Discovery and background.

Phalloidin was one of the first cyclic peptides to be discovered. It was isolated from the death cap mushroom and crystallized by Feodor Lynen and Ulrich Wieland in 1937. Its structure is unusual in that it contains a cysteine-tryptophan linkage to form a bicyclic heptapeptide. This linkage had not been characterized before and makes the structure elucidation of phalloidin significantly more difficult. They determined the presence of the sulfur atom using UV spectroscopy and found that this ring structure had a slightly shifted wavelength. Raney nickel experiments confirmed the presence of sulfur in the tryptophan ring. The researchers found the desulfurized phalloidin was still circular, which demonstrated that the structure of phalloidin is normally bicyclic. Once linearized, the amino acid sequence of de-sulfurized phalloidin was elucidated through Edman degradation by Wieland and Schön in 1955.  Due to its high affinity for actin, scientists discovered its potential use as a staining reagent for effective visualization of actin in microscopy. Derivatives conjugated with fluorophores are sold widely. Because of its ability to selectively bind filamentous actin (F-actin) and not actin monomers (G-actin), fluorescently labeled phalloidin is more effective than antibodies against actin.

Synthesis.

Biosynthesis.

Phalloidin is a bicyclic heptapeptide containing an unusual cysteine-tryptophan linkage. The gene coding for synthesis of phalloidin is part of the MSDIN family in the Death Cap mushroom and codes for a 34 amino acid propeptide. A proline residue flanks the seven-residue region that will later become phalloidin. After translation, the peptide must be proteolyticly excised, cyclized, hydroxylated, Trp-Cys cross-linked to form tryptathionine, and epimerized to form a D-Thr. The order and exact biochemical mechanism for these steps is not yet fully understood. The current belief is that the necessary biosynthetic genes are clustered near the MSDIN genes.  The first post-translational modification of the 34-mer is proteolytic cleavage via a prolyl oligopeptidase (POP) to remove the 10-amino acid "leader" peptide. The POP then cyclizes the heptapeptide Ala-Trp-Leu-Ala-Thr-Cys-Pro by transpeptidation between amino acid 1 (Ala) and amino acid 7 (Pro). It is believed that the formation of tryptathionine through Trp-Cys cross-linking occurs next.

Chemical synthesis.

Since phalloidin is exploited for its ability to bind and stabilize actin polymers but cells cannot readily uptake it, scientists have found phalloidin derivatives to be more useful in research. Essentially, it follows typical small peptide synthesis, using hydroxyl-proline. The major difficulty in synthesis is the formation of the tryptathionine bond (cysteine - tryptophan cross-linkage).  Below is the general synthetic mechanism carried out by Anderson et al. in 2005 for the solid phase synthesis of ala-phalloidin, which differs at residue 7 from phalloidin as indicated below. THPP stands for tetrahydropyranyl polystyrene linker, which is used to connect the molecule with the solid support during synthesis. Note that the synthesis below is simply a general scheme to show the order of bond formation to connect the starting materials. Ala-phalloidin as well as many other similar variants of phalloidin are useful to increase cell uptake relative to phalloidin and to attach a fluorophore to aid in the visualization of F-actin in microscopy.  The first total synthesis of phalloidin was achieved through a combination of solid phase and solution phase synthesis (Baosheng Liu and Jianheng Zhang, United States Patent, US 8,569,452 B2). The physical and chemical properties of the synthetic phalloidin are the same as the naturally occurring phalloidin.

Mechanism of action.

Phalloidin binds F-actin, preventing its depolymerization and poisoning the cell. Phalloidin binds specifically at the interface between F-actin subunits, locking adjacent subunits together. Phalloidin, a bicyclic heptapeptide, binds to actin filaments much more tightly than to actin monomers, leading to a decrease in the rate constant for the dissociation of actin subunits from filament ends, which essentially stabilizes actin filaments through the prevention of filament depolymerization. Moreover, phalloidin is found to inhibit the ATP hydrolysis activity of F-actin. Thus, phalloidin traps actin monomers in a conformation distinct from G-actin and it stabilizes the structure of F-actin by greatly reducing the rate constant for monomer dissociation, an event associated with the trapping of ADP. Overall, phalloidin is found to react stoichiometrically with actin, strongly promote actin polymerization, and stabilize actin polymers.  Phalloidin functions differently at various concentrations in cells. When introduced into the cytoplasm at low concentrations, phalloidin recruits the less polymerized forms of cytoplasmic actin as well as filamin into stable "islands" of aggregated actin polymers, yet it does not interfere with stress fibers, i.e. thick bundles of microfilaments. Wehland "et al." also notes that at higher concentrations, phalloidin induces cellular contraction.

Symptoms.

Soon after its discovery, scientists injected phalloidin into mice and discovered its LD is 2 mg/kg via IP injection. When exposed to the minimum lethal dose, it took several days for these mice to die. The only apparent side effect of phalloidin poisoning is extreme hunger. This is because phalloidin is only taken up by the liver via bile salt membrane transport proteins. Once inside the liver, phalloidin binds F-actin, preventing its depolymerization. It takes time for this process to destroy the liver cells. The kidneys can also take up phalloidin, but not as effectively as the liver. Here, phalloidin causes nephrosis.

Use as an imaging tool.

The properties of phalloidin make it a useful tool for investigating the distribution of F-actin in cells by labeling phalloidin with fluorescent analogs and using them to stain actin filaments for light microscopy. Fluorescent derivatives of phalloidin have turned out to be enormously useful in localizing actin filaments in living or fixed cells as well as for visualizing individual actin filaments "in vitro". A high-resolution technique was developed to detect F-actin at the light and electron microscopic levels by using phalloidin conjugated to the fluorophore eosin which acts as the fluorescent tag. In this method known as fluorescence photo-oxidation, fluorescent molecules can be utilized to drive the oxidation of diaminobenzidine (DAB) to create a reaction product that can be rendered electron dense and detectable by electron microscopy. The amount of fluorescence visualized can be used as a quantitative measure of the amount of filamentous actin there is in cells if saturating quantities of fluorescent phalloidin are used. Consequently, immunofluorescence microscopy along with microinjection of phalloidin can be used to evaluate the direct and indirect functions of cytoplasmic actin in its different stages of polymer formation. Therefore, fluorescent phalloidin can be used as an important tool in the study of actin networks at high resolution.

Uses and limitations.

Phalloidin is much smaller than an antibody that would typically be used to label cellular proteins for fluorescent microscopy which allows for much denser labeling of filamentous actin and much more detailed images can be acquired particularly at higher resolutions.  Unmodified phalloidins do not permeate cell membranes, making them less effective in experiments with living cells. Derivatives of phalloidin with greatly increased cell permeability have been synthesized.  Cells treated with phalloidins exhibit a number of toxic effects and frequently die. Furthermore, it is important to note that phalloidin-treated cells will have greater levels of actin associated with their plasma membranes, and the microinjection of phalloidin into living cells will change actin distribution as well as cell motility.

Phalloidin belongs to a class of toxins called phallotoxins, which are found in the death cap mushroom "(Amanita phalloides)". It is a rigid bicyclic heptapeptide that is lethal after a few days when injected into the bloodstream. The major symptom of phalloidin poisoning is acute hunger due to the destruction of liver cells. It functions by binding and stabilizing filamentous actin (F-actin) and effectively prevents the depolymerization of actin fibers. Due to its tight and selective binding to F-actin, derivatives of phalloidin containing fluorescent tags are used widely in microscopy to visualize F-actin in biomedical research. Though phallotoxins are highly toxic to liver cells, they add little to the toxicity of ingested death cap, as they are not absorbed through the gut.

鬼笔环肽(Phalloidin)是一种环状七肽毒素,隶属于从鹅膏菌科的真菌鬼笔鹅膏中提取的一组毒素(即所谓鬼笔毒素)。它的毒性源于其能够抑制细胞内微丝解聚的特性。自从人们发现鬼笔环肽在荧光标记之后仍然具有使微丝保持稳定的特性以来,它已被广泛应用于生物医学的研究当中,用来显示细胞内微丝的形态和分布。


Location.

The National Archives is based in Kew in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames in south-west London. The building was opened in 1977 as an additional home for the public records, which were held in a building on Chancery Lane. The site was originally a World War I hospital, which was later used by several government departments. It is near to Kew Gardens Underground station.  Until its closure in March 2008, the Family Records Centre in Islington was run jointly by The National Archives and the General Register Office. The National Archives has an additional office in Norwich, which is primarily for former OPSI staff. There is also an additional record storage facility (DeepStore) in the worked-out parts of Winsford Rock Salt Mine, Winsford, Cheshire.

History.

The National Archives was created in 2003 by combining the Public Record Office and the Historical Manuscripts Commission and is a non-ministerial department reporting to the Minister of State for digital policy.  On 31 October 2006, The National Archives merged with the Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI), which itself also contained Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO) which was previously a part of the Cabinet Office. The name remained "The National Archives".

Key roles.

TNA claims it is "at the heart of information policy—setting standards and supporting innovation in information and records management across the UK, and providing a practical framework of best practice for opening up and encouraging the re-use of public sector information. This work helps inform today's decisions and ensure that they become tomorrow's permanent record." It has a number of key roles in information policy:

Sector leadership.

The National Archives (and before it the Public Record Office) has long had a role of oversight and leadership for the entire archives sector and archives profession in the UK, including local government and non-governmental archives. Under the Public Records Act 1958 it is responsible for overseeing the appropriate custody of certain non-governmental public records in England and Wales. Under the 2003 Historical Manuscripts Commission Warrant it has responsibility for investigating and reporting on non-governmental records and archives of all kinds throughout the United Kingdom. In October 2011, when the Museums, Libraries and Archives Council was wound up, TNA took over its responsibilities in respect of archives in England, including providing information and advice to ministers on archives policy. The National Archives now sees this part of its role as being "to enhance the 'archival health of the nation'".

Collections.

Types of records.

The National Archives is Her Majesty's Government's official archive, "containing 1000 years of history from Domesday Book to the present", with records from parchment and paper scrolls through to digital files and archived websites. The material held at Kew includes the following:  There is also a museum, which displays key documents such as Domesday Book and has exhibitions on various topics using material from the collections.

Access to documents.

The collections held by the National Archives can be searched using their online catalogue.  Entrance to The National Archives is free. Anybody aged 16 or over can access the original documents at the Kew site, after producing two acceptable proofs of identity and being issued a free reader's ticket.  The reading room has terminals from which documents can be ordered up from secure storage areas by their reference number. The reference number is composed of three sections: the department code of up to four letters, such as WO for the War Office; a series or class number, for the "subcategory" or collection that the document comes from; and an individual document number. Documents can also be ordered in advance.  Once a document has been ordered, The National Archives aims to get it to the reader within 45 minutes (assuming it is kept at Kew rather than at their second repository, "Deep Store" – a former salt mine in Cheshire: it can take 2–3 days for files to be retrieved from the latter). Special arrangements are in place for readers wishing to retrieve large groups of files.  A reader's ticket is not needed to access records on microform or online. Frequently accessed documents such as the Abdication Papers have been put on microfilm, as have records for two million First World War soldiers. The originals of the latter were stored in a warehouse in London along with four million others, but incendiary bombs dropped on the warehouse in the Second World War started a fire in which most were destroyed. The surviving third were largely water or fire-damaged and thus acquired the colloquial name of the "Burnt Documents." Because they were mostly too fragile for public access, they were put on microfilm with the aid of the Heritage Lottery Fund. They have now also been digitised and are available on the Ancestry website.  Some of the most popular documents have now been digitised and are available to download from Discovery, for a fee of £3.50 per file, or through co-branded services called licensed Internet associates (LIA) as pay per view or part of their subscription service. A list of records online is available under the records, catalogues and online records menu on The National Archives' website.  All of the open census records have been digitised, and there are also significant other sources online, such as wills proved in the Prerogative Court of Canterbury, 1383–1858. Researchers are encouraged to check the online services first, to see if they can get what they want online. If a document is available online, The National Archives' policy is to encourage people to use the digital copy and not the original, even if they come to Kew, in order to protect the original from damage.

Storage.

The documents are stored on mobile shelving – double-sided shelves, which are pushed together so that there is no aisle between them. A large handle on the end of each shelf allows them to be moved along tracks in the floor to create an aisle when needed.  They are generally stored in acid-free folders or boxes.  In the event of a fire The National Archives would be clearly unable to use sprinklers for fear of ruining its holdings, and so when the building is evacuated, argon gas is released into the air-tight repositories.

Other services.

The National Archives also provides services to help users in their research and also find collections beyond those it holds.

Education.

The National Archives' education web page is a free online resource for teaching and learning history, aimed at teachers and students. Users can select time periods they are interested in, from the medieval era to the present day. Each time period contains sub-topics with various materials that can be used as teaching tools for teachers. Resources for students focus primarily on tips for research and writing using archival materials.

"Access to Archives".

Access to Archives (also known as A2A) is a database containing details of archival collections held in many different archive repositories in England and Wales. As of March 2008, there are no more plans to add additional collections to A2A due to lack of funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund and the changing financial priorities of The National Archives, but existing entries can still be updated. The A2A database was transferred to The National Archives with a new platform with a simpler interface to ensure its availability.

National Register of Archives.

The National Register of Archives (NRA) is the central point for the collection and circulation of information about the content and nature of archival manuscripts relating to British history. It contains published and unpublished lists and catalogues describing archival collections in the UK and overseas: currently over 44,000 such catalogues are included. The register can be consulted in the National Archives reading room and the index used to be searchable as an online database on the National Archives web site.  The information is collected in a variety of ways. TNA is sent hard-copy catalogues from archive repositories holding records relating to British history. These are kept in the reading room at The National Archives and indexed in the online database. TNA conducts an annual survey of archive repositories and records all new accessions, and the accession lists are also available on TNA's website. Information is also obtained from surveys and guides to archival collections, and other publications.  The Register includes name indexes to its contents (covering corporate names, personal names, family names, and place names); but not subject or thematic indexes. Where the catalogues are themselves available online the indexes provide direct electronic links; but many still exist in hard copy only (often as unpublished "grey literature"), and it remains necessary for the researcher to visit either TNA or the specific repository in order to consult them.  A separate National Register of Archives for Scotland is maintained at the National Archives of Scotland, but its contents are duplicated within the NRA at Kew.

ARCHON directory.

ARCHON Directory is a database of contact details for archive repositories in the UK and institutions elsewhere in the world which have substantial collections of manuscripts relating to British history.

"Your Archives".

Your Archives is a wiki for the National Archives on-line community which was launched in May 2007; it was closed for editing on 30 September 2012 in preparation of archiving on the Government web archive. The contributions are made by users to give additional information to that which is available on the other services provided by the National Archives, including the catalogue, research guides, documentonline and National Register of Archive. Your Archives encourages users to create articles not only about historical records held by the National Archives, but those held in other archive repositories.

Databases.

The National Archives also hosts several databases on types of records including hospital records; migration records; and manorial records.  Working with the Wellcome Library, TNA has made hospital records available via the Hospital Records Database. The Hospital Records Database has not been updated since 2012, and there are no current updates occurring as of 2018.  The Manorial Documents Register includes records relating to manors located in England and Wales. Digitization of the records is on-going as of 2018.

Civil Pages.

The National Archives operates the Civil Pages project on behalf of the Cabinet Office, operating as an online directory for the civil service, facilitating working together and providing a means of sharing knowledge securely between government departments.

Smartphone applications.

In January 2011 The National Archives, in conjunction with historian Nick Barratt and smartphone applications development studio RevelMob, developed its first Old Money iPhone app, which uses historic price data from documents held at The National Archives to see what a sum of money from the past (from 1270) would be worth today and the spending power it would have commanded at the time.  In September 2011, TNA's museum began using QRpedia codes, which can be scanned by smartphone users in order to retrieve information about exhibits from Wikipedia.

Blogs and podcasts.

TNA regularly posts blogs to its website. Posts cover a wide range of topics, from specific events and time periods to features on holdings in TNA, as well as information on the archive's operations.  The "Archives Media Player" section holds videos and podcasts created and posted by TNA. Videos and audio are not posted as regularly as TNA's blog.

The Future: Archives Inspire 2015–19.

Archives Inspire is a strategy document that sets out the goals and priorities of the organisation over four years, from 2015 onwards.

Forgeries discovered in 2005.

In June 2005, journalist Ben Fenton of "The Daily Telegraph" received an email from a colleague asking him to investigate documents held at TNA that alleged that a British intelligence agent had, on the orders of Winston Churchill, murdered Heinrich Himmler, the head of the Nazi SS, in 1945. The three documents had come to prominence after being revealed by author Martin Allen in his book "Himmler's Secret War".  On viewing photographs of the documents, Fenton's suspicions were immediately aroused by the fact that such a controversial policy was casually committed to paper, even to the extent of naming the assassin, and by the use of colourful language, unlike the civil service language of the 1940s used by senior Foreign Office officials John Wheeler-Bennett and Robert Bruce Lockhart. Viewing the original documents the next day, Fenton spotted what looked like pencil marks beneath the signature on one of them. This confirmed his suspicions and, along with his experience of analysing historic documents, it enabled him to persuade "The Daily Telegraph" to pay for forensic analysis.  TNA staff took four files, along with authenticated copies of the authors' handwriting, to Dr Audrey Giles, a former head of Scotland Yard's Questioned Documents Unit where she confirmed that the documents were certainly forgeries. One letter head had been printed on a laser printer, the earliest example of which was produced in 1977, and all had tear marks where they had been threaded on to the security tags. Further investigations by TNA staff revealed that the counterfeit documents contained errors, breaches of protocol and etiquette which their supposed authors would not have committed, prompting one expert to state that the inconsistencies in the papers "would lead any serious historian to question their veracity".  After his account of the deception appeared in the newspaper, Fenton was contacted by a German academic, Ernst Haiger, who informed him of his own suspicions over other TNA documents cited in an earlier Allen book. Examination by TNA experts led to more than a dozen documents being identified as suspicious and submitted to Home Office specialists for examination. When they, too, were declared forgeries, the TNA called in the police.  In the addendum to the later American edition of the book (which acknowledged that the papers were forged), Allen theorised that, some time after he saw the documents, they had been removed and replaced with clumsily forged replicas, to cast doubt upon his discoveries.  In all, twenty-nine forged documents were discovered, each typed on one of only four typewriters. They were placed in twelve separate files, and cited at least once in one or more of Allen's three books. According to the experts at TNA, documents now shown to be forgeries supported controversial arguments central to each of Allen's books: in "Hidden Agenda", five documents now known to be forged helped justify his claim that the Duke of Windsor betrayed military secrets to Hitler; in "The Hitler/Hess Deception", thirteen forged papers supported Allen's contention that, in 1941, British intelligence used members of the Royal Family to fool the Nazis into thinking Britain was on the verge of a pro-German putsch; in "Himmler's Secret War", twenty-two counterfeit papers also underpinned the book's core claims that British intelligence played mind games with Himmler to encourage him to betray Hitler from 1943 onwards, and that ultimately they murdered the SS chief.  In 2007 the Crown Prosecution Service announced that it was "not in the public interest" to prosecute the only suspect questioned by police. Allen's health problems had prevented the police questioning him for nine months, after which he told them he was wholly innocent. In a December 2007 response to questions from Norman Baker MP, the Solicitor-General said that the police investigation, guided by the opinion of a senior barrister, had produced "sufficient evidence for a realistic prospect of conviction" on charges of forgery, using a forged document and criminal damage but it had been decided that it was not in the public interest to proceed. In reaching that decision, "matters relating to Mr Allen's health and the surrounding circumstances were significant in deciding that a prosecution was not in the public interest".

Lost and misplaced records.

Between 2005 and 2011, over 1500 files had been reported missing from the archives. Notable items reported missing during this period included correspondence from Winston Churchill and documents from the courts of several monarchies. Around 800 of these records have since been recovered, and the archives has reported that they believe most are misplaced rather than permanently lost. In 2017, the archives again received attention when it was reported that around 1000 files had been removed – in part or whole – by government officials and reported as missing when not returned. In response to concerns stated by politicians and historians about management of the collection, the archives stressed that the number of missing files is quite small in proportion the entire holdings of the repository – about 0.01% – and that, as of 2017, its loss rate was only around 100 documents, annually.

MI5 records at TNA.

TNA receives records from MI5 around twice a year. Some information in records—or records themselves—are withheld at the discretion of MI5.

MI5 records in the news.

MI5 records relating to British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's time in office have caused some questions and controversy regarding the transparency of the British government. In 2017, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor argued that MI5, and the British government by extension, was purposely withholding some information that the public deserves to know. Norton-Taylor specifically refers to Thatcher's reluctance to allow the publication of two books looking into the impact that intelligence organizations of Britain had on World War II, as well as her worries about British activities in Northern Ireland becoming known to the general public.  Additional MI5 records relating to the blacklisting of government workers during Thatcher's time in office have also prompted questions after their release. In addition to government workers, the blacklists also targeted other groups, such as unions and minorities, that may not fall in line with conservative policies. Debates on the roles of MI5, Whitehall, and Thatcher's administration, have come up in light of these records at TNA and prompted questions of transparency as well as whether or not these blacklists had an effect on the careers of any individuals included. Questions also remain, as of 2018, whether or not there are still blacklists currently in effect and if these could affect government workers, unions, and other individuals possibly included in the blacklists.

The National Archives (TNA, ) is a non-ministerial government department. Its parent department is the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is the official archive of the UK government and for England and Wales; and "guardian of some of the nation's most iconic documents, dating back more than 1,000 years." There are separate national archives for Scotland (the National Records of Scotland) and Northern Ireland (the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland).

国家档案馆(英语:The National Archives,缩写:TNA)是英国司法部下辖的一个行政机构,是英国政府官方档案馆。它由四个机构,即公共档案馆、皇家历史手稿委员会、公部门资讯办公室和皇家文书局在2003年合并成。


History.

Background.

It became a tradition during France's "ancien régime" for the duchy of Orléans to be granted as an appanage to a younger (usually the second surviving) son of the king. While each of the Orléans branches thus descended from a junior prince, they were always among the king's nearest relations in the male line, sometimes aspiring to the throne itself, and sometimes succeeding. Since they had contemporaneous living descendants, there were two Bourbon-Orléans branches at court during the reign of Louis XIV. The elder of these branches consisted of Prince Gaston, Duke of Anjou, younger son of king Henry IV, and the four daughters of his two marriages.  Prince Gaston became the Duke of Orléans in 1626, and held that title until his death in 1660. Upon the death of Gaston, the appanage of the Duchy of Orléans reverted to the Crown. His nephew, Louis XIV, then gave Gaston's appanages to his younger brother Prince Philippe, who became Duke of Orléans. At court, Gaston was known as "Le Grand Monsieur" ("The Big Milord"), and Philippe was called "Le Petit Monsieur" ("The Little Milord") while both princes were alive.

Creation.

Philippe and his second wife, the famous court writer Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, founded the modern House of Bourbon-Orléans. Before then, Philippe had been styled as the Duke of Anjou, like Prince Gaston. Besides receiving the appanage of Orléans, he also received the duchies of Valois and Chartres: "Duke of Chartres" became the courtesy title by which the heirs apparent of the Dukes of Orléans were known during their fathers' lifetimes. Until the birth of the king's son, the Dauphin Louis, the Duke of Orléans was the heir presumptive to the crown. He was to maintain a high position at court till his death in 1701.  Their surviving son, Philippe II served as the regent of France for the young Louis XV. As a "fils de France", Philippe's surname was "de France". Upon his death, his son inherited the Orléans dukedom, but as a "petit-fils de France". His surname "d'Orléans" (used also by his descendants) was taken from his father's main title. The first two dukes, as son and patrilineal grandson, respectively, of a French king, were entitled to be addressed as Royal Highness. But Philippe I was primarily known as "Monsieur", the style reserved at the French court for the king's eldest brother.  Philippe II was succeeded as duke by his only legitimate son, Louis d'Orléans, who was entitled to the style of Serene Highness as a "prince du sang". After 1709, the heads of the Orléans branch of the House of Bourbon ranked as the "premier princes du sang" – this meant that the dukes could be addressed as "Monsieur le Prince" (a style they did not, however, use). More importantly, should there be no heir to the Crown of France in the king's immediate family, then the Orléans family would ascend by right the throne.

"Prince du sang".

In 1709, the 5th prince de Condé died. He was the "premier prince du sang" and head of the "House of Bourbon-Condé". As a result of this death, the title of "premier prince" passed to the House of Orléans, as they were closer in blood to the throne of France. But since the two senior males of that line held higher rank as, respectively, "fils de France" and "petit-fils de France", they did not make use of the title and had no need of its attached prerogative; a household and retinue maintained at the expense of the Crown.  The Orléans household was already large, as it held the staff of Philippe II d'Orléans and of his wife, as well as the staff of his widowed mother, the dowager Duchess. This combined household, though not fully functional until 1723, contained almost 250 members including officers, courtiers, footmen, gardeners, and even barbers.

The Regency.

On the death of Louis XIV in September 1715, the new king, Louis XV, was but five years old. The country was then governed by the new king's older relative Philippe II d'Orléans as the regent of France. This period in French history is known as the Regency ("La Régence"), and gave the "House of Orléans" the pre-eminent position and political role in France during the king's minority. The regent ruled France from his family residence in Paris, the Palais-Royal. He installed the young Louis XV in the Palais du Louvre which was opposite the Palais-Royal.  In January 1723 Louis XV gained his majority and began to govern the country on his own. The young king moved the court back to Versailles and in December, Philippe II died and his son, Louis d'Orléans succeeded him as 3rd duke and, more importantly, as France's heir presumptive. Nonetheless, since his rank by birth (as a great-grandson of a French king) was "prince du sang", that of "premier prince du sang" constituted a higher style, of which he and his descendants henceforth made use.

Under Louis XV.

Louis d'Orléans was in several ways his father's opposite, being retiring by nature and extremely devout. Although still in his twenties when widowed, he did not remarry after his wife's death, and is not known to have ever taken a mistress. He died in the Monastery of St. Geneviève in Paris.  His son, Louis Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, was the fourth of his line to hold that title. After having a distinguished military career, he decided to live quietly with his mistress (later, his morganatic wife), the marquise de Montesson, at the "Château de Sainte-Assise".

Louis XVI.

Louis Philippe I d'Orléans and his wife Louise Henriette de Bourbon had two children: the fifth duke, Louis Philippe II d'Orléans, known to history as "Philippe Egalité", and Bathilde d'Orléans. As the duc de Chartres, Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, married one of his cousins, Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon. She was the sole heiress of the House of Bourbon-Penthièvre, which had accumulated vast wealth bestowed, despite their bar sinister, on the "princes légitimés" by their father, Louis XIV. The duchesse de Chartres had a dowry of six million livres, the modern equivalent of almost £20 million, and an annual allowance of over 500,000 livres, the modern equivalent of almost £1.7 million per year. Upon the death of her father she inherited the remainder of the Bourbon-Penthièvre revenues and châteaux.  Louis Philippe II was given the surname "Egalité" ("Equality") when French titles of nobility were abolished in 1790. His wife outlived him by almost thirty years.  Louise Marie Thérèse "Bathilde" d'Orléans married Louis Henry II, Prince of Condé, the last of his house, and was the mother of the duc d'Enghien, who was executed by Napoleon. She died in 1822, the same year as her sister-in-law the duchesse d'Orléans. They were both buried in the "Chapelle royale de Dreux".

French Revolution.

At the time of the French Revolution, Philippe Egalité, was the only person of royal blood to actively support the revolution.  He went so far as to vote for the execution of his cousin, King Louis XVI, an act which earned him popularity among the revolutionaries, and the undying hostility of many French monarchists. He remained in prison until October, the beginning of the Reign of Terror. He was shortlisted for a trial on October 3, and effectively tried and guillotined in the space of one day, on the orders of Maximilien Robespierre.  Most of the Orléans family were forced to flee. The new duc d'Orléans had fled to Austria several months previously, triggering the arrest of his father. His brother, the duc de Montpensier, would die in England, and his sister fled to Switzerland after being imprisoned for a while. The youngest brother, Louis-Charles, Count of Beaujolais, was thrown into a prison in the south of France (Fort-Saint-Jean in Marseille) in 1793, but later escaped to the United States. He too died in exile. Of the Orléans, only the widow of Philippe Egalité was able to remain in France unhindered until, in 1797 she, too, was banished to Spain along with the few remaining Bourbons who still lived in France.  In 1814 during the Bourbon Restoration, the three remaining members of the family, the duc d'Orléans, his mother and sister, returned to Paris. The family's properties and titles were returned to them by Louis XVIII.

July Monarchy.

In 1830, following the French July Revolution, the House of Orléans became the ruling house when the monarch of the elder restored Bourbon line, Charles X, was replaced by the 6th duke, Louis Philippe III d'Orléans, son of Philippe Egalité. Louis Philippe ruled as a constitutional monarch, and as such was called King of the French, rather than "of France". His reign lasted until the Revolution of 1848, when he abdicated and fled to England.  Even after his ouster, an Orléanist faction remained active, supporting a return of the House of Orléans to power. Legitimist monarchists however continued to uphold the rights of the elder line of Bourbons, who came close to regaining the throne after the fall of the [Second Empire]. In the early 1870s, a majority of deputies in the National Assembly were monarchists, as was the nation's president, MacMahon. Thus, it was widely expected that the old dynasty would be invited to re-mount the throne, in the person of either the Bourbon or the Orléans claimant.  To seize this opportunity the Orléanists offered a so-called "fusion", whereby King Louis Philippe's grandson and heir, Philippe, comte de Paris, accepted the childless Legitimist pretender's right to the throne, thereby potentially uniting French royalists in support of a single candidate. But the refusal of the last male of Louis XIV's direct line, the comte de Chambord, to accept the tricolore as France's flag under a restored monarchy proved an insurmountable obstacle to his candidacy.  Although the Orléans had reigned under the tricolor without objection, this time the Orléans princes did not abandon the cause of the head of their dynasty by seeking to offer themselves as alternative candidates; by the time Chambord died and the Orléans felt free to re-assert their claim to the throne, the political moment had passed, and France had become resolutely republican. France has had neither a Bourbon nor Orléans monarch since 1848.  Louis-Philippe and his family lived in England until his death in Claremont, Surrey. Like his mother, he and his wife, Amelia (1782–1866), were buried at the "Chapelle royale de Dreux". In 1883, the comte de Chambord died without children. As a result, some Legitimists recognized the House of Orléans as the heirs to the throne of France.  However, a portion of the Legitimists, still resentful of the revolutionary credentials of the House of Orléans, transferred their loyalties to the Carlist heirs of the Spanish Bourbons, who represented the most senior branch of the Capetians even though they had renounced their claim to the French throne to obtain Spain in 1713.  Thus to their supporters, not only are the heads of the House of Orléans the rightful heirs to the constitutionalist title of "King of the French", but also to the Legitimist title of "King of France and Navarre".

Heads of the House.

! colspan=7 | Louis Philippe II continued to be the informal head of the House until his execution in 1793; after that his son Louis Philippe III claimed his titles.

Contemporary family.

The current head of the house is Jean, Count of Paris (born 1965), who is a claimant to the French throne as John IV. For the Orléanists, his pretense is due to being the heir of King Louis Philippe of the French. For Legitimists, his pretense is due to being the heir of Henri, comte de Chambord, and so of Charles X of France.  Present family  On 5 July 1957, Henri, Count of Paris married Duchess Marie Thérèse of Württemberg (born 1934), another descendant of King Louis Philippe. He received the title "Comte de Clermont". Five children were born from this union, before the marriage ended in divorce.  Jean, Count of Paris, is now the head of the house.

Wealth and finances.

Appanages.

Throughout the years of the "ancien régime", the Orléans household received vast riches in terms of wealth and property. Philippe de France obtained for the House of Bourbon-Orléans, during the rule of his brother Louis XIV, the following:  Under the regent, Philippe II, d'Orléans:  Under Louis d'Orléans:  Under Louis Philippe I d'Orléans:  Because the Dukes of Orléans were also the "premier princes du sang", the kingdom's treasury paid for their personal household of 265 staff and officers. Along with towns and buildings, the family derived income from its forests on the ducal lands at Orléans, Beaugency, Montargis, Romorantin, Dourdan, Bruadan, Villers-Cotterêts (at which they had a château), Laigne, Coucy, La Fère, Marle, and Saint-Gobin.

Residences.

Philippe I and his wife had to spend most of their time at the royal court of his brother Louis XIV. For this purpose they had apartments at the Palace of Versailles, the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the Palace of Fontainebleau and the Château de Marly, as did most other members of the House of Bourbon. Their private home, given to them by the king, was the Palais Royal, Paris. Furthermore, Philippe I had bought the Château de Saint-Cloud, located between Paris and Versailles, in 1658. Later he replaced it with a new baroque building, including vast gardens on the Seine River. He also had a number of smaller rural properties. Louis Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, sold the Palais Royal and the Château de Saint-Cloud to King Louis XVI, shortly before the Revolution, however still occupying an apartment at the Palais Royal. Their private residences then became the Château du Raincy and the Château de Sainte-Assise at Seine-Port.  Before the court was officially moved to Versailles, and before the birth of his nephew, the king's son, the Dauphin Louis de France, in 1661, the Duc d'Orléans' apartments in the Palace of Versailles were where the Dauphin's now are located. The apartments looked over the "Parterres du Midi" of the south and were directly under the "Grand Appartement de la reine". After the dauphin's birth, the Orléans had to move to the north wing and occupied large quarters there. These looked out onto the "Parterres du Midi" of the south. The family also had apartments where the modern day "Galerie des batailles" are. This area was used by the duc himself, his second wife, Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate, his son, Philippe II and daughter-in-law, Françoise-Marie de Bourbon. The apartments of the family were later moved to the bottom floor of the north wing, opposite the Chapelle Royal de Versailles, this time looking over the "Parterres du Midi" of the north. The family had been moved in order to accommodate three of Louis XV's daughters, Madame Adélaïde, Madame Victoire and Madame Élisabeth. The family remained there till the French Revolution.

Inheritances.

Along with their government allowances and because the family were known as the "Premier Princes du Sang", they often received fortunes and titles from inheritances:  Châteaux The family also later acquired many other châteaux around the country. Among these were the:  Upon the death of the Duc d'Orléans's father-in-law in 1793 (the hugely wealthy duc de Penthièvre), the "House of Orléans" became the richest in France, however not for a long time. During the French Revolution the surviving members of the House of Orléans sought refuge in exile and their properties were confiscated and mostly resold to new owners. After the Bourbon Restoration of 1815 some of the properties were restituted to the Orléans branch of the Bourbons.  During the July Monarchy, the now reigning royal family acquired the:  After King Louis Philippe I had died in exile in Claremont House, Surrey, in 1850, his property in the French Second Republic was split between his many children and grandchildren. All male members of the House of Orléans were exiled from France by law between 1886 and 1950. When Henri, Count of Paris (1908–1999), returned to France in 1950, he didn't find much property left, except for a few castles which produced no income. Having 11 children and divorcing his wife, he decided, in 1974, to transfer the most important family assets to a family foundation, "Fondation Saint-Louis", in order to save them from future inheritance distribution and taxes. The respective head of the House of Orléans is honorary chairman of the foundation. Its assets comprise Château d'Amboise (with a family museum), the Château de Bourbon-l'Archambault and the Château de Dreux (private residence), with the Chapelle royale de Dreux, the necropolis of the Orléans royal family. He sold further property, resulting in legal action by his sons, and still died heavily in debt.

Cadet branches.

House of Orléans-Braganza.

On 15 October 1864 at Rio de Janeiro the eldest son of Louis Charles Philippe Raphael d'Orléans, Duke of Nemours, (son of King Louis Philippe of France) married Dona Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil, eldest daughter and heiress of Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil.  It was from that marriage the royal house of Orléans-Braganza was formed. Today they are the present claimants to the throne of the former Empire of Brazil, which ended with the Brazilian Imposition of the republic, on 15 November 1889 after a military coup d'état headed by Marshall Deodoro da Fonseca, the 1st President of Brazil.

House of Orléans-Galliera.

In the Affair of the Spanish Marriages, Louis Philippe arranged for the marriage of his youngest son, Antoine, Duke of Montpensier, to Infanta Luisa Fernanda of Spain, younger sister of Isabella II of Spain. It was generally thought that she would succeed her sister as queen, since the Spanish queen's prospective husband was the effeminate Francis, Duke of Cádiz.  The British wanted a prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha for the Spanish princess, and claimed that her future children with Montpensier would not be able to succeed to the French throne, due to the Treaty of Utrecht, wherein Montpensier's ancestor the Duke of Orleans renounced his rights to succeed to the Spanish throne for himself and his descendants. Louis Philippe opposed this interpretation and claimed that the only purpose of the Treaty of Utrecht was to keep France and Spain separate.  On 10 October 1846, Montpensier married Infanta Luisa, on the same day her sister Isabella II married Cádiz. However, the marriage of Isabella II produced many children. Montpensier funded the rebels, which helped to overthrow the government of his sister-in-law. However, the Cortes elected Amadeo of Savoy instead of him.  Montpensier was later reconciled to the restored Bourbons, and his daughter married Alfonso XII of Spain, son of Isabella II. Montpensier's son, Infante Antonio, successfully claimed the succession to the dukedom of Galliera, from which this branch takes its name.

The 4th House of Orléans (), sometimes called the House of Bourbon-Orléans () to distinguish it, is the fourth holder of a surname previously used by several branches of the Royal House of France, all descended in the legitimate male line from the dynasty's founder, Hugh Capet. The house was founded by Philippe I, Duke of Orléans, younger son of Louis XIII and younger brother of Louis XIV, the "Sun King".

奥尔良王朝(法语:"Maison d'Orléans"),是波旁王朝的一个分支,由法王路易十四的弟弟菲利普一世创建。1830年的七月革命使当时的奥尔良公爵成为国王,即路易-菲利普一世。1848年的二月革命使路易-菲利普一世退位,因此路易-菲利普一世是唯一成为国王的奥尔良王朝成员。在他在位期间,法国的政体又被称为「七月王朝」。


Biography.

Bartoli is considered a coloratura mezzo-soprano with an unusual timbre. According to Nicholas Wroe, her distinctive voice is known for its "fully developed sumptuousness of the lower register, the vibrancy of the middle range...the top was limpid and powerful." She is one of the most popular (and one of the top-selling) opera singers of recent years.

Early career.

Bartoli was born in Rome. Her parents, Silvana Bazzoni and Pietro Angelo Bartoli, were both professional singers and gave her her first music lessons. Her first public performance was at age nine as the shepherd boy in "Tosca". Bartoli later studied at the Conservatorio di Santa Cecilia in Rome. At the age of 19, she made her singing debut and appeared on the Italian television show Fantastico. She did not win the competition but was asked to sing with Paris Opera for a homage concert for Maria Callas.  Bartoli came to prominence in her early twenties. She made her professional opera debut in 1987 at the Arena di Verona. In the following year, she undertook the role of Rosina in Rossini's "The Barber of Seville" at the Cologne Opera, the Schwetzingen Festival and the Zurich Opera earning rave reviews. Working with conductors Daniel Barenboim and Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Bartoli focused on Mozart roles, such as Zerlina in "Don Giovanni" and Dorabella in "Così fan tutte", and from then on her career developed internationally.  In 1990, she made her debut at the Opéra Bastille as Cherubino in Mozart's "The Marriage of Figaro" and her debut at the Hamburg State Opera as Idamantes in Mozart's "Idomeneo," followed by her La Scala debut as Isolier in "Le comte Ory" in 1991, a performance that solidified her reputation as one of the world's leading Rossini singers.

Middle career.

In 1996, Bartoli made her debut at the Metropolitan Opera as Despina in "Così fan tutte" and returned in 1997 to sing the title role of "La Cenerentola" and in 1998 to sing the role of Susanna in "The Marriage of Figaro". In 2000, she sang in another Mozart soprano role, Donna Elvira in "Don Giovanni", at the Deutsche Oper Berlin. In 2001, she made a long-awaited Royal Opera House debut, taking the roles of Euridice and the Genio in the London stage premiere of Haydn's "L'anima del filosofo".

Work in Baroque music.

In addition to Mozart and Rossini, Bartoli has spent much of her career performing and recording Baroque and early Classical era music by such composers as Gluck, Vivaldi, Haydn and Salieri. In early 2005, she sang Cleopatra in Handel's "Giulio Cesare". She often performs with the Baroque ensemble Il Giardino Armonico.  In 2012, Bartoli produced a project entitled "Mission", which premiered the works of Agostino Steffani, a not well-remembered Baroque performer. Bartoli produced the music of the composer in CD form as well as an extended music video that portrays her as the priest-composer Agostino in the palace of Versallies. The video is known for its historic and visual accuracy of the Baroque period. Cecilia Bartoli's performance and production of Mission reflect the music and aesthetic of Steffani's time period through the setting, wardrobe, and cinematography."

Work in bel canto.

In 2007/08, Bartoli devoted her time to studying and recording the early 19th century repertoire – the era of Italian Romanticism and bel canto – and especially the legendary singer Maria Malibran, the 200th anniversary of whose birth was celebrated in March 2008. The album "Maria" was released in September 2007. In May 2008, Bartoli sang the title role written for Malibran in a revival of Fromental Halévy's 1828 opera "Clari" at the Zurich Opera. In June 2010, she sang the title role of Bellini's "Norma" for the first time with conductor Thomas Hengelbrock in a concert at the Konzerthaus Dortmund. In March 2011, Bartoli toured five Australian cities with two programs drawn from "Sacrificium" and "Maria".

Salzburg.

In 2012, Bartoli became the artistic director of the Salzburg Whitsun Festival, an extension of the traditional Salzburg Festival, which produces performances during Whitsun (Pentecost) weekend. Forgoing the academic programming of her predecessors, she reformulated the festival's programming—returning to "the old recipe of organizing beautiful programs and inviting great artists"—resulting in record ticket sales and placing the festival on the international opera calendar. In 2012, she sang Cleopatra in Handel's "Giulio Cesare", in 2013 the title role in Vincenzo Bellini's "Norma", and in 2014 Rossini's "La Cenerentola".

Personal life.

Bartoli lives with her husband, Swiss baritone Oliver Widmer, on the "Goldküste" shore of Lake Zurich, Switzerland, and in Rome, part of the year. The couple married in 2011 after twelve years together. Bartoli lived in Monaco in the early 2010s.

Awards and honours.

Bartoli was appointed Chevalier of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (1995), and Commander of Monaco's Order of Cultural Merit (November 1999)  In 2003, she received the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music at the Classic Brit Awards.  In 2011, she won a fifth Grammy Award for Best Classical Vocal Performance for "Sacrificium". In 2012, she was voted into the magazine's "Gramophone"'s Hall of Fame. She is the 2012 recipient of the Herbert von Karajan Music Prize.

Cecilia Bartoli, (; born 4 June 1966) is an Italian coloratura mezzo-soprano opera singer and recitalist. She is best known for her interpretations of the music of Bellini, Mozart and Rossini, as well as for her performances of lesser-known music from the Baroque and Classical period. She is known for having the versatility to sing both soprano and mezzo roles.

切奇莉亚·巴托莉(Cecilia Bartoli,1966年-6月4日),意大利花腔歌剧次女高音歌唱家。1966年6月4日出生于罗马一个歌唱家家庭。自幼受父母教育与熏陶。后入Santa Cecilia歌剧院学习。1987年首次登台,在维罗纳圆形竞技场演唱歌剧。1988年在德国科隆歌剧院主演罗西尼《塞维利亚的理发师》中的主角罗西娜,一举成名。巴托莉音色与众不同,能驾驭各类女高音与次女高音的角色,并以演唱莫扎特和罗西尼的歌剧而闻名于世。她的巴洛克音乐和古典音乐歌剧的演绎也很出名。


Assumptions.

The algorithm assumes that:

Algorithm.

The algorithm uses the following message types:  When a process recovers from failure, or the failure detector indicates that the current coordinator has failed, performs the following actions:

Analysis.

Safety.

The safety property expected of leader election protocols is that every non-faulty process either elects a process, or elects none at all. Note that all processes that elect a leader must decide on the same process as the leader. The Bully algorithm satisfies this property (under the system model specified), and at no point in time is it possible for two processes in the group to have a conflicting view of who the leader is, except during an election. This is true because if it weren't, there are two processes and such that both sent the Coordinator (victory) message to the group. This means and must also have sent each other victory messages. But this cannot happen, since before sending the victory message, Election messages would have been exchanged between the two, and the process with a lower process ID among the two would never send out victory messages. We have a contradiction, and hence our initial assumption that there are two leaders in the system at any given time is false, and that shows that the bully algorithm is safe.

Liveness.

Liveness is also guaranteed in the synchronous, crash-recovery model. Consider the would-be leader failing after sending an Answer (Alive) message but before sending a Coordinator (victory) message. If it does not recover before the set timeout on lower ID processes, one of them will become leader eventually (even if some of the other processes crash). If the failed process recovers in time, it simply sends a Coordinator (victory) message to all of the group.

Network bandwidth utilization.

Assuming that the bully algorithm messages are of a fixed (known, invariant) sizes, the most number of messages are exchanged in the group when the process with the lowest ID initiates an election. This process sends (N−1) Election messages, the next higher ID sends (N−2) messages, and so on, resulting in formula_1 election messages. There are also the formula_1 Alive messages, and formula_3 co-ordinator messages, thus making the overall number messages exchanged in the worst case be formula_1.

External links.

In distributed computing, the bully algorithm is a method for dynamically electing a coordinator or leader from a group of distributed computer processes. The process with the highest process ID number from amongst the non-failed processes is selected as the coordinator.

霸道(Bully)选举算法是一种分布式选举算法,每次都会选出存活的进程中ID最大的候选者。


Description.

"M. robusta" was not considered to be separate from the New Zealand lesser short-tailed bat ("Mystacina tuberculata") until 1962, when it was suggested as a subspecies. It was not recognized as a completely separate species within Mystacinidae until 1985, long after it was thought to have become extinct. Morphologically, "M. robusta" is larger than "M. tuberculata" with specimens of the former having a mean forearm length of 45.3-47.5mm as opposed to the latter, 40-45mm, which also has larger ears that reach beyond the muzzle when pushed forward. It is described as having a wingspan of 300mm and a body length of 90mm.

Species biology.

Very little is known about the biology of the species, since it was not recognized as a separate species until after it is believed to have become extinct. Edgar Stead visited Taukihepa/Big South Cape Island in 1936 and made several observations. He described the species as flying no more than “ten feet above the ground” and always after dusk. At one point he found seven bats roosting in a tree cavity in a state of torpor. After capturing a few and putting them in a cage they crawled around on the floor, much like New Zealand lesser short-tailed bats are known to do. As well as roosting in tree cavities, it is known that they roosted in granite caves on Taukihepa/Big South Cape Island and Rerewhakaupoko/Solomon Island.  The few existing photos show that this species had dark-brown fur and darker wings. Nothing is known about their natural diet; however, it is likely to be similar to the diet of the closely related lesser short-tailed bat, which eats insects, especially beetles, flies, and moths, as well as flowers, fruit, nectar, and pollen. As a highly endangered member of an ancient evolutionary family, the species is accorded a high ranking on the EDGE list of mammals, sitting fourth.

Distribution.

Sub-fossil evidence suggests that "M. robusta" was widespread throughout New Zealand until the arrival of the Polynesian rat/Kiore. There are no records of this species from the North Island and South Island since the arrival of Europeans and it was probably restricted to several islands near Stewart island/Rakiura by this time. The only records from the twentieth century are from caves on Taukihepa/Big South Cape Island and Rerewhakaupoko/Solomon Island. Here it survived in the absence of rats until the 1960s.

Conservation status.

The last refuge of this species was Taukihepa/Big South Cape Island until ship rats ("Rattus rattus") were accidentally introduced in 1963. This rodent invasion decimated the bird life of the island, leading to the extinction of Stead's bush wren ("Xenicus longipes variabilis") and South Island snipe ("Coenocorypha iredalei"). The South Island saddleback ("Philesturnus carunculatus") was only saved by the translocation of 36 individuals to a nearby island. "M. robusta", not recognized as a separate species at the time, was not considered a priority for conservation effort and is believed to have subsequently become extinct, last seen in 1965.  More recently, eyewitness reports of bats from Taukihepa/Big South Cape Island and nearby Putauhina Island have spurred new searches for this species. In 1999 an expedition to the islands recorded unusual “mystacinid-like” echolocation calls on Putauhina Island but no bats were seen or caught on this or a subsequent expedition in 2009. As a result of this evidence the IUCN status of the species, formerly listed as extinct, has been changed to ‘critically endangered’ and the New Zealand threat classification is currently ‘data deficient’. Further searches are required to ascertain if the species still persists on these islands. Due to its imperiled status, it is identified by the Alliance for Zero Extinction as a species in danger of imminent extinction. The bat is among the 25 “most wanted lost” species that are the focus of Global Wildlife Conservation's “Search for Lost Species” initiative.

The New Zealand greater short-tailed bat ("Mystacina robusta") is one of two species of New Zealand short-tailed bats, a family (Mystacinidae) unique to New Zealand. Larger than the New Zealand lesser short-tailed bat, there have been no confirmed sightings of this species since 1965 and it is considered to be critically endangered, if not extinct. In prehistoric times it lived in the North and South Islands but by the time of European arrival was restricted to small islands near Stewart Island/Rakiura. It is thought that a rat invasion of Taukihepa/Big South Cape Island in 1963 led to the species extinction.

强壮短尾蝠("Mystacina robusta")或称作大短尾蝠,是新西兰特有的一种短尾蝠。史前牠们已经分布在北岛及南岛,但后来就只有在斯图尔特岛出没。牠们在地上爬行的能力,能够如同飞行般熟练。牠们的双翼可以在身体两侧折曲成小袋,使牠们能够穿越山洞或丛林。


约翰·霍普金斯大学应用物理实验室

History.

APL was created in 1942 during World War II under the Office of Scientific Research and Development as part of the Government's effort to mobilize the nation's science and engineering expertise within its universities. Its founding director was Merle Anthony Tuve. The Laboratory succeeded in developing the variable-time proximity fuze that played a significant role in the Allied victory. In response to the fuze's success, the APL created the MK 57 gun director in 1944. Pleased with the APL's work, the Navy then tasked it with the mission to find a way to negate guided missile threats. From there on, the APL became very involved in wartime research. Expected to disband at the end of the war, APL instead became heavily involved in the development of guided missile technology for the Navy. At governmental request, the University continued to maintain the Laboratory as a public service.  APL was originally located in Silver Spring, Maryland in a used-car garage at the former Wolf Motor Company building at 8621 Georgia Avenue. APL moved to Laurel beginning in 1954, with the construction of a two million dollar building and a US$700,000 wing expansion in 1956. The final staff transitioned to the new facility in 1975. Before moving to Laurel, APL also maintained the "Forest Grove Station", north of Silver Spring on Georgia Avenue near today's Forest Glen Metro, which included a hypersonic wind tunnel. The Forest Grove Station was vacated and torn down in 1963 and flight simulations were moved to Laurel.  The Laboratory's name comes from its origins in World War II, but APL's major strengths are systems engineering and technology application. More than three-quarters of the staff are technical professionals, and 25% have computer science and math degrees. APL conducts programs in fundamental and applied research; exploratory and advanced development; test and evaluation; and systems engineering and integration.

Wartime contributions.

During the 1950s and the 1960s APL worked with the US Navy in the Operation Bumblebee Program on the Talos missile, Tartar missile, Terrier, and RIM-2 Terrier Surface to Air Missile systems. The follow-on RIM-50 Typhon Missile Project, based on improved Talos and Tartar Missiles, while successful, was cancelled in 1963 due to high costs and was eventually developed into the now well known Aegis Combat System based on an improved Terrier.  In 1990, APL became involved with Operation Desert Storm and was involved in the among other efforts. In the same decade (1992), APL, along with Johns Hopkins University, developed an algorithm that allowed for automatic mammogram analysis.

Pershing.

In 1965, the US Army contracted with APL to develop and implement a test and evaluation program for the Pershing missile systems. APL developed the Pershing Operational Test Program (OTP), provided technical support to the Pershing Operational Test Unit (POTU), identified problem areas and improved the performance and survivability of the Pershing systems.

Campus.

The modern Applied Physics Laboratory is located in Laurel, Maryland, and spans 453 acres with more than 30 buildings on site. Additional auxiliary campuses exist in the surrounding areas.

Education.

APL is also home to a Johns Hopkins graduate program in engineering and applied sciences, called Engineering for Professionals. Courses are taught at seven locations in the Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area, including the APL Education Center.

Research.

As of APL's 70th anniversary in 2012, there were over 600 projects in progress, spanning from those in APL's more traditional areas of work, including air defense, undersea warfare precision engagement and strategic systems to newer types of projects, including those in homeland security and cyber operations. Due to the nature of the APL's work, many of its projects' details are kept confidential.

Defense.

The U.S. Navy continues to be APL's primary long-term sponsor. The Laboratory performs work for the Missile Defense Agency, the Department of Homeland Security, intelligence agencies, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and others. The Laboratory supports NASA through space science, spacecraft design and fabrication, and mission operations. APL has made significant contributions in the areas of air defense, strike and power projection, submarine security, antisubmarine warfare, strategic systems evaluation, command and control, distributed information and display systems, sensors, information processing, and space systems.

Space.

APL has built and operated many spacecraft, including the TRANSIT navigation system, NEAR, Geosat, ACE, TIMED, CONTOUR, MESSENGER, Van Allen Probes, the New Horizons mission to Pluto, the Parker Solar Probe mission to the outer corona of the Sun, and STEREO. In 2019, the APL proposed Dragonfly mission was selected as the fourth NASA New Frontiers mission. Dragonfly is a lander for Saturn's moon Titan that will fly using rotors in a dual-quadcopter configuration to move around the moon's surface.  The asteroid 132524 APL was named in honor of APL after a flyby by the New Horizons spacecraft.

Prosthetics.

In 2014, APL made history with the successful use of the "Modular Prosthetic Limb" — a fully artificial articulated arm and hand — by a bilateral shoulder-level amputee. APL used pattern recognition algorithms to track which muscles were contracting and enable the prosthetics to move in conjunction with the amputee's body.  Similar technology was used in 2016 for a demonstration in which a paralyzed man was able to "fist-bump" Barack Obama using signals sent from an implanted brain chip. The limb returned sensory feedback from the arm to the wearer's brain.

Drones.

The APL researches and produces unmanned aerial vehicles for the US military. One of its most recent projects is an unmanned aerial swarm that can be controlled by a single operator on the ground.

The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, commonly known as simply the Applied Physics Laboratory, or APL, located in Howard County, Maryland, near Laurel and Columbia, is a not-for-profit, university-affiliated research center (or UARC) employing 6300 people (2018). The Lab serves as a technical resource for the Department of Defense, NASA, and other government agencies. APL has developed numerous systems and technologies in the areas of air and missile defense, surface and undersea naval warfare, computer security, and space science and spacecraft construction. While APL provides research and engineering services to the government, it is not a traditional defense contractor, as it is a UARC and a division of Johns Hopkins University. APL is a scientific and engineering research and development division, rather than an academic division, of Johns Hopkins.

约翰·霍普金斯大学应用物理实验室(Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory,APL)是位于美国马里兰州霍华德郡的一个非营利的大学附属研究中心,员工4500人。应用物理实验室是美国的其中一家国防合约商,是美国国防部、美国国家航空航天局等美国政府机关的技术提供单位。应用物理实验室是一个技术研究和开发单位,而不是约翰·霍普金斯大学的学术单位。约翰·霍普金斯大学的在职研究生工程专业课程在巴尔的摩-华盛顿大都会区的七个地点开课,其中也包含了应用物理实验室的教育中心。


Plot.

Michael "Mike" Enslin is a cynical, skeptical author who is estranged from his wife Lily after the death of their daughter Katie. Mike writes successful books evaluating supernatural events in which he has no belief. After his latest book, he receives an anonymous postcard depicting The Dolphin, a hotel on Lexington Avenue in New York City bearing the message, "Don't enter 1408." Viewing this as a challenge, Mike arrives at The Dolphin and requests room 1408.  The hotel manager, Gerald Olin, attempts to discourage him. He explains to Mike that in the last 95 years, no one has lasted more than an hour inside of Room 1408; the latest count is 56 deaths, all suicides or "natural" deaths. The horrors began with a wealthy businessman named Kevin O'Malley, who inexplicably committed suicide in the room when the hotel opened. Olin even attempts to bribe him with a free room upgrade but Mike insists so preparations are reluctantly made.  Inside the room, Mike describes on his mini-cassette recorder the room's boring appearance and lack of supernatural behavior. The clock radio suddenly starts playing "We've Only Just Begun", a hit song by The Carpenters. At 8:07, the song plays again and the clock's digital display changes to a countdown starting from "60:00." Mike begins to see ghosts of the room's past victims, followed by flashbacks of his dead daughter Katie and his sick father. His attempts to leave are in vain: climbing through the air ducts prompts an attack from the corpse of O'Malley, and when he tries to escape to an adjacent room by climbing out the window and sidling along the outside ledge, he finds that the windows of the other rooms have disappeared.  Mike uses his laptop to contact Lily, pleading with her to call the police, but the sprinkler system short circuits his laptop. The room temperature drops to subzero when the laptop suddenly begins to work again. Lily tells him that the police have already entered 1408, but the room is empty. A doppelgänger of Mike appears in a video chat window and urges Lily to come to the hotel herself; it gives Mike a sly wink. The room shakes violently and Mike breaks a picture of a ship in a storm. Water pours from the broken picture, flooding the room. He surfaces on a beach and relives a surfing accident seen earlier in the film. His life continues from this point, and he reconciles with Lily.  Assuming his experience in 1408 was just a nightmare, Lily encourages him to write a book about it. When visiting the post office to send the manuscript to his publisher, he recognizes members of a construction crew as Dolphin Hotel staff. The employees then destroy the post office's walls, revealing that Mike is still trapped in the rubble of 1408. He sees Katie's ghost again, and when the countdown ends, the room is suddenly restored to normal, and the clock radio resets itself to 60:00.  The "hotel operator" calls Mike. Mike asks why he hasn't been killed yet and she informs him that guests enjoy free will: he can relive the past hour over and over again, or use their "express checkout system". A hangman's noose appears and Mike has a vision of himself hanged, but he refuses to give in. Deciding to quit running, Mike improvises a Molotov cocktail and sets the room on fire. The hotel is evacuated. After smoking a cigarette, Mike breaks a window, causing a backdraft. He then lies down and laughs in victory upon destroying the room. Olin, in his office, praises Mike for his actions.

Endings.

There are four different endings to this film. In addition to the ending that appears in the theatrical release (also the default ending of the DVD), three alternate endings were shot. The incentive for this was based on the director's belief that King's intention, in his original short story, was to leave the conclusion ambiguous. None of the four endings match the ending of King's original short story.

Theatrical ending.

This one is the default ending of the theatrical release and its theatrical release DVD.  Mike survives, and he and Lily are back together, though Lily is skeptical of his experience. She finds a box of Mike's possessions that were rescued from 1408 and Mike takes the mini-cassette recorder from it, saying, "Sometimes you can't get rid of bad memories. You've just got to live with them." Lily realizes that Mike is ready to move on from his daughter's death. Suddenly, they hear Katie's voice on the recorder, confirming his account.

Director's Cut ending.

Director Mikael Håfström said that the ending for "1408" was reshot because test audiences felt that the original ending was too much of a "downer." This first alternative ending was used in the theatrical release.  The original discarded ending had Mike dying from his fire injuries, but happy to see the room destroyed. During Mike's funeral, Olin approaches Lily and Mike's publisher Sam Farrell. He unsuccessfully attempts to give her a box of Mike's possessions, including the tape recorder. Olin claims that the room was successfully destroyed and that it will no longer hurt anyone else. He later listens to the recording in his car, and becomes upset when he hears Katie's voice on the tape. He sees a little girl walking on the cemetery grass behind the car, in a dress, calling out as if she is lost. He then sees Mike's burnt corpse in the backseat. Then he sees the same girl holding hands with her father as they walk away. Olin places the tape recorder back in the box and drives off. The final scene is of the gutted room, where an apparition of Mike looks out the window while smoking a cigarette. He hears his daughter calling his name, and disappears as he walks toward her. A door is heard closing and the scene fades.  This ending is the default ending on the Blu-ray release and two-disc collector's edition. Canadian networks Space and The Movie Network, and U.S. network FX broadcast this version of the film, but Space broadcast the theatrical ending on July 23, 2012. This ending is also used on the U.K. and Australian DVDs, and the U.S. iTunes, Netflix and Amazon Prime versions of the film.

Second alternate ending.

Another ending uses elements from both the theatrical ending and the discarded original ending.  Mike dies from his fire injuries. Afterwards, Olin remarks "Well done, Enslin. Well done." Instead of the funeral scene, the sounds of a funeral are dubbed over shots of Los Angeles. Lily and Sam sort through Mike's effects. Sam returns to his New York office and discovers the manuscript that Mike wrote about Room 1408. As Sam reads the story, audio from Mike's experiences in the room is heard. In a final scene, Sam's office doors slam shut and Mike's father's voice says, "As I was, you are. As I am, you will be."

Third alternate ending.

In a third ending, Mike survives and Lily moves to Los Angeles with him. When he plays the tape of Katie's voice from 1408, Lily hears it and looks shocked. Mike stares at Lily strangely. This is the ending shown on the Australian streaming service Presto and on Netflix in Japan. Netflix in the Netherlands used to show this ending, but later changed it to the ending used in the theatrical release.

Production.

In November 2003 and 2004, Dimension Films optioned the rights to the 1999 short story "1408" by Stephen King. The studio hired screenwriter Matt Greenberg to adapt the story into a screenplay. In October 2005, Mikael Håfström was hired to direct "1408", with the screenplay being rewritten by screenwriters Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski. In March 2006, actor John Cusack was cast to star in the film, joined by actor Samuel L. Jackson the following April. In July, actress Kate Walsh was cast to star opposite Cusack as the protagonist's ex-wife, but she was forced to exit in August due to scheduling conflicts with her role on "Grey's Anatomy". She was replaced by actress Mary McCormack. According to Cusack, the Roosevelt Hotel in New York was used for some of the exterior shots of the Dolphin. The lobby scenes were filmed at the Reform Club in London.

Reception.

On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 80% based on 176 reviews, with an average rating of 6.66/10. The site's critical consensus reads "Relying on psychological tension rather than overt violence and gore, "1408" is a genuinely creepy thriller with a strong lead performance by John Cusack." On Metacritic, the film had an average score of 64 out of 100, based on 27 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B-" on an A+ to F scale.  James Berardinelli awarded the film three stars out of four, praising it as "the best horror film of the year." He offered significant praise for Cusack's performance as Mike Enslin, writing that "this is John Cusack's movie to carry, and he has no problem taking it where it needs to go." He found the film to be a refreshing experience, believing it "reminds us what it's like to be scared in a theater rather than overwhelmed by buckets of blood and gore". Many critics believed the film to be far superior to other adaptations of Stephen King novels and stories. Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote a very positive review, describing the film as "one of the good Stephen King adaptations, one that maintains its author's sly sense of humor and satiric view of human nature". He ultimately believed the film to be a "more genuinely scary movie than most horror films".  Several critics, however, found the film to be underwhelming. Wesley Morris of "The Boston Globe" wrote a mixed review, describing the film as "a lot of consonants and no vowels." He went on to compare the film unfavorably to "The Shining", a similar King adaptation, believing "1408" lacked that film's "lunging horror and dramatic architecture." Although he believed the film "conjures a wonderful anticipatory mood of dread in the first 30 minutes," he ultimately believed the film "then blows it to stylish smithereens". Rob Salem of the "Toronto Star" awarded the film two stars out of four, believing it to be a predictable, "hit and miss" production. Like Morris, Salem wrote that "Even as haunted hotel King movies go, "1408" is certainly no "Shining". Not even the TV-movie version."

Box office.

In its opening weekend, the film opened in second place at the box office, grossing US$20.6 million in 2,678 theaters. "1408" had a production budget of US$25 million. The film went on to gross US$132 million, of which US$71.9 million was from Canada and the United States.

Home media.

The DVD was released on October 2, 2007 by Genius Products with a standard 1-Disc Edition (widescreen or fullscreen), and a 2-Disc Collector's Edition that contains both versions of the ending and an unrated edition of the film which restored 6 more minutes of the film.

1408 is a 2007 American psychological horror film based on Stephen King's 1999 short story of the same name. It is directed by Mikael Håfström and stars John Cusack, Samuel L. Jackson, Mary McCormack, Tony Shalhoub, Len Cariou, Isiah Whitlock, Jr., and Jasmine Jessica Anthony. The film was released in the United States on June 22, 2007, although July 13 (which in 2007 fell on a Friday) is mentioned as the release date on the website.

《1408》(英语:1408)是一部2007年美国心理恐怖电影,根据史蒂芬·金的1999年同名短篇小说《1408》改编而成,由瑞典导演米高·希夫斯敦执导,演员包括约翰·库萨克、山缪·杰克森与玛莉·麦柯马克等。


Naming.

"Banting" was one of approximately fifty new names for lunar craters adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1973. Choosing the names was the first step in the adoption of a new policy that involved broadening crater nomenclature.  The policy was created because of photographs taken by the Apollo spacecraft, which provided an extremely detailed and crater-populated lunar map, essentially proving that a greater variety of names would be needed. The practice that had previously been used was to name one large crater after a selected individual and to name the small craters around it with the same name followed by different letters of the alphabet.  The new policy allowed deceased scientists who had contributed to biological knowledge, like Dr. Banting – as well as scientists from other fields and contributors to culture and knowledge, such as writers, composers, and artists – to have craters named after them. Previously, only the names of astronomers, others who had made important contributions to astronomy, and historical philosophers had been used.

Description.

Banting is a "simple" impact crater. It is located in the Sea of Serenity, which is also known as Mare Serenitatis, a large patch of lunar mare. Maria like Mare Serenitatis are dark, smooth areas created by lava pooling on the surface and then cooling, covering up any previously existing craters. They were originally called "maria" ("seas") because astronomers believed they were bodies of water.  Banting is flanked by two U.S. lunar landing sites – those of Apollo 15 and 17 – which lie several hundred miles on either side of the crater.

Viewing.

Mare Serenitatis is frequently perceived to be the eastern eye of the Man in the Moon. The Man in the Moon is on the near side of the moon, which constantly faces Earth because of its tidally locked orbit. This makes Sir Frederick's crater fairly central, since Mare Serenitatis is so easily viewed.  Despite its location, Banting is a very small crater and can be difficult to see. A telescope must be used, and viewing during certain lunar phases is crucial to seeing such small craters, as well. It is recommended that, while it is waxing, the moon be viewed around the time of its first quarter; while it is waning, it should be viewed just before its last quarter. Craters may also be conspicuous during a gibbous moon, when it is between quarter and full. These phases all provide just enough shadow to outline the details of the lunar surface without its being too dark, whereas the full moon is too bright, washing out all details.

Banting is a small, bowl-shaped lunar impact crater located near the middle of the Mare Serenitatis on the Earth's moon.

班廷陨石坑(Banting)是位于月球正面澄海中部的一座小撞击坑,其名称取自加拿大杰出医学家,胰岛素发现者"弗雷德里克·格兰特·班廷"爵士(1891年-1941年),1973年被国际天文学联合会正式接受。


Early life and education.

Nash was born in Harrow in North West London to an English father, Steve, who is a systems analyst, and an Irish mother, Marie (née Walsh), who worked as a nurse in a hospice, as the middle one of three sisters. She learned to play the piano at an early age. At 18, she underwent cardiac radiofrequency ablation in order to eliminate tachycardia. The surgery subsequently inspired the song "Death Proof", featured on her third studio album, "Girl Talk".  Kate attended the prestigious BRIT School and originally wanted to study acting after graduating. However, she turned to music after she was rejected from several drama colleges and universities, one of them being Bristol Old Vic Theatre School.  Nash had been working for fashion retailer River Island and restaurant chain Nando's prior to starting her music career.

Career.

2005–08: Career beginnings and breakthrough with "Made of Bricks".

Nash embarked on a musical career in 2005, when she started recording after falling down the stairs and breaking her foot, which left her homebound. She started performing live, holding her first shows in pubs, at open mic nights, and an anti-folk festival in Brighton. After several gigs, she uploaded her music to MySpace where she secured a manager and found exposure thanks to support from Lily Allen. Her debut single, featuring songs "Caroline's a Victim" and "Birds", was recorded and produced in Iceland by Valgeir Sigurðsson, and released through Moshi Moshi Records in February 2007. The release was limited to 2,000 copies and available only on 7-inch vinyl. Due to demand, another 1,000 copies were made and these also sold out. CD promo copies were produced for distribution to the press and DJs and are occasionally available for sale. The music video for "Caroline's a Victim" was directed by Kinga Burza and received airplay on MTV2. The song was then included on the CD "Moshi Moshi Singles Compilation" and the single's B-side, "Birds", later featured on Nash's debut album. Both tracks have also been released on digital music platforms.  In April 2007, Nash was signed to the Polydor offshoot Fiction Records and the following month made her official TV performance debut on "Later... with Jools Holland". Her second single, "Foundations", which she co-wrote with producer Paul Epworth, was released by Fiction on 18 June 2007 and reached number two in the official UK Singles Chart. Following this success, the label announced plans to bring forward the release of Nash's debut album "Made of Bricks" to 6 August 2007. Produced by Paul Epworth, the album included many of the tracks she had been performing during her two nationwide tours. "Made of Bricks" was leaked to filesharing networks a few days before its official commercial release and subsequently received mixed reviews; "The Independent" described it as being in "pole position for worst album of the year", while a BBC review called it "an album of surprising verve and variety". It proved, however, to be commercially successful when it entered and peaked on the UK Albums Chart at number 1, and stayed in the chart for over forty consecutive weeks.  During mid-2007, Nash performed at numerous festivals, including the Wireless Festival, Bestival, Electric Gardens, Glastonbury, Latitude, Reading and Leeds, Oxegen and T in the Park. Throughout late 2007 and early 2008, she released three more singles from "Made of Bricks". "Mouthwash" and "Pumpkin Soup" both made the Top 40 in the UK Singles Chart. Although her fifth single "Merry Happy" didn't chart well in the UK, the song enjoyed minor success in other countries, including the United States and Canada. "Made of Bricks" peaked at number 36 on the US "Billboard" 200 chart in January 2008. It would later be certified Platinum in the UK and Gold in Germany. In February 2008, Nash was honoured with the Best British Female Solo Artist award at the 2008 Brit Awards. She also won the Q Award for Breakthrough Artist and the NME Award for Best Solo Artist. Nash embarked on her first tour in Australia and the US in 2008 and opened the 2008 Glastonbury Festival.

2009–2011: "My Best Friend Is You".

In March 2009, Nash became one of the founding members of Featured Artists' Coalition, a nonprofit organization and lobbying group, and revealed that she was in the early stages of recording her second album. She was introduced by her boyfriend Ryan Jarman to Bernard Butler, the producer of Duffy's debut album "Rockferry" and a former guitarist for Suede. The pair worked on eight songs at RAK Studios in the summer that year. As a side project in late 2009, Kate joined a punk band called The Receeders where she played bass guitar, with Jon Jackson and Brett Alaimo. In December, the band played a live gig at 93 Feet East.  In January 2010, Nash revealed that the album was complete, and the following month the song "I Just Love You More" was made available for free download from her official website. The first official single from the album was "Do-Wah-Doo", which was released on 12 April 2010 to a moderate chart success. Nash's second studio album "My Best Friend Is You" was released a week later and was met with generally positive reviews. The sound was described as having a girl group approach, influenced by a wide variety of genres, from Wall of Sound, Motown to no wave and riot grrrl. The album reached the top 10 on the charts in the UK and Germany, and met with moderate success elsewhere. Two further singles from the album, "Kiss That Grrrl" and "Later On", were released in 2010, but failed to chart. To promote the record, the singer embarked on a tour, beginning with nine dates in North America in late April, with the all-female travelling festival Lilith Fair. Her opening act was Supercute!, a psychedelic pop teen girl trio from New York City. She also took part in the 2010 V Festival. In August Nash performed in Australia at Melbourne's Corner Hotel and Sydney's Metro Theatre. In February 2011, her concerts in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo were the first contact with her Brazilian fans. The singer declared the Rio show "the best concert of her life" and "the happiest place she has ever been".  After Fiction Records terminated her contract, Nash launched her own record label, Have 10p Records. Indie act Brigitte Aphrodite (who had toured with Kate on many occasions) was the first artist signed to the label and released the debut single "I Dream Myself Awake" in 2011. Nash also appeared in Supercute!'s music video "Dumb Dumbs" and helped to produce their first album which eventually could not be released due to the band's split-up. Later in 2011, she launched the Kate Nash's Rock 'n' Roll for Girls After School Music Club as a platform to inspire teenage girls to get into songwriting and making their own music, due to the shortage of female artists in the UK. On her UK tour that year, Nash promoted the initiative in schools such as the City of Portsmouth Girls' School, Woodchurch High School and John Madejski Academy.

2012–2015: Change of musical direction and "Girl Talk".

In February 2012, Nash wrote and recorded a song with some of the Occupy London protesters camping outside the St Paul's Cathedral, following workshops led by her and Sam Duckworth of Get Cape. Wear Cape. Fly. She contributed the song "My Chinchilla" to the Nardwuar and The Evaporators' album "Busy Doing Nothing!". She also collaborated with Brisbane-based band The Thin Kids which resulted in the single "The Thin Kids Theme" released on her label and wrote the song "I Am Me" with Willow Smith, which was released later in 2012.  In June 2012, Nash embarked on a 12-date Faster Pussycat Run Run Tour across the UK and released a new song, "Under-Estimate the Girl", for free on her website as an intro to her third studio album. The punk and grunge-influenced song, which Nash wrote, recorded and made a video for in under 24 hours, received mostly negative feedback. As a fan of "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", Kate staged a play based on the season six musical episode "Once More, with Feeling" at Hackney Picturehouse. In November, her EP "Death Proof" was released. She had a small role in "Greetings from Tim Buckley", a film about Tim and Jeff Buckley, which premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival. She also appeared in films "Syrup" and "Powder Room", released the following year. She was featured on Watsky's song "Hey, Asshole" from his 2013 album "Cardboard Castles".  Kate's third full-length studio album, "Girl Talk", was released on 4 March 2013 independently through Have 10p Records. It featured a heavier, rock and grunge-influenced sound, and was a noticeable departure from her first two indie pop albums. Lyrically, it drew a lot of influence from the riot grrrl movement and explored the themes of feminism and female empowerment. The album was financed through a crowdfunding campaign on PledgeMusic and recorded in Los Angeles. "Girl Talk" received mixed to positive reviews and was a minor commercial success. It was supported by singles "3AM", "OMYGOD!" and "Fri-End?", but none of them made an impact on the charts. Nash promoted the album by extensively touring Europe and the Americas. In late 2013, she released a Christmas EP "Have Faith with Kate Nash This Christmas" with The Tuts.  In 2014, Nash performed at the Coachella and Lollapalooza festivals, and released a new free single "She Rules" which was accompanied by a DIY music video filmed on a mobile phone. In the same year, she relocated to Los Angeles and set up Girl Gang, an online support and networking hub for the feminist community. She co-wrote the song "Poison" which was a UK number 3 hit for Rita Ora in 2015. Later that year, Nash discovered that her manager, Gary Marella, had been stealing large sums of money from her, which resulted in near-bankruptcy. To try to recover financially, she went on to work for the comics store Meltdown in Los Angeles and started selling her clothes as second hand. Nash pressed legal charges against Marella and he was eventually ordered to pay her back the stolen money.

2016–present: "GLOW" and "Yesterday Was Forever".

In 2016, Nash released a standalone single "Good Summer", followed by "My Little Alien" which was written about a dog she had adopted. In April 2017, she launched a Kickstarter campaign to finance a fourth studio album and released an EP, "Agenda", promoted by the single "Call Me". She joined the cast of a Netflix series "GLOW" telling a fictionalized story of the 1980s women's professional wrestling promotion, the Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling (GLOW), where she played Rhonda "Britannica" Richardson. The series premiered in June 2017 to a very positive reception and was renewed for further three seasons. In August she embarked on a UK tour to mark the 10th anniversary of her debut album.  Nash's fourth studio album, "Yesterday Was Forever", was released independently on 30 March 2018, preceded by the singles "Drink About You" and "Life in Pink". It received mixed to positive reviews from critics, but was not a commercial success and failed to chart. To promote the album, Nash toured the United States, Canada and the UK. In September 2018, "Kate Nash: Underestimate the Girl", a documentary film by Amy Goldstein, premiered at the LA Film Festival. It follows Kate as she writes her fourth album, and features appearances from Jarrad Kritzstein, Alicia Warrington, and Jeff Ellis, among others. The film was screened at the Pérez Art Museum in Miami and made its UK debut in June 2019 when it was screened at Sheffield's Crucible Theatre and released onto BBC iPlayer. Kate also appeared in a feature film "" and released two new singles in 2019: the grunge-inspired "Trash", in which she condemns environmental pollution, and the pop track "Bad Lieutenant".  Kate is currently working on her fifth studio album. The material is partially inspired by Irish traditional music.

Activism.

In September 2009, Nash helped spread the word of Tilly Lockey, who lost her hands due to meningococcal disease. She used an auction on eBay to help donate money to the five-year-old girl's parents so that she could afford a pair of prosthetic hands.  During the 2011 England riots, Nash volunteered to collect donations for those made homeless by riots in Tottenham, setting up her own public donation stand and delivering donations to Tottenham Leisure Centre in her car.  Nash has supported the Russian feminist band Pussy Riot during their trial, by encouraging her fans to make posters and raise awareness of their situation and, alongside other musicians, has signed a letter to the Russian president Vladimir Putin demanding the release of the imprisoned band.  Nash is a supporter of the LGBT community and has a large LGBT following, especially lesbian. She has described her 2010 song "I've Got a Secret" as "an anti-homophobic rant".  Nash is a vocal feminist and campaigns to fight gender inequality in music industry. In 2013, she became the Global Ambassador for the movement Because I Am a Girl and partnered with them for her own campaign, Protect a Girl.

Artistry and style.

Nash's biggest musical influences include Hole, citing their 1994 record "Live Through This" as her favourite album; and riot grrrl group Bikini Kill, crediting front woman Kathleen Hanna as her idol. Nash is also a fan of fellow English artists Arctic Monkeys. She appeared alongside the band in the documentary "Evidently... John Cooper Clarke" where she discussed the influence of John Cooper Clarke's poetry upon her lyrics, singling out the song "Foundations" in particular. Kate has also cited M.I.A. as inspiration, claiming she was her favourite artist in 2014. Some of her earlier influences include Buzzcocks, Celine Dion, the Spice Girls, Nirvana, Mis-Teeq, the Beatles, Pink, Blink-182, and Sum 41.  Beginning in the "Girl Talk" album era, Kate started to incorporate elements of punk rock and grunge into her work as well as 1990s-inspired visuals, notably in the music videos "She Rules" and "Trash". She is also known for retaining her British accent when she sings and makes no attempt to sing in an American accent. Her music was used as part of an exhibition at the British Library tracing the history of Cockney English. The exhibition, which ran from November 2010 to April 2011, used Nash's music to demonstrate today's younger urban mode of Cockney English.  Nash is a natural redhead, but dyed her hair black for her role in the film "Greetings from Tim Buckley", and subsequently maintained two-tone black and blond hair to promote the 2013 album "Girl Talk". In April 2014, she dyed her hair pink for her performance at Coachella Festival. Between 2015 and 2016, Nash would dye her hair platinum blond, but she eventually returned to her natural red hair for the role of Rhonda "Britannica" Richardson in the Netflix series "GLOW", and for her album "Yesterday Was Forever" which was released in 2018. She wears punk jewelry, such as safety pin and razor blade earrings.

Personal life.

In 2008, following intensive touring, Nash had what she described as a "proper breakdown", including a relapse of the mild obsessive–compulsive disorder which she had experienced as a child. She has been open about her mental health problems and struggle with depression, anxiety and paranoia.  Nash started dating Ryan Jarman in 2007, front man of the English indie rock band The Cribs, after meeting while taping an episode of the music television programme "Later... with Jools Holland" that year. The pair were reported to be getting married in early 2009, however, in March 2012, Jarman announced that they had broken up, in part due to his ongoing struggle with anorexia and other psychological issues.  Nash became a vegan in July 2017, having been a vegetarian for about eight years. Her decision was prompted by watching the film "Okja".

Awards and nominations.

On 20 February 2008 Nash received a Brit Award for Best Female Artist.

Kate Marie Nash (born 6 July 1987 in London) is an English singer-songwriter and actress, operating in the genres of indie pop and indie rock.

凯特·玛丽·纳什(英语:Kate Marie Nash,1987年-7月6日) 出生於伦敦哈罗,是一位英国创作歌手兼演员,在英国2007年以一曲休眠热歌(Sleeper hit)《Foundations》 开始逐渐知名。她的首张专辑《"Made of Bricks"》在英国最高排名第一,美国排名第三十六。她随后在2008年获得全英音乐奖的最佳英国女独唱歌手奖。纳什发布于2010年的第二张录音室专辑《My Best Friend Is You》在英国和德国排名前10名,专辑的主打单曲《Do-Wah-Doo》在英国排名第15,成为她在英国第四首UK Top 40单曲。2013年3月4日纳什自行出版的第三张录音室专辑《Girl Talk》未能取得她前两张专辑的商业成功,但它在英国、爱尔兰、德国、奥地利排名前100。2018年3月30日自行出版的第四张录音室专辑《Yesterday Was Forever》,通过Kickstarter平台由粉丝集资。除了音乐,纳什还参演过各类电影和电视剧。值得一提的是,她出演了2012年电影《Greetings from Tim Buckley》,以及2013年的电影《Powder Room》和《Syrup》。自2017年以来纳什一直在Netflix的喜剧剧集《GLOW》担任主演,扮演Rhonda“Britannica”Richardson角色。