爱丽丝公主 (巴滕贝格)

Early life.

Alice was born in the Tapestry Room at Windsor Castle in Berkshire in the presence of her great-grandmother, Queen Victoria. She was the eldest child of Prince Louis of Battenberg and his wife Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine. Her mother was the eldest daughter of Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, the Queen's second daughter. Her father was the eldest son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine through his morganatic marriage to Countess Julia Hauke, who was created Princess of Battenberg in 1858 by Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse. Her three younger siblings, Louise, George, and Louis, later became Queen of Sweden, Marquess of Milford Haven, and Earl Mountbatten of Burma, respectively.  She was christened Victoria Alice Elizabeth Julia Marie in Darmstadt on 25 April 1885. She had six godparents: her three surviving grandparents, Grand Duke Louis IV of Hesse, Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine, and Julia, Princess of Battenberg; her aunts Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna of Russia and Princess Marie of Erbach-Schönberg; and her great-grandmother Queen Victoria.  Alice spent her childhood between Darmstadt, London, Jugenheim, and Malta (where her naval officer father was occasionally stationed). Her mother noticed that she was slow in learning to talk, and became concerned by her indistinct pronunciation. Eventually, she was diagnosed with congenital deafness after her grandmother, Princess Battenberg, identified the problem and took her to see an ear specialist. With encouragement from her mother, Alice learned to both lip-read and speak in English and German. Educated privately, she studied French, and later, after her engagement, she learned Greek. Her early years were spent in the company of her royal relatives, and she was a bridesmaid at the marriage of the Duke of York (later King George V) and Mary of Teck in 1893. A few weeks before her sixteenth birthday she attended the funeral of Queen Victoria in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and shortly afterward she was confirmed in the Anglican faith.

Marriage.

Princess Alice met Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark (known as Andrea within the family), the fourth son of King George I of Greece and Olga Constantinovna of Russia, while in London for King Edward VII's coronation in 1902. They married in a civil ceremony on 6 October 1903 at Darmstadt. The following day, there were two religious marriage ceremonies; one Lutheran in the Evangelical Castle Church, and one Greek Orthodox in the Russian Chapel on the Mathildenhöhe. She adopted the style of her husband, becoming "Princess Andrew". The bride and groom were closely related to the ruling houses of the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia, Denmark, and Greece, and their wedding was one of the great gatherings of the descendants of Queen Victoria and Christian IX of Denmark held before World War I. Prince and Princess Andrew had five children, all of whom later had children of their own.  After their wedding, Prince Andrew continued his career in the military and Princess Andrew became involved in charity work. In 1908, she visited Russia for the wedding of Grand Duchess Marie of Russia and Prince William of Sweden. While there, she talked with her aunt, Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna, who was formulating plans for the foundation of a religious order of nurses. Princess Andrew attended the laying of the foundation stone for her aunt's new church. Later in the year, the Grand Duchess began giving away all her possessions in preparation for a more spiritual life. On their return to Greece, Prince and Princess Andrew found the political situation worsening, as the Athens government had refused to support the Cretan parliament, which had called for the union of Crete (still nominally part of the Ottoman Empire) with the Greek mainland. A group of dissatisfied officers formed a Greek nationalist Military League that eventually led to Prince Andrew's resignation from the army and the rise to power of Eleftherios Venizelos.

Successive life crises.

With the advent of the Balkan Wars, Prince Andrew was reinstated in the army, and Princess Andrew acted as a nurse, assisting at operations and setting up field hospitals, work for which King George V awarded her the Royal Red Cross in 1913. During World War I, her brother-in-law King Constantine I of Greece followed a neutrality policy despite the democratically elected government of Venizelos supporting the Allies. Princess Andrew and her children were forced to shelter in the palace cellars during the French bombardment of Athens on 1 December 1916. By June 1917, the King's neutrality policy had become so untenable that she and other members of the Greek royal family were forced into exile when her brother-in-law abdicated. For the next few years, most of the Greek royal family lived in Switzerland.  The global war effectively ended much of the political power of Europe's dynasties. The naval career of her father, Prince Louis of Battenberg, had collapsed at the beginning of the war in the face of anti-German sentiment in Britain. At the request of King George V, he relinquished the Hessian title Prince of Battenberg and the style of Serene Highness on 14 July 1917, and anglicized the family name to Mountbatten. The following day, the King created him Marquess of Milford Haven in the peerage of the United Kingdom. The following year, two of her aunts, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia, and Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna, were murdered by Bolsheviks after the Russian revolution. At the end of the war the Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian empires had fallen, and Princess Andrew's uncle, Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, was deposed.  On King Constantine's restoration in 1920, they briefly returned to Greece, taking up residence on Corfu at Mon Repos (inherited by Prince Andrew on his father's assassination in 1913). But after the defeat of the Hellenic Army in the Greco-Turkish War, a Revolutionary Committee under the leadership of Colonels Nikolaos Plastiras and Stylianos Gonatas seized power and forced King Constantine into exile once again. Prince Andrew, who had served as commander of the Second Army Corps during the war, was arrested. Several former ministers and generals arrested at the same time were shot following a brief trial, and British diplomats assumed that Prince Andrew was also in mortal danger. After a show trial, he was sentenced to banishment, and Prince and Princess Andrew and their children fled Greece aboard a British cruiser, HMS "Calypso", under the protection of the British naval attaché, Commander Gerald Talbot.

Illness.

The family settled in a small house loaned to them by Princess George of Greece at Saint-Cloud, on the outskirts of Paris, where Princess Andrew helped in a charity shop for Greek refugees. She became deeply religious and, in October 1928, converted to the Greek Orthodox Church. That winter, she translated into English her husband's defence of his actions during the Greco-Turkish War. Soon afterward, she began claiming that she was receiving divine messages and that she had healing powers. In 1930, after suffering a severe nervous breakdown, Princess Andrew was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, first by Thomas Ross, a psychiatrist who specialised in shell-shock, and subsequently by Sir Maurice Craig, who treated the future King George VI before he had speech therapy. The diagnosis was confirmed at Ernst Simmel's sanatorium at Tegel, Berlin. Princess Andrew was forcibly removed from her family and placed in Ludwig Binswanger's sanatorium in Kreuzlingen, Switzerland. It was a famous and well-respected institution with several celebrity patients, including Vaslav Nijinsky, the ballet dancer and choreographer, who was there at the same time as Princess Andrew. Binswanger also diagnosed the princess with schizophrenia. Both he and Simmel consulted Sigmund Freud, who believed that her delusions were the result of sexual frustration. He recommended "X-raying her ovaries in order to kill off her libido." Princess Andrew protested that she was sane and repeatedly tried to leave the asylum.  During Princess Andrew's long convalescence, she and Prince Andrew drifted apart, her daughters all married German princes in 1930 and 1931 (she did not attend any of the weddings), and Prince Philip went to England to stay with his uncles, Lord Louis Mountbatten and George Mountbatten, 2nd Marquess of Milford Haven, and his grandmother, the Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven.  Princess Andrew remained at Kreuzlingen for two years, but after a brief stay at a clinic in Meran was released and began an itinerant, incognito existence in Central Europe. She maintained contact with her mother but broke off ties to the rest of her family until the end of 1936. In 1937, her daughter Cecilie, son-in-law, and two of her grandchildren were killed in an air accident at Ostend; she and Prince Andrew met for the first time in six years at the funeral. (Prince Philip, Lord Louis Mountbatten and Hermann Göring also attended.) She resumed contact with her family, and in 1938 returned to Athens alone to work with the poor, while living in a two-bedroomed flat near the Benaki Museum.

World War II.

During World War II, Princess Andrew was in the difficult situation of having sons-in-law fighting on the German side and a son in the British Royal Navy. Her cousin,, was the German ambassador in Greece until the occupation of Athens by Axis forces in April 1941. She and her sister-in-law, Princess Nicholas of Greece, lived in Athens for the duration of the war, while most of the Greek royal family remained in exile in South Africa. She moved out of her small flat and into her brother-in-law George's three-storey house in the centre of Athens. She worked for the Red Cross, helped organise soup kitchens for the starving populace and flew to Sweden to bring back medical supplies on the pretext of visiting her sister, Louise, who was married to the Crown Prince. She organised two shelters for orphaned and lost children, and a nursing circuit for poor neighbourhoods.  The occupying forces apparently presumed Princess Andrew was pro-German, as one of her sons-in-law, Prince Christoph of Hesse, was a member of the NSDAP and the Waffen-SS, and another, Berthold, Margrave of Baden, had been invalided out of the German army in 1940 after an injury in France. Nonetheless, when visited by a German general who asked her, "Is there anything I can do for you?", she replied, "You can take your troops out of my country." After the fall of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in September 1943, the German Army occupied Athens, where a minority of Greek Jews had sought refuge. The majority (about 60,000 out of a total population of 75,000) were deported to Nazi concentration camps, where all but 2,000 died. During this period, Princess Andrew hid Jewish widow Rachel Cohen and two of her five children, who sought to evade the Gestapo and deportation to the death camps. Earlier, in 1913, Rachel's husband, Haimaki Cohen, had aided King George I of Greece. In return, King George had offered him any service that he could perform should Cohen ever need it. Years later, during the Nazi threat, Cohen's son remembered this, and appealed to Princess Andrew, who, with Princess Nicholas, was one of only two remaining members of the royal family left in Greece. Princess Andrew honoured the promise and saved the Cohen family.  When Athens was liberated in October 1944, Harold Macmillan visited Princess Andrew and described her as "living in humble, not to say somewhat squalid conditions". In a letter to her son, she admitted that in the last week before liberation she had had no food except bread and butter, and no meat for several months. By early December the situation in Athens was far from improved; Communist guerrillas (ELAS) were fighting the British for control of the capital. As the fighting continued, Princess Andrew was informed that her husband had died, just as hopes of a post-war reunion of the couple were rising. They had not seen each other since 1939. During the fighting, to the dismay of the British, she insisted on walking the streets distributing rations to policemen and children in contravention of the curfew order. When told that she might have been struck by a stray bullet, she replied "they tell me that you don't hear the shot that kills you and in any case I am deaf. So, why worry about that?"

Widowhood.

Princess Andrew returned to the United Kingdom in April 1947 to attend the November wedding of her only son, Philip, to Princess Elizabeth, the elder daughter and heir presumptive of King George VI. She had some of her remaining jewels used in Princess Elizabeth's engagement ring. On the day of the wedding, her son was created Duke of Edinburgh by George VI. For the wedding ceremony, Princess Andrew sat at the head of her family on the north side of Westminster Abbey, opposite the King, Queen Elizabeth and Queen Mary. It was decided not to invite Princess Andrew's daughters to the wedding because of anti-German sentiment in Britain following World War II.  In January 1949, the princess founded a nursing order of Greek Orthodox nuns, the Christian Sisterhood of Martha and Mary, modelled after the convent that her aunt, the martyr Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna, had founded in Russia in 1909. She trained on the Greek island of Tinos, established a home for the order in a hamlet north of Athens, and undertook two tours of the United States in 1950 and 1952 in an effort to raise funds. Her mother was baffled by her actions, "What can you say of a nun who smokes and plays canasta?", she said. Her daughter-in-law became queen of the Commonwealth realms in 1952, and Princess Andrew attended her coronation in June 1953, wearing a two-tone grey dress and wimple in the style of her nun's habit. However, the order eventually failed through a lack of suitable applicants.  In 1960, she visited India at the invitation of Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, who had been impressed by Princess Andrew's interest in Indian religious thought, and for her own spiritual quest. The trip was cut short when she unexpectedly took ill, and her sister-in-law, Edwina Mountbatten, Countess Mountbatten of Burma, who happened to be passing through Delhi on her own tour, had to smooth things with the Indian hosts who were taken aback at Princess Andrew's sudden change of plans. She later claimed she had had an out-of-body experience. Edwina continued her own tour, and died the following month.  Increasingly deaf and in failing health, Princess Andrew left Greece for the last time following the 21 April 1967 Colonels' Coup. Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh invited Princess Andrew to reside permanently at Buckingham Palace in London. King Constantine II of Greece and Queen Anne-Marie went into exile that December after a failed royalist counter-coup.

Death and burial.

Despite suggestions of senility in later life, Princess Andrew remained lucid but physically frail. She died at Buckingham Palace on 5 December 1969. She left no possessions, having given everything away. Initially her remains were placed in the Royal Crypt in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, but before she died she had expressed her wish to be buried at the Convent of Saint Mary Magdalene in Gethsemane on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem (near her aunt Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna, a Russian Orthodox saint). When her daughter, Princess George of Hanover, complained that it would be too far away for them to visit her grave, Princess Andrew jested, "Nonsense, there's a perfectly good bus service!" Her wish was realized on 3 August 1988 when her remains were transferred to her final resting place in a crypt below the church.  On 31 October 1994, Princess Andrew's two surviving children, the Duke of Edinburgh and Princess George of Hanover, went to Yad Vashem (the Holocaust Memorial) in Jerusalem to witness a ceremony honouring her as "Righteous Among the Nations" for having hidden the Cohens in her house in Athens during the Second World War. Prince Philip said of his mother's sheltering of persecuted Jews, "I suspect that it never occurred to her that her action was in any way special. She was a person with a deep religious faith, and she would have considered it to be a perfectly natural human reaction to fellow beings in distress." In 2010, the Princess was posthumously named a Hero of the Holocaust by the British Government.

Titles, styles, and honours.

Honours.

Posthumous:

References.

There is only one English-language biography of Princess Alice of Battenberg: the official biography written by Hugo Vickers.

Princess Alice of Battenberg (Victoria Alice Elizabeth Julia Marie; 25 February 1885 – 5 December 1969) was the mother of Prince Philip and mother-in-law of Queen Elizabeth II.

爱丽丝公主,全名维多利亚·爱丽丝·伊丽莎白·尤丽叶·玛丽(,1885年-2月25日-1969年-12月5日),出生于英格兰伯克郡的温莎城堡,是路易·蒙巴顿及其夫人维多利亚公主的长女。


Use and construction.

The post horn is sometimes confused with the coach horn, and even though the two types of horn served the same principal purpose, they differ in their physical appearance. The post horn has a cylindrical bore and was generally used on a coach pulled by two horses (technically referred to as "Tonga"); hence, it is sometimes also called the Tonga horn. The coach horn, on the other hand, has a conical bore and was used on a coach pulled by four horses (referred to as a "four-in-hand"). The post horn is no more than 32 inches in length, whereas the coach horn can be up to 36 inches long. The latter has more of a funnel-shaped bell, while the former's bell is trumpet shaped. Post horns need not be straight but can be coiled – they have a smaller bore – and they are made entirely of brass. A post horn will have a slide for tuning if intended for orchestral settings. It is commonly used in South East Asia including the Philippines. John Lloyd was one of the users of post horn in the 1900s.  The instrument is an example of a natural horn. The cornet was developed from the post horn through the addition of valves. Some uses of the post horn in modern-day culture can be found in folklore and screen plays.

Compositions with/for the post horn.

Beer's Concerto.

In the late 17th century, Johann Beer composed a Concerto à 4 in B, which paired a post horn with a "corne de chasse" as the two solo instruments, accompanied by violins and basso continuo.

Mozart's Posthorn Serenade.

Mozart composed his Serenade No. 9, the "Post horn Serenade", in 1779.

Mahler and others.

Mahler and others incorporated the post horn into their orchestras for certain pieces. On such occasions, the orchestra's horn player usually performs with the instrument. One example of post horn use in modern classical music is the famous off-stage solo in Mahler's Third Symphony. Due to the scarcity of this instrument, however, music written for it is usually played on a trumpet, cornet or flugelhorn.

Post Horn Gallop.

In 1844, the German cornet player Hermann Koenig wrote "Post Horn Gallop" as a solo for post horn with orchestral accompaniment. In the 20th century it became a popular piece for brass bands.

Compositions for other instruments imitating a post horn.

An imitation of the post horn's fanfare was a common device in music describing, or referring to, the post coach or travel in general. Notable examples include Bach's "Capriccio on the departure of a beloved brother", which includes an ""Aria di postiglione"" and a ""Fuga all'imitazione della cornetta di postiglione"", both containing the characteristic octave jump typical for the instrument. Handel's "Belshazzar" includes, in the second act, a ""Sinofonia"" that uses a similar motif (subtitled "Allegro postilions") depicting Belshazzar's messengers leaving on a mission. A very similar movement is included in the third "Production" of Telemann's "Tafelmusik". Beethoven's "Les adieux" piano sonata is centered on a horn-like motif, again signifying the departure of a loved-one. Schubert's "Winterreise" includes the song ""Die Post"", of which the piano part prominently features a horn signal motif.

Other uses.

During World War I wooden post horns were used as a means of collecting war donations via a method called the Nail Men. People would donate and in exchange be allowed to hammer a nail into the horn, until the horn was completely covered. Since 1941 the post horn has been played, usually on bugle, at the beginning of home matches of Leicester City Football Club of Association Football in Britain.

The post horn as graphical symbol.

The post horn is used in the logo of national post services of many countries. The post horn is included in Unicode as.

List of postal services that include the post horn in their logos.

Until 2002, the Finnish Postal and Telegraph Administration ("Posti- ja lennätinhallitus") and its successors also featured a postal horn in their logos. The logo from 1987 onwards had a single symbol combining the postal horn and telegraph symbols.

Post horns in road signs.

In Italy the post horn was featured on a sign called "Obbligo di arresto all'incrocio con autobus di linea su strade di montagna ("Stop when encountering coaches on mountain roads")". Installed along tortuous or narrow mountain roads, this sign was meant to mandate motorists to stop and give way to incoming coaches, and let them pass safely. This sign was removed from the Italian Road Code in 1992.

The post horn ("also" post-horn) is a valveless cylindrical brass instrument with a cupped mouthpiece. The instrument was used to signal the arrival or departure of a post rider or mail coach. It was used especially by postilions of the 18th and 19th centuries.

邮号是一种无按键的圆形自然铜管乐器,19世纪至20世纪的邮递员和邮政马车在离开或到达时常会吹响邮号。另外在道路上由于邮政马车时刻表紧凑且速度较快,在大多数国家有优先通行权,故道路上的行人和车辆在听到邮号后须即刻让路,避免发生意外或阻碍通行。


International moot court competitions.

International moot competitions are generally targeted at students (including postgraduates) and only allow participants who have not qualified to practice law in any jurisdiction. However, there are a handful of international moot competitions that are targeted at newly qualified lawyers, such as the ECC-SAL Moot, which is a regional moot started in 2012 and is jointly organised by Essex Court Chambers and the Singapore Academy of Law, and the New South Wales Young Laywers/CIArb competition.  The first table below lists some of the more notable international moot competitions for students, the second table lists the champions and finalists for the major or grand slam competitions, while the third and final table lists the champions and finalists for the minors and regionals. Major or grand slam international moots typically refer to class-leading moots or those that attract a substantial number of teams, while smaller or less established and region-only competitions are known as minors and regionals respectively; "international" class moots are sandwiched between grand slams and minors and regionals in terms of scale and prestige. Some countries also divide competitions into various tiers of prestige for the purpose of awarding points in league tables, with moots such as the Jessup and Vis competitions being considered as belonging to the highest tier.  For the 2019/20 international moots season, many competitions such as the Jessup, Frankfurt, and International Criminal Court were cancelled due to Covid-19. Some competitions, however, such as Price, Vis, and Vis East, hosted the oral rounds via online platforms.

Domestic moot court competitions.

USA.

Law schools structure their moot court programs differently. Some moot court organizations accept a small group of people for membership, and those members each participate in a number of national or regional moot court competitions. Other schools accept a larger number of members, and each member is matched with one competition. A few schools conduct moot court entirely intramurally. Moot court competitions are typically sponsored by organizations with interest in one particular area of law, and the moot court problems address an issue in that field. Competitions are often judged by legal practitioners with expertise in the particular area of law, or sometimes by sitting judges.  The basic structure of a moot court competition roughly parallels what would happen in actual appellate practice. Participants will typically receive a problem ahead of time, which includes the facts of the underlying case, and often an opinion from a lower court that is being challenged in the problem. Students must then research and prepare for that case as if they were lawyers or advocates for one or sometimes both of the parties. Depending on the competition, participants will be required to submit written briefs, participate in oral argument, or both. The case or problem is often one of current interest, sometimes mimicking an actual case, and sometimes fabricated to address difficult legal issues.  A number of moot court competitions focus on specific areas of law. For example, the First Amendment Center annually holds a National First Amendment Moot Court Competition, in which the judges have included numerous United States Circuit Court judges.

United Kingdom.

The courts systems differ in various parts of the United Kingdom. Thus, the style of a moot will often vary depending in which jurisdiction it is to be heard, although some national competitions do exist. The principal differences are between the laws in Scotland and those in England and Wales. In England and Wales the moot will typically simulate proceedings in either the Court of Appeal or the Supreme Court. Moot questions generally involve two questions of law that are under dispute and come with a set of facts about the case that have been decided at the first instance trial. Generally the question will surround a subject that is unclear under the present state of the law and for which no direct precedent exists. Mooting is a team effort, consisting of senior or lead counsel and junior counsel. It is normal practice for the senior counsel to take on the first point and the junior the second; although this may vary depending upon the exact nature, and necessary length, of the arguments. Typically the question will focus on one area of law, e.g. tort, contract, criminal law or property law.  The question will be provided to the teams a few weeks in advance of the moot along with details as to which of the appellant or respondent they are to represent. It is then up to each team to prepare their case as though they were barristers. Authority for each argument is necessary and will usually take the form of precedent from case law but may also involve legislation. Reliance may also be placed on governmental papers, research from NGOs and academic journals and texts. A few days before the moot takes place each team will prepare and exchange their skeleton arguments or brief. Copies will also be provided to the judge along with the moot problem. The judge is normally an academic or practising solicitor or barrister. The moot itself takes the form of an oral argument. The competition may also allow the appellants an additional few minutes in order to reply to the respondents arguments. After the presentation of arguments has concluded, the judge will retire to deliberate on both the law and the overall winning of the moot. A moot is not won and lost on the legal argument, but on the advocacy skills of the participants. It is often the case that the team that has the weaker legal argument is in a better position as they have to argue that much more persuasively.  In Scotland a moot can be set in a variety of fora; in civil law problems it is set most commonly in either the Inner House of the Court of Session or in the House of Lords, although it is not uncommon for a moot to be heard in the Sheriff Court before the Sheriff or Sheriff Principal. Occasionally, an Employment Appeal Tribunal may also be used as a forum for a Scottish civil law moot. If the moot problem concerns Criminal Law, the moot will most likely be heard as though in the Appellate division of the High Court of Justiciary (commonly known as the Court of Criminal Appeal). The moot points and style of the problem are similar to that of England and Wales stated above; however, the format of the moot is significantly different. Junior counsel is more likely to take the first moot point and senior counsel the second (this can however be reversed depending on the problem). The format of the moot is far more adversarial than that of English and Welsh moots. This is primarily due to a more adversarial legal system. This manifests itself in different ways, most notably with the appellants and respondents facing each other during a moot, rather than, as in England and Wales, facing the judge.  There is only one national Scottish competition, the Alexander Stone National Legal Debate, administered by the Law School at the University of Glasgow. All Scottish universities that offer the LL.B. are eligible to take part, although in recent years the competition has been fought out mainly between Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Strathclyde universities. The final is held in the Alexander Stone Court Room at the University of Glasgow in February or March each year. There are also several annual inter-varsity competitions between law schools, including the Glasgow Sheriff's Cup (the University of Glasgow v the University of Strathclyde) and the Granite City Moot (the University of Aberdeen v Robert Gordon University). These competitions are ordinarily judged by a Senator of the College of Justice.

Moot court is an extracurricular activity at many law schools. Participants take part in simulated court or arbitration proceedings, usually involving drafting memorials or memoranda and participating in oral argument. In most countries, the phrase "moot court" may be shortened to simply "moot" or "mooting". Participants are either referred to as "mooters" or, less conventionally, "mooties".

模拟法庭(Moot court)在许多国家是许多法学院的一项课外活动,或是法学院课程的一部分。参与者参加模拟法庭、或仲裁程序,通常涉及起草备忘章程、或备忘录,并参与美国法庭口头辩论。在大多数国家,"模拟法庭"(moot court)这一短语可能缩短为"模拟"(moot)或"模仿"(mooting)。 参与者要么被称为"模拟辩论参与者"(mooters),要么被称为"模拟参与者"(mooties)。


Overview.

Exterior.

The body of the car, made entirely from carbon fiber, incorporates the use of scoops, spoilers, and other aerodynamic features to create Split Channel airflow throughout the car. At, the car creates its own weight in downforce.

Interior.

Leather appears throughout the cabin, with aluminum accents. The S7 comes with a set of custom-fit luggage. Because of the car's mid-engine layout, it has two trunks at the front and rear. Other features include an LCD monitor, rear-view camera, quick-release steering wheel and a speedometer. The cabin is of an asymmetrical layout, and comes with fixed seats, with the driver's seat positioned toward the center to improve both the driver's visibility and center the driver's weight in the vehicle.

Chassis.

The chassis uses a space frame-derived design consisting of 4130 lightweight steel and aluminium honeycomb composite reinforcing panels. It is divided into bolt-fastened sub-assemblies to allow for rapid access to critical subsystems. This design contributes to the car's light overall weight of.

Performance.

The naturally aspirated version of the S7 is able to accelerate from 0– in an estimated 2.8 seconds, and to in an estimated 7.1 seconds. It completes a standing in an estimated 11.35 seconds, reaching. Top speed is an estimated.

Electrical systems.

Standard electronics include: Power windows, power door locks, remote control operated doors, hood, trunk, and engine compartment openers, electronic power steering with redundant safety circuits, 110 volt inlet for maintaining the battery, electronic heated front window, shut off control for electronic fuel pump upon crash impact and a rearview camera system with in-dash flip-up monitor and navigation. The electrical wire harnesses were said to be manufactured with the "highest quality materials." Teflon-coated tinned military specification wire, cannon plugs, gold plated pins and sockets were used for the connectors, and wire harnesses were wrapped with a high-temperature glass mesh under a woven Kevlar outer skin.

S7 Twin Turbo.

Engine.

The engine is upgraded with Garrett twin-turbochargers producing of boost, increasing the maximum power output to at 6,300 rpm and the maximum torque to at 4,800 rpm. The front and rear diffusers and the rear spoiler were also reworked to increase downforce by 60%.

Competition package.

In 2006, Saleen offered an optional competition package for the S7 Twin Turbo. The package offers a 33% increase in power, to a total of approximately, as well as changes to the suspension, a revised front and rear diffuser, and an optional aerodynamic package with carbon fiber front and rear spoilers.

S7 LM.

In 2017, Saleen announced the relaunch of the S7 sports car in partnership with Chinese automotive company Jiangsu Secco Automobile Technology Corporation. The new car, called the S7 LM commemorated Saleen's success in motorsports. Additional wind tunnel development lead to modifications in the exterior design which includes a full width rear spoiler, side skirts and under body channels along with new forged allow wheels. The interior comes with bucket seats, a digital tachometer, shift light indicator and a 240 mph speedometer. The engine has an increased power output of. In 2019, it was reported that the power output and performance of the car were updated. The engine was now rated at and of torque. Performance figures include a 0- acceleration time of 2.2 seconds and a claimed top speed of. It wasn't clear that how many cars would be made.

S7R.

The Saleen S7R is a racing version of the standard, naturally aspirated S7, produced from 2000 to 2007. It was designed to compete in grand tourer–style motorsports series and events such as the American Le Mans Series, FIA GT Championship, and 24 Hours of Le Mans. Ray Mallock Ltd. (RML) assembled the first few S7Rs under the supervision of Saleen's engineering team in their workshops in Britain, before Saleen assumed control over all S7R assembly with the French Oreca squad executing final outfitting in 2006. A total of fourteen S7Rs were completed to race-ready condition. Seven additional S7Rs were assembled to a level of completeness requiring the assignment of Vehicle Identification Numbers; however, these chassis were never outfitted into complete vehicles.  In 2004, Ferrari had gathered VIPs and automotive press around the world at Ferrari's Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari race track for the round 8 of the FIA GT Super Racing Weekend Imola to witness the sure victory of their race cars and then new Maserati MC12 GT1 against foreign competition. Vitaphone Racing's S7R driven by Michael Bartels and Uwe Alzen competed against two Maserati MC12s, three Ferrari 550s, three Ferrari 575s and two Lamborghini Murcielagos in GT Class specification securing the overall win. Ferrari's then CEO Luca Cordero di Montezemolo was in attendance of the race and he admitted the S7R's victory by saying "We were no match for the Saleen today". It was regarded as one of the biggest upsets in auto racing history by the automotive press as a race car from a low volume manufacturer had beaten Ferrari at their home track.

Racing history.

The first S7-R assembled by RML was completed in late 2000, then immediately shipped to the United States to make its debut in the American Le Mans Series event at Laguna Seca Raceway. Run by Saleen-Allen Speedlab, the car finished in 26th place. For 2001, the first customer chassis would be completed, and their respective teams would enter various championships: Fordahl Motorsports ran in the Grand American Road Racing Championship, RML ran the European Le Mans Series, and Konrad Motorsport ran both ALMS and ELMS. This car with chassis number 001 was named Christine by Saleen engineers.  The S7-R quickly showed its capabilities, when Konrad finished in sixth place at the 12 Hours of Sebring, earning their first class victory. Fordahl won seven Grand American events en route to finishing second in the class championship, while RML won four ELMS events and won that championship by a mere point over the Konrad Saleens. Saleen-Allen Speedlab also earned a podium finish at the 24 Hours of Le Mans with an 18th-place finish overall.  For 2002, Konrad Motorsport concentrated mostly on the American Le Mans Series (the ELMS having been dissolved following 2001), while Park Place Racing took over Fordahl's entry in Grand American. Newcomer Graham Nash Motorsport won both the British GT and Spanish GT Championships. Park Place won four races and earned their first championship title, while Graham Nash won nine British GT and four Spanish GT races, earning them the title in both series. Konrad Motorsport however struggled against the faster, higher-budget Corvette Racing team and could not score any victories, but were able to finish second in the championship.  Konrad Motorsport chose to move their Saleen squad to Europe in order to compete in the FIA GT Championship in 2003, leaving North America without a full-season competitor for the S7-R as Park Place abandoned the Grand American championship. Graham Nash joined Konrad in FIA GT, earning a sixth-place finish in the championship. For 2004, Saleen would have a resurgence of teams as RML returned to run FIA GT, Dominique Dupuy's DDO team entered the FFSA GT Championship, Konrad assisted the new Vitaphone Racing, and ACEMCO Motorsports purchased two brand-new S7-Rs, modified to better compete in the American Le Mans Series. Vitaphone earned three victories in FIA GT en route to a fourth place in the championship, while DDO earned two victories in FFSA GT.  Fortunes would quickly turn for the S7-Rs in the 2005 season. Konrad and Graham Nash saw their racing efforts downsized as the teams hit economic problems. Vitaphone Racing moved on from the S7-R and raced a Maserati MC12 to the FIA GT championship. This left ACEMCO to take second in the American Le Mans Series, while DDO earned the only Saleen wins that year with three.  In an attempt to rebound from 2005, Saleen chose to concentrate on select series and events. ACEMCO dropped out from the American Le Mans Series in order to concentrate solely on entering the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans where they earned an 11th-place finish, the best ever by a Saleen at the time. Oreca was chosen to prepare new S7-R chassis with upgrades under the supervision of Saleen engineers William Tally, Derk Hartland, Randall Speir, Matthew W. Wright and William Kreig to make them more competitive, which led to the team earning two victories in the Le Mans Series and winning the 2006 FFSA GT Championship. In FIA GT, Zakspeed took over as the factory squad with Balfe Racing running as a privateer. Zakspeed managed to earn two victories and earn themselves fourth in the championship.  For 2007, Zakspeed was forced to abandon their FIA GT effort as the team went bankrupt during the off-season. ACEMCO also was forced to withdraw and offer their S7-Rs for sale. Oreca finish-assembled two more chassis using subassemblies provided by Saleen, with one going to the Italian Racing Box squad who would compete alongside Oreca in the Le Mans Series. Oreca won four races during the season.  In 2010, the Oreca finish-assembled S7-R (chassis number 610) of Larbre Compétition won the final and its only LMGT1 class victory at the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Initial fabrication and assembly of this chassis was performed by Saleen's Irvine, CA engineering team in 2006-2007 after normal business hours due to a shortage of funding. Subsequently, Saleen engineers named the car Melissa, after the girlfriend of one of the Saleen race engineers.

The Saleen S7 is a hand-built, high-performance sports car designed and built by American automobile manufacturer Saleen Automotive Inc. Developed jointly by Steve Saleen for the initial concept, direction and engine, Hidden Creek Industries for resources and initial funding, Ray Mallock Ltd. (RML) for chassis, suspension and aerodynamics, and Phil Frank for the body and interior CAD design and development.

萨林S7是由萨林、Hidden Creek及Ray Mallock共同开发的超级跑车,然而是由萨林于Irvine、California的工厂独自制造的。S7是萨林第一部无中生有,从设计图画起的车子,S7也被认为是美国生产的第一部超跑(也许有人质疑1991年的Vector W8也是美国生产的,不过它的产量实在太少)。赛车版本的S7—S7R刚于2000年发表时的特色就是巨大的排气量加上双涡轮增压,但是2002年上市的民用版的S7使用的是自然进气引擎,虽然550匹马力已经不容小觑,不过S7R的600匹更是让人垂涎。2005年S7停产,取而代之的是更加惊人的Saleen S7 Twin Turbo,足足有750匹马力,与官方数据高达402km/h的极速。


Introduction.

We consider the "objects" possessing symmetry to be geometric figures, images, and patterns, such as a wallpaper pattern. For symmetry of physical objects, one may also take their physical composition as part of the pattern. (A pattern may be specified formally as a scalar field, a function of position with values in a set of colors or substances; as a vector field; or as a more general function on the object.) The group of isometries of space induces a group action on objects in it, and the symmetry group Sym("X") consists of those isometries which map "X" to itself (as well as mapping any further pattern to itself). We say "X" is "invariant" under such a mapping, and the mapping is a "symmetry" of "X".  The above is sometimes called the full symmetry group to emphasize that it includes orientation-reversing isometries (reflections, glide reflections and improper rotations). The subgroup of orientation-preserving symmetries (translations, rotations, and compositions of these) is called its proper symmetry group. An object is chiral when it has no orientation-reversing symmetries, so that its proper symmetry group is equal to its full symmetry group.  Any symmetry group whose elements have a common fixed point, which is true if the group is finite or the figure is bounded, can be represented as a subgroup of the orthogonal group O("n") by choosing the origin to be a fixed point. The proper symmetry group is then a subgroup of the special orthogonal group SO("n"), and is called the rotation group of the figure.  In a discrete symmetry group, the points symmetric to a given point do not accumulate toward a limit point. That is, every orbit of the group (the images of a given point under all group elements) forms a discrete set. All finite symmetry groups are discrete.  Discrete symmetry groups come in three types: (1) finite point groups, which include only rotations, reflections, inversions and rotoinversions – i.e., the finite subgroups of O("n"); (2) infinite lattice groups, which include only translations; and (3) infinite space groups containing elements of both previous types, and perhaps also extra transformations like screw displacements and glide reflections. There are also continuous symmetry groups (Lie groups), which contain rotations of arbitrarily small angles or translations of arbitrarily small distances. An example is O(3), the symmetry group of a sphere. Symmetry groups of Euclidean objects may be completely classified as the subgroups of the Euclidean group E("n") (the isometry group of R).  Two geometric figures have the same "symmetry type" when their symmetry groups are "conjugate" subgroups of the Euclidean group: that is, when the subgroups "H", "H" are related by for some "g" in E("n"). For example:  In the following sections, we only consider isometry groups whose orbits are topologically closed, including all discrete and continuous isometry groups. However, this excludes for example the 1D group of translations by a rational number; such a non-closed figure cannot be drawn with reasonable accuracy due to its arbitrarily fine detail.

One dimension.

The isometry groups in one dimension are:  See also symmetry groups in one dimension.

Two dimensions.

Up to conjugacy the discrete point groups in two-dimensional space are the following classes:  C is the trivial group containing only the identity operation, which occurs when the figure is asymmetric, for example the letter "F". C is the symmetry group of the letter "Z", C that of a triskelion, C of a swastika, and C, C, etc. are the symmetry groups of similar swastika-like figures with five, six, etc. arms instead of four.  D is the 2-element group containing the identity operation and a single reflection, which occurs when the figure has only a single axis of bilateral symmetry, for example the letter "A".  D, which is isomorphic to the Klein four-group, is the symmetry group of a non-equilateral rectangle. This figure has four symmetry operations: the identity operation, one twofold axis of rotation, and two nonequivalent mirror planes.  D, D etc. are the symmetry groups of the regular polygons.  Within each of these symmetry types, there are two degrees of freedom for the center of rotation, and in the case of the dihedral groups, one more for the positions of the mirrors.  The remaining isometry groups in two dimensions with a fixed point are:  Non-bounded figures may have isometry groups including translations; these are:

Three dimensions.

Up to conjugacy the set of three-dimensional point groups consists of 7 infinite series, and 7 other individual groups. In crystallography, only those point groups are considered which preserve some crystal lattice (so their rotations may only have order 1, 2, 3, 4, or 6). This crystallographic restriction of the infinite families of general point groups results in 32 crystallographic point groups (27 individual groups from the 7 series, and 5 of the 7 other individuals).  The continuous symmetry groups with a fixed point include those of:  For objects with scalar field patterns, the cylindrical symmetry implies vertical reflection symmetry as well. However, this is not true for vector field patterns: for example, in cylindrical coordinates with respect to some axis, the vector field formula_1 has cylindrical symmetry with respect to the axis whenever formula_2 and formula_3 have this symmetry (no dependence on formula_4); and it has reflectional symmetry only when formula_5.  For spherical symmetry, there is no such distinction: any patterned object has planes of reflection symmetry.  The continuous symmetry groups without a fixed point include those with a screw axis, such as an infinite helix. See also subgroups of the Euclidean group.

Symmetry groups in general.

In wider contexts, a symmetry group may be any kind of transformation group, or automorphism group. Each type of mathematical structure has invertible mappings which preserve the structure. Conversely, specifying the symmetry group can define the structure, or at least clarify the meaning of geometric congruence or invariance; this is one way of looking at the Erlangen programme.  For example, objects in a hyperbolic non-Euclidean geometry have Fuchsian symmetry groups, which are the discrete subgroups of the isometry group of the hyperbolic plane, preserving hyperbolic rather than Euclidean distance. (Some are depicted in drawings of Escher.) Similarly, automorphism groups of finite geometries preserve families of point-sets (discrete subspaces) rather than Euclidean subspaces, distances, or inner products. Just as for Euclidean figures, objects in any geometric space have symmetry groups which are subgroups of the symmetries of the ambient space.  Another example of a symmetry group is that of a combinatorial graph: a graph symmetry is a permutation of the vertices which takes edges to edges. Any finitely presented group is the symmetry group of its Cayley graph; the free group is the symmetry group of an infinite tree graph.

Group structure in terms of symmetries.

Cayley's theorem states that any abstract group is a subgroup of the permutations of some set "X", and so can be considered as the symmetry group of "X" with some extra structure. In addition, many abstract features of the group (defined purely in terms of the group operation) can be interpreted in terms of symmetries.  For example, let "G" = Sym("X") be the finite symmetry group of a figure "X" in a Euclidean space, and let "H" ⊂ "G" be a subgroup. Then "H" can be interpreted as the symmetry group of "X", a "decorated" version of "X". Such a decoration may be constructed as follows. Add some patterns such as arrows or colors to "X" so as to break all symmetry, obtaining a figure "X" with Sym("X") = {1}, the trivial subgroup; that is, "gX" ≠ "X" for all non-trivial "g" ∈ "G". Now we get:  Normal subgroups may also be characterized in this framework. The symmetry group of the translation "gX" is the conjugate subgroup "gHg". Thus "H" is normal whenver: that is, whenever the decoration of "X" may be drawn in any orientation, with respect to any side or feature of "X", and still yield the same symmetry group "gHg" = "H".  As an example, consider the dihedral group "G" = "D" = Sym("X"), where "X" is an equilateral triangle. We may decorate this with an arrow on one edge, obtaining an asymmetric figure "X". Letting τ ∈ "G" be the reflection of the arrowed edge, the composite figure "X" = "X" ∪ τ"X" has a bidirectional arrow on that edge, and its symmetry group is "H" = {1, τ}. This subgroup is not normal, since "gX" may have the bi-arrow on a different edge, giving a different reflection symmetry group.  However, letting H = {1, ρ, ρ} ⊂ "D" be the cyclic subgroup generated by a rotation, the decorated figure "X" consists of a 3-cycle of arrows with consistent orientation. Then "H" is normal, since drawing such a cycle with either orientation yields the same symmetry group "H".

In group theory, the symmetry group of a geometric object is the group of all transformations under which the object is invariant, endowed with the group operation of composition. Such a transformation is an invertible mapping of the ambient space which takes the object to itself, and which preserves all the relevant structure of the object. A frequent notation for the symmetry group of an object "X" is "G" = Sym("X").

一个物件(如一维、二维或三维中的图像或信号)的对称群是指在复合函数运算下不变的所有等距同构所构成的群。其为所考虑之空间的等距同构群中的一个子群。


Plot.

Mike, a street hustler, stands alone on a deserted stretch of highway. He starts talking to himself and notices that the road looks "like someone’s face, like a fucked-up face." He then experiences a narcoleptic episode and dreams of his mother comforting him as he replays home movies of his childhood in his mind.  Later, after being fellated by a client in Seattle, Mike returns to his favorite spots to pick up more clients. He is picked up by a wealthy older woman who takes him to her mansion, where he finds two fellow hustlers also hired by the woman. One of them is Scott Favor, Mike's best friend, and the other is Gary. While preparing to have sex with the woman, Mike experiences another narcoleptic fit and awakens the next day with Scott in Portland, Oregon.  Mike and Scott are soon reunited with Bob Pigeon, a middle-aged mentor to a gang of street kids and hustlers who live in an abandoned apartment building. Scott, the son of the mayor of Portland, admits to Bob in private that when he turns 21, he will inherit his father's fortune and retire from street hustling. Meanwhile, Mike yearns to find his mother, so he and Scott leave for Idaho to visit Mike's older brother, Richard. Along this journey Mike confesses that he is in love with Scott, who gently reminds him he only sleeps with men for money. While visiting in his trailer, Richard tries to tell Mike who his real father is, but Mike says that he knows it is Richard. Richard tells Mike that their mother works as a hotel maid; when Mike and Scott visit the hotel, they find she has gone to Italy in search of her own family. At the hotel, they meet Hans, the man who drove them to Portland, and prostitute themselves to him.  With the money they received from Hans, Mike and Scott travel to Italy. They find the country farmhouse where Mike's mother worked as a maid and an English tutor. The young woman, Carmela, who lives there, tells Mike that his mother returned to the United States months ago. Carmela and Scott fall in love and return to the U.S., leaving Mike to return there on his own, broken-hearted. Scott's father dies, and Scott inherits his fortune.  Back in Portland, Bob and his gang confront a newly reformed Scott at a fashionable restaurant, but he rejects them. That night Bob has a fatal heart attack. The next day the hustlers hold a rowdy funeral for Bob, while in the same cemetery, a few yards away, Scott attends a solemn funeral for his father. At the end of the film, Mike is back on the deserted stretch of the Idaho highway. After he falls into another narcoleptic stupor, two strangers pull up in a truck, take his backpack and shoes, and drive away. Moments later, an unidentified figure pulls up in a car, picks the unconscious Mike up, places him in the vehicle and drives away.

Development.

The origins of "My Own Private Idaho" came from John Rechy's 1963 novel, "City of Night", which featured characters who were street hustlers who did not admit to being gay. Van Sant's original screenplay was written in the 1970s, when he was living in Hollywood. After reading Rechy's book, Van Sant realized that it was considerably better than what he was writing, so he shelved the script for years. In 1988, while editing "Mala Noche", Van Sant met a street kid named Michael Parker who became a source of inspiration for the character of Mike in what would later become "My Own Private Idaho". Parker also had a friend named Scott, a street kid like himself. In the script, Van Sant adapted the Scott character to that of a rich kid. The character of Scott was also fashioned after people Van Sant had met in Portland who were street hustlers.  Early drafts of the screenplay were set on Hollywood Boulevard, not Portland, with working titles such as "Blue Funk" and "Minions of the Moon". Reading Rechy's novel had convinced Van Sant to change the setting to Portland. The script originally consisted of two separate scenarios: the first was called "Modern Days" and it recounted Mike's story; a second one updated the "Henry IV" plays with Scott's story. Van Sant realized that he could blend the two stories together in the manner of the "cut up" technique used by writer William S. Burroughs. In essence, this method involves various story fragments and ideas mixed and matched together to form a unique story. The idea to combine the two scenarios formed in Van Sant's mind after watching Orson Welles' "Chimes at Midnight". The director remembers, "I thought that the "Henry IV" plays were really a street story. I also knew this fat guy named Bob, who had always reminded me of Falstaff and who was crazy about hustler boys". Van Sant realized that Prince Hal in the plays resembled the character of Scott and the sidekick was Mike. His script ended up becoming a literal restructuring of the "Henry IV" plays. Van Sant got the idea for Mike's narcolepsy from a man who was a guide of sorts when the director was gathering material for the film. According to the director, he always looked like he was about to fall asleep. The film's title is derived from the song "Private Idaho" by the B-52's that Van Sant heard while visiting the state in the early 1980s.  Van Sant showed the script to an executive at 20th Century Fox who liked Shakespeare. Eventually, he toned down the Shakespeare and made the language more modern. Van Sant was also working on a short story called "My Own Private Idaho" which he intended to film. It was 25 pages long and was about two Latino characters on the streets of Portland who go in search of their parents and travel to a town in Spain. One of them falls in love with a girl and leaves the other behind. Van Sant had another script called "The Boys of Storytown", which had the Mike and Scott characters and Mike had narcolepsy. The characters of Hans and Bob were also present. Van Sant wanted to make the film but felt that the script was not finished. While editing "Drugstore Cowboy", Van Sant combined the scripts for "Modern Days" and "Storytown" with the "Idaho" short story.  Initially, no studio would finance the film because of its potentially controversial and off-beat subject matter. After "Drugstore Cowboy" received favorable critical raves and awards, studios started to show some interest. However, they all wanted their own versions made and not Van Sant's. This frustration prompted the filmmaker to attempt the feature on a shoestring budget with a cast of actual street kids filling out the roles including Michael Parker and actor Rodney Harvey, who was going to play Scott. Van Sant faced the problem of casting the two central roles. He decided to send the script to the agents of Keanu Reeves and River Phoenix, figuring that their agents would reject the script. Reeves' agent was amenable to the project, but Phoenix's agent would not even show the screenplay to the young actor. Not to be deterred, Van Sant got the idea for Reeves to personally deliver the film's treatment to Phoenix at his home in Florida. Reeves did so over the Christmas holidays, riding his 1974 Norton Commando motorcycle from his family home in Canada to the Phoenix family ranch in Micanopy, Florida, outside Gainesville. Reeves was no stranger to River Phoenix or members of his family, having worked previously with River on Lawrence Kasdan's "I Love You to Death" and with his brother Joaquin and girlfriend Martha Plimpton on Ron Howard's "Parenthood". After reading the treatment, Phoenix agreed to play the role of Scott. However, since Van Sant had already cast Reeves in the role, they had to convince River to take on the edgier role of drug-addicted hustler Mike Waters. The director promised not to make either actor do anything embarrassing. Van Sant got an offer of $2 million from an outside investor but when he put off production for nine months so that Phoenix could make "Dogfight", the investor and his money disappeared. Producer Laurie Parker shopped the script around and, at the time, New Line Cinema was in the process of branching out into producing arthouse films and decided to back Van Sant's vision with a US$2.5 million budget. In an interview in March 2012, Kiefer Sutherland said that he declined the offer by Gus Van Sant to star in the lead role because he wanted to go skiing, a decision he has said he regrets.

Principal photography.

Principal photography took place from November to December 1990, primarily in Portland, Seattle and Rome. Scenes of the Idaho road depicted in the film were shot near Maupin, Oregon on Oregon Route 216. Phoenix arrived in Portland two weeks before principal photography was to begin in order to do research and Van Sant remembered, "He seemed to be changing into this character". One of the film's directors of photography Eric Alan Edwards recalled that the actor looked like a street kid", and "in a very raw way he wore that role. I've never seen anybody so intent on living his role". Several cast and crew members, including Michael Parker, Phoenix, Reeves and Flea lived together in a house in Portland during filming. A couple of times a week they would play music together. Due to the low budget, a typical day of shooting started at 6 am and ended at 11 pm.  The film was not storyboarded and was made without a shot list. The camp fire scene was originally a short, three-page scene that Phoenix re-wrote into an eight-page scene where Mike professes his love for Scott so that it was more apparent that his character was gay whereas Van Sant had originally made it more ambiguous. Phoenix described his process as his "own stream-of-consciousness, and this just happened to be one that was more than actor notes. Then Keanu and I refined it, worked on it... but it was all done quickly. It was something I wrote down a night, two nights, before, and then I showed it to Keanu and Gus.... And Gus kept the whole thing. He didn't pare it down. It's a long scene." Phoenix has stated that neither he nor Reeves felt uncomfortable with the textual nature of the queerness in "Idaho". When asked if either he or Reeves were uncomfortable he said, "Nah, not at all." When asked if he was worried playing a gay prostitute may hurt his public image Reeves once said, "Hurt my image? Who am I—a politician? [laughs softly] No. I’m an actor. That wasn’t a problem."  Eric Edwards shot the time-lapse photography shots on his own. They were not in the script and the film's producer was worried that he was using up too much film. Van Sant originally had the screen go black when Mike passed out but was not satisfied with this approach. He used Edwards' footage as a way of "an altered sense of time" from Mike's perspective. Some executives at New Line were not in favor of the Shakespeare scenes and wanted Van Sant to cut them all out. However, foreign distributors wanted as much Shakespeare in the film as possible.

Music.

The film's score was composed by pedal steel guitarist Bill Stafford, he recorded various arrangements for the film including instrumental adaptations of "Home on the Range" and "America the Beautiful". Stafford won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Film Music in 1992 for his score. Other original and selected songs from various artists were also featured in the film, including:  The soundtrack was not released on any media.

Reception and release.

Release.

"My Own Private Idaho" was first premiered at the 48th Venice International Film Festival on September 4, 1991. It also received screenings at the 17th Deauville Film Festival, 16th Toronto International Film Festival and the 29th New York Film Festival. The film was released in limited theaters in the United States on September 29, 1991. It grossed US$6.4 million in North America, above its estimated budget of $2.5 million.

Critical response.

Van Sant's film achieved critical acclaim. Film critic Roger Ebert wrote, "The achievement of this film is that it wants to evoke that state of drifting need, and it does. There is no mechanical plot that has to grind to a Hollywood conclusion, and no contrived test for the heroes to pass." In his review for "Rolling Stone" magazine, Peter Travers wrote, "Van Sant's cleareyed, unsentimental approach to a plot that pivots on betrayal and death is reflected in magnetic performances from Reeves and Phoenix." Vincent Canby, in his "New York Times" review, praised the lead actors: "The performances, especially by the two young stars, are as surprising as they are sure. Mr. Phoenix ("Dogfight") and Mr. Reeves (of the two "Bill and Ted" comedies) are very fine in what may be the two best roles they'll find in years. Roles of this density, for young actors, do not come by that often". In his review for "Newsweek", David Ansen praised Phoenix's performance: "The campfire scene in which Mike awkwardly declares his unrequited love for Scott is a marvel of delicacy. In this, and every scene, Phoenix immerses himself so deeply inside his character you almost forget you've seen him before: it's a stunningly sensitive performance, poignant and comic at once." "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film an "A−" rating and Owen Gleiberman wrote, "When Van Sant shows us speeded-up images of clouds rolling past wheat fields, the familiar device transcends cliche, because it's tied to the way that Mike, in his benumbed isolation, experiences his own life – as a running piece of surrealism. The sheer, expressive beauty of those images haunted me for days." J. Hoberman, in his review for "The Village Voice", wrote, "While Phoenix vanishes with reckless triumph into his role, Reeves stands, or occasionally struts, uneasily beside his, unable to project even the self-mocking wit of Matt Dillon's star turn in "Drugstore Cowboy"." Hal Hinson from "The Washington Post" wrote "Gus Van Sant's sensibility is wholly original, wholly fresh. My Own Private Idaho adds a new ingredient: a kind of boho sweetness. I loved it."  Conversely, "USA Today" gave "My Own Private Idaho" two and half stars out of four, criticizing Van Sant's film for being "nothing but set pieces; tossed into a mix whose meaning is almost certainly private". "Time" magazine's Richard Schickel wrote, "What plot it has is borrowed, improbably, from "Henry IV", and whenever anyone manages to speak an entire paragraph, it is usually a Shakespearean paraphrase. But this is a desperate imposition on an essentially inert film." In his review for "The New Yorker", Terrence Rafferty wrote, "Van Sant has stranded the actor in a movie full of flat characters and bad ideas, but Phoenix walks through the picture, down the road after road after road, as if he were surrounded by glorious phantoms."  On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 79% based on 58 reviews, with an average rating of 7.43/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "A tantalizing glimpse of a talented director and his stars all at the top of their respective games, Gus Van Sant's loose reworking of Henry IV is smart, sad and audacious." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 77 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Home media.

The film was originally released on VHS and LaserDisc in 1992. In 2005, the film was remastered by The Criterion Collection and released on a two-disc DVD set. The second disc features new interviews, outtakes and more information about the movie. This DVD set is accompanied by an illustrated 64-page-booklet featuring previously published articles and interviews with cast and crew and new essays by JT LeRoy and Amy Taubin, a 1991 article by Lance Loud and reprinted interviews with Van Sant, River Phoenix and Keanu Reeves. "Entertainment Weekly" gave the DVD a "B+" rating and wrote, "While you may enjoy watching "My Own Private Idaho", whether you choose to view this two-disc Criterion edition in its entirety depends on how much you enjoy watching people talking about "My Own Private Idaho"", and concluded, "But with all the various interpretations and influences, this is definitely a film worth talking about".  In 2015 The Criterion Collection released the film in Blu-ray, based on a restored 4K digital transfer.

Awards and nominations.

"My Own Private Idaho" received the Showtime International Critics Award at the 1991 Toronto Film Festival. River Phoenix received the Volpi Cup for Best Actor at the 1991 Venice Film Festival. The actor said, in regards to winning, "I don't want more awards. Venice is the most progressive festival. Anything else would be a token". Phoenix then went on to receive Best Male Lead from the Independent Spirit Awards and Best Actor from the National Society of Film Critics. With 6 nominations at the 7th Independent Spirit Awards, it tied with "Hangin' with the Homeboys" for the most nominations during that ceremony. Winning 3, it tied with "Rambling Rose" for the most awards.

My Own Private Idaho is a 1991 American independent adventure drama film written and directed by Gus Van Sant, loosely based on Shakespeare's "Henry IV, Part 1", "Henry IV, Part 2", and "Henry V". The story follows two friends, Mike and Scott, played by River Phoenix and Keanu Reeves respectively, as they embark on a journey of personal discovery that takes them from Portland, Oregon to Mike's hometown in Idaho, and then to Rome in search of Mike's mother.

《不羁的天空》(英语:英语:"My Own Private Idaho"),剧本是由莎士比亚的《亨利四世》第一,二部分与《亨利五世》改编而成的。导演葛斯·范·桑通过这部电影将沦落街头的堕落的青少年的绝望淋漓尽致的表现了出来。


History of discovery.

Sometime between 1836 and 1841, a captain of one of the ships of the French merchant and armorer Abel Vautier came across a large animal floating at the entrance to the English Channel, its body covered by swarming gulls. He cut the head off and transported it to Caen, where he presented it to Vautier. Vautier in turn offered it to the anatomist Deslongchamps. The specimen somehow made its way to the French scientist Paul Gervais, who described it as a new species in 1855. For several decades this remained as the only known specimen of this species, with many disregarding its specific status and claiming it merely represented an aberrant adult Sowerby's beaked whale. The species’ identity was confirmed by the discovery of two specimens from New Jersey, an immature male captured near Atlantic City in 1889 and an adult female found stranded at North Long Branch in 1905.

Description.

This species is the largest of the mesoplodonts and rather gracile, elongated, and laterally compressed compared with the others. The mouthline is remarkably straight, even in males, and the two teeth of the male erupt towards the tip of the beak, and are hardly noticeable. The head is overall small and tapering in outline. The melon only bulges very slightly. The coloration is dark gray on top and lighter gray on bottom. Females sometimes have lighter spots near the genitals and face, with a dark circle remaining around the eyes. Juveniles start off with a lighter coloration, but soon darken. Males are 4.5 meters (15 ft) in length and females are at least 5.2 meters (17 ft) and probably weigh more than 1200 kg (2600 pounds). Calves are believed to be 2.1 meters (7 feet) in length. One beached specimen may have been 48 years old.

Population and distribution.

Since the discovery of the type specimen, it has been found off the eastern coast of the United States, Ireland, the Canary Islands, western Africa, and Ascension Island. In August 2001, a specimen was found off São Paulo, Brazil; the southernmost specimen found to date. The species is believed to be naturally rare, and no population estimates have been attempted.  Although this species frequently strands, until 1998, no one had made a confirmed sighting of the species. Since then, only ten other sightings have occurred.  There had been a possible stranding of this species in Israel.

Behavior.

Judging by strandings, the whales occur in small groups. They probably feed on squid.  A sighting made in 1998, west of the island of Tenerife, involved three whales swimming over waters 1500 meters deep. Another small group was seen south of the island of Gran Canaria. Although timid, the whales allowed close photos. They surfaced for a short time, and their dives lasted for around an hour.  In September 2008, northeast of the island of Lanzarote, some Gervais' beaked whales were photographed breaching out of the water.  On May 5, 2011, one juvenile female specimen was found dead and beached at Playa Larga of Maunabo on the southeast corner of Puerto Rico (Caribbean Sea). The juvenile had her stomach filled with (10 pounds) of plastic bags. On July 10 of the same year, one specimen was found dead in the Yucatán Peninsula, México, further investigation is being performed to confirm the species in this case.

Conservation.

The species has not been hunted and only very infrequently gets tangled in fishing nets. Gervais’ beaked whale is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBANS) and the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS). The species is further included in the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia.

Gervais' beaked whale ("Mesoplodon europaeus"), sometimes known as the Antillian beaked whale, Gulf Stream beaked whale, or European beaked whale (from which its scientific name is derived) is the most frequently stranding type of mesoplodont whale off the coast of North America. It has also stranded off South America and Africa.

热氏中喙鲸或杰氏中喙鲸(学名:"Mesoplodon europaeus")旧称热氏喙鲸,又称湾流喙鲸,欧洲喙鲸和安德烈斯喙鲸。其似乎从未在海上目击过,但牠们可说是北美洲海岸最常搁浅的中喙鲸。在早期的文献中,其学名为Mesoplodon gervaisi。多年来在北大西洋东部海岸发现的标本,只有1840年在英吉利海峡发现的一具浮尸,当时推测此鲸尸是被墨西哥湾流带离其原分布地到达英吉利海峡。


History and usage of the term.

The term disruptive technologies was coined by Clayton M. Christensen and introduced in his 1995 article "Disruptive Technologies: Catching the Wave", which he cowrote with Joseph Bower. The article is aimed at management executives who make the funding or purchasing decisions in companies, rather than the research community. He describes the term further in his book "The Innovator's Dilemma". "Innovator's Dilemma" explored the cases of the disk drive industry (which, with its rapid generational change, is to the study of business what fruit flies are to the study of genetics, as Christensen was advised in the 1990s) and the excavating equipment industry (where hydraulic actuation slowly displaced cable-actuated movement). In his sequel with Michael E. Raynor, "The Innovator's Solution", Christensen replaced the term "disruptive technology" with "disruptive innovation" because he recognized that few technologies are intrinsically disruptive or sustaining in character; rather, it is the "business model" that the technology enables that creates the disruptive impact. However, Christensen's evolution from a technological focus to a business-modelling focus is central to understanding the evolution of business at the market or industry level. Christensen and Mark W. Johnson, who cofounded the management consulting firm Innosight, described the dynamics of "business model innovation" in the 2008 "Harvard Business Review" article "Reinventing Your Business Model". The concept of disruptive technology continues a long tradition of identifying radical technical change in the study of innovation by economists, and the development of tools for its management at a firm or policy level.  The term “disruptive innovation” is misleading when it is used to refer to a product or service at one fixed point, rather than to the evolution of that product or service over time.  In the late 1990s, the automotive sector began to embrace a perspective of "constructive disruptive technology" by working with the consultant David E. O'Ryan, whereby the use of current off-the-shelf technology was integrated with newer innovation to create what he called "an unfair advantage". The process or technology change as a whole had to be "constructive" in improving the current method of manufacturing, yet disruptively impact the whole of the business case model, resulting in a significant reduction of waste, energy, materials, labor, or legacy costs to the user.  In keeping with the insight that what matters economically is the business model, not the technological sophistication itself, Christensen's theory explains why many disruptive innovations are "not" "advanced technologies", which a default hypothesis would lead one to expect. Rather, they are often novel combinations of existing off-the-shelf components, applied cleverly to a small, fledgling value network.  Online news site TechRepublic proposes an end using the term, and similar related terms, suggesting that it is overused jargon as of 2014.

What is (isn't) disruptive innovation.

Christensen continues to develop and refine the theory and has accepted that not all examples of disruptive innovation perfectly fit into his theory. For example, he conceded that originating in the low end of the market is not a cause of disruptive innovation, but rather it fosters competitive business models, using Uber as an example. In an interview with Forbes magazine he stated:"Uber helped me realize that it isn’t that being at the bottom of the market is the causal mechanism, but that it’s correlated with a business model that is unattractive to its competitor"

Theory.

The current theoretical understanding of disruptive innovation is different from what might be expected by default, an idea that Clayton M. Christensen called the "technology mudslide hypothesis". This is the simplistic idea that an established firm fails because it doesn't "keep up technologically" with other firms. In this hypothesis, firms are like climbers scrambling upward on crumbling footing, where it takes constant upward-climbing effort just to stay still, and any break from the effort (such as complacency born of profitability) causes a rapid downhill slide. Christensen and colleagues have shown that this simplistic hypothesis is wrong; it doesn't model reality. What they have shown is that good firms are usually aware of the innovations, but their business environment does not allow them to pursue them when they first arise, because they are not profitable enough at first and because their development can take scarce resources away from that of sustaining innovations (which are needed to compete against current competition). In Christensen's terms, a firm's existing "value networks" place insufficient value on the disruptive innovation to allow its pursuit by that firm. Meanwhile, start-up firms inhabit different value networks, at least until the day that their disruptive innovation is able to invade the older value network. At that time, the established firm in that network can at best only fend off the market share attack with a me-too entry, for which survival (not thriving) is the only reward.  In the technology mudslide hypothesis, Christensen differentiated disruptive innovation from sustaining innovation. He explained that the latter's goal is to improve existing product performance. On the other hand, he defines a disruptive innovation as a product or service designed for a new set of customers. Christensen also noted that products considered as disruptive innovations tend to skip stages in the traditional product design and development process to quickly gain market traction and competitive advantage. He argued that disruptive innovations can hurt successful, well-managed companies that are responsive to their customers and have excellent research and development. These companies tend to ignore the markets most susceptible to disruptive innovations, because the markets have very tight profit margins and are too small to provide a good growth rate to an established (sizable) firm. Thus, disruptive technology provides an example of an instance when the common business-world advice to "focus on the customer" (or "stay close to the customer", or "listen to the customer") can be strategically counterproductive.  While Christensen argued that disruptive innovations can hurt successful, well-managed companies, O'Ryan countered that "constructive" integration of existing, new, and forward-thinking innovation could improve the economic benefits of these same well-managed companies, once decision-making management understood the systemic benefits as a whole. Christensen distinguishes between "low-end disruption", which targets customers who do not need the full performance valued by customers at the high end of the market, and "new-market disruption", which targets customers who have needs that were previously unserved by existing incumbents.  "Low-end disruption" occurs when the rate at which products improve exceeds the rate at which customers can adopt the new performance. Therefore, at some point the performance of the product overshoots the needs of certain customer segments. At this point, a disruptive technology may enter the market and provide a product that has lower performance than the incumbent but that exceeds the requirements of certain segments, thereby gaining a foothold in the market.  In low-end disruption, the disruptor is focused initially on serving the least profitable customer, who is happy with a good enough product. This type of customer is not willing to pay premium for enhancements in product functionality. Once the disruptor has gained a foothold in this customer segment, it seeks to improve its profit margin. To get higher profit margins, the disruptor needs to enter the segment where the customer is willing to pay a little more for higher quality. To ensure this quality in its product, the disruptor needs to innovate. The incumbent will not do much to retain its share in a not-so-profitable segment, and will move up-market and focus on its more attractive customers. After a number of such encounters, the incumbent is squeezed into smaller markets than it was previously serving. And then, finally, the disruptive technology meets the demands of the most profitable segment and drives the established company out of the market.  "New market disruption" occurs when a product fits a new or emerging market segment that is not being served by existing incumbents in the industry. Some scholars note that the creation of a new market is a defining feature of disruptive innovation, particularly in the way it tend to improve products or services differently in comparison to normal market drivers. It initially caters to a niche market and proceeds on defining the industry over time once it is able to penetrate the market or induce consumers to defect from the existing market into the new market it created.  The extrapolation of the theory to all aspects of life has been challenged, as has the methodology of relying on selected case studies as the principal form of evidence. Jill Lepore points out that some companies identified by the theory as victims of disruption a decade or more ago, rather than being defunct, remain dominant in their industries today (including Seagate Technology, U.S. Steel, and Bucyrus). Lepore questions whether the theory has been oversold and misapplied, as if it were able to explain everything in every sphere of life, including not just business but education and public institutions.

Disruptive technology.

In 2009, Milan Zeleny described high technology as disruptive technology and raised the question of what is being disrupted. The answer, according to Zeleny, is the "support network" of high technology. For example, introducing electric cars disrupts the support network for gasoline cars (network of gas and service stations). Such disruption is fully expected and therefore effectively resisted by support net owners. In the long run, high (disruptive) technology bypasses, upgrades, or replaces the outdated support network. Questioning the concept of a disruptive technology, Haxell (2012) questions how such technologies get named and framed, pointing out that this is a positioned and retrospective act.  Technology, being a form of social relationship, always evolves. No technology remains fixed. Technology starts, develops, persists, mutates, stagnates, and declines, just like living organisms. The evolutionary life cycle occurs in the use and development of any technology. A new high-technology core emerges and challenges existing technology support nets (TSNs), which are thus forced to coevolve with it. New versions of the core are designed and fitted into an increasingly appropriate TSN, with smaller and smaller high-technology effects. High technology becomes regular technology, with more efficient versions fitting the same support net. Finally, even the efficiency gains diminish, emphasis shifts to product tertiary attributes (appearance, style), and technology becomes TSN-preserving appropriate technology. This technological equilibrium state becomes established and fixated, resisting being interrupted by a technological mutation; then new high technology appears and the cycle is repeated.  Regarding this evolving process of technology, Christensen said: The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on "The Changing Nature of Work" examines how technology shapes the relative demand for certain skills in labor markets and expands the reach of firms - robotics and digital technologies, for example, enable firms to automate, replacing labor with machines to become more efficient, and innovate, expanding the number of tasks and products. Joseph Bower explained the process of how disruptive technology, through its requisite support net, dramatically transforms a certain industry. For example, the automobile was high technology with respect to the horse carriage; however, it evolved into technology and finally into appropriate technology with a stable, unchanging TSN. The main high-technology advance in the offing is some form of electric car—whether the energy source is the sun, hydrogen, water, air pressure, or traditional charging outlet. Electric cars preceded the gasoline automobile by many decades and are now returning to replace the traditional gasoline automobile. The printing press was a development that changed the way that information was stored, transmitted, and replicated. This allowed empowered authors but it also promoted censorship and information overload in writing technology.  Milan Zeleny described the above phenomenon. He also wrote that: Social media could be considered a disruptive innovation within sports. More specifically, the way that news in sports circulates nowadays versus the pre-internet era where sports news was mainly on T.V., radio, and newspapers. Social media has created a new market for sports that was not around before in the sense that players and fans have instant access to information related to sports.

High-technology effects.

High technology is a technology core that changes the very architecture (structure and organization) of the components of the technology support net. High technology therefore transforms the qualitative nature of the TSN's tasks and their relations, as well as their requisite physical, energy, and information flows. It also affects the skills required, the roles played, and the styles of management and coordination—the organizational culture itself.  This kind of technology core is different from regular technology core, which preserves the qualitative nature of flows and the structure of the support and only allows users to perform the same tasks in the same way, but faster, more reliably, in larger quantities, or more efficiently. It is also different from appropriate technology core, which preserves the TSN itself with the purpose of technology implementation and allows users to do the same thing in the same way at comparable levels of efficiency, instead of improving the efficiency of performance.  As for the difference between high technology and low technology, Milan Zeleny once said: However, not all modern technologies are high technologies. They have to be used as such, function as such, and be embedded in their requisite TSNs. They have to empower the individual because only through the individual can they empower knowledge. Not all information technologies have integrative effects. Some information systems are still designed to improve the traditional hierarchy of command and thus preserve and entrench the existing TSN. The administrative model of management, for instance, further aggravates the division of task and labor, further specializes knowledge, separates management from workers, and concentrates information and knowledge in centers.  As knowledge surpasses capital, labor, and raw materials as the dominant economic resource, technologies are also starting to reflect this shift. Technologies are rapidly shifting from centralized hierarchies to distributed networks. Nowadays knowledge does not reside in a super-mind, super-book, or super-database, but in a complex relational pattern of networks brought forth to coordinate human action.

Internal auditor response.

Internal audit plays a critical role maintaining effective control mitigating emerging risks. Businesses will increase risk or bypass opportunity if auditors do not address disruption-related risks. Alles has discussed that Big Data is a disruptive innovation that auditors must incorporate in practice. A 2019 study, "Internal Auditors' Response to Disruptive Innovation", reports on the evolution of internal audit to react to changes. Disruptions examined include data analytics, agile processes, cloud computing, robotic process automation, continuous auditing, regulatory change, and artificial intelligence.

Example of disruption.

In the practical world, the popularization of personal computers illustrates how knowledge contributes to the ongoing technology innovation. The original centralized concept (one computer, many persons) is a knowledge-defying idea of the prehistory of computing, and its inadequacies and failures have become clearly apparent. The era of personal computing brought powerful computers "on every desk" (one person, one computer). This short transitional period was necessary for getting used to the new computing environment, but was inadequate from the vantage point of producing knowledge. Adequate knowledge creation and management come mainly from networking and distributed computing (one person, many computers). Each person's computer must form an access point to the entire computing landscape or ecology through the Internet of other computers, databases, and mainframes, as well as production, distribution, and retailing facilities, and the like. For the first time, technology empowers individuals rather than external hierarchies. It transfers influence and power where it optimally belongs: at the loci of the useful knowledge. Even though hierarchies and bureaucracies do not innovate, free and empowered individuals do; knowledge, innovation, spontaneity, and self-reliance are becoming increasingly valued and promoted.  Amazon Alexa, Airbnb are some other examples of disruption.  Uber is not an example of disruption because it did not originate in a low-end or new market footholds. One of the conditions for the business to be considered disruptive according to Clayton M. Christensen is that the business should originate on a) low-end or b) new-market footholds. Instead, Uber was launched in San Franscisco, a large urban city with an established taxi service and did not target low-end customers or created a new market (from the consumer perspective). In contrast, UberSELECT, an option that provides luxurious cars such as limousine at a discounted price, is an example of disruption innovation because it originates from low-end customers segment - customers who would not have entered the traditional luxurious market.

Potential opportunities.

Major opportunities according to researchers and consultants

In business theory, a disruptive innovation is an innovation that creates a new market and value network and eventually disrupts an existing market and value network, displacing established market-leading firms, products, and alliances. The term was defined and first analyzed by the American scholar Clayton M. Christensen and his collaborators beginning in 1995, and has been called the most influential business idea of the early 21st century.

破坏性创新(英语:Disruptive innovation),或是被称为「破坏式创新」与「破坏式技术」,早期也被翻译为「颠覆式创新」或「颠覆式技术」,是由哈佛大学教授克莱顿·克里斯坦森(英语:Clayton Christensen)于1997年的著作《创新的两难》(英语:"Innovator's Dilemma")所提出。是指将产品或服务透过科技性的创新,并以低价、低品质的方式,针对特殊目标消费族群,突破现有市场所能预期的消费改变。