The endometrium is thickened for a menopausal woman (some guidelines put the limit at 5 and others at 3mm). And the first complementary test to perform would be an endometrial biopsy. If this is not decisive, hysteroscopy will be considered as a second option.

The endometrium is thickened for a menopausal woman (some guidelines put the limit at 5 and others at 3mm). And the first complementary test to perform would be an [HIDDEN]. If this is not decisive, hysteroscopy will be considered as a second option.

A 51-year-old woman, menopausal for a year and a half, who consults for vaginal spotting of 2 weeks' evolution. She reports that the spotting is less than a menstrual period. The ultrasound shows a 7 mm endometrium. Mark the correct option:

The endometrium is thickened and in view of the patient's symptoms, an endometrial biopsy is taken with a Cornier cannula.

The endometrium is not thickened so she is prescribed tranexamic acid and ambulatory follow-up.

Indications for diagnostic hysteroscopy without the need for endometrial biopsy.

The endometrium is not thickened, but since she has clinical signs of metrorrhagia, an endometrial biopsy is indicated.

Postmenopausal endometrial fluid collections revisited: look at the doughnut rather than the hole.

To report 30 postmenopausal women and the thickness of the tissue surrounding an endometrial fluid collection seen on vaginal probe ultrasound. During routine ultrasound-enhanced bimanual examination, nine postmenopausal women with unremarkable palpatory findings and no history of bleeding were found to have endometrial fluid collections. The patients were 9-24 years postmenopausal. All underwent prompt endometrial sampling. Each woman had some degree of cervical stenosis as judged by the operator. At curettage, all had scant tissue, which was reported by the pathologist as "inactive endometrium." Ultrasound scans on each patient were rereviewed, and it was found that the endometrium surrounding the fluid was uniformly 3 mm thick or less. Subsequently, 21 additional patients with small endometrial fluid collections have been seen. Eighteen of these had thin endometrium peripherally and were followed conservatively for 6-26 months. Six cases resolved and 12 remained unchanged. Three patients had a thickened heterogeneous endometrium peripheral to the fluid collection. In one, D&C was unsuccessful in two attempts because of cervical stenosis, and hysterectomy was performed. A 15-mm endometrial polyp was found. Two other patients with thickened endometrium surrounding the fluid had D&C, and hysteroscopy revealed simple hyperplasia without atypia. CONCLUSIONS. Normal atrophic postmenopausal endometrium in association with cervical stenosis can produce endometrial fluid collections, seen easily on vaginal probe ultrasound. If the endometrial tissue surrounding the fluid is thin (3 mm or less), the endometrium is invariably inactive and sampling is not necessary. If the peripheral endometrium is thicker than 3 mm, sampling is mandatory because the tissue cannot be expected to be invariably inactive and sampling is not necessary. If the peripheral endometrium is thicker than 3 mm, sampling is mandatory because the tissue cannot be expected to be inactive. Thus, the presence or amount of fluid is not as important as the thickness and character of the surrounding tissue.

Endometrial study in patients with postmenopausal metrorrhagia.

The aim of the study was to devise a strategy to diagnose malign endometrial pathologies (adenocarcinoma or atypical hyperplasia) that minimizes the number of invasive tests done (hysteroscopy, aspiration biopsy or curettage) with no loss of its detection efficiency. We retrospectively studied the clinical histories of 779 postmenopausal women at the University Hospital Complex of Albacete, for whom an endometrial study had been done (hysteroscopy, aspiration biopsy or curettage) with a 1-year follow-up between 1 March 2006 and 31 March 2008. There were 77 cases of a malignant pathology (66 adenocarcinomas and 11 hyperplasias with atypia); 96.1% had metrorrhagia, and there were only 3 cases of asymptomatic patients (all 3 presented endometrial thickness of > 5 mm: 10, 12 and 15 mm). The sensitivity and specificity of the transvaginal ultrasound, with a 5 mm cut-off point to diagnose a malignant pathology, were 98.4% and 30.1%, respectively; 89.1% and 99.6%, respectively, for aspiration biopsy; 83.9% and 99.1%, respectively, for hysteroscopy without biopsy; and both were 100% for biopsy. Statistical significance was considered at p < 0.05 and confidence intervals were calculated at 95%. In postmenopausal women with metrorrhagia, the first action to take is to do a transvaginal ultrasound, followed by en endometrial study, but only if the endometrium is irregular or endometrial thickness is ≥ 5 mm; in asymptomatic women, the cut-off point should be set at 10 mm. The immediate method of choice is an ambulatory biopsy.

[Evaluation of endometrial biopsy in postmenopausal women before HRT].

One of the reasons for not commencing or withdrawal of HRT in women is their fear for breast and endometrial cancers. Does ultrasonographic valuation guarantee sufficiently patient's safety? Most investigators do not recommend further endometrial diagnostics with endometrial thickness less than 4 mm. Endometrial biopsy is advised in cases of irregular uterine bleedings with normal endometrial image or when any endometrial pathology is suspected. In Poland the most frequently performed procedure of endometrial diagnostics is D&C. Our proposition was to offer endometrial biopsies to all patients who were taken HRT for more than 5 years or, despite having strong climacteric ailments, refused to take it because of their cancerophobia. To evaluate the usefulness of aspiration endometrial biopsy in women after menopause qualified for HRT. In 84 females, being postmenopausal (amenorrhoeic for at least 12 months) and qualified for HRT, aspiration endometrial biopsies were performed in outpatient clinics. Age of women ranged 46-63 years, mean 57.3. Attained results were compared to ultrasonographic endometrial evaluation. Such factors as patient's age, menopausal age (years from last menstrual period) and previous administration of HRT were taken into our account (maintaining a 3-month wash-out interval). In 74% of women we have got a material being sufficient for histological evaluation. Form clinical point of view the most important for us was to exclude a proliferative or neoplastic process within endometrium. One of endometrial polyps was omitted in USG study, we were surprised also while detecting endometrial carcinoma cells in endometrium below 3.5 mm. In one postoperative slide the cells of endometrial ovarian carcinoma (with infiltrated Fallopian tube) were detected. Endometrial biopsy seems to be a useful, effective and cheap method of endometrial diagnostics also in women after menopause.

Does probability guided hysteroscopy reduce costs in women investigated for postmenopausal bleeding?

To evaluate whether a model to predict a failed endometrial biopsy in women with postmenopausal bleeding (PMB) and a thickened endometrium can reduce costs without compromising diagnostic accuracy. Model based cost-minimization analysis. A decision analytic model was designed to compare two diagnostic strategies for women with PMB: (I) attempting office endometrial biopsy and performing outpatient hysteroscopy after failed biopsy and (II) predicted probability of a failed endometrial biopsy based on patient characteristics to guide the decision for endometrial biopsy or immediate hysteroscopy. Robustness of assumptions regarding costs was evaluated in sensitivity analyses. Costs for the different strategies. At different cut-offs for the predicted probability of failure of an endometrial biopsy, strategy I was generally less expensive than strategy II. The costs for strategy I were always € 460; the costs for strategy II varied between € 457 and € 475. At a 65% cut-off, a possible saving of € 3 per woman could be achieved. Individualizing the decision to perform an endometrial biopsy or immediate hysteroscopy in women presenting with postmenopausal bleeding based on patient characteristics does not increase the efficiency of the diagnostic work-up.

Vaginal bleeding

Postmenopausal bleeding In postmenopausal vaginal bleeding, the primary goal of any diagnostic evaluations is to exclude endometrial hyperplasia and malignancy. Transvaginal ultrasonography and endometrial sampling are common methods for an initial evaluation. Guidelines from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommend transvaginal ultrasonography as an appropriate first-line procedure to identify which patients are at higher risk of endometrial cancer. Endometrial sampling is indicated if having the following findings and/or symptoms: Endometrial thickness greater than 4 mm Diffuse or focal increased echogenicity (heterogeneity) Failure to visualize the endometrium Persistent or recurrent bleeding regardless of endometrial thickness Endometrial sampling can be obtained either by an endometrial biopsy using an endometrium sampling device such as a pipelle or by dilation and curettage (D&C) with or without a hysteroscopy. FIGO classification

Ultrasound appearance of the uterus in women over 60 years of age on tibolone: is it a SERM?

To evaluate the effects of long-term tibolone on the endometria of asymptomatic women over the age of 60 years. An observational study of the ultrasound appearance of the endometria of women aged 60 years or older taking long-term tibolone. Those found to have a double-layer endometrial thickness greater than 4 mm were offered endometrial biopsy. Seventeen asymptomatic patients with a mean age of 61 years (range 60-73 years) and an average duration of tibolone use of 5 years (range 3-12 years) were recruited. Seven patients (41%) showed a thickened endometrium of more than 4 mm. Three of these had an area of translucency in the subendometrial space. Of the ten women with an endometrial thickness of less than 4 mm, four showed the presence of subendometrial fluid. Hysteroscopy was performed in five out of the seven women, as two did not accept further investigations. In all five women, the endometrial cavity was reported as atrophic and the histology showed an inactive basal type. In two of the five cases examined histologically, there were additional changes suggesting endometrial polyp, although the samples were from macroscopically non-polypoid endometrium. Endometrial thickness is increased in 41% of elderly women on long-term treatment with tibolone. However, at hysteroscopy, the endometrium was uniformly atrophic. Similar finding have been described in women using selective estrogen receptor modulators and a similar mechanism of action of these drugs on the uterus should be considered.

Endometrial biopsy

Medical uses There are a number of indications for obtaining an endometrial biopsy in a non-pregnant woman: Women with chronic anovulation such as the polycystic ovary syndrome are at increased risk for endometrial problems and an endometrial biopsy may be useful to assess their lining specifically to rule out endometrial hyperplasia or cancer. In women with abnormal vaginal bleeding the biopsy may indicate the presence of abnormal lining such as endometrial hyperplasia or cancer. In patients with suspected uterine cancer, the biopsy may discover the presence of cancer cells in the endometrium or cervix. In female infertility the assessment of the lining can determine, if properly timed, that the patient ovulated, however, the same information can be obtained by a blood test of the progesterone level.

[Ultrasound endometrium follow-up during tamoxifen treatment: Really not reliable or useful after all?].

To investigate whether an examination of the endometrium of women treated with tamoxifen (TAM) is useful or not. 40 breast cancer patients who displayed a thickened endometrium of > 8 mm and/or vaginal bleeding were included in the study. They received daily TAM adjuvantly. Histologic clarification by hysteroscopy and D&C was recommended for patients with an endometrium of > 8 mm or vaginal bleeding. In our collective, the mean endometrial thickness was 13.7 +/- 5.6 mm (SD). 32 patients underwent a histological examination. Most had a benign lesion; in 2 cases we merely found a cystic atrophy (11 mm, 18 mm), 2 displayed atypical tissue (13 mm, 25 mm) and 2 an endometrial cancer (19 mm, 33 mm). All patients with atypical tissue or cancer had an endometrial thickness markedly above the norm, but 3 of them were not bleeding. No linear correlation between thickness of the endometrium and duration of TAM intake was found. To detect early premalignant or malignant changes of the endometrium, we recommend histological examination by hysteroscopy and dilatation and curettage when the endometrium is > 8 mm thick, even in the absence of symptoms. Therefore, these patients should have regular examinations by transvaginal ultrasound once or twice a year. Moreover, continuing regular screening of the endometrium for years after termination of tamoxifen-therapy is also to be recommended.

Endometrial cancer

Dilation and curettage or an endometrial biopsy are used to obtain a tissue sample for histological examination. Endometrial biopsy is the less invasive option, but it may not give conclusive results every time. Hysteroscopy only shows the gross anatomy of the endometrium, which is often not indicative of cancer, and is therefore not used, unless in conjunction with a biopsy. Hysteroscopy can be used to confirm a diagnosis of cancer. New evidence shows that D&C has a higher false negative rate than endometrial biopsy. Before treatment is begun, several other investigations are recommended. These include a chest x-ray, liver function tests, kidney function tests, and a test for levels of CA-125, a tumor marker that can be elevated in endometrial cancer. Classification Endometrial cancers may be tumors derived from epithelial cells (carcinomas), mixed epithelial and mesenchymal tumors (carcinosarcomas), or mesenchymal tumors.

Endometrial polyp

Cause No definitive cause of endometrial polyps is known, but they appear to be affected by hormone levels and grow in response to circulating estrogen. Risk factors include obesity, high blood pressure and a history of cervical polyps. Taking tamoxifen or hormone replacement therapy can also increase the risk of uterine polyps. The use of an intrauterine system containing levonorgestrel in women taking tamoxifen may reduce the incidence of polyps. Diagnosis Endometrial polyps can be detected by vaginal ultrasound (sonohysterography), hysteroscopy and dilation and curettage. Detection by ultrasonography can be difficult, particularly when there is endometrial hyperplasia (excessive thickening of the endometrium). Larger polyps may be missed by curettage.

Endometrosis

Stages The following table shows the different degrees of endometrosis which is classified by KENNY u. DOIG (1986) and modified by SCHOON et al. (1992). Diagnosis Endometrosis is most often diagnosed in barren mares. For the diagnostic procedure the endometrium of mares are biopsied to examine the changes in the endometrium under microscope. Therefore a small piece of tissue is removed from the endometrium of the mare, which is subjected to conventional histopathology. The only contraindication for endometrial biopsy is pregnancy. Treatment As the changes in the endometrium are seen as irreversible there is no effective treatment available. But to prevent infection antibiotics are administered in the uterus

Endometrial Biopsy -- Introduction

Endometrial biopsy is frequently used to evaluate abnormal uterine bleeding. It is a relatively quick and cost-effective way to sample the endometrium to allow for direct histological evaluation of the endometrium. It is an essential skill to have as endometrial cancer is the fourth most common cancer among women. The American Cancer Society estimates there will be 65,950 new uterine cancer cases and 12,550 related deaths in 2022 [American Cancer Society. Facts & Figures, 2022]. The patient does not need to undergo more invasive procedures as endometrial biopsies have a high sensitivity and specificity for detecting endometrial hyperplasia and endometrial malignancy, equal to the diagnostic accuracy of dilatation and curettage (D&C) procedure. [1]

Endometrial Hyperplasia -- Evaluation -- Endometrial Sampling

The methods of obtaining tissue samples through dilatation and curettage (D&C) or suction curette have been shown to detect endometrial carcinoma with an equal rate in women with abnormal uterine bleeding. [32] However, these methods have their own side effects. Less than 50% of the uterine cavity was sampled in approximately 60% of these procedures. [30] The presence of a mass lesions in the uterus can deflect the flexible curette, which can curtail the proper sampling of the endometrium. As per the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) Committee opinion on tissue sampling methods, hysteroscopy with directed D&C can sample both focal pathology and background endometrium and may yield a higher detection rate. [33] However, if the treatment procedure is a hysterectomy, it makes the type of sampling procedure less important. This is because the chance of missing an invasion is far less in a uterine specimen on the final pathology result as compared to a tissue biopsy specimen. [32]

Endometrial Biopsy -- Continuing Education Activity

Endometrial biopsy is a simple and effective office-based procedure that samples the endometrium to allow for direct histological evaluation. A clinician in the outpatient setting can perform this procedure independently. Endometrial biopsy is often used to evaluate abnormal uterine bleeding. It is a relatively quick and cost-effective way to sample the endometrium. It is an essential skill to have as endometrial cancer is a common cancer among women. This activity describes when and how to perform an endometrial biopsy and highlights interprofessional team members' role in collaborating to provide well-coordinated care and enhance outcomes for patients undergoing this procedure.

[Diagnostic hysteroscopy after D&C in women with perimenopausal bleeding].

Comparative estimation of D&C and hysteroscopy as a method of receiving material to histological estimation in perimenopausal women. In 74 women (age 46-70) during the last year before this study, D&C was performed. There were neither material nor pathologic changes in hystological estimation. Now we made hysteroscopy and again took the material to histological research. 29 endometrial polyps, 14 submucosus myomas, 2 endometrial hyperplasias and 2 endometrial cancers were detected. 1. Hysteroscopy with direct biopsy has superiority over curettage in detecting all types of intrauterine pathology, in particular focal changes. 2. Hysteroscopy should determine a method of choice for women with recurrent bleedings from the uterus, which pathological changes were not detected with curettage.

The endometrial sample can be obtained through outpatient endometrial biopsy. A systematic review evaluating the efficacy of office endometrial biopsy has reported a pooled likelihood ratio (LR) of 12.0 (95% Confidence Interval (CI) 7.8-18.6) for a positive test. On the other side, a negative office biopsy test has a likelihood ratio of 0.2 (95% CI 0.1-0.3). [31] However, if the patient does not tolerate an office biopsy, has cervical stenosis, or the transvaginal ultrasound shows a polyp, an inpatient diagnostic hysteroscopy guided procedure has to be performed instead.

First-trimester miscarriage in the background of endometrial carcinoma.

Endometrial cancer in young women (less than 40-year-old) is associated with anovulatory menses, polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) and subfertility. Endometrial cancer occurring in a miscarriage is rare. We highlight a case of endometrial cancer occurring during miscarriage of a non-viable pregnancy, its management and the outcome. A 32-year-old woman, Gravida 1 Para 0, was referred to our center at 7 weeks gestation in 2018 for uncontrolled diabetes mellitus diagnosed during investigation for subfertility. Her poor compliance with the treatment is consistent with an HbA1c of 8%. During the assessment, she was already complaining of lower abdominal pain. Ultrasound showed irregular IUGS with no fetal echo. She had a miscarriage soon; however, due to ultrasound evidence of thickened and irregular endometrium (17 mm) with mixed echogenicity, dilatation and curettage (D + C) were commenced. The first and second tissues were reported as the product of conception (POC) and well differentiated endometrioid adenocarcinoma, respectively. The first hysteroscopy showed foci area of polypoidal growth at the right posterior endometrium, obscuring the right ostium, with similar histology report. She was commenced on high-dose progestogen with hysteroscopy surveillance 6 months later, which showed disease regression. After two normal hysteroscopies and endometrial biopsies with continuous progestogen therapy for 12 months, cyclical progestogen for 12 months and follow-up for another 6 months, she had spontaneous conception and is currently pregnant at 16 weeks gestation. Endometrial cancer should be suspected in high-risk patients with first-trimester miscarriage. Individualized treatment with high dose progestogen and follow-up with the proper patient and partner counselling and education has high successful regressionand later on, pregnancy rate.

Microhysteroscopy and endometrial biopsy results following failed diagnostic dilatation and curettage in women with postmenopausal bleeding.

The aim of this study was twofold: firstly to evaluate and compare the diagnostic precision of the microhysteroscopy (MH) and endometrial biopsy in a group of menopausal women in whom D&C had failed to obtain an adequate endometrial sample, and secondly to quantitate the value of a hysteroscopy in determining endometrial sampling in these patients. A Hamou type II CO2 microhysteroscope (MH) was used to evaluate the endocervical canal and the uterine cavity, followed by endometrial sampling. Thirty-nine women were assessed using MH and endometrial biopsy. Histopathology results were available for diagnosis in 29 of them (74.3%). In the remaining ten patients, the MH diagnosis was atrophic endometrium. Biopsy results corroborated with MH in 86.2% (25/29) of the patients with tissue samples. The analysis (r) of this concordance rate was statistically significant (r = 0.96). Sample results for patients with MH determined pathological and normal endometrium corroborated in 83% and 91%, respectively, inclusive of three cases of endometrial adenocarcinoma. The sensitivity, specificity and predictive values for MH alone were 93.7%, 76.9% and 83.3%, respectively. These significant results are indicative that this simplified endoscopic method surpasses all blind hospital or office endometrial sampling methods. Therefore, we suggest that MH and endometrial sampling should be the initial assessment tool for any type of indication requiring endometrial and uterine cavity assessment.

Follow-up of women after a first episode of postmenopausal bleeding and endometrial thickness greater than 4 millimeters.

To estimate the incidence of recurrent postmenopausal bleeding among women who were diagnosed with an endometrial thickness greater than 4 mm. We designed a prospective cohort study and included consecutive women not using hormone replacement therapy, presenting with a first episode of postmenopausal bleeding. We evaluated patients who had an endometrial thickness greater than 4 mm at transvaginal ultrasonography and benign endometrial sampling; presence of carcinoma was ruled out by office endometrial sampling, hysteroscopy, and/or dilation and curettage. Time until recurrent bleeding was measured, and diagnosis at recurrent bleeding was recorded. Among 318 patients who had an endometrial thickness greater than 4 mm, 222 patients had benign histology results and were available for follow-up. During follow-up, 47 (21%, 95% confidence interval 16-27%) patients had recurrent bleeding, with a median time to recurrent bleeding of 49 weeks (interquartile range 18 to 86 weeks). There was no difference with respect to recurrence rate between patients with polyp removal, patients with a normal hysteroscopy, and patients with office endometrial sampling alone at the initial workup. Two patients were diagnosed with atypical endometrial hyperplasia upon recurrent bleeding. The recurrence rate of postmenopausal bleeding in women with endometrial thickness greater than 4 mm is 20%. This recurrence rate is not related to incorporation of hysteroscopy or polyp removal at the initial workup. II.

[Endometrial hyperplasia--hysteroscopy findings].

Endometrial hyperplasia is considered to be a frequent cause of metrorrhagia. Traditionally diagnosis of this pathology was made on specimens obtained by uterine curettage or after hysterectomy performed for benign diseases. Recently, hysteroscopy has enabled to offer suggestive images of this pathology, in fact it allows to visualize directly the uterine cavity and to perform guided biopsies on the endometrial mucosa. The aim of this study is to evaluate the reliability of the hysteroscopy procedures in the diagnosis of the endometrial hyperplasia. 479 panoramic hysteroscopies were performed in a four-year period for different indications and we found endometrial hyperplasia in 129 patients. We compared the results with the histological findings. On the base be able the possible diagnose and the follow-up procedure for endometrial hyperplasia.

Asymptomatic thickened endometrium in postmenopausal women: malignancy risk.

To assess the diagnostic findings and determine the frequency of malignancy in postmenopausal women evaluated by office hysteroscopy for a thickened endometrium without bleeding. Retrospective cohort (Canadian Task Force classification II-B). Academic medical center in the Midwestern United States. Over 3600 women underwent an office hysteroscopy between January 1, 2007, and October 20, 2011, for abnormal uterine bleeding or an abnormal ultrasound. Of these, 154 postmenopausal women had a thickened endometrium (>4 mm) and no bleeding. Flexible office hysteroscopy using a 3.1-mm scope with saline as the distending media was performed for clinical reasons, and results were captured within a research database. For the 154 women, the range of endometrial measurements was 4.2 to 28 mm (mean = 10.0 mm). Hysteroscopy diagnoses included 93 patients with polyps, 19 with myomas or uterine synechiae, and 34 with benign-appearing endometrium. Nine hysteroscopies were inadequate because of poor visualization (n = 1), cervical stenosis (n = 6), or patient discomfort (n = 2). Endometrial biopsies (EMBs) were performed in 109 patients, and none were found to have cancer or an atypical endometrium. Six had simple hyperplasia without atypia, and their endometrial measurements were within the range of the patients in our study who had a benign endometrium (5-15 mm, mean = 10.3). Of the women with a polyp, 73 (78.4%) subsequently underwent polypectomy. On final pathology, 1 had cancer (endometrial measurement = 24 mm), and 1 had complex hyperplasia with atypia (endometrial measurement = 17 mm). EMBs performed in the office for these 2 patients showed an insufficient endometrium and inactive endometrium, respectively. Cancer and atypia can occur in asymptomatic women. Endometrial thickness was 17 mm or greater in 2 cases, and EMBs performed in the office were inconsistent with the final diagnosis. Hysteroscopy is important when ultrasound and EMB do not agree. Polypectomy may be indicated even in asymptomatic women, but further studies regarding an endometrial measurement threshold or polyp size are warranted.

Rebleeding and endometrial growth in women with postmenopausal bleeding and endometrial thickness < 5 mm managed by dilatation and curettage or ultrasound follow-up: a randomized controlled study.

To compare the frequency of rebleeding and endometrial growth during a 12-month follow-up period between women with postmenopausal bleeding and an endometrial thickness < 5 mm managed by dilatation and curettage, and those managed by ultrasound follow-up. Consecutive women with postmenopausal bleeding and an endometrial thickness < 5 mm were randomized to ultrasound follow-up after 3, 6, and 12 months (n = 48) or to primary dilatation and curettage with ultrasound follow-up at 12 months (n = 49). At all follow-up examinations, the endometrial thickness was measured and the women were asked about rebleeding. The endometrium was sampled at the 12-month examination, if sampling had not been performed previously because of rebleeding or endometrial growth. Rebleeding was reported by 33% (16/48) of the women in the ultrasound group and by 21% (10/48) of those in the dilatation and curettage group (P = 0.17). Endometrial growth to >or= 5 mm was found in 21% (10/48) of the women in the ultrasound group and in 10% (5/48) of those in the dilatation and curettage group (P = 0.16). No endometrial pathology was found in women with isolated rebleeding. Endometrial pathology during follow-up was found more often in women with endometrial growth than in those without (33% vs. 4%; P = 0.008). Rebleeding and endometrial growth are common during a follow-up period of 12 months in women with postmenopausal bleeding and an endometrial thickness < 5 mm, irrespective of whether or not dilatation and curettage is primarily carried out. If these women are managed by ultrasound follow-up, endometrial sampling should be performed if the endometrium grows, but not necessarily in the case of rebleeding without endometrial growth.

Disaccordance between estimation of endometrial thickness as measured by transvaginal ultrasound compared with hysteroscopy and directed biopsy in breast cancer patients treated with tamoxifen.

To estimate endometrial thickness by transvaginal ultrasound technique (TVU) in patients treated with tamoxifen; and to compare the results with hysteroscopy and directed biopsy, and to relate the findings to curettage material. Fifty-four women, over 50 years of age at the time of their primary breast cancer operation and scheduled for adjuvant treatment of tamoxifen, were investigated. If the endometrium measured 8 mm or more (35 patients) hysteroscopy and directed biopsy was performed. In the 35 patients, hysteroscopy and curretage revealed polyps in 18 cases (51.4%), proliferation in 1 case (2.9%) and atrophy in 16 cases (45.7%). In 54.3% (19 cases) of the patients the histopathological finding was a polyp or benign proliferation of the endometrium in agreement with the thickened endometrium seen with TVU. In the remaining 45.7% (16 cases) of the patients a thickened endometrium by transvaginal ultrasound was false positive as the hysteroscopic and subsequent histopathological diagnosis only showed atrofia of the uterine endometrium. In almost half of the patients the TVU gave a misleading picture concerning the condition of the endometrium. Changes in the myometrium and related connective tissue could be misinterpreted by the ultrasound technique as changes in the endometrium. These results may confirm the theory that stimulation and changes by antiestrogenic treatment of the uterine tissue is not only restricted to the endometrium. In patients with thickened endometrium measured by TVU, a dilatation and curettage is not sufficient, as TVU has not the ability to differentiate between endometrial polyps and myometrial changes. A hysteroscopy and directed biopsy could therefore be performed.

Ultrasound, hysteroscopy and endometrial biopsy in the investigation of endometrial cancer.

Over the course of the last two decades hysteroscopy with endometrial biopsy has begun to replace dilation and curettage as the method of choice for the diagnosis of endometrial carcinoma. In the majority of women this can be performed as an outpatient procedure with no loss in diagnostic accuracy. Transvaginal ultrasound measurement of endometrial thickness provides a highly sensitive and less invasive alternative means of assessing the endometrium but has a low positive predictive value for cancer, especially in women taking hormone replacement therapy. The cut-off value used to define normality needs to take into account patient age and ethnic origin. Ultrasound screening may not be suitable for women taking tamoxifen and those with recurrent or late-onset abnormal uterine bleeding.

Diagnosis of abnormal uterine bleeding with imaging.

The major role of ultrasound in the evaluation of abnormal uterine bleeding, other than that occurring during pregnancy, is in postmenopausal women. Because postmenopausal bleeding can be the presenting symptom of endometrial cancer, any woman with this symptom should be evaluated to diagnose or exclude carcinoma. Over the last two decades, the role of ultrasound in the evaluation of postmenopausal bleeding has changed markedly, from little or no role in 1990 to a major role today. In the intervening years, numerous studies have shown that ultrasound is at least as sensitive as endometrial biopsy for endometrial cancer and that ultrasound can reliably exclude cancer without the need for biopsy in some women with postmenopausal bleeding. In particular, numerous studies have shown that women with an endometrial thickness of 4 mm or less have an extremely low likelihood of endometrial cancer and thus do not need to undergo endometrial biopsy. Ultrasound can also help in the selection of an appropriate biopsy technique. In a woman with postmenopausal bleeding and a thick endometrium, a sonohysterogram can determine whether the endometrium is diffusely thick or has focal areas of thickening. With diffuse thickening, a blind endometrial biopsy is appropriate. When there are one or more focal areas of thickening, hysteroscopic biopsy is likely to be the better choice. We present two clinical algorithms, either of which is an acceptable approach to the use of ultrasound and/or endometrial biopsy in women with postmenopausal bleeding: the "ultrasound-first" approach and the "biopsy-first" approach.

Pharmacokinetics of progesterone

were assessed in three of the studies via endometrial biopsy and the results were mixed. In one study, there was no effect; in another, antiproliferative effects were observed; and in the last study, an atrophic state was observed but only in 28 of 40 (70%) of the women. Circulating progesterone levels were reported as less than 3.5 ng/mL in the first study, low and widely variable in the second study, and were not given in the third study. Moreover, the duration of the study in which no effect was observed was short at only 2 weeks, and a longer treatment period of 4 to 6 weeks is necessary to produce endometrial changes. It has also been suggested that the dosage of estrogen used may have been insufficient to allow for proper priming of the endometrium for progesterone to act. Taken together, further studies are required to adequately establish a protective effect of transdermal progesterone on the endometrium.

Ten-year follow-up of endometrial ablation.

This paper presents a ten-year follow-up of a randomized, controlled trial which gives the long-term hysterectomy rate and patient satisfaction rate of transcervical hysteroscopic endometrial ablation in the treatment of heavy dysfunctional bleeding. There were 120 women enrolled in the study, from June 10, 1993 to August 31, 1995, all requiring endometrial ablation for the treatment of heavy dysfunctional bleeding. All patients were offered a clinical examination two years postoperatively. Long-term outcome was assessed by completion of a questionnaire five and ten years after initial treatment. Any new symptomatology and need for further treatment or a hysterectomy was registered. A bleeding index and the patients' satisfaction rate and acceptability of the treatment method were stated. Sixty-one patients were treated by endometrial coagulation, and 59 by endometrial resection. No significant difference in the number of hysterectomies or satisfaction rate between the two groups was observed. At a ten-year follow-up, 63% of patients only had one ablation, 11% were treated twice, and 22% had a hysterectomy. Only 3% were lost to follow-up. For the group of patients above 40 years of age, only 17% had a hysterectomy. Since the two-year follow-up only six patients with one hysteroscopic treatment have had further intervention. Ninety-four percent of the women would recommend the treatment to their best female friend. The long-term results show that an ablation for heavy dysfunctional bleeding is an excellent treatment. Overall 22% of patients had a hysterectomy. If the patient had no further intervention at the two-year clinical control, there was only a 6% risk of hysterectomy after a period of at least ten years.

Endometrial biopsy

Pain Endometrial biopsy pain is quite common. The reason that doctors spray the lidocain is to help to deal with some of the pain from the procedure. The lidocain spray can burn when it is sprayed into the area. The clamp that is put onto the cervix may be another cause of pain and the procedure itself, with the doctor procuring a piece of the lining with the tube potentially being painful. Most of the time, this will only be required once, but sometimes the procedure can entail two or three instances of procuring a piece of the endometrium. Procedure Generally, an endometrial biopsy follows this process:

Sonohysterography compared with endometrial biopsy for evaluation of the endometrium in tamoxifen-treated women.

This study was performed to compare endometrial biopsy and sonohysterography for evaluation of the endometrium in tamoxifen-treated women. Medical records were retrospectively reviewed to identify 51 consecutive tamoxifen-treated women who had sonohysterography and correlative endometrial biopsy for evaluation of postmenopausal bleeding or thickened endometrium of greater than 8 mm. Endometrial biopsy and sonohysterographic results were compared in all women, and for 27 (53%) women who had hysteroscopy with dilation and curettage, endometrial biopsy and sonohysterographic findings also were compared with surgical pathologic findings. Thirty-two (63%) of 51 sonohysterograms revealed endometrial polyps; 4 (8%) showed endometrium of greater than 5 mm; 14 (27%) showed endometrium of less than 5 mm; and 1 (2%) was inadequate. Endometrial biopsy findings were benign endometrium in 42 (82%), polyps in 4 (8%), and insufficient samples in 5 (10%). Among the adequate sonohysterograms, 64% (32 of 50) resulted in a diagnosis of polyps (95% confidence interval, 49%-77%) whereas the corresponding proportion for endometrial biopsy was 9% (4 of 46; 95% confidence interval, 2%-21%). For the group with hysteroscopy, 24 (92%) of 26 polyps were confirmed histopathologically; 1 polyp had complex hyperplasia. Polyps were present in 23 (89%) of 26 women with benign endometrium or insufficient samples by endometrial biopsy, and only 1 confirmed polyp was identified by endometrial biopsy. The sensitivity of sonohysterography for diagnosis of endometrial polyps (100%) was significantly higher than for endometrial biopsy (4%; P < .01). In tamoxifen-treated women, sonohysterography provides a significant improvement in sensitivity for diagnosis of endometrial polyps compared with endometrial biopsy.

Endometrial biopsy during outpatient hysteroscopy: evaluation and comparison of two devices.

Association of office hysteroscopy with outpatient endometrial biopsy is interesting to evaluate correctly endometrium. Purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare two endometrial biopsy devices during outpatient hysteroscopy, based on effectiveness and tolerance of the procedure. A single blind, randomised prospective study. 200 patients were randomised into two groups following outpatient hysteroscopy: 100 were biopsied with Vacurette and 100 biopsed with Pipelle. Pipelle was less painful compared to Vacurette (1.1+0.2 versus 1.6+0.3; P<0.001), no matter hormonal status (1+0.3 versus 2+0.6; P<0.001 in premenopausal subgroup and 1+0.3 versus 1.4+0.3; P<0.001 in postmenopausal subgroup). Vacurette was more effective than Pipelle (64/100 versus 48/100; P=0.02), in case of normal or hypertrophic endometrium (56/72 (77%) versus 40/65 (61%); P=0.04) but not in case of atrophic endometrium (8/28 (29%) versus 8/35 (23%); P=0.6). Among the 112 patients with adequate sample, histologic results were normal, except for three cases of endometrial hyperplasia. Among the 88 patients with inadequate sample, 47 (53%) presented an atrophic endometrial aspect at hysteroscopy, whereas 41 (47%) were considered as normal. Vacurette was more effective though more painful than Pipelle. Both instruments were, however, well tolerated. Both instruments were not very effective in case of atrophic endometrium. Outpatient hysteroscopy combined with endometrial biopsy may help avoid further investigations.

Brain Metastasis in Papillary Serous Adenocarcinoma of the Endometrium.

Most endometrial cancers (75%) are diagnosed in early stages (stages I and II), in which abnormal uterine bleeding is the most frequent clinical sign. When the diagnosis is performed in stage IV, the most common sites of metastasis are the lungs, liver and bones. Central nervous system (CNS) metastasis is a rare condition. The aim of this study is to describe a case of uterine papillary serous adenocarcinoma of the endometrium that progressed to brain and bone metastases.  We present the case of a 56-year-old woman with abnormal uterine bleeding and endometrial thickened echo (1.8 cm). A hysteroscopy with biopsy was performed, which identified poor differentiated serous adenocarcinoma of the endometrium. A total abdominal hysterectomy, with pelvic and para-aortic lymphadenectomy, was performed. Analysis of the surgical specimen revealed a grade III uterine papillary serous adenocarcinoma. Adjuvant radio/chemotherapy (carboplatin and paclitaxel-six cycles) was indicated. Sixteen months after the surgery, the patient began to complain of headaches. Brain magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated an expansile mass in the right parietal lobe, suggesting a secondary hematogenous implant subsequently confirmed by biopsy. She underwent surgery for treatment of brain metastasis, followed by radiotherapy. She died 12 months after the brain metastasis diagnosis due to disease progression.  Uterine papillary serous adenocarcinoma of the endometrium has a low propensity to metastasize to the brain. To the best of our knowledge, this is the fifth documented case of uterine papillary serous adenocarcinoma of the endometrium with metastasis to the CNS.

Endometrial Hyperplasia -- Treatment / Management -- Treatment duration and follow up:

In order to induce the regression of the hyperplasia, treatment should be for at least six months. Endometrial surveillance with office endometrial biopsy is recommended at six-monthly intervals. Before discharging the patient, two consecutive 6 – monthly negative biopsies should be obtained. Women who have a BMI of more than 35 and who were treated with oral progestogens are at a higher risk of relapse and should be advised annual follow -up. All women should be advised to come for a follow -up if they experience the symptoms of abnormal uterine bleeding.[2]


Reading the case, we are discarding options: child with otalgia, but without fever or acute inflammatory signs: it is neither 1 (recurrent acute otitis media) nor 5 (mastoiditis). On otoscopy, a pinkish and amber eardrum is observed: there are no scales, so it is not 4 (cholesteatomatous chronic otitis media); nor perforations or adhesions, so it is not 3 (simple chronic otitis media). Otoscopy is characteristic of serous otitis media (answer 2 correct). It is known by ENT, pediatricians and family physicians that in the month following an acute otitis media, the middle ear is occupied by a mucous content whose evolution should be monitored. I do not think that this is a contestable issue either.

Reading the case, we are discarding options: child with otalgia, but without fever or acute inflammatory signs: it is neither 1 (recurrent acute otitis media) nor 5 (mastoiditis). On otoscopy, a pinkish and amber eardrum is observed: there are no scales, so it is not 4 (cholesteatomatous chronic otitis media); nor perforations or adhesions, so it is not 3 (simple chronic otitis media). Otoscopy is characteristic of serous otitis media ([HIDDEN]). It is known by ENT, pediatricians and family physicians that in the month following an acute otitis media, the middle ear is occupied by a mucous content whose evolution should be monitored. I do not think that this is a contestable issue either.

A child who comes to the outpatient clinic because he brings his hand to his ear, without fever or acute inflammatory signs and who on examination shows a pinkish/amber eardrum. As history he refers that one month ago he presented an episode of otalgia, fever accompanied by irritability and that he was treated with amoxicillin 40 mg/kg/day. What is the most probable diagnosis?

OTORHINOLARYNGOLOGY AND MAXILLOFACIAL SURGERY

Management of otitis media with effusion.

Timmy, a two-year-old, has received two antibiotic courses (ampicillin, cefaclor) for acute otitis media during the past year. Today, his mom visits your pharmacy and mentions that they have just returned from an appointment with the boy's doctor. Timmy was diagnosed with otitis media with effusion, which the doctor described as fluid in the ears unaccompanied by fever or any signs of pain or discomfort. She is puzzled that the doctor did not prescribe any antibiotics this time. Worried about her son's recurrent ear problems, she asks your advice. Your review of Timmy's history reveals that he is otherwise healthy except for the two previous episodes of acute otitis media. Further discussion with Timmy's mom also reveals that his father is a heavy smoker.

Diagnosis and treatment of otitis media.

Diagnostic criteria for acute otitis media include rapid onset of symptoms, middle ear effusion, and signs and symptoms of middle ear inflammation. Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis are the most common bacterial isolates from the middle ear fluid of children with acute otitis media. Fever, otalgia, headache, irritability, cough, rhinitis, listlessness, anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea, and pulling at the ears are common, but nonspecific symptoms. Detection of middle ear effusion by pneumatic otoscopy is key in establishing the diagnosis. Observation is an acceptable option in healthy children with mild symptoms. Antibiotics are recommended in all children younger than six months, in those between six months and two years if the diagnosis is certain, and in children with severe infection. High-dosage amoxicillin (80 to 90 mg per kg per day) is recommended as first-line therapy. Macrolide antibiotics, clindamycin, and cephalosporins are alternatives in penicillin-sensitive children and in those with resistant infections. Patients who do not respond to treatment should be reassessed. Hearing and language testing is recommended in children with suspected hearing loss or persistent effusion for at least three months, and in those with developmental problems.

Acute otitis media: a simple diagnosis, a simple treatment.

To assess the symptoms and signs of acute otitis media and efficiency of simple antibiotics like amoxicillin in its treatment in the primary health care setup. This is a prospective longitudinal study including 204 patients from different institutions. Patients were diagnosed as suffering from acute otitis media when presented with earache, fever, fullness and or otorrhea. Patients were divided into two equal groups on basis of the treatment they received, Group A received only symptomatic treatment while Group B were given Amoxicillin (40 mg/kg/day) for 7 days. Acute otitis media was common in children under 15 years (64.7%). Patients presented with earache (100%), aural fullness (90.68%), fever (76.47%) associated with recent onset of upper respiratory tract infections (88.23%). In group A, improvement was noticed in 28.43% in 3 days while 35.29% in 7 days. In group B, improvement was noticed in 48.03% in day 3 while 86.27% in day 7. In countries where medical care is scarce, patients lost to follow up, it is wise to treat with simple antibiotics like amoxicillin in adequate dose than to treat only symptomatically. It prevents chronicity, early hearing impairments and reduces antibiotic resistance.

Otitis media

Epidemiology Acute otitis media is very common in childhood. It is the most common condition for which medical care is provided in children under five years of age in the US. Acute otitis media affects 11% of people each year (709 million cases) with half occurring in those below five years. Chronic suppurative otitis media affects about 5% or 31 million of these cases with 22.6% of cases occurring annually under the age of five years. Otitis media resulted in 2,400 deaths in 2013—down from 4,900 deaths in 1990. Etymology The term otitis media is composed of otitis, Ancient Greek for "inflammation of the ear", and media, Latin for "middle". References External links Otitis Diseases of middle ear and mastoid Pediatrics Audiology Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate fr:Otite

Ear pain

Epidemiology 2/3 of people presenting with ear pain were diagnosed with some sort of primary otalgia and 1/3 were diagnosed with some sort secondary otalgia. A common cause of primary otalgia is ear infection called otitis media, meaning an infection behind the eardrum. The peak age for children to get acute otitis media is ages 6–24 months. One review paper wrote that 83% of children had at least one episode of acute otitis media by 3 years of age. Worldwide, there are 709 millions cases of acute otitis media every year. Hearing loss globally due to ear infection is estimated to be 30 people in every 10,000. Around the world there is around 21,000 to 28,000 deaths due to complications from ear infections. These complications include brain abscesses and meningitis. Otitis externae peaks at age 7–12 years of age and around 10% of people has had it at least once in their lives.

Ear pain

Middle and inner ear Acute otitis media Acute otitis media is an infection of the middle ear. More than 80% of children experience at least one episode of otitis media by age 3 years. Acute otitis media is also most common in these first 3 years of life, though older children may also experience it. The most common causative bacteria are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis. Otitis media often occurs with or following cold symptoms. The diagnosis is made by the combination of symptoms and examination of the tympanic membrane for redness, bulging, and/or a middle ear effusion (collection of fluid within the middle ear).

Otitis media

Acute otitis media in children with moderate to severe bulging of the tympanic membrane or new onset of otorrhea (drainage) is not due to external otitis. Also, the diagnosis may be made in children who have mild bulging of the ear drum and recent onset of ear pain (less than 48 hours) or intense erythema (redness) of the ear drum. To confirm the diagnosis, middle-ear effusion and inflammation of the eardrum have to be identified; signs of these are fullness, bulging, cloudiness and redness of the eardrum. It is important to attempt to differentiate between acute otitis media and otitis media with effusion (OME), as antibiotics are not recommended for OME. It has been suggested that bulging of the tympanic membrane is the best sign to differentiate AOM from OME, with a bulging of the membrane suggesting AOM rather than OME. Viral otitis may result in blisters on the external side of the tympanic membrane, which is called bullous myringitis (myringa being Latin for "eardrum").

Otitis media: diagnosis and treatment.

Acute otitis media is diagnosed in patients with acute onset, presence of middle ear effusion, physical evidence of middle ear inflammation, and symptoms such as pain, irritability, or fever. Acute otitis media is usually a complication of eustachian tube dysfunction that occurs during a viral upper respiratory tract infection. Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis are the most common organisms isolated from middle ear fluid. Management of acute otitis media should begin with adequate analgesia. Antibiotic therapy can be deferred in children two years or older with mild symptoms. High-dose amoxicillin (80 to 90 mg per kg per day) is the antibiotic of choice for treating acute otitis media in patients who are not allergic to penicillin. Children with persistent symptoms despite 48 to 72 hours of antibiotic therapy should be reexamined, and a second-line agent, such as amoxicillin/clavulanate, should be used if appropriate. Otitis media with effusion is defined as middle ear effusion in the absence of acute symptoms. Antibiotics, decongestants, or nasal steroids do not hasten the clearance of middle ear fluid and are not recommended. Children with evidence of anatomic damage, hearing loss, or language delay should be referred to an otolaryngologist.

Acute otitis media in adults: many unknowns.

(1) Acute otitis media is likely in adults with recent-onset otalgia, fever, and a bulging eardrum on otoscopy. Management is similar to that in children: no antibiotics in the first instance, then amoxicillin later if antibiotic therapy is needed. (2) Otitis media with a perforated eardrum, and evidence of pus must be distinguished from external otitis. In patients with otitis media and a perforated eardrum, the commonest bacterial isolates are staphylococci, pseudomonas and pneumococci. (3) If antibiotics are prescribed the choice of agent is based on individual clinical findings and underlying health status.

[Consensus document on the aetiology, diagnosis and treatment of acute otitis media].

This is the consensus document on acute otitis media (AOM) of the Sociedad Española de Infectología Pediatrica (SEIP), Sociedad Española de Pediatría Extrahospitalaria y Atención Primaria (SEPEAP), Sociedad Española de Urgencias Pediátricas (SEUP) and Asociación Española de Pediatría de Atención Primaria (AEPAP). It discusses the aetiology of the disease and its potential changes after the introduction of the pneumococcal 7-valent, 10-valent and 13-valent vaccines. A proposal is made based on diagnostic classification of otitis media as either confirmed or likely. AOM is considered confirmed if 3 criteria are fulfilled: acute onset, signs of occupation of the middle ear (or otorrhea) and inflammatory signs or symptoms, such as otalgia or severe tympanic hyperaemia. Oral amoxicillin is the antibiotic treatment of choice (80mg/kg/day divided every 8hours). Amoxicillin-clavulanate (80mg/kg/day) is indicated in the following cases: when the child is under 6 months, in infants with severe clinical manifestations (fever>39°C or severe pain), there is family history of AOM sequels, and after amoxiciline treatment failure.

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled noninferiority trial of amoxicillin for clinically diagnosed acute otitis media in children 6 months to 5 years of age.

Debate continues with respect to a "watch and wait" approach versus immediate antibiotic treatment for the initial treatment of acute otitis media. In this double-blind noninferiority trial, we compared clinical improvement rates at 14 days for children (6 months to 5 years of age) with acute otitis media who were randomly assigned to receive amoxicillin or placebo. We enrolled healthy children who presented to clinics or the emergency department with a new episode of acute otitis media during the fall and winter months in Ottawa (from December 1999 to the end of March 2002). The children were randomly assigned to receive amoxicillin (60 mg/kg daily) or placebo for 10 days. Telephone follow-up was performed on each of days 1, 2 and 3 and once between day 10 and day 14. The primary outcome was clinical resolution of symptoms, defined as absence of receipt of an antimicrobial (other than the amoxicillin in the treatment group) at any time during the 14-day period. Secondary outcomes were the presence of pain and fever and the activity level in the first 3 days, recurrence rates, and the presence of middle ear effusion at 1 and 3 months. According to clinical scoring, 415 of the 512 children who could be evaluated had moderate disease. At 14 days 84.2% of the children receiving placebo and 92.8% of those receiving amoxicillin had clinical resolution of symptoms (absolute difference -8.6%, 95% confidence interval -14.4% to -3.0%). Children who received placebo had more pain and fever in the first 2 days. There were no statistical differences in adverse events between the 2 groups, nor were there any significant differences in recurrence rates or middle ear effusion at 1 and 3 months. Our results did not support the hypothesis that placebo was noninferior to amoxicillin (i.e., that the 14-day cure rates among children with clinically diagnosed acute otitis media would not be substantially worse in the placebo group than the treatment group). Nevertheless, delaying treatment was associated with resolution of clinical signs and symptoms in most of the children.

Otitis media

Otitis media is a group of inflammatory diseases of the middle ear. One of the two main types is acute otitis media (AOM), an infection of rapid onset that usually presents with ear pain. In young children this may result in pulling at the ear, increased crying, and poor sleep. Decreased eating and a fever may also be present. The other main type is otitis media with effusion (OME), typically not associated with symptoms, although occasionally a feeling of fullness is described; it is defined as the presence of non-infectious fluid in the middle ear which may persist for weeks or months often after an episode of acute otitis media. Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) is middle ear inflammation that results in a perforated tympanic membrane with discharge from the ear for more than six weeks. It may be a complication of acute otitis media. Pain is rarely present. All three types of otitis media may be associated with hearing loss. If children with hearing loss due to OME do not

Acute Otitis Media in Children.

Acute otitis media is a common childhood infection. Prompt diagnosis and appropriate treatment are very important. To review in depth the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, complications and particularly treatment of acute otitis media in children. A PubMed search was completed in Clinical Queries using the key term "acute otitis media". Patents were searched using the key term "acute otitis media" from www.google.com/patents, http://espacenet.com, and www.freepatentsonline.com. Acute otitis media affects over 80% of children before their third birthday and 30 to 45% of these children have suffered two or more episodes. Streptococcus pneumoniae, nontypable Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis are the most frequently isolated middle-ear pathogens. The diagnosis is based on acute onset of symptoms such as otalgia and fever, middle ear inflammation such as erythema of the tympanic membrane, and middle ear effusion. The choice of treatment method depends on the age of the child, laterality, and the severity of the disease. Recent patents related to the management of acute otitis media are also retrieved and discussed. Antimicrobial treatment is recommended for all children less than two years of age, as well as in children ≥ two years of age who have a temperature ≥ 39oC; are toxic looking; have otalgia > 48 hours; have bilateral otitis media or otorrhea; have craniofacial abnormalities; are immunocompromised; or have uncertain access to follow-up. Amoxicillin is the drug of choice. Observation without antibiotic is an option in immunocompetent children ≥ two years of age who have an acute uncomplicated otitis media and non-severe illness if appropriate follow-up can be arranged.

Otitis media

Viral otitis may result in blisters on the external side of the tympanic membrane, which is called bullous myringitis (myringa being Latin for "eardrum"). However, sometimes even examination of the eardrum may not be able to confirm the diagnosis, especially if the canal is small. If wax in the ear canal obscures a clear view of the eardrum it should be removed using a blunt cerumen curette or a wire loop. Also, an upset young child's crying can cause the eardrum to look inflamed due to distension of the small blood vessels on it, mimicking the redness associated with otitis media. Acute otitis media The most common bacteria isolated from the middle ear in AOM are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Staphylococcus aureus.

Acute otitis media in children.

Acute otitis media (AOM) is the most common reason parents bring children into the primary care physician's office. It is diagnosed by clinical symptoms of otalgia and often fever and irritability and by clinical otoscopy. Organisms common to the nasopharynx usually cause AOM. Many episodes of AOM resolve spontaneously. Because it is uncertain how many and which children will resolve without therapy, it is reasonable to treat all children with AOM with antibiotics. The first choice of antibiotics is amoxicillin. Other choices rest on a variety of factors.

Otitis media

Signs and symptoms The primary symptom of acute otitis media is ear pain; other possible symptoms include fever, reduced hearing during periods of illness, tenderness on touch of the skin above the ear, purulent discharge from the ears, irritability, ear blocking sensation and diarrhea (in infants). Since an episode of otitis media is usually precipitated by an upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), there are often accompanying symptoms like a cough and nasal discharge. One might also experience a feeling of fullness in the ear. Discharge from the ear can be caused by acute otitis media with perforation of the eardrum, chronic suppurative otitis media, tympanostomy tube otorrhea, or acute otitis externa. Trauma, such as a basilar skull fracture, can also lead to cerebrospinal fluid otorrhea (discharge of CSF from the ear) due to cerebral spinal drainage from the brain and its covering (meninges).

Otitis Media: Rapid Evidence Review.

Acute otitis media (AOM) is the most common diagnosis in childhood acute sick visits. By three years of age, 50% to 85% of children will have at least one episode of AOM. Symptoms may include ear pain (rubbing, tugging, or holding the ear may be a sign of pain), fever, irritability, otorrhea, anorexia, and sometimes vomiting or lethargy. AOM is diagnosed in symptomatic children with moderate to severe bulging of the tympanic membrane or new-onset otorrhea not caused by acute otitis externa, and in children with mild bulging and either recent-onset ear pain (less than 48 hours) or intense erythema of the tympanic membrane. Treatment includes pain management plus observation or antibiotics, depending on the patient's age, severity of symptoms, and whether the AOM is unilateral or bilateral. When antibiotics are used, high-dose amoxicillin (80 to 90 mg per kg per day in two divided doses) is first-line therapy unless the patient has taken amoxicillin for AOM in the previous 30 days or has concomitant purulent conjunctivitis; amoxicillin/clavulanate is typically used in this case. Cefdinir or azithromycin should be the first-line antibiotic in those with penicillin allergy based on risk of cephalosporin allergy. Tympanostomy tubes should be considered in children with three or more episodes of AOM within six months or four episodes within one year with one episode in the preceding six months. Pneumococcal and influenza vaccines and exclusive breastfeeding until at least six months of age can reduce the risk of AOM.

Amoxicillin

Acute otitis media Children with acute otitis media who are younger than 6 months of age are generally treated with amoxicillin or other antibiotics. Although most children with acute otitis media who are older than two years old do not benefit from treatment with amoxicillin or other antibiotics, such treatment may be helpful in children younger than two years old with acute otitis media that is bilateral or accompanied by ear drainage. In the past, amoxicillin was dosed three times daily when used to treat acute otitis media, which resulted in missed doses in routine ambulatory practice. There is now evidence that two times daily dosing or once daily dosing has similar effectiveness.

Acute otitis media: clinical course among children who received a short course of high dose antibiotic.

A prospective study was carried out in 274 children aged 3 to 10 years with acute otitis media. They were randomly allocated to one of two treatment regimens: (a) a seven day course of amoxycillin 125 mg three times a day, and (b) a two day course of amoxycillin 750 mg twice a day. They were followed up by symptom diaries and clinical examination. The findings in the 243 children who completed the trial showed that the short course of treatment was as effective as the seven day course in the speed of resolution of symptoms and signs, irrespective of previous history of otitis media or of episodes in which bulging of the eardrums was observed at presentation. A subgroup of 185 children was followed up for one year after entry to the trial. During this period no appreciable differences emerged between the two antibiotic regimens, either in recurrence rate of otitis media or in the frequency of hearing loss at one month and six months after entry to the study. Side effects of treatment were few, and those that could be attributed to antibiotic use occurred with equal frequency in the two treatment groups.

Acute Otitis Media -- History and Physical

Although one of the best indicators for otitis media is otalgia, many children with otitis media can present with non-specific signs and symptoms, which can make the diagnosis challenging. These symptoms include pulling or tugging at the ears, irritability, headache, disturbed or restless sleep, poor feeding, anorexia, vomiting, or diarrhea. Approximately two-thirds of the patients present with fever, which is typically low-grade.

Mastoiditis -- History and Physical

The otoscopic examination will reveal a bulging of the posterosuperior wall of the external auditory canal and bulging of and pus behind the tympanic membrane. Often the tympanic membrane can be ruptured and draining pus. Some important considerations include the following. A normal tympanic membrane usually, but not always, excludes acute mastoiditis. Also, although a history of recent or concurrent otitis media is common, it is not required to make the diagnosis of acute mastoiditis as some cases may take place rapidly during the onset of acute otitis media. [5]

Otitis media

Antibiotics It is important to weigh the benefits and harms before using antibiotics for acute otitis media. As over 82% of acute episodes settle without treatment, about 20 children must be treated to prevent one case of ear pain, 33 children to prevent one perforation, and 11 children to prevent one opposite-side ear infection. For every 14 children treated with antibiotics, one child has an episode of either vomiting, diarrhea or a rash. If pain is present, pain medications may be used. For people requiring surgery to treat otitis media with effusion, preventative antibiotics may not help reduce the risk of post-surgical complications. For bilateral acute otitis media in infants younger than 24 months of age, there is evidence that the benefits of antibiotics outweigh the harms. A 2015 Cochrane review concluded that watchful waiting is the preferred approach for children over six months with non severe acute otitis media.

Otitis media

Diagnosis As its typical symptoms overlap with other conditions, such as acute external otitis, symptoms alone are not sufficient to predict whether acute otitis media is present; it has to be complemented by visualization of the tympanic membrane. Examiners may use a pneumatic otoscope with a rubber bulb attached to assess the mobility of the tympanic membrane. Other methods to diagnose otitis media is with a tympanometry, reflectometry or hearing test. In more severe cases, such as those with associated hearing loss or high fever, audiometry, tympanogram, temporal bone CT and MRI can be used to assess for associated complications, such as mastoid effusion, subperiosteal abscess formation, bony destruction, venous thrombosis or meningitis.

List of ICD-9 codes 320–389: diseases of the nervous system and sense organs

Diseases of the ear and mastoid process (380–389) Disorders of external ear Perichondritis of pinna Infective otitis externa Other otitis externa Noninfective disorders of pinna Impacted cerumen Acquired stenosis of external ear canal Other disorders of external ear Unspecified Nonsuppurative otitis media and Eustachian tube disorders Acute nonsuppurative otitis media Chronic serous otitis media Chronic mucoid otitis media Other and unspecified chronic nonsuppurative otitis media Nonsuppurative otitis media, not specified as acute or chronic Eustachian salpingitis Obstruction of Eustachian tube Patulous Eustachian tube Other disorders of Eustachian tube Unspecified Eustachian tube disorder Suppurative and unspecified otitis media Acute suppurative otitis media Chronic tubotympanic suppurative otitis media Chronic atticoantral suppurative otitis media Unspecified chronic suppurative otitis media Unspecified suppurative otitis media

Treatment of otitis media with effusion.

Otitis media is the most common disease of children who seek medical care. It is estimated that over 30 million visits to physicians are made per year, and that over one billion dollars are spent annually in the United States for the treatment of otitis media. More prescriptions are written for oral antimicrobial agents for otitis media than any other disease. Antimicrobial therapy is still the mainstay of treatment for children with acute otitis media. Myringotomy (and tympanocentesis) should also be performed when acute otitis media is associated with: severe otalgia, when otalgia or fever persists or recurs in spite of antimicrobial therapy, in the very young or immunocompromised host and when a suppurative intratemporal or intracranial complication is impending or present. Antimicrobial agents should be selected according to the incidence of bacteria prevalent in the community and should be altered depending upon the results of cultures obtained from middle ear aspirates in children who are not responding to the usual antimicrobial agents. Children who experience frequently recurrent acute otitis media (without a middle ear effusion between attacks) should be considered candidates for prophylactic antimicrobial therapy or tympanostomy tube insertion, or both. A middle ear effusion that has persisted for three months or longer should be considered chronic and active treatment should be instituted. A course of antimicrobial therapy should be tried, and if not effective, then a myringotomy with aspiration of the effusion is indicated.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Chronic tubotympanic suppurative otitis media Chronic atticoantral suppurative otitis media Unspecified chronic suppurative otitis media Unspecified suppurative otitis media Unspecified otitis media Mastoiditis and related conditions Acute mastoiditis Chronic mastoiditis Petrositis Complications following mastoidectomy Other Unspecified mastoiditis Other disorders of tympanic membrane Acute myringitis without mention of otitis media Chronic myringitis without mention of otitis media Perforation of tympanic membrane Other Unspecified Other disorders of middle ear and mastoid Tympanosclerosis Adhesive middle ear disease Other acquired abnormality of ear ossicles Cholesteatoma of middle ear and mastoid Other Unspecified Vertiginolls syndromes and other disorders of vestibular system Ménière's disease Other and unspecified peripheral vertigo Vertigo of central origin Labyrinthitis Labyrinthine fistula Labyrinthine dysfunction

InternalMed_Harrison

Amoxicillin (80–90 mg/kg per day) is recommended for children with acute otitis media except in situations where observation and symptom-based treatment without antibiotics are advocated. These situations include nonsevere illness and an uncertain diagnosis in children 6 months to 2 years of age and nonsevere illness (even if the diagnosis seems certain) in children >2 years of age. Although the optimal duration of therapy has not been conclusively established, a 10-day course is recommended for younger children and for children with severe disease at any age. For children >6 years old who have mild or moderate disease, a course of 5–7 days is considered adequate. Patients whose illness fails to respond should be reassessed at 48–72 h. If acute otitis media is confirmed and antibiotic treatment has not been started, administration of amoxicillin should be commenced. If antibiotic therapy fails, a change is indicated. Failure to respond to second-line antibiotics as well indicates that

Otitis media

Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) is a chronic inflammation of the middle ear and mastoid cavity that is characterised by discharge from the middle ear through a perforated tympanic membrane for at least 6 weeks. CSOM occurs following an upper respiratory tract infection that has led to acute otitis media. This progresses to a prolonged inflammatory response causing mucosal (middle ear) oedema, ulceration and perforation. The middle ear attempts to resolve this ulceration by production of granulation tissue and polyp formation. This can lead to increased discharge and failure to arrest the inflammation, and to development of CSOM, which is also often associated with cholesteatoma. There may be enough pus that it drains to the outside of the ear (otorrhea), or the pus may be minimal enough to be seen only on examination with an otoscope or binocular microscope. Hearing impairment often accompanies this disease. People are at increased risk of developing CSOM when they have poor

Surgery_Schwartz

the absence of these factors, the child with OME should be reexamined at 3to 6-month intervals until the effusion is no longer present or until significant hear-ing loss is identified or structural abnormalities of the eardrum or middle ear are suspected. When hearing, speech, or structural concerns exist, myringotomy with tympanostomy tube place-ment is indicated.Signs and symptoms of infectious otitis media occurring for <3 weeks denote AOM. In this phase, otalgia and fever are the most common symptoms and physical exam reveals a bulging, opaque tympanic membrane (Fig. 18-1). If the process lasts 3 to 8 weeks, it is deemed subacute. Chronic otitis media, lasting more than 8 weeks, usually results from an unresolved acute otitis media. The most common organisms responsible are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, and Moraxella catarrhalis.In order to minimize antibiotic resistance and obviate complications of antimicrobial therapy such as allergic reaction and diarrhea,

Bezold Abscess -- History and Physical

Bezold's abscess may occur in both children and adults with well-developed mastoid bones. Both may have had a history of recurrent otitis media or chronic otitis media with tympanic membrane perforation and a draining ear. Prior mastoid surgery for cholesteatoma normally causes further thinning of the mastoid walls making it easier for infection to spread in this way. An important early clinical sign of a coalescent mastoiditis on physical examination is sagging of the posterior superior external auditory canal. Other common clinical signs include the following: neck pain swelling in the lateral neck postauricular tenderness over the affected mastoid bone otalgia otorrhea hearing loss

The diagnosis of otitis media is primarily based on clinical findings combined with supporting signs and symptoms as described above. No lab test or imaging is needed. According to guidelines set forth by the American Academy of Pediatrics, evidence of moderate to severe bulging of the tympanic membrane or new onset of otorrhea not caused by otitis externa or mild tympanic membrane (TM) bulging with recent onset of ear pain or erythema is required for the diagnosis of acute otitis media. These criteria are intended only to aid primary care clinicians in the diagnosis and proper clinical decision-making but not to replace clinical judgment. [19]

Treatment of acute otitis media in children under 2 years of age.

Recommendations vary regarding immediate antimicrobial treatment versus watchful waiting for children younger than 2 years of age with acute otitis media. We randomly assigned 291 children 6 to 23 months of age, with acute otitis media diagnosed with the use of stringent criteria, to receive amoxicillin-clavulanate or placebo for 10 days. We measured symptomatic response and rates of clinical failure. Among the children who received amoxicillin-clavulanate, 35% had initial resolution of symptoms by day 2, 61% by day 4, and 80% by day 7; among children who received placebo, 28% had initial resolution of symptoms by day 2, 54% by day 4, and 74% by day 7 (P=0.14 for the overall comparison). For sustained resolution of symptoms, the corresponding values were 20%, 41%, and 67% with amoxicillin-clavulanate, as compared with 14%, 36%, and 53% with placebo (P=0.04 for the overall comparison). Mean symptom scores over the first 7 days were lower for the children treated with amoxicillin-clavulanate than for those who received placebo (P=0.02). The rate of clinical failure--defined as the persistence of signs of acute infection on otoscopic examination--was also lower among the children treated with amoxicillin-clavulanate than among those who received placebo: 4% versus 23% at or before the visit on day 4 or 5 (P<0.001) and 16% versus 51% at or before the visit on day 10 to 12 (P<0.001). Mastoiditis developed in one child who received placebo. Diarrhea and diaper-area dermatitis were more common among children who received amoxicillin-clavulanate. There were no significant changes in either group in the rates of nasopharyngeal colonization with nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae. Among children 6 to 23 months of age with acute otitis media, treatment with amoxicillin-clavulanate for 10 days tended to reduce the time to resolution of symptoms and reduced the overall symptom burden and the rate of persistent signs of acute infection on otoscopic examination. (Funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00377260.).