Alcohol dependence, or "alcoholism", affects approximately 14 million Americans. Currently, only three pharmacotherapies (disulfiram, naltrexone, and acamprosate) have been approved for the treatment of alcohol dependence and these medications are, at best, moderately successful. Thus, there is a great need for the examination of other biological systems, which contribute/influence the drug reward/addiction pathways within the brain, such that the discovery of new targets and new pharmacotherapies will be possible. Other biological systems in addition to dopamine, such as serotonin, and norepinephrine (NE) are thought to be important in several aspects of addiction, including reward, craving and depression.