Background.

Libya.

Cyrenaica, the eastern province of Libya, had been an Italian colony since the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912), although resistance continued until 1932. With Tunisia, a part of French North Africa to the west and Egypt to the east, the Italians had to defend both frontiers and established a North Africa Supreme Headquarters, under the command of the Governor-General of Italian Libya, (Marshal of the Air Force), Italo Balbo. Supreme Headquarters had the 5th Army (, (General) Italo Gariboldi) in the west and the 10th Army (Lieutenant-General) Mario Berti) in the east, which in mid-1940 had nine metropolitan divisions with an establishment of about each, three (Blackshirt) divisions and two Italian Libyan Colonial divisions with a lower establishment of each. Reservists had been recalled in 1939, along with the usual call-up of new conscripts.

Egypt.

The British had based military forces in Egypt since 1882 but these were greatly reduced by the terms of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. The small British and Commonwealth force garrisoned the Suez Canal and the Red Sea route, which was vital to British communications with its Far Eastern and Indian Ocean territories. In mid-1939, Lieutenant-General Archibald Wavell was appointed General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) of the new Middle East Command, over the Mediterranean and Middle East theatres. Until the Franco-Axis armistice, French divisions in Tunisia faced the Italians on the western Libyan border forcing the garrison to divide and face both ways.  In Libya, the Italian Royal Army () had about and in Egypt the British had about with another training in Palestine. British forces included the Mobile Division (Egypt) commanded by Major-General Percy Hobart, one of two British armoured training formations, which in mid-1939 was renamed the Armoured Division (Egypt) and on 16 February 1940, it became the 7th Armoured Division. The Egyptian–Libyan border was defended by the Egyptian Frontier Force and in June 1940, the headquarters of the 6th Infantry Division (Major-General Richard O'Connor) took over command in the Western Desert, with instructions to drive back the Italians from their frontier posts and dominate the hinterland, if war began. The 7th Armoured Division, less the 7th Armoured Brigade, assembled at Mersa Matruh and sent the 7th Support Group forward towards the frontier as a covering force.  The RAF also moved most of its bombers closer to the frontier and Malta was reinforced to threaten the Italian supply route to Libya. The HQ of the 6th Infantry Division, which lacked complete and fully trained units, was renamed the Western Desert Force on 17 June. In Tunisia, the French had eight divisions, capable only of limited operations and in Syria were three poorly armed and trained divisions, with about and border guards, were on occupation duties against the civilian population. Italian land and air forces in Libya greatly outnumbered the British in Egypt but suffered from poor morale and were handicapped by some inferior equipment. In Italian East Africa were another and East African troops with tanks and Italy declared war from 11 June 1940.

Terrain.

The Western Desert is about long, from Mersa Matruh in Egypt, west to Gazala on the Libyan coast, along, the only paved road. The Sand Sea, inland, marks the southern limit of the desert at its widest at Giarabub and Siwa; in British parlance, Western Desert came to include eastern Cyrenaica in Libya. From the coast, extending into the hinterland lies a raised, flat plain of stony desert about above sea level, that runs in depth until the Sand Sea. The region is inhabited by a small number of Bedouin nomads and local wildlife consists of scorpions, vipers and flies.  Bedouin tracks link wells () and the easier traversed ground; desert navigation is by sun, star, compass and "desert sense", good perception of the environment gained by experience. (When the Italian invasion of Egypt began in September 1940, the Maletti Group (, Major-General Pietro Maletti) lacking experience of desert conditions, got lost leaving Sidi Omar, disappeared and had to be found by aircraft.) In spring and summer, days are miserably hot and nights very cold. The ( or ), a hot desert wind, blows clouds of fine sand, reducing visibility to a few yards and coating eyes, lungs, machinery, food and equipment. Motor vehicles and aircraft need special oil and air filters and the barren ground means that water and food as well as military stores, have to be transported from outside.

Italian Army.

In 1936, General Alberto Pariani had been appointed Chief of Staff of the Italian Army and begun a reorganisation of divisions to fight "wars of rapid decision", according to thinking that speed, mobility and new technology could revolutionise military operations. In 1937, traditional three-regiment divisions () began to change to two-regiment binary divisions (), as part of a ten-year plan to reorganise the standing army into twelve mountain, three motorised and three armoured divisions. The effect of the change was to increase the administrative overhead of the army, with no corresponding increase in effectiveness; new technology such as tanks, motor vehicles and wireless communications were slow to arrive and were inferior to those of potential enemies. The dilution of the officer class to find extra unit staffs was made worse by the politicisation of the army and the addition of Blackshirt Militia. The reforms also promoted the tactics of frontal assault to the exclusion of other theories of war, dropping the emphasis on fast mobile warfare backed by artillery. By September 1939, sixteen divisions of the 67 in the Italian Army (excluding the garrison of Ethiopia) had been converted to and had received their establishment of arms and equipment. The remaining divisions had obsolete equipment, no stock of replacements and lacked artillery, tanks, anti-tank, anti-aircraft guns and transport.  Morale was considered to be high and the army had recent experience of military operations. The Italian navy had prospered under the Fascist regime, which had paid for fast, well-built and well-armed ships and a large submarine fleet but the navy lacked experience and training. The air force had been ready for war in 1936 but had stagnated and was not considered by the British to be capable of maintaining a high rate of operations. The 5th Army in Tripolitania, the western half of Libya opposite Tunisia, had eight divisions; the 10th Army with six infantry divisions garrisoned the province Cyrenaica in the east. At the end of June, after the Fall of France, four divisions were transferred from the 5th Army to the 10th Army. When Italy declared war on 11 June, the 10th Army deployed the 1st Libyan Division "Sibelle" on the frontier from Giarabub to Sidi Omar and XXI Corps from Sidi Omar to the coast, Bardia and Tobruk. The XXII Corps was moved south-west of Tobruk, to act as a counter-attack force. Before war was declared, Balbo expressed his doubts to Mussolini  and demanding more equipment including tankers, more medium tanks and anti-tank guns, which the Italian economy could not produce or the army transfer from elsewhere. In Rome the chief-of-staff, Marshal of Italy Pietro Badoglio, fobbed him off with promises instead, "When you have the seventy medium tanks you will dominate the situation", as Balbo prepared to invade Egypt on 15 July. After Balbo was killed in an accident, Benito Mussolini replaced him with Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, with orders to attack Egypt by 8 August. Graziani replied that the 10th Army was not properly equipped and that an attack could not possibly succeed; Mussolini ordered him to attack anyway.

Prelude.

10th Army.

The ten divisions of the 10th Army (Lieutenant-General Mario Berti) comprised theXX Motorised Corps Giuseppe di Stefanis), XXI Corps ( Lorenzo Dalmazzo), XXII Corps XXIII Corps ( Annibali Bergonzoli) and the new (Libyan Corps). The army comprised metropolitan infantry divisions, Blackshirt ( or CCNN) infantry divisions and Libyan Colonial divisions. The XXIII Corps with the metropolitan divisions and, the Blackshirt Division, the 1st and 2nd Libyan divisions (Lieutenant-General Sebastiano Gallina) and the Maletti Group was to conduct the invasion. Bergonzoli had about first to move the and divisions, followed by. The Libyan divisions had enough to move equipment, weapons and supplies but the infantry would have to walk and the Maletti Group had enough to move its troops. The Maletti Group comprised three battalions of Libyan infantry, additional artillery, much of the Italian armoured vehicle element in Libya and almost all of the Fiat M11/39 medium tanks. XXI Corps, with the and 28 divisions formed a reserve and XXII Corps with the and 3 divisions were left at Tobruk because of the transport shortage.  The 10th Army was supported by the of the, with The command had four bomber wings, a fighter wing, three fighter groups, two reconnaissance groups and two squadrons of colonial reconnaissance aircraft, with 110 Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 bombers, fifty Breda Ba.65 ground attack aircraft, 170 Fiat CR.42 fighters and six IMAM Ro.37, Caproni Ca.309 and Caproni Ca.310bis long-range reconnaissance aircraft. On 9 September, another sixty-four bombers, seventy-five ground-attack aircraft and fifteen reconnaissance aircraft arrived from Italy. The was organised to follow and support the army in the field as a self-contained unit but Berti could expect little support from the, because ten submarines had been lost since Italy declared war, the fleet was too important to risk and was short of fuel.

Italian plans.

Three times, deadlines were set for an Italian invasion and cancelled; the first plan was intended to coincide with an expected German invasion of England on 15 July 1940. Balbo took all the trucks from the 5th Army and the Fiat M11/39 medium tanks being delivered from Italy, to reinforce the 10th Army for a crossing of the frontier wire and an occupation of Sollum as soon as war was declared. After a British counter-attack was repulsed and the Italian armies were replenished, the advance would continue. Although this plan was based on a realistic appreciation of what the Italian armies in Libya could achieve, it fell through when the invasion of England was cancelled. The second plan, for 22 August, was for a limited advance to Sollum and Shawni el Aujerin to the east, with three columns moving on three lines of advance. Once Sollum had been occupied, an advance on Sidi Barrani would be considered, an example of advance-in-mass, used on the northern front in the Ethiopian War. The Italian non-motorized infantry divisions were to use the only road but the summer heat in August, which would have affected them most, led to another postponement. The third plan was for an invasion on 9 September with Sidi Barrani as the objective, which Graziani disclosed to his staff six days before Mussolini ordered the invasion. The non-motorised, metropolitan divisions would advance along the coast and attack through Halfaya Pass, occupy Sollum and continue to Sidi Barrani. A southern column of the Libyan divisions and the Maletti Group was to advance along the Dayr al Hamra–Bir ar Rabiyah–Bir Enba track, to outflank the British on the escarpment. The Maletti Group was to drive south and east through the desert but the Italian staff failed to provide proper maps and navigation equipment; when moving to its assembly and jumping-off points, the group got lost and XXIII Corps Headquarters had to send aircraft to help lead the group into position; the Libyan divisions arriving late at the rendezvous near Fort Capuzzo.  The embarrassment of the Maletti Group added to doubts about the lack of lorries, transport aircraft and British domination of the terrain, which led to another change of plan. The fourth plan was set for 13 September, with Sidi Barrani and the area to the south as the objective. The 10th Army, with only five divisions, due to the shortage of transport and the tanks of the Maletti Group, would advance in mass down the coast road, occupy Sollum and advance through Buq Buq to Sidi Barrani. The 10th Army was to consolidate at Sidi Barrani and bring up supplies, destroy a British counter-attack and resume the advance to Matruh. The non-motorized infantry divisions were to use the coast road because they would be ineffective anywhere else. A similar operation had been conducted on the northern front in Ethiopia but went against mobile warfare theory, for which there were ample forces to execute. Graziani believed the only way to defeat the British was by mass, having overestimated their strength.

Western Desert Force.

Against an estimated troops based in Libya and about in Italian East Africa, Wavell had a ration strength of about in Egypt; fourteen non-brigaded battalions of British infantry; the 2nd New Zealand Division (Major-General Bernard Freyberg) with one infantry brigade, an understrength cavalry regiment, a machine gun battalion and a field artillery regiment. The 4th Indian Infantry Division (Major-General Noel Beresford-Peirse) had two infantry brigades and some artillery, the 7th Armoured Division (Major-General Sir Michael O'Moore Creagh) had two armoured brigades with two armoured regiments each instead of three. The 7th Support Group, with three motorised infantry battalions, artillery, engineers and machine-gunners, was to harass the Italians and to fight delaying actions between the border and Matruh if attacked but to retain the capacity to engage the main Italian force.  At Matruh an infantry force would await the Italian attack, while from the escarpment on the desert flank, the bulk of the 7th Armoured Division would be ready to counter-attack. The covering force was to exaggerate its size and the 7th Support Group was to use its mobility to cover the desert flank, while along the coast road, the 3rd Coldstream Guards, a company of the 1st Battalion King's Royal Rifle Corps (KRRC) and a company of Free French Motor Marines, with supporting artillery and machine-gunners, would fall back in stages, demolishing the road as they retired. At the end of May 1940, the Royal Air Force in the Middle East had including Bristol Bombay medium bombers and modern Blenheim light bombers, Gloster Gladiator fighters and types. In July, four Hawker Hurricane fighters arrived but only one could be spared for the Western Desert Force. By the end of July, the Mediterranean Fleet had won control of the Eastern Mediterranean and were able to bombard Italian coastal positions and transport supplies along the coast to Matruh and beyond.

Border skirmishes.

On 17 June, using the headquarters of the British 6th Infantry Division, the headquarters of the WDF (Lieutenant-General O'Connor) was formed to control all troops facing the Italians in Cyrenaica, a force of about with aircraft, tanks and guns. O'Connor was to organise aggressive patrolling along the frontier and set out to dominate no-man's land by creating "jock columns", mobile combined-arms formations based on units of 7th Armoured Division. These small, well-trained, regular forces made the first attacks on Italian convoys and fortified positions across the border. British patrols closed up to the frontier wire on 11 June, with orders to dominate the area, harass the garrisons of the frontier forts and set ambushes along the and inland tracks.  Some Italian troops were unaware that war had been declared and seventy were captured on the track to Sidi Omar. Patrols ranged north to the coast road between Bardia and Tobruk, west to Bir el Gubi and south to Giarabub. Within a week, the 11th Hussars (Prince Albert's Own) had seized Fort Capuzzo and at an ambush east of Bardia, captured the 10th Army Engineer-in-Chief, Brigadier General Romolo La Strucci. Italian reinforcements arrived at the frontier, began to conduct reconnaissance patrols, improved the frontier defences and recaptured Fort Capuzzo. On 13 August, the British raids were stopped to conserve the serviceability of vehicles; the 7th Support Group took over to observe the wire for from Sollum to Fort Maddalena, ready to fight delaying actions if the Italians invaded Egypt.

9–10 September.

XXIII Corps (General Annibale Bergonzoli) was to lead the 10th Army attack into Egypt to Sidi Barrani along the coast road with non-motorised and motorised formations. The corps had been given more lorries; the 62nd Infantry Division "Marmarica" and 63rd Infantry Division "Cirene" were part-motorised, the 1st Blackshirt Division 23 "Marzo" was motorised, as were the Maletti Group and the 1st. The part-motorised infantry divisions would move by shuttling forward and the non-motorized infantry would have to march the to Sidi Barrani. Bergonzoli wanted the 1st as an advanced guard, two motorised infantry divisions in line and one motorised division in reserve. The two Libyan non-motorised infantry divisions would have to move on foot, with the Maletti Group bringing up the rear. The 1st was held back in reserve, except for the LXII Light Tank Battalion, which was attached to the 63rd Division and the LXIII Light Tank Battalion assigned to the 62nd Division. The 2nd stayed at Bardia except for the IX Light Tank Battalion attached to the 2nd Libyan Division. The II Medium Tank Battalion was with the Maletti Group, which had three fully motorised Libyan infantry battalions.  On 9 September, the activity of the increased and bombers from 55 Squadron, 113 Squadron and 211 Squadron RAF retaliated with attacks on airfields, transport, supply dumps and a raid on Tobruk by Later in the day, fighters made a sweep over Buq Buq and the RAF flew more sorties against Italian airfields. British air reconnaissance revealed much ground movement at Bardia, Sidi Azeiz, Gabr Saleh and towards Sidi Omar from the west, which was interpreted as the beginning of the Italian invasion. The forward move of the 10th Army showed the limitations of Italian mobility and navigation, when the Maletti Group got lost moving up to Sidi Omar, on the frontier wire. On 10 September, the armoured cars of the 11th Hussars spotted the Maletti Group and heavy mist shielded the British as they shadowed the slow Italian assembly. As the mist cleared, the hussars were attacked by Italian aircraft, tanks and artillery.

13–14 September.

On 13 September, the 1st Blackshirt Division re-took Fort Capuzzo and a bombardment fell on Musaid, just over the Egyptian side of the border, which was then occupied. Artillery-fire and bombing began on Sollum airfield and barracks (which were empty), which raised a dust cloud. When the dust cleared the Italian army could be seen drawn up, ready to advance against the British covering force of the 3rd Coldstream Guards, some field artillery, an extra infantry battalion and a machine-gun company. The Italians advanced along the coast with two divisions leading, behind a screen of motorcyclists, tanks, motorised infantry and artillery. The Italian formation made an easy target for artillery and aircraft but the 1st Libyan Division "Sibelle" soon occupied Sollum barracks and began to move down the escarpment to the port. On the inland plateau, an Italian advance towards Halfaya Pass was opposed by a covering force of a 3rd Coldstream company, a Northumberland Fusilier platoon and some artillery, which began to withdraw in the afternoon, as more Italian infantry and tanks arrived.  During the evening, two columns of the 2nd Libyan Division "Pescatori", the 63rd Infantry Division and the Maletti group from Musaid and the 62nd Infantry Division from Sidi Omar, converged on the pass. Next day, the Italian units on the escarpment began to descend through the pass, towards the Italian force advancing along the road from Sollum. An 11th Hussar squadron, the 2nd Rifle Brigade and cruiser tanks of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment (1st RTR) harassed the Italian force on the escarpment. Just after noon, the British troops on the coast retreated to Buq Buq and met reinforcements from the 11th Hussars and a motorised company of (French Marines), which was enough to maintain contact with the Italians. The British withdrew to Alam Hamid on 15 September and Alam el Dab on 16 September, trying to inflict maximum losses without being pinned down and destroying the coast road as they went, damage which was made worse by the amount of Italian traffic.

16 September.

The uncommitted part of the 1st, followed the 1st Libyan Division and the 2nd Libyan Division towards Bir Thidan el Khadim. At Alam el Dab near Sidi Barrani, about fifty Italian tanks, motorised infantry and artillery tried an outflanking move, which forced the Coldstream Guards to retreat. The armoured group was engaged by British field artillery and made no further move but by dark the 1st Blackshirt Division had occupied Sidi Barrani. Above the escarpment, the British covering forces fell back parallel to those on the coast road and the threat from the desert flank did not materialise. British aircraft flew many reconnaissance and bombing sorties and made sweeps with up to and bombers on forward British airfields and defensive positions. The British anticipated that the Italian advance would stop at Sidi Barrani and Sofafi and began to observe the positions with the 11th Hussars, as the 7th Support Group withdrew to rest and the 7th Armoured Division prepared to confront an advance on Matruh. Italian radio broadcasts about the invasion suggested that the advance would continue from Sidi Barrani but it soon appeared that the Italians were digging-in on an arc to the south and south-west at Maktila, Tummar (east), Tummar (west), Nibeiwa and on top of the escarpment at Sofafi as divisions further back occupied Buq Buq, Sidi Omar and Halfaya Pass.

Aftermath.

Analysis.

The 10th Army advanced about a day to enable the non-motorised units to keep up and at Sidi Barrani, built fortified camps. No bold mechanised strokes or flanking movements had been made by the armoured units, XXIII Corps had guarded the infantry instead and the 10th Army suffered less than The, 1st and the 1st Blackshirt Division 23rd had failed to operate according to Italian armoured warfare theory. Lack of preparation, training and organisation had led to blunders in assembling and directing the and over-caution with the other tank battalions of 1st. The rushed motorisation of the 1st Blackshirt Division, which had not been trained as a motorised division, disorganised the relationship between drivers and infantry.  The advance reached Sidi Barrani with modest losses but failed to do much damage to the British. On 21 September, there were sixty-eight Fiat M.11/39 tanks left of the seventy-two sent to Libya. The 1st Medium Tank Battalion had nine serviceable and twenty-three unserviceable tanks and the 2nd Medium Tank Battalion had twenty-eight operational and eight non-operational tanks. Italian medium tank strength was expected to increase when deliveries of the new Fiat M13/40, which had a powerful Cannone da 47/32 M35 gun, began. The II Medium Tank Battalion with thirty-seven M13/40 tanks arrived in Libya in early October, followed by the V Medium Tank Battalion with forty-six M13/40 tanks on 12 December. In mid-November the Italians had and light tanks in Libya and Egypt.  Wavell wrote,  Repair works began on the coast road, renamed from Bardia and construction of a water pipe begun, which were not expected to be ready before mid-December, after which the advance would be resumed as far as Matruh.  Mussolini wrote on 26 October,  and two days later, on 28 October, the Italians invaded Greece, beginning the Greco-Italian War. Graziani was allowed to continue planning at a leisurely pace and an Italian advance to Matruh was scheduled for mid-December.

Casualties.

In 1971, Kenneth Macksey wrote that the 10th Army suffered and against a British loss of "but forty men...and little equipment". In 1993, Harold Raugh wrote of about casualties against less than fifty British. In 1995, the writers of Germany and the Second World War noted that equipment losses for both sides had not been accurately tabulated. In 1997, Giorgio Bocca wrote that the Western Desert Force suffered casualties of forty men killed, ten tanks, eleven armoured cars and four lorries destroyed. In his 1999 MA thesis, Howard Christie wrote that from 9 to 16 September, the 10th Army suffered killed and Several tanks and lorries broke down and six aircraft were lost, two to accidents.

Subsequent operations.

On 17 September, the Mediterranean Fleet began to harass Italian communications and Benghazi harbour was mined. A destroyer and two merchant ships were sunk by torpedo and a destroyer hit a mine at Benghazi and sank. RAF Blenheims destroyed three aircraft on the ground at Benina. The road on the escarpment near Sollum was bombarded by a navy gunboat and targets near Sidi Barrani by two destroyers, from which fires and explosions were seen. Captured Italians spoke of damage, casualties and a loss of morale. An attempt to bombard Bardia by a cruiser and destroyers was thwarted by Italian torpedo bombers, which hit the stern of the cruiser and put it out of action. Bombardments continued during the lull, which led to camps and depots being moved inland. Small British columns on land were set up to work with armoured car patrols, moving close to the Italian camps, gleaning information and dominating the vicinity.

Operation Compass.

On 8 December the British launched Operation Compass, a five-day raid against the fortified Italian camps set up in a defensive line outside Sidi Barrani. General Berti was on sick leave and Gariboldi had temporarily taken his place. The raid succeeded and the few units of the 10th Army in Egypt that were not destroyed were forced to withdraw. By 11 December, the British began a counter-offensive and the rest of the 10th Army was swiftly defeated. The British prolonged the operation to pursue the remnants of the 10th Army to Sollum, Bardia, Tobruk, Derna, Mechili, Beda Fomm and El Agheila on the Gulf of Sirte. The British lost killed and wounded, about ten per cent of their infantry, in capturing and Libyan prisoners, and over and aircraft. The British were unable to continue beyond El Agheila, due to broken-down and worn out vehicles and the diversion of the best-equipped units to the Greek Campaign.

Order of battle.

Air Marshal Italo Balbo, Supreme Commander Italian Forces in North Africa. Details taken from Christie (1999) unless specified.  10 June 1940<br>  On 10 June 1940 there were 363 Italian aircraft in North Africa of which, 306 were operational, 57 were trainers and 179 were unserviceable. At Sidi Barrani with operations on the Libyan–Egyptian Border Other Commonwealth Forces in Egypt  13 September 1940 Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, Supreme Commander Italian Forces in North Africa.  Western Desert Force Commander-in-Chief, Middle East: General Sir Archibald Wavell Commander Western Desert Force: Lieutenant-General R. N. O'Connor 11 December 1940)

The Italian invasion of Egypt () was an offensive in the Second World War, against British, Commonwealth and Free French forces in Egypt. The invasion by the Italian 10th Army () ended border skirmishing on the frontier and began the Western Desert Campaign (1940–1943) proper. The Italian strategy was to advance from Libya along the Egyptian coast to seize the Suez Canal. After numerous delays, the scope of the offensive was reduced to an advance as far as Sidi Barrani and the engagement of any British forces in the area.

意大利入侵埃及(英语:Italian Invasion of Egypt)是指第二次世界大战期间西部沙漠战场上意大利对英联邦和自由法国发动的一次攻势行动。最初,进攻的目标是夺取苏伊士运河。为达成目标,来自利比亚的意大利军队将必须前进穿过埃及北部以到达运河。在多次延迟之后,攻势的目标被大大降低。最后,目标是进入埃及并攻击那些阻止进军的部队。


Usage.

As a food additive, sodium lactate has the E number E325 and is naturally a liquid product, but also is available in powder form. It acts as a preservative, acidity regulator, and bulking agent.  Sodium lactate is sometimes used in shampoo products and other similar items such as liquid soaps, as it is an effective humectant and moisturizer.  Sodium lactate is used to treat arrhythmias caused by overdosing of class I antiarrythmics, as well as pressor sympathomimetics which can cause hypertension.  It also can be given intravenously as a source of bicarbonate for preventing or controlling mild to moderate metabolic acidosis in patients with restricted oral intake (for sodium bicarbonate) whose oxidative processes are not seriously impaired. However, the use in lactic acidosis is contraindicated. It can cause panic attacks in patients with existing panic disorder.  It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system.

Regarding milk.

Despite the similarity in name, sodium lactate is not chemically similar to lactose (milk sugar), so need not be restricted by those with lactose intolerance. In general, lactates such as sodium, calcium, and potassium lactate are salts derived from the neutralization of lactic acid and most commercially used lactic acids are fermented from dairy-free products such as cornstarch, potatoes, or molasses. Sugar or tapioca additionally may be used. In some rare instances, some lactic acid is fermented from dairy products such as whey and lactose. Whey is made of up 6.5% solids of which 4.8% is solid lactose. Waste whey is infrequently used to produce lactic acid when the whey itself is produced as waste during the manufacture of certain dairy products. Such dairy-type lactic acid generally goes back into dairy products, such as ice cream and cream cheese, rather than into nondairy products. Moreover, although the lactic-acid starter culture to ferment corn or beets may contain milk, sodium lactate does not contain milk protein and need not be restricted by someone avoiding milk or those with a milk allergy.

Sodium lactate is the sodium salt of lactic acid, and has a mild saline taste. It is produced by fermentation of a sugar source, such as corn or beets, and then, by neutralizing the resulting lactic acid to create a compound having the formula NaCHO.

乳酸钠(英语:Sodium lactate)是乳酸的钠盐,常温下为白色粉末,具有较淡的咸味。它是通过含糖类的植物(如玉米和甜菜)发酵之后,将产生的乳酸中和而制得的。


2012年利比亚国民议会选举

Electoral system.

A draft election law was published on 1 January 2012 on the website of the High National Election Commission (HNEC), after which public comments were accepted. The draft law proposed electing 200 representatives, of which at least 10% should be women, unless fewer than 10% of candidates were women. Members of the NTC and "Jamahiriya" government members, including relatives of Muammar Gaddafi, were barred from running.  The second draft abolished the women's quota and allowed local NTC council members to run in the election; it also changed the electoral system from countrywide to constituency-based. Following further protests against restrictions for dual nationals and other issues, the release of the electoral law was again postponed to 28 January 2012. The NTC also sought the input of the Libyan Women's Platform for Peace, who had proposed an alternative electoral law and criticized the official draft on four key points relating to dual nationals, lack of a women's quota, inadequate countermeasures against corruption and the risk of incentivizing tribal party formation.  A new electoral law was finally drafted on 28–29 January 2012. The election system will be a form of parallel voting, with 64 constituency seats (with independent candidates only) and 136 list seats for party lists. Lists will have to alternate between male and female candidates, in effect ensuring a women's quota. The age required to stand for election was lowered to 21 years, and citizens with dual nationality will be allowed to vote and run in the election. Further changes were later made, changing the ratio to 120 constituency seats and 80 list seats, reportedly in an attempt to reduce the Muslim Brotherhood's influence in the new parliament. The 120 constituency seats would be elected from 69 constituencies, whilst the 80 list seats would be elected in 20 constituencies.

Voter registration.

Registration of voters, parties participating in elections and independent candidates started at 1 May, and was due to finish on 14 May. However, following a call for a boycott of the process by the Council of Cyrenaica, which is seeking autonomy for parts of eastern Libya around the city of Benghazi, the deadline was extended until 21 May. In total 2,865,937 voters, or 80% of the estimated 3 million to 3.5 million electorate, registered for the elections. The registration process was supervised by the United Nations Support Mission in Libya.<  Minority groups, such as the Tawerghans, who had been accused of supporting former leader Muammar Gaddafi, said that the election was futile as they are marginalised. They also added that voter registration was difficult. Yet about 90 percent of Tawerghans living in Janzour Naval Academy refugee camp registered to vote.

Campaign.

A total of 374 party lists registered to contest the 80 party list seats, together with 2,639 candidates for the 120 constituency seats. The four parties that were expected to dominate the election are the National Front Party, the Justice and Construction Party, the National or Homeland Party and the National Forces Alliance. The National Front Party is linked to the National Front for the Salvation of Libya (NFSL), a former anti-Gaddafi resistance group formed in the 1980s. It is led by Mohamed el-Magariaf, an intellectual based in Eastern Libya. The Justice and Construction Party is the political arm of the Muslim Brotherhood in Libya. The Homeland Party is an Islamist party as well, led by the Islamic cleric Ali al-Sallabi and Abdelhakim Belhadj, the former emir of the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG). The National Forces Alliance is a liberal umbrella coalition around ex-interim prime minister Mahmoud Jibril, who himself did not run for a seat in the GNC.  The Libyan Popular National Movement, a political party supporting the policies of Gaddafi, was banned from participating in the elections.

Conduct.

Voting was disrupted in some parts of the country, with 6% of the 6,629 polling stations unable to open normally. However all but eight polling stations managed to open up for voters during the day and the remaining eight, including two in the Kufra area, which had seen clashes between Toubous and government forces, opened the following day. In the Benghazi area a polling station was attacked by activists seeking autonomy for the east of the country and an election official was killed by a gun attack on a helicopter carrying voting materials on the day before the election. In eastern Libya former rebels closed five oil terminals at Brega, Ra's Lanuf and Sidra for 48 hours in an attempt to disrupt the elections. In Ajdabiya a pro-federalism protester was shot dead by locals when he tried to steal a ballot box from a polling station. Officials with the HNEC were denied access to Bani Walid by tribal Gaddafi loyalists who control the city, and could not monitor the voting process.  Around 1.7 million of 2.8 million registered voters participated in the elections.

Results.

According to first counts, the liberal National Forces Alliance did well in the northern areas except Misrata, whereas the race was more even in the south. The other key contenders were the Islamic Justice and Construction Party, which came in second, and Al-Watan, which in the end won no seats at all.  On 17 July, the High National Election Commission announced provisional results. In the 80 proportional seats, Mahmoud Jibril's National Forces Alliance (NFA) received 48.1%, winning 39 seats. This was followed by the Justice and Construction Party (JCP), which received 10.3% and 17 seats and third was the National Front Party with 4.1% and three seats. The Union for the Homeland and the National Centrist Party also took two seats, as did the Wadi Al-Hayah Party for Democracy and Development. Fifteen other parties won one party list seat each.  The affiliation of the 120 independents is obscure but the election for Prime Minister gave some indication: in the first round Mahmoud Jibril (NFA) got 86 votes, Mustafa Abushagur (independent) got 55 votes and Awad Barasi (JCP) got 41 votes. Then Abushagur defeated Jibril with 96 to 94. It is estimated that 25 independents are associated with the NFA, 17 with Justice and Construction, and 23 are Salafis.  <onlyinclude></onlyinclude

Elections for a General National Congress (GNC) were held in Libya on 7 July 2012, having been postponed from 19 June. Once elected, the General National Congress was to appoint a Prime Minister and Cabinet. The GNC was originally to be charged with appointing a Constituent Assembly to draw up Libya's new constitution, but the National Transitional Council (NTC) announced on 5 July that the Assembly would instead be directly elected at a later date.

2012年利比亚国民议会选举于2012年7月7日举行,这是2011年卡扎菲政权被推翻后,利比亚举行的第一次选举,更是自1969年伊德里斯王朝被推翻43年后,利比亚进行的首次选举。这次选举是利比亚“20个月过渡期”的重要环节之一,是利比亚迈向民主道路的关键一步。国民议会产生后,将组建新政府,以取代利比亚全国委员会。


Early life, education, and early political career.

Born and raised in West Philadelphia, Wolf overcame an early speech impediment which caused him to stutter. Attending Pennsylvania State University, he was a member of Alpha Sigma Phi fraternity, received a degree in political science and subsequently earned a law degree from Georgetown University Law Center in Washington, D.C.. He then joined the United States Army as a reservist and became a lawyer for the military.  Wolf entered politics in 1968, at the age of 29, when he became a legislative assistant to Edward Biester, the Republican congressman from Pennsylvania's 8th congressional district. From 1971 to 1975, Wolf served as an assistant to Secretary of the Interior Rogers Morton.

U.S. House of Representatives.

Elections.

During the 1976 presidential election year, Wolf's first campaign for Virginia's 10th congressional district ended with his loss in the Republican primary to Vince Callahan by 45%–42%. Two years later, amidst the 1978 midterm elections, he won the Republican nomination unopposed, but lost the general election to the incumbent Democrat, Joseph L. Fisher, 53%–47%. Along with Ronald Reagan's decisive victory over incumbent President Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election, Wolf's third run for the House seat proved to be successful, as he won the Republican primary with 75% of the vote and then defeated Fisher in a re-election, 51%–49%. In the 1982 midterms, Wolf won re-election with 53% of the vote. He would never face another contest anywhere near that close.  Wolf did not face a Democratic opponent in 1994 and 2000. After 1982, his closest races in the Democratic wave elections of 2006 and 2008. On both occasions he defeated professor Judy Feder, by 57%–41% and 59%–39%, respectively. Those were the only occasions after 1982 that he received below 60 percent of the vote.  In 2012, as Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney carried the district by 1%, Wolf was re-elected by 20%. In September 2013, it was announced that Wolf was to be challenged in the 2014 election by Democrat Richard Bolger, a Fairfax attorney and small business owner.  Wolf's district was significantly redrawn several times during his tenure. It was initially a purely Northern Virginia district covering Fairfax, Arlington, and Loudoun counties. The 1990 redistricting by a Democratic Virginia General Assembly drew heavily Democratic Arlington County into the neighboring 8th District. To make up for the loss of population, the 10th was pushed to the west and south to encompass parts of the congressional district held by U.S. Rep. George Allen, which was eliminated to create a black-majority district in accordance with the Voting Rights Act. Allen chose not to challenge Wolf, instead running for Governor of Virginia in 1993. The district kept approximately the same complexion after the 2000 apportionment by a Republican Virginia General Assembly, but lost territory in the outlying areas of the district to allow for population growth in Fairfax and Loudoun. In 2013, the Fairfax portion of the district holds about 40 percent of the population, Loudoun county holds 30 percent, and the remainder of the district at 30 percent.

Tenure.

Wolf has been especially prominent in three areas: transportation, human rights, and gambling. Before he retired, he was the co-chair of the US Congress Tom Lantos Human Rights Commission, formerly the Human Rights Caucus.  The National Rifle Association gives him an A- and the American Civil Liberties Union gives him a 0%. Some other rankings include 0% from Clean Air Flow Energy, 100% from National Right to Life, 0% from the Human Rights Campaign, 17% from the National Educational Association, 5% from the League of Conservation Voters, 92% from the United States Border Control and 10% by the Alliance for Retired Americans.

Human rights.

Wolf has traveled extensively to places around the world where people are suffering, including five times to the Sudan since 1989. He has advocated for relief of the Darfur genocide. He has also convened conferences in his district to address human rights issues around the world.  After the trial of the leadership of the Bahá'í community of Iran was announced on February 11, 2009 Wolf voiced his deep concern over the "systematic persecution" of the Bahá'ís. On February 13 Wolf offered a resolution on the subject of the trial of the Iranian Bahá'í leadership co-sponsored by seven others in H. RES. 175 – "Condemning the Government of Iran for its state-sponsored persecution of its Baha'i minority and its continued violation of the International Covenants on Human Rights" which was referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs. The situation has gathered international attention including defense of Nobel Laureate attorney Shirin Ebadi in June after she received threats in April warning her against making speeches abroad, and defending Iran's minority Baha'i community – see Arrest of Bahá'í leaders.  On September 30, 2010, Wolf spoke against human trafficking during a Black Women United for Action conference at Mount Vernon, George Washington's historic home.  On February 28, 2014, along with the Democrat Jackie Speier, Wolf became the co-chair of the "Ahmadiyya Muslim Caucus," a group created in response to the ongoing persecution of Ahmadis. On May 9, 2014, Wolf introduced the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom Reauthorization Act of 2014 (H.R. 4653; 113th Congress), a bill that would amend the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 to reauthorize the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) as an independent federal government advisory body through FY2019.

China.

Wolf has vocally criticized the human rights record of China. Around the time of the 1995 International Women's Conference in Beijing, Wolf called for the Most Favored Nation status of China to be revoked, alleging that human fetuses were considered a delicacy in China. He was one of the leading congressman trying to stop the grant of permanent MFN status to China in 1999.  When Wolf and Congressman Chris Smith were in Beijing shortly before the 2008 Summer Olympics, the Chinese security service prevented them from participating in a dinner meeting with local human rights lawyers.  In the 2011 United States federal budget, Wolf inserted a clause prohibiting NASA and the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy from any joint scientific activity with China for the remainder of the 2011 fiscal year. Wolf remarked, "We don't want to give them the opportunity to take advantage of our technology, and we have nothing to gain from dealing with them. And frankly, it boils down to a moral issue.... Would you have a bilateral program with Stalin?" This prohibition resulted in Chinese journalists being denied access to the launching of Space Shuttle Endeavour on the mission STS-134, that was carrying the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer which was built in part by Chinese scientists.  In June 2014, Wolf got House support for an amendment that would rename the street holding the Chinese embassy; the amendment would change International Place to Liu Xiaobo Plaza, in honor of Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo.

Iraq War.

During the Bush administration, Wolf voted consistently with the President's positions. For example, Wolf voted in favor of military action in Iraq in 2002. He also voted to make the Patriot Act permanent, opposed requiring Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act warrants for wiretaps within the United States, and supported the president in restricting congressional oversight for CIA interrogations.  However, in March 2006, Congress, at Wolf's suggestion by inserting an earmark into a supplemental appropriation bill, and in a breach with the Bush administration, announced the creation of the Iraq Study Group to reassess the U.S. strategy in Iraq.

Social issues.

Wolf opposes abortion and subsidized birth control for federal employees. As congressman, Wolf also voted to deny funding to Planned Parenthood. He also opposes the funding for international family planning in developing countries. Wolf also previously asserted that marriage should only be between one man and one woman. As such, he signed a letter supporting the "one man one woman" issue in the. Wolf sponsored the bill that became the "District of Columbia Civil Contempt Imprisonment Limitation Act",, in 1989 and supported the bill that became the Elizabeth Morgan Act in 1996.

Gambling.

A 2005 "Washington Post" article cited "opposition to the spread of gambling" as one of Wolf's "central causes". Wolf sought to revise the regulation process for gambling on Native American reservations.

Caucus memberships.

In the 109th Congress, Wolf was chairman of Subcommittee on Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs, and its ranking minority member in the 110th. He was co-chairman of the Congressional Human Rights Caucus with Jim McGovern, who replaced the late Tom Lantos. Wolf is a member of the Moderate Republican Main Street Partnership.

Frank Rudolph Wolf (born January 30, 1939) is an American politician who represented in the United States House of Representatives, as a member of the Republican Party, from January 1981 to his retirement in January 2015. He announced in December 2013 that he would not run for re-election in 2014, and retired at the conclusion of his 17th term in office. At the time of his retirement, he was the dean of the state's congressional delegation, having served for 34 consecutive years.

弗兰克·鲁道夫·沃尔夫(英语:Frank Rudolph Wolf,1939年-1月30日)是美国共和党党员,美国众议院议员、美国国会兰托斯人权委员会的联合主席。


Definition.

Under the Unicode definition, code points in the Private Use Areas are assigned characters—they are not noncharacters, reserved, or unassigned. Their category is "codice_7", and no character names are specified. No representative glyphs are provided, and character semantics are left to private agreement. Private-use characters are assigned Unicode code points whose interpretation is not specified by this standard and whose use may be determined by private agreement among cooperating users. These characters are designated for private use and do not have defined, interpretable semantics except by private agreement. No charts are provided for private-use characters, as any such characters are, by their very nature, defined only outside the context of this standard.

Assignment.

In the Basic Multilingual Plane (plane 0), the block titled Private Use Area has 6400 code points. Planes 15 and 16 are almost entirely assigned to two further Private Use Areas, Supplementary Private Use Area-A and Supplementary Private Use Area-B respectively.  In order to encode characters from planes 15 and 16 in UTF-16, a further block of the BMP is assigned to High Private Use Surrogates (U+DB80..U+DBFF, 128 code points).

Usage.

Standardization initiative uses.

Many people and institutions have created character collections for the PUA. Some of these private use agreements are published, so other PUA implementers can aim for unused or less used code points to prevent overlaps. Several characters and scripts previously encoded in private use agreements have actually been fully encoded in Unicode, necessitating mappings from the PUA to other Unicode code points.  One of the more well-known and broadly implemented PUA agreements is maintained by the ConScript Unicode Registry (CSUR). The CSUR, which is not officially endorsed or associated with the Unicode Consortium, provides a mapping for constructed scripts, such as Klingon pIqaD and Ferengi script (Star Trek), Tengwar and Cirth (J.R.R. Tolkien's cursive and runic scripts), Alexander Melville Bell's Visible Speech, and Dr. Seuss' alphabet from "On Beyond Zebra". The CSUR previously encoded the undeciphered Phaistos characters, as well as the Shavian and Deseret alphabets, which have all been accepted for official encoding in Unicode.  Another common PUA agreement is maintained by the Medieval Unicode Font Initiative (MUFI). This project is attempting to support all of the scribal abbreviations, ligatures, precomposed characters, symbols, and alternate letterforms found in medieval texts written in the Latin alphabet. The express purpose of MUFI is to experimentally determine which characters are necessary to represent these texts, and to have those characters officially encoded in Unicode. As of Unicode version 5.1, 152 MUFI characters have been incorporated into the official Unicode encoding.  Some agreed-upon PUA character collections exist in part or whole because Unicode Consortium is in no hurry to encode them. Some, such as unrepresented languages, are likely to end up encoded in the future. Some unusual cases such as fictional languages are outside the usual scope of Unicode but not explicitly ruled out by the principles of Unicode, and may show up eventually (such as the Star Trek and Tolkien writing systems). In other cases, the proposed encoding violates one or more Unicode principles and hence is unlikely to ever be officially recognized by Unicode—mostly where users want to directly encode alternate forms, ligatures, or base-character-plus-diacritic combinations (such as the TUNE scheme).

Vendor use.

Informally, the range U+F000 through U+F8FF is known as Corporate Use Area.

Unicode PUA blocks.

There are three PUA blocks in Unicode.

Private-use characters in other character sets.

The concept of reserving specific code points for Private Use is based on similar earlier usage in other character sets. In particular, many otherwise obsolete characters in East Asian scripts continue to be used in specific names or other situations, and so some character sets for those scripts made allowance for private-use characters (such as the user-defined planes of CNS 11643, or "gaiji" in certain Japanese encodings). The Unicode standard references these uses under the name "End User Character Definition" (EUCD).  Additionally, the C1 control block contains two codes intended for private use "control functions" by ECMA-48: 0x91 (PU1) and 0x92 (PU2). Unicode includes these at and but defines them as control characters (category codice_27), not private-use characters (category codice_28).  Encodings which do not have private use areas but have more or less unused areas, such as ISO/IEC 8859 and Shift JIS, have seen uncontrolled variants of these encodings evolve. For Unicode, software companies can use the Private Use Areas for their desired additions.

In Unicode, a Private Use Area (PUA) is a range of code points that, by definition, will not be assigned characters by the Unicode Consortium. Three private use areas are defined: one in the Basic Multilingual Plane (codice_1–codice_2), and one each in, and nearly covering, planes 15 and 16 (codice_3–codice_4, codice_5–codice_6). The code points in these areas cannot be considered as standardized characters in Unicode itself. They are intentionally left undefined so that third parties may define their own characters without conflicting with Unicode Consortium assignments. Under the Unicode Stability Policy, the Private Use Areas will remain allocated for that purpose in all future Unicode versions.

在Unicode中,私人使用区(简称:私用区;英语:Private Use Areas,简称:PUA)指其解释未在Unicode标准中指定,而是由合作用户之间的私人协议决定其用途的一系列码位。 目前定义了三个私人使用区:一个在基本多语言平面(U+E000-U+F8FF)中,另外两个几乎包含了整个第15和第16平面(分别为U+F0000-U+FFFFD,U+100000-U+10FFFD)。


History.

The coffee plant was brought to the Kona district in 1828 by Samuel Reverend Ruggles from Brazilian cuttings. English merchant Henry Nicholas Greenwell moved to the area and established Kona coffee as a recognized brand later in the 19th century. The former Greenwell Store and Kona Coffee Living History Farm have since become museums.  In other parts of the Hawaiian islands, it was grown on large plantations, but the 1899 world coffee market crash caused plantation owners to lease land to their workers. Most were from Japan, brought to work on sugarcane plantations. They worked their leased parcels of between 5 and as family concerns, producing large, quality crops.  The tradition of family farms continued throughout Kona. The Japanese-origin families have been joined by Filipinos, mainland Americans, and Europeans. There are approximately 800 Kona coffee farms, with an average size of less than. In 1997 the total Kona coffee area was and green coffee production just over two million pounds.

Growing and processing.

Kona coffee blooms in February and March. Small white flowers known as "Kona snow" cover the tree. Green berries appear in April. By late August, red fruit, called "cherry" because of resemblance to a cherry, start to ripen for picking. Each tree, hand-picked several times between August and January, provides around 15 pounds of cherry, which result in about two pounds of roasted coffee.  Within 24 hours of picking, the cherry is run through a pulper. The beans are separated from the pulp and then placed overnight in a fermentation tank. The fermentation time is about 12 hours at low elevation or 24 at higher elevation. The beans are rinsed and spread to dry on a "hoshidana" or drying rack. Traditional hoshidanas have a rolling roof to cover the beans in rain. It takes seven to 14 days to dry beans to an optimal moisture level of between 10 and 13% (by Hawaii Department of Agriculture regulations: 9.0-12.0%). Too much moisture content in coffee allows the growth of ochratoxin A, a harmful mycotoxin, hazardous to human health. From here, the beans are stored as "pergamino" or parchment. The parchment is milled off the green bean prior to roasting or wholesale. Kona coffee beans are classified by law according to seed. Type I beans consist of two beans per cherry, flat on one side, oval on the other. Type II beans consist of one round bean per cherry, otherwise known as peaberries. Further grading of these two types of beans depends on size, moisture content, and purity of bean type. The grades of type I Kona coffee are 'Kona Extra Fancy', 'Kona Fancy', 'Kona Number 1', 'Kona Select', and 'Kona Prime'. The grades of type II Kona coffee are 'Peaberry Number 1' and 'Peaberry Prime'. Also, a lower grade of coffee, called 'Number 3' (or 'Triple X') can not legally be labeled as "Kona" but as 'Hawaiian' coffee. Any bean grade below Number 3 is considered 'Offgrade' coffee and can only be labeled as generic coffee. Not an official classification grade, but commonly used by Kona coffee farmers, is the 'Estate' grade where the various grades are not being separated from each other. Only the 'Number 3' and 'Offgrade' beans are being sorted out.  Infestations of the root-knot nematode damaged many trees in the Kona districts in the 1990s. Symptoms are single or clusters of trees with stunted growth, especially when transplanted. In 2001 rootstock from the "Coffea liberica" species was found to be resistant to the nematodes. It could be grafted with "Coffea arabica" 'Guatemala' variety to produce a plant that naturally resists the pest, still producing a quality coffee product. The combination was named after Edward T. Fukunaga (1910–1984), who was superintendent of the University of Hawaii's Kona Research Station in Kainaliu in the 1950s through the 1970s.

Kona blends.

Because of the rarity and price of Kona coffee, some retailers sell "Kona Blends". These are not a combination of different Kona coffees, but a blend of Kona and Colombian, Brazilian, or other foreign coffees. Usually they contain only the minimum required 10% Kona coffee and 90% cheaper imported beans.  Current Hawaiian law requires blends to state only the percentage of Kona coffee on the label but not any other coffee origins. There is no matching Federal law. Some retailers use terms such as 'Kona Roast' or 'Kona Style'. To be considered authentic Kona coffee, the state of Hawaii's labeling laws require the prominent display of the words "100% Kona Coffee".  In 1993 the Kona Coffee Council, a regional coffee growers association, tried unsuccessfully to protect the name "Kona Coffee" by trademarking their logo with the United States Patent and Trademark Office. They were opposed by Kona Kai Farms, Inc, Captain Cook Coffee Co., Hawaiian Isles Enterprises, and Hawaii Coffee Company. In 2000 the Department of Agriculture of the State of Hawaii registered a "100% Kona Coffee" certification mark with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Administration in regard to this certification mark was handed over by the State Department of Agriculture to the Hawaii Coffee Company, part of Topa Equities Ltd, based in Los Angeles.  Kona coffee farmers launched a class action lawsuit against some of the largest retailers in the USA on Feb. 27, 2019. The Lanham Act permits a civil action for, among other reasons, “false designation of origin." Walmart, Costco, Amazon, Safeway, and Kroger are among the sellers and producers of 19 brands of supposedly Kona coffee that have been named in the complaint.

Recent developments.

In the 1990s, a company called Kona Kai Farms, in Berkeley, California, was sued on behalf of Kona coffee growers. In October 1996, federal officials in San Francisco indicted Kona Kai Farms executive Michael Norton on wire fraud and money laundering charges. He was found to have put Central American coffee into bags with labels indicating it was Kona coffee since 1993. In 2000 Michael Norton pleaded guilty to one count of wire fraud and one count of tax evasion. In 2007 his two sons were arrested in a multimillion-dollar medical marijuana scam.  Some Kona farms have become successful tourist attractions. Although some roadside stands are allowed with special permits, large gift shops at some areas that are zoned agricultural have met local resistance. Former Mayor of Hawaii County Stephen Yamashiro, who served from 1992 to 2000, is credited with introducing the "100% Kona Coffee" logo and emblem now used by the industry.

Coffee berry borer infestation.

Coffee berry borer ("Hypothenemus hampei"), the most harmful beetle to the "arabica" coffee crop, was discovered in Kona coast plantations in September 2010 by a graduate student of the University of Hawaii. How the tiny beetle got to Kona is unknown, but the size of the infestation indicates it has been going for a few years. Some growers suspected severe drought conditions had reduced the fungus "Beauveria bassiana", which might have kept the beetle population under control for years.  By late November 2010, the Hawaii Department of Agriculture declared a quarantine on all green (unroasted) beans leaving the island. Fumigation with a chemical such as methyl bromide or a six-step procedure was required. The price of Kona coffee was expected to rise, up to a possible $50 per pound by December 2010, if the infestation lingers or spreads, because the insect has the potential to reduce crop yields up to 90%. In early 2011 the Hawaii State Dept. of Agriculture allowed the import and application of a concentrated naturally occurring fungus ("beauveria bassiana") to successfully combat the infestation.

Kona coffee is the market name for coffee ("Coffea arabica") cultivated on the slopes of Hualalai and Mauna Loa in the North and South Kona Districts of the Big Island of Hawaii. It is one of the most expensive coffees in the world. Only coffee from the Kona Districts can be described as "Kona". The weather of sunny mornings, cloud or rain in the afternoon, little wind, and mild nights combined with porous, mineral-rich volcanic soil create favorable coffee growing conditions. The loanword for coffee in the Hawaiian language is "kope," pronounced.

科纳咖啡(英语:Kona coffee)是一种在夏威夷主岛种植的阿拉比卡咖啡("Coffea arabica"),由于主产区位于主岛南、北科纳区的Hualalai与冒纳罗亚火山的山坡,因以为名。这个品种是现时世上其中一种最昂贵的咖啡,而只有在科纳区出产的咖啡,才可以冠上「科纳咖啡」的名称。


Apostasy Law in Iran.

After the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Iranian Christians were recognized as a "protected religious minority" and according to the Constitution of Iran possess freedom of religion and even have a Member of Parliament (MP) representing them. However, evangelism and missionary work and converting Muslims to Christianity is prohibited by law, and Christians in practice may also face some discrimination as well in their lives.  In the Islamic Republic of Iran, there is officially no crime known as apostasy in the penal code (although there was a law about it prior to 1994). The last known execution for this crime was in 1990. However, despite there being no official civil law of apostasy, judges may still convict a defendant of that crime if they rule based on religious fatwas. As a result, a few people have been convicted of it, but there have been no known executions. In 2011 a man was executed in Ahvaz, Iran for blasphemy and "spreading corruption on the earth" (Mofsed-Fel-Arz) when he claimed that he was God, and attracting a "following" around himself. According to the fatwas, for a man, if convicted, the punishment is death by hanging-for a woman, it is life imprisonment. The apostate should be given three chances to repent and convert back to Islam.

Biography.

Nadarkhani is from Rasht, Gilan Province, in Iran. He originally had no known religion, however Nadarkhani said that he converted to Christianity as a child having never practised Islam. However, court documents claim that he converted at age 19. Prior to his arrest, he was the pastor of a network of Christian house churches. He is a member of the Protestant evangelical Church of Iran. He is married to Fatemeh Pasandideh, and they have two sons, ages 9 and 7.

Initial arrest.

Nadarkhani was first imprisoned in December 2006, on the charges of apostasy from Islam and evangelism to Muslims. He was released two weeks later, without being charged.  In 2009, Nadarkhani discovered a recent change in Iranian educational policy that required all students, including his children, to take a course in Quran study in school. After he heard about this change, he went to the school and protested, based on the fact that the Iranian constitution guarantees the freedom to practice religion. His protest was reported to the police, who arrested him and brought him before a court on 12 October 2009, on charges of protesting.  On 18 June 2010 Nadarkhani's wife was arrested and charged with apostasy. She was sentenced to life imprisonment, and placed in prison in Lakan, Iran, which is just south of their hometown of Rasht. She was released in October 2010., after serving four months in prison.

Death sentence.

The charges against Nadarkhani were later changed to apostasy and evangelism, the same charges he was initially arrested under in 2006. On 21–22 September 2010, Nadarkhani appeared before the 11th Chamber of The Assize Court of the province of Gilan and received a death sentence for the charge of apostasy. Nadarkhani's lawyer, Nasser Sarbaz, claims there were numerous procedural errors during Nadarkhani's trial.  After conviction, Nadarkhani was transferred to a prison for political prisoners, and denied all access to his family and attorney. The delivery of Nadarkhani's written verdict was delayed by Iran's security officials. Iranian officials seemed reluctant to execute Nadarkhani, and kept delaying his sentence. They also gave him several opportunities to convert back to Islam.  On 13 November 2010, the verdict for the trial of 21–22 September was finally delivered in writing, indicating that Nadarkhani would be executed by hanging. The sentence was appealed and the 3rd Chamber of the Supreme Court in Qom upheld the conviction and sentence of death. In July 2011 Mr. Nadarkhani's lawyer, Mr. Mohammad Ali Dadkhah, a prominent Iranian human rights defender, received the written verdict of the Supreme Court of Iran, dated 12 June 2011, which upholds the death sentence. The Supreme Court decision asked the court in Rasht, which issued the original death sentence, to re-examine some procedural flaws in the case, but ultimately gave the local judges the power to decide whether to release, execute or retry Mr. Nadarkhani in October. The recent written verdict included a provision for annulment should Mr. Nadarkhani recant his faith. he was being kept in a security prison in Lakan.  Nadarkhani was acquitted of apostasy at retrial on 8 September 2012. During proceedings, the court found him guilty of evangelizing Muslims and sentenced him to three years in prison, time he has already served. He was released and returned to his family.

International response.

A number of Western organizations and governments have issued statements in support of the release of Nadarkhani. On 29 October 2010, the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom asked President Barack Obama to press Iran for Nadarkhani's release. If the execution is carried out, Nadarkhani would be the first Christian executed for religious reasons in Iran in over 20 years.  On 28 September 2011 the Commission on International Religious Freedom stated:  Despite the finding that Mr. Nadarkhani did not convert to Christianity as an adult, the court continues to demand that he recant his faith or otherwise be executed. The most recent court proceedings are not only a sham, but are contrary to Iranian law and international human rights standards, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, to which Iran is a party.  President Barack Obama's 30 September 2011 statement read:  The United States condemns the conviction of Pastor Youcef Nadarkhani. Pastor Nadarkhani has done nothing more than maintain his devout faith, which is a universal right for all people. That the Iranian authorities would try to force him to renounce that faith violates the religious values they claim to defend, crosses all bounds of decency, and breaches Iran's own international obligations.  On 28 September 2011, British Foreign Secretary William Hague issued a statement condemning the imminent execution, stating  I deplore reports that Pastor Youcef Nadarkhani, an Iranian Church leader, could be executed imminently after refusing an order by the Supreme Court of Iran to recant his faith. This demonstrates the Iranian regime's continued unwillingness to abide by its constitutional and international obligations to respect religious freedom. I pay tribute to the courage shown by Pastor Nadarkhani who has no case to answer and call on the Iranian authorities to overturn his sentence.  Amnesty International designated Nadarkhani a prisoner of conscience and urged his immediate release, stating, "It is shocking that the Iranian authorities would even consider killing a man simply for exercising his right to choose a religion other than Islam."

Statements of the Iranian government.

On 1 October 2011 the Iran state media reported that Nadarkhani is facing the death sentence for rape and extortion, not for apostasy and refusing to renounce his religion, as his lawyer, human rights groups and Western news media have reported. They also reported that they had not signed his execution order. Nadarkhani's lawyer said that he believed that Nadarkhani would not be executed.  According to the government Fars News Agency in a 30 September story, Gholamali Rezvani, the Gilan Provincial Political/Security Deputy Governor, stated:  Youcef Nadarkhani has security crimes and he had set up a house of corruption.... Nobody is executed in our country for choosing a religion, but he has committed security crimes.  He also accused Zionist media for spreading propaganda. In reply, Nadarkhani's lawyer, Mohammad Ali Dadkhah told the International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran:  If he is under trial in another court on other charges, I am not aware. But we only defended him against the death sentence in the case of his charge of apostasy. The charge the court staff announced that I defended during several different court sessions was apostasy and no other charge.  In a ruling from the Iranian Supreme Court, translated into English by the Confederation of Iranian Students, Nadarkhani was sentenced to execution by hanging for, "turning his back on Islam" and "converting Muslims to Christianity." The ruling also alleges that he also participated in Christian worship by holding home church services and baptising himself and others, effectively breaking Islamic Law. There is no mention in the ruling of rape or extortion allegations.

Release.

In early September 2012, Nadarkhani was acquitted of apostasy, sparing him the death penalty. However, he was found guilty of evangelism, but released for having already served his time.

Re-arrests.

Youcef Nadarkhani was taken back into custody on Christmas Day 2012. He was released on 7 January 2013.  Iranian state security forces raided Youcef Nadarkhani's home on July 22, 2018. He was beaten, his son was tasered, and Nadarkhani was taken to prison.

Youcef Nadarkhani (born 1977) is an Iranian Christian pastor who was sentenced to death (but later acquitted) in Tehran as being a Christian having been born into Islam. Initial reports, including a 2010 brief from the Iranian Supreme court, stated that the sentence on Nadarkhani (first name also spelled Yousef, Youssef, or Yousof; last name also spelled Nadar-Khani or Nadar Khani) was based on the crime of apostasy, renouncing his Islamic faith. Government officials later claimed that the sentence was instead based on alleged violent crimes, specifically rape and extortion; however, no formal charges or evidence of violent crimes have been presented in court. According to Amnesty International and Nadarkhani's legal team, the Iranian government had offered leniency if he were to recant his Christianity. His lawyer Mohammad Ali Dadkhah stated that an appeals court upheld his sentence after he refused to renounce his Christian faith and convert to Islam In early September 2012, Nadarkhani was acquitted of apostasy, but found guilty of evangelizing Muslims, though he was immediately released as having served prison time. However, he was taken back into custody on Christmas Day 2012 and then released shortly afterwards on 7 January 2013.<ref name="http://au.christiantoday.com">

尤素福·纳达克哈尼(1977年)是一名伊朗基督教牧师,曾经因为从伊斯兰教改信基督教被伊朗法院判处死刑,2012年9月改判叛教罪不成立而较轻的向穆斯林传教罪成立,被判入狱三年。


Club career.

Early career.

Cameron was born in Attleboro, Massachusetts and played youth soccer for Bayside United. He attended Attleboro High School and Providence Country Day School before choosing West Virginia University for college. After making 28 starts in two seasons at West Virginia Mountaineers, Cameron transferred to the University of Rhode Island for his junior and senior years. Cameron was an immediate starter and helped the Rhode Island Rams beat the Rutgers Scarlet Knights in the 2006 NCAA tournament, scoring in a shootout. As a senior in 2007, Cameron was named midfielder of the Year in the Atlantic 10 Conference and was a first-team all-Mid Atlantic Region selection. During his college years, Cameron also played for Rhode Island Stingrays in the USL Premier Development League where he played 33 times in two seasons scoring eight goals.

Houston Dynamo.

Cameron was drafted by the Houston Dynamo in the third round (42nd overall) in the 2008 MLS SuperDraft. He made his professional debut on March 29, 2008, coming on as a substitute in a 3–0 defeat against the New England Revolution. In his first home appearance, on April 6, he scored a last-minute goal to help the Dynamo to a 3–3 draw with FC Dallas. He became a regular substitute and sometimes starter for the Dynamo by mid-season.  On October 31, 2008 it was announced that Cameron was a finalist for MLS Rookie of the Year along with Sean Franklin and Kheli Dube. Cameron played a key role for Houston in the CONCACAF Champions League and North American SuperLiga in 2008 and ended his debut season with 32 appearances, as the Dynamo reached the 2008 MLS Cup Playoffs but lost to New York Red Bulls in the semi-final. During the season Cameron also played for the reserves, helping them to win the MLS Reserve League.  Cameron became a regular for Houston in the 2009 season playing mostly at center-back. He missed just one match in the regular season as Houston again made the play-offs. They edged past Seattle Sounders 1–0 before losing 2–0 to Los Angeles Galaxy in the Western Conference final. Cameron was selected for the 2009 MLS All-Star Game in Sandy, Utah, and he played all 90 minutes in the 1–1 draw with English Premier League side Everton. Cameron was also named in the MLS Best XI for the 2009 season.  During the 2010 season, Cameron suffered a knee injury that kept him out for half of the season. He returned in August after undergoing knee surgery, and scored a 70th-minute header from a free kick by Brad Davis against D.C. United in the Dynamo's 3–1 win on September 25. His was restricted to 17 appearances in the 2010 season. Houston had a poor campaign and finished in 7th position.  In the 2011 season, Cameron returned to the squad as Houston experienced a much better campaign, qualifying for the play-offs after finishing in 2nd position. After beating Philadelphia Union over two legs, they defeated Sporting Kansas City 2–0 to reach the final of the MLS Cup against the Los Angeles Galaxy. Cameron played the full 90 minutes as Houston lost 1–0. Cameron's performances during the season saw him named in the 2011 MLS All-Star Game against Manchester United where the MLS All-Stars lost 4–0. Cameron played 15 games in the 2012 season before moving to England in the summer of 2012.

Stoke City.

Cameron agreed to join English Premier League club Stoke City on July 25, 2012 with the deal subject to a successful work permit appeal, which was granted on August 8. He played in his first match for Stoke in a 1–1 draw with German side SpVgg Greuther Fürth in a pre-season friendly. He missed the opening match of the season away at Reading due to visa issues. He made his Premier League debut in a 0–0 draw against Arsenal on August 26, 2012. He has impressed since his arrival in England and has begun to play at right back, a position which Cameron is enjoying learning about. He also described playing in the Premier League as "pretty special". Cameron played 38 times for Stoke in 2012–13 as they finished in 13th position in the Premier League. After the season finished Cameron admitted that towards the end of the season he began to struggle with fatigue after playing competitive soccer for 18 straight months.  At the end of the season Tony Pulis left by mutual agreement and was replaced by Mark Hughes. Cameron stated that he wanted to try and impress Hughes at center-back. Cameron remained at right-back and scored his first goal for Stoke on September 22, 2013 in a 3–1 defeat against Arsenal. Cameron continued to be a key player in his attacking full-back role under Hughes and provided an assist for Peter Crouch in a 2–1 win over Aston Villa on December 21, 2013. Cameron scored a rare goal on March 23, 2014 in a 4–1 win at Aston Villa. Cameron played 41 times for Stoke in 2013–14 as they finished in 9th position in the Premier League.  Cameron's start to the 2014–15 season was disrupted by a hernia injury which required surgery. After recovering from his injury Cameron told manager Mark Hughes that he wants to begin playing in midfield. Despite this Cameron continued to compete with Phil Bardsley for the right back position as the season progressed. He was sent-off for the first time in English soccer after conceding a penalty in a 4–1 FA Cup defeat away at Blackburn Rovers in February 2015. Cameron signed a new three-year contract with Stoke on May 24, 2015. Cameron played 31 times for Stoke in 2014–15 as the Potters finished in 9th position for a second season running and they ended the campaign with a 6–1 victory against Liverpool. Cameron played 34 times in 2015–16 as Stoke again finished in ninth position.  Stoke made a poor start to the 2016–17 season, failing to win a match until October with back-to-back wins over Hull City and Sunderland with Cameron impressing in midfield. However, in that Hull match Cameron suffered a knee ligament injury which ruled him out until February 2017. Cameron made 21 appearances in 2016–17, as Stoke finished in 13th position. He signed a two-year contract extension in May 2017. Cameron again made 21 appearances in 2017–18 as Stoke suffered relegation to the EFL Championship.

Queens Park Rangers.

Cameron joined Queens Park Rangers on loan for the 2018–19 season after not being part of Gary Rowett's plans. Cameron played 19 times for Rangers scoring once in a 1–1 draw against Derby County on 6 October 2018.  Cameron made his move to Queens Park Rangers permanent on 25 July 2019.

International career.

Cameron received his first call up to train with the senior United States national team in January 2009, but he was injured during the first week and was unable to play in the team's friendly against Sweden. He participated again in training with the team in Carson, California in January 2010, leading up to a friendly match against Honduras. Cameron did not play in that match, but he was again called into camp for the February 24, 2010 game against El Salvador in Tampa, Florida. He appeared as a substitute in the 86th minute for Robbie Rogers, recording his first cap for the national side, nearly scoring on a blazing strike that narrowly went over the bar. In December 2011, Cameron was called up to coach Jürgen Klinsmann's camp. On January 21, 2012, he went 90 minutes in a friendly against Venezuela. Cameron scored his goal for the national team on May, 29 in a 4–2 defeat against Belgium.  Cameron was a part of the United States national team during the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He started as central defender during the team's first two group stage games against Ghana and Portugal. He was benched for the third game against Germany. In the Round of 16 defeat against Belgium, Cameron started in central midfield.  Cameron sat out the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup due to a combination of injury and wanting to be with his club for preseason. Cameron started in every game at the Copa América Centenario in central defense alongside Hertha BSC's John Brooks.

Style of play.

A versatile player who is currently featured as center back but can also play as a right back, right winger, defensive midfielder, or attacking midfielder. Cameron has become known for his combination of aerial ability, passing ability, strength, athleticism, man marking and composure on the ball. Former United States international Alexi Lalas believes that Cameron has the ability to succeed in English soccer.

Personal life.

During his time at Houston Dynamo, Cameron took part in a series of community service efforts to raise money for local charitable organizations in 2011 and 2012. The 20 for 20 campaign was started in September 2011 when Cameron, who wore the No. 20 jersey in Houston, announced a goal to raise a total of $20,000 for the Fisher House and Ronald McDonald House of Houston. In March 2012, Cameron and the Dynamo announced the return of the 20 for 20 campaign with the same initial goal of $20,000, with proceeds going to the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. Growing up Cameron supported English side Manchester United and Italian side Juventus. Since living in England Cameron has participated in local community work,  Cameron was one of the few sportspeople who expressed support for President Donald Trump's Executive Order 13769, which put a 90-day immigration freeze on several nations and suspended activity on the United States Refugee Admissions Program.

Geoffrey Scott "Geoff" Cameron (born July 11, 1985) is an American soccer player who plays for Championship side Queens Park Rangers, and the United States national team.

谢夫·甘马伦(英语:Geoff Cameron,1985年-7月11日)美国足球运动员,司职后卫。曾效力于「美职联发展超级联赛」(USL Premier Development League)的罗得岛黄貂鱼(Rhode Island Stingrays)。2008年美国职业足球大联盟超级选秀(MLS SuperDraft)时加盟侯斯顿戴拿模。2012年转会到英格兰足球超级联赛球队史笃城。2010年首次代表美国国家足球队上阵。 2018年借到英冠昆士柏流浪。


Early life.

Sheehan was born in Portlaoise, County Laois, Ireland. He is the youngest of three children born to Maria and Joe Sheehan, who was a garda. Upon being confirmed, Adam was added to his name after Michael.  At school, he played the banjo, the bodhrán, and the spoons, having joked that he was like ""Footloose" with spoons"; he also participated in Fleadh Cheoil.  Sheehan attended St Paul's school in Portlaoise. Unsure of whether acting was a sustainable career choice, he studied film and television at Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology. He missed several months of the course to film "Summer of the Flying Saucer", and then failed his first year examinations, and decided not to attempt the repeats. Afterward, he spent some time performing stand-up comedy throughout Ireland.

Career.

Sheehan became interested in acting in primary school, when he played Oliver in "Oliver with a Twist". At the age of fourteen, he auditioned for "Song for a Raggy Boy", and won the role, spending three months in Cork to film. He later joined the Laois Open Door theatre group, and played the crippled boy in a production of "The Cripple of Inishmaan". At the age of 16, Sheehan appeared in the Australian television show "Foreign Exchange". He followed it with roles in "The Clinic" and "The Tudors", and portrayed Louis XIV of France in "Young Blades". In 2008, he appeared "Rock Rivals" and "Bitter Sweet", a two-part television comedy drama. During this time, he also appeared in films including "Ghostwood". After leaving the Galway-Mayo Institute of Technology, Sheehan starred as one of the lead characters in the "Cherrybomb" in 2009. In March 2009, he appeared in the role of BJ in the Channel 4 trilogy, "Red Riding". Sheehan described the role as "weighty" and a "step up" from his previous work, and credits the show with changing his career.  From 2009 to 2010, he starred as a young offender named Nathan Young in the first two series of "Misfits". In April 2011, it was announced that Sheehan would not be returning to the show for the third season. Regarded as a "cult favourite", Sheehan connected "intensely" with the role, which he later described as "defining", and remarked it was "challenging" to leave it behind. In May 2011 he was nominated for a BAFTA Award in the "Male Supporting Actor" category for his role in "Misfits".  Beginning in 2010, he played Darren, a member of gangland Dublin in "Love/Hate". He accepted the part because he wanted to work with Stuart Carolan and Dave Caffrey, and featured in three seasons. After leaving the series, his character's ubiquitous blue hoodie was donated to the Dunamaise Theater in Portlaoise, and he remarked it was "tough to watch [the] show carry on without [me]". He was nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award for the role in 2011 and 2013.  Sheehan was nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award in the Rising Star category in 2010. The following year, he starred in the film "Killing Bono", and in John Crowley's production of "The Playboy of the Western World" at the Old Vic Theatre. Sheehan appeared in the second season of the BBC crime drama series "Accused", which aired in 2012. He played Simon Lewis in the 2013 film "". and followed it with roles in "Anita B.", "The Road Within", "Moonwalkers", and "The Messenger" in 2014 and 2015. In late 2015, he played Richard III in Trevor Nunn's revival of "The Wars of the Roses", an adaption of William Shakespeare's plays "Richard III" and the three part "Henry VI". In a 2018 interview with "Hot Press", Sheehan described the role as his recent favourite, citing the "magic" and "transcendent experience" of being on stage.  "Song of Sway Lake" premiered at the Los Angeles Film Festival in 2017, and was released theatrically the following year. It was filmed prior to 2014, and reflecting on the role in 2019, Sheehan described himself as "immensely proud". During 2017, he also appeared in "Geostorm" and featured in the second season of "Fortitude", for which he was nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award. In 2018, he appeared in "Genius: Picasso" as Carlos Casagemas and in "The Young Offenders" Christmas special as a caricatured version of himself. He also appeared in several films; he starred alongside David Tennant in "Bad Samaritan", appeared in the neo-noir film "Mute", and starred in "Mortal Engines" in the leading role of Tom Natsworthy.  In 2019, he starred in the Netflix Original series "The Umbrella Academy" as Klaus Hargreeves.

Personal life.

Sheehan resides in London. He has also lived in Los Angeles.  Sheehan is known for challenging gender norms in red carpet clothing. He has spoken openly about experimenting with his sexuality when younger, but identifies as heterosexual.  He began a relationship with actress Sofia Boutella in March 2014. In October 2018, he said they had split.

Awards and honours.

In September 2013, Sheehan was honoured by University College Dublin's Literary and Historical Society. In October 2015, he received the Burke Medal for Contribution to Discourse Through The Arts from Trinity College, Dublin's College Historical Society.

Robert Michael Sheehan (; born 7 January 1988) is an Irish actor. He is best known for television roles such as Nathan Young in "Misfits," Darren in "Love/Hate," and Klaus Hargreeves in "The Umbrella Academy", as well as film roles such as Tom Natsworthy in "Mortal Engines" and Simon Lewis in "".

罗伯特·麦可·席安(英语:Robert Michael Sheehan,,1988年-1月7日)是一位爱尔兰男演员。他最知名的是在电视剧《超能少年》(2009年至2010年)中饰演奈森·杨格、在《爱恨两边缘》(2010年至2013年)中饰演达伦(Darren)一角,以及与鲁伯特·葛林特共同主演2009年电影《樱桃炸弹》。2010年,席安入围了爱尔兰影视学院。2011年底,他在约翰·克劳利 (作家)制作的约翰·沁孤戏剧《西方世界的花花公子》中演出。


Interoperation.

Google Contacts can be synchronized with mobile devices and operating systems (e.g., Android, Symbian, iOS, BlackBerry, Palm, Pocket PC, or Windows Phone) or with PC applications (e.g., Microsoft Outlook or Mozilla Thunderbird) via third-party software, and Google's own Google Sync app. In addition, any system that can sync via Microsoft's ActiveSync can sync with Google Contacts. There is also support for mobile devices that support the Microsoft® Exchange ActiveSync® protocol and/or the SyncML standard. There is built-in support for Google Contacts in Google's open-source mobile operating system Google Android. Google Contacts can be synchronized also by CardDAV.

Import/Export.

Google Contacts can be utilized by the user specifically, using any of three CSV (Comma-separated values) file methods listed below:  1) Google CSV format (for importing into a Google account).  2) Outlook CSV format (for importing into Outlook or another application).  3) vCard format (for importing into Apple Address Book or another application).  The user can choose to Import/Export to a file, contained outside of the "Interoperation" mode listed above, by choosing the "More" menu item on most of the Google Services webpages displaying the Contacts List. The user may then choose to use the file as a hard backup, or edit this file in a text editor, database, or spreadsheet for external or momentary use. This data may then be imported back into the Interoperation Services with the same dynamics being applied: with logistics such as "duplicates" at the point in time of synchronization.

Criticism.

With the introduction of higher-density screens and larger internal memories to Android devices, the Google Contacts system was criticized for supporting only low-resolution photos, with size limited by 96x96 pixels. This issue was fixed on October 10, 2012 on devices with 'Jelly Bean' to a higher limit of 720x720 pixels. , G Suite users still couldn't use high-resolution contact photos, unless the so-called new version of Google Contacts was enabled on their account.

Google Contacts is Google's contact management tool that is available in its free email service Gmail, as a standalone service, and as a part of Google's business-oriented suite of web apps G Suite.

Google联络人(英语:Google Contacts)是Google旗下的一款在其免费邮件系统Gmail中的通讯录管理工具,是一个独立的服务,而且是Google网络应用的一部分。


First county.

The history of the county of Portugal is traditionally dated from the "reconquest" of "Portus Cale" (Porto) by Vímara Peres in 868. He was named a count and given control of the frontier region between the Limia and Douro rivers by Alfonso III of Asturias. South of the Douro, another border county would be formed decades later when what would become the County of Coimbra was conquered from the Moors by Hermenegildo Guterres. This moved the frontier away from the southern bounds of the county of Portugal, but it was still subject to repeated campaigns from the Caliphate of Córdoba. The recapture of Coimbra by Almanzor in 987 again placed the County of Portugal on the southern frontier of the Leonese state for most of the rest of the first county's existence. The regions to its south were only again conquered in the reign of Ferdinand I of León and Castile, with Lamego falling in 1057, Viseu in 1058 and finally Coimbra in 1064.  The leaders of the first county of Portugal reached the height of their power in the late 10th century, when Count Gonzalo Menéndez may have used the title "magnus dux portucalensium" ("grand duke of Portugal") and his son Menendo used the title "dux magnus" (grand duke). It could have been this Count Gonzalo who assassinated Sancho I of León after inviting the King to a banquet and offering him a poisoned apple. Not all historians, however, believe that Gonzalo Menéndez was responsible for the king's death and some attribute the regicide to a contemporary count named Gonzalo Muñoz.  In the late 960s Gonzalo's lands were ravaged by Vikings, and in 968, he fell out with king Ramiro III over the latter's refusal to fight the raiders. His son Menendo had close relations with Ramiro's rival and successor, Bermudo II, being made the king's "alférez" and tutor of his son, the future king Alfonso V. Following Alfonso's succession, Menendo would serve as regent for the boy king and marry him to one of Menendo's daughters.  The county continued with varying degrees of autonomy within the Kingdom of León and, during brief periods of division, the Kingdom of Galicia until 1071, when Count Nuno Mendes, desiring greater autonomy for Portugal, was defeated and killed in the Battle of Pedroso by King García II of Galicia, who then proclaimed himself the King of Galicia and Portugal, the first time a royal title was used in reference to Portugal. The independent county was abolished, its territories remaining within the crown of Galicia, which was in turn subsumed within the larger kingdoms of García's brothers, Sancho II and Alfonso VI of León and Castile.

Second county.

The former Kingdom of Galicia, then including modern Portugal as far south as Coimbra, was given by Alfonso VI as a county to his son-in-law Raymond of Burgundy. However, concern for Raymond's growing power led Alfonso in 1096 to separate Portugal and Coimbra from Galicia and grant them to another son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy, wed to Alfonso VI's illegitimate daughter Theresa. Henry chose Braga as the base for this newly formed county, the "Condado Portucalense", known at the time as "Terra Portucalense" or "Província Portucalense," which would last until Portugal achieved its independence, recognized by the Kingdom of León in 1143. Its territory included much of the current Portuguese territory between the Minho River and the Tagus River.  Count Henry continued the "Reconquista" in western Iberia and expanded his county's dominions. He was also involved in several intrigues inside the Leonese court together with his cousin Raymond and sister-in-law Urraca of Castile, in which he supported Raymond's ascension in return for promises of autonomy or independence for Portugal. In 1111 the Muslims conquered Santarém. When Count Henry died in 1112, the population of the County of Portugal, including the powerful families, favored independence. Henry's widow, Theresa, took the reins on behalf of her young son, and allied herself with Galician nobility in order to challenge her sister queen Urraca's dominance and briefly used the title Queen. However, she was defeated by Urraca in 1121 and forced to accept a position of feudal subservience to the Leonese state. Her own son, Afonso Henriques, took the reins of the government in 1128 after routing his mother's forces in the Battle of São Mamede, near Guimarães. After this battle, he began to exhibit a seal with a cross and the word "Portugal". He continued to win battles, supported by the nobles of Entre-Douro-e-Minho, eventually triumphing in the Battle of Ourique in 1139, which led to his proclamation as King of Portugal by his troops. Nevertheless:  It was finally in 1143 when his nominal overlord Alfonso VII of León and Castile recognized the "de facto" independence of Portugal in the Treaty of Zamora.

The County of Portugal (; in documents of the period the name used was Portugalia) refers to two successive medieval counties in the region around Braga and Porto, today corresponding to littoral northern Portugal, within which the identity of the Portuguese people formed. The first county existed from the mid-ninth to the mid-eleventh centuries as a vassalage of the Kingdom of Asturias and later the Kingdoms of Galicia and León, before being abolished as a result of rebellion. A larger entity under the same name was then reestablished in the late 11th century and subsequently elevated by its count in the mid-12th century into an independent Kingdom of Portugal.

葡萄牙伯爵领地(),又称葡萄牙伯国或葡萄牙郡,是位于今天葡萄牙北部大区一带莱昂王国之葡萄牙伯爵的封地。1139年,阿方索一世宣布自立为国王,葡萄牙伯国事实上独立。1143年,葡萄牙伯爵领地正式提升为葡萄牙王国。