryu's representative organization in the NKK.

Philosophy.

Miyagi believed that "the ultimate aim of karate-do was to build character, conquer human misery, and find spiritual freedom".  He stated that it was important to balance training for self-defense with "training the mind, or cultivating the precept "karate-do ni sente nashi" ('there is no first strike in karate')"; he also emphasized the importance of "cultivating intellect before strength".  Miyagi chose the name Goju-ryu (""go"" meaning "hard" and ""ju"" meaning "soft"), to emphasize that his style integrated both "hard" and "soft" styles. "Goju" applies not just to karate, but to life in general; only hardness or only softness will not enable one "to deal effectively with the fluctuations of life". When blocking, "the body is soft and inhaling"; when striking, the body is "hard and exhaling".

Kata.

Gōjū-ryū has 12 core kata in its standard curriculum. In some schools, practitioners are required to know all of these kata before reaching "sandan" (3rd degree black belt) or, more commonly, for "godan" (5th degree black belt).  Morio Higaonna writes that "Karate begins and ends with "kata". "Kata" is the essence and foundation of karate and it represents the accumulation of more than 1000 years of knowledge. Formed by numerous masters throughout the ages through dedicated training and research, the "kata" are like a map to guide us, and as such should never be changed or tampered with."  Almost all of the "kata" have a corresponding "bunkai oyo", a prearranged two-person fighting drill. These drills help the student to understand the applications of the "kata", establish proper rhythm/flow, to practice constant attack/defense, and to safely practice dangerous moves on a partner.

Kihongata.

Kihongata means a "kata of basics." In Gōjū-ryū, Sanchin kata is the foundation to all other Gōjū kata because it teaches basic movements, basic techniques, power generation and breathing techniques from qigong. It is also the foundation of body conditioning. The more the karateka practices this kata, the more his Heishugata will change. First variation of Sanchin-kata (sanchin kata dai-ichi) serves as Kihongata. See more on Sanchin kata below.

Gekisai.

"Gekisai" (kanji: 撃砕; katakana: ゲキサイ) means "attack and destroy". These kata were created around 1940 by Chojun Miyagi and Nagamine Shoshin as beginners' kata, to introduce the basic forms of karate ("kihon") to middle school students in Okinawa, to help bring about the standardization of karate, and to teach a basic set of techniques for self-defense. "Gekisai" kata were strongly influenced by the Shuri-te techniques that Miyagi learned from Anko Itosu.  Students first learn "gekisai dai ichi" and then "gekisai dai ni". The main difference between "dai ichi" and "dai ni" is that "dai ni" introduces open handed techniques and new stances. It is in "gekesai dai ni" that students are introduced to the "neko ashi dachi" stance, and to the wheel block(mawashe uke).

Saifa.

"Saifa" (Kanji: 砕破; Katakana: サイファ) means "smash and tear" or "smash and destroy". "Saifa" has its origins in China, and was brought to Okinawa by Higashionna. It contains quick whipping motions, hammerfists, and back fist strikes; it particularly emphasizes moving off-line from an opponent's main force, while simultaneously closing distance and exploding through them. This is usually the first advanced Gōjū-ryū kata the students learn in most Gōjū-ryū dojos after gekisai dai ichi and gekisai dai ni.

Sanchin.

"Sanchin" (Kanji: 三戦; Katakana: サンチン) means "three battles". This "kata" is a sort of moving meditation, whose purpose is to unify the mind, body and spirit. The techniques are performed very slowly so that the student masters precise movements, breathing, stance/posture, internal strength, and stability of both mind and body.  "Sanchin" is the foundation for all other "kata", and is generally considered to be the most important "kata" to master. When new students came to Miyagi, he would often train them for three to five years before introducing them to "sanchin". He would make them train very hard, and many of them quit before learning "sanchin". Those that remained would focus almost exclusively on "sanchin" for two to three years. Miyagi's "sanchin" training was very harsh, and students would often leave practice with bruises from him checking their stance.

Tensho.

means "revolving hands". Like "sanchin", "tensho" is a form of moving meditation; "tensho" combines hard dynamic tension with soft flowing hand movements, and concentrates strength in the "tanden". "Tensho" can be considered the "ju" (soft) counterpart of the "sanchin"'s "go" (hard) style.

Kaishukata.

Kaishukata means a "kata with open hands". This is more advanced than Heishugata. Kaishukata serves as a "combat application reference" kata and is open to vast interpretation (Bunkai) of its movements' purpose (hence, "open hands").

Fukyugata.

In 1940, General Hajime Hayakawa (早川 元), the installed governor of Okinawa, assembled the Karate-Do Special Committee, composed by Ishihara Shochoku (chairman), Miyagi Chojun, Kamiya Jinsei, Shinzato Jinan, Miyasato Koji, Tokuda Anbun, Kinjo Kensei, Kyan Shinei, and Nagamine Shoshin. The goal was to create a series of Okinawan kata to teach physical education and very basic Okinawan 'independent style' martial arts to school children. Their goal was not to create a standardized karate as the Japanese had been doing with kendo and judo for the sake of popularization.  These kata are not traditional Gōjū-ryū kata; instead, they are "promotional kata", simple enough to be taught as part of physical education programs at schools and part of a standardized karate syllabus for schools, independent of the sensei's style.  Shoshin Nagamine (Matsubayashi Shorin-Ryū) and Miyagi Chojun developed "fukyugata dai ichi", which is part of the current Matsubayashi Shorin Ryu syllabus and further developed "fukyugata dai ni", which is part of the current Gōjū-ryū syllabus under the name "gekisai dai ichi". Some Gōjū-ryū dojos still practice fukyugata dai ichi. Miyagi also created "gekisai dai ni", but it is practiced by Gōjū-ryū and some offshoots only.

, Japanese for "hard-soft style", is one of the main traditional Okinawan styles of karate, featuring a combination of hard and soft techniques. Both principles, hard and soft, come from the famous martial arts book used by Okinawan masters during the 19th and 20th centuries, the "Bubishi" (). Gō, which means hard, refers to closed hand techniques or straight linear attacks; jū, which means soft, refers to open hand techniques and circular movements. Gōjū-ryū incorporates both circular and linear movements into its curriculum, combining hard striking attacks such as kicks and close hand punches with softer open hand circular techniques for attacking, blocking, and controlling the opponent, including joint locks, grappling, takedowns, and throws.

刚柔流,是冲绳空手道其中的一个流派,同时为日本空手道四大流派之一,刚柔流发源自琉球王国(现今为日本国冲绳县)的那霸手,创始人为宫城长顺。刚柔流空手道共有个12型(套拳),其拳法有明显的南拳特色,以小架三战步、猫足立为主,讲究刚柔并济。在修行时注重“气”、“息”、“体”的锻炼。


星际大战四部曲:曙光乍现

Plot.

The galaxy is in a period of civil war. Rebel spies have stolen plans to the Galactic Empire's Death Star, a moon-sized space station capable of destroying an entire planet. Princess Leia, secretly one of the Rebellion's leaders, has obtained its schematics, but her starship is intercepted by an Imperial Star Destroyer under the command of the ruthless Sith Lord Darth Vader, an agent to the Empire. Before she is captured, Leia hides the plans in the memory of astromech droid, who, along with protocol droid, flees in an escape pod to the desert planet Tatooine.  The droids are captured by Jawa traders, who sell them to moisture farmers Owen and Beru Lars and their nephew Luke Skywalker. While cleaning, Luke accidentally triggers part of a holographic recording of Leia, in which she requests help from Obi-Wan Kenobi. The only Kenobi whom Luke knows is “Old Ben” Kenobi, an elderly hermit. He asks his uncle if he knows anything, but his uncle curtly drops the subject. The next morning, Luke finds missing, and while searching for him, encounters Old Ben. Ben, who reveals his true name to be Obi-Wan, tells Luke of his days as a Jedi Knight, former peacekeepers of the Galactic Republic who derived their power from an energy field called the Force until they were wiped out by the Galactic Empire. Contrary

Cast.

I sat down on one of the sofas, waiting for George. Door opened, and George walked in with Gary behind him. So, naturally, what did I do? I'm raised in England. Soon as someone comes in through the door, I stand up. George goes "Hmm [looked up]". Virtually turned to Gary, and said "I think we've found him".  Other actors include Phil Brown and Shelagh Fraser as Luke's Uncle

Production.

Development.

Lucas had the idea for a space-fantasy film in 1971, after he completed directing his first full-length feature, "THX 1138;" however, he has said that he had the idea long before then. Believing that the bleak tone of "THX 1138" led to its poor reception, Lucas chose to make "Star Wars" more optimistic; this is what led to its fun and adventurous tone. Originally, Lucas wanted to adapt the "Flash Gordon" space adventure comics and serials into his own films, having been fascinated by them since he was young. He later said,  I especially loved the "Flash Gordon" serials... Of course I realize now how crude and badly done they were... loving them that much when they were so awful, I began to wonder what would happen if they were done really well. At the Cannes Film Festival following the completion of "THX 1138", Lucas was granted

Writing.

Since commencing his writing process in January 1973, Lucas had done "various rewrites in the evenings after the day's work." He would write four different screenplays for "Star Wars", "searching for just the right ingredients, characters and storyline. It's always been what you might call a good idea in search of a story." By May 1974, he had expanded the treatment for "The Star Wars" into a rough draft screenplay, adding elements such as the Sith, the Death Star, and a general by the name of Annikin Starkiller. He changed Starkiller to an adolescent boy, and he shifted the general into a supporting role as a member of a family of dwarfs. Lucas envisioned the Corellian smuggler, Han Solo, as a large, green-skinned monster with gills. He based Chewbacca on his Alaskan Malamute dog,

Design.

George Lucas recruited many conceptual designers, including Colin Cantwell, who worked on "" (1968), to conceptualize the initial spacecraft models; Alex Tavoularis to create the preliminary conceptual storyboard sketches of early scripts; and Ralph McQuarrie to visualize the characters, costumes, props and scenery. McQuarrie's pre-production paintings of certain scenes from Lucas's early screenplay drafts helped 20th Century-Fox visualize the film, which positively influenced their decision to fund the project. After McQuarrie's drawings for Lucas's colleagues Hal Barwood and Matthew Robbins (who were collaborating for a film) caught his interest, Lucas met with McQuarrie to discuss his plans for the untitled space fantasy film he wanted to make. Two years later, after completing "American Graffiti", Lucas approached McQuarrie and asked him if he would be interested "in doing

Filming.

In 1975, Lucas formed his own visual effects company Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) after discovering that 20th Century-Fox's visual effects department had been disbanded. ILM began its work on "Star Wars" in a warehouse in Van Nuys, California. Most of the visual effects used pioneering digital motion control photography developed by John Dykstra and his team, which created the illusion of size by employing small models and slowly moving cameras.  George Lucas tried "to get a cohesive reality" for his feature. However, since the film is a fairy tale, as he had described, "I still wanted it to have an ethereal quality, yet be well composed and, also, have an alien look." He designed the film to have an "extremely bizarre, Gregg Toland-like surreal look with strange over-exposed colors, a lot of shadows, a lot of hot areas." Lucas wanted "Star Wars" to embrace the combination of "strange graphics of fantasy" and "the feel of a documentary" to impress a distinct look. To achieve this, he hired the British cinematographer Gilbert Taylor. Originally, Lucas's first choice for the position was Geoffrey Unsworth, who also provided the cinematography for Stanley Kubrick's "2001: A Space Odyssey". Unsworth was interested in working with the director, and initially accepted the job when it was offered to him by Lucas and Kurtz. However, he eventually withdrew to work on the Vincente Minnelli-directed "A Matter of Time" (1976) instead, which "really annoy[ed]" Kurtz. Lucas called up for other cinematographers, and eventually chose Taylor, basing his choice on Taylor's cinematography for "Dr. Strangelove" and "A Hard Day's Night" (both 1964). On his decision, Lucas said: "I thought they were good, eccentrically photographed pictures with a strong documentary flavor."  Taylor said that Lucas, who was consumed by the details of

Post-production.

"Star Wars" was originally slated for release on Christmas 1976; however, its production delays pushed the film's release to mid-1977. Editor John Jympson began cutting the film together while Lucas was still filming in Tunisia; as Lucas noted, the editor was in an "impossible position" because Lucas had not explained any of the film's material to him. When Lucas watched Jympson's rough cut for the first time, he disliked what he saw. J. W. Rinzler wrote that "Jympson's selection of takes was questionable, and he seemed to be having trouble doing match-cuts." Lucas was prepared to give Jympson more time; Jympson disliked Lucas' working style. As production went on, Lucas still disapproved of Jympson's cut and fired him halfway through the film's production. He commented: "Unfortunately it didn't work out. It's very hard when you are hiring people to know if they are going to mesh with you and if you are going to get what you want. In the end, I don't think he fully understood the movie and what I was trying to do. I shoot in a very peculiar way, in a documentary style, and

Soundtrack.

On the recommendation of his friend Steven Spielberg, Lucas hired composer John Williams. Williams had worked with Spielberg on the film "Jaws", for which he won an Academy Award. Lucas believed that the film would portray visually foreign worlds, but that the musical score would give the audience an emotional familiarity; he wanted a grand musical sound for "Star Wars", with leitmotifs to provide distinction. Therefore, he assembled his favorite orchestral pieces for the soundtrack, until Williams convinced him that an original score would be unique and more unified. However,

Cinematic and literary allusions.

According to Lucas, different concepts of the film were inspired by numerous sources, such as Beowulf and King Arthur for the origins of myth and religion. Lucas had originally intended to remake the 1930s "Flash Gordon" film serials, but was unable to obtain the rights; thus, he resorted to drawing from Akira Kurosawa's 1958 film "The Hidden Fortress" and Joseph Campbell's "The Hero with a Thousand Faces". "Star Wars" features many elements derived from "Flash Gordon", such as the conflict between rebels and Imperial Forces, the wipes between scenes, the fusion of futuristic technology and traditional mythology, and the famous opening crawl that begins each film. The film has also been compared to "The Wizard of Oz".  The influence of "The Hidden Fortress" can be seen in the relationship between C-3PO and R2-D2, which evolved from the two bickering peasants, Tahei and Matashichi, and a Japanese family crest seen in the earlier film is similar to the Imperial Crest. "Star Wars" also borrows heavily from another Kurosawa film, "Yojimbo" (1961). In both films, several men threaten the hero, bragging about how wanted they are by the authorities, and have an arm being cut off by a blade; Kuwabatake Sanjuro (played by Toshiro Mifune) is offered "twenty-five ryo now, twenty-five when you complete the mission", whereas Han Solo is offered "Two thousand now, plus fifteen when we reach Alderaan." Its sequel "Sanjuro" (1962) also inspired the hiding-under-the-floor trick featured in the film. Another source of influence was "Lawrence of Arabia" (1962), which inspired the film's visual approach, including long-lens desert shots. There are also thematic parallels, including the freedom fight by a rebel army against an

Marketing.

While the film was in production, a logo was commissioned from Dan Perri, a title sequence designer who had worked on the titles for films such as "The Exorcist" (1973) and "Taxi Driver" (1976). Perri devised a foreshortened "STAR WARS" logotype consisting of block-capital letters filled with stars and skewed towards a vanishing point. This logo design was originally conceived to follow the same perspective as the film's opening crawl. In the end, Perri's logo was not used for the film's opening title sequence, although it was used widely on pre-release print advertising and on cinema marquees.  The logotype eventually selected for on-screen use originated in a promotional brochure that was distributed by Fox to cinema owners in 1976. This brochure was designed by Suzy Rice, a young art director at the Los Angeles advertising agency Seiniger Advertising. On a visit to ILM in Van Nuys, Rice was instructed by Lucas to produce a logo that would intimidate the viewer, and he reportedly asked for the logo to appear "very fascist" in style. Rice's response to her brief was to use an outlined, modified Helvetica Black. After some feedback from Lucas, Rice decided to join the "S" and "T" of "STAR" and the "R" and "S" of "WARS". Lucas signed off on the brochure in

Release.

While initially only being released in a limited theatrical run, "Star Wars" was an unprecedented success for 20th Century-Fox, soon becoming a blockbuster hit and expanding to a much wider release. It would eventually see many theatrical and home video re-releases.

Premiere and initial release.

Worried that "Star Wars" would be beaten out by other summer films, such as "Smokey and the Bandit", 20th Century-Fox moved the release date to May 25, the Wednesday before Memorial Day. However, fewer than 40 theaters ordered the film to be shown. In response, the studio demanded that theaters order "Star Wars" if they wanted the eagerly anticipated "The Other Side of Midnight" based on Sidney Sheldon's 1973 novel by the same name. "Star Wars" debuted on Wednesday, May 25, 1977, in fewer than 32 theaters, and eight more on Thursday and Friday. Kurtz said in 2002, "That would be laughable today." It immediately broke box office records, effectively becoming one of the first blockbuster films, and Fox accelerated plans

Theatrical re-releases.

"Star Wars" was re-released theatrically in 1978, 1979, 1981 and 1982, with the subtitle "Episode IV – A New Hope" being added in 1981. The film was digitally remastered with some altered scenes in 1997 for a theatrical rerelease, dubbed the "Special Edition." Since its original release, the film has also been dubbed and subtitled into numerous languages. In 2010, Lucas announced that all six previously released "Star Wars" films would be scanned and transferred to 3D for a theatrical release, but only 3D versions of the prequel trilogy were completed before the franchise was sold to Disney in 2012. In 2013, "Star Wars" was dubbed into Navajo, making it the first major motion picture translated into a Native American language.

Inclusion of subtitles.

The texts "Episode IV" and "A New Hope" were first published on a title page for the film's script in the 1979 book "The Art of Star Wars", and added to the opening crawl in re-releases. Official sources state that the change was made at the theatrical re-release of April 10, 1981.  The retronymic inclusion of subtitles brought the film into line with the introduction to its sequel, "The Empire Strikes Back", which was released in 1980 bearing the designation ""Episode V"". Lucas had previously said, ""Star Wars"

Special Edition.

After ILM used computer-generated effects for Steven Spielberg's 1993 film "Jurassic Park", Lucas decided that digital technology had caught up to his "original vision" for "Star Wars". For the film's 20th anniversary in 1997, "Star Wars" was digitally remastered with some altered scenes and re-released to theaters, along with "The Empire Strikes Back" and "Return of the Jedi", under the campaign title "Star Wars" Trilogy: Special Edition. This version of the film runs 124 minutes.  The Special Edition contains visual shots and scenes that were unachievable in the original release due to financial, technological, and time constraints; one such scene involves a meeting between Han Solo and Jabba the Hutt. The process of creating the new visual effects for "Star Wars" was featured in the documentary film, "", directed by "Star Wars" sound designer Ben Burtt. Although most changes are minor or cosmetic in nature, many fans and critics believe that Lucas degraded the film with the additions. A particularly controversial change in which a bounty hunter

Home media.

In the United States, France, West Germany, Italy and Japan, parts of or the whole film were released on Super 8. The whole film was released for all these countries (including silent editions and an American Spanish-language edition), except for Italy, where it was released by IE International as seven brief scenes: Battaglia spaziale ("Space battle", the Battle of Yavin), Duello col laser ("Duel with the laser", Obi-Wan and Darth Vader's duel), La liberazione di Leia ("Leia's liberation", the adventure on the Death Star), Messaggio dallo spazio ("Message from space", Leia giving R2-D2 the plans),

Reception.

Box office.

"Star Wars" remains one of the most financially successful films of all time. The film opened on a Wednesday in 32 theaters expanding to 43 screens on the Friday and earning $2,556,418 in its first six days to the end of the Memorial Day weekend ($ in dollars). It gradually added screens, building up to $7 million weekends as it entered wide release ($ in dollars). It replaced "Jaws" as the highest-earning film in North America just six months into release, eventually earning over $220 million during its initial theatrical run ($ in dollars). "Star Wars" entered international release towards the end of the year, and in 1978 added the worldwide record to its domestic one, earning $410 million in total ($1.699 billion in 2018 dollars).  On July 21, 1978

Critical response.

The film was met with critical acclaim upon its release. In his 1977 review, Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" called the film "an out-of-body experience," compared its special effects to those of "", and opined that the true strength of the film was its "pure narrative." Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" called the film "the movie that's going to entertain a lot of contemporary folk who have a soft spot for the virtually ritualized manners of comic-book adventure" and "the most elaborate, most expensive, most beautiful movie serial ever made." A.D. Murphy of "Variety" described the film as "magnificent" and said George Lucas had succeeded in his attempt to create the "biggest possible adventure fantasy" based on the serials and older

Accolades.

The film garnered numerous accolades after its release. "Star Wars" won six competitive Academy Awards at the 50th Academy Awards: Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Film Editing, Best Original Score, Best Sound and Best Visual Effects. A Special Achievement for Sound Effects Editing went to sound designer Ben Burtt and a Scientific and Engineering Award went to John Dykstra for the development of the Dykstraflex Camera (shared with Alvah J. Miller and Jerry Jeffress, who were both granted for the engineering of the Electronic Motion Control System). Additional nominations included Alec Guinness for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, which went to Jason Robards for "Julia" and George Lucas for Best Original Screenplay, Best Director,

Legacy.

The original "Star Wars" trilogy is considered one of the best film trilogies in history. Lucas has often stated that the entire trilogy was intended to be considered one film. However, he said that his story material for "Star Wars" was too long for a single film, prompting Lucas to split the story into multiple films. Lucas also stated that the story evolved over time and that "There was never a script completed that had the entire story as it exists now [in 1983]... As the stories unfolded, I would take certain ideas and save them... I kept taking out all the good parts, and I just kept telling myself I would make other movies someday." In early interviews, it was suggested the series might comprise nine or twelve films.  "Star Wars" launched the careers of Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, and Carrie Fisher. Ford, who subsequently starred in the "Indiana Jones" series (1981–1989, 2008), "Blade Runner" (1982), and "Witness" (1985) after working on the film, told the "Daily Mirror" that "Star Wars" "boosted my career", and said, "I think the great luck of my career is that I've made these family movies which are introduced to succeeding generations of kids by their families at the time it seems appropriate."  The film has spawned a series of films consisting of three trilogies (including the original film), anthology films and an extensive media franchise called the "Star Wars" expanded universe including books, television series, computer and video games, and comic books. All of the main films have been box office successes, with the overall box office revenue generated by the "Star Wars" films (including the animated "") totaling over $10.1 billion, making it the second highest-grossing film series as of 2019.  The film also spawned the "Star Wars Holiday Special", which debuted on CBS on November 17, 1978 and is often considered a failure; Lucas himself disowned it. The special has never been aired after its original broadcast, and it has never been officially released on home video. However, many bootleg copies exist, and the special has consequently become something of an underground legend.  A radio drama adaptation of the film was broadcast on the American National Public Radio network in 1981. The adaptation was written by Brian Daley and directed by John Madden, and was produced with cooperation from George Lucas, who donated the rights to NPR. John Williams's music and Ben Burtt's sound design were retained for the show, and Mark Hamill (Luke Skywalker) and Anthony Daniels (C-3PO) reprised their roles. The radio drama narrative began with a version of the backstory to the film which relates Princess Leia's acquisition of the secret Death Star plans. It also featured scenes not seen in the final cut of the film, such as Luke Skywalker's observation of the space battle above Tatooine through binoculars, a skyhopper race, and Darth Vader's interrogation of Princess Leia. The radio version was originally considered to be part of the official "Star Wars" canon, but has since been supplanted by revised canonical narratives.

Merchandising.

Little "Star Wars" merchandise was available for several months after the film's debut, as only Kenner Products had accepted marketing director Charles Lippincott's licensing offers. Kenner responded to the sudden demand for toys by selling boxed vouchers in its "empty box" Christmas campaign. Television commercials told children and parents that vouchers within a "Star Wars Early Bird Certificate Package" could be redeemed for four action figures between February and June 1978. Jay West of the "Los Angeles Times" said that the boxes in the campaign "became the most coveted empty box[es] in the history of retail." In 2012, the "Star Wars" action figures were inducted into the National Toy Hall of Fame.  The novelization of the film was published as "" in December 1976, six months before the film was released. The credited author was George Lucas, but the book was revealed to have been ghostwritten by Alan Dean Foster. Marketing director Charles Lippincott secured the deal with Del Rey Books to publish the novelization in November 1976. By February 1977, a half million copies had been sold. Foster also wrote the sequel novel "Splinter of the Mind's Eye"

Sequels.

A sequel, "The Empire

References.

Footnotes Citations

Star Wars (retroactively titled Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope) is a 1977 American epic space opera film written and directed by George Lucas, produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by 20th Century-Fox. It stars Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, Carrie Fisher, Peter Cushing, Alec Guinness, David Prowse, James Earl Jones, Anthony Daniels, Kenny Baker and Peter Mayhew. It is the first installment of the original "Star Wars" trilogy, the first of the franchise to be produced, and the fourth episode of the "Skywalker saga".

《星球大战》(英语:Star Wars),在1981年后被重新命名为《星球大战四部曲:新的希望》(英语:Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope),是1977年的美国太空歌剧史诗片,由佐治·鲁卡斯编写及执导,是《星际大战》系列最初的一集(按剧情排序是第四集)。电影由马克·汉米尔、哈里森·福特、嘉莉·费雪及亚历·坚尼斯主演,于1977年5月25日公映,并经过数次变革,分别于1979年、1981年、1982年、1997年、2000年及2004年重新上映。乔治·卢卡斯曾坦言本片即是参考日本黑泽明导演的1958年电影《战国英豪》()所创作出来的。