M25高速公路 (英国)

Description.

Route.

The M25 almost completely encircles Greater London and passes briefly through it to the east. Junctions 1A–5 are in Kent, 6–14 are in Surrey, 15–16 are in Buckinghamshire, 17–25 are in Hertfordshire, and 26–31 are in Essex. Policing of the road is carried out by an integrated group made up of the Metropolitan, Thames Valley, Essex, Kent, Hertfordshire and Surrey forces. Primary destinations signed ahead on the motorway include the Dartford Crossing, Sevenoaks, Gatwick Airport, Heathrow Airport, Watford, Stansted Airport and Brentwood.  To the east of London the two ends of the M25 are joined to complete a loop by the non-motorway A282 Dartford Crossing of the River Thames between Thurrock and Dartford. The crossing consists of twin two-lane tunnels and the four-lane QE2 (Queen Elizabeth II) bridge. with a main span of. Passage across the bridge or through the tunnels is subject to a charge between 6 am and 10 pm, its level depending on the kind of vehicle. The road is not under motorway regulations so that other traffic can cross the Thames east of the Woolwich Ferry; the only crossing further to the east is a passenger ferry between Gravesend, Kent, and Tilbury, Essex.  At Junction 5, the clockwise carriageway of the M25 is routed off the main north–south dual carriageway onto the main east–west dual carriageway with the main north–south carriageway becoming the A21. In the opposite direction, to the east of the point where the M25 diverges from the main east–west carriageway, that carriageway becomes the M26 motorway. From here to Junction 8, the M25 follows the edge of the North Downs close to several historic buildings such as Chevening, Titsey Place, Hever Castle and Chartwell. The interchange with the M23 motorway near Reigate is a four-level stack; one of only a few examples in Britain. Past this, the M25 runs close to the Surrey Hills AONB.  To the west, the M25 passes close to the edge of Heathrow, and within sight of Windsor Castle. North of this, it crosses the Chiltern Main Line under the Chalfont Viaduct, a 19th-century railway bridge. Red kites can often be seen overhead to the north of this, up to Junction 21. The northern section of the M25 passes close to All Saints Pastoral Centre near London Colney, Waltham Abbey and Copped Hall. This section also features two cut-and-cover tunnels, including the Bell Common Tunnel. The north-eastern section of the motorway passes close to North Ockendon, the only settlement of Greater London situated outside the M25. It then runs close to the Rainham Marshes Nature Reserve before reaching the northern end of the Dartford Crossing.  In 2004, following an opinion poll, the London Assembly proposed aligning the Greater London boundary with the M25. "Inside the M25" and "outside/beyond the M25" are colloquial, looser alternatives to "Greater London" sometimes used in haulage. The Communications Act 2003 explicitly uses the M25 as the boundary in requiring a proportion of television programmes to be made outside the London area; it states a requirement of "a suitable proportion of the programmes made in the United Kingdom" to be made "in the United Kingdom outside the M25 area", defined in Section 362 as "the area the outer boundary of which is represented by the London Orbital Motorway (M25)".  Sections of the M25 form part of two long-distance E-roads, designated by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. The E15, which runs from Inverness to Algeciras, follows the M25 and A282 clockwise from the A1(M) at junction 23 to the M20 at junction 3; while the E30 Cork to Omsk route runs from the M4 at junction 15, clockwise to the A12 at junction 28. The United Kingdom is formally part of the E-roads network but, unlike in other countries, these routes are not marked on any road signs.

Features.

The M25 was originally built mostly as a dual three-lane motorway. Much of this has since been widened to dual four lanes for almost half, to a dual five-lanes section between Junctions 12 and 14 and a dual six-lane section between Junctions 14 and 15. Further widening is in progress of minor sections with plans for smart motorways in many others.  Two motorway service areas are on the M25, and two others are directly accessible from it. Those on the M25 are Clacket Lane between Junctions 5 and 6 (in the south-east) and Cobham between Junctions 9 and 10 (in the south-west). Those directly accessible from it are South Mimms off Junction 23 (to the north of London) and Thurrock off Junction 31 (to the east of London).  As is common with other motorways, the M25 is equipped with emergency ("SOS") telephones. These connect to two Highways England operated control centres at Godstone (for Junctions 1 to 15 inclusive) and South Mimms (for 16–31). The Dartford Crossing has a dedicated control centre. There is an extensive network of closed circuit television (CCTV) on the motorway so incidents can be easily identified and located. A number of 4×4 vehicles patrol the motorway, attempting to keep traffic moving where possible, and assisting the local police. They can act as a rolling roadblock when there are obstacles on the road.  When completed, the M25 only had street lighting for of its length. Originally, low pressure sodium (SOX) lighting was the most prominent technology used, but this has been gradually replaced with high-pressure sodium (SON) lighting. the motorway has more than 10,000 streetlights. The M25 has a number of pollution control valves along its length, which can shut off drainage in the event of a chemical or fuel spill.

History.

Plans.

The idea of a general bypass around London was first proposed early in the 20th century. An outer orbital route around the capital had been suggested in 1913, and was re-examined as a motorway route in Sir Charles Bressey's and Sir Edwin Lutyens' "The Highway Development Survey, 1937". Sir Patrick Abercrombie's "County of London Plan, 1943" and "Greater London Plan, 1944" proposed a series of five roads encircling the capital. The northern sections of the M25 follow a similar route to the Outer London Defence Ring, a concentric series of anti-tank defences and pillboxes designed to slow down a potential German invasion of the capital during World War II. This was marked as the D Ring on Abercombie's plans. Following the war, 11 separate county councils told the Ministry of Transport that an orbital route was "first priority" for London.  Plans stalled because the route was planned to pass through several urban areas, which attracted criticism. The original D Ring through north-west London was intended to be a simple upgrade of streets. In 1951, Middlesex County Council planned a route for the orbital road through the county, passing through Eastcote and west of Bushey, connecting with the proposed M1 motorway, but it was rejected by the Ministry two years later. An alternative route via Harrow and Ealing was proposed, but this was abandoned after the council revealed the extent of property demolition required.  In 1964, the London County Council announced the London Ringways plan, to consist of four concentric motorway rings around London. The following year, the transport minister Barbara Castle announced that the D Ring would be essential to build. The component parts of what became the M25 came from Ringway 3 / M16 motorway in the north and Ringway 4 in the south.  The Ringways plan was controversial owing to the destruction required for the inner two ring roads, (Ringway 1 and Ringway 2). Parts of Ringway 1 were constructed (including the West Cross Route), despite stiff opposition, before the overall plan was postponed in February 1972. In April 1973, the Greater London Council elections resulted in a Labour Party victory; the party then formally announced the cancellation of the Ringways running inside Greater London. This did not affect the routes that would become the M25, because they were planned as central government projects from the outset.

Construction.

There was no individual public inquiry into the M25 as a whole. Each section was presented to planning authorities in its own right and was individually justified, with 39 separate public inquiries relating to sections of the route. The need for the ministry to negotiate with local councils meant that more junctions with local traffic were built than originally proposed. A report in 1981 showed that the M25 had the potential to attract office and retail development along its route, negating the proposed traffic improvements and making Central London a less desirable place to work. None of the motorway was prevented from being built by objections at the public inquiries. However, as a consequence of the backlash against the Ringways, and criticism at the public inquiries, the motorway was built with environmental concerns in mind. New features included additional earth mounds, cuttings and fences that reduced noise, and over two million trees and shrubs to hide the view of the road.  Construction of parts of the two outer ring roads, Ringways 3 and 4, began in 1973. The first section, between South Mimms and Potters Bar in Hertfordshire (Junctions 23 to 24) opened in September 1975. It was provisionally known as the M16 and was given the temporary general-purpose road designation A1178. A section of the North Orbital Road between Rickmansworth and Hunton Bridge was proposed in 1966, with detailed planning in 1971. The road was constructed to motorway standards and opened in October 1976. It eventually became part of the M25's route. The section to the south, from Heathrow Airport to Rickmansworth had five separate routes proposed when a public inquiry was launched in 1974. The Department of Transport sent out 15,000 questionnaires about the preferred route, with 5,000 replies. A route was fixed in 1978, with objections delaying the start of construction in 1982.  The southern section of what became the M25 through Surrey and Kent was first conceived to be an east–west road south of London to relieve the A25, and running parallel to it, with its eastern end following the route of what is now the M26. It was originally proposed as an all-purpose route, but was upgraded to motorway standard in 1966. It was the first section of the route announced as M25 from the beginning. The first section from Godstone to Reigate (Junctions 6 to 8) was first planned in 1966 and opened in February 1976. A section of Ringway 3 south of the river between Dartford and Swanley (Junctions 1 to 3) was constructed between May 1974 and April 1977. In 1975, following extensive opposition to some parts of Ringway 3 through Middlesex and South London, the transport minister John Gilbert announced that the north section of Ringway 3 already planned would be combined with the southern section of Ringway 4, forming a single orbital motorway to be known as the M25, and the M16 designation was dropped. This scheme required two additional sections to join what were two different schemes, from Swanley to Sevenoaks in the south-east and Hunton Bridge to Potters Bar in the north-west. The section of Ringway 3 west of South Mimms anti-clockwise around London to Swanley in Kent was cancelled.  The section from Potters Bar to the Dartford Tunnel was constructed in stages from June 1979 onwards, with the final section between Waltham Cross (Junction 25) to Theydon Garnon (Junction 27) opening in January 1984. This section, running through Epping Forest, attracted opposition and protests. In 1973, local residents had parked combine harvesters in Parliament Square in protest against the road, draped with large banners reading "Not Epping Likely". As a consequence of this, the Bell Common Tunnel that runs in this area is twice as long as originally proposed.  The most controversial section of the M25 was that between Swanley and Sevenoaks (Junctions 3 to 5) in Kent across the Darenth Valley, Badgers Mount and the North Downs. An 1800-member group named Defend Darenth Valley and the North Downs Action Group (DANDAG) argued that the link was unnecessary, it would damage an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and it would be primarily used by local traffic as a bypass for the old A21 road between Farnborough and Sevenoaks. After a length inquiry process, chaired by George Dobry QC, the transport minister Kenneth Clarke announced the motorway would be built as proposed.  The section from the M40 motorway to the 1970s North Orbital Road construction (Junctions 16 to 17) opened in January 1985. The route under the Chalfont Viaduct meant the motorway was restricted to a width of three lanes in each direction.  The Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher officially opened the M25 on 29 October 1986, with a ceremony in the section between Junctions 22 to 23 (London Colney and South Mimms). To avoid the threat of road protesters, the ceremony was held a quarter of a mile from the nearest bridge. The total estimated cost of the motorway was around £1 billion. It required of concrete, of asphalt and involved the removal of of spoil. Upon completion, it was the longest orbital motorway in the world at. At the opening ceremony, Thatcher announced that 98 miles had been constructed while the Conservatives were in office, calling it "a splendid achievement for Britain". A 58-page brochure was published, commemorating the completion of the motorway.

Operational history.

The M25 was initially popular with the public. In the 1987 general election, the Conservatives won in every constituency that the motorway passed through, in particular gaining Thurrock from Labour. Coach tours were organised for a trip around the new road. However, it quickly became apparent that the M25 suffered from chronic congestion. A report in "The Economist" said it "had taken 70 years to plan [the motorway], 12 to build it and just one to find it was inadequate". Thatcher rebuked the negative response, calling it "carping and criticism".  Traffic levels quickly exceeded the maximum design capacity. Two months before opening, the government admitted that the three-lane section between Junctions 11 and 13 was inadequate, and that it would have to be widened to four. In 1990 the Secretary of State for Transport announced plans to widen the whole of the M25 to four lanes. By 1993 the motorway, designed for a maximum of 88,000 vehicles per day, was carrying 200,000. At this time, the M25 carried 15% of UK motorway traffic and there were plans to add six lanes to the section from Junctions 12 to 15 as well as widening the rest of the motorway to four lanes.  In parts, particularly the western third, this plan went ahead, due to consistent congestion. Again, however, plans to widen further sections to eight lanes (four each way) were scaled back in 2009 in response to rising costs. The plans were reinstated in the agreed Highways Agency 2013–14 business plan.  In June 1992, the Department for Transport (DfT) announced a proposal to widen the section close to Heathrow Airport to fourteen lanes by way of three additional link roads. This attracted fierce opposition from road protesters opposing the Newbury Bypass and other schemes, but also from local authorities. Surrey County Council led a formal objection to the widening scheme. It was cancelled shortly afterwards. In 1994, the Standing Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Appraisal published a report saying that "the M25 experience most probably does... serve as an example of a case where roads generate traffic" and that further improvements to the motorway were counterproductive. In April 1995, the Transport Minister Brian Mawhinney announced that the Heathrow link roads would be scrapped. In 1995 a contract was awarded to widen the section between Junctions 8 and 10 from six to eight lanes for a cost of £93.4 million, and a Motorway Incident Detection and Automatic Signalling (MIDAS) system was introduced to the M25 from Junction 10 to Junction 15 at a cost of £13.5m in 1995. This was then extended to Junction 16 at a cost of £11.7m in 2002. This consists of a distributed network of traffic and weather sensors, speed cameras and variable-speed signs that control traffic speeds with little human supervision, and has improved traffic flow slightly, reducing the amount of start-stop driving.  After Labour won the 1997 election, the road budget was cut from £6 billion to £1.4 billion. However, the DfT announced new proposals to widen the section between Junction 12 (M3) and Junction 15 (M4) to twelve lanes. At the Heathrow Terminal 5 public inquiry, a Highways Agency official said that the widening was needed to accommodate traffic to the proposed new terminal; however, the transport minister said that no such evidence had been given. Environmental groups objected to the decision to go ahead with a scheme that would create the widest motorways in the UK without holding a public inquiry. Friends of the Earth claimed the real reason for the widening was to support Terminal 5. The decision was again deferred. A ten-lane scheme was announced in 1998 and the £148 million 'M25 Jct 12 to 15 Widening' contract was awarded to Balfour Beatty in 2003. The scheme was completed in 2005 as dual-five lanes between Junctions 12 and 14 and dual-six lanes from Junctions 14 to 15.  In 2007, Junction 25 (A10/Waltham Cross) was remodelled to increase capacity. The nearby Holmesdale Tunnel was widened to three lanes in an easterly direction, and an additional left-turn lane added from the A10 onto the motorway. The total cost was £75 million.  Work to widen the exit slip-roads in both directions at Junction 28 (A12 / A1023) was completed in 2008. It was designed to reduce the amount of traffic queueing on the slip roads at busy periods, particularly traffic from the clockwise M25 joining the northbound A12. In 2018, a new scheme was proposed as the junction had reached capacity at over 7,500 vehicles per hour. This would involve building a two-lane link road between the M25 and the A12. The work is expected to be completed around 2021/22.

Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO) contract.

In 2006 the Highways Agency proposed widening of the M25 from six to eight lanes, between Junctions 5 and 6, and 16 to 30, as part of a Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO) project. A shortlist of contractors was announced in October 2006 for the project, which was expected to cost £4.5 billion. Contractors were asked to resubmit their bids in January 2008, and in June 2009 the new transport minister indicated that the cost had risen to £5.5 billion and the benefit to cost ratio had dropped considerably. In January 2009 the government announced that plans to widen the sections from Junctions 5 to 7 and 23 to 27 had been'scrapped' and that hard shoulder running would be introduced instead. However, widening to four lanes was reinstated in the 2013–14 Highways Agency Business Plan.  In 2009 a £6.2 billion M25 DBFO private finance initiative contract was awarded to Connect Plus to widen the sections between Junctions 16 to 23 and 27 to 30, and maintain the M25 and the Dartford Crossing for a 30-year period.  Works to widen the section between Junctions 16 (M40) and 23 (A1(M)) to dual four lanes started in July 2009 at an estimated cost of £580 million. The Junction 16 to 21 (M1) section was completed by July 2011 and the Junction 21 to 23 by June 2012. Works to widen the Junctions 27 (M11) to 30 (A13) section to dual four lanes also started in July 2009. The Junction 27 to 28 (A12) section was completed in July 2010, and the Junction 28 to 29 (A127) in June 2011, and finally the Junction 29 to 30 (A13) section opened in May 2012.  Works to introduce smart motorway technology and permanent hard shoulder running on two sections of the M25 began in 2013. The first section between Junctions 5 (A21/M26) and 7 (M23) started construction in May 2013 with the scheme being completed and opened in April 2014. The second section, between Junctions 23 (A1/A1(M)) and 27 (M11), began construction in February 2013 and was completed and opened in November 2014.  In December 2016, Highways England completed the capacity project at Junction 30 (Thurrock) as part of the Thames Gateway Delivery Plan. The £100m scheme included widening the M25 to four lanes, adding additional link roads, and improvements to drainage.

Traffic.

The M25 is one of Europe's busiest motorways. In 2003, a maximum of 196,000 vehicles a day were recorded on the motorway just south of Heathrow between junctions 13 and 14. The stretch between Junctions 14 and 15 nearby consistently records the highest daily traffic counts on the British strategic road network, with the average flow in 2018 of 219,492 counts (lower than the record peak measured in 2014 of 262,842 counts).  Traffic on the M25 is monitored by Connect Plus Services on behalf of Highways England. The company operates a series of transportable CCTV cameras that can be easily moved into congestion hotspots. This allows operators to see a clear view of the motorway and what can be done to tackle individual areas of congestion. Prior to its liquidation, Carillion was subcontracted to manage traffic on the M25, delivering live alerts from body-worn cameras via 3G, 4G and Wi-Fi.  Since 1995, sections of the M25 have been equipped with variable speed limits. These purposefully slow traffic down in the event of congestion or an obstruction and help manage the traffic flow. The scheme was originally trialled between Junctions 10 and 16, and was made a permanent fixture in 1997.  The Dartford Crossing is the only fixed vehicle crossing of the Thames east of Greater London. It is also the busiest crossing in the United Kingdom, and consequently puts pressure on M25 traffic. Users of the crossing do not pay a toll, but rather a congestion charge; the signs at the crossing are the same deployed over the London congestion charge zone. In 2009 the Department for Transport published options for a new Lower Thames Crossing to add capacity to the Dartford Crossing or create a new road and crossing linking to the M2 and M20 motorways. Plans for this stalled, and were cancelled by the Mayor of London, Boris Johnson in 2013, to be replaced by the Gallions Reach Crossing. Initially a straight ferry replacement for the Woolwich Ferry, this was later changed to be a possible bridge or tunnel.

Incidents.

On 11 December 1984, nine people died and ten were injured in a multiple-vehicle collision between junctions 5 and 6. Dense fog had descended suddenly, and 26 vehicles were involved.  On 16 December 1988, several vehicles were stolen and used as getaway for acts of murder and robbery, using the M25 to quickly move between targets. Three men, including Raphael Rowe were tried and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1990, but maintained their innocence. They became known as the M25 Three. Rowe studied journalism while in prison and following release became investigative journalist for the BBC.  In 1996, Kenneth Noye murdered Stephen Cameron in a road rage incident while stopped at traffic lights on an M25 junction. He was convicted in 2000 and sentenced to life imprisonment. He was released in June 2019.  In November 2014, during overnight roadworks, a piece of road surface near Junction 9 at Leatherhead failed to set correctly because of rain. This created a pothole in the road and caused a tailback. The Minister for Transport John Hayes criticised the work and the resulting traffic problems.  The M25 has had problems with animals or birds on the carriageway. In 2009, the Highways Agency reported that they were called out several times a week to remove a swan from the motorway around Junction 13. There have been several reported accidents resulting from horses running onto the main carriageway.

Racing.

The orbital nature of the motorway, in common with racetracks, lent itself to unofficial, and illegal, motor racing. At the end of the 1980s, before the advent of speed enforcement devices, owners of supercars would meet at night at service stations such as South Mimms and conduct time trials. Times below 1 hour were achieved – an average speed of over 117 mph (188 km/h), which included coming to a halt at the Dartford Tunnel road user charge payment booths. The winner received champagne rather than money. The "Enfield Gazette" referred to an "M25 club", and posters appeared near the M25 advertising the "First London Cannonball Run". The racing had mostly disappeared by the end of the 1980s and could not be done after speed cameras were introduced on the M25.  The video game, "M25 Racer", was produced by Davilex Games in 1997, simulating the racing phenomenon. A similar game, "TOCA Race Driver 3" by Codemasters, was released in 2006. It was criticised by road safety experts for its realistic portrayal of a V8 supercar on the M25 at, completing a lap in 42 minutes.

Cultural references.

The M25 and the Dartford Crossing are known for frequent traffic jams. This was noticed before the entire road had been completed; at the official opening ceremony Margaret Thatcher complained about "those who carp and criticise". The jams have inspired derogatory names, such as "Britain's Biggest Car Park" and songs (e.g., Chris Rea's "The Road to Hell"). Nevertheless, coach tours around the M25 have continued to run into the 21st century.  The M25 plays a role in the comedy-fantasy novel "Good Omens", as "evidence for the hidden hand of Satan in the affairs of Man". The demon character, Crowley, had manipulated the design of the M25 to resemble a Satanic sigil, and tried to ensure it would anger as many people as possible to drive them off the path of good. The lengthy series of public inquiries for motorways throughout the 1970s, particularly the M25, influenced the opening of "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy", where the Earth is destroyed to make way for a hyperspace bypass.  The M25 enjoyed a more positive reputation among ravers in the late 1980s, when this new orbital motorway became a popular route to the parties that took place around the outskirts of London. The use of the M25 for these raves inspired the name of the electronic duo Orbital. Iain Sinclair's 2002 book and film "London Orbital" is based on a year-long journey around the M25 on foot. A piece of graffiti on the Chalfont Viaduct, clearly visible from the M25 and reading "" (parodying John Lennon's "Give Peace A Chance") became popular with the public, attracting its own Facebook group. The message originally read "Peas", supposedly the tag of a London graffiti artist; the rest of the wording is reported to have referred to his frequent clashes with the law. In September 2018, after almost 20 years, the graffiti was vandalised and then removed and replaced with the message "give Helch a break". A spokesman for Network Rail sympathised with the requests to restore the "much-loved graffiti", but said they do not condone people putting their lives at risk by trespassing.

Junctions and services.

Data from driver location signs provide carriageway identifier information. The numbers on the signs are kilometres from a point on the north side of the Dartford Crossing, while the letter is "A" for the clockwise carriageway and "B" for the anticlockwise. They are spaced every.  The M25 has been criticised for having too many junctions; 14 of them serve only local roads. In 2016, Edmund King, president of the Automobile Association, attributed congestion on the M25 to excessive junctions. This leads to "junction hoppers" who only use the motorway for a short distance before exiting; their difference in speed when entering and leaving the main carriageway causes a domino effect, resulting in all vehicles slowing down.  The M25 originally opened without any service areas. The first, at South Mimms, was opened by Margaret Thatcher in June 1987, a week before the election. Thatcher admired the practical and no-frills architecture of Charles Forte and praised him in her opening speech. The second, Clacket Lane, was opened by Robert Key, Minister for Roads and Traffic, on 21 July 1993. Construction was delayed as the remains of a Roman villa were found on the site, requiring archaeological research. The other service area between junctions is Cobham, which opened on 13 September 2012. !scope=col| miles!scope=col| km!scope=col| Clockwise exits (A carriageway)!scope=col| Junction!scope=col| Anti-clockwise exits (B carriageway)!scope=col| Opening date! scope=row| RiverThames! scope=row| J1A! scope=row| J1B! scope=row| J2! scope=row| J3! scope=row| J4! scope=row| J5! scope=row| Services! scope=row| J6! scope=row| J7! scope=row| J8! scope=row| J9! scope=row| Services! scope=row| J10! scope=row| J11! scope=row| J12! scope=row| J13! scope=row| J14! scope=row| J15! scope=row| J16! scope=row| J17! scope=row| J18! scope=row| J19! scope=row| J20! scope=row| J21! scope=row| J21A! scope=row| J22! scope=row| J23! scope=row| J24! scope=row| J25! scope=row| J26! scope=row| J27! scope=row| J28! scope=row| J29! scope=row| J30! scope=row| J31! scope=row| RiverThames

References.

Notes Citations Sources

The M25 or London Orbital Motorway is a major road encircling almost all of Greater London, England. The Dartford Crossing (A282) is part of the orbital route but is not part of the motorway. The M25 is one of the most important roads in Britain and one of the busiest. The final section was opened by the Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in 1986; on opening it was the longest ring road in Europe at.

M25高速公路(英语:M25 motorway),或称伦敦外环高速公路(英语:London Orbital motorway),是一条环绕英国大伦敦首都圈的环状高速道路。在伦敦外郭兴建的构想起源于20世纪初,而M25公路的部分路段便是以该项已废止的计划为走线参考基础,于1970年代动工,全线于1986年贯通。


Early life and career.

Cunningham was born in Dublin. He attended St. Vincent's C.B.S. primary and secondary school in the Glasnevin district. At school, he played more Gaelic football than soccer: he played for St Vincent's at Croke Park alongside future Gaelic star Dessie Farrell in a schools' final, and played for Na Fianna and Dublin Minors. At association football, he played for the Home Farm club from under-9s to under-17s, before moving on to amateur club Tolka Rovers.

Millwall.

On 18 September 1989, the 18-year-old Cunningham signed a one-year contract with Millwall of the English First Division. His expectations, to play out the season in England and use the experience to earn himself a good contract back in Ireland, changed when, three months before the end of that "trial" season, Millwall offered him a further two-year contract. He made his Football League debut on 17 March 1990, at right back in the starting eleven in a 1–1 draw away to Norwich City, and started four more first-team games during that season. In five years with the club, he made 136 league appearances.

Wimbledon.

Cunningham and teammate Jon Goodman moved to Wimbledon in November 1994, for the joint fee of £1,300,000. Cunningham played 250 league games for Wimbledon. In February 2000, Cunningham was involved in an incident with Chelsea captain Dennis Wise following their match. The Football Association charged Wise with misconduct for the alleged confrontation in the tunnel and fined him £7,500.

Birmingham City.

Cunningham moved to Birmingham City, newly promoted to the Premier League, in 2002 for a £600,000 fee. He went straight into the starting eleven, playing at centre back in place of injured captain Steve Vickers rather than his customary right back. He formed a fine defensive partnership with Matthew Upson, who joined in the January transfer window, and at the end of that campaign, his teammates chose him as their Player of the Season.  After the first few matches of 2003–04, Birmingham's manager Steve Bruce was describing Cunningham as "on current form... the best defender in the Premiership". Nicknamed "King Kenny" by the fans, Cunningham had a reputation as an organised solid defender, and Manchester United and Ireland full-back Denis Irwin suggested in November 2003 that, though his ability had been under-rated in the past, "this year... people are realising how good he actually is".  After the club's relegation at the end of the 2005-06 Premier League season, Cunningham and seven other first team players were released. On 11 May 2006, Cunningham launched a scathing attack in the press on Bruce and the board, blaming the club's relegation on a lack of preparation throughout the season and likening the club to a "stiff corpse" that has "no heartbeat and, more worryingly, no soul". While fans were in the main supportive of Cunningham's views, the club reacted furiously, and chairman David Gold wondered "if Kenny would have said the same things if we'd stayed up, Portsmouth had gone down and he'd been given a lucrative new contract".

Sunderland.

Cunningham signed for Sunderland on 19 July 2006 with Sunderland chairman Niall Quinn praising his leadership qualities. He made 11 appearances for the Black Cats as they won the Championship, but no more appearances after October when he was made captain by manager Roy Keane before sustaining an injury. He was released at the end of the season, and retired as a player.

International career.

Cunningham won a total of 72 caps for the Republic of Ireland national football team. In March 2001, he returned after a long layoff due to injury, replacing Richard Dunne to partner Gary Breen in defence for a match against Cyprus. Cunningham was named team captain after the 2002 FIFA World Cup. According to manager Mick McCarthy: "Kenny's qualities as a player are easy to see. From day one he has been a great influence. He is a talker on the pitch, he organises the players around him, and off the pitch he is a calm influence.  He retired from international football after achieving 72 caps at the age of 34 on 12 October 2005, following Ireland's draw with Switzerland at Lansdowne Road, which resulted in his team's failure to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup.  Cunningham urged caution following a FIFA rule change allowing players over the age of 21 to switch their international allegiance. Commenting in relation to Ireland's qualifying campaign ahead of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, he said: "It wouldn't be something I'd be hugely in favour of" and "I'd be very disappointed if I was a player in that squad to miss out on the World Cup for somebody who was jumping on board at the last minute".

After football.

Cunningham has worked as a pundit for RTÉ Sport's coverage of the League of Ireland and for Sky Sports's coverage of Ireland matches. He coached at English non-league club Nuneaton Town, who won promotion in his first year there. before completing his UEFA Pro Licence in Ireland. He was appointed assistant to the League of Ireland XI manager Damien Richardson for the Dublin Super Cup tournament in 2011. He covered tournaments including the 2013 Confederations Cup, 2014 World Cup, and Euro 2016.

Honours.

Sunderland

Kenneth Edward Cunningham (born 28 June 1971) is an Irish former footballer who played as a defender. He played international football for the Republic of Ireland until his retirement in 2005. He spent his entire professional club career, from 1989 to 2007, in England, making more than 500 appearances in the Football League and Premier League playing for Millwall, Wimbledon, Birmingham City and Sunderland.

肯尼·爱德华兹·坎宁安(Kenneth Edward Cunningham,1971年-6月28日)是爱尔兰足球运动员,日前被新特兰解约而成为自由身球员,由于未能找到新东家,退出职业足球员生涯。


History and excavations.

The town of Oplontis probably developed under where Torre Annunziata stands today. Excavations have revealed buildings particularly on the east and west sides of the town, the eastern one in the immediate vicinity of Villa A and the other almost at its boundary with Torre del Greco. It is thought that in antiquity, as elsewhere (e.g. at Herculaneum and Stabiae), luxury residential villas like Villa A lined the coast, whereas most productive (agricultural) villas were located farther inland.  Among the finds in the western zone, the most important is the Roman bath complex on the sea shore at Oncino (the Terme Nunziante) as a public building of Oplontis. R. Liberatore recorded the archaeology in detail and he identified it as belonging to Lucius Nonius Florus whose name is stamped on the edge of a terracotta basin in the baths, decorated with vegetal forms and galloping horses.  Unfortunately, the construction of the modern baths above them caused their destruction. Later two underground water supply or drainage tunnels belonging to the baths were found.  In addition remains of two residential villas were discovered nearby, one owned by Caius Siculius Caius Filius whose seal was found and from which a fine fresco was retrieved, though many other remains in the area were destroyed and stolen.

Excavations of Villa A.

The first of the villas, known as Villa A, was discovered in 1593-1600 during the great construction project by Fontana of the Sarno aqueduct to feed the mills at Torre Annunziata, the same aqueduct that was tunnelled through Pompeii where he also found the first remains, but similarly no attempt was made to explore the ruins in Oplontis. This aqueduct stll runs through the centre of Villa A. In 1785 the Spanish architect Francesco La Vega explored this area, known as Le Mascatelle, with tunnels and found beautiful objects but soon gave up due to toxic gases.  In 1839–40 excavations in tunnels were restarted by Michele Rusca using La Vega's publications and he discovered for the first time the extent and quality of the building including two peristyles, mosaics and other decorations. He had to stop due to lack of funds.  From 1880 a series of mills and pasta factories were built in Via Fontanelle in the Oplontis area and ancient Roman walls, marble columns, mosaic pavements, and many fragments from a variety of objects were found in their foundation trenches. At the Iennaco pasta factory were found marble basins and lead pipes, two marble statuettes of “exquisite Greek production” one of the goddess Minerva. Many mosaics and frescoes were destroyed. A spring of mineral water erupted during drilling at a depth of 11m and its water was marketed.  In 1934 during construction of a private building in Via Fontanelle more finds came to light. Remains were found of some opus reticulatum and of a probable cryptoporticus. Vincenzo Cuccurullo ordered test trenches to be dug to which brought to light another perimeter wall in opus incertum with light traces of white plaster with traces of a vault.  From this time ever more frequent finds came to light as the town expanded and gradually it became clear that there was an important Roman site on the hill of Le Mascatelle. The "Friends of Oplontis" committee of volunteers was established in 1962 to promote proper excavation.  It was only in 1964 that a full-scale excavation was officially approved. However, even then it was somewhat chaotic and no official records were kept until 1971 when most of the rooms had already been exposed. Valuable information and many frescoes were lost during the period from excavation to final reconstruction. Even after 1971, records were not accurate and omitted details and discoveries that rendered proper reconstruction impossible.  In 1975 the only human skeleton was found at the northern edge of the site, an adult lying on its back 6 m above the floor of the villa who must have been carried by the volcanic flow probably from farther inland.  Today about 60% of the villa has been exposed.

History of Villa A.

The oldest part of the building dates from c. 50 BC to which its Second-Style wall paintings belong.  Badly damaged in the AD 62 Pompeii earthquake, parts of the villa were rebuilt with Third-Style frescoes, also as famous as the earlier ones for their quality.  Villa A was probably uninhabited and still in the process of being rebuilt at the time of the AD 79 eruption, as a number of tools were found on the site and statues and columns were stored away from their proper places.  The power of the eruption made roofs and walls collapse, columns to break and be thrown sideways so that on excavation many pieces of walls were difficult to reassemble.

Villa B.

A second villa, Villa B, was discovered in 1974, east of Villa A, during the construction of a school and partially excavated until 1991.  In contrast to the sumptuously decorated Villa Poppaea, Villa B is much smaller than Villa A, and lacks the latter's lavish decoration. Villa B is a rustic, two-story structure with many rooms left unplastered and with tamped earth floors. e structure’s plan reveals a central courtyard surrounded by a two-story peristyle of Nocera tufa columns. Nevertheless, more than seventy rooms were found on both ground and second-story levels. On the ground floor all four sides of the courtyard have barrel-vaulted rooms in opus incertum and opus reticulatum.  A bronze seal bearing the name of L. Crassius Tertius was found at the site.  It was built at the end of the 2nd c. BC. The complex was part of a wider settlement built before the construction of neighbouring Villa A.  This villa was not deserted at the time of the eruption: the remains of 54 people were recovered in one of the rooms of the villa, perishing in the surge that hit Oplontis. They were split into two groups, one group possessing fine jewellery, silverware, and coins whilst the other group had none.  Recent archaeology has shown that it suffered unique type of destruction because of its proximity to the sea, different from Pompeii or Herculaneum. The volcanic eruption generated a pyroclastic flow that sped down the mountain toward Oplontis. The impact of the flow on the sea surface led to a type of "tsunami" which caused the violent entry and deposition of a water-heavy layer in the barrel-vaulted rooms (similar to the deposit that buried the skeletons on the shore of Herculaneum). The people sheltering at Oplontis died beneath a mixed mass of superheated gas, ash, and water. The impact of the wave probably also caused the collapse of the barrel-vaults.  Some of the rooms seem to have been used for manufacturing, and others were storerooms, while the upper floor contained the living quarters of the house. These circumstances, along with more than 400 amphorae recovered in the excavations, indicate the property was devoted to the production of wine, oil, and agricultural goods. The discovery of a series of weights seems to confirm this; a bronze seal found at the site preserved the name of Lucius Crassius Tertius, apparently its last owner.  The southern part of the upper floor is perhaps the owner's living quarters, as some rooms are decorated with paintings in the Fourth Style, and there is also a rare example of a second style painting from the Republican era.  A rare very ornate strongbox was found in the peristyle, perhaps fallen from the upper floor, containing over 200 coins, jewellery, and a seal ring. It was finely decorated with inlay in silver, copper, and gilded bronze typical of late Hellenistic design, and it had a complex locking system that was still used in the 19th century.  A sophisticated water drainage system was added late in the villa's history. At the north of the site the ground floor rooms were reconfigured and the street repaved.

Oplontis is an ancient Roman archaeological site located in the town of Torre Annunziata, south of Naples in the Campania region of southern Italy. The excavated site comprises two Roman villas, the best-known of which is Villa A, the so-called Villa Poppaea.

奥普隆蒂斯(Oplontis)是位于意大利南部的一个古罗马城市,靠近庞贝。在79年8月24日的维苏威火山大喷发中,奥普隆蒂斯被火山灰所掩埋。奥普隆蒂斯位于现在的波帕埃别墅之下,该别墅由尼禄和他的第二任妻子所有。波帕埃别墅在20世纪中期被发掘,现在对公众开放。奥普隆蒂斯的大量文物现在保存在拿坡里国立考古博物馆。


Description.

The Siberian weasel has a long, stretched out body with relatively short legs. Its head is elongated, narrow and relatively small, and its short ears are broad at the base. Its tail is half the length of its body. Its winter fur is very dense, soft and fluffy, with guard hairs reaching 3–4 cm in length. The underfur is dense and loose fitting. Siberian weasels are monotone in colour, being bright reddish-ocherous or straw-red, though orange or peach tones are sometimes noticeable on the skin. These tones are especially bright on the back, while the flanks and underbelly are paler. A dark, coffee-brown mask is present on the face. Their tails are more brightly coloured than the back, and are fluffier than those of other members of the genus. The lips and chin are white or slightly ochreous. The front of the muzzle is darker than the remaining parts of the head. Its skull is in several respects intermediate in form between that of the stoat and the mink; it is longer and larger than that of the stoat, but is somewhat more flattened than the mink's. Adult males are long, while females reach. The tail in males reaches in length, while that of females reaches. Males weigh, while females weigh. Exceptionally large individuals were sighted in the Baraba steppe.

Behaviour and ecology.

Burrows.

The Siberian weasel builds its nest inside fallen logs, empty stumps, brushwood piles and exposed tree roots. It also uses and enlarges the dens of other species. The length of its burrows ranges from and deep. Adults have a permanent burrow and up to five temporary shelters, which may be separated from each other by several kilometres. They build a nesting chamber in the middle or end of the burrow and line it with bird feathers and rodent hair.

Diet.

In terms of prey selection, Siberian weasels are midway between small, rodent-eating mustelids and the more polyphagous martens. They rarely eat reptiles, invertebrates and plants, preferring instead to prey on rodents of small to moderate size. Water voles are their most frequent prey in their western range, while voles and mice are eaten in their eastern range. Moderate sized rodents targeted by Siberian weasels in the east include Daurian and Alpine pikas, and Siberian zokors. In local areas, chipmunks, muskrats, red squirrels and jerboas are eaten. Fish may be eaten in some areas during certain seasons. In Ussuriland, they scavenge extensively on the kills of wolves and yellow-throated martens during the winter. Elsewhere, small birds are an important food item. Reptiles and amphibians are typically eaten at the periphery of the Siberian weasel's range. Plant foods known to be eaten by Siberian weasels include pine nuts and actinidia fruits. They typically eat about 100–120 gm of food daily, and cache excess food. In urban areas in China, Siberian weasels prey extensively on rats. They are capable of killing and dragging the largest fowls. Siberian weasels are active hunters and chase prey through snow, logs, water and people's houses.

Reproduction.

The rutting period of the Siberian weasel varies depending on location. In western Siberia, it begins in early February to late March. In Primorye, it begins in early March to late April. Six pairs of Siberian weasels in a fur sovkhoz near Moscow were in rut between 25 April and 15 May. They repeatedly mate during 35 minutes. The gestation period lasts 38–41 days. There is one record of a female giving birth after only 28 days. Litters consist of 4–10 kits. They are born blind and are sparsely furred with white hair. They develop light yellow hair after a few days, and open their eyes after a month. They suckle for two months, and become independent by late August. By this time, the young have almost reached adult size, but still have their deciduous teeth and lighter bones. Their fur is darker than that of adults.

Subspecies.

, 11 subspecies are recognised.

Distribution and habitat.

The Siberian weasels ranges from the Himalayas in Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bhutan to northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, Laos, Taiwan, China, and North Korea. In Russia, it occurs in the Kirov Province, Tataria, from the western Urals through Siberia to the Russian Far East. It has been introduced to Honshu, Shikoku, Kamishima and Jebu islands.

Relationships with humans.

In Chinese folklore, the Siberian weasel is viewed as a wandering spirit ("shen") that can steal and replace people's souls.  Although Siberian weasels are overall useful for limiting rodent populations, they are nonetheless damaging to poultry and muskrat farms. They frequently enter the roosts of domesticated fowl and pigeons, sometimes killing more than they can eat.  Siberian weasels are valuable furbearers, being significantly harvested in Siberia and the Far East. Their fur is used both in its natural state and for imitating the fur of more valuable species. A couple of alternative names for the fur were "Tartar sable" and "fire marten". Siberian weasel fur is also used to make the so-called kolinsky sable-hair brush. In China, their orange fur is largely used to create ink brushes for calligraphers. The name of the brush is thus 狼毫筆, lit. 'wolf hairs brush', as a reduction from 黃鼠狼 + 毫 + 筆, lit. "yellow rat "wolf"" "hairs" "brush". Their hairs are appreciated because they are harder than goat hair (羊毫). They are hunted by shooting with dogs or through the use of box traps. They are extremely aggressive when caught in traps, emitting piercing shrieks and letting loose a pungent secretion which reportedly takes a month to wash away.

The Siberian weasel ("Mustela sibirica") is a medium-sized weasel native to Asia, where it is widely distributed and inhabits various forest habitats and open areas. It is therefore listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.

黄鼬(学名:),古名鼪、鼶、鼠狼,俗名黄鼠狼,也叫喜马拉雅鼬或者西伯利亚鼬,属于鼬科鼬属,是一种小型的食肉动物。


Geography and landmarks.

Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as subtropical highland (Cwb).

Forestry and agriculture.

"According to local forestry officials, Nyingchi hosts the country's largest primitive forest region that covers 26.4 billion cubic metres, storing over 800 million cubic metres of wood." The forests of Bomi, Zayu and Loyu have ancient dragon spruces which reach heights of over 80 metres and diameters of 2.5 metres. Wildlife species include "the Bengal tiger, leopard, bear, snub-nosed monkey, antelope and lesser panda."  "There are over 2,000 species of higher plants, including some 100 species of xylophyta, 165 species of medical herbs and fungus. Crops include "rice, peanut, apple, orange, banana, lemon." Agricultural products include medicinal materials, "edible fungus, orange, tangerine, sugar cane, honey peach, apple, pear, grape, walnut and other fruits."

Transportation.

It takes about 5 hours to travel from Lhasa to Nyingchi by a highway opened at the end of 2018. The railway between Lhasa and Nyingchi has been under construction since late 2014. It is estimated that it will take about 2 or 3 hours from Lhasa to Nyingchi when the railway come into operation.  An airport – Nyingchi Mainling Airport – was opened in Nyingchi in March 2017, which may be used to support both commercial air traffic and the People's Liberation Army Air Force.

Tourism.

Guangdong province announced that it plans to invest more than RMB 400 million (US$63 million) in Nyingchi's tourism industry. According to the plan, Guangdong will help build 22 "prosperous model villages" in Nyingchi in counties such as Bomê and Zayü.

Administrative subdivisions.

The two counties of Zayü () and Mêdog (), collectively known as part of South Tibet, are considered by the Chinese government to be under Chinese jurisdiction. Parts of the two counties are under the de facto control of Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh.

Nyingchi, also known as Linzhi, is a prefecture-level city in southeast of China's Tibet Autonomous Region. The administrative seat of Nyingchi is Bayi District. Part of Nyingchi is currently controlled by India, as part of Arunachal Pradesh. (See South Tibet dispute.)

林芝市()是中华人民共和国西藏自治区下辖的地级市,位于西藏自治区东南部,市政府驻巴宜区八一镇。林芝市地处雅鲁藏布江中下游。其西部和西南部分别与拉萨、山南两市相连,东部和北部分别与昌都市、那曲市相连,南部与印度、缅甸两国接壤。墨脱县、察隅县的南部实际由印度阿鲁纳恰尔邦控制,边界问题仍未解决。


Early years.

Born into a working-class family, Metcalf began painting in 1874. In 1876 he opened a studio in Boston, and received a scholarship at the Boston Museum school, where he studied until 1878. In 1882 he held an exhibition at the J. Eastman Chase Gallery in Boston, the sales from which financed a study trip abroad.  Metcalf left for Europe in September 1883, and did not return to the United States until late 1888. During that time he traveled and painted, studying first in Paris with Gustave Boulanger and Jules-Joseph Lefebvre, subsequently going to England and Pont-Aven, Brittany. In the winter of 1884 he apparently met John Twachtman in Paris, and painted at Grez-sur-Loing alongside other American artists, including Theodore Robinson. His landscapes at this time were traditional renditions of peasant scenes, in the manner of Jean Millet. By 1886 Metcalf was painting in Giverny, evidently the first American painter to visit there. Soon thereafter he traveled to Algeria and Tunisia, returning to Giverny in the summers of 1887 and 1888, in the company of other American painters.

Return to America.

Upon his return to the United States Metcalf had a solo exhibition at the St. Botolph Club in Boston. After living briefly in Philadelphia, in 1890 he opened a studio in New York, working for several years as a portrait painter, illustrator, and teacher. In 1895 he painted at Gloucester, Massachusetts, and ceased to work as an illustrator. In the late 1890s he appears to have painted little, and his contributions to the first few exhibitions of The Ten were disappointing. At the time Metcalf led a lavish social life that included heavy drinking.  In 1899 Metcalf joined his friends Robert Reid and Edward Simmons in painting murals for a New York courthouse; in this genre he was no more successful than he had been as an illustrator and portraitist. Metcalf's model for the murals was Marguerite Beaufort Hailé, a stage performer twenty years his junior, whom the artist would marry in 1903.

Maturity.

In preparation for a mural commissioned by a tobacco company, Metcalf traveled to Havana, Cuba in 1902, to make painted studies. That year he also produced a series of notable landscapes, including "The Boat Landing" and "Battery Park-Spring". These works were characterized by a new freshness of execution and lightness of palette. In 1904 he resided and painted steadily in Clark's Cove, Maine. By 1905, at the encouragement of his friend Childe Hassam, he began summering in Old Lyme, working as both painter and teacher, and held successful exhibitions in New York and again at the St. Botolph Club. His expertly handled, subtle views of the New England landscape met with steady critical and financial success.  In 1907 "May Night" (Corcoran Gallery of Art) won the Corcoran gold medal, was honored with the top purchase prize of $3,000, and was the first contemporary American painting to be bought by that institution. It remains one of best works and is now in the collections of the National Gallery of Art. In the same year his marriage to Marguerite dissolved when she eloped from Old Lyme with one of Metcalf's male students.

Cornish Art Colony.

Metcalf frequently visited the Cornish Art Colony, centered in the villages of Plainfield and Cornish, New Hampshire between 1909 and 1921, often during the quiet winter seasons when many of the colony's residents had returned to the city. The colony stretched over gentle, open hills along the Connecticut River with views of Mount Ascutney in Vermont, a landscape which garnered it comparisons to Tuscany and a crop of Italianate summer homes. In 1909, Louis Shipman, a playwright and husband of landscape architect Ellen Biddle Shipman, invited Metcalf to join him for a winter in Plainfield, at his estate there, Brook Place.  Metcalf would return faithfully for many winters, and at least one summer after that. He was good friends with colonist Charles Platt, on whose Cornish estate he honeymooned, with his second wife, Henriette Alice McCrea-Metcalf in 1911. Varying year to year, he stayed with the Shipmans, or a converted grist mill close to the village of Plainfield. His frequent Cornish muse was Blow-me-down Brook, a small creek which runs through the area, and passed along his residence. Other works depict the hills, the Shipman residence or other country buildings. His production in Cornish exemplified and elevated his reputation for painting modest and intimate scenery of the changing seasons, elements which are represented in his work from the time. The pieces he produced in the Cornish area brought an unusual time of social, critical and commercial success in his life, so often filled with personal tumult. His paintings were compared with the poetry of Robert Frost, Walt Whitman, and other writers, earning him a reputation, in the words of one critic, as the "poet laureate of the New England hills."  While at the colony he painted around 35 landscapes, including "Blow-Me-Down" (1911), "The Village-September Morning" (1911) and "The White Veil" (1909) and the lovely, masterful "Cornish Hills" (1911).

Later works, death, and legacy.

Metcalf continued to hold one-man shows in New York and Boston. During the 1910s he traveled incessantly in search of painting sites. In 1913 he spent nine months painting in Paris, Norway, England, and Italy; in the U.S., in addition to Cornish and Plainfield, New Hampshire, Metcalf lived and painted in Connecticut, Vermont, and Maine, where in 1920 he painted "Benediction" (now lost), a nocturne. In 1923 the painting sold for $13,000, then a record price for the work of a living American artist.  His familial strife continued when, after having two children, he and Henrietta divorced in 1920, which spurred a period of drinking and decreased productivity. However, he rebounded and painted for a number of years in Vermont, possibly returning briefly to Cornish.  The Corcoran Gallery held a large exhibition of Metcalf's work in 1925, during which the artist died of a heart attack in New York City, on March 6. He was 66.  The Florence Griswold House, where Metcalf visited and stayed in Old Lyme between 1905 and 1907, now houses the largest public collection of Metcalf's paintings and personal artifacts in the world. Additionally, his work is on display in many American museums, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the National Gallery of Art, the Art Institute of Chicago, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the Detroit Institute of Arts, the Freer Gallery of Art, and recently the Seattle Art Museum. Pieces also appear in some international collections, such as Madrid's Thyssen-Bornemisza.  His ashes were scattered in Cornish, New Hampshire, by his longtime friend Charles Platt.

Notable works.

"Summer Morning, Giverny" (c. 1888), sold at Christie's for $422,500 in 2010  "Midsummer Twilight" (c. 1890, France), at the National Gallery of Art  "May Night" (1906), at the Corcoran Gallery, painted in Old Lyme  "The White Veil" (1909), Rhode Island School of Design Museum "The Village- September Morning" (1911), the Hevrdejs Collection, his only depiction of Plainfield Village  "Benediction" (1923), now lost, gained greatest sum for a work by a living American artist

Willard Leroy Metcalf (July 1, 1858March 9, 1925) was an American artist born in Lowell, Massachusetts. He studied at the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and later attended Académie Julian, Paris. After early figure-painting and illustration, he became prominent as a landscape painter. He was one of the Ten American Painters who in 1897 seceded from the Society of American Artists. For some years he was an instructor in the Women's Art School, Cooper Union, New York, and in the Art Students League, New York. In 1893 he became a member of the American Watercolor Society, New York. Generally associated with American Impressionism, he is also remembered for his New England landscapes and involvement with the Old Lyme Art Colony at Old Lyme, Connecticut and his influential years at the Cornish Art Colony.

威拉德·勒罗伊·梅特卡夫(Willard Leroy Metcalf,1858年7月1日 - 1925年3月9日)是一位美国画家,生于马萨诸塞州洛厄尔。他就读于波士顿美术馆学校,之后进入了巴黎朱利安学院。他一开始化人物肖像,后来成为杰出的风景画家。他是1897年退出美国艺术家协会的10个画家之一。他在纽约库伯联合学院女子艺术学校当了一些年的老师。1893年成为美国水彩画协会成员。他是美国印象主义的重要人物,同时也以新英格兰风景画和对康涅狄格州旧莱姆艺术家殖民地的参与知名。


Name.

According to scholar John Newman, "the Tibetans give Nāro's name as "Nā ro pa, Nā ro paṇ chen, Nā ro ta pa," and so forth. The manuscript of the "Paramarthasaṃgraha" preserves a Sanskrit form "Naḍapāda" ("Paramarthasaṃgraha" 74). A Sanskrit manuscript edited by Tucci preserves an apparent Prakrit form "Nāropā", as well as a semi-Sanskritic "Nāropadā" (Tucci 1930:150 & 152)."

Biography.

Naropa was a contemporary of Atiśa. Naropa was born in a high status Brahmin family of Bengal. From an early age showed an independent streak, hoping to follow a career of study and meditation. Succumbing to his parents' wishes, he agreed to an arranged marriage with a young Brahmin girl. After 8 years they both agreed to dissolve their marriage and become ordained. At the age of 28 Naropa entered the famous Buddhist University at Nalanda where he studied both Sutra and Tantra. He gained the reputation of a great scholar and faultless debater, essential at that time as the tradition of debate was such that the loser automatically became a student of the winner. He eventually gained the title "Guardian of the Northern gate", engaged in many debates and taught and won many students.  According to his Tibetan namtar, or spiritual biography, one day, while he was studying, a dakini appeared to Naropa and asked if he understood the words of the Dharma, Buddha's teachings. He replied that he did and when she seemed happy with his response, he added that he also understood their meaning. At this point the dakini burst into tears, stating that he was a great scholar, but also a liar, as the only one who understood the teachings was her brother, Tilopa. On hearing the name "Tilopa", he experienced an intense feeling of devotion, and Naropa realised he needed to find the teacher to achieve full realisation. He abandoned his studies and position at the university and set out to find Tilopa. Naropa then underwent what is known as the twelve minor hardships in his quest to find his teacher, all the hardships being hidden teachings on his path to enlightenment. When he finally met Tilopa, he was given the four complete transmission lineages which he then began to practice. While studying and meditating with Tilopa, Naropa had to undergo a further twelve major hardships, trainings to overcome all the obstacles on his path, culminating in his full realisation of mahāmudrā. Naropa spent a total of twelve years with Tilopa. At the bank of river bagmati, in the premise of Hindu shrine Pashupatinath Temple, there is the cave where he was initiated by Tilopa and attained Siddhi.  Later in his life Naropa stayed in Phullahari, where he died aged 85. Phullahari or Pullahari was located most likely in eastern Bihar or Bengal.  One of the few reliable historical accounts of him comes from a Tibetan translator named Ngatso Lotsawa, who made an effort to visit Naropa at the monastery of Phullahari while waiting to visit with Atiśa at Vikramashila.

Legacy.

Naropa is remembered for his trust and devotion to his teacher, which, according to his biography, enabled him to attain enlightenment in one lifetime.  He is also remembered as part of the "Golden Garland", meaning he is a lineage holder of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism and was considered an accomplished scholar. A great practitioner, Naropa is best known for having collated the Six Dharmas. These practices help achieve Buddhahood more rapidly. Many subsequent Karmapas have been particularly adept at one or more of these practices, which in Vajrayana tradition are held to have been given by the Buddha and were passed on through an unbroken lineage via Tilopa to Naropa, Marpa and Milarepa and on to the present day.  Naropa is considered one of the eighty-four mahasiddhas, the'saints' of Vajrayana. Naropa University in Colorado, USA was named in his honour. The University was originally established by Tibetan Buddhist leaders in order to preserve Tibet's culture.

Nāropā (Prakrit;, Naḍapāda or Abhayakirti) or Abhayakirti was born in Bengal, an Indian Buddhist Mahasiddha. He was the disciple of Tilopa and brother, or some sources say partner and pupil, of Niguma. As an Indian Mahasiddha, Naropa's instructions inform Vajrayana, particularly his six yogas of Naropa relevant to the completion stage of anuttarayogatantra.

那洛巴(或,?-ca.1040年),生于孟加拉地区,佛教僧侣,曾居于那烂陀寺。是一名密教上师与大成就者,其密法经马尔巴及阿底峡传入西藏,形成那洛六法传承。西藏噶举派传承源自于他。


亚罗波尔克·伊贾斯拉维奇

Family background.

Yaropolk was the son of Izyaslav Yaroslavich (died 1078), over-king of the Rus', and Gertruda, daughter of the Polish Duke-King Mieszko II Lambert (died 1034). Since the Kievan succession war of 1015–1019, the Polish ruler Boleslaw had taken an interest in Ruthenia (Kievan Rus), hoping to gain control of the land of Red Ruthenia (Czerwien Grody), seized by Vladimir the Great.  Despite some initial success, the expedition of Boleslaw to Kiev in 1018 failed to establish Svyatopolk Vladimirovich (Boleslaw's son-in-law), Prince of Turov, on the Kievan throne. The Polish ruler did at least gain the Red Ruthenia (Czerwien Grody) very briefly, though that was recovered for the Ruthenians by Grand Prince Yaroslav and Mstislav Vladimirovich, Prince of Chernigov, in 1031.  In 1042 Grand Prince Yaroslav forced Duke Casimir of Poland to settle for a peaceful deal. Casimir recognised Ruthenian control of Red Ruthenia and returned 800 Ruthenian prisoners who had been in Polish custody since being captured two decades before by Boleslaw. Peace was secured by two marriages. Casimir was married to Yaroslav's sister, while Casimir gave his own sister Gertruda to Yaroslav's son, Izyaslav.

Political turmoil.

In 1054, Yaropolk became the son of the Grand Prince, as in that year Izyaslav ascended the throne of Kiev. Izyaslav's rule and thus Yaropolk's security were however quickly challenged by Izyaslav's brother Svyatoslav and by his cousin Vseslav Briacheslavich. At this time among the Rurikids, there were two senior branches that could claim the Grand Princeship through descent from Vladimir the Great; namely, the descendants of Yaroslav Vladimirovich and the descendants of Izyaslav Vladimirovich.  In 1067, Vseslav rebelled in an attempt to overthrow Izyaslav and become Grand Prince himself, claiming the right as a great-grandson of Vladimir the Great through Izyaslav Vladimirovich. Vseslav's attempt was unsuccessful, and ended in his imprisonment. Troubles for Izyaslav were to continue though. In 1068, Izyaslav's alleged negligence to the advances and incursions of the Cuman people (Polovtsy) after the defeat at the Battle of the Alta River led the citizens of Kiev to revolt; Vseslav was released, and took the Kievan throne while Izyaslav fled to Boleslaw in Poland. With Polish assistance Izyaslav returned in May 1069, expelled Vseslav and retook the throne. This victory for Izyaslav secured the Kievan throne for the descendants of Yaroslav Vladimirovich, and thereafter the descendants of Izyaslav Vladimirovich confined themselves to Polotsk where they reigned with semi-independent status.

Svyatoslav and exile to the west.

Despite the successful exclusion of the Polotsk Rurikids, in 1073 Izyaslav was expelled from the Kievan throne by his brothers, Svyatoslav, Prince of Chernigov, and Vsevolod, Prince of Pereyaslavl. King Boleslaw was not as willing or able to assist Izyaslav this time around, and probably for this reason Izyaslav traveled further West; at Mainz in early 1075, Izyaslav sought the aid of King Henry IV of Germany, but to no avail.  Izyaslav sent Yaropolk to Rome to request aid from Pope Gregory VII. It is likely that while there Yaropolk made complaints about Boleslaw and about the money the latter had formerly seized from Izyaslav, as the pope subsequently issued a request that Boleslaw return it. Pope Gregory addressed a letter to Izyaslav, called "Demetrius", "King of the Russians", and to his "queen" Gertruda. The letter noted that Yaropolk, called "Peter", had given his own as well as his father's fidelity to the pope, and that it had been requested that the "kingdom of the Ruthenians" be held of St Peter. Two papal legates were sent to Izyaslav, and Izyaslav was urged to give them his full co-operation.  It was only after Svyatoslav's death in late 1076 that Izyaslav was able to recover the status of Grand Prince. Vsevolod, who had previously fought against him, was appointed Prince of Chernigov and thus heir to the Kievan throne, explaining perhaps Vsevolod's lack of opposition. The Poles were persuaded by the papacy to give Izyaslav assistance recovering his kingdom, and on July 15, 1077, Izyaslav re-entered Kiev.

Prince Yaropolk.

Yaropolk is found aiding his father and his uncle Vsevolod in 1078, when Oleg Svyatoslavich (and his brother Boris) attempted to gain the throne of Chernigov from Vsevolod. Oleg had been allied to the Polovtsy, and with their help defeated Vsevolod in battle. Grand Prince Izyaslav and Yaropolk, as well as Vsevolod's son Vladimir Monomakh, were able to reverse this result, and Oleg was forced to retreat to Tmutorokan. Grand Prince Izyaslav, Yaropolk's father, died as a result of the battle.  The "Primary Chronicle" records that in 1078 before the death of Izyaslav, Yaropolk was "ruling in Vyshhorod", a city north of Kiev, while his brother Svyatopolk ruled as Prince of Novgorod, and Vladimir Monomakh ruled as Prince of Smolensk. After his uncle Vsevolod had become Grand Prince, Yaropolk was given Vladimir-in-Volhynia and Turov, while Monomakh received Chernigov.  Little is known for the following eight years, but by 1085 Vsevolod and Yaropolk are reported to have become entrenched against each other. The laconic account of these developments in the "Primary Chronicle" makes the course of events far from transparent. Vasilko and Vladimir Rostislavich, two Galicia-based princes unhappy with territorial settlement under Vsevolod, were said to have attempted to expel Yaropolk in 1084, but Grand Prince Vsevolod's son Vladimir Monomakh drove these "Rostislavchi" away.  Following this, a gift made by the Grand Prince to Davyd Igorevich, which included land in Volhynia and control of trade with the Byzantine Empire, is said to have made Yaropolk hostile to the Grand Prince. By 1085 Vsevolod and Yaropolk are reported to have become entrenched against each other, and Vsevolod ordered his son, Vladimir Monomakh to march against Yaropolk. Lacking confidence in his own resources, Yaropolk fled Volhynia to Poland, leaving his followers (and mother) at Lutsk. Vladimir captured Lutsk and Yaropolk's family, attendants and treasure, and assigned his whole principality to Davyd Igorevich.

Death and legacy.

In the following year Yaropolk returned and reportedly came to an agreement with Vladimir Monomakh, but nothing specific is known of the terms other than Yaropolk being reinstated. In 1087, Yaropolk was murdered. The circumstances of his murder are not clear, but the "Primary Chronicle" suggested the complicity of Riurik Rostislavich, Prince of Peremyshl, and his brother Vasilko Rostislavich, Prince of Terebovl. His murderer was a man called Neradets, who put a sword through Yaropolk before fleeing to hide with Riurik in Peremyshl; the date given is November 22, 1087. His body was taken to Kiev and buried in the church of St Peter, the church which Yaropolk himself had endowed.  Yaropolk is said to have married to the German noble-woman, Kunigunde, daughter of Otto, Margrave of Meissen. Whether by Kunigunde or not, Yaropolk had several children whose names have come into the record. A daughter Anastasia married her far relative Gleb Vseslavich, Prince of Minsk who was a member of the Polotsk branch of the Riurik's family. The "Annalista Saxo" records another daughter, and that she married Günther, Count of Schwarzburg, though it does not mention her name. Three sons are known, namely, Yaroslav (died 1102), Viacheslav (died 1104) and Vasilko. The fate of his descendants is as mysterious as his and only has some scarce records left.  Embedded in the "Primary Chronicle" is a eulogy to Prince Yaropolk, and among the honors assigned to him, is that he was in the habit of assigning a "tenth part of his wealth to the Mother of God". Probably due to his personal devotion to the papacy and to St Peter, Yaropolk established a new church of St Peter at the monastery of St Demetrios in the city of Kiev. He was said to have left all his wealth to the Monastery of the Caves in Kiev. The "Primary Chronicle's" eulogy is the first indication of saintly regard, and indeed today he is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, with his feast day falling on the reported day of his death, November 22.

External links.

Yaropolk Izyaslavich (died 1087) was a "Knyaz" (prince) during the eleventh-century in the Kievan Rus' kingdom and was the King of Rus (1076–1078). The son of Grand Prince Izyaslav Yaroslavich by a Polish princess named Gertruda, he is visible in papal sources by the early 1070s but largely absent in contemporary Rus sources until his father's death in 1078. During his father's exile in the 1070s, Yaropolk can be found acting on his father's behalf in an attempt to gain the favor of the German emperors and the papal court of Pope Gregory VII. His father returned to Kiev in 1077 and Yaropolk followed.

亚罗波尔克·伊贾斯拉维奇(,约1050年-1086年-11月22日),古罗斯王公,图罗夫王公(1078年~1086年),弗拉基米尔-沃伦斯基王公(1078年-1086年)。 亚罗波尔克·伊贾斯拉维奇为基辅大公伊贾斯拉夫一世·雅罗斯拉维奇之子。根据编年史记载,1078年基辅大公弗谢沃洛德一世·雅罗斯拉维奇把自己的儿子弗拉基米尔·莫诺马赫派到切尔尼戈夫当王公,而把自己的侄子亚罗波尔克安置到图罗夫,后来又把沃伦也交给他。


马修斯县 (维吉尼亚州)

History.

During Virginia's colonial era, the area that later became Mathews County was part of Gloucester County. In 1691, the Virginia General Assembly had directed that each county designate an official port-of-entry. Established around 1700, the community of Westville was located along Put-in Creek, a tidal tributary of Virginia's East River feeding into Mobjack Bay, which was a tributary of the Chesapeake Bay.  In 1776 during the American Revolutionary War, Virginia's last Royal Governor, Lord Dunmore, left Virginia after pushed to the southeast to Gwynn's Island by General Andrew Lewis and the Continental Army. General Lewis' forces bombarded Gwynn's Island from Fort Cricket Hill.  In 1791, after Virginia gained its independence from Great Britain, the Virginia General Assembly split Gloucester county and created Mathews County. The county was named for Brigadier General Thomas Mathews, then speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates. Westville was designated at the county seat (later it became known variously as Mathews Court House or simply Mathews).  Seaborne commerce, fishing and oyster farming had always been important in the area and Old Point Comfort Lighthouse was built in 1802 to guide vessels into the Hampton Roads seaport (along with the older lighthouse at Cape Henry). Two additional lighthouses were built slightly later: New Point Comfort Light and Smith Point Light. During the War of 1812, British vessels anchored in Hampton Roads and raided adjacent areas.  Farming using enslaved labor was important to the 19th century economy, and early in the century Edmund Ruffin introduced the use of limestone marl as fertilizer on fields worn out from tobacco crops. Two Mathews County men implicated in Gabriel's Rebellion in 1802 were sentenced to transportation out of the Commonwealth. In a lawsuit begun in 1806, Jackey Wright of Mathews County was granted her freedom from prominent landowner Holder Hudgins due to her grandmother's Native American ancestry in one of the last cases decided by Judge George Wythe, with a Virginia Supreme Court opinion by St. George Tucker.  During the American Civil War, many white men from Mathews County enlisted in the Confederate Army. Some Union sympathizers petitioned President Abraham Lincoln for help, alleging that Confederate sympathizers had harassed them. Union forces by 1862 controlled the Hampton Roads area and in July 1862 a detachment of Pennsylvania cavalry arrived at Gloucester Court House, then went to Mathews to arrest Carter B. Hudgins, but were unsuccessful. Several other Union raids occurred beginning in September 1863, initially designed to disrupt Confederate salt works. However, in the October 1863 raid, Union General Wistar later reported some of his troops behaved very badly, and Sands Smith was executed after he shot a Union soldier attempting to confiscate his cow. His son and grandson would become prominent Mathews County officials by century's end. Also, Miss Sally Louisa Tompkins, of a prominent Mathews family, went to Richmond, Virginia and established a private hospital for Confederate wounded, which achieved significant success, such that she was granted an officer's commission on September 9, 1861 by Confederate President Jefferson Davis and continued to nurse the wounded until 1865.  In 1882–1886, complaints about out-of-state watermen dredging local oyster beds (and destroying young oysters) produced an "oyster war" during the administration of Virginia Governor William E. Cameron. Several offending boats were captured, but all but one of their watermen were from Virginia's Eastern shore (across Chesapeake Bay)rather than from outside the Commonwealth.  During World War I, Mathews County greatly exceeded its quota of volunteers. In addition to fatalities, several men were disabled by gas attacks at the battlefront, and later relayed their stories. Many Mathews county seamen also served in the Merchant Marine. The war also changed economic relations within the county, for farm laborers could get better paying jobs in Hampton Roads or nearby cities.  As the Great Depression began, voters elected Emma Lee Smith White, wife of local physician Dr. Carl Clifford White, to represent them in the Virginia General Assembly. As a local insurance agent, among other jobs, she had other priorities after a hurricane and 100-year level flooding devastated Mathews County in August 1933. No woman again sat in the Virginia General Assembly for 21 years.  In October 2012, Hurricane Sandy also devastated Mathews County, and while rebuilding, officials decided to petition to have the town center declared a historic district. It received nomination from the Virginia Department of Historic Resources in 2016. The Mathews County Courthouse Square has been recognized as a National Historic District since 1977, and the Sibley's and James Store Historic District (consisting of two 19th century general stores) has been recognized as a National Historic District since 2011.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (65.9%) is water. It is the second-smallest county in Virginia by land area.  Mathews County is perhaps best known for its miles of waterfront sites, as well as its prominent location on the Chesapeake Bay. Surrounded almost completely by water, it is bordered by Middlesex County to the north, separated by the Piankatank River and Gloucester County to the west. The southern side of the county borders Mobjack Bay.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2010, there were 8,978 people, 3,932 households, and 2,823 families residing in the county. The population density was 108 people per square mile (41/km2). There were 5,333 housing units at an average density of 62 per square mile (24/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 88.0% White, 9.2% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. 1.2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 3,932 households out of which 24.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.20% were married couples living together, 7.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.20% were non-families. 24.90% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.75.  In the county, the population was spread out with 19.90% under the age of 18, 5.20% from 18 to 24, 23.10% from 25 to 44, 30.10% from 45 to 64, and 21.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46 years. For every 100 females there were 93.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.70 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $43,222, and the median income for a family was $50,653. Males had a median income of $36,294 versus $23,434 for females. The per capita income for the county was $23,610. 6.00% of the population and 4.30% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 7.50% are under the age of 18 and 4.80% are 65 or older.  Tourism, leisure, and fishing industries are the major sources of employment. Mathews County is one of the few counties in Virginia without a traffic signal. (Charlotte County & Bath County are others.) Along State Route 223 at Gwynn's Island, there is a small drawbridge which is manned 24 hours daily.

Ethnicity.

As of 2016 the largest self-identified ancestries/ethnicities in Mathews county are:

Communities.

Other unincorporated communities.

Prominent among Mathews County tourism and leisure locations is Gwynn's Island, a popular spot for recreational boating and sailing. It is located where the Piankatank River feeds into the Chesapeake Bay. Nearby is the off-shore location of the historic New Point Comfort Light.

Sports, events.

Mathews County hosts the annual Tour De Chesapeake (due to its lack of hills except for the north section of the county near the Mathews-Gloucester border). The bicycling event is a benefit for the Chesapeake Bay Foundation. The community also sponsors Mathews Market Days, featuring local artists such as P. Buckley Moss.  Susan, Virginia- which is in Mathews County- is where the DIY Blog Cabin 2011 is located. This event has drawn more attention to the county.  Despite lackluster football and basketball teams, Mathews High School is known for success in several sports including Boy's and Girl's Crew Teams, Boys and Girls Cross Country, Volleyball, Wrestling, Softball, and Track and Field. The wrestling team won the 1990 and 1991 state championships, boys track won the 1969 and 1986 state championships, baseball won the state title in 2004, and the volleyball team won two consecutive state titles in 2011 and 2012. The Crew Team has also won many championships for Mathews including the Stotesbury Cup.

Notable residents.

Captain Sally Tompkins was a Mathews County native. Gwynn's Island resident William B. Livermon, Sr. appeared throughout the 1970s on television in religion segments as "The Circuit Rider". Mathews is also home to former NFL football player Stuart Anderson (football) of the Washington Redskins and baseball player Keith Atherton of the Minnesota Twins.  Former Beatle John Lennon and his wife Yoko Ono once owned two historic waterfront estates in Mathews.

Mathews County is a county located in the U.S. state of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 8,978. Its county seat is Mathews.

马修斯县(Mathews County, Virginia)是美国维吉尼亚州东部的一个县,东临切萨皮克湾。面积634平方公里。根据美国2000年人口普查,共有人口9,207人。县治马修斯 (Mathews)。


Biography.

Cheong Jin-Suk briefly studied chemical engineering at the Seoul National University before entering the seminary in Seoul, from where he later obtained his bachelor's degree in theology, in 1954. After studying sociology in Hong Kong, he was ordained to the priesthood by Archbishop Paul Kinam Ro on 18 March 1961.  Cheong then did pastoral work in Seoul until becoming a professor at its minor seminary and notary of its archdiocesan curia in 1962. He was chancellor of the curia and undersecretary of the Catholic Conference from 1964 to 1965, and episcopal chancellor and vice-rector of the Minor Seminary from 1966 to 1967. He then studied canon law in Rome, whilst residing at the Pontifical Urbaniana University, from October 1968 to 1970.  On 25 June 1970, Cheong was appointed the second Bishop of Cheongju by Pope Paul VI. He received his episcopal consecration on the following 3 October from Archbishop Kinam Ro, with Bishops James Pardy, MM, and Peter Han Kong-ryel serving as co-consecrators, in the Church of the Holy Family in Cheongju. Cheong was later promoted to the third Archbishop of Seoul on 3 April 1998. In addition to his duties in Seoul, he was made Apostolic Administrator "ad nutum Sanctae Sedis" of P'yong-yang on 6 June of that same year. He was elected President of the Korean Episcopal Conference in 1998 as well, thus serving as the spokesman for the Church in Korea.  Pope Benedict XVI created him Cardinal-Priest of "S. Maria Immacolata di Lourdes a Boccea" in the consistory of 24 March 2006. Cardinal Cheong Jin-Suk was later appointed to the executive committee of the Pontifical Council for the Family in the Roman Curia on the following 6 May, and to the "Council of Cardinals for the Study of the Organizational and Economic Problems of the Holy See" on 3 February 2007. He was also later appointed a member of the Pontifical Council for Social Communications.  In accordance with Universi Dominici gregis, on his 80th birthday, 7 December 2011, Cardinal Cheong Jin-suk lost his curial memberships and vote to enter a conclave. His resignation was accepted by Pope Benedict XVI on 10 May 2012. He was succeeded by Andrew Yeom Soo jung.

Nicholas Cheong Jin-Suk (born 7 December 1931) is a South Korean Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of Seoul, from 1998 until retirement in 2012, having previously served as Bishop of Cheongju from 1970 to 1998, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 2006.

郑镇奭(;英语:Nicolas Cheong Jin-suk;1931年-12月7日)是韩国籍天主教司铎级枢机及首尔总教区荣休总主教。


Early life.

Tony Jaa was born and raised in a rural area in Surin Province to Rin Saipetch and Thongdee Yeerum. He is of Kuy descent and he can speak Thai, Northern Khmer and Kuy.  In his youth, Jaa watched films by Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan and Jet Li at temple fairs, which was his inspiration to learn martial arts. He was so inspired by them that while he was doing chores or playing with friends, he would imitate the moves that he had seen, practicing in his father's rice paddy.  "What they [Lee, Chan, and Li] did was so beautiful, so heroic that I wanted to do it too," Jaa told "Time" in a 2004 interview. "I practiced until I could do the move exactly as I had seen the masters do it."  Jaa began training in Muay Thai at the local temple from age 10 and at age 15 he requested to become a protégé of stuntman and action film director Panna Rittikrai. Panna had instructed Jaa to attend Maha Sarakham College of Physical Education in Maha Sarakham Province from which he graduated with a bachelor's degree.

Career.

Stunt work.

Tony initially worked as a stuntman for Muay Thai Stunt for 14 years, appearing in many of Panna's films. He doubled for Sammo Hung when the martial-arts actor made a commercial for an energy drink that required him to grasp an elephant's tusks and somersault onto the elephant's back. He was also a stunt double in the Thai television series "Insee Daeng" ("Red Eagle").

2003–2008.

Together, Panna and Jaa developed an interest in Muay Boran, the predecessor of muay thai and worked and trained for four years at the art with the intention of developing a film about it. Eventually they were able to put together a short film showing what Jaa could do with the help of instructor Grandmaster Mark Harris. One of the people they showed it to was producer-director Prachya Pinkaew.  This led to "" in 2003, Jaa's break-out role as a leading man. Jaa did all the stunts without mechanical assistance or computer-generated effects and it showcased his style of extreme acrobatics and speedy, dance-like moves. Injuries suffered in the filming included a ligament injury and a sprained ankle. One scene in the film involved fighting with another actor while his own trousers were on fire. "I actually got burned," he said in a 2005 interview. "I really had to concentrate because once my pants were on fire the flames spread upwards very fast and burnt my eyebrows, my eyelashes and my nose. Then we had to do a couple more takes to get it right."  His second major movie was "Tom-Yum-Goong" ("The Protector" in the US), named after Tom yum soup, which included a style of Muay Thai that imitates elephants.  In August 2006, he was in New York to promote the US release of "The Protector", including an appearance at the Museum of the Moving Image.  Sahamongkol Film International advertised that Tony Jaa's third film would be called "Sword" or "Daab Atamas", about the art of Thai two-sword fighting ("daab song mue"), with a script by Prapas Chonsalanont. But due to a falling out between Prachya and Jaa, which neither have publicly commented on, "Sword" was cancelled.  On March 2006 it was reported that there would be a sequel to "", "Ong-Bak 2". With Jaa both directing and starring, it started pre-production in fall 2006 and was released in December 2008.  Jaa's films captured the attention of his hero, Jackie Chan, who asked director Brett Ratner to cast Jaa in "Rush Hour 3". "I gave the director videos of Tony Jaa because I think Tony Jaa is the most well-rounded of all action stars," Chan told the Associated Press. "The director liked him a lot," Chan said. However, Jaa said he'd be unable to participate because of scheduling conflicts with the shooting of "Ong Bak 2".  While Jaa and Amogelang were working on "Ong-Bak 2", director Prachya Pinkaew and action ya choreographer Panna Rittikrai were working on "Chocolate", starring a female martial artist, Nicharee Vismistananda, and released 6 February 2008. Jaa had been cast in a small role in a third installment of the "King Naresuan" film series directed by Chatrichalerm Yukol, although the film was ultimately cancelled. "Ong Bak 3" was released in 2010 and provides a conclusion to this Thai trilogy.

2010–present.

Tony Jaa and Panna Rittikrai co-directed "Ong Bak 3", the 2010 sequel to the prequel "Ong Bak 2".  On 28 May 2010, Jaa became a Buddhist monk at a Buddhist temple in Surin, Thailand.  After leaving the monastery, Jaa accepted a deal with Sahamongkol film company. He filmed "Tom Yum Goong 2" for them, with "Chocolate" star Jija Yanin in a major role too, the first time Jaa has shared the big screen with another international martial arts star. Director Prachya Pinkaew and choreographer Panna Rittikrai also returned for this film.  In 2013, Jaa teamed up with Dolph Lundgren in the Thai western-comedy "A Man Will Rise" (which remains unfinished) and in 2014 in Lundgren's pet project "Skin Trade". Then Jaa co-starred in the blockbuster action film "Furious 7", directed by James Wan. Jaa also teamed up with fellow actor Wu Jing in Hong Kong- Chinese action film "SPL II".  Jaa was briefly attached to the remake of "". However, in November 2014, it was announced that he had exited the project. Jaa's most recent project was starring with Vin Diesel in "".  In October 2016, Jaa co-starred with Louis Koo in "Sha po lang: taam long".

Personal life.

Tony Jaa officially registered his marriage to longtime girlfriend Piyarat Chotiwattananont on 29 December 2011. The wedding ceremony was held on 3 May 2012. The couple have a daughter and a son.

Tatchakorn Yeerum (; ; ; formerly Phanom Yeerum (; ); born 5 February 1976), better known internationally as Tony Jaa and in Thailand as Jaa Phanom (; ; ), is a Thai martial artist, actor, action choreographer, stuntman, director and former Buddhist monk. His films include "" (2003), "Tom-Yum-Goong" (2005), "" (2008), "Furious 7" (2015), "" (2015), and "Paradox" (2017).

-{zh:东尼嘉;zh-hans:Tony Jaa;zh-hant:Tony Jaa;zh-cn:托尼·贾;zh-hk:柏朗·伊云;zh-mo:柏朗·伊云;zh-sg:Tony Jaa;zh-tw:东尼嘉;}-(,英语:Tony Jaa;1976年-2月5日),本名 Worawit Yeerum,泰国著名动作演员。曾主演《拳霸》,《冬荫功》等影片,在全球上映获得成功。他并在《拳霸2》(Ong Bak 2,官方版拳霸续集,台湾却称为《拳霸3》,非指《冬荫功》)兼任导演,之后再制作《拳霸3》。之后在2015年参与演出风靡全球的《玩命关头7》,与保罗·沃克的对手戏。