Defined.

According to the traditional view of Thrall and Hibbard (first published in 1936), seven qualities distinguish the picaresque novel or narrative form, all or some of which an author may employ for effect:  In the English-speaking world, the term "picaresque" is often used loosely to refer to novels that contain some elements of this genre; e.g. an episodic recounting of adventures on the road.

History.

Etymology.

The word "" first starts to appear in Spain with the current meaning in 1545, though at the time it had no association with literature. The word "pícaro" does not appear in "Lazarillo de Tormes" (1554), the novella credited by modern scholars with founding the genre. The expression "picaresque novel" was coined in 1810. Whether it has any validity at all as a generic label in the Spanish sixteenth and seventeenth centuries—Cervantes certainly used "picaresque" with a different meaning than it has today—has been called into question. There is unresolved debate within Hispanic studies about what the term means, or meant, and which works were, or should be, so called. The only work clearly called "picaresque" by its contemporaries was Mateo Alemán's "Guzmán de Alfarache" (1599), which to them was the "Libro del pícaro" (The Book of the Pícaro).

"Lazarillo de Tormes" and its sources.

While elements of Chaucer and Boccaccio have a picaresque feel and may have contributed to the style, the modern picaresque begins with "Lazarillo de Tormes", which was published anonymously in 1554 in Burgos, Medina del Campo, and Alcalá de Henares in Spain, and also in Antwerp, which at the time was under Spanish rule as a major city in the Spanish Netherlands. It is variously considered either the first picaresque novel or at least the antecedent of the genre.  The protagonist, Lázaro, lives by his wits in an effort to survive and succeed in an impoverished country full of hypocrisy. As a "pícaro" character, he is an alienated outsider, whose ability to expose and ridicule individuals compromised with society gives him a revolutionary stance. Lázaro states that the motivation for his writing is to communicate his experiences of overcoming deception, hypocrisy, and falsehood ("engaño").  The character type draws on elements of characterization already present in Roman literature, especially Petronius' "Satyricon". Lázaro shares some of the traits of the central figure of Encolpius, a former gladiator, though it is unlikely that the author had access to Petronius' work. From the comedies of Plautus, "Lazarillo" borrows the figure of the parasite and the supple slave. Other traits are taken from Apuleius's "The Golden Ass". "The Golden Ass" and "Satyricon" are rare surviving samples of the "Milesian tale", a popular genre in the classical world, and were revived and widely read in Renaissance Europe.  The principal episodes of "Lazarillo" are based on Arabic folktales that were well-known to the Moorish inhabitants of Spain. The Arabic influence may account for the negative portrayal of priests and other church officials in "Lazarillo". Arabic literature, which was read widely in Spain in the time of Al-Andalus and possessed a literary tradition with similar themes, is thus another possible influence on the picaresque style. Al-Hamadhani (d.1008) of Hamadhan (Iran) is credited with inventing the literary genre of "maqamat" in which a wandering vagabond makes his living on the gifts his listeners give him following his extemporaneous displays of rhetoric, erudition, or verse, often done with a trickster's touch. Ibn al-Astarkuwi or al-Ashtarkuni (d.1134) also wrote in the genre "maqamat", comparable to later European picaresque.  The curious presence of Russian loan-words in the text of the "Lazarillo" also suggests the influence of medieval Slavic tales of tricksters, thieves, itinerant prostitutes, and brigands, who were common figures in the impoverished areas bordering on Germany to the west. When diplomatic ties to Germany and Spain were established under the emperor Charles V, these tales began to be read in Italian translations in the Iberian Peninsula.  As narrator of his own adventures, Lázaro seeks to portray himself as the victim of both his ancestry and his circumstance. This means of appealing to the compassion of the reader would be directly challenged by later picaresque novels such as "Guzmán de Alfarache" (1599/1604) and the "Buscón" (composed in the first decade of the 17th century and first published in 1626) because the idea of determinism used to cast the "pícaro" as a victim clashed with the Counter-Reformation doctrine of free will.

16th and 17th centuries.

An early example is Mateo Alemán's "Guzmán de Alfarache" (1599), characterized by religiosity. Guzmán de Alfarache is a fictional character who lived in San Juan de Aznalfarache, Seville, Spain.  Francisco de Quevedo's "El buscón" (1604 according to Francisco Rico; the exact date is uncertain, yet it was certainly a very early work) is considered the masterpiece of the subgenre by A. A. Parker, because of his baroque style and the study of the delinquent psychology. However, a more recent school of thought, led by Francisco Rico, rejects Parker's view, contending instead that the protagonist, Pablos, is a highly unrealistic character, simply a means for Quevedo to launch classist, racist and sexist attacks. Moreover, argues Rico, the structure of the novel is radically different from previous works of the picaresque genre: Quevedo uses the conventions of the picaresque as a mere vehicle to show off his abilities with conceit and rhetoric, rather than to construct a satirical critique of Spanish Golden Age society.  Miguel de Cervantes wrote several works "in the picaresque manner, notably "Rinconete y Cortadillo" (1613) and "El coloquio de los perros" (1613; “Colloquy of the Dogs”)". "Cervantes also incorporated elements of the picaresque into his greatest novel, "Don Quixote" (1605, 1615)", the "single most important progenitor of the modern novel", that M. H. Abrams has described as a "quasi-picaresque narrative". Here the hero is not a rogue but a foolish knight.  In order to understand the historical context that led to the development of these paradigmatic picaresque novels in Spain during the 16th and 17th centuries, it is essential to take into consideration the circumstances surrounding the lives of "conversos," whose ancestors had been Jewish, and whose New Christian faith was subjected to close scrutiny and mistrust.  In other European countries, these Spanish novels were read and imitated. In Germany, Grimmelshausen wrote "Simplicius Simplicissimus" (1669), the most important of non-Spanish picaresque novels. It describes the devastation caused by the Thirty Years' War. Le Sage's "Gil Blas" (1715) is a classic example of the genre, which in France had declined into an aristocratic adventure. In Britain, the first example is Thomas Nashe's "The Unfortunate Traveller" (1594) in which a court page, Jack Wilson, exposes the underclass life in a string of European cities through lively, often brutal descriptions. The body of Tobias Smollett's work, and Daniel Defoe's "Moll Flanders" (1722) are considered picaresque, but they lack the sense of religious redemption of delinquency that was very important in Spanish and German novels. The triumph of Moll Flanders is more economic than moral. While the mores of the early 18th Century wouldn't permit Moll to be a heroine per se, Defoe hardly disguises his admiration for her resilience and resourcefulness.

Works with some picaresque elements.

The autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini, written in Florence beginning in 1558, also has much in common with the picaresque.  The classic Chinese novel "Journey to the West" is considered to have considerable picaresque elements. Having been written in 1590, it is contemporary with much of the above—but is unlikely to have been directly influenced by the European genre.

18th and 19th centuries.

Henry Fielding proved his mastery of the form in "Joseph Andrews" (1742), "The Life and Death of Jonathan Wild, the Great" (1743) and "The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling" (1749), though Fielding attributed his style to an "imitation of the manner of Cervantes, author of "Don Quixote"".  William Makepeace Thackeray is the master of the 19th Century English picaresque. Like "Moll Flanders", Thackeray's best-known work, "Vanity Fair A Novel Without a Hero" (1847-1848), (a title ironically derived from John Bunyan's Puritan allegory of redemption "The Pilgrim's Progress"(1678)), follows the career of fortune-hunting adventuress Becky Sharp. His earlier novel "The Luck of Barry Lyndon" (1844) recounts the rise and fall of an Irish arriviste conniving his way into the 18th century English aristocracy.  Aleko Konstantinov wrote the novel Bay Ganyo (1895) about a Bulgarian rogue of that name who does business and swindles around Europe, and returns home and gets into politics and newspaper publishing. Bay Ganyo is a well-known stereotype in Bulgaria.

Works influenced by the picaresque.

In the English-speaking world, the term "picaresque" has referred more to a literary technique or model than to the precise genre that the Spanish call "picaresco". The English-language term can simply refer to an episodic recounting of the adventures of an anti-hero on the road.  Laurence Sterne's "The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman" (1761-1767) and "A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy" (1768) each have strong picaresque elements. Voltaire's French novel "Candide" (1759) contains elements of the picaresque. An interesting variation on the tradition of the picaresque is "The Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan" (1824), a satirical view on early 19th-century Persia, written by a British diplomat, James Morier.  Elements of the picaresque novel are found in Charles Dickens’s "The Pickwick Papers" (1836–37). Gogol occasionally used the technique, as in "Dead Souls" (1842–52). Mark Twain's "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" (1884) also has some elements of the picaresque novel.

20th and 21st centuries.

"Kvachi Kvachantiradze" is a novel written by Mikheil Javakhishvili in 1924. This is, in brief, the story of a swindler, a Georgian Felix Krull, or perhaps a cynical Don Quixote, named Kvachi Kvachantiradze: womanizer, cheat, perpetrator of insurance fraud, bank-robber, associate of Rasputin, filmmaker, revolutionary, and pimp.  "The Twelve Chairs" (1928) and its sequel, "The Little Golden Calf" (1931), by Ilya Ilf and Yevgeni Petrov became classics of the 20th century Russian satire and basis for numerous film adaptations.  Camilo José Cela's "La familia de Pascual Duarte" (1942) and "The Adventures of Augie March" by Saul Bellow (1953) were also among mid-twentieth century picaresque literature. John A. Lee's "Shining with the Shiner" (1944) tells amusing tales about New Zealand folk hero Ned Slattery (1840–1927) surviving by his wits and beating the Protestant work ethic', So too is Thomas Mann's "Confessions of Felix Krull" (1954), which like many novels emphasizes the theme of a charmingly roguish ascent in the social order. Günter Grass's "The Tin Drum" (1959) is a German picaresque novel.  Recent examples include "Under the Net" (1954) by Iris Murdoch, Jerzy Kosinski's "The Painted Bird" (1965), Vladimir Voinovich's "The Life and Extraordinary Adventures of Private Ivan Chonkin" (1969), Angela Carter's "Nights at the Circus" (1984), Umberto Eco's "Baudolino" (2000), and Aravind Adiga's "The White Tiger" (Booker Prize 2008).  William S. Burroughs was a devoted fan of picaresque novels, and gave a series of lectures involving the topic in 1979 at Naropa University in Colorado. In these he says it is impossible to separate the anti-hero from the Picaresque novel, that most of these are funny, and they all have protagonist who are outsiders by their nature. His list of picaresque novels includes Petronius' novel "Satyricon" (54-68 AD), "The Unfortunate Traveller" (1594) by Thomas Nashe, (1911), both "Maiden Voyage" (1943) and "A Voice Through a Cloud" (1950) by Denton Welch, "Two Serious Ladies" (1943) by Jane Bowles, "Death on Credit" (1936) by Louis-Ferdinand Céline, and even himself. He also relates a series of real life newspaper stories that Burroughs himself had collected, in which people abandoned their jobs in order to save their own skin, leaving numbers of people to die.

Works influenced by the picaresque.

Jaroslav Hašek's "The Good Soldier Švejk" (1923) is an example of a work from Central Europe, that has picaresque elements.  J. B. Priestley made use of the form in his "The Good Companions" (1929) which won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for Fiction.

The picaresque novel (Spanish: "picaresca", from "pícaro", for "rogue" or "rascal") is a genre of prose fiction that depicts the adventures of a roguish, but "appealing hero", of low social class, who lives by his wits in a corrupt society. Picaresque novels typically adopt a realistic style, with elements of comedy and satire. This style of novel originated in Spain in 1554 and flourished throughout Europe for more than 200 years, though the term "picaresque novel" was only coined in 1810. It continues to influence modern literature. The term is also sometimes used to describe works, like Cervantes' "Don Quixote" and Charles Dickens' "Pickwick Papers", which only contain some of the genre's elements.

流浪汉小说(,英语:Picaresque novel),是16世纪源自西班牙,17世纪～18世纪在欧洲流行的小说形式。


Development.

Their development begins in the yolk sac where they differentiate into fetal macrophages. Once they enter the blood stream, they migrate to the fetal liver where they stay. There they complete their differentiation into Kupffer cells.

Function.

Apart from clearing any bacteria, red blood cells are also broken down by phagocytic action, where the hemoglobin molecule is split. The globin chains are re-used, while the iron-containing portion, heme, is further broken down into iron, which is re-used, and bilirubin, which is conjugated to glucuronic acid within hepatocytes and secreted into the bile.  Helmy et al. identified a receptor present in Kupffer cells, the complement receptor of the immunoglobulin family (CRIg). Mice without CRIg could not clear complement system-coated pathogens. CRIg is conserved in mice and humans and is a critical component of the innate immune system.

Clinical significance.

Kupffer cell activation is responsible for early ethanol-induced liver injury, common in chronic alcoholics. Chronic alcoholism and liver injury deal with a two hit system. The second hit is characterized by an activation of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and CD14, receptors on the Kupffer cell that internalize endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide or LPS). This activates the transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines (Tumor necrosis factor-alpha or TNFα) and production of superoxides (a pro-oxidant). TNFα will then enter the stellate cell in the liver, leading to collagen synthesis and fibrosis. Fibrosis will eventually cause cirrhosis, or loss of function of the liver.

History.

The cells were first observed by Karl Wilhelm von Kupffer in 1876. The scientist called them "Sternzellen" (star cells or hepatic stellate cell) but thought, inaccurately, that they were an integral part of the endothelium of the liver blood vessels and that they originated from it. In 1898, after several years of research, Tadeusz Browicz identified them, correctly, as macrophages.

Kupffer cells, also known as stellate macrophages and Kupffer–Browicz cells, are specialized macrophages located in the liver, lining the walls of the sinusoids. They form part of the mononuclear phagocyte system.

库佛氏细胞(英语:Kupffer cell、Browicz-Kupffer cell、stellate macrophages,亦称为肝巨噬细胞)是位于肝脏中的特殊巨噬细胞,是单核吞噬细胞系统(mononuclear phagocyte system)的一部分。


History.

The comic strip artist Quino created "Mafalda" in 1963. He had received a proposal by fellow artist Miguel Brascó, and the comic strip would be a covert advertisement for the "Mansfield" line of products of the Siam Di Tella company. The characters would use their products, and all of them would have names starting with "M". The name "Mafalda" was selected as an homage to one of the characters of the 1962 Argentine film "Dar la cara". The comic strip was conceived as a blend of "Peanuts" and "Blondie". Quino and Brascó offered the comic strip to the newspaper "Clarín", but they noticed the advertisement nature and did not publish it. The covert advertising campaign was never carried out, but Brascó published portions of those comics at the magazine Leoplán. Julián Delgado, senior editor of the magazine "Primera Plana", proposed Quino to publish the comic strip, if he removed the advertisements. It was first published in the magazine on 29 September 1964. Initially, it featured only Mafalda and her parents. Felipe was introduced in January. Quino left the magazine in 1965, and the comic strip was moved to the newspaper "El Mundo". Quino introduced new kids: Manolito, Susanita, and Miguelito; and Mafalda's mother became pregnant. The newspaper was closed in December 1967.  Publication resumed six months later, on 2 June 1968, in the weekly "Siete Días Ilustrados". Since the cartoons had to be delivered two weeks before publication, Quino was not able to comment on the news to the same extent. After creating the characters of Mafalda's little brother Guille and her new friend Libertad, he definitively ceased publication of the strip on 25 June 1973.  After 1973, Quino still drew "Mafalda" a few times, mostly to promote human rights. In 1976, he reproduced Mafalda for the UNICEF illustrating the "Convention on the Rights of the Child."

Characters.

The comic strip is composed of the main character Mafalda, her parents and a group of other children. However, the group was not created on purpose, but was instead a result of the development of the comic strip. The other children were created one at a time, and worked by countering specific aspects of Mafalda. The exception was Guille, Mafalda's brother, who was introduced during a period when the author did not have other ideas.  The characters aged at about half the real time-scale while the script ran. They also went through minor changes largely due to the evolution of Quino's drawing style.

Books and translations.

Most strips that were not too closely tied to then current events were chronologically republished in ten small books simply named "Mafalda" and numbered from one to ten, with two strips on each page. This excludes the very first ones, published in "Primera Plana," but never reprinted until 1989.  The Argentine editions are as follows, published by Ediciones de la Flor (except for the first five books, which were first published by Editorial Jorge Álvarez)  The editions differ in other countries: in Spain the small books are numbered from 0 to 10 and the full compilation is called "Todo Mafalda", all published by Editorial Lumen; in Mexico the small books go from 1 to 12 and are currently published by Tusquets Editores. Although most strips were translated into different European languages as well as into simplified and traditional Chinese, there were only a few publications in English. In the United States of America, his only published work is "The World of Quino" (1986). Beginning in 2004, however, Quino's publisher in Argentina, Ediciones de la Flor, started publishing English-language collections of "Mafalda" strips under the series title "Mafalda & Friends".

Adaptations.

Quino has opposed adapting "Mafalda" for cinema or theater; however, two series of animated shorts featuring Mafalda have been produced. The first, a series of 260 90-second films, was produced by Daniel Mallo for Argentine television starting in 1972. These were adapted into a full-length movie by Carlos Márquez in 1979 and released in 1981. It remains relatively unknown. In 1993 Cuban filmmaker Juan Padrón, a close friend of Quino, directed 104 short animated "Mafalda" films, backed by Spanish producers.

Comparisons.

"Mafalda" has occasionally been pointed out as being influenced by Charles Schulz's "Peanuts", most notably by Umberto Eco in 1968, who contrasted the two characters. While Eco thought of "Mafalda" and "Charlie Brown" as the voices unheard of children in the northern and southern hemispheres, Quino saw "Mafalda" as a socio-political strip, firmly rooted on family values. This is one of the reasons adults play a starring role in the strip, while they are never seen in the "Charlie Brown" universe. Quino does, however, acknowledge the influence of Schulz's work on his, in that Quino extensively studied Schulz's books in preparation for an advertising campaign he was working on in 1963. The advertising campaign was scrapped but he reused some of the material for the "Mafalda" series a year later.  The appearance of Mafalda's character resembles that of the main character in the U.S. comic strip "Nancy" (called "Periquita" in the Mexican edition, which was in general used in Latin America) — and there is a reference in the strip where Miguelito buys a magazine and it has Nancy on the cover, then he asks Mafalda who she looks like. In the next panel is implied that Mafalda replied, ""¡Tu abuela!"" ("Your granny!"), a phrase similar to "Your mama!" in English, as Miguelito stares at the magazine wondering, ""My" granny?".

Recognition.

In 2009, a life-sized statue of Mafalda was installed in front of Quino's old home in the San Telmo neighborhood of Buenos Aires.  A passageway in Angoulême, France, is named after Mafalda.  In 2010, it was announced that the city of Gatineau, in the province of Quebec, had sought and obtained permission to name or rename a street after Mafalda, as part of a project to establish a neighbourhood named after famous comic strips and "bande dessinée" characters.  In 2014, a life-sized statue of Mafalda was installed in Campo de San Francisco, a park located in Oviedo, Principality of Asturias' capital (northern Spain), after the Princess of Asturias Awards was conferred to Quino for the creation of Mafalda, in the category of Communications and Humanities.

Mafalda [məˈfɔːldə] is an Argentine comic strip written and drawn by cartoonist Joaquín Salvador Lavado Tejón, better known by his pen name Quino. The strip features a 6-year-old girl named Mafalda, who reflects the Argentinian middle class and progressive youth, is concerned about humanity and world peace, and has an innocent but serious attitude toward problems. The comic strip ran from 1964 to 1973 and was very popular in Latin America, Europe, Quebec and Asia. Its popularity led to books and two animated cartoon series. Mafalda often talks about U Thant. "Mafalda" has been praised as masterful satire.

《娃娃看天下》(西班牙语:Mafalda)是阿根廷漫画家季诺(Quino)笔下的一辑漫画,主人翁为一位住在布宜诺斯艾利斯的小女孩玛法达。这套漫画从1964年至1973年间连载,于拉丁美洲及欧洲相当受欢迎,是西班牙语漫画里最为国际间所熟知的,在亚洲也可以找到其踪影。


Types.

Complete and incomplete.

Complete.

In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen and produces a limited number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will primarily yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides. Carbon will yield carbon dioxide, sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide, and iron will yield iron(III) oxide. Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the oxidant. Still, small amounts of various nitrogen oxides (commonly designated species) form when the air is the oxidative  Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example, sulfur trioxide is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur. NOx species appear in significant amounts above about, and more is produced at higher temperatures. The amount of NOx is also a function of oxygen excess.  In most industrial applications and in fires, air is the source of oxygen (). In the air, each mole of oxygen is mixed with approximately of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not take part in combustion, but at high temperatures some nitrogen will be converted to (mostly, with much smaller amounts of ). On the other hand, when there is insufficient oxygen to combust the fuel completely, some fuel carbon is converted to carbon monoxide, and some of the hydrogens remain unreacted. A complete set of equations for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in the air, therefore, requires an additional calculation for the distribution of oxygen between the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel.  The amount of air required for complete combustion to take place is known as pure air. However, in practice, the air used is 2-3x that of pure air.

Incomplete combustion.

Incomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce carbon dioxide and water. It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap. As is the case with complete combustion, water is produced by incomplete combustion; however, carbon, carbon monoxide, and hydroxide are produced instead of carbon dioxide.  For most fuels, such as diesel oil, coal, or wood, pyrolysis occurs before combustion. In incomplete combustion, products of pyrolysis remain unburnt and contaminate the smoke with noxious particulate matter and gases. Partially oxidized compounds are also a concern; partial oxidation of ethanol can produce harmful acetaldehyde, and carbon can produce toxic carbon monoxide.  The designs of combustion devices can improve the quality of combustion, such as burners and internal combustion engines. Further improvements are achievable by catalytic after-burning devices (such as catalytic converters) or by the simple partial return of the exhaust gases into the combustion process. Such devices are required by environmental legislation for cars in most countries. They may be necessary to enable large combustion devices, such as thermal power stations, to reach legal emission standards.  The degree of combustion can be measured and analyzed with test equipment. HVAC contractors, firemen and engineers use combustion analyzers to test the efficiency of a burner during the combustion process. Also, the efficiency of an internal combustion engine can be measured in this way, and some U.S. states and local municipalities use combustion analysis to define and rate the efficiency of vehicles on the road today.

Incomplete combustion produced carbon monoxide.

Carbon monoxide is one of the products from incomplete combustion. Carbon is released in the normal incomplete combustion reaction, forming soot and dust. Since carbon monoxide is considered as a poisonous gas, complete combustion is preferable, as carbon monoxide may also lead to respiratory troubles when breathed since it takes the place of oxygen and combines with hemoglobin.

Problems associated with incomplete combustion.

These oxides combine with water and oxygen in the atmosphere, creating nitric acid and sulfuric acids, which return to Earth's surface as acid deposition, or "acid rain." Acid deposition harms aquatic organisms and kills trees. Due to its formation of certain nutrients that are less available to plants such as calcium and phosphorus, it reduces the productivity of the ecosystem and farms. An additional problem associated with nitrogen oxides is that they, along with hydrocarbon pollutants, contribute to the formation of tropospheric ozone, a major component of smog.  Breathing carbon monoxide causes headache, dizziness, vomiting, and nausea. If carbon monoxide levels are high enough, humans become unconscious or die. Exposure to moderate and high levels of carbon monoxide over long periods is positively correlated with risk of heart disease. People who survive severe carbon monoxide poisoning may suffer long-term health problems. Carbon monoxide from air is absorbed in the lungs which then binds with hemoglobin in human's red blood cells. This would reduce the capacity of red blood cells to carry oxygen throughout the body.

Smouldering.

Smouldering is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. It is a typically incomplete combustion reaction. Solid materials that can sustain a smouldering reaction include coal, cellulose, wood, cotton, tobacco, peat, duff, humus, synthetic foams, charring polymers (including polyurethane foam) and dust. Common examples of smoldering phenomena are the initiation of residential fires on upholstered furniture by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a short-circuited wire) and the persistent combustion of biomass behind the flaming fronts of wildfires.

Rapid.

Rapid combustion is a form of combustion, otherwise known as a fire, in which large amounts of heat and light energy are released, which often results in a flame. This is used in a form of machinery such as internal combustion engines and in thermobaric weapons. Such a combustion is frequently called an explosion, though for an internal combustion engine this is inaccurate. An internal combustion engine nominally operates on a controlled rapid burn. When the fuel-air mixture in an internal combustion engine explodes, that is known as detonation.

Spontaneous.

Spontaneous combustion is a type of combustion which occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to exothermic internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self-heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and finally, ignition. For example, phosphorus self-ignites at room temperature without the application of heat. Organic materials undergoing bacterial composting can generate enough heat to reach the point of combustion.

Turbulent.

Combustion resulting in a turbulent flame is the most used for industrial application (e.g. gas turbines, gasoline engines, etc.) because the turbulence helps the mixing process between the fuel and oxidizer.

Micro-gravity.

The term'micro' gravity refers to a gravitational state that is 'low' (i.e.,'micro' in the sense of'small' and not necessarily a millionth of Earth's normal gravity) such that the influence of buoyancy on physical processes may be considered small relative to other flow processes that would be present at normal gravity. In such an environment, the thermal and flow transport dynamics can behave quite differently than in normal gravity conditions (e.g., a candle's flame takes the shape of a sphere.). Microgravity combustion research contributes to the understanding of a wide variety of aspects that are relevant to both the environment of a spacecraft (e.g., fire dynamics relevant to crew safety on the International Space Station) and terrestrial (Earth-based) conditions (e.g., droplet combustion dynamics to assist developing new fuel blends for improved combustion, materials fabrication processes, thermal management of electronic systems, multiphase flow boiling dynamics, and many others).

Micro-combustion.

Combustion processes which happen in very small volumes are considered micro-combustion. The high surface-to-volume ratio increases specific heat loss. Quenching distance plays a vital role in stabilizing the flame in such combustion chambers.

Chemical equations.

Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen.

Generally, the chemical equation for stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is: where formula_1.  For example, the stoichiometric burning of propane in oxygen is:

Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in air.

If the stoichiometric combustion takes place using air as the oxygen source, the nitrogen present in the air (Atmosphere of Earth) can be added to the equation (although it does not react) to show the stoichiometric composition of the fuel in air and the composition of the resultant flue gas. Note that treating all non-oxygen components in air as nitrogen gives a 'nitrogen' to oxygen ratio of 3.77, i.e. (100% - O2%) / O2% where O2% is 20.95% vol: where formula_3.  For example, the stoichiometric combustion of propane (<chem>C3H8</chem>) in air is:  The stoichiometric composition of propane in air is 1 / (1 + 5 + 18.87) = 4.02% vol. The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHO in air:  The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHOS:  The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHONS:  The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHOF:

Trace combustion products.

Various other substances begin to appear in significant amounts in combustion products when the flame temperature is above about. When excess air is used, nitrogen may oxidize to and, to a much lesser extent, to. forms by disproportionation of, and and form by disproportionation of.  For example, when of propane is burned with of air (120% of the stoichiometric amount), the combustion products contain 3.3%. At, the equilibrium combustion products contain 0.03% and 0.002%. At, the combustion products contain 0.17%, 0.05%, 0.01%, and 0.004%.  Diesel engines are run with an excess of oxygen to combust small particles that tend to form with only a stoichiometric amount of oxygen, necessarily producing nitrogen oxide emissions. Both the United States and European Union enforce limits to vehicle nitrogen oxide emissions, which necessitate the use of special catalytic converters or treatment of the exhaust with urea (see Diesel exhaust fluid).

Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen.

The incomplete (partial) combustion of a hydrocarbon with oxygen produces a gas mixture containing mainly,,, and. Such gas mixtures are commonly prepared for use as protective atmospheres for the heat-treatment of metals and for gas carburizing. The general reaction equation for incomplete combustion of one mole of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is:  When "z" falls below roughly 50% of the stoichiometric value, can become an important combustion product; when "z" falls below roughly 35% of the stoichiometric value, elemental carbon may become stable.  The products of incomplete combustion can be calculated with the aid of a material balance, together with the assumption that the combustion products reach equilibrium. For example, in the combustion of one mole of propane () with four moles of, seven moles of combustion gas are formed, and "z" is 80% of the stoichiometric value. The three elemental balance equations are:  These three equations are insufficient in themselves to calculate the combustion gas composition. However, at the equilibrium position, the water-gas shift reaction gives another equation:  For example, at the value of "K" is 0.728. Solving, the combustion gas consists of 42.4%, 29.0%, 14.7%, and 13.9%. Carbon becomes a stable phase at and pressure when z is less than 30% of the stoichiometric value, at which point the combustion products contain more than 98% and and about 0.5%. Substances or materials which undergo combustion are called fuels. The most common examples are natural gas, propane, kerosene, diesel, petrol, charcoal, coal, wood, etc.

Liquid fuels.

Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase. It is the vapor that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its flash point. The flash point of a liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air. It is the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion.

Gaseous fuels.

Combustion of gaseous fuels may occur through one of four distinctive types of burning: diffusion flame, premixed flame, autoignitive reaction front, or as a detonation. The type of burning that actually occurs depends on the degree to which the fuel and oxidizer are mixed prior to heating: for example, a diffusion flame is formed if the fuel and oxidizer are separated initially, whereas a premixed flame is formed otherwise. Similarly, the type of burning also depends on the pressure: a detonation, for example, is an autoignitive reaction front coupled to a strong shock wave giving it its characteristic high-pressure peak and high detonation velocity.

Solid fuels.

The act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases:

Combustion management.

Efficient process heating requires recovery of the largest possible part of a fuel's heat of combustion into the material being processed. There are many avenues of loss in the operation of a heating process. Typically, the dominant loss is sensible heat leaving with the offgas (i.e., the flue gas). The temperature and quantity of offgas indicates its heat content (enthalpy), so keeping its quantity low minimizes heat loss.  In a perfect furnace, the combustion air flow would be matched to the fuel flow to give each fuel molecule the exact amount of oxygen needed to cause complete combustion. However, in the real world, combustion does not proceed in a perfect manner. Unburned fuel (usually and ) discharged from the system represents a heating value loss (as well as a safety hazard). Since combustibles are undesirable in the offgas, while the presence of unreacted oxygen there presents minimal safety and environmental concerns, the first principle of combustion management is to provide more oxygen than is theoretically needed to ensure that all the fuel burns. For methane () combustion, for example, slightly more than two molecules of oxygen are required.  The second principle of combustion management, however, is to not use too much oxygen. The correct amount of oxygen requires three types of measurement: first, active control of air and fuel flow; second, offgas oxygen measurement; and third, measurement of offgas combustibles. For each heating process, there exists an optimum condition of minimal offgas heat loss with acceptable levels of combustibles concentration. Minimizing excess oxygen pays an additional benefit: for a given offgas temperature, the NOx level is lowest when excess oxygen is kept lowest.  Adherence to these two principles is furthered by making material and heat balances on the combustion process. The material balance directly relates the air/fuel ratio to the percentage of in the combustion gas. The heat balance relates the heat available for the charge to the overall net heat produced by fuel combustion. Additional material and heat balances can be made to quantify the thermal advantage from preheating the combustion air, or enriching it in oxygen.

Reaction mechanism.

Combustion in oxygen is a chain reaction in which many distinct radical intermediates participate. The high energy required for initiation is explained by the unusual structure of the dioxygen molecule. The lowest-energy configuration of the dioxygen molecule is a stable, relatively unreactive diradical in a triplet spin state. Bonding can be described with three bonding electron pairs and two antibonding electrons, with spins aligned, such that the molecule has nonzero total angular momentum. Most fuels, on the other hand, are in a singlet state, with paired spins and zero total angular momentum. Interaction between the two is quantum mechanically a "forbidden transition", i.e. possible with a very low probability. To initiate combustion, energy is required to force dioxygen into a spin-paired state, or singlet oxygen. This intermediate is extremely reactive. The energy is supplied as heat, and the reaction then produces additional heat, which allows it to continue.  Combustion of hydrocarbons is thought to be initiated by hydrogen atom abstraction (not proton abstraction) from the fuel to oxygen, to give a hydroperoxide radical (HOO). This reacts further to give hydroperoxides, which break up to give hydroxyl radicals. There are a great variety of these processes that produce fuel radicals and oxidizing radicals. Oxidizing species include singlet oxygen, hydroxyl, monatomic oxygen, and hydroperoxyl. Such intermediates are short-lived and cannot be isolated. However, non-radical intermediates are stable and are produced in incomplete combustion. An example is acetaldehyde produced in the combustion of ethanol. An intermediate in the combustion of carbon and hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, is of special importance because it is a poisonous gas, but also economically useful for the production of syngas.  Solid and heavy liquid fuels also undergo a great number of pyrolysis reactions that give more easily oxidized, gaseous fuels. These reactions are endothermic and require constant energy input from the ongoing combustion reactions. A lack of oxygen or other improperly designed conditions result in these noxious and carcinogenic pyrolysis products being emitted as thick, black smoke.  The rate of combustion is the amount of a material that undergoes combustion over a period of time. It can be expressed in grams per second (g/s) or kilograms per second (kg/s).  Detailed descriptions of combustion processes, from the chemical kinetics perspective, requires the formulation of large and intricate webs of elementary reactions. For instance, combustion of hydrocarbon fuels typically involve hundreds of chemical species reacting according to thousands of reactions.  Inclusion of such mechanisms within computational flow solvers still represents a pretty challenging task mainly in two aspects. First, the number of degrees of freedom (proportional to the number of chemical species) can be dramatically large; second, the source term due to reactions introduces a disparate number of time scales which makes the whole dynamical system stiff. As a result, the direct numerical simulation of turbulent reactive flows with heavy fuels soon becomes intractable even for modern supercomputers.  Therefore, a plethora of methodologies has been devised for reducing the complexity of combustion mechanisms without resorting to high detail level. Examples are provided by:

Kinetic modelling.

The kinetic modelling may be explored for insight into the reaction mechanisms of thermal decomposition in the combustion of different materials by using for instance Thermogravimetric analysis.

Temperature.

Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as complete combustion under adiabatic conditions (i.e., no heat loss or gain), the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this temperature is based on the first law of thermodynamics and takes note of the fact that the heat of combustion is used entirely for heating the fuel, the combustion air or oxygen, and the combustion product gases (commonly referred to as the "flue gas").  In the case of fossil fuels burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on all of the following:  The adiabatic combustion temperature (also known as the "adiabatic flame temperature") increases for higher heating values and inlet air and fuel temperatures and for stoichiometric air ratios approaching one.  Most commonly, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around (for inlet air and fuel at ambient temperatures and for formula_14), around for oil and for natural gas.  In industrial fired heaters, power station steam generators, and large gas-fired turbines, the more common way of expressing the usage of more than the stoichiometric combustion air is "percent excess combustion air". For example, excess combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than the required stoichiometric air is being used.

Instabilities.

Combustion instabilities are typically violent pressure oscillations in a combustion chamber. These pressure oscillations can be as high as 180 dB, and long-term exposure to these cyclic pressure and thermal loads reduce the life of engine components. In rockets, such as the F1 used in the Saturn V program, instabilities led to massive damage to the combustion chamber and surrounding components. This problem was solved by re-designing the fuel injector. In liquid jet engines, the droplet size and distribution can be used to attenuate the instabilities. Combustion instabilities are a major concern in ground-based gas turbine engines because of NOx emissions. The tendency is to run lean, an equivalence ratio less than 1, to reduce the combustion temperature and thus reduce the NOx emissions; however, running the combustion lean makes it very susceptible to combustion instability.  The Rayleigh Criterion is the basis for analysis of thermoacoustic combustion instability and is evaluated using the Rayleigh Index over one cycle of instability  where q' is the heat release rate perturbation and p' is the pressure fluctuation. When the heat release oscillations are in phase with the pressure oscillations, the Rayleigh Index is positive and the magnitude of the thermo acoustic instability is maximised. On the other hand, if the Rayleigh Index is negative, then thermoacoustic damping occurs. The Rayleigh Criterion implies that a thermoacoustic instability can be optimally controlled by having heat release oscillations 180 degrees out of phase with pressure oscillations at the same frequency. This minimizes the Rayleigh Index.

Combustion, or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. Combustion doesn't always result in fire, but when it does, a flame is a characteristic indicator of the reaction. While the activation energy must be overcome to initiate combustion (e.g., using a lit match to light a fire), the heat from a flame may provide enough energy to make the reaction self-sustaining. Combustion is often a complicated sequence of elementary radical reactions. Solid fuels, such as wood and coal, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the heat required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that incandescent light in the form of either glowing or a flame is produced. A simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen into water vapor, a reaction commonly used to fuel rocket engines. This reaction releases 242 kJ/mol of heat and reduces the enthalpy accordingly (at constant temperature and pressure):

燃烧(Combustion)是一个快速放热过程,是可燃物与氧化剂相互做氧化还原的化学反应时,化学能快速释放为热能和辐射能的过程。由于化学能属位能,而热能和辐射能属动能,宏观而言燃烧是位能转换为动能的过程。


History.

Knights of the Bath.

In the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the knight-to-be taking a bath (possibly symbolic of spiritual purification) during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry. Clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight. He was then brought before the King, who after instructing two senior knights to buckle the spurs to the knight-elect's heels, fastened a belt around his waist, then struck him on the neck (with either a hand or a sword), thus making him a knight. It was this accolade which was the essential act in creating a knight, and a simpler ceremony developed, conferring knighthood merely by striking or touching the knight-to-be on the shoulder with a sword, or "dubbing" him, as is still done today. In the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the

Foundation of the order.

The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, England's highest heraldic officer. Sir Anthony Wagner, a recent holder of the office of Garter, wrote of Anstis's motivations:  It was Martin Leake's opinion that the trouble and opposition Anstis met with in establishing himself as Garter so embittered him against the heralds that when at last in 1718 he succeeded, he made it his prime object to aggrandise himself and his office at their expense. It is clear at least that he set out to make himself indispensable to the Earl Marshal, which was not hard, their political principles being congruous and their friendship already established, but also to Sir Robert Walpole and the Whig ministry, which can by no means have been easy, considering his known attachment to the Pretender and the circumstances under which he came

Restructuring in 1815.

In January 1815, after the end of the Peninsular War, the Prince Regent (later George IV) expanded the Order of the Bath "to the end that those Officers who have had the opportunities of signalising themselves by eminent services during the late war may share in the honours of the said Order, and that their names may be delivered down to remote posterity, accompanied by the marks of distinction which they have so nobly earned."  The Order was now to consist of three classes: Knights Grand Cross, Knights Commander, and Companions. The existing Knights Companion (of which there were 60) became Knight

The Victorian era.

In 1847, Queen Victoria issued new statutes eliminating all references to an exclusively military Order. As well as removing the word 'Military' from the full name of the Order, this opened up the grades of Knight Commander and Companion to civil appointments, and the Military and Civil Divisions of the Order were established. New numerical limits were imposed, and the opportunity also taken to regularise the 1815 expansion of the Order. The 1847 statutes also abolished all the medieval ritual, but they did introduce a formal Investiture ceremony, conducted by the Sovereign wearing the Mantle and insignia of the Order, attended by the Officers and as many GCBs as possible, in their Mantles.  In 1850, a special statute authorised appointments of Knight

The 20th century.

In 1910, after his accession to the throne, George V ordered the revival of the Installation ceremony, perhaps prompted by the first Installation ceremony of the more junior Order of St Michael and St George, held a few years earlier, and the building of a new chapel for the Order of the Thistle in 1911. The Installation ceremony took place on 22 July 1913 in the Henry VII Chapel, and Installations have been held at regular intervals since.  Prior to the 1913 Installation it was necessary to adapt the chapel to accommodate the larger number of members. An appeal was made to the members

Composition.

Sovereign.

The British Sovereign is the Sovereign of the Order of the Bath. As with all

Great Master.

The next-most senior member of the Order is the Great Master, of which there have been nine:  Originally a Prince of the Blood Royal, as the Principal Knight Companion, ranked next after the sovereign. This

Members.

The statutes also provide for the following:  Regular membership is limited to citizens of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries of which the Queen is Sovereign. Appointees are usually officers of the armed forces or senior civil servants, such as permanent secretaries.  Members appointed to the Civil Division must "by their personal services to [the] crown or by the performance of public duties have merited... royal favour." Appointments to the Military Division are restricted by the minimum rank of the individual. GCBs hold the rank of admiral in the Royal Navy, general in the British Army or Royal Marines, or air chief marshal in the Royal Air Force. KCBs must at least hold the rank of vice admiral, lieutenant general in the Army or Marines, or air marshal. CBs tend be of the rank of rear admiral, major general in the Army, Royal Navy or Royal Marines, or air vice marshal in the Royal Air Force, and in addition must have been Mentioned in Despatches for distinction in a command position in a combat situation, although the latter is no longer

Officers.

The Order of the Bath now has six officers:  The office of Dean is held by the Dean of Westminster. The King of Arms, responsible for heraldry, is known as Bath King of Arms; he is not, however, a member of the College of Arms, like many heralds. The Order's Usher is known as the Gentleman Usher of the Scarlet Rod; he does not, unlike his Order of the Garter equivalent (the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod) perform any duties in the House of Lords.  There were originally seven officers, each of whom was to receive fees from the Knights Companion both on appointment and annually thereafter. The office of Messenger was abolished in

Habit and insignia.

Members of the Order wear elaborate costumes on important occasions (such as its quadrennial installation ceremonies and coronations), which vary by rank:  The "mantle", worn only by Knights and Dames Grand Cross, is made of crimson satin lined with white taffeta. On the left side is a representation of the star (see below). The mantle is bound with two large tassels.  The "hat", worn only by Knights and Dames Grand Cross and Knights and Dames Commander, is made of black velvet; it includes an upright plume of feathers.  The "collar", worn only by Knights and Dames Grand Cross, is made of gold and weighs 30 troy ounces (933 g). It consists of depictions of nine imperial crowns and eight sets of flowers (roses for England, thistles for Scotland and shamrocks for Ireland), connected by seventeen silver knots.  On lesser occasions, simpler insignia are used: The "star" is used only by Knights and Dames Grand Cross and Knights and Dames Commander. Its style varies by rank and division; it is worn pinned to the left breast:  The star for "military Knights and Dames Grand Cross" consists of a Maltese Cross on top of an eight-pointed silver star; the star for "military Knights and Dames Commander" is an eight-pointed silver cross pattée. Each bears in the centre three crowns surrounded by a red ring bearing the motto of the Order in gold letters. The circle is flanked by two laurel branches and is above a scroll bearing the words "Ich dien" (older German for "I serve") in

Chapel.

The Chapel of the Order is the Henry VII Lady Chapel in Westminster Abbey. Every four years, an installation ceremony, presided over by the Great Master, and a religious service are held in the Chapel; the Sovereign attends every alternate ceremony. The last such service was Thursday, 24 May 2018, in the Order's 293rd year, and was presided over by the Prince of Wales The Sovereign and each knight who has been installed is allotted a stall in the choir of the chapel.  As there are a limited number of stalls in the Chapel, only the most senior Knights and Dames Grand Cross are installed. A stall made vacant by the death of a military Knight Grand Cross is offered to the next most senior uninstalled military GCB, and similarly for vacancies among civil GCBs. Waits between admission to the Order and installation may be very long; for instance, Marshal of the Air Force Lord Craig of Radley was created a Knight Grand Cross in 1984, but was not installed until 2006.

Precedence and privileges.

Members of the Order of the Bath are assigned positions in the order of precedence. Wives of male members also feature on the order of precedence, as do sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander; relatives of female members, however, are not assigned any special precedence. Generally, individuals can derive precedence from their fathers or husbands, but not from their mothers or wives. (See order of precedence in England and Wales for the exact positions.)  Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander prefix "Sir", and Dames Grand Cross and Dames Commander prefix "Dame", to their forenames. Wives of Knights may prefix "Lady" to their surnames, but no equivalent privilege exists for husbands of Dames. Such forms are not used by peers and

Revocation.

It is possible for membership in the Order to be revoked. Under the 1725 statutes the grounds for this were heresy, high treason, or fleeing from battle out of cowardice. Knights Companion could in such cases be degraded at the next Chapter meeting. It was then the duty of the Gentleman Usher to "pluck down the escocheon [i.e. stallplate] of such knight and spurn it out of the chapel" with "all the usual marks of infamy".  Only two people were ever degraded – Lord Cochrane in 1813 and General Sir Eyre Coote in 1816, both for political reasons, rather than any of the grounds given in the statute. Lord Cochrane was subsequently reinstated, but Coote died a few years after his degradation.  Under Queen Victoria's 1847 statutes a member "convicted of treason, cowardice, felony, or any infamous crime derogatory to his honour as a knight or gentleman, or accused and does not submit to trial in a reasonable time, shall be degraded from the Order by

See also.

For people who have been appointed to the Order of the Bath, see the following categories:  In his 1978 novel "Desolation Island," Patrick O'Brian wrote that Capt. Jack Aubrey had named to the Order of the Bath.

The Most Honourable Order of the Bath (formerly the Most Honourable Military Order of the Bath) is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the elaborate medieval ceremony for appointing a knight, which involved bathing (as a symbol of purification) as one of its elements. The knights so created were known as ’Knights of the Bath’. George I "erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order". He did not (as is commonly believed) revive the Order of the Bath, since it had never previously existed as an Order, in the sense of a body of knights who were governed by a set of statutes and whose numbers were replenished when vacancies occurred.

最尊贵的巴斯勋章(The Most Honourable Order of the Bath,旧称最尊贵的巴斯军事勋章),由乔治一世在1725年5月18日设立。巴斯一名来自于中世纪时代,册封骑士的其中一种仪式——沐浴,象征着净化。以这种方式册封的骑士称为“沐浴骑士”,音译为“巴斯骑士”。乔治一世为这些骑士设立了巴斯骑士团,但他本人并非巴斯骑士,因为巴斯骑士此前并非骑士团,管理依据一系列的规定进行,在巴斯骑士出现空缺时会选择人选替补。


Description.

The genus "Plasmodium" consists of all eukaryotes in the phylum Apicomplexa that both undergo the asexual replication process of merogony inside host red blood cells and produce the crystalline pigment hemozoin as a byproduct of digesting host hemoglobin. "Plasmodium" species contain many features that are common to other eukaryotes, and some that are unique to their phylum or genus. The "Plasmodium" genome is separated into 14 chromosomes contained in the nucleus. "Plasmodium" parasites maintain a single copy of their genome through much of the life cycle, doubling the genome only for a brief sexual exchange within the midgut of the insect host. Attached to the nucleus is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which functions similarly to the ER in other eukaryotes. Proteins are trafficked from the ER to the Golgi apparatus which generally consists of a single membrane-bound compartment in Apicomplexans. From here proteins are trafficked to various cellular compartments or to the cell surface.  Like other apicomplexans, "Plasmodium" species have several cellular structures at the apical end of the parasite that serve as specialized organelles for secreting effectors into the host. The most prominent are the bulbous rhoptries which contain parasite proteins involved in invading the host cell and modifying the host once inside. Adjacent to the rhoptries are smaller structures termed micronemes that contain parasite proteins required for motility as well as recognizing and attaching to host cells. Spread throughout the parasite are secretory vesicles called dense granules that contain parasite proteins involved in modifying the membrane that separates the parasite from the host, termed the parasitophorous vacuole.  Species of "Plasmodium" also contain two large membrane-bound organelles of endosymbiotic origin, the mitochondrion and the apicoplast, both of which play key roles in the parasite's metabolism. Unlike mammalian cells which contain many mitochondria, "Plasmodium" cells contain a single large mitochondrion that coordinates its division with that of the "Plasmodium" cell. Like in other eukaryotes, the "Plasmodium" mitochondrion is capable of generating energy in the form of ATP via the citric acid cycle; however, this function is only required for parasite survival in the insect host, and is not needed for growth in red blood cells. A second organelle, the apicoplast, is derived from a secondary endosymbiosis event, in this case the acquisition of a red alga by the "Plasmodium" ancestor. The apicoplast is involved in the synthesis of various metabolic precursors, including fatty acids, isoprenoids, iron-sulphur clusters, and components of the heme biosynthesis pathway.

Life cycle.

The life cycle of "Plasmodium" involves several distinct stages in the insect and vertebrate hosts. Parasites are generally introduced into a vertebrate host by the bite of an insect host (generally a mosquito, with the exception of some "Plasmodium" species of reptiles). Parasites first infect the liver or other tissue, where they undergo a single large round of replication before exiting the host cell to infect erythrocytes. At this point, some species of "Plasmodium" of primates can form a long-lived dormant stage called a hypnozoite. It can remain in the liver for more than a year. However, for most "Plasmodium" species, the parasites in infected liver cells are only what are called merozoites. After emerging from the liver, they enter red blood cells, as explained above. They then go through continuous cycles of erythrocyte infection, while a small percentage of parasites differentiate into a sexual stage called a gametocyte which is picked up by an insect host taking a blood meal. In some hosts, invasion of erythrocytes by "Plasmodium" species can result in disease, called malaria. This can sometimes be severe, rapidly followed by death of the host (e.g. "P. falciparum" in humans). In other hosts, "Plasmodium" infection can apparently be asymptomatic.  Within the red blood cells, the merozoites grow first to a ring-shaped form and then to a larger form called a trophozoite. Trophozoites then mature to schizonts which divide several times to produce new merozoites. The infected red blood cell eventually bursts, allowing the new merozoites to travel within the bloodstream to infect new red blood cells. Most merozoites continue this replicative cycle, however some merozoites upon infecting red blood cells differentiate into male or female sexual forms called gametocytes. These gametocytes circulate in the blood until they are taken up when a mosquito feeds on the infected vertebrate host, taking up blood which includes the gametocytes.  In the mosquito, the gametocytes move along with the blood meal to the mosquito's midgut. Here the gametocytes develop into male and female gametes which fertilize each other, forming a zygote. Zygotes then develop into a motile form called an ookinete, which penetrates the wall of the midgut. Upon traversing the midgut wall, the ookinete embeds into the gut's exterior membrane and develops into an oocyst. Oocysts divide many times to produce large numbers of small elongated sporozoites. These sporozoites migrate to the salivary glands of the mosquito where they can be injected into the blood of the next host the mosquito bites, repeating the cycle.

Evolution and taxonomy.

Taxonomy.

"Plasmodium" belongs to the phylum Apicomplexa, a taxonomic group of single-celled parasites with characteristic secretory organelles at one end of the cell. Within Apicomplexa, "Plasmodium" is within the order Haemosporida, a group that includes all apicomplexans that live within blood cells. Based on the presence of the pigment hemozoin and the method of asexual reproduction, the order is further split into four families, of which "Plasmodium" is in the family Plasmodiidae.  The genus "Plasmodium" consists of over 200 species, generally described on the basis of their appearance in blood smears of infected vertebrates. These species have been categorized on the basis of their morphology and host range into 14 subgenera:  Species infecting monkeys and apes with the exceptions of "P. falciparum" and "P. reichenowi" (which together make up the subgenus "Laverania") are classified in the subgenus "Plasmodium". Parasites infecting other mammals including some primates (lemurs and others) are classified in the subgenus "Vinckeia". The five subgenera "Bennettinia", "Giovannolaia", "Haemamoeba", "Huffia", and "Novyella" contain the known avian malarial species. The remaining subgenera: "Asiamoeba", "Carinamoeba", "Lacertamoeba", "Ophidiella", "Paraplasmodium", and "Sauramoeba" contain the diverse groups of parasites found to infect reptiles.

Phylogeny.

More recent studies of "Plasmodium" species using molecular methods have implied that the group's evolution has not perfectly followed taxonomy. Many "Plasmodium" species that are morphologically similar or infect the same hosts turn out to be only distantly related. In the 1990s, several studies sought to evaluate evolutionary relationships of "Plasmodium" species by comparing ribosomal RNA and a surface protein gene from various species, finding the human parasite "P. falciparum" to be more closely related to avian parasites than to other parasites of primates. However, later studies sampling more "Plasmodium" species found the parasites of mammals to form a clade along with the genus "Hepatocystis", while the parasites of birds or lizards appear to form a separate clade with evolutionary relationships not following the subgenera:  Estimates for when different "Plasmodium" lineages diverged have differed broadly. Estimates for the diversification of the order Haemosporida range from around 16.2 million to 100 million years ago. There has been particular interest in dating the divergence of the human parasite "P. falciparum" from other "Plasmodium" lineages due to its medical importance. For this, estimated dates range from 110,000 to 2.5 million years ago.

Distribution.

"Plasmodium" species are distributed globally. All "Plasmodium" species are parasitic and must pass between a vertebrate host and an insect host to complete their life cycles. Different species of "Plasmodium" display different host ranges, with some species restricted to a single vertebrate and insect host, while other species can infect several species of vertebrates and/or insects.

Vertebrates.

"Plasmodium" parasites have been described in a broad array of vertebrate hosts including reptiles, birds, and mammals. While many species can infect more than one vertebrate host, they are generally specific to one of these classes (such as birds).  Humans are primarily infected by five species of "Plasmodium", with the overwhelming majority of severe disease and death caused by "Plasmodium falciparum". Some species that infect humans can also infect other primates, and zoonoses of certain species (e.g. "P. knowlesi") from other primates to humans are common. Non-human primates also contain a variety of "Plasmodium" species that do not generally infect humans. Some of these can cause severe disease in primates, while others can remain in the host for prolonged periods without causing disease. Many other mammals also carry "Plasmodium" species, such as a variety of rodents, ungulates, and bats. Again, some species of "Plasmodium" can cause severe disease in some of these hosts, while many appear not to.  Over 150 species of "Plasmodium" infect a broad variety of birds. In general each species of "Plasmodium" infects one to a few species of birds. "Plasmodium" parasites that infect birds tend to persist in a given host for years or for the life time of the host, although in some cases "Plasmodium" infections can result in severe illness and rapid death. Unlike with "Plasmodium" species infecting mammals, those infecting birds are distributed across the globe.  Species from several subgenera of "Plasmodium" infect diverse reptiles. "Plasmodium" parasites have been described in most lizard families and, like avian parasites, are spread worldwide. Again, parasites can result either in severe disease or be apparently asymptomatic depending on the parasite and the host.  A number of drugs have been developed over the years to control "Plasmodium" infection in vertebrate hosts, particularly in humans. Quinine was used as a frontline antimalarial from the 17th century until widespread resistance emerged in the early 20th century. Resistance to quinine spurred the development of a broad array of antimalarial medications through the 20th century including chloroquine, proguanil, atovaquone, sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine, mefloquine, and artemisinin. In all cases, parasites resistant to a given drug have emerged within a few decades of the drugs deployment. To combat this, antimalarial drugs are frequently used in combination, with artemisinin combination therapies currently the gold standard for treatment. In general, antimalarial drugs target the life stages of "Plasmodium" parasites that reside within vertebrate red blood cells, as these are the stages that tend to cause disease. However, drugs targeting other stages of the parasite life cycle are under development in order to prevent infection in travelers and to prevent transmission of sexual stages to insect hosts.

Insects.

In addition to a vertebrate host, all "Plasmodium" species also infect a bloodsucking insect host, generally a mosquito (although some reptile-infecting parasites are transmitted by sandflies). Mosquitoes of the genera "Culex", "Anopheles", "Culiseta", "Mansonia" and "Aedes" act as insect hosts for various "Plasmodium" species. The best studied of these are the "Anopheles" mosquitoes which host the "Plasmodium" parasites of human malaria, as well as "Culex" mosquitoes which host the "Plasmodium" species that cause malaria in birds. Only female mosquitoes are infected with "Plasmodium", since only they feed on the blood of vertebrate hosts. Different species affect their insect hosts differently. Sometimes, insects infected with "Plasmodium" have reduced lifespan and reduced ability to produce offspring. Further, some species of "Plasmodium" appear to cause insects to prefer to bite infected vertebrate hosts over non-infected hosts.

History.

"Plasmodium" was first identified when Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran described parasites in the blood of malaria patients in 1880. He named the parasite "Oscillaria malariae". In 1885, zoologists Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli reexamined the parasite and termed it a member of a new genus, "Plasmodium", named for the resemblance to the multinucleate cells of slime molds of the same name. The fact that several species may be involved in causing different forms of malaria was first recognized by Camillo Golgi in 1886. Soon thereafter, Giovanni Batista Grassi and Raimondo Filetti named the parasites causing two different types of human malaria "Plasmodium vivax" and "Plasmodium malariae". In 1897, William Welch identified and named "Plasmodium falciparum". This was followed by the recognition of the other two species of "Plasmodium" which infect humans: "Plasmodium ovale" (1922) and "Plasmodium knowlesi" (identified in long-tailed macaques in 1931; in humans in 1965). The contribution of insect hosts to the "Plasmodium" life cycle was described in 1897 by Ronald Ross and in 1899 by Giovanni Batista Grassi, Amico Bignami and Giuseppe Bastianelli.  In 1966, Cyril Garnham proposed separating "Plasmodium" into nine subgenera based on host specificity and parasite morphology. This included four subgenera that had previously been proposed for bird-infecting "Plasmodium" species by A. Corradetti in 1963. This scheme was expanded upon by Sam R. Telford in 1988 when he reclassified "Plasmodium" parasites that infect reptiles, adding five subgenera. In 1997, G. Valkiunas reclassified the bird-infecting "Plasmodium" species adding a fifth subgenus: "Bennettinia".

Plasmodium is a genus of unicellular eukaryotes that are obligate parasites of vertebrates and insects. The life cycles of "Plasmodium" species involve development in a blood-feeding insect host which then injects parasites into a vertebrate host during a blood meal. Parasites grow within a vertebrate body tissue (often the liver) before entering the bloodstream to infect red blood cells. The ensuing destruction of host red blood cells can result in disease, called malaria. During this infection, some parasites are picked up by a blood-feeding insect, continuing the life cycle.

疟原虫属(Plasmodium)是一类单细胞、寄生性的囊泡虫藻类。本属生物通称为疟原虫。本属生物中有五种疟原虫会使人类感染疟疾,包括恶性疟原虫("Plasmodium falciparum")、三日疟原虫("Plasmodium malariae")、卵形疟原虫("Plasmodium ovale")及间日疟原虫("Plasmodium vivax")、 诺氏疟原虫("Plasmodium knowlesi")。而其他种类的疟原虫会感染它种动物,包括其他灵长目动物、囓齿目动物、鸟类及爬虫类。


History and terminology.

The precise meaning of the term "machining" has evolved over the past one and a half centuries as technology has advanced. In the 18th century, the word "machinist" simply meant a person who built or repaired machines. This person's work was done mostly by hand, using processes such as the carving of wood and the hand-forging and hand-filing of metal. At the time, millwrights and builders of new kinds of "engines" (meaning, more or less, machines of any kind), such as James Watt or John Wilkinson, would fit the definition. The noun "machine tool" and the verb "to machine" ("machined, machining") did not yet exist.  Around the middle of the 19th century, the latter words were coined as the concepts that they described evolved into widespread existence. Therefore, during the Machine Age, "machining" referred to (what we today might call) the "traditional" machining processes, such as turning, boring, drilling, milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planing, reaming, and tapping. In these "traditional" or "conventional" machining processes, machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, drill presses, or others, are used with a sharp cutting tool to remove material to achieve a desired geometry.  Since the advent of new technologies in the post–World War II era, such as electrical discharge machining, electrochemical machining, electron beam machining, photochemical machining, and ultrasonic machining, the retronym "conventional machining" can be used to differentiate those classic technologies from the newer ones. In current usage, the term "machining" without qualification usually implies the traditional machining processes.  In the decades of the 2000s and 2010s, as additive manufacturing (AM) evolved beyond its earlier laboratory and rapid prototyping contexts and began to become common throughout all phases of manufacturing, the term "subtractive manufacturing" became common retronymously in logical contrast with AM, covering essentially any removal processes also previously covered by the term "machining". The two terms are effectively synonymous, although the long-established usage of the term "machining" continues. This is comparable to the idea that evolved because of the proliferation of ways to contact someone (telephone, email, IM, SMS, and so on) but did not entirely replace the earlier terms such as "call", "talk to", or "write to".

Machining operations.

The three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing, boring, broaching and sawing.  An unfinished workpiece requiring machining will need to have some material cut away to create a finished product. A finished product would be a workpiece that meets the specifications set out for that workpiece by engineering drawings or blueprints. For example, a workpiece may be required to have a specific outside diameter. A lathe is a machine tool that can be used to create that diameter by rotating a metal workpiece, so that a cutting tool can cut metal away, creating a smooth, round surface matching the required diameter and surface finish. A drill can be used to remove metal in the shape of a cylindrical hole. Other tools that may be used for various types of metal removal are milling machines, saws, and grinding machines. Many of these same techniques are used in woodworking.  More recent, advanced machining techniques include precision CNC machining, electrical discharge machining (EDM), electro-chemical erosion, laser cutting, or water jet cutting to shape metal workpieces.  As a commercial venture, machining is generally performed in a machine shop, which consists of one or more workrooms containing major machine tools. Although a machine shop can be a stand-alone operation, many businesses maintain internal machine shops which support specialized needs of the business.  Machining requires attention to many details for a workpiece to meet the specifications set out in the engineering drawings or blueprints. Beside the obvious problems related to correct dimensions, there is the problem of achieving the correct finish or surface smoothness on the workpiece. The inferior finish found on the machined surface of a workpiece may be caused by incorrect clamping, a dull tool, or inappropriate presentation of a tool. Frequently, this poor surface finish, known as chatter, is evident by an undulating or irregular finish, and the appearance of waves on the machined surfaces of the workpiece.

Overview of machining technology.

Machining is any process in which a cutting tool is used to remove small chips of material from the workpiece (the workpiece is often called the "work"). To perform the operation, relative motion is required between the tool and the work. This relative motion is achieved in most machining operation by means of a primary motion, called "cutting speed" and a secondary motion called "feed". The shape of the tool and its penetration into the work surface, combined with these motions, produce the desired shape of the resulting work surface.

Machining operations.

There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of generating a certain part geometry and surface texture.  In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape. The primary motion is provided by rotating the workpiece, and the feed motion is achieved by moving the cutting tool slowly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.  Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that typically has two or four helical cutting edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into the workpiece to form the round hole.  In boring, a tool with a single bent pointed tip is advanced into a roughly made hole in a spinning workpiece to slightly enlarge the hole and improve its accuracy. It is a fine finishing operation used in the final stages of product manufacture.  Reaming is one of the sizing operations that removes a small amount of metal from a hole already drilled.  In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly relative to the material to generate a plane or straight surface. The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool's axis of rotation. The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are:  Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planing, broaching and sawing. Also, grinding and similar abrasive operations are often included within the category of machining.

Cutting tool.

A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder than the work material. The cutting edge serves to separate chip from the parent work material. Connected to the cutting edge are the two surfaces of the tool:  The rake face which directs the flow of newly formed chip, is oriented at a certain angle is called the rake angle "α". It is measured relative to the plane perpendicular to the work surface. The rake angle can be positive or negative. The flank of the tool provides a clearance between the tool and the newly formed work surface, thus protecting the surface from abrasion, which would degrade the finish. This angle between the work surface and the flank surface is called the relief angle. There are two basic types of cutting tools:  A single point tool has one cutting edge and is used for turning, boring and planing. During machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the workpart. The point is sometimes rounded to a certain radius, called the nose radius.  Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their motion relative to the workpart by rotating. Drilling and milling uses rotating multiple-cutting-edge tools. Although the shapes of these tools are different from a single-point tool, many elements of tool geometry are similar.

Cutting conditions.

Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a machining operation. The primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed. In addition, the tool must be moved laterally across the work. This is a much slower motion, called the feed. The remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool below the original work surface, called the depth of cut. Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the cutting conditions. They form the three dimensions of the machining process, and for certain operations, their product can be used to obtain the material removal rate for the process:  where

Stages in metal cutting.

Machining operations usually divide into two categories, distinguished by purpose and cutting conditions:  Roughing cuts are used to remove large amount of material from the starting workpart as rapidly as possible, i.e. with a large Material Removal Rate (MRR), in order to produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving some material on the piece for a subsequent finishing operation. Finishing cuts are used to complete the part and achieve the final dimension, tolerances, and surface finish. In production machining jobs, one or more roughing cuts are usually performed on the work, followed by one or two finishing cuts. Roughing operations are done at high feeds and depths – feeds of 0.4–1.25 mm/rev (0.015–0.050 in/rev) and depths of 2.5–20 mm (0.100–0.750 in) are typical, but actual values depend on the workpiece materials. Finishing operations are carried out at low feeds and depths – feeds of 0.0125–0.04 mm/rev (0.0005–0.0015 in/rev) and depths of 0.75–2.0 mm (0.030–0.075 in) are typical. Cutting speeds are lower in roughing than in finishing.  A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool and lubricate the cutting tool. Determining whether a cutting fluid should be used, and, if so, choosing the proper cutting fluid, is usually included within the scope of cutting condition.  Today other forms of metal cutting are becoming increasingly popular. An example of this is water jet cutting. Water jet cutting involves pressurized water in excess of 620 MPa (90 000 psi) and is able to cut metal and have a finished product. This process is called cold cutting, which eliminates the damage caused by a heat affected zone, as opposed to laser and plasma cutting.

Relationship of subtractive and additive techniques.

With the recent proliferation of additive manufacturing technologies, conventional machining has been retronymously classified, in thought and language, as a subtractive manufacturing method. In narrow contexts, additive and subtractive methods may compete with each other. In the broad context of entire industries, their relationship is complementary. Each method has its own advantages over the other. While additive manufacturing methods can produce very intricate prototype designs impossible to replicate by machining, strength and material selection may be limited.

Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material is cut into a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. The processes that have this common theme, controlled material removal, are today collectively known as subtractive manufacturing, in distinction from processes of controlled material addition, which are known as additive manufacturing. Exactly what the "controlled" part of the definition implies can vary, but it almost always implies the use of machine tools (in addition to just power tools and hand tools).

机械加工是一种用加工机械对工件的外形尺寸或性能进行改变的过程。按被加工的工件处于的温度状态,分为冷加工和热加工。一般在常温下加工,并且不引起工件的化学或物相变化,称冷加工。一般在高于常温状态的加工,会引起工件的化学或物相变化,称热加工。冷加工按加工方式的差别可分为切削加工和压力加工。热加工常见有热处理、锻造、铸造和焊接。


Early life.

Sancho was baptized with the name Martin (Martinho) since he was born on the feast day of Saint Martin of Tours. On 15 August 1170, he was knighted by his father, King Afonso I, and from then on he became his second in command, both administratively and militarily. At this time, the independence of Portugal (declared in 1139) was not firmly established. The kings of León and Castile were trying to re-annex the country and the Roman Catholic Church was late in giving its blessing and approval. Due to this situation Afonso I had to search for allies within the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal made an alliance with the Crown of Aragon and together they fought Castile and León. To secure the agreement, Sancho married Dulce, younger sister of King Alfonso II of Aragon, in 1174. Aragon was thus the first Iberian kingdom to recognize the independence of Portugal.

Succession.

With the death of Afonso I in 1185, Sancho I became the second king of Portugal. Coimbra was the centre of his kingdom; Sancho terminated the exhausting and generally pointless wars against his neighbours for control of the Galician borderlands. Instead, he turned all his attentions to the south, towards the Moorish small kingdoms (called taifas) that still thrived. With Crusader help he took Silves in 1188. Silves was an important city of the South, an administrative and commercial town with population estimates around 20,000 people. Sancho ordered the fortification of the city and built a castle which is today an important monument of Portuguese heritage. At the time he also styled himself "By the Grace of God, King of Portugal and Silves ("Dei Gratiæ, Rex Portugalliæ et Silbis"). However, military attention soon had to be turned again to the North, where León and Castile threatened again the Portuguese borders. Silves was again lost to the Moors in 1191.

Legacy.

Sancho I dedicated much of his reign to political and administrative organization of the new kingdom. He accumulated a national treasure, supported new industries and the middle class of merchants. Moreover, he created several new towns and villages (like Guarda in 1199) and took great care in populating remote areas in the northern Christian regions of Portugal – hence the nickname "the Populator". The king was also known for his love of knowledge and literature. Sancho I wrote several books of poems and used the royal treasure to send Portuguese students to European universities. He died in Coimbra, aged 56.

Marriage and issue.

Sancho married Dulce of Aragon, daughter of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona and Petronilla, Queen of Aragon. Eleven children were born from this marriage, nine of whom reached adulthood:

Children out of wedlock.

With Maria Aires de Fornelos, daughter of Aires Nunes de Fornelos and Maior Pais, who was buried at the Monastery of Santo Tirso in accordance with her last will, Sancho had two children, both born before his marriage to Dulce of Aragon: After Dulce's death, he had an affair with María Pais de Ribeira "a Ribeiriña" for whom he is often said to have written and dedicated a cantiga de amigo, "A Ribeirinha", composed in 1199, the oldest text known in Portuguese poetry. That is contested nowadays by the Portuguese historian António de Resende Oliveira, who claims this cantiga was composed by Alfonso X of Castile or perhaps Sancho II of Portugal. At least six children were born of this relationship: King Sancho also had one son with Maria Moniz de Ribeira, daughter of Munio Osorio, tenente of the comarca of Cabreira and Ribera,and of Maria Nunes of Grijó,:

Sancho I (), nicknamed "the Populator" (), King of Portugal (Coimbra, 11 November 115426 March 1211) was the second but only surviving legitimate son and fifth child of Afonso I of Portugal by his wife, Maud of Savoy. Sancho succeeded his father and was crowned in Coimbra when he was 31 years old on 9 December 1185. He used the title King of Silves from 1189 until he lost the territory to Almohad control in 1191.

桑乔一世(殖民者)Sancho I o Povoador(1154年11月11日-1211年)独立的葡萄牙的第二位国王(1185年-1212年在位)。