History.

Forerunner organizations.

The original Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP) was founded on 28 June 1951 by Cambodian nationalists who struggled to free Cambodia from French colonial rule. Nationalists in Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos shared the same belief that to free themselves from France successfully they needed to work together. Thus the Indochinese Communist Party was formed in 1930.  However, the triumph of the Japanese during the early stage of World War II crippled French rule and helped to nurture nationalism in all three Indochinese countries. Consequently, the idea of an Indochinese-wide party was submerged in the rhetoric of fierce nationalism. In Cambodia, growing nationalist sentiment and national pride married historical mistrust and fear of neighbouring countries, which turned out to be a stumbling block for the ICP.  In 1955, a subsidiary party named People’s Party was established to contest in the national election that year. The name of the party was changed to the Workers' Party of Kampuchea (WPK) on 28 September 1960 and then to the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK, whose followers were named as the Khmer Rouge by Prince Norodom Sihanouk) in September 1966 with its headquarter in Ratanak Kiri province.

Constitution and early days Pen Sovan's leadership (1979–1981).

In early 1979, KPRP members who overthrew Democratic Kampuchea or the Khmer Rouge to end the genocide held a congress. At this gathering, they declared themselves the true successors of the original KPRP founded in 1951 and labelled the congress as the Third Party Congress, thus not recognizing the 1963, 1975 and 1978 congresses of CPK as legitimate. The party considered 28 June 1951 as its founding date. A national committee led by Pen Sovan and Roh Samai was appointed by the Congress. The women's wing of the party, the National Association of Women for the Salvation of Kampuchea, was also established in 1979 with a vast national network of members that extended to the district level.  The existence of the party was kept secret until its 4th congress in May 1981, when it appeared publicly and assumed the name KPRP. The name-change was stated to be carried out "to clearly distinguish it from the reactionary Pol Pot party and to underline and reassert the continuity of the party's best traditions". Very little is known about the Third Party Congress, also known as the Congress for Party Reconstruction, except that Pen Sovan was elected first secretary of the Central Committee and that the party had between sixty-two and sixty-six regular members. The congress elected a Central Committee of 7 members: General Secretary Pen Sovan, Permanent Members: Heng Samrin and Chea Sim; and Central Members: Hun Sen, Bou Thang, Van Son and Chan Sy. Chan Kiri is Head of the Party Commission for Inspection. March 1979, Van Son and Chan Kiri was dismissed and Pen Sovan, Chea Sim and Say Phouthang (chair of the Central Organization Committee of the Party) formation of the Party' Central Standing.

Fourth Party Congress: change of strategy (1981).

In Pen Sovan's political report to the Fourth Party Congress held 26 to 29 May 1981, he was careful to distance the KPRP from Pol Pot's CPK and he denounced the CPK as a traitor to the party and to the nation. The KPRP decided at the Fourth Party Congress to operate "openly". This move seemed to reflect the leadership's growing confidence in its ability to stay in power despite the ongoing guerrilla war with the Khmer Rouge. The move may have had a practical dimension as well because it involved the people more actively in the regime's effort to build the country's political and administrative infrastructure after the Khmer Rouge genocide from 1975 to 1979.  The Fourth Party Congress reviewed Pen Sovan's political report and defined the party's strategy for the next several years. The Congress adopted five "basic principles of the party line", which were to uphold the banners of patriotism and of international proletarian solidarity; to defend the country (the primary and sacred task of all people); to restore and to develop the economy and the culture in the course of gradual transition toward socialism; to strengthen military solidarity with Vietnam, Laos, the Soviet Union and other socialist nations; and to develop "a firm Marxist–Leninist party".  At the Congress, it was decided that henceforth the party would be known as the KPRP in order to distinguish it from "the reactionary Pol Pot party and to underline and reassert the community of the party's best traditions". The Fourth Party Congress also proclaimed its resolve to stamp out the "reactionary ultra-nationalist doctrine of Pol Pot", to emphasize a centralized government and collective leadership and to reject personality cults. The "ultra-nationalist doctrine" issue was an allusion to Pol Pot's racist, anti-Vietnamese stance. The Congress, attended by 162 delegates, elected twenty-one members of the party Central Committee, who in turn elected Pen Sovan as general secretary and the eight members of the party inner circle to the Political Bureau (Heng Samrin, number 2 member; Chea Sim, number 4 member; Hun Sen, number 6 member; Chan Sy, minister of defense and prime minister from December 1981; number 7, including Chea Soth, deputy prime minister, Bou Thang, chair of the Party’s Central Propaganda Committee, deputy prime minister from 1982 to 1992 and minister of defense from 1982 to 1986; and Chan Sy), seven members of Secretariat (including Hun Sen). It also adopted a new statute for the party, but did not release the text. According to Michael Vickery, veterans of the independence struggle of the 1946 to 1954 period dominated the party Central Committee. A majority of the Central Committee members had spent all or part of the years 1954 to 1970 in exile in Vietnam or in the performance of "duties abroad".

Heng Samrin's leadership (1981-1991).

The KPRP's pro-Vietnamese position did not change when Heng Samrin suddenly replaced Pen Sovan as party leader on 4 December 1981. Heng Samrin and Chea Sim is the first and second positions in the Politburo. Pen Sovan, who was reportedly flown to Hanoi under Vietnamese guard, was "permitted to take a long rest. In any case, the new general secretary won Hanoi's endorsement by acknowledging Vietnam's role as equal partner in the Cambodian-Vietnamese relationship.  In mid-1981, the KPRP had countrywide party branches in Phnom Penh, in Kampong Som and in the eighteen provincial capitals. Party membership was estimated at between 600 and 1,000, a considerable increase over 1979, but still only a fraction of the number of cadres needed to run the party and the government. In 1981, several of the 18 provinces had only one party member each and Kampong Cham, the largest province with a population of more than 1 million, had 30 regular members, according to Cambodia specialist Ben Kiernan.  Since 1 February 1983 Say Phouthang (Secretary, Head of the Party Commission for Inspection), Chan Sy and Bou Thang occupied respectively the third, fourth and fifth positions in the Politburo. On 1 May 1985, Hun Sen was named the fourth, just behind the Heng Samrin, Chea Sim and Say Phouthang.  The party held its Fifth Party Congress from 13 to 16 October 1985 to reflect on the previous five years and to chart a new course for the next several years. The party's membership had increased to 7,500 regulars (4,000 new members joined in 1985 alone). The party had an additional pool of 37,000 "core" members from which it could recruit tested party regulars. There were only 4,000 core members in mid-1981. According to General Secretary Heng Samrin's political report, the KPRP had twenty-two regional committees and an undisclosed number of branches, circles and cells in government agencies, armed forces units, internal security organs, mass organizations, enterprises, factories and farms. The report expressed satisfaction with party reconstruction since 1981, especially with the removal of the "danger of authoritarianism" and the restoration of the principles of democratic centralism and of collective leadership. However, it pointed out "some weaknesses" that had to be overcome. For example, the party was "still too thin and weak" at the district and the grass-roots levels. Ideological work lagged and lacked depth and consistency; party policies were implemented very slowly, if at all, with few, if any, timely steps to rectify failings; and party cadres, because of their propensities for narrow-mindedness, arrogance and bureaucratism were unable to win popular trust and support. Another major problem was the serious shortage of political cadres (for party chapters), economic and managerial cadres and technical cadres. Still another problem that had to be addressed "in the years to come" was the lack of a documented history of the KPRP. Heng Samrin's political report stressed the importance of party history for understanding "the good traditions of the party".  The report to the Fifth Congress noted that Heng Samrin's administration, in coordination with "Vietnamese volunteers", had destroyed "all types" of resistance guerrilla bases. The report also struck a sobering note: the economy remained backward and unbalanced, with its material and technical bases still below pre-war levels and the country's industries were languishing from lack of fuel, spare parts and raw materials. Transition toward socialism, the report warned, would take "dozens of years".  To hasten the transition to socialism, the Fifth Congress unveiled the PRK's First Plan, covering the years 1986 to 1990. The program included the addition of the "private economy" to the three sectors of the economy mentioned in the Constitution (the state sector, collective sector and the family sector). Including the private economy was necessary because of the "very heavy and very complex task" that lay ahead in order to transform the "nonsocialist components" of the economy to an advanced stage. According to the political report submitted to the congress, mass mobilization of the population was considered crucial to the successful outcome of the First Plan. The report also noted the need to cultivate "new socialist men" if Cambodia were to succeed in its nation-building. These men were supposed to be loyal to the fatherland and to socialism; to respect manual labor, production, public property and discipline; and to possess "scientific knowledge". Heng Samrin's political report also focused on foreign affairs. He recommended that Phnom Penh strengthen its policy of alliance with Vietnam, Laos, the Soviet Union and other socialist countries. He stressed—as Pen Sovan had in May 1981—that such an alliance was, in effect "a law" that guaranteed the success of the Cambodian revolution. At the same time, he urged the congress and the Cambodian people to spurn "narrow-minded chauvinism, every opportunistic tendency, and every act and attitude infringing on the friendship" between Cambodia and its Indochinese neighbors.  The KPRP's three objectives for the period 1986 to 1990 were to demonstrate military superiority "along the border and inside the country" for complete elimination of all anti-PRK activities; to develop political, military and economic capabilities; and to strengthen special relations with Vietnam as well as mutual cooperation with other fraternal countries. Before Heng Samrin's closing address on 16 October, the 250 party delegates to the congress elected a new Central Committee of 45 members (31 full members and 14 alternates). The Central Committee in turn elected Heng Samrin as general secretary, a new Political Bureau (nine full members: Heng Samrin, Chea Sim, Hun Sen as Second Secretary, Say Phouthang, Bou Thang, Chea Soth, Men Sam An, Math Ly, Ney Pena and two alternates), a five-member Secretariat (Heng Samrin, Hun Sen, Bou Thang, Men Sam An and Ney Pena) and seven members of the Central Committee Control Commission.  After the Fifth Congress, the party's organizational work was intensified substantially. The KPRP claimed that by the end of 1986 it had more than 10,000 regular members and 40,000 candidate members who were being groomed for regular status.  As of 1990, members of the Politburo were Heng Samrin (General Secretary), Chea Sim, Hun Sen, Chea Soth, Math Ly, Tea Banh, Men Sam An, Nguon Nhel, Sar Kheng, Bou Thang, Ney Pena, Say Chhum and alternate members included Sing Song, Sim Ka and Pol Saroeun. Members of the Secretariat were Heng Samrin, Say Phouthang, Bou Thang, Men Sam An and Sar Kheng.

Hun Sen's leadership (1991–present).

In 1991, the party was renamed Cambodian People's Party (CPP) during a United Nations-sponsored peace and reconciliation process. Politburo and the Secretariat to enter into the new Standing Committee, Chea Sim as President and Hun Sen as Vice-president. Despite rooted in socialism, the CPP was not ideologically blind. In fact, it has always adopted a pragmatic approach to protect and promote the interests of the nation and the party. For instance, the CPP played an indispensable role in Cambodian peace negotiation process, which led to the signing of the Paris Peace Accords on 23 October 1991 and the creation of the second Kingdom of Cambodia. CPP leaders have been among the most reformists to stir Cambodia towards free market economy and regional integration.  Under the leadership of the CPP, Cambodia has been transformed from a war-torn country to a lower-middle-income economy in 2016. It aims to turn Cambodia into a higher-middle-income country by 2030 and high-income country by 2050. Ideologically, an increasing number of CPP senior leaders claim that the Cambodian ruling party has adopted a centrist democracy. They believe that it is the middle path between extreme capitalism and extreme socialism, with the emphasis on the values and principles of social market economy in which free market economy goes hand in hand with social and environmental protection, and the promotion of humanism guided by Buddhist teaching.  Having said that, academics such as John Ciorciari have observed that the CPP still continues to maintain its communist-era party structures and that many of its top-ranking members were derived from KPRP. Also, despite Hun Sen being only the deputy leader of the party until 2015, he had de facto control of the party. Prime Minister Hun Sen has continued to lead the party to election victories after the transition to democracy. It won 64 of the 123 seats in the National Assembly in the 1998 elections, 73 seats in the 2003 elections and 90 seats in the 2008 elections, winning the popular vote by the biggest margin ever for a National Assembly election with 58% of the vote. The CPP also won the 2006 Senate elections. The party lost 22 seats in the 2013 elections, with opposition gained. Since 2018, the party commands all 125 seats in the National Assembly, and 58 of 62 seats in the Senate. Hun Sen, the Prime Minister of Cambodia, has served as the party's President since 2015.

List of party leaders.

KPRP (General Secretary) CPP (President)

Organization.

The party is headed by a 34-member Permanent Committee, commonly referred to as the Politburo (after its former Communist namesake). The current members are (with their party positions in brackets):

The Cambodian People's Party (CPP;, "Kanakpak Pracheachon Kâmpuchéa";, PPC) has been the ruling political party of Cambodia since 1979.

柬埔寨人民党()是自1979年迄今柬埔寨的执政党。现任首相洪森是该党主席。1998年至今,该党在柬埔寨国会占大多数议席。


Origins.

Starting around 1402, priest and scholar Jan Hus denounced what he judged as the corruption of the Church and the Papacy, and he promoted some of the reformist ideas of English theologian John Wycliffe. His preaching was widely heeded in Bohemia, and provoked suppression by the Church, which had declared many of Wycliffe's ideas heretical. In 1411, in the course of the Western Schism, "Antipope" John XXIII proclaimed a "crusade" against King Ladislaus of Naples, the protector of rival Pope Gregory XII. To raise money for this, he proclaimed indulgences in Bohemia. Hus bitterly denounced this and explicitly quoted Wycliffe against it, provoking further complaints of heresy but winning much support in Bohemia.  In 1414, Sigismund of Hungary convened the Council of Constance to end the Schism and resolve other religious controversies. Hus went to the Council, under a safe-conduct from Sigismund, but was imprisoned, tried, and executed on 6 July 1415. The knights and nobles of Bohemia and Moravia, who were in favour of church reform, sent the "protestatio Bohemorum" to the Council of Constance on 2 September 1415, which condemned the execution of Hus in the strongest language. This angered Sigismund, who was "King of the Romans" (head of the Holy Roman Empire, though not yet Emperor), and brother of King Wenceslaus of Bohemia. He had been persuaded by the Council that Hus was a heretic. He sent threatening letters to Bohemia declaring that he would shortly drown all Wycliffites and Hussites, greatly incensing the people.  Disorder broke out in various parts of Bohemia, and drove many Catholic priests from their parishes. Almost from the beginning the Hussites divided into two main groups, though many minor divisions also arose among them. Shortly before his death Hus had accepted the doctrine of Utraquism preached during his absence by his adherents at Prague: the obligation of the faithful to receive communion in both kinds, bread and wine ("sub utraque specie"). This doctrine became the watchword of the moderate Hussites known as the Utraquists or Calixtines, from the Latin "calix" (the chalice), in Czech "kališníci" (from "kalich"). The more extreme Hussites became known as Taborites ("táborité"), after the city of Tábor that became their center; or Orphans ("sirotci"), a name they adopted after the death of their leader and general Jan Žižka.  Under the influence of Sigismund, Wenceslaus endeavoured to stem the Hussite movement. A number of Hussites led by Mikuláš of Hus — no relation of Jan Hus — left Prague. They held meetings in various parts of Bohemia, particularly at Sezimovo Ústí (not to be confused with Ústí nad Labem), near the spot where the town of Tábor was founded soon afterwards. At these meetings they violently denounced Sigismund, and the people everywhere prepared for war.  In spite of the departure of many prominent Hussites, the troubles at Prague continued. On 30 July 1419 Hussite procession headed by the priest Jan Želivský attacked New Town Hall in Prague and threw the king's representatives, the burgomaster, and some town councillors from the windows into the street (the first "Defenestration of Prague"), where several were killed by the fall, after a rock was allegedly thrown from the town hall and hit Želivský. It has been suggested that Wenceslaus was so stunned by the defenestration that it caused his death on 16 August 1419. (Alternatively, it is possible that he may have just died of natural causes.)

The outbreak of fighting.

The death of Wenceslaus resulted in renewed troubles in Prague and in almost all parts of Bohemia. Many Catholics, mostly Germans — mostly still faithful to the Pope — were expelled from the Bohemian cities. Wenceslaus' widow Sophia of Bavaria, acting as regent in Bohemia, hurriedly collected a force of mercenaries and tried to gain control of Prague, which led to severe fighting. After a considerable part of the city had been damaged or destroyed, the parties declared a truce on 13 November. The nobles, sympathetic to the Hussite cause, but supporting the regent, promised to act as mediators with Sigismund, while the citizens of Prague consented to restore to the royal forces the castle of Vyšehrad, which had fallen into their hands. Žižka, who disapproved of this compromise, left Prague and retired to Plzeň. Unable to maintain himself there he marched to southern Bohemia. He defeated the Catholics at the Battle of Sudoměř (25 March 1420), the first pitched battle of the Hussite wars. After Sudoměř, he moved to Ústí, one of the earliest meeting-places of the Hussites. Not considering its situation sufficiently strong, he moved to the neighboring new settlement of the Hussites, called by the biblical name of Tábor.  Tábor soon became the center of the most militant Hussites, who differed from the Utraquists by recognizing only two sacraments - Baptism and Communion - and by rejecting most of the ceremony of the Roman Catholic Church. The ecclesiastical organization of Tabor had a somewhat puritanical character, and the government was established on a thoroughly democratic basis. Four captains of the people ("hejtmané") were elected, one of whom was Žižka, and a very strict military discipline was instituted.

Wagenburg tactics.

Depending on the terrain, Hussites prepared carts for a battle, forming them into squares or circles. The carts were joined wheel to wheel by chains and positioned aslant, with their corners attached to each other, so that horses could be harnessed to them quickly, if necessary. In front of this wall of carts a ditch was dug by camp followers. The crew of each cart consisted of 16-22 soldiers: 4-8 crossbowmen, 2 handgunners, 6-8 soldiers equipped with pikes or flails (the flail was the Hussite signature weapon), 2 shield carriers and 2 drivers.  The Hussites' battle consisted of two stages, the first defensive, the second an offensive counterattack. In the first stage the army placed the carts near the enemy army and by means of artillery fire provoked the enemy into battle. The artillery would usually inflict heavy casualties at close range.  In order to avoid more losses, the enemy knights finally attacked. Then the infantry hidden behind the carts used firearms and crossbows to ward off the attack, weakening the enemy. The shooters aimed first at the horses, depriving the cavalry of its main advantage. Many of the knights died as their horses were shot and they fell.  As soon as the enemy's morale was lowered, the second stage, an offensive counterattack, began. The infantry and the cavalry burst out from behind the carts striking violently at the enemy - mostly from the flanks. While fighting on the flanks and being shot at from the carts the enemy was not able to put up much resistance. They were forced to withdraw, leaving behind dismounted knights in heavy armor who were unable to escape the battlefield. The enemy armies suffered heavy losses and the Hussites soon had the reputation of not taking captives.

The first anti-Hussite crusade.

After the death of his childless brother Wenceslaus, Sigismund inherited a claim on the Bohemian crown, though it was then, and remained till much later, in question whether Bohemia was a hereditary or an elective monarchy, especially as the line through which Sigismund claimed the throne had accepted that the Kingdom of Bohemia was an elective monarchy elected by the nobles, and thus the regent of the kingdom (Čeněk of Wartenberg) also explicitly stated that Sigismund had not been elected as reason for Sigismund's claim to not be accepted. A firm adherent of the Church of Rome, Sigismund was aided by Pope Martin V, who issued a bull on 17 March 1420 proclaiming a crusade "for the destruction of the Wycliffites, Hussites and all other heretics in Bohemia". Sigismund and many German princes arrived before Prague on 30 June at the head of a vast army of crusaders from all parts of Europe, largely consisting of adventurers attracted by the hope of pillage. They immediately began a siege of the city, which had, however, soon to be abandoned. Negotiations took place for a settlement of the religious differences.  The united Hussites formulated their demands in a statement known as the "Four Articles of Prague". This document, the most important of the Hussite period, ran, in the wording of the contemporary chronicler, Laurence of Brezova, as follows:  These articles, which contain the essence of the Hussite doctrine, were rejected by King Sigismund, mainly through the influence of the papal legates, who considered them prejudicial to the authority of the Pope. Hostilities therefore continued. However Sigismund was defeated at the Battle of Vítkov Hill on July 1420.  Though Sigismund had retired from Prague, his troops held the castles of Vyšehrad and Hradčany. The citizens of Prague laid siege to Vyšehrad (see Battle of Vyšehrad), and towards the end of October (1420) the garrison was on the point of capitulating through famine. Sigismund tried to relieve the fortress but was decisively defeated by the Hussites on 1 November near the village of Pankrác. The castles of Vyšehrad and Hradčany now capitulated, and shortly afterwards almost all Bohemia fell into the hands of the Hussites.

The second anti-Hussite crusade.

Internal troubles prevented the followers of Hus from fully capitalizing on their victory. At Prague a demagogue, the priest Jan Želivský, for a time obtained almost unlimited authority over the lower classes of the townsmen; and at Tábor a religious communistic movement (that of the so-called Adamites) was sternly suppressed by Žižka. Shortly afterwards a new crusade against the Hussites was undertaken. A large German army entered Bohemia and in August 1421 laid siege to the town of Žatec. After an unsuccessful attempt of storming the city, the crusaders retreated somewhat ingloriously on hearing that the Hussite troops were approaching. Sigismund only arrived in Bohemia at the end of 1421. He took possession of the town of Kutná Hora but was decisively defeated by Jan Žižka at the Battle of Deutschbrod (Německý Brod) on 6 January 1422.

Bohemian civil war.

Bohemia was for a time free from foreign intervention, but internal discord again broke out, caused partly by theological strife and partly by the ambition of agitators. On 9 March 1422, Jan Želivský was arrested by the town council of Prague and beheaded. There were troubles at Tábor also, where a more radical party opposed Žižka's authority.

Polish and Lithuanian involvement.

The Hussites were aided at various times by Poland. Because of this, Jan Žižka arranged for the crown of Bohemia to be offered to King Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland, who, under pressure from his own advisors, refused it. The crown was then offered to Władysław's cousin, Vytautas, the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Vytautas accepted it, with the condition that the Hussites reunite with the Catholic Church. In 1422, Žižka accepted Prince Sigismund Korybut of Lithuania (nephew of Władysław II) as regent of Bohemia for Vytautas.  His authority was recognized by the Utraquist nobles, the citizens of Prague, and the more moderate of the Taborites, but he failed to bring the Hussites back into the Church. On a few occasions, he even fought against both the Taborites and the Orebites to try to force them into reuniting. After Władysław II and Vytautas signed the Treaty of Melno with Sigismund of Hungary in 1423, they recalled Sigismund Korybut to Lithuania, under pressure from Sigismund of Hungary and the Pope.  On his departure, civil war broke out, the Taborites opposing in arms the more moderate Utraquists, who at this period are also called by the chroniclers the "Praguers", as Prague was their principal stronghold. On 27 April 1423, Žižka now again leading, the Taborites defeated the Utraquist army under Čeněk of Wartenberg at the Battle of Hořice; shortly afterwards an armistice was concluded at Konopilt.

The third anti-Hussite crusade.

Papal influence had meanwhile succeeded in calling forth a new crusade against Bohemia, but it resulted in complete failure. In spite of the endeavours of their rulers, Poles and Lithuanians did not wish to attack the kindred Czechs; the Germans were prevented by internal discord from taking joint action against the Hussites; and the king Eric VII of Denmark, who had landed in Germany with a large force intending to take part in the crusade, soon returned to his own country. Free for a time from foreign threat, the Hussites invaded Moravia, where a large part of the population favored their creed; but, paralysed again by dissensions, they soon returned to Bohemia.  The city of Hradec Králové, which had been under Utraquist rule, espoused the doctrine of Tábor, and called Žižka to its aid. After several military successes gained by Žižka in 1423 and the following year, a treaty of peace between the Hussite factions was concluded on 13 September 1424 at Libeň, a village near Prague (now part of that city).  Sigismund Korybut, who had returned to Bohemia in 1424 with 1,500 troops, helped broker this peace. After Žižka's death in October 1424, Prokop the Great took command of the Taborites. Korybut, who had come in defiance of Władysław II and Vytautas, also became a Hussite leader.

The fourth anti-Hussite crusade.

In 1426 the Hussites were again attacked by foreign enemies. In June 1426 Hussite forces, led by Prokop and Sigismund Korybut, significantly defeated the invaders in the Battle of Aussig.  Despite this result, the death of Jan Žižka caused many, including Pope Martin V, to believe that the Hussites were much weakened. Martin proclaimed yet another crusade in 1427. He appointed Cardinal Henry Beaufort of England as Papal Legate of Germany, Hungary, and Bohemia, to lead the crusader forces. The crusaders were defeated at the Battle of Tachov.  The Hussites subsequently invaded parts of Germany several times, though they made no attempt to occupy permanently any part of the country.  Korybut was imprisoned in 1427 for allegedly conspiring to surrender the Hussite forces to Sigismund of Hungary. He was released in 1428, and participated in the Hussite invasion of Silesia.  But after a few years, Korybut returned to Poland with his men. Korybut and his Poles, however, did not really want to leave; but the Pope threatened to call a crusade against Poland if they did not.

Glorious rides (Chevauchée).

During the Hussite Wars, the Hussites launched raids against many bordering countries. The Hussites called them "Spanilé jízdy" ("glorious rides"). Especially under the leadership of Prokop the Great, Hussites invaded Silesia, Saxony, Hungary, Lusatia, and Meissen. These raids were against countries that had supplied the Germans with men during the anti-Hussite crusades, to deter further participation. However, the raids did not have the desired effect; these countries kept supplying soldiers for the crusades against the Hussites.  During a war between Poland and the Teutonic Order, some Hussite troops helped the Poles. In 1433, a Hussite army of 7,000 men marched through Neumark into Prussia and captured Dirschau on the Vistula River. They eventually reached the mouth of the Vistula where it enters the Baltic Sea near Danzig. There, they performed a great victory celebration to show that nothing but the ocean could stop the Hussites. The Prussian historian Heinrich von Treitschke later wrote that they had "greeted the sea with a wild Czech song about God's warriors, and filled their water bottles with brine in token that the Baltic once more obeyed the Slavs."

Peace talks.

The almost uninterrupted series of victories of the Hussites now rendered vain all hope of subduing them by force of arms. Moreover, the conspicuously democratic character of the Hussite movement caused the German princes, who were afraid that such ideas might spread to their own countries, to desire peace. Many Hussites, particularly the Utraquist clergy, were also in favour of peace. Negotiations for this purpose were to take place at the ecumenical Council of Basel which had been summoned to meet on 3 March 1431. The Roman See reluctantly consented to the presence of heretics at this council, but indignantly rejected the suggestion of the Hussites that members of the Eastern Orthodox Church, and representatives of all Christian creeds, should also be present. Before definitely giving its consent to peace negotiations, the Roman Church determined on making a last effort to reduce the Hussites to subjection; this resulted in the fifth Crusade against the Hussites.

The fifth anti-Hussite crusade.

On 1 August 1431 a large army of crusaders under Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg, accompanied by Cardinal Cesarini as papal legate, crossed the Bohemian border. On 8 August the crusaders reached the city of Domažlice and began besieging it. On 14 August, a Hussite relief army arrived, reinforced with some 6,000 Polish Hussites and under the command of Prokop the Great, and it completely routed the crusaders at the resulting Battle of Domažlice. According to legend, upon seeing the Hussite banners and hearing their battle hymn, "Ktož jsú boží bojovníci" ("Ye Who are Warriors of God"), the invading Papal forces immediately took to flight.

New negotiations and the defeat of Radical Hussites.

On 15 October 1431, the Council of Basel issued a formal invitation to the Hussites to take part in its deliberations. Prolonged negotiations ensued, but finally a Hussite embassy, led by Prokop and including John of Rokycan, the Taborite bishop Nicolas of Pelhřimov, the 'English Hussite' Peter Payne and many others, arrived at Basel on 4 January 1433. No agreement could be reached, but negotiations were not broken off, and a change in the political situation of Bohemia finally resulted in a settlement.  In 1434 war again broke out between the Utraquists and the Taborites. On 30 May 1434, the Taborite army, led by Prokop the Great and Prokop the Lesser, who both fell in the battle, was totally defeated and almost annihilated at the Battle of Lipany.  The Polish Hussite movement also came to an end. Polish royal troops under Władysław III of Varna defeated the Hussites at the Battle of Grotniki in 1439, bringing the Hussite Wars to an end.

Peace agreement.

The moderate party thus obtained the upper hand; and wanted to find a compromise between the council and the Hussites. It formulated its demands in a document which was finally accepted by the Church of Rome in a slightly modified form, and which is known as 'the compacts.' The compacts, mainly founded on the articles of Prague, declare that:  On 5 July 1436 the compacts were formally accepted and signed at Jihlava (Iglau), in Moravia, by King Sigismund, by the Hussite delegates, and by the representatives of the Roman Catholic Church. The latter, however, refused to recognize John of Rokycan as archbishop of Prague, who had been elected to that dignity by the estates of Bohemia.

Aftermath.

The Utraquist creed, frequently varying in its details, continued to be that of the established church of Bohemia until all non-Catholic religious services were prohibited shortly after the Battle of the White Mountain in 1620. The Taborite party never recovered from its defeat at Lipany, and after the town of Tábor had been captured by George of Poděbrady in 1452, Utraquist religious worship was established there. The Bohemian Brethren ("Unitas Fratrum"), whose intellectual originator was Petr Chelčický but whose actual founders were Brother Gregory, a nephew of Archbishop Rokycany, and Michael, curate of Žamberk, to a certain extent continued the Taborite traditions, and in the 15th and 16th centuries included most of the strongest opponents of Rome in Bohemia.  J. A. Komenský (Comenius), a member of the Brethren, claimed for the members of his church that they were the genuine inheritors of the doctrines of Hus. After the beginning of the German Reformation, many Utraquists adopted to a large extent the doctrines of Martin Luther and of John Calvin and, in 1567, obtained the repeal of the Compacts which no longer seemed sufficiently far-reaching. From the end of the 16th century the inheritors of the Hussite tradition in Bohemia were included in the more general name of "Protestants" borne by the adherents of the Reformation.  At the end of the Hussite Wars in 1431, the lands of Bohemia had been totally ravaged. The adjacent Bishopric of Würzburg in Germany was left in such bad shape after the Hussite Wars, that the impoverishment of the people was still evident in 1476. The poor conditions contributed directly to the peasant conspiracy that broke out that same year in Würzburg.

The Hussite Wars, also called the Bohemian Wars or the Hussite Revolution, were a series of wars fought between the Christian Hussites and the combined Christian Catholic forces of Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, the Papacy, European monarchs loyal to the Catholic Church, as well as various Hussite factions. After initial clashes, the Utraquists changed sides in 1423 to fight alongside Roman Catholics and opposed the Taborites and other Hussite spinoffs. These wars lasted from 1419 to approximately 1434.

胡斯战争(Hussite Wars)-亦称波希米亚战争 (Bohemian Wars),发生于1419年7月30日至1434年5月30日,起因于神圣罗马帝国领地波希米亚的宗教改革家扬·胡斯在康士坦斯大公会议中,被罗马天主教会判决为异端并以火刑处死,引起支持他的地方贵族及民众起兵对抗罗马天主教会以及支持天主教的神圣罗马帝国中央政府;在战争初期到中期,由于在扬·杰式卡的卓越领导以及波希米亚当地先进的兵器工业支援下,胡斯信徒屡次击败帝国军;然而在杰式卡染病去世以及组织内部发生分裂的情况下,胡斯信徒逐渐屈居劣势,继承杰式卡的塔博尔派统帅普洛科普也在1434年的利帕尼之战战死,最后胡斯党人仍被神圣罗马帝国所镇压。


System requirements.

Corel Linux has the following system requirements:

Features.

Corel Linux featured a file manager that was very close in look and feel to Windows Explorer. The file manager provided an integrated Windows SMB network browser. The company also advertised that the operating system was compatible with its flagship software.

Applications.

The key selling point of Corel Linux was its compatibility with the company's WordPerfect applications. The eponymous word processor's eighth version was given away to personal customers in the hopes that they would purchase WordPerfect Office 2000. This suite added the Quattro Pro, Corel Presentations and CorelCentral programs. The Deluxe version of that suite added the Paradox database manager and "". The latter omits a level editor, the network mode and some scenarios from the original game. The 'Limited Edition' of Corel Linux Deluxe came with instead of Railroad Tycoon II. Unlike the free WordPerfect 8, the office suite was not written natively for Linux, but instead consisted of the Windows programs powered by Corel's fork of the Wine compatibility layer. As a result, the Linux suite suffered from a performance penalty compared to the Windows version and WordPerfect 8.  As with the WordPerfect suite, Corel adapted its graphics applications to run on Linux using Wine. This consisted of the CorelDraw (stylized CorelDRAW) suite. While the eponymous program was paid software, Corel Photo-Paint was available as a free download.

SmartMove.

Corel SmartMove was a part of Corel Linux. This application provided the following:  SmartMove was built around the Wine libraries to read the Windows Registry settings for the Windows applications and thus be able to migrate them. SmartMove core libraries created a wrapper for the Windows registry to easily look up the settings. SmartMove looks for existing Microsoft Windows installations on the machine, looks a little further for individual users, and offers to transfer application settings to analogous programs under Linux. It understands how to deal with Internet Explorer and Netscape cookies and bookmarks, Outlook, mIRC, and ICQ settings, and a variety of desktop preferences, including wallpaper, color scheme, and even mouse "handedness". We tried it out with a few settings, but since our Windows installation was fairly new, we didn't have much to check against. With the death of Corel Linux, this application faded away and is no longer maintained, however similar functionality is now available on at least Ubuntu when installing a dual-boot configuration on a machine that already has Windows on it.

Corel Linux, also called Corel LinuxOS, was a Debian-based operating system made by Corel that began beta testing on September 21, 1999 and was released to the public on November 15, 1999. It mainly competed against Windows 98 and Windows 2000 by Microsoft, plus Mac OS 9 by Apple. Corel later discontinued the distribution, but did not remove the former Corel Open Source Development website until March 2002.

Corel Linux,又名Corel LinuxOS,是加拿大Corel公司开发的Linux发行版本,于1999年年底首度推出,并以Debian为基础。至2002年3月,Corel也将旗下的开放源始码研发计划网站关闭。


Surface in R.

Motivation.

The second fundamental form of a parametric surface in was introduced and studied by Gauss. First suppose that the surface is the graph of a twice continuously differentiable function,, and that the plane is tangent to the surface at the origin. Then and its partial derivatives with respect to and vanish at (0,0). Therefore, the Taylor expansion of "f" at (0,0) starts with quadratic terms:  and the second fundamental form at the origin in the coordinates is the quadratic form  For a smooth point on, one can choose the coordinate system so that the coordinate -plane is tangent to at and define the second fundamental form in the same way.

Classical notation.

The second fundamental form of a general parametric surface is defined as follows. Let be a regular parametrization of a surface in, where is a smooth vector-valued function of two variables. It is common to denote the partial derivatives of with respect to and by and. Regularity of the parametrization means that and are linearly independent for any in the domain of, and hence span the tangent plane to at each point. Equivalently, the cross product is a nonzero vector normal to the surface. The parametrization thus defines a field of unit normal vectors :  The second fundamental form is usually written as  its matrix in the basis of the tangent plane is  The coefficients at a given point in the parametric -plane are given by the projections of the second partial derivatives of at that point onto the normal line to and can be computed with the aid of the dot product as follows:  For a signed distance field of Hessian, the second fundamental form coefficients can be computed as follows:

Physicist's notation.

The second fundamental form of a general parametric surface is defined as follows.  Let be a regular parametrization of a surface in, where is a smooth vector-valued function of two variables. It is common to denote the partial derivatives of with respect to by,. Regularity of the parametrization means that and are linearly independent for any in the domain of, and hence span the tangent plane to at each point. Equivalently, the cross product is a nonzero vector normal to the surface. The parametrization thus defines a field of unit normal vectors :  The second fundamental form is usually written as  The equation above uses the Einstein summation convention. The coefficients at a given point in the parametric -plane are given by the projections of the second partial derivatives of at that point onto the normal line to and can be computed in terms of the normal vector as follows:

Hypersurface in a Riemannian manifold.

In Euclidean space, the second fundamental form is given by  where is the Gauss map, and the differential of regarded as a vector-valued differential form, and the brackets denote the metric tensor of Euclidean space.  More generally, on a Riemannian manifold, the second fundamental form is an equivalent way to describe the shape operator (denoted by ) of a hypersurface,  where denotes the covariant derivative of the ambient manifold and a field of normal vectors on the hypersurface. (If the affine connection is torsion-free, then the second fundamental form is symmetric.)  The sign of the second fundamental form depends on the choice of direction of (which is called a co-orientation of the hypersurface - for surfaces in Euclidean space, this is equivalently given by a choice of orientation of the surface).

Generalization to arbitrary codimension.

The second fundamental form can be generalized to arbitrary codimension. In that case it is a quadratic form on the tangent space with values in the normal bundle and it can be defined by where denotes the orthogonal projection of covariant derivative onto the normal bundle.  In Euclidean space, the curvature tensor of a submanifold can be described by the following formula: This is called the Gauss equation, as it may be viewed as a generalization of Gauss's Theorema Egregium.  For general Riemannian manifolds one has to add the curvature of ambient space; if is a manifold embedded in a Riemannian manifold then the curvature tensor of with induced metric can be expressed using the second fundamental form and, the curvature tensor of :

In differential geometry, the second fundamental form (or shape tensor) is a quadratic form on the tangent plane of a smooth surface in the three-dimensional Euclidean space, usually denoted by formula_1 (read "two"). Together with the first fundamental form, it serves to define extrinsic invariants of the surface, its principal curvatures. More generally, such a quadratic form is defined for a smooth immersed submanifold in a Riemannian manifold.

微分几何中,第二基本形式(英语:second fundamental form)是三维欧几里得空间中一个光滑曲面的切丛上一个二次形式,通常记作 II。与第一基本形式一起,他们可定义曲面的外部不变量,主曲率。更一般地,若在黎曼流形中或洛伦兹流形中,的一个光滑超曲面上,选取了一个光滑单位法向量场,则可定义这样一个二形式。


History.

1956–2009.

The club was founded in 1956.  It was founded by VM Salgaocar, founder President of the VM Salgaocar Group of Companies, to give a platform to the Goan youth to showcase their talent to the country, and to the world.  In 1962, Salgaocar Sports Club became the first Goan team to be extended an invitation to play in the prestigious Durand Cup in New Delhi, and such was the joy of a Goan team's participation in the Durand Cup, that the Late Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru felicitated the team at his residence.  Salgaocar successfully annexed all possible trophies on the Indian circuit thereby etching their name amongst the top teams in the country. A National League triumph in 1999, 3 Federation Cups in 1988, 1989 and 1997, the Super Cup in 1997 and 1999, the prestigious Rovers Cup, Mumbai, in 1989, 1996 and 1999, the Durand Cup, Delhi, twice in 1999 and 2003, the Sait Nagjee, Calicut, in 1987 and TFA shield at Madurai, in 1979. Salgaocar Sports Club have also been crowned Goa State Champions for a record 19 times including winners for 3 consecutive years of the Goa Professional League in 2002–03, 2003–04 and 2004–05. The Club also won the Governor's Cup in the years 1999 and 2001. The late 1980s and the 1990s saw Salgaocar SC consistently bag trophies such as the Federation Cup, the National League, the Durand Cup, Rovers Cup and the Super Cup.  The last few years, one may describe as one that has seen the glory years seem light years away. Relegation, a successful promotion, and then again relegation has left the Salgaocar faithfully shattered. Critics have been swift in writing the club off, but managed to make the first division of the NFL in 2003 and staying their till the beginning of the I-League. In 1996 Salgaocar became one of the original 12 clubs in the National Football League and finished 3rd in Group A but finished 7th in the Final Round.

2010–present.

In the 2010–11 season Salgaocar played in the I-League which is India's biggest football competition. After 26 rounds, Salgaocar SC won the title and they qualified for the 2012 Asian Champions League qualifying round.  On 29 September 2011, Salgaocar won their second trophy in four months by winning the 2011 Indian Federation Cup by beating East Bengal in the Final 3–1. This was the first time in Salgaocar history that they had completed a double of league and cup win.  Salgaocar started the 2011–12 I-League as the defending champion. But they had a rather disappointing season where they finished their campaign at 6th position. Salgaocar started the 2012–13 campaign with Karim Bencherifa as their head coach. But he left to take over the reins at Mohun Bagan after two games into the new season. He was replaced by David Booth, who had previously coached Mahindra United and Mumbai. More disappointments followed in the season as they were close to the drop at one time. They finished the season at 7th position. Salgaocar replaced Booth with Derrick Pereira who had been the coach of Pune for the past four seasons and had led them to two consecutive top-5 finishes in the I-League. Salgaocar started the 2013–14 I-League brightly and at one time led the table for six game weeks, but a rough patch of 8 games, which included four straight losses, derailed their campaign and saw them lose the title to Bengaluru FC. Salgaocar finished their campaign at third place, which was a marked improvement over their past two campaign finishes.

Colours.

The colours of Salgaocar are green and white. The home kit very much shows this as the jersey and socks are green while the shorts are white. The away kit has a set of red jerseys and socks while also having blue/purple shorts.

Stadiums.

Salgaocar SC play their home games at Fatorda Stadium and Tilak Maidan Stadium. They used Tilak Maidan for the 2013–14 season. They will use Fatorda Stadium or Tilak Maidan Stadium for the 2014–15 season.  The Salgaocar players also practice at the BITS Pilani Campus grounds. The team has its in-house gym with modern equipment and professional trainers.

Players.

First-team squad.

Salgaocar Football Club is a professional football club who currently play in the in India. They are based in Vasco, Goa and are owned by the V. M. Salgaocar Group of Companies.

萨尔高卡足球俱乐部 (英语:Salgaocar Football Club),是一家设于印度果阿邦瓦斯科德伽马的足球俱乐部,球队目前于印度顶级联赛印度足球甲级联赛参赛。


Middle Ages.

The earliest preserved texts from Denmark are runic inscriptions on memorial stones and other objects. Some of them contain short poems in alliterative verse.  The advent of Christianity in the 10th century brought Denmark into contact with European learning, including the Latin language and alphabet, but it was not until the late 12th century that this was to bear significant literary fruit in "Gesta Danorum", an ambitious historical work by Saxo Grammaticus. Saxo's work is an important primary source for the study of Scandinavian myths and legends as well as a lively account of Danish history up to the author's own time. Other medieval literary works include the Danish ballads, recorded since the 16th century by aristocratic ladies in their manuscript albums. These led to the "Book of a Hundred Ballads (1591) published by Anders Sørensen Vedel, "Collection Tragica" (1695) by Metter Gøya and the "Book of a Hundred Ballads" by Peter Syv in 1695.

16th and 17th centuries.

The 16th century brought the Lutheran Reformation to Denmark and a new period in the nation's literature. Major authors of the time include the humanist Christiern Pedersen, who translated the New Testament into Danish, and Poul Helgesen who vigorously opposed the Reformation. The 16th century also saw Denmark's earliest plays, including the works of Hieronymus Justesen Ranch. The 17th century was an era of renewed interest in Scandinavian antiquities with scholars like Ole Worm at the forefront. Though religious dogmatism was on the rise the passionate hymns of Thomas Kingo transcended the genre with personal expression.  Fine poetry was created in the early 17th century by Anders Arrebo (1587–1637). He is remembered in particular for "Hexaemeron", a poem describing the six days of the Creation (c. 1622), published posthumously  External struggles with Sweden and internal rivalries among the nobility leading to Denmark's absolute monarchy in 1660 are chronicled from a royal prisoner's redemptive perspective in "Jammersminde" (Remembered Woes), in the heartfelt prose of Leonora Christina of the Blue Tower, written 1673–1698, but first published in 1869.

18th century.

Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754), influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and Humanism, is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature. He is best known for the comedies he wrote in 1722–1723. Among the most popular are "Jean de France" and "Erasmus Montanus", both in the satirical style of Molière with pretentious, stereotyped characters. The first is about a Dane who, after picking up notions of the French language and lifestyle while in Paris, tries to impress his countrymen on his return to Denmark. The second presents Rasmus Berg, the son of a farmer. On completing his college education, he Latinized his name to Montanus and became a menace to his family and neighbours with all he has learned.  Neoclassical poetry, drama, and the essay flourished during the 18th century influenced by French and English trends. German influence is seen in the verse of the leading poets of the late 18th century such as Johannes Ewald and Jens Baggesen.  Other 18th century writers include the pietist hymn writer Hans Adolph Brorson and the witty, satirical poet Johan Herman Wessel.

19th century.

The Golden Age.

During Denmark's Golden Age (1800–1850), literature centred on Romantic thinking. It was introduced in 1802 by the philosopher Henrik Steffens who gave a successful series of lectures at Elers Kollegium. He presented the main themes of German romanticism, emphasising the relationship between nature, history and mankind. The movement was maintained by the romanticists, especially Adam Oehlenschläger (1779–1850). Remembered today for his "Digte" (1803) and "Poetiske Skrifter" (1805), Oehlenschläger quickly became the leading poet in Denmark. Bernhard Severin Ingemann (1789–1862) also published a collection of romantic poems before producing first a number of plays, then a successful series of novels and finally a number of fine religious poems which, after being set to music, became an important addition to the hymns sung in Danish churches. One of the most important figures in Danish literary culture was Nikolaj Grundtvig (1783–1872) who instilled a growing spirit of nationalism based initially on his "Northern Mythology" (1808) and his long drama, "The Fall of the Heroic Life in the North" (1809). In addition to a huge stream of articles and poems, he wrote a number of books, including two histories of the world (1814 and 1817), the long historical poem "Roskilde-Riim" ("Rhyme of Roskilde") (1813), and a book-sized commentary, "Roskilde Saga". Grundtvig's hymn book effected a great change in Danish church services, substituting the hymns of the national poets for the slow measures of the orthodox Lutherans. In all Grundtvig wrote or translated about 1,500 hymns, including "God's Word Is Our Great Heritage", most of which are still frequently sung today. Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) is remembered first and foremost for his fairy tales, written between 1835 and 1872 not only for children but for adults too. Among the most popular are "The Steadfast Tin Soldier", "The Snow Queen", "The Little Mermaid", "Thumbelina", "The Little Match Girl", and "The Ugly Duckling". Considered to be the father of the modern fairytale, Andersen wrote a total of 156 fairy stories, only 12 of which drew on folk tales. But Andersen also wrote a number of travel sketches, several novels including the well-received: "The Improvisatore" (1835), a series of poems, and his autobiography "The Fairy Tale of My Life" (1855).  Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) was an existentialist philosopher and a theologian. Much of his philosophical work deals with the issues of how one lives, focusing on the priority of concrete human reality over abstract thinking and highlighting the importance of personal choice and commitment. His principal aesthetic works include Either/Or ("Enten-Eller") (1843), Philosophical Fragments ("Philosophiske Smuler") (1844), Stages on Life's Way ("Stadier paa Livets Vei") (1845) and Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments ("Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift") (1846). Opposing Hegelian philosophy, they promote the existential approach which raises the individual's awareness of God but intensifies his despair at not being able to achieve eternal truth. His religious works include Works of Love ("Kjerlighedens Gjerninger") (1847) and Practice in Christianity "(Indøvelse i Christendom)" (1850).

Modern Breakthrough.

Modern Breakthrough was a strong Scandinavian movement covering naturalism and debating literature towards the end of the 19th century (1870–1890), replacing romanticism. The Danish theorist Georg Brandes (1842–1927) is often considered to be the "wire-puller" behind the movement. During the Modern Breakthrough, authors revolted against old traditions, especially romanticism, introducing an increasingly international outlook, a freer view of sexuality and religion, along with interest in scientific breakthroughs such as Darwinism. Literature focused increasingly on realism. Henrik Pontoppidan (1857–1943) became a Nobel prize winner in 1917 for "his authentic descriptions of present-day life in Denmark." Pontoppidan's novels and short stories present an unusually comprehensive picture of his country and his epoch. As a writer he was an interesting figure, distancing himself both from the conservative environment in which he was brought up and from his socialist contemporaries and friends. He was the youngest and in many ways the most original and influential member of the Modern Breakthrough. Karl Gjellerup (1857–1919) shared the Nobel Prize with Pontoppidan despite considerable controversy as a result of his German affiliations.  Jens Peter Jacobsen (1847–1885) began the naturalist movement in Denmark with his romantic, melancholic poems. He is remembered principally for his two novels: "Fru Marie Grubbe" (1876) and "Niels Lyhne" (1880).  Other authors associated with the Modern Breakthrough movement include Holger Drachmann (1846–1908), a popular poet in his day, Herman Bang (1857–1912), a successful novelist, and Sophus Schandorph who gained fame with his "Fra Provinsen" (1876), a set of rustic tales.

20th century.

Pre-war trends.

The 20th century began with reactions against the naturalist movement, moving instead towards nationalism. A national conservative trend was embodied in the works priest, novelist and playwright Kaj Munk, and in the neo-romanticist national poetry of Valdemar Rørdam.  A more influential trajectory took its cue from the modern realism of Bang and J.P. Jacobsen, and developed an influential brand of social realism. Prime exponents for this trend was Hans Kirk and Martin Andersen Nexø who's "Pelle the Conqueror" ("Pelle Erobreren") (1906–1910) breaks new ground in presenting the working class, especially the working woman. Popular writers like Poul Henningsen (known as PH), and Hans Scherfig followed Brandes' track of a radical cultural critique.  The period also saw the introduction of a regional approach to literature by writers such as Jeppe Aakjær (1866–1930) from Jutland and his wife Marie Bregendahl. Focusing more on personal concerns, Johannes Jørgensen (1866–1956) and Nobel prize-winner Johannes V. Jensen (1873–1950) brought a new dimension to their poetry, moving from lyricism to the meaning of existence.  Karen Blixen (1885–1962), who also used the pen name "Isak Dinesen", was an unusually sensitive author, writing in both English and Danish and often adopting a fairy-tale style. Her first successful work, the enigmatic "Seven Gothic Tales", was published in the United States in 1934. Other important works include her memoir Out of Africa (1937), recording her experiences in Kenya, and two more collections of finely crafted short stories, "Winter's Tales" (1942) and "Last Tales" (1957).

Post-war period.

Tove Ditlevsen (1917–1976) was an important poet, as well as a novelist, essayist and short-story writer. She became one of the most widely read women writers in Denmark. Known for her direct style and honest accounts of her private life in the poorer quarters of Copenhagen, Ditlevsen enjoyed popularity from the 1940s until her tragic suicide in 1976. Among her most popular works are her autobiographical novel "Barndommens Gade" translated as "Childhood's Street" (1943) and her harshly honest memoirs "Det tidlige forår" translated as "Early Spring" (1976).  Klaus Rifbjerg (born 1931) has published over 100 novels as well as poetry, short stories and TV plays. Among his works which have been translated into English are Witness to the Future and War. In his novel ""Den kroniske uskyld"" (Chronic Innocence) (1958) about a generation which experienced problems with its personal development and its sexuality, Rifbjerg created an image of himself as a provocative and scandalous author. The novel, now a classic, is the first clear sign in Rifbjerg's work of the theme of puberty which has reappeared in much of his later fiction.  Dan Turèll (1946–1993) was an extremely prolific writer who is perhaps remembered above all for his 12 detective stories, the first of which "Mord i mørket" (Murder in the Dark) was published in 1981, the last "Mord i San Francisco" (Murder in San Francisco) in 1990. But he also wrote a passionate autobiographical novel, "Vangede billeder" (Images of Vangede) (1975), as well as many collections of modern poetry.  Leif Davidsen (born 1950) worked mainly in Spain and Russia as a freelance journalist for Danmarks Radio and a number of Danish newspapers. He is now better known as the author of gripping thrillers, several of which combine politics with espionage in Eastern Europe. His first book, published in 1984, was followed by eight others, all of them immediately popular in Denmark and later elsewhere in translation. English translations include "Russian Singer" ("Den russiske sangerinde" 1988), "The Serbian Dane" ("Den serbiske dansker" 1996) and "Lime's Photograph" ("Lime's billede" 1998), all of which have been filmed. Published in Danish in 2008, his most recent book "På udkig efter Hemingway" (roughly translated "Looking for Hemingway"), is a story of espionage based in Cuba.  Bjarne Reuter (born 1950) is an extremely productive and popular writer, especially in regard to children's literature. Many of his stories have appeared as films, including ""Zappa"" (1977) and ""Busters Verden"" (Buster's World) (1979). Most of his books are set in the 1950s and 1960s in Copenhagen. English translations include "The Boys from St. Petri" ("Drengene fra Sankt Petri") (1991) and "The Ring of the Slave Prince" ("Prins Faisals ring") (2000). Peter Høeg (born 1957) began his literary career in 1988 with his novel "Forestilling om det tyvende århundrede" (English: The History of Danish Dreams) whose colourful characters participate in Denmark's transition to a modern welfare state. It was, however, "Frøken Smillas fornemmelse for sne" (English: Smilla's Sense of Snow) in 1992 which became his real breakthrough. Released as a movie in 1997, it tells the story of how Smilla, a Greenlander, helps to solve the mystery behind a boy who falls to his death from a rooftop into the snow below. Almost as popular are his novels "De måske egnede" or Borderliners (1994), "Kvinden og aben" or The Woman and the Ape (1996) and "Den stille pige" or The Quiet Girl (2007).  Jens Christian Grøndahl (born 1959) began his literary career in 1985 with novels in the rather complex French nouveau roman style. His breakthrough came in 1998 with his more traditionally structured "Lucca" which had far more general appeal. Grøndahl's psychological insight into amorous relationships between individuals of different ages has made him one of Denmark's most appreciated modern novelists. Several of his books have been translated into English including "Tavshed i oktober" (Silence in October) (1996), "Virginia" (2000) and "Et andet lys" (An Altered Light) (2002). Among other popular contemporary authors are:

Current trends.

Sales.

In 2002, a total of 30 million books—or six for every person—were sold in Denmark, with one in five being in English. Statistics for 2009 show that the book market, like other sectors, suffered a reduction of 9.1% in sales. These figures cover both the private and public sectors, including a surprising drop in book sales to schools.

Danish literature, a subset of Scandinavian literature, stretches back to the Middle Ages. The earliest preserved texts from Denmark are runic inscriptions on memorial stones and other objects, some of which contain short poems in alliterative verse. In the late 12th century Saxo Grammaticus wrote "Gesta Danorum". During the 16th century, the Lutheran Reformation came to Denmark. During this era, Christiern Pedersen translated the New Testament into Danish and Thomas Kingo composed hymns. Fine poetry was created in the early 17th century by Anders Arrebo (1587–1637). The challenges faced during Denmark's absolute monarchy in 1660 are chronicled in "Jammersminde" (Remembered Woes) by Leonora Christina of the Blue Tower. Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754), influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and Humanism, is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature. Neoclassical poetry, drama, and the essay flourished during the 18th century influenced by French and English trends. German influence is seen in the verse of the leading poets of the late 18th century such as Johannes Ewald and Jens Baggesen. Other 18th century writers include the hymn writer Hans Adolph Brorson and the satirical poet Johan Herman Wessel.

丹麦文学在发展的过程中,除了吸收自身文化成长外,其发展也深受南边欧洲地区国家和斯堪的纳维亚岛上北欧国家的影响,在不同的时期融合其他国家当时盛行的主流思潮和文化,使得丹麦文学呈现丰富多元的面貌。 以下将会依据丹麦文学发展的历程大致区分为六个重要的时期--中世纪前、中世纪时期、十六世纪宗教改革与人文主义时期、十八世纪文艺复兴时期、十九世纪黄金时代和二十世纪战争思潮,并于各个时期依据需要细分出不同的分期,以供参考。


Early life.

Tadamichi Kuribayashi was born into a minor samurai family in Hanishina District, Nagano prefecture. According to Kumiko Kakehashi, the Kuribayashi family had lived in the district since the 15th century.  According to Vice Admiral Kaneko, who attended Nagano High School with Kuribayashi, "He once organized a strike against the school authorities. He just escaped expulsion by a hair. In those days, he was already good in poetry-writing, composition, and speech writing. He was a young literary enthusiast."  Kuribayashi graduated from Nagano High School in 1911. Although he had originally aspired to be a journalist, Kuribayashi was persuaded by his high school instructors to instead enter the Imperial Japanese Army Academy.  Kuribayashi graduated from the Army Academy's 26th class in 1914, having specialized in cavalry. He continued on to the Army's Cavalry School in 1918. In 1923, he graduated from the 35th class of the Army War College with splendid marks and received a military sabre from the Taisho Emperor. Kuribayashi married Yoshii Kuribayashi (1904–2003) on 8 December of that year. Together they had a son and two daughters (Taro, Yoko and Takako).  Kuribayashi was designated as deputy military attaché to Washington, D.C. in 1928. For two years, Kuribayashi traveled across the United States, conducting extensive military and industrial research. For a short time, he studied at Harvard University.  Kuribayashi later recalled, "I was in the United States for three years when I was a captain. I was taught how to drive by some American officers, and I bought a car. I went around the States, and I knew the close connections between the military and industry. I saw the plant area of Detroit, too. By one button push, all the industries will be mobilized for military business."  According to his son, Taro Kuribayashi, "From 1928 to 1930, my father stayed in the United States as an exchange officer. In those days, he often gave me, a grammar school boy, printed letters. He always composed easy letters in order to let me read them without any help from others. He used to enclose some sketches with the letters. I have made a book of these picture letters. In the letters are so many scenes – while visiting Boston, he was lying sprawled on the gardens of Harvard University watching a clock tower, in another he is taking a walk in Buffalo, in another, playing with some American children and being invited to the house of Medical Doctor Furukohchi, etc. Throughout his letters, it is clear that my father used to drive in many directions in the United States, studied very hard late at night, and tried to be a gentleman. Also, he used to have many friends in foreign countries."  After returning to Tokyo, Kuribayashi was promoted to the rank of major and appointed as the first Japanese military attaché to Canada. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1933.  During his services in the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff in Tokyo from 1933–1937, he wrote lyrics for several martial songs. In 1940 Kuribayashi was promoted to major general.  During the lead up to the Attack on Pearl Harbor, Kuribayashi is known to have repeatedly told his family, "America is the last country in the world Japan should fight."

Pacific War.

In December 1941, Kuribayashi was ordered into the field as the Chief of Staff of the Japanese 23rd Army of the Japanese Empire, commanded by Takashi Sakai, in the Invasion of Hong Kong. The Japanese 23rd Army's occupation caused horrible massacres in Hong Kong. After the war, the Japanese 23rd Army's commander Takashi Sakai was accused of war crimes at the Chinese War Crimes Military Tribunal, found guilty and executed by firing squad on September 30, 1946. According to a former subordinate, General Kuribayashi regularly visited wounded enlisted men in the hospital, which was virtually unheard of for an officer of the General Staff.  In 1943, he was promoted to lieutenant general, and reassigned to be commander of the 2nd Imperial Guards Division, which was primarily a reserve and training division. On 27 May 1944, he became commander of the IJA 109th Division.  Just two weeks later, on 8 June 1944, he received orders signed by Prime Minister Hideki Tojo to defend the strategically located island of Iwo Jima in the Bonin Islands chain. According to Yoshii Kuribayashi, her husband said upon receiving the orders that it was unlikely even for his ashes to return from Iwo Jima.  According to historian Kumiko Kakehashi, it is possible that Kuribayashi was deliberately selected for what was known to be a suicide mission. General Kuribayashi was known for having expressed the belief that Japan's war against the United States was a no win situation and needed to be ended via a negotiated peace. In the eyes of the ultra-nationalists in the General Staff and in Tojo's cabinet, this had allegedly caused Kuribayashi to be seen as a defeatist.  He was accorded the honor of a personal audience with Emperor Hirohito on the eve of his departure. In a subsequent letter to Yoshii and their children, the General made no mention of meeting the Emperor. He instead expressed regret for failing to fix the draft in the kitchen of their home. He included a detailed diagram so that his son, Taro Kuribayashi would be able to complete the repair and prevent the family from catching cold.

Planning for the Battle of Iwo Jima.

On 19 June 1944, General Kuribayashi stepped off a plane on Iwo Jima's Chidori airstrip. Meanwhile, the island's garrison was busy digging trenches on the beach. Kuribayashi made a careful survey of the island and ordered his men to construct defenses further inland. Deciding not to seriously contest the projected beach landings, Kuribayashi decreed that the defense of Iwo Jima would be fought almost entirely from underground. His men honeycombed the island with more than of tunnels, 5,000 caves, and pillboxes. According to his former Chief of Staff, Kuribayashi often told him, "America's productive powers are beyond our imagination. Japan has started a war with a formidable enemy and we must brace ourselves accordingly."  Kuribayashi recognized that he would not be able to hold Iwo Jima against the overwhelming military forces of the United States. He knew, however, that the loss of Iwo Jima would place all of Japan within range of American strategic bombers. Therefore, he planned a campaign of attrition, by which he hoped to delay the bombing of Japanese civilians and to force the United States Government to reconsider the possible invasion of Japanese home islands.  According to historian James Bradley, "Americans have always taken casualties very seriously. When the number of casualties is too high, public opinion will boil up and condemn an operation as a failure, even if we get the upper hand militarily. Kuribayashi had lived in America. He knew our national character. That's why he deliberately chose to fight in a way that would relentlessly drive up the number of casualties. I think he hoped American public opinion would shift toward wanting to bring the war with Japan to a rapid end."  Long before the Americans landed, however, Gen. Kuribayashi fully expected to die on Iwo Jima. On 5 September 1944, he wrote to his wife, "It must be destiny that we as a family must face this. Please accept this and stand tall with the children at your side. I will be with you always."  The Japanese defenders include Private Takeo Abe, who survived the battle and spent the remainder of his life repatriating the remains of his comrades. Private Abe later recalled, "By the end of 1944, we were forced to spare rations for battle and we foraged around for edible weeds. Suffering from chronic diarrhea, empty stomachs, and lack of water, we dug bunkers in the sand under a merciless sun and constructed underground shelters that were steamy with heat. We used salt water, lukewarm from a well on the beach, for cooking, and saved what little rainwater we could for drinking. But one water-bottle a day was the most we ever had to drink."  On 25 June 1944, Kuribayashi wrote to his family, "There is no springwater here, so we must do with rainwater. I long for a glass of cold water, but nothing can be done. The number of flies and mosquitoes is appalling. There are no newspapers, no radios, and no shops. There are a few local farms, but no shelters suitable for anything other than livestock. Our soldiers pitch tents or crawl into caves. The caves are stuffy and the heat and humidity are intolerable. I, of course, endure similar living conditions... It is a living hell and I have never experienced anything remotely like it in my entire life."  In order to prepare his soldiers for an unconventional style of fighting, Kuribayashi composed six, "Courageous Battle Vows," which were widely reproduced and distributed among his men. They read: Kuribayashi also composed a set of instructions to the soldiers of the "Courage Division." They read as follows:

Battle of Iwo Jima.

On 19 February 1945, the United States Marine Corps landed its first men on the southern shore of the island. In a radically different approach, American officers and men were first allowed to land unmolested and then shelled and machine gunned from underground bunkers. As night fell, Marine Corps General Holland Smith studied reports aboard the command ship "Eldorado". He was especially stunned that Kuribayashi's men had never attempted a banzai charge. Addressing a group of war correspondents, he quipped, "I don't know who he is, but the Japanese General running this show is one smart bastard."  According to military historian Shigetoki Hosoki, "This writer was stunned to find the following comments in the 'Iwo Jima Report,' a collection of memoirs by Iwo Jima survivors. 'The men we saw weighed no more than thirty kilos and did not look human. Nonetheless, these emaciated soldiers who looked like they came from Mars faced the enemy with a force that could not be believed. I sensed a high morale.' Even under such circumstances, the underground shelters that the Japanese built proved advantageous for a while. Enemy mortar and bombing could not reach them ten meters under the ground. It was then that the Americans began to dig holes and poured yellow phosphorus gas into the ground. Their infantry was also burning its way through passages, slowly but surely, at the rate of ten meters per hour. A telegram has been preserved which says, 'This is like killing cockroaches.' American troops made daily advances to the north. On the evening of 16 March, they reported that they had completely occupied the island of Iwo Jima."  Meanwhile, General Kuribayashi had herded the remnants of the Iwo Jima garrison into a heavily fortified ravine which the Marine Corps dubbed, "The Gorge." Major Yoshitaka Hori, who commanded the Chichi Jima radio station, later recalled, "General Kuribayashi commanded his battle under candle light without a single rest or sleep, day after day. Radio broadcasts, newspapers, and magazines from Japan encouraged him thoroughly, especially when the old and young men, boys and girls of his native place prayed to God for his victory."  Marine Corps General Graves Erskine sent Japanese American Marines and captured Japanese soldiers to try to persuade Kuribayashi and his men to surrender. Meanwhile, Kuribayashi radioed to Major Hori, "I have 400 men under my command. The enemy besieged us by firing and flame from their tanks. In particular, they are trying to approach the entrance of our cave with explosives. My men and officers are still fighting. The enemy's front lines are 300 meters from us, and they are attacking by tank firing. They advised us to surrender by loudspeaker, but we only laughed at this childish trick, and we did not set ourselves against them."  On the evening of 23 March 1945, Kuribayashi radioed a last message to Major Hori, "All officers and men of Chichi Jima – goodbye from Iwo." Major Hori later recalled, "I tried to communicate with them for three days after that, but in the end I received no answer."  On 17 March 1945, the General had sent his farewell message to Imperial Headquarters accompanied by three traditional death poems in "waka" form. Both were, according to historian Kumiko Kakehashi, "a subtle protest against the military command that so casually sent men out to die."  General Kuribayashi had written, "The battle is entering its final chapter. Since the enemy's landing, the gallant fighting of the men under my command has been such that even the gods would weep. In particular, I humbly rejoice in the fact that they have continued to fight bravely though utterly empty-handed and ill-equipped against a land, sea, and air attack of a material superiority such as surpasses the imagination. One after another they are falling in the ceaseless and ferocious attacks of the enemy. For this reason, the situation has arisen whereby I must disappoint your expectations and yield this important place to the hands of the enemy. With humility and sincerity, I offer my repeated apologies. Our ammunition is gone and our water dried up. Now is the time for us to make the final counterattack and fight gallantly, conscious of the Emperor's favor, not begrudging our efforts though they turn our bones to powder and pulverize our bodies. I believe that until the island is recaptured, the Emperor's domain will be eternally insecure. I therefore swear that even when I have become a ghost I shall look forward to turning the defeat of the Imperial Army to victory. I stand now at the beginning of the end. At the same time as revealing my inmost feelings, I pray earnestly for the unfailing victory and security of the Empire. Farewell for all eternity."  He closed the message with three "waka" poems as follows:  <poem style="margin-left:2em"> Arrows and bullets all spent, so sad we fall.  My body cannot rot in the field. Yea, I shall be born again seven times And grasp the sword in my hand.  My sole thought shall be the Imperial Land. </poem>

Death.

The exact circumstances of Kuribayashi's death remain a mystery. It is most likely that he was killed in action in the early morning of 26 March 1945, while leading his surviving soldiers in a three-pronged assault against sleeping Marines and Air Force ground crews. Kuribayashi and his men silently slashed tents, bayoneted sleeping men, and lobbed hand grenades. According to the official "United States Marine Corps History", "The Japanese attack on the early morning of March 26th was not a banzai charge, but an excellent plan aiming to cause maximum confusion and destruction." The assault climaxed in a hand-to-hand battle to the death between the men of both armies. The General's body could not be identified afterwards for he had removed all officer's insignia in order to fight as a regular soldier.  According to less credible theories, Kuribayashi is alleged to have committed seppuku at his headquarters in the Gorge.  The General's son, Taro Kuribayashi, interviewed several survivors of the Japanese garrison after the war. As a result, he believes that his father was killed in an artillery barrage during the final assault.  According to Taro Kuribayashi, "My father had believed it shameful to have his body discovered by the enemy even after death, so he had previously asked his two soldiers to come along with him, one in front and the other behind, with a shovel in hand. In case of his death, he had wanted them to bury his body there and then. It seems that my father and the soldiers were killed by shells, and he was buried at the foot of a tree in Chidori village, along the beach near Osaka mountain. Afterwards, General Smith spent a whole day looking for his body to pay respect accordingly and to perform a burial, but in vain."

Legacy.

The US declared Iwo Jima secure on 26 March 1945, after suffering 26,039 casualties. Only 1,083 of the 22,786 Japanese defenders survived to be captured. A small number of holdouts continued to remain at large, leaving their fortified caves at night in order to steal food from the American garrison. The last two holdouts, Naval machine gunners Yamakage Kufuku and Matsudo Linsoki, surrendered on 6 January 1949.  Yoshii Kuribayashi was only 40 years old when her husband died on Iwo Jima, and she subsequently worked hard to bring up their children without a father. According to their daughter Takako Kuribayashi, "My mother had been brought up as a lady, and even after getting married she had been taken care of by my father. She had never worked in her life before, but she still managed to raise us during the terrible years after the war by doing things like selling cuttlefish out on the street. And more than that, she sent not just my elder brother, but me, a girl, to university."  Many years later, Yoshii Kuribayashi visited Iwo Jima and paid tribute to her fallen husband.  According to Derrick Wright, "The name of Gen. Kuribayashi has been accorded a place of honor in postwar Japanese history, alongside that other outstanding commander Adm. Yamamoto. In his autobiography, "Coral and Brass", Lt.-Gen. Holland 'Howling Mad' Smith paid him one of his highest tributes: 'Of all our adversaries in the Pacific, Kuribayashi was the most redoubtable.'"

In popular culture.

In the 2004 PC real-time strategy game "Axis and Allies", Kuribayashi is depicted as one of the four playable Japanese commanders (alongside Yamamoto and Chuichi Nagumo). Kuribayashi is a primarily antagonistic character, appearing only once during the Allied campaign, appropriately in command of two corps during the Battle of Iwo Jima; in the Axis campaign (which tells an alternate version of World War II in which the Axis powers win), he supervises the Japanese invasion of India and the destruction of the British Empire, before leading the Japanese invasion of Russia, which culminates in the three-way Battle of Moscow, between the IJA, remnants of the Red Army, and Field Marshal Manstein's panzer corps.  Kuribayashi has also been portrayed as a commanding officer in the "Hearts of Iron" strategy series consistently since its release. He is usually portrayed as having a high initial skill level, and an even higher skill cap than most.  Kuribayashi became known to an international audience after being portrayed onscreen in the film "Letters from Iwo Jima". The film depicts General Kuribayashi as a tragic hero whose devotion to his country is tempered by a knowledge of the enemy's humanity. In one scene, Kuribayashi declares, "I have sworn to fight to the death to protect my family, but somehow the memory of my family makes it hard to keep that promise." When a staff officer accuses him of betraying bushido, Kuribayashi responds, "The tunnel-digging may be futile. The stand on Iwo Jima may be futile. Maybe the whole war is futile. Would you give up then? We will defend this island until we are dead! Until the very last soldier is dead! If our children can live safely for one more day, it would be worth the one more day that we defend this island!"  According to screenwriter Iris Yamashita, "Ultimately, I felt that the many nuances of Tadamichi Kuribayashi came to life onscreen under Clint Eastwood's masterful direction and actor Ken Watanabe's deft portrayal, expressing the perfect sense of the balance of the gentleness and warmth of the family man, combined with the strength, practicality and regality of the commanding officer."  "Letters from Iwo Jima" was released in December 2006 and was nominated for four Academy Awards; including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Original Screenplay, and Best Sound Editing, which it won. Eastwood had also directed "Flags of Our Fathers", which focused on the Marine Corps company responsible for raising the Flag on Iwo Jima.

General was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army, part-time writer, haiku poet, diplomat, and commanding officer of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff. He is best known for having been the overall commander of the Japanese garrison during the Battle of Iwo Jima.

栗林忠道为二战时的日本陆军大将,生于日本长野县埴科郡旧西条村(现长野市松代町),1945年于硫磺岛战死。位阶勋等为从四位勋一等(旭日大绶章)。在硫磺岛战役期间,身为指挥官领导士兵死守硫磺岛。