Background.

The Sephardim (Hebrew for "Jews of Spain") were issued with the Spanish Royal Alhambra Decree in 1492, whereby they were given the choice of exile from Spain, or conversion to Catholicism, or failing to do either, execution. Of Spain's estimated 200,000 Jews at that time, around half converted; many by coercion, others because of social and financial pressures preventing their departure, and a few out of genuine religious conviction. They became Spain's Jewish-origin New Christians or conversos (i.e. "converts" to Catholicism).  Of the other half of Spain's Jews who did not convert, and instead chose exile, some sailed south (becoming the North African Sephardim), others went east (becoming the Eastern Sephardim), but most crossed the border west to Portugal.  In Portugal, Jewish life was interrupted only a few years later, when there too they were issued with the Portuguese decree against the Jews in 1496. While in theory, the Jews now in Portugal who chose not convert to Catholicism also had the option to be expelled (or executed) by 1497, the Portuguese king, not wanting a similar Jewish flight and brain drain as happened in Spain, in practice blocked Portugal's ports of exit, and subsequently reasoned that those who stayed behind agreed to become Christians by default. Thus the Jews in Portugal were forced to convert to Catholicism in 1496 after the decree and, all but a few who did manage to flee, became Portugal's Jewish-origin New Christians or conversos.  For the next few centuries, the Inquisition in Spain and Portugal continued to investigate the conversos and their descendants on suspicions that they continued to practice Judaism in secret. Many in fact did continue to practice Judaism behind closed doors, while publicly professing to be Catholics; in Spanish and Portuguese these were called Marranos.  The persecutions and trials by the inquisition against conversos lasted well into the late 1800s. Furthermore, the legal distinction between so-called Old Christians and New Christians was maintained for centuries, with a person's pedigree always on record.  Both those who actively maintained Jewish practices in secret, and also some sincere conversos who had converted fully to Catholicism, were at times hounded, persecuted and executed on charges of being Marranos. This was often a pretext for the confiscation of their property. Many of them wished to have freedom of religion again and to be free from this institutionalized anti-Semitism. Amsterdam, then one of the greatest cities in the world, offered both of these things.  In this historical context, a substantial migration of conversos from the Iberian Peninsula to Amsterdam took place from the 1600s to the early 1800s. Once in Amsterdam, many returned to Judaism openly and publicly. They called themselves Portuguese Jews, even those who came directly from Spain. They wanted to avoid being identified with Spain, which was at war with the Dutch Republic at the time during the Eighty Years' War. This branch of Judaism is also known as the Western Sephardim.  The Sephardic Jews in Amsterdam were known as the "first modern Jews" because they were the first to distinguish between religious and secular spheres of their individual and collective lives. Their religious life was focused primarily on the synagogue, the religious calendar of Jewish life, and an eagerness to provide a Jewish education for their children.  During the Holocaust, the facility was slated to become a deportation center for Jews, but Leo Palache and a team of volunteers managed to dissuade the Nazis from this plan. Instead, the building concealed Jewish ritual items for deported Jews in the sanctuary ceiling and attic floor.  The WWII diary of executive director, Salomon Coutinho, was discovered in Amsterdam and details the synagogues works and efforts to protect the building during the War.

Construction and building.

On December 12, 1670, the Sephardic Jewish community of Amsterdam acquired the site to build a synagogue and construction work began on April 17, 1671, under the architect Elias Bouman. On August 2, 1675, the Esnoga was finished. The design is based on the plans for King Solomon's temple.  The inscription above the entrance is from Psalm 5:8: "In the abundance of Thy lovingkindness will I come into Thy house". The sign also contains "1672", the year the building was intended to be completed, and "Aboab", the name of the chief rabbi who initiated the construction project.  The building is free-standing and rests on wooden piles; the foundation vaults can be viewed by boat from the canal water underneath the synagogue. The entrance to the main synagogue is off a small courtyard enclosed by low buildings housing the winter synagogue, offices and archives, homes of various officials, the rabbinate, a mortuary, and noted Etz Hayim library. The interior of the synagogue is a single, very high rectangular space retaining its original wooden benches. The floor was covered with fine sand, in the old Dutch tradition, to absorb dust, moisture and dirt from shoes and to muffle the noise. Only five synagogues in the world had a sand floor, and this was the only one with such a floor surviving outside the Caribbean region.  During the 1955–1959 renovation, the former Etz Hayim seminary auditorium was redesigned as a winter synagogue; central heating and electric lighting were added. The benches were taken from a synagogue originally built in 1639 and the Hechal dates from 1744.The ark is made from a solid piece of jacaranda wood from Brazil and the main sanctuary does not have any internal electric system; two chandeliers that hold 1000 candles are lit when necessary.

Ets Haim Library.

The Portuguese Synagogue has one of the oldest Jewish libraries in the world and filled with original and rare texts and is constantly called upon for academic and rabbinical research. It was founded in 1616 and has been housed in the historical complex of the Portuguese Jewish community of Amsterdam since 1675. In 1889 the private library of the then librarian David Montezinos was donated to Ets Haim and the library is known since then as Ets Haim/Livraria Montezinos. In the 1940s, the library's contents were shipped to Germany by the Nazis and the books were returned to the Netherlands after the war; the books were sent to Israel in 1979 and returned to Amsterdam in 2000. In 2014, in partnership with the National Library of Israel, a majority of the manuscripts were digitized, making the catalog available online and free.

Interior.

The interior of the Portuguese Synagogue is of the longitudinal Iberian-Sephardic type. The Holy Ark is situated in the South East Corner of the building and faces Jerusalem. On the other side of the room, opposite of the ark, is a tebah.  The Women's Gallery is supported by twelve stone columns, each which represents one of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. In addition to these columns, there are four large brass chandeliers that hold a total of a thousand candles. All of the candles are lit in the synagogue during worship services. The light of these candles shine together through the 72 windows that exist in the building.  Around the building, there are numerous offices, archives, the rabbinate, the mortuary, and the Ets Haim. The Ets Haim (Tree of Life) is the library that contains valuable collections of Sephardic manuscripts.

The Portuguese Synagogue, also known as the Esnoga, or Snoge, is a late 17th-century Sephardic synagogue in Amsterdam, completed in 1675. "Esnoga" is the word for synagogue in Ladino, the traditional Judaeo-Spanish language of Sephardic Jews.


Publication history.

From its first issue, in 1971, until 2008, "The Times Higher Education Supplement" ("THES") was published in newspaper format and was born out of, and affiliated with, "The Times" newspaper. On 10 January 2008, it was relaunched as a magazine. It is published by TES Global, which until October 2005 was a division of Rupert Murdoch's News International. The magazine is edited by John Gill. Phil Baty is the editor-at-large, and is responsible for international coverage. He is also the editor of the magazine's World University Rankings.  The magazine features a fictional satirical column written by Laurie Taylor, the "Poppletonian", which reflects on life at the fictional Poppleton University.  In 2011 "Times Higher Education" was awarded the titles of "Weekly Business Magazine of the Year" and "Media Business Brand of the Year" by the Professional Publishers Association.  In 2019, it was widely rumoured that Elsevier, who already partners with "THE" in order to compile their university rankings, was planning to take over "Times Higher Education" completely.

"Times Higher Education" World University Rankings.

"Times Higher Education" became known for publishing the annual "Times Higher Education–QS World University Rankings", which first appeared in November 2004. On 30 October 2009 "Times Higher Education" broke with Quacquarelli Symonds, then its partner in compiling the Rankings, and signed an agreement with Thomson Reuters to provide the data instead. The magazine developed a new methodology in consultation with its readers and its editorial board and the results were published annually from autumn 2010 to 2013, when "THE" signed a new deal with Elsevier.

Awards.

The magazine runs two sets of awards annually.  The first is the ""Times Higher Education" Awards".  The ""Times Higher Education" Leadership and Management Awards" (Thelmas) were launched in 2009. The Thelmas were set up to recognize the impact that administrative staff have on the success of higher education institutions.  __notoc__

Times Higher Education (THE), formerly The Times Higher Education Supplement (THES), is a weekly magazine based in London, reporting specifically on news and issues related to higher education. It is the United Kingdom's leading publication in its field.

《泰晤士高等教育》(英文全称:"Times Higher Education",英文简称:"Times Higher"或"THE"),原名《泰晤士高等教育增刊》(英文全称:"The Times Higher Education Supplement",英文简称:"The Times Higher"或"The THES"),是一份英国出版的高等教育报刊。该刊物1971年以前属于英国《泰晤士报》的一部分,2005年10月泰晤士报老板鲁伯特·默多克将TSL Education(包括本增刊)以2.35亿英镑的价格出售给一家私募基金公司。


History.

Deltiology appeared at the end of the 19th century, when the mass production of postcards began and received international distribution as the cheapest type of postal items. The first postcard was published in 1869, and by 1875, 231.5 million open letters were sent in the member countries of the Universal Postal Union. In the late XIX-early XX centuries the first organizations of deltiologists appeared. Special magazines and catalogs began to be published (in Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Russia, Great Britain, the United States, Italy, Switzerland, Spain, etc.), international exhibitions took place (in Leipzig, Saint Petersburg, Nice, Paris, Florence, Nuremberg, London, etc.), congresses of collectors and postcard publishers (in Leipzig - 1896, 1910; in Nice - 1899), the first auctions began to be held. Since the beginning of the 20th century deltiology has become one of the most popular types of collecting facilitated by the mass production of postcards of diverse topics (geography, ethnography, history, various types of art, technology, sports, portraits, etc.) and of high-quality art and printings, and by postal exchange between countries which expanded significantly with the strengthening of international relations.  The initial views on deltiology were somewhat different from the ones we have today. At the beginning of the XX century it was believed that only a postcard that was mailed, “fulfilled its function”, can be a worthy collectible. Moreover a postcard with a view of a city (locality) can be sent only from this city (locality). A blank postcard without a postmark was equated to a “picture”. Nowadays, on the contrary, a number of collectors go by the principle of ignoring the cards with writings on them.  Today deltiology is one of the most popular types of collecting. Moreover, postcards are usually valued in proportion to their age and rarity of the topic. Recently, an increased demand for postcards has provoked an increase in prices. So, for example, the price of some postcards at online auctions can reach one thousand dollars, whilst most of postcards would not reach the cost of 5 dollars.

Identification.

There are some general rules to dating when a postcard was printed. Postcards are generally sent within a few years of their printing so the postmark helps date a postcard. If the card is original and not a reprint, a postcard's original printing date can be deduced from such things as the fashions worn by people in the card, the era in which the cars on the street were made, and other time-sensitive clues. Postcards produced by the Curt Teich Company can be dated more exactly if the stamp box on the reverse is visible, since the company printed a date code within the stamp box.  Picture postcards can be assigned to "the Golden Age of Postcards" (1898–1919), the time of the linens (circa 1930–1950), or to the modern chromes (after 1940). Modern chromes are color photographs and thus differ from photochromes generated from black and white photographs before 1915. Picture postcards can also be differentiated on the basis of other features: undivided backs are typical for c. 1901–1906, and divided backs for c. 1907–1915, while white border cards are common from c. 1915-1930.

Practice.

Postcards are collected by historical societies, libraries and genealogical societies because of their importance in research such as how a city looked at a particular time in history as well as social history. Many elementary schools use postcards to teach children geography. Postcard pen pal programs have been established to help children in language arts.  Deltiologists, as postcard collectors are called, collect for a variety of reasons. Some are attracted to the postcards themselves, then narrow down their interests. Others are interested in something in particular, such as ballet, then decide to collect ballet-related postcards as a way to augment their interest in ballet.  Collectors may find picture postcards at home in boxes, attics, or scrapbooks, generate their own on trips and vacations, and acquire them from stores, flea markets, purchasing on the Internet, or other collectors.  A number of artists have become recognized for the creation of postcards and certain publishers specialize in the production and printing of picture postcards.

Worldwide popularity.

Worldwide deltiology is the third-largest collecting hobby after stamp collecting and coin/banknote collecting. Postcard clubs may be found in many countries; and these clubs, as well as related organizations, frequently host postcard shows. Online postcard clubs have also become popular. They mainly focus on providing their members with catalogs and features for tracking their collections and interacting with each other.  Some websites popularize deltiology by providing opportunity to receive and send postcards to random people around the world.

Collection storage.

There are three most popular ways to store postcards: index card, in albums and in envelopes. Until the 1990s collectors mainly used cardboard albums threading the corners of postcards in the slots. Nowadays plastic photo albums with pockets are used more often, as a postcard can be inserted in the pockets completely. The album storage method ensures the safety of the collection in the best way, plus its visually appealing. However, there are such disadvantages as the space the collection takes up, the weight of and the overall cost of all the albums one might need.  With the index card storage method collections of postcards are located in boxes of the appropriate size. Such boxes can be made by the collector independently from plywood, hardboard and standard shoe boxes. The boundaries of each subsection of the collection are marked with separator cards, which have a format larger than that of the postcard. And when it comes to envelops, a collector can put different postcards in an envelope dividing them by their themes. The main advantages of these methods compared to albums are its compactness, money saving, and time saving as you do not need to spend time on inserting and rearranging cards in albums; the main disadvantage is that postcards quickly wear out from constant sorting.

Deltiology (from Greek,, diminutive of,, "writing tablet, letter"; and, ) is the study and collection of postcards. Professor Randall Rhoades of Ashland, Ohio, coined a word in 1945 that became the accepted description of the study of picture postcards. It initially took about 20 years for the name to appear in a dictionary. Compared to philately, the identification of a postcard's place and time of production can often be an impossible task because postcards, unlike stamps, are produced in a decentralised, unregulated manner. For this reason, some collectors choose to limit their acquisitions to cards by specific artists and publishers, or by time and location.

明信片学 (英文:Deltiology,源于希腊文δελτίον, deltion, diminutive of δέλτος, deltos, 「书写板,信件」-λογία, -logia)是一门研究明信片搜集的学问。与集邮(philately)的差别在于明信片因为不像邮票一样集中出产,也没有完整的规范,所以明信片学常在辨认片子的产地与年代。因此,有些搜藏者会选定特定艺术家或出版者的明信片来搜集,或是专门搜集某个年代或地点的片子。


Biography.

Vann Nath was born in Phum Sophy village, Srok Battambang district, Battambang Province in northwestern Cambodia. The exact date and year of his birth is unknown, but it was common for poor Cambodians born in rural areas not to have a proper birth certificate. He was educated at Wat Sopee pagoda as a child. His parents were separated, and he had two brothers and an older sister. They earned a living by selling a type of Khmer white noodles called 'num banhchok'. They were so poor that Nath had no chance to get a proper education. By the time he was 14 or 15, he was working at factory jobs for 500-600 riel a month (less than 0.25 USD).  Nath became interested in painting while he was studying at Wat Sopee pagoda. "I became very attracted to painting when I went into the pagoda and I saw people painting a picture on the side of the wall of a temple." Instead of pursuing painting, he served as a monk from the age of 17 to 21. "Every family has a son...one of the sons must go and serve as a monk — it is considered bad for the Cambodian family to not have a son who is a monk", says Vann Nath.  When his sister died, Vann Nath left the monkhood to start working to help support the family. He enrolled in a private painting school in 1965. "School was far from my house, and I couldn't afford a bicycle. Because our family life was hard, only my mother was working to support the whole family and she became older and older and I had to pay the tuition for the painting school." Later, the school allowed Vann Nath to work there in exchange for the tuition fee. After two years, he was able to profit from his own painting work.

Khmer Rouge.

At the time of his arrest on 7 January 1978, Vann Nath was working in a rice field in his home province of Battambang like many other Battambang locals. The Khmer Rouge took him to Wat Kandal, a Buddhist temple used as a detainment center. They told him that he was accused of violating the moral code of the organization of Angkar. He did not understand what that meant.  A week later, he was transferred and deported to a security prison in Phnom Penh. This security prison is known as S-21 by the Khmer Rouge and it was formerly a high school known as Chao Ponhea Yat high school. There, people were interrogated, tortured and executed on a daily basis. Towards the fall of the Khmer Rouge and the invasion of the Vietnamese army in 1979, only seven prisoners made it out of the prison alive. Vann Nath was one of them.

Career.

Vann Nath was a painter and writer whose memoirs and paintings of his experiences in the infamous Tuol Sleng prison are a powerful and poignant testimony to the crimes of the Khmer Rouge and the communist regime.  Vann Nath was an outspoken advocate for justice for victims of the crimes of the Khmer Rouge and this is reflected in his writing. His 1998 memoir "A Cambodian Prison Portrait: One Year in the Khmer Rouge's S-21 Prison", about his experiences at S-21, at that time was the only written account by a survivor of the prison. It has been translated from English into French and Swedish.  Vann Nath was one of Cambodia's most prominent artists. His life was only spared by his captor, Comrade Duch, so that he could be put to work on painting and sculpting portraits of Pol Pot. He played an important role in helping to revive the arts in Cambodia after decades of war and genocide.  During 2001 and 2002, Vann Nath worked intensively with Cambodian film director Rithy Panh in the preparation of a documentary film entitled "". Vann Nath was interviewed in the film, in which Panh brought together former prisoners and guards of the former Tuol Sleng prison. Vann Nath confronted and questioned his former torturers in the documentary film. To recognize their work, both Vann Nath and Rithy Panh have been conferred the title of "Dr honoris causa" by the University of Paris VIII on 24 May 2011.

Honours.

He was a recipient of Lillian Hellman/Hammett Award, which recognises courage in the face of political persecution, which he faced during the Khmer Rouge.

Illness.

Despite battling long-standing health problems, including chronic kidney disease, Vann Nath continued to paint and write about his experiences under the Pol Pot regime. He suffered from a heart attack and went into a coma. He died on 5 September 2011 at the Calmette Hospital in Phnom Penh. He was approximately 65 years old.

Vann Nath (; 1946 – 5 September 2011) was a Cambodian painter, artist, writer, and human rights activist. He was the eighth Cambodian to win the Lillian Hellman/Hammett Award award since 1995. He was one of only seven known adult survivors of S-21 camp, where 20,000 Cambodians were tortured and executed during the Khmer Rouge regime.

万纳(,1946年-2011年-9月5日),又译凡纳、万恩·纳特,柬埔寨画家、艺术家、作家、人权活动家。


History.

The Sima clan were said to be the descendants of the mythological figures Gaoyang and Chongli (Gaoyang's son). They served as "xiaguan" (夏官; "officers of summer") in the reigns of the mythical emperors Yao and Shun and through the Xia and Shang dynasties. During the Zhou dynasty, officials holding the appointment of "xiaguan" oversaw military affairs and were collectively known as ""xiaguan sima"". Cheng Boxiufu (程柏休父), a descendant of Chongli, helped King Xuan of the Zhou dynasty consolidate his rule over his kingdom. In return, the king awarded aristocratic status to Cheng Boxiufu's clan. Cheng Boxiufu and his descendants adopted Sima as their family name. In the late Zhou dynasty, the Sima clan migrated to the states of Wei, Zhao and Qin. The Sima family in Qin included Sima Ji, a general who battled alongside Bai Qi during the Battle of Changping. His fifth-generation descendant was Sima Tan, a Han dynasty court astrologer, and his son was Sima Qian, the author of "Records of the Grand Historian".  In the late Qin dynasty, Sima Ang served as a general in the insurgent Zhao state and joined other rebel forces in overthrowing the Qin dynasty. After the fall of the Qin dynasty, Sima Ang declared himself the king of a separate state, Yin (殷), with its capital in Henei (河內; in present-day Henan). In the early Han dynasty, Sima Ang's kingdom became a commandery of the Han Empire and his descendants had lived there since. Sima Yi, a descendant of Sima Ang, served as an official, military general and regent of the Cao Wei state in the Three Kingdoms period. His grandson, Sima Yan, usurped the throne from the last Cao Wei emperor and established the Jin dynasty. After the Jin dynasty ended, many members of the Sima clan changed their surname to avoid persecution.

Sima (, ) is a Chinese family name. It is one of the rare two-character Chinese family names; most Chinese family names consist of only a single character. It is an occupational surname, literally meaning "control" (sī) "horses" (mǎ); in a similar way as the English surname Marshall is derived from the Frankish: "mare" (horse) + "skalkoz" (master). The family name originated from one of the offices of the Three Excellencies of the Zhou dynasty. The name has also been anglicised as "Szema".

司马姓,为汉字复姓之一,在《百家姓》中排名第410位。是中国的一个上古至中古时期的大姓。


Operations.

Eros is a busy hub of general aviation and some commercial aviation, which includes Wilderness Air, Bay Air, Westair Aviation, Scenic Air, with Air Namibia offering scheduled domestic flights. The airport is one of the busiest airports in the SADC region. It is the host to commercial, private, and scheduled traffic ranging from high performance jet aircraft to Cessna 152 trainers. The majority of traffic comes from the general aviation charter market, consisting mainly of the Cessna 210 aircraft, which is the most commonly used aircraft for charter and fly-in safaris in Namibia. Scenic-Air operates a regular charter service from Eros Airport, using Cessna Centurion equipment. The airport handles approximately 150 to 200 movements per day (around 50,000 per year). In 2016, the airport served 74,356 passengers. Wilderness Air offers regular transfers to Maun in Botswana, Livingstone and Lusaka in Zambia, and Victoria Falls in Zimbabwe. In April 2018, Westair Aviation files scheduled passenger services to 6 new destinations in Namibia and South Africa. In late July 2019 Air Namibia moves its Lüderitz and Oranjemund operations from Hosea Kutako International Airport to Eros airport.

Facilities.

The airport resides at an elevation of above mean sea level. It has two asphalt paved runways: 01/19 is the primary runway measuring and 09/27 is the secondary runway measuring. Other facilities on offer include car rentals, retail, food and beverages, advertising and aircraft hangars. The aerodrome reference code is 3C. The aerodrome Rescue and Fire Fighting has a Category 4 certification.

Eros Airport or Windhoek Eros Airport is an airport serving Windhoek, the capital and largest city of the Republic of Namibia. It is located in the Khomas Region, about south of Windhoek's central business district and a secondary hub for Air Namibia.

厄洛斯机场()是位于非洲国家纳米比亚首都温得和克的飞机场,坐落于霍马斯区,距离首都中心商业区以南5公里。


History.

The Belarusian Premier League was organized in 1992. The first participants were: Dinamo Minsk, the only Belarusian side in the former Soviet Top League, five teams from the lower tiers of the Soviet league system, and ten teams who were previous competitors in the Belarusian SSR First League.  After the league creation, it was decided to change its schedule from a Soviet-style summer season to a European-style winter season. To perform the transition, the first season was shortened, consisting of a single round-robin tournament between 16 teams, finishing in mid-summer. Due to the shortened season, no team was relegated from the Premier League and only one was promoted from the First League. The 1992–93 season had 17 teams, but was reduced back to 16 teams for the following season. In 1995, the winter season experiment was proven unsuccessful due to poor weather and field conditions in Belarus in the late autumn and early spring. The season was changed back to summer, and the 1995 championship was once again held as a single round-robin tournament. Every season since 1996 has been played in the summer.  Throughout the 2000s, the number of competing teams has changed several times. In 2001, the league was reduced to 14 teams, but expanded back to 16 in 2003. In 2005, after two teams withdrew before the start of the season, the league was once again reduced to 14 clubs, but expanded again to 16 teams in 2008. That same year, the decision was made to gradually reduce the number of teams even more, starting with 14 teams in 2009 and 12 in 2010 onwards. 2012 season was played with only 11 teams due to last minute withdrawal of Partizan Minsk.  In its earliest years, the league was dominated by Dinamo Minsk, who won the league five times in a row between 1992 and 1995. During the next ten seasons, seven different teams finished as champions: Slavia Mozyr (1996 as MPKC Mozyr, 2000), Dinamo Minsk (1997, 2004), Dnepr-Transmash Mogilev (1998), BATE Borisov (1999, 2002), Belshina Bobruisk (2001), Gomel (2003), Shakhtyor Soligorsk (2005). Since 2006, BATE Borisov has dominated the league, winning 13 championships in a row (2006–2018), and becoming the first Belarusian team to reach the group stage of the UEFA Champions League (2008) and the UEFA Europa League (2009) (feats that they have achieved repeatedly in the following years).  In March 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all the other football leagues in Europe were postponed, and by the end of the month, the Belarusian Premier League was the only top flight league in the continent that was still playing. Due to this, the league gained substantially increased viewership from abroad, with fans from all over the world watching the games online, due to the league being the only significant professional football available. British betting companies also offered odds for the various matches, as the league’s profile, previously relatively unknown outside of the country, grew a larger audience due to sporting inactivity elsewhere.

Player of the year.

Belarusian Premier League Player of the year is an annual award given by a sports newspaper Pressball.

Reserves League.

An annual league competition is organized for the reserve teams of Premier League clubs since 2001. This tournament was won by the reserves of Dinamo Minsk (7 titles), Gomel (2 titles), Shakhtyor Soligorsk (2 titles), BATE Borisov (1 title), Torpedo-BelAZ Zhodino (1 title) and Dnepr Mogilev (1 title).

The Belarusian Premier League or the Vyšejšaja Liha or the Vysheyshaya Liga (,, "Top League") is the top division of professional football in Belarus, and is organized by the Belarusian Football Federation. The number of teams in the competition has varied over the years from as high as 17 (1992–93 season) to as low as 11 (2012). As of 2016, the league includes 16 teams. Each team plays every other team twice during the course of the season. At the end of the season, the two teams with the fewest number of points are automatically relegated to the Belarusian First League, while the 3rd worst team plays a promotion-relegation playoff against the 3rd best team from the 2nd tier. The top two teams from the Belarusian First League automatically win promotion to the Premier League. Dinamo Brest are the current champions, after winning their first championship title in 2019.

白俄罗斯足球超级联赛()是白俄罗斯足球总会组织的顶级职业足球联赛,1992–2009年有 14 或 16 支参赛队伍。但在2010年赛季有史以来第一次,只有 12 支参赛队伍。而联赛榜尾球队将直接降级,由甲级联赛冠军获取升级名额。而联赛尾二球队将同甲级联赛亚军球队打附加赛。


Outburst.

On January 6, 2002, an unknown star was seen to brighten in the constellation Monoceros, the Unicorn. Being a new variable star, it was designated V838 Monocerotis, the 838th variable star of Monoceros. The initial light curve resembled that of a nova, an eruption that occurs when enough hydrogen gas has accumulated on the surface of a white dwarf from its close binary companion. Therefore, it was also designated Nova Monocerotis 2002. V838 Monocerotis reached maximum visual magnitude of 6.75 on February 6, 2002, after which it started to dim rapidly, as expected. However, in early March the star started to brighten again, especially in infrared wavelengths. Yet another brightening in infrared occurred in early April. In 2003 the star had returned to near its original brightness before the eruption (magnitude 15.6) but now as a red supergiant rather than a blue main-sequence star. The light curve produced by the eruption is unlike anything previously seen. In 2009 the star was about, which in the absence of extinction would correspond to an apparent magnitude of 8.5 The star brightened to about a million times solar luminosity and absolute magnitude of −9.8, ensuring that at the time of maximum V838 Monocerotis was one of the most luminous stars in the Milky Way galaxy. The brightening was caused by a rapid expansion of the outer layers of the star. The star was observed using the Palomar Testbed Interferometer, which indicated a radius of (comparable to Jupiter's orbital radius), confirming the earlier indirect calculations. At the currently accepted distance of 6,100 pc, the measured angular diameter in late 2004 (1.83 mas) corresponded to a radius of, but by 2014 it had shrunk to, similar to Betelgeuse. The expansion took only a couple of months, meaning that its speed was abnormal. The laws of thermodynamics dictate that expanding gases cool. Therefore, the star became extremely cool and deep red. In fact, some astronomers argue that the spectrum of the star resembled that of L-type brown dwarfs. If that is the case, V838 Monocerotis would be the first known L-type supergiant. However, current estimates of the distance, and hence of the radius, are about 25% lower than assumed in those papers.

Other possibly similar events.

There are a handful of outbursts resembling that of V838 Monocerotis. In 1988, a red star was detected erupting in the Andromeda Galaxy. The star, designated M31-RV, reached the absolute bolometric magnitude of −9.95 at maximum (corresponding to a luminosity of ) before dimming beyond detectability. A similar eruption occurred in 1994 in the Milky Way (V4332 Sagittarii).

Progenitor star.

Some details are emerging on the nature of the star that experienced the outburst. Based on an incorrect interpretation of the light echo the eruption generated, the distance of the star was first estimated to be 1,900 to 2,900 light years. Combined with the apparent magnitude measured from pre-eruption photographs, it was thought to be an underluminous F-type dwarf, which posed a considerable enigma.  More accurate measurements gave a much larger distance, 20,000 light years (6 kpc). It appears that the star was considerably more massive and luminous than the Sun. The star probably has a mass of from 5 to 10 times solar (). It was apparently either a B1.5V star with a B3V companion, or an A0.5V with a B4V companion. In the latter case it would have had a luminosity around (being 0.43 times as luminous as its companion), and in the former case it would have been more luminous (about 1.9 times as luminous as its companion). The star may have originally had a radius roughly and its temperature would have been that of a B-type star (more than 10,000K but less than 30,000K). Munari et al. (2005) suggested that the progenitor star was a very massive supergiant with an initial mass of about, but this has been contested. There seems to be agreement that the star system is relatively young. Munari et al. conclude that the system may be only about 4 million years old.  The spectrum of V838 Monocerotis reveals a companion, a hot blue B-type main sequence star probably not very different from the progenitor star. It is also possible that the progenitor was slightly less massive than the companion and only just entering the main sequence.  Based on the photometric parallax of the companion, Munari et al. calculate a greater distance, 36,000 light years (10 kpc).

Light echo.

Rapidly brightening objects like novae and supernovae are known to produce a phenomenon known as light echo. The light that travels directly from the object arrives first. If there are clouds of interstellar matter around the star, some light is reflected from the clouds. Because of the longer path, the reflected light arrives later, producing a vision of expanding rings of light around the erupted object. The rings appear to travel faster than the speed of light, but in fact they do not.  In the case of V838 Monocerotis, the light echo produced was unprecedented and is well documented in images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope. While the photos appear to depict an expanding spherical shell of debris, they are actually formed by the illumination of an ever-expanding ellipsoid with the progenitor star at one focus and the observer at the other. Hence, despite appearances, the structures in these photos are actually concave toward the viewer.  By March 2003 the size of the light echo in the sky was twice the angular diameter of Jupiter and was continuing to grow. Jupiter's angular diameter varies from 30 to 51 arcseconds.  It is not yet clear if the surrounding nebulosity is associated with the star itself. If that is the case, they may have been produced by the star in earlier eruptions which would rule out several models that are based on single catastrophic events. However, there is strong evidence that the V838 Monocerotis system is very young and still embedded in the nebula from which it formed.  The eruption initially emitted at shorter wavelengths (i.e. was bluer), which can be seen in the light echo: the outer border is bluish in the Hubble images.

Hypotheses.

So far several rather different explanations for the eruption of V838 Monocerotis have been published.

Atypical nova outburst.

The outburst of V838 Monocerotis may be a nova eruption after all, albeit a very unusual one. However, this is very unlikely considering that the system includes a B-type star, and stars of this type are young and massive. There has not been enough time for a possible white dwarf to cool and accrete enough material to cause the eruption.

Thermal pulse of a dying star.

V838 Monocerotis may be a post-asymptotic giant branch star, on the verge of its death. The nebulosity illuminated by the light echo may actually be shells of dust surrounding the star, created by the star during previous similar outbursts. The brightening may have been a so-called helium flash, where the core of a dying low-mass star suddenly ignites helium fusion disrupting, but not destroying, the star. Such an event is known to have occurred in Sakurai's Object. However, several pieces of evidence support the argument that the dust is interstellar rather than centered on V838 Monocerotis. A dying star that has lost its outer envelopes would be appropriately hot, but the evidence points to a young star instead.

Thermonuclear event within a massive supergiant.

According to some evidence, V838 Monocerotis may be a very massive supergiant. Also in this case, the outburst may have been a helium flash. Very massive stars survive multiple such events; however, they experience heavy mass loss (about half of the original mass is lost while in the main sequence) before settling as extremely hot Wolf-Rayet stars. This theory may also explain the apparent dust shells around the star. V838 Monocerotis is located in the approximate direction of the galactic anticenter and off from the disk of the Milky Way. Stellar birth is less active in outer galactic regions, and it is not clear how such a massive star can form there. However, there are very young clusters like Ruprecht 44 and the 4-million-year-old NGC 1893 at a distance of about 7 and 6 kiloparsecs, respectively.

Mergeburst.

The outburst may have been the result of a so-called "mergeburst", the merger of two main sequence stars (or an main sequence star and a pre-main sequence star). This model is strengthened by the apparent youth of the system and the fact that multiple stellar systems may be unstable. The less massive component may have been in a very eccentric orbit or deflected towards the massive one. Computer simulations have shown the merger model to be plausible. The simulations also show that the inflated envelope would have come almost entirely from the smaller component. In addition, the merger model explains the multiple peaks in the light curve observed during the outburst. In fact, based on further observations of stars similar to V838 Monocerotis, such as V1309 Scorpii, astronomers believe that this is the most likely scenario.

Planetary capture event.

Another possibility is that V838 Monocerotis may have swallowed its giant planets. If one of the planets entered into the atmosphere of the star, the stellar atmosphere would have begun slowing down the planet. As the planet penetrated deeper into the atmosphere, friction would become stronger and kinetic energy would be released into the star more rapidly. The star's envelope would then warm up enough to trigger deuterium fusion, which would lead to rapid expansion. The later peaks may then have occurred when two other planets entered into the expanded envelope. The authors of this model calculate that every year about 0.4 planetary capture events occur in Sun-like stars in the Milky Way galaxy, whereas for massive stars like V838 Monocerotis the rate is approximately 0.5–2.5 events per year.

Common envelope event.

See Common envelope

V838 Monocerotis (V838 Mon) is a cataclysmic variable - or outburst - star in the constellation Monoceros about 20,000 light years (6 kpc) from the Sun. The previously unknown star was observed in early 2002 experiencing a major outburst, and was possibly one of the largest known stars for a short period following the outburst. Originally believed to be a typical nova eruption, it was then identified as something completely different. The reason for the outburst is still uncertain, but several conjectures have been put forward, including an eruption related to stellar death processes and a merger of a binary star or planets.

麒麟座V838(V838 Monocerotis、V838 Mon)是位在麒麟座的一颗红色变星,距离太阳约20,000光年(6 kpc);它可能是已知最大的恒星之一,该恒星在2002年经历了一次爆发事件并被观测到。一开始相信这是一次新星爆发,但在之后发现并非如此。爆发的原因至今不明,但有数个理论已经提出,其中包含恒星死亡的过程、联星合并或吞噬行星。


History.

Modern Syria (1946–2011).

Al-Rashid Governorate (named after Harun al-Rashid) was separated from the neighbouring Deir ez-Zor Governorate on 17 November 1957, during the reign of President Shukri al-Quwatli. The Governorate was later renamed on 1 January 1970 to Raqqa Governorate.

Syrian Civil War (2011-present).

As of 19 September 2012, the town of Tal Abyad, directly across the border from the Turkish town of Akçakale, was already under rebel control.  On 11 February 2013, Syrian rebels, including al-Nusra fighters, took control of the Tabqa Dam, and Tabqa city, according to SOHR and videos posted by rebels. Tabqa Dam, on the Euphrates river, is the largest hydroelectric dam in Syria and provides electricity to many areas, including Aleppo. Tabqa is also known as Thawrah.  As of September 2014, governance has been fully reestablished with previous personnel who pledge allegiance to the new regime. Only the police and soldiers are ISIL fighters, who receive confiscated lodging previously owned by non-Sunnis and others who fled. ISIL asserts that it is providing welfare services, that it has established price controls, and that it has imposed taxes on the wealthy. The Raqqa Dam continued to provide electricity and water. The exportation of oil brought in tens of millions of dollars.  As of July 2017, the Syrian Democratic Forces occupy the majority of the province, including the city of Raqqa, which they have captured from ISIL following a months-long siege. A few months before the capture of Raqqa the Syrian government launched the Southern Raqqa offensive, which cleared southern Raqqa and southeastern Aleppo from ISIL militants. With the south part of the governorate under government control and the northern part under the Rojava the governorate has been fully cleared from ISIL.

Geography.

Settlements.

Raqqa is the provincial capital; other major settlements include Abu Hamad, Abu Susah, Al Hawrah, Al Qaltah, Al-Sabkhah, Al-Thawrah, Ar Ruhayyat, Ar Rusafah, Ath Thadyayn, Bash Dulki, Dulq Maghar, Fatsat ath Thayb, Hamrat Nasir, Jubb al Abyad, Kasrat Muraybit, Ma'adan, Matir, Nasiriyah, Suluk and Tell Abyad.

Districts.

The governorate is divided into 3 districts (manatiq):  These are further divided into sub-districts (nawahi).

Demographics.

As per the 2004 Syrian census the population was 793,500. A 2011 UNOCHA estimate put the population at 944,000, though this has likely changed since the start of the war.

Raqqa Governorate () is one of the fourteen governorates of Syria. It is situated in the north of the country and covers an area of 19,61 km2. The capital is Raqqa. The Islamic State of Iraq and Levant claimed full control of this province as of August 24, 2014 when its fighters captured Tabqa Airbase in the southwest part of the province. However, the Syrian Democratic Forces now control much of the province; all of the area north of the Euphrates River including the provincial capital of Raqqa and the city of al-Thawrah are under SDF control, with the government holding the southern part of the governorate after a successful offensive was launched with the aid of Liwa al-Quds, tribal militias and Russian air support, which resulted in the recapture of the city of Resafa, and the capture of many oil fields in Ar-Raqqah province, including various oil and gas stations.

拉卡省()是叙利亚北部的一个省,北邻土耳其。幼发拉底河横贯其中。面积19,616平方公里,2011年估计人口944,000人。首府拉卡。下分3区:泰勒艾卜耶德区、革命区、拉卡区。2017年10月17日,叙利亚民主力量下属武装当天完全夺取了极端组织“伊斯兰国”在叙利亚的大本营拉卡。


Club career.

Ružomberok.

Jendrišek was the best youth player in Slovakia during the 2002–03 season. Playing as a professional with Ružomberok between 2003 and 2006, he scored 30 goals in 56 league games. In 2006, he won the Slovak league and cup double with the club, also being the country's top goalscorer for the 2005–06 season with 21 goals, alongside Róbert Rák.

Hannover 96.

In the summer of 2006, Jendrišek was signed by Hannover on a season-long loan deal with the option of a permanent deal at the end of the season. He made his competitive debut for the club on 9 September 2006 in the first round of the 2006–07 DFB-Pokal, coming on as a substitute in their 3–2 away win at Dynamo Dresden. He went on to make his Bundesliga debut on 23 September 2006 in a 1–1 draw at home to Bayer Leverkusen, once again coming on as a substitute. However, he never managed to find his place as a first-team regular with Hannover, finishing the season with only nine Bundesliga appearances on his tally, all of them as a substitute.

Kaiserslautern.

On 30 May 2007, Jendrišek moved to Kaiserslautern on a three-year contract. He made his Kaiserslautern debut on 4 August 2007 in their 4–0 away win against SV Wilhelmshaven in the first round of the 2007–08 DFB-Pokal. His league debut for Kaiserslautern came on 13 August 2007 in the club's opening match of the season, a 1–1 draw at home to Borussia Mönchengladbach. He quickly established himself as a regular with the club, scoring five goals in 16 league appearances during the first half of the season. He also recorded three assists during that period of the season.  The second half of the season, however, was not very successful for him as he failed to score any goals in ten league appearances, only recording one assist. Additionally, he was temporary suspended from the club's first team by coach Milan Šašić over lack of discipline. Instead of accepting a fine and return to first-team action, he chose to be relegated to the club's reserve team, where he played four fourth-division games during March and April 2008. He later apologised and accepted the fine. In his last match for the reserves, he scored a hat-trick in the team's 5–2 away win at TuS Mechtersheim. Shortly thereafter, he permanently returned to first-team action.  In Kaiserslautern's opening match of the 2008–09 season, a 3–3 away draw at Mainz, Jendrišek came on as a half-time substitute after the team went 3–0 down in the first half and went on to score two goals in two minutes midway through the second half to level the score. He scored another brace on 17 November 2008 in Kaiserslautern's 6–0 win over Hansa Rostock and went on to finish the 2008–09 season as the club's top goalscorer, scoring 14 goals in 33 league appearances.  In the 2009–10 season, he was again Kaiserslautern's top goalscorer in the league, netting 15 goals in 31 appearances as the club finished top of the 2. Bundesliga to return to the top flight after four years.

Schalke.

On 29 April 2010, it was announced that Jendrišek will leave Kaiserslautern at the end of the 2009–10 season, moving to Schalke on a three-year contract. Jendrišek spent most of his time with Schalke on the substitutes' bench. In 2010, Schalke brought two new top strikers into the club, Klaas-Jan Huntelaar and Raúl, limiting Jendrišek's opportunity for first-team football.

Freiburg.

On 19 January 2011, it was therefore announced that he would leave the club for fellow Bundesliga side Freiburg in a €900,000 deal. Jendrišek scored his first goal with Freiburg in a 3–0 victory over VfL Wolfsburg on 27 August.

Cottbus.

After two years in Freiburg, he signed with 2. Bundesliga club Energie Cottbus.

Spartak Trnava.

On 18 August 2014, he signed with Spartak Trnava on a year contract.

Cracovia.

On 12 January 2015, he signed with Cracovia as a free transfer.

Xanthi.

On 26 June 2017, he signed a two-year contract with Greek Super League club Xanthi, on a free transfer again. On 26 August 2017 he scored his first goal with the club in a 2–0 away win against Platanias and on 19 November was scored a brace in the 900th game of his club in Super League sealing a 2–0 home win game against rivals Panionios. On 13 January 2018, Jendrišek scoring a brace in a 3–2 home win game against Platanias. It was his second time that he scored a brace in Super League after the 2–0 home win game against Panionios. On 15 April 2018, Jendrišek scoring a brace in a 3–0 home win game against PAS Giannina. It was his third time that he scored a brace in Super League after the 3–2 home win game against Platanias. On 23 September 2018, he scored another brace in a 3–0 home win game against OFI, his first for the 2018–19 season, helping his club to acquire his first win for the season. On 21 October 2018, he recorded a goal and an assist in a 2–1 away win against Levadiakos. A week later, he scored sealing a comeback 2–1 home win game against PAS Giannina. On 5 November 2018, he scored in a 1–0 away win against Asteras Tripoli, the club's fourth consecutive, after a low cross from Petar Đuričković. On 21 April 2019, he scored after five months and helped his team take a 2–0 home win against Apollon Smyrni to secure their spot in the top league.

Volos.

On 14 June 2019, he agreed to join newly promoted side Volos on a two-year deal. Four days later, the team officially announced his acquisition. On 31 August 2019, he scored his first goal in a 1-0 home win against Aris. On 9 November 2019, he scored in a much-needed 3-2 home win against Panetolikos.  On 11 January 2020, he scored in a 3-1 home loss against his old club, Xanthi. On 1 March 2020, he scored in a 4-1 away loss against Panathinaikos.

International career.

Jendrišek has been capped for the Slovakia national under-21 team before making his debut for the country's senior national team on 11 October 2008 in their 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifying match against San Marino. On 11 February 2009, he scored his first senior international goal in a friendly match against Cyprus, netting the second goal in his team's 3–2 defeat.  On 1 April 2009, Jendrišek scored his first competitive international goal at senior level, netting the decisive second goal in Slovakia's 2–1 away victory against the Czech Republic in the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers.  In the 2010 World Cup finals in South Africa, Jendrišek featured in all three of Slovakia's group stage matches.

Erik Jendrišek (born 26 October 1986) is a Slovak professional footballer who plays as a forward for Greek club Volos.

艾力·赞迪锡(,1984年-9月28日),出生在特尔斯泰纳,是一名斯洛伐克足球运动员,司职前锋,现效力希超球会萨丁。


Description.

The Fessenheim plant has two pressurized water reactors, each generating 920 MWe. Construction at Fessenheim began in 1970 and the plant was commissioned in 1977. It is built alongside the Grand Canal d'Alsace, a canal channelling the Upper Rhine river, from which it draws of cooling water annually.  The plant permanently employs around 700 staff and 200 contractors, and indirectly supports a further 600 to 2,000 people during maintenance operations. The plant contributes around 16,000,000 euro in tax to the various local authorities, including providing the commune of Fessenheim with 70% of its revenue.  In October 2009 the plant's third 10-yearly inspection on reactor 1 began, in advance of a decision on whether the plant could continue to operate for a further decade. A full decision was made in 2011, with permission to operate reactor 1 given. Reactor 1 was permanently shut down in February, 2020. The second reactor was inspected in mid April 2011. The local Information and Oversight Commission asked GSIEN to conduct a parallel independent inspection alongside the official inspection by the Nuclear Safety Authority. Reactor 2 is scheduled to be closed down in mid 2020.

Risks.

Due to its location, the Fessenheim plant is subject to particular risks from seismic activity and flooding, and there is an ongoing debate about the adequacy of its design in these respects.

Seismicity.

The majority of the Haut-Rhin "département", including Fessenheim, is classified as being in a zone of moderate seismicity; however, the southern third is in a medium-risk zone. The most recent earthquake in this zone, with a magnitude 4.7, took place in this southern third at Sierentz in July 1980. The last major earthquake in the region was the 1356 Basel earthquake, estimated to have had a M magnitude of up to 7.1.  A report commissioned by the Swiss canton of Basel-Stadt, published in 2007, concluded that the previous seismic evaluations undertaken by both EDF and, to a lesser extent, by the "Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire" (Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety Institute, IRSN) had underestimated the risks involved. In particular, although the location of the fault in the Rhine Rift Valley that led to the 1356 Basel earthquake was sufficiently well known for national and regional purposes, its location was not known precisely enough to evaluate a particular site. Studies conducted by other scientists have, for example, reached different conclusions about which faults might have been involved in the 1356 earthquake, its magnitude (ranging from 6.0 to 7.1 on the moment magnitude scale), and the distance from the fault to the plant (ranging from to away, compared to the distances of and used by EDF and the IRSN respectively). EDF also failed to take into account the possibility of a moderate local earthquake, which may have the potential to do greater damage than one which is larger but more distant, and the report was also critical of some aspects of the RFS 2001-01 assessment requirements. The report found that the design standards in force when the plant was built were similar to those that apply to present-day public buildings: the plant had been designed to accommodate movement, but it was not possible to determine whether or not the safety margins used would be adequate if a more realistic seismic evaluation were to be used.  On March 11, 2011 the local Information and Oversight Commission announced that it was commissioning two independent second opinions, to be delivered as soon as possible, one on 'the safety of the plant in the event of an earthquake of magnitude 7.2, corresponding to the new seismic reference point proposed by the Swiss experts', the other on the'redundancy of the cooling systems' in case of flooding. GSIEN has been commissioned to produce one of the reports.

Flood.

Although situated around below the level of the adjacent Grand Canal d'Alsace, it is not clear whether, taking into account the calculation methods in the 1960s, the design took adequate account the consequences of a breach in the canal. In its initial report following the 1999 Blayais Nuclear Power Plant flood, the Institute for Nuclear Protection and Safety (now part of the Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety Institute) called for the risk of flooding at Fessenheim to be re-examined due to the presence of the canal.  On March 11, 2011 the local Information and Oversight Commission announced that it has commissioned an urgent report on the'redundancy of the cooling systems' in case of flooding and that another report 'to determine the areas to strengthen to guarantee the safety of the plant in the event of a breach in the canal', which had already started, is expected in June 2011.

Aquifer.

The station is built on top of a large aquifer (French "Fossé rhénan", German "Oberrhein-Aquifer"), contamination of which would be very harmful. A concrete slab is built below the reactor in order to reduce, but not eliminate, the risk of polluting the aquifer.

Cooling water.

In August 2018, the plant was shut down during a heat wave to ensure that cooling water being released into the nearby river did not overheat it.

Opposition.

Opposition to the Fessenheim plant dates back to the 1970s when its construction was proposed, and in June 1977 the pirate radio station "Radio Verte Fessenheim" (Green Radio Fessenheim) began broadcasting against the plant.  There have been ongoing concerns about the seismic safety of the plant and, following the 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, on March 21 the local Information and Oversight Commission for the plant called for the seismic risk to be re-evaluated based on a 7.2 magnitude earthquake; the plant was originally designed for a 6.7 magnitude earthquake. The Swiss cantons of Basel-Stadt, Basel-Landschaft and Jura have also said that they are going to ask the French government to suspend the operation of Fessenheim while undertaking a safety review based on the lessons learned from Japan. The German state of Baden-Württemberg has called for a temporary closure in line with the 3-month shutdown of pre-1981 plants ordered in Germany. On March 29 the Franche-Comté Regional Council went further and voted for the plant to be closed, the first time a French Regional Council has passed such a vote. On April 6 the Grand Council of Basel-Stadt also voted for the plant to be closed as did the council of the Urban Community of Strasbourg on April 12. The European Parliament's Green members are also supporting the closure demands and are referring the matter to the European Commission. Around 3,800 people demonstrated near the plant on April 8; a larger demonstration is expected on April 25. The group "Stop Fessenheim" have collected over 63,000 signatures through an online petition calling for Fessenheim's closure, and, on April 18, began a 366-day 'fasting relay' outside the préfecture office in Colmar.  Although the plant was built with a 40-year operational life, on the plant's 30th anniversary, the anti nuclear group "sortir du nucléaire" called for the plant's immediate closure. The Tri-national Nuclear Protection Action Group ATPN ("Action Tri nationale de Protection Nucléaire"), with members from France, Germany and Switzerland is also campaigning for the plant to be closed and in 2008 it unsuccessfully applied to the Strasbourg Administrative Tribunal ("Tribunal Administratif de Strasbourg") to order its closure. On March 9, 2011, a further application to close the plant because of the seismic, flooding and other risks was rejected by the tribunal.  A local association called "Stop Fessenheim" was formed in October 2005 and registered in the Canton of Munster, after having operated informally since 2004.  FNPP is one in a group of French nuclear power plants opposed by neighbouring countries, the other plants being Cattenom and Bugey.  Planned closure of the plant has been also opposed by a number of scientists and environmentalists who pointed out that low-emission energy from Fessenheim will be replaced by fossil gas, as it happened in Germany. Indeed, just after the closure the French grid operator RTE explained that the closure will not impact France's security as it's being offset primarily by "combined cycle gas plant in Landivisiau".

Closure announcements.

After his victory in the 2012 Presidential Election, François Hollande confirmed his plan to close the plant in 2017. In September 2012, he ordered to close the plant by the end of 2016. In September 2015, Ségolène Royal (Minister of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy since April 2014), said a closure before the end of the term of François Hollande (that ends in May 2017) would furthermore be her intention. Royal has suggested turning the plant into a Tesla factory. In June 2016, EDF demanded a settlement from the State for compensation. On 24 August 2016, Le Monde wrote that a settlement has been stipulated. On 9 April 2017, the plant was ordered to close after the Flamanville 3 unit comes online, expected to begin operation in late 2018, later reported to summer 2019, keeping the French nuclear generation capacity below the legal limit of 63.2 GWe.  In November 2018, President Macron announced that both units will close in spring 2020, which was refined in 2019 to unit 1 in February 2020 and unit 2 in June 2020.

The Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant is located in the Fessenheim commune in the Haut-Rhin department in Grand Est in north-eastern France, north east of the Mulhouse urban area, within of the border with Germany, and approximately from Switzerland. The plant is located in the thirteenth most densely populated region in Metropolitan France and in the centre of the European Backbone. It is the oldest operational nuclear power plant in France since the Superphénix, a fast breeder reactor, was closed in 1996/97. Unit 1 was closed in February 2020 and unit 2 is scheduled to shut down in June 2020.

费瑟奈姆核电站()位于法国东北部大东部大区上莱茵省的费瑟奈姆,距米卢斯市区东北15千米,距德法边界1.5千米,距瑞士约40千米。该核电站地处法国本土人口第十三稠密的大区与欧洲骨干的中心。自1996-97年超级凤凰号反应堆关闭之后,费瑟奈姆核电站成为了法国最老的尚在运行的核电站。费瑟奈姆核电站1号机组已于2020年2月关闭,2号机组计划于2020年6月关闭。


Origin of the theme.

Brahms composed the work on a theme entitled "Chorale St. Antoni", which Brahms found in a wind ensemble composition. When Brahms discovered it, the wind ensemble piece carried an attribution to the composer Joseph Haydn. Brahms titled his own composition accordingly, crediting Haydn for the theme. However, music publishers in the early nineteenth century often attached the names of famous composers to works by unknown or lesser-known composers, to make the pieces more saleable. Subsequent research has concluded that the wind piece Brahms used as a source does not fit Haydn's style. The wind ensemble piece remains without clear attribution.  As a result, Brahms's piece is sometimes referred to today, in recordings and concert programs, as the "St. Anthony Variations", in addition to the original title that Brahms gave it.  A detailed survey of the controversy can be found in Douglas Yeo's 2004 edition of the "Haydn" piece (ISMN M-57015-175-1). In 1870, Brahms's friend Carl Ferdinand Pohl, the librarian of the Vienna Philharmonic Society, who was working on a Haydn biography at the time, showed Brahms a transcription he had made of a piece attributed to Haydn titled "Divertimento No. 1". The second movement bore the heading "St. Anthony Chorale", and it is this movement which, in its entirety, forms the theme on which the variations are based. Brahms's statement of the theme varies in small but significant ways from the original, principally with regard to instrumentation. Some sources state the Divertimento was probably written by Ignaz Pleyel, but this has not been definitively established. A further question is whether the composer of the divertimento actually wrote the "St. Anthony Chorale" or simply quoted an older theme taken from an unknown source. To date, no other mention of a "St. Anthony Chorale" has been found.

Form.

The theme begins with a repeated ten-measure passage which itself consists of two intriguing five-measure phrases, a quirk that is likely to have caught Brahms's attention. Almost without exception, the eight variations follow the phrasal structure of the theme and, though less strictly, the harmonic structure as well. Each has a distinctive character, several calling to mind the forms and techniques of earlier eras, with some displaying a mastery of counterpoint seldom encountered in Romantic music.  The finale is a magnificent theme and variations on a ground bass, five measures in length, derived from the principal theme. Its culmination, a restatement of the chorale, is a moment of such transcendence that the usually austere Brahms permits himself the use of a triangle.  Just before the end of the piece, in the coda of the finale, Brahms quotes a passage that really is by Haydn. In measures 463–464, the violas and cellos echo the cello line from measure 148 of the second movement of the latter's "Clock" Symphony, one of the finest examples of Haydn's pioneering work in the symphonic variation form. The reader may compare the two passages by following these links: Brahms, Haydn (see below for link credits). This fragmentary allusion may be the music's sole link to Haydn.

Sections.

The sections are named and tempo markings given as follows. Where the tempo markings of the two versions differ, the one for Op. 56b is shown in parentheses.

The Variations on a Theme by Joseph Haydn, (), now also called the Saint Anthony Variations, is a work in the form of a theme and variations, composed by Johannes Brahms in the summer of 1873 at Tutzing in Bavaria. It consists of a theme in B major based on a "Chorale St Antoni", eight variations, and a finale. The work was published in two versions: for two pianos, written first but designated Op. 56b; and for orchestra, designated Op. 56a.

《海顿主题变奏曲》,作品56,是约翰内斯·勃拉姆斯于1870年至1872年间创作的变奏曲,分别有管弦乐版本(作品56a)和双钢琴版本(作品56b)。该作品是勃拉姆斯最初的乐队作品之一,也是其风格的代表作,变奏多样,方正典雅,受到广泛的赞誉。但其主题并非海顿所作,来源依然不明。全曲包括降B大调的主题,8个风格各异的变奏,以及最后的终曲。


General types.

A non-disclosure agreement (NDA) may be classified as unilateral, bilateral, or multilateral:

Unilateral.

A unilateral NDA (sometimes referred to as a one-way NDA) involves two parties where only one party (i.e., the disclosing party) anticipates disclosing certain information to the other party (i.e., the receiving party) and requires that the information be protected from further disclosure for some reason (e.g., maintaining the secrecy necessary to satisfy patent laws or legal protection for trade secrets, limiting disclosure of information prior to issuing a press release for a major announcement, or simply ensuring that a receiving party does not use or disclose information without compensating the disclosing party).

Bilateral.

A bilateral NDA (sometimes referred to as a mutual NDA or a two-way NDA) involves two parties where both parties anticipate disclosing information to one another that each intends to protect from further disclosure. This type of NDA is common when businesses are considering some kind of joint venture or merger.  When presented with a unilateral NDA, some parties may insist upon a bilateral NDA, even though they anticipate that only one of the parties will disclose information under the NDA. This approach is intended to incentivize the drafter to make the provisions in the NDA more "fair and balanced" by introducing the possibility that a receiving party could later become a disclosing party or vice versa, which is not an entirely uncommon occurrence.

Multilateral.

A multilateral NDA involves three or more parties where at least one of the parties anticipates disclosing information to the other parties and requires that the information be protected from further disclosure. This type of NDA eliminates the need for separate unilateral or bilateral NDAs between only two parties. E.g., a single multiparty NDA entered into by three parties who each intend to disclose information to the other two parties could be used in place of three separate bilateral NDAs between the first and second parties, second and third parties, and third and first parties.  A multilateral NDA can be advantageous because the parties involved review, execute, and implement just one agreement. However, this advantage can be offset by more complex negotiations that may be required for the parties involved to reach a unanimous consensus on a multilateral agreement.

Content.

A non-disclosure agreement can protect any type of information that is not generally known. However, non-disclosure agreements may also contain clauses that will protect the person receiving the information so that if they lawfully obtained the information through other sources they would not be obligated to keep the information secret. In other words, the non-disclosure agreement typically only requires the receiving party to maintain information in confidence when that information has been directly supplied by the disclosing party. However, it is sometimes easier to get a receiving party to sign a simple agreement that is shorter, less complex and does not contain safety provisions protecting the receiver.  Some common issues addressed in an NDA include:

Australia.

Deeds of confidentiality and fidelity (also referred to as deeds of confidentiality or confidentiality deeds) are commonly used in Australia. These documents generally serve the same purpose as and contain provisions similar to non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) used elsewhere. However, these documents are legally treated as deeds and are thus binding, unlike contracts, without consideration.

California.

In California, (and some other U.S. states), there are some special circumstances relating to non-disclosure agreements and non-compete clauses. California's courts and legislature have signaled that they generally value an employee's mobility and entrepreneurship more highly than they do protectionist doctrine.

India.

Use of non-disclosure agreements are on the rise in India and is governed by the Indian Contract Act 1872. Use of an NDA is crucial in many circumstances, such as to tie in employees who are developing patentable technology if the employer intends to apply for a patent. Non-disclosure agreements have become very important in light of India's burgeoning outsourcing industry. In India, an NDA must be stamped to be a valid enforceable document.

United Kingdom.

In Britain, in addition to use to protect trade secrets, NDAs are often used as a condition of a financial settlement in an attempt to silence whistleblowing employees from making public the misdeeds of their former employers. There is law allowing protected disclosure despite an NDA, although employers sometimes intimidate the former employee into silence despite this.

External links.

1. Information about non-disclosure-agreements (NDAs) published by the UK Intellectual Property Office - ("2018-01-15")  2. Confidentiality and Confidential Disclosure Agreements (CDA) booklet edited by the UK Intellectual Property Office ("300 KB pdf file") - ("2005-01")

A non-disclosure agreement (NDA), also known as a confidentiality agreement (CA), confidential disclosure agreement (CDA), proprietary information agreement (PIA) or secrecy agreement (SA), is a legal contract between at least two parties that outlines confidential material, knowledge, or information that the parties wish to share with one another for certain purposes, but wish to restrict access to. Doctor–patient confidentiality (physician–patient privilege), attorney–client privilege, priest–penitent privilege, bank–client confidentiality, and Kickback agreements are examples, often not enshrined in a written contract between the parties.

保密协议(英语:Non-disclosure agreement,NDA)是至少两方之间的法律契约,概述保密材料、知识或信息,双方希望为了某些目的而彼此分享,但希望限制第三方的访问,双方同意不透露协议内容的契约。 NDA建立了双方之间的保密关系,以保护任何类型的机密和专有信息或商业秘密。因此,NDA保护非公开的商业信息。像所有契约一样,如果签约活动是重罪,则不能执行。


Early history and Athens.

The transition from didrachms to tetradrachms occurred during c. 525–510 BC; the abandonment of the "heraldic"-type didrachms and the Archaic tetradrachms (early "owls") of the polis of Athens apparently took place shortly after the Battle of Salamis, 480 BC. This transition is supported by the discovery of contemporary coin hoards, and more particularly of a coin hoard found on the Acropolis in 1886.  The Athenian tetradrachm was widely used in transactions throughout the ancient Greek world, including in cities politically unfriendly to Athens. Athens had silver mines in state ownership, which provided the bullion. Most well known were the silver mines of Laurium at a close distance from Athens. The Athenian tetradrachm was stamped with the head of Athena on the obverse, and on the reverse the image of the owl of Athena, the iconographic symbol of the Athenian polis, with a sprig of olive and a crescent for the moon. According to Philochorus, it was known as "glaux" (γλαύξ, little owl) throughout the ancient world and "owl" in present-day English language numismatics. The design was kept essentially unchanged for over two centuries, by which time it had become stylistically archaic. To differentiate their currency from the rival coinage of Aegina using the Aeginetic stater of about 12.3 grams, Athens minted its tetradrachm based on the "Attic" standard of 4.3 grams per drachma. The vast number of "owls-tetradrachms" available those days mainly from the silver mines of Laurium financed the several achievements of Athens, such as the reconstruction of the Acropolis and building the Parthenon, as well as many wars, including the Peloponnesian War.

In other polities.

The tetradrachm's use as a currency was soon adopted by many other city-states of the ancient Greece, Asia Minor, Magna Grecia and other Greek colonial cities throughout the Mediterranean Sea. With the armies of Alexander the Great it spread to other Greek-influenced areas of Asia.  Tetradrachms were common as trade coins.

The tetradrachm (, "tetrádrakhmon") was an Ancient Greek silver coin equivalent to four drachmae. In Athens it replaced the earlier "heraldic" type of didrachms and it was in wide circulation from c. 510 to c. 38 BC.

四德拉克马 (),是古希腊银币,币值等同四个德拉克马,并在前510年到前38年间广泛于希腊世界使用。


Background.

Edward Dalyngrigge was a younger son and thus deprived of his father's estates through the practice of primogeniture, hence he had to make his own fortunes. By 1378, he owned the manor of Bodiam by marrying into a land-owning family. From 1379 to 1388, Dalyngrigge was a Knight of the Shire for Sussex and one of the most influential people in the county. By the time he applied to the king for a licence to crenellate (build a castle), the Hundred Years' War had been fought between England and France for nearly 50 years. Edward III of England (reigned 1327–1377) pressed his claim for the French throne and secured the territories of Aquitaine and Calais. Dalyngrigge was one of many Englishmen who travelled to France to seek their fortune as members of Free Companies – groups of mercenaries who fought for the highest bidder. He left for France in 1367 and journeyed with Lionel, Duke of Clarence and son of Edward III. After fighting under the Earl of Arundel, Dalyngrigge joined the company of Sir Robert Knolles, a notorious commander who was reputed to have made 100,000 gold crowns as a mercenary from pillage and plunder. It was as a member of the Free Companies that Dalyngrigge raised the money to build Bodiam Castle; he returned to England in 1377.  The Treaty of Bruges (1375) ensured peace for two years, but after it expired, fighting resumed between England and France. In 1377 Edward III was succeeded by Richard II. During the war, England and France struggled for control of the English Channel, with raids on both coasts. With the renewed hostilities, Parliament voted that money should be spent on defending and fortifying England's south coast, and defences were erected in Kent in anticipation of a French invasion. There was internal unrest as well as external threats, and Dalyngrigge was involved in suppressing the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. The manor of Bodiam was granted a charter in 1383 permitting a weekly market and an annual fair to be held. In 1385, a fleet of 1,200 ships – variously cogs, barges, and galleys – gathered across the English Channel at Sluys, Flanders; the population of southern England was in a state of panic. Later in the year, Edward Dalyngrigge was granted a licence to fortify his manor house.

Construction and use.

Dalyngrigge's licence from Richard II permitted him to refortify his existing manor house, but instead he chose a fresh site to build a castle on. Construction was completed in one phase, and most of the castle is in the same architectural style. Archaeologist David Thackray has deduced from this that Bodiam Castle was built quickly, probably because of the threat from the French. Stone castles were usually time-consuming and expensive to build, often costing thousands of pounds. Dalyngrigge was Captain of the port of Brest in France from 1386 to 1387, and as a result was probably absent for the first years of the castle's construction. It replaced the old manor house as Dalyngrigge's main residence and the administrative centre of the manor. It is not recorded when Bodiam Castle was completed, but Thackray suggests that it was before 1392; Dalyngrigge did not have long to spend in the completed castle, as he was dead by 1395.  Danlyngrigge's estates, including the castle, were inherited by his son, John Dalyngrigge. Like his father, John enjoyed the favour of the king and was described as the "King's Knight"; in 1400 he was granted an annual allowance of 100 marks by the king. He died on 27 September 1408, leaving a will by which his property passed to his widow Alice during her lifetime. Since they had no children, at Alice's death (which occurred in 1442) it was to pass to John's cousin Richard Dallingrigge, son of Edward's brother Walter. Upon Richard's death without issue in 1470, his brother William having died before him, he left the estates to Sir Roger Lewknor, son of Richard's sister Phillippe Dallingridge. (Phillippe had married Sir Thomas Lewknor of Horsted Keynes before 1417, and died in 1421; Sir Thomas, who made a second marriage, died in 1452.) By this means, Bodiam Castle passed from the Dallingrigge into the Lewknor family. Sir Thomas Lewknor, son of Sir Roger, was a supporter of the House of Lancaster during the Wars of the Roses, which began in 1455. When Richard of the House of York ascended to the throne as Richard III in 1483, Lewknor was accused of treason and of raising men-at-arms in southeast England. In November 1483, Lewknor's uncle and Thomas Howard, the Earl of Surrey, were given permission to levy men and besiege Bodiam Castle, where Lewknor was based. It is not recorded whether the siege went ahead, and Thackray suggests that Lewknor surrendered without much resistance. His property was confiscated, and Nicholas Rigby was made constable of the castle. On Henry VII's accession to the English throne the attainder was revoked, and Bodiam Castle was returned to Lewknor. However, not all the surrounding land was returned to the family until 1542. Possession of Bodiam Castle passed through several generations of the Lewknor family. Although the inheritance of the castle can be traced through the 16th and 17th centuries, there is little to indicate how it was used in this period, or if the family spent much time in it.  Following the death of Sir Roger Lewknor in 1543, his estates were divided among his descendants, and the castle and manor were split. John Levett of Salehurst purchased the castle in 1588. In 1623, most of the estates of Bodiam were bought by Sir Nicholas Tufton, later Earl of Thanet. His son, John Tufton, 2nd Earl of Thanet, inherited Nicholas's property on his father's death in 1631; it was John Tufton who reunited possession of castle and manor when he bought Bodiam Castle in 1639. John Tufton was a supporter of the Royalist cause during the English Civil War, and led an attack on Lewes, and was involved in a Royalist defeat at Haywards Heath. Parliament confiscated some of his lands in 1643, and more in 1644, as well as fining him £9,000 (£ today). To help pay his fine, Tufton sold Bodiam Castle for £6,000 (£ today) in March 1644 to Nathaniel Powell, a Parliamentarian.

Picturesque ruins.

After the Civil War, Powell was made a baronet by Charles II. Although it is unrecorded when Bodiam Castle was dismantled (slighted), it was probably after it was bought by Powell. During and after the Civil War, many castles were slighted to prevent them from being reused. Not all were destroyed completely, and in some cases care was taken not to unnecessarily deface the structure. At Bodiam, it was deemed sufficient to dismantle the barbican, the bridges, and the buildings inside the castle. When Nathaniel Powell died in 1674 or 1675, Bodiam Castle was passed on to his son, also called Nathaniel. After the second Nathaniel, the castle came into the possession of Elizabeth Clitherow, his daughter-in-law.  In 1722 Sir Thomas Webster bought the castle. For over a century, Bodiam Castle and its associated manor descended through the Webster family. It was in this period that the site became popular as an early kind of tourist attraction because of its connection with the medieval period. The first drawings of Bodiam Castle date from the mid-18th century, when it was depicted as a ruin overgrown with ivy. Ruins and medieval buildings such as Bodiam Castle served as an inspiration for the revival in Gothic architecture and the renovation of old structures.  The third Sir Godfrey Webster began looking for buyers for the castle in 1815, and in 1829 he finally managed to sell it and of the surrounding land to John 'Mad Jack' Fuller for £3,000 (£ today). Fuller repaired one of the towers, added new gates to the site, and removed a cottage which had been built within the castle in the 18th century; he is thought to have bought the castle to prevent the Webster family from dismantling it and reusing its materials. George Cubitt, later Baron Ashcombe, purchased the castle and its from Fuller's grandson in 1849, for over £5,000 (£ today). Cubitt continued the renovations that Fuller started. He commissioned the first detailed survey of Bodiam Castle in 1864, and undertook repairs to the tower at the southwest corner of the site, which had almost entirely collapsed. Because there was then a fashion for ruins covered in ivy, the vegetation was not removed despite its detrimental effect on the masonry, and the trees which had taken root in the courtyard were left. Lord Curzon decided that "so rare a treasure [as Bodiam Castle] should neither be lost to our country nor desecrated by irreverent hands". Curzon made enquiries about buying the castle, but Cubitt did not wish to sell. However, after Cubitt's death, Curzon was able to make a deal with Cubitt's son, and he bought Bodiam Castle and its lands in 1916. Curzon began a programme of investigation at Bodiam in 1919, and with architect William Weir restored parts of the castle. The moat, on average about deep but deep in the southeast corner, was drained and of mud and silt removed; during excavations the original footings of the bridges to the castle were discovered. Nearby hedges and fences were removed to provide an unobscured view of the castle. There were excavations in the interior, and a well was discovered in the basement of the southwest tower. Vegetation was cleared, stonework repaired, and the original floor level re-established throughout the castle. A cottage was built to provide a museum to display the finds from the excavations and a home for a caretaker. Bodiam Castle was given to the National Trust in 1925.  The National Trust continued the restoration work, and added new roofs to the towers and gatehouse. Excavations were resumed in 1970, and the moat was once again drained. Bodiam Castle was used in "Monty Python and the Holy Grail" (1975) in an establishing shot identifying it as "Swamp Castle" in the "Tale of Sir Lancelot" sequence. It had previously been used for the filming of "Camelot", an episode of "The Goodies" broadcast in 1973. It was later the filming location for the "Doctor Who" serial "The King's Demons", broadcast in 1983.  The Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England carried out a survey of the earthworks surrounding Bodiam Castle in 1990. In the 1990s, Bodiam Castle was at the centre of a debate in castle studies over the balance between militaristic and social interpretations of such sites. The arguments focused on elements such as the apparent strength of the defences – such as the imposing moat – and elements of display. It has been suggested that the moat could have been drained in a day because the embankment surrounding it was not substantial, and that as such it did not pose a serious obstacle to an attacker. Also, the large windows in the castle's exterior were defensive weak points. The castle is a Scheduled Monument, which means it is a "nationally important" historic building and archaeological site which has been given protection against unauthorised change. It is also a Grade I listed building, and recognised as an internationally important structure. Today the castle is open to the public, and according to figures released by the Association of Leading Visitor Attractions, nearly 175,598 people visited in 2017. In the opinion of historian Charles Coulson, Bodiam "represents the popular ideal of a medieval castle".

Architecture.

Location and landscape.

The castle's location was ostensibly chosen to protect England's south coast from raids by the French. A landscape survey by the Royal Commission for Historic Monuments concluded that if this were the case, then Bodiam Castle was unusually sited, as it is far from the medieval coastline. The area surrounding Bodiam Castle was landscaped when the castle was built, to increase its aesthetic appeal. Archaeologists Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham have described Bodiam as one of the best examples of landscaping to emphasise a castle. The water features were originally extensive, but only the moat survives, along with the earthworks left over from its construction. Roughly rectangular, the moat is supplied by several springs, some of them within it, which made it difficult to drain during the excavations of the 1930s. A moat can prevent attackers from gaining access to the base of a castle's walls, but in the case of Bodiam it also had the effect of making the castle appear larger and more impressive by isolating it in its landscape. The moat is now regarded more as an ornamental feature than a defence. The approach to the castle through the moat and satellite ponds was indirect, giving visitors time to view the castle in its intended splendour. Military historian Cathcart King describes the approach as formidable, and considers it the equal of the 13th-century castles of Edward I in Wales, such as Caerphilly Castle.  The castle sits roughly in the middle of the moat. The postern gate at the rear would have been connected to the moat's south bank by a drawbridge and a long timber bridge. The main entrance on the north side of the castle is today connected to the north bank by a wooden bridge, but the original route would have included two bridges: one from the main entrance to an island in the moat, and another connecting the island to the west bank. For the most part the bridge was static, apart from the section closest to the west bank, which would have been a drawbridge. The island in the moat is called the Octagon, and excavations on it have uncovered a garderobe (toilet), suggesting that there may have been a guard on the island, although it is unclear to what extent it was fortified. The Octagon was connected to a barbican by a bridge, probably a drawbridge. The castle's 28 toilets drained directly into the moat, which in the words of archaeologist Matthew Johnson would have been effectively an "open sewer".

Exterior and entrance.

A quadrangular castle, Bodiam is roughly square-shaped. This type of castle, with a central courtyard and buildings against the curtain wall, was characteristic of castle architecture in the 14th century. Bodiam Castle has been described by military historian Cathcart King as the most complete surviving example of a quadrangular castle. There are circular towers at each of the four corners, with square central towers in the south, east, and west walls. The main entrance is a twin-towered gatehouse in the north face of the castle. There is a second entrance from the south; the postern gate is through a square tower in the middle of the south wall. The towers are three storeys high, taller than the curtain walls and the buildings in the castle which are two storeys high.  Between the Octagon and the main gatehouse in the north wall was a barbican, of which little survives – just a piece of the west wall – although the structure was originally two stories high. The surviving fabric includes a slot for a portcullis for the barbican's north gate, although there are no hinges for gates. The base of a garderobe demonstrates that the second story would have provided space for habitation, probably a guard room. Drawings from the late 18th century show the ground floor of the barbican still standing and includes detail such as vaulting inside the passageway. The gatehouse in the castle's north wall is three storeys high; now reached by a static bridge, it was originally connected to the barbican by a drawbridge. The top of the gatehouse is machicolated, and the approach is overlooked by gun-loops in the gatehouse towers. The gatehouse is the only part of the castle which has gun-loops, and the curtain wall and towers are studded with windows for domestic use rather than military. There are guardrooms on the ground floor and a basement beneath them. The passage would originally have had three wooden portcullises. Above the entrance passage is an arch in the gateway, although it leads nowhere. The ceiling of the passage through the gatehouse into the castle is vaulted and pierced with murder holes. Murder holes were most likely used to drop objects on attackers, similar to machicolations, or to pour water to extinguish fires.  Just above the gate, there are three coats of arms carved in relief into the arch; from left to right they are the arms of the Wardeux, Dalyngrigge, and Radynden families. The Wardeux family was that of Edward Dalyngrigge's wife; the Radyndens were relations of the Dalyngrigges. Above the arms is a helm bearing a unicorn head crest. Three coats of arms also decorate the postern gate; the central arms is that of Sir Robert Knolles, who Edward Dalyngrigge had fought for in the Hundred Years' War, but those flanking it are blank.

Interior.

Although the exterior of Bodiam Castle has largely survived, the interior is ruinous. The domestic buildings within the castle lined the curtain walls. However, remains are substantial enough to recreate a plan of the castle. The structure was divided into separate living areas for the lord and his family, high-status guests, the garrisons, and servants. The south range of the castle consisted of the great hall, the kitchens, and associated rooms. The great hall, to the east of the centrally located postern gate, was and would have been as tall as the curtain wall. To the west of the great hall was the pantry and buttery, linked to the great hall by a screens passage. The three standing arches gave access to different rooms, the pantry, buttery and the kitchen which was at the far west of the south range. This layout was typical of large medieval houses. The great hall was the social centre of the castle, and where the lord would have entertained guests. The buttery and pantry occupied the bottom floor, and above was a room of unknown purpose. The buttery had a cellar and was used to store ale and wine, while the pantry held the supplies for the kitchen. To prevent heat from the cooking fires becoming unbearable, the kitchen was as tall as the curtain walls to provide a large space to absorb the heat. In the southwest tower was a well, from which water would have been drawn for the household.  Along the east wall is a chapel, a hall, and an antechamber. To accommodate the chapel, the curtain wall near the northeast corner projects further into the moat than the rest of the wall along the east side. Immediately south of the chapel was the main accommodation for the lord and his family. The buildings were two storeys high and incorporated a basement. The exact layout of the rooms is unclear. Arranged along the west curtain wall was an extra hall and a kitchen; it is not certain what these were used for, although it is probable that these were intended to provide for the household's retainers. The "retainers' hall" had no windows on its west side and would have been relatively dark compared to the great hall. Also, whereas the great hall had a large fireplace, the "retainers' hall" had none. The hall was adjacent to the kitchen, to which it was directly connected, with no screens passage in between. Above the "retainers' hall", which was confined to the ground floor, was a room with no fireplace and of unclear purpose.  East of the main gatehouse was a two-storey building with a basement. The basement was probably used for storage while the above two floors provided accommodation. The purpose of the buildings along the west end of the north range is uncertain. The sparse arrangement, with little provision for lighting, has led to suggestions that it was used as stables, however there are no drains which are usually associated with stables. The tower in the northwest corner of the castle had a garderobe and fireplace on each of the three above-ground floors, and there was a basement underneath.

References.

Footnotes Bibliography

Bodiam Castle () is a 14th-century moated castle near Robertsbridge in East Sussex, England. It was built in 1385 by Sir Edward Dalyngrigge, a former knight of Edward III, with the permission of Richard II, ostensibly to defend the area against French invasion during the Hundred Years' War. Of quadrangular plan, Bodiam Castle has no keep, having its various chambers built around the outer defensive walls and inner courts. Its corners and entrance are marked by towers, and topped by crenellations. Its structure, details and situation in an artificial watery landscape indicate that display was an important aspect of the castle's design as well as defence. It was the home of the Dalyngrigge family and the centre of the manor of Bodiam.

博丁安城堡(Bodiam Castle,),或译博迪亚姆城堡、博迪恩城堡、波定堡,位于英国东萨塞克斯罗伯茨桥博丁安村。在英法百年战争中的1385年,骑士爱德华·戴利格瑞治得到理查二世许可后为了防卫法军进攻而建成了这座城堡。经过数百年后,本具国防价值的博丁安城堡,因为临水水漾景观设计相当特殊,被称为「水中城堡」,成为著名观光胜地。


Instrumentation.

The music is scored for 3 flutes (third doubling piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 2 clarinets in A, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 2 cornets in A, 2 trumpets in E, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, bass drum, cymbals, tam tam, harp and strings.

Sections and plot.

This symphonic poem has basically three parts, with a small introduction.  In the introduction the basses and the wind section of the orchestra open in dark tones suggesting the beginning of Dante's "Inferno", where the author is astray from the right path into somber woods. As the music continues into the first section, the horror felt by Dante is portrayed in the music as he walks in deeper and deeper into the first circles of Hell. In the second section, the tempo picks up, the narrative takes the audience into the second circle, where Dante finds, amongst others, such as Tristan and Isolde, Paolo Malatesta and Francesca da Rimini (née da Polenta) trapped together in a violent storm, whirled through the air around, violently crushed against ragged stone walls for eternity. In the third section, the music subsides, depicting Dante's request to speak with the doomed lovers (depicted by a solo clarinet), who recount their story of how Francesca was unwittingly married by proxy to Gianciotto Malatesta, Paolo's older, cruel and unattractive brother; the music continues to depict how they were unable to resist their fleshly attraction for each other and succumbed to their passion while reading a passage of the story of Queen Guinevere and Sir Lancelot [another pair of equally doomed lovers], depicted by the wind section supported by the strings in the moments of highest passion. The music also depicts the moment of their murder at the hands of Gianciotto, depicted by fast playing "bassi" and cymbals, followed by sombre horns in a requiem like theme. After their tale is over, the final section starts, depicting the eternal punishment that continues once more, leaving Dante (and the audience) in a state of shock depicted by the ominous "tutti" of the orchestra.

Notable recordings.

On the 8 May 2010 broadcast of BBC 3's "CD Review", reporter Jonathan Swain surveyed recordings of "Francesca di Rimini" and recommended the 2007 recording by the Orchestra dell'Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia conducted by Antonio Pappano as the best available choice.

Francesca da Rimini: Symphonic Fantasy after Dante, Op. 32, is a symphonic poem by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. Following his visit to Bayreuth in the summer of 1876, he composed it in Moscow in fewer than three weeks. It is dedicated to his friend and former pupil Sergei Taneyev. It was first performed early in 1877 in Moscow in a concert by the Russian Musical Society, conducted by Nikolai Rubinstein.

《黎密尼的法兰契斯卡》(Francesca da Rimini),是柴可夫斯基依据但丁《神曲》〈地狱篇〉中的一段爱情故事而幻想写成的交响诗。作品编号32,在柴科夫斯基与1876年秋天走访德国东南部城市拜罗伊特的期间的三个星期内完成,该曲是专门为他的朋友和前学生谢尔盖塔涅耶夫所作。