Growing information.

"Schisandra" is native to northern and northeastern China (Manchuria). Cultivation requirements are thought to be similar to those of grapes. Plants require conditions of moderate humidity and light, together with a wet, humus-rich soil. In order to successfully grow fruit male and female plants must be grown together. Plants can be propagated by seed or by layering in spring or autumn, or in the summer time by using semi-ripe cuttings. Tens of tons of berries are used annually in Russia in Primorsky Krai and Khabarovsk Krai for the commercial manufacture of juices, wines, extracts, and sweets.

Etymology.

Its Chinese name comes from the fact that its berries possess all five basic flavors: salty, sweet, sour, pungent (spicy), and bitter. Sometimes, it is more specifically called "běi wǔ wèi zi" (literally "northern five-flavor berry") to distinguish it from another traditionally medicinal schisandraceous plant "Kadsura japonica" that grows only in subtropical areas. Another species of schisandra berry, "Schisandra sphenanthera", has a similar but different biochemical profile; the Chinese Pharmacopeia distinguishes between "S. chinensis" ("běi wǔ wèi zi") and "S. sphenanthera" ("nan wǔ wèi zi").

Uses.

Its berries are used in traditional medicine, where it is considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs. Chemical constituents include the lignans schisandrin, deoxyschizandrin, gomisins, and pregomisin.  In Korean, the berries are known as "omija" (오미자 (hangul) – five flavours). The cordial drink made from the berries is called "omija-cha", meaning ""omija" tea"; see Korean tea. In Japanese, they are called "gomishi". The Ainu people used this plant, called "repnihat", as a remedy for colds and sea-sickness.  Interest in "limonnik" ("S. chinensis") in Russia was associated with ethnopharmacological investigations by Soviet scientists on berries and seeds.

Culture.

In 1998, Russia released a postage stamp depicting "S. chinensis".

Schisandra chinensis (common name: magnolia-vine, Chinese magnolia-vine, schisandra), whose fruit is called magnolia berry or five-flavor-fruit (from Chinese "wǔ wèi zi"), is a deciduous woody vine native to forests of Northern China and the Russian Far East. It is hardy in USDA Zone 4. The plant likes some shade with moist, well-drained soil. The species itself is dioecious, thus flowers on a female plant will only produce fruit when fertilized with pollen from a male plant. However, a hybrid selection titled 'Eastern Prince' has perfect flowers and is self-fertile. Seedlings of 'Eastern Prince' are sometimes sold under the same name, but are typically single-sex plants. The fruits are red berries borne in dense hanging clusters around 10 cm long.

五味子(学名:),又称作五味、北五味子、山五味、山花椒、荎藸(),为五味子科五味子属下的一种植物。唐朝《新修本草》载“五味皮肉甘酸,核中辛苦,都有咸味”,所以得名。


Theory.

The Hess' law states that the change of enthalpy in a chemical reaction (i.e. the heat of reaction at constant pressure) is independent of the pathway between the initial and final states.  In other words, if a chemical change takes place by several different routes, the overall enthalpy change is the same, regardless of the route by which the chemical change occurs (provided the initial and final condition are the same).  Hess' law allows the enthalpy change (ΔH) for a reaction to be calculated even when it cannot be measured directly. This is accomplished by performing basic algebraic operations based on the chemical equations of reactions using previously determined values for the enthalpies of formation.  Addition of chemical equations leads to a net or overall equation. If enthalpy change is known for each equation, the result will be the enthalpy change for the net equation. If the net enthalpy change is negative (ΔH < 0), the reaction is exothermic and is more likely to be spontaneous; positive ΔH values correspond to endothermic reactions. Entropy also plays an important role in determining spontaneity, as some reactions with a positive enthalpy change are nevertheless spontaneous.  Hess' law states that enthalpy changes are additive. Thus the ΔH for a single reaction where formula_2 is an enthalpy of formation, and the superscript indicates standard state values. This may be considered as the sum of two (real or fictitious) reactions: and Elements → Products <br>

Examples.

1) Given: Find the ΔH of:  After the multiplication and reversing of the equations (and their enthalpy changes), the result is: Adding these equations and canceling out the common terms on both sides, we get  2) a) C+O → CO (g) ;(ΔH = -393.5 kJ/mol) (direct step) →In the reactions b) and c), the total ΔH = -393.5 kJ/mol which is equal to ΔH in a)  The difference in the value of ΔH is 0.02 kJ/mol which is due to measurement errors.

Extension to free energy and entropy.

The concepts of Hess' law can be expanded to include changes in entropy and in Gibbs free energy, which are also state functions. The Bordwell thermodynamic cycle is an example of such an extension which takes advantage of easily measured equilibria and redox potentials to determine experimentally inaccessible Gibbs free energy values. Combining ΔG values from Bordwell thermodynamic cycles and ΔH values found with Hess' law can be helpful in determining entropy values which are not measured directly, and therefore must be calculated through alternative paths.  For the free energy:  For entropy, the situation is a little different. Because entropy can be measured as an absolute value, not relative to those of the elements in their reference states (as with ΔH and ΔG), there is no need to use the entropy of formation; one simply uses the absolute entropies for products and reactants:

Applications.

Hess' Law of Constant Heat Summation is useful in the determination of enthalpies of the following:

Hess' law of constant heat summation, also known as Hess' law (or Hess's law), is a relationship in physical chemistry named after Germain Hess, a Switzerland-born Russian chemist and physician who published it in 1840. The law states that the total enthalpy change during the complete course of a chemical reaction is the same whether the reaction is made in one step or in several steps.

赫斯定律(英语:Hess's law),又名反应热加成性定律(英语:the law of additivity of reaction heat):若一反应为二个反应式的代数和时,其反应热为此二反应热的代数和。也可表达为在条件不变的情况下,化学反应的反应热只与起始和终了状态有关,与变化途径无关 。它是由俄罗斯化学家赫斯发现,被称为赫斯定律。


Genealogy.

His personal name was Iyahito (彌仁).  He was the second son of the Northern Pretender Emperor Kōgon, and brother of his predecessor, Emperor Sukō. His mother was Hideko (秀子), Sanjō Kinhide's daughter

Events of Go-Kōgon's life.

In his own lifetime, Go-Kōgon and those around him believed that he occupied the Chrysanthemum Throne from 25 September 1352 to 9 April 1371. In 1351, Ashikaga Takauji briefly returned to the allegiance of the Southern Dynasty, causing the Southern Court to briefly consolidate control of the Imperial Line. However, this peace fell apart in April 1352. On this occasion, the Southern Court abducted Retired (Northern) Emperors Emperor Kōgon and Emperor Kōmyō as well as Emperor Sukō and the Crown Prince Tadahito from Kyoto to Anau, the location of the Southern Court. This produced a state of affairs in which there was no Emperor in Kyoto. Because of this, Imperial Prince Iyahito became emperor in 1352 with the support of Ashikaga Yoshiakira.  During this period, the Era of the Northern and Southern Courts, because of the antagonism between the two competing dynasties, public order in Kyoto was disturbed. The Southern Court repeatedly recaptured Kyoto. Emperor Go-Kōgon was forced to repeatedly flee from Kyoto to Ōmi Province and other places. Around the time that Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was named "shōgun" (1368), the Southern Courts power weakened, and order was restored to Kyoto. Also around this time, the Emperor's authority began to show its weakness.  On 9 April 1371, he abdicated in favor of his son, who became Emperor Go-En'yū. He continued to rule as Cloistered Emperor until he died of illness on 12 March 1374. He is enshrined with other emperors at the imperial tomb called "Fukakusa no kita no misasagi" (深草北陵) in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto.

Eras of Go-Kōgon's reign.

The years of Go-Kōgon's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or "nengō".

References.

Emperor Go-Kōgon (後光嚴天皇 "Go-Kōgon-tennō") (23 March 1338 – 12 March 1374) was the 4th of the Emperors of Northern Court during the Period of the Northern and Southern Courts. According to pre-Meiji scholars, his reign spanned the years from 1352 through 1371.

后光严天皇(;延元3年 / 历应元年3月2日(1338年3月23日) - 文中3年 / 应安7年1月29日(1374年3月12日)),是日本南北朝时代北朝第四代天皇(在位:正平8年 / 文和元年8月17日(1352年9月25日) - 建德2年 / 应安4年3月23日(1371年4月9日)),讳弥仁()。


Definition.

In botany, the term herb refers to a herbaceous plant, defined as a small, seed-bearing plant without a woody stem in which all aerial parts (i.e. above ground) die back to the ground at the end of each growing season. Usually the term refers to perennials, although herbaceous plants can also be annuals (where the plant dies at the end of the growing season and grows back from seed next year), or biennials. This term is in contrast to shrubs and trees which possess a woody stem. Shrubs and trees are also defined in terms of size, where shrubs are less than ten meters tall, and trees may grow over ten meters. The word herbaceous is derived from Latin "herbāceus" meaning "grassy", from "herba" "grass, herb".  Another sense of the term herb can refer to a much larger range of plants, with culinary, therapeutic or other uses. For example, some of the most commonly described herbs such as sage, rosemary and lavender would be excluded from the botanical definition of a herb as they do not die down each year, and they possess woody stems. In the wider sense, herbs may be herbaceous perennials but also trees, subshrubs, shrubs, annuals, lianas, ferns, mosses, algae, lichens, and fungi. Herbalism can utilize not just stems and leaves but also fruit, roots, bark and gums. Therefore, one suggested definition of a herb is a plant which is of use to humans, although this definition is problematic since it could cover a great many plants that are not commonly described as herbs.  Ancient Greek philosopher Theophrastus divided the plant world into trees, shrubs, and herbs. Herbs came to be considered in three groups, namely pot herbs (e.g. onions), sweet herbs (e.g. thyme), and salad herbs (e.g. wild celery). During the seventeenth century as selective breeding changed the plants size and flavor away from the wild plant, pot herbs began to be referred to as vegetables as they were no longer considered only suitable for the pot.

Culinary herbs.

Culinary herbs are distinguished from vegetables in that, like spices, they are used in small amounts and provide flavor rather than substance to food.  Herbs can be perennials such as thyme, sage or lavender, biennials such as parsley, or annuals like basil. Perennial herbs can be shrubs such as rosemary ("Rosmarinus officinalis"), or trees such as bay laurel ("Laurus nobilis") – this contrasts with botanical herbs, which by definition cannot be woody plants. Some plants are used as both herbs and spices, such as dill weed and dill seed or coriander leaves and seeds. There are also some herbs, such as those in the mint family, that are used for both culinary and medicinal purposes.  Emperor Charlemagne (742–814) compiled a list of 74 different herbs that were to be planted in his gardens. The connection between herbs and health is important already in the European Middle Ages--"The Forme of Cury" (that is, "cookery") promotes extensive use of herbs, including in salads, and claims in its preface "the assent and advisement of the masters of physic and philosophy in the King's Court".

Herbal teas.

Some herbs can be infused in boiling water to make herbal teas (also termed tisanes). Typically the dried leaves, flowers or seeds are used, or fresh herbs are used. Herbal teas tend to be made from aromatic herbs, may not contain tannins or caffeine, and are not typically mixed with milk. Common examples include chamomile tea, or mint tea. Herbal teas are often used as a source of relaxation or can be associated with rituals.

Medicinal herbs.

Herbs were used in prehistoric medicine. As far back as 5000 BCE, evidence that Sumerians used herbs in medicine was inscribed on cuneiform. In 162 CE, the physician Galen was known for concocting complicated herbal remedies that contained up to 100 ingredients.  Some plants contain phytochemicals that have effects on the body. There may be some effects when consumed in the small levels that typify culinary "spicing", and some herbs are toxic in larger quantities. For instance, some types of herbal extract, such as the extract of St. John's-wort ("Hypericum perforatum") or of kava ("Piper methysticum") can be used for medical purposes to relieve depression and stress. However, large amounts of these herbs may lead to toxic overload that may involve complications, some of a serious nature, and should be used with caution. Complications can also arise when being taken with some prescription medicines.  Herbs have long been used as the basis of traditional Chinese herbal medicine, with usage dating as far back as the first century CE and far before. In India, the Ayurveda medicinal system is based on herbs. Medicinal use of herbs in Western cultures has its roots in the Hippocratic (Greek) elemental healing system, based on a quaternary elemental healing metaphor. Famous herbalist of the Western tradition include Avicenna (Persian), Galen (Roman), Paracelsus (German Swiss), Culpepper (English) and the botanically inclined Eclectic physicians of 19th century/early 20th century America (John Milton Scudder, Harvey Wickes Felter, John Uri Lloyd). Modern pharmaceuticals had their origins in crude herbal medicines, and to this day, some drugs are still extracted as fractionate/isolate compounds from raw herbs and then purified to meet pharmaceutical standards.  There is a record dated 1226 for '12d for Roses for Baron's Chamber and in 1516 for flowers and rushes for chambers for henry the 9th  Certain herbs contain psychoactive properties that have been used for both religious and recreational purposes by humans since the early Holocene era, notably the leaves and extracts of the cannabis and coca plants. The leaves of the coca plant have been chewed by people in northern Peruvian societies for over 8,000 years, while the use of cannabis as a psychoactive substance dates back to the first century CE in China and northern Africa.  Indigenous Australian peoples developed "bush medicine" based on plants that were readily available to them. The isolation of these groups meant the remedies developed were for far less serious diseases than the western illnesses they contracted during colonisation. Herbs such as river mint, wattle and eucalyptus were used for coughs, diarrhea, fever and headaches.

Sacred herbs.

Herbs are used in many religions. During the monastic era, monks would cultivate herbs alongside vegetables, while others would be set aside in a physic garden for specific purposes. For example, myrrh ("Commiphora myrrha") and frankincense ("Boswellia" species) in Hellenistic religion, the nine herbs charm in Anglo-Saxon paganism, neem ("Azadirachta indica") leaves, bael ("Aegele marmelos") leaves, holy basil or "tulsi" ("Ocimum tenuiflorum"), turmeric or "haldi" ("Curcuma longa"), cannabis in Hinduism, and white sage in Wicca. Rastafari also consider cannabis to be a holy plant.  Siberian shamans also used herbs for spiritual purposes. Plants may be used to induce spiritual experiences for rites of passage, such as vision quests in some Native American cultures. The Cherokee Native Americans use both white sage and cedar for spiritual cleansing and smudging.

Herbal cosmetics.

Originally there was always doubt in ancient societies, especially in the sceptical medium of western traditions, as to the efficacity of herbal medicines. The use of herbal cosmetics dates back to around six centuries ago in the European and Western countries. Mixtures and pastes were often concocted to whiten the face. During the 1940s, herbal cosmetics took a turn with the emerging red lipstick color, with every year gaining a more intense red. Herbal cosmetics come in many forms, such as face creams, scrubs, lipstick, natural fragrances, powders, body oils, deodorants and sunscreens. They activate through the epithelium of sebaceous glands to make the skin more supple. Ayurvedic oils are widely used in India, prized for their natural health-giving properties.  One method and perhaps the best, used to extract natural oils from herbs to make lipstick is partition chromatography. The process involves separation in watery solution, and then the injection of colour under pressure.

Strewing herbs.

Strewing herbs are scattered (strewn) over the floors of dwelling places and other buildings. Such plants usually have fragrant or astringent smells, and many also serve as insecticides (e.g. to repel fleas) or disinfectants. For example, meadowsweet was sometimes strewn across floors in the middle ages because of its sweet smell.

In general use, herbs are plants with savory or aromatic properties that are used for flavoring and garnishing food, for medicinal purposes, or for fragrances; excluding vegetables and other plants consumed for macronutrients. Culinary use typically distinguishes herbs from spices. "Herbs" generally refers to the leafy green or flowering parts of a plant (either fresh or dried), while "spices" are usually dried and produced from other parts of the plant, including seeds, bark, roots and fruits.

香草(英语:herbs)也称为香料植物,是指因为其香气而用在食物、调味品、药品及香料中的植物。


Background.

Descartes.

Sartre's existentialism shares its philosophical starting point with René Descartes: The first thing we can be aware of is our existence, even when doubting everything else (Cogito ergo sum). In "Nausea", the main character's feeling of dizziness towards his own existence is induced by things, not thinking. This dizziness occurs "in the face of one's freedom and responsibility for giving a meaning to reality". As an important break with Descartes, Sartre rejects the "primacy of knowledge" (a rejection summed up in the phrase "Existence precedes essence") and offers a different conception of knowledge and consciousness.

Husserl.

Important ideas in "Being and Nothingness" build on Edmund Husserl's phenomenology. To both philosophers, consciousness is intentional, meaning that there is only consciousness "of" something. For Sartre, intentionality implies that there is no form of self that is hidden inside consciousness (such as Husserl's "transcendental ego"). An ego must be a structure outside consciousness, so that there can be consciousness "of" the ego.

Summary.

In the introduction, Sartre sketches his own theory of consciousness, being, and phenomena through criticism of both earlier phenomenologists (most notably Husserl and Heidegger) as well as idealists, rationalists, and empiricists. According to him, one of the major achievements of modern philosophy is phenomenology because it disproved the kinds of dualism that set the existent up as having a "hidden" nature (such as Immanuel Kant's noumenon); Phenomenology has removed "the illusion of worlds behind the scene".  Based on an examination of the nature of phenomena, he describes the nature of two types of being, "being-in-itself" (the being of things) and "being-for-itself". While being-in-itself is something that can only be approximated by human being, being-for-itself is the being of consciousness.

Part 1, Chapter 1: The origin of negation.

From Sartre's phenomenological point of view, nothingness is an experienced reality and cannot be a merely subjective mistake. The absence of a friend and absence of money hint at a "being" of nothingness. It is part of reality. In the first chapter, Sartre develops a theory of nothingness which is central to the whole book, especially to his account for bad faith and freedom. For him, nothingness is not just a mental concept that sums up negative judgements such as "Pierre is not here" and "I have no money". Though "it is evident that non-being always appears within the limits of a human expectation", the concrete nothingness differs from mere abstract inexistence, such as the square circle. A concrete nothingness, e.g. not being able to see, is part of a totality: the life of the blind man in this world. This totality is modified by the nothingness which is part of it.  In the totality of consciousness and phenomenon (Heidegger's being-in-the-world), both can be considered separately, but exist only as a whole (intentionality of consciousness). The human attitude of inquiry, of asking questions, puts consciousness at distance from the world. Every question brings up the possibility of a negative answer, of non-being, e.g. "Who is entering? No one." For Sartre, this is how "nothingness" can exist at all. Non-being can neither be part of the being-in-itself nor can it be as a complement of it. Being-for-itself is the origin of negation. The relation between being-for-itself and being-in-itself is one of questioning the latter. By bringing nothingness into the world, consciousness does not annihilate the being of things, but changes its relation to it.

Part 1, Chapter 2: Bad faith.

As bad faith, Sartre describes one's self-deception about the human reality. It can take two forms, the first one is making oneself falsely believe not to be what one actually is. The second one is conceiving oneself as an object (e.g. being identical to a job) and thereby denying freedom.  This essentially means that in being a waiter, grocer, etc., one must believe that their social role is equivalent to their human existence. Living a life defined by one's occupation, social, racial, or economic class, is the very essence of "bad faith", the condition in which people cannot transcend their situations in order to realize what they must be (human) and what they are not (waiter, grocer, etc.). It is also essential for an existent to understand that negation allows the self to enter what Sartre calls the "great human stream". The great human stream arises from a singular realization that nothingness is a state of mind in which we can become anything, in reference to our situation, that we desire.  The difference between existence and identity projection remains at the heart of human subjects who are swept up by their own condition, their "bad faith". An example of projection that Sartre uses is the café waiter who performs the duties, traditions, functions, and expectations of a café waiter:  Sartre also gives, as an example of bad faith, the attitude of the homosexual who denies that he is a homosexual, feeling that "a homosexual is not a homosexual" in the same sense that a table is a table or a red-haired man is red-haired. Sartre argues that such an attitude is partially correct since it is based in the "irreducible character of human reality", but that it would be fully correct only if the homosexual accepted that he is a homosexual in the sense that he has adopted a pattern of conduct defined as that of a homosexual, although not one "to the extent that human reality can not be finally defined by patterns of conduct".  Sartre consistently mentions that in order to get out of bad faith, one must realize that one's existence and one's formal projection of a self are distinctly separate and within the means of human control. This separation is a form of "nothingness". Nothingness, in terms of bad faith, is characterized by Sartre as the internal negation which separates pure existence and identity, and thus we are subject to playing our lives out in a similar manner. An example is "something that is what it is" (existence) and "something that is what it is not" (a waiter defined by his occupation).  However, Sartre takes a stance against characterizing bad faith in terms of "mere social positions". Says Sartre, "I am never any one of my attitudes, any one of my actions." The good speaker is the one who "plays" at speaking because he cannot "be speaking". This literally means that, like the café waiter, the speaker is not his condition or social categorization, but is a speaker consumed by bad faith. Thus, we must realize what we are (beings who exist) and what we are not (a social/historical preoccupation) in order to step out of bad faith. Yet, existents (human beings) must maintain a balance between existence, their roles, and nothingness to become authentic beings."  Additionally, an important tenet of bad faith is that we must enact a bit of "good faith" in order to take advantage of our role to reach an authentic existence. The authentic domain of bad faith is realizing that the role we are playing is the lie. To live and project into the future as a project of a self, while keeping out of bad faith and living by the will of the self is living life authentically.  One of the most important implications of bad faith is the abolition of traditional ethics. Being a "moral person" requires one to deny authentic impulses (everything that makes us human) and allow the will of another person to change one's actions. Being "a moral person" is one of the most severe forms of bad faith. Sartre essentially characterizes this as "the faith of bad faith" which is and should not be, in Sartre's opinion, at the heart of one's existence. Sartre has a very low opinion of conventional ethics, condemning it as a tool of the bourgeoisie to control the masses.  Bad faith also results when individuals begin to view their life as made up of distinct past events. By viewing one's ego as it once was rather than as it currently is, one ends up negating the current self and replacing it with a past self that no longer exists.

Part 3, Chapter 1: The look.

The mere possible presence of another person causes one to look at oneself as an object and see one's world as it appears to the other. This is not done from a specific location outside oneself, but is non-positional. This is a recognition of the subjectivity in others.  This transformation is most clear when one sees a mannequin that one confuses for a real person for a moment.

Being for Others.

Sartre states that many relationships are created by people's attraction not to another person, but rather how that person makes them feel about themselves by how they look at them. This is a state of emotional alienation whereby a person avoids experiencing their subjectivity by identifying themselves with "the look" of the other. The consequence is conflict. In order to maintain the person's own being, the person must control the other, but must also control the freedom of the other "as freedom". These relationships are a profound manifestation of "bad faith" as the for-itself is replaced with the other's freedom. The purpose of either participant is not to exist, but to maintain the other participant's looking at them. This system is often mistakenly called "love", but it is, in fact, nothing more than emotional alienation and denial of freedom through conflict with the other. Sartre believes that it is often created as a means of making the unbearable anguish of a person's relationship to their "facticity" (all of the concrete details against the background of which human freedom exists and is limited, such as birthplace and time) bearable. At its extreme, the alienation can become so intense that due to the guilt of being so radically enslaved by "the look" and therefore radically missing their own freedoms, the participants can experience masochistic and sadistic attitudes. This happens when the participants cause pain to each other, in attempting to prove their control over the other's look, which they cannot escape because they believe themselves to be so enslaved to the look that experiencing their own subjectivity would be equally unbearable.

Sex.

Sartre explains that "the look" is the basis for sexual desire, declaring that a biological motivation for sex does not exist. Instead, "double reciprocal incarnation" is a form of mutual awareness which Sartre takes to be at the heart of the sexual experience. This involves the mutual recognition of subjectivity of some sort, as Sartre describes: "I make myself flesh in order to impel the Other to realize for herself and for me her own flesh. My caress causes my flesh to be born for me insofar as it is for the Other flesh causing her to be born as flesh."  Even in sex (perhaps especially in sex), men and women are haunted by a state in which consciousness and bodily being would be in perfect harmony, with desire satisfied. Such a state, however, can never be. We try to bring the beloved's consciousness to the surface of their body by use of magical acts performed, gestures (kisses, desires, etc.), but at the moment of orgasm the illusion is ended and we return to ourselves, just as it is ended when the skier comes to the foot of the mountain or when the commodity that once we desired loses its glow upon our purchase of it. There will be, for Sartre, no such moment of completion because "man is a useless passion" to be the "ens causa sui", the God of the ontological proof.

Nothingness.

Sartre contends that human existence is a conundrum whereby each of us exists, for as long as we live, within an overall condition of nothingness ("no thing-ness")—that ultimately allows for free consciousness. Yet simultaneously, within our "being" (in the physical world), we are constrained to make continuous, conscious choices.  It is this dichotomy that causes anguish, because choice (subjectivity) represents a limit on freedom within an otherwise unbridled range of thoughts. Subsequently, humans seek to flee our anguish through action-oriented constructs such as escapes, visualizations, or visions (such as dreams) designed to lead us toward some meaningful end, such as necessity, destiny, determinism (God), etc. Thus, in living our lives, we often become unconscious "actors"—Bourgeois, Feminist, Worker, Party Member, Frenchman, Canadian or American—each doing as we must to fulfill our chosen characters' destinies.  However, Sartre contends our conscious choices (leading to often unconscious actions) run counter to our intellectual freedom. Yet we are bound to the conditioned and physical world—in which some form of action is always required. This leads to "failed dreams of completion", as Sartre described them, because inevitably we are unable to bridge the void between the purity and spontaneity of thought and all-too constraining action; between the "being" and the "nothingness" that inherently coincide in our "self".  Sartre's recipe for "fulfillment" is to escape all quests by "completing" them. This is accomplished by rigorously forcing order onto nothingness, employing the "spirit (or consciousness of mind) of seriousness" and describing the failure to do so in terms such as "bad faith" and "false consciousness". Though Sartre's conclusion seems to be that being diminishes before nothingness since consciousness is probably based more on spontaneity than on stable seriousness, he contends that any person of a serious nature is "obliged" to continuous struggle between two things:

Phenomenological ontology.

In Sartre's opinion, consciousness does not make sense by itself: it arises only as an awareness of objects. Consciousness is therefore always and essentially consciousness "of something", whether this "something" is a thing, a person, an imaginary object, etc. Phenomenologists often refer to this quality of consciousness as "intentionality". Sartre's contribution, then, is that in addition to always being consciousness "of something", consciousness is always consciousness "of itself". In other words, all consciousness is, by definition, "self-consciousness". By "self-consciousness", Sartre does not mean being aware of oneself thought of as an object (e.g., one's "ego"), but rather that, as a phenomenon in the world, consciousness both appears and appears "to itself" at the same time. By appearing to itself, Sartre argues that consciousness is fully transparent; unlike an ordinary "object" (a house, for instance, of which it is impossible to perceive all of the sides at the same time), consciousness "sees" all aspects of itself at once. This non-positional quality of consciousness is what makes it a unique type of being, a being that exists "for itself".

Critique of Freud.

Sartre offers a critique of the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's theory of the unconscious, based on the claim that consciousness is essentially self-conscious. Sartre also argues that Freud's theory of repression is internally flawed. According to Sartre, in his clinical work, Freud encountered patients who seemed to embody a particular kind of paradox—they appeared to both "know" and "not know" the same thing. In response, Freud postulated the existence of the unconscious, which contains the "truth" of the traumas underlying the patients' behavior. This "truth" is actively repressed, which is made evident by the patients' resistance to its revelation during analysis. Yet what does the resisting if the patients are unaware of what they are repressing? Sartre finds the answer in what Freud calls the "censor". "The only level on which we can locate the refusal of the subject", Sartre writes, "is that of the censor." Further:  In other words, Sartre views Freud's unconscious to be a scapegoat for the paradox of simultaneously knowing and not knowing the same information. Instead of alleviating the paradox, Freud simply moves it to the censor, establishing "between the unconscious and consciousness an autonomous consciousness in bad faith". Sartre thinks that the postulation of a censor within the psychic economy is therefore redundant: at the level of the censor, we still encounter the same problem of a consciousness that hides something from itself. For Sartre, what Freud identifies as repression is rather indicative of the larger structure of bad faith. Psychoanalysis thus does not yield any special insight, since hiding something from oneself occurs at the level of consciousness as a unified phenomenon, not as part of some intra-psychic mechanism.  Toward the end of "Being and Nothingness", Sartre attempts to adapt some of Freud's ideas, and thereby develop an "existential psychoanalysis" in which causal categories are replaced by teleological categories.

Special terminology used by Sartre.

Explanation of terms based on appendix to the English edition of "Being and Nothingness" by translator Hazel Barnes

Reception.

"Being and Nothingness" is considered Sartre's most important philosophical work, and the most important non-fiction expression of his existentialism. Christian existentialist Gabriel Marcel wrote that it was of "incontestable" importance and ranked among the most important contributions made to general philosophy. While Marcel noted the influence of Heidegger on "the form at least" of "Being and Nothingness", he also observed that Sartre diverged from the views expressed by Heidegger in "Being and Time" (1927) in important ways, and that Sartre's contributions were original. Marcel considered Sartre's analysis of bad faith "one of the most outstanding and solid" parts of "Being and Nothingness", writing that it prevented Sartre's arguments from being purely abstract. Marcel saw one of the most important merits of the work to be to show "that a form of metaphysics which denies or refuses grace inevitably ends by setting up in front of us the image of an atrophied and contradictory world where the better part of ourselves is finally unable to recognise itself."  The philosopher Jean Wahl criticized Sartre's arguments about the topic of "nothing". The philosopher Frederick Copleston described Sartre's view that all human actions are the result of free choice as "highly implausible", though he noted that Sartre had ways of defending his position. He also expressed sympathy for Marcel's criticism of Sartre, and described Sartre's view of freedom as both "nihilistic" and possibly inconsistent with some of Sartre's other views. The philosopher A. J. Ayer wrote that, apart from some psychological insights, the book was "a pretentious metaphysical thesis" and "principally an exercise in misusing the verb 'to be'."  The philosopher William Barrett described "Being and Nothingness" as "a great, uneven, brilliant and verbose tome". He noted Sartre's debts to Heidegger, but nevertheless credited him with originality. He criticized Sartre for neglecting Heidegger's "notion of the truth of Being", his understanding of what it means for a subject or object to be. In his view, Sartre failed to "deal with the problem of truth in a radical and existential way", instead viewing truth in "the ordinary intellectualistic sense that has been traditional with non-existential philosophers" and thereby remaining a Cartesian rationalist. The author Susan Sontag praised Sartre's discussions of the body and concrete relations with others. She identified them as part of a French tradition of serious thought about problems of fundamental importance. The literary scholar John B. Vickery wrote that "Being and Nothingness" resembles Sir James George Frazer's "The Golden Bough" (1890) in the way its author "merges psychology and the concrete sense of fiction", although he considered it less readable than Frazer's work. The philosopher Iris Murdoch compared "Being and Nothingness" to Gilbert Ryle's "The Concept of Mind" (1949). She maintained that continental philosophy shares the same general orientation as English analytic philosophy. According to the philosopher Steven Crowell, "Being and Nothingness" had come to be seen as outdated by Sartre's death in 1980, since its emphasis on consciousness associated with "the subjectivism and psychologism that structuralism and analytic philosophy had finally laid to rest."  The philosopher David Pears criticized Sartre's critique of Freud, describing it as complex but imprecisely formulated and open to potential objections. The philosopher Thomas Baldwin described "Being and Nothingness" as a work of pessimism. He wrote that Sartre's argument that Freud's theory of repression is internally flawed is based on a misunderstanding of Freud, and that Sartre's attempts to adapt Freud's ideas are of greater interest. The director Richard Eyre recalled that "Being and Nothingness" was popular among British students in the 1960s, but suggests that among them the work usually went unread.  Several authors, including the sociologist Murray S, Davis, the philosophers Roger Scruton and Maxine Sheets-Johnstone, and the physician Frank Gonzalez-Crussi, have praised Sartre for his contributions to the philosophy of sex. Davis credited Sartre with being the first author to present a phenomenological analysis of sex. Scruton credited Sartre with providing "perhaps the most acute philosophical analysis" of sexual desire and correctly arguing that treating sexual desire as equivalent to appetite ignores "the interpersonal component of human sexual responses." He described Sartre's reflections on "le visqueux" as "celebrated". He has also credited Sartre with providing a "stunning apology for sado-masochism", and characterized "Being and Nothingness" as a "great work of post-Christian theology". Gonzalez-Crussi credited Sartre with recognizing that it is incorrect to equate sexual desire with desire for sexual acts. Sheets-Johnstone believed Sartre presented a subtle analysis of human sexuality. She praised his understanding of desire in general and suggested that his views about the subject anticipated those of the philosopher Michel Foucault. She believed that his views contained both significant truth and internal contradictions. She suggested that despite his criticism of Freud, his views about women and female sexuality were in some ways similar to Freud's. Naomi Greene, arguing that there is a "distaste for sexuality" in Sartre's work, identifies a clear "anti-sexual bias" present in "Being and Nothingness".

Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology (), sometimes published with the subtitle A Phenomenological Essay on Ontology, is a 1943 book by the philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. In the book, Sartre develops a philosophical account in support of his existentialism, dealing with topics such as consciousness, perception, social philosophy, self-deception, the existence of "nothingness", psychoanalysis, and the question of free will.

存在与虚无()是法国哲学家让-保罗·萨特于1943年出版的一本书。在此书中,萨特展开了支持存在主义的哲学论述,涉及诸如意识、认知、社会哲学、自我欺骗、“虚无”的存在、弗洛伊德心理分析和自由意志之类的话题。1940年至1941年,作为战俘,萨特阅读了海德格尔的《存在与时间》,该书运用了胡塞尔的现象学的方法来检查本体论。萨特把自己对哲学的探索归根于对此书的了解。


History.

Exploitation films may feature suggestive or explicit sex, sensational violence, drug use, nudity, gore, the bizarre, destruction, rebellion, and mayhem. Such films were first seen in their modern form in the early 1920s, but they were popularized in the 60s and 70s with the general relaxing of censorship and cinematic taboos in the U.S. and Europe. The Motion Picture Association of America (and the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America before it) cooperated with censorship boards and grassroots organizations in the hope of preserving the image of a "clean" Hollywood, but the distributors of exploitation film operated outside of this circuit and often welcomed controversy as a form of free promotion. Their producers used sensational elements to attract audiences lost to television. Since the 1990s, this genre has also received attention in academic circles, where it is sometimes called paracinema.  "Exploitation" is very loosely defined, and has more to do with the viewer's perception of the film than with the film's actual content. Titillating material and artistic content often coexist, as demonstrated by the fact that art films that failed to pass the Hays Code were often shown in the same grindhouses as exploitation films. Exploitation films share the fearlessness of acclaimed transgressive European directors such as Derek Jarman, Luis Buñuel, and Jean-Luc Godard in handling "disreputable" content. Many films recognized as classics contain levels of sex, violence, and shock typically associated with exploitation films; examples are Stanley Kubrick's "A Clockwork Orange", Tod Browning's "Freaks", and Roman Polanski's "Repulsion". Buñuel's "Un Chien Andalou" contains elements of the modern splatter film. It has been suggested that if "Carnival of Souls" had been made in Europe, it would be considered an art film, while if "Eyes Without a Face" had been made in the U.S., it would have been categorized as a low-budget horror film. The audiences of art and exploitation film are both considered to have tastes that reject the mainstream Hollywood offerings.  Exploitation films have often exploited news events in the short-term public consciousness that a major film studio may avoid because of the time required to produce a major film. "Child Bride" (1938), for example, tackled the issue of older men marrying very young women in the Ozarks. Other issues, such as drug use in films like "Reefer Madness" (1936), attracted audiences that major film studios would usually avoid in order to keep their respectable, mainstream reputations. With enough incentive, however, major studios might become involved, as Warner Bros. did in their 1969 anti-LSD, anti-counterculture film "The Big Cube". The film "Sex Madness" (1938) portrayed the dangers of venereal disease from premarital sex. "Mom and Dad", a 1945 film about pregnancy and childbirth, was promoted in lurid terms. "She Shoulda Said No!" (1949) combined the themes of drug use and promiscuous sex. In the early days of film, when exploitation films relied on such sensational subjects as these, they had to present them from a very conservative moral viewpoint to avoid censorship, as movies then were not considered to enjoy First Amendment protection.  Several war films were made about the Winter War in Finland, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War before the major studios showed interest. When Orson Welles' radio production of "The War of the Worlds" from "The Mercury Theatre on the Air" for Halloween in 1938 shocked many Americans and made news, Universal Pictures edited their serial "Flash Gordon's Trip to Mars" into a short feature called "Mars Attacks the World" for release in November of that year.  Some Poverty Row low-budget B movies often exploit major studio projects. Their rapid production schedule allows them to take advantage of publicity attached to major studio films. For example, Edward L. Alperson produced William Cameron Menzies' film "Invaders from Mars" to beat Paramount Pictures' production of director George Pal's "The War of the Worlds" to the cinemas, and Pal's "The Time Machine" was beaten to the cinemas by Edgar G. Ulmer's film "Beyond the Time Barrier". As a result, many major studios, producers, and stars keep their projects secret.

Grindhouses and drive-ins.

Grindhouse is an American term for a theater that mainly showed exploitation films. In the 1960s these theaters were put to new use as venues for exploitation films, a trend that continued strongly throughout the 1970s in New York City and other urban centers, mainly in North America, but began a long decline during the 1980s with the advent of home video.  As the drive-in movie theater began to decline in the 1960s and 1970s, theater owners began to look for ways to bring in patrons. One solution was to book exploitation films. Some producers from the 1950s to the 1980s made films directly for the drive-in market, and the commodity product needed for a weekly change led to another theory about the origin of the word: that the producers would "grind" films out. Many of them were violent action films that some called "drive-in" films.

Subgenres.

Exploitation films may adopt the subject matter and styling of regular film genres, particularly horror films and documentary films, and their themes are sometimes influenced by other so-called exploitative media, such as pulp magazines. They often blur the distinctions between genres by containing elements of two or more genres at a time. Their subgenres are identifiable by the characteristics they use. For example, Doris Wishman's "Let Me Die A Woman" contains elements of both shock documentary and sexploitation.

1930s and 1940s cautionary films.

Although they featured lurid subject matter, exploitation films of the 1930s and 1940s evaded the strict censorship and scrutiny of the era by claiming to be educational. They were generally cautionary tales about the alleged dangers of premarital sexual intercourse and the use of recreational drugs. Examples include "Marihuana" (1936), "Reefer Madness" (1938), "Sex Madness" (1938), "Child Bride" (1943), "Mom and Dad" (1945), and "She Shoulda Said No!" (1949). An exploitation film about homosexuality, "Children of Loneliness" (1937), is now believed lost.

Biker films.

In 1953 "The Wild One", starring Marlon Brando, was the first film about a motorcycle gang. A string of low-budget juvenile delinquent films featuring hot-rods and motorcycles followed in the 1950s. The success of American International Pictures' "The Wild Angels" in 1966 ignited a more robust trend that continued into the early 1970s. Other biker films include "Motorpsycho" (1965), "Hells Angels on Wheels" (1967), "The Born Losers" (1967), "Angels from Hell" (1968), "Easy Rider" (1969), "Satan's Sadists" (1969), "Naked Angels" (1969), "The Sidehackers" (1969), "Nam's Angels" (1970), and "C.C. and Company" (1970). "Stone" (1974) ", Mad Max" (1979), and "1%" (2017) combine elements of this subgenre with Ozploitation.

Blaxploitation.

Black exploitation films, or "blaxploitation" films, are made with black actors, ostensibly for black audiences, often in a stereotypically African American urban milieu. A prominent theme was African Americans overcoming hostile authority ("The Man") through cunning and violence. The first examples of this subgenre were "Shaft" and Melvin Van Peebles' "Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song". Others are "Black Caesar", "Black Devil Doll", "Blacula", "Black Shampoo", "Boss Nigger", "Coffy", "Coonskin", "Cotton Comes to Harlem", "Dolemite", "Foxy Brown", "Hell Up in Harlem", "The Mack", "Disco Godfather", "Mandingo", "The Spook Who Sat by the Door", "Sugar Hill", "Super Fly", "T.N.T. Jackson", "The Thing with Two Heads", "Truck Turner", "Willie Dynamite" and "Cleopatra Jones".  Modern homages of this genre include "Jackie Brown", "Pootie Tang", "Undercover Brother", "Black Dynamite", and "BlacKkKlansman". The 1973 Bond film "Live and Let Die" uses blaxploitation themes.

Cannibal films.

Cannibal films are graphic movies from the early 1970s to the late 1980s, primarily made by Italian and Spanish moviemakers. They focus on cannibalism by tribes deep in the South American or Asian rainforests. This cannibalism is usually perpetrated against Westerners that the tribes held prisoner. As with mondo films, the main draw of cannibal films was the promise of exotic locales and graphic gore involving living creatures. The best-known film of this genre is the controversial 1980 "Cannibal Holocaust", in which six animals are killed. Others include "Cannibal Ferox", "Eaten Alive!", "Cannibal Women in the Avocado Jungle of Death", "The Mountain of the Cannibal God", "Last Cannibal World", and the first film of the genre, "The Man From Deep River". Famous directors in this genre include Umberto Lenzi, Ruggero Deodato, Jesús Franco, and Joe D'Amato.  "The Green Inferno" (2013) is a modern homage to the genre.

Canuxploitation.

"Canuxploitation" is a neologism that was coined in 1999 by the magazine "Broken Pencil", in the article "Canuxploitation! Goin' Down the Road with the Cannibal Girls that Ate Black Christmas. Your Complete Guide to the Canadian B-Movie", to refer to Canadian-made B-movies. Most mainstream critical analysis of this period in Canadian film history, however, refers to it as the "tax-shelter era".  The phenomenon emerged in 1974, when the government of Canada introduced new regulations to jumpstart the then-underdeveloped Canadian film industry, increasing the Capital Cost Allowance tax credit from 60 per cent to 100 per cent. While some important and noteworthy films were made under the program, including "The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz" and "Lies My Father Told Me", and some film directors who cut their teeth in the "tax shelter" era emerged as among Canada's most important and influential filmmakers of the era, including David Cronenberg, William Fruet, Ivan Reitman and Bob Clark, the new regulations also had an entirely unforeseen side effect: a sudden rush of low-budget horror and genre films, intended as pure tax shelters since they were designed not to turn a conventional profit. Many of the films, in fact, were made by American filmmakers whose projects had been rejected by the Hollywood studio system as not commercially viable, giving rise to the Hollywood North phenomenon.  Notable examples of the genre include "Cannibal Girls", "Deathdream", "Deranged", "The Corpse Eaters", "Black Christmas", "Shivers", "Death Weekend", "The Clown Murders", "Rituals", "Cathy's Curse", "Deadly Harvest", "Starship Invasions", "Rabid", "I Miss You, Hugs and Kisses", "The Brood", "Funeral Home", "Terror Train", "The Changeling", "Death Ship", "My Bloody Valentine", "Prom Night", "Happy Birthday to Me", "Scanners", "Ghostkeeper", "Visiting Hours", "Highpoint", "Humongous", "Deadly Eyes", "Class of 1984", "Videodrome", "Curtains", "Self Defense", "Spasms", and "Def-Con 4".  The period ended in 1982, when the Capital Cost Allowance was reduced to 50 per cent, although films that had entered production under the program continued to be released for another few years afterward. However, at least one Canadian film blog extends the "Canuxploitation" term to refer to any Canadian horror, thriller or science fiction film made up to the present day.

Carsploitation.

Carsploitation films feature scenes of cars racing and crashing, featuring the sports cars, muscle cars, and car wrecks that were popular in the 1970s and 1980s. They were produced mainly in the United States and Australia. The quintessential film of this genre is "Vanishing Point" (1971). Others include "Two-Lane Blacktop" (1971), "The Cars That Ate Paris" (1974), "Dirty Mary, Crazy Larry" (1974), "Gone in 60 Seconds" (1974), "Death Race 2000" (1975), "Race with the Devil" (1975), "Cannonball" (1976), "Mad Max" (1979), and "Dead End Drive-In" (1986).  "Baby Driver" (2017) and "Death Proof" (2007) are modern tributes to this genre (containing some references to "Vanishing Point"), the latter also being a tribute to slasher films and the films of Russ Meyer.

Chambara films.

In the 1970s, a revisionist, non-traditional style of samurai film achieved some popularity in Japan. It became known as "chambara", an onomatopoeia describing the clash of swords. Its origins can be traced as far back as Akira Kurosawa, whose films feature moral grayness and exaggerated violence, but the genre is mostly associated with 1970s samurai manga by Kazuo Koike, on whose work many later films would be based. Chambara features few of the stoic, formal sensibilities of earlier "jidaigeki" films – the new "chambara" featured revenge-driven antihero protagonists, nudity, sex scenes, swordplay, and blood. Well-known chambara films include "Hanzo the Razor", "Lady Snowblood", "Lone Wolf and Cub", and "Sex & Fury".

Giallo films.

Giallo films are Italian-made slasher films that focus on cruel murders and the subsequent search for the killers. They are named for the Italian word for yellow, "giallo", the background color featured on the covers of the pulp novels by which these movies were inspired. The progenitor of this genre was "The Girl Who Knew Too Much". Other examples of Giallo films include "Four Flies on Grey Velvet", "Deep Red", "The Cat o' Nine Tails", "The Bird with the Crystal Plumage", "The Case of the Scorpion's Tail", "A Lizard in a Woman's Skin", "Black Belly of the Tarantula", "The Strange Vice of Mrs. Wardh", "Blood and Black Lace" and "Tenebrae". Dario Argento, Lucio Fulci, and Mario Bava are the best-known directors of this genre.

Mockbusters.

Mockbusters, sometimes called "remakesploitation films", are copycat movies that try to cash in on the advertising of heavily promoted films from major studios. Production company the Asylum, which prefers to call them "tie-ins", is a prominent producer of these films. Such films have often come from Italy, which has been quick to latch on to trends like Westerns, James Bond movies, and zombie films. They have long been a staple of directors such as Jim Wynorski ("The Bare Wench Project", and the "Cliffhanger" imitation "Sub Zero"), who make movies for the direct-to-video market. Such films are beginning to attract attention from major Hollywood studios, who served the Asylum with a cease and desist order to try to prevent them from releasing "The Day the Earth Stopped" to video stores in advance of the release of "The Day the Earth Stood Still" to theaters.  The term "mockbuster" was used as early as the 1950s (when "The Monster of Piedras Blancas" was a clear derivative of "Creature From The Black Lagoon"). The term did not become popular until the 1970s, with "Starcrash" and the Turkish "Dünyayı Kurtaran Adam" and "Süpermen dönüyor". The latter two used scenes from "Star Wars" and unauthorized excerpts from John Williams' score.

Mondo films.

Mondo films, often called shockumentaries, are quasi-documentary films about sensationalized topics like exotic customs from around the world or gruesome death footage. The goal of mondo films, as of shock exploitation, is to shock the audience by dealing with taboo subject matter. The first mondo film is "Mondo Cane" ("A Dog's World"). Others include "Shocking Asia", "Africa Addio" (aka "Africa Blood and Guts" and "Farewell Africa"), "Goodbye Uncle Tom", and "Faces of Death".

Monster movies.

These "nature-run-amok" films focus on an animal or group of animals, far larger and more aggressive than usual for their species, terrorizing humans while another group of humans tries to fight back. This genre began in the 1950s, when concern over nuclear weapons testing made movies about giant monsters popular. These were typically either giant prehistoric creatures awakened by atomic explosions or ordinary animals mutated by radiation. Among them were "Godzilla", "Them!", and "Tarantula". The trend was revived in the 1970s as awareness of pollution increased and corporate greed and military irresponsibility were blamed for destruction of the environment. "Night of the Lepus", "Frogs", and "Godzilla vs. Hedorah" are examples. After Steven Spielberg's 1975 film "Jaws", a number of very similar films (sometimes regarded as outright rip-offs) were produced in the hope of cashing in on its success. Examples are "Alligator", "Cujo", "Day of the Animals", "Great White", "Grizzly", "Humanoids from the Deep", "Monster Shark", "Orca", "The Pack", "Piranha", "Prophecy", "Razorback", "Blood Feast", "Tentacles", and "Tintorera". Roger Corman was a major producer of these films in both decades. The genre has experienced a revival in recent years, as films like "Mulberry Street" and Larry Fessenden's "The Last Winter" reflected concerns about global warming and overpopulation.  The Sci-Fi Channel (now known as SyFy) has produced several films about giant and/or hybrid mutations whose titles are sensationalized portmanteaus of the two species; examples include "Sharktopus" and "Dinoshark".

Nazisploitation.

Nazi exploitation films, also called "Nazisploitation" films, or "il sadiconazista", focus on Nazis torturing prisoners in death camps and brothels during World War II. The tortures are often sexual, and the prisoners, who are often female, are nude. The progenitor of this subgenre was "Love Camp 7" (1969). The archetype of the genre, which established its popularity and its typical themes, was "Ilsa, She Wolf of the SS" (1974), about the buxom, nymphomaniacal dominatrix Ilsa torturing prisoners in a Stalag. Others include "Fräulein Devil" ("Captive Women 4", or "Elsa: Fraulein SS", or "Fraulein Kitty"), "La Bestia in Calore" ("SS Hell Camp", or "SS Experiment Part 2", or "The Beast in Heat", or "Horrifying Experiments of the S.S. Last Days"), "L'ultima orgia del III Reich" ("Gestapo's Last Orgy", or "Last Orgy of The Third Reich", or "Caligula Reincarnated as Hitler"), "Salon Kitty" and "SS Experiment Camp". Many nazisploitation films were influenced by art films such as Pier Paolo Pasolini's famous "Salò o le 120 giornate di Sodoma" ("Salò or The 120 Days of Sodom") and Liliana Cavani's "" ("The Night Porter").  "Inglourious Basterds" (2009) and "The Devil's Rock" (2011) are modern homages to the subgenre.

Nudist films.

Nudist films originated in the 1930s as films that skirted the Hays Code restrictions on nudity by purportedly depicting the naturist lifestyle. They existed through the late 1950s, when the New York State Court of Appeals ruled in the case of "Excelsior Pictures vs. New York Board of Regents" that onscreen nudity is not obscene. This opened the door to more open depictions of nudity, starting with Russ Meyer's 1959 "The Immoral Mr. Teas", which has been credited as the first film to place its exploitation elements unapologetically at the forefront instead of pretending to carry a moral or educational message. This development paved the way for the more explicit exploitation films of the 1960s and 1970s and made the nudist genre obsolete—ironically, since the nudist film "Garden of Eden" was the subject of the court case. After this, the nudist genre split into subgenres such as the "nudie-cutie", which featured nudity but no touching, and the "roughie", which included nudity and violent, antisocial behavior.  Nudist films were marked by self-contradictory qualities. They presented themselves as educational films, but exploited their subject matter by focusing mainly on the nudist camps' most beautiful female residents, while denying the existence of such exploitation. They depicted a lifestyle unbound by the restrictions of clothing, yet this depiction was restricted by the requirement that genitals should not be shown. Still, there was a subversive element to them, as the nudist camps inherently rejected modern society and its values regarding the human body. These films frequently involve a criticism of the class system, equating body shame with the upper class, and nudism with social equality. One scene in "The Unashamed" makes a point about the artificiality of clothing and its related values through a mocking portrayal of a group of nude artists who paint fully clothed subjects.

Ozploitation.

The term "Ozploitation" refers broadly to Australian horror, erotic or crime films of the 1970s and 1980s. Changes to Australia's film classification system in 1971 led to the production of a number of such low-budget, privately-funded films, assisted by tax exemptions and targeting export markets. Often an internationally-recognised actor (but of waning notability) would be hired to play a lead role. Laconic characters and desert scenes feature in many Ozploitation films, but the term has been used for a variety of Australian films of the era that relied on shocking or titillating their audiences. A documentary about the genre was "". Such films deal with themes concerning Australian society, particularly in respect of masculinity (especially the ocker male), male attitudes towards women, attitudes towards and treatment of Indigenous Australians, violence, alcohol, and environmental exploitation and destruction. The films typically have rural or outback settings, depicting the Australian landscape and environment as an almost spiritually malign force that alienates white Australians, frustrating their personal ambitions and activities, and their attempts to subdue it.  Notable examples include "Mad Max", "Alvin Purple", "Patrick", "Turkey Shoot", "Road Games", "Wolf Creek", "The Man from Hong Kong", "Scobie Malone", "Wake in Fright", "The Adventures of Barry McKenzie", "Long Weekend", "Mad Dog Morgan", "Dark Age", "Dying Breed" and "Animal Kingdom".

Rape and revenge films.

This genre contains films in which a person is raped, left for dead, recovers and then exacts a graphic, gory revenge against the rapists. The most famous example is "I Spit on Your Grave" (also called "Day of the Woman"). It is not unusual for the main character in these films to be a successful, independent city woman, who is attacked by a man from the country. The genre has drawn praise from feminists such as Carol J. Clover, whose 1992 book "Men, Women, and Chainsaws: Gender in the Modern Horror Film" examines the implications of its reversals of cinema's traditional gender roles. This type of film can be seen as an offshoot of the vigilante film, with the victim's transformation into avenger as the key scene. Author Jacinda Read and others believe that rape–revenge should be categorized as a narrative structure rather than a true subgenre, because its plot can be found in films of many different genres, such as thrillers ("Ms. 45"), dramas ("Lipstick"), westerns ("Hannie Caulder"), and art films ("Memento"). One instance of the genre, the original version of "The Last House on the Left", was an uncredited remake of Ingmar Bergman's "The Virgin Spring", recast as a horror film featuring extreme violence. "Deliverance", in which the rape is perpetrated on a man, has been credited as the originator of the genre. Clover, who restricts her definition of the genre to movies in which a woman is raped and gains her own revenge, praises rape–revenge exploitation films for the way in which their protagonists fight their abuse directly, rather than preserve the status quo by depending on an unresponsive legal system as in rape–revenge movies from major studios, such as "The Accused (1988)".

Redsploitation.

The Redsploitation genre concerns Native American characters almost always played by white actors, usually exacting their revenge on their white tormentors. Examples are "Billy Jack", "The Ransom", The "Thunder Warrior" Trilogy, "The Manitou", "Prophecy", Avenged (aka "Savaged"), "Scalps" and "Clearcut".

Sexploitation.

Sexploitation films resemble softcore pornography. Films in this genre are an excuse for showing scenes involving nude or semi-nude women. Many movies contain vivid sex scenes, but sexploitations are more graphic than mainstream films. When sexploitations are plot-driven, most of the plot could include killers, slavery, fem-dom, martial-arts, similar style and lines from glamour and screwball comedies, features love interests and flirtation akin to romance films, over-the-top direction, like cheeky homages, fan service and caricatures, and broad performances that may contain sleazy teasing and alluding to foreplay or kink. Extending the sequences or showing full frontal nudity are typical genre techniques. Films such as "Faster, Pussycat! Kill! Kill!" and "Supervixens", by Russ Meyer, the work of Armando Bó with Isabel Sarli, "Emmanuelle" series, "Showgirls", and "Caligula". "Caligula" is unusual among exploitation films for its high budget and eminent actors (Malcolm McDowell, John Gielgud, Peter O'Toole and Helen Mirren).  Casting pornstars and hardcore actresses is semi-common. Sexploitation may contain sex shows to shock or tantalize their audiences.

Slasher films.

Slasher films focus on a psychopath stalking and violently killing a sequence of victims. Victims are often teenagers or young adults. Alfred Hitchcock's "Psycho (1960)" is often credited with creating the basic premise of the genre, though Bob Clark's "Black Christmas" (1974) is usually considered to have started the genre while John Carpenter's "Halloween" (1978) was responsible for cementing the genre in the public eye. "Halloween" is also responsible for establishing additional tropes which would go on to define the genre in years to come. The masked villain, a central group of weak teenagers with one strong hero or heroine, the protagonists being isolated or stranded in precarious locations or situations, and either the protagonists or antagonists - or possibly both - experiencing warped family lives or values were all tropes largely founded in "Halloween".  The genre continued into and peaked in the 1980s with well-known films like "Friday the 13th" (1980) and "A Nightmare on Elm Street" (1984). Many 1980s slasher films used the basic format of "Halloween", for example "My Bloody Valentine" (1981), "Prom Night" (1980), "The Funhouse" (1981), "Silent Night, Deadly Night" (1984) and "Sleepaway Camp" (1983), many of which also used elements from the 1974 film, "Black Christmas".  The genre experienced a mainstream revival in the 1990s with the success of "Scream", which both mocked and paid homage to traditional slasher conventions. Slasher films often prove popular and spawn sequels, prequels and remakes that continue to the present day. Adam Green's "Hatchet" and Ryan Nicholson's "Gutterballs" bill themselves as throwbacks to the slasher films of the 1980s.

Spacesploitation.

A subtype featuring space, science fiction and horror in film.

Spaghetti westerns.

Spaghetti westerns are Italian-made westerns that emerged in the mid-1960s. They were more violent and amoral than typical Hollywood westerns. These films also often eschewed the conventions of Hollywood studio Westerns, which were primarily for consumption by conservative, mainstream American audiences.  Examples of the genre include "Death Rides a Horse", "Django", "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly", "Navajo Joe", "The Grand Duel", "The Great Silence", "For a Few Dollars More", "The Big Gundown", "Day of Anger", "Face to Face", "Duck, You Sucker!", "A Fistful of Dollars" and "Once Upon a Time in the West". Quentin Tarantino directed two tributes to the genre, "Django Unchained", and "The Hateful Eight."

Splatter films.

A splatter film, or gore film, is a horror film that focuses on graphic portrayals of gore and violence. It began as a distinct genre in the 1960s with the films of Herschell Gordon Lewis and David F. Friedman, whose most famous films include "Blood Feast" (1963), "Two Thousand Maniacs!" (1964), "Color Me Blood Red" (1965), "The Gruesome Twosome" (1967) and "The Wizard of Gore" (1970).  The first splatter film to popularize the subgenre was George A. Romero's "Night of the Living Dead" (1968), the director's attempt to replicate the atmosphere and gore of EC's horror comics on film. Initially derided by the American press as "appalling", it quickly became a national sensation, playing not just in drive-ins but at midnight showings in indoor theaters across the country. Foreign critics were kinder to the film; British film magazine "Sight & Sound" included it on its "Ten Best Films of 1968" list. George A. Romero coined the term "splatter cinema" to describe his film "Dawn of the Dead".  Later splatter films, such as Sam Raimi's "Evil Dead" series, Peter Jackson's "Bad Taste" and "Braindead" (released as "Dead Alive" in North America) featured such excessive and unrealistic gore that they crossed the line from horror to comedy.

Women in prison films.

Women in prison films emerged in the early 1970s and remain a popular subgenre. They usually contain nudity, lesbianism, sexual assault, humiliation, sadism, and rebellion among captive women. Examples are Ted V. Mikel's "10 Violent Women", Roger Corman's "Women in Cages" and "The Big Doll House", "Bamboo House of Dolls", Jesus Franco's "Barbed Wire Dolls", Bruno Mattei's "Women's Prison Massacre", Pete Walker's "House of Whipcord", Tom DeSimone's "Reform School Girls", and Jonathan Demme's "Caged Heat".

An exploitation film is a film that attempts to succeed financially by exploiting current trends, niche genres, or lurid content. Exploitation films are generally low-quality "B movies". They sometimes attract critical attention and cult followings. Some of these films, such as "Night of the Living Dead" (1968), set trends and become historically important.

剥削电影(英:Exploitation film)是一种以促销为目的的电影类型,剥削本是经济学名词,但该词用于电影行业则用于表示通过特定敏感题材进行促销和大量植入广告等手段剥削观众,从而达到盈利目的。


Taxonomy.

The blue-winged pitta was described by the German naturalist Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller in 1776 and given the binomial name "Turdus moluccensis". Statius Müller's description was based on a plate showing the "Merle des Moluques" published by Comte de Buffon in his "Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle". The French name and the specific epithet "moluccensis" refer to the Moluccas (the Maluku Islands). This was an error as the range of the species does not extend as far east. The type locality was amended in 1963 to Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. The species is now placed in the genus "Pitta" that was introduced by the French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1816. The species is monotypic.  The blue-winged pitta forms a superspecies with the Indian pitta ("P. brachyura"), fairy pitta ("P. nympha") and mangrove pitta ("P. megarhyncha"). Alternate common names include: lesser blue-winged pitta, the little blue-winged pitta, the Moluccan pitta, the "brève à ailes bleues" (French), the "Kleine Blauflügelpitta" (German) and the "pita aliazul" (Spanish).

Description.

Measuring in length, the blue-winged pitta has a black head with a buff-coloured supercilium, white chin and buff underparts. The shoulders and mantle are greenish, the wings are bright blue, and the vent is reddish. The bill is black, eyes are brown and the legs pale pink. It has a very short tail. Juveniles have similar patterned plumage but are duller. It resembles the mangrove pitta but can be distinguished by its shorter bill. The loud call has been transcribed as "taew-laew taew-laew".

Distribution and habitat.

The blue-winged pitta is regularly found in Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam, and has been found to be vagrant in Australia, Christmas Island, Taiwan and Hong Kong. Habitat is subtropical and tropical moist lowland forests.  "P. moluccensis" is found in a variety of habitats, up to an altitude of 800 m (2500 ft), including broadleaved forests, parks and gardens, and mangroves, though avoids dense rainforest.  The range is much of southeast Asia and Indochina, from central Myanmar east through Thailand and into peninsular Malaysia. "P. moluccensis" is a winter visitor to Borneo and Sumatra, and a vagrant to the Philippines and Java. It is a rare vagrant to the northwestern coast of Australia.

Diet.

The blue-winged pitta mostly feeds on worms and insects, hunting them on the ground or from a low branch or perch. They also eat hard-shelled snails.

Breeding.

At breeding time, the blue-winged pitta builds a large nest, usually on the ground, made of twigs, roots, grasses, leaves and mosses. The spherical and untidy nest has a side entrance and is often found between tree roots near water. In its breeding range in peninsular Malaysia, the blue-winged pitta lays eggs between early May and late July each year. The female lays 4-6 white or cream-coloured eggs with purple markings, and both parents take turns incubating the eggs for 15–17 days.

The blue-winged pitta ("Pitta moluccensis") is a passerine bird in the family Pittidae and Southeast Asia. It forms a superspecies with three other pittas, the Indian pitta ("P. brachyura"), the fairy pitta ("P. nympha") and the mangrove pitta ("P. megarhyncha"). A colourful bird, it has a black head with a buff stripe above the eye, a white collar, greenish upper parts, blue wings, buff underparts and a reddish vent area. Its range extends from India to Malaysia, Indonesia, southern China and the Philippines. Its habitat is moist woodland, parks and gardens and it avoids dense forest. It feeds mainly on insects and worms. It breeds in the spring, building an untidy spherical nest on the ground, often near water and between tree roots. A clutch of about five eggs is laid and incubated by both parents, hatching after about sixteen days.

马来八色鸫(学名:),又名-{zh-cn:蓝翅八色鸟;zh-tw:马来八色鸫;}-,是八色鸫科八色鸫属的一种,是全面迁徙的候鸟,分布于香港、越南、缅甸、老挝、圣诞岛、中国大陆、印度、泰国、文莱、菲律宾、印度尼西亚、马来西亚、澳大利亚、新加坡和柬埔寨。全球活动范围约为2,610,000平方千米。该物种的保护状况被评为无危。


Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.5%) is water.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the 2000 census, there were 2,240 people, 922 households, and 614 families living in the county. The population density was 1 people per square mile (0/km2). There were 1,307 housing units at an average density of 1 per square mile (0/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 84.02% White, 0.04% Black or African American, 0.94% Native American, 0.22% Asian, 12.54% from other races, and 2.23% from two or more races. 35.27% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 922 households out of which 27.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.60% were married couples living together, 7.30% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.30% were non-families. 30.80% of all households were made up of individuals and 18.00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.96.  In the county, the population was spread out with 24.10% under the age of 18, 5.70% from 18 to 24, 21.70% from 25 to 44, 23.20% from 45 to 64, and 25.40% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females there were 96.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.10 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $25,441, and the median income for a family was $32,870. Males had a median income of $25,833 versus $18,487 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,065. 17.70% of the population and 13.60% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 23.30% are under the age of 18 and 15.00% are 65 or older.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 census, there were 2,022 people, 912 households, and 581 families living in the county. The population density was. There were 1,344 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 87.3% white, 0.6% American Indian, 0.1% black or African American, 7.9% from other races, and 3.9% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 38.5% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 17.5% were German, 13.7% were American, 9.6% were English, and 7.4% were Irish.  Of the 912 households, 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.7% were married couples living together, 8.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 36.3% were non-families, and 32.7% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.78. The median age was 47.8 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $30,643 and the median income for a family was $36,618. Males had a median income of $27,460 versus $20,980 for females. The per capita income for the county was $20,769. About 15.9% of families and 21.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 39.0% of those under age 18 and 18.3% of those age 65 or over.

De Baca County is a county in the U.S. state of New Mexico. As of the 2010 census, the population was 2,022, making it New Mexico's second-least populous county. Its county seat is Fort Sumner. The county is named for Ezequiel Cabeza De Baca, the second elected Governor of New Mexico.

迪巴卡县()是美国新墨西哥州东部的一个县,面积6,045平方公里。根据2010年人口普查,本县共有人口2,022人。本县县治为萨姆纳堡(Fort Sumner)。


Geography.

The Abaco Islands consist of limestone with some elevation and are protected on the ocean side by the third largest barrier reef in the world. The cays are mostly green with mangroves and white-sand beaches. Most of the islands are uninhabited. The Abaco Islands and their cays have been called Out Islands, Family Islands and Friendly Islands.

History.

The Abaco Islands were first inhabited by the Lucayans. The first European settlers of the islands were Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution who arrived in 1783, as was also the case at Cat Island. These original Loyalist settlers made a modest living by salvaging wrecks, by building small wooden boats, and by basic farming.

Pre-Columbian and Spanish eras.

The original inhabitants of the Bahamas before the arrival of Europeans were the Lucayans. They were a branch of the Taínos who inhabited most of the Caribbean islands at the time. The Lucayans were the first inhabitants of the Americas encountered by Christopher Columbus. The Spanish started seizing Lucayans as slaves within a few years of Columbus's arrival, and they had all been removed from the Bahamas by 1520. After the extermination of the Lucayans, there were no known permanent settlements in the Bahamas for approximately 130 years.  Spain laid claim to the Bahamas after Columbus's discovery of the islands but showed little interest in them. The Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci spent four months exploring the Bahamas in 1499–1500. Juan de la Cosa's first map of the New World, printed in 1500, shows the Abaco Islands with the name Habacoa. The map in Peter Martyr's first edition of 'De Orbe Novo' in 1511 shows the islands of the Bahamas but does not name them. The Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León landed on Abaco in 1513. The Turin map of 1523 clearly shows Abaco, now named Iucayonique. This remained the most accurate map of the area until the first English maps of the Bahamas were produced. Both John White's map of 1590 and Thomas Hood's map of 1592 show the islands, as did a map produced in 1630 by the Dutchman de Laet. At this time the Spanish empire in the Caribbean was focused on Havana. Spain regarded the now-depopulated Bahamas as unprofitable and treacherous to navigate;- in 1593 a Spanish fleet of 17 ships was wrecked off Abaco. Also, English and French pirates and freebooters had begun preying on Spanish vessels north of Cuba. A Spanish ordinance of 1561 forbade any merchant ship to enter the Bahamas without an escort. Ownership of the Bahamas passed back and forth between Spain and Great Britain for 150 years, until British ownership was established by treaty in 1783, when Great Britain ceded East Florida to Spain, receiving the Bahamas in return.

British colonial era.

In the summer of 1783, a call for those wishing to help settle Abaco was published in the Royal Gazette in New York City. About 1500 Loyalists left New York and moved to Abaco in August 1783. The Loyalists settled on a small sandy harbor about 6 leagues north of Marsh Harbour near modern-day Treasure Cay. They planned and built the town of Carleton, named after Sir Guy Carleton. Disputes over food distribution and having been misled about the resources available, led some of these settlers to found a rival town near Marsh Harbour called Maxwell. Conflict between disgruntled settlers and the officials responsible for helping became a constant feature of life on the islands. Sea island cotton was first sown by the settlers in 1785 and although both 1786 and 1787 produced good crops, the 1788 crop was blighted by caterpillars. Other settlements on the islands were Green Turtle Cay, Man-o-War Cay, and Sandy Point. In the 1790s, a group of Loyalists from the Carolinas arrived on the islands via Florida, founding the isolated settlement of Cherokee Sound.

Early 1970s.

In June 1971, the Prime Minister of the Bahamas, Lynden Pindling, announced his government's plans for independence from Britain. On Abaco, the Greater Abaco Council was formed to lobby for continued British rule. In July 1971 the Greater Abaco Council submitted a petition to the Queen asking that Abaco become a 'completely self-contained and fully self-supporting' territory under British jurisdiction. In August 1971 the British Government refused to consider the petition. The September 1972 general election in the Bahamas showed a clear majority for independence across the country.  However, on Abaco the results were less clear cut. The pro-independence Progressive Liberal Party won one of Abaco's two seats by a small majority, while the Free National Movement, who opposed early independence, won the other seat by a large majority. Starting in December 1971, all party talks took place in London to draft a new constitution for the Bahamas. The Greater Abaco Council sent representatives to London for a 'collateral conference' to run alongside the official talks. The British refused to consider making Abaco independent separately from the rest of the Bahamas. The GAC accepted this and the group ceased activity at the end of 1972.  Shortly afterwards, Errington Watkins, the Free National Movement representative for the Abaco-Marsh Harbour seat, formed a successor group, the Council for a Free Abaco. A second petition was organised and signed by half the registered voters on the island. Errington Watkins took this petition to London in May 1973, hoping to influence the Bahamas Independence Order then being debated in the British Parliament. A sympathetic MP, Ronald Bell introduced an amendment that would have excluded Abaco from an independent Bahamas and have the islands remain a British colony. This amendment was defeated in the House of Commons and the Bahamas Independence Order was approved on 22 May 1973. Three weeks later a similar motion on Abaco was defeated in the House of Lords.  A last-ditch attempt by Errington Watkins to pass a resolution in the Bahamas House of Assembly calling for a United Nations-supervised referendum on Abaco was easily defeated in June 1973 and the Bahamas became independent on 10 July 1973.

Abaco Independence Movement and onward.

In August 1973, shortly after the Bahamas became independent, the Abaco Independence Movement was formed as a political party whose stated aim was self-determination for Abaco within a federal Bahamas. AIM was formed by Chuck Hall and Bert Williams. They sought support from the US Libertarian Party and an American financier named Michael Oliver, who through his libertarian Phoenix Foundation agreed to support AIM financially. Mitchell WerBell, an American arms dealer and mercenary, also supported AIM. His talk of an armed insurrection and attempts to recruit mercenaries to go to Abaco greatly discredited AIM. The Progressive Liberal Party victory in the 1977 general election, effectively marked the end of the movement.

Hurricane Dorian.

On September 1, 2019, Hurricane Dorian made landfall on Elbow Cay in the Abaco Islands at 16:40 UTC with winds of 185 mph (295 km/h) and wind gusts up to 225 mph (360 km/h), tying Dorian with the 1935 Labor Day hurricane as the strongest landfalling Atlantic hurricane on record. There are reports of major damage throughout the islands which has been described as "catastrophic damage" and "pure hell".

Demographics.

The combined population of the islands was about 17,224, and the principal settlement and capital is Marsh Harbour.  In addition to Marsh Harbour there are several other settlements on Great Abaco including Cherokee Sound, Coopers Town, Crossing Rock, Green Turtle Cay, Hope Town, Little Harbour, Rocky Point, Sandy Point, Spring City, Treasure Cay, Wilson City, and Winding Bay.  Surrounding Great Abaco are several smaller islands known as cays, many of which are popular with tourists visiting the islands. A few notable cays include Castaway Cay (formerly Gorda Cay), Elbow Cay, Tilloo Cay, the Grand Cays, Great Guana Cay, Man-O-War Cay, Green Turtle Cay, Moore's Island, and Walker's Cay.

Activities.

The Bahamas National Trust maintains six national parks in the Abacos Islands. These are:  The Great Abaco Family Fitness weekend takes place every March in Treasure Cay, attracting both domestic and international tourism. The events include an open water swim, sprint and Olympic triathlons, a children's race, and a 5k/10k fun run/walk.  The Abaco Club features a renowned 18 hole championship golf course designed by Donald Steel and Tom Mackenzie. The course is home to Great Abaco Classic on the Web.com Tour

Transportation.

Marsh Harbour Airport (MHH) and Treasure Cay Airport (TCB) serve the needs of the Abacos, and all Abaco travel connects or originates in Florida or Atlanta. On the main island cars and boat rentals are available. On some of the cays, rental golf carts and boats are the main mode of transportation, along with bikes or scooters. Marsh Harbour Airport was the site of a plane crash on August 25, 2001, that claimed the lives of nine passengers, among them R&B singer Aaliyah.  The cays can be reached by ferries. The southern cays can be reached from Marsh Harbour and another ferry leaves from the Treasure Cay ferry dock about a half-hour from Marsh Harbour by road. Ferry service is also to be found between Nassau and Sandy Point on the southern end of Great Abaco on weekends.

Sandy Point.

Sandy Point is a small settlement at the tip of southwest Abaco, Bahamas. It is the location of "Sandy Point Airport", which has yet to serve any regular scheduled carrier, and a new police station. Sandy Point also has a few shops, some churches and a few bonefish lodges. The annual "Homecoming and Conch Fest" is held around Bahamian Labour Day, the first Friday in June. In the 1990s, The Walt Disney Company bought Gorda Cay and renamed it "Castaway Island" and made it a stop on their "Island in the Sun" cruise ship offering. Many Disney employees live in Sandy Point. There is no public access for tourists from shore. Also off shore and a little more to the north, lies Moore’s Island. It has two settlements "Hard Bargain" and "The Bight". Hole-in-the-Wall, which is the site of a light house, may seem nearby but should be a trip unto itself and only in a 4-wheel-drive vehicle when coming from Marsh Harbour.

Economy.

The Abaco Islands have been long famous for shipbuilding. Their chief exports are lumber, fruit, and pearl shells. Crawfish (Caribbean spiny lobster) are exported to the United States. Pulpwood is shipped to a Florida plant for processing. Tourism is a major portion of the economy.

Environment.

The Abaco Islands boast important natural areas, especially important coral reef areas, barrier-island terrestrial habitats and large forests of Bahamian pine ("Pinus caribaea" var. "bahamensis"), some of which still contain old-growth trees. As development expands in the Abacos, local groups have begun to fight for the preservation of their natural resources, such as in the development case on Great Guana Cay.  Species of birds include the Bahamian subspecies of Cuban amazon ("Amazona leucocephala bahamensis"), which exists only in Cuba, the Cayman Islands, the southern Bahamas and Abaco. This population is unique in that it nests in limestone solution cavities rather than tree cavities. Abaco is also known for its intact elkhorn and staghorn coral structures, and for a breed of feral horse, the Abaco Barb, which became extinct in 2015.

The Abaco Islands lie in the northern Bahamas, 180 miles off the South Florida coast. They comprise the main islands of Great Abaco and Little Abaco, along with smaller barrier cays. The northernmost are Walker's Cay, and its sister island Grand Cay. To the south, the next inhabited islands are Spanish Cay and Green Turtle Cay, with its settlement of New Plymouth, Great Guana Cay, private Scotland Cay, Man-O-War Cay, and Elbow Cay, with its settlement of Hope Town. Southernmost are Tilloo Cay and Lubbers Quarters. Another of note off Abaco's western shore is onetime Gorda Cay, now a Disney Island and cruise ship stop and renamed Castaway Cay. Also in the vicinity is Moore's Island. On the Big Island of Abaco is Marsh Harbour, the Abacos' commercial hub and the Bahamas' third largest city, plus the resort area of Treasure Cay. Both have airports. A few mainland settlements of significance are Coopers Town and Fox Town in the north and Cherokee and Sandy Point in the south. Administratively, the Abaco Islands constitute seven of the 31 Local Government Districts of the Bahamas: Grand Cay, North Abaco, Green Turtle Cay, Central Abaco, South Abaco, Moore's Island, and Hope Town.

阿巴科群岛(Abaco Island)为巴哈马的一个群岛,位于巴哈马北部,主要岛屿有大阿巴科岛、小阿巴科岛等。该群岛总面积1,681平方公里。


Early life and education.

Wayne was born in Cleveland, Ohio, United States on May 17, 1934.<ref name="ronaldgwayne.com/bio"></ref> He trained as a technical draftsman at the School of Industrial Art in New York.

Career.

In 1956, aged 22, he moved to California. In 1971, Wayne started his first business, a company selling slot machines. The company failed, with Wayne reflecting in 2014 that, "I discovered very quickly that I had no business being in business. I was far better working in engineering."

Apple.

In 1976, Ronald Wayne built the internal corporate documentation systems at the three-year-old Atari, where he met coworkers Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. To help settle one of their typical intense discussions about the design of computers and the future of the industry, Wayne invited the two to his home to facilitate and advise them. In the ensuing two-hour conversation about technology and business, Jobs proposed the founding of a computer company led by him and Wozniak. Those two would each hold a 45% stake so that Wayne could receive a 10% stake to act as a tie-breaker in their decisions. As the venture's self-described "adult in the room" at age 41, Wayne wrote a partnership agreement and the three founded Apple Computer on April 1, 1976. Wayne illustrated the first Apple logo, and wrote the Apple I manual.  Wayne's business attitude was already risk-averse due to his experience five years prior with the "very traumatic" failure of his slot machine business, the debt of which he had spent one year voluntarily repaying. Jobs secured a line of credit to buy product materials for Apple's first order which had been placed by The Byte Shop, whose reputation as a notoriously slow paying vendor gave Wayne great concern for his future. Legally, all members of a partnership are personally responsible for any debts incurred by any partner; unlike Jobs and Wozniak, then 21 and 25, Wayne had personal assets that potential creditors could possibly seize. Furthermore, his passion was in original product engineering and in slot machines, and not in the documentation systems he assumed Jobs and Wozniak probably wanted him to do indefinitely at Apple. Believing he was "standing in the shadow of giants" of product design talent and avoiding financial risk, he quit the company. Reportedly, "Twelve days after Wayne wrote the document that formally created Apple, he returned to the registrar's office and renounced his role in the company", therefore relinquishing his equity in exchange for on April 12, 1976.  Wayne has stated in following decades that he does not regret selling his share of the company as he made the "best decision with the information available to me at the time". He said he had originally believed that the Apple enterprise "would be successful, but at the same time there would be significant bumps along the way and I couldn't risk it. I had already had a rather unfortunate business experience before. I was getting too old and those two were whirlwinds. It was like having a tiger by the tail and I couldn't keep up with these guys." Although Apple ended up becoming one of the most valuable companies in the world, he said that with the stress of staying with Apple he "probably would have wound up the richest man in the cemetery." He summarized, "What can I say? You make a decision based on your understanding of the circumstances, and you live with it."

After Apple.

After leaving Apple, Wayne resisted Jobs's attempts to get him to return, remaining at Atari until 1978, when he joined Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and later an electronics company in Salinas, California.  In the late 1970s, Wayne had run a stamp shop in Milpitas, California for a short time, Wayne's Philatelics. After a number of break-ins, he moved his stamp operations to Nevada. The logo for the business was a wood-cut style design, with a man sitting under an apple tree, with the "Wayne's Philatelics" name written in a flowing ribbon curved around the tree. This had the same basis as the original logo he designed for Apple Computer.  Steve Jobs approached him again as a business contact for Apple, but Wayne refused to even forward Jobs's proposal to purchase a friend's company. Wayne's principle was that his friend should retain ownership under exclusive license to Apple instead of selling, but he would later express regret for having blocked the contact instead of allowing the decision to be made directly.  In the early 1990s, Wayne sold the original Apple partnership contract paper, signed in 1976 by Jobs, Wozniak, and himself, for. In 2011, the contract was sold at auction for $1.6 million. Wayne has stated that he regrets that sale.  Wayne retired to a mobile home park in Pahrump, Nevada, where he sells stamps and rare coins, and plays penny slots at a casino. Wayne never owned an Apple product until 2011, when he was given an iPad 2 at the Update Conference in Brighton, England. He holds a dozen patents.

Media.

In July 2011, Wayne published a memoir titled "Adventures of an Apple Founder". His plan for initial exclusivity on the Apple iBooks store did not materialize. He wrote a socio-economic treatise titled "Insolence of Office", released on October 1, 2011 which he describes as this:  He appeared in the documentary "Welcome to Macintosh" in 2008, where he describes some of his early experiences with Jobs and Wozniak.

Ronald Wayne (born May 17, 1934) is a retired American electronics industry businessman. He co-founded Apple Computer Company (now Apple Inc.) as a partnership with Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs, providing administrative oversight and documentation for the new venture. Twelve days later, he sold his 10% share of the new company back to Jobs and Wozniak for, and one year later accepted a final to forfeit any potential future claims against the newly incorporated Apple, totaling.

罗纳德·韦恩(英语:Ronald Gerald Wayne,1934年5月17日-)是一名已退休的电子业工作者,他与史蒂夫·沃兹尼克(Steve Wozniak)和史蒂夫·乔布斯(Steve Jobs)共同创立了苹果电脑(Apple Computer,现为苹果公司),在公司中负责主要的行政监督工作。但很快的他就放弃了自己的股份,并创立了一间新公司。


Production.

Gamboge is most often extracted by tapping resin (sometimes incorrectly referred to as sap) from various species of evergreen trees of the family "Clusiaceae" (also known as "Guttiferae"). The tree most commonly used is the gamboge tree (genus "Garcinia"), including "G. hanburyi" (Cambodia and Thailand), "G. morella" (India and Sri Lanka), and "G. elliptica" and "G. heterandra" (Myanmar). The orange fruit of "Garcinia gummi-gutta" (formerly called "G. cambogia") is also known as gamboge or gambooge.  The trees must be at least ten years old before they are tapped. The resin is extracted by making spiral incisions in the bark, and by breaking off leaves and shoots and letting the milky yellow resinous gum drip out. The resulting latex is collected in hollow bamboo canes. After the resin is congealed, the bamboo is broken away and large rods of raw gamboge remain.

Uses.

The pigment first reached Europe in early 17th century, and was used by artists such as Rembrandt, J.M.W. Turner, and Sir Joshua Reynolds. William Hooker mixed it with Prussian blue to create Hooker's Green. By the early 20th century it was replaced by a synthetic, more lightfast pigment, aureolin; however Winsor & Newton continued to sell the resin form until 2005.  Gamboge has strong laxative properties. Small doses are sufficient to produce watery feces, while large doses can be fatal.

Etymology.

The word comes from, the Latin word for the pigment, which derives from, the Latin word for Cambodia. Its first recorded use as a colour name in English was in 1634.

Gamboge (, ) is a partially transparent deep saffron to mustard yellow pigment. It is used to dye Buddhist monks' robes because the colour is a deep tone of saffron, the traditional colour used for the robes of Theravada Buddhist monks. It was this pigment that was used to prove Brownian motion by the physicist Jean Perrin in 1908.

藤黄(英语:gamboge)是一种黄色颜料,产于柬埔寨、越南、泰国、印度等地。其拉丁文名称即源于柬埔寨()一词。