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ثم لم يأت من بعد هؤلاء إلا مقلد، وبليد الطبع والعقل وبليد، ينسج على ذلك المنوال، ويحتذي منه بالمثال، ويذهل عما أحالته الأيام من الأحوال، واستبدلت به من عوائد الأمم والأجيال، فيجلبون الأخبار عن الدول، وحكايات الوقائع في العصور الأول، صورا قد تجردت عن موادها، وصفاحا انتضيت من أغمادها، ومعارف تستنكر للجهل بطارفها وتلادها،,"The later historians were all tradition-bound and dull of nature and intelligence, or, (at any rate) did not try not to be dull. They merely copied 20 the (older historians) and followed their example. They disregarded the changes in conditions and in the customs of nations and races that the passing of time had brought about. Thus, they presented historical information about dynasties and stories of events from the early period as mere forms without substance, blades without scabbards, as knowledge that must be considered ignorance, because it is not known what of it is extraneous and what is genuine."
إنما هي حوادث لم تعلم أصولها، وأنواع لم تعتبر أجناسها ولا تحققت فصولها، يكررون في موضوعاتها الأخبار المتداولة بأعيانها، اتباعا لمن عني من المتقدمين بشأنها، ويغفلون أمر الأجيال الناشئة في ديوانها، بما أعوز عليهم من ترجمانها، فتستعجم صحفهم عن بيانها،,"(Their information) concerns happenings the origins of which are not known. It concerns species the genera of which are not taken into consideration, and whose (specific) differences are not verified. With the information they set down they merely repeated historical material which is, in any case, widely known, and followed the earlier historians who worked on it. They neglected the importance of change over the generations in their treatment of the (historical material), because they had no one who could interpret it for them. Their works, therefore, give no explanation for it."
ثم إذا تعرضوا لذكر الدولة نسقوا أخبارها نسقا محافظين على نقلها وهما أو صدقا، لا يتعرضون لبدايتها، ولا يذكرون السبب الذي رفع من رايتها، وأظهر من آيتها، ولا علة الوقوف عند غايتها، فيبقى الناظر متطلعا بعد إلى افتقاد أحوال مبادئ الدول ومراتبها، مفتشا عن أسباب تزاحمها أو تعاقبها، باحثا عن المقنع في تباينها أو تناسبها، حسبما نذكر ذلك كله في مقدمة الكتاب.,"When they then turn to the description of a particular dynasty, they report the historical information about it (mechanically) and take care to preserve it as it had been passed on down to them, be it imaginary or true. They do not turn to the beginning of the dynasty. Nor do they tell why it unfurled its banner and was able to give prominence to its emblem, or what caused it to come to a stop when it had reached its term. The student, thus, has still to search for the beginnings of conditions and for (the principles of) organization of (the various dynasties). He must (himself) investigate why the various dynasties brought pressures to bear upon each other and why they succeeded each other. He must search for a convincing explanation of the elements that made for mutual separation or contact among the dynasties. All this will be dealt with in the Introduction to this work."
ثم جاء آخرون بإفراط الاختصار، وذهبوا إلى الاكتفاء بأسماء الملوك والاقتصار، مقطوعة عن الأنساب والأخبار، موضوعة عليها أعداد أيامهم بحروف الغبار، كما فعله ابن رشيق في ميزان العمل، ومن اقتفى هذا الأثر من الهمل، وليس يعتبر لهؤلاء مقال، ولا يعد لهم ثبوت ولا انتقال، لما أذهبوا من الفوائد، وأخلوا بالمذاهب المعروفة للمؤرخين والعوائد.,"Other historians, then, came with too brief a presentation (of history). They went to the extreme of being satisfied with the names of kings, without any genealogical or historical information, and with only a numerical indication of the length of reigns.22 This was done by Ibn Rashiq in the Mizan al-‘amal,23 and by those lost sheep who followed his method. No credence can be given to what they say. They are not considered trustworthy, nor is their material considered worthy of transmission, for they caused useful material to be lost and damaged the methods and customs acknowledged (as sound and practical) by historians."
ولما طالعت كتب القوم، وسبرت غور الأمس واليوم، نبهت عين القريحة من سنة الغفلة والنوم. وسمت التصنيف من نفسي وأنا المفلس أحسن السوم، فأنشأت في التاريخ كتابا.,"When I had read the works of others and probed into the recesses of yesterday and today, I shook myself out of that drowsy complacency and sleepiness. Although not much of a writer, I exhibited my own literary ability as well as I could, and, thus, composed a book on history."
"رفعت به عن أحوال الناشئة من الأجيال حجابا:
وفصلته في الأخبار والاعتبار بابا بابا، وأبديت فيه لأولية الدول والعمران عللا وأسبابا. وبنيته على أخبار الأمم الذين عمروا المغرب في هذه الأعصار، وملئوا الملوك والأنصار، وهما العرب والبربر، إذ هما الجيلان اللذان عرف بالمغرب مأواهما وطال فيه على الأحقاب مثواهما، حتى لا يكاد يتصور فيه ما عداهما، ولا يعرف أهله من أجيال الآدميين سواهما، فهذبت مناحيه تهذيبا، وقربته لأفهام العلماء والخاصة تقريبا،","In (this book) I lifted the veil from conditions as they arise in the various generations. I arranged it in an orderly way in chapters dealing with historical facts and reflections. In it I showed how and why dynasties and civilization originate. I based the work on the history of the two races that constitute the population of the Maghrib at this time and people its various regions and cities, and on that of their ruling houses, both long- and short-lived, including the rulers and allies they had in the past. These two races are the Arabs and the Berbers. They are the two races known to have resided in the Maghrib for such a long time that one can hardly imagine they ever lived elsewhere, for its inhabitants know no other human races. I corrected the contents of the work carefully and presented it to the judgment of scholars and the elite."
وسلكت في ترتيبه وتبويبه مسلكا غريبا، واخترعته من بين المناحي مذهبا عجيبا، وطريقة مبتدعة وأسلوبا. وشرحت فيه من أحوال العمران والتمدن وما يعرض في الاجتماع الإنساني من العوارض الذاتية ما يمتعك بعلل الكوائن وأسبابها، ويعرفك كيف دخل أهل الدول من أبوابها، حتى تنزع من التقليد يدك، وتقف على أحوال ما قبلك من الأيام والأجيال وما بعدك ورتبته على مقدمة وثلاثة كتب:,"I followed an unusual method of arrangement and division into chapters. From the various possibilities, I chose a remarkable and original method. In the work, I commented on civilization, on urbanization, and on the essential characteristics of human social organization, in a way that explains to the reader how and why things are as they are, and shows him how the men who constituted a dynasty first came upon the historical scene. As a result, he will wash his hands of any blind trust in tradition. He will become aware of the conditions of periods and races that were before his time and that will be after it. I divided the work into an introduction and three books:"
المقدمة في فضل علم التاريخ وتحقيق مذاهبه والإلماع بمغالط المؤرخين.,"The Introduction deals with the great merit of historiography, (offers) an appreciation of its various methods, and cites errors of the historians."
الكتاب الأول في العمران وذكر ما يعرض فيه من العوارض الذاتية من الملك والسلطان والكسب والمعاش والصنائع والعلوم وما لذلك من العلل والأسباب.,"The First Book deals with civilization and its essential characteristics, namely, royal authority, government, gainful occupations, ways of making a living, crafts, and sciences, as well as with the causes and reasons thereof."
الكتاب الثاني في أخبار العرب وأجيالهم ودولهم منذ مبدإ الخليقة إلى هذا العهد وفيه من الإلماع ببعض من عاصرهم من الأمم المشاهير ودولهم مثل النبط والسريانيين والفرس وبني إسرائيل والقبط واليونان والروم والترك والإفرنجة,"The Second Book deals with the history, races, and dynasties of the Arabs, from the beginning of creation down to this time. This will include references to such famous nations and dynasties – contemporaneous with them, as the Nabataeans, the Syrians, the Persians, the Israelites, the Copts, the Greeks, the Byzantines, the Turks, and the Franks."
الكتاب الثالث في أخبار البربر ومواليهم من زناتة وذكر أوليتهم وأحيالهم وما كان بديار المغرب خاصة من الملك والدول,"The Third Book deals with the history of the Berbers and of the Zanatah who are part of them; with their origins and races; and, in particular, with the royal authority and dynasties in the Maghrib."
ثم كانت الرحلة إلى المشرق لاجتناء أنواره، وقضاء الفرض والسنة في مطافه ومزاره: والوقوف على آثاره في دواوينه وأسفاره:,"Later on, there was my trip to the East, in order to find out about the manifold illumination it offers and to fulfill the religious duty and custom of circumambulating the Ka’bah and visiting Medina, as well as to study the systematic works and tomes on (Eastern) history."
فزدت ما نقص من أخبار ملوك العجم بتلك الديار، ودول الترك فيما ملكوه من الأقطار، وأتبعت بها ما كتبته في تلك الأسطار،,"As a result, I was able to fill the gaps in my historical information about the non-Arab (Persian) rulers of those lands, and about the Turkish dynasties in the regions over which they ruled. I added this information to what I had written here (before in this connection)."
وأدرجتها في ذكر المعاصرين لتلك الأجيال من أمم النواحي، وملوك الأمصار والضواحي، سالكا سبيل الاختصار والتلخيص، مفتديا بالمرام السهل من العويص، داخلا من باب الأسباب على العموم إلى الإخبار على الخصوص فاستوعب أخبار الخليقة استيعابا، وذلل من الحكم النافرة صعابا، وأعطى لحوادث الدول عللا وأسبابا، فأصبح للحكمة صوانا. وللتاريخ جرابا.,"I inserted it into the treatment of the nations of the various districts and rulers of the various cities and regions that were contemporary with those (Persian and Turkish) races. In this connection I was brief and concise and preferred the easy goal to the difficult one. I proceeded from general genealogical (tables) to detailed historical information. Thus, (this work) contains an exhaustive history of the world. It forces stubborn stray wisdom to return to the fold. It gives causes and reasons for happenings in the various dynasties. It turns out to be a vessel for philosophy, a receptacle for historical knowledge."
ولما كان مشتملا على أخبار العرب والبربر، من أهل المدن والوبر، والإلماع بمن عاصرهم من الدول الكبر، وأفصح بالذكرى والعبر، في مبتدإ الأحوال ومما بعدها من الخبر، سميته كتاب العبر، وديوان المبتدإ والخبر، في أيام العرب والعجم والبربر، ومن عاصرهم من ذوي السلطان الأكبر، ولم أترك شيئا في أولية الأجيال والدول، وتعاصر الأمم الأول، وأسباب التصرف والحول، في القرون الخالية والملل، وما يعرض في العمران من دولة وملة، ومدينة وحلة، وعزة وذلة، وكثرة وقلة، وعلم وصناعة، وكسب وإضاعة، وأحوال متقلبة مشاعة، وبدو وحضر، وواقع ومنتظر، إلا واستوعبت جمله، وأوضحت براهينه وعلله،,"The work contains the history of the Arabs and the Berbers, both the sedentary groups and the nomads. It also contains references to the great dynasties that were contemporary with them, and, moreover, clearly indicates memorable lessons to be learned from early conditions and from subsequent history. Therefore, I called the work “Book of Lessons and Archive of Early and Subsequent History, Dealing with the Political Events Concerning the Arabs, Non-Arabs, and Berbers, and the Supreme Rulers Who Were Contemporary with Them.” I omitted nothing concerning the origin of races and dynasties, concerning the synchronism of the earliest nations, concerning the reasons for change and variation in past periods and within religious groups, concerning dynasties and religious groups, towns and hamlets, strength and humiliation, large numbers and small numbers, sciences and crafts, gains and losses, changing general conditions, nomadic and sedentary life, actual events and future events, all things expected to occur in civilization. I treated everything comprehensively and exhaustively and explained the arguments for and causes of it(s existence)."
فجاء هذا الكتاب فذا بما ضمنته من العلوم الغريبة، والحكم المحجوبة القريبة، وأنا من بعدها موقن بالقصور، بين أهل العصور، معترف بالعجز عن المضاء، في مثل هذا القضاء، راغب من أهل اليد البيضاء، والمعارف المتسعة الفضاء، في النظر بعين الانتقاد لا بعين الارتضاء، والتغمد لما يعثرون عليه بالإصلاح والإغضاء، فالبضاعة بين أهل العلم مزجاة، والاعتراف من اللوم منجاة، والحسنى من الإخوان مرتجاة، والله اسأل أن يجعل أعمالنا خالصة لوجهه الكريم وهو حسبي ونعم الوكيل.,"As a result, this book has become unique, as it contains unusual knowledge and familiar if hidden wisdom. Still, after all has been said, I am conscious of imperfection when (I look at) the scholars of (past and contemporary) times.29 I confess my inability to penetrate so difficult a subject. I wish that men of scholarly competence and wide knowledge would look at the book with a critical, rather than a complacent eye, and silently correct and overlook the mistakes they come upon. The capital of knowledge that an individual scholar has to offer is small. Admission (of one’s shortcomings) saves from censure. Kindness from colleagues is hoped for. It is God whom I ask to make our deeds acceptable in His sight. He suffices me. He is a good protector."
اعلم أن فن التأريخ فن عزيز المذهب جم الفوائد شريف الغاية إذ هو يوقفنا على أحوال الماضين من الأمم في أخلاقهم. والأنبياء في سيرهم. والملوك في دولهم وسياستهم. حتى تتم فائدة الاقتداء في ذلك لمن يرومه في أحوال الدين والدنيا,IT SHOULD BE KNOWN that history is a discipline that has a great number of (different) approaches. Its useful aspects are very many. Its goal is distinguished. (History) makes us acquainted with the conditions of past nations as they are reflected in their (national) character. It makes us acquainted with the biographies of the prophets and with the dynasties and policies of rulers. Whoever so desires may thus achieve the useful result of being able to imitate historical examples in religious and worldly matters.
فهو محتاج إلى مآخذ متعددة ومعارف متنوعة وحسن نظر وتثبت يفضيان بصاحبهما إلى الحق وينكبان به عن المزلات والمغالط لأن الأخبار إذا اعتمد فيها على مجرد النقل ولم تحكم أصول العادة وقواعد السياسة وطبيعة العمران والأحوال في الاجتماع الإنساني ولا قيس الغائب منها بالشاهد والحاضر بالذاهب فربما لم يؤمن فيها من العثور ومزلة القدم والحيد عن جادة الصدق,"The (writing of history) requires numerous sources and greatly varied knowledge. It also requires a good speculative mind and thoroughness. (Possession of these two qualities) leads the historian to the truth and keeps him from slips and errors. If he trusts historical information in its plain transmitted form and has no clear knowledge of the principles resulting from custom, the fundamental facts of politics, the nature of civilization, or the conditions governing human social organization, and if, furthermore, he does not evaluate remote or ancient material through comparison with near or contemporary material, he often cannot avoid stumbling and slipping and deviating from the highroad of truth."
وكثيرا ما وقع للمؤرخين والمفسرين وأئمة النقل من المغالط في الحكايات والوقائع لاعتمادهم فيها على مجرد النقل غثا أو سمينا ولم يعرضوها على أصولها ولا قاسوها بأشباهها ولا سبروها بمعيار الحكمة والوقوف على طبائع الكائنات وتحكيم النظر والبصيرة في الأخبار فضلوا عن الحق وتاهوا في بيداء الوهم والغلط,"Historians, Qur’an commentators and leading transmitters have committed frequent errors in the stories and events they reported. They accepted them in the plain transmitted form, without regard for its value. They did not check them with the principles underlying such historical situations, nor did they compare them with similar material. Also, they did not probe (more deeply) with the yardstick of philosophy, with the help of knowledge of the nature of things, or with the help of speculation and historical insight. Therefore, they strayed from the truth and found themselves lost in the desert of baseless assumptions and errors."
"ولا سيما في إحصاء الأعداد من الأموال والعساكر إذا عرضت في الحكايات إذ هي مظنة الكذب ومطية الهذر ولا بد من ردها إلى الأصول وعرضها على القواعد.
وهذا كما نقل المسعودي وكثير من المؤرخين في جيوش بني إسرائيل بأن موسى عليه السلام أحصاهم في التيه بعد أن أجاز من يطيق حمل السلاح خاصة من ابن عشرين فما فوقها فكانوا ستمائة ألف أو يزيدون","This is especially the case with figures, either of sums of money or of soldiers, whenever they occur in stories. They offer a good opportunity for false information and constitute a vehicle for nonsensical statements. They must be controlled and checked with the help of known fundamental facts. For example, al-Mas’udi and many other historians report that Moses counted the army of the Israelites in the desert.33 He had all those able to carry arms, especially those twenty years and older, pass muster. There turned out to be 600,000 or more."
ويذهل في ذلك عن تقدير مصر والشام واتساعهما لمثل هذا العدد من الجيوش لكل مملكة من الممالك حصة من الحامية تتسع لها وتقوم بوظائفها وتضيق عما فوقها تشهد بذلك الغوائد المعروفة والأحوال المألوفة ثم إن مثل هذه الجيوش البالغة إلى مثل هذا العدد يبعد أن يقع بينها زحف أو قتال لضيق ساحة الأرض عنها وبعدها إذا اصطفت عن مدى البصر مرتين أو ثلاثا أو أزيد فكيف يقتتل هذان الفريقان أو تكون غلبة أحد الصفين وشيء من جوانبه لا يشعر بالجانب الآخر والحاضر يشهد لذلك فالماضي أشبه بالآتي من الماء بالماء.,"In this connection, (al-Mas’udi) forgets to take into consideration whether Egypt and Syria could possibly have held such a number of soldiers. Every realm may have as large a militia as it can hold and support, but no more. This fact is attested by well-known customs and familiar conditions. Moreover, an army of this size cannot march or fight as a unit. The whole available territory would be too small for it. If it were in battle formation, it would extend two, three, or more times beyond the field of vision. How, then, could two such parties fight with each other, or one battle formation gain the upper hand when one flank does not know what the other flank is doing! The situation at the present day testifies to the correctness of this statement. The past resembles the future more than one (drop of) water another."
ولقد كان ملك الفرس ودولتهم أعظم من ملك بني إسرائيل بكثير يشهد لذلك ما كان من غلب بخت نصر لهم والتهامه بلادهم واستيلائه على أمرهم وتخريب بيت المقدس قاعدة ملتهم وسلطانهم وهو من بعض عمال مملكة فارس يقال إنه كان مرزبان المغرب من تخومها,"Furthermore, the realm of the Persians was much greater than that of the Israelites. This fact is attested by Nebuchadnezzar’s victory over them. He swallowed up their country and gained complete control over it. He also destroyed Jerusalem, their religious and political capital. And he was merely one of the officials of the province of Fars. It is said that he was the governor of the western border region."
وكانت ممالكهم بالعراقين وخراسان وما وراء النهر والأبواب أوسع من ممالك بني إسرائيل بكثير ومع ذلك لم تبلغ جيوش الفرس قط مثل هذا العدد ولا قريبا منه وأعظم ما كانت جموعهم بالقادسية مائة وعشرين ألفا كلهم متبوع على ما نقله سيف قال وكانوا في أتباعهم أكثر من مائتي ألف,"The Persian provinces of the two ‘Iraqs,35 Khurasan, Transoxania, and the region of Derbend on the Caspian Sea36 were much larger than the realm of the Israelites. Yet, the Persian army did not attain such a number or even approach it. The greatest concentration of Persian troops, at alQadisiyah, amounted to 120,000 men, all of whom had their retainers. This is according to Sayf who said that with their retainers they amounted to over 200,000 persons."
وعن عائشة والزهري فإن جموع رستم الذين زحف بهم سعد بالقادسية إنما كانوا ستين ألفا كلهم متبوع وأيضا فلو بلغ بنو إسرائيل مثل هذا العدد لاتسع نطاق ملكهم وانفسح مدى دولتهم فإن العمالات والممالك في الدول على نسبة الحامية والقبيل القائمين بها في قلتها وكثرتها حسبما نبين في فصل الممالك من الكتاب الأول والقوم لم تتسع ممالكهم إلى غير الأردن وفلسطين من الشام وبلاد يثرب وخيبر من الحجاز على ما هو المعروف.,"According to ‘A’ishah and az- Zuhri, the troop concentration with which Rustum advanced against Sa’d at al- Qadisiyah amounted to only 60,000 men, all of whom had their retainers. Then, if the Israelites had really amounted to such a number, the extent of the area under their rule would have been larger, for the size of administrative units and provinces under a particular dynasty is in direct proportion to the size of its militia and the groups that support the (dynasty), as will be explained in the section on provinces in the first book.39 Now, it is well known that the territory of the (Israelites) did not comprise an area larger than the Jordan province and Palestine in Syria and the region of Medina and Khaybar in the Hijaz."
وأيضا فالذين بين موسى وإسرائيل إنما هو أربعة آباء على ما ذكره المحققون فإنه موسى بن عمران بن يصهر بن قاهت بفتح الهاء وكسرها ابن لاوي بكسر الواو وفتحها ابن يعقوب وهو إسرائيل الله هكذا نسبه في التوراة والمدة بينهما على ما نقله المسعودي قال دخل إسرائيل مصر مع ولده الأسباط وأولادهم حين أتوا إلى يوسف سبعين نفسا وكان مقامهم بمصر إلى أن خرجوا مع موسى عليه السلام إلى التيه مائتين وعشرين سنة تتداولهم ملوك القبط من الفراعنة,"Also, there were only three generations41 between Moses and Israel, according to the best-informed scholars. Moses was the son of Amram, the son of Kohath (Qahat or Qahit), the son of Levi (Lewi or Lawi), the son of Jacob who is Israel-Allah. This is Moses’ genealogy in the Torah. The length of time between Israel and Moses was indicated by al-Mas’udi when he said: “Israel entered Egypt with his children, the tribes, and their children, when they came to Joseph numbering seventy souls. The length of their stay in Egypt until they left with Moses for the desert was two hundred and twenty years. During those years, the kings of the Copts, the Pharaohs, passed them on (as their subjects) one to the other.”"
ويبعد أن يتشعب النسل في أربعة أجيال إلى مثل هذا العدد وإن زعموا أن عدد تلك الجيوش إنما كان في زمن سليمان ومن بعده فبعيد أيضا إذ ليس بين سليمان وإسرائيل إلا أحد عشر أبا فإنه سليمان بن داود بن يشا بن عوفيذ (ويقال ابن عوفذ) ابن باعز (ويقال بوعز) بن سلمون بن نحشون بن عمينوذب (ويقال حميناذاب) بن رم بن حصرون (ويقال حسرون) بن بارس (ويقال ببرس) بن يهوذا بن يعقوب ولا يتشعب النسل في أحد عشر من الولد إلى مثل هذا العدد الذي زعموه اللهم إلى المائتين والآلاف فربما يكون وأما أن يتجاوز إلى ما بعدهما من عقود الأعداد فبعيد,"It is improbable that the descendants of one man could branch out into such a number within four generations. It has been assumed that this number of soldiers applied to the time of Solomon and his successors. Again, this is improbable. Between Solomon and Israel, there were only eleven generations, that is: Solomon, the son of David, the son of Jesse, the son of Obed (‘Ubidh, or ‘ Ufidh), the son of Boaz (Ba’az, or Bu’iz), the son of Salmon, the son of Nahshon, the son of Amminadab (‘Amminddhab, or Hamminddhab), the son of Ram, the son of Hezron (Had/srun, or Hasran), the son of Perez (Baras, or Bayras), the son of Judah, the son of Jacob. The descendants of one man in eleven generations would not branch out into such a number, as has been assumed. They might, indeed, reach hundreds or thousands. This often happens. But an increase beyond that to higher figures is improbable."
واعتبر ذلك في الحاضر المشاهد والقريب المعروف تجد زعمهم باطلا ونقلهم كاذبا. والذي ثبت في الإسرائيليات أن جنود سليمان كانت اثني عشر ألفا خاصة وأن مقرباته كانت ألفا وأربعمائة فرس مرتبطة على أبوابه هذا هو الصحيح من أخبارهم ولا يلتفت إلى خرافات العامة منهم وفي أيام سليمان (عليه السلام) وملكه كان عنفوان دولتهم واتساع ملكهم هذا,"Comparison with observable present-day and well-known nearby facts proves the assumption and report to be untrue. According to the definite statement of the Israelite Stories, Solomon’s army amounted to 12,000 men, and his horses48 numbered 1,400 horses, which were stabled at his palace. This is the correct information. No attention should be paid to nonsensical statements by the common run of informants. In the days of Solomon, the Israelite state saw its greatest flourishing and their realm its widest extension."
وقد نجد الكافة من أهل العصر إذا أفاضوا في الحديث عن عساكر الدول التي لعهدهم أو قريبا منه وتفاوضوا في الأخبار عن جيوش المسلمين أو النصارى أو أخذوا في إحصاء أموال الجبايات وخراج السلطان ونفقات المترفين وبضائع الأغنياء الموسرين توغلوا في العدد وتجاوزوا حدود العوائد وطاوعوا وساوس الإغراب,"Whenever contemporaries speak about the dynastic armies of their own or recent times, and whenever they engage in discussions about Muslim or Christian soldiers, or when they get to figuring the tax revenues and the money spent by the government, the outlays of extravagant spenders, and the goods that rich and prosperous men have in stock, they are quite generally found to exaggerate, to go beyond the bounds of the ordinary, and to succumb to the temptation of sensationalism."
فإذا استكشف أصحاب الدواوين عن عساكرهم واستنبطت أحوال أهل الثروة في بضائعهم وفوائدهم واستجليت عوائد المترفين في نفقاتهم لم تجد معشار ما يعدونه وما ذلك إلا لولوع النفس بالغرائب وسهولة التجاوز على اللسان والغفلة على المتعقب والمنتقد حتى لا يحاسب نفسه على خطإ ولا عمد ولا يطالبها في الخبر بتوسط ولا عدالة ولا يرجعها إلى بحث وتفتيش فيرسل عنانه ويسيم في مراتع الكذب لسانه ويتخذ آيات الله هزءا ويشتري لهو الحديث ليضل عن سبيل الله وحسبك بها صفقة خاسرة.,"When the officials in charge are questioned about their armies, when the goods and assets of wealthy people are assessed, and when the outlays of extravagant spenders are looked at in ordinary light, the figures will be found to amount to a tenth of what those people have said. The reason is simple. It is the common desire for sensationalism, the ease with which one may just mention a higher figure, and the disregard of reviewers and critics. This leads to failure to exercise self-criticism about one’s errors and intentions, to demand from oneself moderation and fairness in reporting, to reapply oneself to study and research. Such historians let themselves go and made a feast of untrue statements. “They procure for themselves entertaining stories in order to lead (others) astray from the path of God.” This is a bad enough business."
ومن الأخبار الواهية للمؤرخين ما ينقلونه كافة في أخبار التبابعة ملوك اليمن وجزيرة العرب أنهم كانوا يغزون من قراهم باليمن إلى إفريقية والبربر من بلاد المغرب وأن أفريقش بن قيس بن صيفي من أعاظم ملوكهم الأول وكان لعهد موسى عليه السلام أو قبله بقليل غزا إفريقية وأثخن في البربر وأنه الذي سماهم بهذا الاسم حين سمع رطانتهم وقال ما هذه البربرة,"The history of the Tubba’s, the kings of the Yemen and of the Arabian Peninsula, as it is generally transmitted, is another example of silly statements by historians. It is said that from their home in the Yemen, (the Tubba’s) used to raid Ifriqiyah and the Berbers of the Maghrib. Afriqus b. Qays b. Sayfi, one of their great early kings who lived in the time of Moses or somewhat earlier,54 is said to have raided Ifriqiyah. He caused a great slaughter among the Berbers. He gave them the name of Berbers when he heard their jargon and asked what that “barbarah” was."
فأخذ هذا الاسم عنه ودعوا به من حينئذ وأنه لما انصرف من المغرب حجز هنالك قبائل من حمير فأقاموا بها واختلطوا بأهلها ومنهم صنهاجة وكتامة ومن هذا ذهب الطبري والجرجاني والمسعودي وابن الكلبي والبيلي إلى أن صنهاجة وكتامة من حمير وتأباه نسابة البربر وهو الصحيح وذكر المسعودي أيضا أن ذا الأذعار من ملوكهم قبل أفريقش وكان على عهد سليمان (عليه السلام) غزا المغرب ودوخه,"This gave them the name which has remained with them since that time. When he left the Maghrib, he is said. to have concentrated some Himyar tribes there. They remained there and mixed with the native population. Their (descendants) are the Sinhajah and the Kutamah. This led at-Tabari, al-Jurjani, al-Mas’udi, Ibn al- Kalbi, and al-Bayhaqi to make the statement that the Sinhajah and the Kutamah belong to the Himyar. The Berber genealogists do not admit this, and they are right. Al-Mas’udi also mentioned that one of the Himyar kings after Afriqus, Dhul-Adh’ar, who lived in the time of Solomon, raided the Maghrib and forced it into submission."
وكذلك ذكر مثله عن ياسر ابنه من بعده وأنه بلغ وادي الرمل في بلاد المغرب ولم يجد فيه مسلكا لكثرة الرمل فرجع وكذلك يقولون في تبع الآخر وهو أسعد أبو كرب وكان على عهد يستأسف من ملوك الفرس الكيانية أنه ملك الموصل وأذربيجان ولقي الترك فهزمهم وأثخن,"Something similar is mentioned by al-Mas’udi concerning his son and successor, Yasir. He is said to have reached the Sand River in the Maghrib and to have been unable to find passage through it because of the great mass of sand. Therefore, he returned. Likewise, it is said that the last Tubba’, As’ad Abu Karib, who lived in the time of the Persian Kayyanid king Yastasb, ruled over Mosul and Azerbaijan. He is said to have met and routed the Turks and to have caused a great slaughter among them."
ثم غزاهم ثانية وثالثة كذلك وأنه بعد ذلك أغزى ثلاثة من بنيه بلاد فارس وإلى بلاد الصغد من بلاد أمم الترك وراء النهر وإلى بلاد الروم فملك الأول البلاد إلى سمرقند وقطع المفازة إلى الصين فوجد أخاه الثاني الذي غزا إلى سمرقند قد سبقه إليها فأثخنا في بلاد الصين ورجعا جميعا بالغنائم وتركوا ببلاد الصين قبائل من حمير فهم بها إلى هذا العهد وبلغ الثالث إلى قسطنطنية فدرسها ودوخ بلاد الروم ورجع.,"Then he raided them again a second and a third time. After that, he is said to have sent three of his sons on raids, (one) against the country of Firs, (one) against the country of the Soghdians, one of the Turkish nations of Transoxania, and (one) against the country of the Rum (Byzantines) The first brother took possession of the country up to Samarkand and crossed the desert into China. There, he found his second brother who had raided the Soghdians and had arrived in China before him. The two together caused a great slaughter in China and returned together with their booty. They left some Himyar tribes in Tibet. They have been there down to this time. The third brother is said to have reached Constantinople. He laid siege to it and forced the country of the Rum (Byzantines) into submission. Then, he returned."
وهذه الأخبار كلها بعيدة عن الصحة عريقة في الوهم والغلط وأشبه بأحاديث القصص الموضوعة. وذلك أن ملك التبابعة إنما كان بجزيرة العرب وقرارهم وكرسيهم بصنعاء اليمن. وجزيرة العرب يحيط بها البحر من ثلاث جهاتها فبحر الهند من الجنوب وبحر فارس الهابط منه إلى البصرة من المشرق وبحر السويس الهابط منه إلى السويس من أعمال مصر من جهة المغرب كما تراه في مصور الجغرافيا فلا يجد السالكون من اليمن إلى المغرب طريقا من غير السويس,"All this information is remote from the truth. It is rooted in baseless and erroneous assumptions. It is more like the fiction of storytellers. The realm of the Tubba’s was restricted to the Arabian peninsula. Their home and seat was San’a’ in the Yemen. The Arabian peninsula is surrounded by the ocean on three sides: the Indian Ocean on the south, the Persian Gulf jutting out of the Indian Ocean to al- Basrah on the east, and the Red Sea jutting out of the Indian Ocean to Suez in Egypt on the west. This can be seen on the map. There is no way from the Yemen to the Maghrib except via Suez."
والمسلك هناك ما بين بحر السويس والبحر الشامي قدر مرحلتين فما دونهما ويبعد أن يمر بهذا المسلك ملك عظيم في عساكر موفورة من غير أن يصير من أعماله هذه ممتنع في العادة. وقد كان بتلك الأعمال العمالقة وكنعان بالشام والقبط بمصر,"The distance between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean is two days’ journey or less. It is unlikely that the distance could be traversed by a great ruler with a large army unless he controlled that region. This, as a rule, is impossible. In that region there were the Amalekites and Canaan in Syria, and, in Egypt, the Copts."
ثم ملك العمالقة مصر وملك بنو إسرائيل الشام ولم ينقل قط أن التبابعة حاربوا أحدا من هؤلاء الأمم ولا ملكوا شيئا من تلك الأعمال وأيضا فالشقة من البحر إلى المغرب بعيدة والأزودة والعلوفة للعساكر كثيرة فإذا ساروا في غير أعمالهم احتاجوا إلى انتهاب الزرع والنعم وانتهاب البلاد فيما يمرون عليه ولا يكفي ذلك للأزودة وللعلوفة عادة,"Later on, the Amalekites took possession of Egypt, and the Israelites (took possession) of Syria. There is, however, no report that the Tubba’s ever fought against one of these nations or that they had possession of any part of this region. Furthermore, the distance from the Yemen to the Maghrib is great, and an army requires much food and fodder. Soldiers traveling in regions other than their own have to requisition grain and livestock and to plunder the countries they pass through. As a rule, such a procedure does not yield enough food and fodder."
وإن نقلوا كفايتهم من ذلك من أعمالهم فلا تفي لهم الرواحل بنقله فلا بد وأن يمروا في طريقهم كلها بأعمال قد ملكوها ودوخوها لتكون الميرة منها وإن قلنا إن تلك العساكر تمر بهؤلاء الأمم من غير أن تهيجهم فتحصل لهم الميرة بالمسالمة فذلك أبعد وأشد امتناعا فدل على أن هذه الأخبار واهية أو موضوعة.,"On the other hand, if they attempted to take along enough provisions from their own region, they would not have enough animals for transportation. So, their whole line of march necessarily takes them through regions they must take possession of and force into submission in order to obtain provisions from them. Again, it would be a most unlikely and impossible assumption that such an army could pass through all those nations without disturbing them, obtaining its provisions by peaceful negotiation. This shows that all such information (about Tubba’ expeditions to the Maghrib) is silly or fictitious."
وأما وادي الرمل الذي يعجز السالك فلم يسمع قط ذكره في المغرب على كثرة سالكه ومن يقص طرقه من الركاب والقرى في كل عصر وكل جهة وهو على ما ذكروه من الغرابة تتوفر الدواعي على نقله.,"Mention of the (allegedly) impassable Sand River has never been heard in the Maghrib, although the Maghrib has often been crossed and its roads have been explored by travelers and raiders at all times and in every direction.64 Because of the unusual character of the story, there is much eagerness to pass it on."
وأما غزوهم بلاد الشرق وأرض الترك وإن كان طريقه أوسع من مسالك السويس إلا أن الشقة هنا أبعد وأمم فارس والروم معترضون فيها دون الترك ولم ينقل قط أن التبابعة ملكوا بلاد فارس ولا بلاد الروم,"With regard to the (alleged) raid of the Tubba’s against the countries of the East and the land of the Turks, it must be admitted that the line of march in this case is wider than the (narrow) passage at Suez. The distance, however, is greater, and the Persian and Byzantine nations are interposed on the way to the Turks. There is no report that the Tubba’s ever took possession of the countries of the Persians and Byzantines."
وإنما كانوا يحاربون أهل فارس على حدود بلاد العراق وما بين البحرين والحيرة والجزيرة بين دجلة والفرات وما بينهما في الأعمال وقد وقع ذلك بين ذي الأذعار منهم وكيكاوس من ملوك الكيانية وبين تبع الأصغر أبي كرب ويستأسف منهم أيضا ومع ملوك الطوائف بعد الكيانية والساسانية من بعدهم بمجاوزة أرض فارس بالغزو إلى بلاد الترك والتبت وهو ممتنع عادة من أجل الأمم المعترضة منهم والحاجة إلى الأزودة والعلوفات مع بعد الشقة كما مر,"They merely fought the Persians on the borders of the ‘Iraq and of the Arab countries between al-Bahrayn and al-Hirah, which were border regions common to both nations.65 These wars took place between the Tubba’ Dhul-Adh’ar and the Kayyanid king Kaygawus, and again between the Tubba’ al-Asghar Abu Karib and the Kayyanid Yastasb (Bishtasp). There were other wars later on with rulers of the dynasties that succeeded the Kayyanids, and, in turn, with their successors, the Sassanians. It would, however, ordinarily have been impossible for the Tubba’s to traverse the land of the Persians on their way to raid the countries of the Turks and Tibet, because of the nations that are interposed on the way to the Turks, because of the need for food and fodder, as well as the great distance, mentioned before."
فالأخبار بذلك واهية مدخولة وهي لو كانت صحيحة النقل لكان ذلك قادحا فيها فكيف وهي لم تنقل من وجه صحيح وقول ابن إسحاق في خبر يثرب والأوس والخزرج أن تبعا الآخر سار إلى المشرق محمولا على العراق وبلاد فارس وأما بلاد الترك والتبت فلا يصح غزوهم إليها بوجه لما تقرر فلا تثقن بما يلقى إليك من ذلك وتأمل الأخبار واعرضها على القوانين الصحيحة يقع لك تمحيصها بأحسن وجه والله الهادي إلى الصواب.,"All information to this effect is silly and fictitious. Even if the way this information is transmitted were sound, the points mentioned would cast suspicion upon it. All the more then must the information be suspect since the manner in which it has been transmitted is not sound. In connection with Yathrib (Medina) and the Aws and Khazraj, Ibn Ishaq says that the last Tubba’ traveled eastward to the ‘Iraq and Persia, but a raid by the Tubba’s against the countries of the Turks and Tibet is in no way confirmed by the established facts. Assertions to this effect should not be trusted; all such information should be investigated and checked with sound norms.68 The result will be that it will most beautifully be demolished. God is the guide to that which is correct."
وأبعد من ذلك وأعرق في الوهم ما يتناقله المفسرون في تفسير سورة «والفجر» في قوله تعالى (ألم تر كيف فعل ربك بعاد إرم ذات العماد) فيجعلون لفظة إرم اسما لمدينة وصفت بأنها ذات عماد أي أساطين وينقلون أنه كان لعاد بن عوص بن إرم ابنان هما شديد وشداد ملكا من بعده وهلك شديد فخلص الملك لشداد ودانت له ملوكهم وسمع وصف الجنة فقال لأبنين مثلها فبنى مدينة إرم في صحارى عدن في مدة ثلاثمائة سنة وكان عمره تسعمائة سنة وأنها مدينة عظيمة قصورها من الذهب وأساطينها من الزبرجد والياقوت وفيها أصناف الشجر والأنهار المطردة,"Even more unlikely and more deeply rooted in baseless assumptions is the common interpretation of the following verse of the Surat al-Fajr: “Did you not see what your Lord did with ‘Ad -Iram, that of the pillars?” The commentators consider the word Iram the name of a city which is described as having pillars, that is, columns. They report that ‘Ad b. ‘Us b. Iram had two sons, Shadid and Shaddid, who ruled after him. Shadid perished. Shaddad became the sole ruler of the realm, and the kings there submitted to his authority. When Shaddad heard a description of Paradise, he said: “I shall build something like it.” And he built the city of Iram in the desert of Aden over a period of three hundred years. He himself lived nine hundred years. It is said to have been a large city, with castles of gold and silver and columns of emerald and hyacinth, containing all kinds of trees and freely flowing rivers."
ولما تم بناؤها سار إليها بأهل مملكته حتى إذا كان منها على مسيرة يوم وليلة بعث الله عليهم صيحة من السماء فهلكوا كلهم.,"When the construction of (the city) was completed, Shaddad went there with the people of his realm. But -when be was the distance of only one day and night away from it, God sent a clamor from heaven, and all of them perished."
ذكر ذلك الطبري والثعالبي والزمخشري وغيرهم من المفسرين وينقلون عن عبد الله بن قلابة من الصحابة أنه خرج في طلب إبل له فوقع عليها وحمل منها ما قدر عليه وبلغ خبره معاوية فأحضره وقص عليه فبحث عن كعب الأحبار وسأله عن ذلك فقال هي إرم ذات العماد وسيدخلها رجل من المسلمين أحمر أشقر قصير على حاجبه خال وعلى عنقه خال يخرج في طلب إبل له ثم التفت فأبصر ابن قلابة فقال هذا والله ذلك الرجل.,"This is reported by at-Tabari, ath-Tha’alibi, az- Zamakhshari, and other Qur’an commentators. They transmit the following story on the authority of one of the men around Muhammad, ‘Abdallah b. Qilabah. When he went out in search of some of his camels, he hit upon (the city) and took away from it as much as he could carry. His story reached Mu’awiyah, who had him brought to him, and he told the story. Mu’awiyah sent for Ka’b al-ahbar and asked him about it. Ka’b said, “It is Iram, that of the pillars. Iram will be entered in your time by a Muslim who is of a reddish, ruddy color, and short, with a mole at his eyebrow and one on his neck, who goes out in search of some of his camels.” He then turned around and, seeing Ibn Qilabah, he said: “Indeed, he is that man.”"
وهذه المدينة لم يسمع لها خبر من يومئذ في شيء من بقاع الأرض وصحارى عدن التي زعموا أنها بنيت فيها هي في وسط اليمن.,No information about this city has since become available anywhere on earth. The desert of Aden where the city is supposed to have been built lies in the middle of the Yemen.
وما زال عمرانه متعاقبا والأدلاء تقص طرقه من كل وجه ولم ينقل عن هذه المدينة خبر ولا ذكرها أحد من الأخباريين ولا من الأمم.,"It has been inhabited continuously, and travelers and guides have explored its roads in every direction. Yet, no information about the city has been reported. No antiquarian, no nation has mentioned it."
ولو قالوا إنها درست فيما درس من الآثار لكان أشبه إلا أن ظاهر كلامهم أنها موجودة وبعضهم يقول إنها دمشق بناء على أن قوم عاد ملكوها,"If (the commentators) said that it had disappeared like other antiquities, the story would be more likely, but they expressly say that it still exists. Some identify it with Damascus, because Damascus was in the possession of the people of ‘Ad."
وقد ينتهي الهذيان ببعضهم إلى أنها غائبة وإنما يعثر عليها أهل الرياضة والسحر مزاعم كلها أشبه بالخرافات والذي حمل المفسرين على ذلك ما اقتضته صناعة الإعراب في لفظة ذات العماد أنها صفة إرم وحملوا العماد على الأساطين,"Others go so far in their crazy talk as to maintain that the city lies hidden from sensual perception and can be discovered only by trained (magicians) and sorcerers. All these are assumptions that would better be termed nonsense. All these suggestions proffered by Qur’an commentators were the result of grammatical considerations, for Arabic grammar requires the expression, “that of the pillars,” to be an attribute of Iram. The word “pillars” was understood to mean columns."
فتعين أن يكون بناء ورشح لهم ذلك قراءة ابن الزبير عاد إرم على الإضافة من غير تنوين ثم وقفوا على تلك الحكايات التي هي أشبه بالأقاصيص الموضوعة التي هي أقرب إلى الكذب المنقولة في عداد المضحكات,"Thus, Iram was narrowed down in its meaning to some sort of building. (The Qur’an commentators) were influenced in their interpretation by the reading of Ibn az-Zubayr who read (not ‘Adin with nunation but) a genitive construction: ‘Ad of Iram. They then adopted these stories, which are better called fictitious fables and which are quite similar to the (Qur’an) interpretations of Sayfawayh which are related as comic anecdotes."
وإلا فالعماد هي عماد الأخبية بل الخيام وإن أريد بها الأساطين فلا بدع في وصفهم بأنهم أهل بناء وأساطين على العموم بما اشتهر من قوتهم لأنه بناء خاص في مدينة معينة أو غيرها,"(In fact,) however, the “pillars” are tent poles. If “columns” were intended by the word, it would not be farfetched, as the power of (the people of Ad) was well known, and they could be described as people with buildings and columns in the general way. But it would be farfetched to say that a special building in one or another specific city (was intended)."
وإن أضيفت كما في قراءة ابن الزبير فعلى إضافة الفصيلة إلى القبيلة كما تقول قريش كنانة وإلياس مضر وربيعة نزار وأي ضرورة إلى هذا المحمل البعيد الذي تمحلت لتوجيهه لأمثال هذه الحكايات الواهية التي ينزه كتاب الله عن مثلها لبعدها عن الصحة.,"If it is a genitive construction, as would be the case according to the reading of Ibn az-Zubayr, it would be a genitive construction used to express tribal relationships, such as, for instance, the Quraysh of Kinanah, or the Ilyis of Mudar, or the Rabi’ah of Nizir. There is no need for such an implausible interpretation which uses for its starting point silly stories of the sort mentioned, which cannot be imputed to the Qur’an because they are so implausible."
ومن الحكايات المدخولة للمؤرخين ما ينقلونه كافة في سبب نكبة الرشيد للبرامكة من قصة العباسة أخته مع جعفر بن يحيى بن خالد مولاه وأنه لكلفه بمكانهما من معاقرته إياهما الخمر أذن لهما في عقد النكاح دون الخلوة حرصا على اجتماعهما في مجلسه,"Another fictitious story of-the historians, which-they all report, concerns the reason for ar-Rashid’s destruction of the Barmecides. It is the story of al-‘Abbasah, ar-Rashid’s sister, and Ja’far b. Yahya b. Khalid, his client. Ar-Rashid is said to have worried about where to place them when he was drinking wine with them. He wanted to receive them together in his company. Therefore, he permitted them to conclude a marriage that was not consummated."
وأن العباسة تحيلت عليه في التماس الخلوة به لما شغفها من حبه حتى واقعها (زعموا في حالة السكر) فحملت ووشي بذلك للرشيد فاستغضب وهيهات ذلك من منصب العباسة في دينها وأبويها وجلالها وأنها بنت عبد الله بن عباس ليس بينها وبينه إلا أربعة رجال هم أشراف الدين وعظماء الملة من بعده.,"Al-‘Abbasah then tricked (Ja’far) in her desire to be alone with him, for she had fallen in love with him. Jafar finally had intercourse with her-it is assumed, when he was drunk-and she became pregnant. The story was reported to ar-Rashid who flew into a rage. This story is irreconcilable with al-‘Abbasah’s position, her religiousness, her parentage, and her exalted rank. She was a descendant of ‘Abdallah b. ‘Abbas and separated from him by only four generations, and they were the most distinguished and greatest men in Islam after him."
والعباسة بنت محمد المهدي ابن عبد الله أبي جعفر المنصور بن محمد السجاد ابن علي أبي الخلفاء ابن عبد الله ترجمان القرآن ابن العباس عم النبي (صلى الله عليه وسلم) ابنة خليفة أخت خليفة محفوفة بالملك العزيز والخلافة النبوية وصحبة الرسول وعمومته وإقامة الملة ونور الوحي ومهبط الملائكة من سائر جهاتها,"Al-‘Abbasah was the daughter of Muhammad al-Mahdi, the son of Abu Ja’far ‘Abdallah al-Manslir, the son of Muhammad as-Sajjad, the son of the Father of the Caliphs ‘Ali. ‘Ali was the son of ‘Abdallah, the Interpreter of the Qur’an, the son of the Prophet’s uncle, al-‘Abbas. Al- ‘Abbasah was the daughter of a caliph and the sister of a caliph. She was born to royal power, into the prophetical succession (the caliphate), and descended from the men-around-Muhammad aril his uncles. She was connected by birth with the leadership of Islam, the light of the revelation, and the place where the angels descended to bring the revelation."
قريبة عهد ببداوة العروبية وسذاجة الدين البعيدة عن عوائد الترف ومراتع الفواحش,"She was close in time to the desert attitude of true Arabism, to that simple state of Islam still far from the habits of luxury and lush pastures of sin."
فأين يطلب الصون والعفاف إذا ذهب عنها أو أين توجد الطهارة والذكاء إذا فقدا من بيتها أو كيف تلحم نسبها بجعفر بن يحيى وتدنس شرفها العربي بمولى من موالي العجم بملكة جده من الفرس أو بولاء جدها من عمومة الرسول وأشراف قريش وغايته أن جذبت دولتهم بضبعه وضبع أبيه واستخلصتهم ورقتهم إلى منازل الأشراف,"Where should one look for chastity and modesty, if she did not possess them? Where could cleanliness and purity be found, if they no longer existed in her house? How could she link her pedigree with (that of) Ja’far b. Yahya and stain her Arab nobility with a Persian client? His Persian ancestor had been acquired as a slave, or taken as a client, by one of her ancestors, an uncle of the Prophet and noble Qurashite, and all (Ja’far) did was that he together with his father was dragged along (by the growing fame of) the ‘Abbisid dynasty and thus prepared for and elevated to a position of nobility."
وكيف يسوغ من الرشيد أن يصهر إلى موالي الأعاجم على بعد همته وعظم آبائه ولو نظر المتأمل في ذلك نظر المنصف وقاس العباسة بابنة ملك من عظماء ملوك زمانه لاستنكف لها عن مثله مع مولى من موالي دولتها وفي سلطان قومها واستنكره ولج في تكذيبه وأين قدر العباسة والرشيد من الناس.,"And how could it be that ar-Rashid, with his high-mindedness and great pride, would permit himself to become related by marriage to Persian clients! If a critical person looks at this story in all fairness and compares al-‘Abbasah with the daughter of a great ruler of his own time, he must find it disgusting and unbelievable that she could have done such a thing with one of the clients of her dynasty and while her family was in power. He would insist that the story be considered untrue. And who could compare with al-‘Abbasah and ar- Rashid in dignity!"
وإنما نكب البرامكة ما كان من استبدادهم على الدولة واحتجافهم أموال الجباية حتى كان الرشيد يطلب اليسير من المال فلا يصل إليه فغلبوه على أمره وشاركوه في سلطانه ولم يكن له معهم تصرف في أمور ملكه,"The reason for the destruction of the Barmecides was their attempt to gain control over the dynasty and their retention of the tax revenues. This went so far that when ar-Rashid wanted even a little money, he could not get it. They took his affairs out of his hands and shared with him in his authority. He had no say with them in the affairs of his realm."
فعظمت آثارهم وبعد صيتهم وعمروا مراتب الدولة وخططها بالرؤساء من ولدهم وصنائعهم واحتازوها عمن سواهم من وزارة وكتابة وقيادة وحجابة وسيف وقلم.,"Their influence grew, and their fame spread. They filled the positions and ranks of the government with their own children and creatures who became high officials, and thus barred all others from the positions of wazir, secretary, army commander, doorkeeper (hajb), and from the military and civilian administration."
يقال إنه كان بدار الرشيد من ولد يحيى بن خالد خمسة وعشرون رئيسا من بين صاحب سيف وصاحب قلم زاحموا فيها أهل الدولة بالمناكب ودفعوهم عنها بالراح لمكان أبيهم يحيى من كفالة هارون ولي عهد وخليفة,"It is said that in the palace of ar-Rashid, there were twenty- five high officials, both military and civilian, all children of Yahya b. Khalid. There, they crowded the people of the dynasty and pushed them out by force. They could do that because of the position of their father, Yahya, mentor to Harun both as crown prince and as caliph."
حتى شب في حجره ودرج من عشه وغلب على أمره وكان يدعوه يا أبت فتوجه الإيثار من السلطان إليهم وعظمت الدالة منهم,"(Harun) practically grew up in his lap and got all his education from him. (Harun) let him handle his affairs and used to call him “father.” As a result, the (Barmecides), and not the government, wielded all the influence. Their presumption grew."
وانبسط الجاه عندهم وانصرفت نحوهم الوجوه وخضعت لهم الرقاب وقصرت عليهم الآمال وتخطت إليهم من أقصى التخوم هدايا الملوك وتحف الأمراء وتسربت إلى خزائنهم في سبيل التزلف,"Their position became more and more influential. They became the center of attention. All obeyed them. All hopes were addressed to them. From the farthest borders, presents and gifts of rulers and amirs were sent to them."
والاستمالة أموال الجباية وأفاضوا في رجال الشيعة وعظماء القرابة العطاء وطوقوهم المنن وكسبوا من بيوتات الأشراف المعدم وفكوا العاني ومدحوا بما لم يمدح به خليفتهم وأسنوا لعفاتهم الجوائز والصلات واستولوا على القرى والضياع من الضواحي والأمصار في سائر الممالك,"The tax money found its way into their treasury, to serve as an introduction to them and to procure their favor. They gave gifts to and bestowed favors upon the men of the (‘Alid) Shi’ah and upon important relatives (of the Prophet). They gave the poor from the noble families (related to the Prophet) something to earn. They freed the captives. Thus, they were given praise as was not given to their caliph. They showered privileges and gifts upon those who came to ask favors from them. They gained control over villages and estates in the open country and (near) the main cities in every province."
حتى أسفوا البطانة وأحقدوا الخاصة وأغصوا أهل الولاية فكشفت لهم وجوه المنافسة والحسد ودبت إلى مهادهم الوثير من الدولة عقارب السعاية حتى لقد كان بنو قحطبة أخوال جعفر من أعظم الساعين عليهم لم تعطفهم لما وقر في نفوسهم من الحسد عواطف الرحم ولاوزعتهم أواصر القرابة وقارن ذلك عند مخدومهم نواشئ الغيرة والاستنكاف من الحجر والأنفة وكان الحقود التي بعثتها منهم صغائر الدالة.,"Eventually, the Barmecides irritated the inner circle. They caused resentment among the elite and aroused the displeasure of high officials. Jealousy and envy of all sorts began to show themselves, and the scorpions of intrigue crept into their soft beds in the government. The Qahtabah family, Ja’far’s maternal uncles, led the intrigues against them. Feelings for blood ties and relationship could not move or sway them (the Qahtabah family) from the envy which was so heavy on their hearts."
وانتهى بها الإصرار على شأنهم إلى كبائر المخالفة كقصتهم في يحيى بن عبد الله بن حسن بن الحسن بن علي بن أبي طالب أخي محمد المهدي الملقب بالنفس الزكية الخارج على المنصور,"This joined with their master’s incipient jealousy, with his dislike of restrictions and (of being treated with) highhandedness, and with his latent resentment aroused by small acts of presumptuousness on the part of the Barmecides. When they continued to flourish as they did, they were led to gross insubordination, as is shown, for instance, by their action in the case of Yahya b. ‘Abdallah b. Hasan b.’ al-Hasan b. ‘All b. Abi Talib, the brother of “the Pure Soul” (an-Nafs az-Zakiyah), Muhammad al-Mahdi, who had revolted against al-Mansur."
ويحيى هذا هو الذي استنزله الفضل بن يحيى من بلاد الديلم على أمان الرشيد بخطه وبذل لهم فيه ألف ألف درهم على ما ذكره الطبري ودفعه الرشيد إلى جعفر وجعل اعتقاله بداره وإلى نظره فحبسه مدة ثم حملته الدالة على تخلية سبيله والاستبداد بحل عقاله حرما لدماء أهل البيت بزعمه ودالة على السلطان في حكمه. وسأله الرشيد عنه لما وشي به إليه,"This Yahya had been brought back by al-Fadl b. Yahya from the country of the Daylam under a safe-conduct of arRashid written in his own hand. According to at-Tabari, (al-Fadl) had paid out a million dirhams in this matter. Ar-Rashid handed Yahya over to Ja’far to keep him imprisoned in his house and under his eyes. He held him for a while but, prompted by presumption, Ja’far freed Yahya by his own decision, out of respect for the blood of the Prophet’s family as he thought, and in order to show his presumption against the government. When the matter was reported to ar-Rashid, he asked Ja’far about (Yahya)."
ففطن وقال أطلقته فأبدى له وجه الاستحسان وأسرها في نفسه فأوجد السبيل بذلك على نفسه وقومه حتى ثل عرشهم وألقيت عليهم سماؤهم وخسفت الأرض بهم وبدارهم وذهبت سلفا ومثلا للآخرين أيامهم ومن تأمل أخبارهم واستقصى سير الدولة وسيرهم وجد ذلك محقق الأثر ممهد الأسباب,"Ja’far understood and said that he had let him go. Ar-Rashid outwardly indicated approval and kept his grudge to himself. Thus, Ja’far himself paved the way for his own and his family’s undoing, which ended with the collapse of their exalted position, with the heavens falling in upon them and the earth’s sinking with them and their house. Their days of glory became a thing of the past, an example to later generations.
Close examination of their story, scrutinizing the ways of government and their own conduct, discloses that all this was natural and is easily explained."
وانظر ما نقله ابن عبد ربه في مفاوضة الرشيد عم جده داود بن علي في شأن نكبتهم وما ذكره في باب الشعراء في كتاب العقد في محاورة الأصمعي للرشيد وللفضل بن يحيى في سمرهم تتفهم أنه إنما قتلتهم الغيرة والمنافسة في الاستبداد من الخليفة فمن دونه وكذلك ما تحيل به أعداؤهم من البطانة فيما دسوه للمغنين من الشعر احتيالا على إسماعه للخليفة وتحريك حفائظه لهم وهو قوله:,"Looking at Ibn ‘Abdrabbib’s report on ar-Rashid’s conversation with his great- granduncle Dawud b. ‘Ali concerning the destruction of the Barmecides as well as al-Asma’i’s evening causeries with arRashid and al-Fadl b. Yahya, as mentioned in the chapter on poets in the ‘Igd,83 one understands that it was only jealousy and struggle for control on the part of the caliph and his subordinates that killed them. Another factor was the verses that enemies of the Barmecides among the inner circle surreptitiously gave the singers to recite, in the intention that the caliph should hear them and his stored-up animosity against them be aroused. These are the verses:"
"ليت هندا أنجزتنا ما تعد … وشفت أنفسنا مما نجد
واستبدت مرة واحدة … إنما العاجز من لا يستبد","Would that Hind could fulfill her promise to us And deliver us from our predicament,
And for once act on her own.
The impotent person is he who never acts on his own."
وإن الرشيد لما سمعها قال: «إي والله إني عاجز» حتى بعثوا بأمثال هذه كامن غيرته وسلطوا عليهم بأس انتقامه نعوذ بالله من غلبة الرجال وسوء الحال.,"When ar-Rashid heard these verses, he exclaimed: “Indeed, I am just such an impotent person.” By this and similar methods, the enemies of the Barmecides eventually succeeded in arousing ar-Rashid’s latent jealousy and in bringing his terrible vengeance upon them. God is our refuge from men’s desire for power and from misfortune."
وأما ما تموه له الحكاية من معاقرة الرشيد الخمر واقتران سكره بسكر الندمان فحاشا الله ما علمنا عليه من سوء، وأين هذا من حال الرشيد وقيامه بما يجب لمنصب الخلافة من الدين والعدالة وما كان عليه من صحابة العلماء والأولياء ومحاوراته للفضيل بن عياض وابن السماك والعمري ومكاتبته سفيان الثوري وبكائه من مواعظهم ودعائه بمكة في طوافه,"The stupid story of ar-Rashid’s winebibbing and his getting drunk in the company of boon companions is really abominable. It does not in the least agree with ar-Rashid’s attitude toward the fulfillment of the requirements of religion and justice incumbent upon caliphs. He consorted with religious scholars and saints. He had discussions with alFudayl b. ‘Iyad, Ibn as-Sammak, and al-‘Umari, and he corresponded with Sufyan. He wept when he heard their sermons. Then, there is his prayer in Mecca when he circumambulated the Ka’bah."
وما كان عليه من العبادة والمحافظة على أوقات الصلوات وشهود الصبح لأول وقتها. حكى الطبري وغيره أنه كان يصلي في كل يوم مائة ركعة نافلة وكان يغزو عاما ويحج عاما,"He was pious, observed the times of prayer, and attended the morning prayer at its earliest hour. According to at-Tabari and others, he used every day to pray one hundred supererogatory rak’ahs. Alternately, he was used to go on raids (against unbelievers) one year and to make the pilgrimage to Mecca the other."
ولقد زجر ابن أبي مريم مضحكه في سمره حين تعرض له بمثل ذلك في الصلاة لما سمعه يقرأ «وما لي لا أعبد الذي فطرني 36: 22» وقال والله ما أدري لم؟ فما تمالك الرشيد أن ضحك ثم التفت إليه مغضبا وقال يا ابن أبي مريم في الصلاة أيضا إياك إياك والقرآن والدين ولك ما شئت بعدهما,"He rebuked his jester, Ibn Abi Maryam, who made an unseemly remark to him during prayer. When Ibn Abi Maryam heard ar-Rashid recite: “How is it that I should not worship Him who created me?” he said: “Indeed, I do not know why.” Ar-Rashid could not suppress a laugh, but then he turned to him angrily and said: “O Ibn Abi Maryam, (jokes) even during the prayer? Beware, beware of the Qur’an and Islam. Apart from that, you may do whatever you wish.”"
وأيضا فقد كان من العلم والسذاجة بمكان لقرب عهده من سلفه المنتحلين لذلك ولم يكن بينه وبين جده أبي جعفر بعيد زمن إنما خلفه غلاما وقد كان أبو جعفر بمكان من العلم والدين قبل الخلافة وبعدها وهو القائل لمالك حين أشار عليه بتأليف الموطإ يا أبا عبد الله إنه لم يبق على وجه الأرض أعلم مني ومنك وإني قد شغلتني الخلافة فضع أنت للناس كتابا ينتفعون به تجنب فيه رخص ابن عباس وشدائد ابن عمر ووطئه للناس توطئة قال مالك فو الله لقد علمني التصنيف يومئذ,"Furthermore, ar-Rashid possessed a good deal of learning and simplicity, because his epoch was close to that of his forebears who had those (qualities). The time between him and his grandfather, Abu Ja’far (al-Mansur), was not a long one. He was a young lad when Abu Ja’far died. Abu Jafar possessed a good deal of learning and religion before he became caliph and (kept them) afterwards. It was he who advised Malik to write the Muwatta’, saying: “O Abu ‘Abdallah, no one remains on earth more learned than I and you. Now, I am too much occupied with the caliphate. Therefore, you should write a book for the people which will be useful for them. In it you should avoid the laxity of Ibn ‘Abbas and the severity of Ibn ‘Umar, and present (watti’) it clearly to the people.” Malik commented: “On that occasion, al-Mansur indeed taught me to be an author.”"
ولقد أدركه ابنه المهدي أبو الرشيد هذا وهو يتورع عن كسوة الجديد لعياله من بيت المال ودخل عليه يوما وهو بمجلسه يباشر الخياطين في إرقاع الخلقان من ثياب عياله فاستنكف المهدي من ذلك وقال يا أمير المؤمنين علي كسوة هذه العيال عامنا هذا من عطائي فقال له لك ذلك ولم يصده عنه ولا سمح بالإنفاق فيه من أموال المسلمين,"Al-Mansur’s son, al-Mahdi, ar-Rashid’s father, experienced the (austerity of al-Mansur) who would not make use of the public treasury to provide new clothes for his family. One day, al-Mahdi came to him when he was in his office discussing with the tailors the patching of his family’s worn garments. Al-Mahdi did not like that and said: “O Commander of the Faithful, this year I shall pay for the clothes of the members of the family from my own income.” AlMansur’s reply was: “Do that.” He did not prevent him from paying himself but would not permit any (public) Muslim money to be spent for it."
فكيف يليق بالرشيد على قرب العهد من هذا الخليفة وأبوته وما ربي عليه من أمثال هذه السير في أهل بيته والتخلق بها أن يعاقر الخمر أو يجاهر بها وقد كانت حالة الأشراف من العرب الجاهلية في اجتناب الخمر معلومة ولم يكن الكرم شجرتهم وكان شربها مذمة عند الكثير منهم والرشيد وآباؤه كانوا على ثبج من اجتناب المذمومات في دينهم ودنياهم والتخلق بالمحامد وأوصاف الكمال ونزعات العرب.,"Ar-Rashid was very close in time to that caliph and to his forebears. He was reared under the influence of such and similar conduct in his own family, so that it became his own nature. How could such a man have been a winebibber and have drunk wine openly? It is well known that noble pre-Islamic Arabs avoided wine. The vine was not one of the plants (cultivated) by them. Most of them considered it reprehensible to drink wine. Ar-Rashid and his forebears were very successful in avoiding anything reprehensible in their religious or worldly affairs and in making all praiseworthy actions and qualities of perfection, as well as the aspirations of the Arabs, their own nature."
وانظر ما نقله الطبري والمسعودي في قصة جبريل بن بختيشوع الطبيب حين أحضر له السمك في مائدته فحماه عنه ثم أمر صاحب المائدة بحمله إلى منزله وفطن الرشيد وارتاب به ودس خادمه حتى عاينه يتناوله فأعد ابن بختيشوع للاعتذار ثلاث قطع من السمك في ثلاثة أقداح خلط إحداها باللحم المعالج بالتوابل والبقول والبوارد والحلوى وصب على الثانية ماء مثلجا وعلى الثالثة خمرا صرفا,"One may further compare the story of the physician Jibril b. Bukhtishu’ reported by at-Tabari and al-Mas’udi. A fish had been served at ar-Rashid’s table, and Jibril had not permitted him to eat it. (Jibril) had then ordered the table steward to bring the fish to (Jibril’s) house. ArRashid noticed it and got suspicious. He had his servant spy on Jibril, and the servant observed him partaking of it. In order to justify himself, Ibn Bukhtishu’ had three pieces of fish placed in three separate dishes. He mixed the first piece with meat that had been prepared with different kinds of spices, vegetables, hot sauces, and sweets. He poured iced water over the second piece, and pure wine over the third."
وقال في الأول والثاني هذا طعام أمير المؤمنين إن خلط السمك بغيره أو لم يخلطه وقال في الثالث هذا طعام ابن بختيشوع ودفعها إلى صاحب المائدة حتى إذا انتبه الرشيد وأحضره للتوبيخ، أحضر الثلاثة الأقداح فوجد صاحب الخمر قد اختلط وأماع وتفتت ووجد الآخرين قد فسدا وتغيرت رائحتهما فكانت له في ذلك معذرة وتبين من ذلك أن حال الرشيد في اجتناب الخمر كانت معروفة عند بطانته وأهل مائدته,"The first and second dishes, he said, were for the caliph to eat, no matter whether something was added by him (Ibn Bukhtishu’) to the fish or not. The third dish, he said, was for himself to eat. He gave the three dishes to the table steward. When ar-Rashid woke up and had Ibn Bukhtishu’ called in to reprimand him, the latter had the three dishes brought. The one with wine had become a soup with small pieces of fish, but the two other dishes had spoiled, and smelled differently. This was (sufficient) justification of Ibn Bukhtishu” s action (in eating a dish of fish that he had prevented the caliph from eating). It is clear from this story that ar-Rashid’s avoidance of wine was a fact well known to his inner circle and to those who dined with him."
ولقد ثبت عنه أنه عهد بحبس أبي نواس لما بلغه من انهماكه في المعاقرة حتى تاب وأقلع وإنما كان الرشيد يشرب نبيذ التمر على مذهب أهل العراق وفتاويهم فيها معروفة وأما الخمر الصرف فلا سبيل إلى اتهامه بها ولا تقليد الأخبار الواهية فيها,"It is a well-established fact that ar-Rashid had consented to keep Abu Nuwas imprisoned until he repented and gave up his ways, because he had heard of the latter’s excessive winebibbing. Ar-Rashid used to drink a date liquor (nabidh), according to the `Iraqi legal school whose responsa (concerning the permissibility of that drink) are well known.98 But he cannot be suspected of having drunk pure wine. Silly reports to this effect cannot be credited."
فلم يكن الرجل بحيث يواقع محرما من أكبر الكبائر عند أهل الملة ولقد كان أولئك القوم كلهم بمنحاة من ارتكاب السرف والترف في ملابسهم وزينتهم وسائر متناولاتهم لما كانوا عليه من خشونة البداوة وسذاجة الدين التي لم يفارقوها بعد فما ظنك بما يخرج عن الإباحة إلى الحظر وعن الحلة إلى الحرمة,"He was not the man to do something that is forbidden and considered by the Muslims as one of the greatest of the capital sins. Not one of these people (the early ‘Abbasids) had anything to do with effeminate prodigality or luxury in matters of clothing, jewelry, or the kind of food they took. They still retained the tough desert attitude and the simple state of Islam. Could it be assumed they would do something that would lead from the lawful to the unlawful and from the licit to the illicit?"
ولقد اتفق المؤرخون الطبري والمسعودي وغيرهم على أن جميع من سلف من خلفاء بني أمية وبني العباس إنما كانوا يركبون بالحلية الخفيفة من الفضة في المناطق والسيوف واللجم والسروج وأن أول خليفة أحدث الركوب بحلية الذهب هو المعتز بن المتوكل ثامن الخلفاء بعد الرشيد وهكذا كان حالهم أيضا في ملابسهم فما ظنك بمشاربهم؟,"Historians such as at-Tabari, al-Mas’udi, and others are agreed that all the early Umayyad and `Abbasid caliphs used to ride out with only light silver ornamentation on their belts, swords, bridles, and saddles, and that the first caliph to originate riding out in golden apparel was al- Mu’tazz b. alMutawakkil, the eighth caliph after ar-Rashid. The same applied to their clothing. Could one, then, assume any differently with regard to what they drank?"
ويتبين ذلك بأتم من هذا إذا فهمت طبيعة الدولة في أولها من البداوة والغضاضة كما نشرح في مسائل الكتاب الأول إن شاء الله,"This will become still clearer when the nature of dynastic beginnings in desert life and modest circumstances is understood, as we shall explain it among the problems discussed in the first book, if God wills."
ويناسب هذا أو قريب منه ما ينقلونه كافة عن يحيى بن أكثم قاضي المأمون وصاحبه وأنه كان يعاقر الخمر وأنه سكر ليلة مع شربه فدفن في الريحان حتى أفاق وينشدون على لسانه:,"A parallel or similar story is that reported by all (the historians) about Yahya b. Aktham, the judge and friend of al-Ma’mun. He is said to have drunk wine together with al-Ma’mun and to have gotten drunk one night. He lay buried among the sweet basil until he woke up. The following verses are recited in his name:"
"يا سيدي وأمير الناس كلهم … قد جار في حكمه من كان يسقيني
إني غفلت عن الساقي فصيرني … كما تراني سليب العقل والدين","O my lord, commander of all the people!
He who gave me to drink was unjust in his judgment. I neglected the cupbearer, and he caused me to be, As you see me, deprived of intelligence and religion."
وحال ابن أكثم والمأمون في ذلك من حال الرشيد وشرابهم إنما كان النبيذ ولم يكن محظورا عندهم وأما السكر فليس من شأنهم وصحابته للمأمون إنما كانت خلة في الدين ولقد ثبت أنه كان ينام معه في البيت ونقل في فضائل المأمون وحسن عشرته أنه انتبه ذات ليلة عطشان فقام يتحسس ويلتمس الإناء مخافة أن يوقظ يحيى بن أكثم,"The same applies to Ibn Aktham and al-Ma’mun that applies to ar-Rashid. What they drank was a date liquor (nabidh) which in their opinion was not forbidden. There can be no question of drunkenness in connection with them. Yahyi’s familiarity with al-Ma’mun was friendship in Islam. It is an established fact that Yahya slept in al-Ma’mum’s room. It has been reported, as an indication of al- Ma’mun’s excellence and affability, that one night he awoke, got up, and felt around for the chamber pot. He was afraid to wake Yahya b. Aktham."
وثبت أنهما كانا يصليان الصبح جميعا فأين هذا من المعاقرة وأيضا فإن يحيى بن أكثم كان من علية أهل الحديث وقد أثنى عليه الإمام أحمد بن حنبل وإسماعيل القاضي وخرج عنه الترمذي كتابه الجامع وذكر المزني الحافظ أن البخاري روى عنه في غير الجامع فالقدح فيه قدح في جميعهم,"It also is an established fact that the two used to pray together at the morning prayer. How does that accord with drinking wine together! Furthermore, Yahya b. Aktham was a transmitter of traditions. He was praised by Ibn Hanbal and Judge Ismi’il. At- Tirmidhi published traditions on his authority. The hadith expert al-Mizzi mentioned that al-Bukhari transmitted traditions on Yahya’s authority in works other than the Jami’ (as-Sahih). To vilify Yahya is to vilify all of these scholars."
وكذلك ما ينبزه المجان بالميل إلى الغلمان بهتانا على الله وفرية على العلماء ويستندون في ذلك إلى أخبار القصاص الواهية التي لعلها من افتراء أعدائه فإنه كان محسودا في كماله وخلته للسلطان وكان مقامه من العلم والدين منزها عن مثل ذلك,"Furthermore, licentious persons accuse Yahya b. Aktham of having had an inclination for young men. This is an affront to God and a malicious lie directed against religious scholars. (These persons) base themselves on storytellers’ silly reports, which perhaps were an invention of Yahya’s enemies, for he was much envied because of his perfection and his friendship with the ruler. His position in scholarship and religion makes such a thing impossible."
وقد ذكر لابن حنبل ما يرميه به الناس فقال سبحان الله سبحان الله ومن يقول هذا؟ وأنكر ذلك إنكارا شديدا وأثنى عليه إسماعيل القاضي فقيل له ما كان يقال فيه فقال معاذ الله أن تزول عدالة مثله بتكذيب باغ وحاسد,"When Ibn Hanbal was told about these rumors concerning Yahya, he exclaimed: “For God’s sake, for God’s sake, who would say such a thing!” He disapproved of it very strongly. When the talk about Yahya was mentioned to Ismi’il, he exclaimed: “Heaven forbid that the probity (‘adalah) of such a man should cease to exist because of the lying accusations of envious talebearers.”"
وقال أيضا يحيى بن أكثم أبرأ إلى الله من أن يكون فيه شيء مما كان يرمى به من أمر الغلمان ولقد كنت أقف على سرائره فأجده شديد الخوف من الله,He said: “Yahya b. Aktham is innocent in the eyes of God of any such relationship with young men (as that) of which he is accused. I got to know his most intimate thoughts and found him to be much in fear of God.
لكنه كانت فيه دعابة وحسن خلق فرمى بما رمى به ابن حيان في الثقات وقال لا يشتغل بما يحكى عنه لأن أكثرها لا يصح عنه,"However, he possessed a certain playfulness and friendliness that might have provoked such accusations.” Ibn Hibban mentioned him in the Thiqat. He said that no attention should be paid to these tales about him because most of them were not correct."
"ومن أمثال هذه الحكايات ما نقله ابن عبد ربه صاحب العقد من حديث الزنبيل في سبب إصهار المأمون إلى الحسن بن سهل في بنته بوران وأنه عثر في بعض الليالي في تطوافه بسكك بغداد في زنبيل مدلى من بعض السطوح بمعالق وجدل مغارة الفتل
من الحرير فاعتقده وتناول المعالق فاهتزت وذهب به صعدا إلى مجلس شأنه كذا ووصف من زينة فرشه وتنضيد أبنيته وجمال رؤيته ما يستوقف الطرف ويملك النفس وأن امرأة برزت له من خلل الستور في ذلك المجلس رائقة الجمال فتانة المحاسن فحيته ودعته إلى المنادمة فلم يزل يعاقرها الخمر حتى الصباح ورجع إلى أصحابه بمكانهم من انتظاره وقد شغفته حبا بعثه على الإصهار إلى أبيها","A similar story is the one about the basket reported by Ibn ‘Abdrabbih, author of the ‘Iqd, in explanation of how al-Ma’mun came to be al-Hasan b. Sahl’s son-in- law by marrying his daughter Buran. One night, on his rambles through the streets of Baghdad, al-Ma’mun is said to have come upon a basket that was being let down from one of the roofs by means of pulleys and twisted cords of silk thread. He seated himself in the basket and grabbed the pulley, which started moving. He was taken up into a chamber of such-andsuch a condition-Ibn ‘Abdrabbih described the eye and soul-filling splendor of its carpets, the magnificence of its furnishings, and the beauty of its appearance. Then, a woman of extraordinary, seductive beauty is said to have come forth from behind curtains in that chamber. She greeted al- Ma’mun and invited him to keep her company. He drank wine with her the whole night long. In the morning he returned to his companions at the place where they had been awaiting him. He had fallen so much in love with the woman that he asked her father for her hand."
وأين هذا كله من حال المأمون المعروفة في دينه وعلمه واقتفائه سنن الخلفاء الراشدين من آبائه وأخذه بسير الخلفاء الأربعة أركان الملة ومناظرته العلماء وحفظه لحدود الله تعالى في صلواته وأحكامه,"How does all this accord with alMa’mun’s well-known religion and learning, with his imitation of the way of life of his forefathers, the right-guided (‘Abbasid) caliphs, with his adoption of the way of life of those pillars of Islam, the (first) four caliphs, with his respect for the religious scholars, or his observance in his prayers and legal practice of the norms established by God!"
فكيف تصح عنه أحوال الفساق المستهترين في التطواف بالليل وطروق المنازل وغشيان السمر سبيل عشاق الأعراب وأين ذلك من منصب ابنة الحسن بن سهل وشرفها وما كان بدار أبيها من الصون والعفاف,"How could it be correct that he would act like (one of those) wicked scoundrels who amuse themselves by rambling about at night, entering strange houses in the dark, and engaging in nocturnal trysts in the manner of Bedouin lovers! And how does that story fit with the position and noble character of al-Hasan b. Sahl’s daughter, and with the firm morality and chastity that reigned in her father’s house!"
وأمثال هذه الحكايات كثيرة وفي كتب المؤرخين معروفة وإنما يبعث على وضعها والحديث بها الانهماك في اللذات المحرمة وهتك قناع المخدرات ويتعللون بالتأسي بالقوم فيما يأتونه من طاعة لذاتهم فلذلك تراهم كثيرا ما يلهجون بأشباه هذه الأخبار وينقرون عنها عند تصفحهم لأوراق الدواوين,"There are many such stories. They are always cropping up in the works of the historians. The incentive for inventing and reporting them is a (general) inclination to forbidden pleasures and for smearing the reputation of others. People justify their own subservience to pleasure by citing men and women of the past (who allegedly did the same things they are doing). Therefore, they often appear very eager for such information and are alert to find it when they go through the pages of (published) works."
ولو ائتسوا بهم في غير هذا من أحوالهم وصفات الكمال اللائقة بهم المشهورة عنهم لكان خيرا لهم لو كانوا يعلمون.,"If they would follow the example of the people (of the past) in other respects and in the qualities of perfection that were theirs and for which they are well known, “it would be better for them,” “if they would know.”"
ولقد عذلت يوما بعض الأمراء من أبناء الملوك في كلفه بتعلم الغناء وولوعه بالأوتار وقلت له ليس هذا من شأنك ولا يليق بمنصبك فقال لي أفلا ترى إلى إبراهيم بن المهدي كيف كان إمام هذه الصناعة ورئيس المغنين في زمانه؟ فقلت له يا سبحان الله وهلا تأسيت بأبيه أو أخيه أو ما رأيت كيف قعد ذلك بإبراهيم عن مناصبهم فصم عن عذلي وأعرض,"I once criticized a royal prince for being so eager to learn to sing and play the strings. I told him it was not a matter that should concern him and that it did not befit his position. He referred me to Ibrahim b. al-‘Mahdi who was the leading musician and best singer in his time. I replied: “For heaven’s sake, why do you not rather follow the example of his father or his brother? Do you not see how that activity prevented Ibrahim from attaining their position?” The prince, however, was deaf to my criticism and turned away."
ومن الأخبار الواهية ما يذهب إليه الكثير من المؤرخين والأثبات في العبيديين خلفاء الشيعة بالقيروان والقاهرة من نفيهم عن أهل البيت صلوات الله عليهم والطعن في نسبهم إلى إسماعيل الإمام ابن جعفر الصادق يعتمدون في ذلك على أحاديث لفقت للمستضعفين من خلفاء بني العباس تزلفا إليهم بالقدح فيمن ناصبهم وتفننا في الشمات بعدوهم,"Further silly information which is accepted by many historians concerns the ‘Ubaydid (-Fatimids), the Shi’ah caliphs in al-Qayrawan and Cairo. (These historians) deny their ‘Alid origin and attack (the genuineness of) their descent from the imam Ismail, the son of Ja’far as-Sadiq. They base themselves in this respect on stories that were made up in favor of the weak ‘Abbasid caliphs by people who wanted to ingratiate themselves with them through accusations against their active opponents and who (therefore) liked to say all kinds of bad things about their enemies."
حسبما تذكر بعض هذه الأحاديث في أخبارهم ويغفلون عن التفطن لشواهد الواقعات وأدلة الأحوال التي اقتضت خلاف ذلك من تكذيب دعواهم والرد عليهم.,We shall mention some such stories in our treatment of the history of (the ‘Ubaydid-Fatimids). (These historians) do not care to consider the factual proofs and circumstantial evidence that require (us to recognize) that the contrary is true and that their claim is a lie and must be rejected.
فإنهم متفقون في حديثهم عن مبدإ دولة الشيعة أن أبا عبد الله المحتسب لما دعي بكتامة للرضى من آل محمد واشتهر خبره وعلم تحويمه على عبيد الله المهدي وابنه أبي القاسم خشيا على أنفسهما فهربا من المشرق محل الخلافة واجتازا بمصر وأنهما خرجا من الاسكندرية في زي التجار ونمي خبرهما إلى عيسى النوشري عامل مصر والاسكندرية,"They all tell the same story about the-begilnli g of the Shi’ah dynasty. Abu ‘Abdallah al-Muhtasib went among the Kutamah urging acceptance of the family of Muhammad (the ‘Alids). His activity became known. It was learned how much he cared for ‘Ubaydallah al-Mahdi and his son, Abu1-Qasim. Therefore, these two feared for their lives and fled the East, the seat of the caliphate. They passed through Egypt and left Alexandria disguised as merchants. Isa anNawshari, the governor of Egypt and Alexandria, was informed of them."
فسرح في طلبهما الخيالة حتى إذا أدركا خفي حالهما على تابعهما بما لبسوا به من الشارة والزي فأفلتوا إلى المغرب. وأن المعتضد أوعز إلى الأغالبة أمراء إفريقيا بالقيروان وبني مدرار أمراء سجلماسة بأخذ الآفاق عليهما وإذكاء العيون في طلبهما,"He sent cavalry troops in pursuit of them, but when their pursuers reached them, they did not recognize them because of their attire and disguise. They escaped into the Maghrib. Al-Mu’tadid ordered the Aghlabid rulers of Ifriqiyah in al-Qayrawan as well as the Midrarid rulers of Sijilmasah to search everywhere for them and to keep a sharp lookout for them."
فعثر أليشع صاحب سجلماسة من آل مدرار على خفي مكانهما ببلده واعتقلهما مرضاة للخليفة. هذا قبل أن تظهر الشيعة على الأغالبة بالقيروان ثم كان بعد ذلك ما كان من ظهور دعوتهم بالمغرب وإفريقية ثم باليمن ثم بالإسكندرية ثم بمصر والشام والحجاز,"Ilyasa’, the Midrarid lord of Sijilmasah, learned about their hiding place in his country and detained them, in order to please the caliph. This was before the Shi’ah victory over the Aghlabids in al-Qayrawan. Thereafter, as is well known, the (‘Ubaydid-Fatimid) propaganda spread successfully throughout Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib, and then, in turn, reached the Yemen, Alexandria and (the rest of) Egypt, Syria and the Hijaz."
وقاسموا بني العباس في ممالك الإسلام شق الأبلمة وكادوا يلجون عليهم مواطنهم ويزايلون من أمرهم ولقد أظهر دعوتهم ببغداد وعراقها الأمير البساسيري من موالي الديلم المتغلبين على خلفاء بني العباس في مغاضبة جرت بينه وبين أمراء العجم,"The (‘Ubaydid-Fatimids) shared the realm of Islam equally with the Abbasids. They almost succeeded in penetrating the home country of the ‘Abbasids and in taking their place as rulers. Their propaganda in Baghdad and the ‘Iraq met with success through the amir al-Basasiri, one of the Daylam clients who had gained control of the ‘Abbasid caliphs. This happened as the result of a quarrel between al-Basasiri and the non-Arab amirs."
وخطب لهم على منابرها حولا كاملا وما زال بنو العباس يغصون بمكانهم ودولتهم وملوك بني أمية وراء البحر ينادون بالويل والحرب منهم وكيف يقع هذا كله لدعي في النسب يكذب في انتحال الأمر واعتبر حال القرمطي إذ كان دعيا في انتسابه كيف تلاشت دعوته وتفرقت أتباعه,"For a whole year, the (‘Ubaydid- Fatimids) were mentioned in the Friday prayer from the pulpits of Baghdad. The ‘Abbasids were continually bothered by the (‘UbaydidFatimid) power and preponderance, and the Umayyad rulers beyond the sea (in Spain) expressed their annoyance with them and threatened war against them. How could all this have befallen a fraudulent claimant to the rulership, who was (moreover) considered a liar? One should compare (this account with) the history of the Qarmatian. His genealogy was, in fact, fraudulent. How completely did his propaganda disintegrate and his followers disperse!"
وظهر سريعا على خبثهم ومكرهم فساءت عاقبتهم وذاقوا وبال أمرهم ولو كان أمر العبيديين كذلك لعرف ولو بعد مهلة:,"Their viciousness and guile soon became apparent. They came to an evil end and tasted a bitter fate. If the ‘Ubaydid(- Fatimids) had been in the same situation, it would have become known, even had it taken some time."
ومهما يكن عند امرئ من خليقة … وإن خالها تخفى على الناس تعلم,"Whatever qualities of character a man may have,
They will become known, even if he imagines they are concealed from the people"
فقد اتصلت دولتهم نحوا من مائتين وسبعين سنة وملكوا مقام إبراهيم عليه السلام ومصلاه وموطن الرسول صلى الله عليه وسلم ومدفنه وموقف الحجيج ومهبط الملائكة ثم انقرض أمرهم وشيعتهم في ذلك كله على أتم ما كانوا عليه من الطاعة لهم والحب فيهم واعتقادهم بنسب الإمام إسماعيل بن جعفر الصادق,"The (‘Ubaydid-Fatimid) dynasty lasted uninterruptedly for about two hundred and seventy years. They held possession of the place where Ibrahim (Abraham) had stood and where he had prayed, the home of the Prophet and the place where he was buried, the place where the pilgrims stand and where the angels descended (to bring the revelation to Muhammad). Then, their rule came to an end. During all that time, their partisans showed them the greatest devotion and love and firmly believed in their descent from the imam Ismail, the son of Ja’far as-Sadiq."
ولقد خرجوا مرارا بعد ذهاب الدولة ودروس أثرها داعين إلى بدعتهم هاتفين بأسماء صبيان من أعقابهم يزعمون استحقاقهم للخلافة ويذهبون إلى تعيينهم بالوصية ممن سلف قبلهم من الأئمة ولو ارتابوا في نسبهم لما ركبوا أعناق الأخطار في الانتصار لهم فصاحب البدعة لا يلبس في أمره ولا يشبه في بدعته ولا يكذب نفسه فيما ينتحله.,"Even after the dynasty had gone and its influence had disappeared, people still came forward to press the claims of the sect. They proclaimed the names of young children, descendants of (the ‘UbaydidFatimids), whom they believed entitled to the caliphate. They went so far as to consider them as having actually been appointed to the succession by preceding imams. Had there been doubts about their pedigree, their followers would not have undergone the dangers involved in supporting them. A sectarian does not manipulate his own affairs, nor sow confusion within his own sect, nor act as a liar where his own beliefs are concerned."
والعجب من القاضي أبي بكر الباقلاني شيخ النظار من المتكلمين كيف يجنح إلى هذه المقالة المرجوحة ويرى هذا الراي الضعيف فإن كان ذلك لما كانوا عليه من الإلحاد في الدين والتعمق في الرافضية فليس ذلك بدافع في صدر دعوتهم وليس إثبات منتسبهم بالذي يغني عنهم من الله شيئا في كفرهم فقد قال تعالى لنوح عليه السلام في شأن ابنه «إنه ليس من أهلك إنه عمل غير صالح فلا تسئلن ما ليس لك به علم 11: 46.» وقال صلى الله عليه وسلم لفاطمة يعظها يا فاطمة اعملي فلن أغني عنك من الله شيئا,"It is strange that Judge Abu Bakr al-Baqillani’ the great speculative theologian, was inclined to credit this unacceptable view (as to the spuriousness of the ‘Ubaydid-Fatimid genealogy), and upheld this weak opinion. If the reason for his attitude was the heretical and extremist Shi’ism of (the ‘Ubaydid-Fatimids, it would not be valid, for his denial of their ‘Alid descent) does not invalidate (the objectionable character of) their sectarian beliefs, nor would establishment of their (‘Alid) descent be of any help to them before God in the question of their unbelief. God said to Noah concerning his sons: “He does not belong to your family. It is an improper action. So do not ask me regarding that of which you have no knowledge.” Muhammad exhorted Fatimah in these words: “O Fatimah, act (as you wish). I shall be of no help to you before God.”"
ومتى عرف امرؤ قضية أو استيقن أمرا وجب عليه أن يصدع به والله يقول الحق وهو يهدي السبيل والقوم كانوا في مجال لظنون الدول بهم وتحت رقبة من الطغاة لتوفر شيعتهم وانتشارهم في القاصية بدعوتهم وتكرر خروجهم مرة بعد أخرى فلاذت رجالاتهم بالاختفاء ولم يكادوا يعرفون كما قيل:,"When a man comes to know a problem or to be certain about a matter, he must openly state (his knowledge or his certainty). “God speaks the truth. He leads (men into) the right way.” Those people (the ‘Ubaydid-Fatimids) were constantly on the move because of the suspicions various governments had concerning them. They were kept under observation by the tyrants, because their partisans were numerous and their propaganda had spread far and wide. Time after time they had to leave the places where they had settled. Their men, therefore, took refuge in hiding, and their (identity) was hardly known, as (the poet) says:"
فلو تسأل الأيام ما اسمي ما درت … وأين مكاني ما عرفن مكانيا,"If you would ask the days what my name is, they would not know, And where I am, they would not know where I am."
حتى لقد سمي محمد بن إسماعيل الإمام جد عبيد الله المهدي بالمكتوم سمته بذلك شيعتهم لما اتفقوا عليه من إخفائه حذرا من المتغلبين عليهم فتوصل شيعة بني العباس بذلك عند ظهورهم إلى الطعن في نسبهم وازدلفوا بهذا الرأي القائل للمستضعفين من خلفائهم وأعجب به أولياؤهم وأمراء دولتهم المتولون لحروبهم مع الأعداء يدفعون به عن أنفسهم وسلطانهم معرة العجز عن المقاومة والمدافعة لمن غلبهم على الشام ومصر والحجاز من البربر الكتامين شيعة العبيديين وأهل دعوتهم,"This went so far that Muhammad, the son of the imam Isma’il, the ancestor of ‘Ubaydallah al-Mahdi, was called “the Concealed (Imam).” His partisans called him by that name because they were agreed on the fact he was hiding out of fear of those who had them in their power. The partisans of the ‘Abbasids made much use of this fact when they came out with their attack against the pedigree of (the ‘UbaydidFatimids). They tried to ingratiate themselves with the weak (‘Abbasid) caliphs by professing the erroneous opinion that (the ‘Alid descent of the ‘Ubaydid- Fatimids was spurious). It pleased the ‘Abbasid clients and the amirs who were in charge of military operations against the enemies of the (‘Abbasids). It helped them and the government to make up for their inability to resist and repel the Kutimah Berbers, the partisans and propagandists of the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimids), who had taken Syria, Egypt, and the Hijaz away from (the ‘Abbasids)."
حتى لقد أسجل القضاة ببغداد بنفيهم عن هذا النسب وشهد بذلك عندهم من أعلام الناس جماعة منهم الشريف الرضي وأخوه المرتضى وابن البطحاوي ومن العلماء أبو حامد الأسفراييني والقدوري والصيمري وابن الأكفاني والأبيوردي وأبو عبد الله بن النعمان فقيه الشيعة وغيرهم من أعلام الأمة ببغداد في يوم مشهود وذلك سنة ستين وأربعمائة في أيام القادر,"The judges in Baghdad eventually prepared an official statement denying the ‘Alid origin (of the ‘Ubaydid- Fatimids). The statement was witnessed by a number of prominent men, among them the Sharif ar-Radi and his brother al-Murtada, and Ibn al-Bathawi. Among the religious scholars (who also witnessed the document) were Abu Hamid al-Isfarayini, al-Quduri, as-Saymari Ibn al-Akfani, al-Abiwardi, the Shi’ah jurist Abu ‘Abdallah b. an-Nu’man, and other prominent Muslims in Baghdad. The event took place one memorable day in the year 402 [1011] in the time of al-Qadir."
وكانت شهادتهم في ذلك على السماع لما اشتهر وعرف بين الناس ببغداد وغالبها شيعة بني العباس الطاعنون في هذا النسب فنقله الأخباريون كما سمعوه ورووه حسبما وعوه والحق من ورائه.,"The testimony (of these witnesses) was based upon hearsay, on what people in Baghdad generally believed. Most of them were partisans of the ‘Abbasids who attacked the ‘Alid origin (of the ‘UbaydidFatimids). The historians reported the information as they had heard it. They handed it down to us just as they remembered it. However, the truth lies behind it."
وفي كتاب المعتضد في شأن عبيد الله إلى ابن الأغلب بالقيروان وابن مدرار بسجلماسة أصدق شاهد وأوضح دليل على صحة نسبهم فالمعتضد أقعد بنسب أهل البيت من كل أحد والدولة والسلطان سوق للعالم تجلب إليه بضائع العلوم والصنائع وتلتمس فيه ضوال الحكم,"Al-Mu’tadid’s letter concerning ‘Ubaydallah (addressed) to the Aghlabid in al-Qayrawan and the Midrarid in Sijilmasah, testifies most truthfully to the correctness of the (‘Alid) origin of the (‘Ubaydid-Fatimids), and proves it most clearly. AlMu’tadid (as a very close relative) was better qualified than anyone else to speak about the genealogy of the Prophet’s house. Dynasty and government serve as the world’s market place, attracting to it the products of scholarship and craftsmanship alike. Wayward wisdom and forgotten lore turn up there."
وتحدى إليه ركائب الروايات والأخبار وما نفق فيها نفق عند الكافة فإن تنزهت الدولة عن التعسف والميل والأفن والسفسفة وسلكت النهج الأمم ولم تجر عن قصد السبيل نفق في سوقها الإبريز الخالص واللجين المصفى,"In this market stories are told and items of historical information are delivered. Whatever is in demand on this market is in general demand everywhere else. Now, whenever the established dynasty avoids injustice, prejudice, weakness, and double-dealing, with determination keeping to the right path and never swerving from it, the wares on its market are as pure silver and fine gold."
وإن ذهبت مع الأعراض والحقود وماجت بسماسرة العرب البغي والباطل نفق البهرج والزائف والناقد البصير قسطاس نظره وميزان بحثه وملتمسه.,"However, when it is influenced by selfish interests and rivalries, or swayed by vendors of tyranny and dishonesty, the wares of its market place become as dross and debased metals. The intelligent critic must judge for himself as he looks around, examining this, admiring that, and choosing this."
ومثل هذا وأبعد منه كثيرا ما يتناجى به الطاعنون في نسب إدريس بن إدريس بن عبد الله بن حسن بن الحسن بن علي بن أبي طالب (رضوان الله عليهم) الإمام بعد أبيه بالمغرب الأقصى ويعرضون تعريض الحد بالتظنن في الحمل المخلف عن إدريس الأكبر إنه لراشد مولاهم,"A similar and even more improbable story is one privately discussed by those who attack the (‘Alid) descent of Idris b. Idris b. ‘Abdallah b. Hasan b. al- Hasan b. ‘All b. Abi Talib, who became imam after his father in Morocco. They hint at the punishable crime of adultery by insinuating that the unborn child left after the death of the elder Idris was in fact the child of Rashid, a client of the Idrisids."
قبحهم الله وأبعدهم ما أجهلهم أما يعلمون أن إدريس الأكبر إنه لراشد مولاهم قبحهم الله وأبعدهم ما أجلهم أما يعلمون أن إدريس الأكبر كان إصهاره في البربر وأنه منذ دخل المغرب إلى أن توفاه الله عز وجل عريق في البدو وأن حال البادية في مثل ذلك غير خافية إذ لا مكامن لهم يتأتى فيها الريب وأحوال حرمهم أجمعين بمرأى من جاراتهن ومسمع من جيرانهن لتلاصق الجدران وتطامن البنيان وعدم الفواصل بين المساكن,"How stupid of these God-forsaken men! They should know that the elder Idris married into the Berber tribes and, from the time he came to the Maghrib until his death, was firmly rooted in desert life. In the desert, no such thing could remain a secret. There are no hiding places there where things can be done in secret. The neighbors (if they are women) can always see and (if they are men) always hear what their women are doing, because the houses are low and clustered together without space between them."
وقد كان راشد يتولى خدمة الحرم أجمع من بعد مولاه بمشهد من أوليائهم وشيعتهم ومراقبة من كافتهم وقد اتفق برابرة المغرب الأقصى عامة على بيعة إدريس الأصغر من بعد أبيه وآتوه طاعتهم عن رضى وإصفاق,"Rashid was entrusted with the stewardship of all the women after the death of his master, upon the recommendation of friends and partisans of the Idrisids and subject to the supervision of them all. Furthermore, all Moroccan Berbers agreed to render the oath of allegiance to the younger Idris as his father’s successor. They voluntarily agreed to obey him."
وبايعوه على الموت الأحمر وخاضوا دونه بحار المنايا في حروبه وغزواته ولو حدثوا أنفسهم بمثل هذه الريبة أو قرعت أسماعهم ولو من عدو كاشح أو منافق مرتاب لتخلف عن ذلك ولو بعضهم كلا والله إنما صدرت هذه الكلمات من بني العباس أقتالهم ومن بني الأغلب عمالهم كانوا بإفريقية وولاتهم.,"They swore that they were willing to die for him, and they exposed themselves to mortal danger protecting him in his wars and raids. Had they told each other some such scandalous story or heard it from someone else, even a vengeful enemy or scandal-mongering rebel, some of them at least would have refused to do those things. No, this story originated with the ‘Abbasid opponents of the Idrisids and with the Aghlabids, the ‘Abbasid governors and officials in Ifriqiyah"
وذلك أنه لما فر إدريس الأكبر إلى المغرب من وقعة بلخ أوعز الهادي إلى الأغالبة أن يقعدوا له بالمراصد ويذكوا عليه العيون فلم يظفروا به وخلص إلى المغرب فتم امره وظهرت دعوته وظهر الرشيد من بعد ذلك على ما كان من واضح مولاهم وعاملهم على الاسكندرية من دسيسة التشيع للعلوية وإدهانه في نجاة إدريس إلى المغرب فقتله ودس الشماخ من موالي المهدي أبيه للتحيل على قتل إدريس فأظهر اللحاق به والبراءة من بني العباس مواليه,"This happened in the following manner. When the elder Idris fled to the Maghrib after the battle of Fakhkh, alHadi sent orders to the Aghlabids to lie in wait and keep a sharp watch out for him. However, they did not catch him, and he escaped safely to the Maghrib. He consolidated his position, and his propaganda was successful. Later on, arRashid became aware of the secret Shi’ah leanings of Wadih, the ‘Abbasid client and governor of Alexandria, and of his deceitful attitude in connection with the escape of Idris to the Maghrib, and (ar-Rashid) killed (Wadih). Then, ashShammakh, a client of (ar-Rashid’s) father, suggested to arRashid a ruse by means of which to kill Idris. (Ash-Shammakh) pretended to become his adherent and to have broken with his ‘Abbasid masters."
فاشتمل عليه إدريس وخلطه بنفسه وناوله الشماخ في بعض خلواته سما استهلكه به ووقع خبر مهلكه من بني العباس أحسن المواقع لما رجوه من قطع أسباب الدعوة العلوية بالمغرب واقتلاع جرثومتها ولما تأدى إليهم خبر الحمل المخلف لإدريس فلم يكن لهم إلا كلا ولا وإذا بالدعوة قد عادت,"Idris took him under his protection and admitted him to his private company. Once, when Idris was alone, ash- Shammakh gave him some poison and thus killed him. The news of his death was received by the ‘Abbasids most favorably, since they hoped that it would cut the roots and blunt the edge of the ‘Alid propaganda in the Maghrib. News of the unborn child left after Idris’ death had not (yet) reached them. Thus, it was only a brief moment until the (‘Alid) propaganda reappeared."
والشيعة بالمغرب قد ظهرت ودولتهم بإدريس بن إدريس قد تجددت فكان ذلك عليهم أنكى من وقع السهام وكان الفشل والهرم قد نزلا بدولة العرب عن أن يسموا إلى القاصية فلم يكن منتهى قدرة الرشيد على إدريس الأكبر بمكانه من قاصية المغرب واشتمال البربر عليه إلا التحيل في إهلاكه بالسموم فعند ذلك فزعوا إلى أوليائهم من الأغالبة بإفريقية في سد تلك الفرجة من ناحيتهم وحسم الداء المتوقع بالدولة من قبلهم واقتلاع تلك العروق قبل أن تشج منهم,"The Shi’ah was successful in the Maghrib, and Shi’ah rule was renewed through Idris, Idris’ son. This was a most painful blow to the ‘Abbasids. Weakness and senility had already taken hold of the Arab dynasty. No longer could (the ‘Abbasids) aspire to the control of remote regions. Far away as the elder Idris was in the Maghrib, under the protection of the Berbers, ar-Rashid had just enough power, and no more, to poison him with the help of a ruse. Therefore, the ‘Abbasids now had recourse to their Aghlabid clients in Ifrigiyah. They asked them to heal the dangerous breach caused by (the Idrisids), to take measures against the woe that threatened to befall the dynasty from that direction, and to uproot (the Idrisids) before they could spread."
يخاطبهم بذلك المأمون ومن بعده من خلفائهم فكان الاغالبة عن برابرة المغرب الأقصى أعجز ولمثلها من الزبون على ملوكهم أحوج لما طرق الخلافة من انتزاء ممالك العجم على سدتها وامتطائهم صهوة التغلب عليها وتصريفهم أحكامها طوع أغراضهم في رجالها وجبايتها وأهل خططها وسائر نقضها وإبرامها كما قال شاعرهم:,"Al-Ma’mun and the succeeding caliphs wrote to the Aghlabids to this effect. However, the Aghlabids were also too weak (to control) the Berbers of Morocco, and might better have tried to embarrass their own rulers as (the Idrisids embarrassed them), because the power of the caliphate had been usurped by non-Arab slaves, who diverted to their own purposes its entire control and authority over men, taxes, and functionaries. It was as the contemporary (‘Abbasid) poet described it:"
"خليفة في قفص … بين وصيف وبغا
يقول ما قالا له … كما تقول الببغا","A caliph in a cage Between Wasif and Bugha He says what they tell him, Like a parrot."
فخشي هؤلاء الأمراء الأغالبة بوادر السعايات وتلوا بالمعاذير فطورا باحتقار المغرب وأهله وطورا بالإرهاب بشأن إدريس الخارج به ومن قام مقامه من أعقابه يخاطبونهم بتجاوزه حدود التخوم من عمله وينفذون سكته في تحفهم وهداياهم ومرتفع جباياتهم تعريضا باستفحاله وتهويلا باشتداد شوكته وتعظيما لما دفعوا إليه من مطالبته ومراسه وتهديدا بقلب الدعوة إن ألجئوا إليه,"The Aghlabid amirs, therefore, were afraid of possible intrigues and tried all kinds of excuses. Sometimes, they belittled the Maghrib and its inhabitants. At other times, they tried to arouse fear of the power of Idris and his descendants who had taken his place there. They wrote the ‘Abbasids that he was crossing the borders of his territory. They included his coins among their gifts, presents, and tax collections, in order to show his growing influence and to spread terror about his increasing power, to magnify (the dangers) which would lie in attacking and fighting him, as they were being asked to do, and to threaten a change in allegiance if they were forced to that."
وطورا يطعنون في نسب إدريس بمثل ذلك الطعن الكاذب تخفيضا لشأنه لا يبالون بصدقة من كذبه لبعد المسافة وأفن عقول من خلف من صبية بني العباس وممالكهم العجم في القبول من كل قائل والسمع لكل ناعق,"Again, at other times, they attacked the descent of Idris with the (aforementioned) lie, in order to harm him. They did not care whether the accusation was true or not. The distance (from Baghdad) was great, and, weak-minded as the ‘Abbasid children and their non-Arab slaves were, they took anybody’s word and listened to anybody’s noise."
ولم يزل هذا دأبهم حتى انقضى أمر الأغالبة فقرعت هذه الكلمة الشنعاء أسماع الغوغاء وصر عليها بعض الطاعنين أذنه واعتدها ذريعة إلى النيل من خلفهم عند المنافسة. وما لهم قبحهم الله والعدول عن مقاصد الشريعة فلا تعارض فيها بين المقطوع والمظنون وإدريس ولد على فراش أبيه والولد للفراش.,"They went on in this manner until the Aghlabid rule came to an end. The nasty remark (about the Idrisid genealogy) then became known to the mob. Some slanderers listened eagerly to it, using it to harm the Idrisids when there were rivalries. Why do such God-forsaken men stray from the intentions of the religious law, which knows no difference between definite (fact) and (mere) guess? Idris was born in his father’s bed, and “the child belongs to the bed.”"
وإلا فالمحل منزه عن ذلك معصوم منه ونفي العيب حيث يستحيل العيب عيب لكني جادلت عنهم في الحياة الدنيا وأرجو أن يجادلوا عني يوم القيامة,"But the situation (of the Idrisids) is above all that and not susceptible of such a (taint). (No space should be devoted to refuting such an accusation, since) to deny a fault where (the existence of) a fault is impossible is (in itself) a fault. However, I did defend them here in this world and, thus, I hope that they will defend me on the Day of Resurrection."
ولتعلم أن أكثر الطاعنين في نسبهم إنما هم الحسدة لأعقاب إدريس هذا من منتم إلى أهل البيت أو دخيل فيهم فإن ادعاء هذا النسب الكريم دعوى شرف عريضة على الأمم والأجيال من أهل الافاق فتعرض التهمة فيه.,"It should be known that most of those who attack the (‘Alid) descent of (the Idrisids) are themselves persons who claim to be descendants of Muhammad or pretend to be connected with his descendants, and who envy the descendants of Idris. The claim to (Muhammadan) descent is a great title to nobility among nations and races in all regions. Therefore, it is subject to suspicion."
ولما كان نسب بني إدريس هؤلاء بمواطنهم من فارس وسائر ديار المغرب قد بلغ من الشهرة والوضوح مبلغا لا يكاد يلحق ولا يطمع أحد في دركه إذ هو نقل الأمة والجيل من الخلف عن الأمة والجيل من السلف وبيت جدهم إدريس مختط فاس ومؤسسها من بيوتهم ومسجده لصق محلتهم ودروبهم,"Now, both in their native Fez and in the other regions of the Maghrib, the descent of the Idrisids is so well known and evident that almost no one can show or hope to show as well- established a pedigree. It is the result of continuous transmission by the more recent nations and generations on the authority of the older preceding ones. The Idrisids count the house of their ancestor Idris, the founder and builder of Fez, among their houses. His mosque is adjacent to their quarter and streets."
وسيفه منتضى برأس المئذنة العظمى من قرار بلدهم وغير ذلك من آثاره التي جاوزت أخبارها حدود التواتر مرات وكادت تلحق بالعيان فإذا نظر غيرهم من أهل هذا النسب إلى ما أتاهم الله من أمثالها وما عضد شرفهم النبوي من جلال الملك الذي كان لسلفهم بالمغرب واستيقن أنه بمعزل عن ذلك وأنه لا يبلغ مد أحدهم ولا نصيفه وأن غاية أمر المنتمين إلى البيت الكريم ممن لم يحصل له أمثال هذه الشواهد أن يسلم لهم حالهم لأن الناس مصدقون في أنسابهم وبون ما بين العلم والظن واليقين والتسليم,"His sword is (suspended) unsheathed atop the main minaret of their residence. There are other relics of his which have been attested to many times in an uninterrupted tradition, so that the tradition concerning them is almost as valuable as direct observation (as to its reliability). Other descendants of Muhammad can look at these signs which God gave to the Idrisids. They will see the Muhammadan nobility of the Idrisids enhanced by the majesty of the royal authority their ancestors exercised in the Maghrib. They will realize that they themselves have nothing of the sort and that they do not measure up even halfway to any one of the Idrisids. They will also realize that those who claim to be Muhammad’s descendants but do not have such testimonies to confirm their claim as the Idrisids have, may at best find their position conceded (as possibly true), because people are to be believed with regard to the descent they claim for themselves, but there is a difference between what is known and what is mere guess, between what is certain and what is merely conceded as possibly true."
فإذا علم بذلك من نفسه غص بريقه وود كثير منهم لو يردونهم عن شرفهم ذلك سوقة ووضعاء حسدا من عند أنفسهم فيرجعون إلى العناد وارتكاب اللجاج والبهت بمثل هذا الطعن الفائل والقول المكذوب تعللا بالمساواة في الظنة والمشابهة في تطرق الاحتمال وهيهات لهم ذلك,"When they realize these facts, they are choked in their own spittle (which they swallow in impotent jealousy). Their private envy causes many of them to wish that they could bring down the Idrisids from their noble position to the status of ordinary, humble persons. Therefore, they have recourse to spite and persistent malevolence and invent erroneous and lying accusations such as the one discussed. They justify themselves by the assumption that all guesses are equally probable. They ought to (prove) that!"
فليس في المغرب فيما نعلمه من أهل هذا البيت الكريم من يبلغ في صراحة نسبه ووضوحه مبالغ أعقاب إدريس هذا من آل الحسن.,We know of no descendants of Muhammad whose lineage is so clearly and obviously established as that of the descendants of Idris of the family of al-Hasan.
وكبراؤهم لهذا العهد بنو عمران بفاس من ولد يحيى الحوطي بن محمد بن يحيى العوام بن القاسم بن إدريس بن إدريس وهم نقباء أهل البيت هناك والساكنون ببيت جدهم إدريس,The most distinguished Idrisids at this time are the Banu ‘Imran in Fez. They are descendants of Yahya al-Juti b. Muhammad b. Yahya al- ‘Addam b. alQasim b. Idris b. Idris. They are the chiefs of the ‘Alids there. They live (at the present time) in the house of their ancestor Idris.
ولهم السيادة على أهل المغرب كافة حسبما نذكرهم عند ذكر الادارسة إن شاء الله تعالى,"They are the leading nobility of the entire Maghrib. We shall mention them in connection with the Idrisids, if God wills."
ويلحق بهذه المقالات الفاسدة والمذاهب الفائلة ما يتناوله ضعفة الرأي من فقهاء المغرب من القدح في الإمام المهدي صاحب دولة الموحدين,"To these wicked statements and erroneous beliefs one may add the accusations that weak-minded jurists in the Maghrib leveled against the imam al- Mahdi, the head of the Almohad dynasty"
ونسبته إلى الشعوذة والتلبيس فيما أتاه من القيام بالتوحيد الحق والنعي على أهل البغي قبله وتكذيبهم لجميع مدعياته في ذلك حتى فيما يزعم الموحدون اتباعه من انتسابه في أهل البيت وإنما حمل الفقهاء على تكذيبه,"He was accused of deceit and insincerity when he insisted upon the true oneness of God and when he complained about the unjust people before his time. All his claims in this respect were declared to be false, even down to his descent from the family of Muhammad, which his Almohad followers accept."
ما كمن في نفوسهم من حسده على شأنه فإنهم لما رأوا من أنفسهم مناهضته في العلم والفتيا وفي الدين بزعمهم,"Deep down in their hearts it was envy of al-Mahdi’s success that led the jurists to declare him a liar. In their self-deception, they thought that they could compete with him in religious scholarship, juridical decisions, and religion."
ثم امتاز عنهم بأنه متبوع الرأي مسموع القول موطأ العقب نفسوا ذلك عليه وغضوا منه بالقدح في مذاهبه والتكذيب لمدعياته,"He then turned out to be superior to them. His opinion was accepted, what he said was listened to, and he gained a following. They envied this success of his and tried to lessen his influence by attacking his dogmas and declaring his claims to be false."
وأيضا فكانوا يؤنسون من ملوك لمتونة أعدائه تجلة وكرامة لم تكن لهم من غيرهم لما كانوا عليه من السذاجة وانتحال الديانة فكان لحملة العلم بدولتهم مكان من الوجاهة والانتصاب للشورى كل في بلده وعلى قدره في قومه,"Furthermore, they were used to receive from al-Mahdi’s enemies, the Lamtunah kings (the Almoravids), a respect and an honor they received from no one else, because of the simple religion (of the Almoravids). Under the Lamtunah dynasty, religious scholars held a position of respect and were appointed to the council, everybody according to his influence among his people in his respective village."
فأصبحوا بذلك شيعة لهم وحربا لعدوهم ونقموا على المهدي ما جاء به من خلافهم والتثريب عليهم والمناصبة لهم تشيعا للمتونة وتعصبا لدولتهم ومكان الرجل غير مكانهم,"The scholars, therefore, became partisans (of the Almoravids) and enemies of their enemies. They tried to take revenge on al-Mahdi for his opposition to them, his censure of them, and his struggle against them. This was the result of their partisanship for the Lamtunah and their bias in favor of the Lamtunah dynasty. Al- Mahdi’s position was different from theirs."
وحاله على غير معتقداتهم وما ظنك برجل نقم على أهل الدولة ما نقم من أحوالهم وخالف اجتهاده فقهاؤهم فنادى في قومه ودعا إلى جهادهم بنفسه فاقتلع الدولة من أصولها وجعل عاليها سافلها أعظم ما كانت قوة وأشد شوكة وأعز أنصارا وحامية,"He did not share their beliefs. What else could be expected of a man who criticized the attitude of the ruling dynasty as he did and was opposed in his efforts by its jurists? He called his people to a holy war against them. He uprooted the dynasty and turned it upside down, despite its great strength, its tremendous power, and the strong force of its allies and its militia."
وتساقطت في ذلك من أتباعه نفوس لا يحصيها إلا خالقها وقد بايعوه على الموت ووقوه بأنفسهم من الهلكة وتقربوا إلى الله تعالى بإتلاف مهجهم في إظهار تلك الدعوة والتعصب لتلك الكلمة حتى علت على الكلم ودالت بالعدوتين من الدول,"Followers of his killed in the struggle were innumerable. They had sworn allegiance to him until death. They had protected him from death with their own lives. They had sought nearness to God by sacrificing themselves for the victory of the Mahdi’s cause as partisans of the enterprise that eventually gained the upper hand and
replaced the dynasties on both shores"
وهو بحالة من التقشف والحصر والصبر على المكاره والتقلل من الدنيا حتى قبضه الله وليس على شيء من الحظ والمتاع في دنياه حتى الولد الذي ربما تجنح إليه النفوس وتخادع عن تمنيه,"(Al-Mahdi himself) remained always frugal, retiring, patient in tribulation, and very little concerned with the world to the last; he died without fortune or worldly possessions. He did not even have children, as everybody desires but as one often is deceived in desiring."
فليت شعري ما الذي قصد بذلك إن لم يكن وجه الله وهو لم يحصل له حظ من الدنيا في عاجله ومع هذا فلو كان قصده غير صالح لما تم أمره وانفسحت دعوته,"I should like to know what he could have hoped to obtain by this way of life were it not (to look upon) the face of God, for he did not acquire worldly fortune of any kind during his lifetime. Moreover, if his intention had not been good, he would not have been successful, and his propaganda would not have spread"
سنة الله التي قد خلت في عباده,“This is how God formerly proceeded with His servants.
وأما إنكارهم نسبه في أهل البيت فلا تعضده حجة لهم مع أنه إن ثبت أنه ادعاه وانتسب إليه فلا دليل يقوم على بطلانه لأن الناس مصدقون في أنسابهم,"The (jurists’) disavowal of (al-Mahdi’s) descent from Muhammad’s family is not backed up by any proof. Were it established that he himself claimed such descent, his claim could not be disproved, because people are to be believed regarding the descent they claim for themselves."
وإن قالوا إن الرئاسة لا تكون على قوم في غير أهل جلدتهم كما هو الصحيح حسبما يأتي في الفصل الأول من هذا الكتاب,"It might be said that leadership over a people is vested only in men of their own skin. This is correct, as will be mentioned in the first chapter of this book."
والرجل قد رأس سائر المصامدة ودانوا باتباعه والانقياد إليه وإلى عصابته من هرغة حتى تم أمر الله في دعوته فاعلم أن هذا النسب الفاطمي لم يكن أمر المهدي يتوقف عليه ولا اتبعه الناس بسببه,"But al-Mahdi exercised leadership over all the Masmudah. They agreed to follow him and be guided by him and his Harghah group, and, eventually, God gave complete success to his propaganda. In this connection, it must be realized that al-Mahdi’s power did not depend exclusively on his Fatimid descent, and the people did not follow him on that account (only)."
وإنما كان اتباعهم له بعصبية الهرغية والمصمودية ومكانه منها ورسوخ شجرته فيها وكان ذلك النسب الفاطمي خفيا قد درس عند الناس وبقي عنده وعند عشيرته يتناقلونه بينهم,"They followed him because of their Harghah-Masmudah group feeling and because of his share in that group feeling which was firmly rooted in him. (Al-Mahdi’s) Fatimid descent had become obscured and knowledge of it had disappeared from among the people, although it had remained alive in him and his family through family tradition."
فيكون النسب الأول كأنه انسلخ منه ولبس جلدة هؤلاء وظهر فيها فلا يضره الانتساب الأول في عصبيته إذ هو مجهول عند أهل العصابة,"His original (Fatimid) descent had, in a way, been sloughed off, and he had put on the skin of the Harghah-Masmudah and thus appeared as one of their skin. The fact that he was originally of Fatimid descent did not harm him with regard to his group feeling, since it was not known to the members of the group."
ومثل هذا واقع كثيرا إذا كان النسب الأول خفيا وانظر قصة عرفجة وجرير في رئاسة بجيلة,Things like that happen frequently once one’s original descent has become obscured. One might compare (with the above) the story of Arfajah and Jarir concerning the leadership of the Bajilah.
وكيف كان عرفجة من الأزد ولبس جلدة بجيلة حتى تنازع مع جرير رئاستهم عند عمر رضي الله عنه كما هو مذكور تتفهم منه وجه الحق,"Arfajah had belonged to the Azd but had put on the skin of the Bajilah so successfully that he was able to wrangle with Jarir over the leadership before ‘Umar, as has been reported. This example makes one understand what the truth is like."
والله الهادي للصواب.,God is the guide to that which is correct.
وقد كدنا أن نخرج عن غرض الكتاب بالإطناب في هذه المغالط فقد زلت أقدام كثير من الأثبات والمؤرخين الحفاظ في مثل هذه الأحاديث والآراء وعلقت أفكارهم ونقلها عنهم الكافة من ضعفة النظر والغفلة عن القياس وتلقوها هم أيضا كذلك من غير بحث ولا روية واندرجت في محفوظاتهم,"Lengthy discussion of these mistakes has taken us rather far from the purpose of this work. However, many competent persons and expert historians slipped in connection with such stories and assertions, and they stuck in their minds. Many weak-minded and uncritical persons learned these things from them, and even (the competent historians) themselves accepted them without critical investigation, and thus (strange stories) crept into their material."
حتى صار فن التاريخ واهيا مختلطا وناظره مرتبكا وعد من مناحي العامة فإذا يحتاج صاحب هذا الفن إلى العلم بقواعد السياسة وطبائع الموجودات واختلاف الأمم والبقاع والأعصار في السير والأخلاق والعوائد والنحل والمذاهب وسائر الأحوال,"In consequence, historiography became nonsensical and confused, and its students fumbled around. Historiography came to be considered a domain of the common people. Therefore, today, the scholar in this field needs to know the principles of politics, the (true) nature of existent things, and the differences among nations, places, and periods with regard to ways of life, character qualities, customs, sects, schools, and everything else. He further needs a comprehensive knowledge of present conditions in all these respects."
والإحاطة بالحاضر من ذلك ومماثلة ما بينه وبين الغائب من الوفاق أو بون ما بينهما من الخلاف وتعليل المتفق منها والمختلف والقيام على أصول الدول والملل ومبادئ ظهورها وأسباب حدوثها ودواعي كونها وأحوال القائمين بها وأخبارهم,"He must compare similarities or differences between the present and the past (or distantly located) conditions. He must know the causes of the similarities in certain cases and of the differences in others. He must be aware of the differing origins and beginnings of (different) dynasties and religious groups, as well as of the reasons and incentives that brought them into being and the circumstances and history of the persons who supported them."
حتى يكون مستوعبا لأسباب كل خبره وحينئذ يعرض خبر المنقول على ما عنده من القواعد والأصول فإن وافقها وجرى على مقتضاها كان صحيحا,"His goal must be to have complete knowledge of the reasons for every happening, and to be acquainted with the origin of every event. Then, he must check transmitted information with the basic principles he knows. If it fulfills their requirements, it is sound."
وإلا زيفه واستغنى عنه وما استكبر القدماء علم التاريخ إلا لذلك حتى انتحله الطبري والبخاري وابن إسحاق من قبلهما وأمثالهم من علماء الأمة,"Otherwise, the historian must consider it as spurious and dispense with it. It was for this reason alone that historiography was highly considered by the ancients, so much so that at-Tabari, al-Bukhari, and, before them, Ibn Ishaq and other Muslim religious scholars, chose to occupy themselves with it."
وقد ذهل الكثير عن هذا السر فيه حتى صار انتحاله مجهلة واستخف العوام ومن لا رسوخ له في المعارف مطالعته وحمله والخوض فيه والتطفل عليه فاختلط المرعي بالهمل واللباب بالقشر والصادق بالكاذب,"Most scholars, however, forgot this, the (real) secret of historiography, with the result that it became a stupid occupation. Ordinary people as well as (scholars) who had no firm foundation of knowledge, considered it a simple matter to study and know history, to delve into it and sponge on it. Strays got into the flock, bits of shell were mixed with the nut, truth was adulterated with lies."
وإلى الله عاقبة الأمور,“The final outcome of things is up to God.”
ومن الغلط الخفي في التاريخ الذهول عن تبدل الأحوال في الأمم والأجيال بتبدل الأعصار ومرور الأيام وهو داء دوي شديد الخفاء إذ لا يقع إلا بعد أحقاب متطاولة فلا يكاد يتفطن له إلا الآحاد من أهل الخليقة,"A hidden pitfall in historiography is disregard for the fact that conditions within the nations and races change with the change of periods and the passing of days. This is a sore affliction and is deeply hidden, becoming noticeable only after a long time, so that rarely do more than a few individuals become aware of it."
وذلك أن أحوال العالم والأمم وعوائدهم ونحلهم لا تدوم على وتيرة واحدة ومنهاج مستقر إنما هو اختلاف على الأيام والأزمنة وانتقال من حال إلى حال وكما يكون ذلك في الأشخاص والأوقات والأمصار فكذلك يقع في الآفاق والأقطار والأزمنة والدول,"This is as follows. The condition of the world and of nations, their customs and sects, does not persist in the same form or in a constant manner. There are differences according to days and periods, and changes from one condition to another. This is the case with individuals, times, and cities, and, in the same manner, it happens in connection with regions and districts, periods and dynasties."
سنة الله التي قد خلت في عباده,“This is how God formerly proceeded with His servants.”
وقد كانت في العالم أمم الفرس الأولى والسريانيون والنبط والتبابعة وبنو إسرائيل والقبط وكانوا على أحوال خاصة بهم في دولهم وممالكهم وسياستهم وصنائعهم ولغاتهم واصطلاحاتهم وسائر مشاركاتهم مع أبناء جنسهم وأحوال اعتمارهم للعالم تشهد بها آثارهم ثم جاء من بعدهم الفرس الثانية والروم والعرب,"The old Persian nations, the Syrians, the Nabataeans, the Tubba’s, the Israelites, and the Copts, all once existed. They all had their own particular institutions in respect of dynastic and territorial arrangements, their own politics, crafts, languages, technical terminologies, as well as their own ways of dealing with their fellow men and handling their cultural institutions. Their (historical) relics testify to that. They were succeeded by the later Persians, the Byzantines, and the Arabs."
فتبدلت تلك الأحوال وانقلبت بها العوائد إلى ما يجانسها أو يشابهها وإلى ما يباينها أو يباعدها ثم جاء الإسلام بدولة مضر فانقلبت تلك الأحوال أجمع انقلابة أخرى وصارت إلى ما أكثره متعارف لهذا العهد يأخذه الخلف عن السلف,"The old institutions changed and former customs were transformed, either into something very similar, or into something distinct and altogether different. Then, there came Islam with the Mudar dynasty. Again, all institutions underwent another change, and for the most part assumed the forms that are still familiar at the present time as the result of their transmission from one generation to the next."
ثم درست دولة العرب وأيامهم وذهبت الأسلاف الذين شيدوا عزهم ومهدوا ملكهم وصار الأمر في أيدي سواهم من العجم مثل الترك بالمشرق والبربر بالمغرب والفرنجة بالشمال فذهبت بذهابهم أمم وانقلبت أحوال وعوائد نسي شأنها وأغفل أمرها,"Then, the days of Arab rule were over. The early generations who had cemented Arab might and founded the realm of the Arabs, were gone. The power was seized by others, by non-Arabs like the Turks in the east, the Berbers in the west, and the European Christians in the north. With their passing, entire nations ceased to exist, and institutions and customs changed. Their glory was forgotten, and their power no longer heeded."
والسبب الشائع في تبدل الأحوال والعوائد أن عوائد كل جيل تابعة لعوائد سلطانه كما يقال في الأمثال الحكمية الناس على دين الملك وأهل الملك,The widely accepted reason for changes in institutions and customs is the fact that the customs of each race depend on the customs of its ruler. As the proverb says: “The common people follow the religion of the ruler.”
والسلطان إذا استولوا على الدولة والأمر فلا بد من أن يفزعوا إلى عوائد من قبلهم ويأخذون الكثير منها ولا يغفلون عوائد جيلهم مع ذلك فيقع في عوائد الدولة بعض المخالفة لعوائد الجيل الأول,"When politically ambitious men overcome the ruling dynasty and seize power, they inevitably have recourse to the customs of their predecessors and adopt most of them. At the same time, they do not neglect the customs of their own race. This leads to some discrepancies between the customs of the (new) ruling dynasty and the customs of the old race."
فإذا جاءت دولة أخرى من بعدهم ومزجت من عوائدهم وعوائدها خالفت أيضا بعض الشيء وكانت للأولى أشد مخالفة,"The new power, in turn, is succeeded by another dynasty, and customs are further mixed with those of the new dynasty. More discrepancies come in, and the discrepancy between the new dynasty and the first one is much greater (than that between the second and the first one)."
ثم لا يزال التدريج في المخالفة حتى ينتهي إلى المباينة بالجملة فما دامت الأمم والأجيال تتعاقب في الملك والسلطان لا تزال المخالفة في العوائد والأحوال واقعة.,"Gradual increase in the degree of discrepancy continues. The eventual result is an altogether distinct (set of customs and institutions). As long as there is this continued succession of different races to royal authority and government, discrepancies in customs and institutions will not cease to occur."
والقياس والمحاكاة للإنسان طبيعة معروفة ومن الغلط غير مأمونة تخرجه مع الذهول والغفلة عن قصده وتعوج به عن مرامه فربما يسمع السامع كثيرا من أخبار الماضين ولا يتفطن لما وقع من تغير الأحوال وانقلابها فيجريها لأول وهلة على ما عرف ويقيسها بما شهد وقد يكون الفرق بينهما كثيرا,"Analogical reasoning and comparison are well known to human nature. They are not safe from error. Together with forgetfulness and negligence, they sway man from his purpose and divert him from his goal. Often, someone who has learned a good deal of past history remains unaware of the changes that conditions have undergone. Without a moment’s hesitation, he applies his knowledge (of the present) to the historical information and measures the historical information by the things he has observed with his own eyes, although the difference between the two is great."
فيقع في مهواة من الغلط فمن هذا الباب ما ينقله المؤرخون من أحوال الحجاج وأن أباه كان من المعلمين مع أن التعليم لهذا العهد من جملة الصنائع المعاشية البعيدة من اعتزاز أهل العصبية والمعلم مستضعف مسكين منقطع الجذم,"Consequently, he falls into an abyss of error. This may be illustrated by what the historians report concerning the circumstances of Al-HajjajThey state that his father was a schoolteacher. At the present time, teaching is a craft and serves to make a living. It is a far cry from the pride of group feeling. Teachers are weak, indigent, and rootless."
فيتشوف الكثير من المستضعفين أهل الحرف والصنائع المعاشية إلى نيل الرتب التي ليسوا لها بأهل ويعدونها من الممكنات لهم فتذهب بهم وساوس المطامع وربما انقطع حبلها من أيديهم فسقطوا في مهواة الهلكة والتلف ولا يعلمون استحالتها في حقهم وأنهم أهل حرف وصنائع للمعاش,"Many weak professional men and artisans who work for a living aspire to positions for which they are not fit but which they believe to be within their reach. They are misled by their desires, a rope which often slips from their hands and precipitates them into the abyss of ruinous perdition. They do not realize that what they desire is impossible for men like them to attain. They do not realize that they are professional men and artisans who work for a living."
وأن التعليم صدر الإسلام والدولتين لم يكن كذلك ولم يكن العلم بالجملة صناعة إنما كان نقلا لما سمع من الشارع وتعليما لما جهل من الدين على جهة البلاغ,"And they do not know that at the beginning of Islam and during the (Umayyad and ‘Abbasid) dynasties, teaching was something different. Scholarship, in general, was not a craft in that period. Scholarship was transmitting statements that people had heard the Lawgiver (Muhammad) make. It was teaching religious matters-that-were not known, by wavy of oral transmission."
فكان أهل الأنساب والعصبية الذين قاموا بالملة هم الذين يعلمون كتاب الله وسنة نبيه صلى الله عليه وسلم على معنى التبليغ الخبري لا على وجه التعليم الصناعي إذ هو كتابهم المنزل على الرسول منهم,"Persons of noble descent and people who shared in the group feeling (of the ruling dynasty) and who directed the affairs of Islam were the ones who taught the Book of God and the Sunnah of the Prophet, (and they did so) as one transmits traditions, not as one gives professional instruction. (The Qur’an) was their Scripture, revealed to the Prophet in their midst."
وبه هداياتهم والإسلام دينهم قاتلوا عليه وقتلوا واختصوا به من بين الأمم وشرفوا فيحرصون على تبليغ ذلك وتفهيمه للأمة لا تصدهم عنه لائمة الكبر ولا يزعهم عاذل الأنفة ويشهد لذلك بعث النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم كبار أصحابه مع وفود العرب يعلمونهم حدود الإسلام وما جاء به من شرائع الدين بعث في ذلك من أصحابه العشرة فمن بعدهم,"It constituted their guidance, and Islam was their religion, and for it they fought and died. It distinguished them from the other nations and ennobled them. They wished to teach it and make it understandable to the Muslims. They were not deterred by censure coming from pride, nor were they restrained by criticism coming from arrogance. This is attested by the fact that the Prophet sent the most important of the men around him with his embassies to the Arabs, in order to teach them the norms of Islam and the religious laws he brought. He sent his ten companions and others after them on this mission."
فما استقر الإسلام ووشجت عروق الملة حتى تناولها الأمم البعيدة من أيدي أهلها واستحالت بمرور الأيام أحوالها وكثر استنباط الأحكام الشرعية من النصوص لتعدد الوقائع وتلاحقها فاحتاج ذلك لقانون يحفظه من الخطإ وصار العلم ملكة يحتاج إلى التعلم فأصبح من جملة الصنائع والحرف,"Then, Islam became firmly established and securely rooted. Far-off nations accepted Islam at the hands of the Muslims. With the passing of time, the situation of Islam changed. Many new laws were evolved from the (basic) texts as the result of numerous and unending developments. A fixed norm was required to keep (the process) free from error. Scholarship came to be a habit. For its acquisition, study was required. Thus, scholarship developed into a craft and profession."
كما يأتي ذكره في فصل العلم والتعليم واشتغل أهل العصبية بالقيام بالملك والسلطان فدفع لعلم من قام به من سواهم وأصبح حرفة للمعاش وشمخت أنوف المترفين وأهل السلطان عن التصدي للتعليم,"This will be mentioned in the chapter on scholarship and instruction. The men who controlled the group feeling now occupied themselves with directing the affairs of royal and governmental authority. The cultivation of scholarship was entrusted to others. Thus, scholarship became a profession that served to make a living. Men who lived in luxury and were in control of the government were too proud to do any teaching."
واختص انتحاله بالمستضعفين وصار منتحله محتقرا عند أهل العصبية والملك,"Teaching came to be an occupation restricted to weak individuals. As a result, its practitioners came to be despised by the men who controlled the group feeling and the government."
والحجاج بن يوسف كان أبوه من سادات ثقيف وأشرافهم ومكانهم من عصبية العرب ومناهضة قريش في الشرف ما علمت ولم يكن تعليمه للقرآن على ما هو الأمر عليه لهذا العهد من أنه حرفة للمعاش,"Now, Yusuf, the father of al-Hajjaj, was one of the lords and nobles of the Thaqif, well known for their share in the Arab group feeling and for their rivalry with the nobility of the Quraysh. Al-Hajjaj’s teaching of the Qur’an was not what teaching of the Qur’an is at this time, namely, a profession that serves to make a living."
وإنما كان على ما وصفناه من الأمر الأول في الإسلام ومن هذا الباب أيضا ما يتوهمه المتصفحون لكتب التاريخ إذا سمعوا أحوال القضاة وما كانوا عليه من الرئاسة في الحروب وقود العساكر فتترامى بهم وساوس الهمم إلى مثل تلك الرتب يحسبون أن الشأن خطة القضاء لهذا العهد على ما كان عليه من قبل ويظنون بابن أبي عامر صاحب هشام المستبد عليه وابن عباد من ملوك الطوائف بإشبيلية إذا سمعوا أن آباءهم كانوا قضاة أنهم مثل القضاة لهذا العهد,"His teaching was teaching as it was practiced at the beginning of Islam and as we have just described it. Another illustration of the same (kind of error) is the baseless conclusion critical readers of historical works draw when they hear about the position of judges and about the leadership in war and the command of armies that judges (formerly) exercised. Their misguided thinking leads them to aspire to similar positions. They think that the office of judge at the present time is as important as it was formerly. When they hear that the father of Ibn Abi ‘Amir, who had complete control over Hisham, and that the father of Ibn ‘Abbad, one of the rulers of Sevilla, were judges, they assume that they were like present-day judges."
ولا يتفطنون لما وقع في رتبة القضاء من مخالفة العوائد كما نبينه في فصل القضاء من الكتاب الأول وابن أبي عامر وابن عباد كانا من قبائل العرب القائمين بالدولة الأموية بالأندلس وأهل عصبيتها وكان مكانهم فيها معلوما ولم يكن نيلهم لما نالوه من الرئاسة والملك بخطة القضاء كما هي لهذا العهد بل إنما كان القضاء في الأمر القديم لأهل العصبية من قبيل الدولة ومواليها كما هي الوزارة لعهدنا بالمغرب,"They are not aware of the change in customs that has affected the office of judge, and which will be explained by us in the chapter on the office of judge in the first book. Ibn Abi ‘Amir and Ibn ‘Abbad belonged to Arab tribes that supported the Umayyad dynasty in Spain and represented the group feeling of the Umayyads, and it is known how important their positions were. The leadership and royal authority they attained did not derive from the rank of the judgeship as such, in the present-day sense that (the office of judge constitutes an administrative rank). In the ancient administrative organization, the office of judge was given by the dynasty and its clients to men who shared in the group feeling (of the dynasty), as is done in our age with the wazirate in the Maghrib."
وانظر خروجهم بالعساكر في الطوائف وتقليدهم عظائم الأمور التي لا تقلد إلا لمن له الغنى فيها بالعصبية,"One has only to consider the fact that (in those days judges) accompanied the army on its summer campaigns and were entrusted with the most important affairs, such as are entrusted only to men who can command the group feeling needed for their execution."
فيغلط السامع في ذلك ويحمل الأحوال على غير ما هي وأكثر ما يقع في هذا الغلط ضعفاء البصائر من أهل الأندلس لهذا العهد لفقدان العصبية في مواطنهم منذ أعصار بعيدة بفناء العرب ودولتهم بها وخروجهم عن ملكة أهل العصبيات من البربر,"Hearing such things, some people are misled and get the wrong idea about conditions. At the present time, weakminded Spaniards are especially given to errors in this respect. The group feeling has been lost in their country for many years, as the result of the annihilation of the Arab dynasty in Spain and the emancipation of the Spaniards from the control of Berber group feeling."
فبقيت أنسابهم العربية محفوظة والذريعة إلى العز من العصبية والتناصر مفقودة بل صاروا من جملة الرعايا المتخاذلين الذين تعبدهم القهر ورئموا للمذلة يحسبون أن أنسابهم مع مخالطة الدولة هي التي يكون لهم بها الغلب والتحكم,"The Arab descent has been remembered, but the ability to gain power through group feeling and mutual co- operation has been lost. In fact, the (Spaniards) came to be like (passive) subjects, without any feeling for the obligation of mutual support. They were enslaved by tyranny and had become fond of humiliation, thinking that their descent, together with their share in the ruling dynasty, was the source of power and authority."
فتجد أهل الحرف والصنائع منهم متصدين لذلك ساعين في نيله فأما من باشر أحوال القبائل والعصبية ودولهم بالعدوة الغربية وكيف يكون التغلب بين الأمم والعشائر فقلما يغلطون في ذلك ويخطئون في اعتباره.,"Therefore, among them, professional men and artisans are to be found pursuing power and authority and eager to obtain them. On the other hand, those who have experience with tribal conditions, group feeling, and dynasties along the western shore, and who know how superiority is achieved among nations and tribal groups, will rarely make mistakes or give erroneous interpretations in this respect."
ومن هذا الباب أيضا ما يسلكه المؤرخون عند ذكر الدول ونسق ملوكها فيذكرون اسمه ونسبه وأباه وأمه ونساءه ولقبه وخاتمه وقاضيه وحاجبه ووزيره كل ذلك تقليد لمؤرخي الدولتين من غير تفطن لمقاصدهم,"Another illustration of the same kind of error is the procedure historians follow when they mention the various dynasties and enumerate the rulers belonging to them. They mention the name of each ruler, his ancestors, his mother and father, his wives, his surname, his seal ring, his judge, doorkeeper, and wazir. In this respect, they blindly follow the tradition of the historians of the Umayyad and ‘Abbasid dynasties, without being aware of the purpose of the historians of those times."
والمؤرخون لذلك العهد كانوا يضعون تواريخهم لأهل الدولة وأبناؤها متشوفون إلى سير أسلافهم ومعرفة أحوالهم ليقتفوا آثارهم وينسجوا على منوالهم حتى في اصطناع الرجال من خلف دولتهم وتقليد الخطط والمراتب لأبناء صنائعهم وذويهم,"(The historians of those times) wrote their histories for members of the ruling dynasty, whose children wanted to know the lives and circumstances of their ancestors, so that they might be able to follow in their steps and to do what they did, even down to such details as obtaining servants from among those who were left over from the (previous) dynasty and giving ranks and positions to the descendants of its servants and retainers."
والقضاة أيضا كانوا من أهل عصبية الدولة وفي عداد الوزراء كما ذكرناه لك فيحتاجون إلى ذكر ذلك كله واما حين تباينت الدول وتباعد ما بين العصور ووقف الغرض على معرفة الملوك بأنفسهم خاصة ونسب الدول بعضها من بعض في قوتها وغلبتها ومن كان يناهضها من الأمم أو يقصر عنها فما الفائدة للمصنف في هذا العهد في ذكر الأبناء والنساء ونقش الخاتم واللقب والقاضي والوزير والحاجب من دولة قديمة لا يعرف فيها أصولهم ولا أنسابهم ولا مقاماتهم,"Judges, too, shared in the group feeling of the dynasty and enjoyed the same importance as wazirs, as we have just mentioned. Therefore, the historians of that time had to mention all these things. Later on, however, various distinct dynasties made their appearance. The time intervals became longer and longer. Historical interest now was concentrated on the rulers themselves and on the mutual relationships of the various dynasties in respect to power and predominance. (The problem now was) which nations could stand up (to the ruling dynasty) and which were too weak to do so. Therefore, it is pointless for an author of the present time to mention the sons and wives, the engraving on the seal ring, the surname, judge, wazir, and doorkeeper of an ancient dynasty, when he does not know the origin, descent, or circumstances of its members."
إنما حملهم على ذلك التقليد والغفلة عن مقاصد المؤلفين الأقدمين والذهول عن تحري الأغراض من التاريخ,Present-day authors mention all these things in mere blind imitation of former authors. They disregard the intentions of the former authors and forget to pay attention to historiography’s purpose.
اللهم إلا ذكر الوزراء الذين عظمت آثارهم وعفت على الملوك أخبارهم كالحجاج وبني المهلب والبرامكة وبني سهل بن نوبخت وكافور الإخشيدي وابن أبي عامر وأمثالهم,"An exception are the wazirs who were very influential and whose historical importance overshadowed that of the rulers. Such wazirs as,-for -instance,- al- Ijajjaj,–the Band Muhallab, the Barmecides, the Banu Sahl b. Nawbakht, Kaffir al-Ikhshidi, Ibn Abi ‘Amir, and others should be mentioned."
فغير نكير الالماع بآبائهم والإشارة إلى أحوالهم لانتظامهم في عداد الملوك.,There is no objection to dealing with their lives or referring to their conditions for in importance they rank with the rulers.
ولنذكر هنا فائدة نختم كلامنا في هذا الفصل بها وهي أن التاريخ إنما هو ذكر الأخبار الخاصة بعصر أو جيل,An additional note to end this discussion may find its place here. History refers to events that are peculiar to a particular age or race.
فأما ذكر الأحوال العامة للآفاق والأجيال والأعصار فهو أس للمؤرخ تنبني عليه أكثر مقاصده وتتبين به أخباره وقد كان الناس يفردونه بالتأليف كما فعله المسعودي في كتاب مروج الذهب شرح فيه أحوال الأمم والآفاق لعهده في عصر الثلاثين والثلاثمائة غربا وشرقا,"Discussion of the general conditions of regions, races, and periods constitutes the historian’s foundation. Most of his problems rest upon that foundation, and his historical information derives clarity from it. It forms the topic of special works, such as the Muruj adh-dhahab of al-Mas’udi. In this work, al-Mas’udi commented upon the conditions of nations and regions in the West and in the East during his period (which was) the three hundred and thirties [the nine hundred and forties]."
وذكر نحلهم وعوائدهم ووصف البلدان والجبال والبحار والممالك والدول وفرق شعوب العرب والعجم فصار إماما للمؤرخين يرجعون إليه وأصلا يعولون في تحقيق الكثير من أخبارهم عليه,"He mentioned their sects and customs. He described the various countries, mountains, oceans, provinces, and dynasties. He distinguished between Arabic and non-Arabic groups. His book, thus, became the basic reference work for historians, their principal source for verifying historical information."
ثم جاء الكبري من بعده ففعل مثل ذلك في المسالك والممالك خاصة دون غيرها من الأحوال لأن الأمم والأجيال لعهده لم يقع فيها كثير انتقال ولا عظيم تغير,"Al-Mas’udi was succeeded by al-Bakri who did something similar for routes and provinces, to the exclusion of everything else, because, in his time, not many transformations or great changes had occurred among the nations and races."
وأما لهذا العهد وهو آخر المائة الثامنة فقد انقلبت أحوال المغرب الذي نحن شاهدوه وتبدلت بالجملة واعتاض من أجيال البربر أهله على القدم بما طرأ فيه من لدن المائة الخامسة من أجيال العرب بما كسروهم وغلبوهم وانتزعوا منهم عامة الأوطان وشاركوهم فيما بقي من البلدان لملكهم,"However, at the present time-that is, at the end of the eighth [fourteenth] century-the situation in the Maghrib, as we can observe, has taken a turn and changed entirely. The Berbers, the original population of the Maghrib, have been replaced by an influx of Arabs, (that began in) the fifth [eleventh] century. The Arabs outnumbered and overpowered the Berbers, stripped them of most of their lands, and (also) obtained a share of those that remained in their possession."
هذا إلى ما نزل بالعمران شرقا وغربا في منتصف هذه المائة الثامنة من الطاعون الجارف الذي تحيف الأمم وذهب بأهل الجيل وطوى كثيرا من محاسن العمران ومحاها وجاء للدول على حين هرمها وبلوغ الغاية من مداها,"This was the situation until, in the middle of the eighth [fourteenth] century, civilization both in the East and the West was visited by a destructive plague which devastated nations and caused populations to vanish. It swallowed up many of the good things of civilization and wiped them out. It overtook the dynasties at the time of their senility, when they had reached the limit of their duration."
فقلص من ظلالها وفل من حدها وأوهن من سلطانها وتداعت إلى التلاشي والاضمحلال أموالها وانتقض عمران الأرض بانتقاض البشر فخربت الأمصار والمصانع ودرست السبل والمعالم وخلت الديار والمنازل وضعفت الدول والقبائل وتبدل الساكن,"It lessened their power and curtailed their influence. It weakened their authority. Their situation approached the point of annihilation and dissolution. Civilization decreased with the decrease of mankind. Cities and buildings were laid waste, roads and way signs were obliterated, settlements and mansions became empty, dynasties and tribes grew weak. The entire inhabited world changed."
وكأني بالمشرق قد نزل به مثل ما نزل بالمغرب لكن على نسبته ومقدار عمرانه وكأنما نادى لسان الكون في العالم بالخمول والانقباض فبادر بالإجابة والله وارث الأرض ومن عليها,"The East, it seems, was similarly visited, though in accordance with and in proportion to (the East’s more affluent) civilization. It was as if the voice of existence in the world had called out for oblivion and restriction, and the world had responded to its call. God inherits the earth and whomever is upon it."
وإذا تبدلت الأحوال جملة فكأنما تبدل الخلق من أصله وتحول العالم بأسره وكأنه خلق جديد ونشأة مستأنفة وعالم محدث,"When there is a general change of conditions, it is as if the entire creation had changed and the whole world been altered, as if it were a new and repeated creation, a world brought into existence anew."
فاحتاج لهذا العهد من يدون أحوال الخليقة والآفاق وأجيالها والعوائد والنحل التي تبدلت لأهلها ويقفو مسلك المسعودي لعصره ليكون أصلا يقتدي به من يأتي من المؤرخين من بعده وأنا ذاكر في كتابي هذا ما أمكنني منه في هذا القطر المغربي إما صريحا أو مندرجا في أخباره وتلويحا لاختصاص قصدي في التأليف بالمغرب وأحوال أجياله وأممه وذكر ممالكه ودوله دون ما سواه من الأقطار,"Therefore, there is need at this time that someone should systematically set down the situation of the world among all regions and races, as well as the customs and sectarian beliefs that have changed for their adherents, doing for this age what al-Mas’udi did for his. This should be a model for future historians to follow. In this book of mine, I shall discuss as much of that as will be possible for me here in the Maghrib. I shall do so either explicitly or implicitly in connection with the history of the Maghrib, in conformity with my intention to restrict myself in this work to the Maghrib, the circumstances of its races and nations, and its subjects and dynasties, to the exclusion of any other region."
لعدم اطلاعي على أحوال المشرق وأممه وأن الأخبار المتناقلة لا تفي كنه ما أريده منه,"(This restriction is necessitated) by my lack of knowledge of conditions in the East and among its nations, and by the fact that secondhand information would not give the essential facts I am after."
والمسعودي إنما استوفى ذلك لبعد رحلته وتقلبه في البلاد كما ذكر في كتابه مع أنه لما ذكر المغرب قصر في استيفاء أحواله وفوق كل ذي علم عليم ومرد العلم كله إلى الله,"Al-Mas’udi’s extensive travels in various countries enabled him to give a complete picture, as he mentioned in his work. Nevertheless, his discussion of conditions in the Maghrib is incomplete. “And He knows more than any scholar.” God is the ultimate repository of (all) knowledge."
والبشر عاجز قاصر والاعتراف متعين واجب ومن كان الله في عونه تيسرت عليه المذاهب وأنجحت له المساعي والمطالب ونحن آخذون بعون الله فيما رمناه من أغراض التأليف والله المسدد والمعين وعليه التكلان,"Man is weak and deficient. Admission (of one’s ignorance) is a specific (religious) duty. He whom God helps, finds his way (made) easy and his efforts and quests successful. We seek God’s help for the goal to which we aspire in this work. God gives guidance and help. He may be trusted."
وقد بقي علينا أن نقدم مقدمة في كيفية وضع الحروف التي ليست من لغات العرب إذا عرضت في كتابنا هذا.,It remains for us to explain the method of transcribing non-Arabic sounds whenever they occur in this book of ours.
اعلم أن الحروف في النطق كما يأتي شرحه بعد هي كيفيات الأصوات الخارجة من الحنجرة تعرض من تقطيع الصوت بقرع اللهاة وأطراف اللسان مع الحنك والحلق والأضراس أو بقرع الشفتين أيضا فتتغاير كيفيات الأصوات بتغاير ذلك القرع وتجيء الحروف متمايزة في السمع وتتركب منها الكلمات الدالة على ما في الضمائر,"It should be known that the letters (sounds) of speech, as will be explained later on, are modifications of sounds that come from the larynx. These modifications result from the fact that the sounds are broken up in contact with the uvula and the sides of the tongue in the throat, against the palate or the teeth, and also through contact with the lips. The sound is modified by the different ways in which such contact takes place. As a result, the letters (sounds) sound distinct. Their combination constitutes the word that expresses what is in the mind."
وليست الأمم كلها متساوية في النطق بتلك الحروف.,Not all nations have the same letters (sounds) in their speech.
فقد يكون لأمة من الحروف ما ليس لأمة أخرى والحروف التي نطقت بها العرب هي ثمانية وعشرون حرفا كما عرفت ونجد للعبرانيين حروفا ليست في لغتنا وفي لغتنا أيضا حروف ليست في لغتهم وكذلك الإفرنج والترك والبربر وغير هؤلاء من العجم,"One nation has letters (sounds) different from those of another. The letters (sounds) of the Arabs are twentyeight, as is known. The Hebrews are found to have letters (sounds) that are not in our language. In our language, in turn, there are letters sounds) that are not in theirs. The same applies to the European Christians, the Turks, the Berbers, and other non-Arabs."
ثم إن أهل الكتاب من العرب اصطلحوا في الدلالة على حروفهم المسموعة بأوضاع حروف مكتوبة متميزة بأشخاصها كوضع ألف وباء وجيم وراء وطاء إلى آخر الثمانية والعشرين وإذا عرض لهم الحرف الذي ليس من حروف لغتهم بقي مهملا عن الدلالة الكتابية مغفلا عن البيان وربما يرسمه بعض الكتاب بشكل الحرف الذي يكتنفه من لغتنا قبله أو بعده,"In order to express their audible letters (sounds), literate Arabs chose to use conventional letters written individually separate, such as ‘, b, j, r, t, and so forth through all the twenty-eight letters. When they come upon a letter (sound) for which there is no corresponding letter (sound) in their language, it is not indicated in writing and not clearly expressed. Scribes sometimes express it by means of the letter which is closest to it in our language, the one either preceding or following it."
وليس بكاف في الدلالة بل هو تغيير للحرف من أصله.,This is not a satisfactory way of indicating a letter (sound) but a complete replacement of it.
ولما كان كتابنا مشتملا على أخبار البربر وبعض العجم وكانت تعرض لنا في أسمائهم أو بعض كلماتهم حروف ليست من لغة كتابتنا ولا اصطلاح أوضاعنا اضطررنا إلى بيانه ولم نكتف برسم الحرف الذي يليه كما قلناه لأنه عندنا غير واف بالدلالة عليه,"Our book contains the history of the Berbers and other non-Arabs. In their names and in some of their words, we came across letters (sounds) that did not correspond with our written language and conventional orthography. Therefore, we were forced to indicate such sounds (by special signs). As we said, we did not find it satisfactory to use the letters closest to them, because in our opinion this is not a satisfactory indication."
فاصطلحت في كتابي هذا على أن أضع ذلك الحرف العجمي بما يدل على الحرفين اللذين يكتنفانه ليتوسط القارئ بالنطق به بين مخرجي ذينك الحرفين فتحصل تأديته,"In my book, therefore, I have chosen to write such non- Arabic letters (sounds) in such a way as to indicate the two letters (sounds) closest to it, so that the reader may be able to pronounce it somewhere in the middle between the sounds represented by the two letters and thus reproduce it correctly."
كالصراط في قراءة خلف فإن النطق بصاده فيها معجم متوسط بين الصاد والزاي فوضعوا الصاد ورسموا في داخلها شكل الزاي ودل ذلك عندهم على التوسط بين الحرفين فكذلك رسمت أنا كل حرف يتوسط بين حرفين من حروفنا كالكاف المتوسطة عند البربر بين الكاف الصريحة عندنا والجيم أو القاف مثل اسم بلكين فأضعها كافا وأنقطها بنقطة الجيم واحدة من أسفل أو بنقطة القاف واحدة من فوق أو اثنتين فيدل ذلك على أنه متوسط بين الكاف والجيم أو القاف,"I derived this idea from the way the Qur’an scholars write sounds that are not sharply defined, such as occur, for instance, in as-sirat according to Khalaf’s reading. The s is to be pronounced somehow between s and z. In this case, they spell the word with s and-write a z into it. thus – indicate a pronunciation somewhere in the middle between the two sounds. In the same way, I have indicated every letter (sound) that is to be pronounced somehow in the middle between two of our letters (sounds). The Berber k, for instance, which is pronounced midway between our clear k and j (g) or q, as, for instance, in the name Buluggin, is spelled by me with a k with the addition of one dot-from the j-below, or one dot or two-from the q-on top of it. This indicates that the sound is to be pronounced midway between k and j (g) or q."
وهذا الحرف أكثر ما يجيء في لغة البربر وما جاء من غيره فعلى هذا القياس أضع الحرف المتوسط بين حرفين من لغتنا بالحرفين معا ليعلم القارئ أنه متوسط فينطق به كذلك فنكون قد دللنا عليه,"This sound occurs most frequently in the Berber language. In the other cases, I have spelled each letter (sound) that is to be pronounced midway between two letters (sounds) of our language, with a similar combination of two letters. The reader will thus know that it is an intermediate sound and pronounce it accordingly. In this way, we have indicated it satisfactorily."
ولو وضعناه برسم الحرف الواحد عن جانبه لكنا قد صرفناه من مخرجه إلى مخرج الحرف الذي من لغتنا وغيرنا لغة القوم فاعلم ذلك,"Had we spelled it by using only one letter (sound) adjacent to it on either side, we would have changed its proper pronunciation to the pronunciation of the particular letter (sound) in our own language (which we might have used), and we would have altered the way people speak. This should be known."
والله الموفق للصواب بمنه وفضله.,God gives success.
الكتاب الأول في طبيعة العمران في الخليقة وما يعرض فيها من البدو والحضر والتغلب والكسب والمعاش والصنائع والعلوم ونحوها وما لذلك من العلل والأسباب,"The nature of civilization. Bedouin and settled life, the achievement of superiority, gainful occupations, ways of making a living, sciences, crafts, and all the other things that affect (civilization). The causes and reasons thereof."
اعلم أنه لما كانت حقيقة التاريخ أنه خبر عن الاجتماع الانساني الذي هو عمران العالم وما يعرض لطبيعة ذلك العمران من الأحوال مثل التوحش والتأنس والعصبيات وأصناف التغلبات للبشر بعضهم على بعض وما ينشأ عن ذلك من الملك والدول ومراتبها,"IT SHOULD be known that history, in matter of fact, is information about human social organization, which itself is identical with world civilization. It deals with such conditions affecting the nature of civilization as, for instance, savagery and sociability, group feelings, and the different ways by which one group of human beings achieves superiority over another It deals with royal authority and the dynasties that result (in this manner) and with the various ranks that exist within them."
وما ينتحله البشر بأعمالهم ومساعيهم من الكسب والمعاش والعلوم والصنائع وسائر ما يحدث من ذلك العمران بطبيعته من الأحوال. ولما كان الكذب متطرقا للخبر بطبعته وله أسباب تقتضيه,"(It further deals) with the different kinds of gainful occupations and ways of making a living, with the sciences and crafts that human beings pursue as part of their activities and efforts, and with all the other institutions that originate in civilization through its very nature. Untruth naturally afflicts historical information."
. فمنها التشيعات للآراء والمذاهب فإن النفس إذا كانت على حال الاعتدال في قبول الخبر أعطته حقه من التمحيص والنظر حتى تتبين صدقه من كذبه,"There are various reasons that make this unavoidable. One of them is partisanship for opinions and schools. If the soul is impartial in receiving information, it devotes to that information the share of critical investigation the information deserves, and its truth or untruth thus becomes clear."
وإذا خامرها تشيع لرأي أو نحلة قبلت ما يوافقها من الأخبار لأول وهلة وكان ذلك الميل والتشيع غطاء على عين بصيرتها عن الانتقاد والتمحيص فتقع في قبول الكذب ونقله. ومن الأسباب المقتضية للكذب في الأخبار أيضا الثقة بالناقلين وتمحيص ذلك,"However, if the soul is infected with partisanship for a particular opinion or sect, it accepts without a moment’s hesitation the information that is agreeable to it. Prejudice and partisanship obscure the critical faculty and preclude critical investigation. The result is that falsehoods are accepted and transmitted. Another reason making untruth unavoidable in historical information is reliance upon transmitters."
يرجع إلى التعديل والتجريح. ومنها الذهول عن المقاصد فكثير من الناقلين لا يعرف القصد بما عاين أو سمع وينقل الخبر على ما في ظنه وتخمينه فيقع في الكذب.,"Investigation of this subject belongs to (the theological discipline of) personality criticism. Another reason is unawareness of the purpose of an event. Many a transmitter does not know the real significance of his observations or of the things he has learned about orally. He transmits the information, attributing to it the significance he assumes or imagines it to have. The result is falsehood."
ومنها توهم الصدق وهو كثير وإنما يجيء في الأكثر من جهة الثقة بالناقلين ومنها الجهل بتطبيق الأحوال على الوقائع لأجل ما يداخلها من التلبيس والتصنع فينقلها المخبر كما رآها وهي بالتصنع على غير الحق في نفسه. ومنها تقرب الناس في الأكثر لأصحاب التجلة والمراتب بالثناء والمدح وتحسين الأحوال وإشاعة الذكر بذلك فيستفيض الإخبار بها على غير حقيقة,Another reason is unfounded assumption as to the truth of a thing. This is frequent. It results mostly from reliance upon transmitters. Another reason is ignorance of how conditions conform with reality. Conditions are affected by ambiguities and artificial distortions. The informant reports the conditions as he saw them but on account of artificial distortions he himself has no true picture of them. Another reason is the fact that people as a rule approach great and highranking persons with praise and encomiums. They embellish conditions and spread the fame (of great men). The information made public in such cases is not truthful.
فالنفوس مولعة بحب الثناء والناس متطلعون إلى الدنيا وأسبابها من جاه أو ثروة وليسوا في الأكثر براغيين في الفضائل ولا متنافسين في أهلها. ومن الأسباب المقتضية له أيضا وهي سابقة على جميع ما تقدم الجهل بطبائع الأحوال في العمران,"Human souls long for praise, and people pay great attention to this world and the positions and wealth it offers. As a rule, they feel no desire for virtue and have no special interest in virtuous people. Another reason making untruth unavoidable – and this one is more powerful than all the reasons previously mentioned is ignorance of the nature of the various conditions arising in civilization."
فإن كل حادث من الحوادث ذاتا كان أو فعلا لا بد له من طبيعة تخصه في ذاته وفيما يعرض له من أحواله فإذا كان السامع عارفا بطبائع الحوادث والأحوال في الوجود ومقتضياتها أعانه ذلك في تمحيص الخبر على تمييز الصدق من الكذب,"Every event (or phenomenon), whether (it comes into being in connection with some) essence or (as the result of an) action, must inevitably possess a nature peculiar to its essence as well as to the accidental conditions that may attach themselves to it. If the student knows the nature of events and the circumstances and requirements in the world of existence, it will help him to distinguish truth from untruth in investigating the historical information critically."
وهذا أبلغ في التمحيص من كل وجه يعرض وكثيرا ما يعرض للسامعين قبول الأخبار المستحيلة وينقلونها وتؤثر عنهم كما نقله المسعودي عن الإسكندر لما صدته دواب البحر عن بناء الإسكندرية,"This is more effective in critical investigation than any other aspect that may be brought up in connection with it. Students often happen to accept and transmit absurd information that, in turn, is believed on their authority. AlMas’udi, for instance, reports such a story about Alexander. Sea monsters prevented Alexander from building Alexandria."
وكيف اتخذ صندوق الزجاج وغاص فيه إلى قعر البحر حتى صور تلك الدواب الشيطانية التي رآها وعمل تماثيلها من أجساد معدنية ونصبها حذاء البنيان ففرت تلك الدواب حين خرجت وعاينتها وتم بناؤها,"He took a wooden container in which a glass box was inserted, and dived in it to the bottom of the sea. There he drew pictures of the devilish monsters he saw. He then had metal effigies of these animals made and set them up opposite the place where building was going on. When the monsters came out and saw the effigies, they fled. Alexander was thus able to complete the building of Alexandria."
في حكاية طويلة من أحاديث خرافة مستحيلة من قبل اتخاذه التابوت الزجاجي ومصادمة البحر وأمواجه بجرمه ومن قبل أن الملوك لا تحمل أنفسها على مثل هذا الغرور ومن أعتمده منهم فقد عرض نفسه للهلكة وانتقاض العقدة واجتماع الناس إلى غيره,"It is a long story, made up of nonsensical elements which are absurd for various reasons. Thus, (Alexander is said) to have taken a glass box and braved the sea and its waves in person. Now, rulers would not take such a risk. Any ruler who would attempt such a thing would work his own undoing and provoke the outbreak of revolt against himself, and (he would) be replaced by the people with someone else."
وفي ذلك إتلافه ولا ينظرون به رجوعه من غروره ذلك طرفة عين ومن قبل أن الجن لا يعرف لها صور ولا تماثيل تختص بها إنما هي قادرة على التشكل وما يذكر من كثرة الرؤوس لها فإنما المراد به البشاعة والتهويل لا أنه حقيقة. وهذه كلها قادحة في تلك الحكاية والقادح المحيل لها من طريق الوجود أبين من هذا كله وهو أن المنغمس في الماء ولو كان في الصندوق يضيق عليه الهواء للتنفس الطبيعى وتسخن روحه بسرعة لقلته,"That would be his end. People would not (even) wait one moment for him to return from the (dangerous) risk he is taking. Furthermore, the jinn are not known to have specific forms and effigies. They are able to take on various forms. The story of the many heads they have is intended to indicate ugliness and frightfulness. It is not meant to be taken literally. All this throws suspicion upon the story. Yet, the element in it that makes the story absurd for reasons based on the facts of existence is more convincing than all the other (arguments). Were one to go down deep into the water, even in a box, one would have too little air for natural breathing. Because of that, one’s spirit would quickly become hot."
فيفقد صاحبه الهواء البارد المعدل لمزاج الرئة والروح القلبي ويهلك مكانه وهذا هو السبب في هلاك أهل الحمامات إذا أطبقت عليهم عن الهواء البارد والمتدلين في الآبار والمطامير العميقة المهوى إذا سخن هواؤها بالعفونة ولم تداخلها الرياح فتخلخلها,"Such a man would lack the cold air necessary to maintain a well-balanced humor of the lung and the vital spirit. He would perish on the spot. This is the reason why people perish in hot baths when cold air is denied to them. It also is the reason why people who go down into deep wells and dungeons perish when the air there becomes hot through putrefaction, and no winds enter those places to stir the air up"
فإن المتدلي فيها يهلك لحينه وبهذا السبب يكون موت الحوت إذا فارق البحر فإن الهواء لا يكفيه في تعديل رئته إذ هو حار بإفراط والماء الذي يعدله بارد والهواء الذي خرج إليه حار فيستولي الحار على روحه الحيواني ويهلك دفعة ومنه هلاك المصعوقين وأمثال ذلك,"Those who go down there perish immediately. This also is the reason why fish die when they leave the water, for the air is not sufficient for (a fish) to balance its lung. (The fish) is extremely hot, and the water to balance it’s humor is cold. The air into which (the fish) now comes is hot. Heat, thus, gains power over its animal spirit, and it perishes at once. This also is the reason for sudden death, and similar things."
ومن الأخبار المستحيلة ما نقله المسعودي أيضا في تمثال الزرزور الذي برومة تجتمع إليه الزرازير في يوم معلوم من السنة حاملة للزيتون ومنه يتخذون زيتهم وانظر ما أبعد ذلك عن المجرى الطبيعي في اتخاذ الزيت. ومنها ما نقله البكري في بناء المدينة المسماة ذات الأبواب,"Al-Mas’udi reports another absurd story, that of the Statue of the Starling in Rome On a fixed day of the year, starlings gather at that statue bringing olives from which the inhabitants of Rome get their oil. How little this has to do with thenatural procedure of getting oil! Another absurd story is reported by al-Bakri. It concerns the way the socalled “Gate City” was built."
تحيط بأكثر من ثلاثين مرحلة وتشتمل على عشرة آلاف باب والمدن إنما اتخذت للتحصن والاعتصام كما يأتي وهذه خرجت عن أن يحاط بها فلا يكون فيها حصن ولا معتصم وكما نقله المسعودي أيضا في حديث مدينة النحاس وأنها مدينة كل بنائها نحاس بصحراء سجلماسة ظفر بها موسى بن نصير في غزوته إلى المغرب,"That city had a circumference of more than a thirty days’ journey and had ten thousand gates. Now, cities are used for security and protection, as will be mentioned. Such a city, however, could not be controlled and would offer no security or protection. Then, there is also al-Mas’udi’s story of the “Copper City.” This is said to be a city built wholly of copper in the desert of Sijilmasah which Musa b. Nusayr crossed on his raid against the Maghrib."
وأنها مغلقة الأبواب وأن الصاعد إليها من أسوارها إذا أشرف على الحائط صفق ورمى بنفسه فلا يرجع آخر الدهر في حديث مستحيل عادة من خرافات القصاص,"The gates of (the Copper City) are said to be closed. When the person who climbs the walls of the city in order to enter it, reaches the top, he claps his hand and throws himself down and never returns. All this is an absurd story. It belongs to the idle talk of storytellers."
وصحراء سجلماسة قد نفضها الركاب والأدلاء ولم يقفوا لهذه المدينة على خبر ثم إن هذه الأحوال التي ذكروا عنها كلها مستحيل عادة مناف للأمور الطبيعية في بناء المدن واختطاطها,"The desert of Sijilmasah has been crossed by travelers and guides. They have not come across any information about such a city. All the details mentioned about it are absurd, (if compared with) the customary state of affairs. They contradict the natural facts that apply to the building and planning of cities."
وأن المعادن غاية الموجود منها أن يصرف في الآنية والخرثي وأما تشييد مدينة منها فكما تراه من الاستحالة والبعد وأمثال ذلك كثيرة وتمحيصه إنما هو بمعرفة طبائع العمران,Metal exists at best in quantities sufficient for utensils and furnishings. It is clearly absurd and unlikely that there would be enough to cover a city with it. There are many similar things. Only knowledge of the nature of civilization makes critical investigation of them possible.
وهو أحسن الوجوه وأوثقها في تمحيص الأخبار وتمييز صدقها من كذبها وهو سابق على التمحيص بتعديل الرواة ولا يرجع إلى تعديل الرواة حتى يعلم أن ذلك الخبر في نفسه ممكن أو ممتنع وأما إذا كان مستحيلا فلا فائدة للنظر في التعديل والتجريح ولقد عد أهل النظر من المطاعن في الخبر استحالة مدلول اللفظ وتأويله بما لا يقبله العقل,"It is the best and most reliable way to investigate historical information critically and to distinguish truth and falsehood in it. It is superior to investigations that rely upon criticism of the personalities of transmitters. Such personality criticism should not be resorted to until it has been ascertained whether a specific piece of information is in itself possible, or not. If it is absurd, there is no use engaging in personality criticism. Critical scholars consider absurdity inherent in the literal meaning of historical information, or an interpretation not acceptable to the intellect, as something that makes such information suspect."
وإنما كان التعديل والتجريح هو المعتبر في صحة الأخبار الشرعية لأن معظمها تكاليف إنشائية أوجب الشارع العمل بها حتى حصل الظن بصدقها وسبيل صحة الظن الثقة بالرواة بالعدالة والضبط.,"Personality criticism is taken into consideration only in connection with the soundness (or lack of soundness) of Muslim religious information, because this religious information mostly concerns injunctions in accordance with which the Lawgiver (Muhammad) enjoined Muslims to act whenever it can be presumed that the information is genuine. The way to achieve presumptive soundness is to ascertain the probity (`adalah) and exactness of the transmitters."
وأما الأخبار عن الواقعات فلا بد في صدقها وصحتها من اعتبار المطابقة,"On the other hand, to establish the truth and soundness of information about factual happenings, a requirement to consider is the conformity (or lack of conformity of the reported information with general conditions)."
فلذلك وجب أن ينظر في إمكان وقوعه وصار فيها ذلك أهم من التعديل ومقدما عليه إذ فائدة الإنشاء مقتبسة منه فقط وفائدة الخبر منه ومن الخارج بالمطابقة,"Therefore, it is necessary to investigate whether it is possible that the (reported facts) could have happened. This is more important than, and has priority over, personality criticism. For the correct notion about something that ought to be can be derived only from (personality criticism), while the correct notion about something that was can be derived from (personality criticism) and external (evidence) by (checking) the conformity (of the historical report with general conditions)."
وإذا كان ذلك فالقانون في تمييز الحق من الباطل في الأخبار بالإمكان والاستحالة أن ننظر في الاجتماع البشري الذي هو العمران ونميز ما يلحقه من الأحوال لذاته وبمقتضى طبعه وما يكون عارضا لا يعتد به وما لا يمكن أن يعرض له,"If this is so, the normative method for distinguishing right from wrong in historical information on the grounds of (inherent) possibility or absurdity, is to investigate human social organization, which is identical with civilization. We must distinguish the conditions that attach themselves to the essence of civilization as required by its very nature; the things that are accidental (to civilization) and cannot be counted on; and the things that cannot possibly attach themselves to it."
وإذا فعلنا ذلك كان ذلك لنا قانونا في تمييز الحق من الباطل في الأخبار والصدق من الكذب بوجه برهاني لا مدخل للشك فيه وحينئذ فإذا سمعنا عن شيء من الأحوال الواقعة في العمران علمنا ما نحكم بقبوله مما نحكم بتزييفه وكان ذلك لنا معيارا صحيحا يتحرى به المؤرخون طريق الصدق والصواب فيما ينقلونه وهذا هو غرض هذا الكتاب الأول من تأليفنا,"If we do that, we shall have a normative method for distinguishing right from wrong andtruth from falsehood in historical information by means of a logical demonstration that admits of no doubts. Then whenever we hear about certain conditions occurring in civilization, we shall know what to accept and what to declare spurious. We shall have a sound yardstick with the help of which historians may find the path of truth and correctness where their reports are concerned. Such is the purpose of this first book of our work."
وكأن هذا علم مستقل بنفسه فإنه ذو موضوع وهو العمران البشري والاجتماع الإنساني وذو مسائل وهي بيان ما يلحقه من العوارض والأحوال لذاته واحدة بعد أخرى وهذا شأن كل علم من العلوم وضعيا كان أو عقليا.,"(The subject) is in a way an independent science. (This science) has its own peculiar object-that is, human civilization and social organization. It also has its own peculiar problems, that is, explaining the conditions that attach themselves to the essence of civilization, one after the other. Thus, the situation is the same with this science as it is with any other science, whether it be a conventional or an intellectual one."
واعلم أن الكلام في هذا الغرض مستحدث الصنعة غريب النزعة عزيز الفائدة اعثر عليه البحث وأدى إليه الغوص وليس من علم الخطابة إنما هو الأقوال المقنعة النافعة في استمالة الجمهور إلى رأي أو صدهم عنه ولا هو أيضا من علم السياسة المدنية إذ السياسة المدنية هي تدبير المنزل أو المدينة بما يجب بمقتضى الأخلاق والحكمة ليحمل الجمهور على منهاج يكون فيه حفظ النوع وبقاؤه,"(It should be known that the discussion of this topic is something new, extraordinary, and highly useful. Penetrating research has shown the way to it. It does not belong to rhetoric, one of the logical disciplines (represented in Aristotle’s Organon), the subject of which is convincing words by means of which the mass is inclined to accept a particular opinion or not to accept it. It is also not politics, because politics is concerned with the administration of home or city in accordance with ethical and philosophical requirements, for the purpose of directing the mass toward a behavior that will result in the preservation and permanence of the (human) species."
فقد خالف موضوعه موضوع هذين الفنين اللذين ربما يشبهانه وكأنه علم مستنبط النشأة ولعمري لم أقف على الكلام في منحاه لأحد من الخليقة ما أدري ألغفلتهم عن ذلك وليس الظن بهم أو لعلهم كتبوا في هذا الغرض واستوفوه ولم يصل إلينا من فالعلوم كثيرة مما وصل,"The subject here is different from that of these two disciplines which, however, are often similar to it. In a way, it is an entirely original science. In fact, I have not come across a discussion along these lines by anyone. I do not know if this is because people have been unaware of it, but there is no reason to suspect them (of having been unaware of it). Perhaps they have written exhaustively on this topic, and their work did not reach us. There are many sciences. There have been numerous sages among the nations of mankind. The knowledge that has not come down to us is larger than the knowledge that has."
فأين علوم الفرس التي أمر عمر رضي الله عنه بمحوها عند الفتح وأين علوم الكلدانيين والسريانيين وأهل بابل وما ظهر عليهم من آثارها ونتائجها وأين علوم القبط ومن قبلهم وإنما وصل إلينا علوم أمة واحدة وهم يونان خاصة لكلف المأمون بإخراجها من لغتهم,"Where are the sciences of the Persians that ‘Umar ordered wiped out at the time of the conquest! Where are the sciences of the Chaldaeans, the Syrians, and the Babylonians, and the scholarly products and results that were theirs! Where are the sciences of the Copts, their predecessors! The sciences of only one nation, the Greek, have come down to us, because they were translated through al-Ma’mun’s efforts."
واقتداره على ذلك بكثرة المترجمين وبذل الأموال فيها ولم نقف على شيء من علوم غيرهم,"(His efforts in this direction) were successful, because he had many translators at his disposal and spent much money in this connection. Of the sciences of others, nothing has come to our attention."
وإذا كانت كل حقيقة متعلقة طبيعية يصلح أن يبحث عما يعرض لها من العوارض لذاتها وجب أن يكون باعتبار كل مفهوم وحقيقة علم من العلوم يخصه لكن الحكماء لعلهم إنما لاحظوا في ذلك العناية بالثمرات,"The accidents involved in every manifestation of nature and intellect deserve study. Any topic that is understandable and real requires its own special science. In this connection, scholars seem to have been interested (mainly) in the results (of the individual sciences)."
وهذا إنما ثمرته في الأخبار فقط كما رأيت وإن كانت مسائله في ذاتها وفي اختصاصها شريفة لكن ثمرته تصحيح الأخبار وهي ضعيفة فلهذا هجروه والله أعلم,"As far as the subject under discussion is concerned, the result, as we have seen, is just historical information. Although the problems it raises are important, both essentially and specifically, (exclusive concern for it) leads to one result only: the mere verification of historical information.
This is not much. Therefore, scholars might have avoided the subject. God knows better."
«وما أوتيتم من العلم إلا قليلا» 17: 85.,“And you were given but little knowledge.”
وهذا الفن الذي لاح لنا النظر فيه نجد منه مسائل تجري بالعرض لأهل العلوم في براهين علومهم وهي من جنس مسائله بالموضوع والطلب,"In the field under consideration here, we encounter (certain) problems, treated incidentally by scholars among the arguments applicable to their particular sciences, but that in object and approach are of the same type as the problems (we are discussing)."
مثل ما يذكره الحكماء والعلماء في إثبات النبوة من أن البشر متعاونون في وجودهم فيحتاجون فيه إلى الحاكم والوازع,"In connection with the arguments for prophecy, for instance, scholars mention that human beings cooperate with each other for their existenceand, therefore, need men to arbitrate among them and exercise a restraining influence."
ومثل ما يذكر في أصول الفقه في باب إثبات اللغات أن الناس محتاجون إلى العبارة عن المقاصد بطبيعة التعاون والاجتماع وتبيان العبارات أخف ومثل ما يذكره الفقهاء في تعليل الأحكام الشرعية بالمقاصد في أن الزنا مخلط للأنساب مفسد للنوع وأن القتل أيضا مفسد للنوع وأن الظلم مؤذن بخراب العمران المفضي لفساد النوع,"Or, in the science of the principles of jurisprudence, in the chapter of arguments for the necessity of languages, mention is made of the fact that people need means to express their intentions because by their very nature, cooperation and social organization are made easier by proper expressions Or, in connection with the explanation that laws have their reason in the purposes they are to serve, the jurists mention that adultery confuses pedigrees and destroys the (human) species; that murder, too, destroys the human species; that injustice invites the destruction of civilization with the necessary consequence that the (human) species will be destroyed."
وغير ذلك من سائر المقاصد الشرعية في الأحكام فإنها كلها مبنية على المحافظة على العمران فكان لها النظر فيما يعرض له,"Other similar things are stated in connection with the purposes embedded in laws. All (laws) are based upon the effort to preserve civilization. Therefore, (the laws) pay attention to the things that belong to civilization."
وهو ظاهر من كلامنا هذا في هذه المسائل الممثلة وكذلك أيضا يقع إلينا القليل من مسائله في كلمات متفرقة لحكماء الخليقة,This is obvious from our references to these problems which are mentioned as representative (of the general situation). We also find a few of the problems of the subject under discussion (treated) in scattered statements by the sages of mankind.
لكنهم لم يستوفوه فمن كلام الموبذان بهرام بن بهرام في حكاية البوم التي نقلها المسعودي. «أيها الملك إن الملك لا يتم عزه إلا بالشريعة والقيام لله بطاعته والتصرف تحت أمره ونهيه,"However, they did not exhaust the subject. For instance, we have the speech of the Mobedhan before Bahram b. Bahram in the story of the owl reported by al-Mas’udi It runs: “O king, the might of royal authority materializes only through the ‘ religious law, obedience toward God, and compliance with His commands and prohibitions."
ولا قوام للشريعة إلا بالملك ولا عز للملك إلا بالرجال ولا قوام للرجال إلا بالمال ولا سبيل للمال إلا بالعمارة,The religious law persists only through royal authority. Mighty royal authority is accomplished only through men. Men persist only with the help of property. The only way to property is through cultivation.
ولا سبيل للعمارة إلا بالعدل والعدل الميزان المنصوب بين الخليقة نصبه الرب وجعل له قيما وهو الملك»,"The only way to cultivation is through justice. Justice is a balance set up among mankind. The Lord set it up and appointed an overseer for it, and that (overseer) is the ruler."
ومن كلام أنوشروان في هذا المعنى بعينه «الملك بالجند والجند بالمال والمال بالخراج والخراج بالعمارة والعمارة بالعدل والعدل بإصلاح العمال وإصلاح العمال باستقامة الوزراء ورأس الكل بافتقاد الملك حال رعيته بنفسه واقتداره على تأديبها حتى يملكها ولا تملكه.,"There also is a statement by Anosharwan to the same effect: “Royal authority exists through the army, the army through money, money through taxes, taxes through cultivation, cultivation through justice, justice through the improvement of officials, the improvement of officials through the forthrightness of wazirs, and the whole thing in the first place through the ruler’s personal supervision of his subjects’ condition and his ability to educate them, so that he may rule them, and not they him.”"
وفي الكتاب المنسوب لأرسطو في السياسة المتداول بين الناس جزء صالح منه إلا أنه غير مستوف ولا معطي حقه من البراهين ومختلط بغيره وقد أشار في ذلك الكتاب إلى هذه الكلمات التي نقلناها عن الموبذان وأنوشروان,"In the Book on Politics that is ascribed to Aristotle and has wide circulation, we find a good deal about (the subject which is under discussion here). (The treatment,) however, is not exhaustive, nor is the topic provided with all the arguments it deserves, and it is mixed with other things. In the book, (the author) referred to such general (ideas) as we have reported on the authority of the Mobedhan and Anosharwan."
وجعلها في الدائرة القريبة التي أعظم القول فيها هو قوله: «العالم بستان سياجه الدولة الدولة سلطان تحيا به السنة السنة سياسة يسوسها الملك الملك نظام يعضده الجند الجند أعوان يكفلهم المال المال رزق تجمعه الرعية,(He arranged his statement in a remarkable circle that he discussed at length. It runs as follows: “The world is a garden the fence of which is the dynasty. The dynasty is an authority through which life is given to proper behavior. Proper behavior is a policy directed by the ruler. The ruler is an institution supported by the soldiers. The soldiers are helpers who are maintained by money. Money is sustenance brought together by the subjects.
الرعية عبيد يكنفهم العدل العدل مألوف وبه قوام العالم العالم بستان» ثم ترجع إلى أول الكلام. فهذه ثمان كلمات حكمية سياسية ارتبط بعضها ببعض وارتدت أعجازها إلى صدورها,"The subjects are servants who are protected by justice. Justice is something familiar, and through it, the world persists. The world is a garden …”, and then it begins again from the beginning. These are eight sentences of political wisdom. They are connected with each other, the end of each one leading into the beginning of the next."
واتصلت في دائرة لا يتعين طرفها فخر بعثوره عليها وعظم من فوائدها. وأنت إذا تأملت كلامنا في فصل الدول والملك وأعطيته حقه من التصفح والتفهم عثرت في أثنائه على تفسير هذه الكلمات وتفصيل إجمالها مستوفى بينا بأوعب بيان وأوضح دليل وبرهان,"They are held together in a circle with no definite beginning or end. (The author) was proud of what he had hit upon and made much of the significance of the sentences. When our discussion in the section on royal authority and dynasties hasbeen studied and due critical attention given to it, it will be found to constitute an exhaustive, very clear, fully substantiated interpretation and detailed exposition of these sentences."
أطلعنا الله عليه من غير تعليم أرسطو ولا إفادة موبذان وكذلك تجد في كلام ابن المقفع وما يستطرد في رسائله من ذكر السياسات الكثير من مسائل كتابنا هذا غير مبرهنة كما برهناه,"We became aware of these things with God’s help and without the instruction of Aristotle or the teaching of the Mobedhan. The statements of Ibn al-Muqaffa and the excursions on political subjects in his treatises also touch upon many of the problems of our work. However, (Ibn alMuqaffa`) did not substantiate his statements with arguments as we have done."
إنما يجليها في الذكر على منحى الخطابة في أسلوب الترسل وبلاغة الكلام وكذلك حوم القاضي أبو بكر الطرطوشي في كتاب سراج الملوك,He merely mentioned them in passing in the (flowing) prose style and eloquent verbiage of the rhetorician. Judge Abu Bakr at-Turtushi also had the same idea in the Kitab Siraj alMuluk.
وبوبه على أبواب تقرب من أبواب كتابنا هذا ومسائله لكنه لم يصادف فيه الرمية ولا أصاب الشاكلة ولا استوفى المسائل ولا أوضح الأدلة,"He divided the work into chapters that come close to the chapters and problems of our work. However, he did not achieve his aim or realize his intention. He did not exhaust the problems and did not bring clear proofs."
إنما يبوب الباب للمسألة ثم يستكثر من الأحاديث والآثار وينقل كلمات متفرقة لحكماء الفرس مثل بزرجمهر والموبذان وحكماء الهند والمأثور عن دانيال وهرمس وغيرهم من أكابر الخليقة,"He sets aside a special chapter for a particular problem, but then he tells a great number of stories and traditions and he reports scattered remarks by Persian sages such as Buzurjmihr and the Mobedhan, and by Indian sages, as well as material transmitted on the authority of Daniel, Hermes, and other great men."
ولا يكشف عن التحقيق قناعا ولا يرفع البراهين الطبيعية حجابا إنما هو نقل وتركيب شبيه بالمواعظ وكأنه حوم على الغرض ولم يصادفه ولا تحقق قصده ولا استوفى مسائله,"He does not verify his statements or clarify them with the help of natural arguments. The work is merely a compilation of transmitted material similar to sermons in its inspirational purpose. In a way, at-Turtushi aimed at the right idea, but did not hit it. He did not realize his intention or exhaust his problems."
ونحن ألهمنا الله إلى ذلك إلهاما وأعثرنا على علم جعلنا بين نكرة وجهينة خبره فإن كنت قد استوفيت مسائله وميزت عن سائر الصنائع أنظاره وأنحاءه فتوفيق من الله وهداية,"We, on the other hand, were inspired by God. He led us to a science whose truth we ruthlessly set forth. If I have succeeded in presenting the problems of (this science) exhaustively and in showing how it differs in its various aspects and characteristics from all other crafts, this is due to divine guidance"
وإن فاتني شيء في إحصائه واشتبهت بغيره فللناظر المحقق إصلاحه ولي الفضل لأني نهجت له السبيل وأوضحت له الطريق والله يهدي بنوره من يشاء. ونحن الآن نبين في هذا الكتاب ما يعرض للبشر في اجتماعهم من أحوال العمران في الملك والكسب والعلوم والصنائع بوجوه برهانية يتضح بها التحقيق في معارف الخاصة والعامة وتندفع بها الأوهام وترفع الشكوك,"If, on the other hand, I have omitted some point, or if the problems of (this science) have got confused with something else, the task of correcting remains for the discerning critic, but the merit is mine since I cleared and marked the way. God guides with His light whomever He wants (to guide). In this book, now, we are going to explain such various aspects of civilization that affect human beings in their social organization, as royal authority, gainful occupation, sciences, and crafts, (all) in the light of various arguments that will show the true nature of the varied knowledge of the elite and the common people, repel misgivings, and remove doubts."
ونقول لما كان الإنسان متميزا عن سائر الحيوانات بخواص اختص بها فمنها العلوم والصنائع التي هي نتيجة الفكر الذي تميز به عن الحيوانات وشرف بوصفه على المخلوقات,"We say that man is distinguished from the other living beings by certain qualities peculiar to him, namely: (1) The sciences and crafts which result from that ability to think which distinguishes man from the other animals and exalts him as a thinking being over all creatures."
ومنها الحاجة إلى الحكم الوازع والسلطان القاهر إذ لا يمكن وجوده دون ذلك من بين الحيوانات كلها إلا ما يقال عن النحل والجراد,"The need for restraining influence and strong authority, since man, alone of all the animals, cannot exist without them. It is true, something has been said (in this connection about bees and locusts."
وهذه وإن كان لها مثل ذلك فبطريق إلهامي لا بفكر وروية ومنها السعي في المعاش والاعتمال في تحصيله من وجوهه واكتساب أسبابه لما جعل الله من الافتقار إلى الغذاء في حياته وبقائه وهداه إلى التماسه وطلبه,"However, if they have something similar, it comes to them through inspiration, not through thinking or reflection. (3) Man’s efforts to make a living and his concern with the various ways of obtaining and acquiring the means of (life). This is the result of man’s need for food to keep alive and subsist, which God instilled in him, guiding him to desire and seek a livelihood."
قال تعالى: «أعطى كل شيء خلقه ثم هدى» 20: 50.,"God said: “He gave every thing its natural characteristics, and then guided it.”"
ومنهما العمران وهو التساكن والتنازل في مصر أو حلة للأنس بالعشير واقتضاء الحاجات لما في طباعهم من التعاون على المعاش كما نبينه.,"Civilization.This means that human beings have to dwell in common and settle together in cities and hamlets for the comforts of companionship and for the satisfaction of human needs, as a result of the natural disposition of human beings toward co-operation in order to be able to make a living, as we shall explain."
ومن هذا العمران ما يكون بدويا وهو الذي يكون في الضواحي وفي الجبال وفي الحلل المنتجعة في القفار وأطراف الرمال ومنه ما يكون حضريا وهو الذي بالأمصار والقرى والمدن والمدر للاعتصام بها والتحصن بجدرانها وله في كل هذه الأحوال أمور تعرض من حيث الاجتماع عروضا ذاتيا له,"Civilization may be either desert (Bedouin) civilization as found in outlying regions and mountains, in hamlets (near suitable) pastures in waste regions, and on the fringes of sandy deserts. Or it may be sedentary civilization as found in cities, villages, towns, and small communities that serve the purpose of protection and fortification by means of walls. In all these different conditions, there are things that affect civilization essentially in as far as it is social organization."
فلا جرم انحصر الكلام في هذا الكتاب في ستة فصول.,"Consequently, the discussion in this work falls naturally under six chapter headings:"
الأول في العمران البشري على الجملة وأصنافه وقسطه من الأرض.,"On human civilization in general, its various kinds, and the portion of the earth that is civilized."
والثاني في العمران البدوي وذكر القبائل والأمم الوحشية.,"On desert civilization, including a report on the tribes and savage nations."
والثالث في الدول والخلافة والملك وذكر المراتب السلطانية,"On dynasties, the caliphate, and royal authority, including a discussion of government ranks."
والرابع في العمران الحضري والبلدان والأمصار.,"On sedentary civilization, countries, and cities."
والخامس في الصنائع والمعاش والكسب ووجوهه.,"On crafts, ways of making a living, gainful occupations, and their various aspects. And."
والسادس في العلوم واكتسابها وتعلمها.,"On the sciences, their acquisition and study."
وقد قدمت العمران البدوي لأنه سابق على جميعها كما نبين لك بعد وكذا تقديم الملك على البلدان والأمصار وأما تقديم المعاش فلأن المعاش ضروري طبيعي وتعلم العلم كمالي أو حاجي,"I have discussed desert civilization first, because it is prior to everything else, as will become clear later on. (The discussion of) royal authority was placed before that of countries and cities for the same reason. (The discussion of) ways of making a living was placed before that of the sciences, because making a living is necessary and natural, whereas the study of science is a luxury or convenience."
والطبيعي أقدم من الكمالي وجعلت الصنائع مع الكسب لأنها منه ببعض الوجوه ومن حيث العمران كما نبين لك بعد والله الموفق للصواب والمعين عليه.,"Anything natural has precedence over luxury. I lumped the crafts together with gainful occupations, because they belong to the latter in some respects as far as civilization is concerned, as will become clear later. God gives success and support"
الباب الأول من الكتاب الأول,FIRST PREFATORY DISCUSSION
في العمران البشري على الجملة وفيه مقدمات الأولى في أن الاجتماع الإنساني ضروري,HUMAN SOCIAL ORGANIZATION is something necessary.
ويعبر الحكماء عن هذا بقولهم الإنسان مدني بالطبع أي لا بد له من الاجتماع الذي هو المدينة في اصطلاحهم,"The philosophers expressed this fact by saying: “Man is `political’ by nature.” That is, he cannot do without the social organization for which the philosophers use the technical term “town” (polis)."
وهو معنى العمران وبيانه أن الله سبحانه خلق الإنسان وركبه على صورة لا يصح حياتها وبقاؤها إلا بالغذاء وهداه إلى التماسه بفطرته وبما ركب فيه من القدرة على تحصيله,"This is what civilization means. (The necessary character of human social organization or civilization) is explained by the fact that God created and fashioned
man in a form that can live and subsist only with the help of food. He guided man to a natural desire for food and instilled in him the power that enables him to obtain it."
إلا أن قدرة الواحد من البشر قاصرة عن تحصيل حاجته من ذلك الغذاء غير موفية له بمادة حياته منه ولو فرضنا منه أقل ما يمكن فرضه وهو قوت يوم من الحنطة مثلا فلا يحصل إلا بعلاج كثير من الطحن والعجن والطبخ وكل واحد من هذه الأعمال الثلاثة يحتاج إلى مواعين وآلات لا تتم إلا بصناعات متعددة من حداد ونجار وفاخوري,"However, the power of the individual human being is not sufficient for him to obtain (the food) he needs, and does not provide him with as much food as he requires to live. Even if we assume an absolute minimum of food-that is, food enough for one day, (a little) wheat, for instance-that amount of food could be obtained only after much preparation such as grinding, kneading, and baking. Each of these three operations requires utensils and tools that can be provided only with the help of several crafts, such as the crafts of the blacksmith, the carpenter, and the potter."
وهب أنه يأكله حبا من غير علاج فهو أيضا يحتاج في تحصيله أيضا حبا إلى أعمال أخرى أكثر من هذه من الزراعة والحصاد والدراس الذي يخرج الحب من غلاف السنبل,"Assuming that a man could eat unprepared grain, an even greater number of operations would be necessary in order to obtain the grain: sowing and reaping, and threshing to separate it from the husks of the ear."
ويحتاج كل واحد من هذه آلات متعددة وصنائع كثيرة أكثر من الأولى بكثير ويستحيل أن تفي بذلك كله أو ببعضه قدرة الواحد,"Each of these operations requires a number of tools and many more crafts than those just mentioned. It is beyond the power of one man alone to do all that, or (even) part of it, by himself."
فلا بد من اجتماع القدر الكثيرة من أبناء جنسه ليحصل القوت له ولهم فيحصل بالتعاون قدر الكفاية من الحاجة لأكثر منهم بأضعاف,"Thus, he cannot do without a combination of many powers from among his fellow beings, if he is to obtain food for himself and for them. Through cooperation, the needs of a number of persons, many times greater than their own (number), can be satisfied."
وكذلك يحتاج كل واحد منهم أيضا في الدفاع عن نفسه إلى الاستعانة بأبناء جنسه لأن الله سبحانه لما ركب الطباع في الحيوانات كلها وقسم القدر بينها جعل حظوظ كثير من الحيوانات العجم من القدرة أكمل من حظ الإنسان,"Likewise, each individual needs the help of his fellow beings for his defense, as well. When God fashioned the natures of all living beings and divided the various powers among them, many dumb animals were given more perfect powers than God gave to man."
فقدرة الفرس مثلا أعظم بكثير من قدرة الإنسان وكذا قدرة الحمار والثور وقدرة الأسد والفيل أضعاف من قدرته.,"The power of a horse, for instance, is much greater than the power of man, and so is the power of a donkey or an ox. The power of a lion or an elephant is many times greater than the power of (man)."
ولما كان العدوان طبيعيا في الحيوان جعل لكل واحد منها عضوا يختص بمدافعته ما يصل إليه من عادية غيره وجعل للإنسان عوضا من ذلك كله الفكر واليد فاليد مهيئة للصنائع,"Aggressiveness is natural in living beings. Therefore, God gave each of them a special limb for defense against aggression. To man, instead, He gave the ability to think, and the hand. With the help of the ability to think, the hand is able to prepare the ground for the crafts."
بخدمة الفكر والصنائع تحصل له الآلات التي تنوب له عن الجوارح المعدة في سائر الحيوانات للدفاع مثل الرماح التي تنوب عن القرون الناطحة والسيوف النائبة عن المخالب الجارحة والتراس النائبة عن البشرات الجاسية إلى غير ذلك وغيره,"The crafts, in turn, procure for man the instruments that serve him instead of limbs, which other animals possess for their defense. Lances, for instance, take the place of horns for goring, swords the place of claws to inflict wounds, shields the place of thick skins, and so on. There are other such things."
مما ذكره جالينوس في كتاب منافع الأعضاء فالواحد من البشر لا تقاوم قدرته قدرة واحد من الحيوانات العجم سيما المفترسة فهو عاجز عن مدافعتها وحده بالجملة ولا تفي قدرته أيضا باستعمال الآلات المعدة لها,"They were all mentioned by Galen in De usu partium. The power of one individual human being cannot withstand the power of any one dumb animal, especially not the power of the predatory animals. Man is generally unable to defend himself against them by himself. Nor is his (unaided) power sufficient to make use of the existing instruments of defense, because there are so many of them and they require so many crafts and (additional) things."
فلا بد في ذلك كله من التعاون عليه بأبناء جنسه وما لم يكن هذا التعاون فلا يحصل له قوت ولا غذاء ولا تتم حياته لما ركبه الله تعالى عليه من الحاجة إلى الغذاء في حياته,"It is absolutely necessary for man to have the co-operation of his fellow men. As long as there is no such co-operation, he cannot obtain any food or nourishment, and life cannot materialize for him, because God fashioned him so that he must have food if he is to live."
ولا يحصل له أيضا دفاع عن نفسه لفقدان السلاح فيكون فريسة للحيوانات ويعاجله الهلاك عن مدى حياته ويبطل نوع البشر وإذا كان التعاون حصل له القوت للغذاء والسلاح للمدافعة وتمت حكمة الله في بقائه وحفظ نوعه,"Nor, lacking weapons, can he defend himself. Thus, he falls prey to animals and dies much before his time. Under such circumstances, the human species would vanish. When, however, mutual co-operation exists, man obtains food for his nourishment and weapons for his defense. God’s wise plan that man(kind) should subsist and the human species be preserved will be fulfilled."
فإذن هذا الاجتماع ضروري للنوع الإنساني وإلا لم يكمل وجودهم وما أراده الله من اعتمار العالم بهم واستخلافه إياهم وهذا هو معنى العمران الذي جعلناه موضوعا لهذا العلم,"Consequently, social organization is necessary to the human species. Without it, the existence of human beings would be incomplete. God’s desire to settle the world with human beings and to leave them as His representatives on earth would not materialize. This is the meaning of civilization, the object of the science under discussion."
وفي هذا الكلام نوع إثبات للموضوع في فنه الذي هو موضوع له وهذا وإن لم يكن واجبا على صاحب الفن لما تقرر في الصناعة المنطقية أنه ليس على صاحب علم إثبات الموضوع في ذلك العلم فليس أيضا من الممنوعات عندهم فيكون إثباته من التبرعات,"The afore-mentioned remarks have been in the nature of establishing the existence of the object in (this) particular field. A scholar in a particular discipline is not obliged to do this, since it is accepted in logic that a scholar in a particular science does not have to establish the existence of the object in that science. On the other hand, logicians do not consider it forbidden to do so. Thus, it is a voluntary contribution."
والله الموفق بفضله,"God, in His grace, gives success."
ثم إن هذا الاجتماع إذا حصل للبشر كما قررناه وتم عمران العالم بهم فلا بد من وازع يدفع بعضهم عن بعض لما في طباعهم الحيوانية من العدوان والظلم,"When mankind has achieved social organization, as we have stated, and when civilization in the world has thus become a fact, people need someone to exercise a restraining influence and keep them apart, for aggressiveness and injustice are in the animal nature of man."
وليست السلاح التي جعلت دافعة لعدوان الحيوانات العجم عنهم كافية في دفع العدوان عنهم لأنها موجودة لجميعهم فلا بد من شيء آخر يدفع عدوان بعضهم عن بعض,"The weapons made for the defense of human beings against the aggressiveness of dumb animals do not suffice against the aggressiveness of man to man, because all of them possess those weapons. Thus, something else is needed for defense against the aggressiveness of human beings toward each other."
ولا يكون من غيرهم لقصور جميع الحيوانات عن مداركهم وإلهاماتهم فيكون ذلك الوازع واحدا منهم يكون له عليهم الغلبة والسلطان واليد القاهرة حتى لا يصل أحد إلى غيره بعدوان وهذا هو معنى الملك,"It could not come from outside, because all the other animals fall short of human perceptions and inspiration. The person who exercises a restraining influence, therefore, must be one of themselves. He must dominate them and have power and authority over them, so that no one of them will be able to attack another. This is the meaning of royal authority."
وقد تبين لك بهذا أن للإنسان خاصة طبيعية ولا بد لهم منها وقد يوجد في بعض الحيوانات العجم على ما ذكره الحكماء كما في النحل والجراد لما استقرئ فيها من الحكم والانقياد,"It has thus become clear that royal authority is a natural quality of man which is absolutely necessary to mankind. The philosophers mention that it also exists among certain dumb animals, such as the bees and the locusts One discerns among them the existence of authority and obedience to a leader."
والاتباع لرئيس من أشخاصها متميز عنهم في خلقه وجثمانه إلا أن ذلك موجود لغير الإنسان بمقتضى الفطرة والهداية لا بمقتضى الفكرة والسياسة,"They follow the one of them who is distinguished as their leader by his natural characteristics and body. However, outside of human beings, these things exist as the result of natural disposition and divine guidance, and not as the result of an ability to think or to administrate."
«أعطى كل شيء خلقه ثم هدى» 20: 50.,"“He gave everything its natural characteristics, and then guided it.”"
وتزيد الفلاسفة على هذا البرهان حيث يحاولون إثبات النبوة بالدليل العقلي وأنها خاصة طبيعية للإنسان فيقررون هذا البرهان إلى غاية وأنه لا بد للبشر من الحكم الوازع ثم يقولون بعد ذلك وذلك الحكم يكون بشرع مفروض من عند الله يأتي به واحد من البشر,"The philosophers go further. They attempt to give logical proof of the existence of prophecy and to show that prophecy is a natural quality of man. In this connection, they carry the argument to its ultimate consequences and’ say that human beings absolutely require some authority to exercise a restraining influence. They go on to say that such restraining influence exists through the religious law (that has been) ordained by God and revealed to mankind by a human being."
وأنه لا بد أن يكون متميزا عنهم بما يودع الله فيه من خواص هدايته ليقع التسليم له والقبول منه حتى يتم الحكم فيهم وعليهم من غير إنكار ولا تزيف,"(This human being) is distinguished from the rest of mankind by special qualities of divine guidance that God gave him, in order that he might find the others submissive to him and ready to accept what he says. Eventually, the existence of a (restraining) authority among them and over them becomes a fact that is accepted without the slightest disapproval or dissent."
وهذه القضية للحكماء غير برهانية كما تراه إذ الوجود وحياة البشر قد تتم من دون ذلك بما يفرضه الحاكم لنفسه أو بالعصبية التي يقتدر بها على قهرهم وحملهم على جادته فأهل الكتاب والمتبعون للأنبياء قليلون بالنسبة إلى المجوس الذين ليس لهم كتاب,"This proposition of the philosophers is not logical, as one can see. Existence and human life can materialize without (the existence of prophecy) through injunctions a person in authority may devise on his own or with the help of a group feeling that enables him to force the others to follow him wherever he wants to go. People who have a (divinely revealed) book and who follow the prophets are few in number in comparison with (all) the Magians who have no (divinely revealed) book."
فإنهم أكثر أهل العالم ومع ذلك فقد كانت لهم الدول والآثار فضلا عن الحياة وكذلك هي لهم لهذا العهد في الأقاليم المنحرفة في الشمال والجنوب بخلاف حياة البشر فوضى دون وازع لهم البتة فإنه يمتنع وبهذا يتبين لك غلطهم في وجوب النبوات وأنه ليس بعقلي وإنما مدركة الشرع كما هو مذهب السلف من الأمة,"The latter constitute the majority of the world’s inhabitants. Still, they (too) have possessed dynasties and monuments, not to mention life itself. They still possess these things at this time in the intemperate zones to the north and the south. This is in contrast with human life in the state of anarchy, with no one to exercise a restraining influence. That would be impossible. This shows that (the philosophers) are wrong when they assume that prophecy exists by necessity. The existence of prophecy is not required by logic. Its (necessary character) is indicated by the religious law, as was the belief of the early Muslims."
والله ولي التوفيق والهداية,God gives success and guidance.
المقدمة الثانية,SECOND PREFATORY DISCUSSION
في قسط العمران من الأرض والإشارة إلى بعض ما فيه من الأشجار والأنهار والأقاليم,"The parts of the earth where civilization is found. Some information about oceans, rivers, and zones."
اعلم أنه قد تبين في كتب الحكماء الناظرين في أحوال العالم أن شكل الأرض كروي وأنها محفوفة بعنصر الماء كأنها عنبة طافية عليه,"IN THE BOOKS of philosophers who speculated about the condition of the world, it has been explained that the earth has a spherical shape and is enveloped by the
element of water. It may be compared to a grape floating upon water."
فانحسر الماء عن بعض جوانبها لما أراد الله من تكوين الحيوانات فيها وعمرانها بالنوع البشري الذي له الخلافة على سائرها,"The water withdrew from certain parts of (the earth), because God wanted to create living beings upon it and settle it with the human species that rules as (God’s) representative over all other beings."
وقد يتوهم من ذلك أن الماء تحت الأرض وليس بصحيح وإنما النحت الطبيعي قلب الأرض ووسط كرتها الذي هو مركزها والكل يطلبه بما فيه من الثقل وما عدا ذلك من جوانبها وأما الماء المحيط بها فهو فوق الأرض وإن قيل في شيء منها إنه تحت الأرض فبالإضافة إلى جهة أخرى منه.,"One might from this get the impression that the water is below the earth. This is not correct. The natural “below” of the earth is the core and middle of its sphere, the center to which everything is attracted by its gravity. All the sides of the earth beyond that and the water surrounding the earth are “above.” When some part of the earth is said to be “below,” it is said to be so with reference to some other region (of the earth)."
وأما الذي انحسر عنه الماء من الأرض فهو النصف من سطح كرتها في شكل دائرة أحاط العنصر المائي بها من جميع جهاتها بحرا يسمى البحر المحيط ويسمى أيضا لبلايه بتفخيم اللام الثانية ويسمى أوقيانوس أسماء أعجمية ويقال له البحر الأخضر والأسود,"The part of the earth from which the water has withdrawn is one-half the surface of the sphere of the earth. It has a circular form and is surrounded on all sides by the element of water which forms a sea called “the Surrounding Sea” (al-Bahr al-Muhit). It is also called lablayah, with thickening of the second l, or oceanos. Both are non-Arabic words. It is also called “the Green Sea” and “the Black Sea.”"
ثم إن هذا المنكشف من الأرض للعمران فيه القفار والخلاء أكثر من عمرانه والخالي من جهة الجنوب منه أكثر من جهة الشمال وإنما المعمور منه أميل إلى الجانب الشمالي على شكل مسطح كروي ينتهي من جهة الجنوب إلى خط الاستواء ومن جهة الشمال إلى خط كروي ووراءه الجبال الفاصلة بينه وبين الماء العنصري,"The part of the earth that is free from water (and thus suitable) for human civilization has more waste and empty areas than cultivated (habitable) areas. The empty area in the south is larger than that in the north. The cultivated part of the earth extends more toward the north. In the shape of a circular plane it extends in the south to the equator and in the north to a circular line, behind which there are mountains separating (the cultivated part of the earth) from the elemental water."
الذي بينهما سد يأجوج ومأجوج وهذه الجبال مائلة إلى جهة المشرق وينتهي من المشرق والمغرب إلى عنصر الماء أيضا بقطعتين من الدائرة المحيطة,"Enclosed between (these mountains) is the Dam of Gog and Magog. These mountains extend toward the east. In the east and the west, they also reach the elemental water, at two sections (points) of the circular (line) that surrounds (the cultivated part of the earth)."
وهذا المنكشف من الأرض قالوا هو مقدار النصف من الكرة أو أقل والمعمور منه مقدار ربعه وهو المنقسم بالأقاليم السبعة,The part of the earth that is free from water is said to cover one-half or less of the sphere (of the earth). The cultivated part covers one-fourth of it. It is divided into seven zones.
وخط الاستواء يقسم الأرض بنصفين من المغرب إلى المشرق وهو طول الأرض وأكبر خط في كرتها كما أن منطقة فلك البروج ودائرة معدل النهار أكبر خط في الفلك ومنطقة البروج منقسمة بثلاثمائة وستين درجة والدرجة من مسافة الأرض خمسة وعشرون فرسخا والفرسخ اثنا عشر ألف ذراع,"The equator divides the earth into two halves from west to east. It represents the length of the earth. It is the longest line on the sphere of (the earth), just as the ecliptic and the equinoctial line are the longest lines on the firmament. The ecliptic is divided into 360 degrees. The geographical degree is twenty-five parasangs, the parasang being 12,000 cubits or three miles, since one mile has 4,000 cubits."
معدل النهار التي تقسم الفلك بنصفين وتسامت خط الاستواء من الأرض وبين كل واحد من القطبين تسعون درجة لكن العمارة في الجهة الشمالية من خط الاستواء أربع وستون درجة والباقي منها خلاء لا عمارة فيه لشدة البرد والجمود كما كانت الجهة الجنوبية خلاء كلها لشدة الحر كما نبين ذلك كله إن شاء الله تعالى. ثم إن المخبرين عن هذا المعمور وحدوده وعما فيه من الأمصار والمدن والجبال والبحار والأنهار والقفار والرمال مثل بطليموس في كتاب الجغرافيا وصاحب كتاب زخار,"The cubit is twenty-four fingers, and the finger is six grains of barley placed closely together in one row. The distance of the equinoctial line, parallel to the equator of the earth and dividing the firmament into two parts, is ninety degrees from each of the two poles. However, the cultivated area north of the equator is (only) sixty-four degrees. The rest is empty and uncultivated because of the bitter cold and frost, exactly as the southern part is altogether empty because of the heat. We shall explain it all, if God wills. Information about the cultivated part and its boundaries and about the cities, towns, mountains, rivers, waste areas, and sandy deserts it contains, has been given by men such as Ptolemy in the Geography and, after him, by the author of the Book of Roger."
من بعده قسموا هذا المعمور بسبعة أقسام يسمونها الأقاليم السبعة بحدود وهمية بين المشرق والمغرب متساوية في العرض مختلفة في الطول,"These men divided the cultivated area into seven parts which they called the seven zones. The borders of the seven zones are imaginary. They extend from east to west. In width (latitudinal extension) they are identical, in length (longitudinal extension) different."
فالإقليم الأول أطول مما بعده وهكذا الثاني إلى آخرها فيكون السابع أقصر لما اقتضاه وضع الدائرة الناشئة عن انحسار الماء عن كرة الأرض,"The first zone is longer than the second. The same applies to the second zone, and so on. The seventh zone is the shortest. This is required by the circular shape that resulted from the withdrawal of the water from the sphere of the earth."
وكل واحد من هذه الأقاليم عندهم منقسم بعشرة أجزاء من المغرب إلى المشرق على التوالي وفي كل جزء الخبر عن أحواله وأحوال عمرانه.,"According to these scholars, each of the seven zones is divided from west to east into ten contiguous sections. Information about general conditions and civilization is given for each section."
وذكروا أن هذا البحر المحيط يخرج من جهة المغرب في الإقليم الرابع البحر الرومي المعروف يبدأ في خليج متضايق في عرض اثني عشر ميلا أو نحوها ما بين طنجة وطريف ويسمى الزقاق.,"(The geographers) mentioned that the Mediterranean which we all know branches off from the Surrounding Sea in the western part of the fourth zone. It begins at a narrow straits about twelve miles wide between Tangier and Tarifa, called the Street (of Gibraltar)."
ثم يذهب مشرقا وينفسح إلى عرض ستمائة ميل ونهايته في آخر الجزء الرابع من الإقليم الرابع على ألف فرسخ ومائة وستين فرسخا من مبدئه.,"It then extends eastward and opens out to a width of 600 miles. It terminates at the end of the fourth section of the fourth zone, a distance of 1,160 parasangs from its starting point."
وعليه هنالك سواحل الشام وعليه من جهة الجنوب سواحل المغرب أولها طنجة عند الخليج ثم إفريقية ثم برقة إلى الاسكندرية ومن جهة الشمال سواحل القسطنطنية عند الخليج ثم البنادقة ثم رومة ثم الافرنجة ثم الأندلس إلى طريف عند الزقاق قبالة طنجة.,"There, it is bordered by the coast of Syria. On the south, it is bordered by the coast of the Maghrib, beginning with Tangier at the Straits, then lfrigiyah, Barqah, and Alexandria. On the north, it is bordered by the coast of Constantinople, then Venice, Rome, France, and Spain, back to Tarifa at the Street (of Gibraltar) opposite Tangier."
ويسمى هذا البحر الرومي والشامي وفيه جزر كثيرة عامرة كبار مثل أقريطش وقبرص وصقلية وميورقة وسردانية.,"The Mediterranean is also called the Roman Sea or the Syrian Sea. It contains many populous islands. Some of them are large, such as Crete, Cyprus, Sicily, Majorca, and Sardinia."
قالوا: ويخرج منه في جهة الشمال بحران آخران من خليجين. أحدهما مسامت للقسطنطينية يبدأ من هذا البحر متضايقا في عرض رمية السهم.,"In the north, they say, two other seas branch off from the Mediterranean through two straits. One of them is opposite Constantinople. It starts at the Mediterranean in a narrow straits, only an arrow-shot in width."
ويمر ثلاثة بحار فيتصل بالقسطنطينية ثم ينفسح في عرض أربعة أميال ويمر في جرية ستين ميلا ويسمى خليج القسطنطينية.,"It flows for a three days’ run and touches Constantinople. Then, it attains a width of four miles. It flows in this channel for sixty miles, where it is known as the Straits of Constantinople."
ثم يخرج من فوهة عرضها ستة أميال فيمد بحر نيطش وهو بحر ينحرف من هنالك في مذهبه إلى ناحية الشرق.,"Through a mouth six miles wide, it then flows into the Black Sea, and becomes a sea that, from there, turns eastward in its course."
فيمر بأرض هرقلة وينتهي إلى بلاد الخزرية على ألف وثلاثمائة ميل من فوهته وعليه من الجانبين أمم من الروم والترك وبرجان والروس.,"It passes the land of Heracleia (in Bithynia) and ends at the country of the Khazars, 1,300 miles from its mouth. Along its two coasts live the Byzantine, the Turkish, the Bulgar (Burjin) and the Russian nations."
والبحر الثاني من خليجي هذا البحر الرومي وهو بحر البنادقة يخرج من بلاد الروم على سمت الشمال فإذا انتهى إلى سمت الجبل انحرف في سمت المغرب إلى بلاد البنادقة وينتهي إلى بلاد إنكلاية على ألف ومائة ميل من مبدئه.,"The second sea that branches off from the two straits of the Mediterranean is the Adriatic Sea (Gulf of Venice). It emerges from Byzantine territory at its northern limit. Then, from Sant’ Angelo (de’ Lombardi), its western boundary extends from the country of the Venetians to the territory of Aquileia, 1,100 miles from where it started."
وعلى حافتيه من البنادقة والروم وغيرهم أمم ويسمى خليج البنادقة.,"On its two shores live the Venetians, the Byzantines (Rum), and other nations. It is called the Gulf of Venice (Adriatic Sea)."
قالوا وينساح من هذا البحر المحيط أيضا من الشرق وعلى ثلاث عشرة درجة في الشمال من خط الاستواء بحر عظيم متسع يمر في الجنوب قليلا حتى ينتهي إلى الإقليم الأول.,"From the Surrounding Sea, they say, a large and wide sea flows on the east at thirteen degrees north of the equator. It flows a little toward the south, entering the first zone."
ثم يمر فيه مغربا إلى أن ينتهي في الجزء الخامس منه إلى بلاد الحبشة والزنج وإلى بلاد باب المندب منه على أربعة آلاف فرسخ من مبدئه.,"Then it flows west within the first zone until it reaches the country of the Abyssinians and the Negroes (the Zanj) and Bib al-Mandeb in the fifth section of (the first zone), 4,500 parasangs from its starting point."
ويسمى البحر الصيني والهندي والحبشي وعليه من جهة الجنوب بلاد الزنج وبلاد بربر التي ذكرها امرؤ القيس في شعره,"This sea is called the Chinese, Indian, or Abyssinian Sea (Indian Ocean). It is bordered on the south by the country of the Negroes (Zanj) and the country of Berbera which Imru’ul-Qays mentioned in his poem."
وليسوا من البربر الذين هم قبائل المغرب ثم بلد مقدشو ثم بلد سفالة وأرض الواق واق وأمم أخر ليس بعدهم إلا القفار والخلاء.,"These “Berbers” do not belong to the Berbers who make up the tribes in the Maghrib. The sea is then bordered by the area of Mogadishu, Sufilah, and the land of al-Wigwiq, and by other nations beyond which there is nothing but waste and empty areas."
وعليه من جهة الشمال الصين من عند مبدئه ثم الهند ثم السند ثم سواحل اليمن من الأحقاف وزبيد وغيرها ثم بلاد الزنج عند نهايته وبعدهم الحبشة. قالوا ويخرج من هذا البحر الحبشي بحران آخران.,"On the north, where it starts, it is bordered by China, then by Eastern and Western India (al-Hind and as- Sind), and then by the coast of the Yemen, that is, al-Ahqif, Zabid, and other cities. Where it ends, it is bordered by the country of the Negroes, and, beyond them, the Beja. Two other seas, they say, branch off from the Indian Ocean."
أحدهما يخرج من نهايته عند باب المندب فيبدأ متضايقا ثم يمر مستبحرا إلى ناحية الشمال ومغربا قليلا إلى أن ينتهي إلى القلزم في الجزء الخامس من الإقليم الثاني على ألف وأربعمائة ميل من مبدئه ويسمى بحر القلزم.,"One of them branches off where the Indian Ocean ends, at Bib al-Mandeb. It starts out narrow, then flows widening toward the north and slightly to the west until it ends at the city of al-Qulzum in the fifth section of the second zone, 1,400 miles from its starting point."
وبحر السويس وبينه وبين فسطاط مصر من هنالك ثلاث مراحل.,This is the Sea of al-Qulzum or Sea of Suez (Red Sea). From the Red Sea at Suez to Fustat is the distance of a three days’ journey.
وعليه من جهة الشرق سواحل اليمن ثم الحجاز وجدة ثم مدين وأيلة وفاران عند نهايته.,"The Red Sea is bordered on the east by the coast of the Yemen, the Hijiz, and Jiddah, and then, where it ends, by Midyan (Madyan), Aila (Aylah), and Faran."
ومن جهة الغرب سواحل الصعيد وعيذاب وسواكن وزيلع ثم بلاد الحبشة عند مبدئه وآخره عند القلزم يسامت البحر الرومي عند العريش وبينهما نحو ست مراحل.,"On the west, it is bordered by the coast of Upper Egypt, ‘Aydhib, Suakin, and Zayla’ (Zila’), and then, where it begins, by the country of the Beja. It ends at al-Qulzum. It (would) reach the Mediterranean at al-‘Arish. The distance between (the Red Sea and the Mediterranean) is a six days’ journey."
وما زال الملوك في الإسلام وقبله يرومون خرق ما بينهما ولم يتم ذلك.,"Many rulers, both Muslim and pre- Islamic, have wanted to cut through the intervening territory (with a canal) but this has not been achieved."
والبحر الثاني من هذا البحر الحبشي ويسمى الخليج الأخضر يخرج ما بين بلاد السند والأحقاف من اليمن.,"The second sea branching off from the Indian Ocean and called the Persian Gulf (the Green Gulf), branches off at the region between the west coast of India and al-Ahqaf in the Yemen."
ويمر إلى ناحية الشمال مغربا قليلا إلى أن ينتهي إلى الأبلة من سواحل البصرة في الجزء السادس من الإقليم الثاني على أربعمائة فرسخ وأربعين فرسخا من مبدئه.,"It flows toward the north and slightly to the west until it ends at al-Ubullah on the coast of al-Basrah in the sixth section of the second zone, 440 parasangs from its starting point."
ويسمى بحر فارس وعليه من جهة الشرق سواحل السند ومكران وكرمان وفارس والأبلة وعند نهايته من جهة الغرب سواحل البحرين واليمامة وعمان والشحر والأحقاف عند مبدئه.,"It is called the Persian Gulf (Persian Sea). It is bordered on the east by the coast of Western India, Mukrin, Kirmin, Firs, and al-Ubullah where it ends. On the west, it is bordered by the coast of al-Bahrayn, the Yamamah, Oman, ash-Shihr, and al-Ahgaf where it starts."
وفيما بين بحر فارس والقلزم وجزيرة العرب كأنها داخلة من البر في البحر يحيط بها البحر الحبشي من الجنوب وبحر القلزم من الغرب وبحر فارس من الشرق.,"Between the Persian Gulf and al-Qulzum lies the Arabian Peninsula, jutting out from the mainland into the sea. It is surrounded by the Indian Ocean to the south, by the Red Sea to the west, and by the Persian Gulf to the east."
وتفضي إلى العراق بين الشام والبصرة على ألف وخمسمائة ميل بينهما وهنالك الكوفة والقادسية وبغداد وإيوان كسرى والحيرة.,"It adjoins the ‘Iraq in the region between Syria and al-Basrah, where the distance between (Syria and the ‘Iraq) is 1,500 miles. (In the ‘Iraq) are al-Kufah, al-Qidistyah, Baghdad, the Reception Hall of Khosraw (at Ctesiphon) and al-Hirah."
ووراء ذلك أمم الأعاجم من الترك والخزر وغيرهم وفي جزيرة العرب بلاد الحجاز في جهة الغرب منها وبلاد اليمامة والبحرين وعمان في جهة الشرق منها وبلاد اليمن في جهة الجنوب منها وسواحله على البحر الحبشي.,"Beyond that live non-Arab nations such as the Turks, the Khazars, and others. The Arabian Peninsula comprises the Hijaz in the west, the Yamamah, al-Bahrayn, and Oman in the east, and in the south the Yemen along the coast of the Indian Ocean."
قالوا وفي هذا المعمور بحر آخر منقطع من سائر البحار في ناحية الشمال بأرض الديلم يسمى بحر جرجان وطبرستان طوله ألف ميل في عرض ستمائة ميل في غربيه أذربيجان والديلم.,"In the cultivated area (of the earth), they say, there is another sea to the north in the land of the Daylam. This sea has no connection with the other seas. It is called the Sea of Jurjan and Tabaristan (Caspian Sea). Its length is 1,000 miles, and its width 600."
وفي شرقيه أرض الترك وخوارزم وفي جنوبيه طبرستان وفي شماليه أرض الخزر واللان.,To the west of it lies Azerbaijan and the Daylam territory; to the east of it the land of the Turks and Khuwirizm; to the south of it Tabaristan; and to the north of it the land of the Khazars and the Alans.
هذه جملة البحار المشهورة التي ذكرها أهل الجغرافيا.,These are all the famous seas mentioned by the geographers.
قالوا وفي هذا الجزء المعمور أنهار كثيرة أعظمها أربعة أنهار وهي النيل والفرات ودجلة ونهر بلخ المسمى جيحون.,"They further say that in the cultivated part of (the earth), there are many rivers. The largest among them are four in number, namely, the Nile, the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the River of Balkh which is called Oxus (Jayhun)."
فأما النيل فمبدؤه من جبل عظيم وراء خط الاستواء بست عشرة درجة على سمت الجزء الرابع من الإقليم الأول. ويسمى جبل القمر.,"The Nile begins at a large mountain, sixteen degrees beyond the equator at the boundary of the fourth section of the first zone. This mountain is called the Mountain of the Qumr."
ولا يعلم في الأرض جبل أعلى منه تخرج منه عيون كثيرة فيصب بعضها في بحيرة هناك وبعضها في أخرى ثم تخرج أنهار من البحيرتين فتصب كلها في بحيرة واحدة عند خط الاستواء على عشر مراحل من الجبل.,"No higher mountain is known on earth. Many springs issue from the mountain, some of them flowing into one lake there, and some of them into another lake. From these two lakes, several rivers branch off, and all of them flow into a lake at the equator which is at the distance of a ten days’ journey from the mountain."
ويخرج من هذه البحيرة نهران يذهب أحدهما إلى ناحية الشمال على سمته ويمر ببلاد النوبة ثم بلاد مصر فإذا جاوزها تشعب في شعب متقاربة يسمى كل واحد منها خليجا وتصب كلها في البحر الرومي عند الإسكندرية.,"From that lake, two rivers issue. One of them flows due north, passing through the country of the Nubah and then through Egypt. Having traversed Egypt, it divides into many branches lying close to each other. Each of these is called a “channel.” All flow into the Mediterranean at Alexandria."
ويسمى نيل مصر وعليه الصعيد من شرقيه والواحات من غربيه ويذهب الآخر منعطفا إلى المغرب ثم يمر على سمته إلى أن يصب في البحر المحيط وهو نهر السودان. وأممهم كلهم على ضفتيه.,"This river is called the Egyptian Nile. It is bordered by Upper Egypt on the east, and by the oases on the west. The other river turns westward, flowing due west until it flows into the Surrounding Sea. This river is the Sudanese Nile. All the Negro nations live along its borders."
وأما الفرات فمبدؤه من بلاد أرمينية في الجزء السادس من الإقليم الخامس ويمر جنوبا في أرض الروم وملطية إلى منبج ثم يمر بصفين ثم بالرقة ثم بالكوفة إلى أن ينتهي إلى البطحاء التي بين البصرة وواسط.,"The Euphrates begins in Armenia in the sixth section of the fifth zone. It flows south through Byzantine territory (Anatolia) past Malatya to Manbij, and then passes Siflin, ar-Raggah, and al-Kufah until it reaches the Marsh (alBatha’) between al-Basrah and Wasit."
ومن هناك يصب في البحر الحبشي وتنجلب إليه في طريقه أنهار كثيرة ويخرج منه أنهار أخرى تصب في دجلة.,From there it flows into the Indian Ocean. Many rivers flow into it along its course. Other rivers branch off from it and flow into the Tigris.
وأما دجلة فمبدؤها عين ببلاد خلاط من أرمينية أيضا وتمر على سمت الجنوب بالموصل وأذربيجان وبغداد إلى واسط فتتفرق إلى خلجان كلها تصب في بحيرة البصرة وتفضي إلى بحر فارس.,"The Tigris originates in a number of springs in the country of Khilat, which is also in Armenia. It passes on its course southward through Mosul, Azerbaijan, and Baghdad to Wasit. There, it divides into several channels, all of which flow into the Lake of al-Basrah and join the Persian Gulf."
وهو في الشرق على يمين الفرات وينجلب إليه أنهار كثيرة عظيمة من كل جانب وفيما بين الفرات ودجلة من أوله جزيرة الموصل قبالة الشام من عدوتي الفرات وقبالة آذربيجان من عدوة دجلة.,"The Tigris flows east of the Euphrates. Many large rivers flow into it from all sides. The region between the Euphrates and the Tigris, where it is first formed, is the Jazirah of Mosul, facing Syria on both banks of the Euphrates, and facing Azerbaijan on both banks of the Tigris."
وأما نهر جيحون فمبدؤه من بلخ في الجزء الثامن من الإقليم الثالث من عيون هناك كثيرة وتنجلب إليه أنهار عظام ويذهب من الجنوب إلى الشمال.,"The Oxus originates at Balkh, in the eighth section of the third zone, in a great number of springs there. Large rivers flow into it, as it follows a course from south to north."
فيمر ببلاد خراسان ثم يخرج منها إلى بلاد خوارزم في الجزء الثامن من الإقليم الخامس فيصب في بحيرة الجرجانية التي بأسفل مدينتها وهي مسيرة شهر في مثله.,"It flows through Khurasan, then past Khurasan to Khuwarizm in the eighth section of the fifth zone. It flows into Lake Aral (the Lake of Gurganj) which is situated at the foot [north?] of the city of (Gurganj). In length as in width, it extends the distance of one month’s journey."
وإليها ينصب نهر فرغانة والشاش الآتي من بلاد الترك وعلى غربي نهر جيحون بلاد خراسان وخوارزم.,"The river of Farghanah and Tashkent (ash-Shash), which comes from the territory of the Turks, flows into it. West of the Oxus lie Khurasan and Khuwarizm."
وعلى شرقيه بلاد بخارى وترمذ وسمرقند ومن هنالك إلى ما وراءه بلاد الترك وفرغانة والخزلجية وأمم الأعاجم.,"East of it lie the cities of Bukhari, at-Tirmidh, and Samarkand. Beyond that are the country of the Turks, Farghanah, the Kharlukh, and (other) non-Arab nations."
وقد ذكر ذلك كله بطليموس في كتابه والشريف في كتاب روجار.,(All) this was mentioned by Ptolemy in his work and by the Sharaf (al-Idrisi) in the Book of Roger.
وصوروا في الجغرافيا جميع ما في المعمور من الجبال والبحار والأودية.,"All the mountains, seas, and rivers to be found in the cultivated part of the earth are depicted on maps and exhaustively treated in geography."
واستوفوا من ذلك ما لا حاجة لنا به لطوله ولأن عنايتنا في الأكثر إنما هي بالمغرب الذي هو وطن البربر وبالأوطان التي للعرب من المشرق.,"We do not have to go any further into it. It is too lengthy a subject, and our main concern is with the Maghrib, the home of the Berbers, and the Arab home countries in the East."
والله الموفق.,God gives success.
تكملة لهذه المقدمة الثانية,SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE TO THE SECOND PREFATORY DISCUSSION
في أن الربع الشمالي من الأرض أكثر عمرانا من الربع الجنوبي وذكر السبب في ذلك.,The northern quarter of the earth has more civilization than the southern quarter. The reason thereof.
ونحن نرى بالمشاهدة والأخبار المتواترة أن الأول والثاني من الأقاليم المعمورة أقل عمرانا مما بعدهما,WE KNOW FROM OBSERVATION and from continuous tradition that the first and the second of the cultivated zones have less civilization than the other zones.
وما وجد من عمرانه فيتخلله الخلاء والقفار والرمال والبحر الهندي الذي في الشرق منهما.,The cultivated area in the first and second zones is interspersed with empty waste areas and sandy deserts and has the Indian Ocean to the east.
وأمم هذين الإقليمين وأناسيهما ليست لهم الكثرة البالغة وأمصاره ومدنه كذلك.,The nations and populations of the first and second zones are not excessively numerous. The same applies to the cities and towns there.
والثالث والرابع وما بعدهما بخلاف ذلك فالقفار فيها قليلة والرمال كذلك أو معدومة وأممها وأناسيها تجوز الحد من الكثرة وأمصارها ومدنها تجاوز الحد عددا والعمران فيها مندرج ما بين الثالث والسادس والجنوب خلاء كله.,"The third, fourth, and subsequent zones are just the opposite. Waste areas there are few. Sandy deserts also are few or non-existent. The nations and populations are tremendous. Cities and towns are exceedingly numerous. Civilization has its seat between the third and the sixth zones. The south is all emptiness."
وقد ذكر كثير من الحكماء أن ذلك لإفراط الحر وقلة ميل الشمس فيها عن سمت الرؤوس فلنوضح ذلك ببرهانه.,Many philosophers have mentioned that this is because of the excessive heat and slightness of the sun’s deviation from the zenith in the south. Let us explain and prove this statement.
ويتبين منه سبب كثرة العمارة فيما بين الثالث والرابع من جانب الشمال إلى الخامس والسابع.,"The result will clarify the reason why civilization in the third and fourth zones is so highly developed and extends also to the fifth,  and seventh zones."
فنقول إن قطبي الفلك الجنوبي والشمالي إذا كانا على الأفق فهنالك دائرة عظيمة تقسم الفلك بنصفين هي أعظم الدوائر المارة من المشرق إلى المغرب.,"We say: When the south and north poles (of heaven) are upon the horizon, they constitute a large circle that divides the firmament into two parts. It is the largest circle (in it) and runs from west to east."
وتسمى دائرة معدل النهار,It is called the equinoctial line.
وقد تبين في موضعه من الهيئة أن الفلك الأعلى متحرك من المشرق إلى المغرب حركة يومية يحرك بها سائر الأفلاك في جوفه قهرا.,"In astronomy, it has been explained in the proper place that the highest sphere moves from east to west in a daily motion by means of which it also forces the spheres enclosed by it to move."
وهذه الحركة محسوسة وكذلك تبين أن للكواكب في أفلاكها حركة مخالفة لهذه الحركة وهي من المغرب إلى المشرق.,"This motion is perceptible to the senses. It has also been explained that the stars in their spheres have a motion that is contrary to this motion and is, therefore, a motion from west to east."
وتختلف آمادها باختلاف حركة الكواكب في السرعة والبطء وممرات هذه الكواكب في أفلاكها توازيها كلها دائرة عظيمة من الفلك الأعلى تقسمه بنصفين وهي دائرة فلك البروج منقسمة باثني عشر برجا.,"The periods of this movement differ according to the different speeds of the motions of the stars. Parallel to the courses of all these stars in their spheres, there runs a large circle which belongs to the highest sphere and divides it into two halves. This is the ecliptic (zodiac). It is divided into twelve “signs.”"
وهي على ما تبين في موضعه مقاطعة لدائرة معدل النهار على نقطتين متقابلتين من البروج هما أول الحمل وأول الميزان فتقسمها دائرة معدل النهار بنصفين نصف مائل عن معدل النهار إلى الشمال وهو من أول الحمل إلى آخر السنبلة ونصف مائل عنه إلى الجنوب وهو من أول الميزان إلى آخر الحوت.,"As has been explained in the proper place, the equinoctial line intersects the ecliptic at two opposite points, namely, at the beginning of Aries and at the beginning of Libra. The equinoctial line divides the zodiac into two halves. One of them extends northward from the equinoctial line and includes the signs from the beginning of Aries to the end of Virgo. The other half extends southward from it and includes the signs from the beginning of Libra to the end of Pisces."
وإذا وقع القطبان على الأفق في جميع نواحي الأرض كان على سطح الأرض خط واحد يسامت دائرة معدل النهار يمر من المغرب إلى المشرق ويسمى خط الاستواء.,"When the two poles fall upon the horizon  among all the regions of the earth, a line is formed upon the surface of the earth that faces the equinoctial line and runs from west to east. This line is called the equator."
ووقع هذا الخط بالرصد على ما زعموا في مبدإ الإقليم الأول من الأقاليم السبعة والعمران كله في الجهة الشمالية.,"According to astronomical observation, this line is believed to coincide with the beginning of the first of the seven zones. All civilization is to the north of it."
يرتفع عن آفاق هذا المعمور بالتدريج إلى أن ينتهي ارتفاعه إلى أربع وستين درجة وهنالك ينقطع العمران وهو آخر الإقليم السابع.,"The north pole gradually ascends on the horizon of the cultivated area (of the earth) until its elevation reaches sixtyfour degrees. Here, all civilization ends. This is the end of the seventh zone."
وإذا ارتفع على الأفق تسعين درجة وهي التي بين القطب ودائرة معدل النهار على الأفق,"When its elevation reaches ninety degrees on the horizon – that is the distance between the pole and the equinoctial- line-then it is at its zenith, and the equinoctial line is on the horizon."
وبقيت ستة من البروج فوق الأفق وهي الشمالية وستة تحت الأفق وهي الجنوبية,"Six of the signs of the zodiac, the northern ones, remain above the horizon, and six, the southern ones, are below it."
والعمارة فيما بين الأربعة والستين إلى التسعين ممتنعة لأن الحر والبرد حينئذ لا يحصلان ممتزجين لبعد الزمان بينهما فلا يحصل التكوين.,"Civilization is impossible in the area between the sixtyfourth and the ninetieth degrees, for no admixture of heat and cold occurs there because of the great time interval between them. Generation (of anything), therefore, does not take place."
فإذا الشمس تسامت الرؤوس على خط الاستواء في رأس الحمل والميزان ثم تميل عن المسامتة إلى رأس السرطان ورأس الجدي ويكون نهاية ميلها عن دائرة معدل النهار أربعا وعشرين درجة.,The sun is at its zenith on the equator at the beginning of Aries and Libra. It then declines from its zenith down to the beginning of Cancer and Capricorn. Its greatest declination from the equinoctial line is twenty-four degrees.
ثم إذا ارتفع القطب الشمالي عن الأفق مالت دائرة معدل النهار عن سمت الرؤوس بمقدار ارتفاعه وانخفض القطب الجنوبي كذلك بمقدار متساو في الثلاثة.,"Now, when the north pole ascends on the horizon, the equinoctial line declines from the zenith in proportion to the elevation of the north pole, and the south pole descends correspondingly, as regards the three (distances constituting geographical latitude)."
وهو المسمى عند أهل المواقيت عرض البلد وإذا مالت دائرة معدل النهار عن سمت الرؤوس علت عليها البروج الشمالية مندرجة في مقدار علوها إلى رأس السرطان.,"Scholars who calculate the (prayer) times call this the latitude of a place. When the equinoctial line declines from the zenith, the northern signs of the zodiac gradually rise above it, proportionately to its rise, until the beginning of Cancer is reached."
وانخفضت البروج الجنوبية من الأفق كذلك إلى رأس الجدي لانحرافها إلى الجانبين في أفق الاستواء كما قلناه.,"Meanwhile, the southern signs of the zodiac correspondingly descend below the horizon until the beginning of Capricorn is reached, because of the inclination of the (two halves of the zodiac) upwards or downwards from the horizon of the equator, as we have stated."
فلا يزال الأفق الشمالي يرتفع حتى يصير أبعد الشمالية وهو رأس السرطان في سمت الرؤوس وذلك حيث يكون عرض البلد أربعا وعشرين في الحجاز وما يليه.,"The northern horizon continues to rise, until its northern limit, which is the beginning of Cancer, is in the zenith. This is where the latitude is twenty-four degrees in the Hijaz and the territory adjacent."
وهذا هو الميل الذي إذا مال رأس السرطان عن معدل النهار في أفق الاستواء ارتفع بارتفاع القطب الشمالي حتى صار مسامتا.,"This is the declination from the equinoctial at the horizon of the equator at the beginning of Cancer. With the elevation of the north pole (Cancer) rises, until it attains the zenith."
فإذا ارتفع القطب أكثر من أربع وعشرين نزلت الشمس عن المسامتة ولا تزال في انخفاض إلى أن يكون ارتفاع القطب أربعا وستين ويكون انخفاض الشمس عن المسامتة كذلك وانخفاض القطب الجنوبي عن الأفق مثلها.,"When the pole rises more than twenty-four degrees, the sun descends from the zenith and continues to do so until the elevation of the pole is sixty-four degrees, and the sun’s descent from the zenith, as well as the depression of the south pole under the horizon, is the same distance."
فينقطع التكوين لإفراط البرد والجمد وطول زمانه غير ممتزج بالحر.,"Then, generation (of anything) stops because of the excessive cold and frost and the long time without any heat."
ثم إن الشمس عند المسامتة وما يقاربها تبعث الأشعة قائمة وفيما دون المسامتة على زوايا منفرجة وحادة.,"At and nearing its zenith, the sun sends its rays down upon the earth at right angles. In other positions, it sends them down at obtuse or acute angles."
وإذا كانت زوايا الأشعة قائمة عظم الضوء وانتشر بخلافه في المنفرجة والحادة فلهذا يكون الحر عند المسامتة وما يقرب منها أكثر منه فيما بعد لأن الضوء سبب الحر والتسخين.,"When the rays form right angles, the light is strong and spreads out over a wide area, in contrast to what happens in the case of obtuse and acute angles. Therefore, at and nearing its zenith, the heat is greater than in other positions, because the light (of the sun) is the reason for heat and calefaction."
ثم إن المسامتة في خط الاستواء تكون مرتين في السنة عند نقطتي الحمل والميزان.,The sun reaches its zenith at the equator twice a year in two points of Aries and Libra.
وإذا مالت فغير بعيد ولا يكاد الحر يعتدل في آخر ميلها عند رأس السرطان والجدي إلا إن صعدت إلى المسامتة.,"No declination (of the sun) goes very far. The heat hardly begins to become more temperate, when the sun has reached the limit of its declination at the beginning of Cancer or Capricorn and begins to rise again toward the zenith."
فتبقى الأشعة القائمة الزوايا تلح على ذلك الأفق ويطول مكثها أو يدوم فيشتعل الهواء حرارة ويفرط في شدتها.,"The perpendicular rays then fall heavily upon the horizon there (in these regions) and hold steady for a long time, if not permanently. The air gets burning hot, even excessively so."
وكذا ما دامت الشمس تسامت مرتين فيما بعد خط الاستواء إلى عرض أربع وعشرين.,"The same is true whenever the sun reaches the zenith in the area between the equator and latitude twentyfour degrees, as it does twice a year."
فإن الأشعة ملحة على الأفق في ذلك بقريب من إلحاحها في خط الاستواء وإفراط الحر يفعل في الهواء تجفيفا ويبسا يمنع من التكوين.,The rays exercise almost as much force upon the horizon there (at this latitude) as they do at the equator. The excessive heat causes a parching dryness in the air that prevents (any) generation.
لأنه إذا أفرط الحر جفت المياه والرطوبات وفسد التكوين في المعدن والحيوان والنبات إذ التكوين لا يكون إلا بالرطوبة.,"As the heat becomes more excessive, water and all kinds of moisture dry up, and (the power of) generation is destroyed in minerals, plants, and animals, because (all) generation depends on moisture."
ثم إذا مال رأس السرطان عن سمت الرؤوس في عرض خمس وعشرين فما بعده نزلت الشمس عن المسامتة فيصير الحر إلى الاعتدال أو يميل عنه ميلا قليلا فيكون التكوين.,"Now, when the beginning of Cancer declines from the zenith at the latitude of twenty-five degrees and beyond, the sun also declines from its zenith. The heat becomes temperate, or deviates only slightly from (being temperate). Then, generation can take place."
ويتزايد على التدريج إلى أن يفرط البرد في شدته لقلة الضوء وكون الأشعة منفرجة الزوايا فينقص التكوين ويفسد.,"This goes on until the cold becomes excessive, due to the lack of light and the obtuse angles of the rays of the sun. Then, (the power of) generation again decreases and is destroyed."
بيد أن فساد التكوين من جهة شدة الحر أعظم منه من جهة شدة البرد لأن الحر أسرع تأثيرا في التجفيف من تأثير البرد في الجمد.,"However, the destruction caused by great heat is greater than that caused by great cold, because heat brings about desiccation faster than cold brings about freezing."
فلذلك كان العمران في الإقليم الأول والثاني قليلا وفي الثالث والرابع والخامس متوسطا لاعتدال الحر بنقصان الضوء وفي السادس والسابع كثيرا لنقصان الحر.,"Therefore, there is little civilization in the first and second zones. There is a medium degree of civilization in the third, fourth, and fifth zones, because the heat there is temperate owing to the decreased amount of light. There is a great deal of civilization in the sixth and seventh zones because of the decreased amount of heat there."
وأن كيفية البرد لا تؤثر عند أولها في فساد التكوين كما يفعل الحر إذ لا تجفيف فيها إلا عند الإفراط بما يعرض لها حينئذ من اليبس كما بعد السابع.,"At first, cold does not have the same destructive effect upon (the power of) generation as heat; it causes desiccation only when it becomes excessive and thus has dryness added. This is the case beyond the seventh zone."
فلهذا كان العمران في الربع الشمالي أكثر وأوفر.,"(All) this, then, is the reason why civilization is stronger and more abundant in the northern quarter."
والله أعلم.,And God knows better!
ومن هنا أخذ الحكماء خلاء خط الاستواء وما وراءه.,The philosophers concluded from these facts that the region at the equator and beyond it (to the south) was empty.
وأورد عليهم أنه معمور بالمشاهدة والأخبار المتواترة.,"On the strength of observation and continuous tradition, it was argued against them that (to the contrary) it was cultivated."
فكيف يتم البرهان على ذلك؟,How would it be possible to prove this (contention)?
والظاهر أنهم لم يريدوا امتناع العمران فيه بالكلية إنما أداهم البرهان إلى أن فساد التكوين فيه قوي بإفراط الحر.,"It is obvious that the (philosophers) did not mean to deny entirely the existence of civilization there, but their argumentation led them to (the realization) that (the power of) generation must, to a large degree, be destroyed there because of the excessive heat."
والعمران فيه إما ممتنع أو ممكن أقلي وهو كذلك فإن خط الاستواء والذي وراءه وإن كان فيه عمران كما نقل فهو قليل جدا.,"Consequently, civilization there would be either impossible, or only minimally possible. This is so. The region at the equator and beyond it (to the south), even if it has civilization as has been reported, has only a very little of it."
وقد زعم ابن رشد أن خط الاستواء معتدل وأن ما وراءه في الجنوب بمثابة ما وراءه في الشمال فيعمر منه ما عمر من هذا.,"Averroes assumed that the equator is in a symmetrical position and that what is beyond the equator to the south corresponds to what is beyond it to the north; consequently, as much of the south would be cultivated as of the north."
والذي قاله غير ممتنع من جهة فساد التكوين وإنما امتنع فيما وراء خط الاستواء في الجنوب من جهة أن العنصر المائي غمر وجه الأرض هنالك إلى الحد الذي كان مقابلة من الجهة الشمالية قابلا للتكوين.,"His assumption is not impossible, so far as (the argument of) the destruction of the power of generation is concerned. However, as to the region south of the equator, it is made impossible by the fact that the element of water covers the face of the earth in the south, where the corresponding area in the north admits of generation."
ولما امتنع المعتدل لغيبة الماء تبعه ما سواه لأن العمران متدرج ويأخذ في التدريج من جهة الوجود لا من جهة الامتناع.,"On account of the greater amount of water (in the south), Averroes’ assumption of the symmetrical (position of the equator) thus turns out to be impossible. Everything else follows, since civilization progresses gradually and begins its gradual progress where it can exist, not where it cannot exist."
وأما القول بامتناعه في خط الاستواء فيرده النقل المتواتر.,The assumption that civilization cannot exist at the equator is contradicted by continuous tradition.
والله أعلم.,And God knows better!
ولنرسم بعد هذا الكلام صورة الجغرافيا كما رسمها صاحب كتاب روجار ثم نأخذ في تفصيل الكلام عليها إلى آخره.,"After this discussion, we wish to draw a map of the earth, as was done by the author of the Book of Roger."
تفصيل الكلام على هذه الجغرافيا,DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE MAP
والمتكلمون على هذه الجغرافيا قسموا كل واحد من هذه الأقاليم السبعة في طوله من المغرب إلى المشرق بعشرة أجزاء متساوية ويذكرون ما اشتمل عليه كل جزء منها من البلدان والأمصار والجبال والأنهار والمسافات بينها في المسالك.,"The geographers have subdivided each of the seven zones lengthwise from west to east in ten equal sections. They mention the countries, cities, mountains, and rivers of each section, and the traveling distances between them."
ونحن الآن نوجز القول في ذلك ونذكر مشاهير البلدان والأنهار والبحار في كل جزء منها ونحاذي بذلك ما وقع في كتاب نزهة المشتاق الذي ألفه العلوي الإدريسي الحمودي لملك صقلية من الإفرنج وهو زخار بن زخار.,"We shall now briefly summarize the best-known countries, rivers, and seas of each section. Our model will be the data set forth in the Nuzhat al-mushtaq which al-‘Alawi al-Idrisi al-Hammudi composed for the Christian king of Sicily, Roger, the son of Roger."
عند ما كان نازلا عليه بصقلية بعد خروج صقلية من إمارة مالقة.,"Al-Idrisi’s family had given up its rule of Malaga, and he had settled at (Roger’s) court in Sicily."
وكان تأليفه للكتاب في منتصف المائة السادسة وجمع له كتبا جمة للمسعودي وابن خرداذبه والحوقلي والقدري وابن إسحاق المنجم وبطليموس وغيرهم.,"He composed the book in the middle of the sixth [twelfth] century. He utilized many books by authors such as al-Mas’udi, Ibn Khurradadhbih, al-Hawgali, al-‘Udhri, Ishaq al-Munajjim, Ptolemy and others."
ونبدأ منها بالإقليم الأول إلى آخرها.,We shall begin with the first zone and go on from there to the last one.
الإقليم الأول،,The first zone
وفيه من جهة غربيه الجزائر الخالدات التي منها بدأ بطليموس بأخذ أطوال البلاد.,"The Eternal Islands (the Canaries) from which Ptolemy began the determination of geographical longitude, are in the west."
وليست في بسيط الإقليم وإنما هي في البحر المحيط.,They are not part of the land mass of the first zone. They lie in the Surrounding Sea.
جزر متكثرة أكبرها وأشهرها ثلاث ويقال إنها معمورة.,A number of islands constitute them. The largest and best known are three in number. They are said to be cultivated.
وقد بلغنا أن سفائن من الإفرنج مرت بها في أواسط هذه المائة وقاتلوهم فغنموا منهم وسبوا وباعوا بعض أسراهم بسواحل المغرب الأقصى وصاروا إلى خدمة السلطان.,"We have heard that European Christian ships reached them in the middle of this century, fought with the (inhabitants), plundered them, captured some of them, and sold some of the captives along the Moroccan coast where they came into the service of the ruler."
فلما تعلموا اللسان العربي أخبروا عن حال جزائرهم.,"After they had learned Arabic, they gave information about conditions on their island."
وأنهم يحتفرون الأرض للزراعة بالقرون وأن الحديد مفقود بأرضهم.,They said that they tilled the soil with horns. Iron was lacking in their country.
وعيشهم من الشعير وماشيتهم المعز وقتالهم بالحجارة يرمونها إلى خلف وعبادتهم السجود للشمس إذا طلعت ولا يعرفون دينا ولم تبلغهم دعوة.,"Their bread was made of barley. Their animals were goats. They fought with stones, which they hurled backwards. Their worship consisted of prostrations before the rising sun. They knew no (revealed) religion and had not been reached by any missionary activity."
ولا يوقف على مكان هذه الجزائر إلا بالعثور لا بالقصد إليها.,"These islands can be reached only by chance, and not intentionally by navigation."
لأن سفر السفن في البحر إنما هو بالرياح ومعرفة جهات مهابها وإلى أين يوصل إذا مرت على الاستقامة من البلاد التي في ممر ذلك المهب.,"Navigation on the sea depends on the winds. It depends on knowledge of the directions the winds blow from and where they lead, and on following a straight course from the places that lie along the path of a particular wind."
وإذا اختلف المهب وعلم حيث يوصل على الاستقامة حوذي به القلع محاذاة يحمل السفينة بها على قوانين في ذلك محصلة عند النواتية والملاحين الذين هم رؤساء السفن في البحر.,"When the wind changes and it is known where a straight course along it will lead, the sails are set for it, and the ship thus sails according to nautical norms evolved by the mariners and sailors who are in charge of sea voyages."
والبلاد التي في حافات البحر الرومي وفي عدوته مكتوبة كلها في صحيفة على شكل ما هي عليه في الوجود وفي وضعها في سواحل البحر على ترتيبها.,The countries situated on the two shores of the Mediterranean are noted on a chart (sahifah) which indicates the true facts regarding them and gives their positions along the coast in the proper order.
ومهاب الرياح وممراتها على اختلافها معها في تلك الصحيفة ويسمونها الكنباص.,The various winds and their paths are likewise put down on the chart. This chart is called the “compass.”
وعليها يعتمدون في أسفارهم وهذا كله مفقود في البحر المحيط فلذلك لا تلج فيه السفن لأنها إن غابت عن مرأى السواحل فقل أن تهتدي إلى الرجوع إليها,"It is on this (compass) that (sailors) rely on their voyages. Nothing of the sort exists for the Surrounding Sea. Therefore, ships do not enter it, because, were they to lose sight of shore, they would hardly be able to find their way back to it."
مع ما ينعقد في جو هذا البحر وعلى سطح مائه من الأبخرة الممانعة للسفن في مسيرها وهي لبعدها لا تدركها أضواء الشمس المنعكسة من سطح الأرض فتحللها,"Moreover, the air of the Surrounding Sea and its surface harbors vapors that hamper ships on their courses. Because of the remoteness of these (vapors), the rays of the sun which the surface of the earth deflects, cannot reach and dissolve them."
فلذلك عسر الاهتداء إليها وصعب الوقوف على خبرها.,"It is, therefore, difficult to find the way to (the Eternal Islands) and to have information about them."
وأما الجزء الأول من هذا الإقليم ففيه مصب النيل الآتي من مبدئه عند جبل القمر كما ذكرناه,"The first section of the first zone contains the mouth of the Nile which has its origin in the Mountain of the Qumr, as we have mentioned."
ويسمى نيل السودان ويذهب إلى البحر المحيط فيصب فيه عند جزيرة أوليك وعلى هذا النيل مدينة سلا وتكرور وغانة وكلها لهذا العهد في مملكة ملك مالي من أمم السودان وإلى بلادهم.,")This Nile) is called the Sudanese Nile. It flows toward the Surrounding Sea and into it at the island of Awlil. The city of Sila, Takrur, and Ghanah are situated along this Nile. At this time, all of them belong to the Mali people, a Negro nation."
تسافر تجار المغرب الأقصى وبالقرب منها من شماليها بلاد لمتونة وسائر طوائف الملثمين ومفاوز يجولون فيها,"(Moroccan merchants travel to their country. Close to it in the north is the country of the Lamtunah and of the other groups of the Veiled Berbers (Sinhajah), as well as the deserts in which they roam."
وفي جنوبي هذا النيل قوم من السودان يقال لهم «لملم» وهم كفار ويكتوون في وجوههم وأصداغهم وأهل غانة والتكرور يغيرون عليهم ويسبونهم ويبيعونهم للتجار فيجلبونهم إلى المغرب,"To the south of this Nile, there is a Negro people called Lamlam. They are unbelievers. They brand themselves on the face and temples. The people of Ghanah and Takrur invade their country, capture them, and sell them to merchants who transport them to the Maghrib."
وكلهم عامة رقيقهم وليس وراءهم في الجنوب عمران يعتبر إلا أناسي أقرب إلى الحيوان العجم من الناطق,"There, they constitute the ordinary mass of slaves. Beyond them to the south, there is no civilization in the proper sense. There are only humans who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings."
يسكنون الفيافي والكهوف ويأكلون العشب والحبوب غير مهيأة وربما يأكل بعضهم بعضا وليسوا في عداد البشر.,They live in thickets and caves and eat herbs and unprepared grain. They frequently eat each other. They cannot be considered human beings.
وفواكه بلاد السودان كلها من قصور صحراء المغرب مثل توات وتكدرارين ووركلان. فكان في غانة فيما يقال ملك ودولة لقوم من العلويين يعرفون ببني صالح,"All the fruits of the Negro territory come from fortified villages in the desert of the Maghrib, such as Touat (Tawat, Tuwat), Tigurarin, and Ouargla (Wargalan). In Ghanah, an ‘Alid king and dynasty are said to have existed. (These ‘Alids) were known as the Banu Salih."
وقال صاحب كتاب روجار إنه صالح بن عبد الله بن حسن بن الحسن ولا يعرف صالح هذا في ولد عبد الله بن حسن وقد ذهبت هذه الدولة لهذا العهد وصارت غانة لسلطان مالي,"According to the author of the Book of Roger, (Salih) was Salih b. ‘Abdallah b. Hasan b. al-Hasan, but no such Salih is known among the sons of ‘Abdallah b. Hasan . At this time the dynasty has disappeared, and Ghanah belongs to the Mali ruler."
وفي شرقي هذا البلد في الجزء الثالث من الإقليم بلد (كوكو) على نهر ينبع من بعض الجبال هنالك ويمر مغربا فيغوص في رمال الجزء الثاني,"To the east of this territory, in the third section of the first zone, is the territory of Gawgaw It lies along a river that has its origin in certain mountains there, flows westward, and disappears in the sand in the second section."
وكان ملك كوكو قائما بنفسه ثم استولى عليها سلطان مالي وأصبحت في مملكته وخربت لهذا العهد من أجل فتنة وقعت هناك نذكرها عند ذكر دولة مالي في محلها من تاريخ البربر,"The realm of Gawgaw was independent. The Mali ruler then gained power over the territory, and it came into his possession. At this time it is devastated as the result of a disturbance that happened there and that we shall mention when we discuss the Mali dynasty in its proper place in the history of the Berbers."
وفي جنوبي بلد كوكو بلاد كاتم من أمم السودان وبعدهم ونغارة على ضفة النيل من شماليه,"To the south of the country of Gawgaw lies the territory of Kanim, a Negro nation Beyond them are the Wangarah on the border of the (Sudanese Nile) to the north."
وفي شرقي بلاد ونغارة وكاتم بلاد زغاوة وتاجرة المتصلة بأرض النوبة في الجزء الرابع من هذا الإقليم,"To the east of the countries of the Wangarah and the Kanim, there is the country of the Zaghay and the Tajirah, adjoining the land of the Nubah in the fourth section of the first zone."
وفيه يمر نيل مصر ذاهبا من مبدئه عند خط الاستواء إلى البحر الرومي في الشمال,The land of the Nubah is traversed by the Egyptian Nile throughout its course from its beginning at the equator to the Mediterranean in the north.
ومخرج هذا النيل من جبل القمر الذي فوق خط الاستواء بست عشرة درجة واختلفوا في ضبط هذه اللفظة,"This Nile originates at the Mountain of the Qmr, sixteen degrees above the equator. There are different opinions as to the correct form of the name of this mountain."
فضبطها بعضهم بفتح القاف والميم نسبة إلى قمر السماء لشدة بياضه وكثرة ضوءه وفي كتاب المشترك لياقوت بضم القاف وسكون الميم نسبة إلى قوم من أهل الهند,"Some scholars read the name as qamar “moon,” because the mountain is very white and luminous. Yaqut, in the Mushtarik, as well as Ibn Sa’id, reads qumr, with reference to an Indian people."
وكذا ضبطه ابن سعيد فيخرج من هذا الجبل عشر عيون تجتمع كل خمسة منها في بحيرة وبينهما ستة أميال ويخرج من كل واحدة من البحيرتين,"Ten springs issue from this mountain. Five of them flow into one lake and five into another lake. There is a distance of six miles between the two lakes. From each of the two lakes,"
ثلاثة أنهار تجتمع كلها في بطيحة واحدة في أسفلها جبل معترض يشق البحيرة من ناحية الشمال وينقسم ماؤها بقسمين,three rivers come forth. They come together in a swampy [?] lake (batihah) at the foot of which a mountain emerges. This mountain cuts across the lake at the northern end and divides its waters into two branches.
فيمر الغربي منه إلى بلاد السودان مغربا حتى يصب في البحر المحيط ويخرج الشرقي منه ذاهبا إلى الشمال على بلاد الحبشة والنوبة وفيما بينهما,"The western branch flows westward through the Negro territory, and finally flows into the Surrounding Sea. The eastern branch flows northward through the countries of the Abyssinians and the Nubah and the region in between."
وينقسم في أعلى أرض مصر فيصب ثلاثة من جداوله في البحر الرومي عند الإسكندرية ورشيد ودمياط ويصب واحد في بحيرة ملحة قبل أن يتصل بالبحر,"At the boundary of Egypt, it divides. Three of its branches flow into the Mediterranean at Alexandria, at Rosetta, and at Damietta. One flows into a salt lake before reaching the sea."
في وسط هذا الإقليم الأول وعلى هذا النيل بلاد النوبة والحبشة وبعض بلاد الواحات إلى أسوان وحاضرة بلاد النوبة مدينة دنقلة وهي في غربي هذا النيل,"In the middle of the first zone along the Nile, lie the countries of the Nubah and the Abyssinians and some of the oases down to Assuan. A settled part of the Nubah country is the city of Dongola, west of the Nile."
وبعدها علوة وبلاق وبعدهما جبل الجنادل على ستة مراحل من بلاق في الشمال وهو جبل عال من جهة مصر ومنخفض من جهة النوبة فينفذ فيه النيل ويصب في مهوى بعيد صبا هائلا,"Beyond it are ‘Alwah and Yulaq. Beyond them, a six days’ journey north of Yulaq, is the mountain of the cataracts. This is a mountain which rises to a great height on the Egyptian side but is much less elevated on the side of the country of the Nubah, The Nile cuts through it and flows down precipitately in tremendous cascades for a long distance."
فلا يمكن أن تسلكه المراكب بل يحول الوسق من مراكب السودان فيحمل على الظهر إلى بلد أسوان قاعدة الصعيد إلى فوق الجنادل,"Boats cannot get through. Cargoes from the Sudanese boats are taken off and carried on pack animals to Assuan at the entrance to Upper Egypt. In the same way, the cargoes of the boats from Upper Egypt are carried over the cataracts."
وبين الجنادل وأسوان اثنتا عشرة مرحلة والواحات في غربيها عدوة النيل وهي الآن خراب وبها آثار العمارة القديمة.,The distance from the cataracts to Assuan is a twelve day’s journey. The oases on the west bank of the Nile there are now in ruins. They show traces of ancient settlement.
وفي وسط هذا الإقليم في الجزء الخامس منه بلاد الحبشة على واد يأتي من وراء خط الاستواء ذاهبا إلى أرض النوبة فيصب هناك في النيل الهابط إلى مصر,"In the middle of the first zone, in its fifth section, is the country of the Abyssinians, through which a river flows, which comes from beyond the equator and flows toward the land of the Nubah, where it flows into the Nile and so on down into Egypt."
وقد وهم فيه كثير من الناس وزعموا أنه من نيل القمر وبطليموس ذكره في كتاب الجغرافيا وذكر أنه ليس من هذا النيل.,Many people have held fantastic opinions about it and thought that it was part of the Nile of the Qumr (Mountain of the Moon). Ptolemy mentioned it in the Geography. He mentioned that it did not belong to the Nile.
وإلى وسط هذا الإقليم في الجزء الخامس ينتهي بحر الهند الذي يدخل من ناحية الصين ويغمر عامة هذا الإقليم إلى هذا الجزء الخامس فلا يبقى فيه عمران,"In the middle of the first zone, in the fifth section, the Indian Ocean terminates. It comes down from the region of China and covers most of the first zone to the fifth section. Consequently, there is not much civilization there."
إلا ما كان في الجزائر التي في داخله وهي متعددة يقال تنتهي إلى ألف جزيرة أو فيما على سواحله من جهة الشمال,"Civilization exists only on the islands in (the Indian Ocean) which are numerous and said to number up to one thousand. (Civilization also exists) on the southern coast of the Indian Ocean, the southernmost limit of the cultivated part of the earth, as also on its northern coast."
وليس منها في هذا الإقليم الأول إلا طرف من بلاد الصين في جهة الشرق وفي بلاد اليمن. وفي الجزء السادس من هذا الإقليم فيما بين البحرين الهابطين من هذا البحر الهندي إلى جهة الشمال وهما بحر قلزم وبحر فارس,"Of these coasts, the first zone contains only a part of China to the east and the whole of the Yemen in the sixth section of this zone, where two seas branch off northwards from the Indian Ocean, namely, the Red Sea (Sea of al-Qulzum) and the Persian Gulf."
وفيما بينهما جزيرة العرب وتشتمل على بلاد اليمن وبلاد الشحر في شرقيها على ساحل هذا البحر الهندي وعلى بلاد الحجاز واليمامة وما إليهما كما نذكره في الإقليم الثاني وما بعده,"Between them lies the Arabian Peninsula, comprising the Yemen, ash-Shihr to the east on the shore of the Indian Ocean, the Hijaz, the Yamimah, and adjacent regions which we shall mention in connection with the second zone and the regions farther north."
فأما الذي على ساحل هذا البحر من غربيه فبلد زالع من أطراف بلاد الحبشة ومجالات البجة في شمالي الحبشة ما بين جبل العلاقي في أعالي الصعيد وبين بحر القلزم الهابط من البحر الهندي,"On the western shore of the Indian Ocean is Zayla’ (Zila’), which is on the boundary of Abyssinia, and the desert plains of the Beja north of Abyssinia, which lie between the mountain of al-‘Alliqi in the southernmost part of Upper Egypt and the Red Sea which branches off from the Indian Ocean."
وتحت بلاد زالع من جهة الشمال في هذا الجزء خليج باب المندب يضيق البحر الهابط هنالك بمزاحمة جبل المندب المائل في وسط البحر الهندي ممتدا مع ساحل اليمن من الجنوب إلى الشمال في طول اثني عشر ميلا فيضيق البحر بسبب ذلك إلى أن يصير في عرض ثلاثة أميال أو نحوها ويسمى باب المندب,"North of Zayla’ (Zila’) in the northern part of this section is the straits of Bib al-Mandeb, where the sea that branches off there is narrowed by the promontory of alMandeb which juts into the Indian Ocean from south to north along the west coast of the Yemen for twelve miles. As a result, the sea becomes so narrow that its width shrinks to approximately three miles. This is called Bib al-Mandeb."
وعليه تمر مراكب اليمن إلى ساحل السويس قريبا من مصر وتحت باب المندب جزيرة سواكن ودهلك وقبالته من غربيه مجالات البجة من أمم السودان كما ذكرناه ومن شرقيه في هذا الجزء تهائم اليمن ومنها على ساحله بلد علي بن يعقوب,"Yemenite ships pass it on their way to the coast of Suez near Egypt (Cairo). North of Bib al-Mandeb are the islands of Suakin and Dahlak. Opposite it to the west are the desert plains of the Beja, a Negro nation, as we have just mentioned. To the east, on the coast of (the straits of Bib al-Mandeb) is the Tihimah of the Yemen. It includes the place of Haly.b. Ya’qub."
وفي جهة الجنوب من بلد زالع وعلى ساحل هذا البحر من غربيه قرى بربر يتلو بعضها بعضا وينعطف من جنوبيه إلى آخر الجزء السادس,To the south of Zayla’ (Zila’) on the western coast of the Indian Ocean are the villages of Berbera which extend one after the other all along the southern coast of the (Indian Ocean) to the end of the sixth section.
ويليها هنالك من جهة شرقيها بلاد الزنج ثم بلاد سفالة من ساحله الجنوبي بلاد الوقواق متصلة إلى آخر الجزء العاشر من هذا الإقليم عند مدخل هذا البحر من البحر المحيط.,"There, to the east, the country of the Zanj adjoins them. Then comes the city of Mogadishu, a very populous city with many merchants, yet nomad in character, on the southern coast of the Indian Ocean. Adjoining it to the east is the country of the Sufilah on the southern coast in the seventh section of the first zone. East of the country of the Sufilah on the southern shore, lies the country of al- Wiqwiq which stretches to the end of the tenth section of the first zone, where the Indian Ocean comes out of the Surrounding Sea."
وأما جزائر هذا البحر فكثيرة. من أعظمها جزيرة سرنديب مدورة الشكل. وبها الجبل المشهور يقال ليس في الأرض أعلى منه وهي قبالة سفالة.,There are many islands in the Indian Ocean. One of the largest islands is the island of Ceylon (Sarandib) which is round in shape and has a famous mountain said to be the highest mountain on earth. It lies opposite Sufilah.
ثم جزيرة القمر وهي جزيرة مستطيلة تبدأ من قبالة أرض سفالة وتذهب إلى الشرق منحرفة بكثير إلى أن تقرب من سواحل أعالي الصين,"Then, there is the island of Java (Malay Archipelago), an oblong island that begins opposite the land of Sufilah and extends northeastward until it approaches the coasts that constitute China’s southern boundary."
ويحتف بها في هذا البحر من جنوبيها جزائر الوقواق ومن شرقيها جزائر السيلان إلى جزائر أخر في هذا البحر كثيرة العدد,"In the Indian Ocean, to the south China is surrounded by the islands of al-Wiqwaq, and to the east by the islands of Korea. There are numerous other islands in the Indian Ocean."
وفيها أنواع الطيب والأفاويه وفيها يقال معادن الذهب والزمرد وعامة أهلها على دين المجوسية,These islands produce different kinds of perfumes and incense. They also are said to contain gold and emerald mines. Most of their inhabitants are Magians.
وفيهم ملوك متعددون وبهذه الجزائر من أحوال العمران عجائب ذكرها أهل الجغرافيا,They have numerous rulers. These islands present remarkable cultural features that have been mentioned by geographers.
وعلى الصفة الشمالية من هذا البحر في الجزء السادس من هذا الإقليم بلاد اليمن كلها فمن جهة بحر القلزم بلد زبيد والمهجم وتهامة اليمن,"The northern coast of the Indian Ocean, in the sixth section of the first zone, is occupied by the whole of the Yemen. On the Red Sea side lie Zabid, al-Muhjam, and the Tihamah of the Yemen."
وبعدها بلد صعدة مقر الإمامة الزيدية وهي بعيدة عن البحر الجنوبي وعن البحر الشرقي وفيما بعد ذلك مدينة عدن وفي شماليها صنعاء وبعدهما إلى المشرق أرض الأحقاف وظفار,"Next beyond that is Sa’dah, the seat of the Zaydi imams, lying far from the (Indian) Ocean to the south, and from the Persian Gulf to the east. In the region beyond that are the city of Aden and, north of it, San’a’. Beyond these two cities, to the east, is the land of al-Ahqaf and Z, afar."
وبعدها أرض حضرموت ثم بلاد الشحر ما بين البحر الجنوبي وبحر فارس.,"Next comes the land of Hadramawt, followed by the country of ash-Shihr between the (Indian) Ocean in the south and the Persian Gulf."
وهذه القطعة من الجزء السادس هي التي انكشف عنها البحر من أجزاء هذا الإقليم الوسطى وينكشف بعدها قليل من الجزء التاسع وأكثر منه من العاشر فيه أعالي بلاد الصفين,"This part of the sixth section is the only part that is not covered by water in the middle region of the first zone. Apart from it, a small portion of the ninth section is not covered by water, as well as a larger area in the tenth section that includes the southernmost limit of China."
ومن مدنه الشهيرة خانكو وقبالتها من جهة الشرق جزائر السيلان وقد تقدم ذكرها وهذا آخر الكلام في الإقليم الأول والله سبحانه وتعالى ولي التوفيق بمنه وفضله.,One of China’s famous cities is the city of Canton. Opposite it to the east are the islands of Korea which have just been mentioned. This concludes the discussion of the first zone.
الإقليم الثاني:,The second zone
وهو متصل بالأول من جهة الشمال وقبالة المغرب منه في البحر المحيط جزيرتان من الجزائر الخالدات التي مر ذكرها وفي الجزء الأول والثاني منه في الجانب الأعلى منهما أرض قنورية,"The second zone is contiguous with the northern boundary of the first zone. Opposite its western limit) in the Surrounding Sea are two of the Eternal Islands, which have been mentioned. At the southernmost part of the first and second sections of the second zone, there is the land of Qamnuriyah."
وبعدها في جهة الشرق أعالي أرض غانة ثم مجالات زغاوة من السودان وفي الجانب الأسفل منهما صحراء نستر,"Then, to the east, there are the southernmost parts of the land of Ghanah. Then, there are the desert plains of the Zaghay Negroes. In the northernmost part, there is the desert of Nisar."
متصلة من الغرب إلى الشرق ذات مفاوز تسلك فيها التجار ما بين بلاد المغرب وبلاد السودان,It extends uninterruptedly from west to east. It has stretches of desert which are crossed by merchants on their way from the Maghrib to the Sudan country.
وفيها مجالات الملثمين من صنهاجة وهم شعوب كثيرة ما بين كزولة ولمتونة ومسراتة ولمطة ووريكة وعلى سمت هذه المفاوز شرقا أرض فزان,"It includes the desert plains of the Veiled Sinhajah Berbers. There are many subgroups, comprising the Gudalah, the Lamtunah, the Massufah, the Lamtah, and the Watrigah. Directly to the east of the waste regions is the land of Fezzan."
ثم مجالات أزكار من قبائل البربر ذاهبة إلى أعالي الجزء الثالث على سمتها في الشرق,"Then, there are the desert plains of the Azgar, a Berber tribe, which extend due east in the southernmost part of the third section."
وبعدها من هذا الجزء الثالث وهي جهة الشمال منه بقية أرض وذان وعلى سمتها شرقا أرض سنترية وتسمى الواحات الداخلة,"This is followed, still in the third section, by part of the country of Kawar, a Negro nation. Then, there is a portion of the land of at-Tajuwin. The northernmost part of the third section is occupied by the remainder of the land of Waddin, followed directly to the east by the land of Santariyah which is called the Inner Oases."
وفي الجزء الرابع من أعلاه بقية أرض الباجويين,The southernmost limit of the fourth section is occupied by the remainder of the land of at-Tajuwin.
ثم يعترض في وسط هذا الجزء بلاد الصعيد حافات النيل الذاهب من مبدئه في الإقليم الأول إلى مصبه في البحر فيمر في هذا الجزء بين الجبلين الحاجزين وهما جبل الواحات من غربيه وجبل المقطم من شرقيه وعليه من أعلاه بلد أسنا وأرمنت,"The middle of the fourth section, then, is intersected by Upper Egypt along the banks of the Nile, which flows from its source in the first zone to its mouth at the sea. In this section it passes through two mountain barriers, the Mountain of the Oases in the west, and the Muqattam in the east. At the southern part of the section lie Esna and Armant."
ويتصل كذلك حافاته إلى أسيوط وقوص ثم إلى صول ويفترق النيل هنالك على شعبين ينتهي الأيمن منهما في هذا الجزء عند اللاهون والأيسر عند دلاص وفيما بينهما أعالي ديار مصر,"There is a continuous riverbank region up to Assyut and Qus, and then to Sawl. There, the Nile divides into two branches. The right branch ends up at al-Lahun, still in the fourth section. The left branch ends up at Dalas. The region between them is the southernmost part of (Lower) Egypt."
وفي الشرق من جبل المقطم صحارى عيذاب ذاهبة في الجزء الخامس إلى أن تنتهي إلى بحر السويس وهو بحر القلزم الهابط من البحر الهندي في الجنوب إلى جهة الشمال وفي عدوته الشرقية من هذا الجزء أرض الحجاز من جبل يلملم إلى بلاد يثرب في وسط الحجاز مكة شرفها الله وفي ساحلها مدينة جدة تقابل بلد عيذاب في العدوة الغربية من هذا البحر.,"East of Mount Mugattam are the deserts of ‘Aydhab, extending from the fifth section to the Sea of Suez, that is, the Red Sea (Sea of al-Qulzum) which branches off northwards from the Indian Ocean to the south. On the eastern shore of the Red Sea, in the same section, is the Hijaz, extending from the Mountain of Yalamlam to Yathrib (Medina). In the middle of the Hijaz is Mecca-God honor it!-and on its seashore .there is the city of Jiddah, which is opposite ‘Aydhab on the western shore of the Red Sea."
وفي الجزء السادس من غربيه بلاد نجد أعلاها في الجنوب وتبالة وجرش إلى عكاظ من الشمال وتحت نجد من هذا الجزء بقية أرض الحجاز,"In the sixth section to the west is the Najd, having as its southernmost limit Jurash and Tabalah, (and extending) up to ‘Ukaz in the north. North of the Najd, in the sixth section, is the remainder of the Hijaz."
وعلى سمتها في الشرق بلاد نجران وخيبر وتحتها أرض اليمامة وعلى سمت نجران في الشرق أرض سبإ ومأرب ثم أرض الشحر وينتهي إلى بحر فارس,"Directly to the east of (the Najd) lies the country of Najran and Janad. North of that is the Yamamah. Directly to the east of Najran, there is the land of Saba’ and Ma’rib, followed by the land of ash-Shihr, which ends at the Persian Gulf."
وهو البحر الثاني الهابط من البحر الهندي إلى الشمال كما مر ويذهب في هذا الجزء بانحراف إلى الغرب,"This is the other sea that branches off northward from the Indian Ocean, as has been mentioned, and turns westward on its course in the sixth section."
فيمر ما بين شرقيه وجوفيه قطعة مثلثة عليها من أعلاه مدينة قلهات وهي ساحل الشحر ثم تحتها على ساحله بلاد عمان. ثم بلاد البحرين وهجر منها في آخر الجزء,"The northeastern area of (the sixth section) constitutes a triangle. At its southernmost part is the city of Qalhat, the coast (seaport) of ash-Shihr. North of it, on the coast, is the country of Oman, followed by the country of alBahrayn with Hajar, at the end of the (sixth) section."
وفي الجزء السابع في الأعلى من غربيه قطعة من بحر فارس تتصل بالقطعة الأخرى في السادس,The southwestern part of the seventh section contains a portion of the Persian Gulf connecting with the other portion of it in the sixth section.
ويغمر بحر الهند جانبه الأعلى كله وعليه هنالك بلاد السند إلى بلاد مكران,"The Indian Ocean covers all the southernmost area of the seventh section. There, Western India lies along it, up to the country of Mukran which belongs to Western India"
ويقابلها بلاد الطوبران وهي من السند أيضا فيتصل السند كله في الجانب الغربي من هذا الجزء وتحول المفاوز بينه وبين أرض الهند ويمر فيه نهره الآتي من ناحية بلاد الهند ويصب في البحر الهندي في الجنوب وأول بلاد الهند على ساحل البحر الهندي,"Opposite it, is the country of at- Tawbaran which also belongs to Western India. All of Western India lies in the western part of the seventh section. Western India is separated from Eastern India by stretches of desert, and is traversed by a river (the Indus) which comes from Eastern India and flows into the Indian Ocean in the south. Eastern India begins on the shore of the Indian Ocean."
وفي سمتها شرقا بلاد بلهرا وتحتها الملتان بلاد الصنم المعظم عندهم، ثم إلى أسفل من السند، ثم إلى أعالي بلاد سجستان.,"Directly to the east there lies the country of Ballahra. North of it is Multan, the home of the great idol. The northernmost part of Eastern India is the southernmost part of the country of Sijistan."
وفي الجزء الثامن من غربيه بقية بلاد بلهرا من الهند، وعلى سمتها شرقا بلاد القندهار، ثم بلاد منيبار,"The western part of the eighth section contains the remainder of the country of Ballahra that belongs to Eastern India. Directly to the east of it lies the country of Gandhara. Then, at the southernmost part (of the section), on the shore of the Indian Ocean, there is the country of Malabar (Munibar)."
وفي الجانب الأعلى على ساحل البحر الهندي وتحتها في الجانب الأسفل أرض كابل وبعدها شرقا إلى البحر المحيط بلاد القنوج ما بين قشمير الداخلة وقشمير الخارجة عند آخر الإقليم,"North of it, in the northernmost part (of the section), there is the country of Kabul. Beyond (Kabul) to the east is the territory of the Kanauj, between inner and outer Kashmir at the end of the zone."
وفي الجزء التاسع ثم في الجانب الغربي منه بلاد الهند الأقصى ويتصل فيه إلى الجانب الشرقي فيتصل من أعلاه إلى العاشر,"The ninth section, in its western part, contains farthest Eastern India, which extends to the eastern part (of the section) and stretches along its southernmost part up to the tenth section."
وتبقى في أسفل ذلك الجانب قطعة من بلاد الصين فيها مدينة شيغون ثم تتصل بلاد الصين في الجزء العاشر كله إلى البحر المحيط والله ورسوله أعلم وبه سبحانه التوفيق وهو ولي الفضل والكرم.,"In the northernmost part here, there is a portion of China. It includes the city of Khayghun. China then extends over the whole tenth section up to the Surrounding Sea."
الإقليم الثالث:,Third Zone
وهو متصل بالثاني من جهة الشمال ففي الجزء الأول منه وعلى نحو الثلث من أعلاه جبل درن معترض فيه من غربيه عند البحر المحيط إلى الشرق عند آخره,"The third zone is contiguous with the northern boundary of the second zone. The first section, about one-third of the way from the southernmost part of the zone, contains the Atlas Mountain which runs from the western part of the first section at the Surrounding Sea to the eastern end of the section."
ويسكن هذا الجبل من البربر أمم لا يحصيهم إلا خالقهم حسبما يأتي ذكره وفي القطعة التي بين هذا الجبل والإقليم الثاني وعلى البحر المحيط منها رباط ماسة,"This mountain is inhabited by innumerable Berber nations, as will be mentioned. In the region between this mountain and the second zone, at the Surrounding Sea, there is the Ribat (Monastery) Missah."
ويتصل به شرقا بلاد سوس ونول وعلى سمتها شرقا بلاد درعة ثم بلاد سجلماسة ثم قطعة من صحراء نستر المفازة التي ذكرناها في الإقليم الثاني وهذا الجبل مطل على هذه البلاد كلها في هذا الجزء و,"East of here are the adjoining countries of (as-)Sus and Noun (Nul). Directly to the east of (these countries) is the country of Dar’ah, followed by the country of Sijilmasah and then by a portion of the desert of Nisar, the stretch of desert that we mentioned in describing the second zone. The Atlas Mountain towers over all these countries of the first section."
هو قليل الثنايا والمسالك في هذه الناحية الغربية إلى أن يسامت وادي ملوية فتكثر ثناياه ومسالكه إلى أن ينتهي وفي هذه الناحية منه أمم المصامدة ثم هنتاتة ثم تين ملل ثم كدميوه ثم مشكورة وهم آخر المصامدة فيه,"The western region of the Atlas has few passes and roads but near the Moulouya (Malwiyah) River, and from there on to where it ends, the Atlas has a great number of passes and roads. This region contains the Masmudah nations: at the Surrounding Sea the Saks1wah, then the Hintatah, the Tinmallal, the Gidmiwah, and then the Haskurah who are the last Masmudah in this area."
ثم قبائل صنهاكة وهم صنهاجة وفي آخر هذا الجزء منه بعض قبائل زناتة ويتصل به هنالك من جوفيه جبل أوراس وهو جبل كتامة وبعد ذلك أمم أخرى من البرابرة نذكرهم في أماكنهم.,"Then there are the Zanigah, that is, the Sinhijah- tribes. At the boundary of the first section of the third zone, there are some Zanatah tribes. To the north, Mount Awras (L’Aures), the mountain of the Kutamah, adjoins (the Atlas). After that, there are other Berber nations which we shall mention in their proper places."
ثم إن جبل درن هذا من جهة غربيه مطل على بلاد المغرب الأقصى وهي في جوفيه ففي الناحية الجنوبية منها بلاد مراكش وأغمات وتادلا وعلى البحر المحيط منها رباط أسفى ومدينة سلا وفي الجوف عن بلاد مراكش بلاد فاس ومكناسة وتازا وقصر كتامة وهذه هي التي تسمى المغرب الأقصى في عرف أهلها,"The Atlas Mountain in the western part of the section towers over Morocco to the north of it. In the southern part of (Morocco) lie Marrakech, Aghmat, and Tadla. On the Surrounding Sea there, are the Ribat Asfi and the city of Sale (Sala). East of the country of Marrakech lie Fez, Meknes, Taza, and Qasr Kutamah, This is the area that is customarily called the Farthest Maghrib (Morocco) by its inhabitants."
سمت هذه البلاد شرقا بلاد المغرب الأوسط وقاعدتها تلمسان وفي سواحلها على البحر الرومي بلد هنين ووهران والجزائر لأن هذا البحر الرومي يخرج من البحر المحيط من خليج طنجة في الناحية الغربية من الإقليم الرابع ويذهب مشرقا فينتهي إلى بلاد الشام,"On the shore of the Surrounding Sea in that region lie Arcila (Azila) and Larache (al-‘Ara’ish). Directly to the east of this area, there is the country of the Middle Maghrib whose center is Tlemcen (Tilimsan). On the shores of the Mediterranean there, lie Hunayn, Oran, and Algiers. The Mediterranean leaves the Surrounding Sea at the Straits of Tangier in the western part of the fourth zone, and then extends eastward to Syria."
وعلى ساحل البحر المحيط منها بلدان أصيلا والعرايش وفي فإذا خرج من الخليج المتضايق غير بعيد انفسح جنوبا وشمالا فدخل في الإقليم الثالث والخامس فلهذا كان على ساحله من هذا الإقليم الثالث الكثير من بلاده,"Shortly after it leaves the narrow straits, it widens to the south and to the north and enters the third and fifth zones. This is why many places within the third zone are on the Mediterranean coast,"
ثم يتصل ببلاد الجزائر من شرقيها بلاد بجاية في ساحل البحر,"from Tangier up to al-Qasr as-saghir, then Ceuta, the country of Badis, and Ghassasah. Algiers, which comes next, is near Bougie (Bajayah) on the east."
ثم قسطنطينية في الشرق منها وفي آخر الجزء الأول وعلى مرحلة من هذا البحر في جنوبي هذه البلاد ومرتفعا إلى جنوب المغرب الأوسط بلد أشير ثم بلد المسيلة ثم الزاب,"Then, east of Bougie at the boundary of the first section is Constantine, a day’s journey from the Mediterranean. South of these places, toward the south of the Middle Maghrib, is the territory of Ashir, with Mount Titteri, followed by Msila (al-Masilah) and the Zab."
وقاعدته بسكرة تحت جبل أوراس المتصل بدرن كما مر وذلك عند آخر هذا الجزء من جهة الشرق,"The center of (the Zab) is Biskra, north of Mount Awras which connects with the Atlas, as has been mentioned. This is the eastern end of the first section."
والجزء الثاني من هذا الإقليم على هيئة الجزء الأول ثم جبل درن على نحو الثلث من جنوبه ذاهبا فيه من غرب إلى شرق فيقسمه بقطعتين,The second section of the third zone is like the first section in that about one-third of the distance from its southern (limit) lies the Atlas Mountain which extends across this section from west to east and divides it into two portions.
ويغمر البحر الرومي مسافة من شماله فالقطعة الجنوبية عن جبل درن غربيها كله مفاوز وفي الشرق منها بلد عذامس وفي سمتها شرقا أرض ودان التي بقيتها في الإقليم الثاني كما مر,"The Mediterranean covers one area in the north. The portion south of the Atlas Mountain is all desert to the west. To the east, there is Ghadames. Directly to the east (of this portion) is the land of Waddan, the remainder of which is situated in the second zone, as has been mentioned."
والقطعة الجوفية عن جبل درن ما بينه وبين البحر الرومي في الغرب منها جبل أوراس وتبسة والأوبس وعلى ساحل البحر بلد بونة ثم في سمت هذه البلاد شرقا بلاد إفريقية فعلى ساحل البحر مدينة تونس ثم السوسة ثم المهدية,"The portion north of the Atlas Mountain between the Atlas and the Mediterranean contains in the west Mount Awras, Tebessa, and Laribus (al-Urbus). On the seacoast is Bone (Bunah). Directly east of these places lies the country of Ifriqiyah, with the city of Tunis, then Sousse (Susah), and al-Mahdiyah on the seacoast."
وفي جنوب هذه البلاد تحت جبل درن بلاد الجريد توزر وقفصة ونفزاوة وفيما بينها وبين السواحل مدينة القيروان وجبل وسلات وسبيطلة,"South of these places and north of the Atlas Mountain, is the country of the Djerid (Jarid, al-Jarid), Tozeur (Tuzar), Gafsa (Qafsah), and Nefzoua (Nafzawah). Between them and the coast is the city of Kairouan (al- Qayrawan), Mount Ousselat (Ouselet, Waslat), and Sbeitla (Subaytilah)."
وعلى سمت هذه البلاد كلها شرقا بلد طرابلس على البحر الرومي وبإزائها في الجنوب جبل دمر ونقرة من قبائل هوارة متصلة بجبل درن وفي مقابلة غذامس التي مر ذكرها في آخر القطعة الجنوبية,"Directly east of these places lies Tripoli on the Mediterranean. Facing it in the south are the mountains of the Hawwarah tribes, Dammar (Mount Demmer), and Maqqarah (the city of Maggara), which connect with the Atlas and are opposite Ghadames which we mentioned at the end of the southern portion."
وآخر هذا الجزء في الشرق سويقة ابن مشكورة على البحر وفي جنوبها مجالات العرب في أرض ودان,At the eastern end of the second section lies Suwayqat Ibn Mathkud on the sea. To the south are the desert plains of the Arabs in the land of Waddan.
وفي الجزء الثالث من هذا الإقليم يمر أيضا فيه جبل درن إلا أنه ينعطف عند آخره إلى الشمال ويذهب على سمته إلى أن يدخل في البحر الرومي,"The third section of the third zone is also traversed by the Atlas Mountain, but at the limit (of the section) the Atlas turns northward and runs due north up to the Mediterranean."
ويسمى هنالك طرف أوثان والبحر الرومي,"There, it is called Cape Awthan."
من شماليه يغمر طائفة منه إلى أن يضايق ما بينه وبين جبل درن فالذي وراء الجبل في الجنوب وفي الغرب منه بقية أرض ودان. ومجالات العرب,"The Mediterranean covers the northern part of the third section, so that the land between it and the Atlas narrows. Behind the mountain to the southwest, there is the remainder of the land of Waddan and the desert plains of the Arabs."
فيها ثم زويلة ابن خطاب ثم رمال وقفار إلى آخر الجزء في الشرق وفيما بين الجبل والبحر في الغرب منه بلد سرت على البحر,"Then, there is Zawilat Ibn Khattab, followed by sandy deserts and waste regions to the eastern boundary of the section. To the west of the area between the mountain and the sea, there is Sirte (Surt) at the sea."
ثم خلاء وقفار تجول فيها العرب ثم أجدابية ثم برقة عند منعطف الجبل,"Then, there are empty and waste regions in which the Arabs roam. Then, there is Ajdabiyah and, where the mountain makes a turn, Barca (Barqah)."
ثم طلمسة على البحر هنالك ثم في شرق المنعطف من الجبل مجالات هيب ورواحة إلى آخر الجزء,"Next comes Tulaymithah (Ptolemais) on the sea. Then, to the east of the mountain, after it makes the turn, are the desert plains of the Hayyib and the Ruwahah, which extend to the end of the section."
وفي الجزء الرابع من هذا الإقليم وفي الأعلى من غربيه صحارى برقيق وأسفل منها بلاد هيب ورواحة ثم يدخل البحر الرومي في هذا الجزء فيغمر طائفة منه إلى الجنوب,"The southwestern part of the fourth section of the third zone contains the desert of Berenice. North of it is the country of the Hayyib and the Ruwahah. Then, the Mediterranean enters this section and covers part of it in a southern direction almost to the southern boundary."
حتى يزاحم طرفه الأعلى ويبقى بينه وبين آخر الجزء قفار تجول فيها العرب وعلى سمتها شرقا بلاد الفيوم وهي على مصب أحد الشعبين من النيل,"Between it and the end of the section, there remains a waste region through which the Arabs roam. Directly to the east of it is the Fayyum, at the mouth of one of the two branches of the Nile."
الذي يمر على اللاهون من بلاد الصعيد في الجزء الرابع من الإقليم الثاني ويصب في بحيرة فيوم وعلى سمته شرقا أرض مصر ومدينتها الشهيرة على الشعب الثاني الذي يمر بدلاص من بلاد الصعيد عند آخر الجزء الثاني,"This branch passes by al-Lahfin in Upper Egypt, in the fourth section of the zone, and flows into the Lake of the Fayyum. Directly to the east of (the Fayyum) is the land of Egypt with its famous city (Cairo), situated on the other branch of the Nile, the one that passes through Dalas in Upper Egypt at the boundary of the second section."
ويفترق هذا الشعب افتراقة ثانية من تحت مصر على شعبين آخرين من شطنوف وزفتي وينقسم الأيمن منهما من قرمط بشعبين آخرين,"This latter branch divides a I, log second time into two more branches below Cairo, at Shattanawf and Zifta(h). The right branch again divides into two other branches at Tarnut."
ويصب جميعها في البحر الرومي فعلى مصب الغربي من هذا الشعب بلد الإسكندرية وعلى مصب الوسط بلد رشيد وعلى مصب الشرقي بلد دمياط,All these branches flow into the Mediterranean. At the mouth of the western branch is Alexandria; at the mouth of the middle branch is Rosetta; and at the mouth of the eastern branch is Damietta.
وبين مصر والقاهرة وبين هذه السواحل البحرية أسافل الديار المصرية كلها محشوة عمرانا وفلجا,"Between Cairo and the Mediterranean coast at these points lies the whole of northern Egypt, which is densely settled and cultivated."
وفي الجزء الخامس من هذا الإقليم بلاد الشام وأكثرها على ما أصف وذلك لأن بحر القلزم ينتهي من الجنوب وفي الغرب منه عند السويس لأنه في ممره مبتدئ من البحر الهندي إلى الشمال ينعطف آخذا إلى جهة الغرب,"The fifth section of the third zone contains all or most of Syria, as I shall describe it. The Red Sea ends in the southwest (of the section) at Suez, because in its course from the Indian Ocean northward, it turns eventually westward."
فتكون قطعة من انعطافه في الجزء طويلة فينتهي في الطرف الغربي منه إلى السويس وعلى هذه القطعة بعد السويس فاران ثم جبل الطور ثم أيلة مدين ثم الحوراء في آخرها ومن هنالك ينعطف بساحله إلى الجنوب في أرض الحجاز كما مر في الإقليم الثاني في الجزء الخامس منه,"A long portion of its western extension lies in this section, with Suez at its western end. Beyond Suez, on this part of (the Red Sea), there are the mountains of Paran (Faran), Mount Sinai (atTur), Aila (Aylah) in Midyan (Madyan), and, where it ends, al-Hawra’. From there, its shoreline turns southward towards the land of the Hijaz, as has been mentioned in connection with the fifth section of the second zone."
وفي الناحية الشمالية من هذا الجزء قطعة من البحر الرومي غمرت كثيرا من غربيه عليها الفرما والعريش وقارب طرفها بلد القلزم,A portion of the Mediterranean covers much of the northwestern part of the fifth section. On its (coast) lie alFarama and al-‘Arish. The end of this portion of the Mediterranean comes close to al-Qulzum.
فيضايق ما بينهما من هنالك وبقي شبه الباب مفضيا إلى أرض الشام وفي غربي هذا الباب فحص التيه أرض جرداء لا تنبت كانت مجالا لبني إسرائيل بعد خروجهم من مصر وقبل دخولهم إلى الشام أربعين سنة كما قصه القرآن,"The area in between there is narrow. It becomes a kind of gate leading into Syria. West of this gate is the desert plain (at-Tih), a bare country in which nothing grows, where the Israelites wandered for forty years after they had left Egypt and before they entered Syria, as the Qur’an tells."
وفي هذه القطعة من البحر الرومي في هذا الجزء طائفة من جزيرة قبرص وبقيتها في الإقليم الرابع كما نذكره وعلى ساحل هذه القطعة عند الطرف المتضايق لبحر السويس بلد العريش وهو آخر الديار المصرية وعسقلان وبينهما طرف هذا البحر,"In this portion of the Mediterranean, in the fifth section, lies part of the island of Cyprus. The remainder (of Cyprus) lies in the fourth zone, as we shall mention. Along the coastline of that narrow strip of land between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, are al’Arish, the boundary of Egypt, and Ascalon. Between them, there is a (narrow) strip of land (separating the Mediterranean and) the Red Sea."
ثم تنحط هذه القطعة في انعطافها من هنالك إلى الإقليم الرابع عند طرابلس وغزة وهنالك ينتهي البحر الرومي في جهة الشرق وعلى هذه القطعة أكثر سواحل الشام ففي شرقه غزة ثم عسقلان وبانحراف يسير عنها إلى الشمال بلد قيسارية ثم كذلك بلد عكا ثم صور ثم صيداء ثم ينعطف البحر إلى الشمال في الإقليم الرابع,"Then, this portion of the Mediterranean turns to the north into the fourth zone at Tripoli and ‘Argah. That is the eastern end of the Mediterranean. This portion of the Mediterranean comprises most of the Syrian coast. East and slightly to the north of Ascalon, is Caesarea. Then, in the same general direction, are Acco, Tyre, Sidon, and ‘Arqah. The sea then turns north into the fourth zone."
ويقابل هذه البلاد الساحلية من هذه القطعة في هذا الجزء جبل عظيم يخرج من ساحل أيلة من بحر القلزم ويذهب في ناحية الشمال منحرفا إلى الشرق إلى أن يجاوز هذا الجزء ويسمى جبل اللكام وكأنه حاجز بين أرض مصر والشام,"Opposite these places on the coast of this portion of the Mediterranean, in the fifth section, there is a big mountain which rises from the coast at Aila (Aylah) on the Red Sea. It runs northeastward until it leaves the fifth section. It is called Amanus (al-Lukkam). It is a kind of barrier between Egypt and Syria."
ففي طرفه عند أيلة العقبة التي يمر عليها الحجاج من مصر إلى مكة ثم بعدها في ناحية الشمال مدفن الخليل عليه الصلاة والسلام عند جبل السراة يتصل من عند جبل اللكام المذكور من شمال العقبة ذاهبا على سمت الشرق ثم ينعطف قليلا,"At the one end, near Aila (Aylah), lies al- ‘Aqabah which the pilgrims pass through on their way from Egypt to Mecca. After it, to the north, is Abraham’s tomb at Mount ash-Sharah which is a continuation of the afore-mentioned Amanus north of al-‘Aqabah. It extends due east, and then turns slightly (to the south)."
وفي شرقه هنالك بلد الحجر وديار ثمود وتيماء ودومة الجندل وهي أسافل الحجاز وفوقها جبل رضوى,"East of there is al-Hijr, the land of the Thamild, Tema (Tayma’), and Dumat al-Jandal, the northernmost part of the Hijaz. South of it is Mount Radwa."
وحصون خيبر في جهة الجنوب عنها وفيما بين جبل السراة وبحر القلزم صحراء تبوك وفي شمال جبل السراة مدينة القدس عند جبل اللكام,"Farther south, there are the castles of Khaybar. Between Mount ash-Sharah and the Red Sea lies the desert of Tabuk. North of Mount ash-Sharah is the city of Jerusalem near the Amanus."
ثم الأردن ثم طبرية وفي شرقيها بلاد الغور إلى أذرعات وفي سمتها دومة الجندل آخر هذا الجزء وهي آخر الحجاز.,"Then, there is the Jordan and Tiberias. East of it lies the (Jordan) depression (Ghor, al- Ghawr) which extends to Adhri’at and the Hawran. Directly to the east of (the Hawran) is Dumat al-Jandal which constitutes the end of the Hijaz and the fifth section."
وعند منعطف جبل اللكام إلى الشمال من آخر هذا الجزء مدينة دمشق مقابلة صيدا وبيروت من القطعة البحرية وجبل اللكام يعترض بينها وبينها,"Where the Amanus turns north at the end of the fifth section is the city of Damascus, opposite Sidon and Beirut on the coast. The Amanus lies between (Sidon and Beirut, on the one hand), and (Damascus, on the other)."
وعلى سمت دمشق في الشرق مدينة بعلبك ثم مدينة حمص في الجهة الشمالية آخر الجزء عند منقطع جبل اللكام وفي الشرق عن بعلبك وحمص بلد تدمر ومجالات البادية إلى آخر الجزء,"Directly east of Damascus and facing it, is the city of Ba’lbakk. Then, there is the city of Emesa at the northern end of the fifth section, where the Amanus breaks off. East of Ba’lbakk and Emesa are the city Palmyra and desert plains extending to the end of the fifth section."
وفي الجزء السادس من أعلاه مجالات الأعراب تحت بلاد نجد واليمامة ما بين جبل العرج والصمان إلى البحرين وهجر على بحر فارس,"The southernmost part of the sixth section contains the desert plains of the Arab Bedouins, (which are) located to the north of the Najd and the Yamimah in the area between the Mountain of al-‘Arj and as-Sammin and extending to alBahrayn and Hajar at the Persian Gulf."
وفي أسافل هذا الجزء تحت المجالات بلد الحيرة والقادسية ومغايض الفرات.,"In the northernmost part of the sixth section, to the north of the desert plains, lie al-Hirah, al-Qidisiyah, and the swampy lowlands of the Euphrates."
وفيما بعدها شرقا مدينة البصرة وفي هذا الجزء ينتهي بحر فارس عند عبادان والأبلة,"Beyond that to the east is the city of al-Basrah. In the northeastern part of the sixth section, the Persian Gulf ends, at ‘Abbidan and al-Ubullah."
من أسافل الجزء من شماله ويصب فيه عند عبادان نهر دجلة بعد أن ينقسم بجداول كثيرة وتختلط به جداول أخرى من الفرات ثم تجتمع كلها عند عبادان,The mouth of the Tigris is at ‘Abbidan. The Tigris divides into many branches and takes in other branches from the Euphrates. All of them come together at ‘Abbidan and flow into the Persian Gulf.
وتصب في بحر فارس وهذه القطعة من البحر متسعة في أعلاه متضايقة في آخره في شرقيه وضيقة عند منتهاه مضايقة للحد الشمالي منه وعلى عدوتها الغربية منه أسافل البحرين وهجر والإحساء وفي غربها أخطب والصمان وبقية أرض اليمامة,"This portion of the Persian Gulf is wide in the southernmost part (of the section). It narrows toward its eastern boundary, and where it ends in the north it (also) is narrow. On the western coast lie the northernmost portion of al-Bahrayn, Hajar, and al-Ahsa’. To the west of this portion of the Persian Gulf, lie al-Khatt, as-Sammin, and the remainder of the land of the Yamimah."
وعلى عدوته الشرقية سواحل فارس من أعلاها وهو من عند آخر الجزء من الشرق على طرف قد امتد من هذا البحر مشرقا ووراءه إلى الجنوب في هذا الجزء جبال القفص من كرمان,"The eastern coast comprises the shores of Fars. In their southernmost part, at the eastern end of the sixth section, along a line stretching from the Persian Gulf eastward and beyond it to the south, are the mountains of al-Qufs which are in Kirman."
وتحت هرمز على الساحل بلد سيراف ونجيرم على ساحل هذا البحر وفي شرقيه إلى آخر هذا الجزء وتحت هرمز بلاد فارس مثل سابور وداربجرد ونسا وإصطخر والشاهجان وشيراز وهي قاعدتها كلها,"North of Hurmuz on the coast of the Persian Gulf, are Sirif and Najiram. In the east, toward the end of the sixth section and north of Hurmuz, is the country of Firs, comprising, for instance, Sibur, Darabjird, Fasi, Istakhr, ash-Shihijin, and Shiriz, the principal city."
وتحت بلاد فارس إلى الشمال عند طرف البحر بلاد خوزستان ومنها الأهواز وتستر وصدى وسابور والسوس ورامهرمز وغيرها وأرجان وهي حد ما بين فارس وخوزستان وفي شرقي بلاد خوزستان جبال الأكراد متصلة إلى نواحي أصبهان,"North of the country of Firs, at the end of the Persian Gulf, lies the country of Khuzistin which includes al-Ahwiz, Tustar, Jundishibur, Susa (as-Sus), Rimhurmuz, and other cities. Arrajin is on the boundary between Firs and Khuzistin. To the east of the country of Khuzistin are the Kurdish Mountains, which extend to the region of Isfahin."
وبها مساكنهم ومجالاتهم وراءها في أرض فارس وتسمى الرسوم.,The Kurds live there. They roam beyond the mountains into the country of Firs. They are called az-zumum.
وفي الجزء السابع في الأعلى منه من المغرب بقية جبال القفص ويليها من الجنوب والشمال بلاد كرمان ومكران,The southwestern part of the seventh section contains the remainder of the Mountains of al-Qufs to which are adjacent in the south and north the countries of Kirman (and Mukran).
ومن مدنها الرودان والشيرجان وجيرفت ويزدشير والبهرج وتحت أرض كرمان إلى الشمال بقية بلاد فارس إلى حدود أصبهان,"They include the cities of ar-Rudhan, ash-Shirajan, Jiruft (Jayruft), Yazdshir, and al-Fahraj. North of the land of Kirman is the remainder of the country of Fars up to the border of Isfahan."
ومدينة أصبهان في طرف هذا الجزء ما بين غربة وشماله ثم في المشرق عن بلاد كرمان وبلاد فارس أرض سجستان وكوهستان في الجنوب وأرض كوهستان في الشمال عنها,"The city of Isfahan lies in the northwest corner of the seventh section. East of the countries of Kirman and Firs, there is the land of Sijistin to the south, and the land of Kuhistan to the north."
ويتوسط بين كرمان وفارس وبين سجستان وكوهستان وفي وسط هذا الجزء المفاوز العظمى القليلة المسالك لصعوبتها ومن مدن سجستان بست والطاق وأما كوهستان فهي من بلاد خراسان ومن مشاهير بلادها سرخس وقوهستان آخر الجزء.,"Between Kirmin-Firs and Sijistan-Kuhistin, in the middle of this section, is the great desert which has few roads because of the difficult terrain. Cities in Sijistin are Bust and at-Tiq. Kuhistan belongs to the country of Khurisin. One of Khurisan’s best known places is Sarakhs, on the boundary of the section."
وفي الجزء الثامن من غربة وجنوبه مجالات الحلج من أمم الترك متصلة بأرض سجستان من غربها وبأرض كابل الهند من جنوبها.,"The eighth section contains, in the southwest, the plains of the Khalaj, a Turkish nation. They adjoin the land of Sijistan in the west and the land of Kabul of Eastern India in the south."
وفي الشمال عن هذه المجالات جبال الغور وبلادها وقاعدتها غزنة فرضة الهند وفي آخر الغور من الشمال بلاد أستراباذ ثم في الشمال غربا إلى آخر الجزء بلاد هراة أوسط خراسان,"North of these desert plains are the mountains and country of al-Ghar starting with Ghaznah, the key to India. Where al-Ghur ends in the north, lies Astarabadh. Then, to the north is the country of Herat in the middle of Khurasan, extending to the boundary of the section."
وبها أسفراين وقاشان وبوشنج ومروالروذ والطالقان والجوزجان وتنتهي خراسان هنالك إلى نهر جيحون. وعلى هذا النهر من بلاد خراسان من غربيه مدينة بلخ وفي شرقيه مدينة ترمذ ومدينة بلخ كانت كرسي مملكة الترك,"It includes Isfarayin, Qishan, Bushanj, Marw-ar-rudh, at-Taliqan, and al- Juzajan. This part of Khurasan extends to the river Oxus. Khurasanian places on this river are the city of Balkh to the west, and the city of at-Tirmidh to the east. The city of Balkh was the seat of the Turkish realm."
وهذا النهر نهر جيحون مخرجه من بلاد وجار في حدود بذخشان مما يلي الهند ويخرج من جنوب هذا الجزء وعند آخره من الشرق فينعطف عن قرب مغربا إلى وسط الجزء,"The Oxus comes from the country of Wakhan in the area of Badakhshan which borders on India, in the southeast corner of this section. It soon turns west to the middle of the section."
ويسمى هنالك نهر خرناب ثم ينعطف إلى الشمال حتى يمر بخراسان ويذهب على سمته إلى أن يصب في بحيرة خوارزم في الإقليم الخامس كما نذكره ويمده عند انعطافه في وسط الجزء من الجنوب إلى الشمال خمسة أنهار عظيمة من بلاد الختل والوخش من شرقيه,"There, it is called the Kharnab River. It then turns north, passes Khurasan, flows due north, and finally flows into Lake Aral in the fifth zone, as we shall mention. In the middle of the eighth section where it turns from the south to the north, five large rivers belonging to the country of Khuttal and Wakhsh flow into it on the east."
وأنهار أخرى من جبال البتم من شرقيه أيضا وجوفي الجبل حتى يتسع ويعظم بما لا كفاء له,"Other rivers, coming from the Buttam Mountains to the east and north of Khuttal, also flow into it. The Oxus, thus, becomes wider and larger, so much so that no other river equals it in these respects."
ومن هذه الأنهار الخمسة الممدة له نهر وخشاب يخرج من بلاد التبت وهي بين الجنوب والشرق من هذا الجزء فيمر مغربا بانحراف إلى الشمال إلى أن يخرج إلى الجزء التاسع قريبا من شمال هذا الجزء,One of the five rivers flowing into the Oxus is the Wakhshab which comes from the country of Tibet that extends over the southeastern portion of this section.
يعترضه في طريقه جبل عظيم يمر من وسط الجنوب في هذا الجزء ويذهب مشرقا بانحراف إلى الشمال إلى أن يخرج إلى الجزء التاسع,"It flows toward the northwest. Its course is blocked by a great mountain which runs from the middle of this section in the south toward the northeast, and leaves this section close to its northern (boundary) to pass into the ninth section."
قريبا من شمال هذا الجزء فيجوز بلاد التبت إلى القطعة الشرقية الجنوبية من هذا الجزء ويحول بين الترك وبين بلاد الختل,It crosses the country of Tibet toward the southeast portion of this section. It separates the Turks from the country of Khuttal.
وليس فيه إلا مسلك واحد في وسط الشرق من هذا الجزء جعل فيه الفضل بن يحيى سدا وبنى فيه بابا كسد يأجوج ومأجوج,"It has only one road in the middle of this section to the east. AlFadl b. Yahya constructed a dam there with a gate in it, like the Dam of Gog and Magog."
فإذا خرج نهر وخشاب من بلاد التبت واعترضه هذا الجبل فيمر تحته في مدى بعيد إلى أن يمر في بلاد الوخش ويصب في نهر جيحون عند حدود بلخ,"When the Wakhshab leaves the country of Tibet and comes up against that mountain, it flows under it for a long distance, until it enters the country of Wakhsh and flows into the Oxus at the border of Balkh."
ثم يمرها بطا إلى الترمذ في الشمال إلى بلاد الجوزجان,(The Oxus) then sweeps on to at-Tirmidh in the north and flows into the country of al-J(izajan.
وفي الشرق عن بلاد الغور فيما بينها وبين نهر جيحون بلاد الناسان من خراسان,"East of the country of al-Ghur, in the region between (this country) and the Oxus, is the country of al-Bamiyan, which belongs to Khurasan."
وفي العدوة الشرقية هنالك من النهر بلاد الختل وأكثرها جبال وبلاد الوخش ويحدها من جهة الشمال جبال البتم تخرج من طرف خراسان غربي نهر جيحون وتذهب مشرقة,"There on the eastern bank of the river is the country of Khuttal, most of which is mountainous, and the country of Wakhsh. This is bordered in the north by the Buttam Mountains, which come from the border of Khurasan, west of the Oxus, and run eastward."
إلى أن يتصل طرفها بالجبل العظيم الذي خلفه بلاد التبت ويمر تحته نهر وخشاب كما قلناه فيتصل عند باب الفضل بن يحيى,"Finally, where they end, a large mountain range begins, behind which lies the country of Tibet and under which there flows the Wakhshab, as we have stated. (The two mountain ranges) join at the gate of al-Fadl b.Yahya"
ويمر نهر جيحون بين هذه الجبال وأنهار أخرى تصب فيه منها نهر بلاد الوخش يصب فيه من الشرق تحت الترمذ إلى جهة الشمال ونهر بلخ يخرج من جبال البتم مبدئه عند الجوزجان ويصب فيه من غربيه وعلى هذا النهر من غربيه بلاد آمد من خراسان,"The Oxus passes between them. Other rivers flow into it, among them the river of the country of Wakhsh, which flows into it from the east, below at-Tirmidh in the north. The Balkha River comes from the Buttam Mountains where it starts at al- Juzaj an, and flows into it from the west. On the western bank of this river (Oxus) lies Amul, which belongs to Khurasan."
وفي شرقي النهر من هنالك أرض الصغد وأسر وشنة من بلاد الترك وفي شرقها أرض فرغانة أيضا إلى آخر الجزء شرقا وكل بلاد الترك تحوزها جبال البتم,"East of this river (Oxus) are the lands of the Soghd and Usrushanah, which belong to the country of the Turks. East of them is the land of Farghanah, which extends to the eastern end of the section. The entire country of the Turks here is crossed by the Buttam Mountains on the north."
إلى شمالها وفي الجزء التاسع من غربة أرض التبت إلى وسط الجزء وفي جنوبيها بلاد الهند وفي شرقيها بلاد الصين إلى آخر الجزء وفي أسفل هذا الجزء شمالا عن بلاد التبت بلاد الخزلجية من بلاد الترك إلى آخر الجزء شرقا وشمالا,"In the western part of the ninth section lies the country of Tibet, up to the middle of the section. In the south is India, and in the east, to the boundary of the section, is China. In the northernmost part of this section, north of the country of Tibet, is the country of the Kharlukh, which belongs to the country of the Turks, extending to the northern boundary of the section."
ويتصل بها من غربيها أرض فرغانة أيضا إلى آخر الجزء شرقا ومن شرقيها أرض التغرغر من الترك إلى الجزء شرقا وشمالا.,"Adjacent to it on the west is the land of Farghanah, and on the east is the land of the Turkish Tughuzghuz, extending to the northeastern end of the section."
وفي الجزء العاشر في الجنوب منه جميعا بقية الصين وأسافله وفي الشمال بقية بلاد التغرغر,The southern part of the tenth section is entirely occupied by the remaining northernmost portion of China. In the north is the remainder of the country of the Tughuzghuz.
ثم شرقا عنهم بلاد خرخير من الترك أيضا إلى آخر الجزء شرقا,"East of them is the country of the Turkish Kirghiz, extending to the eastern end of the section."
وفي الشمال من أرض خرخير بلاد كتمان من الترك وقبالتها في البحر المحيط جزيرة الياقوت في وسط جبل مستدير لا منفذ منه إليها ولا مسلك والصعود إلى أعلاه من خارجة صعب في الغاية,"North of the land of the Kirghiz is the country of the Turkish Kimak. Opposite (the Kirghiz and Kimak countries), in the Surrounding Sea, lies the Hyacinth (Ruby) Island in the middle of a round mountain that completely blocks access to it. Climbing to the top of the mountain from the outside is extremely difficult."
وفي الجزيرة حيات قتالة وحصى من الياقوت كثيرة فيحتال أهل تلك الناحية بما يلهمهم الله إليه,"On the island, there are deadly snakes and many pebbles of hyacinth (ruby). The people of that region contrive to mine them with the help of divine inspiration."
وأهل هذه البلاد في هذا الجزء التاسع والعاشر فيما وراء خراسان والجبال كلها مجالات للترك أمم لا تحصى,The regions in the ninth and tenth sections extending beyond Khurasan and Khuttal are desert plains where innumerable Turkish nations roam.
وهم ظواعن رحالة أهل إبل وشاء وبقر وخيل للنتاج والركوب والأكل وطوائفهم كثيرة لا يحصيهم إلا خالقهم وفيهم مسلمون مما يلي بلاد النهر نهر جيحون,"They are wandering nomads who have camels, sheep, cattle, and horses for breeding, riding, and eating. There are very many, (indeed) innumerable groups. There are Muslims among them in the area adjacent to the Oxus."
ويغزون الكفار منهم الدائنين بالمجوسية فيبيعون رقيقهم لمن يليهم ويخرجون إلى بلاد خراسان والهند والعراق,"They make raids on the unbelievers among them, who follow the Magian religion. They sell their captives to their near (neighbors), who export them to Khurasan, India, and the `Iraq."
الإقليم الرابع:,The fourth zone
يتصل بالثالث من جهة الشمال. والجزء الأول منه في غربيه قطعة من البحر المحيط مستطيلة من أوله جنوبا إلى آخره شمالا وعليها في الجنوب مدينة طنجة,"The fourth zone is contiguous with the northern part of the third (zone). Its first section, in the west, contains a portion of the Surrounding Sea which, oblong in shape, extends from the southern to the northern boundary of the section. The city of Tangier is situated on it in the south."
ومن هذه القطعة تحت طنجة من البحر المحيط إلى البحر الرومي في خليج متضايق بمقدار اثني عشر ميلا ما بين طريف والجزيرة الخضراء شمالا وقصر المجاز وسبتة جنوبا,"North of Tangier, the Mediterranean branches off from this portion of the Surrounding Sea in a narrow straits that is only twelve miles wide, Tarifa and Algeciras (lying) to the north of it and Qasr al-Majaz and Ceuta to the south of it."
ويذهب مشرقا إلى أن ينتهي إلى وسط الجزء الخامس من هذا الإقليم وينفسح في ذهابه بتدريج إلى أن يغمر الأربعة الأجزاء وأكثر الخامس من هذا الإقليم الثالث والخامس كما سنذكره,"It runs east until it reaches the middle of the fifth section of the fourth zone, gradually widening and eventually covering the (first) four sections and most of the fifth section of the fourth zone, as well as adjacent regions of the third and fifth zones, as we shall mention."
ويسمى هذا البحر البحر الشامي أيضا وفيه جزائر كثيرة أعظمها في جهة الغرب يابسة ثم مايرقة ثم منرقة ثم سردانية ثم صقلية وهي أعظمها ثم بلونس ثم أقريطش ثم قبرص كما نذكرها كلها في أجزائها التي وقعت فيها,"The Mediterranean is also called the “Syrian Sea.” It contains many islands. The largest of them, from west to east, are Ibiza, Majorca, Minorca, Sardinia, Sicily-which is the largest of them -the Peloponnesos, Crete, and Cyprus. We shall mention each of them in its particular section."
ويخرج من هذا البحر الرومي عند آخر الجزء الثالث منه وفي الجزء الثالث من الإقليم الخامس خليج البنادقة,"At the end of the third section of the fourth zone and in the third section of the fifth zone, the Adriatic Sea (Straits of the Venetians) branches off from the Mediterranean."
يذهب إلى ناحية الشمال ثم ينعطف عند وسط الجزء من جوفه ويمر مغربا إلى أن ينتهي في الجزء الثاني من الخامس,"It runs in a northern direction, then turns westward in the northern half of the section, and finally ends in the second section of the fifth zone."
ويخرج منه أيضا في آخر الجزء الرابع شرقا من الإقليم الخامس خليج القسطنطينية يمر في الشمال متضايقا في عرض رمية السهم إلى آخر الإقليم ثم يفضي إلى الجزء الرابع من الإقليم السادس وينعطف إلى بحر نيطش ذاهبا إلى الشرق في الجزء الخامس كله ونصف السادس من الإقليم السادس كما نذكر ذلك في أماكنه,"At the eastern boundary of the fourth section of the fifth zone, the Straits of Constantinople branches off from the Mediterranean. In the north, it makes a narrow passage only an arrow shot in width, extending up to the boundary of the zone and on into the fourth section of the sixth zone, where it turns into the Black Sea, running eastward across the whole of the fifth, and half of the sixth, sections of the sixth zone, as we shall mention in the proper place."
وعند ما يخرج هذا البحر الرومي من البحر المحيط في خليج طنجة وينفسح إلى الإقليم الثالث. يبقى في الجنوب عن الخليج قطعة صغيرة من هذا الجزء فيها مدينة طنجة على مجمع البحرين,"Where the Mediterranean leaves the Surrounding Sea through the Straits of Tangier and expands into the third zone, there remains a small portion of this section south of the Straits. The city of Tangier is situated in it, at the confluence of the two seas."
وبعدها مدينة سبتة على البحر الرومي ثم قطاون ثم باديس,"After Tangier comes Ceuta on the Mediterranean, then Tetuan (Tittawin), and Badis."
ثم يغمر هذا البحر بقية هذا الجزء شرقا ويخرج إلى الثالث وأكثر العمارة في هذا الجزء في شماله وشمال الخليج منه,"The remainder of this section to the east is covered by the Mediterranean, which extends into the third (zone). Most of the cultivated area in this section is north of it and north of the Straits."
وهي كلها بلاد الأندلس الغربية منها ما بين البحر المحيط والبحر الرومي أولها طريف عند مجمع البحرين وفي الشرق منها على ساحل البحر الرومي الجزيرة الخضراء ثم مالقة ثم المنقب ثم المرية,"All this is Spain. The western part of Spain, the area between the Surrounding Sea and the Mediterranean, begins at Tarifa, at the confluence of the two seas. East of it, on the shore of the Mediterranean, is Algeciras, followed by Malaga, Almunecar, and Almeria."
وتحت هذه من لدن البحر المحيط غربا وعلى مقربة منه شريش ثم لبلة وقبالتها فيه جزيرة قادس وفي الشرق عن شريش ولبلة إشبيلية ثم أستجة وقرطبة ومديلة ثم غرناطة وجيان وأبدة ثم وادياش وبسطة,"Northwest of these cities and close to the Surrounding Sea, there is Jerez (de la Frontera), followed by Niebla. Opposite these two cities, in the Surrounding Sea, is the island of Cadiz. East of Jerez and Niebla are Sevilla, followed by Ecija, Cordoba, and Marbella [?], then Granada, Jaen, and Ubeda, then Guadix and Baza."
وتحت هذه شنت مرية وشلب على البحر المحيط غربا وفي الشرق عنهما بطليوس وماردة ويابرة ثم غافق وبزجالة ثم قلعة رياح,"Northwest of these cities on the Surrounding Sea are Santamaria and Silves. (North)east of these two cities are Badajoz, Merida, and Evora’ followed by Ghafiq and Trujillo, and then Calatrava."
وتحت هذه أشبونة على البحر المحيط غربا وعلى نهر باجة وفي الشرق عنها شنترين وموزية على النهر المذكور ثم قنطرة السيف ويسامت اشبونة من جهة الشرق جبل الشارات يبدأ من المغرب هنالك ويذهب مشرقا مع آخر الجزء من شماليه,"Northwest of these cities on the Surrounding Sea, there is Lisbon on the Tajo. East of Lisbon, on the Tajo, are Santarem and Coria. Then, there is Alcantara. Facing Lisbon on the east, there rises the Sierra (de Guadarrama) which starts in the west there and runs eastward along the northern boundary of the section."
فينتهي إلى مدينة سالم فيما بعد النصف منه وتحت هذا الجبل طلبيرة في الشرق من فورنة ثم طليطلة ثم وادي الحجارة ثم مدينة سالم وعند أول هذا الجبل فيما بينه وبين أشبونة بلد قلمرية وهذه غربي الأندلس,"It ends at Medinaceli beyond the middle of (the section). Below (at the foot of) the Sierra, is Talavera, east of Coria, followed by Toledo, Guadalajara, and Medinaceli. Where the Sierra begins, in the region between the Sierra and Lisbon, is Coimbra. This is western Spain."
وأما شرقي الأندلس فعلى ساحل البحر الرومي منها بعد المرية قرطاجنة ثم لفتة ثم دانية ثم بلنسية إلى طرطوشة آخر الجزء في الشرق,"Eastern Spain is bordered by the Mediterranean. Here, Almeria is followed by Cartagena, Alicante, Denia, and Valencia, up to Tarragona at the eastern boundary of the section."
وتحتها شمالا ليورقة وشقورة تتاخمان بسطة وقلعة رياح من غرب الأندلس ثم مرسية شرقا ثم شاطبة تحت بلنسية شمالا ثم شقر ثم طرطوشة ثم طركونة آخر الجزء,"North of these cities are Lorca and Segura, adjacent to Baza and Calatrava, which belong to western Spain. To the east, then, comes Murcia, followed by Jativa north of Valencia, then Jucar, Tortosa, and Tarragona at the boundary of the section."
ثم تحت هذه شمالا أرض منجالة وريدة متاخمان لشقورة وطليطلة من الغرب ثم أفراغة شرقا تحت طرطوشة وشمالا عنها ثم في الشرق عن مدينة سالم قلعة أيوب ثم سرقسطة ثم لاردة آخر الجزء شرقا وشمالا.,"Then, north of these cities, there are the lands of Chinchilla and Huete, which are adjacent to Segura and Toledo in the west. Northeast of Tortosa, then, is Fraga. East of Medinaceli, there is Calatayud, followed by Saragossa and Lerida at the northeastern end of the section."
والجزء الثاني من هذا الإقليم غمر الماء جميعه إلا قطعة من غربيه في الشمال فيها بقية جبل البرنات ومعناه جبل الثنايا والسالك,"The second section of the fourth zone is entirely covered by water, except for a portion in the northwest which includes the remainder of the Pyrenees, the “Mountain of Passes and Roads.”"
يخرج إليه من آخر الجزء الأول من الإقليم الخامس يبدأ من الطرف المنتهي من البحر المحيط عند آخر ذلك الجزء جنوبا وشرقا ويمر في الجنوب بانحراف إلى الشرق فيخرج في هذا الإقليم الرابع,"It comes there from the boundary of the first section of the fifth zone. It starts at the southeastern limit of the Surrounding Sea on the boundary of this section, runs southeastward, and enters the fourth zone upon leaving the first section for the second, so that a portion of it falls into the fourth zone."
منحرفا عن الجزء الأول منه إلى هذا الجزء الثاني فيقع فيه قطعة منه تفضي ثناياها إلى البر المتصل وتسمى أرض غشكونية وفيه مدينة خريدة وقرقشونة,"Its passes lead into the adjacent mainland, which is called the land of Gascogne. It contains the cities of Gerona and Carcassonne."
وعلى ساحل البحر الرومي من هذه القطعة مدينة برشلونة ثم أربونة,"On the shores of the Mediterranean in this portion, is the city of Barcelona, followed by Narbonne."
وفي هذا البحر الذي غمر الجزء جزائر كثيرة والكثير منها غير مسكون لصغرها ففي غربيه جزيرة سردانية وفي شرقيه جزيرة صقلية متسعة الأقطار,"The sea which covers this section contains many islands, most of which are uninhabited because they are small. In the west, there is the island of Sardinia, and in the east the large island of Sicily."
يقال إن دورها سبعمائة ميل وبها مدن كثيرة من مشاهيرها سرقوسة وبلرم وطرابغة ومازر ومسيني وهذه الجزيرة تقابل أرض إفريقية,"Its circumference is said to be seven hundred miles. It contains many cities, the best known among them being Syracuse, Palermo, Trapani, Mazzara, and Messina. Sicily is opposite Ifriqiyah."
وفيما بينهما جزيرة أعدوش ومالطة. والجزء الثالث من هذا الإقليم مغمور أيضا بالبحر إلا ثلاث قطع من ناحية الشمال,"Between Sicily and Ifriqiyah are the islands of Gozzo and Malta. The third section of the fourth zone is also covered by the sea, except for three portions in the north."
الغربية منها أرض قلورية والوسطى من أرض أبكيردة والشرقية من بلاد البنادقة.,"The one in the west belongs to the land of Calabria, the one in the middle to Lombardy, and the one in the east to the country of the Venetians."
والجزء الرابع من هذا الإقليم مغمور أيضا بالبحر كما مر وجزائره كثيرة وأكثرها غير مسكون كما في الثالث والمغمور منها جزيرة بلونس في الناحية الغربية الشمالية وجزيرة أقريطش مستطيلة من وسط الجزء إلى ما بين الجنوب والشرق منه.,"The fourth section of the fourth zone is also covered by the sea, as has been mentioned. It contains many islands. Most of them are uninhabited, as is the case in the third section. The inhabited islands are the Peloponnesos, in the northwest, and Crete, which is oblong in shape and stretches from the middle of the section to the southeast."
والجزء الخامس من هذا الإقليم غمر البحر منه مثلثة كبيرة بين الجنوب والغرب ينتهي الضلع الغربي منها إلى آخر الجزء في الشمال وينتهي الضلع الجنوبي منها إلى نحو الثلثين من الجزء,A large triangular area of the fifth section in the southwest is covered by the sea. The western side of (this triangle) goes to the northern boundary of the fifth section. The southern side goes across about two-thirds of the section.
ويبقى في الجانب الشرقي من الجزء قطعة نحو الثلث يمر الشمالي منها إلى الغرب منعطفا مع البحر كما قلناه وفي النصف الجنوبي منها أسافل الشام ويمر في وسطها جبل اللكام إلى أن ينتهي إلى آخر الشام في الشمال,"There remains at the eastern side of the section a portion of about one-third. Its northern part runs west along the seacoast, as we have stated. Its southern half contains the northernmost region of Syria. It is traversed in the middle by the Amanus. The Amanus eventually reaches the northern end of Syria,"
فينعطف من هنالك ذاهبا إلى القطر الشرقي الشمالي ويسمى بعد انعطافه جبل السلسلة ومن هنالك يخرج إلى الإقليم الخامس ويجوز من عند منعطفه قطعة من بلاد الجزيرة إلى جهة الشرق ويقوم من عند منعطفه من جهة المغرب جبال متصلة بعضها ببعض إلى أن ينتهي إلى طرف خارج من البحر الرومي متأخر إلى آخر الجزء من الشمال,"where it turns in a northeasterly direction. At the point where it turns, it is called “Chain Mountain.” There, it enters the fifth zone. After it turns, it traverses a portion of the Jazirah in an easterly direction. West of where it turns, there rise contiguous mountain ranges. They finally end at an inlet of the Mediterranean, near the northern end of the section."
وبين هذه الجبال ثنايا تسمى الدروب وهي التي تفضي إلى بلاد الأرمن وفي هذا الجزء قطعة منها بين هذه الجبال وبين جبل السلسلة,"Through these mountains, there are passes which are called ad-Durub (mountain passes). They lead into Armenia. This section contains a portion of Armenia situated between these mountains and the Chain Mountain."
فأما الجهة الجنوبية التي قدمنا أن فيها أسافل الشام وأن جبل اللكام معترض فيها بين البحر الرومي وآخر الجزء من الجنوب إلى الشمال فعلى ساحل البحر بلد أنطرطوس في أول الجزء من الجنوب,"The southern region, as we have mentioned before, comprises the northernmost region of Syria, and the Amanus extends across it from south to north in the area between the Mediterranean and the boundary of the section. On the seacoast is Antarsus, at the beginning of the section to the south."
متاخمة لغزة وطرابلس على ساحله من الإقليم الثالث وفي شمال أنطرطوس جبلة ثم اللاذقية ثم إسكندرونة ثم سلوقية وبعدها شمالا بلاد الروم,"It borders on ‘Arqah and Tripoli which lie on the shore of the Mediterranean in the third zone. North of Antarsus is Jabalah, followed by Lattakiyah, Alexandretta, and Selefke. North of these cities is the Byzantine territory."
وأما جبل اللكام المعترض بين البحر وآخر الجزء بحافاته فيصاقبه من بلاد الشام من أعلى الجزء جنوبا من غربيه حصن الحواني وهو للحشيشة الإسماعيلية ويعرفون لهذا العهد بالفداوية,"The Amanus, which lies between the sea and the end of the section, is hugged, in Syria in the southwestern part of the section, by the fortress of llisn al-Khawabi, which belongs to the Isma’ili Assassins who at this time are called Fidawis."
ويسمى مصيات وهو قبالة أنطرطوس وقبالة هذا الحصن في شرق الجبل بلد سلمية في الشمال عن حمص,"The fortress (also) is called Masyat. It lies opposite Antarsus to the east. On the side opposite this fortress, east of the Amanus, is Salamlyah, north of Emesa."
وفي الشمال وفي مصيات بين الجبل والبحر بلد أنطاكية ويقابلها في شرق الجبل المعرة وفي شرقها المراغة,"North of Masyat, between the mountain and the sea, lies Antioch. Opposite it, east of the Amanus, is al-Ma’arrah, and east of al- Ma’arrah, al-Marighah"
وفي شمال أنطاكية المصيصة ثم أذنة ثم طرسوس آخر الشام,"North of Antioch, there is al-Massisah, followed by Adhanah and Tarsus, at the furthest point of Syria."
ويحاذيها من غرب الجبل قنسرين ثم عين زربة وقبالة قنسرين في شرق الجبل حلب ويقابل عين زربة منبج آخر الشام.,"Facing (Antioch), west of the mountain, is Qinnasrin, followed by ‘Ayn Zarbah. Opposite Qinnasrin, east of the mountain, is Aleppo, and opposite ‘Ayn Zarbah is Manbij, the furthest point of Syria."
وأما الذروب فعن يمينها ما بينها وبين البحر الرومي بلاد الروم التي هي لهذا العهد للتركمان وسلطانها ابن عثمان وفي ساحل البحر منها بلد أنطاكية والعلايا.,"The area to the right of the Durub, between them and the Mediterranean, comprises the Byzantine territory (Anatolia). At this time, it belongs to the Turkomans and is ruled by Ibn Uthman (the Ottomans). On the shore of the Mediterranean there, are Antalya and al–‘Alaya."
وأما بلاد الأرمن التي بين جبل الدروب وجبل السلسلة ففيها بلد مرعش وملطية والمعرة إلى آخر الجزء الشمالي ويخرج من الجزء الخامس في بلاد الأرمن نهر جيحان ونهر سيحان,"Armenia, which lies between the Durub and the Chain Mountain, comprises Mar’ash, Malatya, and Ankara, up to the northern end of the section. In Armenia, in the fifth section, originate the river Jayhan and, to the east of it, the river Sayhan."
في شرقيه فيمر بها جيحان جنوبا حتى يتجاوز الدروب ثم يمر بطرسوس ثم بالمصيصة ثم ينعطف هابطا إلى الشمال ومغربا حتى يصب في البحر الرومي جنوب سلوقية,"The Jayhan flows south until it has traversed the Durub. It then passes by Tarsus and al- Massisah, then turns northwestward and eventually flows into the Mediterranean south of Selefke."
ويمر نهر سيحان موازيا لنهر جيحان فيحاذي المعرة ومرعش ويتجاوز جبال الدروب إلى أرض الشام ثم يمر بعين زربة ويحوز عن نهر جيحان ثم ينعطف إلى الشمال مغربا فيختلط بنهر جيحان عند المصيصة,"The Sayhan runs parallel to the Jayhan. It is opposite Ankara and Mar’ash, traverses the Durub Mountains, reaches Syria, then passes by ‘Ayn Zarbah, then turns away from the Jayhan, and turns northwestward. It joins the Jayhan west of al-Massisah."
ومن غربها وأما بلاد الجزيرة التي يحيط بها منعطف جبل اللكام إلى جبل السلسلة ففي جنوبها الرافضة والرقة ثم حران ثم سروج والرها ثم نصيبين ثم سميساط وآمد تحت جبل السلسلة وآخر الجزء من شماله وهو أيضا آخر الجزء من شرقيه,"The Jazirah, which is surrounded by the portion of the Amanus that turns into the Chain Mountain, contains in the south ar-Rafiqah and ar-Raqqah, followed by Harran, Saruj, Edessa, Nisibis, Samosata, and Amid, north of the Chain Mountain, at the northeastern end of the section."
ويمر في وسط هذه القطعة نهر الفرات ونهر دجلة يخرجان من الإقليم الخامس ويمران في بلاد الأرمن جنوبا إلى أن يتجاوزا جبل السلسلة فيمر نهر الفرات من غربي سميساط وسروج وينحرف إلى الشرق,"The Euphrates and the Tigris traverse this area in the middle. They originate in the fifth zone, pass southward through Armenia, and cross the Chain Mountain. The Euphrates, then, flows west of Samosata and Saruj in an easterly direction."
فيمر بقرب الرافضة والرقة ويخرج إلى الجزء السادس ويمر دجلة في شرق آمد وينعطف قريبا إلى الشرق فيخرج قريبا إلى الجزء السادس,"It passes west of ar-Rafiqah and ar-Raqqah and on into the sixth section. The Tigris flows east of Amid and shortly thereafter turns to the east. Then, it soon passes on into the sixth section."
وفي الجزء السادس من هذا الإقليم من غربيه بلاد الجزيرة وفي الشرق منها بلاد العراق متصلة بها تنتهي في الشرق إلى قرب آخر الجزء ويعترض من آخر العراق هنالك جبل أصبهان هابطا من جنوب الجزء منحرفا إلى الغرب,"The sixth section of the fourth zone contains the Jazirah to the west. Immediately east of it is the country of the ‘Iraq, which terminates near the boundary of the section. At the boundary of the ‘Iraq is the Mountain of Isfahan which comes from the south of the section and runs in a westerly direction."
فإذا انتهى إلى وسط الجزء من آخره في الشمال يذهب مغربا إلى أن يخرج من الجزء السادس ويتصل على سمته بجبل السلسلة في الجزء الخامس,"When it reaches the middle of the northern end of the section, it runs west. Eventually, leaving the sixth section, it joins on its course due west, the Chain Mountain in the fifth section."
فينقطع هذا الجزء السادس بقطعتين غربية وشرقية ففي الغربية من جنوبيها مخرج الفرات من الخامس وفي شماليها مخرج دجلة منه أما الفرات,"The sixth section is divided into two portions, a western and an eastern. The western portion, in the south, contains the point where the Euphrates leaves the fifth section, and, in the north, the point where the Tigris leaves it."
فأول ما يخرج إلى السادس يمر بقرقيسياء ويخرج من هنالك جدول إلى الشمال ينساب في أرض الجزيرة ويغوص في نواحيها,"As soon as the Euphrates enters the sixth section, it passes Qirqisiya’. There, a (river) branches off from the Euphrates. It flows north into the Jazirah and disappears there in the ground."
ويمر من قرقيسيا غير بعيد ثم ينعطف إلى الجنوب فيمر بقرب الخابور إلى غرب الرحبة ويخرج منه جداول من هنالك يمر جنوبا,"Shortly past Qirqisiya’, the Euphrates turns south and passes to the west of the Khabir and on west of ar-Rahbah. A (river) branches off there from the Euphrates and flows south."
ويبقى صفين في غربيه ثم ينعطف شرقا وينقسم بشعوب فيمر بعضها بالكوفة وبعضها بقصر ابن هبيرة وبالجامعين وتخرج جميعا في جنوب الجزء إلى الإقليم الثالث فيغوص هنالك في شرق الحيرة والقادسية,"Siffin lies to the west of it. (This river) then turns east and divides into a number of branches. Some of them pass by alKufah, others by Qasr Ibn Hubayrah and al-Jami’ayn (alHillah). Now, in the south of the section all of them enter the third zone and disappear into the ground east of al-Hirah and al-Qadisiyah."
ويخرج الفرات من الرحبة مشرقا على سمته إلى هيت من شمالها يمر إلى الزاب والأنبار من جنوبهما ثم يصب في دجلة عند بغداد.,"The Euphrates flows directly east from arRahbah, and passes north of Hit. It then flows south of azZab and al-Anbar, and into the Tigris at Baghdad."
وأما نهر دجلة فإذا دخل من الجزء الخامس إلى هذا الجزء يمر بجزيرة ابن عمر على شمالها,"When the Tigris leaves the fifth section for the sixth section, it flows due east, opposite the Chain Mountain which connects with the Mountain of al-‘Iraq on its course due west, and passes north of Jazirat Ibn ‘Umar."
ثم بالموصل كذلك وتكريت وينتهي إلى الحديثة فينعطف جنوبا وتبقى الحديثة في شرقه والزاب الكبير والصغير,"Then it passes Mosul in the same way, and Takrit. It reaches al-Hadithah, turns south, leaving al-Hadithah to the east of it, and likewise the Greater and the Lesser Zab."
كذلك ويمر على سمته جنوبا وفي غرب القادسية إلى أن ينتهي إلى بغداد ويختلط بالفرات ثم يمر جنوبا على غرب جرجرايا إلى أن يخرج من الجزء إلى الإقليم الثالث,"It flows directly south and to the west of al- Qadisiyah. Eventually it reaches Baghdad and joins with the Euphrates. Then it flows south, to the west of Jarjaraya, and eventually leaves the section and enters the third zone."
فتنتشر هنالك شعوبه وجداوله ثم يجتمع ويصب هنالك في بحر فارس عند عبادان وفيما بين نهر دجلة والفرات قبل مجمعهما ببغداد هي بلاد الجزيرة,"There it divides into many branches. They unite again and there flow into the Persian Gulf at ‘Abbidin. The region between the Tigris and the Euphrates, before they have come together at Baghdad, is the Jazirah"
ويختلط بنهر دجلة بعد مفارقته ببغداد نهر آخر يأتي من الجهة الشرقية الشمالية منه وينتهي إلى بلاد النهروان قبالة بغداد شرقا ثم ينعطف جنوبا ويختلط بدجلة قبل خروجه إلى الإقليم الثالث ويبقى ما بين هذا النهر وبين جبل العراق والأعاجم بلد جلولاء وفي شرقها عند الجبل بلد حلوان وصيمرة,"Below Baghdad, another river joins the Tigris. It comes from northeast of (the Tigris). It reaches an-Nahrawin opposite Baghdad to the east. Then it turns south and joins with the Tigris before entering the third zone. For the region between this river and the mountains of al-‘Iriq and Kurdistan, there remains Jaluli’ and, east of it at the mountain, Hulwin and Saymarah"
وأما القطعة الغربية من الجزء فيعترضها جبل يبدأ من جبل الأعاجم مشرقا إلى آخر الجزء ويسمى جبل شهرزور ويقسمها بقطعتين في الجنوب,The western portion of the section contains a mountain that starts from the Kurdish mountains and runs east toward the end of the section. It is called the Mountain of Shahrazur. It divides the (western portion) into two subdivisions.
من هذه القطعة الصغرى بلد خونجان من الغرب والشمال عن أصبهان وتسمى هذه القطعة بلد الهلوس وفي وسطها بلد نهاوند وفي شمالها بلد شهرزور غربا عند ملتقى الجبلين والدينور شرقا عند آخر الجزء,"The southern subdivision contains Khunajin, northwest of Isfahan. This section is called the country of al- Bahlus. In the middle of the southern subdivision is Nahiwand, and, in the north, Shahrazur, west of the point where the two mountain ranges meet, and ad-Dinawar (is) on the east, at the boundary of the section."
وفي القطعة الصغرى الثانية من بلاد أرمينية قاعدتها المراغة والذي يقابلها من جبل العراق يسمى باريا,"The other subdivision contains part of Armenia, including its principal place, al-Marighah. The portion of the Mountain of al-‘Iraq that faces it is called the Mountain of Birimma."
وهو مساكن للأكراد والزاب الكبير والصغير الذي على دجلة من ورائه وفي آخر هذه القطعة من جهة الشرق بلاد أذربيجان ومنها تبريز والبيدقان,"It is inhabited by Kurds. The Greater Zab and the Lesser Zib at the Tigris are behind it. At the eastern end of this section lies Azerbaijan, which includes Tabriz and al-Baylagan."
وفي الزاوية الشرقية الشمالية من هذا الجزء قطعة من بحر نيطش وهو بحر الخزر وفي الجزء السابع من هذا الإقليم من غربة وجنوبه معظم بلاد الهلوس وفيها همذان وقزوين,"In the northeast corner of the section is a small portion of [the Black Sea,] the Caspian (Sea of the Khazars). The seventh section of the fourth zone contains, in the southwest, the largest portion of the country of al-Bahlus, including Hamadhin and Qazwin."
وبقيتها في الإقليم الثالث وفيها هنالك أصبهان ويحيط بها من الجنوب جبل يخرج من غربها ويمر بالإقليم الثالث ثم ينعطف من الجزء السادس إلى الإقليم الرابع ويتصل بجبل العراق في شرقيه الذي مر ذكره هنالك وإنه محيط ببلاد الهلوس,"The remainder of it is in the third zone; Isfahan is situated there. (Al-Bahlus and Isfahan) are surrounded on the south by mountains which come from the west, pass through the third zone, leave it in the sixth section for the fourth zone, and join the eastern portion of the Mountain of al- ‘Iraq, as has been mentioned before. They (also) surround the eastern portion of the coun- try of al-Bahlus."
في القطعة الشرقية ويهبط هذا الجبل المحيط بأصبهان من الإقليم الثالث إلى جهة الشمال ويخرج إلى هذا الجزء السابع فيحيط ببلاد الهلوس من شرقها وتحته هنالك قاشان ثم قم,"These mountains which surround Isfahan run north from the third zone, enter this seventh section, and then inclose the country of al-Bahlus on the east. Below (at the foot of) them, is Qishin, followed by Qumm."
وينعطف في قرب النصف من طريقه مغربا بعض الشيء ثم يرجع مستديرا فيذهب مشرقا ومنحرفا إلى الشمال حتى يخرج إلى الإقليم الخامس ويشتمل على منعطفه واستدارته على بلد الري في شرقيه ويبدأ من منعطفه جبل آخر يمر غربا إلى آخر هذا الجزء,"Near the middle of their course, they turn slightly west; then, describing an arc, they run northeastward, and eventually enter the fifth zone. Where they turn (west) and make the circle, ar-Rayy lies to the east. Where they turn (west), another mountain range starts and runs west to the boundary of the seventh section."
ومن جنوبه من هنالك قزوين ومن جانبه الشمالي وجانب جبل الري المتصل معه ذاهبا إلى الشرق والشمال إلى وسط الجزء ثم إلى الإقليم الخامس بلاد طبرستان فيما بين هذه الجبال وبين قطعة من بحر طبرستان,"South of the mountains there is Qazwin. North of them and alongside the connecting mountains of arRayy, extending in a northeastern direction to the middle of the section and then into the fifth zone, lies the country of Tabaristan in the region between these mountains and a portion of the Caspian Sea (Sea of Tabaristan)."
ويدخل من الإقليم الخامس في هذا الجزء في نحو النصف من غربة إلى شرقه ويعترض عند جبل الري وعند انعطافه إلى الغرب جبل متصل يمر على سمته مشرقا وبانحراف قليل إلى الجنوب حتى يدخل في الجزء الثامن من غربة,"From the fifth zone, it enters the seventh section about halfway between west and east. Where the mountains of ar-Rayy turn west, there lie other, connecting mountains. They run directly east and slightly south, and eventually enter the eighth section from the west."
ويبقى بين جبل الري وهذا الجبل من عند مبدئهما بلاد جرجان فيما بين الجبلين ومنها بسطام ووراء هذا الجبل قطعة من هذا الجزء فيها بقية المفازة التي بين فارس وخراسان وهي في شرقي قاشان,"Between the mountains of ar-Rayy and these mountains, at their starting point, there remains Jurjan, which includes Bistam. Behind these (latter) mountains, there is a part of the seventh section that contains the remainder of the desert area between Fars and Khurisan, to the east of Qishin."
وفي آخرها عند هذا الجبل بلد أستراباذ وحافات هذا الجبل من شرقيه إلى آخر الجزء بلاد نيسابور من خراسان,"At its farthest point, near these mountains, is Astaribidh. On the eastern slopes of these mountains, and extending to the boundary of the section, lies the country of Nisabur, which belongs to Khurisin."
ففي جنوب الجبل وشرق المفازة بلد نيسابور ثم مرو الشاهجان آخر الجزء وفي شماله وشرقي جرجان بلد مهرجان وخازرون وطوس آخر الجزء شرقا,"South of the mountains and east of the desert area, lies Nisabur, followed by Marw ash-Shihijan at the end of the section. North of it and east of Jurjan, are Mihrajin, Khazarun, and Tus, the eastern end of the section."
وكل هذا تحت الجبل وفي الشمال عنها بلاد نسا ويحيط بها عند زاوية الجزئين الشمال والشرق مفاوز معطلة,"All these places are north of the mountains. Far to the north of them is the country of Nasa, which is surrounded by barren stretches of desert, in the northeastern corner of the section."
وفي الجزء الثامن من هذا الإقليم وفي غربيه نهر جيحون ذاهبا من الجنوب إلى الشمال ففي عدوته الغربية رمم وآمل من بلاد خراسان والظاهرية والجرجانية من بلاد خوارزم,"The eighth section of the fourth zone, in the west, contains the Oxus which flows from south to north. On its western bank, there are Zamm and Amul which belong to Khurasan, as well as at-Tahiriyah and Gurganj which belongs to Khuwarizm."
ويحيط بالزاوية الغربية الجنوبية منه جبل أستراباذ المعترض في الجزء السابع قبله,"The southwest corner of the section is surrounded by the mountains of Astarabadh, which were found already in the seventh section."
ويخرج في هذا الجزء من غربيه ويحيط بهذه الزاوية وفيها بقية بلاد هراة والجوزخان حتى يتصل بجبل البتم كما ذكرناه هنالك,"They enter this section from the west and encircle the (southwestern) corner, which includes the remainder of the country of Herat. In the third zone, the mountains pass between Herat and al-Juzajan, and eventually connect with the Buttam Mountain, as we mentioned there."
وفي شرقي نهر جيحون من هذا الجزء وفي الجنوب منه بلاد بخارى ثم بلاد الصغد وقاعدتها سمرقند,"East of the Oxus in the south of this section, is the country of Bukhara, followed by the country of the Soghd, with Samarkand as its principal place."
ثم سردارا وأشنه ومنها خجندة آخر الجزء شرقا وفي الشمال عن سمرقند وسردار وأشنه أرض إيلاق,"Then comes the country of Usritshanah, which includes Khujandah at the eastern end of the section. North of Samarkand and Usrushanah, is the land of Ilaq."
ثم في الشمال عن إيلاق أرض الشاش إلى آخر الجزء شرقا ويأخذ قطعة من الجزء التاسع في جنوب تلك القطعة بقية أرض فرغانة,"North of Ilaq is the land of Tashkent (ash-Shish), which extends to the eastern boundary of the section and occupies a portion of the ninth section that in the south includes the remainder of the land of Farghanah."
ويخرج من تلك القطعة التي في الجزء التاسع نهر الشاش يمر معترضا في الجزء الثامن إلى أن ينصب في نهر جيحون عند مخرجه من هذا الجزء الثامن في شماله إلى الإقليم الخامس,"From this portion of the ninth section, comes the river of Tashkent (Syr Darya). It cuts through the eighth section, and eventually flows into the Oxus where the latter leaves the eighth section in the north for the fifth zone."
ويختلط معه في أرض إيلاق نهر يأتي من الجزء التاسع من الإقليم الثالث من تخوم بلاد التبت ويختلط معه قبل مخرجه من الجزء التاسع نهر فرغانة,"In the land of Ilaq, a river coming from the ninth section of the third zone, from the borders of Tibet, flows into the river of Tashkent, and before the latter leaves the ninth section, the river of Farghanah flows into it."
وعلى سمت نهر الشاش جبل جبراغون يبدأ من الإقليم الخامس وينعطف شرقا ومنحرفا إلى الجنوب حتى يخرج إلى الجزء التاسع محيطا بأرض الشاش,"Parallel to the river of Tashkent lies Mount Jabraghun, which starts from the fifth zone, turns southeast, and eventually enters the ninth section and runs along the borders of the land of Tashkent."
ثم ينعطف في الجزء التاسع فيحيط بالشاش وفرغانة هناك إلى جنوبه فيدخل في الإقليم الثالث,"Then, it turns in the ninth section, continues along the boundaries of Tashkent and Farghanah, goes on to the southern part of the section, and then enters the third zone."
وبين نهر الشاش وطرف هذا الجبل في وسط هذا الجزء بلاد فاراب,"Between the river of Tashkent and the bend of this mountain in the middle of the section, there is the country of Farab."
وبينه وبين أرض بخارى وخوارزم مفاوز معطلة وفي زاوية هذا الجزء من الشمال والشرق أرض خجندة وفيها بلد إسبيجاب وطراز.,"Between it and the land of Bukhari and Khuwarizm are barren stretches of desert. In the northeast corner of this section is the land of Khujandah, which includes Isbijab and Taraz."
وفي الجزء التاسع من هذا الإقليم في غربيه بعد أرض فرغانة والشاش أرض الخزلجية في الجنوب وأرض الخليجة في الشمال وفي شرق الجزء كله أرض الكيماكية,"The ninth section of the fourth zone, to the west beyond Farghanah and Tashkent, contains the land of the Kharlukh in the south, and the land of the Khallukh in the north. The whole eastern part of the section to its farthest point is occupied by the land of the Kimak."
ويتصل في الجزء العاشر كله إلى جبل قوقيا آخر الجزء شرقا وعلى قطعة من البحر المحيط هنالك وهو جبل يأجوج ومأجوج وهذه الأمم كلها من شعوب الترك. انتهى.,It extends over the whole tenth section to the Qufaya Mountains which are at the eastern end of the section and lie there on a portion of the Surrounding Sea. They are the Mountains of Gog and Magog. All these nations are Turkish peoples.
الإقليم الخامس:,The fifth zone
الجزء الأول منه أكثره مغمور بالماء إلا قليلا من جنوبه وشرقه لأن البحر المحيط بهذه الجهة الغربية دخل في الإقليم الخامس والسادس والسابع عن الدائرة المحيطة بالإقليم,"Most of the first section of the fifth zone is covered by water, except a small portion of the south and of the east. In this western region, the Surrounding Sea enters into the fifth, sixth, and seventh zones from the circle it describes around the zones."
فأما المنكشف من جنوبه فقطعة على شكل مثلث متصلة من هنالك بالأندلس وعليها بقيتها,The portion to the south that is free from water has a triangular shape. It there touches Spain and comprises the remainder of it.
ويحيط بها البحر من جهتين كأنهما ضلعان محيطان بزاوية المثلث ففيها من بقية غرب الأندلس سعيور على البحر عند أول الجزء من الجنوب,"It is surrounded on two sides by the sea, as if by the two sides of a triangle. It occupies the remainder of western Spain, including Montemayor on the seacoast at the beginning of the section in the southwest."
والغرب وسلمنكة شرقا عنها وفي جوفها سمورة وفي الشرق عن سلمنكة أيلة آخر الجنوب وأرض قستالية شرقا عنها وفيها مدينة شقونية وفي شمالها أرض ليون وبرغشت,"Salamanca is to the east, and Zamora to the north. East of Salamanca, at the southern end, is Avila, and east of it, the land of Castilla with the city of Segovia. North of it is the land of Leon and Burgos."
ثم وراءها في الشمال أرض جليقية إلى زاوية القطعة وفيها على البحر المحيط في آخر الضلع الغربي بلد شننياقو ومعناه يعقوب,"Beyond it to the north is the land of Galicia, which extends to the corner of this portion. At the Surrounding Sea there, at the far point of the western side (of the triangle), the portion includes the region of Santiago-that is, (Saint) Jacob."
وفيها من شرق بلاد الأندلس مدينة شطلية عند آخر الجزء في الجنوب وشرقا عن قستالية وفي شمالها وشرقها وشقة وبنبلونة على سمتها شرقا وشمالا وفي غرب بنبلونة قشتالة ثم ناجزة فيما بينها وبين برغشت,"Of eastern Spain, the triangular portion contains the city of Tudela, at the southern end of the section and to the east of Castilla. To the northeast of Tudela are Huesca and Pamplona directly to the east of (Huesca). West of Pamplona, there is Estella (Qastallah), followed by Najera in the region between Estella and Burgos."
ويعترض وسط هذه القطعة جبل عظيم محاذ للبحر وللضلع الشمالي الشرقي منه وعلى قرب ويتصل به وبطرف البحر عند بنبلونة في جهة الشرق الذي ذكرنا من قبل,"This (triangular) portion contains a large mountain. It faces the sea and the northeast side of the triangle, in close proximity both to it and to the seacoast at Pamplona in the east."
أن يتصل في الجنوب بالبحر الرومي في الإقليم الرابع ويصير حجرا على بلاد الأندلس من جهة الشرق,We have mentioned before that it connects in the south with the Mediterranean in the fourth zone. It constitutes a barrier for Spain in the north.
وثناياه لها أبواب تفضي إلى بلاد غشكونية من أمم الفرنج فمنها من الإقليم الرابع برشلونة وأربونة على ساحل البحر الرومي وخريدة وقرقشونة وراءهما في الشمال ومنها من الإقليم الخامس طلوشة شمالا عن خريدة.,"Its passes are gates leading from Spain to the country of Gascogne, which belongs to the European Christian nations. In the fourth zone, there belong to (Gascogne) Barcelona and Narbonne on the shore of the Mediterranean; north of them, Gerona and Carcassonne; and in the fifth zone, Toulouse, north of Gerona."
وأما المنكشف في هذا الجزء من جهة الشرق فقطعة على شكل مثلث مستطيل زاويته الحادة وراء البرنات شرقا وفيها على البحر المحيط على رأس القطعة التي يتصل بها جبل البرنات بلد نيونة,"The eastern portion of this section has the shape of an oblong triangle with its acute angle beyond the Pyrenees to the east. On the Surrounding Sea, at the top where it connects with the Pyrenees, this portion includes Bayonne."
وفي آخر هذه القطعة في الناحية الشرقية الشمالية من الجزء أرض بنطو من الفرنج إلى آخر الجزء.,"At the end of it, in the northeastern region of the section, is the land of Poitou, which belongs to the European Christians and extends to the end of the section."
وفي الجزء الثاني من الناحية الغربية منه أرض غشكونية وفي شمالها أرض بنطو وبرغشت وقد ذكرناهما,The western region of the second section contains the land of Gascogne. North of it are the lands of Poitou and Bourges. Both countries have been mentioned by us.
وفي شرق بلاد غشكونية في شمالها قطعة أرض من البحر الرومي دخلت في هذا الجزء كالضرس مائلة إلى الشرق قليلا,"East of the country of Gascogne lies a portion of the Mediterranean. It projects into this section like a tooth, in an easterly direction."
وصارت بلاد غشكونية في غربها داخلة في جون من البحر وعلى رأس هذه القطعة شمالا بلاد جنوة وعلى سمتها في الشمال جبل نيت جون,"To the west, the country of Gascogne juts out into a gulf of the Mediterranean[?]. At the northern extremity of this portion is the country of Genoa, along which to the north lie the Alps."
وفي شماله وعلى سمته أرض برغونة وفي الشرق عن طرف جنوة الخارج من البحر الرومي طرف آخر خارج منه,"At their northern limit lies the land of Burgundy. East of the gulf of Genoa, which comes from the Mediterranean, another gulf comes from the same sea."
يبقى بينهما جون داخل من البر في البحر في غربيه نيش وفي شرقيه مدينة رومة العظمى كرسي ملك الإفرنجة ومسكن البابا بطركهم الأعظم,"The two gulfs include a portion of land in the shape of a peninsula on which, in the west, lies Pisa, and in the east the great city of Rome, the capital of the European Christians and the residence of the Pope, their highest religious dignitary."
وفيها من المباني الضخمة والهياكل الهائلة والكنائس العادية ما هو معروف الأخبار ومن عجائبها النهر الجاري في وسطها من المشرق إلى المغرب مفروش قاعه ببلاط النحاس,"It contains magnificent, historically famous buildings, imposing monuments, and gigantic churches. One of the remarkable things at Rome is the river that flows through it from east to west, the bed of which is paved with copper."
وفيها كنيسة بطرس وبولس من الحواريين وهما مدفونان بها وفي الشمال عن بلاد رومة بلاد أقرنصيصة إلى آخر الجزء،,"Rome contains the Church of the Apostles Peter and Paul, who are buried in it. North of the country of Rome is the country of Lombardy, which extends to the boundary of the section."
وعلى هذا الطرف من البحر الذي في جنوبه رومة بلاد نابل في الجانب الشرقي منه متصلة ببلد قلورية من بلاد الفرنج وفي شمالها طرف من خليج البنادقة دخل في هذا الجزء من الجزء الثالث مغربا ومحاذيا للشمال من هذا الجزء وانتهى إلى نحو الثلث منه,"On the eastern shore of the gulf on which Rome is situated, lies Naples. It is adjacent to the country of Calabria, which (also) belongs to the lands of the European Christians. North of it, a portion of the Adriatic Sea (Gulf of Venice) comes into this section from the third section, turns west, and faces north in this section, and extends to about one-third of it."
وعليه كثير من بلاد البنادقة دخل في هذا الجزء من جنوبه فيما بينه وبين البحر المحيط ومن شماله بلاد إنكلاية في الإقليم السادس.,"A large portion of the country of the Venetians is situated on this portion of the Adriatic Sea, in the south, in the region between (the Adriatic Sea) and the Surrounding Sea. North of it lies the country of Aquileia in the sixth zone."
وفي الجزء الثالث من هذا الإقليم في غربيه بلاد قلورية بين خليج البنادقة والبحر الرومي يحيط بها من شرقيه يصل من برها في الإقليم الرابع في البحر الرومي في جون بين طرفين خرجا من البحر على سمت الشمال إلى هذا الجزء,"The third section of the fifth zone contains in the west the country of Calabria, between the Adriatic Sea and the Mediterranean. Part of the mainland in the Mediterranean in the fourth zone forms a portion of land in the shape of a peninsula, between two gulfs that extend due north from the Mediterranean into this section."
في شرقي بلاد قلورية بلاد أنكبردة في جون بين خليج البنادقة والبحر الرومي ويدخل طرف من هذا الجزء في الجون في الإقليم الرابع وفي البحر الرومي,"East of the country of Calabria is the country of the Lombards, along a portion of land formed by the Adriatic Sea and the Mediterranean, of which one end enters the fourth zone and the Mediterranean."
ويحيط به من شرقيه خليج البنادقة من البحر الرومي ذاهبا إلى سمت الشمال ثم ينعطف إلى الغرب محاذيا لآخر الجزء الشمالي,"To the east, this section is surrounded by the Adriatic Sea, which belongs to the Mediterranean. It flows due north, then turns west opposite the northern end of the section."
ويخرج على سمته من الإقليم الرابع جبل عظيم يؤازيه ويذهب معه إلى الشمال ثم يغرب معه في الإقليم السادس إلى أن ينتهي قبالة خليج في شماليه في بلاد إنكلاية من أمم اللمانيين كما نذكر,"Alongside it, a large mountain (range) comes from the fourth zone. It faces it (the sea) and runs parallel to it on its way north, then turns west along it in the sixth zone, and eventually ends opposite a straits in the north of it, in the country of Aquileia, a German (Alamanni) nation, as we shall mention."
وعلى هذا الخليج وبينه وبين هذا الجبل ما داما ذاهبين إلى الشمال بلاد البنادقة فإذا ذهبا إلى المغرب فبينهما بلاد حروايا ثم بلاد الألمانيين عند طرف الخليج. وفي الجزء الرابع من هذا الإقليم قطعة من البحر الرومي خرجت إليه من الإقليم الرابع مضرسة كلها بقطع من البحر ويخرج منها إلى الشمال وبين كل ضرسين منها طرف من البحر في الجون بينهما,The fourth section of the fifth zone contains a portion of the Mediterranean which enters it from the fourth zone. (This portion of the sea) is strongly indented by arms of the sea which jut out in a northerly direction and are separated by portions of land in the shape of peninsulas.
وفي آخر الجزء شرقا قطع من البحر ويخرج منها إلى الشمال خليج القسطنطينية يخرج من هذا الطرف الجنوبي ويذهب على سمت الشمال خليج القسطنطينية يخرج من هذا الطرف الجنوبي ويذهب على سمت الشمال إلى أن يدخل في الإقليم السادس,"At the eastern end of the section lies the Straits of Constantinople. (This narrow body of water) comes from this southern part (of the section), flows due north, and eventually enters the sixth zone."
وينعطف من هنالك عن قرب مشرقا إلى بحر نيطش في الجزء الخامس وبعض الرابع قبله والسادس بعده من الإقليم السادس كما نذكر,"There, it immediately turns eastward (and joins) the Black Sea in the fifth section; (the latter also occupies) part of the fourth and sixth sections of the sixth zone, as we shall mention."
وبلد القسطنطينية في شرقي هذا الخليج عند آخر الجزء من الشمال وهي المدينة العظيمة التي كانت كرسي القياصرة,Constantinople is to the east of this straits at the northern end of the section. It is a large city and was the seat of the Byzantine emperors.
وبها من آثار البناء والضخامة ما كثرت عنه الأحاديث,There are many stories about the magnificent architectural and other monuments there.
والقطعة التي ما بين البحر الرومي وخليج القسطنطينية من هذا الجزء وفيها بلاد مقدونية التي كانت لليونايين ومنها ابتداء ملكهم,"The portion of this section between the Mediterranean and the Straits of Constantinople comprises the country of Macedonia, which belonged to the (ancient) Greeks, whose royal authority had its origin there."
وفي شرقي هذا الخليج إلى آخر الجزء قطعة من أرض باطوس وأظنها لهذا العهد مجالات للتركمان,"East of the straits and extending to the end of the section, there is a portion of the land of Batus. This, I believe, is the desert plains where, at the present time, the Turkomans roam."
وبها ملك ابن عثمان وقاعدته بها بورصة وكانت من قبلهم للروم وغلبهم عليها الأمم إلى أن صارت للتركمان.,"There is (located) the realm of Ibn ‘Uthman (the Ottomans), with its chief city Bursa (Brussa). Before them, it belonged to the Byzantines, from whom it was taken away by other nations, and eventually came into possession of the Turkomans."
وفي الجزء الخامس من هذا الإقليم من غربيه وجنوبيه أرض باطوس وفي الشمال عنها إلى آخر الجزء بلاد عمورية,"The southwestern part of the fifth section of the fifth zone contains the land of Batus (Anatolia). North of it and extending to the boundary of the section, is the country of Amorium."
وفي شرقي عمورية نهر قباقب الذي يمد الفرات ويخرج من جبل هنالك ويذهب في الجنوب حتى يخالط الفرات قبل وصوله من هذا الجزء إلى ممره في الإقليم الرابع,"East of Amorium is the Qubagib (Tokhma Su) which flows into the Euphrates. It has its source in a mountain there and flows south until it joins the Euphrates, before the latter leaves this section and crosses over into the fourth zone."
وهنالك في غربيه آخر الجزء في مبدإ نهر سيحان ثم نهر جيحان غربيه الذاهبين على سمته وقد مر ذكرهما,"West of (the Euphrates), at the (southern) end of the section, the Sayhan, and west of it, the Jayhan, originate. Both rivers flow alongside (the Euphrates). They have been mentioned before."
وفي شرقه هنالك مبدأ نهر دجلة الذاهب على سمته وفي موازاته حتى يخالطه عند بغداد,"East of (the Euphrates) there, the Tigris originates. It always flows alongside (the Euphrates), and eventually joins it at Baghdad."
وفي الزاوية التي بين الجنوب والشرق من هذا الجزء وراء الجبل الذي يبدأ منه نهر دجلة بلد ميافارقين,"In the southeastern corner of this section, behind the mountain where the Tigris originates, lies Mayyafariqin."
ونهر قباقب الذي ذكرناه يقسم هذا الجزء بقطعتين إحداهما غربية جنوبية وفيها أرض باطوس كما قلناه,"The Qubaqib, which we have mentioned, divides this section into two portions. The one covers the southwest and contains the land of Batus (Anatolia), as we have said."
وأسافلها إلى آخر الجزء شمالا ووراء الجبل الذي يبدأ منه نهر قباقب أرض عمورية كما قلناه,"The northernmost part of (the land of Batus), the region extending to the northern end of the section and beyond the mountain where the Qubaqib originates, is the land of Amorium, as we have said"
والقطعة الثانية شرقية شمالية على الثلث في الجنوب منها مبدأ دجلة والفرات,The other portion covers the northeastern and southeastern third (of the section). In the south of this the Tigris and Euphrates originate.
وفي الشمال بلاد البيلقان متصلة بأرض عمورية من وراء جبل قباقب وهي عريضة وفي آخرها,"In the north, there is the country of al-Baylagin, which adjoins the land of Amorium behind Mount Qubagib and extends far."
عند مبدإ الفرات بلد خرشنة وفي الزاوية الشرقية الشمالية قطعة من بحر نيطش الذي يمده خليج القسطنطينية.,"At its end, where the Euphrates originates, is Kharshanah. In the northeast corner is a portion of the Black Sea that connects with the Straits of Constantinople."
وفي الجزء السادس من هذا الإقليم في جنوبه وغربة بلاد أرمينية متصلة إلى أن يتجاوز وسط الجزء إلى جانب الشرق وفيها بلدان أردن في الجنوب والغرب,"The sixth section of the fifth zone contains in the southwest the country of Armenia, which extends eastward beyond the middle of the section. Arzan (Erzerum) is in the southwest (of Armenia)."
وفي شمالها تفليس ودبيل وفي شرق أردن مدينة خلاط ثم بردعة في جنوبها بانحراف إلى الشرق مدينة أرمينية,"To the north (of it) lie Tiflis and Dabil. East of Arzan is the city of Khilat, followed by Bardha’ah. In the southeast is the (capital) city of Armenia."
ومن هنالك مخرج بلاد أرمينية إلى الإقليم الرابع وفيها هنالك بلد المراغة في شرقي جبل الأكراد المسمى بأرمى وقد مر ذكره في الجزء السادس منه,"There, Armenia, entering the fourth zone, includes. alMaraghah, east of the Mountain of the Kurds which is called Mountain of Barimma, and which has been mentioned before in connection with the sixth section of the fourth zone."
ويتاخم بلاد أرمينية في هذا الجزء وفي الإقليم الرابع قبله من جهة الشرق فيها بلاد أذربيجان وآخرها في هذا الجزء شرقا بلاد أردبيل على قطعة من بحر طبرستان,"In this section, and in the fourth zone, Armenia is bordered to the east by the country of Azerbaijan. (Azerbaijan’s) easternmost point in this section is Ardabil, on a portion of the Caspian Sea."
دخلت في الناحية الشرقية من الجزء السابع ويسمى بحر طبرستان,"The Caspian Sea enters this section from the east from the seventh section, and is called the Sea of Tabaristan (Caspian Sea)."
وعليه من شماله في هذا الجزء قطعة من بلاد الخزر,"On its northern shore, in this section, it contains a portion of the country of the Khazars."
وهم التركمان ويبدأ من عند آخر هذه القطعة البحرية في الشمال جبال يتصل بعضها ببعض على سمت الغرب إلى الجزء الخامس,"They are Turkomans. At the northern end of this portion of the Caspian Sea, a mountain range begins and runs due west to the fifth section, crosses it,"
فتمر فيه منعطفة ومحيطة ببلد ميافارقين ويخرج إلى الإقليم الرابع عند آمد ويتصل بجبل السلسلة في أسافل الشام,"encircles Mayyafariqin, and enters the fourth zone at Amid, where it connects with the Chain Mountain in the northernmost part of Syria,"
ومن هنالك يتصل بجبل اللكام كما مر,"and from there (goes on to) connect with the Amanus, as has already been mentioned."
وبين هذه الجبال الشمالية في هذا الجزء ثنايا كالأبواب تفضي من الجانبين ففي جنوبيها,"In these mountains in the northern part of this section, there are passes that constitute a sort of gates giving entry from both sides."
بلاد الأبواب متصلة في الشرق إلى بحر طبرستان,"To the south, is the country of the “Gates,” which extends eastward to the Caspian Sea."
وعليه من هذه البلاد مدينة باب الأبواب وتتصل بلاد الأبواب في الغرب من ناحية جنوبيها ببلد أرمينية وبينهما في الشرق وبين بلاد أذربيجان الجنوبية بلاد الزاب متصلة إلى بحر طبرستان,"The city of Derbend, which belongs to this country, lies on the Caspian Sea. In the southwest, the country of the “Gates” adjoins Armenia. East of (the country of the Gates), between it and southern Azerbaijan, is the country of Arran (Ar-Ran), which extends to the Caspian Sea."
وفي شمال هذه الجبال قطعة من هذا الجزء في غربها مملكة السرير,"North of these mountains, there lies a portion of this section comprising in the west the realm of the Sarir;"
في الزاوية الغربية الشمالية منها وفي زاوية الجزء كله قطعة أيضا من بحر نيطش الذي يمده خليج القسطنطينية,"The northwest corner of that portion, which constitutes the (northwest) corner of the whole section, is also occupied by a small portion of the Black Sea that connects with the Straits of Constantinople."
وقد مر ذكره ويحف بهذه القطعة من نيطش بلاد السرير,(This) has been mentioned before. This portion of the Black Sea is surrounded by the country of the Sarir.
وعليها منها بلد أطرابزيدة بزيدة وتتصل بلاد السرير بين جبل الأبواب والجهة الشمالية من الجزء,"Trebizond, which belongs to (that country), lies on it. The country of the Sarir extends between the mountains of the “Gates” and the northern part of the section."
إلى أن ينتهي شرقا إلى جبل حاجز بينها وبين أرض الخزر,It eventually reaches a mountain in the east that constitutes a barrier between it and the land of the Khazars.
وعند آخرها مدينة صول ووراء هذا الجبل الحاجز قطعة من أرض الخزر تنتهي إلى الزاوية الشرقية الشمالية من هذا الجزء من بحر طبرستان وآخر الجزء شمالا.,"On the far boundary of the (country of the Sarir), is the city of Sul. Behind this mountain barrier, there is a portion of the land of the Khazars reaching the northeast corner of this section, between the Caspian Sea and the northern end of the section."
والجزء السابع من هذا الإقليم غربيه كله مغمور ببحر طبرستان وخرج من جنوبه في الإقليم الرابع,"The seventh section of the fifth zone is entirely covered in the west by the Caspian Sea, a portion of which protrudes into the fourth zone to the south."
القطعة التي ذكرنا هنالك أن عليها بلاد طبرستان وجبال الديلم إلى قزوين,"On (the shores of) this portion are situated, as we have mentioned in connection with the (fourth zone), the country of Tabaristin and the mountains of the Daylam up to Qazwin."
وفي غربي تلك القطعة متصلة بها القطعة التي في الجزء السادس من الإقليم الرابع,"In the west of this portion and connecting with it, there is the small portion that lies in the sixth section of the fourth zone."
ويتصل بها من شمالها القطعة التي في الجزء السادس من شرقه أيضا وينكشف من هذا الجزء قطعة عند زاويته الشمالية الغربية يصب فيها نهر أثل في هذا البحر,"Connecting with it in the north is the portion that lies in the eastern part of the sixth section above. A part of the northwest corner of this section, where the Volga flows into it, is not covered by the Caspian Sea."
ويبقى من هذا الجزء في ناحية الشرق قطعة منكشفة من البحر هي مجالات للغز من أمم الترك,"In the eastern region of this section there (also) remains a part which is not covered by the Caspian Sea. It consists of desert plains in which the Ghuzz, a Turk nation, roam."
يحيط بها جبل من جهة الجنوب داخل في الجزء الثامن ويذهب في الغرب إلى ما دون وسطه فينعطف إلى الشمال إلى أن يلاقي بحر طبرستان فيحتف به ذاهبا معه إلى بقيته في الإقليم السادس ثم ينعطف مع طرفه ويفارقه,"This part is surrounded by a mountain (range) to the south that enters the eighth section, runs not quite halfway through the western part, turns north, eventually touches the Caspian Sea, hugs it closely all the way through its remaining portion in the sixth zone, then turns at its end, and separates from it."
ويسمى هنالك جبل سياه ويذهب مغربا إلى الجزء السادس من الإقليم السادس ثم يرجع جنوبا إلى الجزء السادس من الإقليم الخامس,"There, it is called Mount Shiyah. It runs westward to the sixth section of the sixth zone, then turns back south to the sixth section of the fifth zone."
وهذا الطرف منه وهو الذي اعترض في هذا الجزء بين أرض السرير وأرض الخزر,It is this end of the mountain (range) that lies in this section between the land of the Sarir and the land of the Khazars.
واتصلت بأرض الخزر في الجزء السادس والسابع حافات هذا الجبل المسمى جبل سياه كما سيأتي.,"The land of the Khazars extends along the slopes of the mountain called Mount Shiyah in the sixth and seventh sections, as will be mentioned."
والجزء الثامن من هذا الإقليم الخامس كله مجالات للغز من أمم الترك,"The whole eighth section of the fifth zone contains desert plains where the Ghuzz, a Turkish nation, roam."
وفي الجهة الجنوبية الغربية منه بحيرة خوارزم التي يصب فيها نهر جيحون دورها ثلاثمائة ميل ويصب فيها أنهار كثيرة من أرض هذه المجالات,"In the southwest is Lake Aral, into which the Oxus flows. Its circumference is three hundred miles. Many rivers flow into it from these desert plains."
وفي الجهة الشمالية الشرقية منه بحيرة عرعون دورها أربعمائة ميل وماؤها حلو وفي الناحية الشمالية من هذا الجزء جبل مرغار,"In the northeast is the Lake of Ghurghun, a fresh-water lake. Its circumference is four hundred miles. In the northern region of this section stands Mount Murghar"
ومعناه جبل الثلج لأنه لا يذوب فيه,"which means “Snow Mountain,” because the snow on it never melts."
وهو متصل بآخر الجزء وفي الجنوب عن بحيرة عرعون جبل من الحجر الصلد لا ينبت شيئا يسمى عرعون,It lies at the far end of the section. South of the Lake of Ghurghun there is a mountain of solid stone where nothing grows. It is called Ghurghun Mountain.
وبه سميت البحيرة وينجلب منه ومن جبل مرغار شمالي البحيرة أنهار لا تنحصر عدتها فتصب فيها من الجانبين.,"The lake is named after it. In the Ghurghun and Murghar Mountains north of the lake, innumerable rivers have their origin. They flow into the lake from both sides."
وفي الجزء التاسع من هذا الإقليم بلاد أركس من أمم الترك في غرب بلاد الغز وشرق بلاد الكيماكية,"The ninth section of the fifth zone contains the country of the Adhkish, a Turkish nation, west of the country of the Ghuzz, and east of the country of the Kimak."
ويحف به من جهة الشرق آخر الجزء جبل قوقيا المحيط بيأجوج ومأجوج,"In the east at its end, (the section) is hugged by the Qifaya Mountains that surround Gog and Magog."
يعترض هنالك من الجنوب إلى الشمال حتى ينعطف أول دخوله من الجزء العاشر وقد كان دخل إليه من آخر الجزء العاشر من الإقليم الرابع,"They stretch there from south to north, assuming this direction right after entering from the tenth section, which they had, in turn, entered from the end of the tenth section of the fourth zone."
قبله واحتف هنالك بالبحر المحيط إلى آخر الجزء في الشمال ثم انعطف مغربا في الجزء العاشر من الإقليم الرابع إلى ما دون نصفه,"There, they border the Surrounding Sea on the northern boundary of the section. They then turn west in the tenth section of the fourth zone and extend almost to the middle of the section."
وأحاط من أوله إلى هنا ببلاد الكيماكية ثم خرج إلى الجزء العاشر من الإقليم الخامس فذهب فيه مغربا إلى آخره,"From where they begin to this point, they surround the country of the Kimak. Entering the tenth section of the fifth zone, they cross it in a westerly direction to its end."
وبقيت في جنوبيه من هذا الجزء قطعة مستطيلة إلى الغرب قبل آخر بلاد الكيماكية,South of them remains a portion of that section that stretches west in an oblong shape and contains the end of the country of the Kimak.
ثم خرج إلى الجزء التاسع في شرقيه وفي الأعلى منه وانعطف قريبا إلى الشمال وذهب على سمته إلى الجزء التاسع من الإقليم السادس وفيه السد هنالك كما نذكره,"The mountains, then, enter the ninth section at its northeastern border, soon turn north, and run due north to the ninth section of the sixth zone, where the Dam (of Gog and Magog) is situated, as we shall mention."
وبقيت منه القطعة التي أحاط بها جبل قوقيا عند الزاوية الشرقية الشمالية من هذا الجزء مستطيلة إلى الجنوب,There remains the portion that is surrounded by the Qufaya Mountains in the northeast corner of this section. It is oblong in shape and stretches southward.
وهي من بلاد يأجوج ومأجوج وفي الجزء العاشر من هذا الإقليم أرض يأجوج ومأجوج متصلة فيه كله إلا قطعة من البحر غمرت طرفا في شرقيه من جنوبه إلى شماله,"It belongs to the country of Gog. The tenth section of the fifth zone is entirely covered by the land of Gog, except for a portion of the Surrounding Sea which covers part of it in the east from south to north,"
إلا القطعة التي يفصلها إلى جهة الجنوب والغرب جبل قوقيا حين مر فيه وما سوى ذلك فأرض يأجوج ومأجوج والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم.,and except for the portion that the Qufaya Mountains leave in the southwest on their way through the section. Everything else is the land of Gog.
الإقليم السادس.,The sixth zone
فالجزء الأول منه غمر البحر أكثر من نصفه واستدار شرقا مع الناحية الشمالية,"Half of the first section of the sixth zone is mostly covered by the sea, which stretches eastward in a curving line along the northern part,"
ثم ذهب مع الناحية الشرقية إلى الجنوب وانتهى قريبا من الناحية الجنوبية فانكشف قطعة من هذه الأرض في هذا الجزء,"then runs southward along the eastern part, and ends near the southern part (of the section). A portion of land in this part is not covered by the sea."
داخلة بين الطرفين وفي الزاوية الجنوبية الشرقية من البحر المحيط كالجون فيه وينفسح طولا وعرضا وهي كلها أرض بريطانية,"It is similar in shape to a peninsula, formed by two arms of the Surrounding Sea. It is long and wide. All this is the land of Brittany."
وفي بابها بين الطرفين وفي الزاوية الجنوبية الشرقية من هذا الجزء بلاد صاقس متصلة ببلاد بنطو,"At the entrance to it, between those two arms (of the sea) and in the southeast corner of this section, there is the country of Sees which is adjacent to the country of Poitou."
التي مر ذكرها في الجزء الأول والثاني من الإقليم الخامس.,(The country of Poitou) has been mentioned before in connection with the first and second sections of the fifth zone.
والجزء الثاني من هذا الإقليم دخل البحر المحيط من غربة وشماله,The second section of the sixth zone is entered by the Surrounding Sea in the west and north.
فمن غربة قطعة مستطيلة أكبر من نصفه الشمالي من شرق أرض بريطانية في الجزء الأول,"In the northwest, it covers an oblong portion (extending) over more than half (the south-north extension) of (the section), east of Brittany (which was mentioned) in the first section."
واتصلت بها القطعة الأخرى في الشمال من غربة إلى شرقه وانفسحت في النصف الغربي منه بعض الشيء,(This portion of the sea) connects with the other portion in the north (that extends) from west to east. It widens somewhat in the western half of (the section).
وفيه هنالك قطعة من جزيرة أنكلترا وهي جزيرة عظيمة مشتملة على مدن وبها ملك ضخم,"There, a portion of the island of England is situated. It is a large, far-flung island which contains a number of cities and is the seat of a magnificent realm."
وبقيتها في الإقليم السابع وفي جنوب هذه القطعة وجزيرتها في النصف الغربي,"The remainder of (England) lies in the seventh zone. South of and adjacent to this western part and the island located there,"
من هذا الجزء بلاد أرمندية وبلاد أفلادش متصلين بها ثم بلاد إفرنسية جنوبا وغربا من هذا الجزء وبلاد برغونية شرقا عنها,"(and still) in the western half of this section, are the countries of Normandy and Flanders. Then, there is (northern) France in the southwest of this section, and, east of it, the country of Burgundy."
وكلها لأمم الافرنجة وبلاد اللمانيين في النصف الشرقي من الجزء,All these countries belong to the European Christian nations. The eastern half of the section contains the country of the Germans (Alamanni).
فجنوبه بلاد أنكلاية ثم بلاد برغونية شمالا ثم أرض لهويكة وشطونية,"The south is taken up by the country of Aquileia, with the country of Burgundy farther north, and then the lands of Lorraine and Saxony."
وعلى قطعة البحر المحيط في الزاوية الشمالية الشرقية أرض أفريرة وكلها لأمم اللمانيين.,"On a portion of the Surrounding Sea in the northeast corner, is the land of Frisia. All these countries belong to the German (Alamanni) nations."
وفي الجزء الثالث من هذا الإقليم في الناحية الغربية بلاد مراتية في الجنوب وبلاد شطونية في الشمال,"The western part of the third section of the sixth zone contains, in the south, the country of Bohemia, and in the north, the country of Saxony."
وفي الناحية الشرقية بلاد أنكوية في الجنوب وبلاد بلونية في الشمال يعترض بينهما جبل بلواط,"The eastern part contains, in the south, the country of Hungary, and in the north, the country of Poland. (Hungary and Poland) are separated by the Carpathian Mountains (Balwat)."
داخلا من الجزء الرابع ويمر مغربا بانحراف إلى الشمال إلى أن يقف في بلاد شطونية آخر النصف الغربي.,"They come from the fourth section, run northwest, and eventually end in the country of Saxony at the boundary of the western half (of this section)."
وفي الجزء الرابع في ناحية الجنوب أرض جثولية وتحتها في الشمال بلاد الروسية,"The fourth section of the sixth zone, in the south, contains the country of Jathuliyah, and, in the north, the country of Russia."
ويفصل بينهما جبل بلواط من أول الجزء غربا إلى أن يقف في النصف الشرقي,"They are separated by the Carpathian Mountains, from the beginning of the section in the west to its end in the eastern half."
وفي شرق أرض جثولية بلاد جرمانية وفي الزاوية الجنوبية الشرقية أرض القسطنطينية ومدينتها عند آخر الخليج الخارج من البحر الرومي وعند مدفعه في بحر نيطش,"East of the land of Jathuliyah is the country of Jarmaniyah. In the southeast corner, there is the land of Constantinople and the city of Constantinople at the end of the straits coming from the Mediterranean, where it connects with the Black Sea."
فيقع قطيعة من بحر نيطش في أعالي الناحية الشرقية من هذا الجزء ويمدها الخليج وبينهما في الزاوية بلد مسيناه.,A small portion of the Black Sea connecting with the straits appears in the southeast corner of the section. The corner between the straits and the Black Sea contains Musannah
وفي الجزء الخامس من الإقليم السادس ثم في الناحية الجنوبية عند بحر نيطش يتصل من الخليج في آخر الجزء الرابع,"The fifth section of the sixth zone, in the south, contains the Black Sea, stretching due east from the straits at the end of the fourth section."
ويخرج من سمته مشرقا فيمر في هذا الجزء كله وفي بعض السادس على طول ألف وثلاثمائة ميل من مبدئه في عرض ستمائة ميل,"It traverses the whole of this section and part of the sixth section, covering a distance (in length) of 1,300 miles from its beginning and (in width) of 600 miles."
ويبقى وراء هذا البحر في الناحية الجنوبية من هذا الجزء في غربها إلى شرقها بر مستطيل,"Beyond the Black Sea in the south of this section, there remains a piece of the mainland which is oblong in shape and stretches from west to east."
في غربة هرقلية على ساحل بحر نيطش متصلة بأرض البيلقان من الإقليم الخامس.,"The (western portion) of it contains Heracleia on the shore of the Black Sea, (a city) adjacent to the country of al-Baylaqan in the fifth zone."
وفي شرقه بلاد اللانية وقاعدتها سوتلي على بحر نيطش وفي شمال بحر نيطش,"In the east(ern portion) of it is the land of the Alans, with its principal place, Sinope, on the Black Sea."
في هذا الجزء غربا أرض ترخان وشرقا بلاد الروسية وكلها على ساحل هذا البحر وبلاد الروسية محيطة ببلاد ترخان من شرقها في هذا الجزء من شمالها في الجزء الخامس من الإقليم السابع,"North of the Black Sea in this section is the land of the Bulgars (Burjan) in the west, and in the east the country of Russia."
ومن غربها في الجزء الرابع من هذا الإقليم.,and in the west(ern portion) of the fourth section of the sixth zone.
وفي الجزء السادس في غربيه بقية بحر نيطش وينحرف قليلا إلى الشمال,"The sixth section of the sixth zone contains in the west the remainder of the Black Sea, where it turns slightly north."
ويبقى بينه هنالك وبين آخر الجزء شمالا بلاد قمانية,"Between the Black Sea and the northern boundary of the section is the country of the Comans. Following the northward direction of the Black Sea,"
وفي جنوبه منفسحا إلى الشمال بما انحرف هو كذلك بقية بلاد اللانية التي كانت آخر جنوبه في الجزء الخامس,"there is the remainder of the country of the Alans, which was at the southern end of the fifth section and which here becomes wider as it extends northwards."
وفي الناحية الشرقية من هذا الجزء متصل أرض الخزر وفي شرقها أرض برطاس,"In the eastern part of this section, the land of the Khazars continues, and farther east lies the land of the Burtas."
وفي الزاوية الشرقية الشمالية أرض بلغار.,In the northeast corner is the land of the Bulgars (Bulghar).
وفي الزاوية الشرقية الجنوبية أرض بلجر يجوزها هناك قطعة من جبل سياكوه,"In the southeast corner is the land of Balanjar, which is there traversed by a portion of Mount Shiyah."
المنعطف مع بحر الخزر في الجزء السابع بعده ويذهب بعد مفارقته مغربا فيجوز في هذه القطعة ويدخل إلى الجزء السادس,"These mountains follow (the coast of) the Caspian Sea later on in the seventh section, and, after separating from it, run west across this part (of the sixth section),"
من الإقليم الخامس فيتصل هنالك بجبل الأبواب وعليه من هنالك ناحية بلاد الخزر.,"and enter the sixth section of the fifth zone, where they are linked with the Mountains of the “Gates.” The country of the Khazars lies on both sides of them."
وفي الجزء السابع من هذا الإقليم في الناحية الجنوبية ما جازه جبل سياه بعد مفارقته بحر طبرستان.,"The seventh section of the sixth zone contains in the south an area that Mount Shiyah cuts across, to the western boundary of the section, after leaving the Caspian Sea."
وهو قطعة من أرض الخزر إلى آخر الجزء غربا وفي شرقها القطعة من بحر طبرستان التي يجوزها هذا الجبل من شرقها وشمالها ووراء جبل سياه في الناحية الغربية الشمالية أرض برطاس,"It is a portion of the country of the Khazars. East of (the country of the Khazars) is the portion of (the coast of) the Caspian Sea that is traversed by Mount (Shiyah) in the northeast. Beyond Mount Shiyah, in the northwest, is the land of the Burps."
وفي الناحية الشرقية من الجزء أرض شحرب ويخناك وهم أمم الترك.,"In the east(ern-portion) of the section is the land of the Bashqirs and the Pechenegs, Turkish nations."
وفي الجزء الثامن والناحية الجنوبية منه كلها أرض الجولخ من الترك في الناحية الشمالية غربا والأرض المنتنة وشرق الأرض التي يقال إن يأجوج ومأجوج خرباها قبل بناء السد,"The entire southern part of the eighth section of (the sixth zone) is occupied by the land of the Khulukh Turks. The northern region contains in the west the Stinking Land and, in the east, the land Gog and Magog are said to have laid waste before the Dam was constructed."
وفي هذه الأرض المنتنة مبدأ نهر الأثل من أعظم أنهار العالم وممره في بلاد الترك ومصبه في بحر طبرستان في الإقليم الخامس في الجزء السابع منه,"In this Stinking Land, the Volga, one of the largest rivers in the world, originates. It passes through the country of the Turks and flows into the Caspian Sea in the seventh section of the fifth zone."
وهو كثير الانعطاف يخرج من جبل من الأرض المنتنة من ثلاثة ينابيع تجتمع في نهر واحد,"The Volga makes many turnings. It originates in a mountain in the Stinking Land, from which three streams issue and unite to form one river."
ويمر على سمت الغرب إلى آخر السابع من هذا الإقليم فينعطف شمالا إلى الجزء السابع من الإقليم السابع,"It flows due west to the boundary of the seventh section of the sixth zone and turns north into the seventh section of the seventh zone,"
فيمر في طرفه بين الجنوب والمغرب فيخرج في الجزء السادس من السابع ويذهب مغربا غير بعيد,"where it flows along the southwestern boundary. It leaves the seventh zone in the sixth section, flows a short distance west,"
ثم ينعطف ثانية إلى الجنوب ويرجع إلى الجزء السادس من الإقليم السادس ويخرج منه جدول يذهب مغربا ويصب في بحر نيطش في ذلك الجزء,"then turns south a second time, and returns to the sixth section of the sixth zone, where a branch comes out of it and flows westward into the Black Sea in that section."
ويمر هو في قطعة بين الشمال والشرق في بلاد بلغار فيخرج في الجزء السابع من الإقليم السادس ثم ينعطف ثالثة إلى الجنوب,"(The Volga itself next) passes through a portion of the country of the Bulgars (Bulghar) in the northeast, leaves the sixth zone in the seventh section to turn south a third time,"
وينفذ في جبل سياه ويمر في بلاد الخزر ويخرج إلى الإقليم الخامس في الجزء السابع منه,"flows through Mount Shiyah, traverses the country of the Khazars, and enters the fifth zone in the seventh section."
فيصب هنالك في بحر طبرستان في القطعة التي انكشفت من الجزء عند الزاوية الغربية الجنوبية.,"There it flows into the Caspian Sea, in that portion of the southwest corner of the section which is not covered by the sea."
والجزء التاسع من هذا الإقليم في الجانب الغربي منه بلاد خفشاخ من الترك وهم قفجاق وبلاد الشركس منهم أيضا,"The ninth section of the sixth zone, in the west, contains the country of the Khifshakh Turks-the Qipchaqs-and the country of the Turgish, who are also Turks."
وفي الشرق منه بلاد يأجوج يفصل بينهما جبل قوقيا المحيط وقد مر ذكره,"In the east, it contains the country of Magog which is separated from the west by the afore- mentioned surrounding Qufaya Mountains."
يبدأ من البحر المحيط في شرق الإقليم الرابع ويذهب معه إلى آخر الإقليم في الشمال,"They start at the Surrounding Sea in the eastern part of the fourth zone, and follow (the Surrounding Sea) to the northern boundary of the zone."
ويفارقه مغربا وبانحراف إلى الشمال حتى يدخل في الجزء التاسع من الإقليم الخامس فيرجع إلى سمته الأول حتى يدخل في هذا الجزء التاسع من الإقليم من جنوبه إلى شماله بانحراف إلى المغرب,"There, they leave it and run northwesterly until they enter the ninth section of the fifth zone, where they return to their former due northerly course into the ninth section of (the sixth zone), which they cross from south to north, bearing a little to the west."
وفي وسطه هاهنا السد الذي بناه الإسكندر ثم يخرج على سمته إلى الإقليم السابع وفي الجزء التاسع منه,"There, in the middle of (the mountains), is the Dam built by Alexander. The mountains, then, continue due north into the ninth section of the seventh zone,"
فيمر فيه إلى الجنوب إلى أن يلقى البحر المحيط في شماله ثم ينعطف معه من هنالك مغربا إلى الإقليم السابع إلى الجزء الخامس منه فيتصل هنالك بقطعة من البحر المحيط في غربيه,"which they traverse from the south on up to the Surrounding Sea in the north. They follow along it from there westward into the fifth section of the seventh zone, where they encounter a portion of the Surrounding Sea to the west."
وفي وسط هذا الجزء التاسع هو السد الذي بناه الإسكندر كما قلناه,"In the middle of this ninth section is the Dam built by Alexander, as we have said."
والصحيح من خبره في القرآن وقد ذكر عبد الله بن خرداذبه في كتابه في الجغرافيا أن الواثق رأى في منامه كأن السد انفتح,Correct information about it is found in the Qur’an. ‘Ubaydallah b. Khurradadhbih mentioned in his geographical work that al-Wathiq saw in a dream that the Dam had opened.
فانتبه فزعا وبعث سلاما الترجمان فوقف عليه وجاء بخبره ووصفه في حكاية طويلة ليست من مقاصد كتابنا هذا,"Frightened, he awakened and sent Salim (Sallam) the dragoman to investigate the Dam and to bring back information about it and a description of it, which he did. This is a long story that has nothing to do with the purpose of our work."
وفي الجزء العاشر من هذا الإقليم بلاد مأجوج متصلة فيه إلى آخره,"The tenth section of the sixth zone is occupied by the country of Magog, extending to the end of (the section)."
على قطعة من هنالك من البحر المحيط أحاطت به من شرقه وشماله مستطيلة في الشمال وعريضة بعض الشيء في الشرق.,There it borders on a portion of the Surrounding Sea which surrounds (the section) to the east and north. (This portion) is oblong in the north and widens somewhat in the east.
الإقليم السابع:,The seventh zone
والبحر المحيط قد غمر عامته من جهة الشمال إلى وسط الجزء الخامس,"The Surrounding Sea covers most of the seventh zone in the north (from the beginning) to the middle of the fifth section,"
حيث يتصل بجبل قوقيا المحيط بيأجوج ومأجوج.,where it touches the Qufaya Mountains that surround Gog and Magog.
فالجزء الأول والثاني مغموران بالماء إلا ما انكشف من جزيرة أنكلترا التي معظمها في الثاني,"The first and second sections are covered by water, except for the portion not covered by water where the island of England is located, most of which lies in the second section."
وفي الأول منها طرف انعطف بانحراف إلى الشمال,"In the first section, there is a corner of England which extends towards the north."
وبقيتها مع قطعة من البحر مستديرة عليه في الجزء الثاني من الإقليم السادس,"The remainder, with a portion of the sea that encircles it, lies in the second section of the sixth zone."
وهي مذكورة هناك والمجاز منها إلى البر في هذه القطعة سعة اثني عشر ميلا,It was mentioned there. The channel connecting England with the mainland is there twelve miles wide.
ووراء هذه الجزيرة في شمال الجزء الثاني جزيرة رسلاندة مستطيلة من الغرب إلى الشرق.,"Beyond the island of England, in the north of the second section, is the island of Raslandah oblong in shape, stretching lengthwise from west to east."
والجزء الثالث من هذا الإقليم مغمور أكثره بالبحر إلا قطعة مستطيلة في جنوبه وتتسع في شرقها وفيها هنالك متصل أرض فلونية,"Most of the third section of the seventh zone is covered by water, except for an oblong portion in the south that is wider in its eastern part. Here, the land of Poland continues."
التي مر ذكرها في الثالث من الإقليم السادس وأنها في شماله وفي القطعة من البحر التي تغمر هذا الجزء,"It was mentioned in connection with the third section of the sixth zone, as lying in the north of it. In the western part of the portion of the sea covering this section,"
ثم في الجانب الغربي منها مستديرة فسيحة وتتصل بالبر من باب في جنوبها يفضي إلى بلاد فلونية,"there lies a round, wide (island). It is connected with the mainland by an isthmus in the south, which leads to the land of Poland."
وفي شمالها جزيرة برعاقبة (وفي نسخة بوقاعة) مستطيلة مع الشمال من المغرب إلى المشرق.,"North of it is the island of Norway, oblong in shape, which stretches lengthwise from west to east in the north (of the section)."
والجزء الرابع من هذا الإقليم شماله كله مغمور بالبحر المحيط من المغرب إلى المشرق,The fourth section of the seventh zone is entirely covered in the north by the Surrounding Sea from the western to the eastern (boundaries of the section).
وجنوبه منكشف وفي غربة أرض قيمازك من الترك,"Its southern part is not covered by the sea. To the west, it contains the land of the Finland [?]Turks."
وفي شرقها بلاد طست ثم أرض رسلان إلى آخر الجزء شرقا,"To the east lies the country of Tavast, followed by the land of Estonia [?]extending to the eastern boundary of the section."
وهي دائمة الثلوج وعمرانها قليل ويتصل ببلاد الروسية في الإقليم السادس,(Estonia) is permanently covered by snow and has little civilization. It borders on the country of Russia in the fourth and fifth sections of the sixth zone.
وفي الجزء الرابع والخامس منه وفي الجزء الخامس من هذا الإقليم في الناحية الغربية منه بلاد الروسية وينتهي في الشمال إلى قطعة من البحر المحيط التي يتصل بها جبل قوقيا كما ذكرناه من قبل,"The fifth section of the seventh zone contains in the west the country of Russia. In the north, (Russia) extends to where the portion of the Surrounding Sea and the Qufaya Mountains meet, as we have mentioned before."
وفي الناحية الشرقية منه متصل أرض القمانية التي على قطعة بحر نيطش من الجزء السادس من الإقليم السادس وينتهي إلى بحيرة طرمى من هذا الجزء,"The eastern region of the section contains the continuation of the land of the Comans, which lies on (the shore of) a portion of the Black Sea in the sixth section of the sixth zone. It reaches the Lake of T-r-m-y in this section."
وهي عذبة تنجلب إليها أنهار كثيرة من الجبال عن الجنوب والشمال وفي شمال الناحية الشرقية من هذا الجزء أرض التتارية من الترك (وفي نسخة التركمان) إلى آخره.,"This is a fresh-water lake into which drain many rivers from the mountains south and north of it. In the northeast of this section is the land of the Nabariyah Turks, which extends to the boundary of the section."
وفي الجزء السادس من الناحية الغربية الجنوبية متصل بلاد القمانية,The sixth section of the seventh zone contains in the southwest the continuation of the land of the Comans.
وفي وسط الناحية بحيرة عثور عذبة تنجلب إليها الأنهار من الجبال في النواحي الشرقية,In the middle of that region is Lake Gh-n-w-n. This is a fresh- water lake into which drain the rivers from the mountains in the regions east of it.
وهي جامدة دائما لشدة البرد إلا قليلا في زمن الصيف,"It is constantly frozen because of the severe cold, except for a short while during the summer."
وفي شرق بلاد القمانية بلاد الروسية التي كان مبدؤها في الإقليم السادس في الناحية الشرقية الشمالية من الجزء الخامس منه,"East of the country of the Comans is the country of Russia, which started in the northeast of the fifth section of the sixth zone."
وفي الزاوية الجنوبية الشرقية من هذا الجزء بقية أرض بلغار التي كان مبدؤها في الإقليم السادس وفي الناحية الشرقية الشمالية من الجزء السادس منه,"In the southeast corner of this (the sixth) section, is the remainder of the land of the Bulgars (Bulghar) that started in the northeastern part of the sixth section of the sixth zone."
وفي وسط هذه القطعة من أرض بلغار منعطف نهر أثل القطعة الأولى إلى الجنوب كما مر وفي آخر هذا الجزء السادس من شماله جبل قوقيا متصل من غربة إلى شرقه,"In the middle of this portion of the land of the Bulgars, there is the point where the Volga makes its first turn to the south, as has been mentioned. The Qufaya Mountains stretch all along the northern boundary of the sixth section from the west to the east."
وفي الجزء السابع من هذا الإقليم في غربة بقية أرض يخناك من أمم الترك,"The seventh section of the seventh zone, in the west, contains the remainder of the land of the Pechenegs, a Turkish nation."
وكان مبدؤها من الناحية الشمالية الشرقية من الجزء السادس قبله وفي الناحية الجنوبية الغربية من هذا الجزء ويخرج إلى الإقليم السادس من فوقه,"Beginning in the northeastern part of the preceding sixth and southwest of this section, it then, in the south, enters the sixth zone."
وفي الناحية الشرقية بقية أرض سحرب ثم بقية الأرض المنتنة إلى آخر الجزء شرقا,"In the east, there is the remainder of the land of the Bashqirs, followed by the remainder of the Stinking Land, which extends to the eastern boundary of the section."
وفي آخر الجزء من جهة الشمال جبل قوقيا المحيط متصلا من غربة إلى شرقه.,The northern boundary of the section is formed by the surrounding Qufaya Mountains stretching (all along it) from the west to the east.
وفي الجزء الثامن من هذا الإقليم في الجنوبية الغربية منه متصل الأرض المنتنة وفي شرقها الأرض المحفورة وهي من العجائب,"The eighth section of the seventh zone contains in the southwest the continuation of the Stinking Land. East of it is the Sunken Land, a remarkable place."
خرق عظيم في الأرض بعيد المهوى فسيح الأقطار ممتنع الوصول إلى قعره,"It is an immense opening in the earth, so deep that the bottom cannot be reached."
يستدل على عمرانه بالدخان في النهار والنيران في الليل تضيء وتخفى وربما رئي فيها نهر,"The appearance of smoke during the day and of fire at night, which by turns flares up and disappears, leads to the conclusion that the place is inhabited. A river is occasionally seen there."
يشقها من الجنوب إلى الشمال وفي الناحية الشرقية من هذا الجزء البلاد الخراب المتاخمة للسد وفي آخر الشمال منه جبل قوقيا متصلا من الشرق إلى الغرب,"It cuts through it from south to north. In the east of this section is the Waste Country, which borders the Dam. Across the northern limit of the section are the Qufaya Mountains, stretching all along it from the west to the east."
وفي الجزء التاسع من هذا الإقليم في الجانب الغربي منه بلاد خفشاخ وهم قفجق,"The ninth section of the seventh zone contains in the west the country of the Khifshakh, that is, the Qipchaqs."
يجوزها جبل قوقيا حين ينعطف من شماله عند البحر المحيط ويذهب في وسطه إلى الجنوب بانحراف إلى الشرق,It is traversed by the Qufaya Mountains where they turn away from the north (of the section) at the Surrounding Sea and run southeast through the middle (of the section).
فيخرج في الجزء التاسع من الإقليم السادس ويمر معترضا فيه وفي وسطه هنالك سد يأجوج ومأجوج وقد ذكرناه,"They then leave (this zone) for the ninth section of the sixth zone and pass across it. There, in the middle of them, is the Dam of Gog and Magog, which we have already mentioned."
وفي الناحية الشرقية من هذا الجزء أرض يأجوج وراء جبل قوقيا,"The eastern part of this section contains the land of Magog, behind the Qufaya Mountains, on the sea."
على البحر قليلة العرض مستطيلة أحاطت به من شرقه وشماله. والجزء العاشر غمر البحر جميعه.,It is not very wide and is oblong in shape and surrounds it in the east and north. The tenth section of the seventh zone is entirely covered by the sea.
هذا آخر الكلام على الجغرافيا وأقاليمها السبعة,This finishes the discussion of the world map with the seven zones.
وفي خلق السماوات والأرض واختلاف الليل والنهار لآيات للعالمين.,"In the creation of heaven and earth and the difference between night and day, there are signs for those who know."
المقدمة الثالثة,THIRD PREFATORY DISCUSSION
في المعتدل من الأقاليم والمنحرف وتأثير الهواء في ألوان البشر والكثير في أحوالهم,The temperate and the intemperate zones. The inuence of the air upon the color of human beings and upon many (other) aspects of their condition.
قد بينا أن المعمور من هذا المنكشف من الأرض إنما هو وسطه لإفراط الحر في الجنوب منه والبرد في الشمال.,"WE HAVE EXPLAINED that the cultivated region of that part of the earth which is not covered by water has its center toward the north, because of the excessive heat in the south and the excessive cold in the north."
ولما كان الجانبان من الشمال والجنوب متضادين من الحر والبرد وجب أن تتدرج الكيفية من كليهما إلى الوسط,"The north and the south represent opposite extremes of cold and heat. It necessarily follows that there must be a gradual decrease from the extremes toward the center,"
فيكون معتدلا فالإقليم الرابع أعدل العمران,"which, thus, is moderate. The fourth zone is the most temperate cultivated region."
والذي حافاته من الثالث والخامس أقرب إلى الاعتدال والذي يليهما والثاني والسادس بعيدان من الاعتدال والأول والسابع أبعد بكثير,"The bordering third and fifth zones are rather close to being temperate. The sixth and second zones which are adjacent to them are far from temperate, and the first and seventh zones still less so."
فلهذا كانت العلوم والصنائع والمباني والملابس والأقوات والفواكه بل والحيوانات وجميع ما يتكون في هذه الأقاليم الثلاثة المتوسطة مخصوصة بالاعتدال,"Therefore, the sciences, the crafts, the buildings, the clothing, the foodstuffs, the fruits, even the animals, and everything that comes into being in the three middle zones are distinguished by their temperate (well- proportioned character)."
وسكانها من البشر أعدل أجساما وألوانا وأخلاقا,"The human inhabitants of these zones are more temperate (well-proportioned) in their bodies, color, character qualities, and (general) conditions"
فتجدهم على غاية من التوسط في مساكنهم وملابسهم وأقواتهم وصنائعهم يتخذون البيوت المنجدة بالحجارة المنمقة بالصناعة,"They are found to be extremely moderate in their dwellings, clothing, foodstuffs, and crafts. They use houses that are well constructed of stone and embellished by craftsmanship."
ويتناغون في استجادة الآلات والمواعين,They rival each other in production of the very best tools and implements.
ويذهبون في ذلك إلى الغاية وتوجد لديهم المعادن الطبيعية من الذهب والفضة والحديد والنحاس والرصاص والقصدير ويتصرفون في معاملاتهم بالنقدين العزيزين,"Among them, one finds the natural minerals, such as gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, and tin. In their business dealings they use the two precious metals (gold and silver)."
ويبعدون عن الانحراف في عامة أحوالهم وهؤلاء أهل المغرب والشام والحجاز واليمن والعراقين والهند والسند والصين وكذلك الأندلس,"They avoid intemperance quite generally in all their conditions. Such are the inhabitants of the Maghrib, of Syria, the two ‘Iraqs, Western India (as-Sind), and China, as well as of Spain"
ومن قرب منها من الفرنجة والجلالقة والروم واليونانيين ومن كان مع هؤلاء أو قريبا منهم في هذه الأقاليم المعتدلة,"also the European Christians nearby, the Galicians, and all those who live together with these peoples or near them in the three temperate zones."
ولهذا كان العراق والشام أعدل هذه كلها لأنها وسط من جميع الجهات.,The ‘Iraq and Syria are directly in the middle and therefore are the most temperate of all these countries.
وأما الأقاليم البعيدة من الاعتدال مثل الأول والثاني والسادس والسابع فأهلها أبعد من الاعتدال في جميع أحوالهم,"The inhabitants of the zones that are far from temperate, such as the first, second, sixth, and seventh zones, are also farther removed from being temperate in all their conditions."
فبناؤهم بالطين والقصب وأقواتهم من الذرة والعشب وملابسهم من أوراق الشجر يخصفونها عليهم أو الجلود,"Their buildings are of clay and reeds. Their foodstuffs are durra and herbs. Their clothing is the leaves of trees, which they sew together to cover themselves, or animal skins."
وأكثرهم عرايا من اللباس وفواكه بلادهم وأدمها غريبة التكوين مائلة إلى الانحراف,Most of them go naked. The fruits and seasonings of their countries are strange and inclined to be intemperate.
ومعاملاتهم بغير الحجرين الشريفين من نحاس أو حديد أو جلود يقدرونها للمعاملات,"In their business dealings, they do not use the two noble metals, but copper, iron, or skins, upon which they set a value for the purpose of business dealings."
وأخلاقهم مع ذلك قريبة من خلق الحيوانات العجم حتى لينقل عن الكثير من السودان أهل الإقليم الأول أنهم يسكنون الكهوف والغياض ويأكلون العشب وأنهم متوحشون غير مستأنسين يأكل بعضهم بعضا,"Their qualities of character, moreover, are close to those of dumb animals. It has even been reported that most of the Negroes of the first zone dwell in caves and thickets, eat herbs, live in savage isolation and do not congregate, and eat each other."
وكذا الصقالبة والسبب في ذلك أنهم لبعدهم عن الاعتدال يقرب عرض أمزجتهم وأخلاقهم من عرض الحيوانات العجم ويبعدون عن الإنسانية بمقدار ذلك,"The same applies to the Slavs. The reason for this is that their remoteness from being temperate produces in them a disposition and character similar to those of the dumb animals, and they become correspondingly remote from humanity."
وكذلك أحوالهم في الديانة أيضا فلا يعرفون نبوة ولا يدينون بشريعة إلا من قرب منهم من جوانب الاعتدال,"The same also applies to their religious conditions. They are ignorant of prophecy and do not have a religious law, except for the small minority that lives near the temperate regions."
وهو في الأقل النادر مثل الحبشة المجاورين لليمن الدائنين بالنصرانية فيما قبل الإسلام وما بعده لهذا العهد,"(This minority includes,) for instance, the Abyssinians, who are neighbors of the Yemenites and have been Christians from pre-Islamic and Islamic times down to the present;"
ومثل أهل مالي وكوكو والتكرور المجاورين لأرض المغرب الدائنين بالإسلام لهذا العهد يقال إنهم دانوا به في المائة السابعة,"And the Mali, the Gawgaw, and the Takrur who live close to the Maghrib and, at this time, are Muslims. They are said to have adopted Islam in the seventh [thirteenth] century."
ومثل من دان بالنصرانية من أمم الصقالبة والإفرنجة والترك من الشمال,"Or, in the north, there are those Slav, European Christian, and Turkish nations that have adopted Christianity."
ومن سوى هؤلاء من أهل تلك الأقاليم المنحرفة جنوبا وشمالا فالدين مجهول عندهم والعلم مفقود بينهم,All the other inhabitants of the intemperate zones in the south and in the north are ignorant of all religion. (Religious) scholarship is lacking among them.
وجميع أحوالهم بعيدة من أحوال الأناسي قريبة من أحوال البهائم,All their conditions are remote from those of human beings and close to those of wild animals.
«ويخلق ما لا تعلمون 16: 8».,“And He creates what you do not know.”
ولا يعترض على هذا القول بوجود اليمن وحضرموت والأحقاف وبلاد الحجاز واليمامة وما يليها من جزيرة العرب في الإقليم الأول والثاني,"The (foregoing statement) is not contradicted by the existence of the Yemen, the Hadramawt, al-Ahqaf, the Hijaz, the Yamimah, and adjacent regions of the Arabian Peninsula in the first and second zones."
فإن جزيرة العرب كلها أحاطت بها البحار من الجهات الثلاث كما ذكرنا فكان لرطوبتها أثر في رطوبة هوائها,"As we have mentioned, the Arabian Peninsula is surrounded by the sea on three sides. The humidity of (the sea) influences the humidity in the air of (the Arabian Peninsula)."
فنقص ذلك من اليبس والانحراف الذي يقتضيه الحر وصار فيها بعض الاعتدال بسبب رطوبة البحر.,"This diminishes the dryness and intemperance that (otherwise) the heat would cause. Because of the humidity from the sea, the Arabian Peninsula is to some degree temperate."
وقد توهم بعض النسابين ممن لا علم لديه بطبائع الكائنات أن السودان هم ولد حام بن نوح,"Genealogists who had no knowledge of the true nature of things imagined that Negroes are the children of Ham, the son of Noah,"
اختصوا بلون السواد لدعوة كانت عليه من أبيه ظهر أثرها في لونه وفيما جعل الله من الرق في عقبه,"and that they were singled out to be black as the result of Noah’s curse, which produced Ham’s color and the slavery God inflicted upon his descendants."
وينقلون في ذلك حكاية من خرافات القصاص ودعاء نوح على ابنه حام قد وقع في التوراة وليس فيه ذكر السواد,It is mentioned in the Torah that Noah cursed his son Ham. No reference is made there to blackness.
وإنما دعا عليه بأن يكون ولده عبيدا لولد إخوته لا غير,The curse included no more than that Ham’s descendants should be the slaves of his brothers’ descendants.
وفي القول بنسبة السواد إلى حام غفلة عن طبيعة الحر والبرد وأثرهما في الهواء وفيما يتكون فيه من الحيوانات,"To attribute the blackness of the Negroes to Ham, reveals disregard of the true nature of heat and cold and of the influence they exercise upon the air (climate) and upon the creatures that come into being in it."
وذلك أن هذا اللون شمل أهل الإقليم الأول والثاني من مزاج هوائهم للحرارة المتضاعفة بالجنوب,"The black color (of skin) common to the inhabitants of the first and second zones is the result of the composition of the air in which they live, and which comes about under the influence of the greatly increased heat in the south."
فإن الشمس تسامت رءوسهم مرتين في كل سنة قريبة إحداهما من الأخرى فتطول المسامتة عامة الفصول,"The sun is at the zenith there twice a year at short intervals. In (almost) all seasons, the sun is in culmination for a long time."
فيكثر الضوء لأجلها ويلح القيظ الشديد عليهم وتسود جلودهم لإفراط الحر,"The light of the sun, therefore, is plentiful. People there have (to undergo) a very severe summer, and their skins turn black because of the excessive heat."
نظير هذين الإقليمين مما يقابلهما من الشمال الإقليم السابع والسادس,"Something similar happens in the two corresponding zones to the north, the seventh and sixth zones."
و شمل سكانهما أيضا البياض من مزاج هوائهم للبرد المفرط بالشمال,"There, a white color (of skin) is common among the inhabitants, likewise the result of the composition of the air in which they live, and which comes about under the influence of the excessive cold in the north."
إذ الشمس لا تزال بأفقهم في دائرة مرأى العين أو ما قرب منها,"The sun is always on the horizon within the visual field (of the human observer), or close to it."
ولا ترتفع إلى المسامتة ولا ما قرب منها فيضعف الحر فيها ويشتد البرد عامة الفصول,"It never ascends to the zenith, nor even (gets) close to it. The heat, therefore, is weak in this region, and the cold severe in (almost) all seasons."
فتبيض ألوان أهلها وتنتهي إلى الزعورة ويتبع ذلك ما يقتضيه مزاج البرد المفرط من زرقة العيون وبرش الجلود وصهوبة الشعور,"In consequence, the color of the inhabitants is white, and they tend to have little body hair. Further consequences of the excessive cold are blue eyes, freckled skin, and blond hair."
وتوسطت بينهما الأقاليم الثلاثة الخامس والرابع والثالث فكان لها في الاعتدال الذي هو مزاج المتوسط حظ وافر,"The fifth, fourth, and third zones occupy an intermediate position. They have an abundant share of temperance which is the golden mean."
والرابع أبلغها في الاعتدال غاية لنهايته في التوسط كما قدمناه,"The fourth zone, being the one most nearly in the center, is as temperate as can be. We have mentioned that before."
فكان لأهله من الاعتدال في خلقهم وخلقهم ما اقتضاه مزاج أهويتهم وتبعه من جانبيه الثالث والخامس وإن لم يبلغا غاية التوسط,"The physique and character of its inhabitants are temperate to the (high) degree necessitated by the composition of the air in which they live. The third and fifth zones lie on either side of the fourth, but they are less centrally located."
لميل هذا قليلا إلى الجنوب الحار وهذا قليلا إلى الشمال البارد إلا أنهما لم ينتهيا إلى الانحراف,"They are closer to the hot south beyond the third zone and the cold north beyond the fifth zone. However, they do not become intemperate."
وكانت الأقاليم الأربعة منحرفة وأهلها كذلك في خلقهم وخلقهم,"The four other zones are intemperate, and the physique and character of their inhabitants show it."
فالأول والثاني للحر والسواد والسابع للبرد والبياض ويسمى سكان الجنوب من الإقليمين الأول والثاني باسم الحبشة والزنج والسودان,"The first and second zones are excessively hot and black, and the sixth and seventh zones cold and white. The inhabitants of the first and second zones in the south are called the Abyssinians, the Zanj, and the Sudanese (Negroes)."
أسماء مترادفة على الأمم المتغيرة بالسواد,These are synonyms used to designate the (particular) nation that has turned black.
وإن كان اسم الحبشة مختصا منهم بمن تجاه مكة واليمن والزنج بمن تجاه بحر الهند,"The name “Abyssinians,” however, is restricted to those Negroes who live opposite Mecca and the Yemen, and the name “Zanj” is restricted to those who live along the Indian Sea."
وليست هذه الأسماء لهم من أجل انتسابهم إلى آدمي أسود لا حام ولا غيره,"These names are not given to them because of an (alleged) descent from a black human being, be it Ham or anyone else."
وقد نجد من السودان أهل الجنوب من يسكن الربع المعتدل أو السابع المنحرف إلى البياض فتبيض ألوان أعقابهم على التدريج مع الأيام,"Negroes from the south who settle in the temperate fourth zone or in the seventh zone that tends toward whiteness, are found to produce descendants whose color gradually turns white in the course of time."
وبالعكس فيمن يسكن من أهل الشمال أو الرابع بالجنوب فتسود ألوان أعقابهم وفي ذلك دليل على أن اللون تابع لمزاج الهواء,"Vice versa, inhabitants from the north or from the fourth zone who settle in the south produce descendants whose color turns black. This shows that color is conditioned by the composition of the air."
قال ابن سينا في أرجوزته في الطب,"In his rajaz poem on medicine, Avicenna said:"
بالزنج حر غير الأجسادا … حتى كسا جلودها سوادا,Where the Zanj live is a heat that changes their bodies Until their skins are covered all over with black.
والصقلب اكتسبت البياضا … حتى غدت جلودها بضاضا,The Slavs acquire whiteness Until their skins turn soft.
وأما أهل الشمال فلم يسموا باعتبار ألوانهم لأن البياض كان لونا لأهل تلك اللغة الواضعة للأسماء,"The inhabitants of the north are not called by their color, because the people who established the conventional meanings of words were themselves white."
فلم يكن فيه غرابة تحمل على اعتباره في التسمية لموافقته واعتياده,"Thus, whiteness was something usual and common (to them), and they did not see anything sufficiently remarkable in it to cause them to use it as a specific term."
ووجدنا سكانه من الترك والصقالبة والطغرغر والخزر واللان والكثير من الإفرنجة ويأجوج ومأجوج أسماء متفرقة وأجيالا متعددة مسمين بأسماء متنوعة,"Therefore, the inhabitants of the north, the Turks, the Slavs, the Tughuzghuz, the Khazars, the Alans, most of the European Christians, the Gog and Magog are found to be separate nations and numerous races called by a variety of names."
وأما أهل الأقاليم الثلاثة المتوسطة أهل الاعتدال في خلقهم وسيرهم,The inhabitants of the middle zones are temperate in their physique and character and in their ways of life.
وكافة الأحوال الطبيعية للاعتمار لديهم من المعاش والمساكن والصنائع والعلوم والرئاسات والملك,"They have all the natural conditions necessary for a civilized life, such as ways of making a living, dwellings, crafts, sciences, political leadership, and royal authority."
فكانت فيهم النبوءات والملك والدول والشرائع والعلوم والبلدان والأمصار والمباني والفراسة والصنائع الفائقة وسائر الأحوال المعتدلة,"They thus have had (various manifestations of) prophecy, religious groups, dynasties, religious laws, sciences, countries, cities, buildings, horticulture, splendid crafts, and everything else that is temperate."
وأهل هذه الأقاليم التي وقفنا على أخبارهم مثل العرب والروم وفارس وبني إسرائيل واليونان وأهل السند والهند والصين.,"Now, among the inhabitants of these zones about whom we have historical information are, for instance, the Arabs, the Byzantines (Rum), the Persians, the Israelites, the Greeks, the Indians, and the Chinese."
ولما رأى النسابون اختلاف هذه الأمم بسماتها وشعارها حسبوا ذلك لأجل الأنساب,"When genealogists noted differences between these nations, their distinguishing marks and characteristics, they considered these to be due to their (different) descents."
فجعلوا أهل الجنوب كلهم السودان من ولد حام وارتابوا في ألوانهم فتكلفوا نقل تلك الحكاية الواهية,They declared all the Negro inhabitants of the south to be descendants of Ham. They had misgivings about their color and therefore undertook to report the afore-mentioned silly story.
وجعلوا أهل الشمال كلهم أو أكثرهم من ولد يافث وأكثر الأمم المعتدلة وأهل الوسط المنتحلين للعلوم والصنائع والملل والشرائع والسياسة والملك من ولد سام,"They declared all or most of the inhabitants of the north to be the descendants of Japheth, and they declared most of the temperate nations, who inhabit the central regions, who cultivate the sciences and crafts, and who possess religious groups and religious laws as well as political leadership and royal authority, to be the descendants of Shem."
وهذا الزعم وإن صادف الحق في انتساب هؤلاء فليس ذلك بقياس مطرد إنما هو إخبار عن الواقع,"Even if the genealogical construction were correct, it would be the result of mere guesswork, not of cogent, logical argumentation. It would merely be a statement of fact."
لا أن تسمية أهل الجنوب بالسودان والحبشان من أجل انتسابهم إلى حام الأسود. وما أداهم إلى هذا الغلط إلا اعتقادهم أن التمييز بين الأمم إنما يقع بالأنساب فقط,It would not imply that the inhabitants of the south are called “Abyssinians” and “Negroes” because they are descended from “black” Ham. The genealogists were led into this error by their belief that the only reason for differences between nations is in their descent.
وليس كذلك فإن التمييز للجيل أو الأمة يكون بالنسب في بعضهم كما للعرب وبني إسرائيل والفرس,"This is not so. Distinctions between races or nations are in some cases due to a different descent, as in the case of the Arabs, the Israelites, and the Persians."
ويكون بالجهة والسمة كما للزنج والحبشة والصقالبة والسودان,"In other cases, they are caused by geographical location and (physical) marks, as in the case of the Zanj (Negroes), the Abyssinians, the Slavs, and the black (Sudanese) Negroes."
ويكون بالعوائد والشعار والنسب كما للعرب.,"Again, in other cases, they are caused by custom and distinguishing characteristics, as well as by descent, as in the case of the Arabs."
ويكون بغير ذلك من أحوال الأمم وخواصهم ومميزاتهم,"Or, they may be caused by anything else among the conditions, qualities, and features peculiar to the different nations."
فتعميم القول في أهل جهة معينة من جنوب أو شمال بأنهم من ولد فلان المعروف,But to generalize and say that the inhabitants of a specific geographical location in the south or in the north are the descendants of such-and-such a well-known person
لما شملهم من نحلة أو لون أو سمة وجدت لذلك الأب إنما هو من الأغاليط التي أوقع فيها الغفلة عن طبائع الأكوان والجهات,"because they have a common color, trait, or (physical) mark which that (alleged) forefather had, is one of those errors which are caused by disregard, (both) of the true nature of created beings and of geographical facts."
وإن هذه كلها تتبدل في الأعقاب ولا يجب استمرارها,(There also is disregard of the fact that the physical circumstances and environment) are subject to changes that affect later generations; they do not necessarily remain unchanged.
سنة الله في عباده ولن تجد لسنة الله تبديلا والله ورسوله أعلم بغيبه وأحكم وهو المولى المنعم الرؤوف الرحيم.,"This is how God proceeds with His servants. And verily, you will not be able to change God’s way."
المقدمة الرابعة,FOURTH PREFATORY DISCUSSION
في أثر الهواء في أخلاق البشر,The influence of the air (climate) upon human character.
قد رأينا من خلق السودان على العموم الخفة والطيش وكثرة الطرب,"WE HAVE SEEN that Negroes are in general characterized by levity, excitability, and great emotionalism."
فتجدهم مولعين بالرقص على كل توقيع موصوفين بالحمق في كل قطر,They are found eager to dance whenever they hear a melody. They are everywhere described as stupid.
والسبب الصحيح في ذلك أنه تقرر في موضعه من الحكمة أن طبيعة الفرح والسرور هي انتشار الروح الحيواني وتفشيه,"The real reason for these (opinions) is that, as has been shown by philosophers in the proper place, joy and gladness are due to expansion and diffusion of the animal spirit."
وطبيعة الحزن بالعكس وهو انقباضه وتكاثفه.,"Sadness is due to the opposite, namely, contraction and concentration of the animal spirit."
وتقرر أن الحرارة مفشية للهواء والبخار مخلخلة له زائدة في كميته,It has been shown that heat expands and rarefies air and vapors and increases their quantity.
ولهذا يجد المنتشي من الفرح والسرور ما لا يعبر عنه وذلك بما يداخل بخار الروح في القلب من الحرارة العزيزية التي تبعثها سورة الخمر في الروح من مزاجه فيتفشى الروح وتجيء طبيعة الفرح,"A drunken person experiences inexpressible joy and gladness, because the vapor of the spirit in his heart is pervaded by natural heat, which the power of the wine generates in his spirit. The spirit, as a result, expands, and there is joy."
وكذلك نجد المتنعمين بالحمامات إذا تنفسوا في هوائها واتصلت حرارة الهواء في أرواحهم فتسخنت لذلك حدث لهم فرح وربما انبعث الكثير منهم بالغناء الناشئ عن السرور.,"Likewise, when those who enjoy a hot bath inhale the air of the bath, so that the heat of the air enters their spirits and makes them hot, they are found to experience joy. It often happens that they start singing, as singing has its origin in gladness."
ولما كان السودان ساكنين في الإقليم الحار واستولى الحر على أمزجتهم وفي أصل تكوينهم,"Now, Negroes live in the hot zone (of the earth). Heat dominates their temperament and formation."
كان في أرواحهم من الحرارة على نسبة أبدانهم وإقليمهم فتكون أرواحهم,"Therefore, they have in their spirits an amount of heat corresponding to that in their bodies and that of the zone in which they live."
بالقياس إلى أرواح أهل الإقليم الرابع أشد حرا فتكون أكثر تفشيا فتكون أسرع فرحا وسرورا وأكثر انبساطا ويجيء الطيش على أثر هذه,"In comparison with the spirits of the inhabitants of the fourth zone, theirs are hotter and, consequently, more expanded. As a result, they are more quickly moved to joy and gladness, and they are merrier. Excitability is the direct consequence."
وكذلك يلحق بهم قليلا أهل البلاد البحرية,"In the same way, the inhabitants of coastal regions are somewhat similar to the inhabitants of the south."
لما كان هواؤها متضاعف الحرارة بما ينعكس عليه من أضواء بسيط البحر وأشعته,The air in which they live is very much hotter because of the reflection of the light and the rays of (the sun from) the surface of the sea.
كانت حصتهم من توابع الحرارة في الفرح والخفة موجودة أكثر من بلاد التلول والجبال الباردة,"Therefore, their share in the qualities resulting from heat, that is, joy and levity, is larger than that of the (inhabitants of) cold and hilly or mountainous countries."
وقد نجد يسيرا من ذلك في أهل البلاد الجزيرية من الإقليم الثالث لتوفر الحرارة فيها وفي هوائها لأنها عريقة في الجنوب عن الأرياف والتلول,"To a degree, this may be observed in the inhabitants of the Jarid in the third zone. The heat is abundant in it and in the air there, since it lies south of the coastal plains and hills."
واعتبر ذلك أيضا بأهل مصر فإنها مثل عرض البلاد الجزيرية أو قريبا منها كيف غلب الفرح عليهم والخفة والغفلة عن العواقب,"Another example is furnished by the Egyptians. Egypt lies at about the same latitude as the Jarid. The Egyptians are dominated by joyfulness, levity, and disregard for the future."
حتى أنهم لا يدخرون أقوات سنتهم ولا شهرهم وعامة مأكلهم من أسواقهم.,"They store no provisions of food, neither for a month nor a year ahead, but purchase most of it (daily) in the market."
ولما كانت فاس من بلاد المغرب بالعكس منها في التوغل في التلول الباردة كيف ترى أهلها مطرقين إطراق الحزن وكيف أفرطوا في نظر العواقب,"Fez in the Maghrib, on the other hand, lies inland (and is) surrounded by cold hills. Its inhabitants can be observed to look sad and gloomy and to be too much concerned for the future."
حتى إن الرجل منهم ليدخر قوت سنتين من حبوب الحنطة ويباكر الأسواق لشراء قوته ليومه مخافة أن يرزأ شيئا من مدخره,"Although a man in Fez might have provisions of wheat stored, sufficient to last him for years, he always goes to the market early to buy his food for the day, because he is afraid to consume any of his hoarded food."
وتتبع ذلك في الأقاليم والبلدان تجد في الأخلاق أثرا من كيفيات الهواء,"If one pays attention to this sort of thing in the various zones and countries, the influence of the varying quality of the air upon the character (of the inhabitants) will become apparent."
والله الخلاق العليم,"God is “the Creator, the Knowing One.”"
وقد تعرض المسعودي للبحث عن السبب في خفة السودان وطيشهم وكثرة الطرب فيهم وحاول تعليله,"Al-Masudi undertook to investigate the reason for the levity, excitability, and emotionalism in Negroes, and attempted to explain it."
فلم يأت بشيء أكثر من أنه نقل عن جالينوس ويعقوب بن إسحاق الكندي أن ذلك لضعف أدمغتهم وما نشأ عنه من ضعف عقولهم,"However, he did no better than to report, on the authority of Galen and Ya’qub b. Ishaq alKind!, that the reason is a weakness of their brains which results in a weakness of their intellect."
وهذا كلام لا محصل له ولا برهان فيه والله يهدي من يشاء إلى صراط مستقيم.,This is an inconclusive and unproven statement. “God guides whomever He wants to guide.”
المقدمة الخامسة,FIFTH PREFATORY DISCUSSION
في اختلاف أحوال العمران في الخصب والجوع وما ينشأ عن ذلك من الآثار في أبدان البشر وأخلاقهم,Differences with regard to abundance and scarcity of food in the various inhabited regions (‘umran) and how they affect the human body and character.
اعلم أن هذه الأقاليم المعتدلة ليس كلها يوجد بها الخصب ولا كل سكانها في رغد من العيش,"IT SHOULD BE KNOWN that not all the temperate zones have an abundance of food, nor do all their inhabitants lead a comfortable life."
بل فيها ما يوجد لأهله خصب العيش من الحبوب والأدم والحنطة والفواكه لزكاء المنابت واعتدال الطينة ووفور العمران,"In some parts, the inhabitants enjoy an abundance of grain, seasonings, wheat, and fruits, because the soil is well balanced and good for plants and there is an abundant civilization."
وفيها الأرض الحرة التي لا تنبت زرعا ولا عشبا بالجملة فسكانها في شظف من العيش,"And then, in other parts, the land is strewn with rocks, and no seeds or herbs grow at all. There, the inhabitants have a very hard time."
مثل أهل الحجاز وجنوب اليمن ومثل الملثمين من صنهاجة الساكنين بصحراء المغرب وأطراف الرمال فيما بين البربر والسودان,"Instances of such people are the inhabitants of the Hijaz and the Yemen, or the Veiled Sinhajah who live in the desert of the Maghrib on the fringes of the sandy deserts which lie be- tween the Berbers and the Sudanese Negroes."
فإن هؤلاء يفقدون الحبوب والأدم جملة وإنما أغذيتهم وأقواتهم الألبان واللحوم,All of them lack all grain and seasonings. Their nourishment and food is milk and meat.
ومثل العرب أيضا الجائلين في القفار فإنهم وإن كانوا يأخذون الحبوب والأدم من التلول إلا أن ذلك في الأحايين وتحت ربقة من حاميتها,"Another such people is the Arabs who roam the waste regions. They may get grain and seasonings from the hills, but this is the case only at certain times and is possible only under the eyes of the militia which protects (the hill country)."
وعلى الإقلال لقلة وجدهم فلا يتوصلون منه إلى سد الخلة أو دونها فضلا عن الرغد والخصب,"Whatever they get is little, because they have little money. They obtain no more than the bare necessity, and sometimes less, and in no case enough for a comfortable or abundant life."
وتجدهم يقتصرون في غالب أحوالهم على الألبان وتعوضهم من الحنطة أحسن معاض وتجد مع ذلك هؤلاء الفاقدين للحبوب والأدم من أهل القفار أحسن حالا في جسومهم وأخلاقهم من أهل التلول المنغمسين في العيش,"They are mostly found restricted to milk, which is for them a very good substitute for wheat. In spite of this, the desert people who lack grain and season body and better in character than the hill people who have plenty of everything."
فألوانهم أصفى وأبدانهم أنقى وأشكالهم أتم وأحسن وأخلاقهم أبعد من الانحراف وأذهانهم اثقب في المعارف والإدراكات هذا أمر تشهد له التجربة في كل جيل منهم,"Their complexions are clearer, their bodies cleaner, their figures more perfect and better, their characters less intemperate, and their minds keener as far as knowledge and perception are concerned. This is attested by experience in all these groups."
فكثير ما بين العرب والبربر فيما وصفناه وبين الملثمين وأهل التلول,"There is a great difference in this respect between the Arabs and Berbers (on the one hand), and the Veiled (Berbers) and the inhabitants of the hills (on the other)."
يعرف ذلك من خبره,This fact is known to those who have investigated the matter.
والسبب في ذلك والله أعلم أن كثرة الأغذية وكثرة الأخلاط الفاسدة العفنة ورطوباتها تولد في الجسم فضلات رديئة تنشأ عنها بعد- أفظارها- في غير نسبة,"As to the reason for it, it may be tentatively suggested that a great amount of food and the moisture it contains generate pernicious superfluous matters in the body, which, in turn, produce a disproportionate widening of the body, as well as many corrupt, putrid humors."
ويتبع ذلك انكساف الألوان وقبح الأشكال من كثرة اللحم كما قلناه,"The result is a pale complexion and an ugly figure, because the person has too much flesh, as we have stated."
وتغطي الرطوبات على الأذهان والأفكار بما يصعد إلى الدماغ من أبخرتها الردية,"When the moisture with its evil vapors ascends to the brain, the mind and the ability to think are dulled."
فتجيء البلادة والغفلة والانحراف عن الاعتدال بالجملة واعتبر ذلك في حيوان القفر ومواطن الجدب,"The result is stupidity, carelessness, and a general intemperance. This can be exemplified by comparing the animals of waste regions and barren habitats,"
من الغزال والنعام والمها والزرافة والحمر الوحشية والبقر مع أمثالها من حيوان التلول والأرياف والمراعي الخصبة,"such as gazelles, wild cows (maha), ostriches, giraffes, onagers, and (wild) buffaloes (cows, bagar), with their counterparts among the animals that live in hills, coastal plains, and fertile pastures."
كيف تجد بينها بونا بعيدا في صفاء أديمها وحسن رونقها وأشكالها وتناسب أعضائها وحدة مداركها,"There is a big difference between them with regard to the glossiness of their coat, their shape and appearance, the proportions of their limbs, and their sharpness of perception."
فالغزال أخو المعز والزرافة أخو البعير والحمار والبقر أخو الحمار والبقر والبون بينها,"The gazelle is the counterpart of the goat, and the giraffe that of the camel; the onagers and (wild) buffaloes (cows) are identical with (domestic) donkeys and oxen (and cows)."
ما رأيت وما ذاك إلا لأجل أن الخصب في التلول فعل في أبدان هذه من الفضلات الردية والأخلاط الفاسدة ما ظهر عليها أثره,"Still, there is a wide difference between them. The only reason for it is the fact that the abundance of food in the hills produces pernicious superfluous matters and corrupt humors in the bodies of the domestic animals, the influence of which shows on them."
والجوع لحيوان القفر حسن في خلقها وأشكالها ما شاء,"Hunger, on the other hand, may greatly improve the physique and shape of the animals of the waste regions."
واعتبر ذلك في الآدميين أيضا فإنا نجد أهل الأقاليم المخصبة العيش الكثيرة الزرع والضرع والأدم والفواكه يتصف أهلها غالبا بالبلادة في أذهانهم والخشونة في أجسامهم,"The same observations apply to human beings. We find that the inhabitants of fertile zones where the products of agriculture and animal husbandry as well as seasonings and fruits are plentiful, are, as a rule, described as stupid in mind and coarse in body."
وهذا شان البربر المنغمسين في الأدم والحنطة مع المتقشفين في عيشهم المقتصرين على الشعير أو الذرة مثل المصامدة منهم وأهل غمارة والسوس,"This is the case with those Berbers who have plenty of seasonings and wheat, as compared with those who lead a frugal life and are restricted to barley or durra, such as the Masmudah Berbers and the inhabitants of as-Sus and the Ghumarah."
فتجد هؤلاء أحسن حالا في عقولهم وجسومهم وكذا أهل بلاد المغرب على الجملة المنغمسين في الأدم والبر مع أهل الأندلس المفقود بأرضهم السمن حملة وغالب عيشهم الذرة,"The latter are superior both intellectually and physically. The same applies in general to the inhabitants of the Maghrib who have plenty of seasonings and fine wheat, as compared with the inhabitants of Spain in whose country butter is altogether lacking and whose principal food is durra."
فتجد لأهل الأندلس من ذكاء العقول وخفة الأجسام وقبول التعليم ما لا يوجد لغيرهم,"The Spaniards are found to have a sharpness of intellect, a nimbleness of body, and a receptivity for instruction such as no one else has."
وكذا أهل الضواحي من المغرب بالجملة مع أهل الحضر والأمصار,The same also applies to the inhabitants of rural regions of the Maghrib as compared with the inhabitants of settled areas and cities.
فإن الأمصار وإن كانوا مكثرين مثلهم من الأدم ومخصبين في العيش إلا أن استعمالهم إياها بعد العلاج بالطبخ والتلطيف بما يخلطون معها,"Both use many seasonings and live in abundance, but the town dwellers only use them after they have been prepared and cooked and softened by admixtures."
فيذهب لذلك غلظها ويرق قوامها وعامة مآكلهم لحوم الضأن والدجاج,They thus lose their heaviness and become less substantial. Principal foods are the meat of sheep and chickens.
ولا يغبطون السمن من بين الأدم لتفاهته,They thus lose their heaviness and become less substantial. Principal foods are the meat of sheep and chickens. They do not use butter because of its tastelessness.
فتقل الرطوبات لذلك في أغذيتهم ويخف ما تؤديه إلى أجسامهم من الفضلات الردية,"Therefore the moisture in their food is small, and it brings only a few pernicious superfluous matters into their bodies."
فلذلك تجد جسوم أهل الأمصار ألطف من جسوم البادية المخشنين في العيش,"Consequently, the bodies of the urban population are found to be more delicate than those of the inhabitants of the desert who live a hard life."
وكذلك تجد المعودين بالجوع من أهل البادية لا فضلات في جسومهم غليظة ولا لطيفة.,"Likewise, those inhabitants of the desert who are used to hunger are found to have in their bodies no superfluous matters, thick or thin."
واعلم أن أثر هذا الخصب في البدن وأحواله يظهر حتى في حال الدين والعبادة,It should be known that the influence of abundance upon the body is apparent even in matters of religion and divine worship.
فنجد المتقشفين من أهل البادية أو الحاضرة ممن يأخذ نفسه بالجوع والتجافي عن الملاذ أحسن دينا وإقبالا على العبادة من أهل الترف والخصب,The frugal inhabitants of the desert and those of settled areas who have accustomed themselves to hunger and to abstinence from pleasures are found to be more religious and more ready for divine worship than people who live in luxury and abundance.
بل نجد أهل الدين قليلين في المدن والأمصار لما يعمها من القساوة والغفلة المتصلة بالإكثار من اللحمان والأدم ولباب البر,"Indeed, it can be observed that there are few religious people in towns and cities, in as much as people there are for the most part obdurate and careless, which is connected with the use of much meat, seasonings, and fine wheat."
ويختص وجود العباد والزهاد لذلك بالمتقشفين في غذائهم من أهل البوادي,"The existence of pious men and ascetics is, therefore, restricted to the desert, whose inhabitants eat frugally."
وكذلك نجد هؤلاء المخصبين في العيش المنغمسين في طيباته من أهل البادية ومن أهل الحواضر والأمصار,"It can also be noted that those people who, whether they inhabit the desert or settled areas and cities, live a life of abundance and have all the good things to eat,"
إذا نزلت بهم السنون وأخذتهم المجاعات يسرع إليهم الهلاك أكثر من غيرهم,die more quickly than others when a drought or famine comes upon them.
مثل برابرة المغرب وأهل مدينة فاس ومصر,"This is the case, for instance, with the Berbers of the Maghrib and the inhabitants of the city of Fez and, as we hear, of Egypt (Cairo)."
فيما يبلغنا لا مثل العرب أهل القفر والصحراء ولا مثل أهل بلاد النخل الذين غالب عيشهم التمر,"It is not so with the Arabs who inhabit waste regions and deserts, or with the inhabitants of regions where the date palm grows and whose principal food is dates,"
ولا مثل أهل إفريقية لهذا العهد الذين غالب عيشهم الشعير والزيت وأهل الأندلس الذين غالب عيشهم الذرة والزيت,"or with the present-day inhabitants of Ifriqiyah whose principal food is barley and olive oil, or with the inhabitants of Spain whose principal food is durra and olive oil."
فإن هؤلاء وإن أخذتهم السنون والمجاعات فلا تنال منهم ما تنال من أولئك ولا يكثر فيهم الهلاك بالجوع,"When a drought or a famine strikes them, it does not kill as many of them as of the other group of people, and few, if any, die of hunger."
بل ولا يندر والسبب في ذلك والله أعلم أن المنغمسين في الخصب,"As a reason for that, it may tentatively be suggested that the stomachs of those who have everything in abundance and are used to seasonings and,"
المتعودين للأدم والسمن خصوصا تكتسب من ذلك أمعاؤهم رطوبة فوق رطوبتها الأصلية المزاجية حتى تجاوز حدها,"in particular, to butter, acquire moisture in addition to their basic constitutional moisture, and (the moisture they are used to) eventually becomes excessive."
فإذا خولف بها العادة بقلة الأقوات وفقدان الأدم واستعمال الخشن غير المألوف من الغذاء أسرع إلى المعى اليبس والانكماش وهو ضعيف في الغاية,"Then, when (eating) habits are thwarted by small quantities of food, by lack of seasonings, and by the use of coarse food to which it is unaccustomed, the stomach, which is a very weak part of the body and for that reason considered one of the vital parts,"
فيسرع إليه المرض ويهلك صاحبه دفعة لأنه من المقاتل,soon dries out and contracts. Sickness and sudden death are prompt consequences to the man whose stomach is in this condition.
فالهالكون في المجاعات إنما قتلهم الشبع المعتاد السابق لا الجوع الحادث اللاحق. وأما المتعودون لقلة الأدم والسمن فلا تزال رطوبتهم الأصلية واقفة عند حدها من غير زيادة,"Those who die satiation, not of the hunger that now afflicts them for the first time. In those who are accustomed to thirst and to doing without seasonings and butter, the basic moisture, which is good for all natural foods, always stays within its proper limits and does not increase."
وهي قابلة لجميع الأغذية الطبيعية فلا يقع في معاهم بتبدل الأغذية يبس ولا انحراف,"Thus, their stomachs are not affected by dryness or intemperance in consequence of a change of nourishment."
فيسلمون في الغالب من الهلاك الذي يعرض لغيرهم بالخصب وكثرة الأدم في المآكل,"As a rule, they escape the fate that awaits others on account of the abundance of their food and the great amount of seasonings in it."
وأصل هذا كله أن تعلم أن الأغذية وائتلافها أو تركها إنما هو بالعادة,"The basic thing to know is that foodstuffs, and whether to use or not to use them, are matters of custom."
فمن عود نفسه غذاء ولاءمه تناوله كان له مألوفا وصار الخروج عنه والتبدل به داء,"Whoever accustoms himself to a particular type of food that agrees with him becomes used to it. He finds it painful to give it up or to make any changes (in his diet),"
ما لم يخرج عن غرض الغذاء بالجملة كالسموم واليتوع وما أفرط في الانحراف,"provided (the type of food) is not something that does not fulfill the (real) purpose of food, such as poison, or alkaloids, or anything excessively intemperate."
فأما ما وجد فيه التغذي والملاءمة فيصير غذاء مألوفا بالعادة,Whatever can be used as food and is agreeable may be used as customary food.
فإذا أخذ الإنسان نفسه باستعمال اللبن والبقل عوضا عن الحنطة حتى صار له ديدنا فقد حصل له ذلك غذاء واستغنى به عن الحنطة والحبوب من غير شك,"If a man accustoms himself to the use of milk and vegetables instead of wheat, until (the use of them) gets to be his custom, milk and vegetables become for him (his habitual) food, and he definitely has no longer any need for wheat or grains."
وكذا من عود نفسه الصبر على الجوع والاستغناء عن الطعام كما ينقل عن أهل الرياضيات فإنا نسمع عنهم في ذلك أخبارا غريبة,The same applies to those who have accustomed themselves to suffer hunger and do without food. Such things are reported about trained (ascetics). We hear remarkable things about men of this type.
يكاد ينكرها من لا يعرفها والسبب في ذلك العادة,Those who have no knowledge of things of the sort can scarcely believe them. The explanation lies in custom.
فإن النفس إذا ألفت شيئا صار من جبلتها وطبيعتها لأنها كثيرة التلون فإذا حصل لها اعتياد الجوع بالتدريج والرياضة فقد حصل ذلك عادة طبيعية لها,"Once the soul gets used to something, it becomes part of its make-up and nature, because (the soul) is able to take on many colorings. If through gradual training it has become used to hunger, (hunger) becomes a natural custom of the soul."
وما يتوهمه الأطباء من أن الجوع مهلك فليس على ما يتوهمونه إلا إذا حملت النفس عليه دفعة وقطع عنها الغذاء بالكلية فإنه حينئذ ينحسم المعاء ويناله المرض الذي يخشى معه الهلاك,"The assumption of physicians that hunger causes death is not correct, except when a person is exposed suddenly to hunger and is entirely cut off from food. Then, the stomach is isolated, and contracts an illness that may be fatal."
وأما إذا كان ذلك القدر تدريجا ورياضة بإقلال الغذاء شيئا فشيئا كما يفعله المتصوفة فهو بمعزل عن الهلاك وهذا التدريج ضروري حتى في الرجوع عن هذه الرياضة فإنه إذا رجع به إلى الغذاء الأول دفعة خيف عليه الهلاك وإنما يرجع به كما بدأ في الرياضة بالتدريج ولقد شاهدنا من يصبر على الجوع أربعين يوما وصالا وأكثر,"When, however, the amount of food one eats is slowly decreased by gradual training, there is no danger of death. The adepts of Sufism practice (such gradual abstinence from food). Gradualness is also necessary when one gives up the training. Were a person suddenly to return to his original diet, he might die. Therefore, he must end the training as he started it, that is, gradually. We personally saw a person who had taken no food for forty or more consecutive days."
وحضر أشياخنا بمجلس السلطان أبي الحسن وقد رفع إليه امرأتان من أهل الجزيرة الخضراء ورندة حبستا أنفسهما عن الأكل جملة منذ سنين وشاع أمرهما ووقع اختبارهما فصح شأنهما واتصل على ذلك حالهما إلى أن ماتتا,"Our shaykhs were present at the court of Sultan Abul-Hasan when two women from Algeciras and Ronda were presented to him, who had for years abstained from all food. Their story became known. They were examined, and the matter was found to be correct. The women continued this way until they died."
ورأينا كثيرا من أصحابنا أيضا من يقتصر على حليب شاة من المعز يلتقم ثديها في بعض النهار أو عند الإفطار ويكون ذلك غذاءه واستدام على ذلك خمس عشرة سنة وغيرهم كثير ولا يستنكر ذلك,Many persons we used to know restricted themselves to (a diet of) goat’s milk. They drank from the udder sometime during the day or at breakfast. This was their only food for fifteen years. There are many others (who live similarly). It should not be considered unlikely.
واعلم أن الجوع أصلح للبدن من إكثار الأغذية بكل وجه لمن قدر عليه أو على الإقلال منها وإن له أثرا في الأجسام والعقول في صفائها وصلاحها كما قلناه,"It should be known that everybody who is able to suffer hunger or eat only little, is physically better off if he stays hungry than if he eats too much. Hunger has a favorable influence on the health and well-being of body and intellect, as we have stated."
واعتبر ذلك بآثار الأغذية التي تحصل عنها في الجسوم فقد رأينا المتغذين بلحوم الحيوانات الفاخرة العظيمة الجثمان تنشأ أجيالهم كذلك,"This may be exemplified by the different influence of various kinds of food upon the body. We observe that those persons who live on the meat of strong, large- bodied animals grow up as a (strong and large-bodied) race."
وهذا مشاهد في أهل البادية مع أهل الحاضرة وكذا المتغذون بألبان الإبل ولحومها أيضا مع ما يؤثر في أخلاقهم من الصبر والاحتمال والقدرة على حمل الأثقال الموجود ذلك للإبل,"Comparison of the inhabitants of the desert with those of settled areas shows this. The same applies to persons who live on the milk and meat of camels. This influences their character, so that they become patient, persevering, and able to carry loads, as is the case with camels."
وتنشأ أمعاؤهم أيضا على نسبة أمعاء الإبل في الصحة والغلظ فلا يطرقها الوهن ولا ينالها من مدار الأغذية ما ينال غيرهم,"Their stomachs also grow to be healthy and tough as the stomachs of camels. They are not beset by any feebleness or weakness, nor are they affected by unwholesome food, as others are."
فيشربون اليتوعات لاستطلاق بطونهم غير محجوبة كالحنظل قبل طبخه والدرياس والقربيون ولا ينال أمعاءهم منها ضرر,"They may take strong (alkaloid) cathartics unadulterated to purify their bellies, such as, for instance, unripe colocynths, Thapsia garganica, and Euphorbia. Their stomachs do not suffer any harm from them."
وهي لو تناولها أهل الحضر الرقيقة أمعاؤهم بما نشأت عليه من لطيف الأغذية لكان الهلاك أسرع إليهم من طرفة العين لما فيها من السمية,"But if the inhabitants of settled areas, whose stomachs have become delicate because of their soft diet, were to partake of them, death would come to them instantly, because (these cathartics) have poisonous qualities."
ومن تأثير الأغذية في الأبدان ما ذكره أهل الفلاحة وشاهده أهل التجربة أن الدجاج إذا غذيت بالحبوب المطبوخة في بعر الإبل واتخذ بيضها ثم حضنت عليه جاء الدجاج منها أعظم ما يكون,"An indication of the influence of food upon the body is a fact that has been mentioned by agricultural scholars and observed by men of experience, that when the eggs of chickens which have been fed on grain cooked in camel dung, are set to hatch, the chicks come out as large as can be imagined."
وقد يستغنون عن تغذيتها وطبخ الحبوب بطرح ذلك البعر مع البيض المحضن فيجيء دجاجها في غاية العظم,"One does not even have to cook any grain to feed them; one merely smears camel dung on the eggs set to hatch, and the chickens that come out are extremely large."
وأمثال ذلك كثيرة فإذا رأينا هذه الآثار من الأغذية في الأبدان فلا شك أن للجوع أيضا آثارا في الأبدان لأن الضدين على نسبة واحدة في التأثير وعدمه,"There are many similar things. When we observe the various ways in which food exercises an influence upon bodies, there can be no doubt that hunger also exercises an influence upon them, because two opposites follow the same pattern with regard to exercising an influence or not exercising an influence."
فيكون تأثير الجوع في نقاء الأبدان من الزيادات الفاسدة والرطوبات المختلطة المخلة بالجسم والعقل كما كان الغذاء مؤثرا في وجود ذلك الجسم والله محيط بعلمه.,"Hunger influences the body in that it keeps it free from corrupt superfluities and mixed fluids that destroy body and intellect, in the same way that food influenced the (original) existence of the body. God is omniscient."
المقدمة السادسة في أصناف المدركين من البشر بالفطرة أو الرياضة ويتقدمه الكلام في الوحي والرؤيا,"SIXTH PREFATORY DISCUSSION
The various types of human beings who have supernatural perception either through natural disposition or through exercise, preceded by a discussion of inspiration and dream visions."
اعلم أن الله سبحانه اصطفى من البشر أشخاصا فضلهم بخطابه وفطرهم على معرفته وجعلهم وسائل بينهم وبين عباده,IT SHOULD BE KNOWN that God has chosen certain individuals. He honored them by addressing (them). He created them so that they might know Him. He made them connecting links between Himself and His servants.
يعرفونهم بمصالحهم ويحرضونهم على هدايتهم ويأخذون بحجزاتهم عن النار ويدلونهم على طريق النجاة,(These individuals) are to acquaint their fellow men with what is good for them and to urge them to let themselves be guided aright. They are to make it their task to keep (their fellow men) out of the fire of Hell and to show them the path to salvation.
وكان فيما يلقيه إليهم من المعارف ويظهره على ألسنتهم من الخوارق والأخبار الكائنات المغيبة عن البشر التي لا سبيل إلى معرفتها إلا من الله بوساطتهم ولا يعلمونها إلا بتعليم الله إياهم,"The knowledge that God gave these individuals, and the wonders He manifested through their statements, indicated that there exist things beyond the reach of man, that can be learned only from God through the mediation of (these individuals), and that (these individuals themselves) cannot know unless God instructs them in them."
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم ألا وإني لا أعلم إلا ما علمني الله واعلم أن خبرهم في ذلك من خاصيته وضرورته الصدق لما يتبين لك عند بيان حقيقة النبوة,"Muhammad said: “Indeed, I know only what God taught me.” It should be known that the information they give is intrinsically and necessarily true, as will become clear when the reality of prophecy is explained."
وعلامة هذا الصنف من البشر أن توجد لهم في حال الوحي غيبة عن الحاضرين معهم مع غطيط كأنها غشي أو إغماء في رأي العين وليست منهما في شيء,"The sign by which this type of human being can be recognized is that, in the state of inspiration, they seem to be removed from those who are present. This is accompanied by a feeling of being choked that looks like swooning or unconsciousness but has nothing to do with either."
وإنما هي في الحقيقة استغراق في لقاء الملك الروحاني بإدراكهم المناسب لهم الخارج عن مدارك البشر بالكلية ثم يتنزل إلى المدارك البشرية إما بسماع دوي من الكلام فيتفهمه أو يتمثل له صورة شخص يخاطبه بما جاء به من عند الله ثم تنجلي عنه تلك الحال وقد وعى ما ألقي إليه,"In reality, it is an immersion in (and) encounter with the spiritual kingdom, the result of perceptions congenial to them but entirely foreign to the (ordinary) perceptions of men. (These extraordinary perceptions) are then brought down to the level of human perceptions in the form of some speech sound the person (who receives the revelation) hears and is able to to understand, or in the form of an individual delivering the divine message to him. This state (of remoteness) then leaves him, but he retains the content of the given revelation."
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم وقد سئل عن الوحي «أحيانا يأتيني مثل صلصلة الجرس وهو أشده علي فيفصم عني وقد وعيت ما قال وأحيانا يتمثل لي الملك رجلا فيكلمني فأعي ما يقول» ويدركه أثناء ذلك من الشدة والغط ما لا يعبر عنه ففي الحديث كان مما يعالج من التنزيل شدة,"When Muhammad was asked about revelation, he said: “At times, it comes to me like the ringing of a bell. This affects me most. When it leaves me, I have retained what was said. At other times, the angel appears to me in the form of a man. He talks to me, and I retain the things he says.” During that (process, the person who receives the revelation) shows inexplicable signs of strain and choking. A tradition says: “There was some anxiety in connection with the revelation that he had to calm."
وقالت عائشة كان ينزل عليه الوحي في اليوم الشديد البرد فيفصم عنه وإن جبينه ليتفصد عرقا,"‘A’ishah said: “The revelation would come to him on very cold days. Nevertheless, when it left him, there was sweat on his forehead.”"
وقال تعالى «إنا سنلقي عليك قولا ثقيلا 73: 5»,God says in the Qur’an: “We shall lay upon you a heavy message.”
ولأجل هذه الغاية في تنزل الوحي كان المشركون يرمون الأنبياء بالجنون ويقولون له رئي أو تابع من الجن وإنما لبس عليهم بما شاهدوه من ظاهر تلك الأحوال,"Because the act of receiving revelations leads to such conditions, the polytheists used to accuse the prophets of being possessed (by jinn). They said: “He has a jinni as his doubleganger, or companion.” The outward appearance of the condition they observed misled them."
ومن يضلل الله فما له من هاد.,“He whom God leads astray has no guide.”
ومن علاماتهم أيضا أنه يوجد لهم قبل الوحي خلق الخير والزكاء ومجانبة المذمومات والرجس أجمع,"Another sign by which inspired human beings can be recognized is the fact that (even) before receiving revelations, they are good, innocent, and averse to any blameworthy, sinful action."
وهذا هو معنى العصمة وكأنه مفطور على التنزه عن المذمومات والمنافرة لها وكأنها منافية لجبلته,"This is what is meant by ‘ismah (immunity from sin and error, infallibility). It looks as if, by nature, they were disposed to avoid and shun blameworthy actions, and as if such actions were the negation of their very nature."
وفي الصحيح أنه حمل الحجارة وهو غلام مع عمه العباس لبناء الكعبة فجعلها في إزاره فانكشف فسقط مغشيا عليه حتى استتر بإزاره,"According to (the sound tradition of) the Sahih, when Muhammad was a young man he carried stones with his uncle al-‘Abbas for the restoration of the Ka’bah. He was carrying them in his cloak, and thus, he was undressed. (As this was unbecoming,) he fell down in a swoon that lasted until he was covered with his cloak."
ودعي إلى مجتمع وليمة فيها عرس ولعب فأصابه غشي النوم إلى أن طلعت الشمس ولم يحضر شيئا من شأنهم,"(On another occasion,) he was invited to a wedding party where there was much merrymaking. He fell fast asleep, and slept until the sun rose. Thus, he had nothing to do with the things the others did on that occasion."
بل نزهه الله عن ذلك كله حتى إنه بجبلته يتنزه عن المطعومات المستكرهة فقد كان صلى الله عليه وسلم لا يقرب البصل والثوم فقيل له في ذلك فقال إني أناجي من لا تناجون,"God kept him from all that. It was his nature. He even avoided food that was considered objectionable. Thus, he never touched onions or garlic. When he was asked about it, he said: “I communicate with One with whom you do not communicate.”"
وانظر لما أخبر النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم خديجة رضي الله عنها بحال الوحي أول ما فجأته وأرادت اختباره فقالت اجعلني بينك وبين ثوبك فلما فعل ذلك ذهب عنه فقالت إنه ملك وليس بشيطان ومعناه أنه لا يقرب النساء,"Attention should be paid (in this connection) to what Muhammad told Khadijah about the revelation when he first experienced it, and she wanted to know what it was like. She asked him to embrace her, and when he did so, it left him. Khadijah, thereupon, said that it was an angel, and not a devil, meaning that (a devil) would not come close to a woman."
وكذلك سألته عن أحب الثياب إليه أن يأتيه فيها فقال البياض والخضرة فقالت إنه الملك يعني أن البياض والخضرة من ألوان الخير والملائكة والسواد من ألوان الشر والشياطين وأمثال ذلك.,"She also asked him what garments he liked best (for the angel) to wear during the revelation, and he replied, “White and green ones.” Whereupon Khadijah said that it was an angel, meaning that green and white are the colors of goodness and of the angels. Black, on the other hand, is the color of evil and of the devils. There are other such stories."
ومن علاماتهم أيضا دعاؤهم إلى الدين والعبادة من الصلاة والصدقة والعفاف,"Another sign by which (inspired human beings can be recognized) is the fact that they make propaganda for religion and divine worship by means of prayer, almsgiving, and chastity."
وقد استدلت خديجة على صدقه صلى الله عليه وسلم بذلك وكذلك أبو بكر ولم يحتاجا في أمره إلى دليل خارج عن حاله وخلقه,"Khadijah, as well as Abu Bakr, took that (conduct) as proof of Muhammad’s truthfulness. They did not need any further proof of his mission beyond his conduct and character."
وفي الصحيح أن هرقل حين جاءه كتاب النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم يدعوه إلى الإسلام أحضر من وجد ببلده من قريش وفيهم أبو سفيان ليسألهم عن حاله فكان فيما سأل أن قال بم يأمركم,"According to (the sound tradition of) the Sahih, when Heraclius received the Prophet’s letter in which he was asked to become a Muslim, he is said to have called the Qurashites who could be found in his country, among them Abu Sufyan, and to have asked them about Muhammad’s condition. One of the questions he asked concerned the things Muhammad commanded them to do."
فقال أبو سفيان بالصلاة والزكاة والصلة والعفاف إلى آخر ما سأل فأجابه,"Abu Sufyan’s reply was: “Prayer, almsgiving, gifts, and chastity.” Similar replies were given to all the other questions Heraclius asked."
فقال إن يكن ما تقول حقا فهو نبي وسيملك ما تحت قدمي هاتين,"Heraclius’ comment was: “If it is all really as you say, he is a prophet and he will take possession of this very ground upon which I am standing.”"
والعفاف الذي أشار إليه هرقل هو العصمة فانظر كيف أخذ من العصمة والدعاء إلى الدين والعبادة دليلا على صحة نبوته ولم يحتج إلى معجزة فدل على أن ذلك من علامات النبوة.,"The “chastity” to which Heraclius referred is ‘ismah (immunity from sin and error, infallibility). It is worth noting that Heraclius considered ‘ismah and propaganda for religion and divine worship as proofs of the genuineness of a prophetical mission, and did not require a miracle. This story, therefore, is proof that these qualities are among the signs of prophecy."
ومن علاماتهم أيضا أن يكونوا ذوي حسب في قومهم,Another sign by which (inspired human beings can be recognized) is the fact that they have prestige among their people.
وفي الصحيح ما بعث الله نبيا إلا في منعة من قومه,"According to (the sound tradition of) the Sahih, God “sent no prophet who did not enjoy the protection of his people.”"
وفي رواية أخرى في ثروة من قومه استدركه الحاكم على الصحيحين وفي مسألة هرقل لأبي سفيان كما هو في الصحيح قال كيف هو فيكم فقال أبو سفيان هو فينا ذو حسب فقال هرقل والرسل تبعث في أحساب قومها,"Another recension reads: “. . . who did not enjoy wealth among his people.” This is al-Hakim’s correction of the two Sahihs According to (the sound tradition of) the Sahih, Abu Sufyan replied to Heraclius’ question concerning Muhammad’s standing among the Qurashites, (by saying) that he had prestige among them. Whereupon Heraclius said, “Whenever messengers are sent, they have prestige among their people.”"
ومعناه أن تكون له عصبة وشوكة تمنعه عن أذى الكفار حتى يبلغ رسالة ربه ويتم مراد الله من إكمال دينه وملته.,"That means that (such a man) has group feeling and influence which protect him from harm at the hands of unbelievers, until he has delivered the messages of his Lord and achieved the degree of complete perfection with respect to his religion and religious organization that God intended for him."
ومن علاماتهم أيضا وقوع الخوارق لهم شاهدة بصدقهم وهي أفعال يعجز البشر عن مثلها فسميت بذلك معجزة,"Another sign by which (inspired human beings can be recognized) is that they work wonders which attest to their truthfulness. “Wonders” are actions the like of which it is impossible for other human beings to achieve. They are, therefore, called “miracles.”"
وليست من جنس مقدور العباد وإنما تقع في غير محل قدرتهم وللناس في كيفية وقوعها ودلالتها على تصديق الأنبياء خلاف,"They are not within the ability of men, but beyond their power. There is a difference of opinion as to how they occur and as to how they prove the truth of the prophets."
فالمتكلمون بناء على القول بالفاعل المختار قائلون بأنها واقعة بقدرة الله لا بفعل النبي,"Speculative theologians base themselves on the doctrine of the “voluntary agent” and say that miracles occur through the power of God, and not through the action of the prophet."
وإن كانت أفعال العباد عند المعتزلة صادرة عنهم إلا أن المعجزة لا تكون من جنس أفعالهم,"The Mu’tazilah maintain that human actions proceed from man himself. Still, miracles do not belong to the type of actions that human beings perform."
وليس للنبي فيها عند سائر المتكلمين إلا التحدي بها بإذن الله وهو أن يستدل بها النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم قبل وقوعها على صدقه في مدعاه,"According to all (schools), the prophet’s place in the performance of miracles is (circumscribed by) the “advance challenge” (tahaddi) which he offers by divine permission. That is, the prophet uses the miracles before they occur as proof of the truth of his claims."
فإذا وقعت تنزلت منزلة القول الصريح من الله بأنه صادق وتكون دلالتها حينئذ على الصدق قطعية فالمعجزة الدالة بمجموع الخارق والتحدي ولذلك كان التحدي جزءا منها,"They thus take the place of an explicit statement from God to the effect that a particular prophet is truthful, and they are definite proof of the truth. An evidential miracle is the combination of a “wonder” and the “advance challenge” (tahaddi) that (announces) it. Therefore, the latter constitutes part of the miracle."
وعبارة المتكلمين صفة نفسها وهو واحد لأنه معنى الذاتي عندهم والتحدي هو الفارق بينها وبين الكرامة والسحر إذ لا حاجة فيهما إلى التصديق فلا وجود للتحدي إلا إن وجد اتفاقا وإن وقع التحدي في الكرامة عند من يجيزها وكانت لها دلالة فإنما هي على الولاية وهي غير النبوة,"The notion of the speculative theologians (concerning the “voluntary agent”) is self-explanatory. (The “voluntary agent”) is (just) one. For they hold that “essential” means (being just one).255a According to the notion of the speculative theologians, the “advance challenge” (tahaddi) is what makes the difference between (miracles, on the one hand), and acts of divine grace and sorcery (on the other), since (the latter) two need no confirmation of their truthfulness. The “advance challenge” (if it occurs at all in these cases) exists (in them) only by chance. In the opinion of those who admit the existence of acts of divine grace, if an “advance challenge” (tahaddi) occurs in connection with them, and if it is proof of them, it is proof only of saintliness, which is different from prophecy."
ومن هنا منع الأستاذ أبو إسحاق وغيره وقوع الخوارق كرامة فرارا من الالتباس بالنبوءة عند التحدي بالولاية,This is why Professor Abu Ishaq and others did not admit the occurrence of wonders as acts of divine grace. They wanted to avoid confusion between the “advance challenge” (tahaddi) of the saint and prophecy.
وقد أريناك المغايرة بينهما وإنه يتحدى بغير ما يتحدى به النبي فلا لبس على أن النقل عن الأستاذ في ذلك ليس صريحا وربما حمل على إنكار لأن تقع خوارق الأنبياء لهم بناء على اختصاص كل من الفريقين بخوارقه.,"We, however, have (just) shown that there is a difference between the two. The “advance challenge” (tahaddi) of a saint is concerned with other things than that of a prophet. There can be no doubt that the report on the authority of Professor Abu Ishaq is not clear and has often led to denial of (the possibility) that the wonders of the prophets could have been wrought by (saints), on the grounds that each of the two groups has its own kind of wonders."
وأما المعتزلة فالمانع من وقوع الكرامة عندهم أن الخوارق ليست من أفعال العباد وأفعالهم معتادة فلا فرق وأما وقوعها على يد الكاذب تلبيسا فهو محال,"The Mu’tazilah do not admit the occurrence of acts of divine grace, because wonders do not belong to the actions of man that are customary and allow of no break (in the customary process). It is absurd to believe that miracles could be produced fraudulently by a liar."
أما عند الأشعرية فلأن صفة نفس المعجزة التصديق والهداية فلو وقعت بخلاف ذلك انقلب الدليل شبهة والهداية ضلالة والتصديق كذبا واستحالت الحقائق وانقلبت صفات النفس وما يلزم من فرض وقوعه المحال لا يكون ممكنا,"According to the Ash’arites, this is absurd because the essential part of a miracle is defined as “confirmation of truthfulness and right guidance.” Were a miracle to occur under the contrary conditions, proof would become doubt, guidance misguidance, and, I might add, the confirmation of truthfulness, untruth. Realities would become absurdities, and the essential qualities would be turned upside down. Something, the occurrence of which would be absurd, cannot be possible."
وأما عند المعتزلة فلأن وقوع الدليل شبهة والهداية ضلالة قبيح فلا يقع من الله.,"According to the Mu’tazilah, fraudulent miracles are absurd, because it is improper for proofs to turn into doubts and for guidance to turn into misguidance. Such, therefore, could not come from God."
وأما الحكماء فالخارق عندهم من فعل النبي ولو كان في غير محل القدرة بناء على مذهبهم في الإيجاب الذاتي ووقوع الحوادث بعضها عن بعض متوقف على الأسباب والشروط الحادثة مستندة أخيرا إلى الواجب الفاعل بالذات لا بالاختيار,"The philosophers hold that wonders are acts of the prophet (who performs them, even though they have no place in the power (of the prophet himself). This is based upon their doctrine that (there exists) an essential and necessary (causality) and that events develop out of each other according to conditions and reasons that (always) come up anew and, in the last instance, go back to the Necessary per se that acts per se and not by choice."
وإن النفس النبوية عندهم لها خواص ذاتية منها صدور هذه الخوارق بقدرته وطاعة العناصر له في التكوين والنبي عندهم مجبول على التصريف في الأكوان مهما توجه إليها واستجمع لها بما جعل الله له من ذلك,"In their opinion, the prophetical soul has special essential qualities which produce wonders, with the help of the power of (the Necessary per se) and the obedience of the elements to Him for purposes of generation. (The role of) the prophet (in this process), in their opinion, is that through those qualities that God put into him, he is by nature fitted for being active among (all) created things, whenever he addresses himself to them and concentrates on them."
والخارق عندهم يقع للنبي سواء كان للتحدي أم لم يكن وهو شاهد بصدقة من حيث دلالته على تصرف النبي في الأكوان الذي هو من خواص النفس النبوية لا بأنه يتنزل منزلة القول الصريح بالتصديق,"They hold that wonders are wrought by the prophet (himself), whether there is an “advance challenge” (tahaddi) or not. They are evidence of the prophet’s truthfulness, in as much as they prove that he is active among the created things, such activity constituting a special quality of the prophetic soul, not because they take the place of a clear assertion of his truthfulness."
فلذلك لا تكون دلالتها عندهم قطعية كما هي عند المتكلمين ولا يكون التحدي جزأ من المعجزة ولم يصح فارقا لها عن السحر والكرامة,"In their opinion, therefore, (wonders) are no definitive proof (of the prophet’s truthfulness), as they are in the opinion of the speculative theologians. “Advance awareness,” for them, does not constitute part of the miracle. It does not stand out as the thing that differentiates (miracles) from acts of divine grace."
وفارقها عندهم عن السحر أن النبي مجبول على أفعال الخير مصروف عن أفعال الشر فلا يلم الشر بخوارقه,"They hold that (miracles) are differentiated from sorcery by the fact that a prophet is by nature fitted for good actions and averse to evil deeds. Therefore, he could not do evil through the wonders he works."
والساحر على الضد فأفعاله كلها شر وفي مقاصد الشر وفارقها عن الكرامة أن خوارق النبي مخصوصة كالصعود إلى السماء والنفوذ في الأجسام الكثيفة وإحياء الموتى وتكليم الملائكة والطيران في الهواء,"The opposite is the case with the sorcerer. All his actions are evil and done for evil purposes. Further, (miracles) are differentiated from acts of divine grace by the fact that the wonders of a prophet are of an unusual character, such as ascending to heaven, passing through solid bodies, reviving the dead, conversing with angels, and flying through the air."
وخوارق الولي دون ذلك كتكثير القليل والحديث عن بعض المستقبل وأمثاله مما هو قاصر عن تصريف الأنبياء,"The wonders of a saint, on the other hand, are of a lower order, such as making much out of little, speaking about something that will happen in the future, and similar things inferior to the power of action of prophets."
ويأتي النبي بجميع خوارقه ولا يقدر هو على مثل خوارق الأنبياء وقد قرر ذلك المتصوفة فيما كتبوه في طريقتهم ولقنوه عمن أخبرهم,"A prophet can produce the wonders of saints, but a saint is not able to produce anything like the wonders of prophets. This has been confirmed by the Sufis in what they have written about the mystic path and reported of their ecstatic experiences."
وإذا تقرر ذلك فاعلم أن أعظم المعجزات وأشرفها وأوضحها دلالة القرآن الكريم المنزل على نبينا محمد صلى الله عليه وسلم,"Now that this has been established, it should be known that the evidence of the noble Qur’an, which was revealed to our Prophet, is the greatest, noblest, and clearest miracle."
فإن الخوارق في الغالب تقع مغايرة للوحي الذي يتلقاه النبي ويأتي بالمعجزة شاهدة بصدقة والقرآن هو بنفسه الوحي المدعي وهو الخارق المعجز فشاهده في عينه ولا يفتقر إلى دليل مغاير له كسائر المعجزات مع الوحي فهو أوضح دلالة لاتحاد الدليل والمدلول فيه,"Wonders are as a rule wrought by a prophet separately and apart from the revelation he receives. The miracle comes as evidence for it(s truthfulness). This is obvious. The Qur’an, on the other hand, is in itself the claimed revelation. It is itself the wondrous miracle. It is its own proof. It requires no outside proof, as do the other wonders wrought in connection with revelations. It is the clearest proof that can be, because it unites in itself both the proof and what is to be proved."
وهذا معنى قوله صلى الله عليه وسلم «ما من نبي من الأنبياء إلا وأتي من الآيات ما مثله آمن عليه البشر وإنما كان الذي أوتيته وحيا أوحي إلي فأنا أرجو أن أكون أكثرهم تابعا يوم القيامة»,"This is the meaning of Muhammad’s statement, “Every prophet was given signs likely to provide reassurance for mankind. What I have been given is a revelation that was revealed to me. Therefore, I hope to have the greatest number of followers on the day of resurrection.”"
يشير إلى أن المعجزة متى كانت بهذه المثابة في الوضوح وقوة الدلالة وهو كونها نفس الوحي كان الصدق لها أكثر لوضوحها فكثر المصدق المؤمن وهو التابع والأمة.,"He refers to the fact that a miracle which is identical with the revelation (confirmed by it), is of such clarity and force of evidence that it will be found truthful, because of its clarity, by the greatest number of people. Therefore, many are those who consider (the Prophet) truthful and believe. They are the “followers,” the nation of Islam."
ولنذكر الآن تفسير حقيقة النبوة على ما شرحه كثير من المحققين ثم نذكر حقيقة الكهانة ثم الرؤيا ثم شان العرافين وغير ذلك من مدارك الغيب,"We shall now give an explanation of the real meaning of prophecy as interpreted by many thorough scholars. We shall then mention the real meaning of soothsaying, dream vision, divination, and other supernatural ways of perception."
فنقول اعلم – أرشدنا الله وإياك – أنا نشاهد هذا العالم بما فيه من المخلوقات كلها على هيئة من الترتيب والإحكام,"We say: (The real meaning of prophecy)
It should be known that we-May God guide you and us notice that this world with all the created things in it has a certain order and solid construction."
وربط الأسباب بالمسببات واتصال الأكوان بالأكوان واستحالة بعض الموجودات إلى بعض لا تنقضي عجائبه في ذلك ولا تنتهي غاياته,"It shows nexuses between causes and things caused, combinations of some parts of creation with others, and transformations of some existent things into others, in a pattern that is both remarkable and endless."
وأبدأ من ذلك بالعالم المحسوس الجثماني وأولا عالم العناصر المشاهدة كيف تدرج صاعدا من الأرض إلى الماء ثم إلى الهواء ثم إلى النار,"Beginning with the world of the body and sensual perception, and therein first with the world of the visible elements, (one notices) how these elements are arranged gradually and continually in an ascending order, from earth to water, (from water) to air, and (from air) to fire."
متصلا بعضها ببعض وكل واحد منها مستعد إلى أن يستحيل إلى ما يليه صاعدا وهابطا ويستحيل بعض الأوقات والصاعد منها ألطف مما قبله إلى أن ينتهي إلى عالم الأفلاك وهو ألطف من الكل على طبقات اتصل بعضها ببعض على هيئة لا يدرك الحس منها إلا الحركات فقط,"Each one of the elements is prepared to be transformed into the next higher or lower one, and sometimes is transformed. The higher one is always finer than the one preceding it. Eventually, the world of the spheres is reached. They are finer than anything else. They are in layers which are interconnected, in a shape which the senses are able to perceive only through the existence of motions."
وبها يهتدي بعضهم إلى معرفة مقاديرها وأوضاعها وما بعد ذلك من وجود الذوات التي لها هذه الآثار فيها ثم انظر إلى عالم التكوين كيف ابتدأ من المعادن ثم النبات ثم الحيوان على هيئة بديعة من التدريج,"These motions provide some people with knowledge of the measurements and positions of the spheres, and also with knowledge of the existence of the essences beyond, the influence of which is noticeable in the spheres through the fact (that they have motion).
One should then look at the world of creation. It started out from the minerals and progressed, in an ingenious, gradual manner, to plants and animals."
آخر أفق المعادن متصل بأول أفق النبات مثل الحشائش وما لا بذر له وآخر أفق النبات مثل النخل والكرم متصل بأول أفق الحيوان مثل الحلزون والصدف ولم يوجد لهما إلا قوة اللمس فقط,"The last stage of minerals is connected with the first stage of plants, such as herbs and seedless plants. The last stage of plants, such as palms and vines, is connected with the first stage of animals, such as snails and shellfish which have only the power of touch."
ومعنى الاتصال في هذه المكونات أن آخر أفق منها مستعد بالاستعداد الغريب لأن يصير أول أفق الذي بعده,The word “connection” with regard to these created things means that the last stage of each group is fully prepared to become the first stage of the next group.
واتسع عالم الحيوان وتعددت أنواعه وانتهى في تدريج التكوين إلى الإنسان صاحب الفكر والروية,"The animal world then widens, its species become numerous, and, in a gradual process of creation, it finally leads to man, who is able to think and to reflect."
ترتفع إليه من عالم القدرة الذي اجتمع فيه الحس والإدراك ولم ينته إلى الروية والفكر بالفعل,"The higher stage of man is reached from the world of the monkeys, in which both sagacity and perception are found, but which has not reached the stage of actual reflection and thinking."
وكان ذلك أول أفق من الإنسان بعده وهذا غاية شهودنا,At this point we come to the first stage of man after (the world of monkeys). This is as far as our (physical) observation extends.
ثم إنا نجد في العوالم على اختلافها آثارا متنوعة ففي عالم الحس آثار من حركات الأفلاك والعناصر,"Now, in the various worlds we find manifold influences. In the world of sensual perception there are certain influences of the motions of the spheres and the elements."
وفي عالم التكوين آثار من حركة النمو والإدراك تشهد كلها بأن لها مؤثرا مباينا للأجسام فهو روحاني,In the world of creation there are certain influences of the motions of growth and perception. All this is evidence of the fact that there is something that exercises an influence and is different from the bodi(ly substances). This is something spiritual.
ويتصل بالمكونات لوجود اتصال هذا العالم في وجودها ولذلك هو النفس المدركة والمحركة,"It is connected with the created things, because the various worlds must be connected in their existence. This spiritual thing is the soul, which has perception and causes motion."
ولا بد فوقها من وجود آخر يعطيها قوى الإدراك والحركة ويتصل بها أيضا ويكون ذاته إدراكا صرفا وتعقلا محضا وهو عالم الملائكة,"Above the soul there must exist something else that gives the soul the power of perception and motion, and that is also connected with it. Its essence should be pure perception and absolute intellection. This is the world of the angels."
فوجب من ذلك أن يكون للنفس استعداد للانسلاخ من البشرية إلى الملكية ليصير بالفعل من جنس الملائكة وقتا من الأوقات في لمحة من اللمحات وذلك بعد أن تكمل ذاتها الروحانية بالفعل كما نذكره بعد,"The soul, consequently, must be prepared to exchange humanity for angelicality, in order actually to become part of the angelic species at certain times in the flash of a moment. This happens after the spiritual essence of the soul has become perfect in actuality, as we shall mention later on."
ويكون لها اتصال بالأفق الذي بعدها شأن الموجودات المرتبة كما قدمناه,"(The soul) is connected with the stage next to it, as are all the orders of the existentia, as we have mentioned before."
فلها في الاتصال جهتا العلو والسفل وهي متصلة بالبدن من أسفل منها وتكتسب به المدارك الحسية التي تستعد بها للحصول على التعقل بالفعل,"It is connected both upward and downward. Downward, it is connected with the body. Through (the body, the soul) acquires the sense perceptions by which it is prepared for actual intellection."
ومتصلة من جهة الأعلى منها بأفق الملائكة ومكتسبة به المدارك العلمية والغيبية فإن عالم الحوادث موجود في تعقلاتهم من غير زمان وهذا على ما قدمناه من الترتيب المحكم في الوجود باتصال ذواته وقواه بعضها ببعض,"Upward, it is connected with the stage of the angels. There, it acquires scientific and supernatural perceptions, for knowledge of the things that come into being exists timelessly in the intellections of (the angels). This is in consequence of the well-constructed order of existence mentioned above, which requires that the essences and powers of (the world of existence) be connected with one another."
ثم إن هذه النفس الإنسانية غائبة عن العيان وآثارها ظاهرة في البدن فكأنه وجميع أجزائه مجتمعة ومفترقة آلات للنفس ولقواها,"The human soul cannot be seen, but its influence is evident in the body. It is as if all (the body’s) parts, in combination or separately, were organs of the soul and its powers."
أما الفاعلية فالبطش باليد والمشي بالرجل والكلام باللسان والحركة الكلية بالبدن متدافعا,"The powers of action are touching with the hand, walking with the foot, speaking with the tongue, and the total combined motion with the body."
وأما المدركة وإن كانت قوى الإدراك مرتبة ومرتقية إلى القوة العليا منها ومن المفكرة التي يعبر عنها بالناطقية فقوى الحس الظاهرة بآلاته من السمع والبصر وسائرها يرتقي إلى الباطن,"The powers of sensual perception are graded and ascend to the highest power, that is, the power of thinking, for which there exists the term “rational power.” Thus, the powers of external sense perception, with the organs of vision, hearing, and all the other (organs), lead up to inward (perception)."
وأوله الحس المشترك وهو قوة تدرك المحسوسات مبصرة ومسموعة وملموسة وغيرها في حالة واحدة وبذلك فارقت قوة الحس الظاهر لأن المحسوسات لا تزدحم عليها في الوقت الواحد,"The first (inward sense) is the “common sense,” that is, the power that simultaneously perceives all objects of sensual perception, whether they belong to hearing, seeing, touching, or anything else. In this respect, it differs from the power of external sense perception, as the objects of sensual perception do not all crowd upon external sense perception at one and the same time."
ثم يؤديه الحس المشترك إلى الخيال وهي قوة تمثل الشيء المحسوس في النفس كما هو مجرد عن المواد الخارجة فقط وآلة هاتين القوتين في تصريفهما البطن الأول من الدماغ مقدمه للأولى ومؤخره للثانية,"The common sense transfers (the perceptions) to the imagination, which is the power that pictures an object of sensual perception in the soul, as it is, abstracted from all external matter. The organ for the activity of these two powers (common sense and imagination) is the first cavity of the brain. The front part of that cavity is for the common sense, and the back part for the imagination. Imagination leads up to the estimative power and the power of memory."
ثم يرتقي الخيال إلى الواهمة والحافظة فالواهمة لإدراك المعاني المتعلقة بالشخصيات كعداوة زيد وصداقة عمرو ورحمة الأب وافتراس الذئب,"The estimative power serves for perceiving (abstract) ideas that refer to individualities, such as the hostility of Zayd, the friendship of ‘Amr, the compassion of the father, or the savagery of the wolf."
والحافظة لإيداع المدركات كلها متخيلة وهي لها كالخزانة تحفظها لوقت الحاجة إليها وآلة هاتين القوتين في تصريفهما البطن المؤخر من الدماغ أوله للأولى ومؤخره للأخرى,"The power of memory serves as a repository for all objects of perception, whether they are imagined or not. It is like a storehouse that preserves them for the time when they are needed. The organ for the activity of these two powers is the back cavity of the brain. The front part of that cavity is for the estimative power, and the back for the power of memory."
ثم ترتقي جميعها إلى قوة الفكر وآلته البطن الأوسط من الدماغ وهي القوة التي يقع بها حركة الرؤية والتوجه نحو التعقل فتحرك النفس بها دائما لما ركب فيها من النزوع للتخلص من درك القوة والاستعداد الذي للبشرية,"All these powers then lead up to the power of thinking. Its organ is the middle cavity of the brain. It is the power that causes reflection to be set in motion and leads toward intellection. The soul is constantly moved by it, as the result of its constitutional desire to (think). It wants to be free from the grip of power and the human kind of preparedness."
وتخرج إلى الفعل في تعقلها متشبهة بالملإ الأعلى الروحاني وتصير في أول مراتب الروحانيات في إدراكها بغير الآلات الجسمانية,"It wants to proceed to active intellection by assimilating itself to the highest spiritual group (that of the angels), and to get into the first order of the spiritualia by perceiving them without the help of bodily organs."
فهي متحركة دائما ومتوجهة نحو ذلك وقد تنسلخ بالكلية من البشرية وروحانيتها إلى الملكية من الأفق الأعلى من غير اكتساب بل بما جعل الله فيها من الجبلة والفطرة الأولى في ذلك.,"Therefore, the soul is constantly moving in that direction. It exchanges all humanity and human spirituality for angelicality of the highest stage, without the help of any acquired faculty but by virtue of a primary natural disposition that God has placed in it."
"أصناف النفوس البشرية
إن النفوس البشرية على ثلاثة أصناف: صنف عاجز بالطبع عن الوصول","As far as this (process) is concerned, human souls are of three kinds. One is by nature too weak to arrive at spiritual perception."
فينقطع بالحركة إلى الجهة السفلى نحو المدارك الحسية والخيالية وتركيب المعاني من الحافظة والواهمة على قوانين محصورة وترتيب خاص,"Therefore, it is satisfied to move downwards toward the perceptions of the senses and imagination and the formation of ideas with the help of the power of memory and the estimative power, according to limited rules and a special order."
يستفيدون به العلوم التصورية والتصديقية التي للفكر في البدن وكلها خيالي منحصر نطاقه إذ هو من جهة مبدئه ينتهي إلى الأوليات ولا يتجاوزها وإن فسد فسد ما بعدها وهذا هو في الأغلب نطاق الإدراك البشري الجسماني وإليه تنتهي مدارك العلماء وفيه ترسخ أقدامهم.,"In this manner, people acquire perceptive and apperceptive knowledge, which is the product of thinking in the body. All this is (the result of the power of) imagination and limited in extent, since from the way it starts it can reach the primary (intelligibilia) but cannot go beyond them. Also, if they are corrupt, everything beyond them is also corrupt.276 This, as a rule, is the extent of human corporeal perception. It is the goal of the perceptions of scholars. It is in it that scholars are firmly grounded."
وصنف متوجه بتلك الحركة الفكرية نحو العقل الروحاني والإدراك الذي لا يفتقر إلى الآلات البدنية بما جعل فيه من الاستعداد لذلك,"A (second) kind (of soul), through thinking, moves in the direction of spiritual intellection and (a type of) perception that does not need the organs of the body, because of its innate preparedness for it."
فيتسع نطاق إدراكه عن الأوليات التي هي نطاق الإدراك الأول البشري ويسرح في فضاء المشاهدات الباطنية وهي وجدان كلها نطاق من مبدئها ولا من منتهاها,"The perceptions of this kind of soul extend beyond the primary (intelligibilia) to which primary human perception is restricted, and cover the ground of inward observations, which are all intuitive They are unlimited as to their beginning and their end."
وهذه مدارك العلماء الأولياء أهل العلوم الدينية والمعارف الربانية وهي الحاصلة بعد الموت لأهل السعادة في البرزخ.,"They are the perceptions of saints, of men of mystical learning and divine knowledge. The blessed obtain them after death, in Purgatory (barzakh)."
وصنف مفطور على الانسلاخ من البشرية جملة جسمانيتها وروحانيتها إلى الملائكة من الأفق الأعلى ليصير في لمحة من اللمحات ملكا بالفعل ويحصل له شهود الملإ الأعلى في أفقهم وسماع الكلام النفساني والخطاب الإلهي في تلك اللمحة,"A (third) kind (of soul) is by nature suited to exchange humanity altogether, both corporeal and spiritual humanity, for angelicality of the highest stage, so that it may actually become an angel in the flash of a moment, glimpse the highest group within their own stage, and listen to essential speech and divine address during that moment."
وهؤلاء الأنبياء صلوات الله وسلامه عليهم جعل الله لهم الانسلاخ من البشرية في تلك اللمحة وهي حالة الوحي,(Individuals possessing this kind of soul) are prophets. God implanted and formed in them the natural ability to slough off humanity in that moment which is the state of revelation.
فطرة فطرهم الله عليها وجبلة صورهم فيها ونزههم عن موانع البدن وعوائقه ما داموا ملابسين لها بالبشرية بما ركب في غرائزهم من القصد والاستقامة التي يحاذون بها تلك الوجهة وركز في طبائعهم رغبة في العبادة تكشف بتلك الوجهة وتسيغ نحوها,"God freed them from the lets and hindrances of the body, by which they were afflicted as human beings. He did this by means of ‘ismah (immunity from sin and error, infallibility) and straightforwardness, which He implanted in them and which gave them that particular outlook, and by means of a desire for divine worship which He centered in them and which converges from all sides toward that goal."
فهم يتوجهون إلى ذلك الأفق بذلك النوع من الانسلاخ متى شاءوا بتلك الفطرة التي فطروا عليها لا باكتساب ولا صناعة فلذا توجهوا وانسلخوا عن بشريتهم وتلقوا في ذلك الملإ الأعلى ما يتلقونه,"They thus move toward the (angelic) stage, sloughing off humanity at will, by virtue of their natural constitution, and not with the help of any acquired faculty or craft.
(The prophets) move in that direction, slough off their humanity, and, once among the highest group (of angels), learn all that may there be learned."
وعاجوا به على المدارك البشرية منزلا في قواها لحكمة التبليغ للعباد فتارة يسمع أحدهم دويا كأنه رمز من الكلام يأخذ منه المعنى الذي ألقي إليه فلا ينقضي الدوي إلا وقد وعاه وفهمه,"They then bring what they have learned back down to the level of the powers of human perception, as this is the way in which it can be transmitted to human beings. At times, this may happen in the form of a noise the prophet hears. It is like indistinct words from which he derives the idea conveyed to him. As soon as the noise has stopped, he retains and understands (the idea)."
وتارة يتمثل له الملك الذي يلقي إليه رجلا فيكلمه ويعي ما يقوله,"At other times, the angel who conveys (the message) to the prophet appears to him in the form of a man who talks to him, and the prophet comprehends what he says."
والتلقي من الملك والرجوع إلى المدارك البشرية وفهمه ما ألقي عليه كله كأنه في لحظة واحدة بل أقرب من لمح البصر,"Learning the message from the angel, reverting to the level of human perception, and understanding the message conveyed to him – all this appears to take place in one moment, or rather, in a flash."
لأنه ليس في زمان بل كلها تقع جميعا فيظهر كأنها سريعة ولذلك سميت وحيا لأن الوحي في اللغة الإسراع,"It does not take place in time, but everything happens simultaneously. Therefore, it appears to happen very quickly. For this reason, it is called wahy (“revelation”), because the root why has the meaning “to hasten.”"
واعلم أن الأولى وهي حالة الدوي هي رتبة الأنبياء غير المرسلين على ما حققوه,"It should be known that in the judgment of thorough scholars, the first (degree), the state of noise, is that of prophets who are not sent as messengers."
والثانية وهي حالة تمثل الملك رجلا يخاطب هي رتبة الأنبياء المرسلين ولذلك كانت أكمل من الأولى,"The second degree, the state when an angel appears in the form of a man who addresses the prophet, is that of prophets who are sent as messengers. Therefore, it is more perfect than the first (degree)."
"وهذا معنى الحديث الذي فسر فيه النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم الوحي لما سأله الحارث بن هشام وقال: كيف يأتيك الوحي؟
فقال: «أحيانا يأتيني مثل صلصلة الجرس وهو أشده علي فيفصم عني وقد وعيت ما قال وأحيانا يتمثل لي الملك فيكلمني فأعي ما يقول»","This is the meaning of the tradition in which the Prophet explained revelation, in reply to a question by alHarith b. Hisham. Asked how the revelation came to him, Muhammad replied, “At times, it comes to me like the ringing of a bell. This affects me most. When it leaves me, I have retained what was said. At other times, the angel appears to me in the form of a man. He talks to me, and I retain the things he says.”"
وإنما كانت الأولى أشد لأنها مبدأ الخروج في ذلك الاتصال من القوة إلى الفعل فيعسر بعض العسر ولذلك لما عاج فيها على المدارك البشرية اختصت بالسمع وصعب ما سواه,"The first (case) affected him more, being the first attempt to advance from potential to actual contact (with the supernatural). Thus, it was somewhat difficult. When the Prophet returned, in this case, to the level of human perceptions, all he retained was auditory (impressions). All others were difficult."
وعند ما يتكرر الوحي ويكثر التلقي يسهل ذلك الاتصال,"When the revelation was repeated and the messages became numerous, contact (with the supernatural) became easy."
فعند ما يعرج إلى المدارك البشرية يأتي على جميعها وخصوصا الأوضح منها وهو إدراك البصر,"When the Prophet returned to the level of human perceptions, now all his senses-and especially the clearest sense, that of vision-conveyed (the revelation)."
وفي العبارة عن الوعي في الأولى بصيغة الماضي وفي الثانية بصيغة المضارع لطيفة من البلاغة وهي أن الكلام جاء مجيء التمثيل لحالتي الوحي,"The use of the perfect tense “I have retained” in the first case, and of the present tense “I retain” in the second, is a meaningful stylistic distinction. In both cases, the words that were spoken (during the revelation) came in a disguise."
فمثل الحالة الأولى بالدوي الذي هو في المتعارف غير كلام,"In the first case, they appeared in the form of “noise,” which, according to accepted usage, is something different from speech."
وأخبر أن الفهم والوعي يتبعه غب انقضائه فناسب عند تصوير انقضائه وانفصاله العبارة عن الوعي بالماضي المطابق للانقضاء والانقطاع,"Muhammad indicated that understanding and comprehension followed immediately upon it after it had stopped. He properly used the perfect tense, which is suitable (to signify) what has ended or stopped, in order to indicate comprehension at the moment he perceived that (the noise) had ended and stopped."
ومثل الملك في الحالة الثانية برجل يخاطب ويتكلم والكلام يساوقه الوعي فناسب العبارة بالمضارع المقتضي للتجدد.,"In the second case, the angel appeared in the form of a man who addressed the Prophet and spoke to him. Comprehension (in this case) ran parallel with speech. Therefore, Muhammad properly used the present tense, which of necessity expresses renewed (repeated) activity."
واعلم أن في حالة الوحي كلها صعوبة على الجملة وشدة قد أشار إليها القرآن,"It should be known that, in general, the state of revelation presents difficulties and pains throughout. This has been indicated in the Qur’an:"
قال تعالى: «إنا سنلقي عليك قولا ثقيلا 73: 5»,“We shall lay upon you a heavy message.”
وقالت عائشة: «كان مما يعاني من التنزيل شدة» وقالت: «كان ينزل عليه الوحي في اليوم الشديد البرد فيفصم عنه وإن جبينه ليتفصد عرقا».,"‘A’ishah said: “There was some anxiety in connection with the revelation, with which he had to struggle.” She said: “The revelation would come to him on very cold days. Nevertheless, when it left him, there was sweat on his forehead.”"
ولذلك كان يحدث عنه في تلك الحالة من الغيبة والغطيط ما هو معروف وسبب ذلك أن الوحي كما قررنا مفارقة البشرية إلى المدارك الملكية وتلقي كلام النفس فيحدث عنه شدة من مفارقة الذات ذاتها وانسلاخها عنها من أفقها إلى ذلك الأفق الآخر,"This is the reason for his well-known remoteness (from sensual perception) and the choking (feeling) when in that condition, of which the Prophet used to speak. The reason, as we have established, is that revelation means leaving one’s humanity, in order to attain angelic perceptions and to hear the speech of the soul. This causes pain, since it means that an essence leaves its own essence and exchanges its own stage for the ultimate stage (of the angels)."
وهذا هو معنى الغط الذي عبر به في مبدإ الوحي في قوله «فغطني حتى بلغ مني الجهد ثم أرسلني فقال اقرأ فقلت ما أنا بقارئ وكذا ثانية وثالثة». كما في الحديث,"This is the meaning of the choking feeling which Muhammad referred to in connection with the beginning of revelation in his statement: “And he (Gabriel) choked me until it became too much for me; then he released me. Then he said, ‘Read,’ and I replied, ‘I cannot read.’ He did this a second and a third time, as the tradition tells."
وقد يفضي الاعتياد بالتدريج فيه شيئا فشيئا إلى بعض السهولة بالقياس إلى ما قبله,"Gradual habituation to (the process of revelation) brings some relief, as compared to how it was before."
ولذلك كان تنزل نجوم القرآن وسوره وآيه حين كان بمكة أقصر منها وهو بالمدينة,"It is for this reason that the earliest passages, surahs, and verses of the Qur’an, revealed to Muhammad in Mecca, are briefer than those revealed to him in Medina."
وانظر إلى ما نقل في نزول سورة براءة في غزوة تبوك وأنها نزلت كلها أو أكثرها عليه وهو يسير على ناقته,"One may compare the tradition about how the ninth surah (Surat al-Bara’ah) was revealed, during the expedition to Tabuk. The whole of this (long surah), or most of it, was revealed to Muhammad while he was riding his camel."
بعد أن كان بمكة ينزل عليه بعض السورة من قصار المفصل في وقت وينزل الباقي في حين آخر,"Before this, when he was in Mecca, part of one of the shortest surahs in the latter part of the Qur’an was revealed on one occasion, and the rest on another occasion."
وكذلك كان آخر ما نزل بالمدينة آية الدين وهي ما هي في الطول بعد أن كانت الآية تنزل بمكة مثل آيات الرحمن والذاريات والمدثر والضحى والفلق وأمثالها.,"Also, one of the last revelations received in Medina was the “Verse of the Religion,” which is very long. Before this, in Mecca, the verses revealed were short, like those of the surahs ar-Rahman, adh-Dhariyat, al-Muddaththir, ad-Duha, and al-`Alaq, and similar surahs."
واعتبر من ذلك علامة تميز بها بين المكي والمدني من السور والآيات,This may serve as criterion for distinguishing the Meccan surahs and verses from the Medinese.
والله المرشد إلى الصواب.,God leads to that which is correct.
هذا محصل أمر النبوة.,This is the quintessence of prophecy.
"الكهانة
وأما الكهانة فهي أيضا من خواص النفس الإنسانية",Soothsaying (kahanah) is also one of the particular qualities of the human soul.
وذلك أنه قد تقدم لنا في جميع ما مر أن للنفس الإنسانية استعدادا للانسلاخ من البشرية إلى الروحانية التي فوقها وأنه يحصل من ذلك لمحة للبشر في صنف الأنبياء بما فطروا عليه من ذلك,"This is as follows. In the previous discussion, we have always stated that the human soul is prepared to exchange its humanity for the spirituality that lies above (humanity). Human beings have an intimation of that (exchange) in prophets who are by nature fitted to achieve it."
وتقرر أنه يحصل لهم من غير اكتساب ولا استعانة بشيء من المدارك ولا من التصورات ولا من الأفعال البدنية كلاما أو حركة ولا بأمر من الأمور إنما هو انسلاخ من البشرية إلى الملكية بالفطرة في لحظة أقرب من لمح البصر,"It has been established that they neither need acquired qualities for that (exchange), nor are they dependent on any help from perceptions, notions (tasawwur), bodily activities, be they speech or motion, or anything else. It is (with them) a natural change from humanity to angelicality in the flash of a moment."
وإذا كان كذلك وكان ذلك الاستعداد موجودا في الطبيعة البشرية فيعطى التقسيم العقلي وإن هنا صنفا آخر من البشر ناقصا عن رتبة الصنف الأول نقصان الضد عن ضده الكامل لأن عدم الاستعانة في ذلك الإدراك ضد الاستعانة فيه وشتان ما بينهما,"If this is so and if such preparedness exists in human nature, logical classification requires that there must be another kind of human beings, as inferior to the first kind as anything that has something perfect as its opposite, must be inferior to that (perfect) opposite. Independence from all help in (achieving contact with the supernatural) is the opposite of dependence on help in connection with it. They are two very different things."
فإذا أعطي تقسيم الوجود إلى هنا صنفا آخر من البشر مفطورا على أن تتحرك قوته العقلية حركتها الفكرية بالإرادة عند ما يبعثها النزوع لذلك,"Now, the classification of the world of existence requires that there must be a kind of human beings fitted by nature for the process of thinking voluntarily under the impulse of their rational power, whenever that power has a desire for it."
وهي ناقصة عنه بالجبلة عند ما يعوقها العجز عن ذلك تشبث بأمور جزئية محسوسة أو متخيلة كالأجسام الشفافة وعظام الحيوانات وسجع الكلام وما سنح من طير أو حيوان,"But the rational power) is not by nature capable of (the (process of supernatural perception). Thus, when its weakness prevents (the rational power) from (contact with the supernatural), it is natural for (the rational power) to get involved with particulars, either of sensual perception or of the imagination, such as transparent bodies, animal bones, speech in rhymed prose, or whatever bird or animal may present itself."
فيستديم ذلك الإحساس أو التخيل مستعينا به في ذلك الانسلاخ الذي يقصده ويكون كالمشيع له,"(A person whose rational power is thus engaged) attempts to retain such sensual or imaginary perceptions, since he depends on their help in attaining the supernatural perception he desires. They give him a sort of assistance."
وهذه القوة التي فيهم مبدأ لذلك الإدراك هي الكهانة,The power which in (such persons) constitutes the starting point of supernatural perception is soothsaying.
ولكون هذه النفوس مفطورة على النقص والقصور عن الكمال كان إدراكها في الجزئيات أكثر من الكليات,"The souls of such persons are inferior by nature and unable to attain perfection. Therefore, they have a better perception of particulars than of universals."
ولذلك تكون المخيلة فيهم في غاية القوة لأنها آلة الجزئيات,"They get involved with the former and neglect the latter. Therefore, the power of imagination is most strongly developed in those persons, because it is the organ of the particulars."
فتنفذ فيها نفوذا تاما في نوم أو يقظة وتكون عندها حاضرة عتيدة,"(The particulars) completely pervade (the power of the imagination), both in the sleeping and the waking state. They are ever ready and present in it."
تحضرها المخيلة وتكون لها كالمرآة تنظر فيها دائما,The power of imagination brings (the particulars) to the attention of (those persons) and serves as a mirror in which they are seen constantly.
ولا يقوى الكاهن على الكمال في إدراك المعقولات لأن وحيه من وحي الشيطان,"The soothsayer is not able to achieve perfection in his perception of the intelligibilia, because the revelation he receives is inspired by devils."
وأرفع أحوال هذا الصنف أن يستعين بالكلام الذي فيه السجع والموازنة ليشتغل به عن الحواس ويقوى بعض الشيء على ذلك الاتصال الناقص,"The highest state this type of person can reach is to achieve disregard for the senses, with the help of rhymed prose and the use of words of an identical structure at the end of successive cola, and (thereby) to attain an imperfect contact of the sort described (with supernatural things)."
فيهجس في قلبه عن تلك الحركة والذي يشيعها من ذلك الأجنبي ما يقذفه على لسانه فربما صدق ووافق الحق وربما كذب لأنه يتمم نقصه بأمر أجنبي عن ذاته المدركة ومباين لها غير ملائم فيعرض له الصدق والكذب جميعا ولا يكون موثوقا به,"From that motion and the foreign support that accompanies it, his heart receives some inspiration to express itself in words. The soothsayer, thus, often speaks the truth and agrees with reality. Often, however, what he says are falsehoods, because he supplements his deficiency with something foreign to, different from, and incompatible with, his perceptive essence. Thus, truth and falsehood are umbled together in him, and he is not trustworthy."
وربما يفزع إلى الظنون والتخمينات حرصا على الظفر بالإدراك بزعمه وتمويها على السائلين وأصحاب هذا السجع هم المخصوصون باسم الكهان لأنهم أرفع سائر أصنافهم,"He often takes refuge in guesses and hypotheses, because, in his self-deception, he desires to have (supernatural) perception and is willing to cheat those who ask him (for information). Men who use such rhymed prose are distinguished by the name of soothsayers (kahin, pl. kuhhan). They rank highest among their kind."
وقد قال صلى الله عليه وسلم في مثله «هذا من سجع الكهان» فجعل السجع مختصا بهم بمقتضى الإضافة,"Muhammad said, regarding something of the sort, “This belongs to the rhymed prose of the soothsayers.” The use of the genitive construction (“rhymed prose of”) indicates that Muhammad considered rhymed prose a distinctive (mark of the soothsayer)."
وقد قال لابن صياد حين سأله كاشفا عن حاله بالأخبار كيف يأتيك هذا الأمر؟ قال: «يأتيني صادقا وكاذبا» فقال: «خلط عليك الأمر» يعني أن النبوة خاصتها الصدق فلا يعتريها الكذب بحال لأنها اتصال من ذات النبي بالملإ الأعلى من غير مشيع ولا استعانة بأجنبي,"He also questioned Ibn Sayyad, in order to find out about him, and he asked him how that thing came to him. Ibn Sayyid replied: “It comes to me in the form of both truth and falsehood.” Whereupon Muhammad said, “You are confused with regard to the matter.” He meant that prophecy is characterized by truthfulness and can in no way be affected by falsehood. For prophecy is a direct and independent contact of the essence of the prophet with the most high group (the angels)."
والكهانة لما احتاج صاحبها بسبب عجزه إلى الاستعانة بالتصورات الأجنبية كانت داخلة في إدراكه والتبست بالإدراك الذي توجه إليه فصار مختلطا بها وطرقه الكذب من هذه الجهة فامتنع أن تكون نبوة,"Because of his weakness, the soothsayer depends on the help of foreign notions (tasawwur). (These foreign notions) enter into his perception and mingle with the perception toward which he aspires. He thus becomes confused by them. So it is that falsehood makes its way to his (door). It is, therefore, impossible (for his activity) to be prophecy."
وإنما قلنا إن أرفع مراتب الكهانة حالة السجع لأن معنى السجع أخف من سائر المغيبات من المرئيات والمسموعات وتدل خفة المعنى على قرب ذلك الاتصال والإدراك والبعد فيه عن العجز بعض الشيء,"We have stated that the highest rank of soothsaying is the state in which rhymed prose is used, because the support derived from rhymed prose is lighter than any other support, such as that derived from vision or hearing. Such light support (as is given by the use of rhymed prose) points to nearness of contact and perception and to a certain freedom from weakness."
وقد زعم بعض الناس أن هذه الكهانة قد انقطعت منذ زمن النبوة بما وقع من شأن رجم الشياطين بالشهب بين يدي البعثة وأن ذلك كان لمنعهم من خبر السماء كما وقع في القرآن,"Some people assume that soothsaying of this type stopped with the time of prophecy, as the result of the stoning of the devils with meteors, in view of the prophetic mission, which occurred in order to keep them away from heavenly information, as is mentioned in the Qur’in,"
والكهان إنما يتعرفون أخبار السماء من الشياطين فبطلت الكهانة من يومئذ ولا يقوم من ذلك دليل,"The soothsayers had received heavenly information from the devils, and now, from the day on which the devils were stoned, soothsaying ceased to exist. There is no proof for this contention."
لأن علوم الكهان كما تكون من الشياطين تكون من نفوسهم أيضا كما قررناه,"Soothsayers obtain knowledge from their own souls as well as from the devils, as we have established."
وأيضا فالآية إنما دلت على منع الشياطين من نوع واحد من أخبار السماء وهو ما يتعلق بخبر البعثة ولم يمنعوا مما سوى ذلك.,"Furthermore, the verse of the Qur’an shows only that the devils were kept away from one particular kind of heavenly information, namely, that connected with the (prophetic) mission. They were not kept from other information."
وأيضا فإنما كان ذلك الانقطاع بين يدي النبوة فقط ولعلها عادت بعد ذلك إلى ما كانت عليه وهذا هو الظاهر لأن هذه المدارك كلها تخمد في زمن النبوة كما تخمد الكواكب والسرج عند وجود الشمس,"Also, soothsaying stopped only in view of the existence of prophecy. It may afterwards have returned to its former state. This would seem to be an obvious (fact), because all such (supernatural) perceptions are in abeyance at the time of prophecy, just as stars and lamps lose their brilliance beside the sun."
لأن النبوة هي النور الأعظم الذي يخفى معه كل نور ويذهب.,"Prophecy is the greatest light, in whose presence every other light is obscured or disappears."
وقد زعم بعض الحكماء أنها إنما توجد بين يدي النبوة ثم تنقطع وهكذا كل نبؤه وقعت,"Some philosophers think that (soothsaying) exists only in view of prophecy, and then stops. This happens at each occurrence of prophecy."
لأن وجود النبوة لا بد له من وضع فلكي يقتضيه وفي تمام ذلك الوضع تمام تلك النبوة التي دل عليها ونقص ذلك الوضع عن التمام يقتضي وجود طبيعة من ذلك النوع الذي يقتضيه ناقصة وهو معنى الكاهن على ما قررناه,"They argue that the existence of prophecy needs a particular constellation that makes it necessary. The perfection of that constellation coincides with the perfection of the particular prophecy to which the constellation has reference. As long as the constellation is imperfect, it requires the existence of some imperfect related element. This is the meaning of “soothsayer,” as we have established it."
فقبل أن يتم ذلك الوضع الكامل يقع الوضع الناقص ويقتضي وجود الكاهن إما واحدا أو متعددا,"The perfect state of the constellation is preceded by an imperfect one, which requires the existence of one or more soothsayers."
فإذا تم ذلك الوضع تم وجود النبي بكماله وانقضت الأوضاع الدالة على مثل تلك الطبيعة فلا يوجد منها شيء بعد وهذا بناء على أن بعض الوضع الفلكي يقتضي بعض أثره وهو غير مسلم.,"When the constellation reaches perfection, the prophet’s existence reaches perfection. The constellations that point to the existence of a(n inferior) element such as soothsaying have passed by, and soothsaying ceases to exist. This (theory) is based upon the assumption that any part of a particular constellation must exercise part of the influence that the constellation (in its perfect state) would exercise. This assumption is not fully acceptable."
فلعل الوضع إنما يقتضي ذلك الأثر بهيئته الخالصة ولو نقص بعض أجزائها فلا يقتضي شيئا، لا إنه يقتضي ذلك الأثر ناقصا كما قالوه.,"It may be that a particular constellation exercises its influence only when it has taken on its proper form. If some aspects are missing, it may exercise no influence whatever, not even, as they say, a restricted influence."
ثم إن هؤلاء الكهان إذا عاصروا زمن النبوة فإنهم عارفون بصدق النبي ودلالة معجزته لأن لهم بعض الوجدان من أمر النبوة كما لكل إنسان من أمر النوم,"Soothsayers who are a prophet’s contemporaries are aware of the prophet’s truthfulness and the significance of his miracle, since they derive some intuitive experience from prophecy, such as every human being derives from sleep."
ومعقوبية تلك النسبة موجودة للكاهن بأشد مما للنائم,Intellectual awareness of this relationship is stronger in the soothsayer than in the sleeper.
ولا يصدهم عن ذلك ويوقعهم في التكذيب إلا قوة المطامع في أنها نبوة لهم فيقعون في العناد,"What prevents soothsayers from acknowledging the truthfulness of the prophet, and causes them to deny (him), is simply their misguided desire to be prophets themselves. This leads them to spiteful opposition."
كما وقع لأمية بن أبي الصلت فإنه كان يطمع أن يتنبأ وكذا وقع لابن صياد ولمسيلمة وغيرهم,"This happened to Umayyah b. Abi s-Salt, who desired to be a prophet. It also happened to Ibn Sayyad, Musaylimah, and others."
فإذا غلب الإيمان وانقطعت تلك الأماني آمنوا أحسن إيمان كما وقع لطليحة الأسدي وسواد بن قارب وكان لهما في الفتوحات الإسلامية من الآثار الشاهدة بحسن الإيمان,"When faith gains the upper hand and they stop aspiring to become prophets themselves, they make the most faithful of believers. This happened to Tulayhah al-Asadi and Qarib b. al-Aswad. The actions of these two men in the Muslim conquest show that they were faithful believers."
"الرؤيا
وأما الرؤيا فحقيقتها مطالعة النفس الناطقة في ذاتها الروحانية لمحة من صور الواقعات","(Dream visions)
Real dream vision is an awareness on the part of the rational soul in its spiritual essence, of glimpse(s) of the forms of events."
فإنها عند ما تكون روحانية تكون صور الواقعات فيها موجودة بالفعل كما هو شأن الذوات الروحانية كلها وتصير روحانية بأن تتجرد عن المواد الجسمانية والمدارك البدنية,"While the soul is spiritual, the forms of events have actual existence in it, as is the case with all spiritual essences. The soul becomes spiritual through freeing itself from bodily matters and corporeal perceptions."
وقد يقع لها ذلك لمحة بسبب النوم كما نذكر فتقتبس بها علم ما تتشوف إليه من الأمور المستقبلة وتعود به إلى مداركها,"This happens to the soul (in the form of) glimpse(s) through the agency of sleep, as we shall mention. Through (these glimpses) (the soul) gains the knowledge of future events that it desires and by means of which it regains the perceptions that (properly) belong to it."
فإن كان ذلك الاقتباس ضعيفا وغير جلي بالمحاكاة والمثال في الخيال لتخلصه فيحتاج من أجل هذه المحاكاة إلى التعبير,"When this process is weak and indistinct, the soul applies to it allegory and imaginary pictures, in order to gain (the desired knowledge). Such allegory, then, necessitates interpretation."
وقد يكون الاقتباس قويا يستغنى فيه عن المحاكاة فلا يحتاج إلى تعبير لخلوصه من المثال والخيال,"When, on the other hand, this process is strong, it can dispense with allegory. Then, no interpretation is necessary, because (the process) is then free from imaginary pictures."
والسبب في وقوع هذه اللمحة للنفس أنها ذات روحانية بالقوة مستكملة بالبدن ومداركه حتى تصير ذاتها تعقلا محضا ويكمل وجودها بالفعل,"The occurrence, in the soul, of such glimpse(s) is caused by the fact that the soul is potentially a spiritual essence, supplemented by the body and the perceptions of (the body). Its essence, thus, eventually becomes pure intellection, and its existence becomes perfect in actuality."
فتكون حينئذ ذاتا روحانية مدركة بغير شيء من الآلات البدنية إلا أن نوعها في الروحانيات دون نوع الملائكة أهل الأفق الأعلى على الذين لم يستكملوا ذواتهم بشيء من مدارك البدن ولا غيره,"The soul, now, is a spiritual essence having perception without the help of any of the bodily organs. However, among the spiritualia, it is of a lower species than the angels, who inhabit the highest stage, and who never had to supplement their essences with corporeal perceptions or anything else."
فهذا الاستعداد حاصل لها ما دامت في البدن ومنه خاص كالذي للأولياء ومنه عام للبشر على العموم وهو أمر الرؤيا.,"The preparedness (for spirituality) comes to (the soul) as long as it is in the body. There is a special kind (of preparedness), such as saints have, and there is a general kind common to all human beings. This is what “dream vision” means."
وأما الذي للأنبياء فهو استعداد بالانسلاخ من البشرية إلى الملكية المحضة التي هي أعلى الروحانيات ويخرج هذا الاستعداد فيهم متكررا في حالات الوحي,"In the case of the prophets, this preparedness is a preparedness to exchange humanity for pure angelicality, which is the highest rank of spiritualia. It expresses itself repeatedly during revelations."
وهو عند ما يعرج على المدارك البدنية ويقع فيها ما يقع من الإدراك يكون شبيها بحال النوم شبها بينا وإن كان حال النوم أدون منه بكثير,"It exists when (the prophet) returns to the level of corporeal perceptions. Whatever perception (the prophet) has at that moment is clearly similar to what happens in sleep, even though sleep is much inferior to (revelation)."
فلأجل هذا الشبه عبر الشارع عن الرؤيا بأنها جزء من ستة وأربعين جزأ من النبوة وفي رواية ثلاثة وأربعين وفي رواية سبعين,"Because of this similarity, the Lawgiver (Muhammad) defined dream vision as being the forty-sixth – or, according to other recensions, the forty-third, or the seventieth-part of prophecy."
وليس العدد في جميعها مقصودا بالذات وإنما المراد الكثرة في تفاوت هذه المراتب بدليل ذكر السبعين في بعض طرقه وهو للتكثير عند العرب,None of these (fractions) is meant to be taken literally. They are to indicate the great degree of difference between the various stages (of supernatural perception). This is shown by the reference to “seventy” in one of the recensions. The number “seventy” is used by the Arabs to express (the idea of) a large number.
وما ذهب إليه بعضهم في رواية ستة وأربعين من أن الوحي كان في مبدئه بالرؤيا ستة أشهر وهي نصف سنة ومدة النبوة كلها بمكة والمدينة ثلاث وعشرون سنة فنصف السنة منها جزء من ستة وأربعين فكلام بعيد من التحقيق,"The reference to “forty-six” has been explained by some scholars as follows. In its beginning, the revelation took the form of dream visions for six months, that is, for half a year. The whole duration of (Muhammad’s) prophecy in Mecca and Medina was twenty-three years. Half a year, thus, is one forty-sixth (of the whole duration of prophecy). This theory cannot be verified."
لأنه إنما وقع ذلك للنبي صلى الله عليه وسلم ومن أين لنا أن هذه المدة وقعت لغيره من الأنبياء,The given (figures) apply only to Muhammad. How can we know whether they also applied to other prophets?
مع أن ذلك إنما يعطي نسبة زمن الرؤيا من زمن النبوة ولا يعطى حقيقتها من حقيقة النبوة,"Moreover, this (theory) describes the relationship of prophecy to dream vision in point of time only, and does not consider the true character of dream visions in relation to the true character of prophecy."
وإذا تبين لك هذا مما ذكرناه أولا علمت أن معنى هذا الجزء نسبة الاستعداد الأول الشامل للبشر إلى الاستعداد القريب الخاص بصنف الأنبياء الفطري لهم صلوات الله عليهم,"If our previous remarks were clear, it will be realized that the fraction refers to the relationship between the primary preparedness general to all mankind, and the close preparedness limited to the (prophets) and natural to them."
إذ هو الاستعداد البعيد وإن كان عاما في البشر ومعه عوائق وموانع كثيرة من حصوله بالفعل,"The remote preparedness is commonly found among human beings. However, there are many obstacles and hindrances that prevent man from translating it into actuality."
ومن أعظم تلك الموانع الحواس الظاهرة ففطر الله البشر على ارتفاع حجاب الحواس بالنوم الذي هو جبلي لهم فتتعرض النفس عند ارتفاعه إلى معرفة ما تتشوف إليه في عالم الحق,"One of the greatest hindrances is the external senses. God, therefore, created man. in such a way that the veil of the senses could be lifted through sleep, which is a natural function of man. When that veil is lifted, the soul is ready to learn the things it desires to know in the world of Truth (haqq)."
فتدرك في بعض الأحيان منه لمحة يكون فيها الظفر بالمطلوب ولذلك جعلها الشارع من المبشرات فقال لم يبق من النبوة إلا المبشرات,"At times, it catches a glimpse of what it seeks. Therefore, the Lawgiver (Muhammad) classified dream visions among “the bearers of glad tidings” (mubashshirat). He said, “Nothing remains of prophecy except the bearers of glad tidings.”"
قالوا وما المبشرات يا رسول الله قال الرؤيا الصالحة يراها الرجل الصالح أو ترى له”,"Asked what they were, he said: “A good dream vision, beheld by – or shown to – a good man.”"
وأما سبب ارتفاع حجاب الحواس بالنوم فعلى ما أصفه لك وذلك أن النفس الناطقة إنما إدراكها وأفعالها بالروح الحيواني الجسماني وهو بخار لطيف مركزه بالتجويف الأيسر من القلب على ما في كتب التشريح لجالينوس وغيره,"The reason why the veil of the senses is lifted in sleep is as follows. The perceptions and actions of the rational soul are the result of the corporeal animal spirit. This spirit is a fine vapor which is concentrated in the left cavity of the heart, as stated in the anatomical works of Galen and others."
وينبعث مع الدم في الشريانات والعروق فيعطي الحس والحركة وسائر الأفعال البدنية ويرتفع لطيفه إلى الدماغ فيعدل من برده وتتم أفعال القوى التي في بطونه فالنفس الناطقة إنما تدرك وتعقل بهذا الروح البخاري وهي متعلقة به,"It spreads with the blood in the veins and arteries, and makes sensual perception, motion, and all the other corporeal actions possible. Its finest part goes up to the brain. There, it is tempered by the coldness of (the brain), and it effects the actions of the powers located in the cavities of the brain. The rational soul perceives and acts only by means of that vaporous spirit. It is connected with it."
لما اقتضته حكمة التكوين في أن اللطيف لا يؤثر في الكثيف ولما لطف هذا الروح الحيواني من بين المواد البدنية صار محلا لآثار الذات المباينة له في جسمانيته وهي النفس الناطقة وصارت آثارها حاصلة في البدن بواسطته,"(This connection is) the result of the wisdom of creation which requires that nothing fine can influence anything coarse. Of all the corporeal matters, only the animal spirit is fine. Therefore, it is receptive to the influence of the essence, which differs from it only in respect of corporeality, that is, the rational soul. Thus, through the medium of (the animal spirit), the influence of the rational soul reaches the body."
وقد كنا قدمنا أن إدراكها على نوعين إدراك بالظاهر وهو الحواس الخمس وإدراك بالباطن وهو القوى الدماغية وأن هذا الإدراك كله صارف لها عن إدراكها ما فوقها من ذواتها الروحانية التي هي مستعدة له بالفطرة,"We have stated before that the perception of the rational soul is of two kinds. There is an external perception through the five senses, and an inward perception through the cerebral powers. All these perceptions divert the rational soul from the perception for which it is prepared by nature, (namely, that) of the essences of the spiritualia, which are higher than it."
ولما كانت الحواس الظاهرة جسمانية كانت معرضة للوسن والفشل بما يدركها من التعب والكلال وتغشى الروح بكثرة التصرف فخلق الله لها طلب الاستجمام لتجرد الإدراك على الصورة الكاملة,"Since the external senses are corporeal, they are subject to weakness and lassitude as the result of exertion and fatigue, and to spiritual exhaustion through too much activity. Therefore, God gave them the desire to rest, so that perfect perception may be renewed afterwards."
وإنما يكون ذلك بانخناس الروح الحيواني من الحواس الظاهرة كلها ورجوعه إلى الحس الباطن,Such (rest) is accomplished by the retirement of the animal spirit from all the external senses and its return to the inward sense.
ويعين على ذلك ما يغشى البدن من البرد بالليل فتطلب الحرارة الغريزية أعماق البدن وتذهب من ظاهره إلى باطنه فتكون مشيعة مركبها وهو الروح الحيواني إلى الباطن ولذلك كان النوم للبشر في الغالب إنما هو بالليل,"This process is supported by the cold that covers the body during the night. Under the influence of the cold of the night, the natural heat repairs to the innermost recesses of the body and turns from its exterior to the interior. It thus guides its vehicle, the animal spirit, into the interior of the body. This is the reason why human beings, as a rule, sleep only at night."
فإذا انخنس الروح عن الحواس الظاهرة ورجع إلى القوى الباطنة وخفت عن النفس شواغل الحس وموانعه ورجعت إلى الصورة التي في الحافظة تمثل منها بالتركيب والتحليل صور خيالية,"The spirit, thus, withdraws from the external senses and returns to the inward powers. The preoccupations and hindrances of sensual perception lessen their hold over the soul, and it now returns to the forms that exist in the power of memory. Then, through a process of synthesis and analysis, (these forms) are shaped into imaginary pictures."
وأكثر ما تكون معتادة لأنها منتزعة من المدركات المتعاهدة قريبا ثم ينزلها الحس المشترك الذي هو جامع الحواس الظاهرة فيدركها على أنحاء الحواس الخمس الظاهرة,"Most of these pictures are customary ones, because (the soul) has (only) shortly before withdrawn from the conventional objects of sensual perception. It now transmits them to the common sense, which combines all the five external senses, to be perceived in the manner of (those) five senses."
وربما التفتت النفس لفتة إلى ذاتها الروحانية مع منازعتها القوى الباطنية فتدرك بإدراكها الروحاني لأنها مفطورة عليه وتقتبس من صور الأشياء التي صارت متعلقة في ذاتها حينئذ ثم يأخذ الخيال تلك الصور المدركة فيمثلها بالحقيقة أو المحاكاة في القوالب المعهودة,"Frequently, however, the soul turns to its spiritual essence in concert with the inward powers. It then accomplishes the spiritual kind of perception for which it is fitted by nature. It takes up some of the forms of things that have become inherent in its essence at that time. Imagination seizes on those perceived forms, and pictures them in the customary molds either realistically or allegorically."
والمحاكاة من هذه هي المحتاجة للتعبير وتصرفها بالتركيب والتحليل في صور الحافظة قبل أن تدرك من تلك اللمحة ما تدركه هي أضغاث أحلام.,"Pictured allegorically, they require interpretation. The synthetic and analytic activity which (the soul) applies to the forms in the power of memory, before it perceives its share of glimpses (of the supernatural), is (what is called in the Qur’an) “confused dreams.”"
وفي الصحيح أن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: «الرؤيا ثلاث رؤيا من الله ورؤيا من الملك ورؤيا من الشيطان»,"According to (the sound tradition of) the Sahih, the Prophet said, “There are three kinds of dream visions. There are dream visions from God, dream visions from the angels, and dream visions from Satan.”"
وهذا التفصيل مطابق لما ذكرناه,This threefold division agrees with our preceding statement.
فالجلي من الله والمحاكاة الداعية إلى التعبير من الملك وأضغاث الأحلام من الشيطان لأنها كلها باطل والشيطان ينبوع الباطل,"Clear dream visions are from God. Allegorical dream visions, which call for interpretation, are from the angels. And “confused dreams” are from Satan, because they are altogether futile, as Satan is the source of futility."
هذه حقيقة الرؤيا وما يسببها ويشيعها من النوم وهي خواص للنفس الإنسانية موجودة في البشر على العموم لا يخلو عنها أحد منهم بل كل واحد من الإنساني رأى في نومه ما صدر له في يقظته مرارا غير واحدة وحصل له على القطع أن النفس مدركة للغيب في النوم,"This is what “dream vision” really is, and how it is caused and encouraged by sleep. It is a particular quality of the human soul common to all mankind.
Nobody is free from it. Every human being has, more than once, seen something in his sleep that turned out to be true when he awakened. He knows for certain that the soul must necessarily have supernatural perception in sleep."
ولا بد وإذا جاز ذلك في عالم النوم فلا يمتنع في غيره من الأحوال لأن الذات المدركة واحدة وخواصها عامة في كل حال,"If this is possible in the realm of sleep, it is not impossible in other conditions, because the perceiving essence is one and its qualities are always present."
والله الهادي إلى الحق بمنه وفضله.,God guides toward the truth.
فصل: ووقوع ما يقع للبشر من ذلك غالبا إنما هو من غير قصد ولا قدرة عليه وإنما تكون النفس متشوقة لذلك الشيء فيقع بتلك اللمحة في النوم لأنها تقصد إلى ذلك.,"Note: Most of the (afore-mentioned supernatural perception by means of dream visions) occurs to human beings unintentionally and without their having power over it. The soul occupies itself with a thing. As a result, it obtains that glimpse (of the supernatural) while it is asleep, and it sees that thing. It does not plan it that way."
فتراه وقد وقع في كتاب الغاية وغيره من كتب أهل الرياضيات ذكر أسماء تذكر عند النوم فتكون عنها الرؤيا فيما يتشوف إليه.,"In the Ghayah and other books by practitioners of magic, reference is made to words that should be mentioned on falling asleep so as to cause the dream vision to be about the things one desires."
ويسمونها الحالومية وذكر منها مسلمة في كتاب الغاية حالومة سماها حالومة الطباع التام وهو أن يقال عند النوم بعد فراغ السر وصحة التوجه هذه الكلمات الأعجمية وهي «تماغس بعد أن يسواد وغداس نوفنا غادس»,"These words are called by (the magicians) “dream words” (al-halumah). In the Ghayah, Maslamah mentioned a dream word that he called “the dream word of the perfect nature.” It consists of saying, upon falling asleep and after obtaining freedom of the inner senses and finding one’s way clear (for supernatural perception), the following non-Arabic words: tamaghis ba’dan yaswadda waghads nawfana ghadis."
ويذكر حاجته فإنه يرى الكشف عما يسأل عنه في النوم.,"The person should then mention what he wants, and the thing he asks for will be shown to him in his sleep."
وحكي إن رجلا فعل ذلك بعد رياضة ليال في مأكله وذكره فتمثل له شخص يقول له أنا طباعك التام فسأله وأخبره عما كان يتشوف إليه,"A man is said to have done this after he had eaten but little and done dhikr exercises for several nights. A person appeared to him and said, “I am your perfect nature.” A question was put to that person, and he gave the man the information he desired."
وقد وقع لي أنا بهذه الأسماء مراء عجيبة واطلعت بها على أمور كنت أتشوف عليها من أحوالي وليس ذلك بدليل على أن القصد للرؤيا يحدثها,"With the help of these words, I have myself had remarkable dream visions, through which I learned things about myself that I wanted to know. However, (the existence of such dream words) is no proof that the intention to have a dream vision can produce it."
وإنما هذه الحالومات تحدث استعدادا في النفس لوقوع الرؤيا,The dream words produce a preparedness in the soul for the dream vision.
فإذا قوي الاستعداد كان أقرب إلى حصول ما يستعد له وللشخص أن يفعل من الاستعداد ما أحب ولا يكون دليلا على إيقاع المستعد له,"If that preparedness is a strong one, (the soul) will be more likely to obtain that for which it is prepared. A person may arrange for whatever preparedness he likes, but that is no assurance that the thing for which preparations have been made will actually happen."
فالقدرة على الاستعداد غير القدرة على الشيء فاعلم ذلك وتدبره فيما تجد من أمثاله,The power to prepare for a thing is not the same as power over the thing (itself). This should be known and considered in similar cases.
والله الحكيم الخبير.,God “is wise and knowing.”
فصل: ثم إنا نجد في النوع الإنساني أشخاصا يخبرون بالكائنات قبل وقوعها بطبيعة فيهم يتميز بها صنفهم عن سائر الناس ولا يرجعون في ذلك إلى صناعة ولا يستدلون عليه بأثر من النجوم ولا من غيرها إنما نجد مداركهم في ذلك بمقتضى فطرتهم التي فطروا عليها,"In the human species we find individuals who foretell things before they take place. They have a special natural qualification for it. Through that qualification, they are distinguished from all other human beings. They do not have recourse to a craft for their predictions, nor do they get them with the help of astral influences or anything else. Their forecasts are the necessary result of their natural disposition."
وذلك مثل العرافين والناظرين في الأجسام الشفافة كالمرايا وطساس الماء والناظرين في قلوب الحيوانات وأكبادها وعظامها وأهل الزجر في الطير والسباع وأهل الطرق بالحصى والحبوب من الحنطة والنوى,"Among such people are diviners (‘arraf); men who gaze into transparent bodies such as mirrors or bowls of water; men who examine the hearts, livers, and bones of animals; men who draw auguries from birds and wild animals; and men who cast pebbles, grains of wheat, or (date) pits."
وهذه كلها موجودة في عالم الإنسان لا يسع أحدا جحدها ولا إنكارها وكذلك المجانين يلقى على ألسنتهم كلمات من الغيب فيخبرون بها,"All these things are found among mankind; no one can deny them or be ignorant of them. Statements concerning supernatural things are also placed upon the tongues of the insane, who are thus able to give information about (supernatural things)."
وكذلك النائم والميت لأول موته أو نومه يتكلم بالغيب وكذلك أهل الرياضيات من المتصوفة لهم مدارك في الغيب على سبيل الكرامة معروفة.,"Sleeping and dying persons, being about to die or to fall asleep, likewise speak about supernatural things. Men who have followed Sufi training have, as is well known, as acts of divine grace, obtained perceptions of supernatural things."
ونحن الآن نتكلم عن هذه الإدراكات كلها ونبتدئ منها بالكهانة ثم نأتي عليها واحدة واحدة إلى آخرها.,"We are now going to discuss all these ways of (supernatural) perception. We are going to start with soothsaying. Then, we shall discuss all the other kinds, one by one."
ونقدم على ذلك مقدمة في أن النفس الإنسانية كيف تستعد لإدراك الغيب في جميع الأصناف التي ذكرناها,"Before that, however, we want to discuss how the human soul, as it exists in all the types of human beings mentioned, is prepared for supernatural perception. This is as follows."
وذلك أنها ذات روحانية موجودة بالقوة إلى الفعل بالبدن وأحواله,"(The soul) is a spiritual essence which, as we have mentioned before, is the only spiritual being that exists potentially. It exchanges potentiality for actuality with the help of the body and (bodily) conditions."
وهذا أمر مدرك لكل أحد وكل ما بالقوة فله مادة وصورة,"This is something everyone can attain to. Now, everything that exists potentially has matter and form."
وصورة هذه النفس التي بها يتم وجودها هو عين الإدراك والتعقل فهي توجد أولا بالقوة مستعدة للإدراك وقبول الصور الكلية والجزئية ثم يتم نشؤها ووجودها بالفعل بمصاحبة البدن وما يعودها بورود مدركاتها المحسوسة عليها وما تنتزع من تلك الإدراكات من المعاني الكلية,"The form of the soul, through which its existence materializes, is identical with perception and intellection. The soul at first exists potentially. It is prepared for perception and for the reception of the universal and particular forms. Its growth and actual existence then materialize through keeping company with the body, through the things to which (the body) accustoms (the soul) when (the former’s) sensual perceptions are foisted upon (the latter), and through the universal ideas which (the soul itself) abstracts from the sensual perceptions of the body."
فتتعقل الصور مرة بعد أخرى حتى يحصل لها الإدراك والتعقل بالفعل فتتم ذاتها وتبقى النفس كالهيولى والصور متعاقبة عليها بالإدراك واحدة بعد واحدة,"It intellectualizes the forms time after time, until perception and intellection become the actual form of the soul. Thus, its essence materializes. The soul, then, is like matter, and, through perception, the forms come to it one after the other in an uninterrupted sequence."
ولذلك نجد الصبي في أول نشأته لا يقدر على الإدراك الذي لها من ذاتها لا بنوم ولا بكشف ولا بغيرهما,"This is why we find that a child in the earliest stages of his growth is unable to achieve the perception which comes to the soul from its essence, either in his sleep or through removal (of the veil of sense perception), or anything else."
وذلك ان صورتها التي هي عين ذاتها وهي الإدراك والتعقل لم تتم بعد بل لم يتم لها انتزاع الكليات ثم إذا تمت ذاتها بالفعل حصل لها ما دامت مع البدن نوعان من الإدراك إدراك بآلات الجسم تؤديه إليها المدارك البدنية وإدراك بذاتها من غير واسطة,"For the form of the soul, which is its very essence, namely, perception and intellection, has not yet materialized (in the child). Nor has the power of the soul to abstract the universals materialized. Later on, when the essence of (the soul) has materialized in actuality, the soul has two kinds of perception, as long as it remains in the body: one through the organs of the body, for which the soul is enabled by the corporeal perceptions, and the other through its own essence, without any intermediary."
وهي محجوبة عنه بالانغماس في البدن والحواس وبشواغلها لأن الحواس أبدا جاذبة لها إلى الظاهر بما فطرت عليه أولا من الإدراك الجسماني وربما تنغمس من الظاهر إلى الباطن,"The soul is prevented from (the latter kind of perception) by its immersion in the body and the senses, and the preoccupations of (body and senses). By means of corporeal perception, for which the senses were originally created, they always draw the soul to the external. Frequently, however, the soul plunges from the external into the internal."
فيرتفع حجاب البدن لحظة إما بالخاصية التي هي للإنسان على الإطلاق مثل النوم أو بالخاصية الموجودة لبعض البشر مثل الكهانة والطرق أو بالرياضة مثل أهل الكشف من الصوفية,"Then, the veil of the body is lifted for a moment, either by means of a quality that belongs to every human being, such as sleep, or by means of a quality that is found only in certain human beings, such as soothsaying or casting (of pebbles, etc.), or by means of exercises such as those practiced by (certain) Sufis who practice the removal (of the veil of sense perception)."
فتلتفت حينئذ إلى الذوات التي فوقها من الملا لما بين أفقها وأفقهم من الاتصال في الوجود كما قررنا قبل,"At such moments, the soul turns to the essences of the highest group (the angels), which are higher than itself. (This is possible) because in (the order of) existence the stages of the soul and the angels are connected with each other, as we established earlier."
وتلك الذوات روحانية وهي إدراك محض وعقول بالفعل وفيها صور الموجودات وحقائقها كما مر,"These essences are spiritual. They are pure perception and intellects in action. They contain the forms and realities of the existentia, as was (just) mentioned."
فيتجلى فيها شيء من تلك الصور وتقتبس منها علوما وربما دفعت تلك الصور المدركة إلى الخيال فيصرفه في القوالب المعتادة ثم يراجع الحس بما أدركت إما مجردا أو في قوالبه فتخبر به.,"Something of those forms is then disclosed in (the soul). It derives some knowledge from them. Frequently, it transmits the perceived forms to the imagination which, in turn, puts them into the customary molds. (The soul,) then, has recourse to sensual perception to explain the things it has perceived, either in their abstract form or in the molds into which (they were put by the imagination)."
هذا هو شرح استعداد النفس لهذا الإدراك الغيبي.,In this way it gives information about them. This is how the preparedness of the soul for supernatural perception must be explained.
ولنرجع إلى ما وعدنا به من بيان أصنافه. فأما الناظرون في الأجسام الشفافة من المرايا وطساس المياه وقلوب الحيوان وأكبادها وعظامها وأهل الطرق بالحصى والنوى فكلهم من قبيل الكهان,"Let us now return to the explanation we promised, of the various kinds (of supernatural perception). Persons who gaze into transparent bodies, such as mirrors, bowls, or water, and (examine) the hearts, livers, and bones of animals, as well as those who cast pebbles and (date) pits, all belong to the class of soothsayers."
إلا أنهم أضعف رتبة فيه في أصل خلقهم لأن الكاهن لا يحتاج في رفع حجاب الحس إلى كثير معاناة,"Only, they are constitutionally less well fitted for supernatural perception than soothsayers. The soothsayer does not need to make much of an effort in order to lift the veil of sensual perception."
وهؤلاء يعانونه بانحصار المدارك الحسية كلها في نوع واحد منها وأشرفها البصر فيعكف على المرئي البسيط حتى يبدو له مدركة الذي يخبر به عنه وربما يظن أن مشاهدة هؤلاء لما يرونه هو في سطح المرآة وليس كذلك.,"They, however, expend much effort to concentrate all sensual perception in one particular sense, the noblest one, which is vision. It is applied exclusively to whatever plain visual object has been (selected for concentration), until the perception about which information is to be given appears. It is often thought that the place where those (who gaze into mirrors) see something, is the surface of the mirror. This is not so."
بل لا يزالون ينظرون في سطح المرآة إلى أن يغيب عن البصر ويبدو فيما بينهم وبين سطح المرآة حجاب كأنه غمام يتمثل فيه صور هي مداركهم,"They continue gazing at the surface of the mirror until it (the surface) disappears. Between their eyes and the mirror appears a veil like a white cloud. In it, forms are pictured, and (these pictures) are the objects they perceive."
فيشيرون إليهم بالمقصود لما يتوجهون إلى معرفته من نفي أو إثبات فيخبرون بذلك على نحو ما أدركوه وأما المرآة وما يدرك فيها من الصور فلا يدركونه في تلك الحال,"This gives them the facts of a negative or positive character they wanted to obtain, and they pass on (these facts) as they perceived them. Neither the mirror nor the forms perceived in it are now present to them."
وإنما ينشأ لهم بها هذا النوع الآخر من الإدراك وهو نفساني ليس من إدراك البصر بل يتشكل به المدرك النفساني للحس كما هو معروف,"A different kind of perception originates in them in (that state). It is a psychic one that has nothing to do with vision. Through it, objects of psychic perception take on shape (for observation) by sensual perception, as is known."
ومثل ذلك ما يعرض للناظرين في قلوب الحيوانات وأكبادها وللناظرين في الماء والطساس وأمثال ذلك.,"Something similar happens to those who examine the hearts and livers of animals, and to those who gaze into water, bowls, and similar things."
وقد شاهدنا من هؤلاء من يشغل الحس بالبخور فقط ثم بالعزائم للاستعداد ثم يخبر كما أدرك ويزعمون أنهم يرون الصور متشخصة في الهواء تحكي لهم أحوال ما يتوجهون إلى إدراكه بالمثال والإشارة,"Among these people we have observed persons who keep their senses occupied only by means of incense, as well as incantations, in order to be prepared (for supernatural perception). Then, they tell what they have perceived. They think that they see the forms take on concrete shapes in the air, telling them what they want to know in the form of pictures and allusions."
وغيبة هؤلاء عن الحس أخف من الأولين.,These persons are less remote from sensual perception than the first group.
والعالم أبو الغرائب.,The world is full of remarkable things.
وأما الزجر وهو ما يحدث من بعض الناس من التكلم بالغيب عند سنوح طائر أو حيوان والفكر فيه بعد مغيبه وهي قوة في النفس تبعث على الحرص والفكر فيما زجر فيه من مرئي أو مسموع,"Augury (zajr) is talk about supernatural things which originates in some people when a bird or animal appears, and they reflect about it after it has gone. It is a power in the soul that calls for sagacity and the ability to think about (the things of interest) which augurs see or hear."
وتكون قوته المخيلة كما قدمناه قوية فيبعثها في البحث مستعينا بما رآه أو سمعه فيؤديه ذلك إلى إدراك ما، كما تفعله القوة المتخيلة في النوم,"As we mentioned earlier, the power of imagination is strong in augurs, and they exert that power in their researches, while depending on the help given by things they have seen or heard. This gives them some supernatural perception. The power of imagination acts here as it does in sleepers."
وعند ركود الحواس تتوسط بين المحسوس المرئي في يقظته وتجمعه مع ما عقلته فيكون عنها الرؤيا.,"When the senses are asleep, (the power of imagination) intervenes among the things seen in the waking state, and combines them with the products of its own thinking. Thus, the power of imagination brings about vision."
وأما المجانين فنفوسهم الناطقة ضعيفة التعلق بالبدن لفساد أمزجتهم غالبا وضعف الروح الحيواني فيها فتكون نفسه غير مستغرقة في الحواس ولا منغمسة فيها بما شغلها في نفسها من ألم النقص ومرضه,"In the insane, the rational soul is but weakly connected with the body, because the humors, as a rule, are corrupt and have a weak animal spirit. Therefore, the soul belonging to (the body of an insane person) is not deeply immersed in the senses."
وربما زاحمها على التعلق به روحانية أخرى شيطانية تتشبث به وتضعف هذه عن ممانعتها فيكون عنه التخبط,"The painful disease of deficiency that affects it keeps it too much occupied. Frequently, it was pushed into attaching itself to (the insane) by some other Satanic spirituality, which clings to them and which (the soul) itself is too weak to keep away. The insane thus become possessed."
فإذا أصابه ذلك التخبط إما لفساد مزاجه من فساد في ذاتها أو لمزاحمة من النفوس الشيطانية في تعلقه غاب عن حسه جملة,"When they have become possessed in this manner, either because of the corruption of their constitution as the result of the essential corruption of their soul, or because of the onslaught the Satanic souls make upon them when they are attached to (their bodies), they are totally removed from sensual perception."
فأدرك لمحة من عالم نفسه وانطبع فيها بعض الصور وصرفها الخيال وربما نطق عن لسانه في تلك الحال من غير إرادة النطق,"They perceive a glimpse of the world of their soul. (Their soul) receives the impress of forms which, in turn, are transformed by the imagination. In this condition, they frequently speak without wanting to speak."
وإدراك هؤلاء كلهم مشوب فيه الحق بالباطل لأنه لا يحصل لهم الاتصال وإن فقدوا الحس إلا بعد الاستعانة بالتصورات الأجنبية كما قررناه,"(Supernatural) perception in all these (groups) contains truth and falsehood mixed together. For although they may achieve the loss of sensual perception, it is only with the help of foreign notions (tasawwur) that they achieve contact (with the supernatural), as we have established."
ومن ذلك يجيء الكذب في هذه المدارك.,"This leads to untruthfulness, (which is to be found) in these (ways of supernatural) perception."
وأما العرافون فهم المتعلقون بهذا الإدراك وليس لهم ذلك الاتصال فيسلطون الفكر على الأمر الذي يتوجهون إليه ويأخذون فيه بالظن والتخمين بناء على ما يتوهمونه من مبادئ ذلك الاتصال والإدراك,"The diviners (‘arraf) somehow enjoy this kind of perception, but they do not have the same contact (with the supernatural). They concentrate their thinking upon the matter in which they are interested and apply guesses and hypotheses to it. They base themselves upon an unfounded assumption as to what basically constitutes contact with, and perception of, (the supernatural)."
ويدعون بذلك معرفة الغيب وليس منه على الحقيقة,"They claim acquaintance with the supernatural, but in reality (their procedure) has nothing to do with it."
هذا تحصيل هذه الأمور وقد تكلم عليها المسعودي في مروج الذهب فما صادف تحقيقا ولا إصابة ويظهر من كلام الرجل أنه كان بعيدا عن الرسوخ في المعارف فينقل ما سمع من أهله ومن غير أهله,"This is the manner in which such (supernatural knowledge) is obtained. Al- Mas’udi discussed the subject in his Muruj adh-dhahab. He did not hit upon the right explanation. It is evident from his discussion that he was not firmly grounded in the various kinds of (pertinent) knowledge. He merely reports what he learned from people experienced in the subject, and from others."
وهذه الإدراكات التي ذكرناها موجودة كلها في نوع البشر فقد كان العرب يفزعون إلى الكهان في تعرف الحوادث ويتنافرون إليهم في الخصومات ليعرفوهم بالحق فيها من إدراك غيبهم,"All the kinds of (supernatural) perception mentioned are found in man. The Arabs used to repair to soothsayers in order to learn about forthcoming events. They consulted them in their quarrels, to learn the truth by means of supernatural perception."
وفي كتب أهل الأدب كثير من ذلك واشتهر منهم في الجاهلية شق بن أنمار بن نزار وسطيح بن مازن بن غسان وكان يدرج كما يدرج الثوب ولا عظم فيه إلا الجمجمة,"Literature contains much information about this matter. In pre-Islamic times, Shiqq, of the tribe of Anmar b. Nizar, and Satih, of the tribe of Mazin b.
Ghassan, were famous (soothsayers) (The latter) used to fold up like a garment, as he had no bones save for his skull."
ومن مشهور الحكايات عنهما تأويل رؤيا ربيعة بن مضر وما أخبراه به ملك الحبشة لليمن وملك مضر من بعدهم وظهور النبوة المحمدية في قريش,"A famous story is their interpretation of the dream vision of Rabi’ah b. Nasr, in which they informed him that the Abyssinians would take possession of the Yemen, that the Mudar would rule after them, and that the Muhammadan prophecy would make its appearance among the Quraysh."
ورؤيا الموبذان التي أولها سطيح لما بعث إليه بها كسرى عبد المسيح فأخبره بشأن النبوة وخراب ملك فارس وهذه كلها مشهورة,"Another famous story is that of the dream vision of the Mobedhan. Satih interpreted it when the Persian emperor (Khosraw) sent ‘Abd-al-Masih to him with (the dream). (On that occasion, Satih) informed him about the prophecy (of Muhammad) and the (future) destruction of the Persian realm. All this is well known."
وكذلك العرافون كان في العرب منهم كثير وذكروهم في أشعارهم قال:,There were also many diviners among the Arabs. They are mentioned by the Arabs in their poems. (One poet) said:
فقلت لعراف اليمامة داوني … فإنك إن داويتني لطبيب,"I said to the diviner of the Yamamah: Cure me, For if you cure me, you are indeed a physician."
وقال الآخر:,Another poet said:
جعلت لعراف اليمامة حكمه … وعراف نجد إن هما شفياني,"I promised to give the diviner of the Yamamah whatever he would ask me for,
And (I promised the same) to the diviner of Najd, if they would cure me (of my love)."
فقالا شفاك الله والله ما لنا … بما حملت منك الضلوع يدان,"But they said: Let God cure you. By God, we have no Power over (the disease) that you carry around with you in your body"
وعراف اليمامة هو رباح بن عجلة وعراف نجد الأبلق الأسدي.,"The “diviner of the Yamamah” is Riyah b. ‘Ijlah, and the “diviner of Najd” is al-Ablaq al-Asadi."
ومن هذه المدارك الغيبية ما يصدر لبعض الناس عند مفارقة اليقظة والتباسه بالنوم من الكلام على الشيء الذي يتشوف إليه بما يعطيه غيب ذلك الأمر كما يريد,"Some people have another way of supernatural perception. It occurs in the stage of transition from waking to sleeping, and is in (the form of unconsciously) speaking about the thing one wants to know and thereby obtaining supernatural knowledge of the matter as desired."
ولا يقع ذلك إلا في مبادئ النوم عند مفارقة اليقظة وذهاب الاختبار في الكلام فيتكلم كأنه مجبور على النطق وغايته أن يسمعه ويفهمه,"This happens only during the transition from waking to sleeping, when one has lost the power to control one’s words. Such a person talks as if by innate compulsion. The most he can do is to hear and understand what (he says)."
وكذلك يصدر عن المقتولين عند مفارقة رءوسهم وأوساط أبدانهم كلام بمثل ذلك. ولقد بلغنا عن بعض الجبابرة الظالمين أنهم قتلوا من سجونهم أشخاصا ليتعرفوا من كلامهم عند القتل عواقب أمورهم في أنفسهم فأعلموهم بما يستبشع.,"Words of a similar nature come from those who are about to be killed, at the moment when their heads are being severed from their trunks. We have been informed that certain criminal tyrants used to kill their prisoners in order to learn their own future from the words the prisoners would utter when they were about to be killed. It was unpleasant information they received from them."
وذكر مسلمة في كتاب الغاية له في مثل ذلك أن آدميا إذا جعل في دن مملوء بدهن السمسم ومكث فيه أربعين يوما يغذى بالتين والجوز حتى يذهب لحمه ولا يبقى منه إلا العروق وشئون رأسه فيخرج من ذلك الدهن فحين يجف عليه الهواء يجيب عن كل شيء يسأل عنه من عواقب الأمور الخاصة والعامة,"In the Ghayah, Maslamah similarly mentioned that when a human being is placed in a barrel of sesame oil and kept in it for forty days, is fed with figs and nuts until his flesh is gone and only the arteries and sutures of the skull remain, and is then taken out of the oil and exposed to the drying action of the air, he will answer all special and general questions regarding the future that may be asked."
وهذا فعل من مناكير أفعال السحرة لكن يفهم منه عجائب العالم الإنساني ومن الناس.,"This is detestable sorcery. However, it shows what remarkable things exist in the world of man."
من يحاول حصول هذا المدرك الغيبي بالرياضة فيحاولون بالمجاهدة موتا صناعيا بإماتة جميع القوى البدنية ثم محو آثارها التي تلونت بها النفس ثم تغذيتها بالذكر لتزداد قوة في نشئها ويحصل ذلك بجمع الفكر وكثرة الجوع,"There are men who attempt to obtain supernatural perception through exercise. They attempt an artificial (state of) death through self-mortification. They kill all corporeal powers (in themselves), and wipe out all influences of those powers that color the soul in various ways. This is achieved by. concentrated thinking, and doing without food for long (periods)."
ومن المعلوم على القطع أنه إذا نزل الموت بالبدن ذهب الحس وحجابه واطلعت النفس على المغيبات,"It is definitely known that when death descends upon the body, sensual perception and the veil it constitutes disappear, and the soul beholds its essence and its world."
ومن هؤلاء أهل الرياضة السحرية يرتاضون بذلك ليحصل لهم الاطلاع على المغيبات والتصرفات في العوالم,"(These men) attempt to produce, artificially before death, the experience they will have after death, and to have their soul behold the supernatural. Other such people are the men who train themselves in sorcery. They train themselves in these things, in order to be able to behold the supernatural and to be active in the various worlds."
وأكثر هؤلاء في الأقاليم المنحرفة جنوبا وشمالا خصوصا بلاد الهند ويسمون هنالك الحوكية ولهم كتب في كيفية هذه الرياضة كثيرة والأخبار عنهم في ذلك غريبة.,"Most such live in the intemperate zones of the north and the south, especially in India, where they are called yogis. They possess a large literature on how such exercises are to be done. The stories about them in this connection are remarkable."
وأما المتصوفة فرياضتهم دينية وعرية عن هذه المقاصد المذمومة وإنما يقصدون جمع الهمة والإقبال على الله بالكلية ليحصل لهم أذواق أهل العرفان والتوحيد ويزيدون في رياضتهم إلى الجمع والجوع التغذية بالذكر فبها تتم وجهتهم في هذه الرياضة,"The Sufi training is a religious one. It is free from any such reprehensible intentions. The Sufis aspire to total concentration upon God and upon the approach to Him, in order to obtain the mystical experiences of gnosis and Divine oneness. In addition to their training in concentration and hunger, the Sufis feed on dhikr exercises by which their devotion to that training can fully materialize."
لأنه إذا نشأت النفس على الذكر كانت أقرب إلى العرفان بالله وإذا عريت عن الذكر كانت شيطانية,"When the soul is reared on dhikr exercises, it comes closer to the gnosis of God, whereas, without it, it comes to be a Satanic one."
وحصول ما يحصل من معرفة الغيب والتصرف لهؤلاء المتصوفة إنما هو بالعرض ولا يكون مقصودا من أول الأمر لأنه إذا قصد ذلك كانت الوجهة فيه لغير الله وإنما هي لقصد التصرف والاطلاع على الغيب,"Whatever supernatural knowledge or activity is achieved by the Sufis is accidental, and was not originally intended. Had it been intentional, the devotion of the Sufis (who intended to have supernatural perception) would have been directed toward something other than God, namely, toward supernatural activity and vision."
وأخسر بها صفقة فإنها في الحقيقة شرك قال بعضهم: «من آثر العرفان للعرفان فقد قال بالثاني»,"What a losing business that would have been! In reality, it would have been polytheism. A (Sufi) has said, “Whoever prefers gnosis for the sake of gnosis comes out for the second (stage of being).”"
فهم يقصدون بوجهتهم المعبود لا لشيء سواه وإذا حصل في أثناء ذلك ما يحصل فبالعرض وغير مقصود لهم وكثير منهم يفر منه إذا عرض له ولا يحفل به,"Through their devotion, (Sufis) intend (to come near) the Master, and nothing else. If, meanwhile, some (supernatural perception) is obtained, it is accidental and unintentional. Many (Sufis) shun (supernatural perception) when it accidentally happens to them, and pay no attention to it."
وإنما يريد الله لذاته لا لغيره وحصول ذلك لهم معروف ويسمون ما يقع لهم من الغيب والحديث على الخواطر فراسة وكشفا,"They want God only for the sake of His essence, and nothing else. It is well known that (supernatural perception) occurs among the (Sufis). They call their supernatural experiences and mind reading “physiognomy” (firasah) and “removal” (of the veil of sense perception, kashf)."
وما يقع لهم من التصرف كرامة وليس شيء من ذلك بنكير في حقهم,Their experiences of (supernatural) activity they call “acts of divine grace” (karamah). None of these things is unworthy of them.
وقد ذهب إلى إنكاره الأستاذ أبو إسحاق الأسفرايني وأبو محمد بن أبي زيد المالكي في آخرين فرارا من التباس المعجزة بغيرها والمعول عليه عند المتكلمين حصول التفرقة بالتحدي فهو كاف.,"However, Professor Abu Ishaq al-Isfarayini and Abu Muhammad b. Abi Zayd al- Maliki, among others, disapproved of it, in order to avoid any risk of (prophetic) miracles becoming confused with something else. However, the speculative theologians rely on the “advance challenge” (tahaddi) as the distinguishing characteristic of the (prophetic) miracle. This is sufficient."
وقد ثبت في الصحيح أن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: «إن فيكم محدثين وإن منهم عمر»,"According to (the sound tradition of) the Sahih, Muhammad said, “Among you, there are men who are spoken to, and ‘Umar is one of them.”"
وقد وقع للصحابة من ذلك وقائع معروفة تشهد بذلك,"The men around Muhammad, as is well known, had experiences of a sort that confirms the fact (that mystics and pious persons may have some sort of supernatural perception)."
في مثل قول عمر رضي الله عنه «يا سارية الجبل» وهو سارية بن زنيم,"For instance, there is the story of ‘Umar saying, “O Sariyah, beware of the mountain!” Sariyah is Sariyah b. Zunaym."
كان قائدا على بعض جيوش المسلمين بالعراق أيام الفتوحات.,He was the general of a Muslim army in the ‘Iraq during the conquest.
وتورط مع المشتركين في معترك وهم بالانهزام وكان بقربة جبل يتحيز إليه,"He had gotten into a battle with the polytheists. He thought of withdrawing. Near him, there was a mountain toward which he was directing himself (and where the enemy was lying in ambush)."
فرفع لعمر ذلك وهو يخطب على المنبر بالمدينة فناداه يا سارية الجبل وسمعه سارية وهو بمكانه ورأى شخصه هنالك,"This came (supernaturally) to ‘Umar’s attention while he was preaching from the pulpit in Medina. He called out to him: “O Sariyah, beware of the mountain.” Sariyah heard it, there where he was (in faraway ‘Iraq), and he also saw (‘Umar) there in person."
والقصة معروفة.,This story is well known.
ووقع مثله أيضا لأبي بكر في وصيته عائشة ابنته رضي الله عنهما في شأن ما نحلها من أوسق التمر من حديقته ثم نبهها على جذاذه لتحوزه عن الورثة.,"Something similar happened to Abu Bakr in connection with his last will, addressed to his daughter ‘A’ishah. He had given her a certain amount of dates from his orchard, as a gift, and then, (when he was near death), he suggested to her that she harvest them, so that the (other) heirs would not get them."
فقال في سياق كلامه «وإنما هما أخواك وأختاك» فقالت: «إنما هي أسماء فمن الأخرى؟» فقال: «إن ذا بطن بنت خارجة أراها جارية» فكانت جارية وقع في الموطإ في باب ما لا يجوز من النحل,"Then he said, “They are your two brothers and your two sisters.” Whereupon ‘A’ishah said, “There is Asma’, but who is the other?” Abu Bakr replied, “I see that the child in Bint Kharijah’s womb is a girl,” and so it was. This is mentioned in the Muwatta’ in the chapter on gifts that are not permitted."
ومثل هذه الوقائع كثيرة لهم ولمن بعدهم من الصالحين وأهل الاقتداء إلا أن أهل التصوف يقولون إنه يقل في زمن النبوة إذ لا يبقى للمريد حالة بحضرة النبي.,"(The men around Muhammad) and the pious and exemplary men after them had many similar experiences. However, the Sufis say that such experiences are rare in the time of prophecy, because, in the presence of the prophet, the adept of mysticism cannot continue in his mystic state."
حتى إنهم يقولون إن المريد إذا جاء للمدينة النبوية يسلب حاله ما دام فيها حتى يفارقها.,"They go so far as to say that the adept of mysticism who comes to Medina is deprived of his mystic state, so long as he remains there and until he leaves."
والله يرزقنا الهداية ويرشدنا إلى الحق.,"May God provide us with guidance, and may He lead us to the truth."
ومن هؤلاء المريدين من المتصوفة قوم بهاليل معتوهون أشبه بالمجانين من العقلاء وهم مع ذلك قد صحت لهم مقامات الولاية وأحوال الصديقين وعلم ذلك من أحوالهم من يفهم عنهم من أهل الذوق مع أنهم غير مكلفين,"Among the adepts of mysticism are fools and imbeciles who are more like insane persons than like rational beings. Nonetheless, they deservedly attained stations of sainthood and the mystic states of the righteous. The persons with mystical experience who learn about them know that such is their condition, although they are not legally responsible."
ويقع لهم من الأخبار عن المغيبات عجائب لأنهم لا يتقيدون بشيء فيطلقون كلامهم في ذلك ويأتون منه بالعجائب وربما ينكر الفقهاء أنهم على شيء من المقامات لما يرون من سقوط التكليف عنهم والولاية لا تحصل إلا بالعبادة وهو غلط,"The information they give about the supernatural is remarkable. They are not bound by anything. They speak absolutely freely about it and tell remarkable things. When jurists see they are not legally responsible, they frequently deny that they have attained any mystical station, since sainthood can be obtained only through divine worship. This is an error."
فإن فضل الله يؤتيه من يشاء.,“God bestows His grace upon whomever He wants to.”
ولا يتوقف حصول الولاية على العبادة ولا غيرها وإذا كانت النفس الإنسانية ثابتة الوجود فالله تعالى يخصها بما شاء من مواهبه,"The attainment of sainthood is not restricted to (the correct performance of) divine worship, or anything else. When the human soul is firmly established as existent, God may single it out for whatever gifts of His He wants to give it."
وهؤلاء القوم لم تعدم نفوسهم الناطقة ولا فسدت كحال المجانين وإنما فقد لهم العقل الذي يناط به التكليف وهي صفة خاصة للنفس وهي علوم ضرورية للإنسان يشتد بها نظره ويعرف أحوال معاشه واستقامة منزله,"The rational souls of such people are not nonexistent, nor are they corrupt, as is the case with the insane. They (merely) lack the intellect that is the basis of legal responsibility. (That intellect) is a special attribute of the soul. It means various kinds of knowledge that are necessary to man and that guide his speculative ability and teach him how to make a living and organize his home."
وكأنه إذا ميز أحوال معاشه واستقامة منزله لم يبق له عذر في قبول التكاليف لإصلاح معاده وليس من فقد هذه الصفة بفاقد لنفسه ولا ذاهل عن حقيقته فيكون موجود الحقيقة معدوم العقل التكليفي الذي هو معرفة المعاش ولا استحالة في ذلك,"One may say that if he knows how to make a living, he has no excuse left not to accept legal responsibility, so that he may prepare for his life after death. Now, a person who lacks that (special) attribute (of the soul called intellect) still does not lack the soul itself, and has not forgotten his reality. He has reality, though he lacks the intellect entailing legal responsibility, that is, the knowledge of how to make a living. This is not absurd."
ولا يتوقف اصطفاء الله عباده للمعرفة على شيء من التكاليف وإذا صح ذلك فاعلم أنه ربما يلتبس حال هؤلاء بالمجانين الذين تفسد نفوسهم الناطقة ويلتحقون بالبهائم,"God does not select His servants for gnosis only on the basis of (the performance of) some legal duty.
If this is correct, it should be known that the state of these men is frequently confused with that of the insane, whose rational souls are corrupted and who belong to (the category of) animals."
ولك في تمييزهم علامات منها أن هؤلاء البهاليل لا تجد لهم وجهة أصلا ومنها أنهم يخلقون على البله من أول نشأتهم,"There are signs by which one can distinguish the two groups. One of them is that fools are found devoting themselves constantly to certain dhikr exercises and divine worship, though not in the way the religious law requires, since, as we have stated, they are not legally responsible. The insane, on the other hand, have no (particular) devotion whatever. Another sign is that fools were created stupid, and were stupid from their earliest days."
والمجانين يعرض لهم الجنون بعد مدة من العمر لعوارض بدنية طبيعية فإذا عرض لهم ذلك وفسدت نفوسهم الناطقة ذهبوا بالخيبة,"The insane, on the other hand, lose their minds after some portion of their life has passed, as the result of natural bodily accidents. When this happens to them and their rational souls become corrupt, they are lost."
ومنها كثرة تصرفهم في الناس بالخير والشر لأنهم لا يتوقفون على إذن لعدم التكليف في حقهم والمجانين لا تصرف لهم,"A further sign is the great activity of fools among men. It may be good or bad. They do not have to have permission, because for them there is no legal responsibility. The insane, on the other hand, show no (such) activity."
وهذا فصل انتهى بنا الكلام إليه.,The course of our discussion caused us to insert the preceding paragraph.
والله المرشد للصواب.,God leads toward that which is correct.
وقد يزعم بعض الناس أن هنا مدارك للغيب من دون غيبة عن الحس فمنهم المنجمون القائلون بالدلالات النجومية ومقتضى أوضاعها في الفلك وآثارها في العناصر وما يحصل من الامتزاج بين طباعها بالتناظر ويتأدى من ذلك المزاج إلى الهواء,"Some people think that there are ways of supernatural perception not involving remoteness from sensual perception. (Such) are the astrologers who believe in astrological indications, consequences of the positions of (stars) in the firmament, influences of (the stars) upon the elements, and results from the tempering of the natures of (the stars) when they look at each other, as well as effects of such tempers upon the air."
وهؤلاء المنجمون ليسوا من الغيب في شيء إنما هي ظنون حدسية وتخمينات مبنية على التآثير النجومية وحصول المزاج منه للهواء مع مزيد حدس يقف به الناظر على تفصيله في الشخصيات في العالم كما قاله بطليموس,"Astrologers, (as a matter of fact,) have nothing to do with the supernatural. It is all guesswork and conjectures based upon (the assumed existence of) astral influence, and a resulting conditioning of the air. (Such guesswork) is accompanied by an additional measure of sagacity enabling scholars to determine the distribution (of astral influence) upon particular individuals in the world, as Ptolemy said."
ونحن نبين بطلان ذلك في محله إن شاء الله وهو لو ثبت فغايته حدس وتخمين وليس مما ذكرناه في شيء.,"We shall explain the futility of astrology in the proper place, if God wills. If it were established (as a fact), it would, at best, be guessing and conjecturing. It has nothing whatever to do with (the supernatural perception) we have mentioned."
ومن هؤلاء قوم من العامة استنبطوا لاستخراج الغيب وتعرف الكائنات صناعة سموها خط الرمل نسبة إلى المادة التي يضعون فيها عملهم,"Other such people include certain men of the common people who, to discover the supernatural and know the future, invented a craft they called “sand writing” (geomancy) after the material one uses for it."
ومحصول هذه الصناعة أنهم صيروا من النقط أشكالا ذات أربع مراتب تختلف باختلاف مراتبها في الزوجية والفردية واستوائها فيهما,This craft consists in forming combinations of dots in four “ranks.” (The resulting combinations) differ in that the (four) ranks are made up of different or identical (arrangements) of even or odd.
فكانت ستة عشر شكلا لأنها إن كانت أزواجا كلها أو أفرادا كلها فشكلان وإن كان الفرد فيهما في مرتبة واحدة فقط فأربعة أشكال وإن كان الفرد في مرتبتين فستة أشكال وإن كان في ثلاث مراتب فأربعة أشكال جاءت ستة عشر شكلا,"This makes sixteen combinations. For if (all four ranks) hold evens or (all) odds, we have two combinations. If one rank only has an even, we have four combinations. If two ranks have an even, we have six combinations, and if three ranks have an even, we have four combinations. This makes altogether sixteen combinations."
ميزوها كلها بأسمائها وأنواعها إلى سعود ونحوس شأن الكواكب وجعلوا لها ستة عشر بيتا طبيعية بزعمهم,"The sand diviners have given different names to the different combinations and classified them as lucky or unlucky, as is done with the stars. For (the sixteen combinations), they have assumed (the existence of) sixteen “houses.”"
وكأنها البروج الاثنا عشر التي للفلك والأوتاد الأربعة,They think that the “houses” are natural and that they correspond to the twelve signs of the zodiac and the four cardines.
وجعلوا لكل شكل منها بيتا وخطوطا ودلالة على صنف من موجودات عالم العناصر يختص به,"They have attributed to each combination a “house,” lucky (or unlucky) influences, and significance with regard to one particular group (of people) in the world of the elements."
واستنبطوا من ذلك فنا حاذوا به فن النجامة ونوع فضائه إلا أن أحكام النجامة مستندة إلى أوضاع طبيعية كما يزعم بطليموس,"(The sand diviners) have thus invented a discipline that runs parallel to astrology and the system of astrological judgments. However, the astrological judgments are based upon natural indications, as Ptolemy assumes."
وهذه إنما مستندها أوضاع تحكيمية وأهواء اتفاقية ولا دليل يقوم على شيء منها ويزعمون أن أصل ذلك من النبوات القديمة في العالم,"In general, they assume that sand writing originated with the prophets of old."
وربما نسبوها إلى دانيال أو إلى إدريس صلوات الله عليهما شأن الصنائع كلها وربما يدعون مشروعيتها,"They frequently ascribe its invention to Daniel or Idris, as is being done with all the crafts. They (also) frequently claim that (sand writing) is enjoined by the religious law."
ويحتجون بقوله صلى الله عليه وسلم: «كان نبي يخط فمن وافق خطه فذاك»,"As a proof of this (contention of theirs), they quote the following tradition of Muhammad: “There was a prophet who wrote, and whoever concurs with his writing this is it.”"
وليس في الحديث دليل على مشروعية خط الرمل كما يزعمه بعض من لا تحصيل لديه,"However, this tradition contains no evidence for the claim that sand writing is enjoined by the religious law, as some people assume."
لأن معنى الحديث كان نبي يخط فيأتيه الوحي عند ذلك الخط ولا استحالة في أن يكون ذلك عادة لبعض الأنبياء,"The meaning of the tradition is: “There was a prophet who wrote,” that is, the revelation came to him while he was writing. It is not absurd to assume that such was the custom of some prophets, for prophets differ in their ways of perceiving the revelation."
فمن وافق خطه ذلك النبي فهو ذاك أي فهو صحيح من بين الخط بما عضده من الوحي لذلك النبي الذي كانت عادته أن يأتيه الوحي عند الخط وأما إذا أخذ ذلك من الخط مجردا من غير موافقة وحي فلا.,"When some of them received the revelation, the angel spoke first to them, without any request or motive (on their part). Others had a human motive, resulting from contact with human affairs, in that their people asked them to explain some difficult problem, some obligation of duty, or the like."
فإذا أرادوا استخراج مغيب بزعمهم عمدوا إلى قرطاس أو رمل أو دقيق فوضعوا النقط سطورا على عدد المراتب الأربع,"If, in their self-deception, (sand diviners) want to discover something supernatural, they take paper, or sand, or flour, and form dots in (four) lines in accordance with the number of the four ranks."
ثم كرروا ذلك أربع مرات فتجيء ستة عشر سطرا ثم يطرحون النقط أزواجا ويضعون ما بقي من كل سطر زوجا كان أو فردا في مرتبته على الترتيب,"This is repeated four times. They thus obtain sixteen lines. They then deduct (some) dots in pairs. The remainder, for each line, whether it is even or odd, is put into the rank to which it belongs according to order."
فتجيء أربعة أشكال يضعونها في سطر متتالية ثم يولدون منها أربعة أشكال أخرى من جانب العرض باعتبار كل مرتبة وما قابلها من الشكل الذي بإزائه وما يجتمع منهما من زوج أو فرد فتكون ثمانية أشكال موضوعة في سطر,"This results in four combinations, which they arrange to form one continuous line. From them, they then form four other combinations through horizontal confrontation, by considering each rank, the corresponding combination next to it, and the evens or odds found in it. These, then, make eight combinations, placed along one line."
ثم يولدون من كل شكلين شكلا تحتهما باعتبار ما يجتمع في كل مرتبة من مراتب الشكلين أيضا من زوج أو فرد فتكون أربعة أخرى تحتها,"From each pair of combinations, they then form one combination (to be placed) underneath the (eight), by considering the evens or odds found in each rank of two combinations. Thus, we have four others under (the eight)."
ثم يولدون من الأربعة شكلين كذلك تحتها من الشكلين شكلا كذلك تحتهما,"From these four combinations, they then form two more combinations, which are likewise placed underneath (the four). From these two, they again form one more combination and place it underneath (the two)."
ثم من هذا الشكل الخامس عشر مع الشكل الأول شكلا يكون آخر الستة عشر,"They then combine this fifteenth combination with the first one and thus form one more combination, which completes the sixteen."
ثم يحكمون على الخط كله بما اقتضته أشكاله من السعودة والنحوسة بالذات والنظر والحلول والامتزاج والدلالة على أصناف الموجودات وسائر ذلك تحكما غريبا,"Then, they evaluate the whole “writing” in a curious manner, as to the good luck or misfortune required by the various combinations, taking them as they stand, speculating on them, analyzing them, combining them, making deductions as to the various kinds of existentia, and so on."
وكثرت هذه الصناعة في العمران ووضعت فيها التآليف واشتهر فيها الأعلام من المتقدمين والمتأخرين وهي كما رأيت تحكم وهوى,This craft is prevalent in (all) civilized (regions). There exists a literature dealing with it. Outstanding ancient and modern personalities were famous for it. But it is obviously based on arbitrary notions and wishful thinking.
والتحقيق الذي ينبغي أن يكون نصب فكرك أن الغيوب لا تدرك بصناعة البتة ولا سبيل إلى تعرفها إلا للخواص من البشر المفطورين على الرجوع من عالم الحس إلى عالم الروح,The truth that should be present to one’s mind is that the supernatural cannot be perceived by any craft at all. The only people who can acquire knowledge of the supernatural are those distinguished human beings who are fitted by nature to return from the world of sensual perception to the world of the spirit.
ولذلك يسمي المنجمون هذا الصنف كلهم بالزهريين نسبة إلى ما تقتضيه دلالة الزهرة بزعمهم في أصل مواليدهم على إدراك الغيب فالخط وغيره من هذه,"The astrologers, therefore, called all people (able to perceive supernatural knowledge) “Venusians,” with reference to Venus, because they assumed that the position of Venus in the nativities of these people indicates their ability to have supernatural perception."
إن كان الناظر فيه من أهل هذه الخاصية وقصد بهذه الأمور التي ينظر فيها من النقط أو العظام أو غيرها إشغال الحس لترجع النفس إلى عالم الروحانيات لحظة ما، فهو من باب الطرق بالحصى والنظر في قلوب الحيوانات والمرايا الشفافة كما ذكرناه.,"If the person who takes up (sand) writing and similar (practices) is one of those distinguished beings, and if his study of dots, bones, and other things is intended to occupy his senses in order that his soul may return momentarily to the world of the spiritualia, then (sand writing) occupies the same position as casting pebbles, examining the hearts of animals, and gazing into transparent mirrors, as we have mentioned."
وإن لم يكن كذلك وإنما قصد معرفة الغيب بهذه الصناعة وأنها تفيده ذلك فهذر من القول والعمل.,"If this is not so, and if knowledge of the supernatural is sought by means of (sand writing), (then) it is meaningless in theory and practice."
والله يهدي من يشاء.,“God guides whomever He wants to guide.”
والعلامة لهذه الفطرة التي فطر عليها أهل هذا الإدراك الغيبي أنهم عند توجههم إلى تعرف الكائنات يعتريهم خروج عن حالتهم الطبيعية كالتثاؤب والتمطط ومبادئ الغيبة عن الحس ويختلف ذلك بالقوة والضعف على اختلاف وجودها فيهم,"The sign by which persons who are disposed by nature to supernatural perceptions can be recognized, is this: When these persons devote themselves to acquiring a knowledge of things, they suffer a departure from their natural condition. They yawn and stretch, and show symptoms of remoteness from sensual perception. These (symptoms) vary in intensity according to the different degrees to which they possess this natural disposition."
فمن لم توجد له هذه العلامة فليس من إدراك الغيب في شيء وإنما هو ساع في تنفيق كذبه.,Those in whom this sign is not found have nothing to do with supernatural perception. They are merely trying to spread the falsehoods to which they are committed.
ومنهم طوائف يضعون قوانين لاستخراج الغيب ليست من الطور الأول الذي هو من مدارك النفس الروحانية ولا من الحدس المبني على تأثيرات النجوم كما زعمه بطليموس ولا من الظن والتخمين الذي يحاول عليه العرافون,"There are (other) groups that also lay down certain rules for the discovery of the supernatural. Their rules do not belong to the first category, that which has to do with the spiritual perceptions of the soul, and also differ from speculations based upon astral influences, as assumed by Ptolemy, as well as from the guesswork and conjecturing with which the diviners work."
وإنما هي مغالط يجعلونها كالمصائد لأهل العقول المستضعفة ولست أذكر من ذلك إلا ما ذكره المصنفون وولع به الخواص,They are nothing but mistakes which (the people who work with them) throw out like snares for weakminded people. I shall mention only as much of (the subject) as is mentioned in literature and has aroused the interest of distinguished men.
فمن تلك القوانين الحساب الذي يسمونه حساب النيم وهو مذكور في آخر كتاب السياسة المنسوب لأرسطو يعرف به الغالب من المغلوب في المتحاربين من الملوك وهو أن تحسب الحروف التي في اسم أحدهما بحساب الجمل المصطلح عليه في حروف أبجد من الواحد إلى الألف آحادا وعشرات ومئين وألوفا,"One such rule is the method called hisab an-nim. It is mentioned at the end of the Politics which is ascribed to Aristotle. It serves to predict the victor and the vanquished when kings go to war with each other. The procedure is to add up the numerical total of the letters in the name of each king, according to the system of calculation in which the letters of the alphabet in the sequence alif, b, j . . . are given the numerical values of units, tens, hundreds, and thousands from one to a thousand."
فإذا حسبت الاسم وتحصل لك منه عدد فاحسب اسم الآخر كذلك ثم اطرح من كل واحد منهما تسعة تسعة واحفظ بقية هذا وبقية هذا ثم انظر بين العددين الباقيين من حساب الاسمين فإن كان العددان مختلفين في الكمية وكانا معا زوجين أو فردين معا فصاحب الأقل منهما هو الغالب,"When that has been done, each total should be divided by nine. The fractional remainder, in both cases, should be kept in mind. The two fractional remainders should be compared. If they are different and both are even or odd numbers, the (king) who has the smaller number will be the victor."
وإن كان أحدهما زوجا والآخر فردا فصاحب الأكثر هو الغالب وإن كانا متساويين في الكمية وهما معا زوجان فالمطلوب هو الغالب وإن كانا معا فردين فالطالب هو الغالب ويقال هنالك بيتان في هذا العمل اشتهرا بين الناس وهما:,"If one of them is an even and the other an odd number, the (king) who has the larger number will be the victor. If the two numbers are equal and both even, the object of the inquiry will be the victor. And if both numbers are odd, the (king) who made the inquiry will be the victor. He (Aristotle) reported two verses about this procedure which have wide currency. They are:"
أرى الزوج والأفراد يسمو أقلها … وأكثرها عند التحالف غالب,"I think, in the case of even or odd numbers (for both),
the smaller number will gain the upper hand.
When the numbers differ (as to being even or odd), the larger number will be the victor."
ويغلب مطلوب إذا الزوج يستوي … وعند استواء الفرد يغلب طالب,"The object of the inquiry will be victorious, if the num bers are both equal and even.
And if they are both equal and odd, the one who made the inquiry will be victorious."
ثم وضعوا لمعرفة ما بقي من الحروف بعد طرحها بتسعة قانونا معروفا عندهم في طرح تسعة,"In order to find out what the fractional remainder will be after dividing by nine, a rule has been laid down by (the persons who practice the hisab an-nim), which is well known among them for that purpose."
وذلك أنهم جمعوا الحروف الدالة على الواحد في المراتب الأربع وهي (أ) الدالة على الواحد وهي: (اي) الدالة على العشرة وهي واحد في مرتبة العشرات و (ق) الدالة على المائة لأنها واحد في مرتبة المئين و (ش) الدالة على الألف لأنها واحد في مرتبة الآلاف وليس بعد الألف عدد يدل عليه بالحروف لأن الشين هي آخر حروف أبجد ثم رتبوا هذه الأحرف الأربعة على نسق المراتب فكان منها كلمة رباعية وهي (ايقش),"They take the letters that refer to the number one in the four ranks, alif for the units, y for the tens, q for the hundreds, and sh for the thousands – there is no number higher than one thousand that can be indicated by letters, because sh is the last letter of the alphabet(ical arrangement for numerical purposes) – and arrange these four letters in sequence so as to form a word of four consonants: ‘yash."
ثم فعلوا ذلك بالحروف الدالة على اثنين في المراتب الثلاث وأسقطوا مرتبة الآلاف منها لأنها كانت آخر حروف أبجد فكان مجموع حروف الاثنين في المراتب الثلاث ثلاثة حروف وهي (ب) الدالة على اثنين في الآحاد و (ك) الدالة على اثنين في العشرات وهي عشرون و (ر) الدالة على اثنين في المئين وهي مائتان,"Then, they do the same with the letters that designate the number two in the (first) three ranks, omitting the thousands because there are no letters of the alphabet left for them. These three letters are b for two, k for twenty and r for two hundred."
وصيروها كلمة واحدة ثلاثية على نسق المراتب وهي بكر,"Arranged in sequence, they form the word bkr."
ثم فعلوا ذلك بالحروف الدالة على ثلاثة فنشأت عنها كلمة جلس وكذلك إلى آخر حروف أبجد وصارت تسع كلمات نهاية عدد الآحاد وهي ايقش بكر جلس دمت هنث وصخ زعد حفظ طضغ مرتبة على توالي الأعداد,"The same is done with the letters that designate the number three, resulting in the word jls, and so on through all the letters of the alphabet. This results in nine words, (nine being) the highest unit. The words are: ‘yash, bkr, jls, dmt, tenth, wskh, z’dh, hfz, and tdgh, here arranged according to numerical sequence."
ولكل كلمة منها عددها الذي هي في مرتبته فالواحد لكلمة ايقش والاثنان لكلمة بكر والثلاثة لكلمة جلس وكذلك إلى التاسعة التي هي طضغ فتكون لها التسعة فإذا أرادوا طرح الاسم بتسعة نظروا كل حرف منه في أي كلمة هو من هذه الكلمات وأخذوا عددها مكانه ثم جمعوا الأعداد التي يأخذونها بدلا من حروف الاسم,"Each of them has its own number, one for ‘ygsh, two for bkr, three for jls, and so on to nine, which belongs to tdgh. If they want to divide a name by nine, they note in which of these nine words each letter of the name appears, substituting the number (of the word) for each letter (of the name), and adding together all the numbers thus obtained."
فإن كانت زائدة على التسعة أخذوا ما فضل عنها وإلا أخذوه كما هو ثم يفعلون كذلك بالاسم الآخر وينظرون بين الخارجين بما قدمناه,"If the sum is greater than nine, they (deduct nine or a multiple of nine from it and) take the fractional remainder. Otherwise, they take (the sum) as it is. The same thing is then done with the other name, and the two results are compared in the manner indicated above."
والسر في هذا بين وذلك أن الباقي من كل عقد من عقود الأعداد بطرح تسعة إنما هو واحد فكأنه يجمع عدد العقود خاصة من كل مرتبة فصارت أعداد العقود كأنها آحاد,"The secret of this rule is clear. The fractional remainder in a division by nine is the same in any given multiple of the powers of ten. In a way, (the person making the calculation) just sums up the (unit) number in any given multiple of the powers of ten. The numbers in multiples of higher powers of ten, thus, are like the (corresponding) units."
فلا فرق بين الاثنين والعشرين والمائتين والألفين وكلها اثنان وكذلك الثلاثة والثلاثون والثلاثمائة والثلاثة الآلاف كلها ثلاثة ثلاثة.,"There is no distinction between two, twenty, two hundred, or two thousand. Likewise, three, thirty, three hundred, and three thousand, all are three."
فوضعت الأعداد على التوالي دالة على أعداد العقود لا غير,The numbers are arranged in such a sequence as to indicate nothing but the (unit) number in any given multiple of the powers of ten.
وجعلت الحروف الدالة على أصناف العقود في كل كلمة من الآحاد والعشرات والمئين والألوف وصار عدد الكلمة الموضوع عليها نائبا عن كل حرف فيها سواء دل على الآحاد أو العشرات أو المئين فيؤخذ عدد كل كلمة عوضا من الحروف التي فيها وتجمع كلها إلى آخرها كما قلناه هذا هو العمل المتداول بين الناس منذ الأمر القديم,"Thus, the number of the word can be used for all the letters it contains, and all of them are added up, as we have said. This procedure has been common among people for a long time."
وكان بعض من لقيناه من شيوخنا يرى أن الصحيح فيها كلمات أخرى تسعة مكان هذه ومتوالية كتواليها ويفعلون بها في الطرح بتسعة مثل ما يفعلونه بالأخرى سواء,Some shaykhs we knew personally were of the opinion that the correct thing is to use nine other words in place of those (mentioned). They too represent consecutive (numbers). The procedure of dividing by nine is the same.
وهي هذه ارب يستمك جزلط مدوص هف تحذن عش خع ثضظ تسع كلمات على توالي العدد,"These words are: ‘rb, ysqk, jzlt, mdws, hf, tkhdhn, ghsh, h’, tdz, nine words in all, in numerical sequence."
ولكل كلمة منها عددها الذي في مرتبته فيها الثلاثي والرباعي والثنائي,"They contain three, four, or two letters, respectively."
وليست جارية على أصل مطرد كما تراه,"As one can see, they follow no coherent principle."
لكن كان شيوخنا ينقلونها عن شيخ المغرب في هذه المعارف من السيمياء وأسرار الحروف والنجامة وهو أبو العباس بن البناء,"But our shaykhs are transmitting them on the authority of the leading Maghribi scholar in astrology as well as letter magic, Abu l-‘Abbas b. al-Banna’."
ويقولون عنه أن العمل بهذه الكلمات في طرح حساب النيم أصح من العمل بكلمات ايقش,"They state on his authority that the use of these words for the division of the hisab an-nim is more correct than that of the words ‘yqsh, (etc.)."
والله يعلم كيف ذلك,And God knows better how it may be.
وهذه كلها مدارك للغيب غير معزو إلى أرسطو عند المحققين لما فيه من الآراء البعيدة عن التحقيق والبرهان,"All these ways of perceiving the supernatural are based upon no proof, and are not verifiable. Thorough scholars do not attribute the book that contains the hisab an-nim to Aristotle, because it contains opinions that cannot be verified or proven."
يشهد لك بذلك تصفحه إن كنت من أهل الرسوخ 1 هـ-.,"This confirms (its spuriousness). The reader should investigate this matter critically, if he is a wellgrounded scholar."
ومن هذه القوانين الصناعية لاستخراج الغيوب فيما يزعمون الزايرجة المسماة «بزايرجة العالم» المعزوة إلى أبي العباس سيدي أحمد السبتي من أعلام المتصوفة بالمغرب,"Another technical rule for alleged discovery of the supernatural is the za’irajah which is called “Za’irajah of the world.” It is attributed to Abul-‘Abbas as- Sabti, a very prominent Maghribi Sufi."
كان في آخر المائة السادسة بمراكش ولعهد أبي يعقوب المنصور من ملوك الموحدين وهي غريبة العمل صناعة.,"He lived at the end of the sixth [twelfth] century in Marrakech, during the rule of the Almohad ruler Ya’qub al-Mansur. The za’irajah is a remarkable technical procedure."
وكثير من الخواص يولعون بإفادة الغيب منها بعملها المعروف الملغوز فيحرضون بذلك على حل رمزه وكشف غامضه.,"Many distinguished people have shown great interest in using it for supernatural information, with the help of the well-known enigmatic operation that goes with it. For that (purpose), they have been desirous to solve its riddle and uncover its secret."
وصورتها التي يقع العمل عندهم فيها دائرة عظيمة في داخلها دوائر متوازية للأفلاك والعناصر والمكونات والروحانيات وغير ذلك من أصناف الكائنات والعلوم,"The form of the za’irajah they use is a large circle that encloses other concentric circles for the spheres, the elements, the created things, the spiritualia, as well as other types of beings and sciences."
وكل دائرة مقسومة بأقسام فلكها إما البروج وإما العناصر أو غيرهما وخطوط كل قسم مارة إلى المركز,"Each circle is divided into sections, the areas of which represent the signs of the zodiac, or the elements, or other things. The lines dividing each section run to the center."
ويسمونها الأوتار وعلى كل وتر حروف متتابعة موضوعة فمنها برشوم الزمام التي هي أشكال الأعداد عند أهل الدواوين والحساب بالمغرب لهذا العهد,"They are called chords. Along each chord there are sets of letters that have a conventional (numerical value). Some are zimam ciphers, the same as those used for numerals by government officials and accountants in the contemporary Maghrib."
ومنها برشوم الغبار المتعارفة في داخل الزايرجة وبين الدوائر أسماء العلوم ومواضع الأكوان وعلى ظاهر الدوائر جدول متكثر البيوت المتقاطعة طولا وعرضا يشتمل على خمسة وخمسين بيتا في العرض ومائة وواحد وثلاثين في الطول جوانب منه معمورة البيوت تارة بالعدد وأخرى بالحروف وجوانب خالية البيوت,"Others are the ordinary ghubar ciphers. Inside the za’irajah, between the circles, are found the names of the sciences and of topics of the created (world). On the back of (the page containing) the circles, there is a table with many squares, fifty-five horizontally and one hundred and thirty-one vertically. Some of the squares are filled in, partly with numbers and partly with letters. Others are empty."
ولا تعلم نسبة تلك الأعداد في أوضاعها ولا القسمة التي عينت البيوت العامرة من الخالية وحافات الزايرجة أبيات من عروض الطويل على روي اللام المنصوبة,"The significance of these numbers in their positions is not known, nor are the rules known that govern the distribution of filled and empty squares. The zd’irajah is surrounded by verses in the meter at-tawil and rhyming on -la."
تتضمن صورة العمل في استخراج المطلوب من تلك الزايرجة إلا أنها من قبيل الإلغاز في عدم الوضوح والجلاء وفي بعض جوانب الزايرجة بيت من الشعر منسوب لبعض أكابر أهل الحدثان بالمغرب وهو مالك بن وهيب من علماء إشبيلية كان في الدولة اللمتونية,"They describe the procedure which must be followed to discover the answer to a particular inquiry from the zd’irajah. However, since the verses express their meaning in riddles, they lack clarity. On one side of the za’irajah is one verse from a poem ascribed to one of the great Western forecasters of future events, the Sevillian scholar, Malik b. Wuhayb, who lived during the reign of the Lamtunah (Almoravids)."
ونص البيت:,This is the verse:
سؤال عظيم الخلق حزت فصن إذن … غرائب شك ضبطه الجد مثلا,"A weighty question you have got. Keep, then, to yourself
Remarkable doubts which have been raised and which can be straightened out with diligence."
وهو البيت المتداول عندهم في العمل لاستخراج الجواب من السؤال في هذه الزايرجة وغيرها فإذا أرادوا استخراج الجواب عما يسأل عنه من المسائل كتبوا ذلك السؤال وقطعوه حروفا ثم أخذوا الطالع لذلك الوقت من بروج الفلك ودرجها,"This is the verse commonly used in attempting to obtain the answer to a question with the help of this or other za’irajahs. To obtain the answer to a question, the question is written down in unconnected letters and the ascendant as of that day is determined, that is, one of the signs of the zodiac and the degree (of the sign on the horizon)."
وعمدوا إلى الزايرجة ثم إلى الوتر المكتنف فيها بالبرج الطالع من أوله مارا إلى المركز ثم إلى محيط الدائرة قبالة الطالع,"Then, the za’irajah is consulted, and the particular chord of the za’irajah that borders the sign of the zodiac of that (particular) ascendant is chosen. This is followed from where it starts to the center, and then on to the circumference of the circle opposite the ascendant."
فيأخذون جميع الحروف المكتوبة عليه من أوله إلى آخره والأعداد المرسومة بينهما ويصيرونها حروفا بحساب الجمل وقد ينقلون آحادها إلى العشرات وعشراتها إلى المئين وبالعكس فيهما كما يقتضيه قانون العمل عندهم,"One takes note of all the letters written upon that chord from beginning to end, and of all the numbers written in between. The latter are converted into letters according to their numerical values, transposing all units into tens and all tens into hundreds, and vice versa, as required by the rule governing use of (the za’irajah)."
ويضعونها مع حروف السؤال ويضيفون إلى ذلك جميع ما على الوتر المكتنف بالبرج الثالث من الطالع من الحروف والأعداد من أوله إلى المركز فقط لا يتجاوزونه إلى المحيط ويفعلون بالأعداد ما فعلوه بالأول ويضيفونها إلى الحروف الأخرى,"The letters thus obtained are put alongside the letters of the question, and one also adds all the letters and numbers that are upon the chord bordering the sign, three signs from that of the ascendant. (In this case,) one follows it from where it starts to the center, but not beyond it to the circumference. The numbers are converted into letters as before, and added to the other letters."
ثم يقطعون حروف البيت الذي هو أصل العمل وقانونه عندهم وهو بيت مالك بن وهيب المتقدم ويضعونها ناحية ثم يضربون عدد درج الطالع في أس البرج وأسه عندهم هو بعد البرج عن آخر المراتب عكس ما عليه الأس عند أهل صناعة الحساب فإنه عندهم البعد عن أول المراتب,"Then, the afore-mentioned verse by Malik b. Wuhayb, which is the basis and norm of the procedure, is written down in unconnected letters, and put aside. Then the number of the degree of. the ascendant is multiplied by the “base” of the sign (of the zodiac). In the language (used here) the “base” is the sign’s distance from the last rank, in contrast to the (meaning of) “base” in the language of astronomers [?], where it is the distance from the first rank."
ثم يضربونه في عدد آخر يسمونه الأس الأكبر والدور الأصلي ويدخلون بما تجمع لهم من ذلك في بيوت الجدول على قوانين معروفة وأعمال مذكورة وأدوار معدودة,"The degree is then multiplied by another number, called the “greatest base” and “principal cycle.” The result of these (multiplications) is entered in the squares of the table, following well-known rules and familiar procedures and (using a certain) number of “cycles.”"
ويستخرجون منها حروفا ويسقطون أخرى ويقابلون بما معهم في حروف البيت وينقلون منه ما ينقلون إلى حروف السؤال وما معها ثم يطرحون تلك الحروف بأعداد معلومة يسمونها الأدوار ويخرجون في كل دور الحرف الذي ينتهي عنده الدور,"Some letters are taken out, others dropped, and the rest matched with what is found among the letters of the verse. Some are transferred to the letters of the question and (the letters) that are with them. Then, these letters are divided by certain numbers called “cycles,” and from each “cycle” the letter at which the “cycle” ends, is removed."
ويعاودون ذلك بعدد الأدوار المعينة عندهم لذلك فيخرج آخرها حروف متقطعة وتؤلف على التوالي فتصير كلمات منظومة في بيت واحد على وزن البيت الذي يقابل به العمل ورويه وهو بيت مالك ابن وهيب المتقدم حسبما نذكر ذلك كله في فصل العلوم عند كيفية العمل بهذه الزايرجة,"The (operation) is repeated with the (entire) number of “cycles” specified for that (purpose). The result, finally, is (a number of) unconnected letters which are put together consecutively to form the words of a verse of the same meter and rhyme as the aforementioned verse by Malik b. Wuhayb, which serves as the basis of the operation. We shall mention all this in the chapter on the sciences, in discussing how a za’irajah of this kind is used."
وقد رأينا كثيرا من الخواص يتهافتون على استخراج الغيب منها بتلك الأعمال ويحسبون أن ما وقع من مطابقة الجواب للسؤال في توافق الخطاب دليل على مطابقة الواقع,We have seen many distinguished people jump at (the opportunity for) supernatural discoveries through (the za’irajah) by means of operations of this kind. They think that correspondence (in form) between question and answer shows correspondence in actuality.
وليس ذلك بصحيح لأنه قد مر لك أن الغيب لا يدرك بأمر صناعي البتة وإنما المطابقة التي فيها بين الجواب والسؤال من حيث الإفهام والتوافق في الخطاب حتى يكون الجواب مستقيما أو موافقا للسؤال,"This is not correct, because, as was mentioned before, perception of the supernatural cannot be attained by means of any technique whatever. It is not impossible that there might be a correspondence in meaning, and a stylistic agreement, between question and answer, such that the answer comes out straight and in agreement with the question."
ووقوع ذلك في هذه الصناعة في تكسير الحروف المجتمعة من السؤال والأوتار والدخول في الجدول بالأعداد المجتمعة من ضرب الأعداد المفروضة واستخراج الحروف من الجدول بذلك وطرح أخرى ومعاودة ذلك في الأدوار المعدودة ومقابلة ذلك كله بحروف البيت على التوالي غير مستنكر,"It is not impossible that this could be achieved by just such a technique of separating the letters of the question and those of the chord, entering the numbers that come together as the result of the multiplication of fixed numbers in the table, taking out letters from the table and discarding others, operating repeatedly with a given number of “cycles,” and matching the whole thing with the letters of the verse arranged in sequence."
وقد يقع الاطلاع من بعض الأذكياء على تناسب بين هذه الأشياء فيقع له معرفة المجهول فالتناسب بين الأشياء هو سبب الحصول على المجهول من المعلوم الحاصل للنفس وطريق لحصوله سيما من أهل الرياضة فإنها تفيد العقل قوة على القياس وزيادة في الفكر وقد مر تعليل ذلك غير مرة,"Intelligent persons may have discovered the relationships among these things, and, as a result, have obtained information about the unknown through them. Finding out relationships between things is the secret (means) whereby the soul obtains knowledge of the unknown from the known. It is a way to obtain such knowledge, especially suited to people of (mystical) training. This (training) gives the intellect added power for analogical reasoning and thinking, as has been explained before several times."
ومن أجل هذا المعنى ينسبون هذه الزايرجة في الغالب لأهل الرياضة فهي منسوبة للسبتي ولقد وقفت على أخرى منسوبة لسهل بن عبد الله,It is in this sense that za’irajahs are usually ascribed to people of (mystical) training. This particular za’irajah is thus ascribed to as-Sabti. I have come across another one which is ascribed to Sahl b. ‘Abdallah.
ولعمري إنها من الأعمال الغريبة والمعاناة العجيبة والجواب الذي يخرج منها فالسر في خروجه منظوما يظهر لي إنما هو المقابلة بحروف ذلك البيت ولهذا يكون النظم على وزنه ورويه,"It is, indeed, a remarkable operation and a wondrous procedure. As it appears to me, the secret of why the answer comes out in rhymed form is to be explained as the result of matching (the letters of the za’irajah) with the letters of the verse (by Malik b. Wuhayb). This is why the versified answer has the same meter and rhyme."
ويدل عليه أنا وجدنا أعمالا أخرى لهم في مثل ذلك أسقطوا فيها المقابلة بالبيت فلم يخرج الجواب منظوما كما تراه عند الكلام على ذلك في موضعه,"This can be deduced from the fact that we have come across other similar operations in which the matching (of letters) with the verse was omitted. In those cases, the answer did not come out in the form of a verse. This will be shown when the matter is discussed in its proper place."
وكثير من الناس تضيق مداركهم عن التصديق بهذا العمل ونفوذه إلى المطلوب فينكر صحتها ويحسب أنها من التخيلات والإيهامات وأن صاحب العمل بها يثبت حروف البيت الذي ينظمه كما يريد بين أثناء حروف السؤال والأوتار,"Many people lack the understanding necessary for belief in the genuineness of the operation and its effectiveness in discovering the object of inquiry. They deny its soundness and believe that it is hocus-pocus. The practitioner, they believe, inserts the letters of a verse he (himself) composes as he wishes, from the letters of question and chord."
ويفعل تلك الصناعات على غير نسبة ولا قانون ثم يجيء بالبيت ويوهم أن العمل جاء على طريقة منضبطة,"He follows the described technique, which has no system or norm, and then he produces his verse, pretending that it was the result of an operation that followed an established procedure."
وهذا الحسبان توهم فاسد حمل عليه القصور عن فهم التناسب بين الموجودات والمعدومات والتفاوت بين المدارك والعقول ولكن من شأن كل مدرك إنكار ما ليس في طوقه إدراكه ويكفينا في رد ذلك مشاهدة العمل بهذه الصناعة والحدس القطعي فإنها جاءت بعمل مطرد وقانون صحيح,"This reasoning is baseless and wrong. It is the result of such people’s inability to understand the relations between the existentia and things that (can be) known, and the differences between the various kinds of perception and intellect. Anyone who has some perception naturally denies (the existence of) anything he is not capable of perceiving. In order to refute this (denial of the genuineness of the operation of the za’irajah), it is sufficient for us (to refer to the fact) that the technique has been observed in operation and that it has been definitely and intelligently established that the operation follows a coherent procedure and sound norms."
لا مرية فيه عند من يباشر ذلك ممن له ذكاء وحدس وإذا كان كثير من المعاياة في العدد الذي هو أوضح الواضحات يعسر على الفهم إدراكه لبعد النسبة فيه وخفائها فما ظنك بمثل هذا مع خفاء النسبة فيه وغرابتها,"No one who has much intelligence and sagacity and has had contact with the (operation of the za’irajah) would object to this statement. Many an operation with numbers, which are the clearest things in the world, is difficult to grasp, because the (existing) relations are difficult to establish and intricate. This is the case to a much greater degree here, where the relations are so intricate and strange."
فلنذكر مسألة من المعاياة يتضح لك بها شيء مما ذكرنا مثاله,Let us mention a problem that will to some degree illustrate the point just stated.
لو قيل لك خذ عددا من الدراهم واجعل بإزاء كل درهم ثلاثة من الفلوس ثم اجمع الفلوس التي أخذت واشتر بها طائرا ثم اشتر بالدراهم كلها طيورا بسعر ذلك الطائر فكم الطيور المشتراة بالدراهم؟,"Take a number of dirhams and place beside each dirham three fals. Then, take all the fals and buy a fowl with them. Then, buy fowls with all the dirhams for the same price that the first bird cost. How many fowls will you have bought?"
فجوابه أن تقول هي تسعة لأنك تعلم أن فلوس الدراهم أربعة وعشرون وأن الثلاثة ثمنها وأن عدة أثمان الواحد ثمانية فإذا جمعت الثمن من الدراهم إلى الثمن الآخر فكان كله ثمن طائر فهي ثمانية طيور عدة أثمان الواحد وتزيد على الثمانية طائرا آخر وهو المشترى بالفلوس المأخوذة أولا وعلى سعره اشتريت بالدراهم فتكون تسعة,"The answer is nine. As you know, a dirham has twentyfour Pals, three Pals are one-eighth of a dirham, one is eight times one-eighth. Adding up one-eighth of each dirham buys one fowl. This means eight fowls (for the dirhams), as one is eight times one-eighth. Add another fowl, the one that was bought originally for the additional fats and that determined the price of the fowls bought with the dirhams. This makes nine."
فأنت ترى كيف خرج لك الجواب المضمر بسر التناسب الذي بين أعداد المسألة والوهم أول ما يلقي إليك هذه وأمثالها إنما يجعله من قبيل الغيب الذي لا يمكن معرفته,"It is clear how the unknown answer was implied in the relations that existed between the numerical data indicated in the problem. This and similar (things) are at first suspected as belonging to the realm of the supernatural, which cannot be known."
وظهر أن التناسب بين الأمور هو الذي يخرج مجهولها من معلومها وهذا إنما هو في الواقعات الحاصلة في الوجود أو العلم وأما الكائنات المستقبلة إذا لم تعلم أسباب وقوعها ولا يثبت لها خبر صادق عنها فهو غيب لا يمكن معرفته,"It is thus obvious that it is from the relations existing among the data that one finds out the unknown from the known. This, however, applies only to events occurring in (the world of) existence or in science. Things of the future belong to the supernatural and cannot be known unless the causes for their happening are known and we have trustworthy information about it."
وإذا تبين لك ذلك فالأعمال الواقعة في الزايرجة كلها إنما هي في استخراج الجواب من ألفاظ السؤال لأنها كما رأيت استنباط حروف على ترتيب من تلك الحروف بعينها على ترتيب آخر,"If this is clear, it follows that all the operations of the za’irajah serve merely to discover the words of the answer in the words of the question. As we have seen, it is a question of producing from a given arrangement of letters another arrangement of letters."
وسر ذلك إنما هو من تناسب بينهما يطلع عليه بعض دون بعض فمن عرف ذلك التناسب تيسر عليه استخراج ذلك الجواب بتلك القوانين,"The secret here lies in the existence of a relationship between the two (different arrangements of letters). Someone may be aware of it, whereas someone else may not be aware of it. Those who know the existing relationship can easily discover the answer with the help of the stated rules."
والجواب يدل في مقام آخر من حيث موضوع ألفاظه وتراكيبه على وقوع أحد طرفي السؤال من نفي أو إثبات وليس هذا من المقام الأول بل إنما يرجع لمطابقة الكلام لما في الخارج ولا سبيل إلى معرفة ذلك من هذه الأعمال بل البشر محجوبون عنه,"From the (conventional) meanings and the combinations of words, the answer may then also indicate a negative or positive (statement) regarding (the object of) the question. This, however, is on another level. It is not on the same level (as merely discovering the words of the answer). It implies a conformity of the words to the outside (world). Such knowledge cannot be acquired through those operations. It remains veiled to human beings."
وقد استأثر الله بعلمه,God claims all His knowledge for Himself.
والله يعلم وأنتم لا تعلمون 2: 216.,“God knows and you do not know.”
فكان صلى الله عليه وسلم يشاور أصحابه ويفاوضهم في مهماته العامة والخاصة ويخص مع ذلك أبا بكر بخصوصيات أخرى حتى كان العرب الذين عرفوا الدول وأحوالها في كسرى وقيصر والنجاشي يسمون أبا بكر وزيره,"The Prophet used to ask the men around him for advice and to consult them on both general and special (private) matters. In addition, he discussed other very special affairs with Abu Bakr. Certain Arabs familiar with the situation in the Persian, Byzantine, and Abyssinian dynasties, called Abu Bakr, therefore, Mu- hammad’s “wazir.”"
ولم يكن لفظ الوزير يعرف بين المسلمين لذهاب رتبة الملك بسذاجة الإسلام وكذا عمر مع أبي بكر وعلي وعثمان مع عمر,"The word wazir was not known (originally) among the Muslims, because the simplicity of Islam had done away with royal ranks. The same relationship (as that between Muhammad and Abu Bakr) existed between ‘Umar and Abu Bakr, and between ‘Ali and ‘Umar, and ‘Uthmin and ‘Umar."
وأما حال الجباية والإنفاق والحسبان فلم يكن عندهم برتبة لأن القوم كانوا عربا أميين لا يحسنون الكتاب والحساب فكانوا يستعملون في الحساب أهل الكتاب أو أفرادا من موالي العجم ممن يجيده وكان قليلا فيهم وأما أشرافهم فلم يكونوا يجيدونه لأن الأمية كانت صفتهم التي امتازوا بها,"No specific ranks existed among the (early Muslims) in the fields of tax collection, expenditures, and bookkeeping. The Muslims were illiterate Arabs who did not know how to write and keep books. For bookkeeping they employed Jews, Christians, or certain non-Arab clients versed in it. (Bookkeeping) was little known among them. Their nobles did not know it well, because illiteracy was their distinctive characteristic."
وكذا حال المخاطبات وتنفيذ الأمور لم تكن عندهم رتبة خاصة للأمية التي كانت فيهم والأمانة العامة في كتمان القول وتأديته,"Likewise, no specific rank existed among (the early Muslims) in the field of (official) correspondence and (the transmission in writing) of orders to be executed. They were illiterate, and everyone could be trusted to keep a statement secret and to forward it safely (to its destination)."
ولم تخرج السياسة إلى اختياره لأن الخلافة إنما هي دين ليست من السياسة الملكية في شيء وأيضا فلم تكن الكتابة صناعة فيستجاد لخليفة أحسنها,"Also, there were no political matters that would have required the use of (confidential secretaries), because the caliphate was a religious matter and had nothing to do with power politics. Furthermore, secretarial skill had not yet become a craft, its best (products or representatives) recommended to the caliph."
لأن الكل كانوا يعبرون عن مقاصدهم بأبلغ العبارات ولم يبق إلا الخط فكان الخليفة يستنيب في كتابته متى عن له من يحسنه,"Every individual was capable of explaining what he wanted in the most eloquent manner. The only thing lacking was the (technical ability to) write. (For this,) the caliph always appointed someone who knew how to write well, to do such writing as there was occasion for."
وأما مدافعة ذوي الحاجات عن أبوابهم فكان محظورا بالشريعة فلم يفعلوه فلما انقلبت الخلافة إلى الملك وجاءت رسوم السلطان وألقابه كان أول شيء بدئ به في الدولة شأن الباب وسده دون الجهور بما كانوا يخشون عن أنفسهم من اغتيال الخوارج وغيرهم كما وقع بعمر وعلي ومعاوية وعمر بن العاصي وغيرهم مع ما في فتحه من ازدحام الناس عليهم وشغلهم بهم عن المهمات,"Keeping petitioners away from the gates (of the caliph’s court) was something that the religious law forbade (the caliphs) to do, and they did not do it. However, when the caliphate changed to royal authority and when royal forms and titles made their appearance, the first thing the dynasty did was to bar the masses from access (to the ruler). The rulers feared that their lives were in danger from attacks by rebels and others, such as had happened to ‘Umar, to ‘Ali, to Mu’awiyah, to ‘Amr b. al-‘As, and to others. Furthermore, were the people given free access (to the ruler), they would crowd upon him and divert him from state affairs."
فاتخذوا من يقوم لهم بذلك وسموه الحاجب وقد جاء أن عبد الملك لما ولى حاجبه قال له «قد وليتك حجابة بابي إلا عن ثلاثة المؤذن للصلاة فإنه داعي الله وصاحب البريد فأمر ما جاء به وصاحب الطعام لئلا يفسد»,"Therefore, the ruler appointed some person to take care of this for him and called him “doorkeeper” ((utjib). It has already been mentioned that ‘Abd-al-Malik said to a doorkeeper whom he was appointing: “I have given you the office of keeper of my door, (and you are entitled to turn away anyone) save these three persons: the muezzin, because he is the missionary of God; the person in charge of the mails, for it (always) is something (important) that he brings; and the person in charge of food, lest it spoil.”"
ثم استفحل الملك بعد ذلك فظهر المشاور والمعين في أمور القبائل والعصائب واستئلافهم وأطلق عليه اسم الوزير وبقي أمر الحسبان في الموالي والذميين,"Afterwards, royal authority flourished. The (official) councilor and assistant for tribal and group affairs and good relations (with the various tribes and groups) made his appearance. For him, the name of wazir was used. Bookkeeping remained in the hands of clients, Jews, and Christians."
واتخذ للسجلات كاتب مخصوص حوطة على أسرار السلطان أن تشتهر فتفسد سياسته مع قومه ولم يكن بمثابة الوزير لأنه إنما احتيج له من حيث الخط والكتاب لا من حيث اللسان الذي هو الكلام,"For (official) documents, a special secretary was appointed, as a precaution against possible publication of the ruler’s secrets, something that would be disastrous to his role as political leader. This secretary was not as important as the wazir, because he was needed only for written matters, and not for matters that could be discussed orally."
إذ اللسان لذلك العهد على حاله لم يفسد فكانت الوزارة لذلك أرفع رتبهم يومئذ في سائر دولة بني أمية فكان النظر للوزير عاما في أحوال التدبير والمفاوضات وسائر أمور الحمايات والمطالبات وما يتبعها من النظر في ديوان الجند وفرض العطاء بالأهلية وغير ذلك,"At that time, speech still preserved its old position and was uncorrupted. Therefore, the wazirate was the highest rank throughout the Umayyad dynasty. The wazir had general supervision of all matters delegated to him and in which he acted in a consultative capacity, as well as all other matters of a defensive or offensive nature. This also entailed the supervision of the ministry (diwan) of the army, the assignment of military allowances at the beginning of each month, and other matters."
فلما جاءت دولة بني العباس واستفحل الملك وعظمت مراتبه وارتفعت وعظم شأن الوزير وصارت إليه النيابة في إنفاذ الحل والعقد تعينت مرتبته في الدولة وعنت لها الوجوه وخضعت لها الرقاب,"Then the ‘Abbasid dynasty made its appearance. Royal authority flourished. The royal ranks were many and high ones. At that time, the position of wazir assumed an added importance. He became the delegate (of the caliph) as executive authority. His rank in the dynasty became conspicuous. Everyone looked toward the wazirate and submitted to it."
وجعل لها النظر في ديوان الحسبان لما تحتاج إليه خطته من قسم الأعطيات في الجند فاحتاج إلى النظر في جمعه وتفريقه وأضيف إليه النظر فيه,"Supervision of the bookkeeping office was entrusted to (the wazir), because his function required him to distribute the military allowances. Thus, he had to supervise the collection and distribution of (the money), and the supervision of (that task) was added to his (duties)."
ثم جعل له النظر في القلم والترسيل لصون أسرار السلطان ولحفظ البلاغة لما كان اللسان قد فسد عند الجمهور وجعل الخاتم لسجلات السلطان ليحفظها من الذياع والشياع ودفع إليه,"Furthermore, supervision of “the pen” and (official) correspondence was entrusted to him, in order to protect the ruler’s secrets and to preserve good style, since the language of the great mass had (by that time) become corrupt. A seal was made to be placed upon the documents of the ruler, in order to preserve them from becoming public. (That seal) was entrusted to (the wazir)."
فصار اسم الوزير جامعا لخطتي السيف والقلم وسائر معاني الوزارة والمعاونة حتى لقد دعي جعفر بن يحيى بالسلطان أيام الرشيد إشارة إلى عموم نظره وقيامه بالدولة,"Thus, the name of wazir came to include the functions of both “the sword” and “the pen,” in addition to all the other things for which the wazirate stood and in addition to its function of giving assistance (to the ruler). In the days of ar-Rashid, Jafar b. Yahya was actually called “sultan,” an indication of the general extent of his supervising power and control of the dynasty."
ولم يخرج عنه من الرتب السلطانية كلها إلا الحجابة التي هي القيام على الباب فلم تكن له لاستنكافه عن مثل ذلك,"The only governmental rank that he did not hold was the office of doorkeeper, and he did not hold it because he disdained to accept such an office."
ثم جاء في الدولة العباسية شأن الاستبداد على السلطان وتعاور فيها استبداد الوزارة مرة والسلطان أخرى وصار الوزير إذا استبد محتاجا إلى استنابة الخليفة إياه لذلك لتصح الأحكام الشرعية وتجيء على حالها كما تقدمت,"Then the ‘Abbasid dynasty entered the period when control over the caliphs was exercised (by others). That control was at times in the hands of the wazir. At other times, it was in the hands of the ruler. When the wazir gained control, it was necessary for him to be appointed the caliph’s delegate to comply fully with the religious laws, as mentioned before."
فانقسمت الوزارة حينئذ إلى وزارة تنفيذ وهي حال ما يكون السلطان قائما على نفسه وإلى وزارة تفويض وهي حال ما يكون الوزير مستبدا عليه ثم استمر الاستبداد,"At that time, the wazirate was divided into an “executive wazirate”-this happened when the ruler was in control of his affairs and the wazir executed his decisionsand a “delegated wazirate” -which happened when the wazir controlled the ruler and the caliph delegated all the affairs of the caliphate, leaving them to his supervision and independent judgment"
وصار الأمر لملوك العجم وتعطل رسم الخلافة ولم يكن لأولئك المتغلبين أن ينتحلوا ألقاب الخلافة واستنكفوا من مشاركة الوزراء في اللقب لأنهم خول لهم,"NonArab rulers seized power. The identity of the caliphate was lost. The usurpers were not interested in adopting the caliphal titles, and they disdained to share the same title with the wazirs, because the wazirs were their servants."
فتسموا بالإمارة والسلطان وكان المستبد على الدولة يسمى أمير الأمراء أو بالسلطان إلى ما يحليه به الخليفة من ألقابه كما تراه في ألقابهم وتركوا اسم الوزارة إلى من يتولاها للخليفة في خاصته ولم يزل هذا الشأن عندهم إلى آخر دولتهم,"Therefore, they used the names “amir” and “sultan.” Those in control of the dynasty were called amir al-umara’ or sultan, in addition to the ornamental titles which the caliph used to give them, as can be seen in their surnames. They left the name wazir to those who held the office (of wazir) in the private retinue of the caliph. So remained the case down to the end of the (‘Abbasid) dynasty."
وفسد اللسان خلال ذلك كله وصارت صناعة ينتحلها بعض الناس فامتهنت وترفع الوزراء عنها لذلك ولأنهم عجم وليست تلك البلاغة هي المقصودة من لسانهم,"In the course of this long period, language had become corrupt It became a craft practiced by certain people. Thus, it came to occupy an inferior position, and the wazirs were too proud to bother with it. Also, the wazirs were non-Arab, and neither eloquence (nor good style) could be expected of their language."
فتخير لها من سائر الطبقات واختصت به وصارت خادمة للوزير,"People from other classes were chosen for (matters requiring Arabic eloquence and a good style). It was their specialty, and it came to be something that was at the service of (and subordinate to) the wazir."
واختص اسم الأمير بصاحب الحروب والجند وما يرجع إليها ويده مع ذلك عالية على أهل الرتب وأمره نافذ في الكل إما نيابة أو استبدادا واستمر الأمر على هذا,"The name amir was restricted to the men in charge of war operations and the army and related matters, although (the amir) had power over the other ranks and exercised control over everything, either as (the ruler’s) delegate or through being in control (of the government). This remained the situation."
ثم جاءت دولة الترك آخرا بمصر فرأوا أن الوزارة قد ابتذلت بترفع أولئك عنها ودفعها لمن يقوم بها للخليفة المحجور ونظره مع ذلك متعقب بنظر الأمير,"Very recently, the Turkish dynasty has made its appearance in Egypt. (The Turkish rulers) noticed that the wazirate had lost its identity, because the (amirs) had been too proud to accept it and had left it to men who were inclined to hold it in the service of the secluded (and powerless) caliph. The authority of the wazir had become secondary to that of the amir."
فصارت مرءوسة ناقصة فاستنكف أهل هذه الرتبة العالية في الدولة عن اسم الوزارة وصار صاحب الأحكام والنظر في الجند يسمى عندهم بالنائب لهذا العهد وبقي اسم الحاجب في مدلوله واختص اسم الوزير عندهم بالنظر في الجباية.,"(The wazirate) had become a subordinate, ineffectual office. Consequently, the persons who held high rank in the (Turkish) dynasty (as, for example, the amirs), disdained to use the name of wazir. The person in charge of legal decisions and supervision of the army at the present time, they call “deputy” (na’ib). They used the name wazir to designate (the person in charge of) tax collection."
وأما دولة بني أمية بالأندلس فأنفوا اسم الوزير في مدلوله أول الدولة ثم قسموا خطته أصنافا وأفردوا لكل صنف وزيرا فجعلوا لحسبان المال وزيرا وللترسيل وزيرا وللنظر في حوائج المتظلمين وزيرا وللنظر في أحوال أهل الثغور وزيرا,"The Umayyads in Spain at first continued to use the name wazir in its original meaning. Later, they subdivided the functions of the wazir into several parts. For each function, they appointed a special wazir. They appointed a wazir to furnish an accounting of (government) finances; another to for (official) correspondence; another to take care of the needs of those who had suffered wrongs; and another to supervise the situation of people in the border regions."
وجعل لهم بيت يجلسون فيه على فرش منضدة لهم وينفذون أمر السلطان هناك كل فيما جعل له وأفرد للتردد بينهم وبين الخليفة واحد منهم ارتفع عنهم بمباشرة السلطان في كل وقت,"A (special) house was prepared for (all these wazirs). There, they sat upon carpets spread out for them and executed the orders of the ruler, each in the field entrusted to him. One of the wazirs was appointed liaison officer between the wazirs and the caliph. He had a higher position than the others, because he had constant contact with the ruler."
فارتفع مجلسه عن مجالسهم وخصوه باسم الحاجب ولم يزل الشأن هذا إلى آخر دولتهم,"His seat was higher than that of the other wazirs. He was distinguished by the title of “doorkeeper” (hajib). So, it continued down to the end of the (Umayyad) dynasty."
فارتفعت خطة الحاجب ومرتبته على سائر الرتب حتى صار ملوك الطوائف ينتحلون لقبها فأكثرهم يومئذ يسمى الحاجب كما نذكره,"The function and rank of hajib took precedence over the other ranks. Eventually, the reyes de taifas came to adopt the title. The most important among them at that time was called “doorkeeper” (hajib), as we shall mention."
ثم جاءت دولة الشيعة بإفريقية والقيروان وكان للقائمين بها رسوخ في البداوة فأغفلوا أمر هذه الخطط أولا وتنقيح أسمائها كما تراه في أخبار دولتهم،,"Then, the Shi’ah dynasty (the ‘Ubaydid-Fatimids) made its appearance in Ifriqiyah and al-Qayrawan. The people who supported it were firmly rooted in desert life. Therefore, they at first neglected such functions and did not use the proper names for them. Eventually, however, the dynasty reached the stage of sedentary culture, and (people) came to follow the tradition of the two preceding dynasties (the Umayyads and the ‘Abbasids) with regard to the use of titles, as the history of the (‘Ubaydid-Fatimid dynasty) reveals."
ولما جاءت دولة الموحدين من بعد ذاك أغفلت الأمر أولا للبداوة ثم صارت إلى انتحال الأسماء والألقاب وكان اسم الوزير لمن يحجب السلطان في مجلسه ويقف بالوفود والداخلين على السلطان عند الحدود في تحيتهم وخطابهم والآداب التي تلزم في الكون بين يديه,"When, later on, the Almohad dynasty made its appearance, it at first neglected the matter because of its desert attitude, but eventually it, too, adopted names and titles. The name wazir was used in its original meaning. Later the tradition of the (Spanish) Umayyad dynasty was followed with regard to government matters and the name wazir was used for the person who guarded the ruler in his court and saw to it that embassies and visitors to the ruler used the proper forms of greeting and address, and that the requisite manners were observed in his presence."
ورفعوا خطة الحجابة عنه ما شاءوا ولم يزل الشأن ذلك إلى هذا العهد,The office of doorkeeper was considered by (the later Almohads) a much higher one. It has continued to be this way down to the present time.
وأما في دولة الترك بالمشرق فيسمون هذا الذي يقف بالناس على حدود الآداب في اللقاء والتحية في مجالس السلطان والتقدم بالوفود بين يديه الدويدار ويضيفون إليه استتباع كاتب السر وأصحاب البريد المتصرفين في حاجات السلطان بالقاصية وبالحاضرة وحالهم على ذلك لهذا العهد,"In the Turkish dynasty in the East, the (official) who sees to it that people use the proper modes of address and greeting at court and when embassies are presented to the ruler, is called the dawadar. His office includes control of the “private secretary” (katib as-sirr) and of the postmasters (intelligence agents) who are active in the ruler’s interest both far and near. Such is the condition of the Turkish dynasty at this time."
والله مولي الأمور لمن يشاء.,God takes charge of affairs.
الحجابة:,The office of doorkeeper (hijibah)
قد قدمنا أن هذا اللقب كان مخصوصا في الدولة الأموية والعباسية بمن يحجب السلطان عن العامة ويغلق بابه دونهم أو يفتحه لهم على قدره في مواقيته وكانت هذه منزلة يوما عن الخطط مرءوسة لها إذ الوزير متصرف فيها بما يراه,"We have already mentioned that in the Umayyad and ‘Abbasid dynasties the title of doorkeeper (hajib) was restricted to the person who guarded the ruler from the common people and would not give them access to him, or only in such ways, and at such times, as he determined. (The office of doorkeeper) was lower in rank at that time than the other functions and subordinate to them, because the wazir could intervene whenever he saw fit."
وهكذا كانت سائر أيام بني العباس وإلى هذا العهد فهي بمصر مرءوسة لصاحب الخطة العليا المسمى بالنائب.,"This was the situation during the whole ‘Abbasid period, and the situation still persists at this time. In Egypt, (the office of doorkeeper) is subordinate to the person in charge of the highest function there, who is called “deputy” (na’ib)."
وأما في الدولة الأموية بالأندلس فكانت الحجابة لمن يحجب السلطان عن الخاصة والعامة ويكون واسطة بينه وبين الوزراء فمن دونهم فكانت في دولتهم رفيعة غاية كما تراه في أخبارهم كابن حديد وغيره من حجابهم.,"In the Umayyad dynasty in Spain, the office of doorkeeper was that of the person who guarded the ruler from his entourage and from the common people. He was the liaison officer between the ruler and the wazirs and lower (officials). In the (Umayyad) dynasty, the office of doorkeeper was an extremely high position, as (Umayyad) history shows. Men like Ibn Hudayr and others held the office of doorkeeper in (the Umayyad dynasty)."
ثم لما جاء الاستبداد على الدولة اختص المستبد باسم الحجابة لشرفها فكان المنصور بن أبي عامر وأبناؤه كذلك,"Later, when the (Umayyad) dynasty came under the control of others, the person in control was called doorkeeper (hajib), because the office of doorkeeper had been such a distinguished one. Al-Mansilr b. Abi ‘Amir, as well as his two sons, were hajibs."
ولما بدوا في مظاهر الملك وأطواره جاء من بعدهم من ملوك الطوائف فلم يتركوا لقبها وكانوا يعدونه شرفا لهم وكان أعظمهم ملكا بعد انتحال ألقاب الملك وأسمائه لا بد له من ذكر الحاجب وذي الوزارتين يعنون به السيف والقلم,"After they had openly adopted the external forms of royal authority, they were succeeded by the reyes de taifas. The latter, also, did not fail to use the title of . jib. It was considered an honor to possess it. The most powerful of (the reyes de taifas) used the royal style and titles, and then inevitably mentioned the titles hajib and dul l-wizaratayn (Holder of the Two Wazirates), meaning the wazirates of “the sword” and “the pen.”"
ويدلون بالحجابة على حجابة السلطان عن العامة والخاصة وبذي الوزارتين عن جمعه لخطتي السيف والقلم.,The title of hajib referred to the office that guarded the ruler from the common people and from his entourage. Dhu l- wizaratayn referred to the fact that (the holder of the title) combined the functions of “the sword” and “the pen.”
ثم لم يكن في دول المغرب وإفريقية ذكر لهذا الاسم للبداوة التي كانت فيهم وربما يوجد في دولة العبيديين بمصر عند استعظامها وحضارتها إلا أنه قليل.,"In the dynasties of the Maghrib and Ifrigiyah, no mention was made of the title of (doorkeeper), on account of their Bedouin attitude. Occasionally, but rarely, it is found in the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimid) dynasty in Egypt. That was at the time when (the ‘Ubaydid-Fatimids) had become powerful and used to sedentary culture."
ولما جاءت دولة الموحدين لم تستمكن فيها الحضارة الداعية إلى انتحال الألقاب وتمييز الخطط وتعيينها بالأسماء إلا آخرا فلم يكن عندهم من الرتب إلا الوزير فكانوا أولا يخصون بهذا الاسم الكاتب المتصرف المشارك للسلطان في خاص أمره كابن عطية وعبد السلام الكومي,"In the Almohad dynasty which made its appearance (subsequently), sedentary culture, which calls for the use of titles and the separation of government functions with distinctive names, only became firmly established late (in the dynasty). The only rank they had at first was that of wazir, which they used for the secretary who participated with the ruler in the administration of his special (private) affairs. Men such as Ibn ‘Atiyah and ‘Abd-as-Salam al-Kumi held the position."
وكان له مع ذلك النظر في الحساب والأشغال المالية ثم صار بعد ذلك اسم الوزير لأهل نسب الدولة من الموحدين كابن جامع وغيره ولم يكن اسم الحاجب معروفا في دولتهم يومئذ.,"(Such a wazir) had, in addition to his main duty, to take care of bookkeeping and all the financial business. Later on, the name of wazir was given to relatives of the (Almohad) dynasty, such as Ibn Jami’ and others. The name of doorkeeper (hajib) was not known at that time in the (Almohad) dynasty."
وأما بنو أبي حفص بإفريقية فكانت الرئاسة في دولتهم أولا والتقدم لوزير والرأي والمشورة وكان يخص باسم شيخ الموحدين,"In the Hafsid dynasty of Ifriqiyah, the top position was at first in the hands of a wazir who gave advice and counsel. He was called “Shaykh of the Almohads.”"
وكان له النظر في الولايات والعزل وقود العساكر والحروب واختص الحسبان والديوان برتبة أخرى ويسمى متوليها بصاحب الأشغال ينظر فيها النظر المطلق في الدخل والخرج,"He had to take care of appointments and dismissals, the leadership of the army, and war operations. Bookkeeping and the ministry (diwan of tax collection) were another, separate rank. The person in charge of it was called Sahib al-ashghal (Manager of Financial Affairs) He had complete charge of income and expenditures."
ويحاسب ويستخلص الأموال ويعاقب على التفريط وكان من شرطه أن يكون من الموحدين واختص عندهم القلم أيضا بمن يجيد الترسيل ويؤتمن على الأسرار لأن الكتابة لم تكن من منتحل القوم ولا الترسيل بلسانهم فلم يشترط فيه النسب,"He audited the finances, collected payments, and punished defaulters. One condition was that he be an Almohad. “The pen” was also a separate office under (the Almohads). It was only entrusted to a person with good knowledge of (official) correspondence and who could be trusted with secrets. Since people (of consequence in the dynasty) had no professional knowledge of writing and the proper use of their language for (official) correspondence, a particular descent was not a condition of appointment to that office."
واحتاج السلطان لاتساع ملكه وكثرة المرتزقين بداره إلى قهرمان خاص بداره في أحواله يجريها على قدرها وترتيبها من رزق وعطاء وكسوة ونفقة في المطابخ والإصطبلات وغيرهما وحصر الذخيرة وتنفيذ ما يحتاج إليه في ذلك على أهل الجباية,"The royal authority of the (Hafsid) ruler was very farflung, and a great number of dependents lived in his house. Therefore, he needed a steward to be in charge of his house. (That steward had the duty) properly to apportion and fix the salaries, allowances, garments, kitchen and stable expenditures, and other things. He was in control of the stores (in the treasuries) and had the duty of telling the tax collectors to provide for (the quantities and amounts of money) needed."
فخصوه باسم الحاجب وربما أضافوا إليه كتابة العلامة على السجلات إذا اتفق أنه يحسن صناعة الكتابة,"He was called doorkeeper (hajib). Occasionally, the function of signing (official) documents was added to his duties, if he happened to have a good knowledge of writing."
وربما جعلوه لغيره واستمر الأمر على ذلك وحجب السلطان نفسه عن الناس فصار هذا الحاجب واسطة بين الناس وبين أهل الرتب كلهم ثم جمع له آخر الدولة السيف والحرب ثم الرأي والمشورة,"However, that function was occasionally given to somebody else. It continued to be this way. The ruler stayed in seclusion, and the doorkeeper (hajib) became the liaison officer between the people and all the officials. In the later (years) of the dynasty, the offices of “the sword” and of war operations were added to his duties. At this time, it also became his duty to give advice and counsel."
فصارت الخطة أرفع الرتب وأوعبها للخطط ثم جاء الاستبداد والحجر مدة من بعد السلطان الثاني عشر منهم ثم استبد بعد ذلك حفيده السلطان أبو العباس على نفسه,"Thus, his office became the highest in rank and included all government functions. For some time after (the reign of) the twelfth ruler of the (Hafsids), the government was controlled by others, and the ruler kept in seclusion. Afterwards, his grandson Sultan Abul-‘Abbas, regained control of his affairs."
وأذهب آثار الحجر والاستبداد بإذهاب خطة الحجابة التي كانت سلما إليه وباشر أموره كلها بنفسه من غير استعانة بأحد والأمر على ذلك لهذا العهد.,"He removed the vestiges of seclusion and (outside) control by abolishing the office of doorkeeper (hajib), which had been the stepping stone toward (control of the government) He handled all his affairs himself without asking anyone else for help. This is the situation at the present time."
وأما دولة زناتة بالمغرب وأعظمها دولة بني مرين فلا أثر لاسم الحاجب عندهم وأما رئاسة الحرب والعساكر فهي للوزير,"There is no trace of the title of doorkeeper (hajib) among the Zanatah dynasties in the Maghrib, of which the most important is the dynasty of the Merinids. Leadership of war operations and of the army belongs to the wazir."
ورتبة القلم في الحسبان والرسائل راجعة إلى من يحسنها من أهلها وإن اختصت ببعض البيوت المصطنعين في دولتهم وقد تجمع عندهم وقد تفرق.,"The rank of “the pen,” as far as it is concerned with bookkeeping and (official) correspondence, goes to the person who knows these things well, even though it may be in the private possession of certain houses among followers of the dynasty. Sometimes, (the office) is kept in (the same family), sometimes it is shared with others."
وأما باب السلطان وحجبه عن العامة فهي رتبة عندهم فيسمى صاحبها عندهم بالمزوار ومعناه المقدم على الجنادرة المتصرفين بباب السلطان في تنفيذ أوامره وتصريف عقوباته وإنزال سطواته وحفظ المعتقلين في سجونه,"They have a separate rank for the office (whose function it is to) guard the ruler’s door and to protect the ruler himself from the common people. The person who holds that office is called by them mizwar, that is, commandant of the elite troops (jindar) who are employed at the court of the ruler and responsible for executing his orders, enforcing the punishments he metes out, executing the severe measures he takes, and guarding the inmates of his prisons."
والعريف عليهم في ذلك فالباب له وأخذ الناس بالوقوف عند الحدود في دار العامة راجع إليه فكأنها وزارة صغرى.,Their chief (the mixwar) has charge of the court. He has to see to it that people behave properly in the (reception) hall where the common people (are received). His office is something like a minor wazirate.
وأما دولة بني عبد الواد فلا أثر عندهم لشيء من هذه الألقاب ولا تمييز الخطط لبداوة دولتهم وقصورها وإنما يخصون باسم الحاجب في بعض الأحوال منفذ الخاص بالسلطان في داره كما كان في دولة بني أبي حفص وقد يجمعون له الحسبان والسجل كما كان فيها,"The dynasty of the ‘Abd-al-Wadids shows no trace of any of these titles, nor does it have separate (government) functions, because of its Bedouin character and insufficient (power). (The ‘Abd-al-Wadids) occasionally use the name doorkeeper (hajib) for the person in charge of the ruler’s personal household affairs, as was also the case in the Hafsid dynasty. He is given combined charge of bookkeeping and (official) documents, as also was the case among (the Hafsids)."
حملهم على ذلك تقليد الدولة بما كانوا في تبعتها وقائمين بدعوتها منذ أول أمرهم.,The reason for this is that (the ‘Abd-al-Wadids) simply followed the tradition of the dynasty to which they had been subservient and whose propaganda they had been supporting when they started their career.
وأما أهل الأندلس لهذا العهد فالمخصوص عندهم بالحسبان وتنفيذ حال السلطان وسائر الأمور المالية يسمونه بالوكيل وأما الوزير فكالوزير إلا أنه يجمع له الترسيل والسلطان عندهم يضع خطه على السجلات كلها فليس هناك خطة العلامة كما لغيرهم من الدول.,"Present-day Spaniards call the person in charge of bookkeeping and of the ruler’s activities and of all the other financial matters, wakil (manager). The wazir (there) has the same duties as the wazir (usually has), but he is also in charge of (official) correspondence. The ruler (himself) puts his signature to all documents. Thus, the Spaniards do not have a separate office of signer of documents (‘alamah) as other dynasties have."
وأما دولة الترك بمصر فاسم الحاجب عندهم موضوع لحاكم من أهل الشوكة وهم الترك,"In the Turkish dynasty in Egypt, the name of doorkeeper (hajib) is used for persons of authority (hakim) among the men who hold power, that is, the Turks."
ينفذ الأحكام بين الناس في المدينة وهم متعددون وهذه الوظيفة عندهم تحت وظيفة النيابة التي لها الحكم في أهل الدولة وفي العامة على الإطلاق,"These persons have to enforce the law among the people in the town. There are numerous (hajibs). The office of (hajib) among (the Turks) is lower than that of na’ib, which has general jurisdiction over both the ruling class and the common people."
وللنائب التولية والعزل في بعض الوظائف على الأحيان ويقطع القليل من الأرزاق,The na’ib has the authority to appoint and remove certain officials at the proper times. He may grant and fix small salaries.
ويبتها وتنفذ أوامره كما تنفذ المراسم السلطانية وكان له النيابة المطلقة عن السلطان وللحجاب الحكم فقط في طبقات العامة والجند عند الترافع إليهم وإجبار من أبى الانقياد للحكم وطورهم تحت طور النيابة,"His orders and decrees are executed as those of the ruler. He is the ruler’s delegate in every respect. The doorkeepers (hajib), on the other hand, have jurisdiction over the various classes of common people and over the soldiers only when a complaint (against them) is lodged with them. They can use force against those who do not want to submit to (their) judgment. They rank below the na’ib."
والوزير في دولة الترك هو صاحب جباية الأموال في الدولة على اختلاف أصنافها من خراج أو مكس أو جزية ثم في تصريفها في الإنفاقات السلطانية أو الجرايات المقدرة وله مع ذلك التولية والعزل في سائر العمال المباشرين لهذه الجباية والتنفيذ على اختلاف مراتبهم وتباين أصنافهم,"In the Turkish dynasty, the wazir is the person in charge of collecting all the different kinds of taxes: the land tax, customs duties, and the poll tax. He also (is in charge of) the disposition of (the tax revenue) for government expenditures and the fixed stipends (for soldiers and government employees). In addition, he can appoint or remove all officials, whatever their rank and description, who are concerned with tax collection and disbursement."
ومن عوائدهم أن يكون هذا الوزير من صنف القبط القائمين على ديوان الحسبان والجباية لاختصاصهم بذلك في مصر منذ عصور قديمة وقد يوليها السلطان بعض الأحيان لأهل الشوكة من رجالات الترك أو أبنائهم على حسب الداعية لذلك,"It is a custom of (the Turks) that the wazir be appointed from among the Copts in charge of the office of bookkeeping and tax collection, because in Egypt they have been familiar with these matters since ancient times. Occasionally, the ruler appoints to that office a member of the ruling group, one of the Turkish grandees or one of their descendants, as occasion may arise."
والله مدبر الأمور ومصرفها بحكمته لا إله إلا هو رب الأولين والآخرين,God administers and governs all affairs in His wisdom. There is no God but Him.
ديوان الأعمال والجبايات,The ministry (diwan) of (financial) operations and taxation
اعلم أن هذه الوظيفة من الوظائف الضرورية للملك وهي القيام على أعمال الجبايات وحفظ حقوق الدولة في الدخل والخرج وإحصاء العساكر بأسمائهم وتقدير أرزاقهم وصرف أعطياتهم في إباناتها,"The ministry of taxation is an office that is necessary to the royal authority. It is concerned with tax operations. It guards the rights of the dynasty in the matters of income and expenditures. It takes a census of the names of all soldiers, fixes their salaries, and pays out their allowances at the proper times."
والرجوع في ذلك إلى القوانين التي يرتبها قومة تلك الأعمال وقهارمة الدولة وهي كلها مسطورة في كتاب شاهد بتفاصيل ذلك في الدخل والخرج,In this connection recourse is had to rules set up by the chiefs of (tax) operations and the stewards of the dynasty. They are all written down in a book which gives all the details concerning income and expenditures.
مبني على جزء كبير من الحساب لا يقوم به إلا المهرة من أهل تلك الأعمال ويسمى ذلك الكتاب بالديوان وكذلك مكان جلوس العمال المباشرين لها.,"It is based upon a good deal of accounting, which is mastered only by those who have considerable skill in (tax) operations. The book is called the diwan. At the same time, (the word diwan) designates the place where the officials who are concerned with these matters have their offices."
ويقال إن أصل هذه التسمية أن كسرى نظر يوما إلى كتاب ديوانه وهم يحسبون على أنفسهم كأنهم يحادثون فقال ديوانه أي مجانين بلغة الفرس,"The name is said to have had the following origin. One day, Khosraw looked at the secretaries in his ministry (diwan). They were all engaged in their separate calculations, and it looked as if they were talking to themselves. The king exclaimed: “Dewaneh”-which is Persian for “crazy.”"
فسمي موضعهم بذلك وحذفت الهاء لكثرة الاستعمال تخفيفا فقيل ديوان ثم نقل هذا الاسم إلى كتاب هذه الأعمال المتضمن للقوانين والحسبانات,"As a result, the place where they were working was called by that name. The ending -eh was dropped, because the word was so much used, and dropping the -eh made it easier to pronounce. The word thus became diwan. Later, it came to signify the (tax) book which contained the rules and computations."
وقيل إنه اسم للشياطين بالفارسية سمي الكتاب بذلك لسرعة نفوذهم في فهم الأمور ووقوفهم على الجلي منها والخفي وجمعهم لما شذ وتفرق ثم نقل إلى مكان جلوسهم لتلك الأعمال,"Another story is that diwan is the Persian name for the devils. The secretaries were called “devils” because of their quick comprehension, their understanding of both the obvious and the difficult, and their ability to combine random and disparate facts. The name was then extended to designate the offices where they worked."
وعلى هذا فيتناول اسم الديوان كتاب الرسائل ومكان جلوسه بباب السلطان على ما يأتي بعد,"In this sense, the name diwan was taken over by the secretaries in charge of (official) correspondence and used to designate the place where their offices were located in the ruler’s court, as will be mentioned later on."
وقد تفرد هذه الوظيفة بناظر واحد ينظر في سائر هذه الأعمال وقد يفرد كل صنف منها بناظر كما يفرد في بعض الدول النظر في العساكر وإقطاعاتهم وحسبان أعطياتهم أو غير ذلك على حسب مصطلح الدولة وما قرره أولوها.,"One person is in charge of this office. He supervises all the operations of this kind. Each branch has its own supervisor. In some dynasties supervision of the army, of military fiefs, of keeping count of allowances, and of other (such) things, is constituted as separate offices. (Whether this is done or not) depends on the organization of a given dynasty and the arrangements made by its first rulers."
واعلم أن هذه الوظيفة إنما تحدث في الدول عند تمكن الغلب والاستيلاء والنظر في أعطاف الملك وفنون التمهيد. وأول من وضع الديوان في الدولة الإسلامية عمر رضي الله عنه يقال لسبب مال أتى به أبو هريرة رضي الله عنه من البحرين,It should be known that the office of (tax collections) originates in dynasties only when their power and superiority and their interest in the different aspects of royal authority and in the ways of efficient administration have become firmly established. The first to set up the diwan in the Muslim dynasty was ‘Umar. The reason is said to have been the arrival of Abu Hurayrah with money from al- Bahrayn.
فاستكثروه وتعبوا في قسمه فسموا إلى إحصاء الأموال وضبط العطاء والحقوق فأشار خالد بن الوليد بالديوان وقال: «رأيت ملوك الشام يدونون» فقبل منه عمر.,"(The Muslims) thought that it was a very large sum, and they had trouble with its distribution. They tried to count the money and to establish how it should be paid out for allowances and claims. On that occasion, Khalid b. al-Walid advised the use of the diwan. He said: “I have seen the rulers of Syria keeping a diwan.” ‘Umar accepted the idea from Khalid."
وقيل بل أشار عليه به الهرمزان لما رآه يبعث البعوث بغير ديوان فقيل له ومن يعلم بغيبة من يغيب منهم فإن من تخلف أخل بمكانه,It has also been said that the person who advised ‘Umar to introduce the diwan was al-Hurmuzan. He noticed that (military) missions were dispatched without a diwan (a muster roll). He asked (‘Umar): “Who would know if some of (the soldiers) disappeared? Those who remain behind might leave their places and abscond with the money that had been given to them for their services (if they could assume that their desertion would not be noticed).
وإنما يضبط ذلك الكتاب فأثبت لهم ديوانا وسأل عمر عن اسم الديوان فعبر له ولما اجتمع ذلك أمر عقيل بن أبي طالب ومخرمة بن نوفل وجبير بن مطعم وكانوا من كتاب قريش فكتبوا ديوان العساكر الإسلامية على ترتيب الأنساب مبتدأ من قرابة رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم وما بعدها الأقرب فالأقرب,"Such things should be noted down exactly in a book. Therefore, establish a diwdn for them.” ‘Umar asked what the word diwdn meant, and it was explained to him. When he agreed to (have a diwdn), he ordered ‘Aqil b. Abi Talib, Makhramah b. Nawfal, and Jubayr b. Mut’im, all of them secretaries of the Quraysh, to write down the diwan of the Muslim army. (The diwan was arranged) according to family relationships and began with the relatives of the Prophet and continued according to the degree of relationship."
هكذا كان ابتداء ديوان الجيش.,This was the beginning of the ministry (diwan) of the army.
وروى الزهري بن سعيد بن المسيب أن ذلك كان في المحرم سنة عشرين.,"Az-Zuhri reported on the authority of Sa’id b. alMusayyab that this took place in al-Mubarram of the year twenty [December, 640/January, 641]."
وأما ديوان الخراج والجبايات فبقي بعد الإسلام على ما كان عليه من قبل ديوان العراق بالفارسية وديوان الشام بالرومية,"After the advent of Islam, the ministry (diwan) of the land tax and tax collections remained as it had been. The (diwan) of the ‘Iraq used Persian, and that of Syria Byzantine Greek."
وكتاب الدواوين من أهل العهد من الفريقين ولما جاء عبد الملك بن مروان واستحال الأمر ملكا وانتقل القوم من غضاضة البداوة إلى رونق الحضارة ومن سذاجة الأمية إلى حذق الكتابة وظهر في العرب ومواليهم مهرة في الكتاب والحسبان,"The secretaries of the diwans were Muslim subjects of the two groups. Then, with the appearance of ‘Abd-alMalik b. Marwan, the form of the state became that of royal authority. People turned from the low standard of desert life to the splendor of sedentary culture and from the simplicity of illiteracy to the sophistication of literacy. Experts in writing and bookkeeping made their appearance among the Arabs and their clients."
فأمر عبد الملك سليمان بن سعد والي الأردن لعهده أن ينقل ديوان الشام إلى العربية فأكمله لسنة من يوم ابتدائه ووقف عليه سرحون كاتب عبد الملك فقال لكتاب الروم: «اطلبوا العيش في غير هذه الصناعة فقد قطعها الله عنكم».,"Thus, ‘Abd-al-Malik ordered Sulayman b. Sa’d, then governor of the Jordan (province), to introduce the use of Arabic in the diwan of Syria. Sulayman completed the task in exactly one year to the day. Sarhitn, ‘Abd-al-Malik’s secretary, looked at (the situation) and said to the Byzantine secretaries: “Seek you a living in another craft, because God has taken this one from you.”"
وأما ديوان العراق فأمر الحجاج كاتبه صالح بن عبد الرحمن وكان يكتب بالعربية والفارسية ولقن ذلك عن زادان فروخ كاتب الحجاج قبله ولما قتل زادان في حرب عبد الرحمن بن الأشعث استخلف الحجاج صالحا هذا مكانه,"Al-Hajjaj ordered his secretary Salih b. ‘Abd-ar-Rahman to introduce the use of Arabic, instead of Persian, in the diwan of the ‘Iraq. Salih knew how to write both Arabic and Persian. He had learned it from Zadanfarrfikh, his predecessor as secretary to al-Hajjaj. When Zadan was killed in the war against ‘Abd-ar-Rahman b. al-Ash’ath, al-Hajjaj appointed Salih as his successor."
وأمره أن ينقل الديوان من الفارسية إلى العربية ففعل ورغم لذلك كتاب الفرس وكان عبد الحميد بن يحيى يقول لله در صالح ما أعظم منته على الكتاب,(Salih now carried out al- Hajjaj’s order and introduced the use of Arabic in the diwan). He succeeded in doing that and in overcoming the reluctance of the Persian secretaries. ‘Abd-al-Hamid b. Yahya used to say: “Salih was an excellent man. He was a great boon to the secretaries.”
ثم جعلت هذه الوظيفة في دولة بني العباس مضافة إلى من كان له النظر فيه كما كان شأن بني برمك وبني سهل بن نوبخت وغيرهم من وزراء الدولة.,"Later on, in the ‘Abbasid dynasty, the office was added to the duties of (the wazir) who supervised the man in charge of it. This was the case under the Barmecides and the Banu Sahl b. Nawbakht and other ‘Abbasid wazirs."
وأما ما يتعلق بهذه الوظيفة من الأحكام الشرعية مما يختص بالجيش أو بيت المال في الدخل والخرج وتمييز النواحي بالصلح والعنوة وفي تقليد هذه الوظيفة لمن يكون وشروط الناظر فيها والكاتب وقوانين الحسبانات,"Certain religious laws attach to the office. They concern the army, the income and expenditures of the treasury, and it, is the differing tax situations of the different regions, which depend on whether they had surrendered (peacefully) to the Muslim conquerors or had been conquered by force. Then, there is the question as to who makes appointment to the office. There are also the conditions governing the person in charge and the secretaries, as well as the rules according to which the accounts are to be kept."
فأمر راجع إلى كتب الأحكام السلطانية وهي مسطورة هنالك وليست من غرض كتابنا وإنما نتكلم فيها من حيث طبيعة الملك الذي نحن بصدد الكلام فيه,"All (these legal problems) belong to the books on administration (al-Ahkam as-sultaniyah) and are written down in them. It is not the purpose of this book to deal with them. We discuss the subject only as it has to do with the nature of royal authority, in the discussion of which we are presently engaged."
وهذه الوظيفة جزء عظيم من الملك بل هي ثالثة أركانه لأن الملك لا بد له من الجند والمال والمخاطبة لمن غاب عنه فاحتاج صاحب الملك إلى الأعوان في أمر السيف وأمر القلم وأمر المال فينفرد صاحبها لذلك بجزء من رئاسة الملك,"This office constitutes a large part of all royal authority. In fact, it is the third of its basic pillars. Royal authority requires soldiers, money, and the means to communicate with those who are absent. The ruler, therefore, needs persons to help him in the matters concerned with “the sword,” “the pen,” and finances. Thus, the person who holds the office (of tax collections) has (a good) part of the royal authority for himself."
وكذلك كان الأمر في دولة بني أمية بالأندلس والطوائف بعدهم وأما في دولة الموحدين فكان صاحبها إنما يكون من الموحدين,"This was the case under the Umayyad dynasty in Spain and under its successors, the reyes de ta’ifas. In the Almohad dynasty, the man in charge of (the office) was an Almohad."
يستقل بالنظر في استخراج الأموال وجمعها وضبطها وتعقب نظر الولاة والعمال فيها ثم تنفيذها على قدرها وفي مواقيتها وكان يعرف بصاحب الأشغال وكان ربما يليها في الجهات غير الموحدين ممن يحسنها.,"He had complete freedom to levy, collect, and handle money, to control the activities of officials and agents in this connection, and then to make disbursements in the proper amounts and at the proper times. He was known as Sahib al-ashghal (financial affairs manager). Occasionally, in some places, the office was held by persons who had a good understanding of it, but were not Almohads."
ولما استبد بنو أبي حفص بإفريقية وكان شان الجالية من الأندلس فقدم عليهم أهل البيوتات وفيهم من كان يستعمل ذلك في الأندلس مثل بني سعيد أصحاب القلعة جوار غرناطة المعروفين ببني أبي الحسن فاستكفوا بهم في ذلك وجعلوا لهم النظر في الأشغال كما كان لهم بالأندلس,"The Hafsids gained control over Ifrigiyah at the time when the exodus from Spain took place. Exiled (Spanish) notables came to (the Hafsids). Among them, there were some who had been employed in this (type of work) in Spain, such as the Banu Sa’id, the lords of Alcala near Granada, who were known as the Banu Abi l-Husayn. (The Hafsids) liked to have them for this (type of work). They entrusted them with the supervision of (tax) affairs, which was what they had been doing in Spain."
ودالوا فيها بينهم وبين الموحدين ثم استقل بها أهل الحسبان والكتاب وخرجت عن الموحدين ثم لما استغلظ أمر الحاجب ونفذ أمره في كل شأن من شئون الدولة تعطل هذا الرسم وصار صاحبه مرءوسا للحاجب وأصبح من جملة الجباة وذهبت تلك الرئاسة التي كانت له في الدولة.,"They employed them and the Almohads alternately for this purpose. Later on, the accountants and secretaries took the office over for themselves, and the Almohads lost it. As the position of doorkeeper (hajib) became more and more important, and as his executive power came to extend over all government affairs, the institution of the Sahib al-ashghal ceased to be influential The person in charge of it was dominated by the doorkeeper (hajib) and became (no more than) a mere tax collector. He lost the authority he had formerly had in the dynasty."
وأما دولة بني مرين لهذا العهد فحسبان العطاء والخراج مجموع لواحد وصاحب هذه الرتبة هو الذي يصحح الحسبانات كلها ويرجع إلى ديوانه ونظره معقب بنظر السلطان أو الوزير وخطه معتبر في صحة الحسبان في الخارج والعطاء,"In the contemporary Merinid dynasty, the accounting of the land tax and (military) allowances is in the hands of one man. He audits all accounts. Recourse is had to his diwan, and his authority is second (only) to the authority of the ruler or wazir. His signature attests to the correctness of the accounts dealing with the land tax and (military) allowances."
هذه أصول الرتب والخطط السلطانية وهي الرتب العالية التي هي عامة النظر ومباشرة للسلطان.,"These are the principal governmental ranks and functions. They are high ranks, involving the exercise of general authority and (requiring) direct contact with the ruler."
وأما هذه الرتبة في دولة الترك فمتنوعة وصاحب ديوان العطاء يعرف بناظر الجيش وصاحب المال مخصوص باسم الوزير وهو الناظر في ديوان الجباية العامة للدولة,"In the Turkish dynasty, the functions (under discussion) are divided. The person in charge of the diwan of (military) allowances is known as inspector of the army (nazir aljaysh). The person in charge of finances is called the wazir. He has supervision over the dynasty’s diwan of general tax collection."
وهو أعلى رتب الناظرين في الأموال لأن النظر في الأموال عندهم يتنوع إلى رتب كثيرة لانفساح دولتهم وعظمة سلطانهم واتساع الأموال والجبايات عن أن يستقل بضبطها الواحد من الرجال ولو بلغ في الكفاية مبالغه,"This is the highest rank among the men who are in charge of financial matters. Among (the Turks), supervision of financial matters is spread over many ranks, because the dynasty rules a large (territory) and exercises great powers, and its finances and taxes are too vast to be handled by one man all by himself, however competent."
فتعين للنظر العام منها هذا المخصوص باسم الوزير وهو مع ذلك رديف لمولى من موالي السلطان وأهل عصبيته وأرباب السيوف في الدولة يرجع نظر الوزير إلى نظره ويجتهد جهده في متابعته ويسمى عندهم أستاذ الدولة وهو أحد الأمراء الأكابر في الدولة من الجند وأرباب السيوف,"Therefore, for the general supervision of (financial affairs), the man known as wazir is appointed. In spite of his (important position), he is second to one of the clients of the ruler who shares in the ruler’s group feeling and belongs to the military (caste) and who is called Ustadh-ad-dar. This official outranks the wazir, who does all he can to do his bidding. He is one of the great amirs of the dynasty and belongs to the army and the military (caste)."
ويتبع هذه الخطة خطط عندهم أخرى كلها راجعة إلى الأموال والحسبان مقصورة النظر إلى أمور خاصة مثل ناظر الخاص وهو المباشر لأموال السلطان الخاصة به من إقطاعاته أو سهمانه من أموال الخراج وبلاد الجباية مما ليس من أموال المسلمين العامة,"Other functions are subordinate to that of (the wazir) among (the Turks). All of them have reference to financial matters and bookkeeping, and are restricted in their authority to particular matters. There is, for instance, the inspector of the privy purse (nazir al-khass)-that is, the person who handles the ruler’s private finances, such as concern his fiefs or his shares in the land tax and taxable lands that are not part of the general Muslim fist."
وهو تحت يد الأمير أستاذ الدار وإن كان الوزير من الجند فلا يكون لأستاذ الدار نظر عليه ونظر الخاص تحت يد الخازن لأموال السلطان من مماليكه المسمى خازن الدار لاختصاص وظيفتهما بمال السلطان الخاص.,"He is under the control of the amir, the Ustadh- ad-dar, but if the wazir is an army man, the Ustadh-ad-dar has no authority over him. The inspector of the privy purse also is under the control of the treasurer of the finances of the ruler, one of the latter’s mamelukes, who is called Khazindar (treasurer), because his office is concerned with the private property of the ruler."
هذا بيان هذه الخطة بدولة الترك بالمشرق بعد ما قدمناه من أمرها بالمغرب.,Such is the nomenclature used in connection with the function of (financial administration) in the Turkish dynasty in the East. We have mentioned how it was handled in the Maghrib.
والله مصرف الأمور لا رب غيره.,God governs all affairs. There is no Lord except Him.
ديوان الرسائل والكتابة,The ministry (diwan) of (official) correspondence and writing
هذه الوظيفة غير ضرورية في الملك لاستغناء كثير من الدول عنها رأسا كما في الدول العريقة في البداوة التي لم يأخذها تهذيب الحضارة ولا استحكام الصنائع,"This office is not required by the nature of royal authority. Many dynasties were able to dispense with it completely, as, for example, the dynasties rooted in the desert and which were not affected by the refinements of sedentary culture and high development of the crafts."
وإنما أكد الحاجة إليها في الدولة الإسلامية شأن اللسان العربي والبلاغة في العبارة عن المقاصد فصار الكتاب يؤدي كنه الحاجة بأبلغ من العبارة اللسانية في الأكثر,"In the Muslim dynasty, the Arabic language situation and (the custom of) expressing what one wanted to express in good form intensified the need for the office. Thus, writing came to convey, as a rule, the essence of a matter in better stylistic form than was possible in oral expression."
وكان الكاتب للأمير يكون من أهل نسبه ومن عظماء قبيله كما كان للخلفاء وأمراء الصحابة بالشام والعراق لعظم أمانتهم وخلوص أسرارهم,"The secretary to an (Arab) amir was customarily a relative and one of the great of his tribe. This was the case with the caliphs and leading personalities among the men around Muhammad in Syria and the ‘Iraq, because of the great reliability and genuine discretion (of relatives and tribesmen)."
فلما فسد اللسان وصار صناعة اختص بمن يحسنه وكانت عند بني العباس رفيعة وكان الكاتب يصدر السجلات مطلقة ويكتب في آخرها اسمه ويختم عليها بخاتم السلطان وهو طابع منقوش فيه اسم السلطان أو شارته,"When the language became corrupt and a craft (that had to be learned), (the office) was entrusted to those who knew (Arabic) well. Under the ‘Abbasids, it was a high office. The secretary issued documents freely, and signed his own name to them at the end. He sealed them with the seal of the ruler, which was a signet upon which the name of the ruler or his emblem was engraved."
يغمس في طين أحمر مذاب بالماء ويسمى طين الختم ويطبع به على طرفي السجل عند طيه وإلصاقه,"It was impressed on a red clay mixed with water and called sealing clay. The document was folded and glued, and then both sides was sealed with (the seal)."
ثم صارت السجلات من بعدهم تصدر باسم السلطان ويضع الكاتب فيها علامته أولا أو آخرا على حسب الاختيار في محلها وفي لفظها,"Later on, the documents were issued in the name of the ruler, and the secretary (merely) affixed his signature (‘alamah) to them at the beginning or end. He could choose where he wanted to put it as well as its wording."
ثم قد تنزل هذه الخطة بارتفاع المكان عند السلطان لغير صاحبها من أهل المراتب في الدولة أو استبداد وزير عليه فتصير علامة هذا الكتاب ملغاة الحكم بعلامة الرئيس عليه يستدل بها فيكتب صورة علامته المعهودة والحكم لعلامة ذلك الرئيس,"The office then lost standing through the fact that officials of other government ranks gained in the ruler’s esteem or because the wazir gained control over (the ruler). The signature of a secretary became ineffective (as a sign of authority) and was replaced by the signature of his superior, and this was now considered decisive. (The secretary) affixed his official signature, but the signature of his superior made the document valid."
كما وقع آخر الدولة الحفصية لما ارتفع شأن الحجابة وصار أمرها إلى التفويض ثم الاستبداد صار حكم العلامة التي للكاتب ملغى وصورتها ثابتة إتباعا لما سلف من أمرها,"This happened in the later (years) of the Hafsid dynasty, when the office of doorkeeper (hajib) gained in esteem and the doorkeeper became the delegate of the ruler and then came to control him. The signature of the secretary became ineffective (as a sign of authority) but was still affixed to documents, in acknowledgment of its former importance."
فصار الحاجب يرسم للكاتب إمضاء كتابه ذلك بخط يصنعه ويتخير له من صيغ الإنفاذ ما شاء فيأتمر الكاتب له ويضع العلامة المعتادة وقد يختص السلطان لنفسه بوضع ذلك إذا كان مستبدا بأمره قائما على نفسه فيرسم الأمر للكاتب ليضع علامته،,"The doorkeeper (hajib) made it the rule for the secretary to sign letters of his by affixing a handwritten (note) for which he could choose any formula of ratification he wished. The secretary obeyed him and affixed the usual mark. So long as the ruler was in control of his own affairs, he saw to the matter himself (and made it the rule for the secretary) to affix the signature."
ومن خطط الكتابة التوقيع وهو أن يجلس الكاتب بين يدي السلطان في مجالس حكمه وفصله ويوقع على القصص المرفوعة إليه أحكامها والفصل فيها متلقاة من السلطان بأوجز لفظ وأبلغه فإما أن تصدر كذلك وإما أن يحذو الكاتب على مثالها في سجل يكون بيد صاحب القصة,"One of the functions of the secretary’s office is the tawqi. It means that the secretary sits in front of the ruler during his public audiences and notes down (yuwaqqi’), in the most concise and stylistically most perfect manner, the decisions he receives from the ruler concerning the petitions presented to him. These decisions are then issued as they are, or they are copied in a document which must be in the possession of the petitioner."
ويحتاج الموقع إلى عارضة من البلاغة يستقيم بها توقيعه وقد كان جعفر بن يحيى يوقع في القصص بين يدي الرشيد ويرمي بالقصة إلى صاحبها فكانت توقيعاته يتنافس البلغاء في تحصيلها للوقوف فيها على أساليب البلاغة وفنونها,"The person who formulates a tawqi’ needs a great deal of stylistic skill, so that the tawqi’ has the correct form. Ja’far b. Yahya used to write tawqi’s on petitions for arRashid and to hand the petition (with the tawqi’) back to the petitioner. Stylists vied with each other to obtain his tawqi’s, in order to learn the different devices and kinds of good style from them."
حتى قيل إنها كانت تباع كل قصة منها بدينار وهكذا كان شأن الدول،,It has even been said that such petitions (with Ja’far’s tawqi’ on them) were sold for a dinar. Things were handled in this manner in (various) dynasties.
واعلم أن صاحب هذه الخطة لا بد من أن يتخير أرفع طبقات الناس وأهل المروءة والحشمة منهم وزيادة العلم وعارضة البلاغة فإنه معرض للنظر في أصول العلم لما يعرض في مجالس الملوك ومقاصد أحكامهم من أمثال ذلك ما تدعو إليه عشرة الملوك من القيام على الآداب والتخلق بالفضائل مع ما يضطر إليه في الترسيل وتطبيق مقاصد الكلام من البلاغة وأسرارها,"It should be known that the person in charge of this function must be selected from among the upper classes and be a refined gentleman of great knowledge and with a good deal of stylistic ability. He will have to concern himself with the principal branches of scholarship, because such things may come up in the gatherings and audiences of the ruler. In addition, to be a companion of kings calls for good manners and the possession of good qualities of character. And he must know all the secrets of good style, to be able to write letters and find the words that conform to the meaning intended."
وقد تكون الرتبة في بعض الدول مستندة إلى أرباب السيوف لما يقتضيه طبع الدولة من البعد عن معاناة العلوم لأجل سذاجة العصبية فيختص السلطان أهل عصبيته بخطط دولته وسائر رتبه فيقلد المال والسيف والكتابة منهم,"In some dynasties, the rank (of secretary) is entrusted to military men, since (some) dynasties, by their very nature, have no regard for scholarship, on account of the simplicity of group feeling (prevailing in them). The ruler gives his government offices and ranks to men who share in his group feeling. Appointments to the financial administration, to “the sword,” and to the office of secretary, are made from among them."
فأما رتبة السيف فتستغني عن معاناة العلم وأما المال والكتابة فيضطر إلى ذلك البلاغة في هذه والحسبان في الأخرى فيختارون لها من هذه الطبقة ما دعت إليه الضرورة ويقلدونه,"“The sword” requires no learning. But the financial administration and the secretaryship need it, for the latter requires a good style and the former requires accounting skill. Therefore, (rulers) select people from the (learned) class for the office of secretary, when there is need for it, and entrust it to them."
إلا أنه لا تكون يد آخر من أهل العصبية غالبة على يده ويكون نظره منصرفا عن نظره كما هو في دولة الترك لهذا العهد بالمشرق فإن الكتابة عندهم وإن كانت لصاحب الإنشاء,"However, the secretary is subordinate to the higher authority exercised by the men who share in the ruler’s group feeling, and his authority derives from that of his superior. This is the case with the Turkish dynasty in the East at this time. The office of chief secretary belongs to the “secretary of state” (Sahib al-insha’)."
إلا أنه تحت يد أمير من أهل عصبية السلطان يعرف بالدويدار وتعويل السلطان ووثوقه به واستنامته في غالب أحواله إليه وتعويله على الآخر في أحوال البلاغة وتطبيق المقاصد وكتمان الأسرار وغير ذلك من توابعها.,"However, the secretary of state is under the control of an amir from among the men who share in the group feeling of the ruler. This man is known as the Dawidar. The ruler usually relies upon him, trusts him, and confides in him, whereas he relies upon the (secretary) for matters that have to do with good style and the conformity (of the expression) to what one wants to express, and other, related matters."
وأما الشروط المعتبرة في صاحب هذه الرتبة التي يلاحظها السلطان في اختياره وانتقائه من أصناف الناس فهي كثيرة وأحسن من استوعبها عبد الحميد الكاتب في رسالته إلى الكتاب وهي:,The ruler who selects and picks a (secretary) from the rank and file has many conditions to consider. (These conditions governing the secretary) are best and most completely presented in the Epistle that the secretary ‘Abd-al-Hamid addressed to his fellow secretaries. It runs as follows;
«أما بعد حفظكم الله يا أهل صناعة الكتابة وحاطكم ووفقكم وأرشدكم فإن الله عز وجل جعل الناس بعد الأنبياء والمرسلين صلوات الله وسلامه عليهم أجمعين ومن بعد الملوك المكرمين أصنافا وإن كانوا في الحقيقة سواء,"And now: May God guard you who practice the craft of secretaryship, and may He keep you and give you success and guidance. There are prophets and messengers and highly honored kings. After them come different kinds of men, all of them made by God. They are of different kinds, even if they are all alike in fact."
وصرفهم في صنوف الصناعات وضروب المحاولات إلى أسباب معاشهم وأبواب أرزاقهم فجعلكم معشر الكتاب في أشرف الجهات أهل الأدب والمروءات والعلم والرزانة,"God occupied them with different kinds of crafts and various sorts of businesses, so that they might be able to make a living and earn their sustenance. He gave to you, assembled secretaries, the great opportunity to be men of education and gentlemen, to have knowledge and (good) judgment."
بكم ينتظم للخلافة محاسنها وتستقيم أمورها وبنصحائكم يصلح الله للخلق سلطانهم وتعمر بلدانهم لا يستغني الملك عنكم ولا يوجد كاف إلا منكم,"You bring out whatever is good in the caliphate and straighten out its affairs. Through your advice, God improves the government for the benefit of human beings and makes their countries civilized. The ruler cannot dispense with you. You alone make him a competent ruler."
فموقعكم من الملوك موقع أسماعهم التي بها يسمعون وأبصارهم التي بها يبصرون وألسنتهم التي بها ينطقون وأيديهم التي بها يبطشون فأمتعكم الله بما خصكم من فضل صناعتكم ولا نزع عنكم ما أضفاه من النعمة عليكم,"Your position with regard to rulers is that (you are) the ears through which they hear, the eyes through which they see, the tongues through which they speak, and the hands through which they touch. May God give you, therefore, enjoyment of the excellent craft with which He has distinguished you, and may He not deprive you of the great favors that He has shown unto you."
وليس أحد من أهل الصناعات كلها أحوج إلى اجتماع خلال الخير المحمودة وخصال الفضل المذكورة المعدودة منكم أيها الكتاب إذا كنتم على ما يأتي في هذا الكتاب من صفتكم,"No craftsman needs more than you to combine all praiseworthy good traits and all memorable and highly regarded excellent qualities, O secretaries, if you aspire to fit the description given of you in this letter."
فإن الكاتب يحتاج في نفسه ويحتاج منه صاحبه الذي يثق به في مهمات أموره أن يكون حليما في موضع الحلم فهيما في موضع الحكم مقداما في موضع الإقدام محجما في موضع الإحجام مؤثرا للعفاف والعدل والإنصاف كتوما للأسرار وفيا عند الشدائد عالما بما يأتي من النوازل يضع الأمور مواضعها والطوارق في أماكنها قد نظر في كل فن من فنون العلم فأحكمه وإن لم يحكمه أخذ منه بمقدار ما يكتفي به,"The secretary needs on his own account, and his master, who trusts him with his important affairs, expects him, to be mild where mildness is needed, to be understanding where judgment is needed, to be enterprising where enterprise is needed, to be hesitant where hesitation is needed. He must prefer modesty, justice, and fairness. He must keep secrets. He must be faithful in difficult circumstances. He must know (beforehand) about the calamities that may come. He must be able to put things in their proper places and misfortunes into their proper categories. He must have studied every branch of learning and know it well, and if he does not know it well, he must at least have acquired an adequate amount of it."
يعرف بغريزة عقله وحسن أدبه وفضل تجربته ما يرد عليه قبل وروده وعاقبة ما يصدر عنه قبل صدوره فيعد لكل أمر عدته وعتاده ويهيئ لكل وجه هيئته وعادته,"By virtue of his natural intelligence, good education, and outstanding experience, he must know what is going to happen to him before it happens, and he must know the result of his actions before action starts. He must make the proper preparations for everything, and he must set up everything in its proper, customary form."
فتنافسوا يا معشر الكتاب في صنوف الآداب وتفقهوا في الدين وابدءوا بعلم كتاب الله عز وجل والفرائض ثم العربية فإنها ثقاف ألسنتكم ثم أجيدوا الخط فإنه حلية كتبكم,"Therefore, assembled secretaries, vie with each other to acquire the different kinds of education and to gain an understanding of religious matters. Start with knowledge of the Book of God and religious duties. Then, study the Arabic language, as that will give you a cultivated form of speech. Then, learn to write well, as that will be an ornament to your letters."
وارووا الأشعار واعرفوا غريبها ومعانيها وأيام العرب والعجم وأحاديثها وسيرها فإن ذلك معين لكم على ما تسمو إليه هممكم,"Transmit poetry and acquaint yourselves with the rare expressions and ideas that poems contain. Acquaint yourselves also with both Arab and nonArab political events, and with the tales of (both groups) and the biographies describing them, as that will be helpful to you in your endeavors."
ولا تضيعوا النظر في الحساب فإنه قوام كتاب الخراج وارغبوا بأنفسكم عن المطامع سنيها ودنيها وسفساف الأمور ومحاقرها فإنها مذلة للرقاب مفسدة للكتاب ونزهوا صناعتكم عن الدناءة واربأوا بأنفسكم عن السعاية والنميمة وما فيه أهل الجهالات,"Do not neglect to study accounting, for it is the mainstay of the land tax register. Detest prejudices with all your heart, lofty ones as well as low ones, and all idle and contemptible things, for they bring humility and are the ruin of secretaryship. Do not let your craft be a low one. Guard against backbiting and calumny and the actions of stupid people."
وإياكم والكبر والسخف والعظمة فإنها عداوة مجتلبة من غير إحنة وتحابوا في الله عز وجل في صناعتكم وتواصوا عليها بالذي هو أليق لأهل الفضل والعدل والنبل من سلفكم وإن نبا الزمان برجل منكم فاعطفوا عليه وآسوه حتى يرجع إليه حاله ويثوب إليه أمره,"Beware of haughtiness, foolishness, and pride, for they mean acquiring hostility without (even the excuse of) hatred. Love each other in God in your craft. Advise your colleagues to practice it in a way befitting your virtuous, fair, and gifted predecessors.
If times go hard for one of you, be kind to him and console him, until everything be well with him again."
وإن أقعد أحدا منكم الكبر عن مكسبه ولقاء إخوانه فزوروه وعظموه وشاوروه واستظهروا بفضل تجربته وقديم معرفته,"Should old age make one of you unable to get around and pursue his livelihood and meet his friends, visit him and honor him and consult him, and profit from his outstanding experience and mature knowledge."
وليكن الرجل منكم على من اصطنعه واستظهر به ليوم حاجته إليه أحوط منه على ولده وأخيه فإن عرضت في الشغل محمدة فلا يصفها إلا إلى صاحبه وإن عرضت مذمة فليحملها هو من دونه,"Every one of you should be more concerned for his assistants, who may be useful when needed, than for his own children or brothers. Should some praise come (to one of you) in the course of his work, he should ascribe the merit to his colleague; any blame he should bear all by himself."
وليحذر السقطة والزلة والملل عند تغير الحال فإن العيب إليكم معشر الكتاب أسرع منه إلى القراء وهو لكم أفسد منه لهم فقد علمتم أن الرجل منكم إذا صحبه من يبذل له من نفسه ما يجب له عليه من حقه فواجب عليه أن يعتقد له من وفائه وشكره واحتماله وخيره ونصيحته وكتمان سره وتدبير أمره ما هو جزاء لحقه ويصدق ذلك بفعاله عند الحاجة إليه والاضطرار إلى ما لديه,"He should beware of mistakes and slips and of being annoyed when conditions change. For you, assembled secretaries, are more prompt to be blamed than Qur’an readers, and blame is more detrimental to you than to them. You know that everyone of you has a master, one who gives from his own as much as can be expected, and (every one of you) has the obligation to repay him, since he deserves it, with fidelity, gratefulness, tolerance, patience, good counsel, discretion, and active interest in his affairs, and to show (his good intentions) by his actions whenever his master needs him and his resources."
فاستشعروا ذلك وفقكم الله من أنفسكم في حالة الرخاء والشدة والحرمان والمؤاساة والإحسان والسراء والضراء فنعمت السيمة هذه من وسم بها من أهل هذه الصناعة الشريفة,"Be conscious of (your obligations) – God give you success – in good and bad circumstances, in privation as in munificence and kindness, in happiness as in misfortune. Any member of this noble craft who has all these qualities has good qualities indeed."
وإذا ولي الرجل منكم أو صير إليه من أمر خلق الله وعياله أمر فليراقب الله عز وجل وليؤثر طاعته وليكن على الضعيف رفيقا وللمظلوم منصفا «فإن الخلق عيال الله وأحبهم إليه أرفقهم بعياله»,"If any one of you be appointed to an office, or if some matter that concerns God’s children be turned over to one of you, he should think of God and choose obedience to Him. He should be kind to the weak and fair to those who have been wronged. All creatures are God’s children. He loves most those who are kindest to His children."
ثم ليكن بالعدل حاكما وللأشراف مكرما وللفيء موفرا وللبلاد عامرا وللرعية متألفا وعن أذاهم متخلفا وليكن في مجلسه متواضعا حليما وفي سجلات خراجه واستقضاء حقوقه رفيقا,"Furthermore, he should judge with justice, he should honor the noble (descendants of Muhammad), augment the booty (gained in wars against infidels), and bring civilization to the country. He should be friendly to the subjects, and refrain from harming them. He should be humble and mild in his office. He should be kind in handling the land tax registers and in calling in outstanding claims. You should explore the character of him with whom you associate."
وإذا صحب أحدكم رجلا فليختبر خلائقه فإذا عرف حسنها وقبحها أعانه على ما يوافقه من الحسن واحتال على صرفه عما يهواه من القبح بألطف حيلة وأجمل وسيلة وقد علمتم أن سائس البهيمة إذا كان بصيرا بسياستها التمس معرفة أخلاقها,"When his good and bad sides are known, you will be able to help him to do the good things that agree with him, and be able to contrive to keep him from the bad things he desires. You must be able to do that in the subtlest and best manner. You know that a person who is in charge of an animal and understands his job, endeavors to know the character of the animal."
فإن كانت رموحا لم يهجها إذا ركبها وإن كانت شبوبا اتقاها من بين يديها وإن خاف منها شرودا توقاها من ناحية رأسها وإن كانت حرونا قمع برفق هواها في طرقها فإن استمرت عطفها يسيرا فيسلس له قيادها,"If it is inclined to gallop, he does not goad it when he is riding it. If it is inclined to kick, he takes precautions with its forelegs. If he fears that it will shy, he takes precautions with its head. If it is restive, he gently subdues its desire to go where it wants to go. If it still continues, he pulls it slightly to the side, then has its halter loosened."
وفي هذا الوصف من السياسة دلائل لمن ساس الناس وعاملهم وجربهم وداخلهم والكاتب بفضل أدبه وشريف صنعته ولطيف حيلته ومعاملته لمن يحاوره من الناس ويناظره ويفهم عنه أو يخاف سطوته أولى بالرفق لصاحبه ومداراته وتقويم أوده من سائس البهيمة التي لا تحير جوابا ولا تعرف صوابا ولا تفهم خطابا إلا بقدر ما يصيرها إليه صاحبها الراكب عليها,"This description of how to take care of an animal contains good points for those who want to lead human beings and deal with them, serve them, and have intimate contact with them. The secretary, with his excellent education, his noble craft, his subtlety, his frequent dealings with people who confer with him and discuss things with him and learn from him or fear his severity, needs to be kind to his associates, to flatter them, and to supply their wants, even more than the person in charge of an animal which cannot answer, does not know what is right, does not understand what is said to it, and goes only where its master who rides upon it makes it go."
ألا فارفقوا رحمكم الله في النظر واعملوا ما أمكنكم فيه من الروية والفكر تأمنوا بإذن الله ممن صحبتموه النبوة والاستثقال والجفوة ويصير منكم إلى الموافقة وتصيروا منه إلى المؤاخاة والشفقة إن شاء الله.,"Be kind – God show mercy unto you-when you look after things. Use as much reflection and thought as possible. God permitting, you will thus escape harshness, annoyance, and rudeness on the part of your associates. They will be in agreement with you, and you will have their friendship and protection, if God wills."
ولا يجاوزن الرجل منكم في هيئة مجلسه وملبسه ومركبه ومطعمه ومشربه وبنائه وخدمه وغير ذلك من فنون أمره قدر حقه فإنكم مع ما فضلكم الله به من شرف صنعتكم خدمة لا تحملون في خدمتكم على التقصير وحفظة لا تحتمل منكم أفعال التضييع والتبذير,"None of you should have too sumptuous an office or go beyond the proper limits in his dress, his mount, his food, his drink, his house, his servants, or in the other things pertaining to his station, for, despite the nobility of the craft by which God has distinguished you, you are servants who are not permitted to fall short in their service. You are caretakers whom one does not permit to be wasteful or spendthrift."
واستعينوا على عفافكم بالقصد في كل ما ذكرته لكم وقصصته عليكم واحذروا متالف السرف وسوء عاقبة الترف فإنهما يعقبان الفقر ويذلان الرقاب ويفضحان أهلهما وسيما الكتاب وأرباب الآداب,"Try to preserve your modesty by planned moderation in all the things I have mentioned and told you. Beware of the wastefulness of prodigality and the bad results of luxury. They engender poverty and bring about humiliation. People who (are prodigal and live in luxury) are put to shame, especially if they be secretaries and men of education."
وللأمور أشباه وبعضها دليل على بعض فاستدلوا على مؤتنف أعمالكم بما سبقت إليه تجربتكم ثم اسلكوا من مسالك التدبير أوضحها محجة وأصدقها حجة وأحمدها عاقبة,"Things repeat themselves. One thing contains the clue to another. Let yourselves be guided in your future undertakings-by your previous experience. Then, choose the method of doing things that is most definite, most accurate, and that promises the best result."
واعلموا أن للتدبير آفة متلفة وهو الوصف الشاغل لصاحبه عن إنقاذ علمه ورويته,"You should know that there is something that defeats accomplishment, namely, talking about things. The person who does it is prevented from using his knowledge and his ability to think."
فليقصد الرجل منكم في مجلسه قصد الكافي من منطقه وليوجز في ابتدائه وجوابه وليأخذ بمجامع حججه,"Therefore, everyone of you, while he is in his office, should endeavor to talk no more than is sufficient; he should be concise in the matters he brings up and in the answers he gives; and he should give thought to all the arguments he advances."
فإن ذلك مصلحة لفعله ومدفعة للتشاغل عن إكثاره وليضرع إلى الله في صلة توفيقه وإمداده بتسديده مخافة وقوعه في الغلط المضر ببدنه وعقله وأدبه فإنه إن ظن منكم ظان أو قال قائل إن الذي برز من جميل صنعته وقوة حركته إنما هو بفضل حيلته وحسن تدبيره فقد تعرض بظنه أو مقالته إلى أن يكله الله عز وجل إلى نفسه فيصير منها إلى غير كاف,"His work will profit from that. It will prevent too much preoccupation with other things. He should implore God to grant him success and to support him with His guidance, for he must fear making mistakes that might hurt his body and (cast doubt upon) his intelligence and education. When any one of you says or thinks that the high quality and efficiency of his work is obviously the result of his own cleverness and knowledge of how to do things, he provokes God."
وذلك على من تأمله غير خاف.,This is no secret to those who reflect.
ولا يقل أحد منكم إنه أبصر بالأمور وأحمل لعبء التدبير من مرافقه في صناعته ومصاحبه في خدمته,"None of you should say that he has a better understanding of affairs, or knows better how to handle difficult matters, than other members of his craft, than those who serve together with him."
فإن أعقل الرجلين عند ذوي الألباب من رمى بالعجب وراء ظهره ورأى أن أصحابه أعقل منه وأحمد في طريقته,"Of two persons, discerning people consider him the more intelligent who throws off conceit and thinks his colleagues more intelligent and more skillful than he."
وعلى كل واحد من الفريقين أن يعرف فضل نعم الله جل ثناؤه من غير اغترار برأيه ولا تزكية لنفسه,"But at any rate, both parties should acknowledge the excellence of God’s favors. No one should let himself be deceived by his own opinions and consider himself free from mistakes."
ولا يكاثر على أخيه أو نظيره وصاحبه وعشيره.,"Nor should he strive to outdo his friends, equals, colleagues, or his family."
وحمد الله واجب على الجميع وذلك بالتواضع لعظمته والتذلل لعزته والتحدث بنعمته,"Everybody must give praise to God, in humility in the face of His greatness, in meekness in the face of His might, and in fulfillment of the command to speak of God’s favors."
وأنا أقول في كتابي هذا ما سبق به المثل من تلزمه النصيحة يلزمه العمل وهو جوهر هذا الكتاب وغرة كلامه بعد الذي فيه من ذكر الله عز وجل,"In this letter of mine, let me refer to the old proverb: “He who accepts good advice all is successful.” This is the essence of this letter and the best that is said in it, after the references to God it contains."
فلذلك جعلته آخره وتممته به تولانا الله وإياكم يا معشر الطلبة والكتبة بما يتولى به من سبق علمه بإسعاده وإرشاده فإن ذلك إليه وبيده,"Therefore, I have placed it at the end, and I close the letter with it. May God take care of us and of you, assembled students and secretaries, in the same way He takes care of those whom, as He knows in His prescience, He will make happy and guide aright. He can do it. It is in His hand."
والسلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته»,"Farewell, and God’s mercy and blessings upon you.”"
الشرطة:,The police
ويسمى صاحبها لهذا العهد بإفريقية الحاكم وفي دولة أهل الأندلس صاحب المدينة وفي دولة الترك الوالي.,"In Ifriqiyah, the holder (of the office of chief of police) is at this time called the “magistrate” (hakim). In Spain, he is called the “town chief” (sahib al-madinah). In the Turkish dynasty (in Egypt), he is called the “governor” (wali)."
وهي وظيفة مرءوسة لصاحب السيف في الدولة وحكمه نافذ في صاحبها في بعض الأحيان,"It is an office that is subordinate to the person in charge of “the sword” in the dynasty, who at times uses the (chief of police) to execute his orders."
وكان أصل وضعها في الدولة العباسية لمن يقيم أحكام الجرائم في حال استبدادها أولا ثم الحدود بعد استيفائها,"The office of (chief of) police was originally created by the ‘Abbasid dynasty. The person who held it had (a twofold duty. He had,) firstly, to concern himself with crimes in the investigating stage, and, secondly, to execute the legal punishments."
فإن التهم التي تعرض في الجرائم لا نظر للشرع إلا في استيفاء حدودها,The religious law cannot concern itself with suspicions of possible criminal acts. It can concern itself only with executing the legal punishments.
وللسياسة النظر في استيفاء موجباتها بإقرار يكرهه عليه الحاكم إذا احتفت به القرائن لما توجبه المصلحة العامة في ذلك,"Political leadership, on the other hand, has to concern itself with the investigating stage, in which is (ascertained the commission of crimes) necessitating (legal punishments). It does this through the magistrate, who, being in the possession of all the circumstantial evidence, forces (the criminal) to confess, as is required by the general (public) interest."
فكان الذي يقوم بهذا الاستبداد وباستيفاء الحدود بعده إذا تنزه عنه القاضي يسمى صاحب الشرطة وربما جعلوا إليه النظر في الحدود والدماء بإطلاق، وأفردوها من نظر القاضي,"The person in charge of the investigating stage and of executing afterwards the legal punishments due, when the judge has no (longer) anything to do with (the case), was called “chief of police.” Occasionally, he was given sole jurisdiction over capital crimes and legal punishments, and those matters were taken away from the judge’s jurisdiction."
ونزهوا هذه المرتبة وقلدوها كبار القواد وعظماء الخاصة من مواليهم ولم تكن عامة التنفيذ في طبقات الناس إنما كان حكمهم على الدهماء وأهل الريب والضرب على أيدي الرعاع والفجرة.,"This rank was considered one of great reputation, and was entrusted to high military leaders and important clients of the court entourage. It implied no general executive power over all classes, its jurisdiction extending only over low and suspect elements and (involving) the restraining of turbulent and criminal people."
ثم عظمت نباهتها في دولة بني أمية بالأندلس ونوعت إلى شرطة كبرى وشرطة صغرى وجعل حكم الكبرى على الخاصة والدهماء وجعل له الحكم على أهل المراتب السلطانية والضرب على أيديهم في الظلامات وعلى أيدي أقاربهم ومن إليهم من أهل الجاه,"Among the Spanish Umayyads, the (office of chief of police) acquired great celebrity. It was divided into a “great police” and a “small police.” The jurisdiction of the “great police” was made to extend over both the upper and the lower classes. It had jurisdiction over government dignitaries, and, in cases of wrongdoing, could restrain them, their relatives, and other persons of rank who were connected with them as clients."
وجعل صاحب الصغرى مخصوصا بالعامة ونصب لصاحب الكبرى كرسي بباب دار السلطان ورجال يتبوءون المقاعد بين يديه فلا يبرحون عنها إلا في تصريفه وكانت ولايتها للأكابر من رجالات الدولة حتى كانت ترشيحا للوزارة والحجابة.,"The chief of the “small police” was concerned only with the common people. The chief of the “great police” had his seat at the gate of the palace of the ruler. He had footmen (raji) who occupied places near him, which they did not leave except to go about his business. (The office) was entrusted only to great personalities of the dynasty. It even became a stepping stone to the wazirate and to the office of doorkeeper (hajib)."
وأما في دولة الموحدين بالمغرب فكان لها حظ من التنويه وإن لم يجعلوها عامة وكان لا يليها إلا رجالات الموحدين وكبراؤهم ولم يكن له التحكم على أهل المراتب السلطانية,"In the Almohad dynasty in the Maghrib, (the office) enjoyed a certain reputation, even though it did not have general (jurisdiction). It was entrusted only to important Almohad personalities. It did not have authority over government dignitaries."
ثم فسد اليوم منصبها وخرجت عن رجال الموحدين وصارت ولايتها لمن قام بها من المصطنعين.,"Nowadays, its importance has greatly decreased. It no longer is the preserve of Almohad personalities, and may be entrusted to any follower (of the dynasty) who (is able to) take charge of it."
وأما في دولة بني مرين لهذا العهد بالمشرق فولايتها في بيوت مواليهم وأهل اصطناعهم,"In the Merinid dynasty at this time in the West, (the office) is vested in the houses of Merinid clients and followers."
وفي دولة الترك بالمشرق في رجالات الترك أو أعقاب أهل الدولة قبلهم من الترك يتخيرونهم لها في النظر بما يظهر منهم من الصلابة والمضاء في الأحكام لقطع مواد الفساد وحسم أبواب الدعارة وتخريب مواطن الفسوق وتفريق مجامعه مع إقامة الحدود الشرعية والسياسية كما تقتضيه رعاية المصالح العامة في المدينة,"In the Turkish dynasty in the East, (the office is entrusted) to Turkish personalities or to descendants of the people of the preceding Kurdish dynasty. (Incumbents) are chosen for (the office) in both regions according to the energy and resolution they show in enforcing the law. The purpose is to cut down corruption, to stamp out criminality, to destroy and dissolve the homes and centers of criminal activity, and to enforce the punishments imposed by the religious law and by the political authorities, as concern for the general (public) interests in a town requires."
والله مقلب الليل والنهار,God causes the change of night and day.
قيادة الأساطيل:,The admiralty
وهي من مراتب الدولة وخططها في ملك المغرب وإفريقية ومرءوسة لصاحب السيف وتحت حكمه في كثير من الأحوال ويسمى صاحبها في عرفهم البلمند بتفخيم اللام منقولا من لغة الإفرنجة فإنه اسمها في اصطلاح لغتهم,"(The admiralty) is one of the ranks and functions of the dynasty in the realm of the Maghrib and Ifriqiyah. It is subordinate to the person in charge of “the sword” and comes under his authority in many respects. In customary usage, the person in charge of the admiralty is called Almiland, with an emphatic l. (The word) is derived from the language of the European Christians. It is the technical term for the office in their language."
وإنما اختصت هذه المرتبة بملك إفريقية والمغرب لأنهما جميعا على ضفة البحر الرومي من جهة الجنوب وعلى عدوته الجنوبية بلاد البربر كلهم من سبتة إلى الشام وعلى عدوته الشمالية بلاد الأندلس والإفرنجة والصقالبة والروم إلى بلاد الشام أيضا,"The rank (of admiral) is restricted to the realm of Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib, because both Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib are on the southern shore of the Mediterranean. Along its southern shore the lands of the Berbers extend from Ceuta to Alexandria and on to Syria. Along its northern shore are the countries of Spain and of the European Christians (Franks), the Slavs, and the Byzantines, also extending to Syria."
فقد كانت الروم والإفرنجة والقوط بالعدوة الشمالية من هذا البحر الرومي وكانت أكثر حروبهم ومتاجرهم في السفن,"The Byzantines, the European Christians, and the Goths lived on the northern shore of the Mediterranean. Most of their wars and most of their commerce was by sea."
فكانوا مهرة في ركوبه والحرب في أساطيله ولما أسف من أسف منهم إلى ملك العدوة الجنوبية مثل الروم إلى إفريقية والقوط إلى المغرب أجازوا في الأساطيل وملكوها,"They were skilled in navigating (the Mediterranean) and in naval war. When these people coveted the possession of the southern shore, as the Byzantines (coveted) Ifriqiyah and as the Goths (coveted) the Maghrib, they crossed over in their fleets and took possession of it."
وتغلبوا على البربر بها وانتزعوا من أيديهم أمرها وكان لها بها المدن الحافلة مثل قرطاجنة وسبيطلة وجلولاء ومرناق وشرشال وطنجة,"Thus, they achieved superiority over the Berbers and deprived them of their power. They had populous cities there, such as Carthage, Sbeitla, Jalula, Murnaq, Cherchel, and Tangier."
وكان صاحب قرطاجنة من قبلهم يحارب صاحب رومة ويبعث الأساطيل لحربه مشحونة بالعساكر والعدد فكانت هذه عادة لأهل هذا البحر الساكنين حفافيه معروفة في القديم والحديث,"The ancient master of Carthage used to fight the master of Rome and to send fleets loaded with armies and equipment to wage war against him. Thus, (seafaring) is a custom of the inhabitants of both shores of the Mediterranean, which was known in ancient as in modern times."
ولما ملك المسلمون مصر كتب عمر بن الخطاب إلى عمرو بن العاص رضي الله عنهما «أن صف لي البحر» فكتب إليه: «إن البحر خلق عظيم يركبه خلق ضعيف دود على عود»,"When the Muslims took possession of Egypt, `Umar b. al-Khattab wrote to ‘Amr b. al-‘As and asked him to describe the sea to him. ‘Amr replied: “The sea is a great creature upon which weak creatures ride -like worms upon a piece of wood.”"
فأوعز حينئذ بمنع المسلمين من ركوبه ولم يركبه أحد من العرب إلا من افتات على عمر في ركوبه ونال من عقابه كما فعل بعرفجة بن هرثمة الأزدي سيد بجيلة,"Thus, he recommended at that time that the Muslims be kept away from seafaring. No Arab traveled by sea save those who did so without ‘Umar’s knowledge and were punished by him for it. ‘Umar thus punished ‘Arfajah b. Harthamah al-Azdi, the chief of the Bajilah."
لما أغزاه عمان فبلغه غزوة في البحر فأنكر عليه وعنفه أنه ركب البحر للغزو,"He sent him on a raid against Oman, and he learned (later that he had raided it by sea). He disapproved of his having made the raid by sea, and told him so in no uncertain terms."
ولم يزل الشأن ذلك حتى إذا كان لعهد معاوية أذن للمسلمين في ركوبه والجهاد على أعواده والسبب في ذلك أن العرب لبداوتهم لم يكونوا مهرة في ثقافته وركوبه والروم والإفرنجة لممارستهم أحواله ومرباهم في التقلب على أعواده مرنوا عليه وأحكموا الدارية بثقافته,"Thus it remained until Mu’awiyah’s reign. He permitted the Muslims to go by sea and to wage the holy war in ships. The reason for this was that on account of their Bedouin attitude, the Arabs were at first not skilled in navigation and seafaring, whereas the Byzantines and the European Christians, on account of their experience of the sea and the fact that they had grown up traveling in ships, were used to the sea and well trained in navigation."
فلما استقر الملك للعرب وشمخ سلطانهم وصارت أمم العجم خولا لهم وتحت أيديهم وتقرب كل ذي صنعة إليهم بمبلغ صناعته واستخدموا من النواتية في حاجاتهم البحرية أمما وتكررت ممارستهم للبحر وثقافته واستحدثوا بصراء بها,"The royal and governmental authority of the Arabs became firmly established and powerful at that time. The nonArab nations became servants of the Arabs and were under their control. Every craftsman offered them his best services. They employed seagoing nations for their maritime needs. Their own experience of the sea and of navigation grew, and they turned out to be very expert."
فشرهوا إلى الجهاد فيه وأنشئوا السفن فيه والشواني وشحنوا الأساطيل بالرجال والسلاح وأمطوها العساكر والمقاتلة لمن وراء البحر من أمم الكفر واختصوا بذلك من ممالكهم وثغورهم ما كان أقرب لهذا البحر وعلى حافته مثل الشام وإفريقية والمغرب والأندلس,"They wished to wage the holy war by sea. They constructed ships and galleys and loaded the fleet with men and weapons. They embarked the army and fighters to fight against the unbelievers across the sea. This was the special concern of the provinces and border regions closest to the shores of the Mediterranean, such as Syria, Ifriqiyah, the Maghrib, and Spain."
وأوعز الخليفة عبد الملك إلى حسان بن النعمان عامل إفريقية والمغرب والأندلس وأوعز الخليفة عبد الملك إلى حسان بن النعمان عامل إفريقية باتخاذ دار صناعة بتونس لإنشاء الآلات البحرية حرصا على مراسم الجهاد ومنها كان فتح صقلية أيام زيادة الله الأول ابن إبراهيم بن الأغلب على يد أسد بن الفرات شيخ الفتيا,"The caliph ‘Abdal-Malik recommended to Hassan b. an- Nu’man, the governor of Ifriqiyah, that a shipyard be set up in Tunis for the production of maritime implements, as he was desirous of waging the holy war. From there, the conquest of Sicily was achieved in the days of Ziyadat-Allah I b. Ibrahim b. al-Aghlab under the leadership of the chief mufti, Asad b. al-Furat Pantelleria also was conquered in his day. Mu’awiyah b. IIudayj had been sent on a raid against Sicily in the days of Mu’awiyah b. Abi Sufyan, but God had not enabled him to conquer it. It was conquered by the Aghlabid ruler and his general, Asad b. al-Furat."
وفتح قوصرة أيضا في أيامه بعد أن كان معاوية بن حديج أغزى صقلية أيام معاوية بن أبي سفيان فلم يفتح الله على يديه وفتحت على يد ابن الأغلب وقائده أسد بن الفرات وكانت من بعد ذلك أساطيل إفريقية والأندلس في دولة العبيديين والأمويين تتعاقب إلى بلادهما في سبيل الفتنة فتجوس خلال السواحل بالإفساد والتخريب.,"Thereafter, under the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimids) and the (Spanish) Umayyads, the fleets of Ifriqiyah and Spain constantly attacked each other’s countries in civil war operations, and they thoroughly devastated the coastal regions."
وانتهى أسطول الأندلس أيام عبد الرحمن الناصر إلى مائتي مركب أو نحوها وأسطول إفريقية كذلك مثله أو قريبا منه وكان قائد الأساطيل بالأندلس ابن دماحس ومرفأها للحط والإقلاع بجاية والمرية,"In the days of ‘Abd- ar-Rahman an-Nasir, the Spanish fleet had grown to about two hundred vessels, and the African fleet to the same number, or close to it. The fleet admiral in Spain was Ibn Rumahis. The port used by (the Spanish fleet) for docking and hoisting sail was Pechina and Almeria."
وكانت أساطيلها مجتمعة من سائر الممالك من كل بلد تتخذ فيه السفن أسطول يرجع نظره إلى قائد من النواتية يدبر أمر حربه وسلاحه ومقاتلته ورئيس يدبر أمر جريته بالريح أو بالمجاذيف وأمر إرسائه في مرفئه,"The fleet was assembled from all the provinces. Each region where ships were used contributed one fleet (unit) under the supervision of a commander in charge of everything connected with fighting, weapons and combatants alike. There also was a captain who directed the movement of the fleet, using either the wind or oars. He also directed its anchoring in port."
فإذا اجتمعت الأساطيل لغزو محتفل أو غرض سلطاني مهم عسكرت بمرفئها المعلوم وشحنها السلطان برجاله وأنجاد عساكره ومواليه وجعلهم لنظر أمير واحد من أعلى طبقات أهل مملكته يرجعون كلهم إليه ثم يسرحهم لوجههم وينتظر إيابهم بالفتح والغنيمة,"When the whole fleet was assembled for a large-scale raid or for important government business, it was manned in its home port. The ruler loaded it with men (drawn from) his best troops and clients, and placed them under the supervision of one commander, who belonged to the highest class of the people of his realm and to whom all were responsible. He then sent them off, and awaited their victorious return with booty."
وكان المسلمون لعهدة الدولة الإسلامية قد غلبوا على هذا البحر من جميع جوانبه وعظمت صولتهم وسلطانهم فيه فلم يكن للأمم النصرانية قبل بأساطيلهم بشيء من جوانبه وامتطوا ظهره للفتح سائر أيامهم فكانت لهم المقامات المعلومة من الفتح والغنائم,"During the time of the Muslim dynasty, the Muslims gained control over the whole Mediterranean. Their power and domination over it was vast. The Christian nations could do nothing against the Muslim fleets, anywhere in the Mediterranean. All the time, the Muslims rode its wave for conquest. There occurred then many well-known episodes of conquest and plunder."
وملكوا سائر الجزائر المنقطعة عن السواحل فيه مثل ميورقة ومنورقة ويابسة وسردانية وصقلية وقوصرة ومالطة وأقريطش وقبرس وسائر ممالك الروم والإفرنج,"The Muslims took possession of all the islands that lie off its shores, such as Majorca, Minorca, Ibiza, Sardinia, Sicily, Pantelleria, Malta, Crete, Cyprus, and of all the other provinces of the Byzantines and the European Christians (on its shores)."
وكان أبو القاسم الشيعي وأبناؤه يغزون أساطيلهم من المهدية جزيرة جنوة فتنقلب بالظفر والغنيمة وافتتح مجاهد العامري صاحب دانية من ملوك الطوائف جزيرة سردانية في أساطيله سنة خمس وأربعمائة,"Abu 1-Qasim ash-Shi’i and his descendants sent their fleets on raids against the island of Genoa from al-Mahdtyah. They returned victorious with booty. Mujahid al-‘Amiri, the master of Denia, one of the reyes de taifas, conquered the island of Sardinia with his fleet in the year 405 [1014/15]."
وارتجعها النصارى لوقتها والمسلمون خلال ذلك كله قد تغلبوا على كثير من لجة هذا البحر وصارت أساطيلهم فيهم جائية وذاهبة والعساكر الإسلامية تجيز البحر في الأساطيل من صقلية إلى البر الكبير المقابل لها من العدوة الشمالية فتوقع بملوك الأفرنج وتثخن في ممالكهم,"The Christians reconquered it in due course. During all that (time), the Muslims were gaining control over the largest part of the high sea. Their fleets kept coming and going, and the Muslim armies crossed the sea in ships from Sicily to the great mainland opposite Sicily, on the northern shore. They fell upon the European Christian rulers and made massacres in their realms."
كما وقع في أيام بني الحسين ملوك صقلية القائمين فيها بدعوة العبيديين وانحازت أمم النصرانية بأساطيلهم إلى الجانب الشمالي الشرقي منه من سواحل الإفرنجة والصقالبة وجزائر الرومانية لا يعدونها,"This happened in the days of the Banu Abul-Husayn, the rulers of Sicily, who supported the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimid) propaganda there. The Christian nations withdrew with their fleets to the northeastern side of the Mediterranean, to the coastal regions inhabited by the European Christians and the Slavs, and to the Aegean islands, and did not go beyond them."
وأساطيل المسلمين قد ضربت عليهم ضراء الأسد على فريسته وقد ملأت الأكثر من بسيط هذا البحر عدة وعددا واختلفت في طرقه سلما وحربا فلم تظهر للنصرانية فيه ألواح,The Muslim fleet had pounced upon them as eagerly as lions upon their prey. They covered most of the surface of the Mediterranean with their equipment and numbers and traveled its lanes (on missions both) peaceful and warlike. Not a single Christian board floated on it.
حتى إذا أدرك الدولة العبيدية والأموية الفشل والوهن وطرقها الاعتلال مد النصارى أيديهم إلى جزائر البحر الشرقية مثل صقلية وإقريطش ومالطة فملكوها ثم ألحوا على سواحل الشام في تلك الفترة وملكوا طرابلس وعسقلان وصور وعكا,"Eventually, however, the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimid) and Umayyad dynasties weakened and softened and were affected by infirmity. Then, the Christians reached out for the eastern islands of the Mediterranean, such as Sicily, Crete, and Malta, and took possession of them. They pressed on against the shores of Syria during this interval, and took possession of Tripoli, Ascalon, Tyre, and Acco."
واستولوا على جميع الثغور بسواحل الشام وغلبوا على بيت المقدس وبنوا عليه كنيسة لمظهر دينهم وعبادتهم وغلبوا بني خزرون على طرابلس ثم على قابس وصفاقس ووضعوا عليهم الجزية ثم ملكوا المهدية مقر ملوك العبيديين من يد أعقاب بلكين بن زيري,"They gained control over all the seaports of Syria. They conquered Jerusalem and built there a church as an outward manifestation of their religion and worship. They deprived the Banu Khazrun of Tripolitania and (they conquered) Gabes and Sfax, and imposed a poll tax upon their inhabitants. Then they took possession of al- Mahdtyah, the (original) seat of the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimids), and took it away from the descendants of Buluggtn b. Zirt."
وكانت لهم في المائة الخامسة الكرة بهذا البحر وضعف شأن الأساطيل في دولة مصر والشام إلى أن انقطع ولم يعتنوا بشيء من أمره لهذا العهد بعد أن كان لهم به في الدولة العبيدية عناية تجاوزت الحد كما هو معروف في أخبارهم فبطل رسم هذه الوظيفة هنالك,"In the fifth [eleventh] century, they had the lead in the Mediterranean. In Egypt and Syria, interest in the fleet weakened and eventually ceased to exist. Since then, they have shown no concern for the naval matters with which they had been so exceedingly concerned under the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimid) dynasty, as is known from ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimid) history. In consequence, the identity of the office of the admiralty was lost in those countries."
وبقيت بإفريقية والمغرب فصارت مختصة بها وكان الجانب الغربي من هذا البحر لهذا العهد موفور الأساطيل ثابت القوة لم يتحيفه عدو ولا كانت لهم به كرة,"It remained in Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib, but only there. At the present time, the western Mediterranean has large fleets and is very powerful. No enemy has trespassed on it or been able to do anything there."
فكان قائد الأسطول به لعهد لمتونة بني ميمون رؤساء جزيرة قادس ومن أيديهم أخذها عبد المؤمن بتسليمهم وطاعتهم وانتهى عدد أساطيلهم إلى المائة من بلاد العدوتين جميعا.,"In Lamtunah (Almoravid) times, the admirals of the fleet in (the West) were the Banu Maymun, chieftains from the peninsula of Cadiz, which they (later on) handed over to (the Almohad) ‘Abd-al-Mu’min, to whom they paid obedience. Their fleets, (assembled) from the countries on both shores, reached the number of one hundred."
ولما استفحلت دولة الموحدين في المائة السادسة وملكوا العدوتين أقاموا خطة هذا الأسطول على أتم ما عرف وأعظم ما عهد وكان قائد أسطولهم أحمد الصقلي أصله من صد غيار الموطنين بجزيرة جربة,"In the sixth [twelfth] century, the Almohad dynasty flourished and had possession of both shores. The Almohads organized their fleet in the most perfect manner ever known and on the largest scale ever observed. Their admiral was Ahmad as-Siqilli, who belonged to the Sadghiyan, a branch of the Sadwikish, who lived on the island of Jerba."
من سرويكش أسرة النصارى من سواحلها وربي عندهم واستخلصه صاحب صقلية واستكفاه ثم هلك، وولي ابنه فأسخطه ببعض النزعات وخشي على نفسه ولحق بتونس ونزل على السيد بها من بني عبد المؤمن وأجاز مراكش فتلقاه الخليفة يوسف بن عبد المؤمن بالمبرة والكرامة,"The Christians had captured him there, and he had grown up among them. The ruler of Sicily (Roger II) selected him for his service and employed him in it, but he died and was succeeded by his son, whose anger (Ahmad) somehow aroused. He feared for his life and went to Tunis, where he stayed with the chief of Tunis, one of the Banu ‘Abd-al-Mu’min. He went on to Marrakech, and was received there by the caliph Yusuf al-‘Ashrt b. ‘Abd-al-Mu’min with great kindness and honor."
وأجزل الصلة وقلده أمر أساطيله فجلى في جهاد أمم النصرانية وكانت له آثار وأخبار ومقامات مذكورة في دولة الموحدين.,(The caliph) gave him many presents and entrusted him with command of his fleet. (As commander of the fleet) he went to wage the holy war against the Christian nations. He did noteworthy and memorable deeds during the Almohad dynasty.
وانتهت أساطيل المسلمين على عهده في الكثرة والاستجادة إلى ما لم تبلغه من قبل ولا بعد فيما عهدناه ولما قام صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب ملك مصر والشام لعهده باسترجاع ثغور الشام من يد أمم النصرانية وتطهير بيت المقدس تتابعت أساطيلهم بالمدد لتلك الثغور من كل ناحية قريبة لبيت المقدس الذي كانوا قد استولوا عليه,"In his period, the Muslim fleet was of a size and quality never, to our knowledge, attained before or since. When Salah-ad-din Yusuf b. Ayyub, the ruler of Egypt and Syria at this time, set out to recover the border cities (ports) of Syria from the Christian nations and to cleanse Jerusalem of the abomination of unbelief and to rebuild it, one fleet of unbelievers after another came to the relief of the border cities (ports), from all the regions near Jerusalem which they controlled."
فأمدوهم بالعدد والأقوات ولم تقاومهم أساطيل الإسكندرية لاستمرار الغلب لهم في ذلك الجانب الشرقي من البحرية وتعدد أساطيلهم فيه,"They supported them with equipment and food. The fleet of Alexandria could not stand up against them. (The Christians) had had the upper hand in the eastern Mediterranean for so long, and they had numerous fleets there."
وضعف المسلمين منذ زمان طويل عن ممانعتهم هناك كما أشرنا إليه قبل,"The Muslims, on the other hand, had for a long time been too weak to offer them any resistance there, as we have mentioned."
فأوفد صلاح الدين على أبي يعقوب المنصور سلطان المغرب لعهده من الموحدين رسوله عبد الكريم بن منقذ من بيت بني منقذ ملوك شيزر،,"In this situation, Salah-ad-din sent ‘Abd-alKarim b. Munqidh, a member of the family of the Banu Munqidh, the rulers of Shayzar, as his ambassador to Ya’qub al-Mansur, the Almohad ruler of the Maghrib at that time."
وكان ملكها من أيديهم وأبقى عليهم في دولته فبعث عبد الكريم منهم هذا إلى ملك المغرب طالبا مدد الأساطيل لتحول في البحر بين أساطيل الأجانب وبين مرامهم من أمداد النصرانية بثغور الشام وأصحبه كتابه إليه في ذلك من إنشاء الفاضل البيساني,"Salahaddin had taken Shayzar away from the Banu Munqidh but had spared them to use them in his government. Now, he sent ‘Abd-al-Karim, a member of that (family), to the ruler of the Maghrib to ask for the support of his fleets, to prevent the fleets of the unbelievers from achieving their desire of bringing relief to the Christians in the Syrian border cities (ports). (‘Abd-al-Karim) carried a letter from (Salah-addin) to that effect. The letter had been composed by (alQadi) al-Fadil al-Baysani."
يقول في افتتاحه,It began with these words:
«فتح الله لسيدنا أبواب المناهج والميامن»,“May God open to our Lord the gates of success and good fortune.”
حسبما نقله العماد الأصفهاني في كتاب الفتح القيسي,The letter is quoted by the ‘Imad al-Isfahani in the Fath alQudsi.
فنقم عليهم المنصور تجافيهم عن خطابه بأمير المؤمنين وأسرها في نفسه وحملهم على مناهج البر والكرامة وردهم إلى مرسلهم ولم يجبه إلى حاجته من ذلك,"Al- Mansur was greatly annoyed with the (members of the embassy), because they did not address him as Commander of the Faithful; but he concealed his annoyance and treated them with great kindness and honor. He sent them back to (Salah-ad- din) who had sent them, and did not comply with his request."
وفي هذا دليل على اختصاص ملك المغرب بالأساطيل وما حصل للنصرانية في الجانب الشرقي من هذا البحر من الاستطالة وعدم عناية الدول بمصر والشام لذلك العهد وما بعده لشأن الأساطيل البحرية والاستعداد منها للدولة,"This (story) is evidence (for the facts that) the ruler of the Maghrib alone possessed a fleet, that the Christians controlled the eastern Mediterranean, and that the dynasties in Egypt and Syria at that time and later were not interested in naval matters or in building up government fleets."
ولما هلك أبو يعقوب المنصور واعتلت دولة الموحدين واستولت أمم الجلالقة على الأكثر من بلاد الأندلس وألجئوا المسلمين إلى سيف البحر وملكوا الجزائر التي بالجانب الغربي من البحر الرومي قويت ريحهم في بسيط هذا البحر,"Ya’qub al-Mansur then died, and the Almohad dynasty became infirm. The Galician nations seized control of most of Spain. The Muslims took refuge in the coastal region and took possession of the islands of the western Mediterranean. They regained their former strength, and their power on the surface of the Mediterranean grew."
واشتدت شوكتهم وكثرت فيه أساطيلهم وتراجعت قوة المسلمين فيه إلى المساواة معهم كما وقع لعهد السلطان أبي الحسن ملك زناتة بالمغرب فإن أساطيله كانت عند مرامه الجهاد مثل عدة النصرانية وعديدهم,"Their fleets increased, and the strength of the Muslims became again equal to that of (the Christians). This happened in the time of (the Merinid) Sultan, Abul- Hasan, the Zanatah ruler in the Maghrib. When he desired to wage the holy war, his fleet was as well equipped and numerous as that of the Christians."
ثم تراجعت عن ذلك قوة المسلمين في الأساطيل لضعف الدولة ونسيان عوائد البحر بكثرة العوائد البدوية بالمغرب وانقطاع العوائد الأندلسية,"Then, the naval strength of the Muslims declined once more, because of the weakness of the ruling dynasty. Maritime habits were forgotten under the impact of the strong Bedouin attitude prevailing in the Maghrib, and as the result of the discontinuance of Spanish habits."
ورجع النصارى فيه إلى دينهم المعروف من الدربة فيه والمران عليه والبصر بأحواله وغلب الأمم في لجته على أعواده,"The Christians resumed their former, famous maritime training, and (renewed) their constant activity in (the Mediterranean) and their experience with conditions there. (They again showed) their former superiority over others on the high seas of (the Mediterranean) and in (Mediterranean) shipping."
وصار المسلمون فيه كالأجانب إلا قليلا من أهل البلاد الساحلية لهم المران عليه لو وجدوا كثرة من الأنصار والأعوان أو قلة من الدولة تستجيش لهم أعوانا وتوضح لهم في هذا الغرض مسلكا,"The Muslims came to be strangers to the Mediterranean. The only exceptions are a few inhabitants of the coastal regions, who are active on (the sea). They ought to have many assistants and supporters, or they ought to have support from the dynasties to enable them to recruit help and to work toward the goal of (increased seafaring activities)."
وبقيت الرتبة لهذا العهد في الدولة الغربية محفوظة والرسم في معاناة الأساطيل بالإنشاء والركوب معهودا لما عساه أن تدعو إليه الحاجة من الأغراض السلطانية في البلاد البحرية والمسلمون يستهبون الريح على الكفر وأهله,"The rank (of admiral) has been preserved to this day in the dynasties of the Maghrib. There, the identity (of the admiralty is still preserved), and how to take care of a fleet, how to build ships and navigate them, is known. Perhaps some political opportunity will arise in the coastal countries, and the Muslims will (once again) ask the wind to blow against unbelief and unbelievers."
فمن المشتهر بين أهل المغرب عن كتب الحدثان أنه لا بد للمسلمين من الكرة على النصرانية وافتتاح ما وراء البحر من بلاد الإفرنجة وأن ذلك يكون في الأساطيل,"The inhabitants of the Maghrib have it on the authority of the books of predictions that the Muslims will yet have to make a successful attack against the Christians and conquer the lands of the European Christians beyond the sea. This, it is said, will take place by sea."
والله ولي المؤمنين.,“God is the friend of the believers.”
الفصل الخامس والثلاثون في التفاوت بين مراتب السيف والقلم في الدول,33. The different importance of the ranks of “the sword” and “the pen” in the (various) dynasties.
اعلم أن السيف والقلم كلاهما آلة لصاحب الدولة يستعين بها على أمره إلا أن الحاجة في أول الدولة إلى السيف ما دام أهلها في تمهيد أمرهم أشد من الحاجة إلى القلم لأن القلم في تلك الحال خادم فقط منفذ للحكم السلطاني والسيف شريك في المعونة,"It should be known that both “the sword” and “the pen” are instruments for the ruler to use in his affairs. However, at the beginning of the dynasty, so long as its people are occupied in establishing power, the need for “the sword” is greater than that for “the pen.” In that situation, “the pen” is merely a servant and agent of the ruler’s authority, whereas “the sword” contributes active assistance."
وكذلك في آخر الدولة حيث تضعف عصبيتهما كما ذكرناه ويقل أهلها بما ينالهم من الهرم الذي قدمناه,"The same is the case at the end of the dynasty when its group feeling weakens, as we have mentioned, and its people decrease in number under the influence of senility, as we have stated before."
فتحتاج الدولة إلى الاستظهار بأرباب السيوف وتقوى الحاجة إليهم في حماية الدولة والمدافعة عنها كما كان الشأن أول الأمر في تمهيدها فيكون للسيف مزية على القلم في الحالتين ويكون أرباب السيف حينئذ أوسع جاها وأكثر نعمة وأسنى إقطاعا,"The dynasty then needs the support of the military. The dynasty’s need of the military for the purpose of protection and defense is as strong then as it was at the beginning of (the dynasty) for the purpose of getting established. In these two situations, “the sword,” thus, has the advantage over “the pen.” At that time, the military have the higher rank. They enjoy more benefits and more splendid fiefs."
وأما في وسط الدولة فيستغني صاحبها بعض الشيء عن السيف لأنه قد تمهد أمره ولم يبق همه إلا في تحصيل ثمرات الملك من الجباية والضبط ومباهاة الدول وتنفيذ الأحكام,"In mid-term of the dynasty, the ruler can to some degree dispense with “the sword.” His power is firmly established. His only remaining desire is to obtain the fruits of royal authority, such as collecting taxes, holding (property), excelling other dynasties, and enforcing the law."
والقلم هو المعين له في ذلك فتعظم الحاجة إلى تصريفه وتكون السيوف مهملة في مضاجع أغمادها إلا إذا أنابت نائبة أو دعيت إلى سد فرجة ومما سوى ذلك فلا حاجة إليها,"“The pen” is helpful for (all) that. Therefore, the need for using it increases. The swords stay unused in their scabbards, unless something happens and they are called upon to repair a breach. For (purposes) other than that, (swords) are not needed."
فتكون أرباب الأقلام في هذه الحاجة أوسع جاها وأعلى رتبة وأعظم نعمة وثروة وأقرب من السلطان مجلسا وأكثر إليه ترددا وفي خلواته نجيا لأنه حينئذ آلته التي بها يستظهر على تحصيل ثمرات ملكه والنظر إلى أعطافه وتثقيف أطرافه والمباهاة بأحواله.,"In this situation, the men of the pen have more authority. They occupy a higher rank. They enjoy more benefits and greater wealth and have a closer and more frequent and intimate contact with the ruler. At such times, (the pen) is the instrument the ruler uses to obtain the fruits of his royal authority. He uses it to supervise and administer his realm and to display its (excellent) condition."
ويكون الوزراء حينئذ وأهل السيوف مستغنى عنهم مبعدين عن باطن السلطان حذرين على أنفسهم من بوادره.,"At such a time, the wazirs and the military can be dispensed with. They are kept away from the intimate circle of the ruler and have to beware of his moods."
وفي معنى ذلك ما كتب به أبو مسلم للمنصور حين أمره بالقدوم أما بعد فإنه مما حفظناه من وصايا الفرس أخوف ما يكون الوزراء إذا سكنت الدهماء سنة الله في عباده.,"It is in this sense that Abu Muslim wrote the following reply to al-Mansur when he ordered him to come (to him): “And now: We remember the following admonition of the Persians: ‘The most fear-ridden thing there is, is the wazirs when the mob has calmed down.’ ” This is how God proceeds with his servants."
الفصل السادس والثلاثون في شارات الملك والسلطان الخاصة به,34. The characteristic emblems of royal and government authority.
اعلم أن للسلطان شارات وأحوالا تقتضيها الأبهة والبذخ فيختص بها ويتميز بانتحالها عن الرعية والبطانة وسائر الرؤساء في دولته فلنذكر ما هو مشتهر منها بمبلغ المعرفة «وفوق كل ذي علم عليم 12: 76».,"It should be known that the ruler has emblems and arrangements that are the necessary result of pomp and ostentation. They are restricted to him, and by their use he is distinguished from his subjects, his intimates, and all other leaders in his dynasty. We shall mention the best-known emblems as well as (our) knowledge permits. “And He knows more than any scholar.”"
الآلة:,The “outt” (alah)
فمن شارات الملك اتخاذ الآلة من نشر الألوية والرايات وقرع الطبول والنفخ في الأبواق والقرون,"One of the emblems of royal authority is the “outfit” (alah), that is, the display of banners and flags and the beating of drums and the blowing of trumpets and horns."
وقد ذكر أرسطو في الكتاب المنسوب إليه في السياسة أن السر في ذلك إرهاب العدو في الحرب فإن الأصوات الهائلة لها تأثير في النفوس بالروعة ولعمري إنه أمر وجداني في مواطن الحرب يجده كل أحد من نفسه وهذا السبب الذي ذكره أرسطو إن كان ذكره فهو صحيح ببعض الاعتبارات.,"In the Book on Politics ascribed to Aristotle, Aristotle mentioned that its real significance is to frighten the enemy in war. Frightful sounds do have the psychological effect of causing terror. Indeed, as everyone knows from his own (experience), this is an emotional element that plays a role on battlefields. The explanation given by Aristotle – if it was he who gave it – is correct in some respects."
وأما الحق في ذلك فهو أن النفس عند سماع النغم والأصوات يدركها الفرح والطرب بلا شك فيصيب مزاج الروح نشوة يستسهل بها الصعب ويستميت في ذلك الوجه الذي هو فيه,"But the truth is that listening to music and sounds no doubt causes pleasure and emotion in the soul. The spiritual temper of man is thereby affected by a kind of drunkenness, which causes him to make light of difficulties and to be willing to die in the very condition in which he finds himself."
وهذا موجود حتى في الحيوانات العجم بانفعال الإبل بالحداء والخيل بالصفير والصريح كما علمت,"This (state of affairs) exists even in dumb animals. Camels are influenced by the driver’s call, and horses are influenced by whistling and shouting, as everyone knows."
ويزيد ذلك تأثيرا إذا كانت الأصوات متناسبة كما في الغناء وأنت تعلم ما يحدث لسامعه من مثل هذا المعنى لأجل ذلك تتخذ العجم في مواطن حروبهم الآلات الموسيقية لا طبلا ولا بوقا فيحدق المغنون بالسلطان في موكبه بآلاتهم ويغنون فيحركون نفوس الشجعان بضربهم إلى الاستماتة,"The effect is greater when the sounds are harmonious ones, as in the instance of music. It is known what happens to people who listen to music. The non-Arabs, therefore, take musical instruments, drums or trumpets, onto the battlefield with them. Singers with instruments surround the cavalcade of the ruler and sing. Thus, they move the souls of brave men emotionally and cause them to be willing to die."
ولقد رأينا في حروب العرب من يتغنى أمام الموكب بالشعر ويطرب فتجيش همم الأبطال بما فيها ويسارعون إلى مجال الحرب وينبعث كل قرن إلى قرنه,"In the wars of the Arabs (in northwestern Africa), we have seen persons in front of the cavalcade sing poetical songs and make music. The minds of heroes were stirred by the contents of the songs. They hurried to the battleground, and everybody went forth eagerly to meet his rival."
وكذلك زناتة من أمم المغرب يتقدم الشاعر عندهم أمام الصفوف ويتغنى فيحرك بغنائه الجبال الرواسي ويبعث على الاستماتة من لا يظن بها ويسمون ذلك الغناء تاصوكايت,"The same was the case with the Zanatah, one of the nations of the Maghrib. A poet went in advance of the battle lines and sang. His music was such as to move firmly anchored mountains and to cause men who would otherwise not think of it, to seek death. That music is called tazugait by (the Zanatah)."
وأصله كله فرح يحدث في النفس فتنبعث عنه الشجاعة كما تنبعث عن نشوة الخمر بما حدث عنها من الفرح والله أعلم,"The origin of it all is the cheerfulness created in the soul (through music). It leads to bravery, just as drunkenness leads to (bravery), as the result of the cheerfulness which it produces. And God knows better."
وأما تكثير الرايات وتلوينها وإطالتها فالقصد به التهويل لا أكثر وربما تحدث في النفوس من التهويل زيادة في الإقدام وأحوال النفوس وتلويناتها غريبة,"The great number of flags, their manifold colors, and their length, are intended to cause fright, nothing more. (Fright) produces greater aggressiveness in the soul. Psychological conditions and reactions are strange."
والله الخلاق العليم,"God is “the Creator, the Knowing One.”"
. ثم إن الملوك والدول يختلفون في اتخاذ هذه الشارات فمنهم مكثر ومنهم مقلل بحسب اتساع الدولة وعظمها,"The various rulers and dynasties differ in their use of such emblems. Some of them use a great many, others few, according to the extent and importance of the given dynasty."
فأما الرايات فإنها شعار الحروب من عهد الخليقة ولم تزل الأمم تعقدها في مواطن الحروب والغزوات لعهد النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم ومن بعده من الخلفاء.,Flags have been the insignia of war since the creation of the world. The nations have always displayed them on battlefields and during raids. This was also the case in the time of the Prophet and that of the caliphs who succeeded him.
وأما قرع الطبول والنفخ في الأبواق فكان المسلمون لأول الملة متجافين عنه تنزها عن غلظة الملك ورفضا لأحواله واحتقارا لأبهته التي ليست من الحق في شيء,"The Muslims, however, refrained from beating drums and blowing trumpets at the beginning of Islam. They wanted to avoid the coarseness of royal authority and do without royal customs. They also despised pomp, which has nothing whatever to do with the truth."
حتى إذا انقلبت الخلافة ملكا وتبجحوا بزهرة الدنيا ونعيمها ولابسهم الموالي من الفرس والروم أهل الدول السالفة وأروهم ما كان أولئك ينتحلونه من مذاهب البذخ والترف فكان مما استحسنوه اتخاذ الآلة,"The caliphate then came to be royal authority, and the Muslims learned to esteem the splendor and luxury of this world. Persian and Byzantine clients, subjects of the preceding (pre-Islamic) dynasties, mixed with them and showed them their ways of ostentation and luxury. Among the things the Muslims came to like was the “outfit” (alah)."
فأخذوها وأذنوا لعمالهم في اتخاذها تنويها بالملك وأهله فكثيرا ما كان العامل صاحب الثغر أو قائد الجيش يعقد له الخليفة من العباسيين أو العبيديين لواءه ويخرج إلى بعثه أو عمله من دار الخليفة أو داره في موكب من أصحاب الرايات والآلات,"Therefore, they used it and permitted their officials to use it, to increase the prestige of royal authority and its representatives. ‘Abbasid or ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimid) caliphs would often grant permission to display their flags to officials such as the master of a border region or the commander of an army. Such officials then, setting out on a mission or going from the house of the caliph or from their own houses to their offices, were accompanied by a cavalcade of people carrying flags and the attributes of the “outfit” (alah)."
فلا يميز بين موكب العامل والخليفة إلا بكثرة الألوية وقلتها أو بما اختص به الخليفة من الألوان لرأيته,"The only distinction between the cavalcade of an official and that of the caliph was the number of flags, or the use of particular colors for the caliph’s flag."
كالسواد في رايات بني العباس فإن راياتهم كانت سودا حزنا على شهدائهم من بني هاشم ونعيا على بني أمية في قتلهم ولذلك سموا المسودة,"Thus, black was used for the flags of the ‘Abbasids. Their flags were black as a sign of mourning for the martyrs of their family, the Hashimites, and as a sign of reproach directed against the Umayyads who had killed them. Therefore, the ‘Abbasids were called “the black ones” (al-musawwidah)."
ولما افترق أمر الهاشميين وخرج الطالبيون على العباسيين من كل جهة وعصر ذهبوا إلى مخالفتهم في ذلك فاتخذوا الرايات بيضا وسموا المبيضة لذلك سائر أيام العبيديين.,"When the Hashimites divided into factions and the ‘Alids (descendants of Abu Talib) went against the ‘Abbasids on every possible occasion, they wanted to differ from them in the color of their flag, and so they used white flags. Therefore, they were called “the white ones” (al-mubayyidah). White was used by the ‘Alids throughout the reign of the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimids)."
ومن خرج من الطالبيين في ذلك العهد بالمشرق كالداعي بطبرستان وداعي صعدة أو من دعا إلى بدعة الرافضة من غيرهم كالقرامطة.,"It was also used by the ‘Alids who seceded at that time in the East, such as the (Zaydi) missionaries in Tabaristan and in Sa’dah (in the Yemen), and those other (‘Alids) who made propaganda for the extremist (Shi’ah), such as the Qarmatians."
ولما نزع المأمون عن لبس السواد وشعاره في دولته عدل إلى لون الخضرة فجعل رايته خضراء. وأما الاستكثار منها فلا ينتهي إلى حد,"When al-Ma’mun gave up wearing black and using the (black) insignia of his dynasty, he turned to green and used green flags. (The details of the “outfit”) could be increased ad infinitum."
وقد كانت آلة العبيديين لما خرج العزيز إلى فتح الشام خمسمائة من البنود وخمسمائة من الأبواق.,"When al-‘Aziz Nizar set out to conquer Syria, the “outfit” (alah) of the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimids) was composed of five hundred banners and five hundred trumpets."
وأما ملوك البربر بالمغرب من صنهاجة وغيرها فلم يختصوا بلون واحد بل وشوها بالذهب واتخذوها من الحرير الخالص ملونة واستمروا على الإذن فيها لعمالهم,"The Sinhajah and the other Berber rulers in the Maghrib did not affect special colors, but they embroidered their flags in gold and made them of pure colored silk. They always permitted their officials to use these flags."
حتى إذا جاءت دولة الموحدين ومن بعدهم من زناتة قصروا الآلة من الطبول والبنود على السلطان وحظروها على من سواه من عماله وجعلوا لها موكبا خاصا يتبع أثر السلطان في مسيره يسمى الساقة,"But when the Almohads and, later on, the Zanatah (Merinids) made their appearance, they restricted the use of the “outfit” (alah) of drums and banners to the ruler, and forbade all other officials to use it. It formed a special cavalcade in the procession which followed immediately behind the ruler. It was called the “rear guard” (sagah)."
وهم فيه بين مكثر ومقل باختلاف مذاهب الدول في ذلك فمنهم من يقتصر على سبعة من العدد تبركا بالسبعة كما هو في دولة الموحدين وبني الأحمر بالأندلس ومنهم من يبلغ العشرة والعشرين كما هو عند زناتة,"They used a larger or smaller number (of instruments), according to the different customs of the various dynasties. Some of them restricted themselves to seven, as a lucky number. This was the case in the dynasties. of the Almohads and the Banu al-Ahmar (Nasrids) in Spain. Others went up to ten or twenty, as was the case with the Zanatah."
وقد بلغت في أيام السلطان أبي الحسن فيما أدركناه مائة من الطبول ومائة من البنود ملونة بالحرير منسوجة بالذهب ما بين كبير وصغير ويأذنون للولاة والعمال والقواد في اتخاذ راية واحدة صغيرة من الكتان بيضاء وطبل صغير أيام الحرب لا يتجاوزون ذلك,"In the days of Sultan Abul-Hasan, as we learned personally, it went up to one hundred drums and one hundred banners of colored silk interwoven with gold, both large and small. They permit their governors, officials, and generals to use one small flag of white linen and a small drum in wartime. They do not permit them any more."
وأما دولة الترك لهذا العهد بالمشرق فيتخذون راية واحدة عظيمة وفي رأسها خصلة كبيرة من الشعر يسمونها الشالش والجتر وهي شعار السلطان عندهم ثم تتعدد الرايات ويسمونها السناجق واحدها سنجق وهي الراية بلسانهم.,"The contemporary Turkish dynasty in the East uses, in the first place, one large flag, surmounted by a big tuft of hair. It is called the chalish or chatr. (It is used) with the army in general. Then, there is another flag (carried) over the ruler and called the ‘isabah or shatfah. It is the ruler’s insignia. There are many other flags which they call sanjaq, which means “flag” in (Turkish)."
وأما الطبول فيبالغون في الاستكثار منها ويسمونها الكوسات ويبيحون لكل أمير أو قائد عسكر أن يتخذ من ذلك ما يشاء إلا الجتر فإنه خاص بالسلطان.,"They use an excessively large number of drums, which they call. k6s They permit any amir or general to use whatever (insignia) he desires, with the exception of the ‘isabah, which is reserved to the ruler."
وأما الجلالقة لهذا العهد من أمم الإفرنجة بالأندلس فأكثر شأنهم اتخاذ الألوية القليلة ذاهبة في الجو صعدا ومعها قرع الأوتار من الطنابير ونفخ الغيطات يذهبون فيها مذهب الغناء وطريقه في مواطن حروبهم,"The contemporary Galicians, a European Christian nation in Spain, use only a few flags, which fly high in the air. In addition, they make a kind of music with string and wind instruments on the battlefields."
هكذا يبلغنا عنهم وعمن وراءهم من ملوك العجم,This is (all) the information we have about them and the non-Arab rulers who live beyond them.
ومن آياته خلق السماوات والأرض واختلاف ألسنتكم وألوانكم «إن في ذلك لآيات للعالمين 30: 22»,"“In the creation of the heavens and the earth and in the difference of your tongues and colors, there are, indeed, signs for those who know.”"
وأما السرير والمنبر والتخت والكرسي فهي أعواد منصوبة أو أرائك منضدة لجلوس السلطان عليها مرتفعا عن أهل مجلسه أن يساويهم في الصعيد,"Throne, dais, couch, chair-(they all mean) pieces of wood or ottomans set up for the ruler, so that he may have a higher seat than the other people at court and so that he will not be on the same level with them."
ولم يزل ذلك من سنن الملوك قبل الإسلام وفي دول العجم وقد كانوا يجلسون على أسرة الذهب وكان لسليمان بن داود صلوات الله عليهما وسلامه كرسي وسرير من عاج مغشى بالذهب,"This has always been a royal custom, even before Islam and in the non-Arab dynasties. (The pre-Islamic rulers) sat upon thrones of gold. Solomon, the son of David, had a throne of ivory overlaid with gold."
إلا أنه لا تأخذ به الدول إلا بعد الاستفحال والترف شأن الأبهة كلها كما قلناه وأما في أول الدولة عند البداوة فلا يتشوقون إليه.,"However, dynasties use a throne only after they have become flourishing and luxurious, as is the case with all pomp, as we have stated. Dynasties that are in the beginning stage and still keep the Bedouin attitude do not desire it."
وأول من اتخذه في الإسلام معاوية واستأذن الناس فيه وقال لهم إني قد بدنت فأذنوا له فاتخذه واتبعه الملوك الإسلاميون فيه وصار من منازع الأبهة,"The first to use a throne in Islam was Mu’awiyah. He asked the people for permission to use one, saying that he had become corpulent. So they permitted him to use one, and he did. His example was followed by (all the later) Muslim rulers. (The use of an ornate throne) came to indicate a tendency toward pomp."
ولقد كان عمرو بن العاصي بمصر يجلس في قصره على الأرض مع العرب ويأتيه المقوقس إلى قصره ومعه سرير من الذهب محمولا على الأيدي لجلوسه شأن الملوك فيجلس عليه وهو أمامه,"One day ‘Amr b. al-‘As was in his castle in Egypt, sitting on the ground with the Arabs. The Muqawqis came to the castle. He had men carry out a throne of gold, so that he could sit upon it like a king. He sat on it in front of the Arabs."
ولا يغيرون عليه وفاء له بما عقد معهم من الذمة واطراحا لأبهة الملك,"They were not jealous of him, because they felt that they had to give him the protection upon which they had agreed, and because they rejected royal pomp."
ثم كان بعد ذلك لبني العباس والعبيديين وسائر ملوك الإسلام شرقا وغربا من الأسرة والمنابر والتخوت ما عفا عن الأكاسرة والقياصرة,"Later on, the ‘Abbasids, the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimids), and all the other Muslim rulers in both the East and the West, had thrones, daises, and couches that eclipsed (in splendor those of) the Persian and Roman Emperors."
والله مقلب الليل والنهار.,God causes the change of night and day.
السكة: وهي الختم على الدنانير والدراهم المتعامل بها بين الناس بطابع حديد ينقش فيه صور أو كلمات مقلوبة,"The mint (The mint) is concerned with the stamping of the dinars and dirhams used in (commercial) transactions. This is done with a die of iron, upon which pictures or words are engraved in reverse."
ويضرب بها على الدينار أو الدرهم فتخرج رسوم تلك النقوش عليها ظاهرة مستقيمة بعد أن يعتبر عيار النقد من ذلك الجنس في خلوصه بالسبك مرة بعد أخرى وبعد تقدير أشخاص الدراهم والدنانير بوزن معين صحيح يصطلح عليه,"The stamp is pressed upon the dinar or the dirham, and the designs (legends) of those engravings appear on the coin clearly and correctly. Before this is done, the standard of purity of the particular coin, the result of repeated refinings, is taken into consideration, and the individual dinars and dirhams are given the proper, fixed weight that has been agreed upon."
فيكون التعامل بها عددا وإن لم تقدر أشخاصها يكون التعامل بها وزنا,"Then, the number of coins (and not their weight only) can be made use of in transactions. If the individual pieces have not been given the weight fixed upon, then the weight of the coins must be taken into consideration."
ولفظ السكة كان اسما للطابع وهي الحديدة المتخذة لذلك ثم نقل إلى أثرها وهي النقوش الماثلة على الدنانير والدراهم,"The word sikkah (mint) refers to the stamp, that is, the piece of iron used for the purpose (of stamping the coins). The word was then used to designate the result of (the application of the stamp), that is, the engravings that appear upon dinars and dirhams."
ثم نقل إلى القيام على ذلك والنظر في استيفاء حاجاته وشروطه وهي الوظيفة فصار علما عليها في عرف الدول,"The word was further used to designate control of (the process of engraving) and supervision of the whole operation, of everything dealing with coinage and all the conditions that govern it. Such (control and supervision) is (exercised by) the office (of the mint). The word has thus come to designate (that office), and is customarily so used in governmental usage."
وهي وظيفة ضرورية للملك إذ بها يتميز الخالص من المغشوش بين الناس في النقود عند المعاملات ويتقون في سلامتها الغش بختم السلطان عليها بتلك النقوش المعروفة,"It is an office that is necessary to the royal authority, for it enables people to distinguish between good and bad coins in their transactions. That (the coins) are not bad is guaranteed by the engravings known to have been stamped upon them by the ruler."
وكان ملوك العجم يتخذونها وينقشون فيها تماثيل تكون مخصوصة بها مثل تمثال السلطان لعهدها أو تمثيل حصن أو حيوان أو مصنوع أو غير ذلك,"The non-Arabs used (coins) and engraved special pictures on them, for example, a picture of the ruler at the time of issue, a fortress, some animal or product, or something else."
ولم يزل هذا الشأن عند العجم إلى آخر أمرهم. ولما جاء الإسلام أغفل ذلك لسذاجة الدين وبداوة العرب,"This remained the practice of the non-Arabs down to the end of their power. When Islam appeared, the practice was discontinued, because of the simplicity of Islam and the Bedouin attitude of the Arabs."
وكانوا يتعاملون بالذهب والفضة وزنا وكانت دنانير الفرس ودراهمهم بين أيديهم ويردونها في معاملتهم إلى الوزن ويتصارفون بها بينهم إلى أن تفاحش الغش في الدنانير والدراهم لغفلة الدولة عن ذلك,"In their transactions, they used gold and silver according to weight. They also had Persian dinars and dirhams. They used them, too, according to weight and employed them as their medium of exchange. The government paid no attention to the matter. As a result, the frauds practiced with dinars and dirhams eventually became very serious."
وأمر عبد الملك الحجاج على ما نقل سعيد بن المسيب وأبو الزناد بضرب الدراهم وتمييز المغشوش من الخالص وذلك سنة أربع وسبعين وقال المدائني سنة خمس وسبعين,"According to the reports of Sa’id b. al-Musayyab and Abu z-Zinad, Abd-alMalik ordered al-Hajjaj to coin dirhams, and bad coins (began to) be distinguished from good ones. This took place in 74 [699/94], or, according to al-Mada’ini, in 75 [694/95]."
ثم أمر بصرفها في سائر النواحي سنة ست وسبعين وكتب عليها «الله أحد الله الصمد»,"In the year 76 [695/96], (‘Abd-al-Malik) ordered that dirhams be coined in all the other regions. The legend upon them was: “God is one, God is the samad.”"
ثم ولي ابن هبيرة العراق أيام يزيد بن عبد الملك فجود السكة ثم بالغ خالد القسري في تجويدها ثم يوسف بن عمر بعده,"Later on, in the days of Yazid b. ‘Abd-al-Malik, Ibn Hubayrah became governor of the ‘Iraq and improved the mint. Then Khalid al-Qasrt, and after him Yusuf b. ‘Umar, made great efforts to improve it."
وقيل أول من ضرب الدنانير والدراهم مصعب بن الزبير بالعراق سنة سبعين بأمر أخيه عبد الله لما ولي الحجاز وكتب عليها في أحد الوجهين «بركة الله» وفي الآخر «اسم الله»,"It is also said that the first to coin dinars and dirhams (in Islam) was Mus’ab b. az-Zubayr. He did it in the year 70 [689/90] in the ‘Iraq, upon the order of his brother ‘Abdallah, who was then in charge in the Hijaz. The legend on his coins was, on the one side, “blessing,” and on the other (there was) the name of God."
ثم غيرها الحجاج بعد ذلك بسنة وكتب عليها اسم الحجاج وقدر وزنها على ما كانت استقرت أيام عمر,"A year later, al-Hajjaj changed the legend, and the new legend was: “In the name of Godal-Hajjaj.” The weight of the dirhams was fixed at what it had been in the days of ‘Umar."
وذلك أن الدرهم كان وزنه أول الإسلام ستة دوانق والمثقال وزنه درهم وثلاثة أسباع درهم فتكون عشرة دراهم بسبعة مثاقيل,"At the beginning of Islam, the weight of the dirham had been six danaqs. The weight of the mithqal was one dirham and three-sevenths of a dirham, so that ten dirhams made seven mithqals."
وكان السبب في ذلك أن أوزان الدرهم أيام الفرس كانت مختلفة وكان منها على وزن المثقال عشرون قيراطا ومنها اثنا عشر ومنها عشرة,"The reason for this was that the weight of the dirham had varied in the days of the Persians. A dirham corresponding to the weight of a mithqal might weigh twenty, or twelve, or ten carats."
فلما احتيج إلى تقديره في الزكاة أخذ الوسط وذلك اثنا عشر قيراطا فكان المثقال درهما وثلاثة أسباع درهم,"When it was necessary to determine the weight (of the dirham) for the charity tax, the average of the three values was taken, that is fourteen carats. Thus, the mithqal (of twenty carats) was one dirham and three-sevenths of a dirham (of fourteen carats)."
وقيل كان منها البغلي بثمانية دوانق والطبري أربعة دوانق والمغربي ثمانية دوانق واليمني ستة دوانق فأمر عمر أن ينظر الأغلب في التعامل,"It is said that the baghli (dirham) had eight danaqs, the tabari (dirham) four, the maghribi (dirham) three, and the yaman (dirham) one. ‘Umar gave orders to investigate and determine which dirham was most commonly used in transactions."
فكان البغلي والطبري اثني عشر دانقا وكان الدرهم ستة دوانق وإن زدت ثلاثة أسباعه كان مثقالا وإذا أنقصت ثلاثة أعشار المثقال كان درهما,"It turned out to be the baghli” and the tabari (dirhams). Together they weighed twelve danaqs. Thus, the (weight of the) dirham was (fixed at) six danaqs. When three-sevenths of that weight was added, it was a mithqal, and when threetenths of a mithqal were taken away, it was a dirham."
فلما رأى عبد الملك اتخاذ السكة لصيانة النقدين الجاريين في معاملة المسلمين من الغش عين مقدارها على هذا الذي استقر لعهد عمر رضي الله عنه.,"When ‘Abd-al-Malik saw fit to use the mint to protect against fraud the two coins (the gold dinar and the silver dirham) that were current in Muslim transactions, he determined their values as what they had been in the time of ‘Umar."
واتخذ فيه كلمات لا صورا، لأن العرب كان الكلام والبلاغة أقرب مناحيهم وأظهرها مع أن الشرع ينهى عن الصور,"He used the iron stamp, but engraved words on it, rather than pictures, because eloquent words were obviously more congenial to the Arabs. Moreover, the religious law forbids pictures."
فلما فعل ذلك استمر بين الناس في أيام الملة كلها وكان الدينار والدرهم على شكلين مدورين والكتابة عليهما في دوائر متوازية يكتب فيها من أحد الوجهين أسماء الله تهليلا وتحميدا وصلاة على النبي وآله. وفي الوجه الثاني التاريخ واسم الخليفة,"After (‘Abd-al-Malik), the coinage remained the same for the whole Muslim period. Both the dinar and the dirham were round. The inscription on them was written in concentric circles. On one side, the legend included the names of God with the formulas: “There is no God but God” and “Praised be God,” and the prayer for the Prophet and his family; on the other side, it included the date and the name of the caliph."
وهكذا أيام العباسيين والعبيديين والأمويين وأما صنهاجة فلم يتخذوا سكة إلا آخر الأمر اتخذها منصور صاحب بجاية ذكر ذلك ابن حماد في تاريخه,"(Coins were of) this type during the period of the ‘Abbasids, the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimids), and the (Spanish) Umayyads. The Sinhajah had no mint except at the end of their rule when al-Mansur, the master of Bougie, used one. This has been mentioned by Ibn Hammad in his History."
ولما جاءت دولة الموحدين كان مما سن لهم المهدي اتخاذ سكة الدرهم مربع الشكل وأن يرسم في دائرة الدينار شكل مربع في وسطه ويملأ من أحد الجانبين تهليلا وتحميدا ومن الجانب الآخر كتبا في السطور باسمه واسم الخلفاء من بعده,"For the Almohads, al-Mahdi set the precedent of coining square dirhams and engraving a square on the round dinar. He covered one side of the coins with the formulas: “There is no God but God” and “Praised be God,” and the other with a legend of several lines containing his name, (which was replaced by) his successors with their names."
ففعل ذلك الموحدون وكانت سكتهم على هذا الشكل لهذا العهد,This became the practice of the Almohads. Their coinage has kept that shape down to this time.
ولقد كان المهدي فيما ينقل ينعت قبل ظهوره بصاحب الدرهم المربع نعته بذلك المتكلمون بالحدثان من قبله المخبرون في ملاحمهم عن دولته,"It has been reported that before al-Mahdi came forth, he was described as “master of the square dirham” by the practitioners of magic who predicted the coming of his dynasty."
وأما أهل المشرق لهذا العهد فسكتهم غير مقدرة وإنما يتعاملون بالدنانير والدراهم وزنا بالصنجات المقدرة بعدة منها ولا يطبعون عليها بالسكة نقوش الكلمات بالتهليل والصلاة واسم السلطان كما يفعله أهل المغرب,"The present day inhabitants of the East have no coinage of fixed value. For their transactions, they use dinars and dirhams by weight, and their value is determined through standard weights corresponding to so-and-so many (dirhams, or dinars). The mint engraves on them the formula “There is no God but God” and the prayer for the Prophet, as well as the ruler’s name, as is also the practice of the Maghribis."
«ذلك تقدير العزيز العليم 6: 96».,"“This is the decision of the Mighty, the Knowing One.”"
ولنختم الكلام في السكة بذكر حقيقة الدرهم والدينار الشرعيين وبيان حقيقة مقدارهما.,Note: We shall conclude our discussion of the mint by explaining the meaning of “the legal dirham” and “the legal dinar” and their value.
وذلك أن الدينار والدرهم مختلفا السكة في المقدار والموازين بالآفاق والأمصار وسائر الأعمال والشرع قد تعرض لذكرهما وعلق كثيرا من الأحكام بهما في الزكاة والأنكحة والحدود وغيرها,"The dirham and the dinar differ in value and weight in different regions, cities, and provinces. The religious law has had occasion to refer to these (coins) and has mentioned them in connection with many laws concerning the charity tax, marriage (fees), fixed legal fines, and other things."
فلا بد لهما عنده من حقيقة ومقدار معين في تقدير تجري عليهما أحكامه دون غير الشرعي منهما,"Therefore, the religious law must have its own (dirham and dinar) with a specific value given to them by (the religious law itself) and agreeing with the intention of (the religious law). These coins are then the ones to which the laws refer. They are different from the non-legal (coins)."
فاعلم أن الإجماع منعقد منذ صدر الإسلام وعهد الصحابة والتابعين أن الدرهم الشرعي هو الذي تزن العشرة منه سبعة مثاقيل من الذهب والأوقية منه أربعين درهما وهو على هذا سبعة أعشار الدينار,"It should be known that since the beginning of Islam and the time of the men around Muhammad and the men of the second generation, the legal dirham is by general consensus the one, ten of which are equal to seven mithqal of gold, and an ounce of gold is forty dirhams. Thus, the legal dirham is seven-tenths of a dinar."
ووزن المثقال من الذهب اثنتان وسبعون حبة من الشعير فالدرهم الذي هو سبعة أعشاره خمسون حبة وخمسا حبة,"A gold mithqal weighs seventy-two average-sized grains of wheat. Consequently, the dirham, which is seven-tenths of a mithqal, has a weight of fifty and two-fifths grains."
وهذه المقادير كلها ثابتة بالإجماع,All these values are accepted by general consensus.
فإن الدرهم الجاهلي كان بينهم على أنواع أجودها الطبري وهو أربعة دوانق والبغلي وهو ثمانية دوانق فجعلوا الشرعي بينهما وهو ستة دوانق فكانوا يوجبون الزكاة في مائة درهم بغلية ومائة طبرية خمسة دراهم وسطا,"The pre-Islamic dirham was of several kinds. The best was the tabari, a dirham of eight danaqs, and the baghli, a dirham of four danags. For the legal dirham, they took the mean, that is, six danaqs. The charity tax on one hundred baghli dirhams or one hundred tabari dirhams was fixed at five such “mean” dirhams."
وقد اختلف الناس هل كان ذلك من وضع عبد الملك أو إجماع الناس بعد عليه كما ذكرناه. ذكر ذلك الخطام في كتاب معالم السنن والماوردي في الأحكام السلطانية,"People do not agree, however, that (the value of legal dirhams) was established (only) by ‘Abd-al-Malik and by general consensus later on, as we have reported and as was mentioned by al-Khattabi in the Kitab Ma’alim as-sunan and by al-Mawardi in the Kitab al-Ahkam as-sultaniyah."
وأنكره المحققون من المتأخرين لما يلزم عليه أن يكون الدينار والدرهم الشرعيان مجهولين في عهد الصحابة ومن بعدهم مع تعلق الحقوق الشرعية بهما في الزكاة والأنكحة والحدود وغيرها كما ذكرناه,"Thorough scholars of recent times do not think so, because it would imply that legal dirhams and dinars were not known in the time of the man around Muhammad and subsequently, even though legal tariffs such as the charity tax, marriage (fees), fixed legal fines, and other such things are based on them, as we have (just) mentioned."
والحق أنهما كانا معلومي المقدار في ذلك العصر لجريان الأحكام يومئذ بما يتعلق بهما من الحقوق وكان مقدارهما غير مستخص في الخارج,"The truth is that the value of (legal dirhams and dinars) was known at the (earliest) times (of Islam) for the implementation of laws involving tariffs based on (legal dirhams and dinars), but their value was not individually specified outside."
وإنما كان متعارفا بينهم بالحكم الشرعي على المقدار في مقدارهما وزنتهما,"It was an internal custom of the Muslims, which had become accepted under the influence of the religious law, and which used a fixed value and weight for (dirhams and dinars)."
حتى استفحل الإسلام وعظمت الدولة ودعت الحال إلى تشخيصهما في المقدار والوزن كما هو عند الشرع ليستريحوا من كلفة التقدير,"The Muslim dynasty thereafter became great and flourishing. Conditions called for individual specification of the value and the weight of dirhams and dinars, in accordance with the religious law, in order to obviate the (constant) obligation to determine their value."
وقارن ذلك أيام عبد الملك فشخص مقدارهما وعينهما في الخارج كما هو في الذهن,"This (situation) developed in the days of ‘Abd-al-Malik. He specified the individual value of (the dinar and the dirham) outside (in real money), as it had been in theory."
ونقش عليهما السكة باسمه وتأريخه أثر الشهادتين الإيمانيتين,"On the coins, he engraved his name and date after the two confessions of faith: (“I confess there is no God but God” and “I confess that Muhammad is the Messenger of God”)."
وطرح النقود الجاهلية رأسا حتى خلصت ونقش عليها سكة وتلاشى وجودها,"‘Abd-al-Malik withdrew the pre-Islamic coins altogether. They were eventually purified (melted down) and (re-)engraved with a legend, so that (in their original form) they became non-existent."
فهذا هو الحق الذي لا محيد عنه,This is the inescapable truth.
ومن بعد ذلك وقع اختيار أهل السكة في الدول على مخالفة المقدار الشرعي في الدينار والدرهم واختلفت في كل الأقطار والآفاق,"Later on, officials of the mint in the various dynasties deliberately disregarded the legal value of dinar and dirham. Their value became different in the different regions."
ورجع الناس إلى تصور مقاديرهما الشرعية ذهنا كما كان في الصدر الأول,"The people reverted to a theoretical knowledge of (the legal dinar and dirham), as had been the case at the beginning of Islam."
وصار أهل كل أفق يستخرجون الحقوق الشرعية من سكتهم بمعرفة النسبة التي بينها وبين مقاديرها الشرعية,"The inhabitants of every region calculated the legal tariffs in their own coinage, according to the relationship that they knew existed between the (actual) value of (dirhams and dinars in their coinage) and the legal value."
وأما وزن الدينار باثنتين وسبعين حبة من الشعير الوسط فهو الذي نقله المحققون وعليه الإجماع,The weight (in gold) of the dinar is seventy-two averagesized grains of wheat. This is reported by thorough scholars and is the general consensus from which only Ibn Hazm deviates.
إلا ابن حزم خالف ذلك وزعم أن وزنه أربع وثمانون حبة. نقل ذلك عنه القاضي عبد الحق ورده المحققون وعدوه وهما وغلطا وهو الصحيح,"Ibn Hazm thought that the weight of the dinar is eighty-four grains. This was reported as Ibn Hazm’s opinion by Judge ‘Abd-alHaqq. Thorough scholars have refuted (Ibn Hazm’s opinion). They considered it an unfounded assumption or an error, and rightly so."
والله يحق الحق بكلماته,“God causes the truth to come true in His words.”
وكذلك تعلم أن الأوقية الشرعية ليست هي المتعارفة بين الناس لأن المتعارفة مختلفة باختلاف الأقطار والشرعية متحدة ذهنا لا اختلاف فيها,"It is also known that the legal ounce is not the one which is commonly used among the people, because the commonly used (ounce) differs according to the various regions, while the legal ounce is a theoretical unit which admits of no differences."
والله خلق كل شيء فقدره تقديرا.,"God “created everything. Then, He determined it.”"
الخاتم,The seal
وأما الخاتم فهو من الخطط السلطانية والوظائف الملوكية والختم على الرسائل والصكوك معروف للملوك قبل الإسلام وبعده,(Use of) the seal is one of the government functions and a royal office. The sealing of letters and diplomas was known to rulers before and after Islam.
وقد ثبت في الصحيحين أن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم أراد أن يكتب إلى قيصر فقيل له إن العجم لا يقبلون كتابا إلا أن يكون مختوما فاتخذ خاتما من فضة ونقش فيه «محمد رسول الله»,"It has been established in the two Sahihs that when the Prophet wanted to write to the Byzantine Emperor, he was told that the non-Arabs accepted only sealed letters. Thus, he took a silver seal (ring) and had the following legend engraved upon it: “Muhammad, the Messenger of God.”"
قال البخاري جعل الثلاث الكلمات ثلاثة أسطر وختم به وقال لا ينقش أحد مثله قال وتختم به أبو بكر وعمر وعثمان,"Al-Bukhari said that he had the three words written in three lines and that he used that ring for sealing. (Muhammad) said: “No one else should use a similar legend.” He continued: “Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman used that ring for sealing."
ثم سقط من يد عثمان في بئر أريس وكانت قليلة الماء فلم يدرك قعرها بعد واغتم عثمان وتطير منه وصنع آخر على مثله,"Then, it fell from ‘Uthman’s hand into the well of Arts. There was much water in it, and its bottom could never be reached later on. ‘Uthman was worried about the happening and considered it a (bad) omen. He had another ring made like it.”"
وفي كيفية نقش الخاتم والختم به وجوه وذلك أن الخاتم يطلق على الآلة التي تجعل في الإصبع ومنه تختم إذا لبسه ويطلق على النهاية والتمام ومنه ختمت الأمر إذا بلغت آخره وختمت القرآن كذلك ومنه خاتم النبيين وخاتم الأمر,"The way of engraving the seal, as well as its use for sealing, have different aspects. This is because the word “seal” is used for the instrument that is placed on the finger. From it, (the verbal form) takhattama “He puts the seal on” is derived. (Or, the word) is used to designate “end” or “completion.” In this meaning, one says khatamtu al-amra “I reached the end of the matter,” or khatamtu al-Qur’ana “I finished reading the Qur’an”; also khatam an-nabiyin “the last of the prophets,” and khatimat al-amr “the end of the matter.”"
ويطلق على السداد الذي يسد به الأواني والدنان ويقال فيه ختام ومنه قوله تعالى «ختامه مسك 83: 26»,"The word is also used for the stopper with which bottles or barrels are closed. In this sense, one uses (the form) khitam. Thus it is said in the Qur’an: wa-khitamuhu miskun “its stopper is musk.”"
وقد غلط من فسر ذلك بالنهاية والتمام قال لأن آخر ما يجدونه في شرابهم ريح المسك وليس المعنى عليه وإنما هو من الختام هو السداد,"Those who interpret the word here to mean “end” or “completion” are wrong. (Their interpretation is based on the assumption) that the last impression they have of their drink is the smell of musk. However, this is not the intended meaning. It is derived here from khitam in the meaning of “stopper.”"
لأن الخمر يجعل لها في الدن سداد الطين أو القار يحفظها ويطيب عرفها وذوقها,A stopper of clay or pitch is put upon the wine in the barrel. This preserves (the wine) and gives it a good smell and taste.
فبولغ في وصف خمر الجنة بأن سدادها من المسك وهو أطيب عرفا وذوقا من القار والطين المعهودين في الدنيا,"In an exaggerated manner, the wine of paradise was thus described (in the Qur’an) as being closed with a stopper of musk, which is better smelling and tasting than clay or pitch, which are customarily used (for the purpose) in this world."
فإذا صح إطلاق الخاتم على هذه كلها صح إطلاقه على أثرها الناشئ عنها,"If (the word) “seal” is correctly used in all these meanings, it is (also) correctly used for designating the result that comes from (the application of sealing in all these meanings)."
وذلك أن الخاتم إذا نقشت به كلمات أو أشكال ثم غمس في مداف من الطين أو مداد ووضع على صفح القرطاس بقي أكثر الكلمات في ذلك الصفح وكذلك إذا طبع به على جسم لين كالشمع فإنه يبقى نقش ذلك المكتوب مرتسما فيه,"This is as follows: When words or shapes are engraved upon (a seal) and it is then put into a paste of clay or an ink solution and placed upon a paper surface, those words (or shapes) will be reproduced on that surface. The same is the case if (the seal) is impressed on some soft material such as wax. The engraved legend remains impressed on it."
وإذا كانت كلمات وارتسمت فقد يقرأ من الجهة اليسرى إذا كان النقش على الاستقامة من اليمنى وقد يقرأ من الجهة اليمنى إذا كان النقش من الجهة اليسرى لأن الختم يقلب جهة الخط في الصفح عما كان في النقش من يمين أو يسار,"If the legend consists of words, they are to be read from the left, if the engraving started correctly from the right, and from the right if the engraving started from the left, because the process of sealing reverses the direction of the writing on the (paper) surface and appears on it as the opposite of what it had been on the engraving, with right and left transposed."
فيحتمل أن يكون الختم بهذا الخاتم بغمسه في المداد أو الطين ووضعه في الصفح فتنتقش الكلمات فيه,It is (also) possible to use the seal by putting it in ink and clay and placing it upon the (paper) surface. The words then appear engraved on it.
ويكون هذا من معنى النهاية والتمام بمعنى صحة ذلك المكتوب ونفوذه كأن الكتاب إنما يتم العمل به بهذه العلامات وهو من دونها ملغى ليس بتمام,"This (process of sealing) expresses the idea of “end” or “completion,” in the sense that a writing thus (sealed) is correct and valid. A particular letter somehow becomes effective through the use of such a signature (‘alamah) Without it, it would be invalid and imperfect."
وقد يكون هذا الختم بالخط آخر الكتاب أو أوله بكلمات منتظمة من تحميد أو تسبيح أو باسم السلطان أو الأمير أو صاحب الكتاب من كان أو شيء من نعوته,"The sealing may (also) be (effected) through something written by hand at the end or the beginning of a letter, some well-chosen words of praise and glory (the formulas “Praised be God” and “Glory to God”), or the name of the ruler or amir, or of the writer of the letter, whoever he may have been, or through terms descriptive of the writer."
يكون ذلك الخط علامة على صحة الكتاب ونفوذه ويسمى ذلك في المتعارف علامة، ويسمى ختما تشبيها له بأثر الخاتم الآصفي في النقش,"Such (formulas) written by hand indicate the correctness and validity of the letter. They are commonly known under the name of “signature” (‘alamah), but are also called “seal” because they are compared to the impression of the seal ring."
ومن هذا خاتم القاضي الذي يبعث به للخصوم أي علامته وخطه الذي ينفذ بهما أحكامه ومنه خاتم السلطان أو الخليفة أي علامته.,"The “seal” the judge sends to litigants is connected with this usage. That “seal” is his signature and hand, validating his decisions. The “seal” of the ruler or caliph, that is, his signature, is also connected with the usage referred to."
قال الرشيد ليحيى بن خالد لما أراد أن يستوزر جعفرا ويستبدل به من الفضل أخيه فقال لأبيهما يحيى: «يا أبت إني أردت أن أحول الخاتم من يميني إلى شمالي»,"When arRashid wanted to make Jafar wazir in the place of his brother al-Fadl, he said to their father Yahya b. Khilid: “Father, I want to change my ‘seal’ from my right hand to my left hand.”"
فكنى له بالخاتم عن الوزارة لما كانت العلامة على الرسائل والصكوك من وظائف الوزارة لعهدهم,"He thus used the word “seal” for the wazirate, since it was one of the duties of the wazir in (‘Abbasid) times to put his signature on letters and diplomas."
ويشهد لصحة هذا الإطلاق ما نقله الطبري أن معاوية أرسل إلى الحسن عند مراودته إياه في الصلح صحيفة بيضاء ختم على أسفلها وكتب إليه أن اشترط في هذه الصحيفة التي ختمت أسفلها ما شئت فهو لك,"The correctness of the use (of “seal”) in this meaning is confirmed by atTabari’s report on Mu’awiyah’s negotiations with al-Hasan. When Mu’awiyah wanted to persuade al-Hasan to enter into an armistice, he sent him a blank sheet of paper, which he “sealed” at the bottom, and he wrote to him: “(Write down) on this sheet of paper, which I have sealed at the bottom, whatever conditions you want to make. They are granted.”"
ومعنى الختم هنا علامة في آخر الصحيفة بخطه أو غيره ويحتمل أن يختم به في جسم لين فتنتقش فيه حروفه ويجعل على موضع الحزم من الكتاب إذا حزم وعلى المودوعات,"“Sealing” here means a handwritten or other signature at the end of a sheet of paper. It is also possible to impress a seal upon some soft substance, so that the letters of the legend appear on that substance, and to place the substance (with the seal impression) on the knots of the strings with) which letters are tied, and upon places for deposits (such as storehouses, strong boxes, etc.)."
وهو من السداد كما مر وهو في الوجهين آثار الخاتم فيطلق عليه خاتم,"This (use of the root khtm) is derived from the meaning of “stopper” mentioned before. In both cases, (we are dealing with) the result of (the application of) the seal, and, therefore, (the word) “seal” can be used in this sense."
وأول من أطلق الختم على الكتاب أي العلامة معاوية,"The first to introduce the sealing of letters, that is, the use of the signature, was Mu’awiyah."
لأنه أمر لعمر بن الزبير عند زياد بالكوفة بمائة ألف ففتح الكتاب وصير المائة مائتين,"He ordered ‘Amr b. az-Zubayr to be given 100,000 (dirhams) by Ziyad (b. Abthi) in al-Kufah. The letter (containing the order) was opened, and the figure was changed from 100,000 to 200,000."
ورفع زياد حسابه فأنكرها معاوية وطلب بها عمر وحبسه حتى قضاها عنه أخوه عبد الله واتخذ معاوية عند ذلك ديوان الخاتم.,"When Ziyad presented his account (and the excess payment was noticed), Mu’awiyah disavowed it. He held ‘Amr responsible for the money and kept him in prison until (‘Amr’s) brother ‘Abdallah paid (the sum) for him. On that occasion, Mu’awiyah introduced the ministry (diwan) of the seal."
ذكره الطبري وقال آخرون وحزم الكتب ولم تكن تحزم أي جعل لها السداد,"This was mentioned by at-Tabari who finished his statement by saying that “he tied the letters with strings. Formerly, they had not been tied:” It means, he closed them."
وديوان الختم عبارة عن الكتاب القائمين على إنفاذ كتب السلطان والختم عليها إما بالعلامة أو بالحزم,"The ministry (diwan) of the seal is composed of the secretaries who see to it that the letters ofthe ruler are expedited and sealed, either by means of a signature, or by tying them."
وقد يطلق الديوان على مكان جلوس هؤلاء الكتاب كما ذكرناه في ديوان الأعمال,"The word diwan is used for the place where these secretaries had their office, as we mentioned in connection with the ministry (diwan) of taxation."
والحزم للكتب يكون إما بدس الورق كما في عرف كتاب المغرب وإما بإلصاق رأس الصحيفة على ما تنطوي عليه من الكتاب كما في عرف أهل المشرق,"Letters are tied either by piercing the paper and tacking (the letter) together (with a string), as is the custom of the secretaries of the Maghrib, or by gluing the top of the sheet to the part of the letter over which the top is folded, as is the custom of the people in the East."
وقد يجعل على مكان الدس أو الإلصاق علامة يؤمن معها من فتحه والاطلاع على ما فيه,"Over the place where the letter is pierced and tacked, or where it is glued, a signature is placed. It guarantees that the letter has not been opened and that its contents have not been read."
فأهل المغرب يجعلون على مكان الدس قطعة من الشمع ويختمون عليها بخاتم نقشت فيه علامة لذلك فيرتسم النقش في الشمع,"The people of the Maghrib place a piece of wax where the letter is pierced and tacked, and seal it with a seal upon which some signature is engraved for use in sealing, and the engraving is impressed upon the wax."
وكان في المشرق في الدول القديمة يختم على مكان اللصق بخاتم منقوش أيضا قد غمس في مداف من الطين معد لذلك صبغه أحمر فيرتسم ذلك النقش عليه,"In the old dynasties of the East, the place where the letter was glued was also sealed with an engraved seal that was put into a red paste of clay prepared for that (purpose). The engraving of the seal was impressed upon the clay."
وكان هذا الطين في الدولة العباسية يعرف بطين الختم وكان يجلب من سيراف فيظهر أنه مخصوص بها,"Under the ‘Abbasid dynasty, this clay was called “sealing clay.” It was imported from Siraf. It seems that this clay was restricted to the purpose of sealing."
فهذا الخاتم الذي هو العلامة المكتوبة أو النقش للسداد والحزم للكتب خاص بديوان الرسائل,"(The use of) the seal, which is the (hand)written signature or engraving used for closing and tying letters, was peculiar to the ministry of correspondence (diwan ar-rasa’il)."
وكان ذلك للوزير في الدولة العباسية ثم اختلف العرف وصار لمن إليه الترسيل وديوان الكتاب في الدولة,"In the ‘Abbasid dynasty, it belonged to the wazir. Later on, custom differed. It went to those who were in charge of (official) correspondence and the office of the secretaries in the (various) dynasties."
ثم صاروا في دول المغرب يعدون من علامات الملك وشاراته الخاتم للإصبع فيستجيدون صوغه من الذهب ويرصعونه بالفصوص من الياقوت والفيروزج والزمرد,"In the dynasties of the Maghrib, people came to consider the seal ring as one of the royal marks and emblems. They made artistic seal rings of gold inlaid with gems of hyacinth (ruby), turquoise, and emerald."
ويلبسه السلطان شارة في عرفهم كما كانت البردة والقضيب في الدولة العباسية والمظلة في الدولة العبيدية,"The ruler according to their custom wore the seal ring as an insignia, exactly as the Prophet’s cloak and stick were used in the ‘Abbasid dynasty and an umbrella in the ‘Ubaydid (-Fatimid) dynasty."
والله مصرف الأمور بحكمه.,God governs all affairs in His wisdom.
الطراز:,The tiraz
من أبهة الملك والسلطان ومذاهب الدول أن ترسم أسماؤهم أو علامات تختص بهم في طراز أثوابهم المعدة للباسهم من الحرير أو الديباج أو الإبريسم,"It is part of royal and governmental pomp and dynastic custom to have the names of rulers or their peculiar marks embroidered on the silk, brocade, or pure silk garments that are prepared for their wearing."
تعتبر كتابة خطها في نسج الثوب إلحاما وإسداء بخيط الذهب أو ما يخالف لون الثوب من الخيوط الملونة من غير الذهب على ما يحكمه الصناع في تقدير ذلك ووضعه في صناعة نسجهم,The writing is brought out by weaving a gold thread or some other colored thread of a color different from that of the fabric itself into it. (Its execution) depends upon the skill of the weavers in designing and weaving it.
فتصير الثياب الملوكية معلمة بذلك الطراز قصد التنويه بلابسها من السلطان فمن دونه أو التنويه بمن يختصه السلطان بملبوسه إذا قصد تشريفه بذلك أو ولايته لوظيفة من وظائف دولته,"Royal garments are embroidered with such a tiraz, in order to increase the prestige of the ruler or the person of lower rank who wears such a garment, or in order to increase the prestige of those whom the ruler distinguishes by bestowing upon them his own garment when he wants to honor them or appoint them to one of the offices of the dynasty."
وكان ملوك العجم من قبل الإسلام يجعلون ذلك الطراز بصور الملوك وأشكالهم أو أشكال وصور معينة لذلك ثم اعتاض ملوك الإسلام عن ذلك بكتب أسمائهم مع كلمات أخرى تجري مجرى الفأل أو السجلات,"The pre-Islamic non-Arab rulers used to make a tiraz of pictures and figures of kings, or (other) figures and pictures specifically (designed) for it. The Muslim rulers later on changed that and had their own names embroidered together with other words of good omen or prayer."
وكان ذلك في الدولتين من أبهة الأمور وأفخم الأحوال وكانت الدور المعدة لنسج أثوابهم في قصورهم تسمى دور الطراز لذلك,"In the Umayyad and ‘Abbasid dynasties, the
tiraz was one of the most splendid things and honors. The houses within the palaces in which such garments were woven were called “tiraz houses.”"
وكان القائم على النظر فيها يسمى صاحب الطراز، ينظر في أمور الصباغ والآلة والحاكة فيها وإجراء أرزاقهم وتسهيل آلاتهم ومشارفة أعمالهم وكانوا يقلدون ذلك لخواص دولتهم وثقات مواليهم,"The person who supervised them was called “tiraz master.” He was in charge of the craftsmen, the implements, and the weavers in (the tiraz houses), the payment of their wages, the care of their implements, and the control of their work. (The office of tiraz master) was entrusted by the `Abbasids to their intimates and their most trusted clients."
وكذلك كان الحال في دولة بني أمية بالأندلس والطوائف من بعدهم وفي دولة العبيديين بمصر ومن كان على عهدهم من ملوك العجم بالمشرق,"The same was the case with the Umayyads in Spain and their successors, the reyes de
taifas, as well as with the ‘Ubaydid (-Fatimids) in Egypt and the eastern non-Arab rulers contemporary with them."
ثم لما ضاق نطاق الدول عن الترف والتفنن فيه لضيق نطاقها في الاستيلاء وتعددت الدول تعطلت هذه الوظيفة والولاية عليها من أكثر الدول بالجملة,"When luxury and cultural diversity receded with the receding power of the (great) dynasties, and when the number of (small) dynasties grew, the office and its administration completely ceased to exist in most dynasties."
ولما جاءت دولة الموحدين بالمغرب بعد بني أمية أول المائة السادسة لم يأخذوا بذلك أول دولتهم لما كانوا عليه من منازع الديانة والسذاجة التي لقنوها عن إمامهم محمد بن تومرت المهدي,"When, at the beginning of the sixth [twelfth] century, the Almohads succeeded the Umayyads, they did not have the tiraz at the beginning of their dynasty, because they had been taught by their imam Muhammad b. Tumart al-Mahdi the ways of religion and simplicity."
وكانوا يتورعون عن لباس الحرير والذهب فسقطت هذه الوظيفة من دولتهم واستدرك منها أعقابهم آخر الدولة طرفا لم يكن بتلك النباهة,"They were too austere to wear garments of silk and gold. The office (of the tiraz), therefore, had no place in their dynasty. Their descendants in the later (years) of the dynasty, however, re-established it in part, but it was not nearly as splendid (as before)."
وأما لهذا العهد، فأدركنا بالمغرب في الدولة المرينية لعنفوانها وشموخها رسما جليلا لقنوه من دولة ابن الأحمر معاصرهم بالأندلس واتبع هو في ذلك ملوك الطوائف فأتى منه بلمحة شاهدة بالأثر.,"At the present time, we have personally seen quite a lot of (tiraz manufacture) in the flourishing and proud Merinid dynasty in the Maghrib. The Merinids had learned it from the contempory dynasty of the Ibn al-Ahmar (Nasrids) in Spain. They (in turn) followed the tiraz customs of the reyes de taifas and achieved in this respect something that speaks for itself."
وأما دولة الترك بمصر والشام لهذا العهد ففيها من الطراز تحرير آخر على مقدار ملكهم وعمران بلادهم,"In the contemporary Turkish dynasty of Egypt and Syria, the tiraz is very much cultivated in accordance with the importance of the realm (of that dynasty) and the civilization of its country."
إلا أن ذلك لا يصنع في دورهم وقصورهم وليست من وظائف دولتهم وإنما ينسج ما تطلبه الدولة من ذلك عند صناعه من الحرير ومن الذهب الخالص ويسمونه المزركش لفظة أعجمية,"However, the tiraz is not produced within the houses and palaces of the dynasty, and it is not an office of the dynasty. (The tiraz) which is required by the dynasty is woven by craftsmen familiar with the craft, from silk and pure gold. They call it zarkash, a Persian word."
ويرسم اسم السلطان أو الأمير عليه ويعده الصناع لهم فيما يعدونه للدولة من طرف الصناعة اللائقة بها,"The name of the ruler or amir is embroidered on it. It is made by craftsmen for the dynasty, together with other fine products, such as are fitting for (the dynasty) and are produced for it."
«والله مقدر الليل والنهار والله خير الوارثين».,God determines night and day. He is the best heir.
الفساطيط والسياج,Large tents and tent walls
اعلم أن من شارات الملك وترفه اتخاذ الأخبية والفساطيط والفازات من ثياب الكتان والصوف والقطن فيباهي بها في الأسفار وتنوع منها الألوان ما بين كبير وصغير على نسبة الدولة في الثروة واليسار,"It should be known that one of the emblems of royal authority and luxury is small and large tents and canopies of linen, wool, and cotton, with linen and cotton ropes. They are used for display on journeys. They are of different kinds, large or small, according to the wealth and affluence of the dynasty."
وإنما يكون الأمر في أول الدولة في بيوتهم التي جرت عادتهم باتخاذها قبل الملك,"At the beginning of the dynasty, the same type of housing used by the people of the dynasty before they have achieved royal authority, continues to be used."
وكان العرب لعهد الخلفاء الأولين من بني أمية إنما يسكنون بيوتهم التي كانت لهم خياما من الوبر والصوف ولم تزل العرب لذلك العهد بادين إلا الأقل منهم,"At the time of the first Umayyad caliphs, the Arabs continued to use the dwellings they had, tents of leather and wool. Only a very few of the Arabs had at that date ceased to live in the Bedouin manner."
فكانت أسفارهم لغزواتهم وحروبهم بظعونهم وسائر حللهم وأحيائهم من الأهل والولد كما هو شأن العرب لهذا العهد,"When they went on raids or went to war, they traveled with all their camels, their nomad households (hilal), and their dependent women and children, as is still the case with the Arabs at this time."
وكانت عساكرهم لذلك كثيرة الحلل بعيدة ما بين المنازل متفرقة الأحياء يغيب كل واحد منها عن نظر صاحبه من الأخرى كشأن العرب,"Their armies, therefore, consisted of many nomad households, and the distance between the encampments was great. The groups were widely separated, and each group was too far away to see the other, as is still the case with the Arabs."
ولذلك ما كان عبد الملك يحتاج إلى ساقة تحشد الناس على أثره وأن يقيموا إذا ظعن. ونقل أنه استعمل في ذلك الحجاج حين أشار به روح بن زنباع,"That was why ‘Abd-al-Malik used to need “drivers” (saqah “rear guard”) to keep the people together and make them follow him, in the event they did not move after he had started to move. It is reported that ‘Abd-al-Malik employed al-Hajjaj for that purpose upon Rawh b. Zinba’s recommendation."
وقصتهما في إحراق فساطيط روح وخيامه لأول ولايته حين وجدهم مقيمين في يوم رحيل عبد الملك قصة مشهورة.,"The story of how alHajjaj, as soon as he was appointed to that office, had the large and ordinary tents of Rawh burned when he discovered they were not on the move the day ‘Abd-alMalik had begun to move, is well known."
ومن هذه الولاية تعرف رتبة الحجاج بين العرب فإنه لا يتولى إرادتهم على الظعن إلا من يأمن بوادر السفهاء من أحيائهم بما له من العصبية الحائلة دون ذلك ولذلك اختصه عبد الملك بهذه الرتبة ثقة بغنائه فيها بعصبيته وصرامته,"The fact that al-Hajjaj was entrusted with the office shows what rank he held among the Arabs. The task of getting them to move was entrusted only to a person in no danger of being attacked by stupid Arab groups, one who possessed a group feeling sufficient to forestall such attacks. Therefore, ‘Abd-al-Malik singled out al-Hajjaj for the rank, because he was confident that al-Hajjaj possessed enough group feeling and energy for it."
فلما تفننت الدولة العربية في مذاهب الحضارة والبذخ ونزلوا المدن والأمصار وانتقلوا من سكنى الخيام إلى سكنى القصور ومن ظهر الخف إلى ظهر الحافر اتخذوا للسكنى في أسفارهم ثياب الكتان يستعملون منها بيوتا مختلفة الأشكال مقدرة الأمثال من القوراء والمستطيلة والمربعة ويحتفلون فيها بأبلغ مذاهب الاحتفال والزينة,"The Arab dynasty then adopted diverse ways of sedentary culture and ostentation. People settled in towns and cities. They were transformed from tent dwellers into palace dwellers. They exchanged the camel for the horse and the donkey as riding animals. Now, they used linen fabrics for their dwellings on their journeys, fashioning them into houses (tents) of various shapes and sizes, round, oblong, or square. In this connection, they displayed the greatest possible pomp and art."
ويدير الأمير والقائد للعساكر على فساطيطه وفازاته من بينهم سياجا من الكتان يسمى في المغرب بلسان البربر الذي هو لسان أهله أفراك بالكاف والقاف ويختص به السلطان بذلك القطر لا يكون لغيره.,"Amirs and army leaders surrounded their large tents and canopies with a tent wall of linen. In the language of the Berbers of the Maghrib, the tent wall is called afrag. It is restricted to the ruler there. No one else has it."
وأما في المشرق فيتخذه كل أمير وإن كان دون السلطان,"In the East, it is used by every amir, whether he is the ruler or not."
ثم جنحت الدعة بالنساء والولدان إلى المقام بقصورهم ومنازلهم فخف لذلك ظهرهم وتقاربت السياج بين منازل العسكر واجتمع الجيش والسلطان في معسكر واحد يحصره البصر في بسيطة زهوا أنيقا لاختلاف ألوانه,"(The habits of) luxurious living then caused women and children to stay behind in their palaces and mansions. People, therefore, traveled light. The spaces between the encampments of the army became less far apart. Army and ruler encamped in one and the same camp, which was completely within the field of vision (of a single observer). It was a pretty sight because of the various colors."
واستمر الحال على ذلك في مذاهب الدول في بذخها وترفها.,This remained the way dynasties displayed their luxury.
وكذا كانت دولة الموحدين وزناتة التي أظلتنا كان سفرهم أول أمرهم في بيوت سكناهم قبل الملك من الخيام والقياطين,"It has also been this way in the Almohad and Zanatah dynasties whose shadow extends over us. At the beginning of their power, when they traveled they used the ordinary sleeping tents they had used before they achieved royal authority."
حتى إذا أخذت الدولة في مذاهب الترف وسكنى القصور وعادوا إلى سكنى الأخبية والفساطيط بلغوا من ذلك فوق ما أرادوه وهو من الترف بمكان,"However, eventually, the dynasty adopted the ways of luxury, and people began to dwell in palaces. Then, they turned to using tents both large and small to a greater extent than they had intended (when they started using them). It is a great luxury."
إلا أن العساكر به تصير عرضة للبيات لاجتماعهم في مكان واحد تشملهم فيه الصيحة ولخفتهم من الأهل والولد الذين تكون الاستماتة دونهم فيحتاج في ذلك إلى تحفظ آخر,"However, armies become more vulnerable to night attacks when they are assembled in one place, where a sudden attack may involve them all. Furthermore, they do not have their families and children with them, and it is for their families and children they would be willing to die. Therefore, other protective measures are needed in this connection."
والله القوي العزيز.,God “is strong and mighty.”
المقصورة للصلاة والدعاء في الخطبة,"The prayer enclosure (magsurah) and the
prayer during the (Friday) sermon"
وهما من الأمور الخلافية ومن شارات الملك الإسلامي ولم يعرف في غير دول الإسلام.,These two things are caliphal prerogatives and royal emblems in Islam. They are not known in non-Muslim dynasties.
فأما البيت المقصورة من المسجد لصلاة السلطان فيتخذ سياجا على المحراب فيحوزه وما يليه,"The enclosure for the ruler to pray in is a latticed screen around the prayer niche (mihrab), and the space immediately adjacent."
فأول من اتخذها معاوية بن أبي سفيان حين طعنه الخارجي والقصة معروفة,"The first to use one was Mu’awiyah b. Abi Sufyan, after a Kharijite had stabbed him. The story is well known."
وقيل أول من اتخذها مروان بن الحكم حين طعنه اليماني ثم اتخذها الخلفاء من بعدهما وصارت سنة في تمييز السلطان عن الناس في الصلاة,"It is also said that the first to use one was Marwan b. alHakam, after a Yemenite had stabbed him. Afterwards, all the caliphs used it. It became a custom distinguishing the ruler from the rest of the people during prayer."
وهي إنما تحدث عند حصول الترف في الدول والاستفحال شأن أحوال الأبهة كلها,"It arises only when dynasties are luxurious and flourishing, as is the case with all pomp."
وما زال الشأن ذلك في الدول الإسلامية كلها وعند افتراق الدولة العباسية وتعدد الدول بالمشرق وكذا بالأندلس عند انقراض الدولة الأموية وتعدد ملوك الطوائف,It remained this way in all Muslim dynasties when the ‘Abbasid dynasty dissolved and the number of different dynasties in the East grew. It also remained so in Spain when the Umayyad dynasty was destroyed and the reyes de ta’ifas became numerous.
وأما المغرب فكان بنو الأغلب يتخذونها بالقيروان ثم الخلفاء العبيديون ثم ولاتهم على المغرب من صنهاجة بنو باديس بفاس وبنو حماد بالقلعة,"As for the Maghrib, the Aghlabids used it in al-Qayrawan. It was used later on by the’Ubaydid(-Fatimid) caliphs and by their Sinhajah governors of the Maghrib, by the Banu Badis in al-Qayrawan and by the Banu Hammad in alQal’ah."
ثم ملك الموحدين سائر المغرب والأندلس ومحوا ذلك الرسم على طريقة البداوة التي كانت شعارهم,"When the Almohads then took possession of all the Maghrib and Spain, they abolished the institution of (the prayer enclosure) in accordance with the desert attitude that characterized them."
ولما استفحلت الدولة وأخذت بحظها من الترف وجاء أبو يعقوب المنصور ثالث ملوكهم فاتخذ هذه المقصورة وبقيت من بعده سنة لملوك المغرب والأندلس وهكذا كان الشأن في سائر الدول,"But then the dynasty flourished and acquired its share of luxury. When the third Almohad ruler, Ya’qub al-Mansur, appeared, he used a prayer enclosure. Afterwards, its use remained a custom of the rulers of the Maghrib and of Spain. The same was the case with all other dynasties."
سنة الله في عباده.,This is how God proceeds with His servants.
وأما الدعاء على المنابر في الخطبة فكان الشأن أولا عند الخلفاء ولاية الصلاة بأنفسهم فكانوا يدعون لذلك بعد الصلاة على النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم والرضى عن أصحابه,"As to the prayer from the pulpit (minbar) during the (Friday) sermon, it should be said that the caliphs at first directed the prayers themselves. Therefore, they used to say a prayer (for themselves), after the obligatory prayer for the Prophet and the blessings for the men around him had been spoken."
وأول من اتخذ المنبر عمرو بن العاص لما بنى جامعه بمصر,The first to use a pulpit was ‘Amr b. al-‘As when he built his mosque in Egypt.
وأول من دعا للخليفة على المنبر ابن عباس دعا لعلي رضي الله عنهما في خطبته وهو بالبصرة عامل له عليها فقال اللهم انصر عليا على الحق,"The first to pray for the caliph during the sermon was Ibn ‘Abbas. As ‘Ali’s governor in al-Basrah, he prayed for ‘Ali during his sermon. He said: “O God, help ‘Ali, (who represents) the truth.”"
واتصل العمل على ذلك فيما بعد,This practice was continued afterwards.
فكتب إليه عمر بن الخطاب أما بعد فقد بلغني أنك اتخذت منبرا ترقى به على رقاب المسلمين أو ما يكفيك أن تكون قائما والمسلمون تحت عقبيك فعزمت عليك إلا ما كسرته,"‘Umar (b. al-Khattab) wrote to him: “And now: I have heard that you use a pulpit and thus raise yourself above the necks of the Muslims. Is it not sufficient for you that you are standing while the Muslims are at your heels? Therefore, I urge you to smash it to bits.”"
فلما حدثت الأبهة وحدث في الخلفاء المانع من الخطبة والصلاة استنابوا فيهما,"When pomp came into being and the caliphs came to be prevented from (personally delivering) the sermon and leading the prayer, they appointed delegates for both (tasks)."
فكان الخطيب يشيد بذكر الخليفة على المنبر تنويها باسمه ودعاء له بما جعل الله مصلحة العالم فيه ولأن تلك الساعة مظنة للإجابة ولما ثبت عن السلف في قولهم من كانت له دعوة صالحة فليضعها في السلطان,"The preacher mentioned the caliph from the pulpit. He mentioned his name in praise and prayed for him, because God had appointed him in the interest of the world, and because a prayer at such an hour was thought likely to be heard. Also, the ancients had said: “He who has a good prayer shall say it for the ruler.”"
وكان الخليفة يفرد بذلك فلما جاء الحجر والاستبداد صار المتغلبون على الدول كثيرا ما يشاركون الخليفة في ذلك ويشاد باسمهم عقب اسمه,"Only the caliph was (mentioned). But when the time came that the caliphs were secluded and under the control of others, the men who were in control of the (various) dynasties often shared the (prayer) with the caliph, and their names were mentioned after his"
وذهب ذلك بذهاب تلك الدول وصار الأمر إلى اختصاص السلطان بالدعاء له على المنبر دون من سواه وحظر أن يشاركه فيه أحد أو يسمو إليه,"When these dynasties disappeared, (the custom) also disappeared. Only the ruler was privileged to be mentioned in the prayer from the pulpit, and no one else. No one was permitted to share that privilege with the ruler or to aspire to do so."
وكثيرا ما يغفل المعاهدون من أهل الدول هذا الرسم عند ما تكون الدولة في أسلوب الغضاضة ومناحي البداوة في التغافل والخشونة ويقنعون بالدعاء على الإبهام والإجمال لمن ولي أمور المسلمين,"The founders of dynasties often neglected this institution when the dynasty still had a low standard of living and preserved the negligent and coarse Bedouin attitude. They were satisfied with a summary, anonymous reference to the one entrusted with the affairs of the Muslims."
ويسمون مثل هذه الخطبة إذا كانت على هذا المنحى عباسية يعنون بذلك أن الدعاء على الإجمال إنما يتناول العباسي تقليدا في ذلك لما سلف من الأمر ولا يحفلون بما وراء ذلك من تعيينه والتصريح باسمه,"Such a sermon was called an “Abbasid sermon.” This meant that the summary prayer could refer only to the ‘Abbasid caliph, following the ancient tradition. They did not think of going beyond that, of clearly indicating the ruler and pronouncing his name."
يحكى أن يغمراسن بن زيان عاهد دولة بني عبد الواد لما غلبه الأمير أبو زكريا يحيى بن أبي حفص على تلمسان ثم بدا له في إعادة الأمر إليه على شروط شرطها كان فيها ذكر اسمه على منابر عمله,"The story goes that the amir Abu Zakariya’ Yahya b. Abi Hafs took Tlemcen away from the founder of the ‘Abdal-Wadid dynasty, Yaghamrasin b. Zayyan. He then decided upon returning him to power under certain conditions, which he stipulated. Among them was the condition that his (Abu Zakariya”s) name should be mentioned from the pulpits of (Yaghamrasin’s) province."
فقال يغمراسن تلك أعوادهم يذكرون عليها من شاءوا,"On that occasion, Yaghamrasin said: “They (the pulpits) are those pieces of wood of theirs from which they mention whomever they like.”"
وكذلك يعقوب بن عبد الحق عاهد دولة بني مرين حضره رسول المنتصر الخليفة بتونس من بني أبي حفص وثالث ملوكهم وتخلف بعض أيامه عن شهود الجمعة,"Also, the ambassador of al-Mustansir, the third Hafsid caliph in Tunis, was at the court of the founder of the Merinid dynasty, Ya’qub b. ‘Abd-al-Haqq. One day, he was late in attending the Friday service."
فقيل له لم يحضر هذا الرسول كراهية لخلو الخطبة من ذكر سلطانه فأذن في الدعاء له وكان ذلك سببا لأخذهم بدعوته,"Ya’qub was informed that the ambassador did not attend the service because the sermon did not include mention of his ruler. Thereupon, Ya’qub gave permission to pray for him. This was one of the reasons why the Merinids took up the (Hafsid) propaganda."
وهكذا شأن الدول في بدايتها وتمكنها في الغضاضة والبداوة,"Such was the attitude of dynasties at the beginning, when they still had a low standard of living and preserved the Bedouin outlook."
فإذا انتبهت عيون سياستهم ونظروا في أعطاف ملكهم واستتموا شيات الحضارة ومفاني البذخ والأبهة انتحلوا جميع هذه السمات وتفننوا فيها وتجاروا إلى غايتها وأنفوا من المشاركة فيها وجزعوا من افتقادها وخلو دولتهم من آثارها,"But when their political eyes were opened and they looked toward (all) the aspects of royal authority and perfected the details of sedentary culture and the ideas of ostentation and pomp, they adopted all the external attributes (of royal authority) and exhausted all the possibilities in this respect. They disliked the idea that anyone else might share in them, and they were afraid that they might lose them and that their dynasty would be deprived of the effect of them."
والعالم بستان والله على كل شيء رقيب.,"The world is a garden, and God watches over everything."
الفصل السابع والثلاثون في الحروب ومذاهب الأمم وترتيبها,35. Wars and the methods of waging war practiced by the various nations.
اعلم أن الحروب وأنواع المقاتلة لم تزل واقعة في الخليقة منذ براها الله وأصلها إرادة انتقام بعض البشر من بعض.,Wars and different kinds of fighting have always occurred in the world since God created it. The origin of war is the desire of certain human beings to take revenge on others.
ويتعصب لكل منها أهل عصبيته فإذا تذامروا لذلك وتوافقت الطائفتان إحداهما تطلب الانتقام والأخرى تدافع كانت الحرب وهو أمر طبيعي في البشر لا تخلو عنه أمة ولا جيل,"Each (party) is supported by the people sharing in its group feeling. When they have sufficiently excited each other for the purpose and the two parties confront each other, one seeking revenge and the other trying to defend itself, there is war. It is something natural among human beings. No nation and no race (generation) is free from it."
وسبب هذا الانتقام في الأكثر إما غيرة ومنافسة. وإما عدوان وإما غضب لله ولدينه وإما غضب للملك وسعي في تمهيده,"The reason for such revenge is as a rule either jealousy and envy, or hostility, or zeal in behalf of God and His religion, or zeal in behalf of royal authority and the effort to found a kingdom."
فالأول أكثر ما يجري بين القبائل المتجاورة والعشائر المتناظرة والثاني وهو العدوان أكثر ما يكون من الأمم الوحشية الساكنين بالقفر كالعرب والترك والتركمان والأكراد وأشباههم,"The first (kind of war) usually occurs between neighboring tribes and competing families. The second (kind of war) – war caused by hostility – is usually found among savage nations living in the desert, such as the Arabs, the Turks, the Turkomans, the Kurds, and similar peoples."
لأنهم جعلوا أرزاقهم في رماحهم ومعاشهم فيما بأيدي غيرهم ومن دافعهم عن متاعه آذنوه بالحرب,They earn their sustenance with their lances and their livelihood by depriving other people of their possessions. They declare war against those who defend their property against them.
ولا بغية لهم فيما وراء ذلك من رتبة ولا ملك وإنما همهم ونصب أعينهم غلب الناس على ما في أيديهم,They have no further desire for rank and royal authority. Their minds and eyes are set only upon depriving other people of their possessions.
والثالث هو المسمى في الشريعة بالجهاد والرابع هو حروب الدول مع الخارجين عليها والمانعين لطاعتها,"The third (kind of war) is the one the religious law calls “the holy war.” The fourth (kind of war), finally, is dynastic war against seceders and those who refuse obedience."
فهذه أربعة أصناف من الحروب الصنفان الأولان منها حروب بغي وفتنة والصنفان الأخيران حروب جهاد وعدل,"These are the four kinds of war. The first two are unjust and lawless, the other two are holy and just wars."
وصفة الحروب الواقعة بين أهل الخليقة منذ أول وجودهم على نوعين نوع بالزحف صفوفا ونوع بالكر والفر,"Since the beginning of men’s existence, war has been waged in the world in two ways. One is by advance in closed formation. The other is the technique of attack and withdrawal."
أما الذي بالزحف فهو قتال العجم كلهم على تعاقب أجيالهم وأما الذي بالكر والفر فهو قتال العرب والبربر من أهل المغرب,The advance in closed formation has been the technique of all the non-Arabs throughout their entire existence. The technique of attack and withdrawal has been that of the Arabs and of the Berbers of the Maghrib.
وقتال الزحف أوثق وأشد من قتال الكر والفر وذلك لأن قتال الزحف ترتب فيه الصفوف وتسوى كما تسوى القداح أو صفوف الصلاة ويمشون بصفوفهم إلى العدو قدما,"Fighting in closed formation is more steady and fierce than fighting with the technique of attack and withdrawal. That is because in fighting in closed formation, the lines are orderly and evenly arranged, like arrows or like rows of worshipers at prayer. People advance in closed lines against the enemy."
فلذلك تكون أثبت عند المصارع وأصدق في القتال وأرهب للعدو. لأنه كالحائط الممتد والقصر المشيد لا يطمع في إزالته,This makes for greater steadiness in assault and for better use of the proper tactics. It frightens the enemy more. A closed formation is like a long wall or a well-built castle which no one could hope to move.
وفي التنزيل «إن الله يحب الذين يقاتلون في سبيله صفا كأنهم بنيان مرصوص 61: 4» أي يشد بعضهم بعضا بالثبات,"In the divine revelation, it is said: “God loves those who fight in His behalf in a line, as if they were a strongly constructed building.” That means, they steady each other."
وفي الحديث الكريم «المؤمن للمؤمن كالبنيان يشد بعضه بعضا»,A tradition says: “One believer is to another believer like a building of which every part supports the rest.”
ومن هنا يظهر لك حكمة إيجاب الثبات وتحريم التولي في الزحف فإن المقصود من الصف في القتال حفظ النظام كما قلناه,"This makes it obvious what great wisdom there is in requiring that the lines be kept steady and in forbidding anyone to fall back during an attack. Battle lines are intended to preserve order, as we have stated."
فمن ولى العدو ظهره فقد أخل بالمصاف وباء بإثم الهزيمة إن وقعت وصار كأنه جرها على المسلمين وأمكن منهم عدوهم,Those who turn their backs to the enemy bring disorder into the line formation. They are guilty of the crime of causing a rout. They somehow cause the Muslims to be routed and enable the enemy to gain power over them.
فعظم الذنب لعموم المفسدة وتعديها إلى الدين بخرق سياجه فعد من الكبائر,"This is a great sin, because the resulting damage is general and affects Islam, in that it makes a breach in the protecting fence. Therefore, it is considered one of the great sins."
ويظهر من هذه الأدلة أن قتال الزحف أشد عند الشارع وأما قتال الكر والفر فليس فيه من الشدة والأمن من الهزيمة ما في قتال الزحف,"All this evidence shows that fighting in close formation is more important (than any other kind) in the opinion of the Lawgiver (Muhammad). Fighting with the technique of attack and withdrawal is not as fierce or as secure against the possibility of rout, as is fighting in closed formation,"
إلا أنهم قد يتخذون وراءهم في القتال مصافا ثابتا يلجئون إليه في الكر والفر ويقوم لهم مقام قتال الزحف كما نذكره بعد.,"unless there is set up a steady line formation to the rear, to which the fighting men may fall back in attack and withdrawal throughout the fighting. Such a line formation would take the place of the closed formation, as we shall mention later on."
ثم إن الدول القديمة الكثيرة الجنود المتسعة الممالك كانوا يقسمون الجيوش والعساكر أقساما يسمونها كراديس ويسوون في كل كردوس صفوفه,The ancient dynasties had many soldiers and a vast realm. They subdivided their armies into smaller units.
وسبب ذلك أنه لما كثرت جنودهم الكثرة البالغة وحشدوا من قاصية النواحي استدعى ذلك أن يجهل بعضهم بعضا إذا اختلطوا في مجال الحرب واعتوروا مع عدوهم الطعن والضرب,"The reason for this was that their soldiers grew exceedingly numerous and were assembled from the most remote regions. This made it unavoidable that some of the soldiers would not know others, when they mingled on the field of battle and engaged the enemy in shooting and close fighting."
فيخشى من تدافعهم فيما بينهم لأجل النكراء وجهل بعضهم ببعض,"It was feared lest, on such occasions, they would fall to fighting each other because of the existing confusion and their ignorance of each other."
فلذلك كانوا يقسمون العساكر جموعا ويضمون المتعارفين بعضهم لبعض ويرتبونها قريبا من الترتيب الطبيعي في الجهات الأربع ورئيس العساكر كلها من سلطان أو قائد في القلب,"Therefore, they divided the armies into smaller units and put men who knew each other together. They arranged the units in an arrangement resembling the natural one of the four directions (of the compass). The chief of all the armies, either the ruler himself or a general, was in the center."
ويسمون هذا الترتيب التعبئة وهو مذكور في أخبار فارس والروم والدولتين وصدر الإسلام,"This arrangement was called “the battle order” (ta’biyah). It is mentioned in the history of the Persians, that of the Byzantines, and that of the (Umayyad and ‘Abbasid) dynasties at the beginning of Islam."
فيجعلون بين يدي الملك عسكرا منفردا بصفوفه متميزا بقائده ورايته وشعاره ويسمونه المقدمة,"In front of the ruler stood one army with its own battle lines, it own general and its own flag
It was called “the advance guard.”"
ثم عسكرا آخر ناحية اليمين عن موقف الملك وعلى سمته يسمونه الميمنة ثم عسكرا آخر من ناحية الشمال كذلك يسمونه الميسرة ثم عسكرا آخر من وراء العسكر يسمونه الساقة,"Then, to the right of the place where the ruler was, stood another army. It was called “the right flank.” There was another army to the left, called “the left flank.” Then, there was another army behind the army, called “the rear guard.”"
ويقف الملك وأصحابه في الوسط بين هذه الأربع ويسمون موقفه القلب,"The ruler and his entourage stood at the middle of these four (armies). The place where he was, was called the center."
فإذا تم لهم هذا الترتيب المحكم إما في مدى واحد للبصر أو على مسافة بعيدة أكثرها اليوم واليومان بين كل عسكرين منها أو كيفما أعطاه حال العساكر في القلة والكثرة فحينئذ يكون الزحف من بعد هذه التعبئة,"When this ingenious arrangement was completed – covering an area within the field of vision (of a single observer) or extending over a wider area but with at most one or two days’ (journey) between each of the two armies, and utilizing the possibilities suggested by the greater or smaller number of soldiersthen, when the battle order was thus set up, the advance in closed formation could begin."
وانظر ذلك في أخبار الفتوحات وأخبار الدولتين بالمشرق وكيف كانت العساكر لعهد عبد الملك تتخلف عن رحيله لبعد المدى في التعبئة فاحتيج لمن يسوقها من خلفه وعين لذلك الحجاج بن يوسف كما أشرنا إليه وكما هو معروف في أخباره,"This may be exemplified by the history of the (Muslim) conquests and the history of the (Umayyad and ‘Abbasid) dynasties. There also is the wellknown story mentioned above from the history of ‘Abd-alMalik, of how his armies fell back while he was on the move because (the elements of) the battle order were so widely separated, and how someone was needed to drive them from behind and al-Hajjaj b. Yusuf was appointed for that purpose."
وكان في الدولة الأموية بالأندلس أيضا كثير منه وهو مجهول فيما لدينا لأنا إنما أدركنا دولا قليلة العساكر لا تنتهي في مجال الحرب إلى التناكر,"Much the same sort of arrangement was also to be found among the Spanish Umayyads. It is not known among us now, because we live in a time when dynasties possess small armies which cannot mistake each other on the field of battle."
بل أكثر الجيوش من الطائفتين معا يجمعهم لدينا حلة أو مدينة ويعرف كل واحد منهم قرنه ويناديه في حومة الحرب باسمه ولقبه فاستغنى عن تلك التعبئة.,"Most of the soldiers of both parties together could nowa-days be assembled in a hamlet or a town. Everyone of them knows his comrade and calls him by his name and surname in the thick of battle. Therefore, this particular battle order can be dispensed with."
ومن مذاهب أهل الكر والفر في الحروب ضرب المصاف وراء عسكرهم من الجمادات والحيوانات العجم فيتخذونها ملجأ للخيالة في كرهم وفرهم,"One of the techniques of the people who use the technique of attack and withdrawal, is to set up, behind their armies, a line formation (barricade) of solid objects and dumb animals to serve as a refuge for the cavalry during attack and withdrawal."
يطلبون به ثبات المقاتلة ليكون أدوم للحرب وأقرب إلى الغلب وقد يفعله أهل الزحف أيضا ليزيدهم ثباتا وشدة,"It is intended to steady the fighters, so that they will fight more persistently and have a better chance of winning. Those who fight in closed formation do the same, in order to increase their steadfastness and power."
فقد كان الفرس وهم أهل الزحف يتخذون الفيلة في الحروب ويحملون عليها أبراجا من الخشب أمثال الصروح مشحونة بالمقاتلة والسلاح والرايات,"The Persians who fought in closed formation used to employ elephants in their wars. They made them carry wooden towers like castles, loaded with combatants, weapons, and flags."
ويصفونها وراءهم في حومة الحرب كأنها حصون فتقوى بذلك نفوسهم ويزداد وثوقهم,"They disposed them in successive lines behind them in the thick of battle, as if they were fortresses. This fortified them psychologically and gave them added confidence."
وانظر ما وقع من ذلك في القادسية وإن فارس في اليوم الثالث اشتدوا بهم على المسلمين,"In this connection, one may compare what happened at al-Qadisiyah. On the third day, the Persians pressed the Muslims hard with (the elephants)."
حتى اشتدت رجالات من العرب فخالطوهم وبعجوها بالسيوف على خراطيمها فنفرت ونكصت على أعقابها إلى مرابطها بالمدائن فجفا معسكر فارس لذلك وانهزموا في اليوم الرابع.,"Eventually, some outstanding Arabs counterattacked, infiltrated among the elephants, and struck them on the trunk with their swords. (The elephants) fled and turned back to their stables in al-Mada’in. This paralyzed the Persian camp, and they fled on the fourth day."
وأما الروم وملوك القوط بالأندلس وأكثر العجم فكانوا يتخذون لذلك الأسرة ينصبون للملك سريره في حومة الحرب ويحف به من خدمه وحاشيته وجنوده من هو زعيم بالاستماتة دونه,"The Rum (Byzantines), the Gothic rulers in Spain, and most other non-Arab peoples used to employ thrones for the purpose of steadying the battle lines. A throne would be set up for the ruler in the thick of battle and surrounded by those of the ruler’s servants, entourage, and soldiers who were thought to be willing to die for him."
وترفع الرايات في أركان السرير ويحدق به سياج آخر من الرماة والرجالة فيعظم هيكل السرير ويصير فئة للمقاتلة وملجأ للكر والفر,"Flags were run up at the corners of the throne. A further wall of sharpshooters and foot soldiers was put around it. The throne thus assumed considerable dimensions. It became, for the fighters, a place to fall back upon and a refuge in attack and withdrawal."
وجعل ذلك الفرس أيام القادسية وكان رستم جالسا على سرير نصبه لجلوسه حتى اختلفت صفوف فارس وخالطه العرب في سريره ذلك فتحول عنه إلى الفرات وقتل.,"This was what the Persians did in the battle of alQadisiyah. Rustum sat upon a throne that had been set up for him there. Finally, the Persian lines became disordered, and the Arabs penetrated to (Rustum’s) throne. He abandoned it and went to the Euphrates, where he was killed."
وأما أهل الكر والفر من العرب وأكثر الأمم البدوية الرحالة فيصفون لذلك إبلهم والظهر الذي يحمل ظعائنهم فيكون فئة لهم ويسمونها المجبوذة,"The Arabs and most other Bedouin nations that move about and employ the technique of attack and withdrawal, dispose their camels and the pack animals carrying their litters in lines to steady the fighting men. (Such lines) become for them a place to fall back upon. They call it al follows"
وليس أمة من الأمم إلا وهي تفعل في حروبها وتراه أوثق في الجولة وآمن من الغرة والهزيمة,this technique can be observed to be more steady in battle and to be better protected against being surprised and routed.
وهو أمر مشاهد وقد أغفلته الدول لعهدنا بالجملة واعتاضوا عنه بالظهر الحامل للأثقال والفساطيط يجعلونها ساقة من خلفهم ولا تغني غناء الفيلة والإبل,"This is a well attested fact, but it has been altogether neglected by the contemporary dynasties. Instead, they dispose the pack animals carrying their baggage and large tents behind them, as a rear guard. These animals cannot take the place of elephants and camels."
فصارت العساكر بذلك عرضة للهزائم ومستشعرة للفرار في المواقف.,"Therefore, the armies are exposed to the danger of being routed, and they are always ready to flee in combat."
وكان الحرب أول الإسلام كله زحفا وكان العرب إنما يعرفون الكر والفر,"At the beginning of Islam, all battles were fought in closed formation, although the Arabs knew only the technique of attack and withdrawal."
لكن حملهم على ذلك أول الإسلام أمران أحدهما أن أعداءهم كانوا يقاتلون زحفا فيضطرون إلى مقاتلتهم بمثل قتالهم.,"Two things at the beginning of Islam caused them to (fight in closed formation). First, their enemies fought in closed formation, and they were thus forced to fight them in the same way."
والثاني أنهم كانوا مستميتين في جهادهم لما رغبوا فيه من الصبر، ولما رسخ فيهم من الإيمان,"Second, they were willing to die in the holy war, because they wished to prove their endurance and were very firm in their belief."
والزحف إلى الاستماتة أقرب.,"Now, the closed formation is the fighting technique most suitable for one willing to die."
وأول من أبطل الصف في الحروب وصار إلى التعبئة كراديس مروان بن الحكم في قتال الضحاك الخارجي والجبيري بعده,"The first to abandon the line in war and to use the battle order by regiments was Marwan b. al-Hakam in fighting the Kharijite ad-Dahhak and, after him, alKhaybari."
قال الطبري لما ذكر قتال الجبيري «فولى الخوارج عليهم شيبان بن عبد العزيز اليشكري ويلقب أبا الذلفاء قاتلهم مروان بعد ذلك بالكراديس وأبطل الصف من يومئذ» انتهى.,"AtTabari said in connection with the killing of al-Khaybari: “The Kharijites appointed as their leader Shayban b. ‘Abdal-`Aziz al-Yashkuri, who had the surname of Abu d-Dalfa’. Marwan, thereafter, fought them in regiments and abandoned the line from that day on.”"
فتنوسي قتال الزحف بإبطال الصف ثم تنوسي الصف وراء المقاتلة بما داخل الدول من الترف,"When the line was discontinued, the practice of fighting in closed formation was forgotten. Then, when luxury penetrated the various dynasties, the use of the (rally) line behind the fighters was forgotten."
وذلك أنها حينما كانت بدوية وسكناهم الخيام كانوا يستكثرون من الإبل وسكنى النساء والولدان معهم في الأحياء,"This was because when they were Bedouins and lived in tents, they had many camels, and the women and children lived in camp with them."
فلما حصلوا على ترف الملك وألفوا سكنى القصور والحواضر وتركوا شأن البادية والقفر نسوا لذلك عهد الإبل والظعائن وصعب عليهم اتخاذها,"Then they achieved royal luxury and became used to living in palaces and in a sedentary environment and they abandoned the ways of the desert and waste regions. At that time, they forgot the period of camels and litters, and it was difficult for them to use them."
فخلفوا النساء في الأسفار وحملهم الملك والترف على اتخاذ الفساطيط والأخبية فاقتصروا على الظهر الحامل للأثقال والأبنية وكان ذلك صفتهم في الحرب,"When they traveled, they left their women behind. Royal authority and luxury caused them to use tents both large and small. They restricted themselves to pack animals carrying baggage and tents. They used these things to form their (protective) line in war."
ولا يغني كل الغناء لأنه لا يدعو إلى الاستماتة كما يدعو إليها الأهل والمال فيخف الصبر من أجل ذلك وتصرفهم الهيعات وتخرم صفوفهم.,"It was by no means sufficient. These things, unlike one’s own family and property, do not inspire any willingness to die. People, therefore, have little endurance. The turmoil of the battle frightens them, and their lines crumble."
ولما ذكرناه من ضرب المصاف وراء العساكر وتأكده في قتال الكر والفر صار ملوك المغرب يتخذون طائفة من الإفرنج في جندهم واختصوا بذلك لأن قتال أهل وطنهم كله بالكر والفر,"We have mentioned the strength that a line formation behind the army gives to the fighters who use the technique of attack and withdrawal. Because of (this fact), the Maghribi rulers have come to employ groups of European Christians in their army, and they are the only ones to have done that, for their compatriots know only the technique of attack and withdrawal."
والسلطان يتأكد في حقه ضرب المصاف ليكون ردءا للمقاتلة أمامه,The position of the ruler is strengthened by establishing a line formation in support of the fighting men ahead of it.
فلا بد من أن يكون أهل ذلك الصف من قوم متعودين للثبات في الزحف وإلا أجفلوا على طريقة أهل الكر والفر فانهزم السلطان والعساكر بإجفالهم,"The men in such a line formation must be people who are used to hold firm in closed formation. If not, they will run away like the men who use the technique of attack and withdrawal, and, when they run away, the ruler and the army will be routed."
فاحتاج الملوك بالمغرب أن يتخذوا جندا من هذه الأمة المتعودة الثبات في الزحف وهم الإفرنج ويرتبون مصافهم المحدق بهم منها,"Therefore, the rulers of the Maghrib had to use soldiers from a nation used to hold firm in closed formation. That nation was the European Christians. The line formation around their (army) is formed by European Christians."
هذا على ما فيه من الاستعانة بأهل الكفر.,The Maghribi rulers do that despite the fact that it means utilizing the aid of unbelievers.
وإنهم استخفوا ذلك للضرورة التي أريناكها من تخوف الإجفال على مصاف السلطان والإفرنج لا يعرفون غير الثبات في ذلك لأن عادتهم في القتال الزحف فكانوا أقوم بذلك من غيرهم,"They do not think much of it, because the necessity (of using such men) exists, as we have shown. They fear that their own line formation might run away, and (they know that) the European Christians know only how to hold firm, because it is their custom to fight in closed formation. They are, therefore, more suitable for the purpose than others."
مع أن الملوك في المغرب إنما يفعلون ذلك عند الحرب مع أمم العرب والبربر وقتالهم على الطاعة,"However, the Maghribi rulers employ (such European Christians) only in wars against Arab and Berber nations, in order to force them into submission."
وأما في الجهاد فلا يستعينون بهم حذرا من ممالأتهم على المسلمين,"They do not use them for the holy war, because they are afraid that they might take sides against the Muslims."
هذا هو الواقع لهذا العهد وقد أبدينا سببه,Such is the situation in the Maghrib at this time. We have shown the reason for it.
والله بكل شيء عليم.,“God knows everything.”
وبلغنا أن أمم الترك لهذا العهد قتالهم مناضلة بالسهام وأن تعبئة الحرب عندهم بالمصاف,We hear that the fighting (technique) of the contemporary Turkish nations is the shooting of arrows. Their battle order consists of a line formation.
وأنهم يقسمون بثلاثة صفوف يضربون صفا وراء صف ويترجلون عن خيولهم ويفرغون سهامهم بين أيديهم ثم يتناضلون جلوسا,"They divide their army into three lines, one placed behind the other. They dismount from their horses, empty their quivers on the ground in front of them, and then shoot from a sitting position."
وكل صف ردء للذي أمامه أن يكبسهم العدو إلى أن يتهيأ النصر لإحدى الطائفتين على الأخرى,"Each line protects the one ahead of it against being overrun by the enemy, until victory is assured for one party."
وهي تعبئة محكمة غريبة.,This is a very good and remarkable battle order.
وكان من مذاهب الأول في حروبهم حفر الخنادق على معسكرهم عند ما يتقاربون للزحف,"In war, the ancients followed the method of digging trenches around their camps when they were about to attack."
حذرا من معرة البيات والهجوم على العسكر بالليل لما في ظلمته ووحشته من مضاعفة الخوف,"(They did that) because they were afraid of treacherous night attacks and assaults by night upon the camp, since darkness and wildness multiply fear."
فيلوذ الجيش بالفرار وتجد النفوس في الظلمة سترا من عاره فإذا تساووا في ذلك أرجف العسكر ووقعت الهزيمة,"Under such conditions, the soldiers might seek refuge in flight and would find in the darkness a psychological protection against the shame of (fleeing). If all the soldiers were to have the same (idea), the camp would be disorganized, and there would be a rout."
فكانوا لذلك يحتفرون الخنادق على معسكرهم إذا نزلوا وضربوا أبنيتهم ويديرون الحفائر نطاقا عليهم من جميع جهاتهم حرصا أن يخالطهم العدو بالبيات فيتخاذلوا.,"Therefore, they were accustomed to dig trenches around the camp, when they encamped. They set up their tents and made trenches all around them on every side, lest the enemy be able to get through them in a night attack, in which case they would abandon each other."
وكانت للدول في أمثال هذا قوة وعليه اقتدار باحتشاد الرجال وجمع الأيدي عليه في كل منزل من منازلهم بما كانوا عليه من وفور العمران وضخامة الملك,"The dynasties used to have the strength and power to do such things involving large concentrations of manpower, wherever they settled, because civilization was prosperous and royal authority impressive."
فلما خرب العمران وتبعه ضعف الدول وقلة الجنود وعدم الفعلة نسي هذا الشأن جملة كأنه لم يكن,"But when civilization was ruined and (the strong dynasties) were succeeded by weak dynasties with few soldiers and no workers, the thing was altogether forgotten, as if it had never been."
والله خير القادرين.,God is the best of those who have power.
وانظر وصية علي رضي الله عنه وتحريضه لأصحابه يوم صفين تجد كثيرا من علم الحرب ولم يكن أحد أبصر بها منه,One should think of the admonitions and encouragement that ‘Ali gave his men on the day of Siffin. One will find in them a good deal of military knowledge. No one had better insight into military matters than ‘Ali.
قال في كلام له: «فسووا صفوفكم كالبنيان المرصوص وقدموا الدارع وأخروا الحاسر وعضوا على الأضراس فإنه أنبى للسيوف عن الهام,"He said in one of his speeches: “Straighten out your lines like a strongly constructed building. “Place the armed men in front, and those who are not armed in the rear. “Bite on your molars. This makes it harder for sword blows to harm the head."
والتووا على أطراف الرماح فإنه أصون للأسنة وغضوا الأبصار فإنه أربط للجأش وأسكن للقلوب واخفتوا الأصوات فإنه أطرد للفشل وأولى بالوقار,“Keep (something) wrapped around [?] the tips of the spears. This preserves the sharpness of points. “Keep the eyes down. This keeps the soul more concentrated and gives greater peace to the heart. “Kill (all) noises. This drives vacillation away more effectively and is more becoming to dignity.
وأقيموا راياتكم فلا تميلوها ولا تجعلوها إلا بأيدي شجعانكم واستعينوا بالصدق والصبر فإنه بقدر الصبر ينزل النصر»,"“Do not hold your flags inclined and do not remove them. Place them in the hands only of those among you who are brave. “Call upon truth and endurance for aid, for ‘after endurance there is victory.'”"
وقال الأشتر يومئذ يحرض الأزد: «عضوا على النواجذ من الأضراس واستقبلوا القوم بهامكم,"Al-Ashtar on that day, to encourage the Azd, said: “Bite on your molars and meet the people (enemy) head on."
وشدوا شدة قوم موتورين يثأرون بآبائهم وإخوانهم حناقا على عدوهم وقد وطنوا على الموت أنفسهم لئلا يسبقوا بوتر ولا يلحقهم في الدنيا عار»,"Be violent like men who, long frustrated from their revenge, are now out to revenge their fathers and their brothers, who are full of wrath against the enemy, and who have prepared themselves for death, so that they shall not be prevented from taking revenge and not be disgraced in this world.”"
وقد أشار إلى كثير من ذلك أبو بكر الصيرفي شاعر لمتونة وأهل الأندلس في كلمة يمدح بها تاشفين بن علي بن يوسف ويصف ثباته في حرب شهدها,"Abu Bakr as-Sayrafi, the poet of the Lamtunah (Almoravids) and the Spaniards, has referred to many such things in a poem in which he praises Tashfin b. ‘Ali b. Yusuf and describes his steadfastness during a battle in which he participated."
ويذكره بأمور الحرب في وصايا تحذيرات تنبهك على معرفة كثير من سياسة الحرب,He refers to his military affairs.in words of admonition and warning that make a great deal of knowledge concerning warfare available to (the reader).
"يقول فيها:
يا أيها الملأ الذي يتقنع *** من منكم الملك الهمام الأروع","He says in (the poem): O you veiled people! Who among you is the high-minded, inspiring ruler?"
ومن الذي غدر العدو به دجى *** فانفض كل وهو لا يتزعزع,"Who is the one whom the enemy surprised in the dark, And everyone dispersed, but he was not discouraged?"
تمضي الفوارس والطعان يصدها *** عنه ويدمرها الوفاء فترجع,"And the knights came, but fighting with spears kept them From him. The loyalty (of his troops) confounded them, and they turned back."
والليل من وضح الترائك إنه *** صبح على هام الجيوش يلمع,And the gleam of helmets made the night appear Like the morn sparkling over the heads of the soldiers.
أنى فزعتم يا بني صنهاجة *** وإليكم في الروع كان المفزع,"Where have you taken refuge (now), O Banu Sinhajah? You (who) were the refuge in fear."
"إنسان عين لم يصبها منكم *** حضن وقلب أسلمته الأضلع وصددتم عن تاشفين وإنه *** لعقابه لو شاء فيكم موضع
ما أنتم إلا أسود خفية *** كل لكل كريهة مستطلع","You have turned away from Tashfin. If he wished, he could punish you. A pupil that no eyelid of yours has ever protected, And a heart that the ribs have betrayed.  You are nothing but lions of the thicket, Each one (of you) watching for every (possible) unpleasantness (that might befall)."
"يا تاشفين أقم لجيشك عذره *** بالليل والعذر الذي لا يدفع
ومنها في سياسة الحرب
أهديك من أدب السياسة ما به *** كانت ملوك الفرس قبلك تولع","O Tashfin, make the night an excuse for your soldiers, And irresistible destiny not to be repelled. The following verses of the poem are about warfare: I shall give you the political education that The Persian kings before you were desirous to obtain."
لا إنني أدري بها لكنها *** ذكرى تحض المؤمنين وتنفع,"Not that I am experienced in it, but it is A memento that spurs on the believers, and is useful."
"والبس من الحلق المضاعفة التي *** وصى بها صنع الصنائع تبع
والهندواني الرقيق فإنه *** أمضى على حد الدلاص وأقطع","Put on the double coat of mail that A Tubba’ exhorted skillful craftsmen to make, And the fine Indian dagger, because it is More effective against thick armor and pierces it better."
"واركب من الخيل السوابق عدة *** حصنا حصينا ليس فيه مدفع
خندق عليك إذا ضربت محلة *** سيان تتبع ظافرا أو تتبع","Use a number of fast horses (and horsemen) – A strong fortress that cannot be repelled! Dig a trench for yourself when you encamp, Regardless of whether you are in victorious pursuit or being pursued."
"والواد لا تعبره وانزل عنده *** بين العدو وبين جيشك يقطع
واجعل مناجزة الجيوش عشية *** ووراءك الصدق الذي هو أمنع","Do not cross a river. Encamp on its bank. It separates your soldiers from the enemy. Go into battle in the afternoon, Having behind you a mountain pass that is unapproachable."
"وإذا تضايقت الجيوش بمعرك *** ضنك فأطراف الرماح توسع
واصدمه أول وهلة لا تكترث *** شيئا فإظهار النكول يضعضع","When the soldiers are in straits on a narrow Battlefield, the points of their spears will give them (elbow) room. Attack the enemy right away, do not hesitate A moment, for to show signs of hesitation is disastrous."
"واجعل من الطلاع أهل شهامة *** للصدق فيهم شيمة لا تخدع
لا تسمع الكذاب جاءك مرجفا *** لا رأي للكذاب فيما يصنع","Take for your patrols men of energy, In whom truthfulness is an unmistakable characteristic. Do not listen to the liar who comes to you with alarming news. A person under the influence of a lie (acts) senselessly whatever he may do."
قوله واصدمه أول وهلة لا تكترث البيت مخالف لما عليه الناس في أمر الحرب,"The statement, “Attack the enemy right away, do not hesitate, etc,” is contrary to the general practice of warfare."
فقد قال عمر لأبي عبيد بن مسعود الثقفي لما ولاه حرب فارس والعراق فقال له اسمع وأطع من أصحاب النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم وأشركهم في الأمر,"‘Umar said to Abu ‘Ubayd b. Masud athThaqafi, when he entrusted him with the war against Firs and the ‘Iraq: “Listen to the men around Muhammad and let them participate in the command."
ولا تجيبن مسرعا حتى تتبين فإنها الحرب ولا يصلح لها إلا الرجل المكيث الذي يعرف الفرصة والكف,"Do not answer hastily, (answer) only when everything is clear to you. It is war, and only the calm man, who knows when there is an opportunity and when he has to restrain himself, is suited for warfare.”"
وقال له في أخرى: «إنه لن يمنعني أن أؤمر سليطا إلا سرعته في الحرب وفي التسرع في الحرب إلا عن بيان ضياع,"According to another (report), he said to him: “The only thing that prevents me from putting Salit in command is his rashness in war. Rashness in war, unless everything is clear, is disastrous."
والله لولا ذلك لأمرته لكن الحرب لا يصلحها إلا الرجل المكيث»,"By God, if it were not for that, I should have made him commander, but only a calm man is suited for warfare.”"
هذا كلام عمر وهو شاهد بأن التثاقل في الحرب أولى من الخفوف حتى يتبين حال تلك الحرب,"This is what ‘Umar said. It is proof that in war it is better to go slow than to be hasty, until the situation in a particular battle is clear."
وذلك عكس ما قاله الصيرفي إلا أن يريد أن الصدم بعد البيان فله وجه,"This is the contrary of what as-Sayrafi said, unless he means attacking after. everything is clear. This is a possible explanation."
والله تعالى أعلم.,And God knows better.
ولا وثوق في الحرب بالظفر وإن حصلت أسبابه من العدة والعديد وإنما الظفر فيها والغلب من قبيل البحث والاتفاق,"There is no certainty of victory in war, even when the equipment and the numerical (strength) that cause victory (under normal circumstances), exist. Victory and superiority in war come from luck and chance."
وبيان ذلك أن أسباب الغلب في الأكثر مجتمعة من أمور ظاهرة وهي الجيوش ووفورها وكمال الأسلحة واستجادتها وكثرة الشجعان وترتيب المصاف ومنه صدق القتال وما جرى مجرى ذلك,"This is explained by the fact that the causes of superiority are, as a rule, a combination of several factors. There are external factors, such as the number of soldiers, the perfection and good quality of weapons, the number of brave men, (skillful) arrangement of the line formation, the proper tactics, and similar things."
ومن أمور خفية وهي إما من خداع البشر وحيلهم في الإرجاف والتشانيع التي يقع بها التخذيل وفي التقدم إلى الأماكن المرتفعة ليكون الحرب من أعلى فيتوهم المنخفض لذلك,"Then, there are hidden factors. (These hidden factors) may be the result of human ruse and trickery, such as spreading alarming news and rumors to cause defections (in the ranks of the enemy)occupying high points, so that one is able to attack from above, which surprises those below and causes them to abandon each other;"
وفي الكمون في الغياض ومطمئن الأرض والتواري بالكدى حول العدو حتى يتداولهم العسكر دفعة وقد تورطوا فيتلفتون إلى النجاة وأمثال ذلك,"hiding in thickets or depressions and concealing oneself from the enemy in rocky terrain, so that the armies (of one’s own side) suddenly appear when (the enemy) is in a precarious situation and he must then flee to safety (instead of defending himself), and similar things."
وإما أن تكون تلك الأسباب الخفية أمورا سماوية لا قدرة للبشر على اكتسابها تلقى في القلوب فيستولي الرهب عليهم لأجلها فتختل مراكزهم فتقع الهزيمة,"These hidden factors may also be celestial matters, which man has no power to produce for himself. They affect people psychologically, and thus generate fear in (them). They cause confusion in the centers of (armies), and there are routs."
وأكثر ما تقع الهزائم عن هذه الأسباب الخفية لكثرة ما يعتمل لكل واحد من الفريقين فيها حرصا على الغلب فلا بد من وقوع التأثير في ذلك لأحدهما ضرورة,"Routs very often are the result of hidden causes, because both parties make much use of (the opportunities offered by) them in their desire for victory. One of them must by necessity be successful in their use."
ولذلك قال صلى الله عليه وسلم «الحرب خدعة»,"Wherefore, Muhammad said: “War is trickery.”"
ومن أمثال العرب «رب حيلة أنفع من قبيلة»,An Arab proverb says: “Many a trick is worth more than a tribe.”
فقد تبين أن وقوع الغلب في الحروب غالبا عن أسباب خفية غير ظاهرة ووقوع الأشياء عن الأسباب الخفية هو معنى البخت كما تقرر في موضعه فاعتبره,"It is thus clear that superiority in war is, as a rule, the result of hidden causes, not of external ones. The occurrence of opportunities as the result of hidden causes is what is meant by the word “luck,” as has been established in the proper place."
وتفهم من وقوع الغلب عن الأمور السماوية كما شرحناه معنى قوله صلى الله عليه وسلم «نصرت بالرعب مسيرة شهر»,"Considering the fact that superiority may be the result of celestial factors, as we have explained, one understands Muhammad’s statement: “I was helped through the terror (that befell the enemy) for the length of one month’s journey.”"
وما وقع من غلبه للمشركين في حياته بالعدد القليل وغلب المسلمين من بعده كذلك في الفتوحات,"(The same fact explains) Muhammad’s victory with small numbers over the polytheists during his lifetime, and the victories of the Muslims during the Muslim conquests after (Muhammad’s death)."
فإن الله سبحانه وتعالى تكفل لنبيه بإلقاء الرعب في قلوب الكافرين حتى يستولي على قلوبهم فينهزموا معجزة لرسوله صلى الله عليه وسلم,"God took care of His Prophet. He threw terror into the hearts of the unbelievers. (That terror,) eventually, seized control over their hearts, and they fled. (This, then, was) a miracle wrought by God’s Messenger."
فكان الرعب في قلوبهم سببا للهزائم في الفتوحات الإسلامية كلها إلا أنه خفي عن العيون.,"Terror in the hearts of their enemies was why there were so many routs during the Muslim conquests, but it was a factor concealed from the eyes."
وقد ذكر الطرطوشي: أن من أسباب الغلب في الحرب أن تفضل عدة الفرسان المشاهير من الشجعان في أحد الجانبين على عدتهم في الجانب الآخر,At-Turtushi mentions that one of the reasons for victory in war is that one side may have a larger number of brave and famous knights than the other.
مثل أن يكون أحد الجانبين فيه عشرة أو عشرون من الشجعان المشاهير وفي الجانب الآخر ثمانية أو ستة عشر,"For instance, one side may have ten or twenty famous heroes, and the other only eight or sixteen."
فالجانب الزائد ولو بواحد يكون له الغلب وأعاد في ذلك وأبدى وهو راجع إلى الأسباب الظاهرة التي قدمنا وليس بصحيح.,"The side that has more, even if only one more, will be victorious. He states this very emphatically. He is referring to the external causes we have mentioned before, but he is not right."
وإنما الصحيح المعتبر في الغلب حال العصبية أن يكون في أحد الجانبين عصبية واحدة جامعة لكلهم وفي الجانب الآخر عصائب متعددة,"What is the fact proven to make for superiority is the situation with regard to group feeling. If one side has a (single) group feeling comprising all, while the other side is made up of numerous different groups, and if both sides are approximately the same in numbers, then the side that has a single (comprehensive) group feeling is stronger than, and superior to, the side that is made up of several different groups."
لأن العصائب إذا كانت متعددة يقع بينها من التخاذل ما يقع في الوحدان المتفرقين الفاقدين للعصبية تنزل كل عصابة منهم منزلة الواحد,"These different groups are likely to abandon each other, as is the case with separate individuals who have no group feeling at all, each of the groups being in the same position as an individual."
ويكون الجانب الذي عصابته متعددة لا يقاوم الجانب الذي عصبته واحدة لأجل ذلك فتفهمه,"Thus, the side composed of several different groups cannot stand up to the side whose group feeling is one. This should be understood."
واعلم أنه أصح في الاعتبار مما ذهب إليه الطرطوشي ولم يحمله على ذلك إلا نسيان شأن العصبية في حله وبلده,It should be realized that this is a better explanation than the one attempted by at-Turtushi. At-Turtushi’s (explanation) was suggested by the fact that the importance of group feeling was no longer known in his generation and in the place where he lived.
وأنهم إنما يرون ذلك الدفاع والحماية والمطالبة إلى الوحدان والجماعة الناشئة عنهم لا يعتبرون في ذلك عصبية ولا نسبا وقد بينا ذلك أول الكتاب,"(People in this situation) think of defense, military protection, and the pressing of claims, in terms of individuals and masses of individuals. They do not consider group feeling or common descent in this connection. We explained this at the beginning of the book."
مع أن هذا وأمثاله على تقدير صحته إنما هو من الأسباب الظاهرة مثل اتفاق الجيش في العدة وصدق القتال وكثرة الأسلحة وما أشبهها,"Moreover, such and similar things, if correct, still belong among the external causes (of victory), such as the existence of an identical number of soldiers on both sides, the proper tactics, the quantity of weapons, and similar things."
فكيف يجعل ذلك كفيلا بالغلب ونحن قد قررنا لك الآن أن شيئا منها لا يعارض الأسباب الخفية من الحيل والخداع ولا الأمور السماوية من الرعب والخذلان الإلهي,"How could such things guarantee victory, considering that we have just established that none of them is a match for the hidden causes, such as ruse and trickery, or for the celestial factors, such as divine terror and defection?"
فافهمه وتفهم أحوال الكون,"This should be known, and the conditions of the world should be understood."
«والله يقدر الليل والنهار 73: 20».,God determines night and day.
ويلحق بمعنى الغلب في الحروب وأن أسبابه خفية وغير طبيعية حال الشهرة والصيت فقل أن تصادف موضعها في أحد من طبقات الناس من الملوك والعلماء والصالحين والمنتحلين للفضائل على العموم,"The idea of victory in war as depending on hidden and unnatural causes (reminds us) of the related situation that exists with regard to fame and renown. Fame and renown are rarely to be found in their proper places anywhere in any class of people, whether they be rulers, scholars, pious men, or the virtuous in general."
وكثير ممن اشتهر بالشر وهو بخلافه وكثير ممن تجاوزت عنه الشهرة وهو أحق بها وأهلها وقد تصادف موضعها وتكون طبقا على صاحبها,"Many people are famous and renowned, yet do not deserve it. Many are reputed villains, yet they are just the opposite. Many have been passed over by fame, and yet they may deserve it and be more entitled to it (than others). Sometimes, fame and renown are to be found in their proper places and do conform to the actual merit of the person who enjoys them."
والسبب في ذلك أن الشهرة والصيت إنما هما بالإخبار والإخبار يدخلها الذهول عن المقاصد عند التناقل ويدخلها التعصب والتشييع ويدخلها الأوهام ويدخلها الجهل بمطابقة الحكايات للأحوال لخفائها بالتلبيس والتصنع أو لجهل الناقل,"The reason for this is that fame and renown are the result of (historical) information. In the process of transmission, the (original) intentions are forgotten, and bias and partisanship affect the information, as do unfounded assumptions as well as ignorance of the conformity of the stories to (actual) conditions, resulting from the fact that they have become obscured by falsification and artifice, or from the ignorance of the transmitter."
ويدخلها التقرب لأصحاب التجلة والمراتب الدنيوية بالثناء والمدح وتحسين الأحوال وإشاعة الذكر بذلك والنفوس مولعة بحب الثناء والناس متطاولون إلى الدنيا وأسبابها من جاه أو ثروة وليسوا من الأكثر براغبين في الفضائل ولا منافسين في أهلها,"(The information is also) affected by the desire to insinuate oneself into the good graces of great men of the world and other persons of high rank through eulogizing and praising (them), embellishing the facts and spreading fame in this manner The (human) soul is ardently in love with praise, and people go all out for this world and for the rank or wealth that belong (to this world). As a rule, they have no desire for virtue, and they do not care for those who have it."
وأين مطابقة الحق مع هذه كلها فتختل الشهرة عن أسباب خفية من هذه وتكون غير مطابقة وكل ما حصل بسبب خفي فهو الذي يعبر عنه بالبخت كما تقرر,"In view of all this, how could (we expect) there to be any conformity with the truth? Thus, renown results from hidden causes and does not conform (to reality). Things that result from hidden causes are what we express by the word “luck,” as has been established."
الفصل الثامن والثلاثون في الجباية وسبب قلتها وكثرتها,36. Taxation and the reason for low and high (tax revenues).
اعلم أن الجباية أول الدولة تكون قليلة الوزائع كثيرة الجملة وآخر الدولة تكون كثيرة الوزائع قليلة الجملة والسبب في ذلك أن الدولة إن كانت على سنن الدين فليست تقتضي إلا المغارم الشرعية من الصدقات والخراج والجزية,"It should be known that at the beginning of the dynasty, taxation yields a large revenue from small assessments. At the end of the dynasty, taxation yields a small revenue from large assessments. The reason for this is that when the dynasty follows the ways (sunan) of the religion, it imposes only such taxes as are stipulated by the religious law, such as charity taxes, the land tax, and the poll tax."
وهي قليلة الوزائع لأن مقدار الزكاة من المال قليل كما علمت وكذا زكاة الحبوب والماشية وكذا الجزية والخراج وجميع المغارم الشرعية وهي حدود لا تتعدى وإن كانت على سنن التغلب والعصبية فلا بد من البداوة في أولها كما تقدم,"They mean small assessments, because, as everyone knows, the charity tax on property is low. The same applies to the charity tax on grain and cattle, and also to the poll tax, the land tax, and all other taxes required by the religious law. They have fixed limits that cannot be overstepped. When the dynasty follows the ways of group feeling and (political) superiority, it necessarily has at first a desert attitude, as has been mentioned before."
والبداوة تقتضي المسامحة والمكارمة وخفض الجناح والتجافي عن أموال الناس والغفلة عن تحصيل ذلك إلا في النادر فيقل لذلك مقدار الوظيفة الواحدة والوزيعة التي تجمع الأموال من مجموعها,"The desert attitude requires kindness, reverence, humility, respect for the property of other people, and disinclination to appropriate it, except in rare instances. Therefore, the individual imposts and assessments, which together constitute the tax revenue, are low."
وإذا قلت الوزائع والوظائف على الرعايا نشطو للعمل ورغبوا فيه فيكثر الاعتمار ويتزايد لحصول الاغتباط بقلة المغرم وإذا كثر الاعتمار كثرت أعداد تلك الوظائف والوزائع فكثرت الجباية التي هي جملتها,"When tax assessments and imposts upon the subjects are low, the latter have the energy and desire to do things. Cultural enterprises grow and increase, because the low taxes bring satisfaction. When cultural enterprises grow, the number of individual imposts and assessments mounts. In consequence, the tax revenue, which is the sum total of (the individual assessments), increases."
فإذا استمرت الدولة واتصلت وتعاقب ملوكها واحدا بعد واحد واتصفوا بالكيس وذهب سر البداوة والسذاجة وخلقها من الإغضاء والتجافي وجاء الملك العضوض والحضارة الداعية إلى الكيس وتخلق أهل الدولة حينئذ بخلق التحذلق,"When the dynasty continues in power and their rulers follow each other in succession, they become sophisticated. The Bedouin attitude and simplicity lose their significance, and the Bedouin qualities of moderation and restraint disappear. Royal authority with its tyranny, and sedentary culture that stimulates sophistication, make their appearance. The people of the dynasty then acquire qualities of character related to cleverness."
وتكثرت عوائدهم وحوائجهم بسبب ما انغمسوا فيه من النعيم والترف فيكثرون الوظائف والوزائع حينئذ على الرعايا والأكرة والفلاحين وسائر أهل المغارم,"Their customs and needs become more varied because of the prosperity and luxury in which they are immersed. As a result, the individual imposts and assessments upon the subjects, agricultural laborers, farmers, and all the other taxpayers, increase."
ويزيدون في كل وظيفة ووزيعة مقدارا عظيما لتكثر لهم الجباية ويضعون المكوس على المبايعات وفي الأبواب كما نذكر بعد,"Every individual impost and assessment is greatly increased, in order to obtain a higher tax revenue. Customs duties are placed upon articles of commerce and (levied) at the city gates, as we shall mention later on."
ثم تتدرج الزيادات فيها بمقدار بعد مقدار لتدرج عوائد الدولة في الترف وكثرة الحاجات والإنفاق بسببه حتى تثقل المغارم على الرعايا وتهضمهم وتصير عادة مفروضة لأن تلك الزيادة تدرجت قليلا قليلا ولم يشعر أحد بمن زادها على التعيين ولا من هو واضعها,"Then, gradual increases in the amount of the assessments succeed each other regularly, in correspondence with the gradual increase in the luxury customs and many needs of the dynasty and the spending required in connection with them. Eventually, the taxes will weigh heavily upon the subjects and overburden them. Heavy taxes become an obligation and tradition, because the increases took place gradually, and no one knows specifically who increased them or levied them."
إنما ثبت على الرعايا في الاعتمار لذهاب الأمل من نفوسهم بقلة النفع إذا قابل بين نفعه ومغارمه وبين ثمرته وفائدته فتنقبض كثير من الأيدي عن الاعتمار جملة فتنقص جملة الجباية حينئذ بنقصان تلك الوزائع منها,"They lie upon the subjects like an obligation and tradition. The assessments increase beyond the limits of equity. The result is that the interest of the subjects in cultural enterprises disappears, since when they compare expenditures and taxes with their income and gain and see the little profit they make, they lose all hope. Therefore, many of them refrain from all cultural activity. The result is that the total tax revenue goes down, as (the number of) the individual assessments goes down."
وربما يزيدون في مقدار الوظائف إذا رأوا ذلك النقص في الجباية ويحسبونه جبرا لما نقص حتى تنتهي كل وظيفة ووزيعة إلى غاية ليس وراءها نفع ولا فائدة لكثرة الإنفاق حينئذ في الاعتمار وكثرة المغارم وعدم وفاء الفائدة المرجوة به,"Often, when the decrease is noticed, the amounts of individual imposts are increased. This is considered a means of compensating for the decrease. Finally, individual imposts and assessments reach their limit. It would be of no avail to increase them further. The costs of all cultural enterprise are now too high, the taxes are too heavy, and the profits anticipated fail to materialize."
فلا تزال الجملة في نقص ومقدار الوزائع والوظائف في زيادة لما يعتقدونه من جبر الجملة بها إلى أن ينتقص العمران بذهاب الآمال من الاعتمار ويعود وبال ذلك على الدولة لأن فائدة الاعتمار عائدة إليها,"Thus, the total revenue continues to decrease, while the amounts of individual imposts and assessments continue to increase, because it is believed that such an increase will compensate (for the drop in revenue) in the end. Finally, civilization is destroyed, because the incentive for cultural activity is gone. It is the dynasty that suffers from the situation, because it (is the dynasty that) profits from cultural activity."
وإذا فهمت ذلك علمت أن أقوى الأسباب في الاعتمار تقليل مقدار الوظائف على المعتمرين ما أمكن فبذلك تنبسط النفوس إليه لثقتها بإدراك المنفعة فيه,"If (the reader) understands this, he will realize that the strongest incentive for cultural activity is to lower as much as possible the amounts of individual imposts levied upon persons capable of undertaking cultural enterprises. In this manner, such persons will be psychologically disposed to undertake them, because they can be confident of making a profit from them."
والله سبحانه وتعالى «مالك الأمور كلها وبيده ملكوت كل شيء 23: 88»,God owns all things.
الفصل التاسع والثلاثون في ضرب المكوس أواخر الدولة,"37. In the later (years) of dynasties, customs duties are levied."
اعلم أن الدولة تكون في أولها بدوية كما قلنا فتكون لذلك قليلة الحاجات لعدم الترف وعوائده فيكون خرجها وإنفاقها قليلا فيكون في الجباية حينئذ وفاء بأزيد منها كثير عن حاجاتهم,"It should be known that at the beginning, dynasties maintain the Bedouin attitude, as we have stated Therefore, they have few needs, since luxury and the habits that go with it do not (yet) exist. Expenses and expenditures are small. At that time, revenue from taxes pays for much more than the necessary expenditures, and there is a large surplus."
ثم لا تلبث أن تأخذ بدين الحضارة في الترف وعوائدها وتجري على نهج الدول السابقة قبلها فيكثر لذلك خراج أهل الدولة ويكثر خراج السلطان خصوصا كثرة بالغة بنفقته في خاصته وكثرة عطائه,"The dynasty, then, soon starts to adopt the luxury and luxury customs of sedentary culture, and follows the course that had been taken by previous dynasties. The result is that the expenses of the people of the dynasty grow. Especially do the expenses of the ruler mount excessively, on account of his expenditures for his entourage and the great number of allowances he has to grant."
ولا تفي بذلك الجباية فتحتاج الدولة إلى الزيادة في الجباية لما تحتاج إليه الحامية من العطاء والسلطان من النفقة فيزيد في مقدار الوظائف والوزائع أولا كما قلناه,"The (available) revenue from taxes cannot pay for all that. Therefore, the dynasty must increase its revenues, because the militia needs (ever) larger allowances and the ruler needs (ever) more money to meet his expenditures. At first, the amounts of individual imposts and assessments are increased, as we have stated."
ثم يزيد الخراج والحاجات والتدريج في عوائد الترف وفي العطاء للحامية ويدرك الدولة الهرم وتضعف عصابتها عن جباية الأموال من الأعمال والقاصية فتقل الجباية وتكثر العوائد ويكثر بكثرتها أرزاق الجند وعطاؤهم,"Then, as expenses and needs increase under the influence of the gradual growth of luxury customs and additional allowances for the militia, the dynasty is affected by senility. Its people are too weak to collect the taxes from the provinces and remote areas. Thus, the revenue from taxes decreases, while the habits (requiring money) increase. As they increase, salaries and allowances to the soldiers also increase."
فيستحدث صاحب الدولة أنواعا من الجباية يضربها على البياعات ويفرض لها قدرا معلوما على الأثمان في الأسواق وعلى أعيان السلع في أموال المدينة,"Therefore, the ruler must invent new kinds of taxes. He levies them on commerce. He imposes taxes of a certain amount on prices realized in the markets and on the various (imported) goods at the city gates."
وهو مع هذا مضطر لذلك بما دعاه إليه طرق الناس من كثرة العطاء من زيادة الجيوش والحامية,"(The ruler) is, after all, forced to this because people have become spoiled by generous allowances, and because of the growing numbers of soldiers and militiamen."
وربما يزيد ذلك في أواخر الدولة زيادة بالغة فتكسد الأسواق لفساد الآمال ويؤذن ذلك باختلال العمران ويعود على الدولة ولا يزال ذلك يتزايد إلى أن تضمحل.,"In the later (years) of the dynasty, (taxation) may become excessive. Business falls off, because all hopes (of profit) are destroyed, permitting the dissolution of civilization and reflecting upon (the status of) the dynasty. This (situation) becomes more and more aggravated, until (the dynasty) disintegrates."
وقد كان وقع منه بأمصار المشرق في أخريات الدولة العباسية والعبيدية كثير وفرضت المغارم حتى على الحاج في الموسم وأسقط صلاح الدين أيوب تلك الرسوم جملة وأعاضها بآثار الخير,Much of this sort happened in the Eastern cities during the later days of the ‘Abbasid and ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimid) dynasties. Taxes were levied even upon pilgrims making the pilgrimage. Salah-ad-din Ibn Ayyub abolished all such institutions and replaced them with good works.
وكذلك وقع بالأندلس لعهد الطوائف حتى محى رسمه يوسف بن تاشفين أمير المرابطين وكذلك وقع بأمصار الجريد بإفريقية لهذا العهد حين استبد بها رؤساؤها,"The same also happened in Spain at the time of the reyes de ta’ifas. Yusuf b. Tashfin, the Almoravid amir, put an end to it. The same has also been happening in the cities of the Jarid in Ifrigiyah, ever since their chiefs gained control over them."
والله تعالى أعلم.,God “is kind to His servants.”
الفصل الأربعون في أن التجارة من السلطان مضرة بالرعايا ومفسدة للجباية,"38. Commercial activity on the part of the ruler is harmful to his subjects and ruinous to the
tax revenue."
اعلم أن الدولة إذا ضاقت جبايتها بما قدمناه من الترف وكثرة العوائد والنفقات وقصر الحاصل من جبايتها على الوفاء بحاجاتها ونفقاتها واحتاجت إلى مزيد المال والجباية,"It should be known that a dynasty may find itself in financial straits, as we have mentioned before, on account of its luxury and the number of (its luxurious) habits and on account of its expenditures and the insufficiency of the tax revenue to pay for its needs and expenditures. It may need more money and higher revenues."
فتارة توضع المكوس على بياعات الرعايا وأسواقهم كما قدمنا ذلك في الفصل قبله وتارة بالزيادة في ألقاب المكوس إن كان قد استحدث من قبل,"Then, it sometimes imposes customs duties on the commercial activities of (its) subjects, as we have mentioned in the previous section. Sometimes, it increases the kinds of customs duties, if (customs duties as such) had been introduced before."
وتارة بمقاسمة العمال والجباة وامتكاك عظامهم لما يرون أنهم قد حصلوا على شيء طائل من أموال الجباية لا يظهره الحسبان,"Sometimes, it applies torture to its officials and tax collectors and sucks their bones dry (of a part of their fortune). (This happens) when officials and tax collectors are observed to have appropriated a good deal of tax money, which their accounts do not show."
وتارة باستحداث التجارة والفلاحة للسلطان على تسمية الجباية لما يرون التجار والفلاحين يحصلون على الفوائد والغلات مع يسارة أموالهم وأن الأرباح تكون على نسبة رءوس الأموال,"Sometimes, the ruler himself may engage in commerce and agriculture, from desire to increase (his) revenues. He sees that merchants and farmers make (great) profits and have plenty of property. (He sees) that their gains correspond to the capital they invest."
فيأخذون في اكتساب الحيوان والنبات لاستغلاله في شراء البضائع والتعرض بها لحوالة الأسواق ويحسبون ذلك من إدرار الجباية وتكثير الفوائد وهو غلط عظيم,"Therefore, he starts to acquire livestock and fields in order to cultivate them for profit, purchase goods, and (enter business and) expose himself to fluctuations of the market. He thinks that this will improve (his) revenues and increase (his) profits. However, this is a great error."
وإدخال الضرر على الرعايا من وجوه متعددة فأولا مضايقة الفلاحين والتجار في شراء الحيوان والبضائع وتيسير أسباب ذلك فإن الرعايا متكافئون في اليسار متقاربون ومزاحمة بعضهم بعضا تنتهي إلى غاية موجودهم أو تقرب,"It causes harm to the subjects in many ways. First, farmers and merchants will find it difficult to buy livestock and merchandise and to procure cheaply the things that belong to (farming and commerce). The subjects have (all) the same or approximately the same amount of wealth. Competition between them already exhausts, or comes close to exhausting, their financial resources."
وإذا رافقهم السلطان في ذلك وماله أعظم كثيرا منهم فلا يكاد أحد منهم يحصل على غرضه في شيء من حاجاته ويدخل على النفوس من ذلك غم ونكد,"Now, when the ruler, who has so much more money than they, competes with them, scarcely a single one of them will (any longer) be able-to obtain the things he wants, and everybody will become worried and unhappy."
ثم إن السلطان قد ينتزع الكثير من ذلك إذا تعرض له غضا أو بأيسر ثمن أو لا يجد من يناقشه في شرائه فيبخس ثمنه على بائعه,"Furthermore, the ruler can appropriate much of (the agricultural products and the available merchandise), if it occurs to him. (He can do it) by force, or by buying things up at the cheapest possible price. Further, there may be no one who would dare to bid against him. Thus, he will be able to force the seller to lower his price."
ثم إذا حصل فوائد الفلاحة ومغلها كله من زرع أو حرير أو عسل أو سكر أو غير ذلك من أنواع الغلات وحصلت بضائع التجارة من سائر الأنواع فلا ينتظرون به حوالة الأسواق ولا نفاق البياعات لما يدعوهم إليه تكاليف الدولة,"Further, when agricultural products such as corn, silk, honey, sugar, and other kinds of agricultural products, or goods of any kind, become available, the ruler cannot wait for a (favorable) market and a boom, because he has to take care of government (needs)."
فيكلفون أهل تلك الأصناف من تاجر أو فلاح بشراء تلك البضائع ولا يرضون في أثمانها إلا القيم وأزيد فيستوعبون في ذلك ناض أموالهم وتبقى تلك البضائع بأيديهم عروضا جامدة ويمكثون عطلا من الإدارة التي فيها كسبهم ومعاشهم,"Therefore, he forces the merchants or farmers who deal in these particular products to buy from him. He will be satisfied only with the highest prices and more. (The merchants and farmers, on the other hand), will exhaust their liquid capital in such transactions. The merchandise they thus acquire will remain useless on their hands. They themselves will no longer be able to trade, which is what enables them to earn something and make their living."
وربما تدعوهم الضرورة إلى شيء من المال فيبيعون تلك السلع على كساد من الأسواق بأبخس ثمن.,"Often, they need money. Then, they have to sell the goods (that they were forced to buy from the ruler), at the lowest prices, during a slump in the market."
وربما يتكرر ذلك على التاجر والفلاح منهم بما يذهب رأس ماله فيقعد عن سوقه ويتعدد ذلك ويتكرر ويدخل به على الرعايا من العنت والمضايقة وفساد الأرباح ما يقبض آمالهم عن السعي في ذلك جملة ويؤدي إلى فساد الجباية,"Often, the merchant or farmer has to do the same thing over again. He thus exhausts his capital and has to go out of business. This becomes an often repeated process. The trouble and financial difficulties and the loss of profit which it causes the subjects, takes away from them all incentives to effort, thus ruining the fiscal (structure)."
فإن معظم الجباية إنما هي من الفلاحين والتجار ولا سيما بعد وضع المكوس ونمو الجباية بها فإذا انقبض الفلاحون عن الفلاحة وقعد التجار عن التجارة ذهبت الجباية جملة أو دخلها النقص المتفاحش,"Most of the revenue from taxes comes from farmers and merchants, especially once customs duties have been introduced and the tax revenue has been augmented by means of them. Thus, when the farmer gives up agriculture and the merchant goes out of business, the revenue from taxes vanishes altogether or becomes dangerously low."
وإذا قايس السلطان بين ما يحصل له من الجباية وبين هذه الأرباح القليلة وجدها بالنسبة إلى الجباية أقل من القليل,"Were the ruler to compare the revenue from taxes with the small profits (he reaps from trading himself), he would find the latter negligible in comparison with the former."
ثم إنه ولو كان مفيدا فيذهب له بحظ عظيم من الجباية فيما يعانيه من شراء أو بيع,"Even if (his trading) were profitable, it would still deprive him of a good deal of his revenue from taxes, so far as commerce is concerned."
فإنه من البعيد أن يوجد فيه من المكس ولو كان غيره في تلك الصفقات لكان تكسبها كلها حاصلا من جهة الجباية ثم فيه التعرض لأهل عمرانه واختلال الدولة بفسادهم ونقصهم,"It is unlikely that customs duties might be levied on (the ruler’s commercial activities). If, however, the same deals were made by others (and not by the ruler), the customs duties (levied in connection with them) would be included in the tax total. Furthermore, (the trading of the ruler) may cause the destruction of civilization and, through the destruction and decrease of (civilization), the disintegration of the dynasty."
فإن الرعايا إذا قعدوا عن تثمير أموالهم بالفلاحة والتجارة نقصت وتلاشت بالنفقات وكان فيها تلاف أحوالهم، فافهم ذلك,"When the subjects can no longer make their capital larger through agriculture and commerce, it will decrease and disappear as the result of expenditures. This will ruin their situation. This should be understood."
وكان الفرس لا يملكون عليهم إلا من أهل بيت المملكة ثم يختارونه من أهل الفضل والدين والأدب والسخاء والشجاعة والكرم ثم يشترطون عليه مع ذلك العدل وأن لا يتخذ صنعة فيضر بجيرانه,"The Persians made no one king except members of the royal house. Further, they chose him from among those (members of the royal house) who possessed virtue, religion, education, liberality, bravery, and nobility. Then, they stipulated in addition that he should be just. Also, he was not to take a farm, as this would harm his neighbors."
ولا يتاجر فيحب غلاء الأسعار في البضائع وأن لا يستخدم العبيد فإنهم لا يشيرون بخير ولا مصلحة.,"He was not to engage in trade, as this would of necessity raise the prices of all goods. And he was not to use slaves as servants, since they would not give good and beneficial advice."
واعلم أن السلطان لا ينمي ماله ولا يدر موجودة إلا الجباية وإدرارها إنما يكون بالعدل في أهل الأموال والنظر لهم بذلك فبذلك تنبسط آمالهم وتنشرح صدورهم للأخذ في تثمير الأموال وتنميتها فتعظم منها جباية السلطان,"It should be known that the finances of a ruler can be increased, and his financial resources improved, only through the revenue from taxes. (The revenue from taxes) can be improved only through the equitable treatment of people with property and regard for them. This makes their hopes rise, and they have the incentive to start making their capital bear fruit and grow. This, in turn, increases the ruler’s revenues in taxes."
وأما غير ذلك من تجارة أو فلج فإنما هو مضرة عاجلة للرعايا وفساد للجباية ونقص للعمارة,"Other (measures) taken by the ruler, such as engaging in commerce or agriculture, soon turn out to be harmful to the subjects, to be ruinous to the revenues, and to decrease cultural activity."
وقد ينتهي الحال بهؤلاء المنسلخين للتجارة والفلاحة من الأمراء والمتغلبين في البلدان أنهم يتعرضون لشراء الغلات والسلع من أربابها الواردين على بلدهم ويفرضون لذلك من الثمن ما يشاءون,"Amirs and other men in power in a country who engage in commerce and agriculture, reach a point where they undertake to buy agricultural products and goods from their owners who come to them, at prices fixed by themselves as they see fit."
ويبيعونها في وقتها لمن تحت أيديهم من الرعايا بما يفرضون من الثمن وهذه أشد من الأولى وأقرب إلى فساد الرعية واختلال أحوالهم,"Then, they resell these things to the subjects under their control, at the proper times, at prices fixed by themselves. This is even more dangerous, harmful, and ruinous for the subjects than the afore-mentioned (procedure)."
وربما يحمل السلطان على ذلك من يداخله من هذه الأصناف أعني التجار والفلاحين لما هي صناعته التي نشأ عليها فيحمل السلطان على ذلك,"The ruler is often influenced to choose such a (course) by that sort of people – I mean, merchants and farmers – who bring him into contact with the profession in which they have been reared. They influence the ruler to choose this (course)."
ويضرب معه بسهم لنفسه ليحصل على غرضه من جمع المال سريعا ولا سيما مع ما يحصل له من التجارة بلا مغرم ولا مكس فإنها أجدر بنمو الأموال وأسرع في تثميره ولا يفهم ما يدخل على السلطان من الضرر بنقص جبايته,"They work with him, but for their own profit, to garner quickly as much money as they may wish, especially through profits reaped from doing business without having to pay taxes and customs duties. Exemption from taxes and customs duties is more likely than anything else to cause one’s capital to grow, and it brings quick profits. These people do not understand how much damage is caused the ruler by each decrease in the revenue from taxes."
فينبغي للسلطان أن يحذر من هؤلاء ويعرض عن سعايتهم المضرة بجبايته وسلطانه,"The ruler, therefore, must guard against such persons, and not pay any attention to suggestions that are harmful to his revenues and his rule."
والله يلهمنا رشد أنفسنا وينفعنا بصالح الأعمال,"May God inspire us to choose the right course for ourselves, and may He make us profit from our beneficial actions."
والله تعالى أعلم.,There is no Lord except Him.
الفصل الحادي والأربعون في أن ثروة السلطان وحاشيته إنما تكون في وسط الدولة,"39. The. ruler and his entourage are wealthy only
in the middle (period) of the dynasty."
والسبب في ذلك أن الجباية في أول الدولة تتوزع على أهل القبيل والعصبية بمقدار غنائهم وعصبيتهم ولأن الحاجة إليهم في تمهيد الدولة كما قلناه من قبل,"The reason for this is that at the beginning of the dynasty, the revenues are distributed among the tribe and the people who share in the ruler’s group feeling, in accordance with their usefulness and group feeling and because they are needed to establish the dynasty, as we have stated before."
فرئيسهم في ذلك متجاف لهم عما يسمون إليه من الاستبداد عليهم فله عليهم عزة وله إليهم حاجة فلا يطير في سهمانه من الجباية إلا الأقل من حاجته,"Under these circumstances, their leader refrains in their favor from (claiming) the revenues which they would like to have. He feels compensated for (his restraint) by the control over them that he hopes to establish. They can put pressure on him, and he needs them. His share of the revenues is restricted to the very small (amounts) he needs."
فتجد حاشيته لذلك وأذياله من الوزراء والكتاب والموالي متملقين في الغالب وجاههم متقلص لأنه من جاه مخدومهم ونطاقه قد ضاق بمن يزاحمه فيه من أهل عصبيته,"Consequently, the members of his entourage and company, his wazirs, secretaries, and clients, usually can be observed to be destitute. Their position is restricted, because it depends on the position of their master, and the authority of (his position) is narrowed down by the competition of the people who share in his group feeling."
فإذا استفحلت طبيعة الملك وحصل لصاحب الدولة الاستبداد على قومه قبض أيديهم عن الجبايات إلا ما يطير لهم بين الناس في سهمانهم وتقل حظوظهم إذ ذاك لقلة غنائهم في الدولة بما انكبح من أعنتهم وصار الموالي والصنائع مساهمين لهم في القيام بالدولة وتمهيد الأمر,"Then, when royal authority has come into its own and the ruler has obtained control over his people, he prevents them from getting (any part of) the revenues, beyond their official shares. Their portions shrink, because their usefulness to the dynasty has diminished. Their influence has been checked, and clients and followers have come to share with them in the support of the dynasty and the establishment of its power."
فينفرد صاحب الدولة حينئذ بالجباية أو معظمها ويحتوي على الأموال ويحتجنها للنفقات في مهمات الأحوال فتكثر ثروته وتمتلئ خزائنه ويتسع نطاق جاهه ويعتز على سائر قومه,"At this time, the ruler disposes alone of the whole income from taxes, or the greater part of it. He keeps this money, and holds it for spending on important projects. His wealth grows. His treasuries are filled. The authority of his position expands, and he dominates all his people."
فيعظم حال حاشيته وذويه من وزير وكاتب وحاجب ومولى وشرطي ويتسع جاههم ويقتنون الأموال ويتأثلونها.,"As a consequence, the men of his entourage and retinue, the wazir, the secretary, the doorkeeper (hajib), the client, and the policeman, all become more important, and their positions expand. They acquire property and enrich themselves."
ثم إذا أخذت الدولة في الهرم بتلاشي العصبية وفناء القليل المعاهدين للدولة احتاج صاحب الأمر حينئذ إلى الأعوان والأنصار لكثرة الخوارج والمنازعين والثوار وتوهم الانتقاض,"Then, when the dynasty starts to become senile, as the result of the dissolution of group feeling and the disappearance of the tribe that founded it, the ruler needs supporters and helpers, because there are then many seceders, rivals, and rebels, and there is the fear of (complete) destruction."
فصار خراجه لظهرائه وأعوانه وهم أرباب السيوف وأهل العصبيات وأنفق خزائنه وحاصله في مهمات الدولة وقلت مع ذلك الجباية لما قدمناه من كثرة العطاء والإنفاق,"His revenues then go to his allies and supporters, military men who have their own group feelings. He spends his treasures and revenues on attempts to restore (the power of) the dynasty Moreover, the revenue from taxes decreases, as we have stated before because there are many allowances to be paid and expenditures to be made."
فيقل الخراج وتشتد حاجة الدولة إلى المال فيتقلص ظل النعمة والترف عن الخواص والحجاب والكتاب بتقلص الجاه عنهم وضيق نطاقه على صاحب الدولة,"The revenues from the land tax decrease. The dynasty’s need for money becomes more urgent. The intimates, the doorkeepers (hajib), and the secretaries no longer live under the shadow of prosperity and luxury, as their positions lose importance and the authority of the ruler’s (position) shrinks."
ثم تشتد حاجة صاحب الدولة إلى المال وتنفق أبناء البطانة والحاشية ما تأثله آباؤهم من الأموال في غير سبيلها من إعانة صاحب الدولة ويقبلون على غير ما كان عليه آباؤهم وسلفهم من المناصحة,"The ruler’s need for money at this time becomes even more urgent. The new generation within his inner circle and entourage spend the money with which their fathers had enriched themselves, for a purpose for which it was not intended, namely, that of helping the ruler. They begin to be no longer as sincerely loyal as their fathers and ancestors had been."
ويرى صاحب الدولة أنه أحق بتلك الأموال التي اكتسبت في دولة سلفه وبجاههم فيصطلمها وينتزعها منهم لنفسه شيئا فشيئا وواحدا بعد واحد على نسبة رتبهم وتنكر الدولة لهم,"The ruler, in turn, becomes of the opinion that he is more entitled than they to the wealth that was acquired (by their fathers) during the reign of his predecessors and with the help of their position. He takes it and appropriates it for himself, gradually (and) according to their ranks."
ويعود وبال ذلك على الدولة بفناء حاشيتها ورجالاتها وأهل الثروة والنعمة من بطانتها ويتقوض بذلك كثير من مباني المجد بعد أن يدعمه أهله ويرفعوه.,"(As a result,) the dynasty becomes detestable to them, and, in turn, it is the dynasty that suffers therefrom. It loses its entourage and great personalities and its rich and wealthy intimates. A great part of the edifice of glory crumbles, after having been supported and built up to a great height by those who shared in it."
وانظر ما وقع من ذلك لوزراء الدولة العباسية في بني قحطبة وبني برمك وبني سهل وبني طاهر وأمثالهم,"One may compare what happened in this regard to the ‘Abbasid wazirs, such as the Banu Qahtabah, the Barmecides, the Banu Sahl, the Banu Tahir, and others."
ثم في الدولة الأموية بالأندلس عند انحلالها أيام الطوائف في بني شهيد وبني أبي عبدة وبني حدير وبني برد وأمثالهم وكذا في الدولة التي أدركناها لعهدنا,"One may further (compare) what happened at the time of the dissolution of the Umayyad dynasty in Spain in the days of the reyes de taifas, to the Banu Shuhayd, the Banu Abi ‘Abdah, the Banu Hudayr, the Banu Burd, and others. The same is happening in the dynasty we have lived to see in our own time."
سنة الله التي قد خلت في عباده.,“This is how God proceeds. . . .
ولما يتوقعه أهل الدولة من أمثال هذه المعاطب صار الكثير منهم ينزعون إلى الفرار عن الرتب والتخلص من ربقة السلطان بما حصل في أيديهم من مال الدولة إلى قطر آخر,"Anticipating such dangerous situations, most of the people in the dynasty try to avoid holding any government position. They try to escape from government control and go to some other region with the government property they have acquired."
ويرون أنه أهنأ لهم وأسلم في إنفاقه وحصول ثمرته وهو من الأغلاط الفاحشة والأوهام المفسدة لأحوالهم ودنياهم,They are of the opinion that (to do) this will be more wholesome for them and give them the opportunity to spend and enjoy (their money) in greater safety. This assumption is a great mistake and a self-deception that will ruin them materially.
واعلم أن الخلاص من ذلك بعد الحصول فيه عسير ممتنع فإن صاحب هذا الغرض إذا كان هو الملك نفسه فلا تمكنه الرعية من ذلك طرفة عين ولا أهل العصبية المزاحمون له,"It should be known that it is difficult and impossible to escape (from official life) after having once been in it. When the person who has such intentions is the ruler himself, his subjects and the people who share in his group feeling and crowd around him will not for a moment permit him to escape."
بل في ظهور ذلك منه هدم لملكه وإتلاف لنفسه بمجاري العادة بذلك لأن ربقة الملك يعسر الخلاص منها ولا سيما عند استفحال الدولة وضيق نطاقها وما يعرض فيها من البعد عن المجد والخلال والتخلق بالشر,"If any such (intention) on his part becomes visible, it means the destruction of his realm and the ruin of himself. (This would be) the usual result in such a case, for it is difficult to escape from the servitude of royal authority, especially when the dynasty has reached its peak and its authority is shrinking, and it is becoming more remote from glory and good qualities, and acquiring bad qualities."
وأما إذا كان صاحب هذا الغرض من بطانة السلطان وحاشيته وأهل الرتب في دولته فقل أن يخلى بينه وبين ذلك.,"If the person who intends to escape is one of the ruler’s inner circle and entourage or one of the dignitaries in his dynasty, he rarely is given the opportunity to do so."
أما أولا فلما يراه الملوك أن ذويهم وحاشيتهم بل وسائر رعاياهم مماليك لهم مطلعون على ذات صدورهم فلا يسمحون بحل ربقته من الخدمة ضنا بأسرارهم وأحوالهم أن يطلع عليها أحد، وغيرة من خدمته لسواهم,"The reason is, in the first place, that rulers consider their people and entourage and, indeed, all their subjects as slaves familiar with their thoughts and sentiments. Therefore, they are not disposed to loosen the bonds of servitude binding the person (who may have the desire to escape). They want to avoid the chance that someone (outside) might come to know (their secrets) and their circumstances (through that person), and they are averse to letting him become the servant of others."
ولقد كان بنو أمية بالأندلس يمنعون أهل دولتهم من السفر لفريضة الحج لما يتوهمونه من وقوعهم بأيدي بني العباس فلم يحج سائر أيامهم أحد من أهل دولتهم,"The Spanish Umayyads thus prevented their people from going abroad to fulfill the duty of the pilgrimage. They were afraid they might fall into the hands of the ‘Abbasids. During all their days, none of their people made the pilgrimage."
وما أبيح الحج لأهل الدول من الأندلس إلا بعد فراغ شأن الأموية ورجوعها إلى الطوائف,"The pilgrimage was (again) permitted to (Spaniards) who belonged to the (various) dynasties in Spain, only after the Umayyad rule had come to an end and (Spain) had reverted to control of the reyes de ta’ifas."
وأما ثانيا فلأنهم وإن سمحوا بحل ربقته فلا يسمحون بالتجافي عن ذلك المال لما يرون أنه جزء من مالهم كما يرون أنه جزء من دولتهم إذ لم يكتسب إلا بها وفي ظل جاهها،,"In the second place, even if rulers were kind enough to loosen the bonds (of a person who intended to escape from their control), their kindness would not extend to leaving his property alone. They consider it part of their own wealth in the same way that its owner has been part of their dynasty in as much as it was obtained only through the dynasty and under the shadow of its authority."
فتحوم نفوسهم على انتزاع ذلك المال والتقامه كما هو جزء من الدولة ينتفعون به,"Therefore, they are most eager to take his property and to let it remain as it is, as something belonging to the dynasty that they (are entitled to) use."
ثم إذا توهمنا أنه خلص بذلك المال إلى قطر آخر وهو في النادر الأقل فتمتد إليه أعين الملوك بذلك القطر وينتزعونه بالإرهاب والتخويف تعريضا أو بالقهر ظاهرا لما يرون أنه مال الجباية والدول وأنه مستحق للإنفاق في المصالح,"Furthermore, assuming that he gets away with his property to some other region, which happens in very rare cases, (he is not safe there either, because) the eyes of the rulers in that region fall on him, and they deprive him of (his property) by indirect threats and intimidation or by open force. They consider (his property) as revenue or as government property, which should be spent in the public interest."
وإذا كانت أعينهم تمتد إلى أهل الثروة واليسار المتكسبين من وجوه المعاش فأحرى بها أن تمتد إلى أموال الجباية والدول التي تجد السبيل إليه بالشرع والعادة,"If the eyes of (rulers) can fall upon rich and wealthy people who have acquired their money in the exercise of a profession, as we have mentioned, it is all the more understandable that their eyes can fall upon tax monies and government property, to which they have access by law and custom."
ولقد حاول السلطان أبو يحيى زكريا بن أحمد اللحياني تاسع أو عاشر ملوك الحفصيين بإفريقة الخروج عن عهدة الملك واللحاق بمصر فرارا من طلب صاحب الثغور الغربية لما استجمع لغزو تونس,"Sultan Abu Yahya Zakariya’ b. Ahmad al-Lihyani, the ninth or the tenth of the Hafsid rulers in Ifrigiyah, intended to get away from the responsibility of royal authority and to go to Egypt. He wanted to escape the ruler of the western border regions when (the latter) prepared for a raid on Tunis."
فاستعمل اللحياني الرحلة إلى ثغر طرابلس يوري بتمهيده وركب السفين من هنالك وخلص إلى الإسكندرية بعد أن حمل جميع ما وجده ببيت المال من الصامت والذخيرة وباع كل ما كان بخزائنهم من المتاع والعقار والجوهر حتى الكتب,"(Ibn) al-Lihyani, therefore, pretended to make a trip to the border region of Tripoli, in order to conceal the preparations (for his escape). There, he boarded ship and escaped to Alexandria. He had taken with him all the property and treasures he found in the treasury, and he had sold all the furniture, real property, and jewelry in the Hafsid treasuries, even including the books."
واحتمل ذلك كله إلى مصر ونزل على الملك الناصر محمد بن قلاون سنة سبع عشرة من المائة الثامنة فأكرم نزله ورفع مجلسه ولم يزل يستخلص ذخيرته شيئا فشيئا بالتعريض إلى أن حصل عليها,"He took all that along with him to Egypt. He took up residence with al-Malik an-Nasir Muhammad b. Qala’un in the year 719 [1319]. (Al-Malik an-Nasir) treated him hospitably and gave him a place of honor. But he did not cease to deprive him of his treasure, gradually, by indirect demands, until he had gotten it all."
ولم يبق معاش ابن اللحياني إلا في جرابته التي فرضت له إلى أن هلك سنة ثمان وعشرين حسبما نذكره في أخباره,"The only livelihood remaining to Ibn al-Lihyani was the salary that alMalik an-Nasir granted him until his death in 728 [1327/28], as we shall mention in his history."
فهذا وأمثاله من جملة الوسواس الذي يعتري أهل الدول لما يتوقعونه من ملوكهم من المعاطب وإنما يخلصون إن اتفق لهم الخلاص بأنفسهم وما يتوهمونه من الحاجة فغلط ووهم,"This and similar things belong among the delusions to which the people of dynasties fall prey, when they suspect that the ruler is a danger to them. They may indeed escape with their lives, if they succeed in escaping. But to imagine that it is a necessity is an erroneous and baseless assumption."
والذي حصل لهم من الشهرة بخدمة الدول كاف في وجدان المعاش لهم بالجرايات السلطانية أو بالجاه في انتحال طرق الكسب من التجارة والفلاحة,"The renown they obtain in government service suffices for them to find livelihoods for themselves, either in the form of a salary paid by a ruler or in the form of a position in the profitable exercise of commerce and agriculture."
"والدول أنساب لكن:
النفس راغبة إذا رغبتها *** وإذا ترد إلى قليل تقنع","Dynasties are (inter) related, but The soul is ambitious, if it is given the opportunity. But if it is reduced to little, it is satisfied."
والله سبحانه هو الرزاق وهو الموفق بمنه وفضله,God “gives sustenance. He is strong and solid.”
الفصل الثاني والأربعون في أن نقص العطاء من السلطان نقص في الجباية,40. Curtailment of the allowances given by the ruler implies curtailment of the tax revenue.
والسبب في ذلك أن الدولة والسلطان هي السوق الأعظم للعالم ومنه مادة العمران فإذا احتجن السلطان الأموال أو الجبايات أو فقدت فلم يصرفها في مصارفها قل حينئذ ما بأيدي الحاشية والحامية,"The reason for this is that dynasty and government serve as the world’s greatest market place, providing the substance of civilization. Now, if the ruler holds on to property and revenue, or they are lost or not properly used by him, then the property in the possession of the ruler’s entourage will be small."
وانقطع أيضا ما كان يصل منهم لحاشيتهم وذويهم وقلت نفقاتهم جملة وهم معظم السواد ونفقاتهم أكثر مادة للأسواق ممن سواهم,"The gifts which they, in their turn, had been used to give to their entourage and people, stop, and all their expenditures are cut down. They constitute the greatest number of people (who make expenditures), and their expenditures provide more of the substance of trade than (the expenditures of) any other (group of people)."
فيقع الكساد حينئذ في الأسواق وتضعف الأرباح في المتاجر فيقل الخراج لذلك لأن الخراج والجباية إنما تكون من الاعتمار والمعاملات ونفاق الأسواق وطلب الناس للفوائد والأرباح,"Thus (when they stop spending), business slumps and commercial profits decline because of the shortage of capital. Revenues from the land tax decrease, because the land tax and taxation (in general) depend on cultural activity, commercial transactions, business prosperity, and the people’s demand for gain and profit."
ووبال ذلك عائد على الدولة بالنقص لقلة أموال السلطان حينئذ بقلة الخراج فإن الدولة كما قلناه هي السوق الأعظم أم الأسواق كلها وأصلها ومادتها في الدخل والخرج,"It is the dynasty that suffers from the situation and that has a deficit, because under these circumstances the property of the ruler decreases in consequence of the decrease in revenues from the land tax. As we have stated, the dynasty is the greatest market, the mother and base of all trade. (It is the market that provides) the substance of income and expenditures (for trade)."
فإن كسدت وقلت مصارفها فأجدر بما بعدها من الأسواق أن يلحقها مثل ذلك وأشد منه وأيضا فالمال إنما هو متردد بين الرعية والسلطان منهم إليه ومنه إليهم,"If government business slumps and the volume of trade is small, the dependent markets will naturally show the same symptoms, and to a greater degree. Furthermore, money circulates between subjects and ruler, moving back and forth."
فإذا حبسه السلطان عنده فقدته الرعية,"Now, if the ruler keeps it to himself, it is lost to the subjects."
سنة الله في عباده.,This is how God proceeds with His servants.
الفصل الثالث والأربعون في أن الظلم مؤذن بخراب العمران,41. Injustice brings about the ruin of civilization
اعلم أن العدوان على الناس في أموالهم ذاهب بآمالهم في تحصيلها واكتسابها لما يرونه حينئذ من أن غايتها ومصيرها انتهابها من أيديهم وإذا ذهبت آمالهم في اكتسابها وتحصيلها انقبضت أيديهم عن السعي في ذلك,"It should be known that attacks on people’s property remove the incentive to acquire and gain property. People, then, become of the opinion that the purpose and ultimate destiny of (acquiring property) is to have it taken away from them. When the incentive to acquire and obtain property is gone, people no longer make efforts to acquire any."
وعلى قدر الاعتداء ونسبته يكون انقباض الرعايا عن السعي في الاكتساب فإذا كان الاعتداء كثيرا عاما في جميع أبواب المعاش كان القعود عن الكسب كذلك لذهابه بالآمال جملة بدخوله من جميع أبوابها,"The extent and degree to which property rights are infringed upon determines the extent and degree to which the efforts of the subjects to acquire property slacken. When attacks (on property) are extensive and general, extending to all means of making a livelihood, business inactivity, too, becomes (general), because the general extent of (such attacks upon property) means a general destruction of the incentive (to do business)."
وإن كان الاعتداء يسيرا كان الانقباض عن الكسب على نسبته والعمران ووفوره ونفاق أسواقه إنما هو بالأعمال وسعي الناس في المصالح والمكاسب ذاهبين وجائين,"If the attacks upon property are but light, the stoppage of gainful activity is correspondingly slight. Civilization and its well-being as well as business prosperity depend on productivity and people’s efforts in all directions in their own interest and profit."
فإذا قعد الناس عن المعاش وانقبضت أيديهم عن المكاسب كسدت أسواق العمران وانتفضت الأحوال وابذعر الناس في الآفاق من غير تلك الإيالة في طلب الرزق فيما خرج عن نطاقها,"When people no longer do business in order to make a living, and when they cease all gainful activity, the business of civilization slumps, and everything decays. People scatter everywhere in search of sustenance, to places outside the jurisdiction of their present government."
فخف ساكن القطر وخلت دياره وخرجت أمصاره واختل باختلاله حال الدولة والسلطان لما أنها صورة للعمران تفسد بفساد مادتها ضرورة,"The population of the particular region becomes light. The settlements there become empty. The cities lie in ruins. The disintegration of (civilization) causes the disintegration of the status of dynasty and ruler, because (their peculiar status) constitutes the form of civilization and the form necessarily decays when its matter (in this case, civilization) decays."
وانظر في ذلك ما حكاه المسعودي في أخبار الفرس عن الموبذان صاحب الدين عندهم أيام بهرام بن بهرام وما عرض به للملك في إنكار ما كان عليه من الظلم والغفلة عن عائدته على الدولة,"One may compare (here) the story which al-Mas’udi tells in connection with the history of the Persians. In the days of King Bahram b. Bahram, the Mobedhan, the chief religious dignitary among the Persians, expressed to the King his disapproval of the latter’s injustice and neglect for the consequences that his injustice must bring upon the dynasty."
بضرب المثال في ذلك على لسان البوم حين سمع الملك أصواتها وسأله عن فهم كلامها فقال له: «إن بوما ذكرا يروم نكاح بوم أنثى وإنها شرطت عليه عشرين قرية من الخراب في أيام بهرام,"He did this through a parable, which he placed in the mouth of an owl. The King, hearing the cry of (an owl), asked (the Mobedhan) whether he understood what it was saying. (The Mobedhan) replied: “A male owl wanted to marry a female owl. The female owl, as a condition prior to consent, asked the male owl for the gift of twenty villages ruined in the days of Bahram, that she might hoot in them."
فقبل شرطها، وقال لها: إن دامت أيام الملك أقطعتك ألف قرية وهذا أسهل مرام».,"(The male owl) accepted her condition and said to her: ‘If the King continues to rule, I shall give you a thousand ruined villages. This is of all wishes the easiest to fulfill.'”"
فتنبه الملك من غفلته وخلا بالموبذان وسأله عن مراده فقال له أيها الملك إن الملك لا يتم عزه إلا بالشريعة والقيام لله بطاعته والتصرف تحت أمره ونهيه,"The King was stirred out of his negligence by that story. He had a private (talk) with the Mobedhan and asked him what he had in mind. (The Mobedhan) replied: “O King, the might of royal authority materializes only through the religious law, obedience toward God, and compliance with His commands and prohibitions."
ولا قوام للشريعة إلا بالملك ولا عز للملك إلا بالرجال ولا قوام للرجال إلا بالمال ولا سبيل إلى المال إلا بالعمارة ولا سبيل للعمارة إلا بالعدل,The religious law persists only through royal authority. Mighty royal authority is achieved only through men. Men persist only with the help of property. The only way to property is through cultivation. The only way to cultivation is through justice.
والعدل الميزان المنصوب بين الخليقة نصبه الرب وجعل له قيما وهو الملك,"Justice is a balance set up among mankind. The Lord set it up and appointed an overseer of it, and that is the ruler."
وأنت أيها الملك عمدت إلى الضياع فانتزعتها من أربابها وعمارها وهم أرباب الخراج ومن تؤخذ منهم الأموال وأقطعتها الحاشية والخدم وأهل البطالة,"You, O King, went after the farms and took them away from their owners and cultivators. They are the people who pay the land tax and from whom one gets money. You gave their farms as fiefs to (your) entourage and servants and to sluggards."
فتركوا العمارة والنظر في العواقب وما يصلح الضياع وسومحوا في الخراج لقربهم من الملك ووقع الحيف على من بقي من أرباب الخراج وعمار الضياع,"They did not cultivate (the farms) and did not heed the consequences. (They did not look for the things) that would be good for the farms. They were leniently treated with regard to the land tax (and were not asked to pay it), because they were close to the king. The remaining landowners who did pay the land tax and cultivated their farms had to carry an unjust burden."
فانجلوا عن ضياعهم وخلوا ديارهم وأووا إلى ما تعذر من الضياع فسكنوها فقلت العمارة وخربت الضياع وقلت الأموال وهلكت الجنود والرعية وطمع في ملك فارس من جاورهم من الملوك لعلمهم بانقطاع المواد التي لا تستقيم دعائم الملك إلا بها.,"Therefore, they left their farms and abandoned their settlements. They took refuge in farms that were far away or difficult (of access), and lived on them. Thus, cultivation slackened, and the farms were ruined. There was little money, and soldiers and subjects perished. Neighboring rulers coveted the Persian realm, because they were aware of the fact that the basic materials that alone maintain the foundation of a realm had been cut off.”"
فلما سمع الملك ذلك أقبل على النظر في ملكه وانتزعت الضياع من أيدي الخاصة وردت على أربابها وحملوا على رسومهم السالفة وأخذوا في العمارة وقوي من ضعف منهم,"When the King heard that, he proceeded to look into (the affairs of) his realm. The farms were taken away from the intimates of the ruler and restored to their owners. They were again treated, as they had formerly been treated. They began again to cultivate (their farms). Those who had been weak gained in strength."
فعمرت الأرض وأخصبت البلاد وكثرت الأموال عند جباة الخراج وقويت الجنود وقطعت مواد الأعداء وشحنت الثغور وأقبل الملك على مباشرة أموره بنفسه فحسنت أيامه وانتظم ملكه,"The land was cultivated, and the country became prosperous. There was much money for the collectors of the land tax. The army was strengthened. The enemies’ sources of (strength) were cut off. The frontier garrisons were manned. The ruler proceeded to take personal charge of his affairs. His days were prosperous, and his realm was well organized."
فتفهم من هذه الحكاية أن الظلم مخرب للعمران وأن عائدة الخراب في العمران على الدولة بالفساد والانتقاض.,The lesson this (story) teaches is that injustice ruins civilization. The ruin (of civilization) has as its consequence the complete destruction of the dynasty.
ولا تنظر في ذلك إلى أن الاعتداء قد يوجد بالأمصار العظيمة من الدول التي بها ولم يقع فيها خراب واعلم أن ذلك إنما جاء من قبل المناسبة بين الاعتداء وأحوال أهل المصر,"In this connection, one should disregard the fact that dynasties (centered) in great cities often infringe upon justice and still are not ruined. It should be known that this is the result of a relationship that exists between such infringements and the situation of the urban population."
فلما كان المصر كبيرا وعمرانه كثيرا وأحواله متسعة بما لا ينحصر كان وقوع النقص فيه بالاعتداء والظلم يسيرا لأن النقص إنما يقع بالتدريج فإذا خفي بكثرة الأحوال واتساع الأعمال في المصر لم يظهر أثره إلا بعد حين,"When a city is large and densely populated and unlimited in the variety of its conditions, the loss it suffers from hostile acts and injustice is small, because such losses take place gradually. Because of the great variety of conditions and the manifold productivity of a particular city, any loss may remain concealed. Its consequences will become visible only after some time."
وقد تذهب تلك الدولة المعتدية من أصلها قبل خراب وتجيء الدولة الأخرى فترفعه بجدتها وتجبر النقص الذي كان خفيا فيه فلا يكاد يشعر به إلا أن ذلك في الأقل النادر,"Thus, the dynasty which committed the infringements (of justice) may be replaced before the city is ruined. Another dynasty may make its appearance and restore the city with the help of its wealth. Thus, the (previous) loss which had remained concealed, is made up and is scarcely noticed. This, however, happens only rarely."
والمراد من هذا أن حصول النقص في العمران عن الظلم والعدوان أمر واقع لا بد منه لما قدمناه ووباله عائد على الدول.,"The proven fact is that civilization inevitably suffers losses through injustice and hostile acts, as we have mentioned, and it is the dynasty that suffers therefrom."
ولا تحسبن الظلم إنما هو أخذ المال أو الملك من يد مالكه من غير عوض ولا سبب كما هو المشهور بل الظلم أعم من ذلك وكل من أخذ ملك أحد أو غصبه في عمله أو طالبه بغير حق أو فرض عليه حقا لم يفرضه الشرع فقد ظلمه,"Injustice should not be understood to imply only the confiscation of money or other property from the owners, without compensation and without cause. It is commonly understood in that way, but it is something more general than that. Whoever takes someone’s property, or uses him for forced labor, or presses an unjustified claim against him, or imposes upon him a duty not required by the religious law, does an injustice to that particular person."
فجباة الأموال بغير حقها ظلمة والمعتدون عليها ظلمة والمنتهبون لها ظلمة والمانعون لحقوق الناس ظلمة وخصاب الأملاك على العموم ظلمة,"People who collect unjustified taxes commit an injustice. Those who infringe upon property (rights) commit an injustice. Those who take away property commit an injustice. Those who deny people their rights commit an injustice. Those who, in general, take property by force, commit an injustice."
ووبال ذلك كله عائد على الدولة بخراب العمران الذي هو مادتها لإذهابه الآمال من أهله,"It is the dynasty that suffers from all these acts, in as much as civilization, which is the substance of the dynasty, is ruined when people have lost all incentive."
واعلم أن هذه هي الحكمة المقصودة للشارع في تحريم الظلم وهو ما ينشأ عنه من فساد العمران وخرابه وذلك مؤذن بانقطاع النوع البشري,"It should be known that this is what the Lawgiver (Muhammad) actually had in mind when he forbade injustice. He meant the resulting destruction and ruin of civilization, which ultimately permits the eradication of the human species."
وهي الحكمة العامة المراعية للشرع في جميع مقاصده الضرورية الخمسة من حفظ الدين والنفس والعقل والنسل والمال.,"This is what the religious law quite generally and wisely aims at in emphasizing five things as necessary: the preservation of (1) the religion, (2) the soul (life), (3) the intellect, (4) progeny, and (5) property."
فلما كان الظلم كما رأيت مؤذنا بانقطاع النوع لما أدى إليه من تخريب العمران، كانت حكمة الخطر فيه موجودة، فكان تحريمه مهما،,"Since, as we have seen, injustice calls for the eradication of the (human) species by leading to the ruin of civilization, it contains in itself a good reason for being prohibited. Consequently, it is important that it be forbidden."
وأدلته من القرآن والسنة كثيرة، أكثر من أن يأخذها قانون الضبط والحصر.,There is ample evidence for that in the Qur’an and the Sunnah. It is much too ample to have it accurately or fully presented here.
ولو كان كل واحد قادرا على الظلم لوضع بإزائه من العقوبات الزاجرة ما وضع بإزاء غيره من المفسدات للنوع التي يقدر كل أحد على اقترافها من الزنا والقتل والسكر,"If injustice were to be committed by every individual, the list of deterring punishments that would then have been given for it (in the religious law) would be as large as that given for the other (crimes) which lead to the destruction of the human species and which everybody is capable of committing, such as adultery, murder, and drunkenness."
إلا أن الظلم لا يقدر عليه إلا من يقدر عليه لأنه إنما يقع من أهل القدرة والسلطان فبولغ في ذمه وتكرير الوعيد فيه عسى أن يكون الوازع فيه للقادر عليه في نفسه,"However, injustice can be committed only by persons who cannot be touched, only by persons who have power and authority. Therefore, injustice has been very much censured, and repeated threats against it have been expressed in the hope that perhaps the persons who are able to commit injustice will find a restraining influence in themselves."
«وما ربك بظلام للعبيد 41: 46»,“Your Lord does not do injustice to His servants.”
ولا تقولن إن العقوبة قد وضعت بإزاء الحرابة في الشرع وهي من ظلم القادر لأن المحارب زمن حرابته قادر,"It should not be objected that punishment for highway robbery is provided for in the religious law, and that (highway robbery) is an injustice that can be committed only by someone who has the ability to commit it, in as much as the highway robber, when he commits the robbery, must have the ability to do it."
فإن في الجواب عن ذلك طريقين. أحدهما أن تقول العقوبة على ما يقترفه من الجنايات في نفس أموال على ما ذهب إليه كثير وذلك إنما يكون بعد القدرة عليه والمطالبة بجنايته وأما نفس الحرابة فهي خلو من العقوبة.,"The reply to that would be twofold: First, it may be said that the punishment laid down for (highway robbery) is for crimes against life or property that (the highway robber) commits. This is an opinion held by many. The (punishment applies) only after one has gained power over him and brought him to account for his crime. Highway robbery itself has no fixed legal punishment."
الطريق الثاني أن تقول: المحارب لا يوصف بالقدرة لأنا إنما نعني بقدرة الظالم اليد المبسوطة التي لا تعارضها قدرة فهي المؤذنة بالخراب,"Second, it may be said that the highway robber cannot be described as having the ability (to commit injustice), because we understand by ability to commit injustice that the person has a free hand and there is no rival power, which means that he has (a power to) bring about (complete) ruin."
وأما قدرة المحارب فإنما هي إخافة يجعلها ذريعة لأخذ الأموال والمدافعة عنها بيد الكل موجودة شرعا وسياسة فليست من القدر المؤذن بالخراب,"The ability of the highway robber is merely an ability to cause fear. (This fear) then enables the highway robber to take away the property of others. Everyone may defend himself against it, according to both the religious and the political law. It is not, then, an ability that could bring about (complete) ruin."
والله قادر على ما يشاء.,God has power to do what He wishes.
ومن أشد الظلامات وأعظمها في إفساد العمران تكليف الأعمال وتسخير الرعايا بغير حق وذلك أن الأعمال من قبيل المتمولات كما سنبين في باب الرزق,"One of the greatest injustices and one which contributes most to the destruction of civilization is the unjustified imposition of tasks and the use of the subjects for forced labor. This is so because labor belongs to the things that constitute capital, as we shall explain in the chapter on sustenance."
لأن الرزق والكسب إنما هو قيم أعمال أهل العمران. فإذا مساعيهم وأعمالهم كلها متمولات ومكاسب لهم بل لا مكاسب لهم سواها,Gain and sustenance represent the value realized from labor among civilized people. All their efforts and all their labors are (means) for them (to acquire) capital and (to make a) profit. They have no other way to make a profit except (through labor).
فإن الرعية المعتملين في العمارة إنما معاشهم ومكاسبهم من اعتمالهم ذلك فإذا كلفوا العمل في غير شأنهم واتخذوا سخريا في معاشهم بطل كسبهم واغتصبوا قيمة عملهم ذلك وهو متمولهم,"Subjects employed in cultural enterprises gain their livelihood and profit from such activities. Now, if they are obliged to work outside their own field and are used for forced labor unrelated to their (ordinary ways of) making a living, they no longer have any profit and are thus deprived of the price of their labor, which is their capital (asset)."
فدخل عليهم الضرر وذهب لهم حظ كبير من معاشهم بل هو معاشهم بالجملة وإن تكرر ذلك عليهم أفسد آمالهم في العمارة وقعدوا عن السعي فيها جملة فأدى ذلك إلى انتقاض العمران وتخريبه,"They suffer, and a good deal of their livelihood is gone, or even all of it. If this occurs repeatedly, all incentive to cultural enterprise is destroyed, and they cease utterly to make an effort. This leads to the destruction and ruin of civilization."
والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم وبه التوفيق,"“God gives sustenance to whomever He wishes to give it, without accounting.”"
وأعظم من ذلك في الظلم وإفساد العمران والدولة التسلط على أموال الناس بشراء ما بين أيديهم بأبخس الأثمان ثم فرض البضائع عليهم بأرفع الأثمان على وجه الغصب والإكراه في الشراء والبيع,An injustice even greater and more destructive of civilization and the dynasty than (the one just mentioned) is the appropriation of people’s property by buying their possesions as cheaply as possible and then reselling the merchandise to them at the highest possible prices by means of forced sales and purchases.
وربما تفرض عليهم تلك الأثمان على التواحي والتعجيل فيتعللون في تلك الخسارة التي تلحقهم بما تحدثهم المطامع من جبر ذلك بحوالة الأسواق في تلك البضائع التي فرضت عليهم بالغلاء إلى بيعها بأبخس الأثمان وتعود خسارة ما بين الصفقتين على رءوس أموالهم.,"Often, people have to accept (high) prices with the privilege of later payment. They console (themselves) for the loss they suffer (at the moment) with the hope that the market will fluctuate in favor of the merchandise that had been sold to them at such a high price, and that their loss will be canceled later on. But then, they are required to make payment at once, and they are forced to sell the merchandise at the lowest possible price. The loss involved in the two transactions affects their capital."
وقد يعم ذلك أصناف التجار المقيمين بالمدينة والواردين من الآفاق في البضائع وسائر السوقة وأهل الدكاكين في المآكل والفواكه وأهل الصنائع فيما يتخذ من الآلات والمواعين,"This (situation) affects all kinds of merchants, those resident in town and those who import merchandise from elsewhere. (It also affects) the peddlers and shopkeepers who deal in food and fruit, as well as the craftsmen who deal in the instruments and implements that are in general use."
فتشمل الخسارة سائر الأصناف والطبقات وتتوالى على الساعات وتجحف برءوس الأموال ولا يجدون عنها وليجة إلا القعود عن الأسواق لذهاب رءوس الأموال في جبرها بالأرباح,"The loss affects all professions and classes quite generally. This goes on from hour to hour. It causes (all) capital funds to dwindle. The only possibility that remains is for the merchants to go out of business, because their capital is gone, as it can no longer be restored by the profits."
ويتثاقل الواردون من الآفاق لشراء البضائع وبيعها من أجل ذلك فتكسد الأسواق ويبطل معاش الرعايا لأن عامته من البيع والشراء,"Merchants who come from elsewhere for the purchase and sale of merchandise are slow to come, because of that situation. Business declines, and the subjects lose their livelihood, which, generally, comes from trading."
وإذا كانت الأسواق عطلا منها بطل معاشهم وتنقص جباية السلطان أو تفسد لأن معظمها من أوسط الدولة وما بعدها إنما هو من المكوس على البياعات كما قدمناه,"Therefore, if no (trading) is being done in the markets, they have no livelihood, and the tax revenue of the ruler decreases or deteriorates, since, in the middle (period) of a dynasty and later on, most of the tax revenue comes from customs duties on commerce, as we have stated before."
ويؤول ذلك إلى تلاشي الدولة وفساد عمران المدينة ويتطرق هذا الخلل على التدريج ولا يشعر به.,This leads to the dissolution of the dynasty and the decay of urban civilization. The disintegration comes about gradually and imperceptibly.
هذا ما كان بأمثال هذه الذرائع والأسباب إلى أخذ الأموال وأما أخذها مجانا والعدوان على الناس في أموالهم وحرمهم ودمائهم وأسرارهم وأعراضهم فهو يفضي إلى الخلل والفساد دفعة وتنتقض الدولة سريعا بما ينشأ عنه من الهرج المفضي إلى الانتقاض,"This happens whenever the ways and means of seizing property described above are used. On the other hand, if (the property) is taken outright and if the hostile acts are extended to affect the property, the wives, the lives, the skins, and the honor of people, it will lead to sudden disintegration and decay and the quick destruction of the dynasty. It will result in disturbances leading to complete destruction."
ومن أجل هذه المفاسد حظر الشرع ذلك كله وشرع المكايسة في البيع والشراء وحظر أكل أموال الناس بالباطل سدا لأبواب المفاسد المفضية إلى انتقاض العمران بالهرج أو بطلان المعاش,"On account of these evil (consequences), all such (unfair activities) are prohibited by the religious law. The religious law legalizes the use of cunning in trading, but forbids depriving people of their property illegally. The purpose is to prevent such evil (consequences), which would lead to the destruction of civilization through disturbances or the lack of opportunity to make a living."
واعلم أن الداعي لذلك كله إنما هو حاجة الدولة والسلطان إلى الإكثار من المال بما يعرض لهم من الترف في الأحوال فتكثر نفقاتهم ويعظم الخرج ولا يفي به الدخل على القوانين المعتادة,"It should be known that all these (practices) are caused by the need for more money on the part of dynasty and ruler, because they have become accustomed to luxurious living. Their expenditures increase, and much spending is done. The ordinary income does not meet (the expenditures)."
يستحدثون ألقابا ووجوها يوسعون بها الجباية ليفي لهم الدخل بالخرج ثم لا يزال الترف يزيد والخرج بسببه يكثر والحاجة إلى أموال الناس تشتد ونطاق الدولة بذلك يزيد إلى أن تمحي دائرتها ويذهب برسمها ويغلبها طالبها,"Therefore, the ruler invents new sorts and kinds of taxes, in order to increase the revenues and to be able to balance the budget. But luxury continues to grow, and spending increases on account of it. The need for (appropriating) people’s property becomes stronger and stronger. In this way, the authority of the dynasty shrinks until its influence is wiped out and its identity lost and it is defeated by an attacker."
والله أعلم.,God determines all affairs.
الفصل الرابع والأربعون في أن الحجاب كيف يقع في الدول وفي أنه يعظم عند الهرم,42. How it happens that access to the ruler becomes restricted in the dynasty. (Such restriction) becomes important when the dynasty grows senile.
اعلم أن الدولة في أول أمرها تكون بعيدة عن منازع الملك كما قدمناه لأنه لا بد لها من العصبية التي بها يتم أمرها ويحصل استيلاؤها والبداوة هي شعار العصبية,"It should be known that at the beginning, as we have mentioned before, the dynasty is remote from royal aspirations. It needs group feeling through which its power and domination can materialize, and the desert attitude is characteristic of group feeling."
والدولة إن كان قيامها بالدين فإنه بعيد عن منازع الملك وإن كان قيامها بعز الغلب فقط فالبداوة التي بها يحصل الغلب بعيدة أيضا عن منازع الملك ومذاهبه,"A dynasty based upon religion is remote from royal aspirations. In one based exclusively upon superior (political) power, the desert attitude, through which superiority is achieved, likewise is remote from royal aspirations and ways."
فإذا كانت الدولة في أول أمرها بدوية كان صاحبها على حال الغضاضة والبداوة والقرب من الناس وسهولة الإذن فإذا رسخ عزه وصار إلى الانفراد بنفسه عن الناس للحديث مع أوليائه في خواص شئونه لما يكثر حينئذ بحاشيته,"Now, if a dynasty at the beginning of its rule is a Bedouin one, the ruler possesses austerity and the desert attitude. He is close to the people and easily accessible. Then, when his power is firmly established, he comes to claim all the glory for himself. He needs to keep away from the people and to remain aloof with his friends, in order to be able to talk with them about his special (private) affairs, since his following has by then become large."
فيطلب الانفراد من العامة ما استطاع ويتخذ الإذن ببابه على من لا يأمنه من أوليائه وأهل دولته ويتخذ حاجبا له عن الناس يقيمه ببابه لهذه الوظيفة,"Therefore, he seeks to keep away from the common people as much as possible. He employs someone at his door to admit (only) those of his friends and of the people of the dynasty whom he cannot avoid, and to prevent people (in general) from having access to him. (That person) is stationed at the (ruler’s) door to exercise his function."
ثم إذا استفحل الملك وجاءت مذاهبه ومنازعة استحالت أخلاق صاحب الدولة إلى أخلاق الملك وهي أخلاق غريبة مخصوصة يحتاج مباشرها إلى مداراتها ومعاملتها بما يجب لها,"Then, when royal authority flourishes and royal ways and aspirations make their appearance, the ruler adopts royal character qualities. They are strange, peculiar qualities. They must be carefully handled in the proper way by those who are in contact with them."
وربما جهل تلك الأخلاق منهم بعض من يباشرهم فوقع فيما لا يرضيهم فسخطوا وصاروا إلى حالة الانتقام منه فانفرد بمعرفة هذه الآداب الخواص من أوليائهم,"Persons in contact with (rulers) often do not know about these qualities and may do something that (rulers) do not like. He may become displeased with them and get into the mood of. punishing them. Thus, knowledge of manners to be used in intercourse with (rulers) became the sole property of their special friends."
وحجبوا غير أولئك الخاصة عن لقائهم في كل وقت حفظا على أنفسهم من معاينة ما يسخطهم على الناس من التعرض لعقابهم,"(The rulers) kept all except their intimates from meeting them at all times, so as to protect themselves against noticing anything that might displease them and in order to protect the people against exposing themselves to punishment."
فصار حجاب آخر أخص من الحجاب الأول يفضي إليهم منه خواصهم من الأولياء ويحجب دونه من سواهم من العامة. والحجاب الثاني يفضي إلى مجالس الأولياء ويحجب دونه من سواهم من العامة.,"Thus, (rulers) introduced another entrance restriction even more selective than the first. (The first) concerns special friends of the ruler and prevents everyone else’s admission. The second restriction concerns the meetings with those friends (of the rulers), and prevents admission of everyone else from among the common people."
والحجاب الأول يكون في أول الدولة كما ذكرنا كما حدث لأيام معاوية وعبد الملك وخلفاء بني أمية وكان القائم على ذلك الحجاب يسمى عندهم الحاجب جريا على مذهب الاشتقاق الصحيح.,"The first entrance restriction is in existence at the beginning of a dynasty, as we have said. It originated in the days of Mu’awiyah and ‘Abd-al-Malik and the Umayyad caliphs. The person in charge of entrance restrictions was called by them “doorkeeper” (hajib), a word properly derived from the same root (as the word “entrance restriction”)."
ثم لما جاءت دولة بني العباس وجدت الدولة من الترف والعز ما هو معروف وكملت خلق الملك على ما يجب فيها فدعا ذلك إلى الحجاب الثاني,"Then, the ‘Abbasid dynasty made its appearance. Its famous luxury and power came into being, and the royal qualities reached their proper perfection in it. This called for the second entrance restriction."
وصار اسم الحاجب أخص به وصار بباب الخلفاء داران للعباسية: دار الخاصة ودار العامة كما هو مسطور في أخبارهم.,"The name of “doorkeeper” (hajib) was restricted to it. The court of the caliphs contained two buildings to house their retinue, one for the special group and another for the common people. This is stated in ‘Abbasid history."
ثم حدث في الدول حجاب ثالث أخص من الأولين وهو عند محاولة الحجر على صاحب الدولة,"In the later dynasties, a third entrance restriction came into being. It was even more selective than the two previous ones. This occurred at the period when the attempt was made to seclude the ruler."
وذلك أن أهل الدولة وخواص الملك إذا نصبوا الأبناء من الأعقاب وحاولوا الاستبداد عليهم فأول ما يبدأ به ذلك المستبد أن يحجب عنه بطانة ابنه وخواص أوليائه يوهمه أن في مباشرتهم إياه خرق حجاب الهيبة وفساد قانون الأدب,"It resulted from the fact that the first step taken by the men of the dynasty and intimates of the ruler who set up the young princes and attempted to gain control over them, was to keep the inner circle and the special friends of (the young ruler’s) father away from him. The person who attempted to gain control over the young ruler suggested to him that it would diminish respect for him and would destroy the rules of etiquette if these men were to be in contact with him."
ليقطع بذلك لقاء الغير ويعوده ملابسة أخلاقه هو حتى لا يتبدل به سواه إلى أن يستحكم الاستيلاء عليه فيكون هذا الحجاب من دواعيه,His purpose was to keep the young ruler from meeting anybody else and see to it that he would become so used to him that he would not want to replace him with anybody else until he securely dominated him. An entrance restriction such as (the third) was obviously required under these circumstances.
وهذا الحجاب لا يقع في الغالب إلا أواخر الدولة كما قدمناه في الحجر ويكون دليلا على هرم الدولة ونفاد قوتها وهو مما يخشاه أهل الدول على أنفسهم,"As a rule, it comes into existence only in the later (years) of a dynasty, as we have mentioned before in connection with the seclusion of the ruler. It indicates the senility and decline of the dynasty. It is one of the things that the members of dynasties are afraid of."
لأن القائمين بالدولة يحاولون على ذلك بطباعهم عند هرم الدولة وذهاب الاستبداد من أعقاب ملوكهم لما ركب في النفوس من محبة الاستبداد بالملك وخصوصا مع الترشيح لذلك وحصول دواعيه ومباديه.,"Those who support the dynasty will naturally attempt such a thing when the dynasty reaches senility and later-born members of the ruling family lose control. Human beings love very much to gain control over royal authority, especially when the soil is prepared and all the requirements and symptoms are there."
الفصل الخامس والأربعون في انقسام الدولة الواحدة بدولتين,43. The division of one dynasty into two.
اعلم أن أول ما يقع من آثار الهرم في الدولة انقسامها,It should be known that the first (perceptible) consequence of a dynasty’s senility is that it splits.
وذلك أن الملك عند ما يستفحل ويبلغ من أحوال الترف والنعيم إلى غايتها ويستبد صاحب الدولة بالمجد وينفرد به ويأنف حينئذ عن المشاركة يصير إلى قطع أسبابها ما استطاع بإهلاك من استراب به من ذوي قرابته المرشحين لمنصبه,"This is because, when royal authority comes into its own and achieves the utmost luxury and prosperity and when the ruler controls all the glory and has it all for himself, he is too proud to let anyone share in it. As far as possible, he eliminates all claims in this direction by destroying those of his relatives who are possible candidates for his position and whom he suspects."
فربما ارتاب المساهمون له في ذلك بأنفسهم ونزعوا إلى القاصية إليهم من يلحق بهم مثل حالهم من الاعتزار والاسترابة,"Those who participate with the ruler in this (activity) often have fears for their own (safety) and take refuge in remote parts of the realm. People who are in the same situation as they of running a risk and becoming suspect, join them there and gather around them."
ويكون نطاق الدولة قد أخذ في التضايق ورجع عن القاصية فيستبد ذلك النازع من القرابة فيها ولا يزال أمره يعظم بتراجع نطاق الدولة حتى يقاسم الدولة أو يكاد,"(At that time,) the authority of the dynasty has already begun to shrink and to withdraw from the remote parts of the realm. Thus, the refugee who is related (to the dynasty) gains control there. His power grows continually, while the authority of the dynasty shrinks. Eventually he becomes, or almost becomes, an equal partner in the dynasty."
وانظر ذلك في الدولة الإسلامية العربية حين كان أمرها حريزا مجتمعا ونطاقا ممتدا في الاتساع وعصبية بني عبد مناف واحدة غالبة على سائر مضر ينبض عرق من الخلافة سائر أيامه إلا ما كان من بدعة الخوارج المستميتين في شأن بدعتهم,"This may be observed in the Arab Muslim dynasty. Its power was great and concentrated, its authority far-flung, and the group feeling of the Banu ‘Abd-Manaf was one and supreme over all the Mudar. Therefore, no dissension made itself felt over the whole period of (the Arab Muslim dynasty), except for the disturbances caused by the Kharijites, who were willing to die for their heresy."
لم يكن ذلك لنزعة ملك ولا رئاسة ولم يتم أمرهم لمزاحمتهم العصبية القوية,"That (however) had nothing to do with royal authority and (political) leadership, and they were not successful, because they were up against a strong group feeling."
ثم لما خرج الأمر من بني أمية واستقل بنو العباس بالأمر. وكانت الدولة العربية قد بلغت الغاية من الغلب والترف وآذنت بالتقلص عن القاصية نزع عبد الرحمن الداخل إلى الأندلس قاصية دولة الإسلام,"Then, the Umayyads lost control, and the ‘Abbasids took over. The Arab dynasty had, by then, achieved the utmost superiority and luxury, and was beginning to shrink. (At that time,) ‘Abd-ar-Rahman I ad-Dakhil took refuge in Spain, the most remote region of the Muslim dynasty."
فاستحدث بها ملكا واقتطعها عن دولتهم وصير الدولة دولتين ثم نزع إدريس إلى المغرب وخرج به وقام بأمره,"He founded a realm there and severed it from the ‘Abbasid cause. Thus, he made two dynasties out of one. Then, Idris took refuge in the Maghrib and seceded and seized power there."
وأمر ابنه من بعده البرابرة من أوربة ومغيلة وزناتة واستولى على ناحية المغربين ثم ازدادت الدولة تقلصا فاضطرب الأغالبة في الامتناع عليهم,"His son and successor commanded the Awrabah, the Maghilah, and the Zanitah Berbers, and took possession of both the Maghribs (Morocco and Algeria). Later on, the ‘Abbasid dynasty shrank more and more. The Aghlabids were stirred up to resist (the ‘Abbasids)."
ثم خرج الشيعة وقام بأمرهم كتامة وصنهاجة واستولوا على إفريقية والمغرب ثم مصر والشام والحجاز,"Then, the Shi’ah (the ‘Ubaydid-Fatimids) seceded. The Kutimah and the Sinhajah supported them, and they took possession of Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib, and then conquered Egypt, Syria, and the Hijaz."
وغلبوا على الأدارسة وقسموا الدولة دولتين أخريين وصارت الدولة العربية ثلاث دول: دولة بني العباس مركز العرب وأصلهم ومادتهم الإسلام، ودولة بني أمية المجددين بالأندلس ملكهم القديم وخلافتهم بالمشرق، ودولة العبيديين بإفريقية ومصر والشام والحجاز,"They defeated the Idrisids and divided the (‘Abbasid) dynasty into two more, so that the Arab (‘Abbasid) dynasty now consisted of three (independent) dynasties: the ‘Abbasids at the center and base of the Arab world and at the source of Islam; the Umayyads, who had renewed their old royal authority and caliphate of the East in Spain; and the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimids) in Ifriqiyah, Egypt, Syria, and the Hijaz."
ولم تزل هذه الدولة إلى أن أصبح انقراضها متقاربا أو جميعا وكذلك انقسمت دولة بني العباس بدول أخرى وكان بالقاصية بنو ساسان فيما وراء النهر وخراسان والعلوية في الديلم وطبرستان,"These dynasties continued to exist until their destruction was imminent or complete. In the same way, the ‘Abbasid dynasty also split into other dynasties. There were the Hamdinids and their successors, the Banu ‘Uqayl, in the Jazirah and Mosul. There were the Tulunids and their successors, the Banu Tughsh (Ikhshidids), in Egypt and Syria. In the remote (East), there were the Siminids in Transoxania and Khurisin, and the ‘Alawids (Zaydis) among the Daylam and in Tabaristan."
وآل ذلك إلى استيلاء الديلم على العراقين وعلى بغداد والخلفاء ثم جاء السلجوقية فملكوا جميع ذلك ثم انقسمت دولتهم أيضا بعد الاستفحال كما هو معروف في أخبارهم,"This, finally, led to Daylam domination of Firs and the two ‘Iraqs, including Baghdad and the caliphs. Then, there came the Saljuqs. They took possession of all that (area). Later on, their dynasty, too, split after having flourished, as is known from their history."
وكذلك اعتبره في دولة صنهاجة بالمغرب وإفريقية لما بلغت إلى غايتها أيام باديس بن المنصور، خرج عليه عمه حماد واقتطع ممالك العرب لنفسه ما بين جبل أوراس إلى تلمسان وملوية واختط القلعة بجبل كتامة حيال المسيلة,"The same thing may also be observed of the Sinhajah dynasty in the Maghrib and Ifriqiyah. When it reached its zenith in the days of Badis b. al-Mansur, Badis’ uncle Hammad revolted against him and cut off the Maghrib provinces between Mount Awras and Tlemcen and the Moulouya (Malwiyah River) and took them for himself. He founded al-Qal’ah in the Mountain of the Kutamah near Msila (al-Masilah)."
ونزلها واستولى على مركزهم أشير بجبل تيطرى واستحدث ملكا آخر قسيما لملك آل باديس وبقي آل باديس بالقيروان وما إليها ولم يزل ذلك إلى أن انقرض أمرهما جميعا.,"He settled there and took possession of their center Ashir on Mount Titteri. He thus founded another realm split off from that of the family of Badis. The family of Badis remained in al-Qayrawan and environs. This remained this way, until the power of both of them was completely destroyed."
وكذلك دولة الموحدين، لما تقلص ظلها ثار بإفريقية بنو أبي حفص فاستقلوا بها واستحدثوا ملكا لأعقابهم بنواحيها,"The same was the case with the Almohad dynasty. When the shadow it cast began to shrink, the Hafsids revolted in Ifrigiyah. They made themselves independent there and founded their own realm for their descendants in that region."
ثم لما استفحل أمرهم واستولى على الغاية خرج على الممالك الغربية من أعقابهم الأمير أبو زكريا يحيى ابن السلطان أبي إسحاق إبراهيم رابع خلفائهم واستحدث ملكا بجباية وقسطنطينة وما إليها،,"Their power flourished and reached the limit, but then, one of their descendants, the amir Abu Zakariya’ Yahya, the son of Sultan Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, the fourth Hafsid caliph, seceded in the western provinces and founded a new realm in Bougie and Constantine and environs."
أورثه بنيه وقسموا به الدولة قسمين ثم استولوا على كرسي الحضرة بتونس ثم انقسم ما بين أعقابهم ثم عاد الاستيلاء فيهم,"He passed it on to his children. (Abu Zakariya’ and his children) thus split the dynasty in two. Then (his children) took possession of the capital in Tunis. Later on the realm was again divided, among their descendants, and then they regained full power."
وقد ينتهي الانقسام إلى أكثر من دولتين وثلاث وفي غير أعياص الملك من قومه كما وقع في ملوك الطوائف بالأندلس وملوك العجم بالمشرق وفي ملك صنهاجة بإفريقية,The process of splitting may lead to the formation of more than two or three dynasties that are not controlled by members of the (original) ruling family. This was the case with the reyes de taifas in Spain and with the non-Arab rulers in the East. It also was the case in the Sinhajah (Zirid) realm in Ifriqiyah.
فقد كان لآخر دولتهم في كل حصن من حصون إفريقية ثائر مستقل بأمره كما تقدم ذكره وكذا حال الجريد والزاب من إفريقية قبيل هذا العهد كما نذكره,"In the later (years) of the Sinhajah dynasty, every castle in Ifrigiyah was in the possession of an independent rebel, as we shall mention. The same was the case with the Jarid and the Zab in Ifriqiyah shortly before the present time, as we shall also mention."
وهكذا شأن كل دولة لا بد وأن يعرض فيها عوارض الهرم بالترف والدعة وتقلص ظل الغلب فينقسم أعياصها أو من يغلب من رجال دولتها الأمر ويتعدد فيها الدول,"This is the case with every dynasty. Inevitably, luxury, ease, and a decrease in the extent of its power cause it to be affected by the symptoms of senility. Then, members of the ruling family or people of the dynasty who have gained control divide it among themselves, and numerous dynasties come into existence where (there had been one)."
والله وارث الأرض ومن عليها.,God inherits the earth and whomever is upon it.
الفصل السادس والأربعون في أن الهرم إذا نزل بالدولة لا يرتفع,"44. Once senility has come upon a dynasty, it cannot be made to disappear."
قد قدمنا ذكر العوارض المؤذنة بالهرم وأسبابه واحدا بعد واحد وبينا أنها تحدث للدولة بالطبع وأنها كلها أمور طبيعية لها,"We have already cited the symptoms and causes of senility, one by one. We have explained that it is natural for the causes of senility to affect the dynasty. All of them are natural in (a dynasty)."
وإذا كان الهرم طبيعيا في الدولة كان حدوثه بمثابة حدوث الأمور الطبيعية كما يحدث الهرم في المزاج الحيواني والهرم من الأمراض المزمنة التي لا يمكن دواؤها ولا ارتفاعها لما أنه طبيعي والأمور الطبيعية لا تتبدل,"If, then, senility is something natural in (the life of) the dynasty, it must come about in the same way natural things come about, exactly as senility affects the temper of living beings. Senility is a chronic disease that cannot be cured or made to disappear because it is something natural, and natural things do not change."
وقد يتنبه كثير من أهل الدول ممن له يقظة في السياسة فيرى ما نزل بدولتهم من عوارض الهرم ويظن أنه ممكن الارتفاع,Many a politically conscious person among the people of the dynasty becomes alert to it and notices the symptoms and causes of senility that have affected his dynasty. He considers it possible to make that senility disappear.
فيأخذ نفسه بتلافي الدولة وإصلاح مزاجها عن ذلك الهرم ويحسبه أنه لحقها بتقصير من قبله من أهل الدولة وغفلتهم وليس كذلك فإنها أمور طبيعية للدولة,"Therefore, he takes it upon himself to repair the dynasty and relieve its temper of senility. He supposes that (senility) resulted from shortcomings or negligence on the part of former people of the dynasty. This is not so. These things are natural to the dynasty."
والعوائد هي المانعة له من تلافيها والعوائد منزلة طبيعية أخرى,Customs (that have developed in the dynasty) prevent him from repairing it. Customs are like a second nature.
فإن من أدرك مثلا أباه وأكثر أهل بيته يلبسون الحرير والديباج ويتحلون بالذهب في السلاح والمراكب ويحتجبون عن الناس في المجالس والصلوات فلا يمكنه مخالفة سلفه في ذلك إلى الخشونة في اللباس والزي والاختلاط بالناس,"A person who, for instance, has seen his father and the older members of his family wear silk and brocade and use gold ornaments for weapons and mounts and be inaccessible to the people in their salons and at prayer, will not be able to diverge from the customs of his forebears in this respect. He will not be able to use coarse dress and apparel and mingle with the people."
إذ العوائد حينئذ تمنعه وتقبح عليه مرتكبه ولو فعله لرمي بالجنون والوسواس في الخروج عن العوائد دفعة، وخشي عليه عائدة ذلك وعاقبته في سلطانه,"Custom would prevent him (from doing that) and expose him if he were to do it. Were he to do it, he would be accused of craziness and insanity for his brusque disregard of custom. There is the danger that it would have bad consequences for his government."
وانظر شأن الأنبياء في إنكار العوائد ومخالفتها لولا التأييد الإلهي والنصر السماوي,"One might contrast (this with) the disregard for custom and opposition to it shown by the prophets. However, the prophets had divine support and celestial help."
وربما تكون العصبية قد ذهبت فتكون الأبهة تعوض عن موقعها من النفوس فإذا أزيلت تلك الأبهة مع ضعف العصبية تجاسرت الرعايا على الدولة بذهاب أوهام الأبهة فتتدرع الدولة بتلك الأبهة ما أمكنها حتى ينقضي الأمر,"Group feeling has often disappeared (at the time the dynasty grows senile), and pomp has taken the place it occupied in the souls of men. Now, when in addition to the weakening of group feeling, pomp, too, is discontinued, the subjects grow audacious vis-a-vis the dynasty, because the presumption of pomp remains. Therefore, the dynasty shields itself by holding on to pomp as much as possible, until everything is finished."
وربما يحدث عند آخر الدولة قوة توهم أن الهرم قد ارتفع عنها ويومض ذبالها إيماضة الخمود كما يقع في الذبال المشتعل فإنه عند مقاربة انطفائه يومض إيماضة توهم أنها اشتعال وهي انطفاء,"At the end of a dynasty, there often also appears some (show of) power that gives the impression that the senility of the dynasty has been made to disappear. It lights up brilliantly just before it is extinguished, like a burning wick the flame of which leaps up brilliantly a moment before it goes out, giving the impression it is just starting to burn, when in fact it is going out."
فاعتبر ذلك ولا تغفل سر الله تعالى وحكمته في اطراد وجوده على ما قدر فيه,"This should be considered, and one should not disregard the wise planning that God employs in having His creation follow its course toward the destiny He has determined for it."
«لكل أجل كتاب 13: 38».,“Each term has a book.”
الفصل السابع والأربعون في كيفية طروق الخلل للدولة,45. How disintegration befalls dynasties.
اعلم أن مبنى الملك على أساسين لا بد منهما فالأول الشوكة والعصبية وهو المعبر عنه بالجند والثاني المال الذي هو قوام أولئك الجند وإقامة ما يحتاج إليه الملك من الأحوال.,"It should be known that any royal authority must be built upon two foundations. The first is might and group feeling, which finds its expression in soldiers. The second is money, which supports the soldiers and provides the whole structure needed by royal authority."
والخلل إذا طرق الدولة طرقها في هذين الأساسين فلنذكر أولا طروق الخلل في الشوكة والعصبية ثم نرجع إلى طروقه في المال والجباية.,"Disintegration befalls the dynasty at these two foundations. We shall mention first the disintegration that comes about through might and group feeling, and then, we shall come back and discuss the one that comes about through money and taxation."
واعلم أن تمهيد الدولة وتأسيسها كما قلناه إنما يكون بالعصبية وأنه لا بد من عصبية كبرى جامعة للعصائب مستتبعة لها وهي عصبية صاحب الدولة الخاصة من عشيرة وقبيلة,"It should be known that, as we have stated, the dynasty can be founded and established only with the help of group feeling. There must be a major group feeling uniting all the group feelings subordinate to it. This (major group feeling) is the family and tribal group feeling peculiar to the ruler."
فإذا جاءت الدولة طبيعة الملك من الترف وجدع أنوف أهل العصبية كان أول ما يجدع أنوف عشيرته وذوي قرباه المقاسمين له في اسم الملك,"When the natural luxury of royal authority makes its appearance in the dynasty, and when the people who share in the group feeling of the dynasty are humiliated, the first to be humiliated are the members of the ruler’s family and his relatives who share with him in the royal name."
فيستبد في جدع أنوفهم بما بلغ من سوادهم لمكانهم من الملك والعز والغلب فيحيط بهم هادمان وهما الترف والقهر,"They are much more humiliated than anyone else. Moreover, luxury has a greater hold on them than on anyone else, because they have a share in royal authority, power, and superiority."
ثم يصير القهر آخرا إلى القتل لما يحصل من مرض قلوبهم عند رسوخ الملك لصاحب الأمر فيقلب غيرته منهم إلى الخوف على ملكه فيأخذهم بالقتل والإهانة وسلب النعمة والترف الذي تعودوا الكثير منه,"Thus, two agents of destruction surround them, luxury and force. (The use of) force eventually leads to their being killed. They become sick at heart when they see the ruler firmly established in royal authority. His envy of them then changes to fear for his royal authority. Therefore, he starts to kill and humiliate them and to deprive them of the prosperity and luxury to which they had become in large measure accustomed."
فيهلكون ويقلون وتفسد عصبية صاحب الدولة منهم وهي العصبية الكبرى التي كانت تجمع بها العصائب وتستتبعها فتنحل عروتها وتضعف شكيمتها وتستبدل عنها بالبطانة من موالي النعمة وصنائع الإحسان,"They perish, and become few in number. The group feeling that the ruler had through them is destroyed. (That group feeling) was the major group feeling, which united all the other groups and subordinated them to itself. It dissolves and its grip weakens. Its place is taken by the inner circle of clients and followers who enjoy the favors and benefactions of the ruler."
وتتخذ منهم عصبية إلا أنها ليست مثل تلك الشدة الشكيمية لفقدان الرحم والقرابة منها وقد كنا قدمنا أن شأن العصبية وقوتها إنما هي بالقرابة والرحم لما جعل الله في ذلك,"A (new) group feeling is derived from them. However, (this new group feeling) does not have anything like the powerful grip (of the other group feeling), because it lacks direct and close blood relationships. We have mentioned before that the importance and strength of a group feeling results from close and direct blood relationships, because God made it that way."
فينفرد صاحب الدولة عن العشير والأنصار الطبيعية ويحس بذلك أهل العصائب الأخرى فيتجاسرون عليه وعلى بطانته تجاسرا طبيعيا فيهلكهم صاحب الدولة ويتبعهم بالقتل واحدا بعد واحد,"The ruler thus isolates himself from his family and helpers, those who have natural affection (for him). This (in turn) is sensed by the people of other groups. Very naturally, they become audacious vis-a-vis the ruler and his inner circle. Therefore, the ruler destroys them and persecutes and kills them, one after the other."
ويقلد الآخر من أهل الدولة في ذلك، الأول مع ما يكون قد نزل بهم من مهلكة الترف الذي قدمنا فيستولي عليهم الهلاك بالترف والقتل حتى يخرجوا عن صبغة تلك العصبية,"The later people of the dynasty follow the tradition of the former in that respect. In addition, they are exposed to the detrimental effect of luxury that we have mentioned before. Thus, destruction comes upon them through luxury and through being killed. Eventually, they no longer have the coloring of (their) group feeling."
ويفشوا بعزتها وثورتها ويصيروا أوجز على الحماية ويقلون لذلك فتقل الحماية التي تنزل بالأطراف والثغور فتتجاسر الرعايا على بعض الدعوة في الأطراف,"They forget the affection and strength that (used to) go with it. They become hirelings for the military protection (of the dynasty). They thus become few in number. As a consequence, the militia settled in the remote and frontier regions becomes numerically weak. This, then, emboldens the subjects in the remote regions to abandon the cause (of the dynasty) there."
ويبادر الخوارج على الدولة من الأعياص وغيرهم إلى تلك الأطراف لما يرجون حينئذ من حصول غرضهم بمبايعة أهل القاصية لهم وأمنهم من وصول الحامية إليهم,"Rebels who are members of the ruling family and other (types of rebels) go out to these remote regions. They hope that under these circumstances, they will be able to reach their goal by obtaining a following among the inhabitants of the remote regions of the realm. (They hope that) they will be secure from capture by the (government) militia."
ولا يزال ذلك يتدرج ونطاق الدولة يتضايق حتى تصير الخوارج في أقرب الأماكن إلى مركز الدولة,This (process) keeps on and the authority of the ruling dynasty continues gradually to shrink until the rebels reach places extremely close to the center of the dynasty.
وربما انقسمت الدولة عند ذلك بدولتين أو ثلاث على قدر قوتها في الأصل كما قلناه ويقوم بأمرها غير أهل عصبيتها لكن إذعانا لأهل عصبيتها ولغلبهم المعهود,"The dynasty then often splits into two or three dynasties, depending on its original strength, as we have stated. People who do not share in the group feeling of (the dynasty) take charge of its affairs, though they obey the people who do share in the group feeling of (the dynasty) and accept their acknowledged superiority."
واعتبر هذا في دولة العرب في الإسلام كيف انتهت أولا إلى الأندلس والهند والصين وكان أمر بني أمية نافذا في جميع العرب بعصبية بني عبد مناف,"This may be exemplified by the Arab Muslim dynasty. At the beginning it reached as far as Spain, India, and China. The Umayyads had complete control of all the Arabs through the group feeling of ‘Abd-Manaf."
حتى لقد أمر سليمان بن عبد الملك بدمشق بقتل عبد العزيز بن موسى بن نصير بقرطبة فقتل ولم يرد أمره.,"It was even possible for Sulayman b. ‘Abd-al-Malik in Damascus to order the killing of ‘Abd-al-‘Aziz b. Musa b. Nusayr in Cordoba. He was killed, and (Sulayman’s) order was not disobeyed."
ثم تلاشت عصبية بني أمية بما أصابهم من الترف فانقرضوا. وجاء بنو العباس فغضوا من أعنة بني هاشم وقتلوا الطالبيين وشردوهم,"Then, luxury came to the Umayyads, and their group feeling was wiped out. (The Umayyads) were destroyed, and the ‘Abbasids made their appearance. They curbed the Hashimites. They killed all the ‘Alids (descendants of Abu Talib) and exiled them."
فانحلت عصبية عبد مناف وتلاشت وتجاسر العرب عليهم فاستبد عليهم أهل القاصية مثل بني الأغلب بإفريقية وأهل الأندلس وغيرهم وانقسمت الدولة,"In consequence, the group feeling of ‘AbdManaf dissolved and was wiped out. The Arabs grew audacious vis-a-vis (the ‘Abbasids). People in the remote regions of the realm, such as the Aghlabids in Ifriqiyah and the inhabitants of Spain and others, gained control over them, and the dynasty split."
ثم خرج بنو إدريس بالمغرب وقام البربر بأمرهم إذعانا للعصبية التي لهم وأمنا أن تصلهم مقاتلة أو حامية للدولة.,"Then, the Idrisids seceded in the Maghrib. The Berbers supported them, in obedience to their group feeling. Also, they were secure from capture by the soldiers or militiamen of the dynasty."
فإذا خرج الدعاة آخرا فيتغلبون على الأطراف والقاصية وتحصل لهم هناك دعوة وملك تنقسم به الدولة,"Men with a cause, for which they make propaganda, eventually secede. They gain control over border areas and remote regions. There, they are able to make propaganda for their cause and achieve royal authority. As a result, the dynasty splits."
وربما يزيد ذلك متى زادت الدولة تقلصا إلى أن ينتهي إلى المركز وتضعف البطانة بعد ذلك بما أخذ منها الترف فتهلك وتضمحل وتضعف الدولة المنقسمة كلها,"As the dynasty shrinks more and more, this process often continues until the center is reached. The inner circle, thereafter, weakens, because luxury undermines it. It perishes and dissolves. The whole divided dynasty weakens."
وربما طال أمدها بعد ذلك فتستغني عن العصبية بما حصل لها من الصبغة في نفوس أهل إيالتها وهي صبغة الانقياد والتسليم منذ السنين الطويلة التي لا يعقل أحد من الأجيال مبدأها ولا أوليتها فلا يعقلون إلا التسليم لصاحب الدولة,"Occasionally, it lingers on long after that. (The dynasty) can dispense with group feeling now, because it has colored the souls of its subject people with the habit of subservience and submission for so many long years that no one alive can think back to its beginning and origin. They cannot think of anything except being submissive to the ruler."
فيستغني بذلك عن قوة العصائب ويكفي صاحبها بما حصل لها في تمهيد أمرها الإجراء على الحامية من جندي ومرتزق ويعضد ذلك ما وقع في النفوس عامة من التسليم,"Therefore, he can dispense with group strength. In order to establish his power, hired soldiers and mercenaries are sufficient. The submissiveness generally found in the human soul helps in this respect."
فلا يكاد أحد يتصور عصيانا أو خروجا إلا والجمهور منكرون عليه مخالفون له فلا يقدر على التصدي لذلك ولو جهد جهده,"Should anyone think of disobedience or secession – which hardly ever happens – the great mass would disapprove of him and oppose him. Thus, he would not be able to attempt such a thing, even if he should try very hard."
وربما كانت الدولة في هذا الحال أسلم من الخوارج والمنازعة لاستحكام صبغة التسليم والانقياد لهم فلا تكاد النفوس تحدث سرها بمخالفة ولا يختلج في ضميرها انحراف عن الطاعة,"In this situation, the dynasty is often more secure (than ever), as far as rebels and rivals are concerned, because the coloring of submissiveness and subservience is firmly established. Individuals would scarcely admit to themselves the least thought of opposition, and the idea of straying from obedience would not enter anybody’s mind."
فيكون أسلم من الهرج والانتقاض الذي يحدث من العصائب والعشائر,"(The dynasty,) therefore, is safer (than ever) so far as the trouble and destruction that comes from groups and tribes are concerned."
ثم لا يزال أمر الدولة كذلك وهي تتلاشى في ذاتها شأن الحرارة الغريزية في البدن العادم للغذاء إلى أن تنتهي إلى وقتها المقدور,"The dynasty may continue in this condition, but its substance dwindles, like natural heat in a body that lacks nourishment. Eventually, (the dynasty) reaches its destined time."
ولكل أجل كتاب,"“Each term has a book,”"
ولكل دولة أمد,and each dynasty has an end.
والله يقدر الليل والنهار,God determines night and day.
وأما الخلل الذي يتطرق من جهة المال فاعلم أن الدولة في أولها تكون بدوية كما مر فيكون خلق الرفق بالرعايا والقصد في النفقات والتعفف عن الأموال,"As for the disintegration that comes through money, it should be known that at the beginning the dynasty has a desert attitude, as was mentioned before It has the qualities of kindness to subjects, planned moderation in expenditures, and respect for other people’s property."
فتتجافى عن الإمعان في الجباية والتحذلق والكيس في جمع الأموال وحسبان العمال ولا داعية حينئذ إلى الإسراف في النفقة,"It avoids onerous taxation and the display of cunning or shrewdness in the collection of money and the accounting (required) from officials. Nothing at this time calls for extravagant expenditures. Therefore, the dynasty does not need much money."
فلا تحتاج الدولة إلى كثرة المال ثم يحصل الاستيلاء ويعظم ويستفحل الملك فيدعو إلى الترف ويكثر الإنفاق بسببه فتعظم نفقات السلطان وأهل الدولة على العموم,"Later comes domination and expansion. Royal authority flourishes. This calls for luxury. (Luxury) causes increased spending. The expenditures of the ruler, and of the people of the dynasty in general, grow."
بل يتعدى ذلك إلى أهل المصر ويدعو ذلك إلى الزيادة في أعطيات الجند وأرزاق أهل الدولة ثم يعظم الترف فيكثر الإسراف في النفقات وينتشر ذلك في الرعية لأن الناس على دين ملوكها وعوائدها,"This (tendency) spreads to the urban population. It calls for increases in soldiers’ allowances and in the salaries of the people of the dynasty Extravagant expenditures mount. It spreads to the subjects, because people follow the religion (ways) and customs of the dynasty."
ويحتاج السلطان إلى ضرب المكوس على أثمان البياعات في الأسواق لإدرار الجباية لما يراه من ترف المدينة الشاهد عليهم بالرفه ولما يحتاج هو إليه من نفقات سلطانه وأرزاق جنده,"The ruler, then, must impose duties on articles sold in the markets, in order to improve his revenues. (He does so,) because he sees the luxury of the urban population testifying to their prosperity, and because he needs the money for the expenditures of his government and the salaries of his soldiers."
ثم تزيد عوائد الترف فلا تفي بها المكوس وتكون الدولة قد استفحلت في الاستطالة والقهر لمن تحت يدها من الرعايا,"Habits of luxury, then, further increase. The customs duties no longer pay for them. The dynasty, by this time, is flourishing in its power and its forceful hold over the subjects under its control."
فتمتد أيديهم إلى جمع المال من أموال الرعايا من مكس أو تجارة أو نقد في بعض الأحوال بشبهة أو بغير شبهة,"Its hand reaches out to seize some of the property of the subjects, either through customs duties, or through commercial transactions, or, in some cases, merely by hostile acts directed against (property holdings), on some pretext or even with none."
ويكون الجند في ذلك الطور قد تجاسر على الدولة بما لحقها من الفشل والهرم في العصبية فتتوقع ذلك منهم وتداوى بسكينة العطايا وكثرة الإنفاق فيهم ولا تجد عن ذلك وليجة,"At this stage, the soldiers have already grown bold against the dynasty, because it has become weak and senile it, as far as its group feeling is concerned. (The dynasty) expects that from them, and attempts to remedy and smooth over the situation through generous allowances and much spending for (the soldiers). It cannot get around that."
وتكون جباة الأموال في الدولة قد عظمت ثروتهم في هذا الطور بكثرة الجباية وكونها بأيديهم وبما اتسع لذلك من جاههم فيتوجه إليهم باحتجان الأموال من الجباية وتفشو السعاية فيهم، بعضهم من بعض للمنافسة والحقد,"At this stage, the tax collectors in the dynasty have acquired much wealth, because vast revenues are in their hands and their position has widened in importance for this reason. Suspicions of having appropriated tax money, therefore, attach to them. It becomes common for one tax collector to denounce another, because of their mutual jealousy and envy."
فتعمهم النكبات والمصادرات واحدا واحدا إلى أن تذهب ثروتهم وتتلاشى أحوالهم ويفقد ما كان للدولة من الأبهة والجمال بهم,"One after another is deprived of his money by confiscation and torture. Eventually, their wealth is gone, and they are ruined. The dynasty loses the pomp and magnificence it had possessed through them."
وإذا اصطلمت نعمتهم تجاوزتهم الدولة إلى أهل الثروة من الرعايا سواهم ويكون الوهن في هذا الطور قد لحق الشوكة وضعفت عن الاستطالة والقهر,"After their prosperity is destroyed, the dynasty goes farther afield and approaches its other wealthy subjects. At this stage, feebleness has already afflicted its (former) might. (The dynasty) has become too weak to retain its power and forceful hold."
فتنصرف سياسة صاحب الدولة حينئذ إلى مداراة الأمور ببذل المال ويراه أرفع من السيف لقلة غنائه فتعظم حاجته إلى الأموال زيادة على النفقات وأرزاق الجند ولا يغنى فيما يريد,"The policy of the ruler, at this time, is to handle matters diplomatically by spending money. He considers this more advantageous than the sword, which is of little use. His need for money grows beyond what is needed for expenditures and soldiers’ salaries. He never gets enough."
ويعظم الهرم بالدولة ويتجاسر عليها أهل النواحي والدولة تنحل عراها في كل طور من هذه إلى أن تفضي إلى الهلاك وتتعوض من الاستيلاء الكلل,"Senility affects the dynasty more and more. The people of (other) regions grow bold against it. At each of these stages, the strength of the dynasty crumbles. Eventually, it reaches complete ruin. It is open to domination by (any) aggressor."
فإن قصدها طالب انتزعها من أيدي القائمين بها وإلا بقيت وهي تتلاشى إلى أن تضمحل كالذبال في السراج إذا فني زيته وطفئ,"Anyone who wants to attack it can take it away from those who support it. If this does not occur, it will continue to dwindle and finally disappear like the wick of a lamp when the oil is exhausted, and it goes out."
والله مالك الأمور ومدبر الأكوان لا إله إلا هو.,God owns all things and governs the whole creation. There is no God but Him.
الفصل الثامن والأربعين فصل في اتساع الدولة أولا إلى نهايته ثم تضايقه طورا بعد طور إلى فناء الدولة واضمحلالها,"46. The authority of the dynasty at first expands to its limit and then is narrowed down in successive stages, until the dynasty dissolves and disappears"
قد كان تقدم لنا في فصل الخلافة والملك، وهو الثالث من هذه المقدمة أن كل دولة لها حصة من الممالك والعمالات لا تزيد عليها.,"Above, in the third (chapter) of this Muqqadimah, in the chapter on the caliphate and royal authority, we stated that each dynasty has its specific share of provinces and districts and no more."
واعتبر ذلك بتوزيع عصابة الدولة على حماية أقطارها وجهاتها. فحيث نفد عددهم فالطرف الذي انتهى عنده هو الثغر، ويحيط بالدولة من سائر جهاتها كالنطاق.,"(Its expansion) depends on the distribution of the dynasty’s group (strength) for the (military) protection of its territory and regions. Wherever its numbers go, their advance (eventually) comes to a stop at (what is called) the “border region.” This surrounds the dynasty on all sides like a belt."
وقد تكون النهاية هي نطاق الدولة الأولى، وقد تكون أوسع منه إذا كان عدد العصابة أوفر من الدولة قبلها. وهذا كله عند ما تكون الدولة في شعار البداوة وخشونة البأس.,"Its farthest extension may coincide with the original “belt” of authority of the (preceding) dynasty. (Or) it may be still wider, if the numerical (strength) of the (new) group is greater than that of the preceding dynasty. All this takes place while the dynasty has the characteristics of desert life and rude courage."
فإذا استفحل العز والغلب وتوفرت النعم والأرزاق بدرور الجبايات، وزخر بحر الترف والحضارة ونشأت الأجيال على اعتبار ذلك لطفت أخلاق الحامية ورقت حواشيهم،,"Subsequently, power and superiority come into their own. Bounties and salaries become abundant as a result of improved revenues. Luxury and sedentary culture abound. New generations grow up accustomed to this situation. (At this time,) the character of the militia softens, and they lose their toughness."
وعاد من ذلك إلى نفوسهم هينات الجبن والكسل، بما يعانونه من ضنث الحضارة المؤدي إلى الانسلاخ من شعار البأس والرجولية بمفارقة البداوة وخشونتها، وبأخذهم العز بالتطاول إلى الرئاسة والتنازع عليها،,This makes them cowards and lazy fellows. They are caught up in the effeminacy of sedentary culture. It causes them to shed the characteristics of courage and manliness. They give up the desert attitude and desert toughness and seek power through assiduous competition for leadership.
فيفضي إلى قتل بعضهم ببعض، ويكبحهم السلطان عن ذلك بما يؤدي إلى قتل أكابرهم وإهلاك رؤسائهم، فتفقد الأمراء والكبراء، وتكثر التابع والمرءوس، فيقل ذلك من حد الدولة، ويكسر من شوكتها.,"This causes some of them to kill others. The ruler prevents them from doing that, by killing their great men and destroying their leaders. Thus, amirs and great men no longer exist, and the number of followers and subordinates grows. This blunts the sharp edges of the dynasty and decreases its strength."
ويقع الخلل الأول في الدولة، وهو الذي من جهة الجند والحامية كما تقدم. ويساوق ذلك السرف في النفقات بما يعتريهم من أبهة العز، وتجاوز الحدود بالبذخ. بالمناغاة في المطاعم والملابس وتشييد القصور واستجادة السلاح وارتباط الخيول,"The first element of disintegration afflicts the dynasty, that which comes through the soldiers and militia, as has been mentioned. This is paralleled by extravagance in expenditures. (The people of the dynasty) suffer from the pomp of power and limitless ostentation as they compete with each other in matters of food, clothing, large palaces, good weapons, and the horses in their stables."
فيقصر دخل الدولة حينئذ عن خرجها ويطرق الخلل الثاني في الدولة وهو الذي من جهة المال والجباية. ويحصل العجز والانتقاص بوجود الخللين.,"At this time, the income of the dynasty is too small to pay for such expenditures, and thus the second element of disintegration afflicts the dynasty, that which comes through money and taxation. Weakness and destruction are the results of these two elements of disintegration."
وربما تنافس رؤساؤهم فتنازعوا وعجزوا عن مغالبة المجاورين والمنازعين ومدافعتهم.,"The leaders of (the dynasty) often compete with each other. They quarrel, and are too weak to stand up and defend themselves against rivals and neighbors."
وربما اعتز أهل الثغور والأطراف بما يحسبون من ضعف الدولة وراءهم، فيصيرون إلى الاستغلال والاستبداد بما في أيديهم من العمالات، ويعجز صاحب الدولة عن حملهم على الجادة,"The people of the border and remote regions often sense the weakness of the dynasty at their backs, and they show their strength. They eventually gain independent control over the districts in their possession. The ruler is too weak to force them back on the (right) path."
فيضيق نطاق الدولة عما كانت انتهت إليه في أولها، وترجع العناية في تدبيرها بنطاق دونه، إلى أن يحدث في النطاق الثاني ما حدث في الأول بعينه من العجز والكسل في العصابة وقلة الأموال والجباية.,"Thus, the authority of the dynasty becomes narrower than it had been at the beginning. The administration of (the dynasty) restricts itself to a smaller area. Eventually, the same weakness, laziness with regard to group strength, and the shortage of money and revenue that had come about in the first, larger, area also comes about in the second, smaller, area."
فيذهب القائم بالدولة إلى تغيير القوانين التي كانت عليها سياسة الدولة من قبل الجند والمال والولايات،,"The person in charge of the dynasty now undertakes to change the norms the dynasty had, adopted as its policy with regard to soldiers, money, and administrative functions."
ليجري حالها على استقامة بتكافؤ الدخل والخرج والحامية والعمالات وتوزيع الجباية على الأرزاق، ومقايسة ذلك بأول الدولة في سائر الأحوال. والمفاسد مع ذلك متوقعة من كل جهة.,"The purpose is to have norms suitable for balancing the budget, satisfying the militia, safeguarding the administrative districts, distributing the tax revenue for the (soldiers’) salaries in the proper manner, and readjusting (the new conditions) to those that had existed at the beginning of the dynasty. However, evil happenings can still be expected from every quarter."
فيحدث في هذا الطور من بعد ما حدث في الأول من قبل، ويعتبر صاحب الدولة ما اعتبره الأول، ويقايس بالوزان الأول أحوالها الثانية،,"At this later stage, what had happened before in the first stage happens again. The ruler now considers the same (measures) that the first ruler had considered, and applies the old yardstick to the new conditions of the dynasty."
يروم دفع مفاسد الخلل الذي يتجدد في كل طور ويأخذ من كل طرف حتى يضيق نطاقها الآخر إلى نطاق دونه كذلك، ويقع فيه ما وقع في الأول.,"He intends to repel the evil consequences of disintegration, which reappears at every stage and affects every part of the realm until the area of the dynasty is again narrower than it had been (before), and what had happened before happens again."
فكل واحد من هؤلاء المغيرين للقوانين قبلهم كأنهم منشئون دولة أخرى، ومجددون ملكا. حتى تنقرض الدولة، وتتطاول الأمم حولها إلى التغلب عليها وإنشاء دولة أخرى لهم، فيقع من ذلك ما قدر الله وقوعه.,"Each of the persons who changes the previous norms (of the dynasty) is in a way the builder of a new dynasty and the founder of a new realm. However, the dynasty is eventually destroyed. The nations around it push on to gain superiority over it. They then found a new dynasty of their own. And thus befalls what God has destined to befall."
واعتبر ذلك في الدولة الإسلامية كيف اتسع نطاقها بالفتوحات والتغلب على الأمم، ثم تزايد الحامية وتكاثر عددهم مما تخولوه من النعم والأرزاق، إلى أن انقرض أمر بني أمية وغلب بنو العباس.,"This may be exemplified by the Muslim dynasty. Through its conquests and victories over (foreign) nations, its authority expanded. Its militia then increased, and the numerical (strength of the militia) grew as the result of the bounties and salaries granted to (the soldiers). Eventually, the power of the Umayyads was destroyed. The ‘Abbasids gained the upper hand."
ثم تزايد الترف، ونشأت الحضارة وطرق الخلل، فضاق النطاق من الأندلس والمغرب بحدوث الدولة الأموية المروانية والعلوية، واقتطعوا ذينك الثغرين عن نطاقها،,"Luxury, then, increased. Sedentary culture emerged, and disintegration made its appearance. The creation of the Marwanid (Umayyad Spanish) and ‘Alid (ldrisid) dynasties cut down the authority of the ‘Abbasids in Spain and the Maghrib. These two border regions were cut off from (‘Abbasid) authority."
إلى أن وقع الخلاف بين بني الرشيد، وظهر دعاة العلوية من كل جانب، وتمهدت لهم دول، ثم قتل المتوكل، واستبد الأحرار على الخلفاء وحجروهم،,"Then, dissension arose among the sons of ar-Rashid. ‘Alid propagandists appeared in every region, and (‘Alid) dynasties were founded. Then, after the death of al-Mutawakkil, the amirs gained control over the caliphs and kept them in seclusion."
واستقل الولاة بالعمالات في الأطراف. وانقطع الخراج منها، وتزايد الترف.,"Provincial governors in the outlying regions became independent, and the land tax from there did not come in any longer. Luxury (however) still increased."
وجاء المعتضد فغير قوانين الدولة إلى قانون آخر من السياسة أقطع فيه ولاة الأطراف ما غلبوا عليه،,"Al-Mu’tadid appeared. He changed the norms of the dynasty and adopted another policy He gave the outlying regions, over which the governors had won control, to them as fiefs."
مثل بني سامان وراء النهر وبني طاهر العراق وخراسان، وبني الصغار السند وفارس، وبني طولون مصر، وبني الأغلب إفريقية،,"Thus, for instance, the Samanids (were given) Transoxania, the Tihirids the ‘Iraq and Khurasin, the Saffirids Western India (Sind) and Firs, the Tulunids Egypt, and the Aghlabids Ifriqiyah."
إلى أن افترق أمر العرب وغلب العجم، واستبد بنو بويه والديلم بدولة الإسلام وحجروا الخلافة، وبقي بنو سامان في استبدادهم وراء النهر، وتطاول الفاطميون من المغرب إلى مصر والشام فملكوه.,"Then, the power of the Arabs was broken up. The non-Arabs achieved superiority. The Buyids and the Daylam gained control of the Muslim dynasty. They kept the caliphs in seclusion. The Samanids remained in control of Transoxania. The Fatimids pushed out of the Maghrib into Egypt and Syria and gained possession of (those countries)."
ثم قامت الدولة السلجوقية من الترك فاستولوا على ممالك الإسلام وأبقوا الخلفاء في حجرهم، إلى أن تلاشت دولهم. واستبد الخلفاء منذ عهد الناصر في نطاق أضيق من هالة القمر وهو عراق العرب إلى أصبهان وفارس والبحرين.,"Then arose the dynasty of the Saljuq Turks. The Saljugs gained domination over the Muslim empire. They kept the caliphs in seclusion, until their dynasties were destroyed. From the time of an-Nasir on, the caliphs were in control of an area smaller than the ring around the moon, namely, the Arab ‘Iraq up to Isfahan, Firs, and alBahrayn."
وأقامت الدولة كذلك بعض الشيء إلى أن انقرض أمر الخلفاء على يد هولاكو بن طولي بن دوشي خان ملك التتر والمغل حين غلبوا السلجوقية وملكوا ما كان بأيديهم من ممالك الإسلام.,"For some (time), the dynasty continued in that manner, until the power of the caliphs was destroyed by Hulagu b. Tuli b. Dushi Khan, the ruler of the Tatars and Mongols. They defeated the Saljugs and took possession of the part of the Muslim empire that had been theirs."
وهكذا يتضايق نطاق كل دولة على نسبة نطاقها الأول. ولا يزال طورا بعد طور إلى أن تنقرض الدولة.,"Thus, the authority of the dynasty (at each stage) becomes successively narrower than it had been at the beginning. (This process) continues, stage by stage, until the dynasty is destroyed."
واعتبر ذلك في كل دولة عظمت أو صغرت. فهكذا سنة الله في الدول إلى أن يأتي ما قدر الله من الغناء على خلقه.,"(The fact) can be exemplified by examination of any dynasty, large or small. This is how God proceeds with dynasties, until the dissolution destined by Him comes upon His creatures."
و «كل شيء هالك إلا وجهه 28: 88».,“Everything perishes except His face (person).”
الفصل التاسع والأربعون في حدوث الدولة وتجددها كيف يقع,47. How a new dynasty originates.
اعلم أن نشأة الدول وبداءتها إذا أخذت الدولة المستقرة في الهرم والانتقاص تكون على نوعين إما بأن يستبد ولاة الأعمال في الدولة بالقاصية عند ما يتقلص ظلها عنهم,"It should be known that when the ruling dynasty starts on the road to senility and destruction, the rise and beginning of the new dynasty takes place in two ways: (The one way is) for provincial governors in the dynasty to gain control over remote regions when (the dynasty) loses its influence there."
فيكون لكل واحد منهم دولة يستجدها لقومه وما يستقر في نصابه يرثه عنه أبناؤه أو مواليه ويستفحل لهم الملك بالتدريج وربما يزدحمون على ذلك الملك ويتقارعون عليه ويتنازعون في الاستئثار به,"Each one of them founds a new dynasty for his people and a realm to be perpetuated in his family. His children or clients inherit it from him. Gradually, they have a flourishing realm. They often compete bitterly with each other and aspire to gain sole possession of it."
ويغلب منهم من يكون له فضل قوة على صاحبه وينتزع ما في يده كما وقع في دولة بني العباس حين أخذت دولتهم في الهرم وتقلص ظلها عن القاصية,The one who is stronger than his rival will gain the upper hand and take away what the other had. This happened in the ‘Abbasid dynasty when it started on the road to senility and its shadow receded from the remote regions.
واستبد بنو ساسان بما وراء النهر وبنو حمدان بالموصل والشام وبنو طولون بمصر وكما وقع بالدولة الأموية بالأندلس وافترق ملكها في الطوائف الذين كانوا ولاتها في الأعمال,"The Samanids gained control over Transoxania, the Hamdinids over Mosul and Syria, and the Tulunids over Egypt. The same thing happened in the Umayyad dynasty in Spain. Their realm was divided among the reyes de taifas who had been their provincial governors."
وانقسمت دولا وملوكا أورثوها من بعدهم من قرابتهم أو مواليهم,"It was divided into several dynasties with several rulers, who passed their realms on after their death to their relatives or clients."
وهذا النوع لا يكون بينهم وبين الدولة المستقرة حربا لأنهم مستقرون في رئاستهم ولا يطمعون في الاستيلاء على الدولة المستقرة بحرب وإنما الدولة أدركها الهرم وتقلص ظلها عن القاصية وعجزت عن الوصول إليها,"This way of forming a new dynasty avoids the possibility of war between the (new rulers) and the ruling dynasty. (These new rulers) are already firmly established in their leadership and do not want to gain domination over the ruling dynasty. The latter is affected by senility, and its shadow recedes from the remote regions of the realm and can no (longer) reach them."
والنوع الثاني بأن يخرج على الدولة خارج ممن يجاورها من الأمم والقبائل إما بدعوة يحمل الناس عليها كما أشرنا إليه أو يكون صاحب شوكة وعصبية كبيرا في قومه,"The other way is for some rebel from among the neighboring nations and tribes to revolt against the dynasty. He either makes propaganda for some particular cause to which he intends to win the people, as we have indicated, or he possesses great power and a great group feeling among his people."
قد استفحل أمره فيسمو بهم إلى الملك وقد حدثوا به أنفسهم بما حصل لهم من الاعتزاز على الدولة المستقرة وما نزل بها من الهرم فيتعين له ولقومه الاستيلاء عليها ويمارسونها بالمطالبة إلى أن يظفروا بها,"His power is already flourishing among them, and now he aspires with the help of (his people) to gain royal authority. (His people) are convinced that they will obtain it, because they feel that they are superior to the ruling dynasty, which is affected by senility. Thus, to (the rebel) and his people, it is a fact that they will gain domination over it. They constantly attack it, until they defeat it and inherit its power."
والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم.,“God has the power to execute His commands.”
الفصل الخمسون في ان الدولة المستجدة إنما تستولي على الدولة المستقرة بالمطاولة لا بالمناجزة,"48. A new dynasty gains domination over the ruling dynasty through perseverance, and not through sudden action."
قد ذكرنا أن الدول الحادثة المتجددة نوعان نوع من ولاية الأطراف إذا تقلص ظل الدولة عنهم وانحسر تيارها وهؤلاء لا يقع منهم مطالبة للدولة في الأكثر كما قدمناه لأن قصاراهم القنوع بما في أيديهم وهو نهاية قوتهم,"We have (just) mentioned that new dynasties originate in two ways. The one way (is for them to originate) with the governors of outlying regions when the shadow of the ruling dynasty recedes from those regions and its waves are rolled back. As a rule, such (governors) do not attack the (ruling) dynasty, as we have mentioned before, because all they have to do is to be satisfied with what they already have."
والنوع الثاني نوع الدعاة والخوارج على الدولة وهؤلاء لا بد لهم من المطالبة لأن قوتهم وافية بها فإن ذلك إنما يكون في نصاب يكون له من العصبية والاعتزاز ما هو كفاء ذلك وواف به,"The other way is that of men who make propaganda for some cause and of rebels who rebel against the (ruling) dynasty. It is inevitable that they attack (the ruling dynasty), because their power warrants such (a course). They (revolt) only when they have a family with sufficient group feeling and strength to give them success."
فيقع بينهم وبين الدولة المستقرة حروب سجال تتكور وتتصل إلى أن يقع لهم الاستيلاء والظفر بالمطلوب ولا يحصل لهم في الغالب ظفر بالمناجزة,"Indecisive battles take place between them and the ruling dynasty. (Such battles) are repeated and continued (all the time), until by perseverance they achieve domination and victory. As a rule, they do not gain victory through sudden action."
والسبب في ذلك أن الظفر في الحروب إنما يقع كما قدمناه بأمور نفسانية وهمية وإن كان العدد والسلاح وصدق القتال كفيلا به لكنه قاصر مع تلك الأمور الوهمية كما مر,"The reason for this is that victory in war, as we have mentioned before, as a rule is the result of imaginary psychological factors. Numbers, weapons, and proper tactics may guarantee (victory). However, as has been mentioned above, (all these things) are less effective than the imaginary (psychological) factors, as has been mentioned above."
ولذلك كان الخداع من أنفع ما يستعمل في الحرب وأكثر ما يقع الظفر به وفي الحديث الحرب خدعة,Trickery is one of the most useful things employed in warfare. It is the thing most likely to bring victory. A tradition says: “War is trickery.”
والدولة المستقرة قد صيرت العوائد المألوفة طاعتها ضرورية واجبة كما تقدم في غير موضع فتكثر بذلك العوائق لصاحب الدولة المستجدة ويكثر من همم أتباعه وأهل شوكته,"Accepted custom has made obedience to the ruling dynasty a necessity and an obligation, as has been mentioned before in more than one place. This puts many hindrances in the way of the founder of a new dynasty. It discourages his followers and supporters."
وإن كان الأقربون من بطانته على بصيرة في طاعته ومؤازرته إلا أن الآخرين أكثر وقد داخلهم الفشل بتلك العقائد في التسليم للدولة المستقرة فيحصل بعض الفتور منهم,"His closest intimates may be fully intent upon obeying him and helping him. Still, others are more numerous, who are affected by weakness and laziness under the influence of the belief that they owe submission to the ruling dynasty. Their zeal slackens."
ولا يكاد صاحب الدولة المستقرة يرجع إلى الصبر والمطاولة حتى يتضح هرم الدولة المستقرة فتضمحل عقائد التسليم لها من قومه وتنبعث منهم الهمم لصدق المطالبة معه فيقع الظفر والاستيلاء,"Therefore, the founder of a new dynasty is hardly able to make a stand against the ruler of the ruling dynasty. Consequently, he falls back on patience and perseverance, until the senility of the ruling dynasty has become obvious. Then his people lose the belief that they owe submission to the ruling dynasty. They become sufficiently spirited to make an open attack upon the ruling dynasty in concert with (the founder of the new dynasty). Victory and domination are the result."
وأيضا فالدولة المستقرة كثيرة الرزق بما استحكم لهم من الملك وتوسع من النعيم واللذات واختصوا به دون غيرهم من أموال الجباية,"Furthermore, the ruling dynasty has many luxuries. The royal authority of (the people of the ruling dynasty) had been firmly established. They had enjoyed prosperity and pleasures. To the exclusion of others, they had appropriated a good deal of the revenues from taxes."
فيكثر عندهم ارتباط الخيول واستجادة الأسلحة وتعظم فيهم الأبهة الملكية ويفيض العطاء بينهم من ملوكهم اختيارا واضطرارا فيرهبون بذلك كله عدوهم,"Thus, they have many horses in their stables and good weapons. There is much royal pomp among them. Gifts from their rulers, given either voluntarily or under constraint, have been showered upon them. With all this, they frighten their enemies."
وأهل الدولة المستجدة بمعزل عن ذلك لما هم فيه من البداوة وأحوال الفقر والخصاصة فيسبق إلى قلوبهم أوهام الرعب بما يبلغهم من أحوال الدولة المستقرة ويحرمون عن قتالهم من أجل ذلك,The people of the new dynasty do not have (such things). They have the desert attitude and are poor and indigent. This leaves them unprepared for such (things). What they hear about the conditions and excellent state of preparedness of the ruling dynasty makes them apprehensive. They are afraid to do battle against (the ruling dynasty) on account of it.
فيصير أمرهم إلى المطاولة حتى تأخذ المستقرة مأخذها من الهرم ويستحكم الخلل فيها في العصبية والجباية فينتهز حينئذ صاحب الدولة المستجدة فرصته في الاستيلاء عليها بعد حين منذ المطالبة,"Therefore, their leader is forced to wait until senility takes hold of the ruling dynasty and its group feeling and fiscal (structure) are disintegrating. Then, the founder of the new dynasty seizes the opportunity to gain the upper hand, quite some time after his attack (had begun)."
سنة الله في عباده,This is how God proceeds with His servants.
وأيضا فأهل الدولة المستجدة كلهم مباينون للدولة المستقرة بأنسابهم وعوائدهم وفي سائر مناحيهم ثم هم مفاخرون لهم ومنابذون بما وقع من هذه المطالبة وبطمعهم في الاستيلاء عليه فتتمكن المباعدة بين أهل الدولتين سرا وجهرا,"The men of the new dynasty differ from the men of the ruling dynasty with regard to descent, customs, and all other things. The (persistent) attacks and their desire to gain the upper hand estrange the men of the new dynasty more and more from the men of the ruling dynasty. Consequently, the people of the two dynasties become thoroughly estranged from each other, inwardly and outwardly."
ولا يصل إلى أهل الدولة المستجدة خبر عن أهل الدولة المستقرة يصيبون منه غرة باطنا وظاهرا لانقطاع المداخلة بين الدولتين,"No information about the men of the ruling dynasty, either secretly or openly, reaches the men of the new dynasty, such as might enable them to find some unpreparedness among them, because all connection and intercourse between the two dynasties has been cut off."
فيقيمون على المطالبة وهم في إحجام وينكلون عن المناجزة حتى يأذن الله بزوال الدولة المستقرة وفناء عمرها ووفور الخلل في جميع جهاتها,"They thus continue to exert pressure, (but) they are in a state of fear and shy away from sudden action. Eventually, God permits the ruling dynasty to end, its life to stop, and disintegration to afflict it from all sides."
واتضح لأهل الدولة المستجدة مع ما كان يخفى منهم من هرمها وتلاشيها وقد عظمت قوتهم بما اقتطعوه من أعمالها ونقصوه من أطرافها,"The senility and decay of (the ruling dynasty), which had been concealed from the people of the new dynasty, now become clear to them. (In the meantime,) their strength has grown, because they had cut off and taken away districts and outlying regions from (the ruling dynasty)."
فتنبعث هممهم يدا واحدة للمناجزة ويذهب ما كان بث في عزائمهم من التوهمات وتنتهي المطاولة إلى حدها ويقع الاستيلاء آخرا بالمعاجلة,"Thus, they become spirited enough (to attempt) sudden action. The apprehensions that had hitherto weakened their resolution disappear. The long wait comes to an end, and sudden action finally brings domination."
واعتبر ذلك في دولة بني العباس حين ظهورها حين قام الشيعة بخراسان بعد انعقاد الدعوة واجتماعهم على المطالبة عشر سنين أو تزيد,This may be exemplified by the emergence and beginnings of the ‘Abbasid dynasty. The (‘Abbasid) Shi’ah remained in Khurasan for ten years or more after the (‘Abbasid) propaganda had consolidated and (the ‘Abbisids) had gathered for attack.
وحينئذ تم لهم الظفر واستولوا على الدولة الأموية وكذا العلوية بطبرستان عند ظهور دعوتهم في الديلم كيف كانت مطاولتهم حتى استولوا على تلك الناحية,"Then, their victory materialized, and they gained the upper hand over the Umayyads. The same was the case with the ‘Alids (Zaydis) in Tabaristan at the time their propaganda appeared among the Daylam. They had to wait a long time before they gained domination over that region."
ثم لما انقضى أمر العلوية وسما الديلم إلى ملك فارس والعراقين فمكثوا سنين كثيرة يطاولون حتى اقتطعوا أصبهان ثم استولوا على الخليفة ببغداد.,"The ‘Alid rule then ended, and the Daylam aspired to rule over Firs and the two ‘Irigs. They waited (patiently) for many years, until they were able to cut off Isfahan and Firs (and take it for themselves). Then, they gained domination over the caliph in Baghdad."
وكذا العبيديون أقام داعيتهم بالمغرب أبو عبد الله الشيعي ببني كتامة من قبائل البربر عشر سنين ويزيد تطاول بني الأغلب بإفريقية حتى ظفر بهم واستولوا على المغرب كله وسموا إلى ملك مصر,"The same was the case with the ‘Ubaydid(-Fitimids). Their missionary in the Maghrib, Abu ‘Abdallah ash-Shi’i, stayed for more than ten years among the Kutimah Berbers waiting to gain victory over the Aghlabids in Ifrigiyah. (The ‘Ubaydid-Fitimids) then took possession of the Maghrib, and, later on, aspired to become rulers of Egypt."
فمكثوا ثلاثين سنة أو نحوها في طلبها يجهزون إليها العساكر والأساطيل في كل وقت ويجيء المدد لمدافعتهم برا وبحرا من بغداد والشام,"They spent about thirty years waiting for their chance, constantly sending armies and fleets against Egypt. Support for Egypt’s defense against (the ‘Ubaydid-Fatimids) came from Baghdad and Syria, by land and by sea."
وملكوا الإسكندرية والفيوم والصعيد وتخطت دعوتهم من هنالك إلى الحجاز وأقيمت بالحرمين ثم نازل قائدهم جوهر الكاتب بعساكره مدينة مصر واستولى عليها واقتلع دولة بني طغج من أصولها واختط القاهرة,"They took possession of Alexandria, the Fayyum, and Upper Egypt. Their propaganda progressed from there to the Hijiz and found a home in Mecca and Medina. Then, their general, Jawhar alKitib, moved against the (capital) city of Egypt with his armies and took possession of it. He uprooted the dynasty of the Banu Tughsh (Ikhshidids) and founded Cairo."
فجاء الخليفة بعد المعز لدين الله فنزلها لستين سنة أو نحوها منذ استيلائهم على الإسكندرية وكذا السلجوقية ملوك الترك لما استولوا على بني ساسان وأجازوا من وراء النهر مكثوا نحوا من ثلاثين سنة يطاولون بني سبكتكين بخراسان حتى استولوا على دولته.,"His caliph, Ma’add al-Mu’izz-li-dinAllih, came to (Cairo) and chose it as his residence. This was about sixty years after the (‘Ubaydid-Fitimids) had (for the first time) gained domination over Alexandria. The same was the case with the Saljuq Turk rulers. They gained the upper hand over the Siminids and went beyond Transoxania, but then they had to spend about thirty years waiting to gain the upper hand over the (dynasty of) Ibn Sebuktigin in Khurasin."
ثم زحفوا إلى بغداد فاستولوا عليها وعلى الخليفة بها بعد أيام من الدهر. وكذا التتر من بعدهم خرجوا من المفازة عام سبعة عشر وستمائة فلم يتم لهم الاستيلاء إلا بعد أربعين سنة.,"After some time, they advanced against Baghdad and took possession of it and of the caliph there. The same was the case with the Tatars who succeeded the Saljugs. They came out of the steppe in 617 [1220/21], but it took them forty years thereafter to gain domination."
وكذا أهل المغرب خرج به المرابطون من لمتونة على ملوكه من مغراوة فطاولوهم سنين ثم استولوا عليه. ثم خرج الموحدون بدعوتهم على لمتونة فمكثوا نحوا من ثلاثين سنة يحاربونهم حتى استولوا على كرسيهم بمراكش,"The same was also the case with the inhabitants of the Maghrib. The Lamtunah Almoravids declared themselves against their Maghrawah rulers. They waited for years to gain the upper hand over them. Then, the Almohads came forth with their propaganda against the Lamtunah. They spent about thirty years fighting them, until they gained domination over their capital in Marrakech."
وكذا بنو مرين من زناتة خرجوا على الموحدين فمكثوا يطاولونهم نحوا من ثلاثين سنة واستولوا على فاس واقتطعوها وأعمالها من ملوكهم,The same was the case with the Zanatah Merinids. They declared themselves against the Almohads and spent about thirty years waiting to gain possession of Fez. They cut off (Fez) and environs from the Almohad realm.
ثم أقاموا في محاربتهم ثلاثين أخرى حتى استولوا على كرسيهم بمراكش حسبما نذكر ذلك كله في تواريخ هذه الدول,"Then, they spent another thirty years fighting (the Almohads) until they gained domination over their capital in Marrakech. All this is mentioned in the histories of these dynasties."
فهكذا حال الدول المستجدة مع المستقرة في المطالبة والمطاولة,"A struggle of this sort, marked by (constant) attacks and long perseverance, is characteristic of the relationship between new and ruling dynasties."
سنة الله في عباده,This is how God proceeds with his servants.
ولن تجد لسنة الله تبديلا.,"“And verily, you will not be able to change God’s way.”"
ولا يعارض ذلك بما وقع في الفتوحات الإسلامية وكيف كان استيلاؤهم على فارس والروم لثلاث أو أربع من وفاة النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم,"The events of the Muslim conquests cannot be used as an argument against (the preceding remarks). (The Muslims) gained the upper hand over the Persians and the Byzantines in the three or four years that followed the death of the Prophet, and there was no long waiting period."
واعلم أن ذلك إنما كان معجزة من معجزات نبينا سرها استماتة المسلمين في جهاد عدوهم استبعادا بالإيمان وما أوقع الله في قلوب عدوهم من الرعب والتخاذل فكان ذلك كله خارقا للعادة المقررة في مطاولة الدول المستجدة للمستقرة,"It should be realized that this was one of the miracles of our Prophet. The secret of it lay in the willingness of the Muslims to die in the holy war against their enemies because of their feeling that they had the right religious insight, and in the corresponding fear and defeatism that God put into the hearts of their enemies. All these (miraculous facts) broke through the known custom of a long wait (governing the relationship) between new and ruling dynasties."
وإذا كان ذلك خارقا فهو من معجزات نبينا صلوات الله عليه المتعارف ظهورها في الملة الإسلامية والمعجزات لا يقاس عليها الأمور العادية ولا يعترض بها,"Thus, (the rapid conquest) was one of the miracles of our Prophet. The fact of the appearance of (such miracles) in Islam is generally acknowledged. Miracles cannot be used as analogies for ordinary affairs and constitute no argument against (them)."
الفصل الحادي والخمسون في وفور العمران اخر الدولة وما يقع فيها من كثرة الموتان والمجاعات,"49. There is an abundant civilization (large population) at the end of dynasties, and pestilences and famines frequently occur then."
اعلم أنه قد تقرر لك فيما سلف أن الدولة في أول أمرها لا بد لها من الرفق في ملكتها والاعتدال في إيالتها إما من الدين إن كانت الدعوة دينية أو من المكارمة والمحاسنة التي تقتضيها البداوة الطبيعية للدول,"In the previous (discussion) it has been established that, at the beginning, dynasties are inevitably kind in the exercise of their power and just in their administration. The reason is either their religion, when (the dynasty) is based upon religious propaganda, or their noble and benevolent attitude toward others, which is required by the desert attitude that is natural to dynasties (at the beginning)."
وإذا كانت الملكة رفيقة محسنة انبسطت آمال الرعايا وانتشطوا للعمران وأسبابه فتوفر ويكثر التناسل وإذا كان ذلك كله بالتدريج فإنما يظهر أثره بعد جيل أو جيلين في الأقل,"A kind and benevolent rule serves as an incentive to the subjects and gives them energy for cultural activities. (Civilization) will be abundant, and procreation will be vigorous. All this takes place gradually. The effects will become noticeable after one or two generations at best."
وفي انقضاء الجيلين تشرف الدولة على نهاية عمرها الطبيعي فيكون حينئذ العمران في غاية الوفور والنماء,"At the end of two generations, the dynasty approaches the limit of its natural life At that time, civilization has reached the limit of its abundance and growth."
ولا تقولن إنه قد مر لك أن أواخر الدولة يكون فيها الإجحاف بالرعايا وسوء الملكة فذلك صحيح ولا يعارض ما قلناه لأن الإجحاف وإن حدث حينئذ وقلت الجبايات فإنما يظهر أثره في تناقص العمران بعد حين من أجل التدريج في الأمور الطبيعية,"It should not be objected here that it was stated before that in the later (years) of a dynasty, there will be coercion of the subjects and bad government. This is correct, but it does not contradict what we have (just) said. Even though coercion makes its appearance at that time and the revenues decrease, the destructive influences of this situation on civilization will become noticeable only after some time, because things in nature all have a gradual development."
ثم إن المجاعات والموتان تكثر عند ذلك في أواخر الدول والسبب فيه: إما المجاعات فلقبض الناس أيديهم عن الفلح في الأكثر بسبب ما يقع في آخر الدولة من العدوان في الأموال والجبايات,"In the later (years) of dynasties, famines and pestilences become numerous. As far as famines are concerned, the reason is that most people at that time refrain from cultivating the soil. For, in the later (years) of dynasties, there occur attacks on property and tax revenue and, through customs duties, on trading."
أو الفتن الواقعة في انتقاص الرعايا وكثرة الخوارج لهرم الدولة,"Or, trouble occurs as the result of the unrest of the subjects and the great number of rebels (who are provoked) by the senility of the dynasty to rebel."
فيقل احتكار الزرع غالبا وليس صلاح الزرع وثمرته بمستمر الوجود ولا على وتيرة واحدة فطبيعة العالم في كثرة الأمطار وقلتها مختلفة والمطر يقوى ويضعف ويقل ويكثر والزرع والثمار والضرع على نسبته,"Therefore, as a rule, little grain is stored. The grain and harvest situation is not always good and stable from year to year. The amount of rainfall in the world differs by nature. The rainfall may be strong or weak, little or much. Grain, fruits, and (the amount of) milk given by animals varies correspondingly."
إلا أن الناس واثقون في أقواتهم بالاحتكار فإذا فقد الاحتكار عظم توقع الناس للمجاعات فغلا الزرع وعجز عنه أولو الخصاصة فهلكوا وكان بعض السنوات الاحتكار مفقودا فشمل الناس الجوع,"Still, for their food requirements, people put their trust in what it is possible to store. If nothing is stored, people must expect famines. The price of grain rises. Indigent people are unable to buy any and perish. If for some years nothing is stored, hunger will be general."
وأما كثرة الموتان فلها أسباب من كثرة المجاعات كما ذكرناه أو كثرة الفتن لاختلال الدولة فيكثر الهرج والقتل أو وقوع الوباء وسببه في الغالب فساد الهواء بكثرة العمران لكثرة ما يخالطه من العفن والرطوبات الفاسدة,"The large number of pestilences has its reason in the large number of famines just mentioned. Or, it has its reason in the many disturbances that result from the disintegration of the dynasty. There is much unrest and bloodshed, and plagues occur. The principal reason for the latter is the corruption of the air (climate) through (too) large a civilization (population). It results from the putrefaction and the many evil moistures with which (the air) has contact (in a dense civilization)."
وإذا فسد الهواء وهو غذاء الروح الحيواني وملابسه دائما فيسري الفساد إلى مزاجه فإن كان الفساد قويا وقع المرض في الرئة وهذه هي الطواعين وأمراضها مخصوصة بالرئة,"Now, air nourishes the animal spirit and is constantly with it. When it is corrupted, corruption affects the temper of (the spirit). If the corruption is strong, the lung is afflicted with disease. This results in epidemics, which affect the lung in particular."
وإن كان الفساد دون القوي والكثير فيكثر العفن ويتضاعف فتكثر الحميات في الأمزجة وتمرض الأبدان وتهلك,"(Even) if the corruption is not strong or great, – putrefaction grows and multiplies under (its influence), resulting in many fevers that affect the tempers, and the bodies become sick and perish."
وسبب كثرة العفن والرطوبات الفاسدة في هذا كله كثرة العمران ووفوره آخر الدولة لما كان في أوائلها من حسن الملكة ورفقها وقلة المغرم وهو ظاهر,"The reason for the growth of putrefaction and evil moistures is invariably a dense and abundant civilization such as exists in the later (years) of a dynasty. (Such civilization) is the result of the good government, the kindness, the safety, and the light taxation that existed at the beginning of the dynasty. This is obvious."
ولهذا تبين في موضعه من الحكمة أن تخلل الخلاء والقفر بين العمران ضروري ليكون تموج الهواء يذهب بما يحصل في الهواء من الفساد والعفن بمخالطة الحيوانات ويأتي بالهواء الصحيح,"Therefore, it has been clarified by science in the proper place that it is necessary to have empty spaces and waste regions interspersed between civilized areas. This makes circulation of the air possible. It removes the corruption and putrefaction affecting the air after contact with living beings, and brings healthy air."
ولهذا أيضا فإن الموتان يكون في المدن الموفورة العمران أكثر من غيرها بكثير كمصر بالمشرق وفاس بالمغرب,"This also is the reason why pestilences occur much more frequently in densely settled cities than elsewhere, as, for instance, in Cairo in the East and Fez in the Maghrib."
والله يقدر ما يشاء,God determines whatever He wishes.
الفصل الثاني والخمسون في أن العمران البشري لا بد له من سياسة ينتظم بها أمره,50. Human civilization requires political leadership for its organization.
اعلم أنه قد تقدم لنا في غير موضع أن الاجتماع للبشر ضروري وهو معنى العمران الذي نتكلم فيه وأنه لا بد لهم في الاجتماع من وازع حاكم يرجعون إليه,We have mentioned before in more than one place that human social organization is something necessary. It is the thing that is meant by “the civilization” which we have been discussing. (People) in any social organization must have someone who exercises a restraining influence and rules them and to whom recourse may be had.
وحكمه فيهم تارة يكون مستندا إلى شرع منزل من عند الله يوجب انقيادهم إليه إيمانهم بالثواب والعقاب عليه الذي جاء به مبلغه وتارة إلى سياسة عقلية يوجب انقيادهم إليها ما يتوقعونه من ثواب ذلك الحاكم بعد معرفته بمصالحهم.,"His rule over them is sometimes based upon a divinely revealed religious law. They are obliged to submit to it in view of their belief in reward and punishment in the other world, (things that were indicated) by the person who brought them (their religious law). Sometimes, (his rule is based) upon rational politics. People are obliged to submit to it in view of the reward they expect from the ruler after he has become acquainted with what is good for them."
فالأولى يحصل نفعها في الدنيا والآخرة لعلم الشارع بالمصالح في العاقبة ولمراعاته نجاة العباد في الآخرة والثانية إنما يحصل نفعها في الدنيا فقط,"The first (type of rule) is useful for this world and for the other world, because the lawgiver knows the ultimate interest of the people and is concerned with the salvation of man in the other world. The second (type of rule) is useful only for this world."
وما تسمعه من السياسة المدنية فليس من هذا الباب وإنما معناه عند الحكماء ما يجب أن يكون عليه كل واحد من أهل ذلك المجتمع في نفسه وخلقه حتى يستغنوا عن الحكام رأسا,"We do not mean here that which is known as “political utopianism” (siyasah madaniyah). By that, the philosophers mean the disposition of soul and character which each member of a social organization must have, if, eventually, people are completely to dispense with rulers."
ويسمون المجتمع الذي يحصل فيه ما يسمى من ذلك «بالمدينة الفاضلة»، والقوانين المراعاة في ذلك «بالسياسة المدنية» وليس مرادهم السياسة التي يحمل عليها أهل الاجتماع بالمصالح العامة فإن هذه غير تلك,They call the social organization that fulfills these requirements the “ideal city.” The norms observed in this connection are called “political utopias” (siyasah madaniyah). They do not mean the kind of politics (siyasah) that the members of a social organization are led to adopt through laws for the common interest. That is something different.
وهذه المدينة الفاضلة عندهم نادرة أو بعيدة الوقوع وإنما يتكلمون عليها على جهة الفرض والتقدير,The “ideal city” (of the philosophers) is something rare and remote. They discuss it as a hypothesis.
ثم إن السياسة العقلية التي قدمناها تكون على وجهين أحدهما يراعى فيها المصالح على العموم ومصالح السلطان في استقامة ملكه على الخصوص وهذه كانت سياسة الفرس وهي على جهة الحكمة.,"Now, the afore-mentioned rational politics may be of two types. The first type of rational politics may concern itself with the (public) interest in general, and with the ruler’s interest in connection with the administration of his realm, in particular. This was the politics of the Persians. It is something related to philosophy."
وقد أغنانا الله تعالى عنها في الملة ولعهد الخلافة لأن الأحكام الشرعية مغنية عنها في المصالح العامة والخاصة وأحكام الملك مندرجة فيها.,"God made this type of politics superfluous for us in Islam at the time of the caliphate. The religious laws take its place in connection with both general and special interests, for they also include the maxims (of the philosophers) and the rules of royal authority."
الوجه الثاني أن يراعى فيها مصلحة السلطان وكيف يستقيم له الملك مع القهر والاستطالة وتكون المصالح العامة في هذه تبعا وهذه السياسة التي يحمل عليها أهل الاجتماع التي لسائر الملوك في العالم من مسلم وغيره,"The second type (of rational politics) is the one concerned with the interest of the ruler and how he can maintain his rule through the forceful use of power. The general (public) interest is, here, secondary. This is the type of politics practiced by all rulers, whether they are Muslims or unbelievers."
إلا أن ملوك المسلمين يجرون منها على ما تقتضيه الشريعة الإسلامية بحسب جهدهم فقوانينها إذا مجتمعة من أحكام شرعية وآداب خلقية وقوانين في الاجتماع طبيعية، وأشياء من مراعاة الشوكة والعصبية ضرورية,"Muslim rulers, however, practice this type of politics in accordance with the requirements of the Muslim religious law, as much as they are able to. Therefore, the political norms here are a mixture of religious laws and ethical rules, norms that are natural in social organization together with a certain necessary concern for strength and group feeling."
والاقتداء فيها بالشرع أولا ثم الحكماء في آدابهم والملوك في سيرهم,"Examples to be followed in (the practice of) this (kind of politics) are, in the first place, the religious law, and then, the maxims of the philosophers and the way of life of rulers (of the past)."
ومن أحسن ما كتب في ذلك وأودع كتاب طاهر بن الحسين لابنه عبد الله بن طاهر لما ولاه المأمون الرقة ومصر وما بينهما,"The best and most comprehensive written exposition of this subject is the letter of Tahir b. al-Husayn, al-Ma’mun’s general, to his son ‘Abdallah b. Tahir when (al-Ma’mun) appointed him governor of ar-Raqqah, Egypt, and the intervening territories."
فكتب إليه أبوه طاهر كتابه المشهور عهد إليه فيه ووصاه بجميع ما يحتاج إليه في دولته وسلطانه من الآداب الدينية والخلقية والسياسة الشرعية والملوكية، وحثه على مكارم الأخلاق ومحاسن الشيم بما لا يستغني عنه ملك ولا سوقة.,"On that occasion, his father Tahir wrote him the famous letter. In it, he exhorted him and gave him his advice concerning all religious and ethical matters."
ونص الكتاب (بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم) أما بعد فعليك بتقوى الله وحده لا شريك له وخشيته ومراقبته عز وجل ومزايلة سخطه واحفظ رعيتك في الليل والنهار,"This is the text of the letter, as copied from at-Tabari’s work: In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. And now: It is your duty to fear the one and only God, to be afraid of Him, to watch Him, to keep away from His wrath, and to guard your subjects night and day."
والزم ما ألبسك الله من العافية بالذكر لمعادك وما أنت صائر إليه وموقوف عليه ومسئول عنه، والعمل في ذلك كله بما يعصمك الله عز وجل وينجيك يوم القيامة من عقابه وأليم عذابه,"With the help of the good health with which God has clothed you, apply yourself to thinking of your resurrection and the place where you will be going, as well as to the things that will be your concern and for which you will be held responsible. Also, apply yourself to working in that sense in such a way that on the Day of Resurrection, God will protect you and save you from His retribution and painful punishment."
فإن الله سبحانه قد أحسن إليك وأوجب الرأفة عليك بمن استرعاك أمرهم من عباده وألزمك العدل فيهم والقيام بحقه وحدوده عليهم والذب عنهم والدفع عن حريمهم ومنصبهم والحقن لدمائهم والأمن لسربهم وإدخال الراحة عليهم,"God has been benevolent to you. He has made it obligatory for you to show kindness to those of His servants whom He has made your subjects. He has made it your duty to be just to them, to see to it that His rights and punishments are observed in connection with them, to defend them and protect their families and women, to prevent bloodshed, to make their roads safe, and to enable them to live in peace."
ومؤاخذك بما فرض عليك وموقفك عليه وسائلك عنه ومثيبك عليه بما قدمت وأخرت ففرغ لذلك فهمك وعقلك وبصرك ولا يشغلك عنه شاغل، وإنه رأس أمرك وملاك شأنك وأول ما يوقفك الله عليه,"God will punish you in connection with the duties He has placed upon you (if you do not take care of them properly). He will make them your concern and hold you responsible for them and reward you for (the good deeds) you have done or (the evil deeds you have) not done. Keep your mind, brain, and eye free for that. Let nothing draw your attention from it. It is your principal and crucial task. It is the first thing through which God will give you successful guidance."
وليكن أول ما تلزم به نفسك وتنسب إليه فعلك المواظبة على ما فرض الله عز وجل عليك من الصلوات الخمس والجماعة عليها بالناس قبلك وتوابعها على سننها من إسباغ الوضوء لها وافتتاح ذكر الله عز وجل فيها,"Let the first thing to which you apply yourself and on which you work, be unfailing fulfillment of the duty of the five daily prayers that God has imposed upon you. Let people come to you to pray together with you, and perform (the prayers at the proper times) with all their rites. (That is,) perform the ablutions before the prayers. Begin the prayers with the mention of God."
ورتل في قراءتك وتمكن في ركوعك وسجودك وتشهدك ولتصرف فيه رأيك ونيتك واحضض عليه جماعة ممن معك وتحت يدك وادأب عليها فإنها كما قال الله عز وجل تنهى عن الفحشاء والمنكر,"Use the proper chant when you recite the Qur’an. Perform the requisite bows and prostrations and pronounce your profession of the faith properly. Let your intention in prayer be sincere in the presence of your Lord. Urge and instigate those who are with you and under your control to (perform the prayers). Prayer, as God said in the Qur’an, “restrains from sin and evil.”"
ثم اتبع ذلك بالأخذ بسنن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم والمثابرة على خلائقه واقتفاء أثر السلف الصالح من بعده،,"Then, let this be followed by adopting the ways of the Messenger of God, by constant application of his qualities, and by imitation of the pious ancient Muslims after him."
وإذا ورد عليك أمر فاستعن عليه باستخارة الله عز وجل وتقواه وبلزوم ما أنزل الله عز وجل في كتابه من أمره ونهيه وحلاله وحرامه وائتمام ما جاءت به الآثار عن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم,"If you have a task before you, let yourself be helped in doing it by asking God whether you should do it or not, by fearing Him, by applying what God has revealed in His Book with regard to things to be done and things not to be done, the things that are permitted and the things that are forbidden, and by taking as your guide the directions contained in the traditions of the Messenger of God."
ثم قم فيه بالحق لله عز وجل ولا تميلن عن العدل فيما أحببت أو كرهت لقريب من الناس أو لبعيد وآثر الفقه وأهله والدين وحملته وكتاب الله عز وجل والعاملين به,"Act, then, as you owe it to God to act. Do not be swayed from justice according to your likes and dislikes, either on behalf of a person close to you or on behalf of one remote from you. Favor jurisprudence and the jurists, the religion (Islam) and theologians, the Book of God and those who live by it."
فإن أفضل ما يتزين به المرء الفقه في الدين والطلب له والحث عليه والمعرفة بما يتقرب به إلى الله عز وجل فإنه الدليل على الخير كله والقائد إليه والآمر والناهي عن المعاصي والموبقات كلها,"For the best ornament of a man is judicial interpretation of the faith, search for it, admonition to others to follow it, and knowledge of how one can get close to God. Religion (Islam) is the leader and guide to everything that is good. It commands the doing of good and prohibits the committing of sins and crimes."
ومع توفيق الله عز وجل يزداد المرء معرفة وإجلالا له ودركا للدرجات العلى في المعاد مع ما في ظهوره للناس من التوقير لأمرك والهيبة لسلطانك والأنسة بك والثقة بعدلك,"Through (religion), man’s knowledge of God and respect for Him grows with God’s help, and he will attain the highest rank in the other world. In addition, when people notice your (religious attitude) they will have respect for your rule and reverence for your government. They will be friendly to you and trust in your justice."
وعليك بالاقتصاد في الأمور كلها فليس شيء أبين نفعا ولا أخص أمنا ولا أجمع فضلا منه. والقصد داعية إلى الرشد والرشد دليل على التوفيق والتوفيق قائد إلى السعادة وقوام الدين والسنن الهادية بالاقتصاد وكذا في دنياك كلها.,"Be moderate in everything. There is nothing more clearly useful, safer, and in every way better, than (moderation). Planned moderation calls for right guidance. Right guidance leads to success. Success leads to happiness. The preservation of Islam and of the model ways (of the Prophet) is accomplished through moderation. Give preference to it in all your worldly affairs."
ولا تقصر في طلب الآخرة والأجر والأعمال الصالحة والسنن المعروفة ومعالم الرشد والإعانة والاستكثار من البر والسعي له إذا كان يطلب به وجه الله تعالى ومرضاته ومرافقة أولياء الله في دار كرامته,"Do not fall behind in your pursuit of the other world, of good deeds, of kind behavior, of the right path. One cannot do enough pious deeds, if they are to help one to find God’s face and satisfaction and the company of God’s saints in His noble abode."
أما تعلم أن القصد في شأن الدنيا يورث العز ويمحص من الذنوب وأنك لن تحوط نفسك من قائل ولا تنصلح أمورك بأفضل منه فأته واهتد به تتم أمورك وتزد مقدرتك وتصلح عامتك وخاصتك,"You should know that planned moderation in worldly matters gives strength and protects against sins. You have nothing that is better than (moderation) to guard your person and your rank and to try to improve your affairs. Therefore, use it and be guided by it. Then, your affairs will succeed. Your power will increase. Your private and public affairs will be in order."
وأحسن ظنك بالله عز وجل تستقم لك رعيتك والتمس الوسيلة إليه في الأمور كلها تستدم به النعمة عليك ولا تتهمن أحدا من الناس فيما توليه من عملك قبل أن تكشف أمره فإن إيقاع التهم بالبراء والظنون السيئة بهم آثم إثم.,"Have a good opinion of God, and your subjects will cause you no trouble. In all your affairs, try to get in touch with Him, and you will always enjoy His favor. Do not suspect anyone who works for you with regard to the work with which you have entrusted him, before you have discovered what is the matter with him. For it is a crime to suspect innocent persons and to have a bad opinion of them."
فاجعل من شأنك حسن الظن بأصحابك واطرد عنك سوء الظن بهم، وارفضه فيهم يعنك ذلك على استطاعتهم ورياضتهم.,"Therefore, make it your duty to have a good opinion of the men around you. Drive away bad opinions of them, and do not harbor any such opinions. That will help you to gain their following and to train them."
ولا يجدن عدو الله الشيطان في أمرك مغمزا فإنه يكتفي بالقليل من وهنك ويدخل عليك من الغم بسوء الظن بهم ما ينقص لذاذة عيشك. واعلم أنك تجد بحسن الظن قوة وراحة، وتكتفي به ما أحببت كفايته من أمورك وتدعو به الناس إلى محبتك والاستقامة في الأمور كلها,"Do not let Satan, the enemy of God, gain entry to your affairs. Just a little weakness on your part is sufficient for him. He will cause you so much grief through your having a bad opinion of the men around you, that it will disturb the pleasure of your life. You should know that having a good opinion (of others) gives you strength and rest, and you will be competent to handle your affairs to your satisfaction. It will enable you to cause people to love you and to be straightforward in everything."
ولا يمنعك حسن الظن بأصحابك والرأفة برعيتك أن تستعمل المسألة والبحث عن أمورك والمباشرة لأمور الأولياء وحياطة الرعية والنظر في حوائجهم وحمل مئوناتهم أيسر عندك مما سوى ذلك فإنه أقوم للدين وأحيا للسنة.,"Do not let your good opinion of the men around you and your kindness to your subjects prevent you from making inquiries, from investigating your affairs, from taking personal charge of the business of (your) officials, from protecting (your) subjects, or from looking after the things that sustain and benefit them. On the contrary, consider it your most important task to take personal charge of the affairs of (your) officials and to protect your subjects by looking after their needs and providing for their requirements. This, more than anything else, helps to preserve the religion (of Islam) and gives life to the Sunnah (of the Prophet)."
وأخلص نيتك في جميع هذا وتفرد بتقويم نفسك تفرد من يعلم أنه مسئول عما صنع ومجزي بما أحسن ومؤاخذ بما أساء فإن الله عز وجل جعل الدين حرزا وعزا ورفع من اتبعه وعززه,"In all these things, have pure intentions. Pay special attention to improving yourself as a person, one who realizes that he will be held responsible for his deeds, that he will be rewarded for his good deeds, and punished for his evil deeds. For God made the religion a refuge and a power. He lifts up those who follow it and honor it."
واسلك بمن تسوسه وترعاه نهج الدين وطريقة الهدى. وأقم حدود الله تعالى في أصحاب الجرائم على قدر منازلهم وما استحقوه ولا تعطل ذلك ولا تتهاون به,"Therefore, lead those whom you govern and rule along the path of religion and the way of right guidance. Apply the punishments that God has ordained for criminals, according to their station and according to what they deserve. Do not disregard it and do not make light of it."
ولا تؤخر عقوبة أهل العقوبة فإن في تفريطك في ذلك ما يفسد عليك حسن ظنك واعتزم على أمرك في ذلك بالسنن المعروفة وجانب البدع والشبهات يسلم لك دينك وتقم لك مروءتك.,"Do not postpone the punishment of those who must be punished. If you fall short in this respect, it will help spoil the good opinion (people have) of you. In this regard, let your actions be guided by the wellknown traditions (sunan). Keep away from innovations and doubts. Your religion will then be healthy and your manliness unimpaired."
وإذا عاهدت عهدا فأوف به وإذا وعدت خيرا فأنجزه واقبل الحسنة وادفع بها، واغمض عن عيب كل ذي عيب من رعيتك، واشدد لسانك عن قول الكذب والزور، وأبغض أهل النميمة،,"If you enter into an agreement, fulfill it. If you have promised to do a certain good deed, keep your (promise). Accept favors and repay them. Close your eyes to the defects of those of your subjects who may have them. Refrain from lies and falsehoods. Despise (liars and keep) away calumniators."
فإن أول فساد أمورك في عاجلها وآجلها، تقريب الكذوب، والجراءة على الكذب، لأن الكذب رأس المآثم، والزور والنميمة خاتمتها، لأن النميمة لا يسلم صاحبها وقائلها، لا يسلم له صاحب ولا يستقيم له أمر.,"Your affairs will begin to fail, so far as their effects both in this world and the other world are concerned, as soon as you give access to a liar or boldly use lies yourself. Lying is the beginning of crimes and falsehood, and calumny their end. The calumniator is not safe himself. No friend of a man who listens to (calumny) is safe. Nothing works out well for a person who is governed by (calumny)."
وأحبب أهل الصلاح. والصدق، وأعز الأشراف بالحق، وآس الضعفاء، وصل الرحم، وابتغ بذلك وجه الله تعالى وإعزاز أمره، والتمس فيه ثوابه والدار الآخرة.,"Love good and righteous people. Be honestly helpful to noble men. Be friendly to the weak. Keep in touch with your blood relatives. Desire thus to see the face of God and to strengthen His cause, and wish (thus) for His reward and the other world."
واجتنب سوء الأهواء والجور، واصرف عنهما رأيك، وأظهر براءتك من ذلك لرعيتك وأنعم بالعدل في سياستهم وقم بالحق فيهم، وبالمعرفة التي تنتهي بك إلى سبيل الهدى.,Keep away from evil desires and injustice. Pay them no notice and show your subjects that you are free of (them). Be just in governing your subjects. Treat them honestly and with the kindness through which you will reach the path of right guidance.
وأملك نفسك عند الغضب، وآثر الحلم والوقار، وإياك والحدة والطيش والغرور فيما أنت بسبيله.,"Control yourself and do not get angry. Prefer dignity and mildness. Beware of sharpness, levity, and deceitfulness in any (enterprise) you engage in."
وإياك أن تقول أنا مسلط أفعل ما أشاء فإن ذلك سريع إلى نقص الرأي وقلة اليقين بالله عز وجل وأخلص لله وحده النية فيه واليقين به. واعلم أن الملك لله سبحانه وتعالى يؤتيه من يشاء وينزعه ممن يشاء.,Beware of saying: “I am in authority. I may do what I want to do.” This soon reveals a lack of sense on your part and little certainty of the one and only God. Let your intention with regard to (God) and your certainty of Him be sincere. You should know that royal authority belongs to God. He gives it to whomever He wants to give it and takes it away from whomever He wants to take it away.
ولن تجد تغير النعمة وحلول النقمة على أحد أسرع منه إلى حملة النعمة من أصحاب السلطان والمبسوط لهم في الدولة إذا كفروا نعم الله وإحسانه واستطالوا بما أعطاهم الله عز وجل من فضله.,"The change from (divine) favor to (divine) vengeance occurs nowhere faster than with men in authority who do not acknowledge (divine) favors, and with people enjoying good positions in the government, who are ungrateful for the favors and benefactions of God and consider themselves superior beings because of the bounty that God has given them."
ودع عنك شره نفسك ولتكن ذخائرك وكنوزك التي تدخر وتكنز البر والتقوى واستصلاح الرعية وعمارة بلادهم والتفقد لأمورهم والحفظ لدمائهم والإغاثة لملهوفهم.,"Do not be greedy. Let the treasures and riches you gather and hoard up be piety, the fear of God, justice, the improvement of your subjects, the cultivation of their country, the supervision of their affairs, the protection of the mass of them, and support of the unfortunates."
واعلم أن الأموال إذا اكتنزت وادخرت في الخزائن لا تنمو وإذا كانت في صلاح الرعية وإعطاء حقوقهم وكف الأذية عنهم نمت وزكت وصلحت بها العامة وترتبت بها الولاية وطاب بها الزمان واعتقد فيها العز والمنفعة.,"You should know that property, once it is gathered and stored in treasuries, does not bear fruit, but if it is invested in the welfare of the subjects and used for giving them what is due to them and to prevent them from need, then it grows and thrives. The common people prosper. (The proper use of money) is an ornament to high officials, and it means a time of prosperity. It brings strength and protection."
فليكن كنز خزائنك تفريق الأموال في عمارة الإسلام وأهله. ووفر منه على أولياء أمير المؤمنين قبلك حقوقهم وأوف من ذلك حصصهم وتعهد ما يصلح أمورهم ومعاشهم فإنك إذا فعلت ذلك قرت النعمة عليك واستوجبت المزيد من الله تعالى,"Therefore, let it be your way of gathering up treasures to spend money on building up Islam and the Muslims. Distribute to the officials of the Commander of the Faithful who preceded you that which is due them. Give your subjects their share. Pay attention to the things that might improve their situation and livelihood. If you do that, the (divine) favor will always be with you. You will make it obligatory for God to increase (His favors to you)."
وكنت بذلك على جباية خراجك وجمع أموال رعيتك وعملك أقدر وكان الجميع لما شملهم من عدلك وإحسانك أسلس لطاعتك وأطيب أنفسا بكل ما أردت وأجهد نفسك فيما حددت لك في هذا الباب وليعظم حقك فيه,"In this way, you will also be better able to levy the land tax and to collect the property of your subjects and your provinces. Because everybody experiences justice and kindness from you, everybody will be more amenable to obeying you and more favorably disposed towards everything you want. Therefore, exert yourself in the way that I have outlined to you in this chapter. Be very much concerned in this respect."
وإنما يبقى من المال ما أنفق في سبيل الله واعرف للشاكرين حقهم وأثبهم عليه وإياك أن تنسيك الدنيا وغرورها هول الآخرة فتتهاون بما يحق عليك فإن التهاون يورث التفريط والتفريط يورث البوار.,"Of (all) your money, there will remain only what was honestly spent in behalf of God. Acknowledge the gratefulness of those who express their thanks, and reward them for it. Beware of forgetting the terror of the other world on account of this world and its temptations, so that you become neglectful of your duties. Neglect causes shortcomings, and shortcomings cause ruin."
وليكن عملك لله عز وجل وارج الثواب فيه فإن الله سبحانه قد أسبغ عليك فضله. واعتصم بالشكر وعليه فاعتمد يزدك الله خيرا وإحسانا فإن الله عز وجل يثيب بقدر شكر الشاكرين وإحسان المحسنين.,"Whatever you do, you should do for God and in God, and hope for a reward. God has poured His favors upon you in this world and showed you His bounty. Therefore, take refuge in giving thanks to God. Rely upon Him, and He will give you more good things and benefactions. God gives His reward according to the gratefulness of those who express their thanks, and the way of life of those who do good deeds. He bestows His favors and shows His grace where they are deserved."
ولا تحقرن ذنبا ولا تمالئن حاسدا ولا ترحمن فاجرا ولا تصلن كفورا ولا تداهنن عدوا ولا تصدقن نماما ولا تأمنن غدارا ولا توالين فاسقا ولا تتبعن غاويا ولا تحمدن مرائيا ولا تحقرن إنسانا ولا تردن سائلا فقيرا ولا تحسنن باطلا,Do not consider (any) sin lightly. Do not support an envious person. Do not pity a sinner. Do not be friendly with an ungrateful person. Do not connive with an enemy. Do not trust a calumniator. Do not rely upon a deceiver. Do not conclude a friendship with an immoral person. Do not follow a seducer. Do not praise a hypocrite. Have contempt for nobody. Do not refuse a poor petitioner. Do not (try to) improve a worthless person.
ولا تلاحظن مضحكا ولا تخلفن وعدا ولا تزهون فخرا ولا تظهرن غضبا ولا تباينن رجاء ولا تمشين مرحا ولا تفرطن في طلب الآخرة ولا ترفع للنمام عينا ولا تغمضن عن ظالم رهبة منه أو محاباة ولا تطلبن ثواب الآخرة في الدنيا.,"Pay no attention to buffoons. Do not break a promise. Do not fear pride. Show no anger. Do not be ostentatious. Do not walk arrogantly. Do not justify a stupidity Do not neglect your search for the other world. Do not waste your days in finding fault. Do not close your eyes to an evildoer, because you are afraid of him or because you have a prejudice (in his favor). Do not seek the reward of the other world in this world."
وأكثر مشاورة الفقهاء واستعمل نفسك بالحلم وخذ عن أهل التجارب وذوي العقل والرأي والحكمة.,Consult frequently with jurists. Accustom yourself to being mild and prudent. Learn from men of experience and intelligence who are understanding and wise.
ولا تدخلن في مشورتك أهل الرفه والبخل ولا تسمعن لهم قولا فإن ضررهم أكثر من نفعهم وليس شيء أسرع فسادا لما استقبلت فيه أمر رعيتك من الشح.,"Do not permit extravagant or stingy people to give you advice. Do not listen to what they say, because the damage they can cause is greater than their usefulness. Nothing can ruin your projects on behalf of your subjects more quickly than avarice."
واعلم أنك إذا كنت حريصا كنت كثير الأخذ قليل العطية وإذا كنت كذلك لم يستقم لك أمرك إلا قليلا فإن رعيتك إنما تعقد على محبتك بالكف عن أموالهم وترك الجور عليهم.,"You should realize that if you are greedy, you take much and give little. If you are this way, you will have little success, for your subjects will be willing to like you only if (you) keep away from their property and do not treat them unjustly."
وابتدئ من صافاك من أوليائك بالإفضال عليهم وحسن العطية لهم. واجتنب الشح واعلم أنه أول ما عصى الإنسان به ربه وإن العاصي بمنزلة خزي,You will keep the sincere friendship of your friends by being generous to them and giving them fine gifts. Shun avarice. You should know that avarice is the first sin that man commits against His Lord and that the sinner is disgraced.
وهو قول الله عز وجل «ومن يوق شح نفسه فأولئك هم المفلحون 59: 9»,"Thus, God says in the Qur’an: “Those who are preserved from their own avarice are, indeed, generous.”"
فسهل طريق الجود بالحق واجعل للمسلمين كلهم من فيئك حظا ونصيبا وأيقن أن الجود أفضل أعمال العباد فأعده لنفسك خلقا وارض به عملا ومذهبا.,"Therefore, be really generous Give all the Muslims shares and portions in the booty you take. Be assured that generosity is one of the best things for a human being to practice. Make generosity one of your character qualities. [Be really generous.] Accept (generosity) as your constant practice."
وتفقد الجند في دواوينهم ومكانتهم وأدر عليهم أرزاقهم ووسع عليهم في معايشهم يذهب الله عز وجل بذلك فاقتهم فيقوى لك أمرهم وتزيد قلوبهم في طاعتك وأمرك خلوصا وانشراحا.,"Supervise the registers and contracts of the soldiers. Augment their salaries. Give them a good livelihood, and God will thus remove their indigence. They will be a strong (support) for you, and their hearts will be readily and gladly willing to obey you and serve you."
وحسب ذي السلطان من السعادة أن يكون على جنده ورعيته ذا رحمة في عدله وحيطته وإنصافه وعنايته وشفقته وبره وتوسعته,"It is sufficient happiness for a man in authority that his soldiers and subjects find mercy in his justice, protection, fairness, attentiveness, kindness, piety, and largesse."
فزايل مكروه أحد البابين باستشعار فضيلة الباب الآخر ولزوم العمل به تلق إن شاء الله تعالى نجاحا وصلاحا وفلاحا.,"Therefore, avoid the unpleasantness of one of the two alternatives by being conscious of the excellence of the other alternative and by always acting in accordance with it. Then, you will find success, well-being, and prosperity, if God wills."
واعلم أن القضاء من الله تعالى بالمكان الذي ليس فوقه شيء من الأمور لأنه ميزان الله الذي تعدل عليه أحوال الناس في الأرض. وبإقامة العدل في القضاء والعمل تصلح أحوال الرعية وتأمن السبل وينتصف المظلوم,"You should know that the office of judge holds a place with God to which nothing else compares. It is God’s scales in which the conditions of men on earth are equalized. Making decisions and dispensing justice in judicial procedure and in all actions brings well-being to the subjects. The roads, then, are safe. The person who was treated unjustly finds justice."
وتأخذ الناس حقوقهم وتحسن المعيشة ويؤدى حق الطاعة ويرزق الله العافية والسلامة ويقيم الدين ويجري السنن والشرائع في مجاريها.,Everyone obtains his right. The livelihood of all is safeguarded. Proper obedience is paid. God gives good health and well-being. The religion can endure. The Sunnah and the religious laws function properly. Right and justice are applied in judicial procedure.
واشتد في أمر الله عز وجل وتورع عن النطف وامض لإقامة الحدود. وأقل العجلة وأبعد عن الضجر والقلق واقنع بالقسم وانتفع بتجربتك وانتبه في صمتك واسدد في منطقك وأنصف الخصم وقف عند الشبهة وأبلغ في الحجة,"(As a judge) be firm in behalf of God. Abstain from corruption. Go and apply the legal punishments. Do not make haste. Stay away from anger and unrest. Be satisfied with an oath. Let your breath be calm and your cheek cool. Make use of your experience. Be attentive when you are silent, and precise when you speak. Treat the plaintiff fairly. Hesitate when there is a doubt. Have much evidence produced."
ولا يأخذك في أحد من رعيتك محاباة ولا مجاملة ولا لومة لائم وتثبت وتأن وراقب وانظر وتنكر وتدبر واعتبر وتواضع لربك,Do not show prejudice in favor of any of your subjects. Do not give anyone preferred treatment. Do not expose yourself to censure. Be steadfast and slow. Observe. Look out. Reflect. Think things over. Consider them. Be humble in the presence of your Lord.
وارفق بجميع الرعية وسلط الحق على نفسك ولا تسرعن إلى سفك دم، فإن الدماء من الله عز وجل بمكان عظيم انتهاكا لها بغير حقها.,"Be kind to all (your) subjects. Let the truth govern you. Do not shed blood hastily, for God considers the unlawful and violent shedding of blood as something very grave."
وانظر هذا الخراج الذي استقامت عليه الرعية وجعله الله للإسلام عزا ورفعة ولأهله توسعة ومنعة ولعدوه وعدوهم كبتا وغيظا ولأهل الكفر من معاديهم ذلا وصغارا,"Consider the land tax. It maintains the subjects. Through it, God has strengthened and exalted Islam, helped and protected the Muslims, confounded and annoyed the enemies of Islam and the Muslims, and humbled and humiliated the unbelievers who are their subjects."
فوزعه بين أصحابه بالحق والعدل والتسوية والعموم ولا تدفعن شيئا منه عن شريف لشرفه ولا عن غني لغناه ولا عن كاتب لك ولا عن أحد من خاصتك ولا حاشيتك ولا تأخذن منه فوق الاحتمال له. ولا تكلف أمرا فيه شطط.,"Therefore, distribute (the land tax) among those to whom it belongs, and do it justly, fairly, equitably, and generally. Do not make a noble man (sharif) pay less because of his nobility, or a rich man because of his wealth, or one of your secretaries, or one of your intimates and entourage. Do not ask for more than is tolerable. Do not charge anyone too much."
واحمل الناس كلهم على أمر الحق فإن ذلك أجمع لأنفسهم وألزم لرضاء العامة. واعلم أنك جعلت بولايتك خازنا وحافظا وراعيا وإنما سمي أهل عملك رعيتك لأنك راعيهم وقيمهم. فخذ منهم ما أعطوك من عفوهم ونفذه في قوام أمرهم وصلاحهم وتقويم أودهم.,"Treat all the people justly. This makes it easier to gain their friendship and is more certain to achieve general satisfaction. You should know that by your appointment, you were made treasurer, guardian, and shepherd. The people under your jurisdiction are called subjects (ra’iyah “flock”), because you are their shepherd and overseer. (Therefore,) accept from them what they give you of their affluence, and use it for the administration of their affairs, for their welfare, and for providing for their needs."
واستعمل عليهم أولي الرأي والتدبير والتجربة والخبرة بالعلم والعمل بالسياسة والعفاف. ووسع عليهم في الرزق فإن ذلك من الحقوق اللازمة لك فيما تقلدت وأسند إليك فلا يشغلك عنه شاغل ولا يصرفك عنه صارف,"Employ for them understanding, skilled, and experienced men, who have theoretical knowledge of, and are able to act with, political wisdom and moderation. Give them good salaries. This is one of the duties incumbent upon you in connection with the task with which you have been entrusted. Let nothing divert your attention or distract you from it."
فإنك متى آثرته وقمت فيه بالواجب استدعيت به زيادة النعمة من ربك وحسن الأحدوثة في عملك واجتررت به المحبة من رعيتك وأعنت على الصلاح,"When you give preference to this matter and take charge of it properly, you will cause an increase in the favors your Lord bestows upon you, and favorable comment on your activities. You will also gain through it the love of your subjects and promote the (general) welfare."
فدرت الخيرات ببلدك وفشت العمارة بناحيتك وظهر الخصب في كورك وكثر خراجك وتوفرت أموالك وقويت بذلك على ارتياض جندك وإرضاء العامة بإفاضة العطاء فيهم من نفسك,The (general) well-being of your country will be improved. Cultural activity will expand in your region. The fertility of your districts will be evident. Your income from the land tax will be large. Your property will be extensive. You will have the attachment of your soldiers and be able to satisfy everybody through generous gifts from you.
وكنت محمود السياسة مرضي العدل في ذلك عند عدوك وكنت في أمورك كلها ذا عدل وآلة وقوة وعدة. فنافس في ذلك ولا تقدم عليه شيئا تحمد عاقبة أمرك إن شاء الله تعالى.,"Your political leadership will be praised. Your justice will be approved by the enemy. In all your affairs, you will be just, capable in deed, powerful, and well equipped. Therefore, strive for this (goal). Do not give anything else preference over it. Then, the results of your rule will find praise, if God wills."
واجعل في كل كورة من عملك أمينا يخبرك أخبار عمالك ويكتب إليك بسيرهم وأعمالهم حتى كأنك مع كل عامل في عمله معاين لأموره كلها.,"Appoint a trusted (official) in every district under your jurisdiction, to inform you about your officials and to write you concerning their manner of life and activities. Thus, you will have eventually something like personal contact with every official in his area of jurisdiction and personally observe all his affairs."
فإن أردت أن تأمرهم بأمر فانظر في عواقب ما أردت من ذلك فإن رأيت السلامة فيه والعافية ورجوت فيه حسن الدفاع والصنع فأمضه وإلا فتوقف عنه وراجع أهل البصر والعلم به ثم خذ فيه عدته,"If you want to order (your official to do) something, consider what the result of the thing you want done will be. If you see that the result will be healthy and sound, and if you hope for a good return from it and good council and benefit, send (your order) out. If not, refrain from (any immediate action) and consult people of insight and knowledge about (the matter). Then, prepare for action."
فإنه ربما نظر الرجل في أمره وقدره وأتاه على ما يهوى فأغواه ذلك وأعجبه فإن لم ينظر في عواقبه أهلكه ونقص عليه أمره. فاستعمل الحزم في كل ما أردت وباشره بعد عون الله عز وجل بالقوة.,"A man often looks at something he wants to do and finds it to be as he desires. This pleases and deceives him. Failure to consider what the result may be, could be his ruin and destruction. Whatever you want to do, do it resolutely and address yourself to it forcefully after (having asked) God’s help."
وأكثر من استخارة ربك في جميع أمورك. وافرغ من يومك ولا تؤخره لغدك وأكثر مباشرته بنفسك فإن للغد أمورا وحوادث تلهيك عن عمل يومك الذي أخرت.,Always ask your Lord whether you should do a particular thing. Finish the work you have to do today and do not postpone it until tomorrow. Do much of it yourself. For every tomorrow has its own business and events that will keep you from doing the work you should have done today but postponed.
واعلم أن اليوم إذا مضى ذهب بما فيه وإذا أخرت عمله اجتمع عليك عمل يومين فيثقلك ذلك حتى تمرض منه. وإذا أمضيت لكل يوم عمله أرحت بدنك ونفسك وجمعت أمر سلطانك,"You should know that when a day is gone, it is gone with all there was in it. If you postponed the work that you should have done (yesterday), you will have to do two days’ work (today). That will be difficult for you and will eventually make you ill. (On the other hand,) if you do each day the work that you should do, you will give rest to your body and soul and discharge your tasks as ruler well."
وانظر أحرار الناس وذوي الفضل منهم ممن بلوت صفاء طويتهم وشهدت مودتهم لك ومظاهرتهم بالنصح والمحافظة على أمرك فاستخلصهم وأحسن إليهم,"Consider the free (noble) people who are advanced in age and of whose sincere intentions you can be certain, and whose love for you, whose helpfulness as advisers, whose active interest in your affairs you have observed. Select them for your service and be benevolent toward them."
وتعاهد أهل البيوتات ممن قد دخلت عليهم الحاجة واحتمل مئونتهم وأصلح حالهم حتى لا يجدوا لخلتهم مسا وأفرد نفسك للنظر في أمور الفقراء والمساكين ومن لا يقدر على رفع مظلمته إليك والمحتقر الذي لا علم له بطلب حقه,"Have regard for the descendants of great houses who have become needy. Provide for their requirements and improve their condition, so that indigence will no longer be able to touch them. Devote yourself to looking after the affairs of the poor and indigent, those who are not able to bring before you complaints about injustices they have suffered, and other lowly persons who do not know that they may ask for their rights."
فسل عنه أحفى مسألة ووكل بأمثاله أهل الصلاح من رعيتك ومرهم برفع حوائجهم وحالاتهم إليك لتنظر فيما يصلح الله به أمرهم,"Inquire about these people in all secrecy, and put good men from among your subjects in charge of them. Command them to report to you their needs and conditions, so that you will be able to look into the measures through which God might improve their affairs."
وتعاهد ذوي البأساء وأيتامهم وأراملهم واجعل لهم أرزاقا من بيت المال اقتداء بأمير المؤمنين أعزه الله تعالى في العطف عليهم والصلة لهم ليصلح الله بذلك عيشهم ويرزقك به بركة وزيادة.,"Have regard also for people who have suffered accidents, and for their widows and orphans. Give them stipends from the treasury, following the example of the Commander of the Faithful – God give him power! – in being kind to them and giving them presents, so that God may thereby improve their livelihood and give you a blessing and increased (favors)."
وأجر للأضراء من بيت المال وقدم حملة القرآن منهم والحافظين لأكثره في الجراية على غيرهم,Give the blind stipends from the treasury. Give to those of them who know the Qur’an and know most of it by heart a higher salary than to others.
وانصب لمرضى المسلمين دورا تأويهم وقواما يرفقون بهم وأطباء يعالجون أسقامهم وأسعفهم بشهواتهم ما لم يؤد ذلك إلى إسراف في بيت المال.,"Set up houses for Muslims who are ill, to shelter them. (Appoint) attendants in these houses who will handle them kindly, and (appoint) physicians who will treat their diseases. Comply with their desires so long as it does not lead to waste in the treasury."
واعلم أن الناس إذا أعطوا حقوقهم وأفضل أمانيهم لم يرضهم ذلك ولم تطب أنفسهم دون رفع حوائجهم إلى ولاتهم طمعا في نيل الزيادة وفضل الرفق منهم.,"You should know that when people are given their rights and when their dearest wishes are fulfilled, they are still not satisfied and are not quiet, but want to bring their needs to the attention of those in charge of them, because they desire to receive more and to get (additional) kindnesses from them."
وربما تبرم المتصفح لأمور الناس لكثرة ما يرد عليه ويشغل فكره وذهنه فيها ما يناله به من مئونة ومشقة.,"Often, the person who looks after the affairs of the people is annoyed by the great number of matters referred to him, which occupy his thought and mind, and cause him embarrassment and difficulties."
وليس من يرغب في العدل ويعرف محاسن أموره في العاجل وفضل ثواب الآجل كالذي يستقبل ما يقربه إلى الله تعالى ويلتمس رحمته,"The person who desires justice, knowing what is good for him in this world and how excellent the reward in the other world will be, is not like the person who advances toward the things that bring him close to God and who seeks (God’s) mercy."
وأكثر الإذن للناس عليك وأبرز لهم وجهك وسكن لهم حواسك واخفض لهم جناحك وأظهر لهم بشرك ولن لهم في المسألة والنطق واعطف عليهم بجودك وفضلك.,Let people frequently come to see you and show them your face. Let not your guards hinder them. Be humble toward them. Show them your smiling countenance. Be lenient with them when (you put) questions and speak to them. Be benevolent to them in your generosity and bounty.
وإذا أعطيت فأعط بسماحة وطيب نفس والتماس للصنيعة والأجر من غير تكدير ولا امتنان فإن العطية على ذلك تجارة مربحة إن شاء الله تعالى.,"If you give, do it kindly and pleasantly. (Do it) for the sake of doing a good deed and of receiving the reward (for it in the other world). Do it without causing trouble, and do not remind (the person to whom you give something) of your gift (in the expectation of a gift in return). Such a gift will be a profitable transaction, if God wills."
واعتبر بما ترى من أمور الدنيا ومن مضى قبلك من أهل السلطان والرئاسة في القرون الخالية والأمم البائدة.,"Learn from the affairs of the world that you are able to observe personally, and from the persons in authority and in positions of leadership who lived before your time in past centuries and among nations that disappeared."
ثم اعتصم في أحوالك كلها بالله سبحانه وتعالى والوقوف عند محبته والعمل بشريعته وسنته وبإقامة دينه وكتابه واجتنب ما فارق ذلك وخالفه ودعا إلى سخط الله عز وجل.,"Then, in all your conditions, seek God’s protection and love, act in accordance with His religious law and Sunnah, and establish His religion and Scripture. Keep away from the things that are different from that, or in opposition to it, and that provoke the wrath of God."
واعرف ما يجمع عمالك من الأموال وما ينفقون منها ولا تجمع حراما ولا تنفق إسرافا. وأكثر مجالسة العلماء ومشاورتهم ومخالطتهم وليكن هواك اتباع السنن وإقامتها وإيثار مكارم الأخلاق ومعاليها,"Be acquainted with the property that your officials collect and use for their expenditures. Do not take any forbidden property, and do not be a wasteful spender. Sit down often with scholars and seek their advice and company. Let it be your desire to follow and establish the Sunnah (of the Prophet) and to prefer noble and lofty character qualities."
وليكن أكرم دخلائك وخاصتك عليك من إذا رأى عيبا فيك لم تمنعه هيبتك عن إنهاء ذلك إليك في سرك وإعلانك بما فيه من النقص فإن أولئك أنصح أوليائك ومظاهرون لك.,"Consider those the most honorable of your proteges and intimates who, when they notice a fault (in you), are not deterred by their respect for you from informing you about it in secret or from calling your attention to the shortcoming that lies in that fault. People of that sort are your most sincere friends and helpers."
وانظر عمالك الذين بحضرتك وكتابك فوقت لكل رجل منهم في كل يوم وقتا يدخل فيه عليك بكتبه ومؤامراته وما عنده من حوائج عمالك وأمور الدولة ورعيتك ثم فرغ لما يورد عليك من ذلك سمعك وبصرك وفهمك وعقلك,"Look at those of your officials who are present at your residence, and at your secretaries. Appoint for each one of them a time of the day in which he may come to you with his documents and orders and (also present to you) the needs of your officials and the affairs of your districts and subjects with which he is concerned. Lend your ear and your eye, your mind and your intellect, to the things of that sort which he presents to you."
وكرر النظر فيه والتدبر له فما كان موافقا للحق والحزم فأمضه واستخر الله عز وجل فيه وما كان مخالفا لذلك فاصرفه إلى المسألة عنه والتثبت منه ولا تمنن على رعيتك ولا غيرهم بمعروف تؤتيه إليهم.,"Go over it again and think it over. If it is reasonable and appears effective, order it to be done and ask God about it. If not, have it checked and investigated. Do not remind your subjects or anyone else to whom you show a favor, of it (in the expectation of a gift)."
ولا تقبل من أحد إلا الوفاء والاستقامة والعون في أمور أمير المسلمين ولا تضعن المعروف إلا على ذلك. وتفهم كتابي إليك وأنعم النظر فيه والعمل به واستعن بالله على جميع أمورك واستخره فإن الله عز وجل مع الصلاح وأهله,"Accept from no one anything except faithfulness, straightforwardness, and support for the affairs of the Muslims. Do not do any favors for anyone except under these (conditions). Understand this letter of mine that I am addressing to you. Study it carefully and always act in accordance with it. Ask God for help in all your affairs. Ask Him whether or not you should do a thing. God is with goodness and with good people."
وليكن أعظم سيرتك وأفضل رغبتك ما كان لله عز وجل رضى ولدينه نظاما ولأهله عزا وتمكينا وللملة والذمة عدلا وصلاحا,"Let your most important activity and greatest desire be what is pleasing to God and means order in his religion, might and steadfastness in His people, and justice and welfare in the Muslim group and the protected religions."
وأنا أسأل الله أن يحسن عونك وتوفيقك ورشدك وكلاءتك والسلام.,I am asking God to give you help and success and right guidance and shelter. Farewell!
وحدث الأخباريون أن هذا الكتاب لما ظهر وشاع أمره أعجب به الناس,"The historians report that people liked the letter when it appeared, and it found wide circulation."
واتصل بالمأمون فلما قرئ عليه قال ما أبقى أبو الطيب يعني طاهرا شيئا من أمور الدنيا والدين والتدبير والرأي والسياسة وصلاح الملك والرعية وحفظ السلطان وطاعة الخلفاء وتقويم الخلافة إلا وقد أحكمه وأوصى به,"Al-Ma’mun heard about it. When it had been read to him, he said: “Abu t-Tayyib-that is, Tahir-did not omit any of the matters that concern this world, the religion, administration, (the formation of) opinion, politics, the improvement of the realm and the subjects, the preservation of the government, obedience to the caliphs, and maintenance of the caliphate. He has dealt very well with all these matters, and has given directions (how to handle) them.”"
ثم أمر المأمون فكتب به إلى جميع العمال في النواحي ليقتدوا به ويعملوا بما فيه هذا أحسن ما وقفت عليه في هذه السياسة,"Al-Ma’mun then ordered the letter to be sent to all officials in the various regions, so that they might use it as a model and act accordingly. This is the best treatment of this type of politics that I have found."
الفصل الثالث والخمسون في أمر الفاطمي وما يذهب إليه الناس في شأنه وكشف الغطاء عن ذلك,51. The Fatimid. The opinions of the people about him. The truth about the matter.
اعلم أن في المشهور بين الكافة من أهل الإسلام على ممر الأعصار أنه لا بد في آخر الزمان من ظهور رجل من أهل البيت يؤيد الدين ويظهر العدل ويتبعه المسلمون ويستولي على الممالك الإسلامية ويسمى بالمهدي,"It has been well known (and generally accepted) by all Muslims in every epoch, that at the end of time a man from the family (of the Prophet) will without fail make his appearance, one who will strengthen the religion and make justice triumph. The Muslims will follow him, and he will gain domination over the Muslim realm. He will be called the Mahdi."
ويكون خروج الدجال وما بعده من أشراط الساعة الثابتة في الصحيح على أثره وأن عيسى ينزل من بعده فيقتل الدجال أو ينزل معه فيساعده على قتله ويأتم بالمهدي في صلاته,"Following him, the Antichrist will appear, together with all the subsequent signs of the Hour (the Day of Judgment), as established in (the sound tradition of) the Sahih. After (the Mahdi), Isa (Jesus) will descend and kill the Antichrist. Or, Jesus will descend together with the Mahdi, and help him kill (the Antichrist), and have him as the leader in his prayers."
ويحتجون في الشأن بأحاديث خرجها الأئمة وتكلم فيها المنكرون لذلك وربما عارضوها ببعض الأخبار,"Evidence for this matter has been found in the traditions that religious leaders have published. They have been (critically) discussed by those who disapprove of (the matter), and have often been refuted by means of certain (other) traditions."
وللمتصوفة المتأخرين في أمر هذا الفاطمي طريقة أخرى ونوع من الاستدلال وربما يعتمدون في ذلك على الكشف الذي هو أصل طرائقهم.,"The more recent Sufis have another theory and a sort of argument concerning the Fatimid. They like to base themselves upon the removal (of the veil, kashf), which is the basis of their various (mystical) paths."
ونحن الآن نذكر هنا الأحاديث الواردة في هذا الشأن وما للمنكرين فيها من المطاعن وما لهم في إنكارهم من المستند ثم نتبعه بذكر كلام المتصوفة ورأيهم ليتبين لك الصحيح من ذلك إن شاء الله تعالى,"We are now going to mention here the various traditions concerning (this matter). (We are also going to mention) the attacks upon these traditions by those who disapprove (of the matter), and the evidence upon which they base their disapproval. This, then, will be followed by a report on the statements and opinions of the Sufis. Thus, the true situation will become clear, if God wills."
فنقول إن جماعة من الأئمة خرجوا أحاديث المهدي منهم الترمذي وأبو داود والبزاز وابن ماجة والحاكم والطبراني وأبو يعلى الموصلي,"We say: A number of religious leaders have published traditions concerning the Mahdi, among them at-Tirmidhi, Abu Dawud, al-Bazzar, Ibn Majah, al-Hakim, atTabarani, and Abu Ya’la al-Mawsill."
وأسندوها إلى جماعة من الصحابة مثل علي وابن عباس وابن عمر وطلحة وابن مسعود وأبي هريرة وأنس وأبي سعيد الخدري وأم حبيبة وأم سلمة وثوبان وقرة بن إياس وعلي الهلالي وعبد الله بن الحارث بن جزء,"They mention a number of the men around Muhammad as transmitters of these traditions: ‘Ali, Ibn ‘Abbas, Ibn ‘Umar, Talhah, Ibn Mas’ud, Abu Hurayrah, Anas, Abu Sa’id alKhudri, Umm Habibah, Umm Salimah, Thawban, Qurrah b. lyas, ‘Ali al-Hilali, and ‘Abdallah b. al-Harith b. Jaz among others."
بأسانيد ربما يعرض لها المنكرون كما نذكره إلا أن المعروف عند أهل الحديث أن الجرح مقدم على التعديل فإذا وجدنا طعنا في بعض رجال الأسانيد بغفلة أو بسوء حفظ أو ضعف أو سوء رأي تطرق ذلك إلى صحة الحديث وأوهن منها,"(They also mention) their chains of transmitters, which have often been found objectionable by those who disapprove (of the matter). We shall mention this now, because hadith scholars acknowledge negative criticism to have precedence over positive criticism. If we find that some person in the chain of transmitters is accused of negligence, poor memory, weakness, or poor judgment, it affects and weakens the soundness of the tradition."
ولا تقولن مثل ذلك ربما يتطرق إلى رجال الصحيحين فإن الإجماع قد اتصل في الأمة على تلقيهما بالقبول والعمل بما فيهما,It should not be said that the same faults often affect the persons (mentioned as authorities in) the two Sahihs. The general consensus of hadith transmitters confirms the soundness of the contents of (the two Sahihs) as presented by al-Bukhari and Muslim. The uninterrupted general consensus in Islam also confirms the acceptability of (the two Sahihs) and the necessity of acting in accordance with their contents.
وفي الإجماع أعظم حماية وأحسن دفعا وليس غير الصحيحين بمثابتهما في ذلك فقد تجد مجالا للكلام في أسانيدها بما نقل عن أئمة الحديث في ذلك.,"General consensus is the best protection and defense. Works other than the two Sahihs are not on the same level with them in this respect. How we have to proceed in discussing the transmitters mentioned in (the two
Sahihs) is indicated in the statements of authoritative hadith scholars on that (subject)."
ولقد توغل أبو بكر بن أبي خيثمة على ما نقل السهيلي عنه في جمعه للأحاديث الواردة في المهدي,As-Suhayli reports with reference to Abu Bakr b. Abi Khaythamah that the latter did a thorough job of collecting the traditions of the Mahdi.
فقال ومن أغربها إسنادا ما ذكره أبو بكر الإسكاف في فوائد الأخبار مستندا إلى مالك بن أنس عن محمد بن المنكدر عن جابر قال قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم من كذب بالمهدي فقد كفر ومن كذب بالدجال فقد كذب,"(AsSuhayli) said: “The tradition with the strangest chain of transmitters is the one mentioned by Abu Bakr al-Iskaf in the Fawa’id alakhbar. It goes back to Malik b. Anas, who had it on the authority of Muhammad b. al-Munkadir, who had it on the authority of Jabir, who said that the Messenger of God said: ‘He who does not believe in the Mahdi is an unbeliever, and he who does not believe in the Antichrist is a liar.’"
وقال في طلوع الشمس من مغربها مثل ذلك فيما أحسب وحسبك هذا غلوا. والله أعلم بصحة طريقه إلى مالك بن أنس على أن أبا بكر الإسكاف عندهم متهم وضاع.,"He said something similar with regard to the rising of the sun in the west, I think.” One could not find a more extremist statement. The soundness of his chain of transmitters between (Abu Bakr) and Malik b. Anas (also) is problematic. Abu Bakr al-Iskaf is considered by (hadith scholars) as suspect and as a forger of traditions."
وأما الترمذي فخرج هو وأبو داود بسنديهما إلى ابن عباس من طريق عاصم بن أبي النجود أحد القراء السبعة إلى زر بن حبيش عن عبد الله بن مسعود عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم:,"With their chain of transmitters going back to Ibn Mas’ud, at-Tirmidhi and Abu Dawild have published the following tradition through ‘Asim b. Abi n-Najid, one of the seven authoritative Qur’an readers, on the authority of Zirr b. Hubaysh, on the authority of ‘Abdallah b. Masud, on the authority of the Prophet:"
لو لم يبق من الدنيا إلا يوم لطول الله ذلك اليوم حتى يبعث الله فيه رجلا مني أو من أهل بيتي يواطئ اسمه اسمي واسم أبيه اسم أبي. هذا لفظ أبي داود وسكت عليه وقال في رسالته المشهورة إن ما سكت عليه في كتابه فهو صالح,"“If no more than one day remained of the world-said Za’idah -God would cause that day to last until there be sent a man from me -or: from my familywhose name will tally with my name, and the name of whose father will tally with the name of my father.” This is the recension of Abu Dawud. Abu Dawud did not add any remarks critical of it, and he said in his well-known Epistle that everything to which he did not append critical remarks in his book was all right."
ولفظ الترمذي لا تذهب الدنيا حتى يملك العرب رجل من أهل بيتي يواطئ اسمه اسمي وفي لفظ آخر حتى يلي رجل من أهل بيتي وكلاهما حديث حسن صحيح ورواه أيضا من طريق موقوفا على أبي هريرة,"The recension of at-Tirmidhi has: “The world will not be destroyed until the Arabs shall be ruled by a man from my family, whose name will tally with my name.” Another recension has: “… until a man from my family takes charge.” He (at-Tirmidhi) states in connection with both recensions that it is a good and sound tradition. He also transmitted the tradition through ‘Asim, with a chain of transmitters that stops with Abu Hurayrah."
وقال الحاكم رواه الثوري وشعبة وزائدة وغيرهم من أئمة المسلمين عن عاصم قال: وطرق عاصم عن زر عن عبد الله كلها صحيحة على ما أصلته من الاحتجاج بأخبار عاصم إذ هو إمام من أئمة المسلمين,"Al-Hakim said that the tradition was transmitted by ath-Thawri, Shu’bah, Za’idah, and other Muslim religious leaders, on the authority of ‘Asim. He said: “Everything transmitted by ‘Asim, on the authority of Zirr, on the authority of ‘Abdallah, is sound, according to the rules I have laid down for using information derived from ‘Asim as evidence, for he is an authoritative Muslim religious leader.”"
إلا أن عاصما قال فيه أحمد بن حنبل: كان رجلا صالحا قارئا للقرآن خيرا ثقة والأعمش أحفظ منه وكان شعبة يختار الأعمش عليه في تثبيت الحديث وقال العجلي كان يختلف عليه في زر وأبي وائل يشير بذلك إلى ضعف روايته عنهما,"However, Ahmad b. Hanbal said about ‘Asim that he was a pious man, a reader of the Qur’an, and a good and reliable person, but that al-A’mash had a better memory than he. Shu’bah used to prefer al-A’mash to him for establishing (the soundness of) traditions. Al-‘Ijli said: “There was some difference of opinion about his (reliability) with regard to Zirr and Abu Wa’il.” In this way, he alluded to the weakness of the material he transmitted on their authority."
وقال محمد بن سعد كان ثقة إلا أنه كثير الخطإ في حديثه وقال يعقوب بن سفيان في حديثه اضطراب وقال عبد الرحمن بن أبي حاتم قلت لأبي إن أبا زرعة يقول عاصم ثقة فقال ليس محله هذا,"Muhammad b. Sa’d said: “He was reliable; however, he made many errors in his traditions.” Ya’qub b. Sufyan said: “There is some confusion in his traditions.” ‘Abd-arRahman b. Abi Hatim said: “I said to my father: ‘Abu Zur’ah says that ‘Asim is reliable.’ My father replied: ‘He does not fall into that category."
وقد تكلم فيه ابن علية فقال كل من اسمه عاصم سيئ الحفظ وقال أبو حاتم محله عندي محل الصدق صالح الحديث ولم يكن بذلك الحافظ واختلف فيه قول النسائي وقال ابن حراش في حديثه نكرة وقال أبو جعفر العقيلي لم يكن فيه إلا سوء الحفظ,"Ibn ‘Ulayyah discussed ‘Asim (adversely) and said: “Everyone named ‘Asim has a bad memory.”‘ ” Abu Hatim said: “So far as I am concerned, he falls into the category of truthful transmitters whose traditions are all right. But he was not a (great) hadith expert.” An-Nasa’i expressed a different opinion about him. Ibn Khirash said: “His traditions contain things that are unknown.” Abu Ja’far al-‘Ugayli said: “There was nothing the matter with him except a bad memory.”"
وقال الدارقطني في حفظه شيء وقال يحيى القطان ما وجدت رجلا اسمه عاصم إلا وجدته رديء الحفظ وقال أيضا سمعت شعبة يقول حدثنا عاصم بن أبي النجود وفي الناس ما فيها وقال الذهبي ثبت في القراءة وهو حسن الحديث.,"Ad-Daraqutni said: “There was something the matter with his memory.” Yahya al-Qattan said: “I have never found a man named ‘Asim who did not have a bad memory.” He further said: “I heard Shu’bah say: ‘We were told by ‘Asim b. Abi nNajud’ “-reporting the identical tradition. Adh-Dhahabi said: “He is reliable in his reading of the Qur’an, but not quite reliable in his traditions. He is a truthful person who commits errors in judgment. He is ‘good’ in his traditions.”"
وإن احتج أحد بأن الشيخين أخرجا له فنقول أخرجا له مقرونا بغيره لا أصلا,"Were someone to argue that (al-Bukhari and Muslim) published traditions of his, (we should reply that) they published them when there were also other (authorities for the same tradition), and that they did not use him as their basic authority."
والله أعلم.,And God knows better.
وخرج أبو داود في الباب عن علي رضي الله عنه من رواية قطن بن خليفة عن القاسم بن أبي مرة عن أبي الطفيل عن علي عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: «لو لم يبق من الدهر إلا يوم لبعث الله رجلا من أهل بيتي يملأها عدلا كما ملئت جورا»,"Abu Dawud published a tradition relating to ‘All in the chapter (on the Mahdi), as transmitted. by Fitr b. Khalifah, on the authority of al-Qasim b. Abi Bazzah, on the authority of Abu t-Tufayl, on the authority of ‘Ali, on the authority of the Prophet, who said: “If only one day of the whole duration of the world remained, God would send a man of my family who will fill the world with justice, as it had been filled with injustice.”"
وقطن بن خليفة وإن وثقه أحمد ويحيى بن القطان وابن معين والنسائي وغيرهم إلا أن العجلي قال: حسن الحديث وفيه تشيع قليل: وقال ابن معين مرة: ثقة شيعي.,"Fitr b. Khalifah was considered reliable by Ahmad (b. Hanbal), Yahya b. alQattan, Ibn Ma’in, an-Nasa’i, and others, but al ‘Ijli said: “He is ‘good’ in his traditions, (but) he has some pro-Shi’ah bias.” Ibn Ma’in once said: “He is a reliable person and a Shi’ah.”"
وقال أحمد بن عبد الله بن يونس: كنا نمر على قطن وهو مطروح لا نكتب عنه. وقال مرة: كنت أمر به وأدعه مثل الكلب. وقال الدارقطني: لا يحتج به. وقال أبو بكر بن عياش: ما تركت الرواية عنه إلا لسوء مذهبه.,"Ahmad b. ‘Abdallah b. Yunus said: “We used to go and see Fitr, but he is rejected, and we did not write down (traditions) on his authority.” Another time, he said: “I used to go and see him but always left him like a dog.” Ad-Daraqutni said: “He is not utilized as evidence.” Abu Bakr b. ‘Ayyash said: “I gave up transmitting traditions on his authority only because of his bad dogmatic opinions.”"
وقال الجرجاني: زائغ غير ثقة انتهى.,Al-Juzajani said: “He is wayward and not reliable.” End of the quotation.
وخرج أبو داود أيضا بسنده إلى علي رضي الله عنه عن مروان بن المغيرة عن عمر بن أبي قيس عن شعيب بن أبي خالد عن أبي إسحاق النسفي قال: قال علي ونظر إلى ابنه الحسن إن ابني هذا سيد كما سماه رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم,"With a chain of transmitters going back to ‘Ali, Abu Dawud also published the following tradition, on the authority of Harun b. al-Mughirah, on the authority of ‘Amr b. Abi Qays, on the authority of Shu’ayb b. Khalid, on the authority of Abu Ishaq as-Sabi’i, who said that ‘All, looking at his son al-Hasan, said: “This son of mine is a lord, as he was called by the Messenger of God."
سيخرج من صلبه رجل يسمى باسم نبيكم يشبهه في الخلق ولا يشبهه في الخلق يملأ الأرض عدلا,"From his spine, there will come forth a man who will be called by the name of your Prophet and who will resemble him physically, but will not resemble him in character.” He then mentioned the story, “He will fill the earth with justice….”"
وقال هارون حدثنا عمر بن أبي قيس عن مطرف بن طريف عن أبي الحسن عن هلال بن عمر سمعت عليا يقول: قال النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم,"Harun said: We were told by ‘Amr b. Abi Qays, on the authority of Mutarrif b. Tarif, on the authority of Abu 1-Hasan on the authority of Hilal b. ‘Amr: I heard ‘Ali say: The Prophet said:"
«يخرج رجل من وراء النهر يقال له الحارث على مقدمته رجل يقال له منصور يوطئ أو يمكن لآل محمد كما مكنت قريش لرسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم وجب على كل مؤمن نصره أو قال إجابته» سكت أبو داود عليه.,"“A man will come forth from Beyond the River (Transoxania) whose name will be al-Harith b. llarrath. In his avant-garde, there will be a man whose name will be Mansur. He will pave the way -or: prepare the way -for the family of Muhammad, as the Quraysh prepared the way for the Messenger of God. Every believer must help him-or, he said, respond to his call.” Abu Dawud made no critical remarks about this (tradition)."
وقال في موضع آخر في هارون: هو من ولد الشيعة. وقال السليماني: فيه نظر. وقال أبو داود في عمر بن أبي قيس: لا بأس في حديثه خطأ. وقال الذهبي: صدق له أوهام.,"In another passage, he said: “Harun is a Shi’ah.” AsSulaymani said: “He is disputed.” Concerning ‘Amr b. Abi Qays, Abu Dawud said: “There is nothing wrong with him, but his traditions contain errors.” Adh-Dhahabi said: “He is trustworthy, but there are doubts concerning him.”"
وأما أبو إسحاق الشيعي وإن خرج عنه في الصحيحين فقد ثبت أنه اختلط آخر عمره وروايته عن علي منقطعة، وكذلك رواية أبي داود عن هارون بن المغيرة.,"As to Abu Ishaq as-Sabi’i, even though traditions on his authority are published in the two Sahihs, it is well established that he became confused at the end of his life. His transmission on the authority of ‘Ali is not continuous. The same applies to Abu Dawud’s transmission on the authority of Harun b. al-Mughirah."
وأما السند الثاني فأبو الحسن فيه وهلال بن عمر مجهولان ولم يعرف أبو الحسن إلا من رواية مطرف بن طريف عنه انتهى.,"Abul-Hasan and Hilal b. ‘Amr, (mentioned) in the second chain of transmitters, are little known. Abul-Hasan is known only from the fact that Mutarrif b. Tarif transmits (material) on his authority. End of the quotation."
وخرج أبو داود أيضا عن أم سلمة قالت سمعت في المستدرك من طريق علي بن نفيل عن سعيد بن المسيب عن أم سلمة قالت سمعت رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم يقول: «المهدي من ولد فاطمة»,"The following tradition, furthermore, was published by Abu Dawud, as well as by Ibn Majah and al-Hakim in the Mustadrak, through ‘Ali b. Nufayl, on the authority of Sa’id b. al-Musayyab, on the authority of Umm Salimah, who said: “I heard the Messenger of God say: ‘The Mahdi is one of my family, one of the descendants of Fatimah.’ “"
ولفظ الحاكم: سمعت رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم يذكر المهدي فقال: «نعم هو حق وهو من بني فاطمة» ولم يتكلم عليه بالصحيح ولا غيره وقد ضعفه أبو جعفر العقيلي وقال: لا يتابع علي بن نفيل عليه ولا يعرف إلا به.,"Al-Hakim’s recension has: “I heard the Messenger of God mention the Mahdi. He said: ‘Yes, he is a fact, and he will be one of the children of Fatimah.’ ” Neither (Hakim) nor anyone else discussed the soundness of the tradition (critically). Abu Ja’far al-‘Ugayli declared it to be weak. He said: “‘Ali b. Nufayl has not been followed in this tradition, and it is known only through him.”"
وخرج أبو داود أيضا عن أم سلمة من رواية صالح أبي الخليل عن صاحب له عن أم سلمة قال: يكون اختلاف عند موت خليفة فيخرج رجل من أهل المدينة هاربا إلى مكة فيأتيه ناس من أهل مكة فيخرجونه وهو كاره,"Abu Dawud also published the following tradition of Umm Salimah, which was transmitted by Abul-Khalil Salih, on the authority of one of his colleagues, on the authority of Umm Salimah, on the authority of the Prophet, who said: “There will be a difference of opinion at the death of a caliph. A man from Medina will leave and flee to Mecca. People from Mecca will come to him and will drive him out. He will be unwilling."
فيبايعونه بين الركن والمقام فيبعث إليه بعث من الشام فيخسف بهم بالبيداء بين مكة والمدينة فإذا رأى الناس ذلك أتاه أبدال أهل الشام وعصائب أهل العراق فيبايعونه,"They will render the oath of allegiance to him between the Corner (rukn) of the Ka’bah and the Maqam Ibrahim. A mission will be sent to him from Syria. He will disappear with them into the desert between Mecca and Medina. When the people see that, the saints from Syria will come to him, and groups of ‘Iraqis, and they will render the oath of allegiance to him."
ثم ينشأ رجل من قريش أخواله كلب فيبعث إليهم بعثا فيظهرون عليهم وذلك بعث كلب والخيبة لمن لم يشهد غنيمة كلب فيقسم المال ويعمل في الناس بسنة نبيهم صلى الله عليه وسلم ويلقي الإسلام بجرانه على الأرض فيلبث سبع سنين,"Then, a man from the Quraysh will arise, whose maternal uncles are from the Kalb. He will send a (military) mission to them, and it will defeat them. This is the mission of the Kalb. No success will come to those who did not witness (the seizing of) booty by the Kalb. He will distribute the money and act among the people according to the Sunnah of their Prophet. He will plant Islam firmly upon earth. He will last seven years."
وقال بعضهم تسع سنين,Abu Dawud said: “Someone said on the authority of Hisham: ‘Nine years.’
ثم رواه أبو داود من رواية أبي الخليل عن عبد الله بن الحارث عن أم سلمة فتبين بذلك المبهم في الإسناد الأول ورجاله رجال الصحيحين لا مطعن فيهم ولا مغمز,"Abu Dawud also transmitted the same tradition according to Abul-Khalil’s recension, on the authority of ‘Abdallah b. al-Harith, on the authority of Umm Salimah. This clears up the identity of the transmitter, whose name was not mentioned in the first chain of transmitters. The persons in it are persons mentioned in the two Sahihs. One could not attack them or find fault with them."
وقد يقال إنه من رواية قتادة عن أبي الخليل وقتادة مدلس وقد عنعنه والمدلس لا يقبل من حديثه إلا ما صرح فيه بالسماع، مع أن الحديث ليس فيه تصريح بذكر المهدي نعم ذكره أبو داود في أبوابه.,"(The tradition,) furthermore, is stated (by Abu Dawud) to have been transmitted by Qatadah on the authority of Abul-Khalil. Qatadah did not actually hear the traditions he transmits, from his authorities. He says: “on the authority of,” but does not say: “I heard from . . .” In cases of transmitters about whom there is doubt whether they actually heard their traditions from their authorities, a tradition is accepted only when it expressly states that they actually heard it. In this case, moreover, the tradition does not expressly state that it is concerned with the Mahdi, although Abu Dawud did, it is true, mention it in his chapters dealing with the Mahdi."
وخرج أبو داود أيضا وتابعه الحاكم عن أبي سعيد الخدري قال: قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم: «المهدي مني أجلى الجبهة اقنى الأنف يملأ الأرض قسطا وعدلا كما ملئت ظلما وجورا يملك سبع سنين»,"Abu Dawud, followed by al-Hakim, also published the following tradition of Abu Sa’id al-Khudri through ‘Imran al-Qattan, on the authority of Qatadah, on the authority of Abu Nadrah, on the authority of Abu Sa’id al-Khudri, who said: The Messenger of God said: “The Mahdi is from me. He has a bald forehead and an ئnose. He will fill the earth with equity and justice, as it had been filled with injustice and crime. He will rule seven years.”"
هذا لفظ أبي داود وسكت عليه ولفظ الحاكم: «المهدي منا أهل البيت أشم الأنف أقنى أجلى يملأ الأرض قسطا وعدلا كما ملئت ظلما وجورا يعيش هكذا ويبسط يساره وإصبعين من يمينه السبابة والإبهام وعقد ثلاث»,"This is Abu Dawud’s recension. He did not make any remarks critical of it. Al-Hakim’s recension has: “The Mahdi is from us, the people of the House. He has a well formed, aquiline nose, and a bald (forehead). He will fill the earth with equity and justice, as it had been filled with injustice and crime. He will live this long-and he opened out his left hand and two fingers of his right hand, the thumb and index finger, bending (the other) three down.”"
قال الحاكم: هذا حديث صحيح على شرط مسلم ولم يخرجاه. اهـ-.,"Al-Hakim said: “This is a sound tradition, according to the rules laid. down by Muslim (for sound traditions), but neither (alBukhari nor Muslim) published it.” End of the quotation."
وعمران القطان مختلف في الاحتجاج به إنما أخرج له البخاري استشهادا لا أصلا وكان يحيى القطان لا يحدث عنه وقال يحيى بن معين: ليس بالقوي وقال مرة: ليس بشيء. وقال أحمد بن حنبل أرجو أن يكون صالح الحديث,"Scholars differ as to whether ‘Imran al-Qattan can be used as evidence. AlBukhari published traditions of his only as additional evidence, and not as the sole basis. Yahya alQattan used not to transmit any traditions on his authority. Yahya b. Main said: “He is not strong.” Once he said: “He is nothing.” Ahmad b. Hanbal said: “I hope that he is sound in his traditions.”"
وقال يزيد بن زريع كان حروريا وكان يرى السيف على أهل القبلة وقال النسائي ضعيف وقال أبو عبيد الآجري: سألت أبا داود عنه، فقال من أصحاب الحسن وما سمعت إلا خيرا.,"Yazid b. Zuray’ said: “He was a Kharijite and considered it permissible to put the people of the Qiblah to the sword.” An-Nasa’i said: “He is weak.” Abu ‘Ubayd al-Ajurri said: “I asked Abu Dawud about him, and he replied that he was a transmitter of ‘good’ traditions and that he had heard only good things (about him)."
وسمعته مرة أخرى ذكره فقال: ضعيف أفتى في إبراهيم بن عبد الله بن حسن بفتوى شديدة فيها سفك الدماء.,"Another time, I heard him mention him and say that he was weak.” In the days of Ibrahim b. ‘Abdallah b. Hasan, he gave an unfortunate legal opinion that led to bloodshed."
وخرج الترمذي وابن ماجة والحاكم عن أبي سعيد الخدري من طريق زيد العمي عن أبي صديق الناجي عن أبي سعيد الخدري قال: خشينا أن يكون بعض شيء حدث,"At-Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah, and al-Hakim published the following tradition of Abu Sa’id al-Khudri through Zayd al’Ammi, on the authority of Abus-Siddiq anNaji, on the authority of Abu Sa’id al-Khudri, who said: “We feared that something might happen after our Prophet (had died)."
فسألنا نبي الله صلى الله عليه وسلم فقال: «إن في أمتي المهدي يخرج ويعيش خمسا أو سبعا أو تسعا» زيد الشاك قال قلنا: وما ذاك؟ قال سنين! قال: «فيجيء إليه الرجل فيقول: يا مهدي أعطني» قال: «فيحثو له في ثوبه ما استطاع أن يحمله»,"Therefore we asked him, and he said: ‘In my nation, there will come forth the Mahdi. He will live five, or seven, or nine’-increasing the number, as if in doubt.” He said: “We asked what (the numbers meant). He replied: ‘Years.’ Then he continued: ‘Someone will come to the Mahdi and say to him: “O Mahdi, give me something.” ‘ He said: ‘And (the Madhi) will pour into his garment as much as he can carry.’ “"
لفظ الترمذي وقال: هذا حديث حسن وقد روى من غير وجه عن أبي سعيد عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم ولفظ ابن ماجة والحاكم:,"This is the recension of at-Tirmidhi, who said: “It is a ‘good’ tradition. It was transmitted in more than one way, on the authority of Abu Sa’id al-Khudri, on the authority of the Prophet.” The recension of Ibn Majah and al-Hakim has:"
«يكون في أمتي المهدي إن قصر فسبع وإلا فتسع فتنعم أمتي فيه نعمة لم يسمعوا بمثلها قط تؤتى الأرض أكلها ولا يدخر منه شيء والمال يومئذ كدوس فيقوم الرجل فيقول: يا مهدي أعطني فيقول خذ.» انتهى.,"“There will be in my nation the Mahdi. If he lives (among you) a short time, it will be seven years; if not, it will be nine. My nation will experience a prosperity the like of which they have never experienced before. The earth will bring forth its food and will not hoard any of it. There will be piles of money. A man will get up and say: ‘O Mahdi, give me something,’ and he will reply: ‘Just take.’ “"
وزيد العمي وإن قال فيه الدارقطني وأحمد بن حنبل ويحيى بن معين إنه صالح وزاد أحمد إنه فوق يزيد الرقاشي وفضل بن عيسى إلا أنه قال فيه أبو حاتم: ضعيف يكتب حديثه ولا يحتج به.,"Ad-Daraqutni, Ahmad b. Hanbal, and Yahya b. Main said that Zayd al ‘Ammi was all right. Ahmad added that he was superior to Yazid ar-Raqashi and Fadl b. ‘Isa. However, Abu Hatim said concerning him that he was weak, and that his traditions may be written down but not used as evidence."
وقال يحيى بن معين في رواية أخرى: لا شيء. وقال مرة يكتب حديثه وهو ضعيف. وقال الجرجاني: متماسك وقال أبو زرعة ليس بقوي واهي الحديث ضعيفا وقال أبو حاتم ليس بذاك وقد حدث عنه شعبة.,"Yahya b. Main said of him in connection with another tradition: “(He is) nothing.” He once also said: “His traditions may be written down, but he is weak.” AlJuzajani said: “He is just holding on (mutamasik).” Abu Zur’ah said: “He is not strong, his traditions are futile, and he is weak.” Abu Hatim said: “He is not such (a good man). Shu’bah transmitted traditions on his authority.”"
وقال النسائي: ضعيف وقال ابن عدي: عامة ما يرويه ومن يروى عنهم ضعفاء على أن شعبة قد روى عنه ولعل شعبة لم يرو عن أضعف منه.,"An-Nasa’i said: “He is weak.” Ibn ‘Adi said: “Most of his traditions and authorities are weak, even though Shu’bah transmitted traditions on his authority. Shu’bah possibly did not transmit traditions on the authority of anyone weaker than he.”"
وقد يقال إن حديث الترمذي وقع تفسيرا لما رواه مسلم في صحيحه من حديث جابر قال قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم: «يكون في آخر أمتي خليفة يحثو المال حثوا لا يعده عدا»,"It has been said that at-Tirmidhi’s tradition is an interpretation of Jabir’s , and Abu Sa’id’s traditions, which are transmitted by Muslim in the Sahih. Jabir said: “The Messenger of God said: ‘At the end of my nation, there will be a caliph who will not count money, but just throw it around.’ “"
ومن حديث أبي سعيد قال: «من خلفائكم خليفة يحثو المال حثوا» ومن طريق أخرى عنهما قال: «يكون في آخر الزمان خليفة يقسم المال ولا يعده» انتهى.,"Abu Sa’id’s tradition reads: “. . . among your caliphs a caliph who will throw the money around.” As transmitted by another chain of transmitters, the tradition on the authority of (Jabir and Abu Sa’id) reads: “At the end of time, there will be a caliph who will distribute money without counting it.” End of the quotation."
وأحاديث مسلم لم يقع فيها ذكر المهدي ولا دليل يقوم على أنه المراد منها.,"Muslim’s traditions do not mention the Mahdi, and there is nothing in them to show that the Mahdi is meant in them."
ورواه الحاكم أيضا من طريق عوف الأعرابي عن أبي الصديق الناجي عن أبي سعيد الخدري قال قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم:,"Another tradition was transmitted by al-Hakim through ‘Awf al-A’rabi, on the authority of Abu s-Siddiq an-Naji, on the authority of Abu Sa’id al-Khudri, who said: “The Messenger of God said:"
«لا تقوم الساعة حتى تملأ الأرض جورا وظلما وعدوانا ثم يخرج من أهل بيتي رجل يملأها قسطا وعدلا كما ملئت ظلما وعدوانا» وقال فيه الحاكم: هذا صحيح على شرط الشيخين ولم يخرجاه.,"‘The Hour will not arise before the earth is filled with injustice, crime, and transgression. Then there will come forth from my family one who will fill it with equity and justice, as it had been filled with crime and transgression.’ “"
ورواه الحاكم أيضا عن طريق سليمان بن عبيد عن أبي الصديق الناجي عن أبي سعيد الخدري عن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم قال:,"The following tradition, furthermore, was transmitted by al-Hakim through Sulayman b. ‘Abid, on the authority of Abu s-Siddiq an-Naji, on the authority of Abu Sa’id alKhudri: “The Messenger of God said:"
«يخرج في آخر أمتي المهدي يسقيه الله الغيث وتخرج الأرض نباتها ويعطي المال صحاحا وتكثر الماشية وتعظم الأمة يعيش سبعا أو ثمانيا» يعني حججا وقال فيه حديث صحيح الإسناد ولم يخرجاه.,"‘At the end of my nation, there will come forth the Mahdi. God will give him spring rain to drink, and the earth will sprout forth its plants. He will give money away in fairness. The cattle will become numerous, and the nation will be great. He will live seven, or eight-that is, seasons.’ ” (Al-Hakim) said with regard to (this tradition) that it is a sound one as far as its chain of transmitters is concerned, though neither (alBukhari nor Muslim) published it."
مع أن سليمان بن عبيد لم يخرج له أحد من الستة لكن ذكره ابن حبان في الثقات ولم يرد أن أحدا تكلم فيه,"Also, none of the authors of the six authoritative collections of traditions published a tradition of Sulayman b. ‘Abid. However, Ibn Hibban mentioned him in the Thiqat (on reliable transmitters). We have seen nobody who discussed him (adversely)."
ثم رواه الحاكم أيضا من طريق أسد بن موسى عن حماد بن سلمة عن مطر الوراق وأبي هارون العبدي عن أبي الصديق الناجي عن أبي سعيد أن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم قال:,"This tradition was also transmitted by al-Hakim through Asad b. Musa, on the authority of Hammad b. Salamah, on the authority of Matar al-Warraq and Abu Harun al’Abdi, on the authority of Abu s-Siddiq an-Naji, on the authority of Abu Sa’id, as follows: “The Messenger of God said:"
«تملأ الأرض جورا وظلما فيخرج رجل من عترتي فيملك سبعا أو تسعا فيملأ الأرض عدلا وقسطا كما ملئت جورا وظلما» وقال الحاكم فيه: هذا حديث صحيح على شرط مسلم لأنه أخرج عن حماد بن سلمة وعن شيخه مطر الوراق.,"‘The earth will be filled with injustice and crime, and there will come forth a man from my family. He will rule seven or nine, and the earth will be filled with justice and equity, as it had been filled with injustice and crime.’ ” Al-Hakim said with regard to (this tradition) that it was sound according to the conditions (for the soundness of traditions) laid down by Muslim. He mentioned Muslim because he published traditions on the authority of Hammad b. Salamah and his shaykh, Matar al-Warraq."
وأما شيخه الآخر وهو أبو هارون العبدي فلم يخرج له. وهو ضعيف جدا متهم بالكذب ولا حاجة إلى بسط أقوال الأئمة في تضعيفه.,"He published no traditions on the authority of Hammad’s other shaykh, Abu Harun al-‘Abdi. Abu Harun is very weak and suspected of lying. There is no need to present in detail the opinions of the religious leaders who consider (Abu Harun) weak."
وأما الراوي له عن حماد بن سلمة فهو أسد بن موسى يلقب أسد السنة وإن قال البخاري: مشهور الحديث واستشهد به في صحيحه. واحتج به أبو داود والنسائي إلا أنه قال مرة أخرى: ثقة لو لم يصنف كان خيرا له.,"Asad b. Musa, who transmits the tradition on the authority of Hammad b. Salamah, is called “The Lion (asad) of the Sunnah.” Al-Bukhari said that he is known (favorably) with regard to the traditions he transmits. He used him to support the reliability of traditions in his Sahih. Abu Dawud and an-Nasa’i used him as evidence. However, (an-Nasa’i) said on another occasion: “He is reliable, but it would have been better for him if he had not become an author.”"
وقال فيه محمد بن حزم: منكر الحديث.,Abu Muhammad b. Hazm said regarding him: “He is not known (favorably) with regard to the traditions he transmits.”
ورواه الطبراني في معجمه الأوسط من رواية أبي الواصل عبد الحميد بن واصل عن أبي الصديق الناجي عن الحسن بن يزيد السعدي أحد بني بهذلة عن أبي سعيد الخدري قال سمعت رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم يقول:,"The tradition was also transmitted by at-Tabarani in his Medium Mu’jam, as transmitted by Abul-Wasil ‘Abd-alHamid b. Wasil, on the authority of Abu sSiddiq an-Naji, on the authority of al-Hasan b. Yazid as-Sa’di, one of the Banu Bahdalah, on the authority of Abu Sa’id al-Khudri, who said: “I heard the Messenger of God say:"
«يخرج رجل من أمتي يقول بسنتي ينزل الله عز وجل له القطر من السماء وتخرج الأرض بركتها وتملأ الأرض منه قسطا وعدلا كما ملئت جورا وظلما يعمل على هذه الأمة سبع سنين وينزل على بيت المقدس»,"‘There will come forth a man from my nation who will talk according to my Sunnah. God will send upon him rain from heaven, and the earth will sprout forth for him its blessing. The earth will be filled through him with equity and justice, as it has been filled with injustice and crime. He will direct the affairs of this nation for seven years, and he will settle in Jerusalem.’ “"
وقال الطبراني: فيه رواه جماعة عن أبي الصديق ولم يدخل أحد منهم بينه وبين أبي سعيد أحدا إلا أبا الواصل فإنه رواه عن الحسن بن يزيد عن أبي سعيد انتهى.,"At-Tabarani said concerning (this tradition): “It was transmitted by a number of persons on the authority of Abu s-Siddiq. None of them inserted another transmitter between him and Abu Sa’id, except Abu 1-Wasil. He transmitted it on the authority of al-Hasan b. Yazid, on the authority of Abu Sa’id. – End of the quotation."
وهذا الحسن بن يزيد ذكره ابن أبي حاتم ولم يعرفه بأكثر مما في هذا الإسناد من روايته عن أبي سعيد ورواية أبي الصديق عنه وقال الذهبي في الميزان: إنه مجهول. لكن ذكره ابن حبان في الثقات,"This al-Hasan b. Yazid was mentioned by Ibn Abi Hatim, who has no more information on him than that chain of transmitters, in which he appears as a transmitter on the authority of Abu Sa’id, and in which Abu s-Siddiq appears as a transmitter on his authority. In the Mizan, adh-Dhahabi said that he was little known but was mentioned by Ibn Hibban in the Thiqat (on reliable transmitters)"
وأما أبو الواصل الذي رواه عن أبي الصديق فلم يخرج له أحد من الستة. وذكره ابن حبان في الثقات في الطبقة الثانية وقال فيه: يروى عن أنس روى عنه شعبة وعتاب بن بشر,"No tradition of Abul-Wasil, who functions as transmitter of (this tradition) on the authority of Abu s-Siddiq, was published by any of the six authors of authoritative collections of traditions. He was mentioned by Ibn Hibban in the Thiqat (on reliable transmitters), in the second class. (Ibn Hibban) said regarding him: “He transmitted traditions on the authority of Anas, and Shu’bah and ‘Attab b. Bashir transmitted traditions on his authority.”"
وخرج ابن ماجة في كتاب السنن عن عبد الله بن مسعود من طريق يزيد بن أبي زياد عن إبراهيم عن علقمة عن عبد الله قال بينما نحن عند رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم إذ أقبل فتية من بني هاشم,"In his Kitab as-Sunan, Ibn Majah published the following tradition of ‘Abdallah b. Masud through Yazid b. Abi Ziyad, on the authority of Ibrahim, on the authority of ‘Algamah, on the authority of ‘Abdallah, who said: “While we were with the Messenger of God, there came some Hashimite youths."
فلما رآهم رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم ذرفت عيناه وتغير لونه قال فقلت ما نزال نرى في وجهك شيئا نكرهه فقال: «إنا أهل البيت اختار الله لنا الآخرة على الدنيا,"When he saw them, tears welled forth from his eyes and his color changed.” He said: “I said: ‘For some time now we have observed something in your face we do not like.’ He answered: ‘For us, the people of the House, God has chosen the other world instead of this one."
وإن أهل بيتي سيلقون بعدي بلاء وتشريدا وتطريدا حتى يأتي قوم من قبل المشرق معهم رايات سود فيسألون الخبر فلا يعطونه فيقاتلون وينصرون فيعطون ما سألوا فلا يقبلونه حتى يدفعوها إلى رجل من أهل بيتي,"After me, my people will experience misfortune, exile, and banishment, until people shall come from the East with black flags. They will ask for goodness but they will not be given it. They will fight and they will be victorious. And they will be given what they had asked for, but they will not accept it. Eventually, they will hand (the earth) over to a man of my family."
فيملؤها قسطا كما ملؤها جورا فمن أدرك ذلك منكم فليأتهم ولو حبوا على الثلج» انتهى.,"He will fill it with equity, as they had filled it with injustice. Those among you who live to see that happen shall go to them, even if it is necessary to creep over the snow.’ ” End of the quotation."
وهذا الحديث يعرف عند المحدثين بحديث الرايات. ويزيد بن أبي زياد راويه قال فيه شعبة: كان رفاعا يعني يرفع الأحاديث التي لا تعرف مرفوعة. وقال محمد بن الفضيل: من كبار أئمة الشيعة.,The hadith transmitters know this tradition as “the tradition of the flags.” Its transmitter is Yazid b. Abi Ziyad. Shu’bah said regarding him: “He was a person who traced back to Muhammad traditions that are not known to have been transmitted with a chain of transmitters going back to him.” Muhammad b. Fudayl said: “He is one of the great religious leaders of the Shi’ah.”
وقال أحمد بن حنبل: لم يكن بالحافظ وقال مرة: حديثه ليس بذلك. وقال يحيى بن معين: ضعيف. وقال العجلي: جائز الحديث، وكان بآخره يلقن. وقال أبو زرعة: لين يكتب حديثه ولا يحتج به. وقال أبو حاتم: ليس بالقوي.,"Ahmad b. Hanbal said: “He was no hadith expert.” Once he said: “He is not such (a good man).” Yahya b. Main said: “He is weak.” Al-‘Ijli said: “His traditions are permissible. At the end, he used to understand things.” Abu Zur’ah said: “He is soft. His traditions may be written down, but they cannot be used as evidence.” Abu Hatim said: “He is not strong.”"
وقال الجرجاني: سمعتهم يضعفون حديثه. وقال أبو داود: لا أعلم أحدا ترك حديثه وغيره أحب إلي منه. وقال ابن عدي هو من شيعة أهل الكوفة ومع ضعفه يكتب حديثه. وروى له مسلم لكن مقرونا بغيره. وبالجملة فالأكثرون على ضعفه.,"Al-Juzajant said: “I heard them declare his traditions weak.” Abu Dawad said: “I do not know anyone who omitted his traditions, but I like others better than him.” Ibn ‘Adi said: “He belongs to the Shi’ah of al-Kilfah. In spite of his weakness, his traditions may be written down.” Muslim transmitted traditions of his but only when the same traditions were also transmitted with other chains of transmitters. In general, the majority considered him weak."
وقد صرح الأئمة بتضعيف هذا الحديث الذي رواه عن إبراهيم عن علقمة عن عبد الله وهو حديث الرايات. وقال وكيع بن الجراح فيه: ليس بشيء. وكذلك قال أحمد بن حنبل,"Religious leaders have pronounced openly on the weakness of the tradition of the flags that was transmitted by him on the authority of Ibrahim, on the authority of ‘Alqamah, on the authority of ‘Abdallah. Waki’ b. al-Jarrah said regarding it: “It is nothing.” The same was said by Ahmad b. Hanbal."
وقال أبو قدامة سمعت أبا أسامة يقول في حديث يزيد عن إبراهيم في الرايات لو حلف عندي خمسين يمينا أسامة ما صدقته أهذا مذهب إبراهيم؟ أهذا مذهب علقمة؟ أهذا مذهب عبد الله؟ وأورد العقيلي هذا الحديث في الضعفاء وقال الذهبي ليس بصحيح.,"Abu Qudamah said: “I heard Abu Usamah say, regarding Yazid’s tradition about the flags on the authority of Ibrahim: ‘Were he to swear me fifty oaths, I should not believe him. Is that Ibrahim’s way? Is that ‘Algamah’s way? Is that ‘Abdallah’s way?’ ” Al the Du’afd’ (on weak transmitters). Adh-Dhahabi said: “It is not sound.”"
وخرج ابن ماجة عن علي رضي الله عنه من رواية ياسين العجلي عن إبراهيم بن محمد بن الحنفية عن أبيه عن جده قال قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم: «المهدي منا أهل البيت يصلح الله به في ليلة».,"The following tradition of ‘Ali was published by Ibn Majah, as transmitted by Yasin al-‘Ijli, on the authority of Ibrahim b. Muhammad b. al-Hanafiyah, on the authority of Ibrahim’s father, on the authority of his grandfather (‘Ali), who said: “The Messenger of God said: ‘The Mahdi is from among us, the people of the House. God will give him success in one night.’ “"
وياسين العجلي وإن قال فيه ابن معين ليس به بأس فقد قال البخاري فيه نظر. وهذه اللفظة من اصطلاحه قوية في التضعيف جدا.,"Although Ibn Ma’in said, regarding Yasin al-‘Ijli, that there was nothing wrong with him, al-Bukhari said that he was disputed. In al-Bukhari’s terminology, that is a strong expression for declaring a transmitter weak."
وأورد له ابن عدي في الكامل والذهبي في الميزان هذا الحديث على وجه الاستنكار له وقال هو معروف به.,"The tradition of Yasin was quoted by Ibn ‘Adi in the Kamil and by adhDhahabl in the
Mizdn, with disapproval. (Adh-Dhahabi) said: “It is known as his (tradition).”"
وخرج الطبراني في معجمه الأوسط عن علي رضي الله عنه أنه قال للنبي صلى الله عليه وسلم «أمنا المهدي أم من غيرنا يا رسول الله؟»,"The following tradition of ‘Ali was published by atTabarani in his Medium Mu`jam: ” ‘All said to the Messenger of God: ‘Will the Mahdi be from among us or from among other people, O Messenger of God?’"
فقال: «بل منا بنا يختم الله كما بنا فتح وبنا يستنقذون من الشرك وبنا يؤلف الله قلوبهم بعد عداوة بينة كما بنا ألف بين قلوبهم بعد عداوة الشرك». قال علي: «أمؤمنون أم كافرون؟» قال: «مفتون وكافر». انتهى.,"Muhammad replied: ‘Indeed, he will be from among us. Through us, God will bring about the end, as he brought about the beginning. Through us, they shall be saved from polytheism, and through us, God shall unite them after open hostilities, as he united them through us after the hostilities of polytheism.’ ‘Ali said: ‘Will they be believers or unbelievers?’ Muhammad replied: ‘Rebel(s) and unbeliever(s).’ ” End of the quotation."
"وفيه عبد الله بن لهيعة وهو ضعيف معروف الحال. وفيه عمر بن جابر الحضرمي وهو أضعف منه. قال أحمد بن حنبل: روي عن جابر مناكير وبلغني أنه كان يكذب وقال النسائي:
ليس بثقة","(The chain of transmitters of this tradition) includes ‘Abdallah b. Lahi’ah. He is weak, and it is well known what the matter is with him. (The same chain) also includes ‘Amr b. Jabir al-Hadrami. He is even weaker than Ibn Lahi’ah. Ahmad b. Hanbal said: “He (‘Amr b. Jabir) transmitted disapproved things on the authority of Jabir. I have heard that he used to lie.” An-Nasa’i said: “He is not reliable.”"
وقال كان ابن لهيعة شيخا أحمق ضعيف العقل وكان يقول: «علي في السحاب» وكان يجلس معنا فيبصر سحابة فيقول: «هذا علي قد مر في السحاب»,"Ibn Lahi’ah said: “He was a stupid, weak-minded shaykh. He used to say: “Ali is in the clouds.’ He was sitting with us, and when he saw a cloud, he would say: ‘There goes ‘Ali passing by in a cloud.’ “"
وخرج الطبراني عن علي رضي الله تعالى عنه أن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: «يكون في آخر الزمان فتنة يحصل الناس فيها كما يحصل الذهب في المعدن فلا تسبوا أهل الشام ولكن سبوا أشرارهم فإن فيهم الابدال,"Another tradition of ‘Ali was also published by at-Tabarani: “The Messenger of God said: ‘At the end of time, there will be a rebellion in which people will be caught as firmly as gold is embedded in the ore. Do not slander the Syrians, but only the bad ones among them, because among them there are (also) saints."
يوشك أن يرسل على أهل الشام صيب من السماء فيفرق جماعتهم حتى لو قاتلتهم الثعالب غلبتهم فعند ذلك يخرج خارج من أهل بيتي في ثلاث رايات المكثر يقول بهم خمسة عشر ألفا والمقل يقول بهم اثنا عشر ألفا وأمارتهم «أمت أمت»,"Soon a downpour will be sent from heaven upon the Syrians. It will divide them so much that if nothing (stronger) than foxes were going to fight them, they would be defeated. At that time, there will come forth one from among my family and there will be with him three flags (regiments), comprising, according to the highest figure given, fifteen thousand men, or, according to the lowest figure, twelve thousand men. Their order of the day will be: Kill, kill."
يلقون سبع رايات تحت كل راية منها رجل يطلب الملك فيقتلهم الله جميعا ويرد الله إلى المسلمين ألفتهم ونعمتهم وقاصيتهم ورأيهم هـ-.,"They will encounter seven flags (regiments), each of which will be commanded by a man who seeks royal authority. But God will kill all of them. He will restore to the Muslims their unity, prosperity, remote (possessions), and judgment.’ ” End of the quotation."
وفيه عبد الله بن لهيعة وهو ضعيف معروف الحال ورواه الحاكم في المستدرك وقال صحيح الإسناد ولم يخرجاه في روايته ثم يظهر الهاشمي فيرد الله الناس إلى ألفتهم إلخ وليس في طريقه ابن لهيعة وهو إسناد صحيح كما ذكر.,"The chain of transmitters of that tradition includes ‘Abdallah b. Lahi’ah. He is weak, and it is well known what the matter is with him. (The tradition) was transmitted by al-Hakim in his Mustadrak. He said: “It is sound with regard to the chain of transmitters, but (al-Bukhari and Muslim) did not publish it.” (Al-Hakim’s) recension has: “. . . Then, there will appear the Hashimite, and God will restore to the people their unity, etc.” (AI-Hakim’s) chain of transmitters does not include Ibn Lahi’ah. It is, as he states, a sound chain."
وخرج الحاكم في المستدرك عن علي رضي الله عنه من رواية أبي الطفيل عن محمد بن الحنفية قال: «كنا عند علي رضي الله عنه فسأله رجل عن المهدي فقال له: هيهات ثم عقد بيده سبعا فقال ذلك يخرج في آخر الزمان إذا قال الرجل الله الله قتل,"The following tradition of ‘Ali was published by alHakim in the Mustadrak, as transmitted by Abu t-Tufayl, on the authority of Muhammad b. al-Hanafiyah, who said: “We were with ‘Ali, and someone asked him about the Mahdi. ‘Ali replied: ‘Look here.’ Then he made a seven with his fingers and said: ‘He is the one who will come forth at the end of time. When someone says (at that time): God, God! he will be killed."
ويجمع الله له قوما قزعا كقزع السحاب يؤلف الله بين قلوبهم فلا يستوحشون إلى أحد ولا يفرحون بأحد دخل فيهم عدتهم على عدة أهل بدر لم يسبقهم الأولون ولا يدركهم الآخرون وعلى عدد أصحاب طالوت الذين جاوزوا معه النهر.,"God will gather for him people who are scattered like stray clouds. He will unite them. They will be neither sad nor glad over anyone who joins them. In number they will be like the fighters at Badr, whom men of former times did not surpass and men of later times fell short of. They will also be like the number of the companions of Saul who crossed the river with him.’ “"
قال أبو الطفيل قال ابن الحنفية: أتريده؟ قلت: نعم. قال: فإنه يخرج من بين هذين الأخشبين قلت لا جرم والله ولا أدعها حتى أموت» ومات بها يعني مكة قال الحاكم: «هذا حديث صحيح على شرط الشيخين».,"Abu tTufayl said: “Ibn al-Hanafiyah said: ‘Do you want (to hear) it?’ I said: ‘Yes.’ (So) he continued: ‘He will come forth between these two mountains.’ I said: ‘By God, I shall assuredly not leave them until I die.’ “-And he died in it, that is, Mecca. Al-Hakim said: “This is a sound tradition according to the conditions (for sound traditions) laid down by (alBukhari and Muslim).”"
وإنما هو على شرط مسلم فقط فإن فيه عمارا الذهبي ويونس بن أبي إسحاق ولم يخرج لهما البخاري وفيه عمرو بن محمد العبقري ولم يخرج له البخاري احتجاجا بل استشهادا مع ما ينضم إلى ذلك من تشيع عمار الذهبي,"However, it is (sound) only according to the conditions laid down by Muslim, for in (the chain of transmitters) there occur the names of ‘Ammar ad-Duhni and Yunus b. Abi Ishaq. Al-Bukhari did not publish any traditions of these two men. It also includes ‘Amr b. Muhammad al-‘Angazi. Al-Bukhari did not publish traditions of his as evidence, though he did publish them to support the reliability of traditions. In addition, there also is the pro-Shl’ah sentiment of ‘Ammar ad-Duhni."
وهو وإن وثقه أحمد وابن معين وأبو حاتم النسائي وغيرهم فقد قال علي بن المدني عن سفيان أن بشر بن مروان قطع عرقوبيه قلت في أي شيء؟ قال: في التشيع.,"Although Ahmad (b. Hanbal), Ibn Ma’in, Abu Hatim, an-Nasa’i, and others considered him reliable, ‘Ali b. al-Madini said on the authority of Sufyan that Bishr b. Marwan had disqualified him. “In what respect?” I (Sufyan) asked. He replied: “In respect to his pro-Shi’ah sentiment.”"
وخرج ابن ماجة عن أنس بن مالك رضي الله عنه في رواية سعد بن عبد الحميد بن جعفر عن علي بن زياد اليمامي عن عكرمة بن عمار عن إسحاق بن عبد الله عن أنس قال سمعت رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم يقول:,"The following tradition of Anas b. Malik was published by Ibn Majah, as transmitted by Sa’d b. ‘Abd-al-Hamid b. Ja’far, on the authority of ‘Ali b. Ziyad al-Yamami, on the authority of ‘Ikrimah b. ‘Ammar, on the authority of Ishaq b. ‘Abdallah, on the authority of Anas, who said: “I heard the Messenger of God say:"
«نحن ولد عبد المطلب سادات أهل الجنة أنا وحمزة وعلي وجعفر والحسن والحسين والمهدي». انتهى.,"‘We, the descendants of ‘Abd-al-Muttalib, are the lords of the inhabitants of Paradise. I, Hamzah, ‘Ali, Jafar, al-Hasan, al-Husayn, and the Mahdi.’ ” End of the quotation."
وعكرمة بن عمار وإن أخرج له مسلم فإنما أخرج له متابعة. وقد ضعفه بعض ووثقه آخرون وقال أبو حاتم الرازي: هو مدلس فلا يقبل إلى أن يصرح بالسماع,"Muslim published traditions of ‘Ikrimah b. ‘Ammar, but only where the same tradition is reported by others. Some scholars considered him weak, others reliable. Abu Hatim ar-Razi said: “He transmits traditions from authorities without stating whether he actually heard them from them. His traditions are acceptable only if he expressly states that he heard them.”"
علي بن زياد قال الذهبي في الميزان: لا ندري من هو، ثم قال الصواب فيه: عبد الله بن زياد وسعد بن عبد الحميد وإن وثقه يعقوب بن أبي شيبة وقال فيه يحيى بن معين ليس به بأس فقد تكلم فيه الثوري قالوا لأنه رآه يفتي في مسائل ويخطئ فيها.,"In the Mizan, adh-Dhahabi said with regard to ‘Ali b. Ziyad: “It is not known who he is.” Then, he said: “It should be ‘Abdallah b. Ziyad.” Sa’d b. ‘Abd-alHamid was considered reliable by Ya’qub b. Shaybah. Yahya b. Main said regarding him: “There is nothing wrong with him.” However, ath-Thawri discussed him (adversely), because, it is said, he saw him give legal opinions on certain problems and make mistakes."
وقال ابن حبان: كان ممن فحش عطاؤه فلا يحتج فيه. وقال أحمد بن حنبل: سعيد بن عبد الحميد يدعي أنه سمع عرض كتب مالك والناس ينكرون عليه ذلك وهو هاهنا ببغداد لم يحتج فكيف سمعها؟,"Ibn Hibban said: “He belongs among those who made atrocious mistakes. He may not be used as evidence.” Ahmad b. Hanbal said: “Sa’d b. ‘Abd-al-Hamid claims that he heard the books of Malik when they were presented. The scholars disapprove of this statement of his. He is here in Baghdad and never made the pilgrimage, so how could he have heard them?”"
وجعله الذهبي ممن لم يقدح فيه كلام من تكلم فيه وخرج الحاكم في مستدركه من رواية مجاهد عن ابن عباس موقوفا عليه قال مجاهد قال لي ابن عباس: لو لم أسمع أنك مثل أهل البيت ما حدثتك بهذا الحديث,"Adh-Dhahabi placed him among those whom it would be no slander to discuss (adversely). The following tradition was published by al-Hakim in his Mustadrak, as transmitted by Mujahid on the authority of Ibn Abbas, with a chain of transmitters stopping with the latter and not continued back to the Prophet: “Mujahid said: ‘Abdallah b. ‘Abbas said to me: ‘If I had not heard that you are like a member of the family of Muhammad, I would not tell this tradition.’"
قال فقال مجاهد: فإنه في ستر لا أذكره لمن يكره قال فقال ابن عباس: «منا أهل البيت أربعة منا السفاح ومنا المنذر ومنا المنصور ومنا المهدي» قال فقال مجاهد: بين لي هؤلاء الأربعة. فقال ابن عباس:,"He said: Mujahid replied: ‘I shall keep it in confidence. I shall not tell it to anyone to whom you might object.’ Thereupon, Ibn ‘Abbas said: ‘From among us, the people of the House, there will be four: As-Saffah, alMundhir, al-Mansur, and the Mahdi.’ He said: Mujahid asked him to explain those four to him, and Ibn ‘Abbas replied:"
«أما السفاح فربما قتل أنصاره وعفا عن عدوه، وأما المنذر أراه قال فإنه يعطي المال الكثير ولا يتعاظم في نفسه ويمسك القليل من حقه وأما المنصور فإنه يعطى النصر على عدوه الشطر مما كان يعطي رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم,"‘AsSaffah often kills his supporters and forgives his enemies. Al-Mundhir,’ I believe he said, ‘will give away a great deal of money. He will not consider himself a great man and will hold on to (even) his smallest rights. Al-Mansur will be given half as much help against his enemies as the Messenger of God was given."
ويرهب منه عدوه على مسيرة شهرين والمنصور يرهب منه عدوه على مسيرة شهر وأما المهدي الذي يملأ الأرض عدلا كما ملئت جورا وتأمن البهائم السباع وتلقي الأرض أفلاذ كبدها».,"Muhammad’s enemies were terrified by him for a space of two months, and al-Mansur’s enemies will be terrified by him for a space of one month. The Mahdi will be the one who will fill the earth with justice, as it had been filled with injustice. The cattle will be safe from wild animals, and the earth will cast out the treasures of its interior.’"
قال: «قلت وما أفلاذ كبدها؟» قال: «أمثال الأسطوانة من الذهب والفضة». وقال الحاكم هذا حديث صحيح الإسناد ولم يخرجاه,"He said, and I asked him what the treasures of the interior of the earth were. He replied: ‘Something like gold and silver columns.’ ” End of the quotation. Al-Hakim said: “This is a sound tradition as regards the chain of transmitters. But neither (al-Bukhari nor Muslim) published it."
وهو من رواية إسماعيل بن إبراهيم بن مهاجر عن أبيه وإسماعيل ضعيف وإبراهيم أبوه وإن خرج له مسلم فالأكثرون على تضعيفه.,"It is transmitted by Ismail b. Ibrahim b. Muhajir, on the authority of his father. Ismail is weak, and his father Ibrahim is considered weak by most scholars, even though Muslim published traditions of his.”"
وخرج ابن ماجة عن ثوبان قال قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم: «يقتتل عند كبركم ثلاثة كلهم ابن خليفة ثم لا يصير إلى واحد منهم ثم تطلع الرايات السود من قبل المشرق فيقتلونهم قتلا لم يقتله قوم»,"The following tradition by Thawban was published by Ibn Majah. Thawban said: “The Messenger of God said: ‘Three will fight with each other at (the place where) your treasure (is). All of them are the sons of a caliph. None of them will get it. Then, black flags will arise from the East. They will kill you in a slaughter such as there has never been before.’"
ثم ذكر شيئا لا أحفظه قال: «فإذا رأيتموه فبايعوه ولو حبوا على الثلج فإنه خليفة الله المهدي». اهـ-.,"He then mentioned something that I do not remember. He continued: ‘When you see him, render the oath of allegiance to him, even if you must creep over the snow. For he is the representative of God, the Mahdi.’ ” End of the quotation."
ورجاله رجال الصحيحين إلا أن فيه أبا قلابة الجرمي وذكر الذهبي وغيره أنه مدلس وفيه سفيان الثوري وهو مشهور بالتدليس وكل واحد منهما عنعن ولم يصرح بالسماع فلا يقبل,"The persons named in (the chain of transmitters of this tradition) are persons whose names occur in the Sahih. However, among them is that of Abu Qilabah al-Jarmi. Adh-Dhahabi and others mentioned that Abu Qilabah reported traditions he had not himself heard from his authorities. The chain of transmitters also includes Sufyan athThawrl. He is known for reporting traditions he had not heard from his authorities. Each of the two merely said that he had a tradition on the authority of such-and-such a person, without stating that he had heard it from him. Therefore, their traditions are not acceptable."
وفيه عبد الرزاق بن همام وكان مشهورا بالتشيع وعمي في آخر وقته فخلط قال ابن عدي: «حدث بأحاديث في الفضائل لم يوافقه عليها أحد» ونسبوه إلى التشيع. انتهى.,"The chain of transmitters further includes ‘Abd-ar-Razzaq b. Hammam, who is known for his pro-Shi’ah sentiments. At the end of his life he became blind and confused. Ibn ‘Adi said: “He reported traditions on the virtues (of Muhammad and the early Muslims), with regard to which no one agrees with him. Scholars considered him to have pro-Shi’ah sentiments.” End of the quotation."
وخرج ابن ماجة عن عبد الله بن الحارث بن جزء الزيدي من طريق ابن لهيعة عن أبي زرعة عن عمر بن جابر الحضرمي عن عبد الله بن الحارث بن جزء قال قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم:,"The following tradition of ‘Abdallah b. al-Harith b. Jaz’ az-Zubaydi was published by Ibn Majah through Ibn Lahi’ah, on the authority of Abu Zur’ah ‘Amr b. Jabir al-Hadrami, on the authority of ‘Abdallah b. al-Harith b. Jaz’, who said: “The Messenger of God said:"
«يخرج ناس من المشرق فيوطئون للمهدي». يعني سلطانه. قال الطبراني: تفرد به ابن لهيعة وقد تقدم لنا في حديث علي الذي خرجه الطبراني في معجمه الأوسط أن ابن لهيعة ضعيف وأن شيخه عمر بن جابر أضعف منه,"‘People will come forth from the East. They will pave the way for the Mahdi,’ ” that is, (for) his rule. At-Tabarani said: “Ibn Lahi’ah stands alone with this tradition.” We mentioned earlier, in connection with the tradition of ‘Ali, published by at-Tabarani in his Medium Mu’jam, that Ibn Lahi’ah was weak and that his authority, ‘Amr b. Jabir, was even weaker than he."
وخرج البزار في مسندة والطبراني في معجمه الأوسط واللفظ للطبراني عن أبي هريرة عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: «يكون في أمتي المهدي إن قصر فسبع وإلا فثمان وإلا فتسع تنعم فيها أمتي نعمة لم ينعموا بمثلها,"The following tradition was published by al-Bazzir in his Musnad and by atTabarani in his Medium Mu’jam-the recension (quoted here) is that of at-Tabaranion the authority of Abu Hurayrah, on the authority of the Prophet, who said: “In my nation, there will be the Mahdi. If he lives (among you) only a short time, it will be seven, eight, or nine. My nation will experience a prosperity the like of which it has never experienced before."
ترسل السماء عليهم مدرارا ولا تدخر الأرض شيئا من النبات والمال كدوس يقوم الرجل يقول يا مهدي أعطني فيقول خذ».,"The heavens will rain upon them. The earth will not hoard any of its plants. There will be piles of money. A man will get up and say: ‘O Mahdi, give me something,’ and the Mahdi will reply: ‘Just take.’ “"
قال الطبراني والبزار تفرد به محمد بن مروان العجلي زاد البزار: ولا نعلم أنه تابعه عليه أحد وهو وإن وثقه أبو داود وابن حبان أيضا بما ذكره في الثقات وقال فيه يحيى بن معين صالح وقال مرة ليس به بأس فقد اختلفوا فيه,"At-Tabarani and al-Bazzar said: “Muhammad b. Marwan al-‘Ijli stands alone with this tradition.” Al-Bazzar added: “We do not know whether anyone followed him in this tradition.” Abu Dawud, as well as Ibn Hibban, by the way he mentions him in the Thigdt (on reliable transmitters), considered him reliable. Yahya b. Ma’in said regarding him: “He is all right.” Once, he said: “There is nothing wrong with him.” Still, opinions about him differ."
وقال أبو زرعة: ليس عندي بذلك وقال عبد الله بن أحمد بن حنبل: رأيت محمد بن مروان العجلي حدث بأحاديث وأنا شاهد لم نكتبها تركتها على عمد وكتب بعض أصحابنا عنه كأنه ضعفه.,"Abu Zur’ah said: “In my opinion, he is not such (a good man).” ‘Abdallah b. Ahmad b. Hanbal said: “I saw Muhammad b. Marwan al’Ugayli tell traditions while I was present. I did not write them down. I purposely omitted to do so. One of our colleagues wrote down traditions on his authority, in a way that suggested he considered him weak.”"
وخرجه أبو يعلى الموصلي في مسندة عن أبي هريرة وقال: «حدثني خليلي أبو القاسم صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: لا تقوم الساعة حتى يخرج عليهم رجل من أهل بيتي فيضربهم حتى يرجعوا إلى الحق,The following tradition of Abu Hurayrah was published by Abu Ya’la alMawsili in his Musnad. Abu Hurayrah said: “My friend Abul-Qasim (the Prophet Muhammad) said: ‘The Hour will not arise before there shall have come forth against them a man from my family. He will beat them until they return to the truth.’
قال قلت: وكم يملك؟ قال: خمسا واثنتين قال قلت وما خمسا واثنتين قال لا أدري». وهذا السند غير محتج به وإن قال فيه بشير بن نهيك وقال فيه أبو حاتم لا يحتج به فقد احتج به الشيخان ووثقه الناس ولم يلتفتوا إلى قول أبي حاتم لا يحتج به,"He said. And I asked: ‘How long will he rule?’ He replied: ‘Five and two.’ He said. And I asked: ‘What is meant by five and two?’ He replied: ‘I do not know.’ ” End of the quotation. The chain of transmitters includes Bashir b. Nahik. Abu Hatim said, regarding him: “He may not be used as evidence.” Still, both (al-Bukhari and Muslim) used him as evidence, and the scholars considered him reliable. They paid no attention to Abu Hatim’s statement that he may not be used as evidence."
إلا أنه قال فيه رجاء ابن أبي رجاء اليشكري وهو مختلف فيه قال أبو زرعة ثقة وقال يحيى بن معين: ضعيف. وقال أبو داود: ضعيف. وقال مرة: صالح. وعلق له البخاري في صحيحه حديثا واحدا.,"However, (the chain of transmitters also) includes Murajja b. Raja’ al-Yashkuri. Opinions differ concerning him. Abu Zur’ah said: “He is reliable.” Yahya b. Main said: “He is weak.” Abu Dawud said: “He is weak,” but once he said: “He is all right.” Al-Bukhari has one fragment of his in his Sahih."
وخرج أبو بكر البزار في مسندة والطبراني في معجمه الكبير والأوسط عن قرة بن إياس قال قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم:,"The following tradition of Qurrah b. Iyas was published by Abu Bakr alBazzar in his Musnad, and by at-Tabarani in his Large and Medium Mu’jams. Qurrah said: “The Messenger of God said:"
«لتملأن الأرض جورا وظلما فإذا ملئت جورا وظلما بعث الله رجلا من أمتي اسمه اسمي واسم أبيه اسم أبي يملأها عدلا وقسطا كما ملئت جورا وظلما فلا تمنع السماء من قطرها شيئا ولا تدخر الأرض من نباتها يلبث فيكم سبعا أو ثمانيا أو تسعا». يعني سنين.,"‘The earth will be filled with injustice and crime. When it is filled with injustice and crime, God will send a man from me whose name will be my name, and whose father’s name will be my father’s name. He will fill it with justice and equity, as it had been filled with injustice and crime. Heaven will not withhold its rain, nor the earth its plants. He will remain among you seven, or eight, or nine’ ” -that is, years."
وفيه داود بن المحبي بن المحرم عن أبيه وهما ضعيفان جدا.,"The chain of transmitters of that tradition includes Dawud b. al-Muhabbar b. Qahdham, on the authority of his father. Both Dawud and his father are very weak."
وخرج الطبراني في معجمه الأوسط عن ابن عمر قال: «كان رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم في نفر من المهاجرين والأنصار وعلي بن أبي طالب عن يساره والعباس عن يمينه إذ تلاحى العباس ورجل من الأنصار فأغلظ الأنصاري للعباس,"The following tradition of (`Abdallah) b. `Umar was (also) published by atTabarani in his Medium Mu’jam. Ibn ‘Umar said: “The Messenger of God was in the company of some (Meccan) Emigrants and (Medinese) Helpers (Ansar). ‘All b. Abi Talib was on his left, and al-`Abbas on his right. Al-‘Abbas got into a dispute with one of the Ansdr, and the latter used insulting language to al-`Abbas."
فأخذ النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم بيد العباس وبيد علي» وقال: «سيخرج من صلب هذا فتى يملأ الأرض جورا وظلما وسيخرج من صلب هذا فتى يملأ الأرض قسطا وعدلا فإذا رأيتم ذلك فعليكم بالفتى التميمي فإنه يقبل من قبل المشرق وهو صاحب راية المهدي». انتهى.,"Thereupon, the Prophet took the hand of al-‘Abbas and the hand of ‘Ali and said: ‘The spine of this one will produce descendants until the whole earth shall be filled with injustice and crime, and the spine of that one will produce descendants until the whole earth shall be filled with equity and justice. When you see this (happen), then take care of the Tamimite youth. He will advance from the East. He will be in charge of the flag of the Mahdi.’ ” End of the quotation."
وفيه عبد الله بن عمر وعبد الله بن لهيعة وهما ضعيفان. اهـ-.,The chain of transmitters of this tradition includes ‘Abdallah b. `Umar al- ‘Umari and ‘Abdallah b. Lahi’ah. Both are weak.
وخرج الطبراني في معجمه الأوسط عن طلحة بن عبد الله عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: «ستكون فتنة لا يسكن منها جانب إلا تشاجر جانب حتى ينادي مناد من السماء إن أميركم فلان. ا هـ-.,"The following tradition of Talhah b. ‘Ubaydallah, on the authority of the Prophet, was published by at-Tabaranl in the Medium Mu’jam. The Prophet said: “There will be a rebellion. When one side rests, the other side will become restless. Finally, a herald will call from heaven: ‘Your Commander is such-and-such.’ ” End of the quotation."
وفيه المثنى بن الصباح وهو ضعيف جدا. وليس في الحديث تصريح بذكر المهدي وإنما ذكروه في أبوابه وترجمته استئناسا.,"The chain of transmitters of that tradition includes alMuthanna b. asSabbah, who is very weak. The tradition does not expressly mention the Mahdi, but (scholars) have included it in their chapters dealing with (the Mahdi) and in his biography, by association."
فهذه جملة الأحاديث التي خرجها الأئمة في شأن المهدي وخروجه آخر الزمان. وهي كما رأيت لم يخلص منها من النقد إلا القليل والأقل منه.,These are all the traditions published by the religious authorities concerning the Mahdi and his appearance at the end of time. One has seen what they are like. Very few are above criticism.
وربما تمسك المنكرون لشأنه بما رواه محمد بن خالد الجندي عن أبان بن صالح بن أبي عياش عن الحسن البصري عن أنس بن مالك عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم أنه قال: «لا مهدي إلا عيسى بن مريم»,"Those who disapprove of the (Mahdi) matter frequently keep to the tradition of Muhammad b. Khalid al-Janadi, on the authority of Aban b. Salih b. Abi ‘Ayyash on the authority of al-Hasan al-Basri, on the authority of Anas b. Malik, on the authority of the Prophet, who said: “There is no Mahdi except Jesus, the son of Mary.”"
وقال يحيى بن معين في محمد بن خالد الجندي: إنه ثقة. وقال البيهقي: تفرد به محمد بن خالد. وقال الحاكم فيه: إنه رجل مجهول,"Yahya b. Ma’in said, regarding Muhammad b. Khalid al-Janadi, that he was reliable. Al-Bayhaqi said: “Muhammad b. Khalid stands alone with (this tradition).” AlHakim said, regarding Muhammad b. Khalid, that he was a littleknown personage."
واختلف عليه في إسناده فمرة يروونه كما تقدم وينسب ذلك لمحمد بن إدريس الشافعي ومرة يروونه عن محمد بن خالد عن أبان عن الحسن عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم مرسلا.,"There are differences in the chain of transmitters of (this tradition). Sometimes it is transmitted as quoted. In this form, it is attributed to Muhammad b. Idris ash-Shafi’l. Sometimes the tradition is transmitted on the authority of Muhammad b. Khalid, on the authority of Aban, on the authority of al-Hasan, on the authority of the Prophet, thus skipping one link in the chain."
قال البيهقي: فرجع إلى رواية محمد بن خالد وهو مجهول عن أبان بن أبي عياش وهو متروك عن الحسن عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم وهو منقطع وبالجملة فالحديث ضعيف مضطرب.,"Al-Bayhaqi says: “Thus, (the tradition) is one transmitted by Muhammad b. Khalid, who is little known, on the authority of Aban b. Abi ‘Ayyash, who is not accepted, on the authority of al-Hasan, on the authority of the Prophet, which makes it a tradition with an interrupted chain of transmitters. In general, the tradition is weak and disturbed.”"
وقد قيل «أن لا مهدي إلا عيسى» أي لا يتكلم في المهد إلا عيسى يحاولون بهذا التأويل رد الاحتجاج به أو الجمع بينه وبين الأحاديث وهو مدفوع بحديث جريج ومثله من الخوارق.,"It has also been said that the statement: “There is no Mahdi except Jesus,” means that nobody spoke in the cradle (mahd) except Jesus. This interpretation is intended to prevent use of (the tradition) as evidence (for Mahdism) or its combination with the (other) traditions (that speak about the Mahdi). It is refuted by the story of Jurayj and similar miracles (which show that Jesus was not the only infant to speak in the cradle)."
وأما المتصوفة فلم يكن المتقدمون منهم يخوضون في شيء من هذا وإنما كان كلامهم في المجاهدة بالأعمال وما يحصل عنها من نتائج المواجد والأحوال,(Sufi opinions about the Mahdi) The ancient Sufis did not go into anything concerned with (the Mahdi). All they discussed was their (mystic) activity and exertion and the resulting ecstatic experiences and states.
وكان كلام الإمامية والرافضة من الشيعة في تفضيل علي رضي الله عنه والقول بإمامته وادعاء الوصية له بذلك من النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم، والتبري من الشيخين كما ذكرناه في مذاهبهم,"It was the Imamiyah and the extremist Shi’ah who discussed the preferred status of ‘Ali, the matter of his imamate, the claim (made in his behalf) to have received the imamate through the last will (of the Prophet), and the rejection of the two Shaykhs (Abu Bakr and ‘Umar), as we have mentioned in connection with the discussion of Shi’ah dogmatics."
ثم حدث فيهم بعد ذلك القول بالإمام المعصوم وكثرت التآليف في مذاهبهم. وجاء الإسماعيلية منهم يدعون الوهية الإمام بنوع من الحلول وآخرون يدعون رجعة من مات من الأئمة بنوع التناسخ،,"Thereafter, there originated among them the dogma of the Infallible Imam Much was written on (Shi’ah) dogmatics. The Isma’iliyah Shi’ah made its appearance. It asserted the divinity of the imam through incarnation. Others asserted that the (dead) imams would return, either through metempsychosis or (in the very form they had had during their lifetime)."
وآخرون منتظرون مجيء من يقطع بموته منهم وآخرون منتظرون عود الأمر في أهل البيت مستدلين على ذلك بما قدمناه من الأحاديث في المهدي وغيرها.,"Still others expected the coming of imams who would be cut off from them through death. Others, finally, expected that the family of Muhammad would return to power. They deduced this from the afore-mentioned traditions concerning the Mahdi, and from other traditions."
ثم حدث أيضا عند المتأخرين من الصوفية الكلام في الكشف وفيما وراء الحس وظهر من كثير منهم القول على الإطلاق بالحلول والوحدة فشاركوا فيها الإمامية والرافضة لقولهم بألوهية الأئمة وحلول الإله فيهم.,"Among the later Sufis, removal (of the veil, kashf) and matters beyond the veil of sense perception likewise came to be discussed. A great many Sufis came to speak about incarnation and oneness. This gave them something in common with the Imamiyah and the extremist Shi’ah who believed in the divinity of the imams and in the incarnation of the deity in them."
وظهر منهم أيضا القول بالقطب والإبدال وكأنه يحاكي مذهب الرافضة في الإمام والنقباء. وأشربوا أقوال الشيعة,The Sufis also came to believe in a “pole” (qutb) and in “saints” (abdal). This (belief) looked like an imitation of the opinions of the extremist Shi’ah concerning the imam and the ‘Alid “chiefs” (nugabd’). The Sufis thus became saturated with Shi’ah theories.
وتوغلوا في الديانة بمذاهبهم، حتى جعلوا مستند طريقهم في لبس الخرقة أن عليا رضي الله عنه ألبسها الحسن البصري وأخذ عليه العهد بالتزام الطريقة.,(Shi’ah) theories entered so deeply into their religious ideas that they based their practice of using a cloak (khirgah) on the (alleged) fact that ‘All clothed al-Hasan al-Basri in such a cloak and caused him to agree solemnly that he would adhere to the mystic path.
واتصل ذلك عنهم بالجنيد من شيوخهم. ولا يعلم هذا عن علي من وجه صحيح. ولم تكن هذه الطريقة خاصة بعلي كرم الله وجهه بل الصحابة كلهم أسوة في طريق الهدى,"(The tradition thus inaugurated by ‘Ali) was continued, according to the Sufis, through al-Junayd, one of the Sufi shaykhs. However, it is not known with certainty that ‘Ali did any such thing. The (mystic) path was not reserved to ‘Ali, but all the men around Muhammad were models of the (various) paths of religion."
وفي تخصيص هذا بعلي دونهم رائحة من التشيع قوية يفهم منها ومن غيرها من القوم دخلهم في التشيع وانخراطهم في سلكه.,"The fact that (the Sufis) restrict (precedence in mysticism) to ‘All smells strongly of pro-Shi’ah sentiment. This and other afore-mentioned Sufi ideas show that the Sufis have adopted, pro-Shl’ah sentiments and have become enmeshed in them."
وكان بعضهم يمليه على بعض ويلقنه بعضهم عن بعض وكأنه مبني على أصول واهية من الفريقين وربما يستدل بعضهم بكلام المنجمين في القرانات وهو من نوع الكلام في الملاحم ويأتي الكلام عليها في الباب الذي يلي هذا.,"They were passed on through dictation and teaching. All (these speculations) are built upon brittle foundations. This applies to both parties. Some (Sufis and Shi’ah) occasionally base themselves in this connection on astrological discussions of astral conjunctions. (The result is) a sort of predictions (maldhim), as will be discussed in the following chapter."
وأكثر من تكلم من هؤلاء المتصوفة المتأخرين في شأن الفاطمي، ابن العربي، الحاتمي في كتاب (عنقاء مغرب) وابن قسي في كتاب (خلع النعلين) وعبد الحق بن سبعين وابن أبي واصل تلميذه في شرحه لكتاب (خلع النعلين).,"Most (prominent) among the later Sufis who discuss the Fatimid are Ibn al- ‘Arabi al-Hatimi, in the ‘Anqa’ Mughrib; Ibn Qasi, in the Kitab Khal’ anna’layn; ‘Abd-al-Hagq b. Sab’in; and one of (Ibn Sab’in’s) pupils, Ibn Abi Watil, in his commentary on the Kitab Khal’ an-na’layn."
وأكثر كلماتهم في شأنه ألغاز وأمثال وربما يصرحون في الأقل أو يصرح مفسرو كلامهم.,"When they speak about (the Fatimid), they mostly speak in riddles and parables. Occasionally, they make a minimum of explicit statements, or their commentators make explicit statements."
وحاصل مذهبهم فيه على ما ذكر ابن أبي واصل أن النبوة بها ظهر الحق والهدى بعد الضلال والعمى وأنها تعقبها الخلافة ثم يعقب الخلافة الملك ثم يعود تجبرا وتكبرا وباطلا.,"According to Ibn Abi Watil, the sum of their beliefs in connection with (the Fatimid) is that (in pre-Islamic times) there had been error and blindness. Then, truth and right guidance made their appearance through prophecy. Prophecy was followed by the caliphate, and the caliphate, in turn, was followed by royal authority. Royal authority, then, reverted to tyranny, presumptuousness, and worthlessness."
قالوا: ولما كان في المعهود من سنة الله رجوع الأمور إلى ما كانت وجب أن يحيا أمر النبوة والحق بالولاية ثم بخلافتها ثم يعقبها الدجل مكان الملك والتسلط ثم يعود الكفر بحاله.,"They said: And since it has been observed to be God’s procedure to have things return to their original state, prophecy and truth will by necessity be revived through sainthood (wilayah). Sainthood will be followed by the stage that properly comes after it (caliphate). (This,) in turn, will be followed by the time of the Antichrist (dajl), which will take the place of royal authority and the rule of power. Then, unbelief will return to the old position it occupied before the coming of the prophecy (of Muhammad)."
يشيرون بهذا لما وقع من شأن النبوة والخلافة بعدها والملك بعد الخلافة. هذه ثلاث مراتب.,"This refers to the caliphate which came after the prophecy, and to the royal authority which followed the caliphate. These are three stages."
وكذلك الولاية التي هي لهذا الفاطمي والدجل بعدها كناية عن خروج الدجال على أثره والكفر من بعد ذلك. فهي ثلاث مراتب على نسبة الثلاث المراتب الأولى.,"Likewise, the sainthood of the Fatimid, who will revive prophecy and righteousness, the stage (caliphate) that properly follows upon the Fatimid, and then the time of the Antichrist, which will follow after it and which is that state of worthlessness alluded to in the expression “appearance of the Antichrist” – these are three stages corresponding to the first three."
قالوا: ولما كان أمر الخلافة لقريش حكما شرعيا بالإجماع الذي لا يوهنه إنكار من يزاول علمه وجب أن تكون الإمامة فيمن هو أخص من قريش بالنبي صلى الله عليه وسلم,"Now, the caliphate, they continued, belongs legally to the Quraysh, according to the general consensus which cannot be weakened by the disapproval of people who have insufficient knowledge. Therefore, the imamate belongs, of necessity, to a person who is even closer to the Prophet than the Quraysh."
إما ظاهرا كبني عبد المطلب وإما باطنا ممن كان من حقيقة الآل، والآل من إذا حضر لم يلقب من هو آله.,"(This he may be) either externally, by being a descendant of ‘Abd-al-Muttalib, or inwardly, by belonging to Muhammad’s “family,” according to the real meaning of “family,” which means those at the time of whose presence the one who is their “family” is not absent."
وابن العربي الحاتمي سماه في كتابه «عنقاء مغرب» من تأليفه: خاتم الأولياء وكنى عنه بلبنة الفضة إشارة إلى حديث البخاري في باب خاتم النبيين قال صلى الله عليه وسلم:,"In his Kitab ‘Anqa’ Mughrib, Ibn al-‘Arabi al-Hatimi called (the Mahdi) “the Seal of the Saints.” He is known under the name of “the silver brick,” with reference to a tradition reported by al-Bukhari in the chapter on the Seal of the Prophets (in the book on Mandqib), which says: “Muhammad said:"
«مثلي فيمن قبلي من الأنبياء كمثل رجل ابتنى بيتا وأكمله حتى إذا لم يبق منه إلا موضع لبنة فأنا تلك اللبنة» فيفسرون خاتم النبيين باللبنة حتى أكملت البنيان ومعناه النبي الذي حصلت له النبوة الكاملة.,"‘I and the prophets before me are like a man who built a house and finished it save for one brick still to be placed. I am this brick.’ ” Therefore, the (scholars) interpret “the Seal of the Prophets” as the brick needed for the completion of the building. It means the prophet who has obtained the perfect prophecy."
ويمثلون الولاية في تفاوت مراتبها بالنبوءة ويجعلون صاحب الكمال فيها خاتم الأولياء أي حائز الرتبة التي هي خاتمة الولاية كما كان خاتم الأنبياء حائزا للمرتبة التي هي خاتمة النبوة.,"Sainthood in its different degrees is compared (by the Sufis) to prophecy. The perfect (saint) is considered to be the “seal” of the saints, that is, the saint who is in the possession of the rank that is the final (“sealing”) stage of sainthood, exactly as “the Seal of the Prophets” was the prophet who was in possession of the rank that is the final (“sealing”) stage of prophecy."
فكنى الشارح عن تلك المرتبة الخاتمة بلبنة البيت في الحديث المذكور. وهما على نسبة واحدة فيهما. فهي لبنة واحدة في التمثيل. ففي النبوة لبنة ذهب وفي الولاية لبنة فضة للتفاوت بين الرتبتين كما بين الذهب والفضة.,"In the tradition quoted, the Lawgiver (Muhammad) used the phrase, “the brick (that completes) the house,” for that final stage. The two things correspond to each other. Thus, (they may be compared) to bricks (of different materials). In the case of prophecy, the brick is gold. In the case of sainthood, the brick is silver. The difference in importance existing between the two stages corresponds to the difference (in value) that exists between gold and silver."
فيجعلون لبنة الذهب كناية عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم ولبنة الفضة كناية عن هذا الولي الفاطمي المنتظر وذلك خاتم الأنبياء وهذا خاتم الأولياء.,"“Gold brick” is used as a name for the Prophet, and “silver brick” as a name for the expected Fatimid saint. The one is “the Seal of the Prophets,” and the other “the Seal of the Saints.”"
وقال ابن العربي فيما نقل ابن أبي واصل عنه وهذا الإمام المنتظر هو من أهل البيت من ولد فاطمة وظهوره يكون من بعد مضي (خ ف ج) من الهجرة,"Ibn al-‘Arab! said, as reported by Ibn Abi Watil: This expected imam is a member of the family of Muhammad and a descendant of Fatimah. His appearance will take place when kh-f-j years have passed after the Hijrah."
ورسم حروفا ثلاثة يريد عددها بحساب الجمل وهو الخاء المعجمة بواحدة من فوق ستمائة والفاء أخت القاف بثمانين والجيم المعجمة بواحدة من أسفل ثلاثة وذلك ستمائة وثلاث وثمانون سنة وهي آخر القرن السابع,"He wrote down three letters. He meant their numerical value, kh being 600, f 80, and j 3. This makes 683 years, or the end of the seventh [thirteenth] century."
ولما انصرم هذا العصر ولم يظهر حمل ذلك بعض المقلدين لهم على أن المراد بتلك المدة مولده وعبر بظهوره عن مولده وأن خروجه يكون بعد العشر السبعمائة فإنه الإمام الناجم من ناحية المغرب.,"When this time had passed and (the Mahdi) had not appeared, some of those who accepted the tradition were forced to assume that the number meant the date of the birth of (the Mahdi) – “appearance” meaning birth – and that he would come forth in 710 [1310]. He would be the imam who would come forth from the region of the Maghrib."
قال: «وإذا كان مولده كما زعم ابن العربي سنة ثلاث وثمانين وستمائة فيكون عمره عند خروجه ستا وعشرين سنة»,"He said: If, as Ibn al-‘Arabi thinks, his birth is in the year 683 [1284/85], he must be twenty-six years old at the time of his appearance."
قال وزعموا أن خروج الدجال يكون سنة ثلاث وأربعين وسبعمائة من اليوم المحمدي وابتداء اليوم المحمدي عندهم من يوم وفاة النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم إلى تمام ألف سنة»,"He said: They (also) thought that the Antichrist would come forth in the year 743 [134243] of the Muhammadan day. In their opinion, the Muhammadan day begins with the day of the death of the Prophet and lasts to the completion of the year 1000."
قال ابن أبي واصل في شرحه كتاب (خلع النعلين) الولي المنتظر القائم بأمر الله المشار إليه بمحمد المهدي وخاتم الأولياء وليس هو بنبي وإنما هو ولي ابتعثه روحه وحبيبه. قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «العالم في قومه كالنبي في أمته».,"In his commentary on the Kitab Khal’ an-na’layn, Ibn Abi Watil said: The expected saint who will take charge of God’s command, who is referred to under the names of Muhammad al-Mahdi and Seal of the Saints: He is no prophet. He is a saint, sent by his spirit and his friend. Muhammad said: “The scholar is among his people what the prophet is in his nation.”"
وقال: «علماء أمتي كأنبياء بني إسرائيل ولم تزل البشرى تتابع به من أول اليوم المحمدي إلى قبيل الخمسمائة نصف اليوم وتأكدت وتضاعفت بتباشير المشايخ بتقريب وقته وازدلاف زمانه منذ انقضت إلى هلم جرا»,"He also said: “The scholars of my nation are like the prophets of the children of Israel.” The glad tidings of his (coming) will never cease (to be heard) from the beginning of the Muhammadan day to shortly before the year 500 [1106/7], which is the middle of (that) day. They will become stronger and more numerous as the result of the shaykhs’ jubilant announcements of the approach of (the Mahdi’s) coming and the coming of his period, from the end of (the year 500) onward."
قال وذكر الكندي: «أن هذا الولي هو الذي يصلي بالناس صلاة الظهر ويجدد الإسلام ويظهر العدل ويفتح جزيرة الأندلس ويصل إلى رومية فيفتحها ويسير إلى المشرق فيفتحه ويفتح القسطنطينية ويصير له ملك الأرض,"Al-Kindi, he continued, mentioned that that saint will be the person who will say the noon prayer with the people. He will renew Islam and cause justice to triumph. He will conquer the Spanish peninsula and reach Rome and conquer it. He will travel to the East and conquer it. He will conquer Constantinople, and rule over the whole earth will be his."
فيتقوى المسلمون ويعلو الإسلام ويطهر دين الحنفية فإن من صلاة الظهر إلى صلاة العصر وقت صلاة» قال عليه الصلاة والسلام: «ما بين هذين وقت»,"The Muslims will become strong, Islam will be exalted, and the pristine religion (din al-hanifiyah) will come forth. From noon prayer to afternoon prayer, will be (one) prayer time. Muhammad said: “(The time) between the two is a (prayer) time.”"
وقال الكندي أيضا: «الحروف العربية غير المعجمة يعني المفتتح بها سور القرآن جملة عددها سبعمائة وثلاث وأربعون وسبع دجالية ثم ينزل عيسى في وقت صلاة العصر فيصلح الدنيا وتمشي الشاة مع الذئب,"Al-Kindi also said: “The sum total of the numerical value of the Arabic letters that have no diacritical points – he means, the letters at the beginning of certain surahs of the Qur’an is 743 Antichristian (years). Then, Jesus will descend at the time of the afternoon prayer. The world will be prosperous. The sheep will go with the wolf."
ثم مبلغ ملك العجم بعد إسلامهم مع عيسى مائة وستون عاما عدد حروف المعجم وهي (ق ي ن) دولة العدل منها أربعون عاما,"After the (non-Arabs) have become Muslims with Jesus, the non-Arab kingdom will last 160 years in all-that is; (the sum of the letters)
q -y-n. Forty of these 160 years will be the rule of justice.”"
قال ابن أبي واصل وما ورد من قوله لا مهدي إلا عيسى فمعناه لا مهدي تساوي هدايته ولايته وقيل لا يتكلم في المهد إلا عيسى وهذا مدفوع بحديث جريج وغيره.,"Ibn Abi Watil said: Muhammad’s statement, “There is no Mahdi except Jesus,” means that there is no one who is guided (mahdi) as well as Jesus. It has also been said (to mean that) nobody spoke in the cradle except Jesus. This (interpretation, however,) is refuted by the story of Jurayj and other (stories)."
وقد جاء في الصحيح أنه قال: «لا يزال هذا الأمر قائما حتى تقوم الساعة أو يكون عليهم اثنا عشر خليفة يعني قرشيا». وقد أعطى الوجود أن منهم من كان في أول الإسلام ومنهم من سيكون في آخره.,"It has been mentioned in (the sound tradition of) the Sahih that Muhammad said: “This (Muslim) state will not cease to be until the Hour arises,” or: “. . . until the (Muslims) have been ruled by twelve caliphs”-that is, from the Quraysh The facts suggest that some of them were at the beginning of Islam, and that some of them will be at its end."
وقال: «الخلافة بعدي ثلاثون أو إحدى وثلاثون أو ست وثلاثون وانقضاؤها في خلافة الحسن وأول أمر معاوية فيكون أول أمر معاوية خلافة أخذا بأوائل الأسماء فهو سادس الخلفاء وأما سابع الخلفاء فعمر بن عبد العزيز.,"Muhammad said: “The caliphate after me will last for thirty, or thirty-one, or thirty-six (years).” It ends with the caliphate of al-Hasan and the beginning of the caliphate of Mu’awiyah. The beginning of the rule of Mu’awiyah is a caliphate only according to the original meaning of the word. He is the sixth of the caliphs. The seventh caliph is ‘Umar b. ‘Abd-al-‘Aziz."
والباقون خمسة من أهل البيت من ذرية علي يؤيده قوله: «إنك لذو قرنيها» يريد الأمة أي إنك لخليفة في أولها وذريتك في آخرها. وربما استدل بهذا الحديث القائلون بالرجعة، فالأول هو المشار إليه عندهم بطلوع الشمس من مغربها.,"The remaining five (of the twelve caliphs mentioned in the tradition) are five of ‘Ali’s descendants, members of Muhammad’s family. This is supported by (Muhammad’s) statement, “You are the possessor of its two periods (garn)”-meaning (the two periods of) the nation (the beginning and the end). That is, you (‘Ali) are the caliph at its beginning, and your descendants will be caliphs at its end. The tradition is often used as evidence by those who believe in “the return” (of conditions). The first (to return) is the person to whom they refer in connection with “the rising of the sun from the west.”"
وقد قال صلى الله عليه وسلم إذا هلك كسرى فلا كسرى بعده وإذا هلك قيصر فلا قيصر بعده والذي نفسي بيده لتنفقن كنوزهما في سبيل الله وقد أنفق عمر بن الخطاب كنوز كسرى في سبيل الله,"Muhammad said: “When the emperor of the Persians has perished, there will be no Persian emperor after him, and when the Byzantine emperor has perished, there will be no Byzantine emperor after him. By God, I assure you, the treasures of both of them will be spent in God’s behalf.” – ‘Umar b. al-Khattab spent the treasure of the Persian emperor in behalf of God."
والذي يهلك قيصر وينفق كنوزه في سبيل الله هو هذا المنتظر حين يفتح القسطنطينية: فنعم الأمير أميرها ونعم الجيش ذلك الجيش.,"“He who will destroy the Byzantine emperor and will spend his treasures in God’s behalf will be the expected (Mahdi) when he conquers Constantinople. The ruler of Constantinople will be an excellent one, and the army (that will conquer Constantinople) will be an excellent one.”"
كذا قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «ومدة حكمه بضع» والبضع من ثلاث إلى تسع وقيل إلى عشر وجاء ذكر أربعين وفي بعض الروايات سبعين. وأما الأربعون فإنها مدته ومدة الخلفاء الأربعة الباقين من أهله القائمين بأمره من بعده على جميعهم السلام,"This was said by Muhammad. “And the duration of his rule will be a few (years).” A “few” means between three and nine, or up to ten. Forty is also mentioned. In some recensions, it is seventy. “Forty” refers to the length of the period of (the Mahdi) and of the period of the four remaining caliphs of his family who will be in charge of his affairs after him -all of them be blessed."
قال وذكر أصحاب النجوم والقرانات أن مدة بقاء أمره وأهل بيته من بعده مائة وتسعة وخمسون عاما فيكون الأمر على هذا جاريا على الخلافة والعدل أربعين أو سبعين ثم تختلف الأحوال فتكون ملكا» انتهى كلام ابن أبي واصل.,"He continued: The astrologers mentioned that the duration of his rule and that of the members of his family after him will be 159 years. The form of government will thus be a caliphate and a rule of justice for forty or seventy years. Then conditions will change, and (the form of government) will be royal authority. End of the quotation from Ibn Abi Watil."
وقال في موضع آخر: «نزول عيسى يكون في وقت صلاة العصر من اليوم المحمدي حين تمضي ثلاثة أرباعه»,"In another passage, he said: “The final descent of Jesus will be at the time of the afternoon prayer, when threefourths of the Muhammadan day have passed.”"
قال وذكر الكندي يعقوب بن إسحاق في كتاب الجفر الذي ذكر فيه القرانات: «أنه إذا وصل القرآن إلى الثور على رأس ضح بحرفين الضاد المعجمة والحاء المهملة» يريد ثمانية وتسعين وستمائة من الهجرة ينزل المسيح فيحكم في الأرض ما شاء الله تعالى,"He said: “Ya’qub b. Ishaq al-Kindi stated in the Kitab al-Jafr in which he mentioned the conjunctions: When the conjunction reaches Aries at the beginning of d-h that is, in the year 698 [1298/99] of the Hijrah-the Messiah will descend. He will rule the earth as it pleases God.”"
قال وقد ورد في الحديث أن عيسى ينزل عند المنارة البيضاء شرقي دمشق ينزل بين مهرودتين يعني حلتين مزعفرتين صفراوين ممصرتين واضعا كفيه على أجنحة الملكين له لمة كأنما خرج من ديماس,"He continued: “It has been stated in the tradition that Jesus will descend at the white minaret east of Damascus. He will descend between two yellowish colored ones, that is, two light saffron-yellow colored garments. He will place his hands upon the wings of two angels. His hair is as long as though he had just been released from a dungeon."
إذا طأطأ رأسه قطر وإذا رفعه تحدر منه جمان كاللؤلؤ كثير خيلان الوجه وفي حديث آخر مربوع الخلق وإلى البياض والحمرة. وفي آخر: أنه يتزوج في الغرب. والغرب دلو البادية يريد أنه يتزوج منها وتلد زوجته.,"When he lowers his head, it rains, and when he lifts it up, jewels resembling pearls pour down from him. He has many moles on his face. Another tradition has: ‘Square built and reddish white.’ Still another has: ‘He will marry in the gharb’-(the word) gharb meaning ‘bucket as used by Bedouins.’ Thus, the meaning is that he will take a woman from among (the Bedouins) as his wife. She will bear his children.”"
وذكر وفاته بعد أربعين عاما. وجاء أن عيسى يموت بالمدينة ويدفن إلى جانب عمر بن الخطاب.,(The tradition also) mentions that (Jesus) will die after forty years. It is (also) said that Jesus will die in Medina and be buried at the side of ‘Umar b. al-Khattab.
"وجاء أن أبا بكر وعمر يحشران بين نبيين قال ابن أبي واطيل:
«والشيعة تقول إنه هو المسيح مسيح المسائح من آل محمد قلت وعليه حمل بعض المتصوفة حديث لا مهدي إلا عيسى","And it is said that Abu Bakr and ‘Umar will rise from the dead between two prophets (Muhammad and Jesus). Ibn Abi Watil continued: “The Shi’ah say that he is the Messiah, the chief Messiah from the family of Muhammad. Some of the (Shi’ah) referred to him the tradition: ‘There is no Mahdi except Jesus.’"
أي لا يكون مهدي إلا المهدي الذي نسبته إلى الشريعة المحمدية نسبة عيسى إلى الشريعة الموسوية في الاتباع وعدم النسخ إلى كلام من أمثال هذا يعينون فيه الوقت والرجل والمكان بأدلة واهية وتحكمات مختلفة,"That is: There will be no Mahdi except the Mahdi whose relationship to the Muhammadan religious law is like the relationship of Jesus to the Mosaic religious law, in that he follows it and does not abrogate it.” There are many similar such statements. The time, the man, and the place are clearly indicated in them."
فينقضي الزمان ولا أثر لشيء من ذلك فيرجعون إلى تجديد رأي آخر منتحل كما تراه من مفهومات لغوية وأشياء تخييلية وأحكام نجومية في هذا انقضت أعمار الأول منهم والآخر.,"But the (predicted) time passes, and there is no slightest trace of (the prediction coming true). Then, some new suggestion is adopted which, as one can see, is based upon linguistic equivocations, imaginary ideas, and astrological judgments. The life of every one of those people is spent on such things."
وأما المتصوفة الذين عاصرناهم فأكثرهم يشيرون إلى ظهور رجل مجدد لأحكام الملة ومراسم الحق ويتحينون ظهوره لما قرب من عصرنا فبعضهم يقول من ولد فاطمة وبعضهم يطلق القول فيه,Most of our contemporary Sufis refer to the (expected) appearance of a man who will renew the Muslim law and the ordinances of the truth. They assume that his appearance will take place at some time near our own period. Some of them say that he will be one of the descendants of Fatimah. Others speak about him (only) in general terms.
سمعناه من جماعة أكبرهم أبو يعقوب البادسي كبير الأولياء بالمغرب كان في أول هذه المائة الثامنة وأخبرني عنه حافده صاحبنا أبو يحيى زكريا عن أبيه أبي محمد عبد الله عن أبيه الولي أبي يعقوب المذكور,"We have heard that from a number of them. The greatest of these Sufis is Abu Ya’qub al-Badisi, the chief saint of the Maghrib. He lived at the beginning of the eighth [fourteenth] century. His grandson, our colleague, Abu Zakariya’ Yahya, told me that on the authority of his father Abu Muhammad ‘Abdallah, on the authority of his father, the mentioned saint Abu Ya’qub."
هذا آخر ما اطلعنا عليه أو بلغنا من كلام هؤلاء المتصوفة وما أورده أهل الحديث من أخبار المهدي قد استوفينا جميعه بمبلغ طاقتنا,"This is all we have read or heard about (such) discussions by those Sufis and all the information hadith scholars relate concerning the Mahdi. As much as it has been in our power, we have presented the material exhaustively."
والحق الذي ينبغي أن يتقرر لديك أنه لا تتم دعوة من الدين والملك إلا بوجود شوكة عصبية تظهره وتدافع عنه من يدفعه حتى يتم أمر الله فيه.,"The truth one must know is that no religious or political propaganda can be successful, unless power and group feeling exist to support the religious and political aspirations and to defend them against those who reject them, until God’s will with regard to them materializes."
وقد قررنا ذلك من قبل بالبراهين القطعية التي أريناك هناك وعصبية الفاطميين بل وقريش أجمع قد تلاشت من جميع الآفاق ووجد أمم آخرون قد استعلت عصبيتهم على عصبية قريش,"We have established this before, with natural arguments which we presented to the reader. The group feeling of the Fatimids and the Talibids, indeed, that of all the Quraysh, has everywhere disappeared. There are other nations, whose group feeling has gained the upper hand over that of the Quraysh."
إلا ما بقي بالحجاز في مكة وينبع بالمدينة من الطالبين من بني حسن وبني حسين وبني جعفر وهم منتشرون في تلك البلاد وغالبون عليها وهم عصائب بدوية متفرقون في مواطنهم وإماراتهم يبلغون آلافا من الكثرة,"The only exception is a remnant of the Talibids-Hasanids, Husaynids, and Ja’farites – in the Hijaz, in Mecca, alYanbu’, and Medina. They are spread over these regions and dominate them. They are Bedouin groups. They are settled and rule in different places and hold divergent opinions. They number several thousands."
فإن صح ظهور هذا المهدي فلا وجه لظهور دعوته إلا بأن يكون منهم ويؤلف الله بين قلوبهم في اتباعه حتى تتم له شوكة وعصبية وافية بإظهار كلمته وحمل الناس عليها,"If it is correct that a Mahdi is to appear, there is only one way for his propaganda to make its appearance. He must be one of them, and God must unite them in the intention to follow him, until he gathers enough strength and group feeling to gain success for his cause and to move the people to support him."
وأما على غير هذا الوجه مثل أن يدعو فاطمي منهم إلى مثل هذا الأمر في أفق من الآفاق من غير عصبية ولا شوكة إلا مجرد نسبة في أهل البيت فلا يتم ذلك ولا يمكن لما أسلفناه من البراهين الصحيحة.,"Any other way -such as a Fatimid who would make propaganda for (the cause of the Mahdi) among people anywhere at all, without the support of group feeling and power, by merely relying on his relationship to the family of Muhammad – will not be feasible or successful, for the sound reasons that we have mentioned previously."
وأما ما تدعيه العامة والأغمار من الدهماء ممن لا يرجع في ذلك إلى عقل يهديه ولا علم يفيده فيجيبون ذلك على غير نسبة وفي غير مكان، تقليدا لما اشتهر من ظهور فاطمي ولا يعلمون حقيقة الأمر كما بيناه,"The common people, the stupid mass, who make claims with respect to the Mahdi and who are not guided in this connection by any intelligence or helped by any knowledge, assume that the Mahdi may appear in a variety of circumstances and places. They follow blindly the well-known (traditions) about the appearance of a Fatimid. They do not understand the real meaning of the matter, as we have explained it."
وأكثر ما يجيبون في ذلك القاصية من الممالك وأطراف العمران مثل الزاب بإفريقية والسوس من المغرب.,"They mostly assume that the appearance will take place in some remote province and at the limits of civilization, such as the Zab in Ifriqiyah or as-Sus in the Maghrib."
ونجد الكثير من ضعفاء البصائر يقصدون رباطا بماسة لما كان ذلك الرباط بالمغرب من الملثمين من كدالة واعتقادهم أنه منهم أو قائمون بدعوته زعما لا مستند لهم إلا غرابة تلك الأمم وبعدهم عن يقين المعرفة بأحوالها من كثرة أو قلة أو ضعف أو قوة,"There are many people of weak intelligence who journey to a monastery (ribat) at Massah near as-Sus. They assume that they (will be able) to meet him there, thinking that he will appear at that monastery and that the oath of allegiance will be rendered to him there. Also, that monastery is close to the Veiled Gudalah, and they believe that (the Mahdi) will be one of them, or that they will be in charge of his propaganda. This is a conjecture that has no basis except the fact that these nations are strange ones and too remote (for others) to have a definite knowledge of their numbers and their weakness or strength."
ولبعد القاصية عن منال الدولة وخروجها عن نطاقها فتقوى عندهم الأوهام في ظهوره هناك بخروجه عن ربقة الدولة ومنال الأحكام والقهر ولا محصول لديهم في ذلك إلا هذا.,"Also, the regions where they live are out of the reach of the (ruling) dynasties and outside of their authority. Therefore, (people) firmly imagine that the Mahdi will appear there, since these regions are not under the control of (ruling) dynasties and out of the reach of law and force. They have nothing else to go on except that."
وقد يقصد ذلك الموضع كثير من ضعفاء العقول للتلبيس بدعوة يمييه تمامها وسواسا وحمقا، وقتل كثير منهم.,"Many weak-minded people, therefore, go to that place (Ribat Massah), in order to support a deceptive cause that the human soul in (its) delusion and stupidity leads them to believe capable of succeeding. Many of them have been killed."
اخبرني شيخنا محمد بن إبراهيم الأبلي قال خرج برباط ماسة لأول المائة الثامنة وعصر السلطان يوسف بن يعقوب رجل من منتحلي التصوف يعرف بالتويزري نسبة إلى توزر مصغرا وادعى أنه الفاطمي المنتظر,"Our shaykh, Muhammad b. Ibrahim al-Abili, told me that at the beginning of the eighth [fourteenth] century, during the reign of Sultan Yusuf b. Ya’qub a man who practiced Sufism came forth in the Ribat Massah. He was known as atTuwayziri, a gentilic formation from Tozeur (Tf zar), in the diminutive form. He claimed to be the expected Fatimid."
واتبعه الكثير من أهل السوس من ضالة وكزولة وعظم أمره وخافه رؤساء المصامدة على أمرهم فدس عليه السكسيوي من قتله بياتا وانحل أمره.,"Many of the Zanigah and Guzfilah inhabitants of as-Sus followed him. His power grew and was about to flourish. The Masmudah chiefs feared that he might become dangerous to their rule. Therefore, as-Saksiwi hired someone who killed him in his home, at night, and his power dissolved."
وكذلك ظهر في غمارة في آخر المائة السابعة وعشر التسعين منها رجل يعرف بالعباس وادعى أنه الفاطمي واتبعه الدهماء من غمارة ودخل مدينة فاس عنوة وحرق أسواقها وارتحل إلى بلد المزمة فقتل بها غيلة ولم يتم أمره. وكثير من هذا النمط.,"Likewise, in the last decade of the seventh [thirteenth] century, a man who had the name al-‘Abbas appeared among the Ghumarah. He claimed to be the Fatimid. He gained followers among the great mass of the Ghumarah. He entered Badis by force and burned down the business section of the city. Then, he traveled to the place al-Mazammah. There, he was killed by deceit, and thus failed (to achieve his purpose). There are many things of the sort."
وأخبرني شيخنا المذكور بغريبة في مثل هذا وهو أنه صحب في حجة في رباط العباد وهو مدفن الشيخ أبي مدين في جبل تلمسان المطل عليها رجلا من أهل البيت من سكان كربلاء كان متبوعا معظما كثير التلميذ والخادم.,"Our afore-mentioned shaykh told me a strange story of this type. On his pilgrimage (to Mecca), upon leaving the Monastery of the Worshippers (Ribat al-‘Ubbad), which is the burial place of Shaykh Abu Madyan on the mountain overlooking Tlemcen, he met a man from Kerbela who belonged to the family of Muhammad. He had many followers and was held in high esteem. He also had many pupils and servants."
قال وكان الرجال من موطنه يتلقونه بالنفقات في أكثر البلدان. قال وتأكدت الصحبة بيننا في ذلك الطريق فانكشف لي أمرهم وأنهم إنما جاءوا من موطنهم بكربلاء لطلب هذا الأمر وانتحال دعوة الفاطمي بالمغرب.,"(The shaykh) said: People from his native town paid for his expenses in most countries. He said (further): We became good friends on the road, and it became clear to me what the matter was with (that man and his people). They had come from their home at Kerbela on behalf of the (Fatimid) business and in order to make propaganda for the Fatimid in the Maghrib."
فلما عاين دولة بني مرين ويوسف بن يعقوب يومئذ منازل تلمسان قال لأصحابه: ارجعوا فقد أزرى بنا الغلط وليس هذا الوقت وقتنا.,"But when (the man) observed the Merinid dynasty, whose ruler Yusuf b. Ya’qub was at that time laying siege to Tlemcen he said to the men around him: “Go back, for we have fallen victim to an error. This is not our time.”"
ويدل هذا القول من هذا الرجل على أنه مستبصر في أن الأمر لا يتم إلا بالعصبية المكافئة لأهل الوقت,"This statement, coming from that man, shows that he realized that power can materialize only with the help of a group feeling equaling that of the people in power at the time."
فلما علم أنه غريب في ذلك الوطن ولا شوكة له وأن عصبية بني مرين لذلك العهد لا يقاومها أحد من أهل المغرب استكان ورجع إلى الحق وأقصر عن مطامعه.,"When he realized that he was a stranger without power in (the Maghrib), and that none of the inhabitants of the Maghrib at the time was able to resist the group feeling of the Merinids, he gave up, admitted his error, and did not pursue his ambitions."
وبقي عليه أن يستيقن أن عصبية الفواطم وقريش أجمع قد ذهبت لا سيما في المغرب إلا أن التعصب لشأنه لم يتركه لهذا القول,"It still remained for him (to realize) that the group feeling of the Fatimids and all the Quraysh had disappeared, especially in the Maghrib. However, his bias in favor of his cause did not permit him to realize this."
والله يعلم وأنتم لا تعلمون.,"“God knows, and you do not know.”"
وقد كانت بالمغرب لهذه العصور القريبة نزعة من الدعاة إلى الحق والقيام بالسنة لا ينتحلون فيها دعوة فاطمي ولا غيره وإنما ينزع منهم في بعض الأحيان الواحد فالواحد إلى إقامة السنة وتغيير المنكر ويعني بذلك ويكثر تابعه.,"In recent times there has been a movement among the Arab population of the Maghrib to make propaganda for the Truth and for living by the Sunnah, but which does not make propaganda for the Fatimid or anybody else. At times, a few individuals have aimed at re-establishing the Sunnah and changing reprehensible ways. Such individuals occupy themselves with this (purpose) and gain many followers."
وأكثر ما يعنون بإصلاح السابلة لما أن أكثر فساد الأعراب فيها لما قدمناه من طبيعة معاشهم فيأخذون في تغيير المنكر بما استطاعوا,"They are mostly concerned with the improvement of the safety of the roads, since most of the corruption of the Bedouins has something to do with that, on account of the way Bedouins make their livelihood, as we have mentioned before. These individuals consider it their task to change reprehensible ways (among the Bedouins) through improving the safety of the roads as much as possible."
إلا أن الصبغة الدينية فيهم لم تستحكم لما أن توبة العرب ورجوعهم إلى الدين إنما يقصدون بها الإقصار عن الغارة والنهب لا يعقلون في توبتهم وإقبالهم إلى مناحي الديانة غير ذلك لأنها المعصية التي كانوا عليها قبل المقربة ومنها توبتهم،,"However, the religious coloring cannot be firmly established in the Arabs. For them, repentance and return to the religion merely mean refraining from raids and robberies. That is the only thing they understand by repentance and becoming religious. (Raids and robberies) were the sins they committed before they repented, and these were the things of which they repented."
فتجد ذلك المنتحل للدعوة والقائم بزعمه بالسنة غير متعمقين في فروع الاقتداء والاتباع إنما دينهم الإعراض عن النهب والبغي وإفساد السابلة ثم الإقبال على طلب الدنيا والمعاش بأقصى جهدهم.,"Therefore, those who follow the (new religious) propaganda and live, as they think, by the Sunnah, are not deeply immersed in the different ways of seeking and following (religious models). Their religion is merely abstinence from robbery and injustice and from making the roads unsafe. Beyond that, they continue most eagerly to search for worldly goods and for ways of making a living."
وشتان بين طلب هذا الأجر من إصلاح الخلق ومن طلب الدنيا فاتفاقهما ممتنع لا تستحكم له صبغة في الدين ولا يكمل له نزوع عن الباطل على الجملة ولا يكثرون.,"There is a great difference between looking for religious ethics and searching for worldly (goods). It is impossible that the two things could go together. No religious coloring can establish a hold over such people, and they cannot completely keep away from worthlessness. (Reformers) cannot ever become numerous."
ويختلف حال صاحب الدعوة معهم في استحكام دينه وولايته في نفسه دون تابعه فإذا هلك انحل أمرهم وتلاشت عصبيتهم وقد وقع ذلك بإفريقية لرجل من كعب من سليم يسمى قاسم بن مرة بن أحمد في المائة السابعة,"The chief differs from his followers in that religion and saintliness are firmly established in him. If he perishes, their rule dissolves, and their group feeling disappears. This happened in the seventh [thirteenth] century in Ifrigiyah to a man of the Banit Ka’b of the Sulaym, by name Qisim b. Mari b. Ahmad."
ثم من بعده لرجل آخر من بادية رياح من بطن منهم يعرفون بمسلم وكان يسمى سعادة وكان أشد دينا من الأول وأقوم طريقة في نفسه ومع ذلك فلم يستتب أمر تابعه كما ذكرناه حسبما يأتي ذكر ذلك في موضعه عند ذكر قبائل سليم ورياح,"Later on, it happened to another man, of the Riyah Bedouins, who belonged to one of the subtribes of the Riyah, known as the Muslim. His name was Sa’idah. He was more religious and devoted than the former (Qasim). In spite of that, his followers were not successful, for the reasons mentioned. We shall mention (these events) in their proper places in connection with the discussion of the Sulaym. and Riyah."
وبعد ذلك ظهر ناس بهذه الدعوة يتشبهون بمثل ذلك ويلبسون فيها وينتحلون اسم السنة وليسوا عليها إلا الأقل فلا يتم لهم ولا لمن بعدهم شيء من أمرهم.,"After that, there appeared (other) people to make such (religious) propaganda. They adopted similarly deceptive ideas. They followed the Sunnah in name only, but did not live by it, except for a very few. Neither they nor any of their successors had any success."
الفصل الرابع والخمسون في ابتداء الدول والأمم وفي الكلام على الملاحم والكشف عن مسمى الجفر,"52. Forecasting the future of dynasties and nations, including a discussion ofpredictions (malahim) and an exposition of the subject called “divination” (jafr)."
اعلم أن من خواص النفوس البشرية التشوق إلى عواقب أمورهم وعلم ما يحدث لهم من حياة وموت وخير وشر,"It should be known that one of the qualities of the human soul is the desire to learn the outcome of affairs that concern (human beings) and to know what is going to happen to them, whether it will be life or death, good or evil."
سيما الحوادث العامة كمعرفة ما بقي من الدنيا ومعرفة مدد الدول أو تفاوتها والتطلع إلى هذا طبيعة مجبولون عليها,"(This desire is) especially great with regard to events of general importance, and one wants to know, for instance, how long the world or certain dynasties are going to last. Curiosity in this respect is human nature and innate in human beings."
ولذلك تجد الكثير من الناس يتشوقون إلى الوقوف على ذلك في المنام والأخبار من الكهان لمن قصدهم بمثل ذلك من الملوك والسوقة معروفة,"Therefore, many people are found who desire to learn about these things in their sleep (through dreams). Stories of soothsayers being approached by rulers and commoners alike, with the request for predictions, are well known."
ولقد نجد في المدن صنفا من الناس ينتحلون المعاش من ذلك لعلمهم بحرص الناس عليه فينتصبون لهم في الطرقات والدكاكين يتعرضون لمن يسألهم عنه,"In the towns, we find a group of people who strive to make a living out of (predicting the future), because they know that the people are most eager to know it. Therefore, they set themselves up in the streets and in shops and offer themselves to (the people) who (wish to) consult them about (such things)."
فتغدو عليهم وتروح نسوان المدينة وصبيانها وكثير من ضعفاء العقول يستكشفون عواقب أمرهم في الكسب والجاه والمعاش والمعاشرة والعداوة وأمثال ذلك,"All day long, the women and children of the town and, indeed, many weak-minded men as well, come and ask them to foretell the future for them, how it will affect their business, their rank, their friendships, their enmities, and similar things."
ما بين خط في الرمل ويسمونه المنجم وطرق بالحصى والحبوب ويسمونه الحاسب ونظر في المرايا والمياه ويسمونه ضارب المندل,There are those who make their predictions from sand writing (geomancy). They are called “astrologers” (munajjim). Others make their predictions by casting pebbles and grains (of wheat). These are called “calculators” (hasib). Still others make their predictions by looking into mirrors and into water. They are called “drawers of circles” (darib al-mandal).
وهو من المنكرات الفاشية في الأمصار لما تقرر في الشريعة من ذم ذلك وإن البشر محجوبون عن الغيب إلا من أطلعه الله عليه من عنده في نوم أو ولاية.,"These are reprehensible things, which are very common in cities. (They are reprehensible) because their reprehensible character is established by the religious law, and because supernatural knowledge is veiled (and hidden) from human beings, except for those to whom God Himself has revealed (certain supernatural knowledge) in (their) sleep or through sainthood."
وأكثر ما يعتني بذلك ويتطلع إليه الأمراء والملوك في آماد دولتهم ولذلك انصرفت العناية من أهل العلم إليه,"Rulers and amirs who want to know the duration of their own dynasties show the greatest concern for these things and the greatest curiosity in this respect. Therefore, the interest of scholars has been directed to the subject of (predicting the duration of dynasties)."
وكل أمة من الأمم يوجد لهم كلام من كاهن أو منجم أو ولي في مثل ذلك من ملك يرتقبونه أو دولة يحدثون أنفسهم بها وما يحدث لهم من الحرب والملاحم ومدة بقاء الدولة وعدد الملوك فيها والتعرض لأسمائهم ويسمى مثل ذلك الحدثان,"Every nation has had its soothsayers, its astrologers, and its saints, who have spoken about things of this kind. (They have spoken) about a particular royal authority they were expecting, or a dynasty they felt was coming. (They have also spoken) of wars and battles with (other) nations that were going to occur, about how long the ruling dynasty would last, how many rulers it would have, and they have also attempted (to give) the names. Things like this are called “forecasting” (hadathan)."
وكان في العرب الكهان والعرافون يرجعون إليهم في ذلك وقد أخبروا بما سيكون للعرب من الملك والدولة كما وقع لشق وسطيح في تاويل رؤيا ربيعة بن نصر من ملوك اليمن أخبرهم بملك الحبشة بلادهم ثم رجوعها إليهم,"The Arabs had soothsayers and diviners to whom they had recourse in this respect. They forecast the royal authority and dynasty the Arabs were going to have. Shiqq and Satih thus interpreted the dream of the Yemenite ruler Rabi’ah b. Nasr. (Their interpretation) informed the Yemenites that the Abyssinians would take possession of their country, which would later on revert to them."
ثم ظهر الملك والدولة للعرب من بعد ذلك وكذا تأويل سطيح لرؤيا الموبذان حيث بعث إليه كسرى بها مع عبد المسيح وأخبرهم بظهور دولة العرب.,"Next, Islam and the Arab dynasty would make their appearance. Satih likewise interpreted a dream of the Mobedhan. The Persian emperor (Khosraw) had sent information about (that dream) to Satih through ‘Abd-al-Masih. (Satih) told him about the future appearance of the Arab dynasty."
وكذا كان في جيل البربر كهان من أشهرهم موسى بن صالح من بني يفرن ويقال من غمرة له كلمات حدثانية على طريقة الشعر برطانتهم وفيها حدثان كثير ومعظمه فيما يكون. لزناتة من الملك والدولة بالمغرب وهي متداولة بين أهل الجيل,"There were also soothsayers among the Berber race. The most famous of them was Musa b. Salih of the Banu Yafran (Ifren), or of the Ghumart. He made forecasts in poems in the native (Berber) idiom. (These poems) contain many forecasts. Most of them are concerned with the royal authority and rule over the Maghrib which the Zanatah were going to obtain. They have had wide circulation among the Berbers."
وهم يزعمون تارة أنه ولي وتارة أنه كاهن وقد يزعم بعض مزاعمهم أنه كان نبيا لأن تاريخه عندهم قبل الهجرة بكثير,"(The Berbers) have sometimes thought that Musa was a saint. At other times, (they seem to think) that he was a soothsayer. In their self-deception, a few assert occasionally that he was a prophet, because they think that he lived long before the Hijrah."
والله أعلم.,And God knows better.
وقد يستند الجيل إلى خبر الأنبياء إن كان لعهدهم كما وقع لبني إسرائيل فإن أنبياءهم المتعاقبين فيهم كانوا يخبرونهم بمثله عند ما يعنونهم في السؤال عنه.,"In this respect, (each) group used to base itself upon the information of prophets, when, as happened among the Israelites, any existed in its own time. Successive prophets (among the Israelites) told them similar things when bothered with questions."
وأما في الدولة الإسلامية فوقع منه كثير فيما يرجع إلى بقاء الدنيا ومدتها على العموم وفيما يرجع إلى الدولة وأعمارها على الخصوص,During the Muslim dynasty many such things occurred. (Some predictions) had reference to how long the world in general would last. Others had reference to a particular dynasty and its particular life.
وكان المعتمد في ذلك في صدر الإسلام لآثار منقولة عن الصحابة وخصوصا مسلمة بني إسرائيل مثل كعب الأخبار ووهب بن منبه وأمثالهما وربما اقتبسوا بعض ذلك من ظواهر مأثورة وتأويلات محتملة.,"At the beginning of Islam, (predictions) were based upon statements reported on the authority of the men around Muhammad and, especially, on that of Jewish converts to Islam such as Ka’b al-ahbar, Wahb b. Munabbih, and other such persons. Often, part of the relevant information was obtained from the explicit wording of the transmitted (statements) and permissible interpretations."
ووقع لجعفر وأمثاله من أهل البيت كثير من ذلك مستندهم فيه والله أعلم الكشف بما كانوا عليه من الولاية وإذا كان مثله لا ينكر من غيرهم من الأولياء في ذويهم وأعقابهم,"Jafar asSadiq and other members of the family of Muhammad also made many such predictions. They based themselves, it would seem, upon removal (of the veil,
kashf), which they enjoyed on account of (their) sainthood. Things of this sort are not unknown in (the experience of) other saints from among their people and descendants."
وقد قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «إن فيكم محدثين» فهم أولى الناس بهذه الرتب الشريفة والكرامات الموهوبة.,Muhammad said: “Among you there are men who are spoken to.” They are the ones who are most deserving of their noble ranks and their gifts of divine grace.
وأما بعد صدر الملة وحين علق الناس على العلوم والاصطلاحات وترجمت كتب الحكماء إلى اللسان العربي.,"After the early years of Islam, people applied themselves to the sciences and the (various) technical terminologies. The books of the (Greek) philosophers were translated into Arabic."
فأكثر معتمدهم في ذلك كلام المنجمين في الملك والدول وسائر الأمور العامة من القرانات وفي المواليد والمسائل وسائر الأمور الخاصة من الطوالع لها وهي شكل الفلك عند حدوثها,"The main basis for predictions now were astrological discussions. Matters concerning royal authority and dynasties and all other matters of general importance were considered as depending on the conjunctions of the stars. Nativities and interrogations and all other private matters were considered to depend on people’s “ascendants”- that is, on the constellations of the firmament at the time when (these matters) were brought up."
فلنذكر الآن ما وقع لأهل الأثر في ذلك ثم نرجع إلى كلام المنجمين.,"We shall now mention what the traditionists have to say on this subject. Later on, we shall return to the astrological discussions."
أما أهل الأثر فلهم في مدة الملل وبقاء الدنيا على ما وقع في كتاب السهيلي فإنه نقل عن الطبري ما يقتضي أن مدة بقاء الدنيا منذ الملة خمسمائة سنة ونقض ذلك بظهور كذبه,"With regard to how long Islam and the world in general will last, traditionists have at their disposal the material contained in the work of as-Suhayli. AsSuhayli derived it from at-Tabari. It leads to the conclusion that the world will last five hundred years after the coming of Islam. Since it has become obvious that this is not true, the theory has been demolished."
ومستند الطبري في ذلك أنه نقل عن ابن عباس أن الدنيا جمعة من جمع الآخرة ولم يذكر لذلك دليلا.,"At-Tabari based himself in this respect on a statement reported on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbis, which says that this world constitutes a single week of the weeks of the other world. He did not bring any proof for it."
وسره والله أعلم تقدير الدنيا بأيام خلق السماوات والأرض وهي سبعة ثم اليوم بألف سنة لقوله: «وإن يوما عند ربك كألف سنة مما تعدون» 22: 47,"The statement may possibly mean that this world is to be measured in days corresponding to the days of the creation of heaven and earth. They were seven, and each of them is a thousand years, according to the verse of the Qur’an: “A day with your Lord is a thousand years as you count days.”"
وقد ثبت في الصحيحين: أن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: «أجلكم في أجل من كان قبلكم من صلاة العصر إلى غروب الشمس» وقال: «بعثت أنا والساعة كهاتين» وأشار بالسبابة والوسطى,"He said: Now, it is established in (the sound tradition of) the Sahih that Muhammad said: “Your term, as compared to the term of those who were before you, (will extend) from the afternoon prayer to sunset.” He also said: “I and the Hour were sent like these two,” and he pointed with the index finger and the middle finger."
وقدر ما بين صلاة العصر وغروب الشمس حين صيرورة ظل كل شيء مثليه يكون على التقريب نصف سبع، وكذلك وصل الوسطى على السبابة فتكون هذه المدة نصف سبع الجمعة كلها وهو خمسمائة سنة,"Now, the time between the afternoon prayer and sunset, when the shadow of every object becomes twice as long as (the object itself), is approximately one-half of one-seventh (of the day). And the middle finger is longer than the index finger by about the same amount (onefourteenth). Consequently, the length of the duration (of the world after the coming of Islam) would be one-half of oneseventh of the whole week (of 7,000 years). This would be five hundred years."
ويؤيده قوله صلى الله عليه وسلم: «لن يعجز الله أن يؤخر هذه الأمة نصف يوم» فدل ذلك على أن مدة الدنيا قبل الملة خمسة آلاف وخمسمائة سنة,"This figure is supported by the statement of Muhammad, “God is indeed not unable to make this nation last longer than half a day.” This shows that the duration of the world before Islam was 5,500 years."
وعن وهب بن منبه أنها خمسة آلاف وستمائة سنة أعني الماضي وعن كعب أن مدة الدنيا كلها ستة آلاف سنة قال السهيلي: «وليس في الحديثين ما يشهد لشيء مما ذكره مع وقوع الوجود بخلافه».,"On the authority of Wahb b. Munabbih, it is stated that it was 5,600 years -that is, the period that had passed (before the coming of Islam. On the authority of Ka’b and Wahb, it is stated that the entire duration of the world is 6,000 years. As-Suhayli said: “There is nothing in the two traditions to support his (at-Tabari’s) interpretation (concerning the fivehundred-year duration of Islam), and what has actually happened has turned out to be different."
فأما قوله: «لن يعجز الله ان يؤخر هذه الأمة نصف يوم» فلا يقتضي نفي الزيادة على النصف وأما قوله: «بعثت أنا والساعة كهاتين» فإنما فيه الإشارة إلى القرب وأنه ليس بينه وبين الساعة نبي غيره ولا شرع غير شرعه,"The statement of Muhammad, ‘God is indeed not unable to have this nation last longer than half a day,’ does not imply that a longer period than half a day is excluded. And his statement, ‘I and the Hour were sent like these two,’ refers to the closeness (of the Hour) and to the fact that there will be no other prophet and no other religious law (in the short time) between (Muhammad) and the Hour."
ثم رجع السهيلي إلى تعيين أمد الملة من مدرك آخر لو ساعده التحقيق وهو أنه جمع الحروف المقطعة في أوائل السور بعد حذف المكرر قال وهي أربعة عشر حرفا يجمعها قولك (ألم يسطع نص حق كره),"As-Suhayli then turned to another source for determining the duration of Islam, in the hope that he might find the correct answer. He took the letters at the beginning of the surahs, disregarded repetitions, and thus found that there were fourteen letters, which can be arranged to form the sentence ‘lm yst’ ns hq krh."
فأخذ عددها بحساب الجمل فكان سبعمائة وثلاثة أضافه إلى المنقضي من الألف الآخر قبل بعثته,"He added up the numerical value of these letters, which comes to 903, to be added to the time which had already passed of the last millennium before the coming of (Muhammad)."
فهذه هي مدة الملة قال ولا يبعد ذلك أن يكون من مقتضيات هذه الحروف وفوائدها قلت: وكونه لا يبعد لا يقتضي ظهوره ولا التعويل عليه.,"(The total) then, was the length of the duration of Islam. As-Suhayli said: “It is not unlikely that this is the information those letters were intended to convey.” I say: The fact that it is “not unlikely” does not imply that it is evident, or that it must be understood this way."
والذي حمل السهيلي على ذلك إنما هو ما وقع في كتاب السير لابن إسحاق في حديث ابني أخطب من أخبار اليهود وهما أبو ياسر وأخوه حي حين سمعا من الأحرف المقطعة (الم 2: 1) وتأولاها على بيان المدة بهذا الحساب,"As-Suhayli was influenced by the story of the two sons of Akhtab, one of the Jewish rabbis (who had contact with Muhammad), which occurs in Ibn Ishaq’s Sirah. These were Abu Yasir and his brother Huyayy. They had heard about the letters ‘lm, which belong to the letters at the beginning of the surahs, and interpreted them as indicating, by their numerical value, the length of the duration (of Islam)."
فبلغت إحدى وسبعين فاستقلا المدة وجاء حي إلى النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم يسأله: هل مع هذا غيره؟ فقال (المص) ثم استزاد (الرثم) ثم استزاد (المر) فكانت إحدى وسبعين ومائتين,"Their numerical value was seventy-one. They considered that (too) short a period, and Huyayy went to the Prophet and asked him whether there were other such (letters). Muhammad mentioned ‘lms. (Huyayy) asked for more, and Muhammad mentioned ‘lr. Again, (Huyayy) asked for more, and Muhammad mentioned ‘lmr. (The numerical value of ‘lmr) was 271."
فاستطال المدة وقال: قد لبس علينا أمرك يا محمد حتى لا ندري أقليلا أعطيت أم كثيرا ثم ذهبوا عنه وقال لهم أبو ياسر ما يدريكم لعله أعطى عددها كلها تسعمائة وأربع سنين,"(Huyayy) considered that (too) long a period and said: “We are in confusion concerning your future, 0 Muhammad. We do not know whether you have been given little or much (time).” Whereupon they (the Jews) left him. Abu Yasir said to them: “How do you know? Perhaps he was given the total of the numerical value of all the letters, namely, 704 years.”"
قال ابن إسحاق فنزل قوله تعالى: «منه آيات محكمات هن أم الكتاب وأخر متشابهات» 3: 7. اهـ-. ولا يقوم من القصة دليل على تقدير الملة بهذا العدد لأن دلالة هذه الحروف على تلك الأعداد ليست طبيعية ولا عقلية,"Said Ibn Ishaq: “In consequence, the following verse of the Qur’an was revealed: ‘It contains clearly understood verses that are the mother of the book (and other ambiguous ones … ).’ “This story does not prove that the duration of Islam can be estimated at that figure. The assumption that the letters refer to such figures (giving the duration of Islam) is neither natural nor rational."
وإنما هي بالتواضع والاصطلاح الذي يسمونه حساب الجمل نعم إنه قديم مشهور وقدم الاصطلاح لا يصير حجة,"It is merely the result of the conventional and technical procedure which is called hisab al jummal (counting the numerical value of letters). It is, indeed, an old and well-known procedure, but the fact of the antiquity of a technical procedure does not make it conclusive evidence (for whatever one wants to prove by it)."
وليس أبو ياسر وأخوه حي ممن يؤخذ رأيه في ذلك دليلا ولا من علماء اليهود,"Furthermore, neither Abu Yasir and his brother Huyayy, nor any of the Jewish scholars for that matter, were the sort of men whose opinion with regard to such a matter (as the duration of Islam) could be considered proof of it(s being as they say)."
لأنهم كانوا بادية بالحجاز غفلا عن الصنائع والعلوم حتى عن علم شريعتهم وفقه كتابهم وملتهم وإنما يتلقفون مثل هذا الحساب كما تتلقفه العوام في كل ملة فلا ينهض للسهيلي دليل على ما ادعاه من ذلك.,"They were Bedouins of the Hijaz and did not know any crafts or sciences. They did not even know their own religious law, nor did they understand their own Scriptures and religion.1 They had picked up this (method of calculating by the numerical value of letters), just as the common people of every religious group pick it up. Thus, as-Suhayli has no proof for his claims concerning (the duration of Islam)."
ووقع في الملة في حدثان دولتها على الخصوص مسند من الأثر إجمالي في حديث خرجه أبو داود عن حذيفة بن اليمان من طريق شيخه محمد بن يحيى الذهبي عن سعيد بن أبي مريم عن عبد الله بن فروخ عن أسامة بن زيد الليثي عن أبي قبيصة بن ذؤيب عن أبيه قال,"For specific forecasts concerning particular dynasties, Islam has a general traditional basis in the tradition of Hudhayfah b. al-Yaman, published by Abu Dawud through his shaykh Muhammad b. Yahya adh-Dhuhli, on the authority of Sa’id b. Abi Maryam, on the authority of ‘Abdallah b. Farrikh, on the authority of Usamah b. Zayd al-Laythi, on the authority of a son of Qabisah b. Dhu’ayb, on the authority of his father, who said:"
قال حذيفة بن اليمان: والله ما أدري أنسي أصحابي أم تناسوه والله ما ترك رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم من قائد فئة إلى أن تنقضي الدنيا لا يبلغ من معه ثلاثمائة فصاعدا إلا قد سماه لنا باسمه واسم أبيه وقبيلته,"“Hudhayfah b. al-Yaman said: ‘By God, I do not know whether my companions have forgotten it or merely pretend to have forgotten it. By God, no leader of a disturbance who had three hundred or more (men) with him, up to the end of the world, was omitted by the Messenger of God. He mentioned his name, the, name of his father, and the name of his tribe.’ “"
وسكت عليه أبو داود وقد تقدم أنه قال في رسالته ما سكت عليه في كتابه فهو صالح وهذا الحديث إذا كان صحيحا فهو مجمل ويفتقر في بيان إجماله وتعيين مبهماته إلى آثار أخرى يجود أسانيدها.,"Abu Dawud did not make any remarks critical of (this tradition). It has been mentioned before that Abu Dawud said in his Epistle that everything to which he did not append critical remarks in his book was all right. If (this tradition) is sound, it still is a general one. In order to explain its general meaning and to indicate what is not clearly expressed in it, one requires other traditions with good chains of transmitters."
وقد وقع إسناد هذا الحديث في غير كتاب السنن على غير هذا الوجه فوقع في الصحيحين من حديث حذيفة أيضا قال:,"The tradition occurs in works other than (Abu Dawud’s) Kitab as-Sunan, in another form. In the two Sahihs, there also occurs the following tradition of Hudhayfah, who said:"
قام رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم فينا خطيبا فما ترك شيئا يكون في مقامه ذاك إلى قيام الساعة إلا حدث عنه حفظه من حفظه ونسيه من نسيه قد علمه أصحابه هؤلاء. اهـ-.,"“The Messenger of God stood up to give us a sermon. He did not omit anything, but talked about everything that would happen in his place here until the coming of the Hour. Some remember it, and some have forgotten it, (but) the men around him who (were present on that occasion) know it.”"
ولفظ البخاري: ما ترك شيئا إلى قيام الساعة إلا ذكره,"Al-Bukhari’s recension reads: “He did not omit, but mentioned everything down to the coming of the Hour.”"
وفي كتاب الترمذي من حديث أبي سعيد الخدري قال صلى بنا رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم يوما صلاة العصر بنهار ثم قام خطيبا فلم يدع شيئا يكون إلى قيام الساعة إلا أخبرنا به حفظه من حفظه ونسيه من نسيه اهـ-,"The work of at-Tirmidhi includes the tradition of Abu Sa’id al-Khudri, who said: “The Messenger of God said the afternoon prayer with us one day in the daytime. Then he stood up to give a sermon. He did not leave anything out, but informed us about everything that will happen down to the coming of the Hour. Some remember it, and some have forgotten it.”"
وهذه الأحاديث كلها محمولة على ما ثبت في الصحيحين من أحاديث الفتن والاشتراط لا غير لأنه المعهود من الشارع صلوات الله وسلامه عليه في أمثال هذه العمومات وهذه الزيادة التي تفرد بها أبو داود في هذه الطريق شاذة منكرة,"All these traditions must be referred to the traditions concerning the disturbances (of the Last Day) and the conditions governing it, as they are established in (the sound tradition of) the Sahih. They do not refer to anything else. This is what is expected from the Lawgiver (Muhammad) when he speaks in such generalities. The additional information Abu Dawud supplies, and which he stands alone in transmitting, is unusual and not to be approved of."
مع أن الأئمة اختلفوا في رجاله فقال ابن أبي مريم في ابن فروخ أحاديثه مناكير. وقال البخاري يعرف منه وينكر وقال ابن عدي أحاديثه غير محفوظة,"Moreover, the religious leaders hold different opinions concerning the personalities (mentioned by Abu Dawud). Ibn Abi Maryam said regarding Ibn Farrukh that his traditions are not approved of. Al-Bukhari said: “Some of his traditions are acknowledged, and others are not.” Ibn ‘Adi said: “His traditions are not to be retained.”"
وأسامة بن زيد وإن خرج له في الصحيحين ووثقه ابن معين فإنما خرج له البخاري استشهادا وضعفه يحيى بن سعيد وأحمد بن حنبل وقال ابن حاتم يكتب حديثه ولا يحتج به. وأبو قبيصة ابن ذؤيب مجهول.,"Usamah b. Zayd has traditions of his published in the two Sahihs, and he was considered reliable by Ibn Main. However, al-Bukhari published traditions of his only in order to support (the reliability of traditions). Yahya b. Sa’id and Ahmad b. Hanbal considered him weak. Abu Hatim said: “His traditions may be written down, but they may not be used as evidence.” The son of Qabisah b. Dhu’ayb is little known."
فتضعف هذه الزيادة التي وقعت لأبي داود في هذا الحديث من هذه الجهات مع شذوذها كما مر.,"Thus, the additional information occurring in Abu Dawud in connection with the tradition mentioned, is weak in all these respects, in addition to the aforementioned fact that it is unusual."
وقد يستندون في حدثان الدول على الخصوص إلى كتاب الجفر ويزعمون أن فيه علم ذلك كله من طريق الآثار والنجوم لا يزيدون على ذلك ولا يعرفون أصل ذلك ولا مستنده,"As a basis for specific forecasts concerning dynasties, one uses the Kitab alJafr. People think that it contains information about all these things in the form of traditions or astro(logical predictions). They do not (think) beyond that, and they do not know its origin nor its basis."
واعلم أن كتاب الجفر كان أصله أن هارون بن سعيد العجلي وهو رأس الزيدية كان له كتاب يرويه عن جعفر الصادق وفيه علم ما سيقع لأهل البيت على العموم ولبعض الأشخاص منهم على الخصوص,"It should be known that the Kitab al-Jafr had its origin in the fact that Harun b. Sa’id al-‘Ijli, the head of the Zaydiyah, had a book that he transmitted on the authority of Ja’far as-Sadiq. That book contained information as to what would happen to the family of Muhammad in general and to certain members of it in particular."
وقع ذلك لجعفر ونظائره من رجالاتهم على طريق الكرامة والكشف الذي يقع لمثلهم من الأولياء وكان مكتوبا عند جعفر في جلد ثور صغير,"The (information) had come to Ja’far and to other ‘Alid personages as an act of divine grace and through the removal (of the veil,
kashf) which is given to saints like them. (The book was) in Ja’far’s possession. It was written upon the skin of a small ox."
فرواه عنه هارون العجلي وكتبه وسماه الجفر باسم الجلد الذي كتب فيه لأن الجفر في اللغة هو الصغير وصار هذا الاسم علما على هذا الكتاب عندهم وكان فيه تفسير القرآن وما في باطنه من غرائب المعاني مروية عن جعفر الصادق.,"Harun al-‘Ijli transmitted it on (Ja’far’s) authority. He wrote it down and called it al-Jafr, after the skin upon which it had been written, because jafr means a small (camel or lamb). (Jafr) became the characteristic title they used for the book. The Kitab al-Jafr contained remarkable statements concerning the interpretation of the Qur’an and concerning its inner meaning. (The statements in it) were transmitted on the authority of Ja’far as-Sadiq."
وهذا الكتاب لم تتصل روايته ولا عرف عينه وإنما يظهر منه شواذ من الكلمات لا يصحبها دليل ولو صح السند إلى جعفر الصادق لكان فيه نعم المستند من نفسه أو من رجال قومه فهم أهل الكرامات,"The book has not come down through continuous transmission and is not known as a book as such. Only stray remarks unaccompanied by any proofs (of their authenticity) are known from it. If the ascription to Ja’far as-Sadiq were correct, the work would have the excellent authority of Jafar himself or of people of his family who enjoyed acts of divine grace."
وقد صح عنه أنه كان يحذر بعض قرابته بوقائع تكون لهم فتصح كما يقول وقد حذر يحيى ابن عمه زيد من مصرعه وعصاه فخرج وقتل بالجوزجان كما هو معروف.,"It is a fact that Ja’far warned certain of his relatives about accidents that would occur to them, and things turned out as he had predicted. He warned Yahya, the son of his uncle Zayd, about his impending debacle, but he disobeyed him, revolted, and was killed in alJuzajan, as is well known."
وإذا كانت الكرامة تقع لغيرهم فما ظنك بهم علما ودينا وآثارا من النبوة وعناية من الله بالأصل الكريم تشهد لفروعه الطيبة وقد ينقل بين أهل البيت كثير من هذا الكلام غير منسوب إلى أحد,"If acts of divine grace occur also to others, they should all the more occur to (members of Muhammad’s family), in view of their knowledge, their religion, the tradition of Muhammad’s prophecy (which they represent), and God’s concern for the noble root (Muhammad) which extends to partiality for its goodly branches. Much of this material is reported among members of the family of Muhammad, but it is not attributed to the Jafr (just mentioned)."
وفي أخبار دولة العبيديين كثير منه وانظر ما حكاه ابن الرقيق في لقاء أبي عبد الله الشيعي لعبيد الله المهدي مع ابنه محمد الحبيب وما حدثاه به وكيف بعثاه إلى ابن حوشب داعيتهم باليمن,"In the history of the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimids), there is much of it. An illustration is the story reported by Ibn ar-Ragiq about a meeting between Abu ‘Abdallah ash-Shi’i and ‘Ubaydallah alMahdi, who was with his father Muhammad al-Habib. (Al-Mahdi and his father) discussed matters with (Abu ‘Abdallah) and sent the latter to Ibn Hawshab, their missionary in the Yemen."
فأمره بالخروج إلى المغرب وبث الدعوة فيه على علم لقنه أن دعوته تتم هناك,(Ibn Hawshab) ordered Abu ‘Abdallah to go to the Maghrib and spread (Fatimid) propaganda there. He did so in the knowledge that the (‘Ubaydid-Fatimid) dynasty would materialize in (the Maghrib).
وأن عبيد الله لما بنى المهدية بعد استفحال دولتهم بإفريقية قال: «بنيتها ليعتصم بها الفواطم ساعة من نهار» وأراهم موقف صاحب الحمار أبي يزيد بالهدية وكان يسأل عن منتهى موقفه,"Later on, when ‘Ubaydallah was building al-Mahdiyah in Ifriqiyah and their dynasty was flourishing, he said: “I am building this city so that the Fatimids may find protection in it for one hour of a (certain) day,” and he showed the (people around him) the place within the city where “the Man of the Donkey” would stop. (‘Ubaydallah’s) grandson Ismail al-Mansur heard of this story, and when “the Man of the Donkey,” Abu Yazid, came to besiege him in al-Mahdiyah, al-Mansur always inquired where he had last stopped."
حتى جاءه الخبر ببلوغه إلى المكان الذي عينه جده أبو عبيد الله فأيقن بالظفر وبرز من البلد فهزمه واتبعه إلى ناحية الزاب فظفر به وقتله ومثل هذه الأخبار كثيرة.,"Eventually, he was informed that Abu Yazid had reached the place his grandfather ‘Ubaydallah had indicated. Now, he was sure of victory. He went out of the town, routed (Abu Yazid), and pursued him as far as the region of the Zab, where he defeated and killed him. (The ‘Alids) have many such stories to tell."
وأما المنجمون فيستندون في حدثان الدول إلى الأحكام النجومية أما في الأمور العامة مثل الملك والدول فمن القرانات وخصوصا بين العلويين,"Astrologers, in making forecasts concerning dynasties, base themselves upon astrological judgments. For matters of 11,186 general importance such as royal authority and dynasties, they use the conjunctions, especially those of the two superior planets."
وذلك أن العلويين زحل والمشتري يقترنان في كل عشرين سنة مرة ثم يعود القران إلى برج آخر في تلك المثلثة من التثليث الأيمن ثم بعده إلى آخر كذلك إلى أن يتكرر في المثلثة الواحدة اثنتي عشرة مرة,"The superior planets, Saturn and Jupiter, are in conjunction once every twenty years. After twenty years, their conjunction reoccurs in another sign of the same triplicity (but) in trine dexter, and again (twenty years later) in another (sign). This is repeated in the same triplicity twelve times."
تستوي بروجه الثلاثة في ستين سنة ثم يعود فيستوي بها في ستين سنة ثم يعود ثالثة ثم رابعة فيستوي في المثلثة باثنتي عشرة مرة وأربع عودات في مائتين وأربعين سنة,"It takes sixty years (for three conjunctions) in the three signs (of the first triplicity), and another sixty years each for a second, third, and fourth time. The twelve repetitions in the triplicity, with four recurrences, thus take 240 years."
ويكون انتقاله في كل برج على التثليث الأيمن وينتقل من المثلثة إلى المثلثة التي تليها أعني البرج الذي يلي البرج الأخير من القران الذي قبله في المثلثة وهذا القران الذي هو قران العلويين ينقسم إلى كبير وصغير ووسط,"The movement (of the conjunction) in each sign is toward the trine dexter. It moves on from the one triplicity into the adjacent triplicity, that is, into the sign that is adjacent to the sign of the triplicity in which the conjunction had last taken place. The conjunctions of the two superior planets are divided into great, small, and medium."
فالكبير هو اجتماع العلويين في درجة واحدة من الفلك إلى أن يعود إليها بعد تسعمائة وستين سنة مرة واحدة والوسط هو اقتران العلويين في كل مثلثة اثنتي عشرة مرة وبعد مائتين وأربعين سنة ينتقل إلى مثلثة أخرى,"The great conjunction is the meeting of the two superior planets in the same degree of the firmament, which reoccurs after 960 years. The medium conjunction is the conjunction of the two superior planets in each triplicity with its twelve repetitions; after 240 years, they move on to another triplicity."
والصغير هو اقتران العلويين في درجة برج وبعد عشرين سنة يقترنان في برج آخر على تثليثه الأيمن في مثل درجة أو دقائقه مثال ذلك وقع القران يكون أول دقيقة من الحمل وبعد عشرين يكون في أول دقيقة من الأسد,"The small conjunction is the conjunction of the two superior planets in the same sign; after twenty years, they have a conjunction in another sign in trine dexter at the same degree and minute. For instance, if the conjunction occurs in the first minute of Aries, it will reoccur after twenty years in the first minute of Sagittarius, and then again after twenty years in Leo."
وهذه كلها نارية وهذا كله قران صغير ثم يعود إلى أول الحمل بعد ستين سنة ويسمى دور القران وعود القران وبعد مائتين وأربعين ينتقل من النارية إلى الترابية لأنها بعدها وهذا قران وسط,"All the (signs) mentioned are fiery, and all the conjunctions are small ones. The conjunction then reoccurs in the beginning of Aries after sixty years. This is called “the cycle of the conjunction” or “the reoccurrence of the conjunction.” After 240 years, (the conjunction) moves on from the fiery (triplicity) to the earthy (triplicity), which comes after (the fiery one). This, then, is the medium conjunction."
ثم ينتقل إلى الهوائية ثم المائية ثم يرجع إلى أول الحمل في تسعمائة وستين سنة وهو الكبير,"Then, the conjunction moves on to the airy and watery triplicities, and then reoccurs in the beginning of Aries after 960 years. This, then, is the great conjunction."
والقران الكبير يدل على عظام الأمور مثل تغيير الملك والدولة وانتقال الملك من قوم إلى قوم والوسط على ظهور المتغلبين والطالبين للملك والصغير على ظهور الخوارج والدعاة وخراب المدن أو عمرانها,"The great conjunction indicates great events, such as a change in royal authority or dynasties, or a transfer of royal authority from one people to another. The medium conjunction (indicates) the appearance of persons in search of superiority and royal authority. The small conjunction (indicates) the appearance of rebels or propagandists, and the ruin of towns or of their civilization."
ويقع في أثناء هذه القرانات قران النحسين في برج السرطان في كل ثلاثين سنة مرة ويسمى الرابع وبرج السرطان هو طالع العالم وفيه وبال زحل وهبوط المريخ,"In between these conjunctions, there occurs the conjunction of the two unlucky planets (Saturn and Mars) in the sign of Cancer once every thirty years. It is called ar-rabi` (the fourth). The sign of Cancer is the ascendant of the world. It is the detriment of Saturn and the dejection of Mars."
فتعظم دلالة هذا القران في الفتن والحروب وسفك الدماء وظهور الخوارج وحركة العساكر وعصيان الجند والوباء والقحط ويدوم ذلك أو ينتهي على قدر السعادة والنحوسة في وقت قرانهما على قدر تيسير الدليل فيه.,"This conjunction strongly indicates disturbances, wars, bloodshed, the appearance of rebels, the movement of armies, the disobedience of soldiers, plagues, and drought. These things persist, or come to an end, depending on the luck or ill luck (prevailing) at the time of conjunction of (the two unlucky planets), as determined by the direction of the significator in it."
قال جراس بن أحمد الحاسب في الكتاب الذي ألفه لنظام الملك ورجوع المريخ إلى العقرب له أثر عظيم في الملة الإسلامية لأنه كان دليلها,"Jirash b. Ahmad al-Hasib said in the book that he composed for Nizam al-Mulk: “The return of Mars to Scorpio has an important influence upon the Muslim religious group, because it is its significator."
فالمولد النبوي كان عند قران العلويين ببرج العقرب فلما رجع هنالك حدث التشويش على الخلفاء وكثر المرض في أهل العلم والدين ونقصت أحوالهم وربما انهدم بعض بيوت العبادة,"The birth of the Prophet took place when the two superior planets were in conjunction in the sign of Scorpio. Whenever the conjunction reoccurs there, trouble is brewing for the caliphs. There is much illness among scholars and religious personalities, and their conditions are reduced. Occasionally, houses of worship are destroyed."
وقد يقال إنه كان عند قتل علي رضي الله عنه ومروان من بني أمية والمتوكل من بني العباس فإذا روعيت هذه الأحكام مع أحكام القرانات كانت في غاية الإحكام,"It has been said that the conjunction occurred at the deaths of ‘Ali, of the Umayyad Marwan, and of the `Abbasid al-Mutawakkil. If such judgments are taken into consideration, together with the judgments based upon the conjunctions, they are exceedingly reliable.”"
وذكر شاذان البلخي: أن الملة تنتهي إلى ثلاثمائة وعشرين. وقد ظهر كذب هذا القول. وقال أبو معشر: يظهر بعد المائة والخمسين منها اختلاف كثير ولم يصح ذلك.,Shadhan al-Balkhi mentioned that Islam would last 310 years. This has proved to be wrong. Abu Ma’shar said: “(Islam) will have many differences after the 150’s.” This was not correct.
وقال خراش: رأيت في كتب القدماء أن المنجمين أخبروا كسرى عن ملك العرب وظهور النبوة فيهم. وأن دليلهم الزهرة وكانت في شرفها فيبقى الملك فيهم أربعين سنة,"Jirash said: “I have seen in the books of the ancients that the astrologers informed Khosraw that the Arabs would gain royal authority and the prophecy (of Muhammad) would appear among them. The significator of the Arabs is Venus, which was then in its exaltation. The royal authority of the Arabs would last forty years.”"
وقال أبو معشر في كتاب القرانات القسمة إذا انتهت إلى السابعة والعشرين من الحوت فيها شرف الزهرة ووقع القران مع ذلك ببرج العقرب وهو دليل العرب ظهرت حينئذ دولة العرب وكان منهم نبي,"Abu Ma’shar said in the Book of Conjunctions: “When the section reaches the twenty-seventh (degree) of Pisces, in which Venus has its exaltation, and when, at the same time, the conjunction occurs in Scorpio, which is the significator of the Arabs, then the Arab dynasty will make its appearance, and there will be a prophet among them."
ويكون قوة ملكه ومدته على ما بقي من درجات شرف الزهرة وهي إحدى عشرة درجة بتقريب من برج الحوت ومدة ذلك ستمائة وعشر سنين,"The power and duration of his rule will correspond to the remaining degrees of the exaltation of Venus-that is, approximately eleven degrees of the sign of Pisces. That will be a period of 610 years."
وكان ظهور أبي مسلم عند انتقال الزهرة ووقوع القسمة أول الحمل وصاحب الجد المشتري.,"Abu Muslim appeared when Venus moved on, and the section occurred in the beginning of Aries, with Jupiter ruling the field.”"
وقال يعقوب بن إسحاق الكندي إن مدة الملة تنتهي إلى ستمائة وثلاث وتسعين سنة. قال: لأن الزهرة كانت عند قران الملة في ثمان وعشرين درجة وثلاثين دقيقة من الحوت,"Ya’qub b. Ishaq al-Kindi said that Islam would last 693 years; he said, ‘ because in the conjunction that dominates Islam, Venus was in 28° 42’ of Pisces."
فالباقي إحدى عشرة درجة وثمان عشرة دقيقة ودقائقها ستون فيكون ستمائة وثلاثا وتسعين سنة. قال: وهذه مدة الملة باتفاق الحكماء ويعضده الحروف الواقعة في أول السور بحذف المكرر واعتباره بحساب الجمل.,"The remainder, thus, was 11 ° 18′. There are sixty minutes to the degree. Thus, it will be 693 years.” He said (further): “This is the duration of Islam as generally agreed upon by the philosophers. The figure is supported by the letters that occur at the beginning of certain surahs, if one omits the repetitions and counts the numerical value of the letters.”"
قلت وهذا هو الذي ذكره السهيلي والغالب أن الأول هو مستند السهيلي فيما نقلناه عنه.,I say: This is what was mentioned by as-Suhayli. The most likely assumption is that al-Kindi was as-Suhayli’s source for the remarks we reported on as-Suhayli’s authority.
قال خراش: «سأل هرمز إفريد الحكيم عن مدة أردشير وولده ملوك الساسانية» فقال: «دليل ملكه المشتري» وكان في شرفه فيعطى أطول السنين وأجودها أربعمائة وسبعا وعشرين سنة,"Jirash said: “The sage Hurmuzdafrid was asked about the duration of the rule of Ardashir and his children, the Sassanian rulers. He replied: ‘The significator of his rule is Jupiter. Jupiter was in exaltation (when Ardashir appeared). Thus, Jupiter gives (the Sassanians) the longest and best years, that is, 427."
ثم تزيد الزهرة وتكون في شرفها وهي دليل العرب فيملكون لأن طالع القران الميزان وصاحبه الزهرة وكانت عند القران في شرفها فدل أنهم يملكون ألف سنة وستين سنة.,"Then, Venus will rule and be in exaltation. Venus signifies that the Arabs will come to power, because the ascendant of the conjunction is Libra, and it is ruled by Venus, which, at the time of the conjunction, will be in exaltation. This indicates that (the Arabs) will rule 1,060 years.”"
وسأل كسرى أنوشروان وزيره بزرجمهر الحكيم عن خروج الملك من فارس إلى العرب فأخبره: أن القائم منهم يولد لخمس وأربعين من دولته,"Khosraw Anosharwan asked his wazir, the sage Buzurjmihr, about the transfer of royal authority from the Persians to the Arabs. Buzurjmihr informed him that the founder of Arab rule would be born in the forty-fifth year of his reign."
ويملك المشرق والمغرب والمشتري يغوص إلى الزهرة وينتقل القران من الهوائية إلى العقرب وهو مائي وهو دليل العرب فهذه الأدلة تفضي للملة بمدة دور الزهرة وهي ألف وستون سنة.,"He would take possession of the East and the West. Jupiter would turn over the rule to Venus, and the conjunction would move on from the airy (triplicity) into Scorpio, which belongs to the watery (triplicity). (Venus) is the significator of the Arabs. All the indications mentioned imply that Islam will have a duration corresponding to the period of Venus, that is, 1,060 years."
وسأل كسرى أبرويز أليوس الحكيم عن ذلك فقال مثل قول بزرجمهر. وقال توفيل الرومي المنجم في أيام بني أمية: إن ملة الإسلام تبقى مدة القران الكبير تسعمائة وستين سنة,"Khosraw Aparwez asked the sage Ulyus about the same matter, and Ulyus gave a reply similar to that which Buzurjmihr had given (to Khosraw Anosharwan). Theophilus, the Byzantine astrologer of the Umayyad period, said that the Muslim dynasty would have the duration of the great conjunction, that is, 960 years."
فإذا عاد القران إلى برج العقرب كما كان في ابتداء الملة وتغير وضع الكواكب عن هيئتها في قران الملة فحينئذ إما أن يفتر العمل به أو يتجدد من الأحكام ما يوجب خلاف الظن.,"When the conjunction occurs again in the sign of Scorpio, as it had at the beginning of Islam, and when the position of the stars in the conjunction that dominates Islam has changed, it will be less effective, or there will be new judgments that will make a change of opinion necessary."
قال خراش: واتفقوا على أن خراب العالم يكون باستيلاء الماء والنار حتى تهلك سائر المكونات وذلك عند ما يقطع قلب الأسد أربعا وعشرين درجة وهي حد المريخ، وذلك بعد مضي تسعمائة وستين سنة.,"Jirash said: “They are agreed that the destruction of the world will come through water and fire. Water and fire will gain preponderance until all created things have perished. This will take place when Regulus crosses 24°, (thus entering) the field of Mars. This will be the case after 960 years have passed.”"
وذكر خراش: أن ملك زابلستان بعث إلى المأمون بحكيمه ذوبان أتحفه به في هدية وأنه تصرف للمأمون في الاختيارات بحروب أخيه وبعقد اللواء لطاهر,"Jirash mentioned that among other gifts, the ruler of Zabulistan-that is, Ghaznah-sent his sage Dhuban to alMa’mun. (Dhuban) made for al-Ma’mun astrological elections that favored al-Ma’mun’s going to war against his brother and appointing Taeir as commander-in-chief."
وأن المأمون أعظم حكمته فسأله عن مدة ملكهم فأخبره بانقطاع الملك من عقبه واتصاله في ولد أخيه وأن العجم يتغلبون على الخلافة من الديلم في دولة سنة خمسين ويكون ما يريده الله ثم يسوء حالهم,"AlMa’mun thought highly of (Dhuban’s) wisdom, and asked him how long the (‘Abbasid) rule would last. (Dhuban) informed him that the children of his brother (al-Mu’tasim), and not his own descendants, would rule, and that the nonArab Daylam would gain control over the caliphate. At first they would exercise good government, for fifty years. Then, their condition would deteriorate."
ثم تظهر الترك من شمال المشرق فيملكون إلى الشام والفرات وسيحون وسيملكون بلاد الروم ويكون ما يريده الله فقال له المأمون: من أين لك هذا؟ فقال: من كتب الحكماء ومن أحكام صصة بن داهر الهندي الذي وضع الشطرنج.,"Eventually, the Turks would make their appearance from the northeast. Their rule would extend to Syria and the Euphrates. They would conquer the Byzantine territory. Then, there would happen what God would want to happen. Al-Ma’mun asked (Dhuban) where he got his information from, and (Dhuban) replied that he had it from the books of the philosophers and from the astrological judgments of the Indian Sassah b: Dahir, the inventor of chess."
قلت والترك الذين أشار إلى ظهورهم بعد الديلم هم السلجوقية وقد انقضت دولتهم أول القرن السابع.,"I say: The Turks to whose appearance after the Daylam (Dhuban) referred, are the Saljtigs. The (Saljuq) dynasty was destroyed at the beginning of the seventh [thirteenth] century."
قال خراش: وانتقال القران إلى المثلثة المائية من برج الحوت يكون سنة ثلاث وثلاثين وثمانمائة ليزدجرد وبعدها إلى برج العقرب حيث كان قران الملة سنة ثلاث وخمسين.,"Jirash said: “The conjunction will move on into the watery triplicity in the sign of Pisces in the year 833 of the era of Yazdjard. From there, it will move on to the sign of Scorpio-where there had occurred the conjunction under which Islam (originated) -in the year (8)53.”"
قال: والذي في الحوت هو أول الانتقال والذي في العقرب يستخرج منه دلائل الملة.,"He said: “(The conjunction) in Pisces is the beginning of the movement, and the conjunction in Scorpio will produce the indications applying to Islam.”"
قال: وتحويل السنة الأولى من القران الأول في المثلثات المائية في ثاني رجب سنة ثمان وستين وثمانمائة ولم يستوف الكلام على ذلك.,"He said: “The revolution of the first year of the first conjunction in the watery triplicity will be (completed) on Rajab 2, 868 [March 11, 1464].” He did not discuss this matter more fully."
وأما مستند المنجمين في دولة على الخصوص فمن القران الأوسط وهيئة الفلك عند وقوعه,"With regard to individual dynasties, the astrologers base themselves on the medium conjunction and the constellation of the firmament when it takes place."
لأن له دلالة عندهم على حدوث الدولة وجهاتها من العمران والقائمين بها من الأمم وعدد ملوكهم وأسمائهم وأعمارهم ونحلهم وأديانهم وعوائدهم وحروبهم,"In their opinion, it indicates the origin of a dynasty, its forms of civilization, the nations that will support it, the number and names of the rulers, the length of their lives, the sects and religions (that will be found in that dynasty), the customs of the rulers, and the wars they will wage."
كما ذكر أبو معشر في كتابه في القرانات وقد توجد هذه الدلالة من القران الأصغر إذا كان الأوسط دالا عليه فمن يوجد الكلام في الدول,"This was mentioned by Abu Ma’shar in his Book of Conjunctions. Such indications may (also) be derived from the small conjunction, if the medium conjunction indicates (such a course). The discussion of dynasties is thus derived from (these conjunctions)."
وقد كان يعقوب بن إسحاق الكندي منجم الرشيد والمأمون وضع في القرانات الكائنة في الملة كتابا سماه الشيعة بالجفر باسم كتابهم المنسوب إلى جعفر الصادق,"Ya’qub b. Ishaq al-Kindi, astrologer to ar-Rashid and alMa’mun, composed a book on the conjunctions affecting Islam. The Shi’ah called the book al-Jafr, after the name of their own book, which is attributed to Ja’far as-Sadiq."
وذكر فيه فيما يقال حدثان: دولة بني العباس وأنها نهايته وأشار إلى انقراضها والحادثة على بغداد أنها تقع في انتصاف المائة السابعة وأنه بانقراضها يكون انقراض الملة,"In his book, alKindi is said to have made complete forecasts concerning the ‘Abbasid dynasty. He indicated that the destruction of (the ‘Abbasid dynasty) and the fall of Baghdad would take place in the middle of the seventh [thirteenth] century and that its destruction would result from the destruction of Islam."
ولم نقف على شيء من خبر هذا الكتاب ولا رأينا من وقف عليه ولعله غرق في كتبهم التي طرحها هلاكو ملك التتر في دجلة عند استيلائهم على بغداد وقتل المستعصم آخر الخلفاء,"We have not found any information concerning (alKindi’s) book, and we have not seen anyone who has seen it. Perhaps it was lost with those books which Hulagu, the ruler of the Tatars, threw into the Tigris when the Tatars took possession of Baghdad and killed the last caliph, al-Musta’sim."
وقد وقع بالمغرب جزء منسوب إلى هذا الكتاب يسمونه الجفر الصغير والظاهر أنه وضع لبني عبد المؤمن لذكر الأولين من ملوك الموحدين فيه على التفصيل ومطابقة من تقدم عن ذلك من حدثانه وكذب ما بعده,"In the Maghrib, there exists a fascicle considered to belong to (al-Kindi’s) book. It is called the Small Jafr. But it is obvious that it was composed for the Banfi ‘Abd-alMu’min, for it mentions in detail the early Almohad rulers. The forecasts of the work are right with respect to the preceding period, and they are wrong for the later period."
وكان في دولة بني العباس من بعد الكندي منجمون وكتب في الحدثان وانظر ما نقله الطبري في أخبار المهدي عن أبي بديل من أصحاب صنائع الدولة,"In the ‘Abbasid dynasty, there were astrologers and books on forecasts after al-Kindi. One may compare the story reported by at-Tabari in the history of alMahdi on the authority of Abu Budayl, one of the followers of the dynasty."
قال بعث إلي الربيع والحسن في غزاتهما مع الرشيد أيام أبيه فجئتهما جوف الليل فإذا عندهما كتاب من كتب الدولة يعني الحدثان وإذا مدة المهدي فيه عشر سنين,"(Abu Budayl) said: “Ar-Rabi’ and al-Hasan sent for me, when they were on an expedition together with ar-Rashid during the days of (ar-Rashid’s) father (alMahdi). I came to them in the middle of the night. They had with them one of the `dynasty books’-that is, (a book of) forecasts. The duration of al-Mahdi’s reign was given in it as ten years."
فقلت: هذا الكتاب لا يخفى على المهدي وقد مضى من دولته ما مضى فإذا وقف عليه كنتم قد نعيتم إليه نفسه.,"I said: ‘This book will not remain unknown to al-Mahdi, and there have already passed (that many) years of his reign. When he sees (the book, it will be as bad as if) you (were to) announce his own death to him.’"
قالا: فما الحيلة فاستدعيت عنبسة الوراق مولى آل بديل وقلت له انسخ هذه الورقة واكتب مكان عشر أربعين ففعل فو الله لولا أني رأيت العشرة في تلك الورقة والأربعين في هذه ما كنت أشك أنها هي,"They asked me what might be done, and I called for the copyist ‘Anbasah, a client of the family of Budayl, and said to him: ‘Copy this leaf, and write forty instead of ten.’ He did so, and, indeed, if I had not seen the ten on that leaf, and the forty on this one, I would not have doubted that it was the same (original leaf that formed part of the manuscript).”"
ثم كتب الناس من بعد ذلك في حدثان الدول منظوما ومنثورا ورجزا ما شاء الله أن يكتبوه وبأيدي الناس متفرقة كثير منها وتسمى الملاحم.,"Later on, works in poetry and prose and in rajaz verse dealing with forecasts concerning dynasties were written in considerable quantity. Much of it found its way into the hands of the people. It is called “predictions” (malahim)."
وبعضها في حدثان الملة على العموم وبعضها في دولة على الخصوص وكلها منسوبة إلى مشاهير من أهل الخليقة وليس منها أصل يعتمد على روايته عن واضعه المنسوب إليه,Some of these works concern forecasts about Islam in general. Others are about particular dynasties. All of these works are attributed to famous persons. But there is nothing to support ascribing them to the persons on whose authority they are transmitted.
فمن هذه الملاحم بالمغرب قصيدة ابن مرانة من بحر الطويل على روي الراء وهي متداولة بين الناس وتحسب العامة أنها من الحدثان العام فيطلقون الكثير منها على الحاضر والمستقبل,"One such prediction work is the poem by Ibn Murranah in the meter tawil with the rhyme on r. It has a wide circulation among the people in the Maghrib. The common people think that it has to do with general forecasts, and they apply many of its forecasts to the present and the future."
والذي سمعناه من شيوخنا أنها مخصوصة بدولة لمتونة لأن الرجل كان قبيل دولتهم وذكر فيها استيلاءهم على سبتة من يد موالي بني حمود وملكهم لعدوة الأندلس,"But our shaykhs informed us that it refers in particular to the Lamtunah (Almohad) dynasty, since its author lived shortly before (the dynasty came to power). In (the poem), he mentioned that the Lamtunah took Ceuta out of the hands of the clients of the Hammudids and that they gained control of the Spanish shore."
"ومن الملاحم بيد أهل المغرب أيضا قصيدة تسمى التبعية أولها:
طربت وما ذاك مني طرب *** وقد يطرب الطائر المغتصب
وما ذاك مني للهو أراه *** ولكن لتذكار بعض السبب","Another prediction work in the hands of the inhabitants of the Maghrib is a poem called at-Tubba’iyah, which begins: I feel happy, but not joyful. A bird in captivity may also feel happy. I do not (feel happy) because of something entertaining that I see, But because I am remembering something."
قريبا من خمسمائة بيت أو ألف فيما يقال ذكر فيها كثيرا من دولة الموحدين وأشار فيها إلى الفاطمي وغيره والظاهر أنها مصنوعة,"(This poem) is said to contain about five hundred or a thousand verses. In it, (the poet) mentioned much about the Almohad dynasty, and he referred to the (expected) Fatimid and other things. It is obvious that it is a forgery."
ومن الملاحم بالمغرب أيضا ملعبة من الشعر الزجلي منسوبة لبعض اليهود ذكر فيها أحكام القرانات لعصره العلويين والنحسين وغيرهما وذكر ميتته قتيلا بفاس وكان كذلك فيما زعموه,"Another prediction work in the Maghrib is a zajal “playpoem” (mal’abah) which is attributed to a Jew. (The poet) mentioned in it the judgments of the conjunctions of the two superior, the two unlucky, and other planets for his time. He mentioned that he would die a violent death in Fez, and people think that that actually happened."
"وأوله:
في صبغ ذا الأزرق لشرفه خيارا *** فافهموا يا قوم هذي الاشارا
نجم زحل أخبر بذي العلاما *** وبدل الشكلا وهي سلاما","(The poem) begins: The color of that blue one leaves no choice. O people, understand this indication! The planet Saturn shows this mark And has changed its whitish color, that meant wellbeing."
"شاشية زرقا بدل العماما *** وشاش أزرق بدل الغرارا يقول في آخره
قد تم ذا التجنيس لإنسان يهودي *** يصلب في بلدة فاس في يوم عيد
حتى يجيه الناس من البوادي *** وقتله يا قوم على الفراد","A blue sash instead of a (whitish) turban, And a blue cape instead of a (whitish) cloak. At the end of (the poem, the poet) says: Completed is this rhyming by a Jewish man, Who will be hanged on a holiday at the river of Fez, Until people come to him from the desert, And he will be killed, O people, in a riot."
وأبياته نحو الخمسمائة وهي في القرانات التي دلت على دولة الموحدين,(The poem) comprises about five hundred verses. They are concerned with judgments based on the conjunctions referring to the Almohad dynasty.
ومن ملاحم المغرب أيضا قصيدة من عروض المتقارب على روي الباء في حدثان دولة بني أبي حفص بتونس من الموحدين منسوبة لابن الأبار.,"Another Maghribi prediction work is a poem in the meter mutaqarib with the rhyme on b, which deals with forecasts concerning the Almohad Hafsid dynasty in Tunis. It is attributed to Ibn al-Abbar."
وقال لي قاضي قسنطينية الخطيب الكبير أبو علي بن باديس وكان بصيرا بما يقوله وله قدم في التنجيم فقال لي: إن هذا ابن الأبار ليس هو الحافظ الأندلسي الكاتب مقتول المستنصر,"The judge of Constantine, the great preacher, Abu ‘Ali b. Badis, who knew what he was saying and who was versed in astronomy, told me that this Ibn al-Abbar was not the hadith expert and secretary who was killed by al-Mustansir."
وإنما هو رجل خياط من أهل تونس تواطأت شهرته مع شهرة الحافظ وكان والدي رحمه الله تعالى ينشد هذه الأبيات من هذه الملحمة وبقي بعضها في حفظي,"He was a tailor in Tunis, whose identity became confused with that of the hadith expert. My father used to recite me verses from this prediction poem, and some of them have stuck in my memory."
"مطلعها:
عذيري من زمن قلب *** يغر ببارقه الأشنب ومنها.
ويبعث من جيشه قائدا *** ويبقى هناك على مرقب
فتأتي إلى الشيخ أخباره *** فيقبل كالجمل الأجرب
ويظهر من عدله سيرة *** وتلك سياسة مستجلب","(The poem) starts: Let my excuse be a fickle time, Which deceives (people) with its flashing, toothy (smile). (Other verses of the poem,) mentioning al-Lihyani, the ninth Hafsid ruler, are: He will send a leader from his army, And he will remain there on a lookout, News about him will reach the shaykh, And he will advance like a mangy camel. The justice of his ways will become apparent. That is the policy of a person who knows how to attract others."
"ومنها في ذكر أحوال تونس على العموم.
فإما رأيت الرسوم امحت *** ولم يرع حق لذي منصب
فخذ في الترحل عن تونس *** وودع معالمها واذهب
فسوف تكون بها فتنة *** تضيف البريء إلى المذنب","(Other verses of the poem) deal with general conditions in Tunis: Do you not see that institutions have been wiped out And the rights of persons of position are not observed? Therefore, start leaving Tunis! Say goodbye to its familiar places, and go! Disturbances will eventually take place there. They will affect the innocent as much as the guilty."
ووقفت بالمغرب على ملحمة أخرى في دولة بني أبي حفص هؤلاء بتونس فيها بعد السلطان أبي يحيى الشهير عاشر ملوكهم ذكر محمد أخيه من بعده,"In the Maghrib, I came across another prediction work concerning the Hafsids in Tunis. The poem mentions the famous Sultan Abu Yahya (Abu Bakr), the tenth Hafsid ruler, and it mentions as his successor his brother Muhammad."
"يقول فيها:
وبعد أبي عبد الإله شقيقه *** ويعرف بالوثاب في نسخة الأصل","(The poet) says: And afterwards, Abu ‘Abd-allah, his brother, Who will be known as al-Waththab .. . (Thus it is found) in the original manuscript."
إلا أن هذا الرجل لم يملكها بعد أخيه وكان يمني بذلك نفسه إلى أن هلك ومن الملاحم في المغرب أيضا الملعبة المنسوبة إلى الهوثني على لغة العامة في عروض البلد:,"However, the person mentioned did not succeed his brother as ruler of Tunis, though it was his ambition to become ruler until he died. Another Maghribi prediction work is a “play-poem” attributed to alHawshini. It is written in the vulgar language, in the “local meter.”"
"دعني بدمعي الهتان *** فترت الأمطار ولم تفتر
واستقت كلها الويدان *** وانى تملى وتغدر
البلاد كلها تروي *** فأولى بها ميل ما تدري","It begins: Leave me alone, O my incessant tears. The rains have slowed down, but you have not. All the rivers are full. But you continue to fill and become like a pool [?]. The whole country is wet, And you know how (bad) are the times."
"ما بين الصيف والشتوي *** والعام والربيع تجري
قال حين صحت الدعوى: *** دعني نبكي ومن عذر
أنادي من ذي الأزمان *** ذا القرن اشتد وتمري","The summer and the winter have gone by [?], And the fall and the spring are passing. They replied, seeing that the claim (to be sad) was sound: Let me weep! Who could give me an excuse (not to weep)! Oh, look at these times. This period is a difficult and bitter one."
وهي طويلة ومحفوظة بين عامة المغرب الأقصى والغالب عليها الوضع لأنه لم يصح منها قول إلا على تأويل تحرفه العامة أو الحارف فيه من ينتحلها من الخاصة,"It is a long (poem), which the common people of Morocco know by heart. It is most likely a forgery, because nothing that is said in it is correct, unless it is provided with a twisted interpretation by the common people, or with a fanciful one by the educated people who accept the poem."
ووقفت بالمشرق على ملحمة منسوبة لابن العربي الحاتمي في كلام طويل شبه الألغاز لا يعلم تأويله إلا الله لتحلله إلى أوفاق عددية ورموز ملغوزة وأشكال حيوانات تامة ورءوس مقطعة وتماثيل من حيوانات غريبة.,"In the East, I came across a prediction work attributed to Ibn al-‘Arabs alHitimi. It consists of a long, enigmatic discussion. Its interpretation is known only to God. The work is interspersed with magic squares, mysterious hints, complete outlines of animals, separate heads, and strange representations of two animals."
وفي آخرها قصيدة على روي اللام والغالب أنها كلها غير صحيحة لأنها لم تنشأ عن أصل علمي من نجامة ولا غيرها,"It contains at the end a poem rhyming on l. The most likely assumption is that the whole work is incorrect, because it has no scientific basis, astrological or otherwise."
وسمعت أيضا أن هناك ملاحم أخرى منسوبة لابن سيناء وابن عقاب وليس في شيء منها دليل على الصحة لأن ذلك إنما يؤخذ من القرانات,"I have also heard that in the East there are other prediction works. They are attributed to Avicenna and Ibn’Aqb. They contain no indication whatever that (their contents) are correct, because (correct predictions) can be derived only from astral conjunctions."
ووقفت بالمشرق أيضا على ملحمة من حدثان دولة الترك منسوبة إلى رجل من الصوفية يسمى الباجربقي وكلها إلغاز بالحروف,"In the East, I further came across a prediction work with forecasts concerning the Turkish dynasty. The work is attributed to a Sufi called al-Bijarbaqi. The whole is a letter puzzle."
"أولها
إن شئت تكسف سر الجفر يا سائلي *** من علم جفر وصي والد الحسن
فافهم وكن واعيا حرفا وجملته *** والوصف فافهم كفعل الحاذق الفطن","It starts as follows: If you want to discover the secret of al jafr, O my intimate, The science of the best of legatees, the father of alHasan, Be understanding and comprehend letters and their numerical value, And the description, and act as a clever and intelligent person would act."
"أما الذي قبل عصري لست أذكره *** لكنني أذكر الآتي من الزمن
بشهر بيبرس يبقى بعد خمستها *** بحاء ميم بطيش نام في الكنن","I shall not mention what was before my age. But I shall mention the time that will come. Baybars will be given a h to drink after the five of them And a h-m with restlessness, sleeping in blankets [mountain dens?]."
"شين له أثر من تحت سرته *** له القضاء قضى أي ذلك المنن
فمصر والشام مع أرض العراق له *** وأذربيجان في ملك إلى اليمن","Further verses are: A sh, which has a trace (of something) under its navel, Has the power (to decide), the power, that is, of a benign person. And Egypt and Syria, together with the land of the ‘Iraq, belong to him, And Azerbaijan, as his realm, down to the Yemen."
"ومنها:
وآل بوران لما نال طاهرهم *** الفاتك الباتك المعني بالسمن
لخلع سين ضعيف السن سين أتى *** لا لوفاق ونوت ذي قرن
قوم شجاع له عقل ومشورة *** يبقى بحاء وأين بعد ذو سمن","Further verses are: And the family of Nawwar, when its outstanding (man) The intrepid, the sharp one, who is meant by the branch, obtained . . . [?] Further verses are: Remove a happy one [Sa’id?], weak of age. An s has come, Not a l-‘, and a q and an n, which got stuck in a quiver. Brave people who have intelligence and considered opinions And will be given a h to drink, and where then will be the owner of a branch?"
"ومنها:
من بعد باء من الأعوام قتلته *** يلي المشورة ميم الملك ذو اللسن","Further verses are: After a b of years, he will be killed. The m of the realm, the eloquent one, will follow the disgraced one."
"ومنها:
هذا هو الأعرج الكلبي فأعن به *** في عصره فتن ناهيك من فتن
يأتي من الشرق في جيش يقدمهم *** عار عن القاف قاف جد بالفتن","This is the lame Kalbite [?]. Be concerned with him! In his time, there will be disturbances, and what disturbances! From the East, the Turkish army will come, which will be preceded by A q free from the q, which will be attracted by the disturbances."
"بقتل دال ومثل الشام أجمعها *** أبدت بشجو على الأهلين والوطن
إذا أتى زلزلت يا ويح مصر من *** الزلزال ما زال حاء غير مقتطن
طاء وظاء وعين كلهم حبسوا *** هلكا وينفق أموالا بلا ثمن","Before that-Woe until all Syria! Show grief and mourning for the people and the country! Behold, suddenly, alas, Egypt is shaken by an Earthquake, which will remain unsettled for a year. T, t, and ‘ayn will all be held captive, And they will perish, and he will spend money freely."
يسير القاف قافا عند جمعهم هون به إن ذاك الحصن في سكن وينصبون أخاه وهو صالحهم لا سلم الألف سين لذاك بني تمت ولايتهم بالحاء لا أحد من السنين يداني الملك في الزمن,"The q will send a q toward the most praiseworthy of them [their Ahmad?]. Do not worry about him, for that fortress is strong. Further verses are: They will set up his brother, who is the best of them [their Salih?],
 lam-atif, sh is repeated for that. Further verses are: Their rule will materialize with the h. None Of the sons will ever come close to the rule."
"ويقال إنه أشار إلى الملك الظاهر وقدوم أبيه عليه بمصر:
يأتي إليه أبوه بعد هجرته *** وطول غيبته والشظف والرزن
وأبياتها كثيرة والغالب أنها موضوعة ومثل صنعتها كان في القديم كثير ومعروف الانتحال.","There is another verse, which is said to be a reference to alMalik az-Zahir Barquq and the coming of his father to him to Egypt. It runs: His father will come to him after an emigration And a long absence and a hard and filthy life. The poem has many verses. The likelihood is that it is a forgery. In ancient times, forgeries of poems of this type were numerous and widely practiced."
حكى المؤرخون لأخبار بغداد أنه كان بها أيام المقتدر وراق ذكي يعرف بالدانالي,"The historians of Baghdad report that in the days of alMuqtadir, there lived in Baghdad a skillful copyist by the name of ad-Daniyali."
يبل الأوراق ويكتب فيها بخط عتيق يرمز فيه بحروف من أسماء أهل الدولة ويشير بها إلى ما يعرف ميلهم إليه من أحوال الرفعة والجاه كأنها ملاحم ويحصل على ما يريده منهم من الدنيا,"He gave leaves the appearance of being worn and wrote upon them in an ancient handwriting. In his (forgeries), he referred to the men of the dynasty, under letters from their names, and hinted at the high positions and ranks to which he knew they aspired. (He gave the impression) that (his forgeries) were prediction works. In this manner, he obtained from them the worldly goods that he was after."
وإنه وضع في بعض دفاتره ميما مكررة ثلاث مرات وجاء به إلى مفلح مولى المقتدر. فقال له: هذا كناية عنك وهو مفلح مولى المقتدر وذكر عنه ما يرضاه ويناله من الدولة ونصب لذلك علامات يموه بها عليه فبذل له ما أغناه به,"In one of the documents, he wrote an m repeated three times, and he went with the document to Muflih, alMuqtadir’s client, who was an important official, and said to him: “This refers to you. It means Muflih, the client (mawla) of al-Muqtadir.” In this connection, he mentioned the government position to which, he knew, (Muflib) aspired. For (Muflih’s benefit), he had invented telltale allusions from Muflih’s generally known circumstances. (AdDaniyali) thus deceived (Muflih), and (Muflih) gave him a fortune."
ثم وضعه للوزير ابن القاسم بن وهب على مفلح هذا وكان معزولا فجاءه بأوراق مثلها وذكر اسم الوزير بمثل هذه الحروف وبعلامات ذكرها,"Later on, the wazir al-Husayn b. al-Qasim b. Wahb, who was out of office (at the time), got in touch with Muflih. He had similar leaves prepared for him and referred to the name of the wazir with such letters and allusions fixed (beforehand)."
وأنه يلي الوزارة للثاني عشر من الخلفاء وتستقيم الأمور على يديه ويقهر الأعداء وتعمر الدنيا في أيامه وأوقف مفلحا هذا على الأوراق وذكر فيها كوائن أخرى وملاحم من هذا النوع مما وقع ومما لم يقع ونسب جميعه إلى دانيال,"He said that (Ibn Wahb) would become wazir to the eighteenth caliph. Under his direction, the affairs (of the government) would be in order. He would defeat his enemies, and the world would be highly civilized in his time. (Ibn Wahb) let Muflih see the leaves. He (had also) mentioned in them other events and predictions of the same kind, things that had already happened and others that had not yet happened. The whole he attributed to Daniel."
فأعجب به مفلح ووقف عليه المقتدر واهتدى من تلك الأمور والعلامات إلى ابن وهب وكان ذلك سببا لوزارته بمثل هذه الحيلة العريقة في الكذب والجهل بمثل هذه الألغاز,"Muflih liked the work and let al-Muqtadir see it. AlMugtadir’s attention was directed through all these allusions to Ibn Wahb, because they obviously fitted him. Tricks of this sort, which were completely based on falsehood and on ignorance of such puzzles, were the reason for (Ibn Wahb’s) becoming wazir."
والظاهر أن هذه الملحمة التي ينسبونها إلى الباجربقي من هذا النوع.,It is obvious that the prediction work that is ascribed to al-Bajarbagi is a work of this kind.
ولقد سألت أكمل الدين ابن شيخ الحنفية من العجم بالديار المصرية عن هذه الملحمة وعن هذا الرجل الذي تنسب إليه من الصوفية وهو الباجربقي وكان عارفا بطرائقهم,"I asked Akmal-ad-din, the shaykh of the non-Arab Hanafites in Egypt, about this prediction work and about the Sufi (author), al-Bajarbagi, to whom it is attributed, since he was informed about the Sufi orders."
فقال كان من القلندرية المبتدعة في حلق اللحية وكان يتحدث عما يكون بطريق الكشف ويومي إلى رجال معينين عنده ويلغز عليهم بحروف يعينها في ضمنها لمن يراه منهم,"He said: “Al-Bajarbaqi belonged to the Sufis known as Qalandariyah, who practice the innovation of shaving their beards. He was talking about what was going to happen by means of the removal (of the veil, kashf), and was hinting at personalities whose identity he knew. He referred to them cryptically with letters that he made up freely. (He did this) for whomever of them he saw."
وربما يظهر نظم ذلك في أبيات قليلة كان يتعاهدها فتنوقلت عنه وولع الناس بها وجعلوها ملحمة مرموزة وزاد فيها الخراصون من ذلك الجنس في كل عصر وشغل العامة بفك رموزها,"Occasionally, he put that (material) into poetical form and from time to time produced a few verses. These verses were later on circulated in his name. People were eager to get them. They considered them an enigmatic prediction work. The verses were then constantly added to by forgers of this type, and the common people occupied themselves with trying to decipher them."
وهو أمر ممتنع إذ الرمز إنما يهدي إلى كشفه قانون يعرف قبله ويوضع له وأما مثل هذه الحروف فدلالتها على المراد منها مخصوصة بهذا النظم لا يتجاوزوه,"But it is impossible to decipher them, because only previously known or established rules can lead to the decipherment of such puzzles. In this (particular case), the only clues to the meaning of the letters are in the poem itself.”"
فرأيت من كلام هذا الرجل الفاضل شفاء لما كان في النفس من أمر هذه الملحمة,"The statement quoted from so excellent a person (as Shaykh Akmal-ad-din) is to me an altogether adequate answer to the problem that, I felt, was posed by the prediction work of alBajarbagi."
«وما كنا لنهتدي لولا أن هدانا الله 7: 43»,"“We would not be persons who are guided aright, had God not guided us.”"
الباب الرابع من الكتاب الأول,Chapter IV
في البلدان والأمصار وسائر العمران وما يعرض في ذلك من الأحوال وفيه سوابق ولواحق,AND ALL OTHER (FORMS OF) SEDENTARY CIVILIZATION. THE CONDITIONS OCCURRING THERE. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY (CONSIDERATIONS) IN THIS CONNECTION.
الفصل الأول في أن الدول من المدن والأمصار وأنها إنما توجد ثانية عن الملك,"1. Dynasties are prior to towns and cities.
Towns and cities are secondary (products)
of royal authority."
وبيانه أن البناء واختطاط المنازل إنما من منازع الحضارة التي يدعو إليها الترف والدعة كما قدمناه وذلك متأخر عن البداوة ومنازعها,"THE EXPLANATION FOR THIS IS that building and city planning are features of sedentary culture brought about by luxury and tranquility, as we have mentioned before Such (features of sedentary culture) come after Bedouin life and the features that go with it."
وأيضا فالمدن والأمصار ذات هياكل وأجرام عظيمة وبناء كبير وهي موضوعة للعموم لا للخصوص فتحتاج إلى اجتماع الأيدي وكثرة التعاون,"Furthermore, towns and cities with their monuments, vast constructions, and large buildings, are set up for the masses and not for the few. Therefore, united effort and much co-operation are needed for them."
وليست من الأمور الضرورية للناس التي تعم بها البلوى حتى يكون نزوعهم إليها اضطرارا بل لا بد من إكراههم على ذلك وسوقهم إليه مضطهدين بعصا الملك أو مرغبين في الثواب والأجر الذي لا يفي بكثرته إلا الملك والدولة.,"They are not among the things that are necessary matters of general concern to human beings, in the sense that all human beings desire them or feel compelled to have them. As a matter of fact, (human beings) must be forced and driven to (build cities). The stick of royal authority is what compels them, or they may be stimulated by promise of reward and compensation. (Such reward) amounts to so large a sum that only royal authority and a dynasty can pay for it."
فلا بد في تمصير الأمصار واختطاط المدن من الدولة والملك.,"Thus, dynasties and royal authority are absolutely necessary for the building of cities and the planning of towns."
ثم إذا بنيت المدينة وكمل تشييدها بحسب نظر من شيدها وبما اقتضته الأحوال السماوية والأرضية فيها فعمر الدولة حينئذ عمر لها فإن كان عمر الدولة قصيرا وقف الحل فيها عند انتهاء الدولة وتراجع عمرانها وخربت,"Then, when the town has been built and is all finished, as the builder saw fit and as the climatic and geographical conditions required, the life of the dynasty is the life of the town. If the dynasty is of short duration, life in the town will stop at the end of the dynasty. Its civilization will recede, and the town will fall into ruins."
وإن كان أمد الدولة طويلا ومدتها منفسحة فلا تزال المصانع فيها تشاد والمنازل الرحيبة تكثر وتتعدد ونطاق الأسواق يتباعد وينفسح إلى أن تتسع الخطة وتبعد المسافة وينفسح ذرع المساحة كما وقع ببغداد وأمثالها.,"On the other hand, if the dynasty is of long duration and lasts a long time, new constructions will always go up in the town, the number of large mansions will increase, and the walls of the town will extend farther and farther. Eventually, the layout of the town will cover a wide area, and the town will extend so far and so wide as to be (almost) beyond measurement. This happened in Baghdad and similar (cities)."
ذكر الخطيب في تأريخه أن الحمامات بلغ عددها ببغداد لعهد المأمون خمسة وستين ألف حمام وكانت مشتملة على مدن وأمصار متلاصقة ومتقاربة تجاوز الأربعين,"The Khatib mentioned in his History that in the time of al-Ma’min, the number of public baths in Baghdad reached 65,000. (Baghdad) included over forty of the adjacent neighboring towns and cities."
ولم تكن مدينة وحدها يجمعها سور واحد لإفراط العمران وكذا حال القيروان وقرطبة والمهدية في الملة الإسلامية وحال مصر القاهرة بعدها فيما بلغنا لهذا العهد,"It was not just one town surrounded by one wall. Its population was much too large for that. The same was the case with alQayrawan, Cordoba, and al-Mahdiyah in Islamic times. It is the case with Egypt and Cairo at this time, so we are told."
وأما بعد انقراض الدولة المشيدة للمدينة فإما أن يكون لضواحي تلك المدينة وما قاربها من الجبال والبسائط بادية يمدها العمران دائما,"The dynasty that has built a certain town may be destroyed. Now, the mountainous and flat areas surrounding the city are a desert that constantly provides for (an influx of) civilization (population)."
فيكون ذلك حافظا لوجودها ويستمر عمرها بعد الدولة كما تراه بفاس وبجاية من المغرب وبعراق العجم من المشرق الموجود لها العمران من الجبال,"This (fact), then, will preserve the existence of (the town), and (the town) will continue to live after the dynasty is dead. (This situation) can be observed in Fez and Bougie in the West, and in the non-Arab ‘Iraq in the East, which get their civilization (population) from the mountains."
لأن أهل البداوة إذا انتهت أحوالهم إلى غاياتها من الرفه والكسب تدعو إلى الدعة والسكون الذي في طبيعة البشر فينزلون المدن والأمصار ويتأهلون,"When the conditions of the inhabitants of the desert reach the utmost ease and (become most) profitable, (the situation thus created causes the inhabitants of the desert to) look for the tranquility and quiet that human beings (desire) by nature. Therefore, they settle in towns and cities and form an (urban) population."
وأما إذا لم يكن لتلك المدينة المؤسسة مادة تفيدها العمران بترادف الساكن من بدوها فيكون انقراض الدولة خرقا لسياجها فيزول حفظها ويتناقص عمرانها شيئا فشيئا إلى أن يبذعر ساكنها وتخرب,"Or, it may happen that a town founded (by a dynasty now destroyed) has no opportunity to replenish its civilization (population) by a constant influx of settlers from a desert near the town. In this case, the destruction of the dynasty will leave it unprotected. It cannot be maintained. Its civilization will gradually decay, until its population is dispersed and gone."
كما وقع بمصر وبغداد والكوفة بالمشرق والقيروان والمهدية وقلعة بني حماد بالمغرب وأمثالها فتفهمه,"This happened in Baghdad, Egypt, and al-Kufah in the East, and in al-Qayrawan, al-Mahdiyah, and Qal’at Bani Hammad in the West, as well as in other cities. This should be understood."
وربما ينزل المدينة بعد انقراض مختطيها الأولين ملك آخر ودولة ثانية يتخذها قرارا وكرسيا يستغني بها عن اختطاط مدينة ينزلها,"Frequently it happens that after the destruction of the original builders of (a town, that town) is used by another realm and dynasty as its capital and residence. This then makes it unnecessary for (the new dynasty) to build (another) town for itself as a settlement."
فتحفظ تلك الدولة سياجها وتتزايد مبانيها ومصانعها بتزايد أحوال الدولة الثانية وترفها وتستجد بعمرانها عمرا آخر كما وقع بفاس والقاهرة لهذا العهد,"In this case, the (new) dynasty will protect the town. Its buildings and constructions will increase in proportion to the improved circumstances and the luxury of the new dynasty. The life (of the new dynasty) gives (the town) another life. This has happened in contemporary Fez and Cairo."
الفصل الثاني في أن الملك يدعو إلى نزول الأمصار,2. Royal authority calls for urban settlement.
وذلك أن القبائل والعصائب إذا حصل لهم الملك اضطروا للاستيلاء على الأمصار لأمرين أحدهما ما يدعو إليه الملك من الدعة والراحة وحط الأثقال واستكمال ما كان ناقصا من أمور العمران في البدو,"This is because, when royal authority is obtained by tribes and groups, (the tribes and groups) are forced to take possession of cities for two reasons. One of them is that royal authority causes (the people) to seek tranquility, restfulness, and relaxation, and to try to provide the aspects of civilization that were lacking in the desert."
والثاني دفع ما يتوقع على الملك من أمر المنازعين والمشاغبين لأن المصر الذي يكون في نواحيهم ربما يكون ملجأ لمن يروم منازعتهم والخروج عليهم وانتزاع ذلك الملك الذي سموا إليه من أيديهم,"The second (reason) is that rivals and enemies can be expected to attack the realm, and one must defend oneself against them. A city situated in a district where (rivals of the dynasty) are found, may often become a place of refuge for a person who wants to attack (the tribes and groups in authority) and revolt against them and deprive them of the royal authority to which they have aspired."
فيعتصم بذلك المصر ويغالبهم ومغالبة المصر على نهاية من الصعوبة والمشقة والمصر يقوم مقام العساكر المتعددة لما فيه من الامتناع ونكاية الحرب من وراء الجدران من غير حاجة إلى كثير عدد ولا عظيم شوكة,"He fortifies himself in the city and fights them (from there). Now, it is very difficult and troublesome to overpower a city. A city is worth a great number of soldiers, in that it offers protection from behind the walls and makes attacks difficult, and no great numbers or much power are needed."
لأن الشوكة والعصابة إنما احتيج إليهما في الحرب للثبات لما يقع من بعد كرة القوم بعضهم على بعض عند الجولة وثبات هؤلاء بالجدران فلا يضطرون إلى كبير عصابة ولا عدد,"Power and group support are needed in war only for the sake of the steadfastness provided by the mutual affection (tribesmen) show each other in battle. The steadfastness of (people in a city) is assured by the walls of the city. Therefore, they do not need much group support or great numbers (for defense)."
فيكون حال هذا الحصن ومن يعتصم به من المنازعين مما يفت في عضد الأمة التي تروم الاستيلاء ويخضد شوكة استيلائها فإذا كانت بين أجنابهم أمصار انتظموها في استيلائهم للأمن من مثل هذا الانخرام,"The existence of a city and of rivals who fortify themselves in it thus eats into the strength of a nation desiring to gain control and breaks the impetus of its efforts in this respect. Therefore, if there are cities in the tribal territory of (a dynasty, the dynasty) will bring them under its control, in order to be safe from any weakening (of its power, should the cities fall under control of its rivals)."
وإن لم يكن هناك مصر استحدثوه ضرورة لتكميل عمرانهم أولا وحط أثقالهم وليكون شجا في حلق من يروم العزة والامتناع عليهم من طوائفهم وعصائبهم فتعين أن الملك يدعو إلى نزول الأمصار والاستيلاء عليها,"If there are no cities, the dynasty will have to build a new (city), firstly, in order to complete the civilization of its realm and to be able to lessen its efforts, and, secondly, in order to use (the city) as a threat against those parties and groups within the dynasty that might desire power and might wish to resist. It is thus clear that royal authority calls for urban settlement and control of the cities."
والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم وبه التوفيق لا رب سواه.,“God has the power to execute His commands.”
الفصل الثالث في أن المدن العظيمة والهياكل المرتفعة إنما يشيدها الملك الكثير,3. Only a strong royal authority is able to construct large cities and high monuments.
قد قدمنا ذلك في آثار الدولة من المباني وغيرها وأنها تكون على نسبتها وذلك أن تشييد المدن إنما يحصل باجتماع الفعلة وكثرتهم وتعاونهم,"We have mentioned this before in connection with buildings and other dynastic (monuments). (The size of monuments) is proportionate to the importance of (the various dynasties). The construction of cities can be achieved only by united effort, great numbers, and the co-operation of workers."
فإذا كانت الدولة عظيمة متسعة الممالك حشر الفعلة من أقطارها وجمعت أيديهم على عملها وربما استعين في ذلك في أكثر الأمر بالهندام الذي يضاعف القوي والقدر في حمل أثقال البناء لعجز القوة البشرية وضعفها عن ذلك كالمخال وغيره,"When the dynasty is large and far-flung, workers are brought together from all regions, and their labor is employed in a common effort. Often, the work involves the help of machines, which multiply the power and strength needed to carry the loads required in building. (Unaided) human strength would be insufficient. Among such machines are pulleys and others."
وربما يتوهم كثير من الناس إذا نظر إلى آثار الأقدمين ومصانعهم العظيمة مثل إيوان كسرى وأهرام مصر وحنايا المعلقة وشرشال بالمغرب إنما كانت بقدرهم متفرقين أو مجتمعين,"Many people who view the great monuments and constructions of the ancients, such as the Reception Hall of Khosraw (Iwan Kisra), the pyramids of Egypt, the arches of the Malga (at Carthage) and those of Cherchel in the Maghrib, think that the ancients erected them by their own (unaided) powers, whether (they worked) as individuals or in groups."
فيتخيل لهم أجساما تناسب ذلك أعظم من هذه بكثير في طولها وقدرها لتناسب بينها وبين القدر التي صدرت تلك المباني عنها ويغفل عن شأن الهندام والمخال وما اقتضته في ذلك الصناعة الهندسية,"They imagine that the ancients had bodies proportionate to (those monuments) and that their bodies, consequently, were much taller, wider, and heavier than (our bodies), so that there was the right proportion between (their bodies) and the physical strength from which such buildings resulted. They forget the importance of machines and pulleys and engineering skill implied in this connection."
وكثير من المتغلبين في البلاد يعاين في شأن البناء واستعمال الحيل في نقل الأجرام عند أهل الدولة المعتنين بذلك من العجم ما يشهد له بما قلناه عيانا,Many a traveled person can confirm what we have stated from his own observation of building (activities) and of the use of mechanics to transport building materials among the non-Arab dynasties concerned with such things.
وأكثر آثار الأقدمين لهذا العهد تسميها العامة عادية نسبة إلى قوم عاد لتوهمهم أن مباني عاد ومصانعهم إنما عظمت لعظم أجسامهم وتضاعف قدرهم.,"The common people call most of the monuments of the ancients found at this time, ‘Adite monuments, with reference to the people of ‘Ad. The common people think that the buildings and constructions of ‘Ad are so big because the bodies of (the ‘Adites) were so big and their strength many times greater (than our strength)."
وليس كذلك، فقد نجد آثارا كثيرة من آثار الذين تعرف مقادير أجسامهم من الأمم وهي في مثل ذلك العظم أو أعظم كإيوان كسرى ومباني العبيديين من الشيعة بإفريقية والصنهاجيين وأثرهم باد إلى اليوم في صومعة قلعة بني حماد,"This is not so. We have many monuments of nations whose body measurements are well known to us. (These monuments) are as big or bigger than such (famed monuments) as, for instance, the Reception Hall of Khosraw (Iwan Kisrd) and the buildings of the Shi’ah ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimids) in Ifriqiyah, or those of the Sinhajah, whose monument, still visible to this day, is the minaret of Qal’at Banu Hammad."
وكذلك بناء الأغالبة في جامع القيروان وبناء الموحدين في رباط الفتح ورباط السلطان أبي سعيد لعهد أربعين سنة في المنصورة بإزاء تلمسان,"The same applies to the building (activity) of the Aghlabids in the Mosque of al-Qayrawan, and of the Almohads in Rabat (Ribat al-Fath), and to the forty years building (activity) of Sultan Abul-Hasan in al-Mansurah, opposite Tlemcen."
وكذلك الحنايا التي جلب إليها أهل قرطاجنة الماء في القناة الراكبة عليها ماثلة لهذا العهد وغير ذلك من المباني والهياكل التي نقلت إلينا أخبار أهلها قريبا وبعيدا,"It also applies to the arches supporting the aqueduct by means of which the inhabitants of Carthage brought water to their city, and which are still standing at this time. There are also other buildings and monuments (hayakil), the history of whose builders, whether ancient or recent, is known to us, and we can be certain that the measurements of their bodies were not excessive."
وتيقنا أنهم لم يكونوا بإفراط في مقادير أجسامهم وإنما هذا رأي ولع به القصاص عن قوم عاد وثمود والعمالقة.,This belief is founded solely upon (the tales of) storytellers who eagerly tell stories about the people of ‘Ad and Thamud and the Amalekites.
ونجد بيوت ثمود في الحجر منحوتة إلى هذا العهد وقد ثبت في الحديث الصحيح أنها بيوتهم يمر بها الركب الحجازي أكثر السنين ويشاهدونها لا تزيد في جوها ومساحتها وسمكها على المتعاهد,"In fact, we find the houses of the Thamud still existing at this time in Petra, where they are cut into the rock. It is established by (the sound tradition of) the Sahih that those houses actually were theirs. The Hijazi (pilgrim) caravan has passed by them for very many years, and it has been observed that those houses are not larger than usual inside, nor in size and height (generally)"
وإنهم ليبالغون فيما يعتقدون من ذلك حتى إنهم ليزعمون أن عوج بن عناق من جيل العمالقة كان يتناول السمك من البحر طريئا فيشويه في الشمس,"In their belief that (the ancients had excessively large bodies, the storytellers) exaggerate so much that they believe that Og, the son of Anak, one of the Amalekites (or Canaanites), used to take fish fresh out of the water and cook them in the sun."
يزعمون بذلك أن الشمس حارة فيما قرب منها ولا يعلمون أن الحر فيما لدينا هو الضوء لانعكاس الشعاع بمقابلة سطح الأرض والهواء وأما الشمس في نفسها فغير حارة ولا باردة وإنما هي كوكب مضيء لا مزاج له,"They have that idea because they think that the heat of the sun is greater close to it. They do not know that the heat of the sun here among us is its light, because of the reflection of the rays when they hit the surface of the earth and the air. The sun itself is neither hot nor cold. It is a star of an uncomposed (substance) that gives light."
وقد تقدم شيء من هذا في الفصل الثاني حيث ذكرنا أن آثار الدولة على نسبة قوتها في أصلها.,Something of this was mentioned before in the second chapter; there we mentioned that (the size of the monuments of) dynasties is proportionate to their original power.
والله يخلق ما يشاء ويحكم ما يريد.,“God creates whatever He wishes.”
الفصل الرابع في أن الهياكل العظيمة جدا لا تستقل ببنائها الدولة الواحدة,4. Very large monuments are not built by one dynasty alone.
والسبب في ذلك ما ذكرناه من حاجة البناء إلى التعاون ومضاعفة القدر البشرية وقد تكون المباني في عظمها أكثر من القدر مفردة أو مضاعفة بالهندام كما قلناه,"The reason for this is the afore-mentioned need for cooperation and multiplication of human strength in any building activity. Sometimes buildings are so large that they are too much for (human) strength, whether it is on its own or multiplied by machines, as we have (just) stated."
فيحتاج إلى معاودة قدر أخرى مثلها في أزمنة متعاقبة إلى أن تتم.,"Therefore, the repeated application of similar strength is required over successive periods, until (the building) materializes."
فيبتدئ الأول منهم بالبناء، ويعقبه الثاني والثالث، وكل واحد منهم قد استكمل شأنه في حشر الفعلة وجمع الأيدي حتى يتم القصد من ذلك ويكمل ويكون ماثلا للعيان يظنه من يراه من الآخرين أنه بناء دولة واحدة.,"One (ruler) starts the construction. He is followed by another and (the second by) a third. Each of them does all he can to bring workers together in a common effort. Finally, (the building) materializes, as it was planned, and then stands before our eyes. Those who live at a later period and see the building think that it was built by (but) a single dynasty."
وانظر في ذلك ما نقله المؤرخون في بناء سد مأرب وأن الذي بناه سبأ بن يشجب وساق إليه سبعين واديا وعاقه الموت عن إتمامه فأتمه ملوك حمير من بعده,"In this connection one should compare what the historians report about the construction of the Dam of Ma’rib. Its construction was (started by) Saba’ b. Yashjub. He caused seventy rivers to flow into it. Death prevented him from completing it, and it was then completed by the Himyarite rulers who succeeded him."
ومثل هذا ما نقل في بناء قرطاجنة وقناتها الراكبة على الحنايا العادية وأكثر المباني العظيمة في الغالب هذا شأنها,"Something similar has been reported with regard to the construction of Carthage, its aqueduct, and the ‘Adite arches supporting it. And the same is the case with most great buildings."
ويشهد لذلك أن المباني العظيمة لعهدنا نجد الملك الواحد يشرع في اختطاطها وتأسيسها فإذا لم يتبع أثره من بعده من الملوك في إتمامها بقيت بحالها ولم يكمل القصد فيها.,"This is confirmed by the great buildings of our own time. We find one ruler starting by laying out their foundations. Then, if the rulers who succeed him do not follow in his steps and complete (the building), it remains as it is, and is not completed as planned."
ويشهد لذلك أيضا أنا نجد آثارا كثيرة من المباني العظيمة تعجز الدول عن هدمها وتخريبها مع أن الهدم أيسر من البناء بكثير لأن الهدم رجوع إلى الأصل الذي هو العدم والبناء على خلاف الأصل.,"Another confirmation of our theory is the fact that we find that (later) dynasties are unable to tear down and destroy many great architectural monuments, even though destruction is much easier than construction, because destruction is return to the origin, which is non-existence, while construction is the opposite of that."
فإذا وجدنا بناء تضعف قوتنا البشرية عن هدمه مع سهولة الهدم علمنا أن القدرة التي أسسته مفرطة القوة وأنها ليست أثر دولة واحدة,"Thus, when we find a building that our human strength is too weak to tear down, even though it is easy to tear something down, we realize that the strength used in starting such a monument must have been immense and that the building could not be the monument of a single dynasty."
وهذا مثل ما وقع للعرب في إيوان كسرى لما اعتزم الرشيد على هدمه وبعث إلى يحيى بن خالد وهو في محبسه يستشيره في ذلك,"This is what happened to the Arabs with regard to the Reception Hall of Khosraw (Iwan Kisra). Ar-Rashid had the intention of tearing it down. He sent to Yahya b. Khalid, who was in prison, and asked him for advice."
فقال يا أمير المؤمنين لا تفعل واتركه ماثلا يستدل به على عظم ملك آبائك الذين سلبوا الملك لأهل ذلك الهيكل فاتهمه في النصيحة وقال أخذته النعرة للعجم والله لأصرعنه,"Yahya said: “O Commander of the Faithful, do not do it! Leave it standing! It shows the extent of the royal authority of your fore-fathers, who were able to take away the royal authority from the people who built such a monument.” Ar-Rashid, however, mistrusted Yahyi’s advice. He said that Yahya was motivated by his affection for the non-Arabs and that he (ar-Rashid) would indeed bring it down."
وشرع في هدمه وجمع الأيدي عليه واتخذ له الفؤوس وحماه بالنار وصب عليه الخل حتى إذا أدركه العجز بعد ذلك كله وخاف الفضيحة بعث إلى يحيى يستشيره ثانيا في التجافي عن الهدم,"He started to tear it down and made a concerted effort to this effect. He had pickaxes applied to it, and he had it heated by setting fire to it, and he had vinegar poured upon it. Still, after all these (efforts), he was unable (to tear it down). Fearful of the disgrace (involved in his inability to demolish the monument), he sent again to Yahya and asked him for advice, whether he should give up his efforts to tear it down."
فقال لا تفعل واستمر على ذلك لئلا يقال عجز أمير المؤمنين وملك العرب عن هدم مصنع من مصانع العجم فعرفها الرشيد وأقصر عن هدمه,"Yahya replied: “Do not do that! Get on with it, so that it may not be said that the Commander of the Faithful and ruler of the Arabs was not able to tear down something that non-Arabs had built.” Thus, ar-Rashid recognized (his disgrace) and was unable to tear it down."
وكذلك اتفق للمأمون في هدم الأهرام التي بمصر وجمع الفعلة لهدمها فلم يحل بطائل وشرعوا في نقبه فانتهوا إلى جو بين الحائط والظاهر وما بعده من الحيطان وهنالك كان منتهى هدمهم,"The same happened to al-Ma’mun in (his attempt) to tear down the pyramids in Egypt. He assembled workers to tear them down, but he did not have much success. The workers began by boring a hole into the pyramids, and they came to an interior chamber between the outer wall and walls farther inside. That was as far as they got in their attempt to tear (the pyramid) down."
وهو إلى اليوم فيما يقال منفذ ظاهر ويزعم الزاعمون أنه وجد ركازا بين تلك الحيطان,Their efforts are said to show to this day in the form of a visible hole. Some think that al-Ma’mun found a buried treasure between the walls.
والله أعلم.,And God knows better.
وكذلك حنايا المعلقة إلى هذا العهد تحتاج أهل مدينة تونس إلى انتخاب الحجارة لبنائهم وتستجيد الصناع حجارة تلك الحنايا فيحاولون على هدمها الأيام العديدة ولا يسقط الصغير من جدرانها إلا بعد عصب الريق,"The same applies to the arches of the Malga (at Carthage, which are still standing) at this time. The people of Tunis need stones for their buildings, and the craftsmen like the quality of the stones of the arches (of the aqueduct). For a long time, they have attempted to tear them down. However, even the smallest (part) of the walls comes down only after the greatest efforts."
وتجتمع له المحافل المشهورة شهدت منها في أيام صباي كثيرا,"Parties assemble for the purpose. (They are) a well-known (custom), and I have seen many of them in the days of my youth."
«والله خلقكم وما تعملون 37: 96».,“God has power over everything.”
الفصل الخامس فيما تجب مراعاته في أوضاع المدن وما يحدث إذا غفل عن المراعاة,"5. Requirements, for the planning of towns
and the consequences of neglecting those
requirements."
اعلم أن المدن قرار يتخذه الأمم عند حصول الغاية المطلوبة من الترف ودواعيه فتؤثر الدعة والسكون وتتوجه إلى اتخاذ المنازل للقرار,"Towns are dwelling places that nations use when they have reached the desired goal of luxury and of the things that go with it. Then, they prefer tranquility and quiet and turn to using houses to dwell in."
ولما كان ذلك القرار والمأوى وجب أن يراعى فيه دفع المضار بالحماية من طوارقها وجلب المنافع وتسهيل المرافق لها,"The purpose of (building towns) is to have places for dwelling and shelter. Therefore, it is necessary in this connection to see to it that harmful things are kept away from the towns by protecting them against inroads by them, and that useful features are introduced and all the conveniences are made available in them."
فأما الحماية من المضار فيراعى لها أن يدار على منازلها جميعا سياج الأسوار,"In connection with the protection of towns against harmful things, one should see to it that all the houses of the town are situated inside a protective wall."
وأن يكون وضع ذلك في متمنع من الأمكنة إما على هضبة متوعرة من الجبل وإما باستدارة بحر أو نهر بها حتى لا يوصل إليها إلا بعد العبور على جسر أو قنطرة فيصعب منالها على العدو ويتضاعف امتناعها وحصنها.,"Furthermore, the town should be situated in an inaccessible place, either upon a rugged hill or surrounded by the sea or by a river, so that it can be reached only by crossing some sort of bridge. In that way, it will be difficult for an enemy to take the town, and its inaccessibility and fortress (character) will be increased many times."
ومما يراعى في ذلك للحماية من الآفات السماوية طيب الهواء للسلامة من الأمراض.,"In connection with the protection of towns against harm that might arise from atmospheric phenomena, one should see to it that the air where the town is (to be situated) is good, in order to be safe from illness."
فإن الهواء إذا كان راكدا خبيثا أو مجاورا للمياه الفاسدة أو منافع متعفنة أو مروج خبيثة أسرع إليها العفن من مجاورتها فأسرع المرض للحيوان الكائن فيه لا محالة وهذا مشاهد.,"When the air is stagnant and bad, or close to corrupt waters or putrid pools or swamps, it is speedily affected by putrescence as the result of being near these things, and it is unavoidable that (all) living beings who are there will speedily be affected by illness. This fact is confirmed by direct observation."
والمدن التي لم يراع فيها طيب الهواء كثيرة الأمراض في الغالب. وقد اشتهر بذلك في قطر المغرب بلد قابس من بلاد الجريد بإفريقية فلا يكاد ساكنها أو طارقها يخلص من حمى العفن بوجه.,"Towns where no attention is paid to good air, have, as a rule, much illness. In the Maghrib, Gabes in the Jarid, in Ifriqiyah, is famous for that. Very few of its inhabitants or those who come there (from elsewhere) are spared some (form of) the putrid fever."
ولقد يقال إن ذلك حادث فيها ولم تكن كذلك من قبل ونقل البكري في سبب حدوثه أنه وقع فيها حفر ظهر فيه إناء من نحاس مختوم بالرصاص. فلما فض ختامه صعد منه دخان إلى الجو وانقطع.,"It has been said that this (condition) is recent there, that it did not use to be that way. Al-Bakri gives an account of how this happened. A copper vessel was found during an excavation there. The vessel was sealed with lead. The seal was broken, and (a puff of) smoke came out of the vessel and disappeared in the air."
وكان ذلك مبدأ أمراض الحميات فيه وأراد بذلك أن الإناء كان مشتملا على بعض أعمال الطلسمات لوبائه وأنه ذهب سره بذهابه فرجع إليها العفن والوباء.,"Feverous diseases began to occur in that place from that time on. (Al-Bakri) meant to imply that the vessel contained some magic spell against (the occurrence of) pestilence, and that when it was gone its magic efficacy also disappeared. Therefore, putrescence and pestilence reappeared."
وهذه الحكاية من مذاهب العامة ومباحثهم الركيكة والبكري لم يكن من نباهة العلم واستنارة البصيرة بحيث يدفع مثل هذا أو يتبين خرفه فنقله كما سمعه.,The story is an example of the feeble beliefs and ideas of the common people. Al-Bakri was neither learned nor enlightened enough to reject such (a story) and see through its nonsensical character. He reported it as he had heard it.
والذي يكشف لك الحق في ذلك أن هذه الأهوية العفنة أكثر ما يهيئها لتعفين الأجسام وأمراض الحميات ركودها. فإذا تخللتها الريح وتفشت وذهبت بها يمينا وشمالا خف شأن العفن والمرض البادي منها للحيوانات.,"The truth lies in the fact that it mostly is the stagnancy of putrid air that causes the putrefaction of bodies and the occurrence of feverous diseases. When the wind gets into (the putrid air), and disperses it left and right, the effect of putrescence is lessened, and the occurrence of illness among living beings decreases correspondingly."
والبلد إذا كان كثير الساكن وكثرت حركات أهله فيتموج الهواء ضرورة وتحدث الريح المتخللة للهواء الراكد ويكون ذلك معينا له على الحركة والتموج,"When a place has many inhabitants and its people move around a great deal, the air necessarily is made to circulate, and there originates a wind that gets into stagnant air This, (in turn,) helps the air to keep moving and circulating."
وإذا خف الساكن لم يجد الهواء معينا على حركته وتموجه وبقي ساكنا راكدا وعظم عفنه وكثر ضرره.,"Where there are few inhabitants, the air is not helped to move and circulate, so it remains stagnant. Its putrescence increases and its harmfulness grows."
وبلد قابس هذه كانت عند ما كانت إفريقية مستجدة العمران كثيرة الساكن تموج بأهلها موجا فكان ذلك معينا على تموج الهواء واضطرابه وتخفيف الأذى منه فلم يكن فيها كثير عفن ولا مرض,"When Ifriqiyah enjoyed a flourishing civilization and a large population, Gabes had many inhabitants whose constant activity helped to keep the air circulating and to keep the harm resulting from (stagnant air) at a minimum by dispersing it. There was not much putrescence or illness there at that time."
وعند ما خف ساكنها ركد هواؤها المتعفن بفساد مياهها فكثير العفن والمرض. فهذا وجهه لا غير.,"But when the number of inhabitants (in Gabes) became fewer, the air there, which was putrefied through the corruption of the water (of the town), became stagnant, and putrescence and the occurrence of disease increased. This is the only correct explanation (of the prevalence of feverous diseases in Gabes)."
وقد رأينا عكس ذلك في بلاد وضعت ولم يراع فيها طيب الهواء وكانت أولا قليلة الساكن فكانت أمراضها كثيرة فلما كثر سكانها انتقل حالها عن ذلك وهذا مثل دار الملك بفاس لهذا العهد المسمى بالبلد الجديد,"We have seen the contrary occur in places founded without regard for the quality of the air. At first they had few inhabitants, and, consequently, the occurrence of disease was high. Then, when the (number of) inhabitants increased, the situation changed. An example is the royal residence in Fez at this time, which is called the New Town."
وكثير من ذلك في العالم فتفهمه تجد ما قلته لك.,"Many such (examples) exist in the world. If the reader will examine them, my statements will be found to be correct."
وأما جلب المنافع والمرافق للبلد فيراعى فيه أمور منها الماء بأن يكون البلد على نهر أو بإزائها عيون عذبة ثرة,"In connection with the importation of useful things and conveniences into towns, one must see to a number of matters. There is the water (problem). The place should be on a river, or springs with plenty of fresh water should be facing it."
فإن وجود الماء قريبا من البلد يسهل على الساكن حاجة الماء وهي ضرورية فيكون لهم في وجوده مرفقة عظيمة عامة.,"The existence of water near the place simplifies the water problem for the inhabitants, which is urgent. The existence of (water) will be a general convenience to them."
ومما يراعى من المرافق في المدن طيب المراعي لسائمتهم إذ صاحب كل قرار لا بد له من دواجن الحيوان للنتاج والضرع والركوب ولا بد لها من المرعى,"Another utility in towns, for which one must provide, is good pastures for the livestock of (the inhabitants). Each householder needs domestic animals for breeding, for milk, and for riding. (These animals) require pasturage."
فإذا كان قريبا طيبا كان ذلك أرفق بحالهم لما يعانون من المشقة في بعده ومما يراعى أيضا المزارع فإن الزروع هي الأقوات. فإذا كانت مزارع البلد بالقرب منها كان ذلك أسهل في اتخاذه وأقرب في تحصيله,"If (the pastures) are nearby and good, that will be more convenient for them, because it is troublesome for them to have the pastures far away. Furthermore, one has to see to it that there are fields suitable for cultivation. Grain is the (basic) food. When the fields are near, the (needed grain) can be obtained more easily and quickly."
ومن ذلك الشجر للحطب والبناء فإن الحطب مما تعم البلوى في اتخاذه لوقود النيران للاصطلاء والطبخ. والخشب أيضا ضروري لسقفهم وكثير مما يستعمل فيه الخشب من ضرورياتهم,"Then, there also is (the problem of) a woods to supply firewood and building material. Firewood is a matter of general concern, as it is used for making fires to generate heat. Timber, too, is needed, for roofing and for the many other necessities for which timber is employed."
وقد يراعى أيضا قربها من البحر لتسهيل الحاجات القاصية من البلاد النائية إلا أن ذلك ليس بمثابة الأول وهذه كلها متفاوتة بتفاوت الحاجات وما تدعو إليه ضرورة الساكن.,"One should also see to it that the town is situated close to the sea, to facilitate the importation of foreign goods from remote countries. However, this is not on the same level with the afore-mentioned (requirements). All the (requirements) mentioned differ in importance according to the different needs and the necessity that exists for them on the part of the inhabitants."
وقد يكون الواضع غافلا عن حسن الاختيار الطبيعي أو إنما يراعي ما هو أهم على نفسه وقومه، ولا يذكر حاجة غيرهم كما فعله العرب لأول الإسلام في المدن التي اختطوها بالعراق وإفريقية,"The founder (of a town) sometimes fails to make a good natural selection, or he sees only to what seems most important to him or his people, and does not think of the needs of others. The Arabs did that at the beginning of Islam when they founded towns in the ‘Iraq, the Hijaz, and Ifriqiyah."
فإنهم لم يراعوا فيها إلا الأهم عندهم من مراعي الإبل وما يصلح لها من الشجر والماء الملح ولم يراعوا الماء ولا المزارع ولا الحطب ولا مراعي السائمة من ذوات الظلف ولا غير ذلك كالقيروان والكوفة والبصرة وأمثالها,"They saw only to what seemed important to them, namely, pastures for (their) camels and the trees and brackish water suitable to (camels). They did not see to it that there was water (for human consumption), fields for cultivation, firewood, or pastures for domestic animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, and so on. Among the cities (founded by the Arabs) were al-Qayrawan, al-Kufah, al-Basrah, Sijilmasah, and the like."
ولهذا كانت أقرب إلى الخراب ما لم تراع فيها الأمور الطبيعية.,"(These cities) were, therefore, very ready to fall into ruins, in as much as in connection with them no attention had been paid to the natural (requirements of towns)."
ومما يراعى في البلاد الساحلية التي على البحر أن تكون في جبل أو تكون بين أمة من الأمم موفورة العدد تكون صريخا للمدينة متى طرقها طارق من العدو,"In connection with coastal towns situated on the sea, one must see to it that they are situated on a mountain or amidst a people sufficiently numerous to come to the support of the town when an enemy attacks it."
والسبب في ذلك أن المدينة إذا كانت حاضرة البحر ولم يكن بساحتها عمران للقبائل أهل العصبيات ولا موضعها متوعر من الجبل كانت في غرة للبيات,"The reason for this is that a town which is near the sea but does not have within its area tribes who share its group feeling, or is not situated in rugged mountain territory, is in danger of being attacked at night by surprise."
وسهل طروقها في الأساطيل البحرية على عدوها وتحيفه لها لما يأمن من وجود الصريخ لها. وأن الحضر المتعودين للدعة قد صاروا عيالا وخرجوا عن حكم المقاتلة. وهذه كالإسكندرية من المشرق وطرابلس من المغرب وبونة وسلا.,"Its enemies can easily attack it with a fleet and do harm to it. They can be sure that the city has no one to call to its support and that the urban population, accustomed to tranquility, has become dependent (on others for its protection) and does not know how to fight. Among (cities) of this type, for instance, are Alexandria in the East, and Tripoli, Bone, and Sale in the West."
ومتى كانت القبائل والعصائب موطنين بقربها بحيث يبلغهم الصريخ والنعير وكانت متوعرة المسالك على من يرومها باختطاطها في هضاب الجبال وعلى أسنمتها كان لها بذلك منعة من العدو,"Tribes and groups living nearby, where a call for help or the sounds of fighting can reach them, and roads (too) rugged to be used by those who want to reach (the town) built upon a hilltop in mountainous country, constitute the principal defenses (of towns) against (their enemies)."
ويئسوا من طروقها لما يكابدونه من وعرها وما يتوقعونه من إجابة صريخها كما في سبتة وبجاية وبلد القل على صغرها فافهم ذلك,"(The enemies) will give up attacking the town. Its rugged situation stops them, and they fear that the town’s call for help will be answered. This applies to Ceuta, Bougie, and even to Collo (al-Qull), despite its small size. This should be understood."
واعتبره في اختصاص الإسكندرية باسم الثغر من لدن الدولة العباسية مع أن الدعوة من ورائها ببرقة وإفريقية. وإنما اعتبر في ذلك المخافة المتوقعة فيها من البحر لسهولة وضعها,It may be illustrated by the fact that Alexandria was designated a “border city” by the ‘Abbasids although the ‘Abbasid propaganda extended beyond Alexandria to Barca (Barqah) and Ifriqiyah. (The term “border city” for Alexandria) expressed (‘Abbasid) fears that attacks (against Alexandria) could be made from the sea. (Such fears were justified in the case of Alexandria) because of its exposed situation.
ولذلك والله أعلم كان طروق العدو للاسكندرية وطرابلس في الملة مرات متعددة,"(Its exposed situation) probably was the reason why Alexandria and Tripoli were attacked by the enemy in Islamic times on numerous occasions,"
الفصل السادس في المساجد والبيوت العظيمة في العالم,6. The mosques and venerated buildings of the world.
اعلم أن الله سبحانه وتعالى فضل من الأرض بقاعا اختصها بتشريفه وجعلها مواطن لعبادته يضاعف فيها الثواب وينمو بها الأجور,It should be known that God singled out some places of the earth for special honor. He made them the homes of His worship. (People who worship in them) receive a much greater reward and recompense (than people who worship elsewhere).
وأخبرنا بذلك على ألسن رسله وأنبيائه لطفا بعباده وتسهيلا لطرق السعادة لهم.,"God informed us about this situation through the tongues of His messengers and prophets, as an act of kindness to His servants and for the purpose of facilitating their ways to happiness."
وكانت المساجد الثلاثة هي أفضل بقاع الأرض حسبما ثبت في الصحيحين وهي مكة والمدينة وبيت المقدس.,"We know from the two Sahihs that the most excellent places on earth are the three mosques of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem."
أما البيت الحرام الذي بمكة فهو بيت إبراهيم صلوات الله وسلامه عليه. أمره الله ببنائه وأن يؤذن في الناس بالحج إليه فبناه هو وابنه إسماعيل كما نصه القرآن,"Mecca is the house of Abraham. God commanded Abraham to build it and to exhort the people to make the pilgrimage thither. He and his son Ishmael built it, as is stated in the Qur’an."
وقام بما أمره الله فيه وسكن إسماعيل به مع هاجر ومن نزل معهم من جرهم إلى أن قبضهما الله ودفنا بالحجر منه.,"He fulfilled God’s commandment in this respect. Ishmael dwelt there with Hagar and the Jurhum (tribe) who lived with them, until they both died and were buried in the hijr of (the Ka’bah)."
وبيت المقدس بناه داود وسليمان عليهما السلام. أمرهما الله ببناء مسجده ونصب هياكله ودفن كثير من الأنبياء من ولد إسحاق عليه السلام حواليه.,"Jerusalem is the house of David and Solomon. God commanded them to build the mosque there and to erect its monuments (hayakil). Many of the prophets, descendants of Isaac, were buried around it."
والمدينة مهاجر نبينا محمد صلوات الله وسلامه عليه أمره الله تعالى بالهجرة إليها وإقامة دين الإسلام بها فبنى مسجده الحرام بها وكان ملحده الشريف في تربتها,"Medina is the place to which our Prophet emigrated when God commanded him to emigrate and to establish the religion of Islam there. He built his sacred mosque in Medina, and his noble burial place is on (Medina’s) soil."
فهذه المساجد الثلاثة قرة عين المسلمين ومهوى أفئدتهم وعظمة دينهم وفي الآثار من فضلها ومضاعفة الثواب في مجاورتها والصلاة فيها كثير معروف,"These three mosques are the consolation of the Muslims, the desire of their hearts, and the sacred asylum of their religion. There are many well-known traditions about their excellence and the very great reward awaiting those who live near them and pray in them."
فلنشر إلى شيء من الخبر عن أولية هذه المساجد الثلاثة وكيف تدرجت أحوالها إلى أن كمل ظهورها في العالم.,We shall give (in the following pages) some references to the history of the origin of these three mosques and tell how they gradually developed and eventually made their full-fledged appearance in the world.
فأما مكة فأوليتها فيما يقال أن آدم صلوات الله عليه بناها قبالة البيت المعمور ثم هدمها الطوفان بعد ذلك وليس فيه خبر صحيح يعول عليه.,"Mecca is said to have originated when Adam built it opposite the “muchfrequented house.” Later on, Mecca was destroyed in the Flood. There is no sound historical information in this connection on which one may rely."
وإنما اقتبسوه من محمل الآية في قوله «وإذ يرفع إبراهيم القواعد من البيت وإسماعيل 2: 127»,"The information is merely derived from the indication in the verse of the Qur’an, “And when Abraham raised the foundations of the house :..”"
ثم بعث الله إبراهيم وكان من شأنه وشأن زوجته سارة وغيرتها من هاجر ما هو معروف وأوحى الله إليه أن يترك ابنه إسماعيل وأمه هاجر بالفلاة,"Then, God sent Abraham, whose story and that of his wife Sarah and her jealousy of Hagar are known. God revealed to Abraham that he should separate from Hagar and exile her together with her son Ishmael to Paran (Faran), the mountains of Mecca beyond Syria and Aylah."
فوضعهما في مكان البيت,"Abraham sent her out there, and she reached the place of the House."
وكيف جعل الله لهما من اللطف في نبع ماء زمزم ومرور الرفقة من جرهم بها حتى احتملوهما وسكنوا إليهما ونزلوا معهما حوالي زمزم كما عرف في موضعه,"There, she became thirsty, and God in His kindness caused the water of the well of Zamzam to gush forth for Hagar and Ishmael. He also caused a group of Jurhumites to pass by them. They took in Hagar and Ishmael and dwelt with them around the Zamzam, as is well known and stated in its proper place."
فاتخذ إسماعيل بموضع الكعبة بيتا يأوي إليه وأدار عليه سياجا من الردم وجعله زربا لغنمه وجاء إبراهيم صلوات الله عليه مرارا لزيارته من الشام أمر في آخرها ببناء الكعبة مكان ذلك الزرب,"Ishmael built a house for shelter where the Ka’bah is situated. He built a circular hedge of doom palms around it and turned it into an enclosure for his sheep and goats. Abraham came several times from Syria to visit him. On his last visit, he was ordered to build the Ka’bah on the site of the enclosure."
فبناه واستعان فيه بابنه إسماعيل ودعا الناس إلى حجه وبقي إسماعيل ساكنا به,He built it with the help of his son Ishmael. He exhorted the people to make pilgrimage to (the Ka’bah). Ishmael stayed there.
ولما قبضت أمه هاجر وقام بنوه من بعده بأمر البيت مع أخوالهم من جرهم ثم العماليق من بعدهم,"When his mother Hagar died, he buried her there. He himself continued to serve (the Ka’bah) until he died. He was buried next to his mother Hagar, and his descendants took charge after him of the affairs of the House together with their maternal uncles from the Jurhum. Then, after them, there came the Amalekites."
واستمر الحال على ذلك والناس يهرعون إليها من كل أفق من جميع أهل الخليقة لا من بني إسماعيل ولا من غيرهم ممن دنا أو نأى,"The situation remained unchanged. People eagerly came there from all directions. There were all kinds of people, descendants of Ishmael as well as others, from near and far."
فقد نقل أن التبابعة كانت تحج البيت وتعظمه وأن تبعا كساها الملاء والوصائل وأمر بتطهيرها وجعل لها مفتاحا.,It has been reported that the Tubba’s used to make the pilgrimage to the House and to venerate it. It has also been reported that the Tubba’ called Tiban As’ad Abu Karib clothed it with curtains and striped Yemenite cloth and ordered it cleaned and had a key made for it.
ونقل أيضا أن الفرس كانت تحجه وتقرب إليه وأن غزالي الذهب اللذين وجدهما عبد المطلب حين احتفر زمزم كانا من قرابينهم.,It has furthermore been reported that the Persians used to make pilgrimage to it and present sacrificial gifts to it. The two golden gazelles that ‘Abdal-Muttalib found when the Zamzam was excavated are said to have been one of the sacrificial gifts presented (to the Ka’bah) by (the Persians).
ولم يزل لجرهم الولاية عليه من بعد ولد إسماعيل من قبل خؤولتهم حتى إذا خرجت خزاعة وأقاموا بها بعدهم ما شاء الله.,"The Jurhum, as descendants of the maternal uncles of the children of Ishmael, continued their administration of the House after them. Eventually, the Khuza’ah ousted them and remained there after them, as long as God wanted them to remain."
ثم كثر ولد إسماعيل وانتشروا وتشعبوا إلى كنانة ثم كنانة إلى قريش وغيرهم وساءت ولاية خزاعة فغلبتهم قريش على أمره وأخرجوهم من البيت وملكوا عليهم يومئذ قصي بن كلاب فبنى البيت وسقفه بخشب الدوم وجريد النخل,"Then, the descendants of Ishmael became numerous and spread. They branched out into the Kinanah, who, in turn, branched out into the Quraysh and others. The administration of the (Ka’bah by the) Khuza’ah deteriorated. The Quraysh took it away from them. They ousted them from the House and took possession of it themselves. Their chief at the time was Qusayy b. Kilab. He rebuilt the House and gave it a roof of doom-palm and date-palm boughs."
"وقال الأعشى:
خلفت بثوبي راهب الدور والتي *** بناها قصي والمضاض بن جرهم",Al-A’shai said: I swear by the two garments of the monk (of al-Lujj) and by (the building) that Was built by Qusayy all alone and by Ibn Jurhum.
ثم أصاب البيت سيل ويقال حريق وتهدم وأعادوا بناءه وجمعوا النفقة لذلك من أموالهم وانكسرت سفينة بساحل جدة فاشتروا خشبها للسقف,"During the (Qurashite) administration later on, the House was hit by a flood or, it is said, by a fire – and was destroyed. The (Quraysh) rebuilt it with money collected from their own property. A ship had been wrecked on the coast near Jidda. They bought its wood for the roof (of the Ka’bah)."
وكانت جدرانه فوق القامة فجعلوها ثماني عشرة ذراعا وكان الباب لاصقا بالأرض فجعلوه فوق القامة لئلا تدخله السيول,"The height of its walls was (just) over a fathom, and they made them eighteen cubits (high). The door had been level with the ground, and they raised it (just) above one fathom in height, so that floodwaters could not enter it."
وقصرت بهم النفقة عن إتمامه فقصروا عن قواعده وتركوا منه ست أذرع وشبرا أداروها بجدار قصير يطاف من ورائه وهو الحجر,"They did not have enough money to finish it. Therefore, they shortened its foundations, and omitted six cubits and one span. (That area) they surrounded with a low wall. In making the circumambulation (of the Ka’bah), one keeps outside this wall. This (area) is the hijr."
وبقي البيت على هذا البناء إلى أن تحصن ابن الزبير بمكة حين دعا لنفسه وزحفت إليه جيوش يزيد بن معاوية مع الحصين بن نمير السكوني. ورمى البيت سنة أربع وستين,"The House remained in this state, until Ibn az-Zubayr, who wanted to be caliph, fortified himself in Mecca. The armies of Yazid b. Mu’awiyah, under alHusayn b. Numayr as-Sakuni, advanced against him in the year 64 [683]."
فأصابه حريق، يقال من النفط الذي رموا به على ابن الزبير فتصدعت حيطانه فهدمه ابن الزبير فأعاد بناءه أحسن مما كان بعد أن اختلفت عليه الصحابة في بنائه.,"(The House) was set afire, it is said, by means of naphtha, which the armies of Yazid shot against Ibn az-Zubayr. Its walls began to crack. Ibn az-Zubayr had it torn down and rebuilt it most beautifully. There was a difference of opinion among the men around Muhammad with regard (to the manner in which the Ka’bah) was to be reconstructed."
واحتج عليهم بقول رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم لعائشة رضي الله عنها: «لولا قومك حديثو عهد بكفر لرددت البيت على قواعد إبراهيم ولجعلت له بابين شرقيا وغربيا»,"Ibn az-Zubayr argued against the others with the following remark, which the Messenger of God had made to ‘A’ishah: “If your people had not but recently been unbelievers, I would have restored the House on the foundations of Abraham and I would have made two doors for it, an eastern and a western one.”"
فهدمه وكشف عن أساس إبراهيم عليه السلام وجمع الوجوه والأكابر حتى عاينوه وأشار عليه ابن عباس بالتحري في حفظ القبلة على الناس,"(Ibn az-Zubayr), therefore, tore it down and laid bare the foundations of Abraham. He assembled the great personalities and dignitaries (of Mecca) to look at them. Ibn ‘Abbas advised him to think of preserving the qiblah for the people (during the reconstruction)."
فأدار على الأساس الخشب ونصب من فوقها الأستار حفظا للقبلة وبعث إلى صنعاء في الفضة والكلس فحملها. وسأل عن مقطع الحجارة الأول فجمع منها ما احتاج إليه,"Therefore, he set .up a wooden scaffolding over the foundations and placed curtains over it, in order to preserve the qiblah (and keep it visible as a temporary measure). He sent to San’a’ for gypsum and quicklime, which he had brought back (to Mecca). He asked about the original stone quarry used in constructing (the Ka’bah). As many stones as were needed by him were brought together."
ثم شرع في البناء على أساس إبراهيم عليه السلام ورفع جدرانها سبعا وعشرين ذراعا وجعل لها بابين لاصقين بالأرض كما روى في حديثه وجعل فرشها وإزرها بالرخام وصاغ لها المفاتيح وصفائح الأبواب من الذهب.,"Then, he started construction over the foundations of Abraham. He built the walls twentyseven cubits high, and he made two doors for (the Ka’bah) on a level with the ground, as it was said in the tradition (quoted). He made floors and wall coverings of marble for (the Ka’bah), and he had keys and doors of gold fashioned for it."
ثم جاء الحجاج لحصاره أيام عبد الملك ورمى على المسجد بالمنجنيقات إلى أن تصدعت حيطانها. ثم لما ظفر بابن الزبير شاور عبد الملك فيما بناه وزاده في البيت فأمره بهدمه ورد البيت على قواعد قريش كما هي اليوم.,"Later on, in the days of ‘Abd-al-Malik, al-Hajjaj came to besiege Ibn azZubayr. He bombarded the mosque from mangonels until its walls cracked. After Ibn az-Zubayr’s defeat, al-Hajjaj consulted ‘Abd-al-Malik concerning (Ibn azZubayr’s) reconstruction of the House and additions to it. ‘Abd-al-Malik ordered him to tear it down and rebuild it upon the foundations of the Quraysh. The Ka’bah has this (appearance) today."
ويقال: إنه ندم على ذلك حين علم صحة رواية ابن الزبير لحديث عائشة، وقال: «وددت أني كنت حملت أبا حبيب في أمر البيت وبنائه ما تحمل»,It is said that he (‘Abd-al-Malik) regretted his action when he learned that Ibn az-Zubayr’s transmission of the tradition of ‘A’ishah was a sound one. He said: “I wish I had left it to Abu Khubayb (Ibn az-Zubayr) to rebuild the House as he had undertaken to do it.”
فهدم الحجاج منها ست أذرع وشبرا مكان الحجر وبناها على أساس قريش وسد الباب الغربي وما تحت عتبة بابها اليوم من الباب الشرقي. وترك سائرها لم يغير منه شيئا,"Al-Hajjaj tore down six cubits and a span of (the Ka’bah), where the hijr is, and rebuilt (the Ka’bah) upon the foundations of the Quraysh. He walled in the western door and that part of the eastern door that today is below the threshold. He left the rest entirely unchanged."
فكل البناء الذي فيه اليوم بناء ابن الزبير وبناء الحجاج في الحائط صلة ظاهرة للعيان لحمة ظاهرة بين البناءين. والبناء متميز عن البناء بمقدار إصبع شبه الصدع وقد لحم.,"The whole building as it now stands is the building of Ibn az-Zubayr. In the wall, between his building and that of al-Hajjaj, one can distinctly see a crack in the wall where the two buildings are connected. The one construction is separated from the other by a crack in the wall, originally one finger wide, now repaired."
ويعرض هاهنا إشكال قوي لمنافاته لما يقوله الفقهاء في أمر الطواف ويحذر الطائف أن يميل على الشاذروان الدائر على أساس الجدر من أسفلها,There is a weighty problem here. (The situation described) is in disagreement with what the jurists say relative to circumambulation (of the Ka’bah). The person who makes the circumambulation must be careful not to lean over the shadharwan understructure running underneath the foundation walls.
فيقع طوافه داخل البيت بناء على أن الجدر إنما قامت على بعض الأساس وترك بعضه وهو مكان الشاذروان,"Were he to do so, his circumambulation would be inside the House. This (restriction) is based upon the assumption that the walls cover only a part of the foundations, a part that is not covered by the walls being where the shadharwan understructure is."
وكذا قالوا في تقبيل الحجر الأسود لا بد من رجوع الطائف من التقبيل حتى يستوي قائما لئلا يقع بعض طوافه داخل البيت,"(The jurists) also state with regard to kissing the Black Stone, that the person who makes the circumambulation must straighten up again when he has kissed the Black Stone, lest part of his circumambulation be inside the House."
وإذا كانت الجدران كلها من بناء ابن الزبير وهو إنما بني على أساس إبراهيم فكيف يقع هذا الذي قالوه ولا مخلص من هذا إلا بأحد أمرين,"Now, if all the walls belong to the building of Ibn azZubayr, which was erected upon the foundations of Abraham, how could there occur what (the jurists) say could occur, (namely, that unless due caution is practiced, part of the circumambulation might fall inside the Ka’bah)? There is no escape from (the difficulty), except by assuming one of two alternatives."
أحدهما أن يكون الحجاج هدم جميعه وأعاده وقد نقل ذلك جماعة إلا أن العيان في شواهد البناء بالتحام ما بين البناءين وتمييز أحد الشقين من أعلاه على الآخر في الصناعة يرد ذلك,"Al-Hajjaj may have torn down the whole and rebuilt it, as a number of persons have reported, (but not covered the whole of Ibn az-Zubayr’s foundation). However, this assumption is refuted by the crack visible between the two buildings and the differences of technical detail between the upper and lower parts."
وإما أن يكون ابن الزبير لم يرد البيت على أساس إبراهيم مع جميع جهاته وإنما فعل ذلك في الحجر فقط ليدخله فهي الآن مع كونها من بناء ابن الزبير ليست على قواعد إبراهيم وهذا بعيد ولا محيص من هذين,"The other alternative would be that Ibn az-Zubayr did not fully restore the House upon the foundations of Abraham. He would only have done this in the case of the hijr, so as to include it. (The Ka’bah) today, although built by Ibn az-Zubayr, would thus not be on the foundations of Abraham. This is unlikely. But it is one of the two possible alternatives."
والله تعالى أعلم.,And God knows better.
ثم إن مساحة البيت وهو المسجد كان فضاء للطائفين ولم يكن عليه جدر أيام النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم وأبي بكر من بعده.,"The area (courtyard) around the House, that is, the Mosque, was an open space to be used by those who were making the circumambulation. In the days of the Prophet and his successor, Abu Bakr, there were no walls surrounding it."
ثم كثر الناس فاشترى عمر رضي الله عنه دورا هدمها وزادها في المسجد وأدار عليها جدارا دون القامة وفعل مثل ذلك عثمان ثم ابن الزبير ثم الوليد بن عبد الملك وبناه بعمد الرخام,"Then the number of people (who made pilgrimage to the Ka’bah) increased. ‘Umar bought the (adjacent) houses and had them torn down, and added their (sites) to the Mosque (area). He surrounded it with walls less than a fathom high. The same was done, successively, by ‘Uthman, Ibn az-Zubayr, and al-Walid b. ‘Abd-al-Malik. The latter rebuilt (the Mosque) with marble columns."
ثم زاد فيه المنصور وابنه المهدي من بعده ووقفت الزيادة واستقرت على ذلك لعهدنا.,"Al-Mansur and his son and successor alMahdi added to it. Subsequently, no further additions were made, and the Mosque has remained as it was then down to our time."
وتشريف الله لهذا البيت وعنايته به أكثر من أن يحاط به وكفى بذلك أن جعله مهبطا للوحي والملائكة ومكانا للعبادة وفرض شرائع الحج ومناسكه,"Indications that God has honored the House and been greatly concerned with it are too impressive for them all to be recorded. It is sufficient to mention that He made it the place where the revelation and the angels came down, and a place for worship and fulfillment of the religious duties and rites of pilgrimage."
وأوجب لحرمة من سائر نواحيه من حقوق التعظيم والحق ما لم يوجبه لغيره فمنع كل من خالف دين الإسلام من دخول ذلك الحرم وأوجب على داخله أن يتجرد من المخيط إلا إزارا يستره,The sacred precinct of the House has been singled out for more venerable rights and privileges than any other place. God has forbidden anyone who opposes the religion of Islam to enter the sacred precinct. He enjoined those who enter it to wear no sewn garments but a piece of cloth (izar) to cover them
وحمى العائذ به والراتع في مسارحه من مواقع الآفات فلا يرام فيه خائف ولا يصاد له وحش ولا يحتطب له شجر.,He has granted asylum and protection against all harm to those who take refuge in it and to the cattle that graze on its pastures. No one has anything to fear there. No wild animal is hunted there. No tree is cut down for firewood.
وحد الحرم الذي يختص بهذه الحرمة من طريق المدينة ثلاثة أميال إلى التنعيم ومن طريق العراق سبعة أميال إلى الثنية من جبل المنقطع ومن طريق الطائف سبعة أميال إلى بطن نمرة ومن طريق جدة سبعة أميال إلى منقطع العشائر.,"The limits of the sacred precinct, which is invested with so much sanctity, extend, in the direction of Medina, three miles to at-Tan’im; in the direction of the ‘Iraq, seven miles to the pass of the mountain of al-Munqata’; in the direction of al-Ji’ranah, nine miles to ash-Shi’b; in the direction of at-Ta’if, seven miles to Batn Namirah; and, in the direction of Jidda, ten miles to Munqata’ al-‘Asha’ir."
هذا شأن مكة وخبرها وتسمى أم القرى وتسمى الكعبة لعلوها من اسم الكعب. ويقال لها أيضا بكة قال الأصمعي: لأن الناس يبك بعضهم بعضا إليها أي يدفع,"This is the importance and history of Mecca. Mecca is called “the Mother of Villages.” The name of the Ka’bah is derived from ka’b (cube), because of its heights Mecca is also called Bakkah. Al-Asma’i says: “(It is called Bakkah,) because the people ‘squeezed’ (bakka) -that is, pushed-each other toward it.”"
وقال مجاهد باء بكة أبدلوها ميما كما قالوا لازب ولازم لقرب المخرجين. وقال النخعي بالباء وبالميم البلد وقال الزهري بالباء للمسجد كله وبالميم للحرم,"Mujahid says: “The b of Bakkah was changed into m, as one says lazim and lazib ‘clinging, adhering,’ because of the proximity of the place of articulation of the two sounds.” An-Nakha’i says: “Bakkah means the House, and Mecca the place.” AzZuhri says; “Bakkah means the whole mosque, and Mecca the sacred precinct.”"
وقد كانت الأمم منذ عهد الجاهلية تعظمه والملوك تبعث إليه بالأموال والذخائر مثل كسرى وغيره وقصة الأسياف وغزالي الذهب اللذين وجدهما عبد المطلب حين احتفر زمزم معروفة,"Ever since pre-Islamic times, Mecca has been honored by the nations. Their rulers sent property and treasures there. (This was done, for instance,) by the Persian emperor (Khosraw) and others. The story of the swords and the two gazelles that ‘Abd-al-Muttalib found when the Zamzam was excavated is well known."
وقد وجد رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم حين افتتح مكة في الجب الذي كان فيها سبعين ألف أوقية من الذهب مما كان الملوك يهدون للبيت فيها ألف ألف دينار مكررة مرتين بمائتي قنطار وزنا,"During the conquest of Mecca, the Messenger of God found in the cistern there seventy thousand ounces of gold, which were gifts to the House by the rulers (of the foreign nations). Their value was 2,000,000 dinars of a weight of two hundred hundredweight."
وقال له علي بن أبي طالب رضي الله عنه: «يا رسول الله لو استعنت بهذا المال على حربك» فلم يفعل. ثم ذكر لأبي بكر فلم يحركه. هكذا قال الأزرقي.,"‘Ali b. Abi Talib told Muhammad that he should use the money for his war, but Muhammad did not do that. He (‘Ali) later on mentioned (the same thing) to Abu Bakr, but he could not move him. This is stated by al-Azraqt."
وفي البخاري يسنده إلى أبي وائل قال: جلست إلى شيبة بن عثمان وقال جلس إلي عمر بن الخطاب فقال: «هممت أن لا أدع فيها صفراء ولا بيضاء إلا قسمتها بين المسلمين»,"In al-Bukhari, there is the following story with a chain of transmitters going back to Abu Wa’il, who said: “I was with Shaybah b. ‘Uthman. He said: ‘Umar b. alKhattab was with me. He said: My intention is not to leave any gold or silver in (Mecca), but I shall distribute it among the Muslims."
قلت: ما أنت بفاعل؟ قال: ولم؟ قلت: فلم يفعله صاحباك فقال هما اللذان يقتدى بهما. وخرجه أبو داود وابن ماجة,I replied: You will not do that. He asked: Why? I said: (Because) it was not done by your two masters (sahib). He said: They are the two men who must be taken as models.” The story was (also) published by Abu Dawud and Ibn Majah.
وأقام ذلك المال إلى أن كانت فتنة الأفطس وهو الحسن بن الحسين بن علي بن علي زين العابدين سنة تسع وتسعين ومائة حين غلب مكة عمد إلى الكعبة فأخذ ما في خزائنها,"The money remained (in Mecca) up to the time of the disturbance caused by al-Aftas, that is, al-Husayn b. alHasan b. ‘Ali b. ‘Ali Zayn-al-‘ Abidin, in the year 199 [815]. When (al-Aftas) conquered Mecca, he went to the Ka’bah and took everything that was in the treasury."
وقال ما تصنع الكعبة بهذا المال موضوعا فيها لا ينتفع به نحن أحق به نستعين به على حربنا وأخرجه وتصرف فيه وبطلت الذخيرة من الكعبة من يومئذ.,"He said: “What would the Ka’bah do with that money? It lies there unused. We are more entitled to use it for our war (than is the Ka’bah to hold it).” So he took it out and used it. Since then, there has been no treasure in the Ka’bah."
(وأما بيت المقدس) وهو المسجد الأقصى فكان أول أمره أيام الصابئة موضع الزهرة وكانوا يقربون إليه الزيت فيما يقربونه يصبونه على الصخرة التي هناك ثم دثر ذلك الهيكل واتخذها بنو إسرائيل حين ملكوها قبلة لصلاتهم.,"Jerusalem is “the Most Remote Mosque.” It began in the time of the Sabians as the site of a temple to Venus. The Sabians used oil as a sacrificial offering and poured it upon the rock that was there. The temple (of Venus) was later on totally destroyed. The children of Israel, when they took possession of (Jerusalem), used it as the qiblah for their prayers."
وذلك أن موسى صلوات الله عليه لما خرج ببني إسرائيل من مصر لتمليكهم بيت المقدس كما وعد الله أباهم إسرائيل وأباه إسحاق من قبله,"This happened in the following manner: Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt, in order to give them possession of Jerusalem, as God had promised to their father Israel and his fathers Isaac and Jacob before him."
وأقاموا بأرض التيه أمره الله باتخاذ قبة من خشب السنط عين بالوحي مقدارها وصفتها وهياكلها وتماثيلها وأن يكون فيها التابوت ومائدة بصحافها ومنارة بقناديلها وأن يصنع مذبحا للقربان وصف ذلك كله في التوراة أكمل وصف,"Now, while they were staying in the desert, God commanded Moses to use a tabernacle of acacia wood, whose measurements, description, effigies (hayakil), and statues were indicated (to Moses) in a revelation. The tabernacle was to contain an ark, a table with plates, and a candelabrum with candles, and (Moses was to) make an altar for sacrifices. All this is very fully described in the Torah."
فصنع القبة ووضع فيها تابوت العهد وهو التابوت الذي فيه الألواح المصنوعة عوضا عن الألواح المنزلة بالكلمات العشر لما تكسرت ووضع المذبح عندها.,"(Moses) made the tabernacle and placed in it the ark of the covenant – that is, the ark in which were kept the tablets fashioned in replacement of the tablets that had been sent down with the ten commandments and had been broken – and he placed the altar near it."
وعهد الله إلى موسى بأن يكون هارون صاحب القربان ونصبوا تلك القبة بين خيامهم في التيه يصلون إليها ويتقربون في المذبح أمامها ويتعرضون للوحي عندها.,"God told Moses that Aaron should be in charge of the sacrifices. (The Israelites) set up the tabernacle among their tents in the desert. They prayed to it, offered their sacrifices upon the altar in front of it, and went there in order to receive revelations."
ولما ملكوا أرض الشام أنزلوها (بكلكال) من بلاد الأرض المقدسة ما بين قسم بني يامين وبني أفراييم. وبقيت هنالك أربع عشرة سنة: سبعا مدة الحرب، وسبعا بعد الفتح أيام قسمة البلاد.,"When they took possession of Syria, they deposited it in Gilgal in the Holy Land between Benjamin and Ephraim. The tabernacle remained there fourteen years, for seven years of war, and for seven years after the conquest, when the country was being divided."
ولما توفي يوشع عليه السلام نقلوها إلى بلد شيلو قريبا من كلكال، وأداروا عليها الحيطان. وأقامت على ذلك ثلاثمائة سنة، حتى ملكها بنو فلسطين من أيديهم كما مر، وتغلبوا عليهم.,"When Joshua died, the Israelites transferred it to Shiloh, close to Gilgal, and surrounded it with walls. It remained in this situation for three hundred years, until the Philistines took it away from (the Israelites), as was mentioned before, and achieved superiority over them."
ثم ردوا عليهم القبة ونقلوها بعد وفاة عالي الكوهن إلى نوف. ثم نقلت أيام طالوت إلى كنعون في بلاد بني يامين. ولما ملك داود عليه السلام نقل القبة والتابوت إلى بيت المقدس وجعل عليها خباء خاصا ووضعها على الصخرة.,"Then, (the Philistines) returned the tabernacle. After the death of Eli the priest, the Israelites transferred the tabernacle to Nob. Later on, in the days of Saul, it was transferred to Gibeon in the land of Benjamin. When David became ruler, he transferred the tabernacle and the ark to Jerusalem. He made a special tent for it, and placed it upon the Rock."
وبقيت تلك القبة قبلتهم ووضعوها على الصخرة ببيت المقدس وأراد داود عليه السلام بناء مسجده على الصخرة مكانها فلم يتم له ذلك وعهد به إلى ابنه سليمان فبناه لأربع سنين من ملكه ولخمسمائة سنة من وفاة موسى عليه السلام.,"The tabernacle remained the qiblah of (the Israelites). David wanted to build a temple upon the Rock in its place, but he was not able to complete it. He charged his son Solomon to take care of (the building of the temple). Solomon built it in the fourth year of his reign, five hundred years after the death of Moses."
واتخذ عمده من الصفر وجعل به صرح الزجاج وغشى أبوابه وحيطانه بالذهب وصاغ هياكله وتماثيله وأوعيته ومنارته ومفتاحه من الذهب,"He made its columns of bronze, and he placed the glass pavilion in it. He covered the doors and the walls with gold. He also used gold in fashioning its effigies (hayakil), statues, vessels, chandeliers, and keys."
وجعل في ظهره قبرا ليضع فيه تابوت العهد وهو التابوت الذي فيه الألواح وجاء به من صهيون بلد أبيه داود نقله إليها أيام عمارة المسجد، فجيء به تحمله الأسباط والكهنوتية حتى وضعه في القبر,"He made the back( room) in (the form of) a vault. In it, the ark of the covenant was to be placed. He brought it from Zion, the place of his father David. The tribes and priests carried it, and it was deposited in the vault."
ووضعت القبة والأوعية والمذبح كل واحد حيث أعد له من المسجد.,"The tabernacle, the vessels, and the altar were put in the places prepared for them in the Mosque."
وأقام كذلك ما شاء الله. ثم خربه بخت نصر بعد ثمانمائة سنة من بنائه وأحرق التوراة والعصا وصاغ الهياكل ونثر الأحجار.,"Things remained that way as long as God wished. Later on, the temple was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, eight hundred years after its construction. Nebuchadnezzar burned the Torah and the staff (of Moses), melted the effigies (hayakil), and scattered the stones."
ثم لما أعادهم ملوك الفرس بناه عزيز نبي بني إسرائيل لعهده بإعانة بهمن ملك الفرس الذي كانت الولادة لبني إسرائيل عليه من سبي بخت نصر وحد لهم في بنيانه حدودا دون بناء سليمان بن داود عليهما السلام فلم يتجاوزوها.,"Later on, the Persian rulers permitted the children of Israel to return. Ezra, the Israelite prophet at that time, rebuilt (the temple) with the help of the Persian ruler, Bahman (Artaxerxes), who owed his birth to the children of Israel who were led into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar. (Bahman) set limits upon the reconstruction of (the temple) by (the Israelites) which made it a smaller building than that of Solomon. (The Israelites) did not go beyond that plan."
وأما الأواوين التي تحت المسجد، يركب بعضها بعضا، عمود الأعلى منها على قوس الأسفل في طبقتين. ويتوهم كثير من الناس أنها إصطبلات سليمان عليه السلام، وليس كذلك.,"The vaulted halls underneath the temple in two superimposed stories, the columns of the upper story of which rest upon the vault of the lower story, are thought by many people to have been Solomon’s stables. This is not so."
وإنما بناها تنزيها للبيت المقدس عما يتوهم من النجاسة، لأن النجاسات في شريعتهم وإن كانت في باطن الأرض، وكان ما بينها وبين ظاهر الأرض محشوا بالتراب، بحيث يصل ما بينها وبين الظاهر خط مستقيم ينجس ذلك الظاهر بالتوهم.,"The vaulted halls were built in order to avoid any contamination of the temple in Jerusalem. According to Jewish law, something unclean that is deep down in the earth and separated from the surface by a layer of earth, so that a straight line would connect the unclean object in the earth with the object on the surface, could be suspected of making the object on the surface unclean."
والمتوهم عندهم كالمحقق، فبنوا هذه الأواوين على هذه الصورة بعمود الأواوين السفلية تنتهي إلى أقواسها وينقطع خطه، فلا تتصل النجاسة بالأعلى على خط مستقيم. وتنزه البيت عن هذه النجاسة المتوهمة ليكون ذلك أبلغ في الطهارة والتقديس.,"And a suspicion has the same implication as a fact in (Jewish legal) opinion. Therefore, (the Israelites) built these vaulted halls in this form, with the columns of the upper hall resting upon the vaults of (the lower), so that there would be no straight line (between the object underground and the object upon the surface), along which contamination could spread, and thus any suspicion of the contamination of the temple was avoided."
ثم تداونتهم ملوك يونان والفرس والروم واستفحل الملك لبني إسرائيل في هذه المدة ثم لبني حشمناي من كهنتهم ثم لصهرهم هيرودس ولبنيه من بعده.,"This makes for greater ritual cleanliness and holiness for the temple. Then, the Greek, Persian, and Roman rulers successively had control over the children of Israel. During that period, a flourishing royal authority was enjoyed by the children of Israel and exercised by the Hasmoneans who were (Jewish) priests. The Hasmoneans, in turn, were succeeded by Herod, a relative of theirs by marriage, and by his children."
وبنى هيرودوس بيت المقدس على بناء سليمان عليه السلام وتأنق فيه حتى أكمله في ست سنين فلما جاء طيطش من ملوك الروم وغلبهم وملك أمرهم خرب بيت المقدس ومسجدها وأمر أن يزرع مكانه,"Herod rebuilt (the temple in) Jerusalem very splendidly, after the plan of Solomon. He completed it in six years. Then, Titus, one of the Roman rulers, appeared and defeated the (Jews) and took possession of their realm. He destroyed Jerusalem and the temple there. The place where the temple had been standing he ordered to be turned into a field."
ثم أخذ الروم بدين المسيح عليه السلام ودانوا بتعظيمه ثم اختلف حال ملوك الروم في الأخذ بدين النصارى تارة وتركه أخرى إلى أن جاء قسطنطين وتنصرت أمه هيلانة وارتحلت إلى القدس في طلب الخشبة التي صلب عليها المسيح بزعمهم,"Then, the religion of the Messiah was adopted by the Romans. It became their religious practice to venerate the Messiah (Jesus). The Roman rulers vacillated, adopting Christianity at one time and giving it up at another, until Constantine appeared. His mother Helena became a Christian. She traveled to Jerusalem in search of the wood upon which the Messiah had been crucified, in the opinion of (the Christians)."
فأخبرها القساوسة بأنه رمى بخشبته على الأرض وألقى عليها القمامات والقاذورات فاستخرجت الخشبة وبنت مكان تلك القمامات كنيسة القمامة كأنها على قبره بزعمهم,The priests informed her that his cross had been thrown to the ground and had been covered with excrements and filth. She discovered the wood and built “the Church of the Excrements” over the place where those excrements had been. The Church is considered by the Christians to stand upon the grave of the Messiah.
وهربت ما وجدت من عمارة البيت وأمرت بطرح الزبل والقمامات على الصخرة حتى غطاها وخفي مكانها جزاء بزعمها لما فعلوه بقبر المسيح,"Helena destroyed the parts of the House (the Temple) that she found standing. She ordered dung and excrements to be thrown upon the Rock, until it was entirely covered and its site obscured. That she considered the proper reward for what (the Jews) had done to the grave of the Messiah."
ثم بنوا بإزاء القمامة بيت لحم وهو البيت الذي ولد فيه عيسى عليه السلام وبقي الأمر كذلك إلى أن جاء الإسلام وحضر عمر لفتح بيت المقدس وسأل عن الصخرة فأري مكانها وقد علاها الزبل والتراب,"Opposite “the (Church of the) Excrements,” they later on built Bethlehem, the house where Jesus was born. Things remained this way until the coming of Islam and the Muslim conquest. ‘Umar was present at the conquest of Jerusalem, and he asked to see the Rock. The place was shown to him. It was piled high with dung and earth."
فكشف عنها وبنى عليها مسجدا على طريق البداوة وعظم من شأنه ما أذن الله من تعظيمه وما سبق من أم الكتاب في فضله حسبما ثبت,"He had it laid bare, and he built upon it a mosque in the Bedouin style. He gave it as much veneration as God allowed and as befitted its excellence, as preordained and established in the divine Qur’an."
ثم احتفل الوليد بن عبد الملك في تشييد مسجده على سنن مساجد الإسلام بما شاء الله من الاحتفال كما فعل في المسجد الحرام وفي مسجد النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم بالمدينة وفي مسجد دمشق,"Al-Walid b. ‘Abd-al-Malik later on devoted himself to constructing the Mosque of (the Rock) in the style of the Muslim mosques, as grandly as God wanted him to do it. He had done the same with the Mosque in Mecca and the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina, as well as the Mosque of Damascus."
وكانت العرب تسميه بلاط الوليد وألزم ملك الروم أن يبعث الفعلة والمال لبناء هذه المساجد وأن ينمقوها بالفسيفساء فأطاع لذلك وتم بناؤها على ما اقترحه.,"The Arabs used to call (the Mosque of Damascus) the Nave (balat) of al-Walid. Al-Walid compelled the Byzantine Emperor to send workers and money for the building of these mosques, and they (the Byzantine artisans) were to embellish them with mosaics. The Byzantine Emperor complied, and the construction of the mosques was able to materialize according to plan."
ثم لما ضعف أمر الخلافة أعوام الخمسمائة من الهجرة في آخرها وكانت في ملكة العبيديين خلفاء القاهر من الشيعة واختل أمرهم زحف الفرنجة إلى بيت المقدس فملكوه وملكوا معه عامة ثغور الشام,"During the fifth [eleventh] century and (especially) at the end of it, the power of the caliphate weakened. Jerusalem was in the possession of the ‘Ubaydid(- Fatimids), the Shi’ah caliphs of Cairo. Their power, (too,) crumbled. The European Christians advanced toward Jerusalem and took possession of it. They also took possession of all the border cities of Syria."
وبنوا على الصخرة المقدسة منه كنيسة كانوا يعظمونها ويفتخرون ببنائها حتى إذا استقل صلاح الدين بن أيوب الكردي بملك مصر والشام ومحا أثر العبيديين وبدعهم زحف إلى الشام وجاهد من كان به من الفرنجة,"Upon the holy Rock they built a church which they venerated and in the construction of which they took great pride. Eventually, Salah-ad-din b. Ayyub al-Kurdi became the independent ruler of Egypt and Syria. He wiped out the influence and heresy of the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimids). He advanced toward Syria and waged the holy war against the European Christians there."
حتى غلبهم على بيت المقدس وعلى ما كانوا ملكوه من ثغور الشام وذلك لنحو ثمانين وخمسمائة من الهجرة وهدم تلك الكنيسة وأظهر الصخرة وبنى المسجد على النحو الذي هو عليه اليوم لهذا العهد.,"He deprived them of possession of Jerusalem and the other border cities of Syria they were holding. This took place around the year 580 [1184/85]. Salah-addin destroyed the Christian church, uncovered the Rock, and rebuilt the Mosque in about the same form in which it is still standing at this time."
ولا يعرض لك الإشكال المعروف في الحديث الصحيح أن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم سئل عن أول بيت وضع فقال: «بين مكة وبين بناء بيت المقدس» قيل فكم بينهما؟ قال: «أربعون سنة»,"One should not bother about the famous problem arising from the sound tradition that the Prophet, when he was asked about the first “house” to be erected, replied: “First Mecca, and then Jerusalem.” And when he was asked how long the time interval between the two buildings had been, he replied: “Forty years.”"
فإن المدة بين بناء مكة وبين بناء بيت المقدس بمقدار ما بين إبراهيم وسليمان لأن سليمان بإنية وهو ينيف على الألف بكثير.,"Now, the interval between the construction of Mecca and the construction of Jerusalem corresponds to the interval between Abraham and Solomon, because it was Solomon who built the temple in Jerusalem. That is considerably more than a thousand years."
واعلم أن المراد بالوضع في الحديث ليس البناء وإنما المراد أول بيت عين للعبادة ولا يبعد أن يكون بيت المقدس عين للعبادة قبل بناء سليمان بمثل هذه المدة,"It should be known that the word “erected” that is used in the tradition was not intended to refer to “construction,” but it was intended to refer to the first House to be specially designated for divine worship. It is not an unlikely assumption that Jerusalem was designated for divine worship a long time, such as (the period mentioned), before Solomon (built his temple)."
وقد نقل أن الصابئة بنوا على الصخرة هيكل الزهرة فلعل ذلك أنها كانت مكانا للعبادة كما كانت الجاهلية تضع الأصنام والتماثيل حوالي الكعبة وفي جوفها والصابئة الذين بنوا هيكل الزهرة كانوا على عهد إبراهيم عليه السلام,"It has been reported that the Sabians built a temple to Venus upon the Rock. That was perhaps because (Jerusalem) was (already) a place of divine worship. In the same way, pre-Islamic (Arabs) placed idols and statues in and around the Ka’bah. The Sabians who built the temple of Venus lived in the time of Abraham."
فلا تبعد مدة الأربعين سنة بين وضع مكة للعبادة ووضع بيت المقدس وإن لم يكن هناك بناء كما هو المعروف وأن أول من بنى بيت المقدس سليمان عليه السلام فتفهمه ففيه حل هذا الإشكال.,"It is, therefore, not an unlikely assumption that there was an interval of forty years between the time when Mecca was made a place of divine worship and the time when the same occurred in Jerusalem, even if there was no building there (at that early date), as is well known. The first to build (a temple in) Jerusalem was Solomon. This should be understood, as it is the solution to the problem raised by the tradition."
وأما المدينة وهي المسماة بيثرب فهي من بناء يثرب بن مهلائيل من العمالقة وملكها بنو إسرائيل من أيديهم فيما ملكوه من أرض الحجاز ثم جاورهم بنو قيلة من غسان وغلبوهم عليها وعلى حصونها.,"Medina, a city that was (originally) called Yathrib, was built by Yathrib b. Mahla’il (Mahalalel), an Amalekite, and named after him. The children of Israel took Medina away from the (Amalekites), together with the other parts of the Hijaz of which they took possession. Then, (the Aws and the Khazraj), descendants of Qaylah who belonged to the Ghassanids, settled as neighbors of (the children of Israel in Arabia) and took (Medina) and its castles away from them."
ثم أمر النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم بالهجرة إليها لما سبق من عناية الله بها فهاجر إليها ومعه أبو بكر وتبعه أصحابه ونزل بها وبنى مسجده وبيوته في الموضع الذي كان الله قد أعده لذلك وشرفه في سابق أزله,"Because of God’s preordained concern for Medina, the Prophet was commanded to emigrate there, and he did so in the company of Abu Bakr. The men around him followed him. He settled there and built his Mosque and his houses in the place God had prepared for that (purpose) and had predestined since eternity for that honor."
وأواه أبناء قيلة ونصروه فلذلك سموا الأنصار وتمت كلمة الإسلام من المدينة حتى علت على الكلمات وغلب على قومه وفتح مكة وملكها,"The descendants of Qaylah received him hospitably and helped him. Therefore, they were called “the Helpers” (al-Ansar). Islam spread from Medina and eventually gained the upper hand over all other (organizations). (Muhammad) defeated his own people. He conquered Mecca and took possession of it."
وظن الأنصار أنه يتحول عنهم إلى بلده فأهمهم ذلك فخاطبهم رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم وأخبرهم أنه غير متحول حتى إذا قبض صلى الله عليه وسلم كان ملحده الشريف بها,"The Helpers thought that he would now move away from them and return to his own country. This thought weighed upon them. However, the Messenger of God addressed them and informed them that he would not move. Thus, when he died, he was even buried in Medina."
وجاء في فضلها من الأحاديث الصحيحة ما لا خفاء به ووقع الخلاف بين العلماء في تفضيلها على مكة,"In praise of (Medina’s) excellence, there exist sound traditions, as everybody knows. Scholars disagree as to whether Medina should be considered as more excellent than Mecca."
وبه قال مالك رحمه الله لما ثبت عنده في ذلك من النص الصريح عن رفيع بن مخدج أن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم قال المدينة خير من مكة,"Malik expressed himself in favor (of Medina), because he accepted the clear statement to that effect on the authority of Rafi’ b. Khudayj, which said that the Prophet had said: “Medina is better than Mecca.”"
نقل ذلك أبو الوهاب في المعونة إلى أحاديث أخرى تدل بظاهرها على ذلك وخالف أبو حنيفة والشافعي.,(This tradition) was transmitted by ‘Abd-al-Wahhab in the Ma’unah. There are other such traditions the explicit wording of which indicates the same thing. Abu Hanifah and ash-Shafi’i were of a different opinion.
وأصبحت على كل حال ثانية المسجد الحرام وجنح إليها الأمم بأفئدتهم من كل أوب,"At any rate, (Medina) comes right after the Sacred Mosque (of Mecca). The hearts of people everywhere long for it."
فانظر كيف تدرجت الفضيلة في هذه المساجد المعظمة لما سبق من عناية الله لها وتفهم سر الله في الكون وتدريجه على ترتيب محكم في أمور الدين والدنيا.,"One should see how, through God’s preordained concern for them, these venerated mosques are gradated in their excellence, and one should understand God’s secret (plans) with regard to (His) creation and the well-considered gradation He established for the affairs of. the religion and the world."
وأما غير هذه المساجد الثلاثة فلا نعلمه في الأرض إلا ما يقال من شأن مسجد آدم عليه السلام بسرنديب من جزائر الهند لكنه لم يثبت فيه شيء يعول عليه,"We have no information about any mosque on earth other than these three, save for stories about the Mosque of Adam on the Indian island of Ceylon. But there exists no wellestablished information about that mosque upon which one may rely."
وقد كانت للأمم في القديم مساجد يعظمونها على جهة الديانة بزعمهم منها بيوت النار للفرس وهياكل يونان وبيوت العرب بالحجاز التي أمر النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم بهدمها في غزواته,"The ancient nations had mosques which they venerated in what they thought to be a spirit of religious devotion. There were the fire temples of the Persians and the temples of the Greeks and the houses of the Arabs in the Hijaz, which the Prophet ordered destroyed on his raids."
وقد ذكر المسعودي منها بيوتا لسنا من ذكرها في شيء إذ هي غير مشروعة ولا هي على طريق ديني ولا يلتفت إليها ولا إلى الخبر عنها,Al-Mas’udi mentioned some of them. We have no occasion whatever to mention them. They are not sanctioned by a religious law. They have nothing to do with religion. No attention is paid to them or to their history.
ويكفي في ذلك ما وقع في التواريخ فمن أراد معرفة الأخبار فعليه بها,"In connection with them, the information contained in historical works is enough. Whoever wants to have historical information (about them) should consult (the historical works)."
والله يهدي من يشاء سبحانه.,“God guides whomever He wants to guide.”
الفصل السابع في أن المدن والأمصار بإفريقية والمغرب قليلة,7. There are few cities and towns in Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib.
والسبب في ذلك أن هذه الأقطار كانت للبربر منذ آلاف من السنين قبل الإسلام وكان عمرانها كله بدويا ولم تستمر فيهم الحضارة حتى تستكمل أحوالها,The reason for this is that these regions belonged to the Berbers for thousands of years before Islam. All (their) civilization was a Bedouin (civilization). No sedentary culture existed among (the Berbers) long enough to reach any degree of perfection.
والدول التي ملكتهم من الإفرنجة والعرب لم يطل أمد ملكهم فيهم حتى ترسخ الحضارة منها فلم تزل عوائد البداوة وشئونها فكانوا إليها أقرب فلم تكثر مبانيهم,"The dynasties of European Christians and Arabs who ruled (the Berbers) did not rule long enough for their sedentary culture to take firm root (among them). The customs and ways of Bedouin life to which they were always closer, continued among them. Therefore, they did not have many buildings."
وأيضا فالصنائع بعيدة عن البربر لأنهم أعرق في البدو والصنائع من توابع الحضارة وإنما تتم المباني بها فلا بد من الحذق في تعلمها فلما لم يكن للبربر انتحال لها لم يكن لهم تشوق إلى المباني فضلا عن المدن.,"Furthermore, crafts were unfamiliar to the Berbers, because they were firmly rooted in desert life, and the crafts result from sedentary culture. Now, buildings can materialize only with the help of (the crafts). One needs skill to learn them, and since the Berbers did not practice them, they had no interest in buildings, let alone towns."
وأيضا فهم أهل عصبيات وأنساب لا يخلو عن ذلك جمع منهم والأنساب والعصبية أجنح إلى البدو وإنما يدعو إلى المدن الدعة والسكون ويصير ساكنها عيالا على حاميتها,"Furthermore, (the Berbers) have (various) group feelings and (common) descent. No (Berber group) lacks these things. (Common) descent and group feeling are more attracted to desert (than to urban life). Only tranquility and quiet call for towns. The inhabitants of (towns) come to be dependent on their militia."
فتجد أهل البدو لذلك يستنكفون عن سكنى المدينة أو الإقامة بها فلا يدعو إلى ذلك إلا الترف والغنى وقليل ما هو في الناس,"Therefore, desert people dislike settling in a town or staying there. Only luxury and wealth could cause them to settle in a town, and these things are rare among men."
فلذلك كان عمران إفريقية والمغرب كله أو أكثره بدويا أهل خيام وظواعن وقياطن وكنن في الجبال وكان عمران بلاد العجم كله أو أكثره قرى وأمصارا ورساتيق من بلاد الأندلس والشام ومصر وعراق العجم وأمثالها,"Thus, the whole civilization of Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib, or the largest part of it, was a Bedouin one. People lived in tents, (camel) litters, sleeping tents, and mountain fastnesses. On the other hand, the whole civilization of the non-Arab countries, or the largest part of it, was one of villages, cities, and districts. This applies to Spain, Syria, Egypt, the nonArab ‘Iraq, and similar countries."
لأن العجم ليسوا بأهل أنساب يحافظون عليها ويتباهون في صراحتها والتحامها إلا في الأقل وأكثر ما يكون سكنى البدو لأهل الأنساب لأن لحمة النسب أقرب وأشد,"Only in the rarest cases do non-Arabs have a (common) descent which they guard carefully and of which they are proud when it is pure and close. It is mostly people of (common) descent who settle in the desert, because close (common) descent constitutes closer and stronger (bonds than any other element)."
فتكون عصبيته كذلك وتنزع بصاحبها إلى سكنى البدو والتجافي عن المصر الذي يذهب بالبسالة ويصيره عيالا على غيره فافهمه وقس عليه,"Thus, the group feeling that goes with (common descent) likewise is (stronger). It draws those who have it to desert life and the avoidance of cities, which do away with bravery and make people dependent upon others. This should be understood and the proper conclusions be drawn from it."
الفصل الثامن في أن المباني والمصانع في الملة الإسلامية قليلة بالنسبة إلى قدرتها وإلى من كان قبلها من الدول,"8. The buildings and constructions in Islam are
comparatively few considering (Islam’s)
power and as compared to the dynasties
preceding (Islam)."
والسبب في ذلك ما ذكرنا مثله في البربر بعينه إذ العرب أيضا أعرق في البدو وأبعد عن الصنائع وأيضا فكانوا أجانب من الممالك التي استولوا عليها قبل الإسلام,"The reason for this is the very same thing that we mentioned concerning the Berbers. The Arabs, too, are quite firmly rooted in the desert and quite unfamiliar with the crafts. Furthermore, before Islam, the Arabs had been strangers to the realms of which they then took possession."
ولما تملكوها لم ينفسح الأمد حتى تستوفي رسوم الحضارة مع أنهم استغنوا بما وجدوا من مباني غيرهم,"When they came to rule them, there was not time enough for all the institutions of sedentary culture to develop fully. Moreover, the buildings of others which they found in existence, were sufficient for them."
وأيضا فكان الدين أول الأمر مانعا من المغالاة أو البنيان والإسراف فيه في غير القصد,"Furthermore, at the beginning, (their) religion forbade them to do any excessive building or to waste too much money on building activities for no purpose."
كما عهد لهم عمر حين استأذنوه في بناء الكوفة بالحجارة وقد وقع الحريق في القصب الذي كانوا بنوا به من قبل فقال افعلوا ولا يزيدن أحد على ثلاثة أبيات ولا تطاولوا في البنيان والزموا السنة تلزمكم الدولة,"When the reeds which the Muslims had used before, in building al-Kufah, caught fire, and the Muslims asked ‘Umar for permission to use stones, his advice was: “Do, but no one should build more than three houses. Do not vie with each other in building. Adhere to the Sunnah, and you will remain in power.”"
وعهد إلى الوفد وتقدم إلى الناس أن لا يرفعوا بنيانا فوق القدر قالوا: وما القدر؟ قال: «لا يقربكم من السرف ولا يخرجكم عن القصد».,"He imposed this (condition) upon the delegation, and then he ordered the people not to build buildings higher than was proper. Asked what “proper” was, he replied: “What does not lead you to wastefulness and does not take you away from purposeful moderation.”"
فلما بعد العهد بالدين والتحرج في أمثال هذه المقاصد وغلبت طبيعة الملك والترف واستخدم العرب أمة الفرس وأخذوا عنهم الصنائع والمباني ودعتهم إليها أحوال الدعة والترف فحينئذ شيدوا المباني والمصانع,The influence of the religion (Islam) and of scrupulousness in such matters then faded. Royal authority and luxury gained the upper hand. The Arabs subjected the Persian nation and took over their constructions and buildings. The tranquility and luxury they now enjoyed led them to (building activities). It was at that time that they erected buildings and (large) constructions.
وكان عهد ذلك قريبا بانقراض الدولة ولم ينفسح الأمد لكثرة البناء واختطاط المدن والأمصار إلا قليلا,But that also was the period close to the destruction of the dynasty. There was only a little time left for extensive building activities and town and city planning.
وليس كذلك غيرهم من الأمم فالفرس طالت مدتهم آلافا من السنين وكذلك القبط والنبط والروم وكذلك العرب الأولى من عاد وثمود والعمالقة والتبابعة طالت آمادهم ورسخت الصنائع فيهم فكانت مبانيهم وهياكلهم أكثر عددا وأبقى على الأيام أثرا,"This had not been the case with other nations. The Persians had had a period of thousands of years. The same was the case with the Copts, the Nabataeans, and the Romans (Byzantines, Rum), as well as the first Arabs, ‘Ad and Thamud, the Amalekites, and the Tubba’s. They had a great deal of time, and the crafts became firmly established among them. Thus, their buildings and monuments were more numerous and left a more lasting imprint (than the buildings of the Muslim Arabs)."
واستبصر في هذا تجده كما قلت,"Upon close scrutiny, this will be found to be as I have stated."
والله وارث الأرض ومن عليها.,God inherits the earth and whomever is upon it.
الفصل التاسع في أن المباني التي كانت تختطها العرب يسرع إليها الخراب إلا في الأقل,"9. Buildings erected by Arabs, with very few exceptions, quickly fall into ruins."
والسبب في ذلك شأن البداوة والبعد عن الصنائع كما قدمناه فلا تكون المباني وثيقة في تشييدها,"The reason for this is the Bedouin attitude and unfamiliarity with the crafts, as we have mentioned before. Therefore, the buildings (of the Arabs) are not solidly built."
وله والله أعلم وجه آخر وهو أمس به وذلك قلة مراعاتهم لحسن الاختيار في اختطاط المدن كما قلناه في المكان وطيب الهواء والمياه والمزارع والمراعي فإنه بالتفاوت في هذا تتفاوت جودة المصر ورداءته من حيث العمران الطبيعي,"There may be another aspect, more pertinent to the problem. That is, as we have stated, that the Arabs pay little attention in town planning to making the right choice with regard to the site (of the town), the quality of the air, the water, the fields, and the pastures (belonging to it). Differences with respect to these things make the difference between good and bad cities as regards natural civilization."
والعرب بمعزل عن هذا وإنما يراعون مراعي إبلهم خاصة لا يبالون بالماء طاب أو خبث ولا قل أو كثر ولا يسألون عن زكاء المزارع والمنابت والأهوية لانتقالهم في الأرض ونقلهم الحبوب من البلد البعيد,"The Arabs have no interest in these things. They only see to it that they have pastures for their camels. They do not care whether the water is good or bad, whether there is little or much of it. They do not ask about the suitability of the fields, the vegetable plots, and the air, because they (are used to) moving about the country and importing their grain from remote places."
وأما الرياح فالقفر مختلف للمهاب كلها والظعن كفيل لهم بطيبها لأن الرياح إنما تخبث مع القرار والسكنى وكثرة الفضلات,"In the desert the winds blow from all directions, and the fact that the Arabs travel about guarantees them winds of good quality. Winds turn bad only when people settle and stay in one place and there are many superfluities there."
وانظر لما اختطوا الكوفة والبصرة والقيروان كيف لم يراعوا في اختطاطها إلا مراعي إبلهم وما يقرب من القفر ومسالك الظعن فكانت بعيدة عن الوضع الطبيعي للمدن,"One may cite the Arabs’ planning of al-Kufah, al-Basrah, and al-Qayrawan. All they looked for when planning (those cities) was pasturage for their camels and nearness to the desert and the caravan routes. Thus, (those cities) do not possess a natural site."
ولم تكن لها مادة تمد عمرانها من بعدهم كما قدمنا أنه يحتاج إليه في العمران فقد كانت مواطنها غير طبيعية للقرار ولم تكن في وسط الأمم فيعمرها الناس,"They had no sources from which to feed their civilization (population) later on. Such a source must exist if civilization is to continue, as we have stated before. The sites of (those cities) were not naturally suited for settlement. They were not situated in the midst of nations capable of repopulating them (once their original population started to disintegrate)."
فلأول وهلة من انحلال أمرهم وذهاب عصبيتهم التي كانت سياجا لها أتى عليها الخراب والانحلال كأن لم تكن.,"At the first intimations of the disintegration of (Arab) power and of the disappearance of the group feeling that protected them, (those cities) fell prey to ruin and disintegration and were as if they had never been."
«والله يحكم لا معقب لحكمه 13: 41».,"“God decides, and no one can change His decision.”"
الفصل العاشر في مبادي الخراب في الأمصار,10. The beginnings of the ruin of cities.
اعلم أن الأمصار إذا اختطت أولا تكون قليلة المساكن وقليلة آلات البناء من الحجر والجير وغيرهما مما يعالى على الحيطان عند التأنق كالزلج والرخام والربج والزجاج والفسيفساء والصدف,"It should be known that when cities are first founded, they have few dwellings and few building materials, such as stones and quicklime, or the things that serve as ornamental coverings for walls, such as tiles, marble, mosaic, jet, shells (mother-of-pearl), and glass."
فيكون بناؤها يومئذ بدويا وآلاتها فاسدة فإذا عظم عمران المدينة وكثر ساكنها كثرت الآلات بكثرة الأعمال حينئذ وكثرت الصناع إلى أن تبلغ غايتها من ذلك كما سبق بشأنها,"Thus, at that time, the buildings are built in Bedouin (style), and the materials used for them are perishable. Then, the civilization of a city grows and its inhabitants increase in number. Now the materials used for (building) increase, because of the increase in (available) labor and the increased number of craftsmen. (This process goes on) until (the city) reaches the limit in that respect, as was discussed before."
فإذا تراجع عمرانها وخف ساكنها قلت الصنائع لأجل ذلك وفقدت الإجادة في البناء والإحكام والمعالاة عليه بالتنميق ثم تقل الأعمال لعدم الساكن فيقل جلب الآلات من الحجر والرخام وغيرهما فتفقد,"The civilization of the city then recedes, and its inhabitants decrease in number. This entails a decrease in the crafts. As a result, good and solid building and the ornamentation of buildings are no longer practiced. Then, the (available) labor decreases, because of the lack of inhabitants. Materials such as stones, marble, and other things, are now being imported scarcely at all, and (building materials) become unavailable."
ويصير بناؤهم وتشييدهم من الآلات التي في مبانيهم فينقلونها من مصنع إلى مصنع لأجل خلاء أكثر المصانع والقصور والمنازل بقلة العمران وقصوره عما كان أولا,"The materials that are in the existing buildings are reused for building and refinishing. They are transferred from one construction to another, since most of the (large) constructions, castles, and mansions stand empty as the result of the scarcity of civilization (population) and the great decrease in (population) as compared with former times."
ثم لا تزال تنقل من قصر إلى قصر ومن دار إلى دار إلى أن يفقد الكثير منها جملة فيعودون إلى البداوة في البناء واتخاذ الطوب عوضا عن الحجارة والقصور عن التنميق بالكلية,"(The same materials) continue to be used for one castle after another and for one house after another, until most of it is completely used up. People then return to the Bedouin way of building. They use adobe instead of stone and omit all ornamentation."
فيعود بناء المدينة مثل بناء القرى والمدر وتظهر عليها سيماء البداوة ثم تمر في التناقص إلى غايتها من الخراب إن قدر لها به,"The architecture of the city reverts to that of villages and hamlets. The mark of the desert shows in it. (The city) then gradually decays and falls into complete ruin, if it is thus destined for it."
سنة الله في خلقه.,This is how God proceeds with His creatures.
الفصل الحادي عشر في ان تفاضل الأمصار والمدن في كثرة الرزق لأهلها ونفاق الأسواق إنما هو في تفاضل عمرانها في الكثرة والقلة,"11. With regard to the amount of prosperity and business activity (in them), cities and towns differ in accordance with the different size of their civilization (population)."
والسبب في ذلك أنه قد عرف وثبت أن الواحد من البشر غير مستقل بتحصيل حاجاته في معاشه وأنهم متعاونون جميعا في عمرانهم على ذلك والحاجة التي تحصل بتعاون طائفة منهم تشتد ضرورة الأكثر من عددهم أضعافا.,"The reason for this is that, as is known and well established, the individual human being cannot by himself obtain all the necessities of life. All human beings must co-operate to that end in their civilization. But what is obtained through the co-operation of a group of human beings satisfies the need of a number many times greater (than themselves)."
فالقوت من الحنطة مثلا لا يستقل الواحد بتحصيل حصته منه.,"For instance, no one, by himself, can obtain the share of the wheat he needs for food."
وإذا انتدب لتحصيله الستة أو العشرة من حداد ونجار للآلات وقائم على البقر وإثارة الأرض وحصاد السنبل وسائر مؤن الفلح وتوزعوا على تلك الأعمال أو اجتمعوا وحصل بعملهم ذلك مقدار من القوت فإنه حينئذ قوت لأضعافهم مرات.,"But when six or ten persons, including a smith and a carpenter to make the tools, and others who are in charge of the oxen, the plowing of the soil, the harvesting of the ripe grain, and all the other agricultural activities, undertake to obtain their food and work toward that purpose either separately or collectively and thus obtain through their labor a certain amount of food, (that amount) will be food for a number of people many times their own."
فالأعمال بعد الاجتماع زائدة على حاجات العاملين وضروراتهم. فأهل مدينة أو مصر إذا وزعت أعمالهم كلها على مقدار ضروراتهم وحاجاتهم اكتفي فيها بالأقل من تلك الأعمال وبقيت الأعمال كلها زائدة على الضرورات,"The combined labor produces more than the needs and necessities of the workers. If the labor of the inhabitants of a town or city is distributed in accordance with the necessities and needs of those inhabitants, a minimum of that labor will suffice. The labor (available) is more than is needed."
فتصرف في حالات الترف وعوائده وما يحتاج إليه غيرهم من أهل الأمصار ويستجلبونه منهم بأعواضه وقيمه فيكون لهم بذلك حظ من الغنى,"Consequently, it is spent to provide the conditions and customs of luxury and to satisfy the needs of the inhabitants of other cities. They import (the things they need) from (people who have a surplus) through exchange or purchase. Thus, the (people who have a surplus) get a good deal of wealth."
وقد تبين لك في الفصل الخامس في باب الكسب والرزق أن المكاسب إنما هي قيم الأعمال فإذا كثرت الأعمال كثرت قيمها بينهم فكثرت مكاسبهم ضرورة,"It will become clear in the fifth chapter, which deals with profit and sustenance, that profit is the value realized from labor. When there is more labor, the value realized from it increases among the (people). Thus, their profit of necessity increases."
ودعتهم أحوال الرفه والغنى إلى الترف وحاجاته من التأنق في المساكن والملابس واستجادة الآنية والماعون واتخاذ الخدم والمراكب وهذه كلها أعمال تستدعى بقيمها ويختار المهرة في صناعتها والقيام عليها,"The prosperity and wealth they enjoy leads them to luxury and the things that go with it, such as splendid houses and clothes, fine vessels and utensils, and the use of servants and mounts. All these (things) involve activities that require their price [?],and skillful people must be chosen to do them and be in charge of them."
فتنفق أسواق الأعمال والصنائع ويكثر دخل المصر وخرجه ويحصل اليسار لمنتحلي ذلك من قبل أعمالهم.,"As a consequence, industry and the crafts thrive. The income and the expenditure of the city increase. Affluence comes to those who work and produce these things by their labor."
ومتى زاد العمران زادت الأعمال ثانية ثم زاد الترف تابعا للكسب وزادت عوائده وحاجاته. واستنبطت الصنائع لتحصيلها فزادت قيمها وتضاعف الكسب في المدينة لذلك ثانية ونفقت سوق الأعمال بها أكثر من الأول.,"When civilization (population) increases, the (available) labor again increases. In turn, luxury again increases in correspondence with the increasing profit, and the customs and needs of luxury increase. Crafts are created to obtain (luxury products). The value realized from them increases, and, as a result, profits are again multiplied in the town. Production there is thriving even more than before."
وكذا في الزيادة الثانية والثالثة لأن الأعمال الزائدة كلها تختص بالترف والغنى بخلاف الأعمال الأصلية التي تختص بالمعاش.,"And so it goes with the second and third increase. All the additional labor serves luxury and wealth, in contrast to the original labor that served (the necessities of) life."
فالمصر إذا فضل بعمران واحد ففضله بزيادة كسب ورفه بعوائد من الترف لا توجد في الآخر فما كان عمرانه من الأمصار أكثر وأوفر كان حال أهله في الترف أبلغ من حال المصر الذي دونه,"The city that is superior to another in one (aspect of) civilization (that is, in population), becomes superior to it also by its increased profit and prosperity and by its customs of luxury which are not found in the other city. The more numerous and the more abundant the civilization (population) in a city, the more luxurious is the life of its inhabitants in comparison with that (of the inhabitants) of a lesser city."
على وتيرة واحدة في الأصناف. القاضي مع القاضي والتاجر مع التاجر والصانع مع الصانع والسوقي مع السوقي والأمير مع الأمير والشرطي مع الشرطي.,"This applies equally to all levels of the population, to the judges (of the one city) compared with the judges (of the other city), to the merchants (of the one city) compared with the merchants (of the other city), and, as with the judges and merchants, so with the artisans, the small businessmen, amirs, and policemen."
واعتبر ذلك في المغرب مثلا بحال فاس مع غيرها من أمصاره مثل بجاية وتلمسان وسبتة تجد بينهما بونا كثيرا على الجملة. ثم على الخصوصيات فحال القاضي بفاس أوسع من حال القاضي بتلمسان وهكذا كل صنف مع صنف أهله.,"This may be exemplified, for instance, in the Maghrib, by comparing the situation of Fez with other Maghribi cities, such as Bougie, Tlemcen, and Ceuta. A wide difference, both in general and in detail, will be found to exist between (them and Fez). The situation of a judge in Fez is better than that of a judge in Tlemcen, and the same is the case with all other population groups."
وكذا أيضا حال تلمسان مع وهران أو الجزائر وحال وهران والجزائر مع ما دونهما إلى أن تنتهي إلى المدر الذين اعتمالهم في ضروريات معاشهم فقط ويقصرون عنها.,"The same difference exists between Tlemcen on the one hand and Oran or Algiers on the other, and between Oran or Algiers and lesser cities, until one gets down to the hamlets where people have only the necessities of life through their labor, or not even enough of them."
وما ذلك إلا لتفاوت الأعمال فيها فكأنها كلها أسواق للأعمال.,The only reason for this is the difference in the labor (available) in (the different cities).
والخرج في كل سوق على نسبته فالقاضي بفاس دخله كفاء خرجه وكذا القاضي بتلمسان,"They all are a sort of market for their labor (products), and the money spent in each market corresponds to (the volume of business done in it). The income of a judge in Fez suffices for his expenditures, and the same is the case with a judge in Tlemcen."
وحيث الدخل والخرج أكثر تكون الأحوال أعظم وهما بفاس أكثر لنفاق سوق الأعمال بما يدعو إليه الترف فالأحوال أضخم.,"Wherever income and expenditure (combined) are greater, conditions are better and more favorable. (Income and expenditure) are greater in Fez, since its production thrives because of luxury requirements (there). Therefore, greater opulence exists (in Fez)."
ثم هكذا حال وهران وقسنطينية والجزائر وبسكرة حتى تنتهي كما قلناه إلى الأمصار التي لا توفي أعمالها بضروراتها ولا تعد في الأمصار إذ هي من قبيل القرى والمدر.,"The same applies to Oran, Constantine, Algiers, and Biskra, until, as we have stated, one gets down to the cities whose labor does not pay for their necessities. They cannot be considered cities. They belong to the category of villages and hamlets."
فلذلك تجد أهل هذه الأمصار الصغيرة ضعفاء الأحوال متقاربين في الفقر والخصاصة لما أن أعمالهم لا تفي بضروراتهم ولا يفضل ما يتأثلونه كسبا فلا تنمو مكاسبهم. وهم لذلك مساكين محاويج إلا في الأقل النادر.,"Therefore, the inhabitants of such small cities are found to be in a weak position and all equally poor and indigent, because their labor does not pay for their necessities and does not yield them a surplus which they can accumulate as profit. They have no increasing profit. Thus, with very few exceptions, they are poor and needy."
واعتبر ذلك حتى في أحوال الفقراء والسؤال فإن السائل بفاس أحسن حالا من السائل بتلمسان أو وهران. ولقد شاهدت بفاس السؤال يسألون أيام الأضاحي أثمان ضحاياهم,"This can (even) be exemplified by the condition of the poor and the beggars. A beggar in Fez is better off than a beggar in Tlemcen or Oran. I observed beggars in Fez who, at the time of the sacrifices (of the `Id festival), begged for enough to buy their sacrificial animals."
ورأيتهم يسألون كثيرا من أحوال الترف واقتراح المآكل مثل سؤال اللحم والسمن وعلاج الطبخ والملابس والماعون كالغربال والآنية.,"I saw them beg for many kinds of luxuries and delicacies such as meat, butter, cooked dishes, garments, and utensils, such as sieves and vessels."
ولو سأل سائل مثل هذا بتلمسان أو وهران لاستنكر وعنف وزجر.,"If a beggar were to ask for such things in Tlemcen or Oran, he would be considered with disapproval and treated harshly and chased away."
ويبلغنا لهذا العهد عن أحوال القاهرة ومصر من الترف والغنى في عوائدهم ما يقضى منه العجب حتى أن كثيرا من الفقراء بالمغرب ينزعون من الثقلة إلى مصر لذلك ولما يبلغهم من شأن الرفه بمصر أعظم من غيرها.,"At this time, we hear astonishing things about conditions in Cairo and Egypt as regards luxury and wealth in the customs of the inhabitants there. Many of the poor in the Maghrib even want to move to Egypt on account of that and because they hear that prosperity in Egypt is greater than anywhere else."
ويعتقد العامة من الناس أن ذلك لزيادة إيثار في أهل تلك الآفاق على غيرهم أو أموال مختزنة لديهم. وأنهم أكثر صدقة وإيثارا من جميع أهل الأمصار,"The common people believe that this is so because property is abundant in those regions, and (their inhabitants) have much property hoarded, and are more charitable and bountiful than the inhabitants of any other city."
وليس كذلك وإنما هو لما تعرفه من أن عمران مصر والقاهرة أكثر من عمران هذه الأمصار التي لديك فعظمت لذلك أحوالهم.,"(However,) this is not so, but, as one knows, the reason is that the civilization (population) of Egypt and Cairo is larger than that of any other city one might think of. Therefore, (the inhabitants of Egypt) enjoy better (living) conditions."
وأما حال الدخل والخرج فمتكافئ في جميع الأمصار ومتى عظم الدخل عظم الخرج وبالعكس ومتى عظم الدخل والخرج اتسعت أحوال الساكن ووسع المصر.,"Income and expenditure balance each other in every city. If the income is large, the expenditure is large, and vice versa. And if both income and expenditure are large, the inhabitants become more favorably situated, and the city grows."
كل شيء يبلغك من مثل هذا فلا تنكره واعتبره بكثرة العمران وما يكون عنه من كثرة المكاسبة التي يسهل بسببها البذل والإيثار على مبتغيه ومثله بشأن الحيوانات العجم مع بيوت المدينة الواحدة وكيف تختلف أحوالها في هجرانها أو غشيانها,"No (phenomenon) of this sort one may hear about should be denied, but all these things should be understood to be the result of much civilization and the resulting great profits which facilitate spending and giving bounties to those who ask for them. This might be compared with the difference existing in one and the same town with regard to the houses dumb animals keep away from or frequent."
فإن بيوت أهل النعم والثروة والموائد الخصبة منها تكثر بساحتها وأقنيتها بنثر الحبوب وسواقط الفتات فيزدحم عليها غواشي النمل والخشاش ويلحق فوقها عصائب الطيور حتى تروح بطانا وتمتلئ شبعا وريا,"The premises and courtyards of the houses of the prosperous and wealthy (inhabitants of the town), who set a good table and where grain and bread crumbs lie scattered around, are frequented by swarms of ants and insects. There are many large rats in their cellars, and cats repair to them. Flocks of birds circle over them and eventually leave, satiated and full with food and drink."
"وبيوت أهل الخصاصة والفقراء الكاسدة أرزاقهم لا يسري بساحتها دبيب ولا يحلق بجوها طائر ولا تأوي إلى زوايا بيوتهم فارة ولا هرة كما قال الشاعر:
تسقط الطير حيث تلتقط الحب *** وتغشى منازل الكرماء","(But) in the premises of the houses of the indigent and the poor who have little sustenance, no insect crawls about and no bird hovers in the air, and no rat or cat takes refuge in the cellars of such houses, for, as (the poet) said: The bird swoops down where there is grain to pick up And frequents the mansions of noble (generous) persons."
فتأمل سر الله تعالى في ذلك واعتبر غاشية الأناسي بغاشية العجم من الحيوانات وفتات الموائد بفضلات الرزق والترف وسهولتها على من يبذلها لاستغنائهم عنها في الأكثر لوجود أمثالها لديهم,"God’s secret (plan) in this respect should be scrutinized. One may compare the swarms of human beings with the swarms of dumb animals, and the crumbs from tables with the surplus of sustenance and luxury and the ease with which it can be given away by the people who have it, because as a rule they can do without it, since they have more of it."
واعلم أن اتساع الأحوال وكثرة النعم في العمران تابع لكثرته,It should be known that favorable conditions and much prosperity in civilization are the results of its large size.
والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم وهو غني عن العالمين,“God has no need of the worlds.”
الفصل الثاني عشر في أسعار المدن,12. Prices in towns.
اعلم أن الأسواق كلها تشتمل على حاجات الناس فمنها الضروري وهي الأقوات من الحنطة وما معناها كالباقلاء والبصل والثوم وأشباهه,"It should be known that all markets cater to the needs of people. Some of these needs are necessities, foodstuffs, for instance, such as wheat and barley; corresponding foods, such as beans, chick-peas, peas, and other edible grains; and wholesome foods such as onions, garlic, and the like."
ومنها الحاجي والكمالي مثل الأدم والفواكه والملابس والماعون والمراكب وسائر المصانع والمباني,"Other things are conveniences or luxuries, such as seasonings, fruits, clothes, utensils, mounts, all the crafts, and buildings."
فإذا استبحر المصر وكثر ساكنه رخصت أسعار الضروري من القوت وما في معناه وغلت أسعار الكمالي من الأدم والفواكه وما يتبعها وإذا قل ساكن المصر وضعف عمرانه كان الأمر بالعكس من ذلك.,"When a city is highly developed and has many inhabitants, the prices of necessary foodstuffs and corresponding items are low, and the prices for luxuries, such as seasonings, fruits, and the things that go with them, are high. When the inhabitants of a city are few and its civilization weak, the opposite is the case."
والسبب في ذلك أن الحبوب من ضرورات القوت فتتوفر الدواعي على اتخاذها إذ كل أحد لا يهمل قوت نفسه ولا قوت منزله لشهره أو سنته فيعم اتخاذها أهل المصر أجمع أو الأكثر منهم في ذلك المصر أو فيما قرب منه لا بد من ذلك.,"The reason for this is that the different kinds of grains belong among the necessary foodstuffs. The demand for them, therefore, is very large. Nobody would neglect (to provide for) his own food or that of his establishment for a month or a year. Thus, the procurement of (grain) concerns the entire population of a city, or the largest part of them, both in the city itself and in its environs. This is inevitable."
وكل متخذ لقوته فتفضل عنه وعن أهل بيته فضلة كبيرة تسد خلة كثيرين من أهل ذلك المصر فتفضل الأقوات عن أهل المصر من غير شك فترخص أسعارها في الغالب إلا ما يصيبها في بعض السنين من الآفات السماوية,"Everybody who procures food for himself has a great surplus beyond his own and his family’s needs. This surplus is able to satisfy the needs of many of the inhabitants of that particular city. No doubt, then, the inhabitants of a city have more food than they need. Consequently, the price of food is low, as a rule, except when misfortunes occur due to celestial conditions that may affect (the supply of) food in certain years."
ولولا احتكار الناس لها لما يتوقع من تلك الآفات لبذلت دون ثمن ولا عوض لكثرتها بكثرة العمران.,"If people did not have to store food against such possible mishaps, it could be given away entirely gratis, since it would be plentiful because of the large civilization (population of the city)."
وأما سائر المرافق من الأدم والفواكه وما إليها لا تعم بها البلوى ولا يستغرق اتخاذها أعمال أهل المصر أجمعين ولا الكثير منهم,"All other conveniences, such as seasonings, fruits, and whatever else belongs to them, are not matters of general concern. Their procurement does not engage the labor of all the inhabitants of a city or the largest part of them."
ثم إن المصر إذا كان مستبحرا موفور العمران كثير حاجات الترف توفرت حينئذ الدواعي على طلب تلك المرافق والاستكثار منها كل بحسب حاله,"Then, when a city has a highly developed, abundant civilization and is full of luxuries, there is a very large demand for those conveniences and for having as many of them as a person can expect in view of his situation."
فيقصر الموجود منها على الحاجات قصورا بالغا ويكثر المستامون لها وهي قليلة في نفسها فتزدحم أهل الأغراض ويبذل أهل الرفه والترف أثمانها بإسراف في الغلاء لحاجتهم إليها أكثر من غيرهم فيقع فيها الغلاء كما تراه.,"This results in a very great shortage of such things. Many will bid for them, but they will be in short supply. They will be needed for many purposes, and prosperous people used to luxuries will pay exorbitant prices for them, because they need them more than others. Thus, as one can see, prices come to be high."
وأما الصنائع والأعمال أيضا في الأمصار الموفورة العمران فسبب الغلاء فيها أمور ثلاثة: الأول كثرة الحاجة لمكان الترف في المصر بكثرة عمرانه،,"Crafts and labor also are expensive in cities with an abundant civilization. There are three reasons for this. First, there is much need (of them), because of the place luxury occupies in the city on account of the (city’s) large civilization."
والثاني اعتزاز أهل الأعمال لخدمتهم وامتهان أنفسهم لسهولة المعاش في المدينة بكثرة أقواتها، والثالث كثرة المترفين وكثرة حاجاتهم إلى امتهان غيرهم وإلى استعمال الصناع في مهنهم,"Second, industrial workers place a high value on their services and employment, (for they do not have to work) since life is easy in a town because of the abundance of food there. Third, the number of people with money to waste is great, and these people have many needs for which they have to employ the services of others and have to use many workers and their skills."
فيبذلون في ذلك لأهل الأعمال أكثر من قيمة أعمالهم مزاحمة ومنافسة في الاستئثار بها فيعتز العمال والصناع وأهل الحرف وتغلو أعمالهم وتكثر نفقات أهل المصر في ذلك.,"Therefore, they pay more for (the services of) workers than their labor is (ordinarily considered) worth, because there is competition for (their services) and the wish to have exclusive use of them. Thus, workers, craftsmen, and professional people become arrogant, their labor becomes expensive, and the expenditures of the inhabitants of the city for these things increase."
وأما الأمصار الصغيرة والقليلة الساكن فأقواتهم قليلة لقلة العمل فيها وما يتوقعونه لصغر مصرهم من عدم القوت فيتمسكون بما يحصل منه في أيديهم ويحتكرونه فيعز وجوده لديهم ويغلو ثمنه على مستامه.,"Foodstuffs in small cities that have few inhabitants are few, because (these cities) have a small (supply) of labor and because, in view of the small size of the city, the people fear food shortages. Therefore, they hold on to (the food) that comes into their hands and store it. It thus becomes something precious to them, and those who want to buy it have to pay higher prices."
وأما مرافقهم فلا تدعو إليها أيضا حاجة بقلة الساكن وضعف الأحوال فلا تنفق لديهم سوقه فيختص بالرخص في سعره.,"(Oh the other hand,) they also have no demand for conveniences, because the inhabitants are few and their condition is weak. Little business is done by them, and the prices there, consequently, become particularly low."
وقد يدخل أيضا في قيمة الأقوات قيمة ما يعرض عليها من المكوس والمغارم للسلطان في الأسواق وباب الحفر والحياة في منافع وصولها عن البيوعات لما يمسهم.,"Customs duties and other duties that are levied on (foods) in the markets and at the city gates on behalf of the ruler, and that tax collectors levy on profits from business transactions in their own interest, enter into the price of foodstuffs."
وبذلك كانت الأسعار في الأمصار أغلى من الأسعار في البادية إذ المكوس والمغارم والفرائض قليلة لديهم أو معدومة. وكثرتها في الأنصار لا سيما في آخر الدولة,"Prices in cities, thus, are higher than prices in the desert, because customs duties and other duties and levies are few or non-existent among (the Bedouins), while the opposite is the case in cities, especially in the later (years) of a dynasty."
وقد تدخل أيضا في قيمة الأقوات قيمة علاجها في الفلح ويحافظ على ذلك في أسعارها كما وقع بالأندلس لهذا العهد.,The cost of agricultural labor also enters into the price of foodstuffs. It is reflected in these prices. This has happened in Spain at the present time.
وذلك أنهم لما ألجأهم النصارى إلى سيف البحر وبلاده المتوعرة الخبيثة الزارعة النكدة النبات وملكوا عليهم الأرض الزاكية والبلد الطيب فاحتاجوا إلى علاج المزارع والفدن لإصلاح نباتها وفلحها,"The Christians pushed the Muslims back to the seacoast and the rugged territory there, where (the soil) is poor for the cultivation of grain and little suited for (the growth of) vegetables. They themselves took possession of the fine soil and the good land. Thus, (the Muslims) had to treat the fields and tracts of land, in order to improve the plants and agriculture there."
وكان ذلك العلاج بأعمال ذات قيم ومواد من الزبل وغيره لها مؤنة وصارت في فلحهم نفقات لها خطر فاعتبروها في سعرهم. واختص قطر الأندلس بالغلاء منذ اضطرهم النصارى إلى هذا المعمور بالإسلام مع سواحلها لأجل ذلك.,"This treatment required expensive labor (products) and materials, such as fertilizer and other things that had to be procured. Thus, their agricultural activities required considerable expenditures. They calculated these expenditures in fixing their prices, and thus Spain has become an especially expensive region, ever since the Christians forced (the Muslims) to withdraw to the Muslim-held coastal regions, for the reason mentioned."
ويحسب الناس إذا سمعوا بغلاء الأسعار في قطرهم أنها لقلة الأقوات والحبوب في أرضهم وليس كذلك فهم أكثر أهل المعمور فلحا فيما علمناه وأقومهم عليه وقل أن يخلو منهم سلطان أو سوقة عن فدان أو مزرعة أو فلح,"When they hear about the high prices in (Spain), people think that they are caused by the small amount of foodstuffs and grain in the country. This is not so. As we know, the (people of Spain), of all civilized people, are the ones most devoted to agriculture. It rarely happens among them that a man in authority or an ordinary person has no tract of land or field, or does not do some farming."
إلا قليلا من أهل الصناعات والمهن أو الطراء على الوطن من الغزاة المجاهدين. ولهذا يختصهم السلطان في عطائهم بالعولة وهي أقواتهم وعلوفاتهم من الزرع.,"The only exceptions are a few craftsmen and professional people, or fighters in the holy war who are newcomers to the country. The ruler, therefore, includes in the allowances these men receive, rations consisting of the grain they (need) for food and for fodder."
وإنما السبب في غلاء سعر الحبوب عندهم ما ذكرناه. ولما كانت بلاد البربر بالعكس من ذلك في زكاء منابتهم وطيب أرضهم ارتفعت عنهم المؤن جملة في الفلح مع كثرته وعمومته فصار ذلك سببا لرخص الأقوات ببلدهم,"The reason for the high prices in (Spain) of the various kinds of grain is the one we have stated. The Berber countries are in the contrary position. Their fields are fine and their soil is good. Therefore, they did not have to procure anything (from outside) in order to be able to cultivate agriculture, which is widely and generally practiced there. This is the reason for the cheapness of foodstuffs in their country."
«والله مقدر الليل والنهار وهو الواحد القهار لا رب سواه».,God determines night and day.
الفصل الثالث عشر في قصور أهل البادية عن سكنى المصر الكثير العمران,13. Bedouins are unable to settle in a city with a large civilization (population).
والسبب في ذلك أن المصر الكثير العمران يكثر ترفه كما قدمناه وتكثر حاجات ساكنه من أجل الترف. وتعتاد تلك الحاجات لما يدعو إليها فتنقلب ضرورات,"The reason for this is that luxury increases in a city with a large civilization, as we have stated before. The needs of the inhabitants increase on account of the luxury. Because of the demand for (luxury articles), they become customary, and thus come to be necessities."
وتصير فيه الأعمال كلها مع ذلك عزيزة والمرافق غالية بازدحام الأعراض عليها من أجل الترف وبالمغارم السلطانية التي توضع على الأسواق والبياعات وتعتبر في قيم المبيعات ويعظم فيها الغلاء في المرافق والأوقات والأعمال,"In addition, all labor becomes precious in the city, and the conveniences become expensive, because there are many purposes for which they are in demand in view of the prevailing luxury and because the government makes levies on market and business transactions. This is reflected in the sales prices. Conveniences, foodstuffs, and labor thus become very expensive."
فتكثر لذلك نفقات ساكنه كثرة بالغة على نسبة عمرانه. ويعظم خرجه فيحتاج حينئذ إلى المال الكثير للنفقة على نفسه وعياله في ضرورات عيشهم وسائر مئونتهم.,"As a result, the expenditures of the inhabitants increase tremendously in proportion to the civilization of (the city). A great deal of money is spent. Under these circumstances, (people) need a great deal of money for expenditures, to procure the necessities of life for themselves and their families, as well as all their other requirements."
والبدوي لم يكن دخله كثيرا ساكنا بمكان كاسد الأسواق في الأعمال التي هي سبب الكسب فلم يتأثل كسبا ولا مالا فيتعذر عليه من أجل ذلك سكنى المصر الكبير لغلاء مرافقه وعزة حاجاته.,"The income of the Bedouins, on the other hand, is not large, because they live where there is little demand for labor, and labor is the cause of profit. Bedouins, therefore, do not accumulate any profit or property. For this reason, it is difficult for them to settle in a big city, because conveniences there are (many) and things to buy are dear."
وهو في بدوه يسد خلته بأقل الأعمال لأنه قليل عوائد الترف في معاشه وسائر مئونته فلا يضطر إلى المال وكل من يتشوف إلى المصر وسكناه من البادية فسريعا ما يظهر عجزه ويفتضح في استيطانه,"In the desert, (the Bedouins) can satisfy their needs with a minimum of labor, because in their lives they are little used to luxuries and all their requirements. They are not, therefore, obliged to have property. Every Bedouin who is attracted to city life quickly shows himself unable (to compete) and is disgraced."
إلا من يقدم منهم تأثل المال ويحصل له منه فوق الحاجة ويجري إلى الغاية الطبيعية لأهل العمران من الدعة والترف فحينئذ ينتقل إلى المصر وينتظم حاله مع أحوال أهله في عوائدهم وترفهم. وهكذا شأن بداءة عمران الأمصار.,"The only exceptions are such (Bedouins) as have previously accumulated property and obtained more of it than they needed and therefore achieved the amount of tranquility and luxury that is natural to civilized people. They, then, may move to a city, and their condition, as regards customs and luxury, can blend with that of its inhabitants. This is the way the civilization of cities begins."
والله بكل شيء محيط.,God “comprises every thing.”
الفصل الرابع عشر في أن الأقطار في اختلاف أحوالها بالرفه والفقر مثل الأمصار,14. Differences with regard to prosperity and poverty are the same in countries as in cities.
اعلم أن ما توفر عمرانه من الأقطار وتعددت الأمم في جهاته وكثر ساكنه اتسعت أحوال أهله وكثرت أموالهم وأمصارهم وعظمت دولهم وممالكهم.,It should be known that the condition of the inhabitants in regions that have an abundant civilization and contain numerous nations and many inhabitants is favorable. They have much property and many cities. Their dynasties and realms are large.
والسبب في ذلك كله ما ذكرناه من كثرة الأعمال وما سيأتي ذكره من أنها سبب للثروة بما يفضل عنها بعد الوفاء بالضروريات في حاجات الساكن من الفضلة البالغة على مقدار العمران وكثرته فيعود على الناس كسبا يتأثلونه حسبما نذكر ذلك في فضل المعاش وبيان الرزق والكسب,"The reason for all this is the aforementioned great amount of (available) labor and the fact, which we shall mention later on, that it brings wealth. A great surplus of products remains after the necessities of the inhabitants have been satisfied. (This surplus) provides for a population far beyond the size and extent of the (actual one), and comes back to the people as profit that they can accumulate, as we shall mention in the chapter on (the ways of) making a living and the explanation of sustenance and profit."
فيتزيد الرفه لذلك وتتسع الأحوال ويجيء الترف والغنى وتكثر الجباية للدولة بنفاق الأسواق فيكثر مالها ويشمخ سلطانها وتتفنن في اتخاذ المعاقل والحصون واختطاط المدن وتشييد الأمصار.,"Prosperity, thus, increases, and conditions become favorable. There is luxury and wealth. The tax revenues of the ruling dynasty increase on account of business prosperity. Its property increases, and its authority grows. It comes to use fortresses and castles, to found towns, and to construct cities."
واعتبر ذلك بأقطار المشرق مثل مصر والشام وعراق العجم والهند والصين وناحية الشمال كلها وأقطارها وراء البحر الرومي لما كثر عمرانها كيف كثر المال فيهم وعظمت دولتهم وتعددت مدنهم وحواضرهم وعظمت متاجرهم وأحوالهم.,"This may be exemplified by the eastern regions, such as Egypt, Syria, the non-Arab ‘Iraq, India, China, and the whole northern region, beyond the Mediterranean. When their civilization increased, the property of the inhabitants increased, and their dynasties became great. Their towns and settlements became numerous, and their commerce and conditions improved."
فالذي نشاهده لهذا العهد من أحوال تجار الأمم النصرانية الواردين على المسلمين بالمغرب في رفههم واتساع أحوالهم أكثر من أن يحيط به الوصف.,"At this time, we can observe the condition of the merchants of the Christian nations who come to the Muslims in the Maghrib. Their prosperity and affluence cannot be fully described because it is so great."
وكذا تجار أهل المشرق وما يبلغنا عن أحوالهم وأبلغ منها أهل المشرق الأقصى من عراق العجم والهند والصين فإنه يبلغنا عنهم في باب الغنى والرفه غرائب تسير الركبان بحديثها وربما تتلقى بالإنكار في غالب الأمر.,"The same applies to the merchants from the East and what we hear about their conditions, and even more so to the Far Eastern merchants from the countries of the non-Arab ‘Iraq, India, and China. We hear remarkable stories reported by travelers about their wealth and prosperity. These stories are usually received with skepticism."
ويحسب من يسمعها من العامة أن ذلك لزيادة في أموالهم أو لأن المعادن الذهبية والفضية أكثر بأرضهم أو لأن ذهب الأقدمين من الأمم استأثروا به دون غيرهم وليس كذلك,"The common people who hear them think that the prosperity of these peoples is the result of the greater amount of property owned by them, or of the existence of gold and silver mines in their country in larger number (than elsewhere), or of the fact that they, to the exclusion of others; appropriated the gold of the ancient nations. This is not so."
فمعدن الذهب الذي نعرفه في هذه الأقطار إنما هو من بلاد  السودان وهي إلى المغرب أقرب.,"The only gold mine about whose existence in these regions we have information, lies in the Sudan country, which is nearer to the Maghrib (than to any other country)."
وجميع ما في أرضهم من البضاعة فإنما يجلبونه إلى غير بلادهم للتجارة. فلو كان المال عتيدا موفورا لديهم لما جلبوا بضائعهم إلى سواهم يبتغون بها الأموال ولا استغنوا عن أموال الناس بالجملة.,"Furthermore, all the merchandise that is in their country is exported by them for commerce. If they possessed ready property in abundance, they would not export their merchandise in search of money, and they would have altogether no need of other people’s property."
ولقد ذهب المنجمون لما رأوا مثل ذلك واستغربوا ما في المشرق من كثرة الأحوال واتساعها ووفور أموالها فقالوا بأن عطايا الكواكب والسهام في مواليد المشرق أكثر منها حصصا في مواليد أهل المغرب,Astrologers have noticed this and been amazed by the favorable conditions and abundance of property in the East. They came and said that the gifts of the stars and the shares (of good fortune) were larger in the nativities of the East than in the nativities of the West.
وذلك صحيح من جهة المطابقة بين الأحكام النجومية والأحوال الأرضية كما قلناه وهم إنما أعطوا في ذلك السبب النجومي وبقي عليهم أن يعطوا السبب الأرضي وهو ما ذكرناه من كثرة العمران واختصاصه بأرض المشرق وأقطاره,"This is correct from the point of view of the correspondence between astrological judgments and terrestrial conditions, as we have stated. But astrologers give us only the astrological reason. They ought also to give us the terrestrial reason. The (terrestrial reason) is the large extent and concentration of civilization in the eastern regions, as we have mentioned."
وكثرة العمران تفيد كثرة الكسب بكثرة الأعمال التي هي سببه فلذلك اختص المشرق بالرفه من بين الآفاق لا إن ذلك لمجرد الأثر النجومي. فقد فهمت مما أشرنا لك أولا أنه لا يستقبل بذلك وأن المطابقة بين حكمه وعمران الأرض وطبيعتها أمر لا بد منه.,"A large civilization yields large profits because of the large amount of (available) labor, which is the cause of (profit). Therefore, the East enjoys more prosperity than all other regions. This is not exclusively the result of the influence of the stars. Our previous indications have made it clear that the influence of the stars cannot produce such a result all by itself. The (existence of a) correspondence between astrological judgments and terrestrial civilization and nature is something inevitable."
واعتبر حال هذا الرفه من العمران في قطر إفريقية وبرقة لما خف سكنها وتناقص عمرانها كيف تلاشت أحوال أهلها وانتهوا إلى الفقر والخصاصة.,"The relationship between prosperity and civilization may be exemplified by the regions of Ifriqiyah and Barca (Barqah). When their population decreased and their civilization shrank, the condition of their inhabitants decayed. They became poor and indigent."
وضعفت جباياتها فقلت أموال دولها بعد أن كانت دول الشيعة وصنهاجة بها على ما بلغك من الرفه وكثرة الجبايات واتساع الأحوال في نفقاتهم وأعطياتهم.,"The tax revenues from (the region) decreased. The property of the dynasties that ruled there became small. Formerly, the Shi’ah (Fatimid) and Sinhajah (Zirid) dynasties had enjoyed a well-known prosperity and large tax revenues. They had been able to spend a great deal and pay large allowances."
حتى لقد كانت الأموال ترفع من القيروان إلى صاحب مصر لحاجاته ومهماته وكانت أموال الدولة بحيث حمل جوهر الكاتب في سفره إلى فتح مصر ألف حمل من المال يستعد بها لأرزاق الجنود وأعطياتهم ونفقات الغزاة.,"This went so far that, most of the time, money was brought from al-Qayrawan to the ruler of Egypt for his needs and important business. The property of the dynasty was so extensive that Jawhar al-Katib carried with him, on his expedition to conquer Egypt, one thousand loads of money from which he paid the salaries and allowances of the soldiers and the expenditures of the raiders."
وقطر المغرب وإن كان في القديم دون إفريقية فلم يكن بالقليل في ذلك وكانت أحواله في دول الموحدين متسعة وجباياته موفورة وهو لهذا العهد قد أقصر عن ذلك لقصور العمران فيه وتناقصه,"The region of the Maghrib was inferior to Ifriqiyah in ancient times. Still, it had no little (wealth). During the Almohad dynasty, its condition was favorable and its revenues abundant. At this time, the Maghrib has gone down in this respect because of the decrease and shrinkage of civilization there."
فقد ذهب من عمران البربر فيه أكثره ونقص عن معهوده نقصا ظاهرا محسوسا، وكاد أن يلحق في أحواله بمثل أحوال إفريقية بعد أن كان عمرانه متصلا من البحر الرومي إلى بلاد السودان في طول ما بين السوس الأقصى وبرقة.,"Most of the Berber civilization (population) there is gone, and has obviously and palpably become inferior to what it used to be. Its condition has almost become similar to that of Ifriqiyah. Formerly, its civilization had extended from the Mediterranean to the Sudan country between the longitude(s) of as-Sus in the far West (in Morocco) and Barca (Barqah)."
وهي اليوم كلها أو أكثرها قفار وخلاء وصحارى إلا ما هو منها بسيف البحر أو ما يقاربه من التلول,"Today, all or most of it is a waste, empty, and desert area, except for the coastal regions or the hills near it."
والله وارث الأرض ومن عليها وهو خير الوارثين.,God inherits the earth and whomever is upon it. He is the best heir.
الفصل الخامس عشر في تأثل العقار والضياع في الأمصار وحال فوائدها ومستغلاتها,15. The accumulation of estates and farms in cities. Their uses and yields.
اعلم أن تأثل العقار والضياع الكثيرة لأهل الأمصار والمدن لا يكون دفعة واحدة ولا في عصر واحد إذ ليس يكون لأحد منهم من الثروة ما يملك به الأملاك التي تخرج قيمتها عن الحد ولو بلغت أحوالهم في الرفه ما عسى أن تبلغ.,"It should be known that the accumulation of numerous estates and farms by the inhabitants of towns and cities does not come all at once and not at one time. No one person would have enough wealth to acquire limitless (real) property. Even if prosperity were as great as possible, the acquisition and accumulation of (real) property would be gradual."
وإنما يكون ملكهم وتأثلهم لها تدريجا إما بالوراثة من آبائه وذوي رحمه حتى تتأدى أملاك الكثيرين منهم إلى الواحد وأكثر لذلك أو أن يكون بحوالة الأسواق,"It may come about through inheritance from one’s forefathers and blood relatives, so that eventually the property of many comes to one person, who thus possesses much. Or it may be through fluctuation in the (real estate) market."
فإن العقار في آخر الدولة وأول الأخرى عند فناء الحامية وخرق السياج وتداعي المصر إلى الخراب تقل الغبطة به لقلة المنفعة فيها بتلاشي الأحوال فترخص قيمها وتتملك بالأثمان اليسيرة وتتخطى بالميراث إلى ملك آخر,"When one dynasty ends and another begins, the militia vanishes. There is no protection, and the city collapses and is ruined. At that time, (the possession of) real estate does not make a person happy, because it is of little use in the general upheaval. (Real estate) values fall, and (real estate) can be acquired for low prices. It then passes through inheritance into the possession of someone else."
وقد استجد المصر شبابه باستفحال الدولة الثانية وانتظمت له أحوال رائقة حسنة تحصل معها الغبطة في العقار والضياع لكثرة منافعها حينئذ فتعظم قيمها ويكون لها خطر لم يكن في الأول.,"(By that time,) the city has regained its youthful vigor as the new dynasty flourishes, and conditions in it are in excellent shape. The result is that one may be happy with the possession of estates and farms, because they will then be very useful. Their value increases, and they assume an importance they did not have before."
وهذا معنى الحوالة فيها ويصبح مالكها من أغنى أهل المصر وليس ذلك بسعيه واكتسابه إذ قدرته تعجز عن مثل ذلك.,"This is the meaning of “fluctuation in (the real estate market).” The owner of (real estate) now turns out to be one of the wealthiest men in the city. That is not the result of his own effort and business activity, because he would be unable to achieve such a thing by himself."
وأما فوائد العقار والضياع فهي غير كافية لمالكها في حاجات معاشه إذ هي لا تفي بعوائد الترف وأسبابه وإنما هي في الغالب لسد الخلة وضرورة المعاش.,"Estates and farms do not yield their owner a sufficient income for his needs. (The income from them) will not pay for the customs of luxury and the things that go with it. As a rule, it serves only to help provide for the necessities of life."
والذي سمعناه من مشيخة البلدان أن القصد باقتناء الملك من العقار والضياع إنما هو الخشية على من يترك خلفه من الذرية الضعفاء ليكون مرباهم به ورزقه فيه ونشؤهم بفائدته ما داموا عاجزين عن الاكتساب,"We have heard from scholars that the motive in the acquisition of estates and farms is a concern for the helpless children a person may leave behind. Income from (the real estate) is to serve the purpose of providing for their education, care, and upbringing, as long as they are unable to earn their own living."
فإذا اقتدروا على تحصيل المكاسب سعوا فيها بأنفسهم وربما يكون من الولد من يعجز عن التكسب لضعف في بدنه أو آفة في عقله المعاشي فيكون ذلك العقار قواما لحاله.,"When they are able to earn their own living, they will do it by themselves. (But) there often are children who are unable to earn their own living because of some weakness of the body or some defect in (the part of) the mind that provides the ability to make a living. The real property then becomes their support."
هذا قصد المترفين في اقتنائه. وأما التمول منه وإجراء أحوال المترفين فلا.,This is the motive of persons who spend a great deal of money acquiring (real estate). (The motive is) not to accumulate capital through (such acquisitions) or to provide for extravagant living.
وقد يحصل ذلك منه للقليل أو النادر بحوالة الأسواق وحصول الكثرة البالغة منه والعالي في جنسه وقيمته في المصر,"This is achieved only by a few and is achieved only rarely through market fluctuations, through the acquisition of a great deal of (real estate), and through the upgrading of (real estate) as such and its value in a certain city."
إلا أن ذلك إذا حصل ربما امتدت إليه أعين الأمراء والولاة واغتصبوه في الغالب أو أرادوه على بيعه منهم ونالت أصحابه منه مضار ومعاطب,"But then, if someone achieves it, the eyes of amirs and governors are directed to him (and his real estate). As a rule, they take it away, or they urge him to sell it to them. Such (real estate) spells harm and hardship to its owners."
والله غالب على أمره,“God has the power to execute His commands.”
الفصل السادس عشر في حاجات المتمولين من أهل الأمصار إلى الجاه والمدافعة,16. Capitalists among the inhabitants of cities need rank and protection.
وذلك أن الحضري إذا عظم تموله وكثر للعقار والضياع تأثله وأصبح أغنى أهل المصر ورمقته العيون بذلك وانفسحت أحواله في الترف والعوائد زاحم عليها الأمراء والملوك وغصوا به.,"This is because a sedentary person who has a great deal of capital and has acquired a great number of estates and farms and become one of the wealthiest inhabitants of a particular city, who is looked upon as such and lives in great luxury and is accustomed to luxury, competes in this respect with amirs and rulers. The latter become jealous of him."
ولما في طباع البشر من العدوان تمتد أعينهم إلى تملك ما بيده وينافسونه فيه ويتحيلون على ذلك بكل ممكن حتى يحصلوه في ربقة حكم سلطاني وسبب من المؤاخذة ظاهر ينتزع به ماله,"The aggressiveness that is natural to human beings makes them cast their eyes upon his possessions. They envy him them and try every possible trick to catch him in the net of a government decision and to find an obvious reason for punishing him, so as to confiscate his property."
وأكثر الأحكام السلطانية جائرة في الغالب إذ العدل المحض إنما هو في الخلافة الشرعية وهي قليلة اللبث قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «الخلافة بعدي ثلاثون سنة ثم تعود ملكا عضوضا».,"Government decisions are as a rule unjust, because pure justice is found only in the legal caliphate that lasted only a short while. Muhammad said: “The caliphate after me will last thirty years; then, it will revert to being tyrannical royal authority.”"
فلا بد حينئذ لصاحب المال والثروة الشهيرة في العمران من حامية تذود عنه وجاه ينسحب عليه من ذي قرابة للملك أو خالصة له أو عصبية يتحاماها السلطان فيستظل هو بظلها ويرتع في أمنها من طوارق التعدي.,"Therefore, the owner of property and conspicuous wealth in a given civilization (community) needs a protective force to defend him, as well as a rank on which he may rely. (This purpose may be met by) a person related to the ruler, or a close friend of (the ruler), or a group feeling that the ruler will respect. In its shade, he may rest and live peacefully, safe from hostile attacks."
وإن لم يكن له ذلك أصبح نهبا بوجوه التخيلات وأسباب الحكام.,"If he does not have that, he will find himself robbed by all kinds of tricks and legal pretexts."
والله يحكم لا معقب لحكمه 13: 41.,"“God decides, and no one can change His decision.”"
الفصل السابع عشر في أن الحضارة في الأمصار من قبل الدول وأنها ترسخ باتصال الدولة ورسوخها,"17. Sedentary culture in cities comes, from the dynasties. It is firmly rooted when the dynasty is continuous and firmly rooted."
والسبب في ذلك أن الحضارة هي أحوال عادية زائدة على الضروري من أحوال العمران زيادة تتفاوت بتفاوت الرفه وتفاوت الأمم في القلة والكثرة تفاوتا غير منحصر وتقع فيها عند كثرة التفنن في أنواعها وأصنافها,"The reason for this is that sedentary culture is a condition that is the result of custom and goes beyond the necessary conditions of civilization. How far beyond, differs in accordance with unlimited differences in the prosperity and the numerical strength or weakness of the nations. (Sedentary culture) occurs in the (nations) when much diversity develops among its various subdivisions."
فتكون بمنزلة الصنائع ويحتاج كل صنف منها إلى القومة عليه والمهرة فيه وبقدر ما يتزيد من أصنافها تتزيد أهل صناعتها ويتلون ذلك الجيل بها,"It is thus on the same level as the crafts. Each particular kind of craft needs persons to be in charge of it and skilled in it. The more numerous the various subdivisions of a craft are, the larger the number of the people who (have to) practice that craft. The particular group (practicing that craft) is colored by it."
ومتى اتصلت الأيام وتعاقبت تلك الصناعات حذق أولئك الصناع في صناعتهم ومهروا في معرفتها والأعصار بطولها وانفساح أمدها وتكرير أمثالها تزيدها استحكاما ورسوخا,"As the days follow one upon the other, and one professional coloring comes after the other, the craftsmen become experienced in their various crafts and skilled in the knowledge of them. Long periods of time a(experiences) add to establishing the crafts and to causing them to be firmly rooted."
وأكثر ما يقع ذلك في الأمصار لاستجار العمران وكثرة الرفه في أهلها. وذلك كله إنما يجيء من قبل الدولة لأن الدولة تجمع أموال الرعية وتنفقها في بطانتها ورجالها وتتسع أحوالهم بالجاه أكثر من اتساعها بالمال,"This happens mostly in cities, because cities have a highly developed civilization and their inhabitants are very prosperous, and the dynasty is at the root of it, because the dynasty collects the property of the subjects and spends it on its inner circle and on the men connected with it who are more influential by reason of their position than by reason of their property."
فيكون دخل تلك الأموال من الرعايا وخرجها في أهل الدولة ثم في من تعلق بهم من أهل المصر وهم الأكثر فتعظم لذلك ثروتهم ويكثر غناهم وتتزيد عوائد الترف ومذاهبه وتستحكم لديهم الصنائع في سائر فنونه وهذه هي الحضارة.,"The money comes from the subjects and is spent among the people of the dynasty and then among those inhabitants of the city who are connected with them. They are the largest part (of the population). Their wealth, therefore, increases and their riches grow. The customs and ways of luxury multiply, and all the various kinds of crafts are firmly established among them. This (then) is sedentary culture."
ولهذا تجد الأمصار التي في القاصية ولو كانت موفورة العمران تغلب عليها أحوال البداوة وتبعد عن الحضارة في جميع مذاهبها بخلاف المدن المتوسطة في الأقطار التي هي مركز الدولة ومقرها,"Therefore, cities in remote parts of the realm, even if they have an abundant civilization, are found to be predominantly Bedouin and remote from sedentary culture in all their ways. This is in contrast with (the situation in) towns that lie in the middle, the center and seat of the dynasty."
وما ذاك إلا لمجاورة السلطان لهم وفيض أمواله فيهم كالماء يخضر ما قرب منه فما قرب من الأرض إلى أن ينتهي إلى الجفوف على البعد وقد قدمنا أن السلطان والدولة سوق للعالم.,"The only reason is that the government is near them and pours its money into them, like the water (of a river) that makes green everything around it, and fertilizes the soil adjacent to it, while in the distance everything remains dry. We have stated before that dynasty and government are the world’s market place."
فالبضائع كلها موجودة في السوق وما قرب منه وإذا أبعدت عن السوق افتقدت البضائع جملة ثم إنه إذا اتصلت تلك الدولة وتعاقب ملوكها في ذلك المصر واحدا بعد واحد استحكمت الحضارة فيهم وزادت رسوخا,"All kinds of merchandise are found in the market and near it. Far from the market, however, goods are altogether nonexistent. As a particular dynasty continues to rule and its rulers succeed each other in a particular city, sedentary culture becomes increasingly firmly established and rooted among the inhabitants of that city."
واعتبر ذلك في اليهود لما طال ملكهم بالشام نحوا من ألف وأربعمائة سنة رسخت حضارتهم وحذقوا في أحوال المعاش وعوائده والتفنن في صناعاته من المطاعم والملابس وسائر أحوال المنزل حتى إنها لتؤخذ عنهم في الغالب إلى اليوم.,"This may be exemplified by the Jews. Their rule in Syria lasted about 1,400 years. Sedentary culture thus became firmly established among them. They became skilled in the customary ways and means of making a living and in the manifold crafts belonging to it as regards food, clothing, and all the other parts of (domestic) economy, so much so that these things, as a rule, can still be learned from them to this day."
ورسخت الحضارة أيضا وعوائدها في الشام منهم ومن دولة الروم بعدهم ستمائة سنة فكانوا في غاية الحضارة. وكذلك أيضا القبط دام ملكهم في الخليقة ثلاثة آلاف من السنين فرسخت عوائد الحضارة في بلدهم مصر,"Sedentary culture and its customs became firmly rooted in Syria through them and (through) the Roman dynasties which succeeded them for six hundred years. Thus, they had the most developed sedentary culture possible. The same was the case with the Copts. Their political power lasted three thousand years. The customs of sedentary culture were thus firmly rooted in their country, Egypt."
وأعقبهم بها ملك اليونان والروم ثم ملك الإسلام الناسخ للكل. فلم تزل عوائد الحضارة بها متصلة وكذلك أيضا رسخت عوائد الحضارة باليمن لاتصال دولة العرب بها منذ عهد العمالقة والتبابعة آلافا من السنين وأعقبهم ملك مضر.,"They were succeeded there by the Greeks and the Romans, and then by Islam, which abrogated everything. The customs of sedentary culture have, thus, always continued in (Egypt). The customs of sedentary culture became likewise firmly rooted in the Yemen, because the Arabs ruled continuously in the Yemen for thousands of years, ever since the time of the Amalekites and the Tubba’s who were succeeded by the rule of the Mudar."
وكذلك الحضارة بالعراق لاتصال دولة النبط والفرس بها من لدن الكلدانيين والكيانية والكسروية والعرب بعدهم آلافا من السنين فلم يكن على وجه الأرض لهذا العهد أحضر من أهل الشام والعراق ومصر.,"The same was the case with the sedentary culture in the ‘Iraq which, for thousands of years, was ruled continuously by the Nabataeans and the Persians, that is, the Chaldaeans, the Kayyanids (the Achaemenids), the Sassanians (alKisrawiyah), and, after them, the Arabs. Down to this time there has never been upon the face of the earth a people with more sedentary culture than the inhabitants of Syria, the ‘Iraq, and Egypt."
وكذا أيضا رسخت عوائد الحضارة واستحكمت بالأندلس لاتصال الدولة العظيمة فيها للقوط ثم ما أعقبها من ملك بني أمية آلافا من السنين وكلتا الدولتين عظيمة فاتصلت فيها عوائد الحضارة واستحكمت.,"The customs of sedentary culture also became firmly rooted in Spain, which, for thousands of years, was ruled continuously by the great Gothic dynasty, later succeeded by the Umayyad realm. Both dynasties were great. Therefore, the customs of sedentary culture continued and became firmly established in (Spain)."
وأما إفريقية والمغرب فلم يكن بها قبل الإسلام ملك ضخم إنما قطع الإفرنجة إلى إفريقية البحر وملكوا الساحل وكانت طاعة البربر أهل الضاحية لهم طاعة غير مستحكمة فكانوا على قلعة وأوفاز وأهل المغرب لم تجاورهم دولة,"Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib had no great royal authority before Islam. The Romans (Byzantines, Rum) and European Christians had crossed the sea to Ifriqiyah and had taken possession of the coast. The obedience the Berbers who lived there paid them was not firmly grounded. They were there only temporarily. No dynasty was close to the people of the Maghrib."
وإنما كانوا يبعثون بطاعتهم إلى القوط من وراء البحر ولما جاء الله بالإسلام وملك العرب إفريقية والمغرب لم يلبث فيهم ملك العرب إلا قليلا أول الإسلام,"From time to time, they offered their obedience to the Goths across the sea. When God brought Islam and the Arabs took possession of Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib, the Arab rule lasted for only a short while at the beginning of Islam."
وكانوا لذلك العهد في طور البداوة ومن استقر منهم بإفريقية والمغرب لم يجد بهما من الحضارة ما يقلد فيه من سلفه إذ كانوا برابر منغمسين في البداوة,"At that time, the (Arabs) were in the stage of Bedouin life. Those who stayed in Ifrigiyah and the Maghrib did not find there any old tradition of sedentary culture, because (the original population of Ifrigiyah and the Maghrib) had been Berbers immersed in Bedouin life."
ثم انتقض برابرة المغرب الأقصى لأقرب العهود على ميسرة المطغري أيام هشام بن عبد الملك ولم يراجعوا أمر العرب بعد,"Very soon, the Berbers of Morocco revolted under Maysarah al-Matghari in the days of Hisham b. ‘Abd-alMalik, and never again later reverted to Arab rule."
واستقلوا بأمر أنفسهم وإن بايعوا لإدريس فلا تعد دولته فيهم عربية لأن البرابر هم الذين تولوها ولم يكن من العرب فيها كثير عدد,"They were independent. If they rendered the oath of allegiance to Idris, his rule over them cannot be considered an Arab rule, because the Berbers were in charge of it, and there were not many Arabs in it."
وبقيت إفريقية للأغالبة ومن إليهم من العرب فكان لهم من الحضارة بعض الشيء بما حصل لهم من ترف الملك ونعيمه وكثرة عمران القيروان وورث ذلك عنهم كتامة ثم صنهاجة من بعدهم وذلك كله قليل لم يبلغ أربعمائة سنة,Ifriqiyah remained in the possession of the Aghlabids and the Arabs who were with them. They had some sedentary culture as the result of the luxury and prosperity of the royal authority and the large civilization of al-Qayrawan that were theirs. The Kutamah and then the Sinhajah after them inherited it from the Aghlabids. But all that was brief and lasted less than four hundred years.
وانصرمت دولتهم واستحالت صبغة الحضارة بما كانت غير مستحكمة وتغلب بدو العرب الهلاليين عليها وخربوها وبقي أثر خفي من حضارة العمران فيها وإلى هذا العهد يونس فيمن سلف له بالقلعة أو القيروان أو المهدية سلف,"Their dynasty ended, and the coloring of sedentary culture (that existed there) changed, as it had not been firmly established. The Hilal, who were Arab Bedouins, gained power over the country and ruined it. Some obscure traces of sedentary culture have remained there down to the present time. They can be noticed among those who had ancestors in al-Qal’ah, al-Qayrawan, or alMahdiyah."
فتجد له من الحضارة في شئون منزله وعوائد أحواله آثارا ملتبسة بغيرها يميزها الحضري البصير بها وكذا في أكثر أمصار إفريقية وليس كذلك في المغرب وأمصاره لرسوخ الدولة بإفريقية أكثر أمدا منذ عهد الأغالبة والشيعة وصنهاجة,"Some traces of sedentary culture can be found in the (domestic) economy and the customs of (these people). They are mixed with other things, but the person who comes from a sedentary environment and knows about (sedentary culture) can discern them. That is the case with most cities in Ifriqiyah, but not in the Maghrib and the cities there, because since the time of the Aghlabids, the Shi’ah (Fatimids), and the Sinhajah, the ruling dynasty in Ifriqiyah has been firmly rooted there for a longer period (than the dynasties in the Maghrib)."
وأما المغرب فانتقل إليه منذ دولة الموحدين من الأندلس حظ كبير من الحضارة واستحكمت به عوائدها بما كان لدولتهم من الاستيلاء على بلاد الأندلس وانتقل الكثير من أهلها إليهم طوعا وكرها,"The Maghrib, on the other hand, has received a good deal of sedentary culture from Spain since the dynasty of the Almohads, and the customs of sedentary culture became established there through the control that the ruling dynasty of the Maghrib exercised over Spain. A good many of the inhabitants of (Spain) went to (the Almohads in the Maghrib), voluntarily or involuntarily."
وكانت من اتساع النطاق ما علمت فكان فيها حظ صالح من الحضارة واستحكامها ومعظمها من أهل الأندلس,"One knows how farflung the influence (of the Almohad dynasty) was. It possessed a good deal of firmly established sedentary culture, most of it due to the inhabitants of Spain."
ثم انتقل أهل شرق الأندلس عند جالية النصارى إلى إفريقية فأبقوا فيها وبأمصارها من الحضارة آثارا ومعظمها بتونس امتزجت بحضارة مصر وما ينقله المسافرون من عوائدها,"Later on, the inhabitants of eastern Spain were expelled by the Christians and moved to Ifriqiyah. In the cities there, they left traces of sedentary culture. Most of it is in Tunis, where it mixed with the sedentary culture of Egypt and (Egyptian) customs imported by travelers."
فكان بذلك للمغرب وإفريقية حظ صالح من الحضارة عفي عليه الخلاء ورجع إلى أعقابه وعاد البربر بالمغرب إلى أديانهم من البداوة والخشونة,"Thus, the Maghrib and Ifriqiyah had a good deal of sedentary culture. But emptiness took its place, and it disappeared. The Berbers in the Maghrib reverted to their Bedouin ways and Bedouin toughness."
وعلى كل حال فآثار الحضارة بإفريقية أكثر منها بالمغرب وأمصاره لما تداول فيها من الدول السالفة أكثر من المغرب ولقرب عوائدهم من عوائد أهل مصر بكثرة المترددين بينهم.,"But, at any rate, the traces of sedentary culture are more numerous in Ifriqiyah than in the Maghrib and in the cities of (the Maghrib). The old dynasties had lasted longer in Ifriqiyah than in the Maghrib, and the customs of the people of Ifriqiyah had been close to the customs of the Egyptians because of the great amount of intercourse between (the Egyptians and the people of Ifriqiyah)."
فتفطن لهذا السر فإنه خفي عن الناس. واعلم أنها أمور متناسبة وهي حال الدولة في القوة والضعف وكثرة الأمة أو الجيل وعظم المدينة أو المصر وكثرة النعمة واليسار,"This secret should be understood, because it is not known to the people. It should be known that these are related matters: The strength and weakness of a dynasty, the numerical strength of a nation or race, the size of a town or city, and the amount of prosperity and wealth."
وذلك أن الدولة والملك صورة الخليقة والعمران وكلها مادة لها من الرعايا والأمصار وسائر الأحوال وأموال الجباية عائدة عليهم ويسارهم في الغالب من أسواقهم ومتاجرهم,"This is because dynasty and royal authority constitute the form of the world and of civilization, which, in turn, together with the subjects, cities, and all other things, constitute the matter of (dynasty and royal authority). The tax money reverts to the (people). Their wealth, as a rule, comes from their business and commercial activities."
وإذا أفاض السلطان عطاءه وأمواله في أهلها انبثت فيهم ورجعت إليه ثم إليهم منه فهي ذاهبة عنهم في الجباية والخراج عائدة عليهم في العطاء فعلى نسبة حال الدولة يكون يسار الرعايا وعلى يسار الرعايا وكثرتهم يكون مال الدولة,"If the ruler pours out gifts and money upon his people, it spreads among them and reverts to him, and again from him to them. It comes from them through taxation and the land tax, and reverts to them through gifts. The wealth of the subjects corresponds to the finances of the dynasty. The finances of the dynasty, in turn, correspond to the wealth and number of the subjects."
وأصله كله العمران وكثرته فاعتبره وتأمله في الدول تجده,"The origin of it all is civilization and its extensiveness. If this is considered and examined in connection with the (various) dynasties, it will be found to be so."
والله يحكم ولا معقب لحكمه.,"“God decides, and no one can change His decision.”"
الفصل الثامن عشر في أن الحضارة غاية العمران ونهاية لعمره وانها مؤذنة بفساده,"18. Sedentary culture is the goal of civilization.
It means the end of its life span and brings
about its corruption."
قد بينا لك فيما سلف أن الملك والدولة غاية للعصبية وأن الحضارة غاية للبداوة وأن العمران كله من بداوة وحضارة وملك وسوقة له عمر محسوس كما أن للشخص الواحد من أشخاص المكونات عمرا محسوسا,"We have explained before that royal authority and (the foundation of) dynasties are the goal of group feeling, and that sedentary culture is the goal of Bedouin life, and that any civilization, be it a Bedouin civilization or sedentary culture, whether it concerns ruler or commoner, has a physical life, just as any individual created (being) has a physical life."
وتبين في المعقول والمنقول أن الأربعين للإنسان غاية في تزايد قواه ونموها وأنه إذا بلغ سن الأربعين وقفت الطبيعة عن أثر النشوء والنمو برهة ثم تأخذ بعد ذلك في الانحطاط.,"Reason and tradition make it clear that (the age of) forty years means the end of the increase of an individual’s powers and growth. When a man has reached the age of forty, nature stops growing for a while, then starts to decline."
فلتعلم أن الحضارة في العمران أيضا كذلك لأنه غاية لا مزيد وراءها وذلك أن الترف والنعمة إذا حصلا لأهل العمران دعاهم بطبعه إلى مذاهب الحضارة والتخلق بعوائدها,"It should be known that the same is the case with sedentary culture in civilization, because there is a limit that cannot be overstepped. When luxury and prosperity come to civilized people, it naturally causes them to follow the ways of sedentary culture and adopt its customs."
والحضارة كما علمت هي التفنن في الترف واستجادة أحواله والكلف بالصنائع التي تؤنق من أصنافه وسائر فنونه من الصنائع المهيئة للمطابخ أو الملابس أو المباني أو الفرش أو الآنية ولسائر أحوال المنزل.,"As one knows, sedentary culture is the adoption of diversified luxuries, the cultivation of the things that go with them, and addiction to the crafts that give elegance to all the various kinds of (luxury), such as the crafts of cooking, dressmaking, building, and (making) carpets, vessels, and all other parts of (domestic) economy."
وللتأنق في كل واحد من هذه صنائع كثيرة لا يحتاج إليها عند البداوة وعدم التأنق فيها. وإذا بلغ التأنق في هذه الأحوال المنزلية الغاية تبعه طاعة الشهوات,"For the elegant execution of all these things, there exist many crafts not needed in desert life with its lack of elegance. When elegance in (domestic) economy has reached the limit, it is followed by subservience to desires."
فتتلون النفس من تلك العوائد بألوان كثيرة لا يستقيم حالها معها في دينها ولا دنياها أما دينها فلاستحكام صبغة العوائد التي يعسر نزعها وأما دنياها فلكثرة الحاجات والمؤنات التي تطالب بها العوائد ويعجز وينكب عن الوفاء بها.,"From all these customs, the human soul receives a multiple coloring that undermines its religion and worldly (well-being). (It cannot preserve) its religion, because it has now been firmly colored by customs (of luxury), and it is difficult to discard such coloring. (It cannot preserve) its worldly (well-being), because the customs (of luxury) demand a great many things and (entail) many requirements for which (a man’s) income is not sufficient."
وبيانه أن المصر بالتفنن في الحضارة تعظم نفقات أهله والحضارة تتفاوت بتفاوت العمران فمتى كان العمران أكثر كانت الحضارة أكمل.,"This is explained by the fact that the expenditures of the inhabitants of a city mount with the diversification of sedentary culture. Sedentary culture differs according to the differences in civilization. When a civilization grows, sedentary culture becomes more perfect."
وقد كنا قدمنا أن المصر الكثير العمران يختص بالغلاء في أسواقه وأسعار حاجته.,We have stated before that a city with a large civilization (population) is characterized by high prices in business and high prices for its needs.
ثم تزيدها المكوس غلاء لأن الحضارة إنما تكون عند انتهاء الدولة في استفحالها وهو زمن وضع المكوس في الدول لكثرة خرجها حينئذ كما تقدم.,"(The prices) are then raised still higher through customs duties; for sedentary culture reaches perfection at the time when the dynasty has reached its greatest flourishing, and that is the time when the dynasty levies customs duties because then it has large expenditures, as has been stated before."
والمكوس تعود إلى البياعات بالغلاء لأن السوقة والتجار كلهم يحتسبون على سلعهم وبضائعهم جميع ما ينفقونه حتى في مؤنة أنفسهم فيكون المكس لذلك داخلا في قيم المبيعات وأثمانها.,"The customs duties raise the sales (prices), because small businessmen and merchants include all their expenses, even their personal requirements, in the price of their stock and merchandise. Thus, customs duties enter into the sales price."
فتعظم نفقات أهل الحضارة وتخرج عن القصد إلى الإسراف. ولا يجدون وليجة عن ذلك لما ملكهم من أثر العوائد وطاعتها وتذهب مكاسبهم كلها في النفقات ويتتابعون في الإملاق والخاصة ويغلب عليهم الفقر ويقل المستامون للمبايع,"The expenditures of sedentary people, therefore, grow and are no longer reasonable but extravagant. The people cannot escape this (development) because they are dominated by and subservient to their customs. All their profits go into (their) expenditures. One person after another becomes reduced in circumstances and indigent. Poverty takes hold of them. Few persons bid for the available goods."
فتكسد الأسواق ويفسد حال المدينة وداعية ذلك كله إفراط الحضارة والترف. وهذه مفسدات في المدينة على العموم في الأسواق والعمران.,"Business decreases, and the situation of the town deteriorates. All this is caused by excessive sedentary culture and luxury. They corrupt the city generally in respect to business and civilization."
وأما فساد أهلها في ذاتهم واحدا واحدا على الخصوص فمن الكد والتعب في حاجات العوائد والتلون بألوان الشر في تحصيلها وما يعود على النفس من الضرر بعد تحصيلها بحصول لون آخر من ألوانها.,"Corruption of the individual inhabitants is the result of painful and trying efforts to satisfy the needs caused by their (luxury) customs; (the result) of the bad qualities they have acquired in the process of obtaining (those needs); and of the damage the soul suffers after it has obtained them, through acquiring (still) another (bad luxury) quality."
فلذلك يكثر منهم الفسق والشر والسفسفة والتحيل على تحصيل المعاش من وجهه ومن غير وجهه.,"Immorality, wrongdoing, insincerity, and trickery, for the purposes of making a living in a proper or an improper manner, increase among them."
وتنصرف النفس إلى الفكر في ذلك والغوص عليه واستجماع الحيلة له فتجدهم أجرياء على الكذب والمقامرة والغش والخلابة والسرقة والفجور في الأيمان والربا في البياعات,"The soul comes to think about (making a living), to study it, and to use all possible trickery for the purpose. People are now devoted to lying, gambling, cheating, fraud, theft, perjury, and usury."
ثم تجدهم لكثرة الشهوات والملاذ الناشئة عن الترف أبصر بطرق الفسق ومذاهبه والمجاهرة به وبداوعيه واطراح الحشمة في الخوض فيه حتى بين الأقارب وذوي الأرحام والمحارم الذين تقتضي البداوة الحياء منهم في الإقذاع بذلك.,"Because of the many desires and pleasures resulting from luxury, they are found to know everything about the ways and means of immorality, they talk openly about it and its causes, and give up all restraint in discussing it, even among relatives and close female relations, where the Bedouin attitude requires modesty (and avoidance of) obscenities."
وتجدهم أيضا أبصر بالمكر والخديعة يدفعون بذلك ما عساه أن ينالهم من القهر وما يتوقعونه من العقاب على تلك القبائح حتى يصير ذلك عادة وخلقا لأكثرهم إلا من عصمه الله.,"They also know everything about fraud and deceit, which they employ to defend themselves against the possible use of force against them and against the punishment expected for their evil deeds. Eventually, this becomes a custom and trait of character with most of them, except those whom God protects."
ويموج بحر المدينة بالسفلة من أهل الأخلاق الذميمة ويجاريهم فيها كثير من ناشئة الدولة وولدانهم ممن أهمل عن التأديب وأهملته الدولة من عدادها وغلب عليه خلق الجوار وإن كانوا أهل أنساب وبيوتات,"The city, then, teems with low people of blameworthy character. They encounter competition from many members of the younger generation of the dynasty, whose education has been neglected and whom the dynasty has neglected to accept. They, therefore, adopt the qualities of their environment and company, even though they may be people of noble descent and ancestry."
وذلك أن الناس بشر متماثلون وإنما تفاضلوا وتميزوا بالخلق واكتساب الفضائل واجتناب الرذائل. فمن استحكمت فيه صبغة الرذيلة بأي وجه كان، وفسد خلق الخير فيه، لم ينفعه زكاء نسبه ولا طيب منبته.,"Men are human beings and as such resemble one another. They differ in merit and are distinguished by their character, by their acquisition of virtues and avoidance of vices. The person who is strongly colored by any kind of vice and whose good character is corrupted, is not helped by his good descent and fine origin."
ولهذا تجد كثيرا من أعقاب البيوت وذوي الأحساب والأصالة وأهل الدول منطرحين في الغمار منتحلين للحرف الدنيئة في معاشهم بما فسد من أخلاقهم وما تلونوا به من صبغة الشر والسفسفة,"Thus, one finds that many descendants of great families, men of a highly esteemed origin, members of the dynasty, get into deep water and adopt low occupations in order to make a living, because their character is corrupt and they are colored by wrongdoing and insincerity."
وإذا كثر ذلك في المدينة أو الأمة تأذن الله بخرابها وانقراضها وهو معنى قوله تعالى: «وإذا أردنا أن نهلك قرية أمرنا مترفيها ففسقوا فيها فحق عليها القول فدمرناها تدميرا 17: 16».,"If this (situation) spreads in a town or nation, God permits it to be ruined and destroyed. This is the meaning of the word of God: “When we want to destroy a village, we order those of its inhabitants who live in luxury to act wickedly therein. Thus, the word becomes true for it, and we do destroy it.”"
ووجهه حينئذ إن مكاسبهم حينئذ لا تفي بحاجاتهم لكثرة العوائد ومطالبة النفس بها فلا تستقيم أحوالهم. وإذا فسدت أحوال الأشخاص واحدا واحدا اختل نظام المدينة وخربت,"A possible explanation of this (situation) is that the profits (the people) make do not pay for their needs, because of the great number of (luxury) customs and the desire of the soul to satisfy them. Thus, the affairs of the people are in disorder, and if the affairs of individuals one by one deteriorate, the town becomes disorganized and falls into ruins."
وهذا معنى ما يقوله بعض أهل الخواص أن المدينة إذا كثر فيها غرس النارنج تأذنت بالخراب حتى أن كثيرا من العامة يتحامى غرس النارنج بالدور تطيرا به.,"This is the meaning of the statement by certain knowing people, that if orange trees are much grown in a town, the town invites its own ruin. Many common people avoided the growing of orange trees around (their) houses on account of this ominous (statement)."
وليس المراد ذلك ولا أنه خاصية في النارنج وإنما معناه أن البساتين وإجراء المياه هو من توابع الحضارة.,"But this is not what is meant, nor is it meant that orange trees are a bad omen (and cause the ruin of a city). What is meant is that gardens and irrigation are the results of sedentary culture."
ثم إن النارنج واللية والسرو وأمثال ذلك مما لا طعم فيه ولا منفعة هو من غاية الحضارة إذ لا يقصد بها في البساتين إلا أشكالها فقط ولا تغرس إلا بعد التفنن في مذاهب الترف.,"Orange trees, lime trees, cypresses, and similar plants having no edible fruits and being of no use, are the ultimate in sedentary culture, since they are planted in gardens only for the sake of their appearance, and they are planted only after the ways of luxury have become diversified."
وهذا هو الطور الذي يخشى معه هلاك المصر وخرابه كما قلناه. ولقد قيل مثل ذلك في الدفلى وهو من هذا الباب إذ الدفلى لا يقصد بها إلا تلون البساتين بنورها ما بين أحمر وأبيض وهو من مذاهب الترف.,"(Now,) this is the stage in which one must fear the destruction and ruin of a city, as we have stated. The same has been said with regard to oleander, which is in the same category. Its only purpose is to give color to gardens with its red and white flowers. That is a luxury."
ومن مفاسد الحضارة الانهماك في الشهوات والاسترسال فيها لكثرة الترف فيقع التفنن في شهوات البطن من المآكل والملاذ والمشارب وطيبها.,"Among the things that corrupt sedentary culture, there is the disposition toward pleasures and indulgence in them, because of the great luxury (that prevails). It leads to diversification of the desires of the belly for pleasurable food and drink."
ويتبع ذلك التفنن في شهوات الفرج بأنواع المناكح من الزنا واللواط، فيفضي ذلك إلى فساد النوع.,"This is followed by diversification of the pleasures of sex through various ways of sexual intercourse, such as adultery and homosexuality. This leads to destruction of the (human) species."
إما بواسطة اختلاط الأنساب كما في الزنا، فيجهل كل واحد ابنه، إذ هو لغير رشدة، لأن المياه مختلطة في الأرحام، فتفقد الشفقة الطبيعية على البنين والقيام عليهم فيهلكون، ويؤدي ذلك إلى انقطاع النوع،,"It may come about indirectly, through the confusion concerning one’s descent caused by adultery. Nobody knows his own son, since he is illegitimate and since the sperm (of different men) got mixed up in the womb. The natural compassion a man feels for his children and his feeling of responsibility for them is lost. Thus, they perish, and this leads to the end of the (human) species."
أو يكون فساد النوع بغير واسطة، كما في اللواط المؤدي إلى عدم النسل رأسا وهو أشد في فساد النوع. والزنا يؤدي إلى عدم ما يوجد منه.,"Or, the destruction of the (human) species may come about directly, as is the case with homosexuality, which leads directly to the non-existence of offspring. It contributes more to the destruction of the (human) species (than adultery), since it leads to (the result) that no human beings are brought into existence, while adultery only leads to the (social) non-existence of those who are in existence."
ولذلك كان مذهب مالك رحمه الله في اللواط أظهر من مذهب غيره، ودل على أنه أبصر بمقاصد الشريعة واعتبارها للمصالح. فافهم ذلك,"Therefore, the school of Malik is more explicit and correct with regard to homosexuality than the other schools. This shows that it understands the intentions of the religious law and their bearing upon the (public) interest better (than the other legal schools). This should be understood."
واعتبر به أن غاية العمران هي الحضارة والترف وأنه إذا بلغ غايته انقلب إلى الفساد وأخذ في الهرم كالأعمار الطبيعية للحيوانات.,"It shows that the goal of civilization is sedentary culture and luxury. When civilization reaches that goal, it turns toward corruption and starts being senile, as happens in the natural life of living beings."
بل نقول إن الأخلاق الحاصلة من الحضارة والترف هي عين الفساد لأن الإنسان إنما هو إنسان باقتداره على جلب منافعه ودفع مضاره واستقامة خلقه للسعي في ذلك.,"Indeed, we may say that the qualities of character resulting from sedentary culture and luxury are identical with corruption. Man is a man only in as much as he is able to procure for himself useful things and to repel harmful things, and in as much as his character is suited to making efforts to this effect."
والحضري لا يقدر على مباشرته حاجاته إما عجزا لما حصل له من الدعة أو ترفعا لما حصل من المربى في النعيم والترف وكلا الأمرين ذميم.,"The sedentary person cannot take care of his needs personally. He may be too weak, because of the tranquility he enjoys. Or he may be too proud, because he was brought up in prosperity and luxury. Both things are blameworthy."
وكذلك لا يقدر على دفع المضار واستقامة خلقه للسعي في ذلك. والحضري بما قد فقد من خلق الإنسان بالترف والنعيم في قهر التأديب والتعلم فهو بذلك عيال على الحامية التي تدافع عنه.,"He also is not able to repel harmful things, because he has no courage as the result of (his life in) luxury and his upbringing under the (tyrannical) impact of education and instruction. He thus becomes dependent upon a protective force to defend him."
ثم هو فاسد أيضا غالبا بما فسدت منه العوائد وطاعتها وما تلونت به النفس من مكانتها كما قررناه إلا في الأقل النادر. وإذا فسد الإنسان في قدرته على أخلاقه ودينه فقد فسدت إنسانيته وصار مسخا على الحقيقة.,"He then usually becomes corrupt with regard to his religion, also. The (luxury) customs and his subservience to them have corrupted him, and his soul has been colored by (luxury) habits, as we have stated. There are only very rare exceptions. When the strength of a man and then his character and religion are corrupted, his humanity is corrupted, and he becomes, in effect, transformed (into an animal)."
وبهذا الاعتبار كان الذين يتقربون من جند السلطان إلى البداوة والخشونة أنفع من الذين يتربون على الحضارة وخلقها. موجودون في كل دولة.,It is in this sense that those government soldiers who are close to Bedouin life and (Bedouin) toughness are more useful than those who have grown up in a sedentary culture and have adopted the character qualities of (sedentary culture). This can be found (to be the case) in every dynasty.
فقد تبين أن الحضارة هي سن الوقوف لعمر العالم في العمران والدولة,It has thus become clear that the stage of sedentary culture is the stopping point in the life of civilization and dynasties.
الفصل التاسع عشر في أن الأمصار التي تكون كراسي للملك تخرب بخراب الدولة وانقراضها,"19. Cities that are the seats of royal authority fall into ruins when the ruling dynasty falls
into ruins and crumbles."
قد استقرينا في العمران أن الدولة إذا اختلت وانتقضت فإن المصر الذي يكون كرسيا لسلطانها ينتقض عمرانه وربما ينتهي في انتقاضه إلى الخراب ولا يكاد ذلك يتخلف.,"We have found out with regard to civilization that, when a dynasty disintegrates and crumbles, the civilization of the city that is the seat of the ruler of (that dynasty) also crumbles and in this process often suffers complete ruin. There hardly ever is any delay."
والسبب فيه أمور: الأول أن الدولة لا بد في أولها من البداوة المقتضية للتجافي عن أموال الناس والبعد عن التحذلق. ويدعو ذلك إلى تخفيف الجباية والمغارم التي منها مادة الدولة فتقل النفقات ويقل الترف,"The reasons for it are several: First: At the beginning of the dynasty, its necessary Bedouin outlook requires it not to take away people’s property and to eschew (too great) cleverness. This causes the taxes and imposts, which provide the dynasty with its substance, to be kept low. The expenditures are small, and there is little luxury."
فإذا صار المصر الذي كان كرسيا للملك في ملكة هذه الدولة المتجددة ونقصت أحوال الترف فيها نقص الترف فيمن تحت أيديها من أهل المصر لأن الرعايا تبع للدولة,"When a city that had been a royal capital comes into the possession of a new dynasty that knows little of luxury, luxury decreases among the inhabitants of that city controlled by it, because the subjects follow the dynasty."
فيرجعون إلى خلق الدولة إما طوعا لما في طباع البشر من تقليد متبوعهم أو كرها لما يدعو إليه خلق الدولة من الانقباض عن الترف في جميع الأحوال وقلة الفوائد التي هي مادة العوائد,"They revert to the character of the dynasty, either voluntarily, because it is human nature to follow the tradition of their masters, or involuntarily, because the character of the dynasty calls for abstention from luxury in all situations and allows little profit, which is what constitutes the material for (the formation of luxury) customs."
فتقصر لذلك حضارة المصر ويذهب منه كثير من عوائد الترف. وهو معنى ما نقول في خراب المصر.,"As a result, the sedentary culture of the city decreases, and many luxury customs disappear from it. That is what we mean when we speak about the ruin of a city."
الأمر الثاني أن الدولة إنما يحصل لها الملك والاستيلاء بالغلب، وإنما يكون بعد العداوة والحروب. والعداوة تقتضي منافاة بين أهل الدولتين، وتكثر إحداهما على الأخرى في العوائد والأحوال.,"Second: Royal authority and power are obtained by a dynasty only through superiority, which comes only after hostilities and wars. Hostility requires incompatibility between the people of the two dynasties and mutual disapproval with regard to (luxury) customs and conditions."
وغلب أحد المتنافيين يذهب بالمنافي الآخر فتكون أحوال الدولة السابقة منكرة عند أهل الدولة الجديدة ومستبشعة وقبيحة.,"The victory of one of the two rivals causes the disappearance of the other. Thus, the conditions of the previous dynasty, especially the conditions of luxury, are disapproved of and considered detestable and evil by the people of the new dynasty. They disappear among them, because the (new) dynasty disapproves of them."
وخصوصا أحوال الترف فتفقد في عرفهم بنكير الدولة لها حتى تنشأ لهم بالتدريج عوائد أخرى من الترف فتكون عنها حضارة مستأنفة. وفيما بين ذلك قصور الحضارة الأولى ونقصها وهو معنى اختلال العمران في المصر.,"Eventually, however, new luxury customs gradually originate among them. They produce a new sedentary culture. The period in between sees a dwindling and decrease of the first sedentary culture. This is what is meant by disintegration of civilization in a city."
الأمر الثالث أن كل أمة لا بد لهم من وطن وهو منشأهم ومنه أولية ملكهم. وإذا ملكوا ملكا آخر صار تبعا للأول وأمصاره تابعة لأمصار الأول.,"Third: Each nation must have a home, (a place) where it grows up and from which the realm took its origin. When (its members) take possession of another home, (the latter) is ranked second to the first (home), and the (latter’s) cities are ranked second to the cities of the first."
واتسع نطاق الملك عليهم. ولا بد من توسط الكرسي بين تخوم الممالك التي للدولة لأنه شبه المركز للنطاق فيبعد مكانه عن مكان الكرسي الأول,"When the realm expands and its influence grows, it is inevitable that the seat of government be amidst the provinces belonging to the dynasty, because it is a sort of center for the whole area. Thus, the (new seat of government) is remote from the site of the former seat of government."
وتهوى أفئدة الناس من أجل الدولة والسلطان فينتقل إليه العمران ويخف من مصر الكرسي الأول. والحضارة إنما هي توفر العمران كما قدمناه فتنقص حضارته وتمدنه وهو معنى اختلاله.,"The hearts of the people are attracted to the (new seat of government), because the dynasty and government (are there). Civilization (the population) moves there and disappears slowly from the city that was the former seat of government. Sedentary culture depends upon an abundant civilization (population), as we have said before. (With the transfer of the population,) the sedentary and urban culture (of the former seat of government) decreases. This is what is meant by its disintegration."
وهذا كما وقع للسلجوقية في عدولهم بكرسيهم عن بغداد إلى أصبهان وللعرب قبلهم في العدول عن المدائن إلى الكوفة والبصرة، ولبني العباس في العدول عن دمشق إلى بغداد ولبني مرين بالمغرب في العدول عن مراكش إلى فاس.,This happened to the Saljugs when they moved their seat of government from Baghdad to Isfahan; to the Arabs before them when they moved from alMada’in to al-Kufah and alBasrah; to the `Abbasids when they moved from Damascus to Baghdad; and to the Merinids in the Maghrib when they moved from Marrakech to Fez.
وبالجملة فاتخاذ الدولة الكرسي في مصر يخل بعمران الكرسي الأول. الأمر الرابع أن الدولة الثانية لا بد فيها من تبع أهل الدولة السابقة وأشياعها بتحويلهم إلى قطر آخر يؤمن فيه غائلتهم على الدولة وأكثر أهل المصر الكرسي أشياع الدولة.,"In general, when a dynasty chooses a city for its seat of government, it causes disintegration of the civilization in the former seat of government. Fourth: When the new dynasty achieves superiority over the previous dynasty, it must attempt to transfer the people and partisans of the previous dynasty to another region where it can be sure that it will not be secretly attacked by them. Most of the inhabitants of a capital city are partisans of the (ruling) dynasty."
إما من الحامية الذين نزلوا به أول الدولة أو أعيان المصر لأن لهم في الغالب مخالطة للدولة على طبقاتهم وتنوع أصنافهم. بل أكثرهم ناشئ في الدولة فهم شيعة لها. وإن لم يكونوا بالشوكة والعصبية فهم بالميل والمحبة والعقيدة.,"They belong either to the militia who settled there at the beginning of the dynasty, or they are the dignitaries of the city. All their various classes and types have, as a rule, some contact with the dynasty. Most of them have grown up in the dynasty and are partisans of it. Even though they may not be (connected with the dynasty) through power and group feelings, they are (connected with it) through inclination, love, and faith."
وطبيعة الدولة المتجددة محو آثار الدولة السابقة فينقلهم من مصر الكرسي إلى وطنها المتمكن في ملكتها.,"It is the nature of a new dynasty to wipe out all the traces of the previous dynasty. Therefore, it transfers (the population) from the capital city (of the old dynasty) to its own home, which is firmly in its possession."
فبعضهم على نوع التغريب والحبس وبعضهم على نوع الكرامة والتلطف بحيث لا يؤدي إلى النفرة حتى لا يبقى في مصر الكرسي إلا الباعة والهمل من أهل الفلح والعيارة وسواد العامة,"Some are brought there as exiles and prisoners, others as honored and well-treated guests, so that no antagonism can arise. Eventually, the capital city (of the previous dynasty) holds only salesmen, itinerant farm workers, hoodlums, and the great mass of common people."
وينزل مكانهم حاميتها وأشياعها من يشتد به المصر وإذا ذهب من المصر أعيانهم على طبقاتهم نقص ساكنه وهو معنى اختلال عمرانه. ثم لا بد من أن يستجد عمران آخر في ظل الدولة الجديدة وتحصل فيه حضارة أخرى على قدر الدولة.,"The place of the (transferred population) is taken by the militia and partisans of (the new dynasty). They will be sufficient to fill the city. When the various classes of dignitaries have left the city, its inhabitants decrease. This is what is meant by disintegration of the civilization of (the capital city). Then, (the former capital city) must produce a new civilization under the shadow of the new dynasty. Another sedentary culture corresponding to the importance of the dynasty, arises in it."
وإنما ذلك بمثابة (من له بيت على أوصاف مخصوصة فأظهر من قدرته على تغيير تلك الأوصاف) وإعادة بنائها على ما يختاره ويقترحه فيخرب ذلك البيت ثم يعيد بناءه ثانيا.,"This may be compared to a person who has a house the interior of which is dilapidated. Most of the installations and conveniences of the rooms do not agree with his plans. He has the power to change these installations and to rebuild them according to his wishes and plans. Thus, he will tear down the house and build it up again."
وقد وقع من ذلك كثير في الأمصار التي هي كراسي للملك وشاهدناه وعلمناه,Much the same sort of thing happens in cities that once were seats of government. We have personally seen it and know it.
«والله يقدر الليل والنهار 73: 20».,God determines night and day.
والسبب الطبيعي الأول في ذلك على الجملة أن الدولة والملك للعمران بمثابة الصورة للمادة وهو الشكل الحافظ بنوعه لوجودها. وقد تقرر في علوم الحكمة أنه لا يمكن انفكاك أحدهما عن الآخر.,"In sum, the primary natural reason for this (situation) is the fact that dynasty and royal authority have the same relationship to civilization as form has to matter. (The form) is the shape that preserves the existence of (matter) through the (particular) kind (of phenomenon) it represents. It has been established in philosophy that the one cannot be separated from the other."
فالدولة دون العمران لا تتصور والعمران دون الدولة والملك متعذر لما في طباع البشر من العدوان الداعي إلى الوازع فتتعين السياسة لذلك إما الشرعية أو الملكية وهو معنى الدولة,"One cannot imagine a dynasty without civilization, while a civilization without dynasty and royal authority is impossible, because human beings must by nature co-operate, and that calls for a restraining influence. Political leadership, based either on religious or royal authority, is obligatory as (such a restraining influence). This is what is meant by dynasty."
وإذا كانا لا ينفكان فاختلال أحدهما مؤثر في اختلال الآخر كما أن عدمه مؤثر في عدمه والخلل العظيم إنما يكون من خلل الدولة الكلية مثل دولة الروم أو الفرس أو العرب على العموم أو بني أمية أو بني العباس كذلك.,"Since the two cannot be separated, the disintegration of one of them must influence the other, just as its non-existence would entail the non-existence of the other. A great disintegration results only from the disintegration of the entire dynasty. This happened to the dynasties of the Persians, the Byzantines, and the Arabs, (that is, the Arabs) in general as well as the Umayyads and the ‘Abbasids."
وأما الدولة الشخصية مثل دولة أنوشروان أو هرقل أو عبد الملك بن مروان أو الرشيد فأشخاصها متعاقبة على العمران حافظة لوجوده وبقائه وقريبة الشبه بعضها من بعض فلا تؤثر كثير اختلال,"An individual reign, such as those of Anosharwan, Heraclius, ‘Abd-al-Malik b. Marwan, or ar-Rashid, cannot exercise a sweeping disintegrating influence. Individuals follow upon each other and take over the (existing) civilization. They preserve its existence and duration, and they are very similar to each other."
لأن الدولة بالحقيقة الفاعلة في مادة العمران إنما هي العصبية والشوكة وهي مستمرة على أشخاص الدولة فإذا ذهبت تلك العصبية ودفعتها عصبية أخرى مؤثرة في العمران ذهبت أهل الشوكة بأجمعهم وعظم الخلل كما قررناه أولا,"The real dynasty, the one that acts upon the matter of civilization, belongs to group feeling and power. These remain with the individual members of the dynasty. But when the group feeling is lost and replaced by another group feeling that influences the (existing) civilization and when all powerful members (of the dynasty) are wiped out, a great disintegration sets in, as we have established."
الفصل العشرون في اختصاص بعض الأمصار ببعض الصنائع دون بعض,20. Certain cities have crafts that others lack.
وذلك أنه من البين أن أعمال أهل المصر يستدعي بعضها بعضا لما في طبيعة العمران من التعاون وما يستدعي من الأعمال يختص ببعض أهل المصر,"This is because it is clear that the activities of the inhabitants of a city necessitate each other, since mutual co-operation is innate in civilization. The necessary activities are restricted to certain inhabitants of the city."
فيقومون عليه ويستبصرون في صناعته ويختصون بوظيفته ويجعلون معاشهم فيه ورزقهم منه لعموم البلوى به في المصر والحاجة إليه.,"They are in charge of them and become experts in the craft(s) belonging to them. These activities become their particular job. They make their living through them and derive their sustenance from them, because (these activities of theirs) are matters of general concern in the city and generally needed."
وما لا تستدعي في المصر يكون غفلا إذ لا فائدة لمنتحله في الاحتراف به. وما يستدعي من ذلك لضرورة المعاش فيوجد في كل مصر كالخياط والحداد والنجار وأمثالها,"On the other hand, activities not required in a city are not regarded, since there is no profit in them for those who occupy themselves with them. The activities required for the necessities of life, such as those of tailors, smiths, carpenters, and similar occupations, exist in every city."
وما يستدعي لعوائد الترف وأحواله فإنما يوجد في المدن المستبحرة في العمارة الآخذة في عوائد الترف والحضارة مثل الزجاج والصائغ والدهان والطباخ والصفار والسفاج والفراش والذباح وأمثال هذه وهي متفاوتة.,"But activities required for luxury customs and conditions exist only in cities of a highly developed culture, that have taken to luxury customs and sedentary culture. Among such activities are those of glassblowers, goldsmiths, perfumers, cooks, coppersmiths, biscuit bakers, harisah bakers, weavers of brocade, and the like. (These activities) exist in different degrees."
وبقدر ما تزيد الحضارة وتستدعي أحوال الترف تحدث صنائع لذلك النوع فتوجد بذلك المصر دون غيره,"In accordance with increase in the customs of sedentary culture and the requirements of luxury conditions, there originate crafts (especially) for this kind (of luxury requirements). (The crafts of this) kind will, thus, exist in a particular city, but not in others."
ومن هذا الباب الحمامات لأنها إنما توجد في الأمصار المستحضرة المستبحرة العمران لما يدعو إليه الترف والغنى من التنعم ولذلك لا تكون في المدن المتوسطة.,"(Public) baths fall into this category. They exist only in densely settled cities of a highly developed civilization as a kind of indulgence resulting from luxury and wealth. Therefore, public baths do not exist in medium-sized towns."
وإن نزع بعض الملوك والرؤساء إليها فيختطها ويجري أحوالها. إلا أنها إذا لم تكن لها داعية من كافة الناس فسرعان ما تهجر وتخرب وتفر عنها القومة لقلة فائدتهم ومعاشهم منها.,"It is true that some rulers and chiefs desire (to have baths in their medium-sized cities). They construct them and put them into operation. However, since there is no demand for them from the mass of the people, they are soon neglected and fall into ruins. Those in charge of them speedily leave them, because they have little profit and income from them."
والله يقبض ويبسط.,“God holds (His hands) tight together but also opens (them) wide.”
الفصل الحادي والعشرون في وجود العصبية في الأمصار وتغلب بعضهم على بعض,21. The existence of group feeling in cities and the superiority of some of the inhabitants over others.
من البين أن الالتحام والاتصال موجود في طباع البشر وإن لم يكونوا أهل نسب واحد إلا أنه كما قدمناه أضعف مما يكون بالنسب وأنه تحصل به العصبية بعضا مما تحصل بالنسب.,"It is clear that it is in the nature of human beings to enter into close contact and to associate (with each other), even though they may not have a common descent. However, as we have mentioned before, such association is weaker than one based upon common descent, and the resulting group feeling is only part of what (group feeling) resulting from common descent is."
وأهل الأمصار كثير منهم ملتحمون بالصهر يجذب بعضهم بعضا إلى أن يكونوا لحما لحما وقرابة قرابة وتجد بينهم من العداوة والصداقة ما يكون بين القبائل والعشائر مثله فيفترقون شيعا وعصائب,"Many inhabitants of cities come into close contact through intermarriage. This draws them together and, eventually, they constitute individual related groups. The same friendship or hostility that is found among tribes and families, is found among them, and they split into parties and groups."
فإذا نزل الهرم بالدولة وتقلص ظل الدولة عن القاصية احتاج أهل أمصارها إلى القيام على أمرهم والنظر في حماية بلدهم ورجعوا إلى الشورى وتميز العلية عن السفلة والنفوس بطباعها متطاولة إلى الغلب والرئاسة,"When senility befalls a dynasty and its shadow recedes from the remote regions (of the realm), the inhabitants of the cities of (that dynasty) have to take care of their own affairs and to look after the protection of their own place. They revert to the council (government), and (people of the) higher class keep separated from people of the lower class. (Human) souls, by their very nature, are prone to seek superiority and domination."
فتطمح المشيخة لخلاء الجو من السلطان والدولة القاهرة إلى الاستبداد وينازع كل صاحبه ويستوصلون بالأتباع من الموالي والشيع والأحلاف ويبذلون ما في أيديهم للأوغاد والأوشاب,"Because the air is clear of forceful government and dynasty, the elders desire to gain complete control. Everybody vies with everybody else. They try to have followers, such as clients, partisans, and allies, join them. They spend whatever they possess on the rabble and the mob."
فيعصوصب كل لصاحبه ويتعين الغلب لبعضهم فيعطف على أكفائه ليقص من أعنتهم ويتتبعهم بالقتل أو التغريب حتى يخضد منهم الشوكات النافذة ويقلم الأظفار الخادشة ويستبد بمصره أجمع,"Everybody forms a group with his fellows, and one of them achieves superiority. He then turns against his equals, in order to slow them down, and persecutes them with assassination or exile. Eventually, he takes away all executive power from them and renders them innocuous. He obtains sole control of the entire city."
ويرى أنه قد استحدث ملكا يورثه عقبه فيحدث في ذلك الملك الأصغر ما يحدث في الملك الأعظم من عوارض الجدة والهرم,"He then is of the opinion that he has created a realm that he may leave to his descendants, but the same symptoms of power and senility to be found in a large realm are also to be found in his smaller realm."
وربما يسمو بعض هؤلاء إلى منازع الملوك الأعاظم أصحاب القبائل والعشائر والعصبيات والزحوف والحروب والأقطار والممالك,"Some of these people occasionally aspire to the ways of the great rulers who are masters of tribes and families and group feelings, who go into combat and wage wars, and who control large regions and provinces."
فينتحلون بها من الجلوس على السرير واتخاذ الآلة وإعداد المواكب للسير في أقطار البلد والتختم والتحية والخطاب بالتهويل ما يسخر منه من يشاهد أحوالهم لما انتحلوه من شارات الملك التي ليسوا لها بأهل.,"They adopt the custom of sitting upon a throne. They use an “outfit,” organize cavalcades for traveling about the country, use seal rings, are greeted (ceremoniously), and are addressed as Sire (mawla), which is ridiculous in the eyes of all who can observe the situation for themselves. They adopt royal emblems to which they are not entitled."
إنما دفعهم إلى ذلك تقلص الدولة والتحام بعض القرابات حتى صارت عصبية. وقد يتنزه بعضهم عن ذلك ويجري على مذهب السذاجة فرارا من التعريض بنفسه للسخرية والعبث.,"They were pushed into following such (improper aspirations) only by the dwindling influence of the (ruling) dynasty and the close relationships they had established and that eventually resulted in group feeling. Some of (the people, on the other hand), refrained from (improper aspirations) and lived simply, because they did not want to make themselves the butt of jokes and ridicule."
وقد وقع هذا بإفريقية لهذا العهد في آخر الدولة الحفصية لأهل بلاد الجريد من طرابلس وقابس وتؤزر ونفطة وقفصة وبسكرة والزاب وما إلى ذلك.,"This happened in our own time in the later (years) of the Hafsid dynasty in Ifriqiyah to inhabitants of places in the Jarid, including Tripoli, Gabes, Tozeur (Tuzar), Nafta (Naftah), Gafsa (Qafsah), Biskra and the Zab, and adjacent regions."
سموا إلى مثلها عند تقلص ظل الدولة عنهم منذ عقود من السنين فاستغلبوا على أمصارهم واستبدوا بأمرها على الدولة في الأحكام والجباية.,They acquired such aspirations when the shadow of the (ruling) dynasty had been receding from them for some decades. They seized power in their respective cities and took control of the judicial and tax administration away from the dynasty.
وأعطوا طاعة معروفة وصفقة ممرضة وأقطعوها جانبا من الملاينة والملاطفة والانقياد وهم بمعزل عنه. وأورثوا ذلك أعقابهم لهذا العهد.,"They paid (the ruling dynasty) some obedience and gave (it) reluctant allegiance, and treated (it) with some politeness, kindness, and submissiveness. However, they did not mean it. They passed (their position) on to their descendants, who (are living) at this time."
وحدث في خلفهم من الغلظة والتجبر ما يحدث لأعقاب الملوك وخلفهم ونظموا أنفسهم في عداد السلاطين على قرب عهدهم بالسوقة,"Among their successors, there originated that cruelty and tyranny that is common among the descendants and successors of rulers. They thought that they ranked with (true) rulers, despite the fact that they had only recently been common people."
وقد كان مثل ذلك وقع في آخر الدولة الصنهاجية واستقل بأمصار الجريد أهلها واستبدوا على الدولة,Something similar happened also at the end of the Sinhajah dynasty. The inhabitants of the cities of the Jarid made themselves independent there and seized control of the (ruling) dynasty.
حتى انتزع ذلك منهم شيخ الموحدين وملكهم عبد المؤمن بن علي ونقلهم من إماراتهم بها إلى المغرب ومحا من تلك البلاد آثارهم كما نذكر في أخباره. وكذا وقع بسبتة لآخر دولة بني عبد المؤمن.,"Eventually, they were deprived of their power by the shaykh and ruler of the Almohads, ‘Abd-alMu’min b. ‘Ali. He transferred all of them from their amirates in the Jarid to the Maghrib, and removed all traces of them from (the Jarid), as we shall mention in his history. The same happened also in Ceuta at the end of the dynasty of the Banu ‘Abdal-Mu’min."
وهذا التغلب يكون غالبا في أهل السروات والبيوتات المرشحين للمشيخة والرئاسة في المصر، وقد يحدث التغلب لبعض السفلة من الغوغاء والدهماء.,"As a rule, such leadership goes to members of great and noble houses who are eligible for the positions of elders and leaders in a city. Sometimes, it goes to some person from the lowest class of people."
وإذا حصلت له العصبية والالتحام بالأوغاد لأسباب يجرها له المقدار فيتغلب على المشيخة والعلية إذا كانوا فاقدين للعصابة,"He obtains group feeling and close contact with the mob for reasons that fate (al-miqdar) produces for him. He, then, achieves superiority over the elders and people of the higher class when they have lost their own group support."
والله سبحانه وتعالى غالب على أمره.,“God has the power to execute His commands.”
الفصل الثاني والعشرون في لغات أهل الأمصار,22. The dialects of the urban population.
اعلم أن لغات أهل الأمصار إنما تكون بلسان الأمة أو الجيل الغالبين عليها أو المختطين لها,The dialects of the urban population follow the language of the nation or race that has control of (the cities in question) or has founded them.
ولذلك كانت لغات الأمصار الإسلامية كلها بالمشرق والمغرب لهذا العهد عربية وإن كان اللسان العربي المضري قد فسدت ملكته وتغير إعرابه,"Therefore, the dialects spoken in all Muslim cities in the East and the West at this time are Arabic, even though the habit of the Arabic Mudar language has become corrupted and its vowel endings (i’rab) have changed."
والسبب في ذلك ما وقع للدولة الإسلامية من الغلب على الأمم والدين والملة صورة للوجود وللملك. وكلها مواد له والصورة مقدمة على المادة والدين إنما يستفاد من الشريعة وهي بلسان العرب لما أن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم عربي,"The reason for this is the fact that the Muslim dynasty gained power over (foreign) nations. Religion and religious organization constitute the form for existence and royal authority, which (together) constitute the matter for (religion). Form is prior to matter. Religion is derived from the religious law, which is in Arabic, because the Prophet was an Arab."
فوجب هجر ما سوى اللسان العربي من الألسن في جميع ممالكها. واعتبر ذلك في نهي عمر رضي الله عنه عن بطانة الأعاجم وقال إنها خب. أي مكر وخديعة.,"Therefore, it is necessary to avoid using any language but Arabic in all the provinces of (Islam). This may be exemplified by ‘Umar’s prohibition against using the idiom native among the non-Arabs. He said that it is khibb, that is, “ruse” and “deceit.”"
فلما هجر الدين اللغات الأعجمية وكان لسان القائمين بالدولة الإسلامية عربيا هجرت كلها في جميع ممالكها لأن الناس تبع للسلطان وعلى دينه فصار استعمال اللسان العربي من شعائر الإسلام وطاعة العرب.,"Since the religion (Islam) avoided the non-Arab dialects, and the language of the supporters of the Muslim dynasty was Arabic, those (dialects) were avoided altogether in all its provinces, because people follow the government and adopt its religion (ways). Use of the Arabic language became a symbol of Islam and of obedience to the Arabs."
وهجر الأمم لغاتهم وألسنتهم في جميع الأمصار والممالك. وصار اللسان العربي لسانهم حتى رسخ ذلك لغة في جميع أمصارهم ومدنهم وصارت الألسنة العجمية دخيلة فيها وغريبة.,"The (foreign) nations avoided using their own dialects and languages in all the cities and provinces, and the Arabic language became their language. Eventually, (Arabic) became firmly rooted as the (spoken) language in all their cities and towns. The non :Arab languages came (to seem) imported and foreign there."
ثم فسد اللسان العربي بمخالطتها في بعض أحكامه وتغير أواخره وإن كان بقي في الدلالات على أصله وسمي لسانا حضريا في جميع أمصار الإسلام.,"The Arabic language became corrupt through contact with (foreign languages) in some of its rules and through changes of the word endings, even though it remained unchanged semantically. (This type of Arabic) was called “the sedentary language” (and was used) in all the cities of Islam."
وأيضا فأكثر أهل الأمصار في الملة لهذا العهد من أعقاب العرب المالكين لها، الهالكين في ترفها بما كثروا العجم الذين كانوا بها وورثوا أرضهم وديارهم.,"Furthermore, most of the inhabitants of the cities of Islam at this time are descendants of the Arabs who were in possession of these cities and perished in their luxury. They outnumbered the non-Arabs who lived there and inherited their land and country."
واللغات متوارثة فبقيت لغة الأعقاب على حيال لغة الآباء وإن فسدت أحكامها بمخالطة الأعجام شيئا فشيئا. وسميت لغتهم حضرية منسوبة إلى أهل الحواضر والأمصار بخلاف لغة البدو من العرب فإنها كانت أعرق في العروبية,"Now, languages are inherited. Thus, the language spoken by the descendants has remained close to that of their forefathers, even though its rules have gradually become corrupted by contact with non-Arabs. It was called “sedentary” with reference to the inhabitants of settled region’s and cities, in contrast to the language of the desert Arabs, which is more deeply rooted in Arabism."
ولما تملك العجم من الديلم والسلجوقية بعدهم بالمشرق، وزناتة والبربر بالمغرب، وصار لهم الملك والاستيلاء على جميع الممالك الإسلامية فسد اللسان العربي لذلك,"When non-Arabs, such as the Daylam and, after them, the Saljuqs in the East and the Zanitah and Berbers in the West, became the rulers and obtained royal authority and control over the whole Muslim realm, the Arabic language suffered corruption."
وكاد يذهب لولا ما حفظه من عناية المسلمين بالكتاب والسنة اللذين بهما حفظ الدين,"It would almost have disappeared, if the concern of the Muslims with the Qur’an and the Sunnah, which preserve Islam, had not (also) preserved the Arabic language."
وسار ذلك مرجحا لبقاء اللغة العربية المضرية من الشعر والكلام إلا قليلا بالأمصار,This (concern) became an element in favor of the persistence of the sedentary dialect used in the cities as an Arabic (sedentary dialect in its original form).
فلما ملك التتر والمغول بالمشرق ولم يكونوا على دين الإسلام ذهب ذلك المرجح وفسدت اللغة العربية على الإطلاق ولم يبق لها رسم في الممالك الإسلامية بالعراق وخراسان وبلاد فارس وأرض الهند والسند وما وراء النهر وبلاد الشمال وبلاد الروم,"But when the Tatars and Mongols, who were not Muslims, became the rulers in the East, this element in favor of the Arabic language disappeared, and the Arabic language was absolutely doomed. No trace of it has remained in these Muslim provinces: the ‘Iraq, Khurisan, the country. of Firs (southern Persia), Eastern and Western India, Transoxania, the northern countries, and the Byzantine territory (Anatolia)."
وذهبت أساليب اللغة العربية من الشعر والكلام إلا قليلا يقع تعليمه صناعيا بالقوانين المتدارسة من كلام العرب وحفظ كلامهم لمن يسره الله تعالى لذلك.,"The Arabic methods (uslub) of poetry and speech have disappeared, save for a (remnant). Instruction in (what little Arabic is known) is a technical matter using rules learned from the sciences of the Arabs and through memorizing their speech. (It is restricted) to those persons whom God has equipped for it."
وربما بقيت اللغة العربية المضرية بمصر والشام والأندلس وبالمغرب لبقاء الدين طلبا لها فانحفظت ببعض الشيء وأما في ممالك العراق وما وراءه فلم يبق له أثر ولا عين,"The sedentary Arabic dialect has largely remained in Egypt, Syria, Spain, and the Maghrib, because Islam still remains (there) and requires it. Therefore, it has been preserved to some degree. But in the provinces of the ‘Iraq and beyond (to the East), no trace or source of (the Arabic language) has remained."
حتى إن كتب العلوم صارت تكتب باللسان العجمي وكذا تدريسه في المجالس,"Even scientific books have come to be written in the non-Arabic (Persian) language, which is also used for instruction in (Arabic) in class."
والله مقدر الليل والنهار.,God determines night and day.
الباب الخامس من الكتاب الأول,CHAPTER V
في المعاش ووجوبه من الكسب والصنائع وما يعرض في ذلك كله من الأحوال وفيه مسائل,"ON THE (VARIOUS) ASPECTS OF MAKING A LIVING, SUCH AS PROFIT AND THE CRAFTS. THE CONDITIONS THAT OCCUR IN THIS CONNECTION. A NUMBER OF PROBLEMS ARE CONNECTED (WITH THIS SUBJECT)."
الفصل الأول في حقيقة الرزق والكسب وشرحهما وان الكسب هو قيمة الأعمال البشرية,1. The real meaning and explanation of sustenance and profit. Profit is the value realized from human labor.
اعلم أن الإنسان مفتقر بالطبع إلى ما يقوته ويمونه في حالاته وأطواره من لدن نشوءه إلى أشده إلى كبره,"IT SHOULD B E KNOWN that man, by nature, needs something to feed him and to provide for him in all the conditions and stages of his life from the time of his (early) growth to his maturity and on to his old age."
«والله الغني وأنتم الفقراء 47: 38»,"“God is rich, but you are poor.”"
والله سبحانه خلق جميع ما في العالم للإنسان وامتن به عليه في غير ما آية من كتابه,"God created everything in the world for man and gave it to him, as indicated in several verses of the Qur’an."
فقال: «وسخر لكم ما في السماوات وما في الأرض جميعا منه 45: 13» وسخر لكم البحر وسخر لكم الفلك وسخر لكم الأنعام. وكثير من شواهده.,He said: “He created for you everything that is in the heavens and on earth. He subjected the sun and the moon to you. He subjected the sea to you. He subjected the firmament to you. He subjected the animals to you.” (The same idea is indicated in) many (other) passages of (the Qur’an).
ويد الإنسان مبسوطة على العالم وما فيه بما جعل الله له من الاستخلاف. وأيدي البشر منتشرة فهي مشتركة في ذلك. وما حصل عليه يد هذا امتنع عن الآخر إلا بعوض.,"Man’s hand stretches out over the (whole) world and all that is in it, since God made man His representative on earth. Every man tries to get things; in this all men are alike. Thus, whatever is obtained by one is denied to the other, unless he gives something in exchange (for it)."
فالإنسان متى اقتدر على نفسه وتجاوز طور الضعف سعى في اقتناء المكاسب لينفق ما آتاه الله منها في تحصيل حاجاته وضروراته بدفع الأعواض عنها.,"When (man) has control of himself and is beyond the stage of (his original) weakness, he strives to make a profit, so that he may spend what God gives him to obtain his needs and necessities through barter."
قال الله تعالى: «فابتغوا عند الله الرزق 29: 17»,"God said: “Thus, ask God for sustenance.”"
وقد يحصل له ذلك بغير سعي كالمطر المصلح للزراعة وأمثاله. إلا أنها إنما تكون معينة ولا بد من سعيه معها كما يأتي فتكون له تلك المكاسب معاشا إن كانت بمقدار الضرورة والحاجة ورياشا ومتمولا إن زادت على ذلك.,"(Man) obtains (some profit) through no efforts of his own, as, for instance, through rain that makes the fields thrive, and similar things. However, these things are only contributory. His own efforts must be combined with them, as will be mentioned. (His) profits will constitute his livelihood, if they correspond to his necessities and needs. They will be capital accumulation, if they are greater than (his needs)."
ثم إن ذلك الحاصل أو المقتنى إن عادت منفعته على العبد وحصلت له ثمرته من إنفاقه في مصالحه وحاجاته سمي ذلك رزقا. قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «إنما لك من مالك ما أكلت فأفنيت أو لبست فأبليت أو تصدقت فأمضيت»,"When the use of such accruing or acquired (gain) reverts to a particular human being and he enjoys its fruits by spending it upon his interests and needs, it is called “sustenance.” The Prophet said: “The only thing you (really) possess of your property is what you ate, and have thus destroyed; or what you wore, and have thus worn out; or what you gave as charity, and have thus spent.”"
وإن لم ينتفع به في شيء من مصالحه ولا حاجاته فلا يسمى بالنسبة إلى المالك رزقا والمتملك منه حينئذ بسعي العبد وقدرته يسمى كسبا.,"When (a person) does not use (his income) for any of his interests and needs, it is not called “sustenance.” (The part of the income) that is obtained by a person through his own effort and strength is called “profit.”"
وهذا مثل التراث فإنه يسمى بالنسبة إلى الهالك كسبا ولا يسمى رزقا إذ لم يحصل به منتفع وبالنسبة إلى الوارثين متى انتفعوا به يسمى رزقا.,"For instance, the estate of a deceased person is called “profit” with reference to the deceased person. It is not called “sustenance,” because the deceased person has no use for it: But with reference to the heirs, when they use it, it is called “sustenance.”"
هذا حقيقة مسمى الرزق عند أهل السنة وقد اشترط المعتزل في تسميته رزقا أن يكون بحيث يصح تملكه وما لا يتملك عندهم لا يسمى رزقا وأخرجوا الغصوبات والحرام كله عن أن يسمى شيء منها رزقا,This is the real meaning of “sustenance” among orthodox Muslims. The Mu’tazilah stipulated for the use of the term “sustenance” that it must be possessed rightfully. Whatever is not possessed (rightfully) is not called “sustenance” by them. Wrongfully acquired property or anything forbidden was not admitted by them as something that could be called “sustenance.”
والله تعالى يرزق الغاصب والظالم والمؤمن والكافر برحمته وهدايته من يشاء.,"Yet, God sustains him who acquires property wrongfully, and also the evildoer, the believer as well as the unbeliever. He singles out whomever He wishes for His mercy and guidance."
ولهم في ذلك حجج ليس هذا موضع بسطها.,(The Mu’tazilah) have arguments for their theory of “sustenance.” This is not the place to discuss them fully.
ثم اعلم أن الكسب إنما يكون بالسعي في الاقتناء والقصد إلى التحصيل فلا بد في الرزق من سعي وعمل ولو في تناوله وابتغائه من وجوهه.,"It should further be known that profit results from the effort to acquire (things) and the intention to obtain (them). Sustenance requires effort and work, even if one tries to get it and ask for it in the proper ways for getting it."
قال تعالى: «فابتغوا عند الله الرزق 29: 17»,"God said: “Thus, ask God for sustenance.”"
والسعي إليه إنما يكون بأقدار الله تعالى وإلهامه، فالكل من عند الله. فلا بد من الأعمال الإنسانية في كل مكسوب ومتمول.,The effort to (obtain sustenance) depends on God’s determination and inspiration. Everything comes from God. But human labor is necessary for every profit and capital accumulation.
لأنه إن كان عملا بنفسه مثل الصنائع فظاهر وإن كان مقتنى من الحيوان والنبات والمعدن فلا بد فيه من العمل الإنساني كما تراه وإلا لم يحصل ولم يقع به انتفاع.,"When (the source of profit) is work as such, as, for instance, (the exercise of) a craft, this is obvious. When the source of gain is animals, plants, or minerals, (this is not quite as obvious, but) human labor is still necessary, as one can see. Without (human labor), no gain will be obtained, and there will be no useful (result)."
ثم إن الله تعالى خلق الحجرين المعدنيين من الذهب والفضة قيمة لكل متمول، وهما الذخيرة والقنية لأهل العالم في الغالب.,"Furthermore, God created the two mineral “stones,” gold and silver, as the (measure of) value for all capital accumulations. (Gold and silver are what) the inhabitants of the world, by preference, consider treasure and property (to consist of)."
وإن اقتنى سواهما في بعض الأحيان فإنما هو لقصد تحصيلهما بما يقع في غيرهما من حوالة الأسواق التي هما عنها بمعزل فهما أصل المكاسب والقنية والذخيرة.,"Even if, under certain circumstances, other things are acquired, it is only for the purpose of ultimately obtaining (gold and silver). All other things are subject to market fluctuations, from which (gold and silver) are exempt. They are the basis of profit, property, and treasure."
وإذا تقرر هذا كله فاعلم أن ما يفيده الإنسان ويقتنيه من المتمولات إن كان من الصنائع فالمفاد المقتنى منه قيمة عمله وهو القصد بالقنية إذ ليس هناك إلا العمل وليس بمقصود بنفسه للقنية.,"If all this has been established, it should be further known that the capital a person earns and acquires, if resulting from a craft, is the value realized from his labor. This is the meaning of “acquired (capital).” There is nothing here (originally) except the labor, and (the labor) is not desired by itself as acquired (capital, but the value realized from it)."
وقد يكون مع الصنائع في بعضها غيرها مثل التجارة والحياكة معهما الخشب والغزل إلا أن العمل فيهما أكثر فقيمته أكثر,"Some crafts are partly associated with other (crafts). Carpentry and weaving, for instance, are associated with wood and yarn (and the respective crafts needed for their production). However, in the two crafts (first mentioned), the labor (that goes into them) is more important, and its value is greater."
وإن كان من غير الصنائع فلا بد من قيمة ذلك المفاد والقنية من دخول قيمة العمل الذي حصلت به إذ لولا العمل لم تحصل قنيتها.,"If the profit results from something other than a craft, the value of the resulting profit and acquired (capital) must (also) include the value of the labor by which it was obtained. Without labor, it would not have been acquired."
وقد تكون ملاحظة العمل ظاهرة في الكثير منها فتجعل له حصة من القيمة عظمت أو صغرت. وقد تخفى ملاحظة العمل كما في أسعار الأقوات بين الناس فإن اعتبار الأعمال والنفقات فيها ملاحظ في أسعار الحبوب كما قدمناه,"In most such cases, the share of labor (in the profit) is obvious. A portion of the value, whether large or small, comes from (the labor). The share of labor may be concealed. This is the case, for instance, with the prices of foodstuffs. The labor and expenditures that have gone into them show themselves in the price of grain, as we have stated before."
لكنه خفي في الأقطار التي علاج الفلح فيها ومؤنته يسيرة فلا يشعر به إلا القليل من أهل الفلح.,"But they are concealed (items) in regions where farming requires little care and few implements. Thus, only a few farmers are conscious of the (costs of labor and expenditures that have gone into their products)."
فقد تبين أن المفادات والمكتسبات كلها أو أكثرها إنما هي قيم الأعمال الإنسانية وتبين مسمى الرزق وأنه المنتفع به. فقد بان معنى الكسب والرزق وشرح مسماهما.,"It has thus become clear that gains and profits, in their entirety or for the most part, are value realized from human labor. The meaning of the word “sustenance” has become clear. It is (the part of the profit) that is utilized. Thus, the meaning of the words “profit” and “sustenance” has become clear. The meaning of both words has been explained."
واعلم أنه إذا فقدت الأعمال أو قلت بانتقاص العمران تأذن الله برفع الكسب,"It should be known that when the (available) labor is all gone or decreases because of a decrease in civilization, God permits profits to be abolished."
أترى إلى الأمصار القليلة الساكن كيف يقل الرزق والكسب فيها أو يفقد لقلة الأعمال الإنسانية وكذلك الأمصار التي يكون عمرانها أكثر يكون أهلها أوسع أحوالا وأشد رفاهية كما قدمناه قبل,"Cities with few inhabitants can be observed to offer little sustenance and profit, or none whatever, because little human labor (is available). Likewise, in cities with a larger (supply of) labor, the inhabitants enjoy more favorable conditions and have more luxuries, as we have stated before."
ومن هذا الباب تقول العامة في البلاد إذا تناقص عمرانها إنها قد ذهب رزقها حتى أن الأنهار والعيون ينقطع جريها في القفر لما أن فور العيون إنما يكون بالأنباط والامتراء الذي هو بالعمل الإنساني كالحال في ضروع الأنعام,"This is why the common people say that, with the decrease of its civilization, the sustenance of a country disappears. This goes so far that even the flow of springs and rivers stops in waste areas. Springs flow only if they are dug out and the water drawn. This requires human labor. (The conditions) may be compared with the udders of animals."
فما لم يكن إنباط ولا امتراء نضبت وغارت بالجملة كما يجف الضرع إذا ترك امتراؤه.,"Springs that are not dug out and from which no water is drawn are absorbed and disappear in the ground completely. In the same way, udders dry up when they are not milked."
وأنظره في البلاد التي تعهد فيها العيون لأيام عمرانها ثم يأتي عليها الخراب كيف تغور مياهها جملة كأنها لم تكن,"This can be observed in countries where springs existed in the days of their civilization. Then, they fell into ruins, and the water of the springs disappeared completely in the ground, as if it had never existed."
«والله مقدر الليل والنهار».,God determines night and day.
الفصل الثاني في وجوه المعاش وأصنافه ومذاهبه,"2. The various ways, means, and methods of making a living."
اعلم أن المعاش هو عبارة عن ابتغاء الرزق والسعي في تحصيله وهو مغفل من العيش. كأنه لما كان العيش الذي هو الحياة لا يحصل إلا بهذه جعلت موضعا له على طريق المبالغة,"It should be known that “livelihood (making a living)” means the desire for sustenance and the effort to obtain it. “Livelihood” (ma’ash) is a maf’al formation from `aysh “life.” The idea is that ‘aysh “life” is obtained only through the things (that go into making a living), and they are therefore considered, with some exaggeration, “the place of life.”"
ثم إن تحصيل الرزق وكسبه: إما أن يكون بأخذه من يد الغير وانتزاعه بالاقتدار عليه على قانون متعارف ويسمى مغرما وجباية وإما أن يكون من الحيوان الوحشي بافتراسه وأخذه برميه من البر أو البحر ويسمى اصطيادا,Sustenance and profit may be obtained-through-having the power to take them away from others and to appropriate them according to a generally recognized norm. This is called imposts and taxation. Or (profit may be obtained) from wild animals by killing or catching them whole on land or in the sea. This is called hunting (fishing).
وإما أن يكون من الحيوان الداجن باستخراج فضوله المنصرفة بين الناس في منافعهم كاللبن من الأنعام والحرير من دوده والعسل من نحلة أو يكون من النبات في الزرع والشجر بالقيام عليه وإعداده لاستخراج ثمرته ويسمى هذا كله فلحا,"Or (profit may be obtained) either from domesticated animals by extracting surplus products which are used by the people, such as milk from animals, silk from silk worms, and honey from bees; or from plants such as are planted in fields or grow as trees, through cultivating and preparing them for the production of their fruits. All this is called agriculture."
وإما أن يكون الكسب من الأعمال الإنسانية إما في مواد معينة وتسمى الصنائع من كتابة وتجارة وخياطة وحياكة وفروسية وأمثال ذلك أو في مواد غير معينة وهي جميع الامتهانات والتصرفات,"Or profit may be the result of human labor. (Such labor may be applied) to specific materials. Then it is called a craft, such as writing, carpentry, tailoring, weaving, horsemanship, and similar (crafts). Or it may be applied to nonspecific materials. This, then, includes all the (other) professions and activities."
وإما أن يكون الكسب من البضائع وإعدادها للأعواض إما بالتغلب بها في البلاد واحتكارها وارتقاب حوالة الأسواق فيها. ويسمى هذا تجارة. فهذه وجوه المعاش وأصنافه,"Or profit may come from merchandise and its use in barter; (merchants can make such profit) either by traveling around with (the merchandise) in (various) countries, or by hoarding it and observing the market fluctuations which affect it. This is called commerce. These are the different ways and means of making a living."
وهي معنى ما ذكره المحققون من أهل الأدب والحكمة كالحريري وغيره فإنهم قالوا: «المعاش إمارة وتجارة وفلاحة وصناعة».,"Certain thorough men of letters and philosophers, such as al-Hariri and others, had this in mind when they said: “A living is made by (exercising) political power (imarah), through commerce, agriculture, or the crafts.”"
فأما الإمارة فليست بمذهب طبيعي للمعاش فلا حاجة بنا إلى ذكرها وقد تقدم شيء من أحوال الجبايات السلطانية وأهلها في الفصل الثاني. وأما الفلاحة والصناعة والتجارة فهي وجوه طبيعية للمعاش,"(The exercise of) political power is not a natural way of making a living. We do not have to mention it here. Something was said before in the second chapter about governmental tax collection and the people in charge of it. Agriculture, the crafts, and commerce, on the other hand, are natural ways of making a living."
أما الفلاحة فهي متقدمة عليها كلها بالذات إذ هي بسيطة وطبيعية فطرية لا تحتاج إلى نظر ولا علم ولهذا تنسب في الخليقة إلى آدم أبي البشر وأنه معلمها والقائم عليها إشارة إلى أنها أقدم وجوه المعاش وأنسبها إلى الطبيعة.,"Agriculture is prior to all the other (ways of making a living) by its very nature, since it is something simple and innately natural. It needs no speculation or (theoretical) knowledge. Therefore, (invention) of it is ascribed to Adam, the father of mankind. He is said to have taught and practiced agriculture. This indicates that it is the oldest way of making a living and the one most closely related to nature."
وأما الصنائع فهي ثانيتها ومتأخرة عنها لأنها مركبة وعلمية تصرف فيها الأفكار والأنظار ولهذا لا يوجد غالبا إلا في أهل الحضر الذي هو متأخر عن البدو وثان عنه.,"The crafts are secondary and posterior to agriculture. They are composite and scientific. Thinking and speculation is applied to them. Therefore, as a rule, crafts exist only among sedentary peoples. (Sedentary culture) is posterior to Bedouin life, and secondary to it."
ومن هذا المعنى نسبت إلى إدريس الأب الثاني للخليقة فإنه مستنبطها لمن بعده من البشر بالوحي من الله تعالى.,"In this sense, their (invention) was ascribed to Idris, the second father of mankind. He is said to have invented them with the help of divine revelation for the human beings to come after him."
وأما التجارة وإن كانت طبيعة في الكسب فالأكثر من طرقها ومذاهبها إنما هي تحيلات في الحصول على ما بين القيمتين في الشراء والبيع لتحصل فائدة الكسب من تلك الفضلة.,"Commerce is a natural way of making profits. However, most of its practices and methods are tricky and designed to obtain the (profit) margin between purchase prices and sales prices. This surplus makes it possible to earn a profit."
ولذلك أباح الشرع فيه المكاسبة لما أنه من باب المقامرة إلا أنه ليس أخذ المال الغير مجانا فلهذا اختص بالمشروعية.,"Therefore, the law permits cunning in commerce, since (commerce) contains an element of gambling. It does not, however, mean taking away the property of others without giving anything in return. Therefore, it is legal."
والله أعلم.,And God knows better.
الفصل الثالث في أن الخدمة ليست من الطبيعي,3. Being a servant is not a natural way of making a living.
اعلم أن السلطان لا بد له من اتخاذ الخدمة في سائر أبواب الإمارة والملك الذي هو بسبيله من الجندي والشرطي والكاتب.,"The ruler must use the services of men, such as soldiers, policemen, and secretaries, in all the departments of political power (imarah) and royal authority with which he has to do."
ويستكفي في كل باب بمن يعلم غناءه فيه ويتكفل بأرزاقهم من بيت ماله.,"For each department, he will be satisfied with men who, he knows, are adequate, and he will provide for their sustenance from the treasury."
وهذا كله مندرج في الإمارة ومعاشها إذ كلهم ينسحب عليهم حكم الإمارة والملك الأعظم هو ينبوع جداولهم. وأما ما دون ذلك من الخدمة فسببها أن أكثر المترفين يترفع عن مباشرة حاجاته أو يكون عاجزا عنها لما ربي عليه من خلق التنعم والترف,"All this belongs to political power and the living made out of it. The authority of political administration extends to all these men, and the highest royal authority is the (common) source of (power for) their various branches. .The reason for the existence of servants on a lower level is the fact that most of those who live in luxury are too proud to take care of their own personal needs or are unable to do so, because they were brought up accustomed to indulgence and luxury."
فيتخذ من يتولى ذلك له ويقطعه عليه أجرا من ماله. وهذه الحالة غير محمودة بحسب الرجولية الطبيعية للإنسان إذ الثقة بكل أحد عجز، ولأنها تزيد في الوظائف والخرج وتدل على العجز والخنث الذي ينبغي في مذاهب الرجولية التنزه عنهما.,"Therefore, they employ people who will take charge of such things for them. They give these people wages out of their own (money). This situation is not praiseworthy from the point of view of manliness, which is natural to man, since it is (a sign of) weakness to rely on persons (other than oneself). It also adds to one’s duties and expenditures, and indicates a weakness and effeminacy that ought to be avoided in the interest of manliness."
إلا أن العوائد تقلب طباع الإنسان إلى مألوفها فهو ابن عوائده لا ابن نسبه.,"However, custom causes human nature to incline toward the things to which it becomes used. Man is the child of customs, not the child of his ancestors."
ومع ذلك فالخديم الذي يستكفى به ويوثق بغنائه كالمفقود إذ الخديم القائم بذلك لا يعدو أربع حالات: إما مضطلع بأمره ولا موثوق فيما يحصل بيده وإما بالعكس فيهما، وهو أن يكون غير مضطلع بأمره ولا موثوق فيها يحصل بيده,"Moreover, satisfactory and trustworthy servants are almost nonexistent. There are just four categories according to which a servant of this (description) can be classified. He may be capable of doing what he has to do, and trustworthy with regard to the things that come into his hands. Or, he may be the opposite in both respects, that is, he may be neither capable nor trustworthy."
وإما بالعكس في إحداهما فقط مثل أن يكون مضطلعا غير موثوق أو موثوقا غير مضطلع.,"Or, he may be the opposite in one respect only, that is, he may be capable and not trustworthy, or trustworthy and not capable."
فأما الأول وهو المضطلع الموثوق فلا يمكن أحدا استعماله بوجه إذ هو باضطلاعه وثقته غني عن أهل الرتب الدنيئة ومحتقر لمثال الأجر من الخدمة لاقتداره على أكثر من ذلك فلا يستعمله إلا الأمراء أهل الجاه العريض لعموم الحاجة إلى الجاه.,"As to the first (kind), the capable and trustworthy servant, no one would in any way be able to secure the employment of such a person. With his capability and trustworthiness, he would have no need of persons of low rank, and he would disdain to accept the wages (they could) offer for (his) service, because he could get more. Therefore, such a person is employed only by amirs who have high ranks, because the need for rank is general."
وأما الصنف الثاني وهو ممن ليس بمضطلع ولا موثوق فلا ينبغي لعاقل استعماله لأنه يحجف بمخدومه في الأمرين معا فيضيع عليه لعدم الاصطناع تارة ويذهب ماله بالخيانة أخرى فهو على كل حال كل على مولاه.,"The second kind, the servant who is neither capable nor trustworthy, should not be employed by any intelligent person, because he will do damage to his master on both counts. On the one hand, he will cause losses to his master through his lack of ability, and on the other hand, he will defraud him and deprive him of his property. In any event, he is a liability to his master."
فهذان الصنفان لا يطمع أحد في استعمالهما.,"No one would (want, or have occasion to) employ these two kinds of servants."
ولم يبق إلا استعمال الصنفين الآخرين: موثوق غير مضطلع ومضطلع غير موثوق وللناس في الترجيح بينهما مذهبان، ولكل من الترجيحين وجه.,"Thus, the only thing that remains is to employ servants of the two other kinds, servants who are trustworthy but not capable, and servants who are capable but not trustworthy. There are two opinions among people as to which of the two kinds is preferable. Each has something in its favor."
إلا أن المضطلع ولو كان غير موثوق أرجح لأنه يؤمن من تضييعه ويحاول على التحرز من خيانته جهد الاستطاعة,"However, the capable (servant), even when he is not trustworthy, is preferable. One can be sure that he will not cause any damage, and one can arrange to be on guard as far as possible against being defrauded by him."
وأما المضيع ولو كان مأمونا فضرره بالتضييع أكثر من نفعه. فاعلم ذلك واتخذه قانونا في الاستكفاء بالخدمة.,"(The servant) who may cause damage, even when he is reliable, is more harmful than useful because of the damage caused by him. This should be realized and taken as the norm for finding satisfactory servants."
والله سبحانه وتعالى قادر على كل شيء.,God has power to do what he wishes.
الفصل الرابع في ابتغاء الأموال من الدفائن والكنوز ليس بمعاش طبيعي,4. Trying to make money from buried and other treasures is not a natural way of making a living.
اعلم أن كثيرا من ضعفاء العقول في الأمصار يحرصون على استخراج الأموال من تحت الأرض ويبتغون الكسب من ذلك.,It should be known that many weak-minded persons in cities hope to discover property under the surface of the earth and to make some profit from it.
ويعتقدون أن أموال الأمم السالفة مختزنة كلها تحت الأرض مختوم عليها كلها بطلاسم سحرية، لا يفض ختامها ذلك إلا من عثر على علمه واستحضر ما يحله من البخور والدعاء والقربان.,"They believe that all the property of the nations of the past was stored underground and sealed with magic talismans. These seals, they believe, can be broken only by those who may chance upon the (necessary) knowledge and can offer the proper incense, prayers, and sacrifices to break them."
فأهل الأمصار بإفريقية يرون أن الإفرنجة الذين كانوا قبل الإسلام بها دفنوا أموالهم كذلك وأودعوها في الصحف بالكتاب إلى أن يجدوا السبيل إلى استخراجها. وأهل الأمصار بالمشرق يرون مثل ذلك في أمم القبط والروم والفرس.,"The inhabitants of the cities in Ifriqiyah believe that the European Christians who lived in Ifriqiyah before Islam, buried their property and entrusted its (hiding place) to written lists, until such time as they might find a way to dig it up again. The inhabitants of the cities in the East hold similar beliefs with regard to the nations of the Copts, the Romans (Byzantines), and the Persians."
ويتناقلون في ذلك أحاديث تشبه حديث خرافة,They circulate stories to this effect that sound like idle talk.
من انتهاء بعض الطالبين لذلك إلى حفر موضع المال ممن لم يعرف طلسمه ولا خبره فيجدونه خاليا أو معمورا بالديدان. أو يشاهد الأموال والجواهر موضوعة والحرس دونها منتضين سيوفهم. أو تميد به الأرض حتى يظنه خسفا أو مثل ذلك من الهذر.,"Thus, a treasure hunter comes to dig where there was money buried, but does not know the talisman or the story connected with it. As a result, he finds the place empty or inhabited by worms. Or, he sees the money and jewels lying there, but guards stand over them with drawn swords. Or the earth shakes, so that he believes that he will be swallowed up, and similar nonsense."
ونجد كثيرا من طلبة البربر بالمغرب العاجزين عن المعاش الطبيعي وأسبابه يتقربون إلى أهل الدنيا بالأوراق المتخرمة الحواشي إما بخطوط عجمية أو بما ترجم بزعمهم منها من خطوط أهل الدفائن بإعطاء الأمارات عليها في أماكنها,"In the Maghrib there are many Berber “students” who are unable to make a living by natural ways and means. They approach well-to-do people with papers that have torn margins and contain either non-Arab writing or what they claim to be the translation of a document written by the owner of buried treasures, giving the clue to the hiding place."
يبتغون بذلك الرزق منهم بما يبعثونه على الحفر والطلب ويموهون عليهم بأنهم إنما حملهم على الاستعانة بهم طلب الجاه في مثل هذا من منال الحكام والعقوبات.,"In this way, they try to get their sustenance by (persuading well-to-do people) to send them out to dig and hunt for treasure. They fool them by saying that their only motive in asking for help is their wish to find influential protection against seizure and punishment by (local) authorities."
وربما تكون عند بعضهم نادرة أو غريبة من الأعمال السحرية يموه بها على تصديق ما بقي من دعواه وهو بمعزل عن السحر وطرقه,"Occasionally, one of these treasure hunters displays strange information or some remarkable trick of magic with which he fools people into believing his other claims, although, in fact, he knows nothing of magic and (magical) procedures."
فتولع كثير من ضعفاء العقول بجمع الأيدي على الاحتفار والتستر فيه بظلمات الليل مخافة الرقباء وعيون أهل الدول، فإذا لم يعثروا على شيء ردوا ذلك إلى الجهل بالطلسم الذي ختم به على ذلك المال يخادعون به أنفسهم عن إخفاق مطامعهم.,"Most weak-minded people wish to do their digging with others and to be protected by the darkness of night while they do it. They are afraid of watchers and government spies. When they do not turn anything up, they put the blame upon their ignorance of the talisman with which the (buried) money was sealed. Thus they deceive themselves as to the failure of their hopes."
والذي يحمل على ذلك في الغالب زيادة على ضعف العقل إنما هو العجز عن طلب المعاش بالوجوه الطبيعية للكسب من التجارة والفلح والصناعة فيطلبونه بالوجوه المنحرفة وعلى غير المجرى الطبيعي من هذا وأمثاله,"In addition to a weak mind, a (common) motive that leads people to hunt for treasure is their inability to make a living in one of the natural ways that lead to profit, such as commerce, agriculture, or the crafts. Therefore, they try to make a living in devious ways, such as (treasure hunting) and the like, not in one of the natural ways."
عجزا عن السعي في المكاسب وركونا إلى تناول الرزق من غير تعب ولا نصب في تحصيله واكتسابه ولا يعلمون أنهم يوقعون أنفسهم بابتغاء ذلك من غير وجهه في نصب ومتاعب وجهد شديد أشد من الأول ويعرضون أنفسهم مع ذلك لمنال العقوبات.,"For they are unable to make the effort necessary to earn something, and they trust that they can gain their sustenance without effort or trouble. They do not realize that by trying to make a living in an improper manner, they plunge themselves into much greater trouble, hardship, and expenditure of energy than otherwise. In addition, they expose themselves to (the risk of) punishment."
وربما يحمل على ذلك في الأكثر زيادة الترف وعوائده وخروجها عن حد النهاية حتى تقصر عنها وجوه الكسب ومذاهبه ولا تفي بمطالبها.,"Occasionally, a principal motive leading people to hunt for treasure is the fact that they have become used to ever-increasing, limitless luxury and (luxury) customs. As a result, the various ways and means of earning money cannot keep pace with and do not pay for their (luxury) requirements."
فإذا عجز عن الكسب بالمجرى الطبيعي لم يجد وليجة في نفسه إلا التمني لوجود المال العظيم دفعة من غير كلفة ليفي له ذلك بالعوائد التي حصل في أسرها فيحرص على ابتغاء ذلك ويسعى فيه جهده,"When such a person cannot earn enough in a natural way, his only way out is to wish that at one stroke, without any effort, he might find sufficient money to pay for the (luxury) habits in which he has become caught. Thus, he becomes eager to find (treasure) and concentrates all his effort upon that."
ولهذا فأكثر من تراهم يحرصون على ذلك هم المترفون من أهل الدولة ومن سكان الأمصار الكثيرة الترف المتسعة الأحوال مثل مصر وما في معناها فنجد الكثير منهم مغرمين بابتغاء ذلك وتحصيله ومساءلة الركبان عن شواذه كما يحرصون على الكيمياء.,"Therefore, most of those who can be observed to be eager to (hunt for treasure) are people used to luxurious living. Among the people of the (various) dynasties and the inhabitants of cities such as Cairo (Egypt), where there is much luxury and (living) conditions are favorable, many are engrossed in the search for (treasure). They question travelers about extraordinary tales of (hidden treasure) with the same eagerness they show for the practice of alchemy."
هكذا بلغني عن أهل مصر في مفاوضة من يلقونه من طلبة المغاربة لعلهم يعثرون منه على دفين أو كنز,"Thus, we hear that the inhabitants of Cairo (Egypt) consult the Maghribi “students” they meet, in hopes that, with their help, they may perhaps hit upon some buried or other treasure."
ويزيدون على ذلك البحث عن تغوير المياه لما يرون أن غالب هذه الأموال الدفينة كلها في مجاري النيل وأنه أعظم ما يستر دفينا أو مختزنا في تلك الآفاق ويموه عليهم أصحاب تلك الدفاتر المفتعلة في الاعتذار عن الوصول إليها بجرية النيل,"They further investigate (the possibility of) making water disappear in the soil, because they believe that the majority of all buried treasures are to be found in the canals of the Nile and that the Nile largely covers the buried or hoarded treasures in those regions. Persons who possess the (afore-mentioned) forged records fool them with the excuse that the reason they cannot reach the treasures is because the Nile flows there."
تسترا بذلك من الكذب حتى يحصل على معاشه فيحرص سامع ذلك منهم على نضوب الماء بالأعمال السحرية لتحصيل مبتغاه من هذه كلفا بشأن السحر متوارثا في ذلك القطر عن أوليه فعلومهم السحرية وآثارها باقية بأرضهم في البراري وغيرها.,"In this way they cover up their lies. First, they want to make a living. The person who hears their (stories) wants to make the water disappear in the ground by means of magical operations, so as to obtain what he wants. (People in Egypt) are fond of magic, (a trait) they have inherited from their early forebears in (Egypt). Their magical disciplines and monuments still remain in (Egypt) as the graves (of the ancient Egyptians) and other buildings attest."
وقصة سحرة فرعون شاهدة باختصاصهم بذلك وقد تناقل أهل المغرب قصيدة ينسبونها إلى حكماء المشرق تعطى فيها كيفية العمل بالتغوير بصناعة سحرية حسبما تراه فيها,"The story of Pharaoh’s magicians testifies to their special (knowledge of magic). The inhabitants of the Maghrib circulate a poem among themselves which they ascribe to the sages of the East. As one can see, it shows how to make water disappear in the ground by magical means."
"وهي هذه:
يا طالبا للسر في التغوير *** اسمع كلام الصدق من خبير
دع عنك ما قد صنفوا في كتبهم *** من قول بهتان ولفظ غرور","This is (the poem): O you who are looking for the secret of how to make water disappear in the ground, Listen to the word of truth from an expert! Put aside all the false statements and deceptive remarks That people have written in books,"
"واسمع لصدق مقالتي ونصيحتي *** إن كنت ممن لا يرى بالزور
فإذا أردت تغور البئر التي *** حارت لها الأوهام في التدبير
صور كصورتك التي أوقفتها *** والرأس رأس الشبل في التقوير","And listen to my truthful word and advice, If you are one of those who do not believe in cheating [being cheated?]. If you seek to make a well disappear, and How to handle this well has always puzzled the mind, Make a picture resembling yourself standing, (but) The head should be that of a young lion, (drawn) as a round shape."
"ويداه ماسكتان للحبل الذي *** في الدلو ينشل من قرار البير
وبصدره هاء كما عاينتها *** عدد الطلاق احذر من التكرير
ويطا على الطاءات غير ملامس *** مشي اللبيب الكيس النحرير","His hands (should) hold the rope that is Drawing a bucket up from the bottom of a well. On his breast, there (should be) an h, as you may have seen, (Written three times), the number of divorce. Be careful not to repeat it more often! It (should) step upon is without touching (them), Walking like someone who is courageous, clever, and skillful."
يعني أن تكون الطاءات بين قدميه كأنه يمشي عليها,"He means that the is are in front of (the figure), and it looks as if it were walking upon them"
"ويكون حول الكل خط دائر *** تربيعه أولى من التكوير
واذبح عليه الطير والطخه به *** واقصده عقب الذبح بالتبخير
بالسندروس وباللبان وميعة *** والقسط وألبسه بثوب حرير","Around the whole, there is a line running, Which should rather be square than round. Slaughter a bird over it and smear its (blood) upon it, And immediately after the slaughtering, go and use incense, Sandarac, frankincense, storax, And costus root. And cover it with a silken garment."
"من أحمر أو أصفر لا أزرق *** لا أخضر فيه ولا تكدير
ويشده خيطان صوف أبيض *** أو أحمر من خالص التحمير","A red one or a yellow one, not a blue one. It should have no green or dark (color) in it. It should be sewn with threads of white Or red wool of purest red coloring."
"والطالع الأسد الذي قد بينوا *** ويكون بدء الشهر غير منير
والبدر متصل بسعد عطارد *** في يوم سبت ساعة التدبير","The ascendant should be Leo, as has already been explained, And there should be no bright moonlight, And the [fall ?] moon should be connected with the lucky position of Mercury. A Saturday should be the hour of the operation."
وعندي أن هذه القصيدة من تمويهات المتخرفين فلهم في ذلك أحوال غريبة واصطلاحات عجيبة,My opinion is that this poem is one of the things with which swindlers fool (other people). These (swindlers) create remarkable situations and employ astounding techniques.
وتنتهي التخرفة والكذب بهم إلى أن يسكنوا المنازل المشهورة والدور المعروفة لمثل هذه ويحتفرون الحفر ويضعون المطابق فيها والشواهد التي يكتبونها في صحائف كذبهم ثم يقصدون ضعفاء العقول بأمثال هذه الصحائف,"They go so far in their devious lies as to take up residence in famous mansions and houses known as (hiding places of treasures). They undertake excavations there and make underground cells and put signs there which they (then) incorporate in their forged lists. Then, they go to some weak-minded person with these lists."
(ويعثون على كبراء) ذلك المنزل وسكناه ويوهمون أن به دفينا من المال لا يعبر عن كثرته ويطالبون بالمال لاشتراء العقاقير والبخورات لحل الطلاسم ويعدونه بظهور الشواهد التي قد أعدوها هنالك بأنفسهم ومن فعلهم,"They urge him to rent the mansion and live there. They suggest to him that the mansion contains a buried treasure of indescribable magnitude. They ask for money to buy drugs and incense, in order to break the talismans. They condition him by producing the signs they themselves had placed there and that were of their own manufacture."
فينبعث لما يراه من ذلك وهو قد خدع ولبس عليه من حيث لا يشعر وبينهم في ذلك اصطلاح في كلامهم يلبسون به عليهم ليخفى عند محاورتهم فيما يتلونه من حفر وبخور وذبح حيوان وأمثال ذلك.,"He gets excited by the things he sees. He is deceived and taken in by them without knowing it. During these (operations), the (swindlers) use among themselves a (special) linguistic terminology with the help of which they inveigle (their victims), and keep them in ignorance of what they say concerning the digging, incense, slaughtering of animals, and the other such things that they do."
وأما الكلام في ذلك على الحقيقة فلا أصل له في علم ولا خبر واعلم أن الكنوز وإن كانت توجد لكنها في حكم النادر وعلى وجه الاتفاق لا على وجه القصد إليها.,"The things that have been said about (treasure hunting) have no scientific basis, nor are they based upon (factual) information. It should be realized that although treasures are (sometimes) found, this happens rarely and by chance, not by systematic ‘search."
وليس ذلك بأمر تعم به البلوى حتى يدخر الناس أموالهم تحت الأرض ويختمون عليها بالطلاسم لا في القديم ولا في الحديث.,"(The hiding of treasures) is no matter of general concern, such that people would commonly store their money underground and seal it with talismans, either in ancient or in recent times."
والركاز الذي ورد في الحديث وفرضه الفقهاء وهو دفين الجاهلية إنما يوجد بالعثور والاتفاق لا بالقصد والطلب وأيضا فمن اختزن ماله وختم عليه بالأعمال السحرية فقد بالغ في إخفائه فكيف ينصب عليه الأدلة والأمارات لمن يبتغيه.,"Buried treasures (rikaz), such as are mentioned in the Prophetic traditions and such as the jurists assume to exist – that is, buried in pre-Islamic times – are found by chance, not by systematic search. Furthermore, why should anyone who hoards his money and seals it with magical operations, thus making extraordinary efforts to keep it concealed, set up hints and clues as to how it may be found by anyone who cares to?"
ويكتب ذلك في الصحائف حتى يطلع على ذخيرته أهل الأمصار والآفاق؟ هذا يناقض قصد الإخفاء.,"Why make a written list of it, so that the people of any period and region could find his treasure? This would contradict the intention of keeping it concealed."
وأيضا فأفعال العقلاء لا بد وأن تكون لغرض مقصود في الانتفاع. ومن اختزن المال فإنه يختزنه لولده أو قريبه أو من يؤثره.,"Furthermore, intelligent people act with some definite, useful purpose in mind. A person who hoards his money does so because he wants his children, his relatives, or someone else to get it."
وأما أن يقصد إخفاءه بالكلية عن كل أحد وإنما هو للبلاء والهلاك أو لمن لا يعرفه بالكلية ممن سيأتي من الأمم فهذا ليس من مقاصد العقلاء بوجه.,"No intelligent person tries to hide his money altogether, from everybody. To do so would merely bring about its destruction or loss, or its going to some member of a future nation unknown to him."
وأما قولهم: أين أموال الأمم من قبلنا وما علم فيها من الكثرة والوفور؟ فاعلم أن الأموال من الذهب والفضة والجواهر والأمتعة إنما هي معادن ومكاسب مثل الحديد والنحاس والرصاص وسائر العقارات والمعادن.,"The question has been asked: Where is the property of the nations (that came) before us, and where are the abundant riches known to have existed among those nations? (In reply,) it should be known that treasures of gold, silver, precious stones, and utensils are no different from (other) minerals and acquired (capital), from iron, copper, lead, and any other real property or (ordinary) minerals."
والعمران يظهرها بالأعمال الإنسانية ويزيد فيها أو ينقصها وما يوجد منها بأيدي الناس فهو متناقل متوارث وربما انتقل من قطر إلى قطر ومن دولة إلى أخرى بحسب أغراضه.,"It is civilization that causes them to appear, with the help of human labor, and that makes them increase or decrease. All such things in people’s possession may be transferred and passed on by inheritance. They have often been transferred from one region to another, and from one dynasty to another, in accordance with the purposes they were to serve and the particular civilization that required them."
والعمران الذي يستدعي له فإن نقص المال في المغرب وإفريقية فلم ينقص ببلاد الصقالبة والإفرنج وإن نقص في مصر والشام فلم ينقص في الهند والصين. وإنما هي الآلات والمكاسب والعمران يوفرها أو ينقصها،,"If money (at this time) is scarce in the Maghrib and Ifriqiyah, it is not scarce in the countries of the Slavs and the European Christians. If it is scarce in Egypt and Syria, it is not scarce in India and China. Such things are merely materials (alat) and acquired (capital). It is civilization that produces them in abundance or causes them to be in short supply."
مع أن المعادن يدركها البلاء كما يدرك سائر الموجودات ويسرع إلى اللؤلؤ والجوهر أعظم مما يسرع إلى غيره. وكذا الذهب والفضة والنحاس والحديد والرصاص والقصدير ينالها من البلاء والفناء ما يذهب بأعيانها لأقرب وقت.,"Moreover, minerals are affected by destruction like all other existent things. Pearls and jewels deteriorate more quickly than anything else. Gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and tin are also affected by destruction and complete annihilation, which destroy their substances in a very short time."
وأما ما وقع في مصر من أمر المطالب والكنوز فسببه أن مصر في ملكة القبط منذ آلاف أو يزيد من السنين وكان موتاهم يدفنون بموجودهم من الذهب والفضة والجواهر واللئالئ على مذهب من تقدم من أهل الدول,"The occurrence of finds and treasures in Egypt is explained by the fact that Egypt was in the possession of the Copts for two thousand or more years. Their dead were buried with their possessions of gold, silver, precious stones, and pearls. This was the custom of the people of the old dynasties."
"فلما انقضت دولة القبط وملك الفرس بلادهم نقروا على ذلك في قبورهم فكشفوا عنه فأخذوا من قبورهم ما لا يوصف:
كالأهرام من قبور الملوك وغيرها.","When the dynasty of the Copts ended and the Persians ruled Egypt, they searched the graves for such objects and discovered them. They took an indescribably large amount of such objects from the graves, from the pyramids, for example, which were the royal graves, and from the other (types of graves)."
وكذا فعل اليونانيون من بعدهم وصارت قبورهم مظنة لذلك لهذا العهد. ويعثر على الدفين فيها كثيرا من الأوقات.,The same was done by the Greeks after them. Those graves afforded opportunities for treasure (hunting and have continued to do so) down to this time. One frequently comes upon buried treasure in them.
أما ما يدفنونه من أموالهم أو ما يكرمون به موتاهم في الدفن من أوعية وتوابيت من الذهب والفضة معدة لذلك فصارت قبور القبط منذ آلاف من السنين مظنة لوجود ذلك فيها. فلذلك عني أهل مصر بالبحث عن المطالب لوجود ذلك فيها واستخراجها.,"This may either consist of money buried by the Copts, or (it may be) the specially prepared vessels and sarcophagi of gold and silver with which they honored their dead when they buried them. For thousands of years, the graves of the Copts have been likely to afford opportunities for finding (treasure). Because of the existence of (treasures in graves) the Egyptians have been concerned with the search for treasures and their discovery."
حتى إنهم حين ضربت المكوس على الأصناف آخر الدولة ضربت على أهل المطالب. وصدرت ضريبة على من يشتغل بذلك من الحمقى والمهوسين,"When, in the later (years) of a dynasty, duties come to be levied upon various things, they are even levied upon treasure hunters, and a tax has to be paid by those stupid and deluded persons who occupy themselves with (treasure hunting)."
فوجد بذلك المتعاطون من أهل الأطماع الذريعة إلى الكشف عنه والذرع باستخراجه وما حصلوا إلا على الخيبة في جميع مساعيهم نعوذ بالله من الخسران,Greedy people (in the government) who try assiduously to (discover treasures think that they) have thus found the means to discover treasures (for their own benefit) and a promising way to get them out. But all their efforts remain entirely unsuccessful. God is our refuge from perdition.
فيحتاج من وقع له شيء من هذا الوسواس وابتلي به أن يتعوذ بالله من العجز والكسل في طلب معاشه كما تعوذ رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم من ذلك وينصرف عن طرق الشيطان ووسواسه ولا يشغل بالمحالات والمكاذب من الحكايات,"Those who are deluded or afflicted by these things must take refuge in God from their inability to make a living and their laziness in this respect, just as the Messenger of God took refuge from it and turned away from the ways and delusions of Satan. They should not occupy themselves with absurdities and untrue stories."
«والله يرزق من يشاء بغير حساب 2: 212».,"“God gives sustenance to whomever He wishes to give it, without accounting.”"
الفصل الخامس في أن الجاه مفيد للمال,5. Ranks are useful in securing property.
وذلك أنا نجد صاحب المال والحظوة في جميع أصناف المعاش أكثر يسارا وثروة من فاقد الجاه. والسبب في ذلك أن صاحب الجاه مخدوم بالأعمال يتقرب بها إليه في سبيل التزلف والحاجة إلى جاهه,This is as follows: We find that the person of rank who is highly esteemed is in every material aspect more fortunate and wealthier than a person who has no rank. The reason for this is that the person of rank is served by the labor (of others).
فالناس معينون له بأعمالهم في جميع حاجاته من ضروري أو حاجي أو كمالي فتحصل قيم تلك الأعمال كلها من كسبه وجميع معاشاته أن تبذل فيه الأعواض من العمل يستعمل فيها الناس من غير عوض فتتوفر قيم تلك الأعمال عليه.,"They try to approach him with their labor, since they want to be close to (him) and are in need of (the protection) his rank affords. People help him with their labor in all his needs, whether these are necessities, conveniences, or luxuries. The value realized from all such labor becomes part of his profit. For tasks that usually require giving some compensation (to the persons who perform them), he always employs people without giving anything in return. He realizes a very high value from their labor."
فهو بين قيم للأعمال يكتسبها وقيم أخرى تدعوه الضرورة إلى إخراجها فتتوفر عليه. والأعمال لصاحب الجاه كثيرة فتفيد الغنى لأقرب وقت ويزداد مع الأيام يسارا وثروة.,"It is (the difference) between the value he realizes from the (free) labor (products) and the prices he must pay for things he needs. He thus makes a very great (profit). A person of rank receives much (free) labor which makes him rich in a very short time. With the passing of days, his fortune and wealth increase."
ولهذا المعنى كانت الإمارة أحد أسباب المعاش كما قدمناه وفاقد الجاه بالكلية ولو كان صاحب مال فلا يكون يساره إلا بمقدار ماله وعلى نسبة سعيه وهؤلاء هم أكثر التجار.,"It is in this sense that (the possession of) political power (imarah) is one of the ways of making a living, as we have stated before. The person who has no rank whatever, even though he may have property, acquires a fortune only in proportion to the property he owns and in accordance with the efforts he himself makes. Most merchants are in this position."
ولهذا تجد أهل الجاه منهم يكونون أيسر بكثير. ومما يشهد لذلك أنا نجد كثيرا من الفقهاء وأهل الدين والعبادة إذا اشتهروا حسن الظن بهم واعتقد الجمهور معاملة الله في إرفادهم,"Therefore, (merchants) who have a rank are far better off (than other merchants). Evidence for this is the fact that many jurists and religious scholars and pious persons acquire a good reputation. Then, the great mass believes that when they give them presents, they serve God."
فأخلص الناس في إعانتهم على أحوال دنياهم والاعتمال في مصالحهم وأسرعت إليهم الثروة وأصبحوا مياسير من غير مال مقتنى إلا ما يحصل لهم من قيم الأعمال التي وقعت المعونة بها من الناس لهم.,"People, therefore, are willing to help them in their worldly affairs and to work for their interests. As a result, they quickly become wealthy and turn out to be very well off although they have acquired no property but have only the value realized from the labor with which the people have supported them."
رأينا من ذلك أعدادا في الأمصار والمدن. وفي البدو يسعى لهم الناس في الفلح والتجر وكل هو قاعد بمنزله لا يبرح من مكانه فينمو ماله ويعظم كسبه ويتأثل الغني من غير سعي ويعجب من لا يفطن لهذا السر في حال ثروته وأسباب غناه ويساره,"We have seen much of this in cities and towns as well as in the desert. People do farm work and business for these men, who sit at home and do not leave their places. But still their property grows and their profits increase. Without effort, they accumulate wealth, to the surprise of those who do not understand what the secret of their affluence is, what the reasons for their wealth and fortune are."
والله سبحانه وتعالى يرزق من يشاء بغير حساب.,"“God gives sustenance to whomever He wishes to give it, without accounting.”"
الفصل السادس في أن السعادة والكسب إنما يحصل غالبا لأهل الخضوع والتملق وان هذا الخلق من أسباب السعادة,6. Happiness and profit are achieved mostly by people who are obsequious and use flattery. Such character disposition is one of the reasons for happiness.
قد سلف لنا فيما سبق أن الكسب الذي يستفيده البشر إنما هو قيم أعمالهم ولو قدر أحد عطل عن العمل جملة لكان فاقد الكسب بالكلية.,"We have stated before in a previous passage that the profit human beings make is the value realized from their labor. If someone could be assumed to have no (ability whatever to do any) labor, he would have no profit whatever."
وعلى قدر عمله وشرفه بين الأعمال وحاجة الناس إليه يكون قدر قيمته. وعلى نسبة ذلك نمو كسبه أو نقصانه. وقد بينا آنفا أن الجاه يفيد المال لما يحصل لصاحبه من تقرب الناس إليه بأعمالهم وأموالهم في دفع المضار وجلب المنافع.,"The value realized from one’s labor corresponds to the value of one’s labor and the value of (this labor) as compared to (the value of) other labor and the need of the people for it. The growth or decrease of one’s profit, in turn, depends on that. We have also just now explained that ranks are useful in securing property. A person of rank has the people approach him with their labor and property. (They do that) in order to avoid harm and to obtain advantages."
وكان ما يتقربون به من عمل أو مال عوضا عما يحصلون عليه بسبب الجاه من الأغراض في صالح أو طالح. وتصير تلك الأعمال في كسبه وقيمها أموال وثروة له فيستفيد الغنى واليسار لأقرب وقت.,"The labor and property through which they attempt to approach him is, in a way, given in exchange for the many good and bad things they may obtain (or avoid) with the aid of his rank. Such labor becomes part of the profit of (the man of rank), and the value realized from it means property and wealth for him. He thus gains wealth and a fortune in a very short time."
ثم إن الجاه متوزع في الناس ومترتب فيهم طبقة بعد طبقة ينتهي في العلو إلى الملوك الذين ليس فوقهم يد عالية وفي السفل إلى من لا يملك ضرا ولا نفعا بين أبناء جنسه وبين ذلك طبقات متعددة,"Ranks are widely distributed among people, and there are various levels of rank among them. At the top, they extend to the rulers above whom there is nobody. At the bottom, they extend to those who have nothing to gain or to lose among their fellow men. In between, there are numerous classes."
حكمة الله في خلقه بما ينتظم معاشهم وتتيسر مصالحهم ويتم بقاؤهم لأن النوع الإنساني لا يتم وجوده وبقاؤه إلا بالتعاون بين أبنائه على مصالحهم، لأنه قد تقرر أن الواحد منهم لا يتم وجوده وإنه وإن ندر ذلك في صورة مفروضة لا يصح بقاؤه.,"This is God’s wise plan with regard to His creation. It regulates their livelihood, takes care of their interests, and insures their permanency. The existence and persistence of the human species can materialize only through the co-operation of all men in behalf of what is good for them. It has been established that a single human being could not fully exist by himself, and even if, hypothetically, it might happen as a rare exception, his existence would be precarious."
ثم إن هذا التعاون لا يحصل إلا بالإكراه عليه لجهلهم في الأكثر بمصالح النوع ولما جعل لهم من الاختيار وأن أفعالهم إنما تصدر بالفكر والروية لا بالطبع.,"Now, such co-operation is obtained by the use of force, since people are largely ignorant of the interests of the (human) species, and since they are given freedom of choice and their actions are the result of thinking and reflection, not of natural (instinct)."
وقد يمتنع من المعاونة فيتعين حمله عليها فلا بد من حامل يكره أبناء النوع على مصالحهم لتتم الحكمة الإلهية في بقاء هذا النوع.,"They thus refrain from co-operating. Therefore, it is obligatory to make them (co-operate), and there must be some motive forcing human beings to take care of their interests, so that God’s wise plan as to the preservation of mankind can materialize."
وهذا معنى قوله تعالى «ورفعنا بعضهم فوق بعض درجات ليتخذ بعضهم بعضا سخريا ورحمت ربك خير مما يجمعون 43: 32»,"This is what is meant by the verse of the Qur’an: “And we placed some of you over others in various grades, so that they might use the others for forced labor. The mercy of your Lord is better than whatever they gather.”"
فقد تبين أن الجاه هو القدرة الحاملة للبشر على التصرف في من تحت أيديهم من أبناء جنسهم بالإذن والمنع والتسلط بالقهر والغلبة ليحملهم على دفع مضارهم وجلب منافعهم في العدل بأحكام الشرائع والسياسة وعلى أغراضه فيما سوى ذلك,"It has, thus, become clear that rank means the power enabling human beings to be active among the fellow men under their control with permission and prohibition, and to have forceful superiority over them, in order to make them avoid things harmful to them and seize their advantages. (They may act) in justice and apply the laws of religion and politics, and (also) follow their own purposes in everything else."
ولكن الأول مقصود في العناية الربانية بالذات والثاني داخل فيها بالعرض كسائر الشرور الداخلة في القضاء الإلهي، لأنه قد لا يتم وجود الخير الكثير إلا بوجود شر يسير من أجل المواد فلا يفوت الخير بذلك بل يقع على ما ينطوي عليه من الشر اليسير.,"However, the first thing (the just use of rank) was intended by the divine providence as something essential, whereas the second thing (self-seeking use of rank) enters into it as something accidental, as is the case with all evils decreed by God. Much good can fully exist only in conjunction with the existence of some little evil, which is the result of matter. The good does not disappear with the (admixture of evil), but attaches itself to the little evil that gathers around it."
وهذا معنى وقوع الظلم في الخليقة فتفهم.,This is the meaning of the occurrence of injustice in the world. It should be understood.
ثم إن كل طبقة من طباق أهل العمران من مدينة أو إقليم لها قدرة على من دونها من الطباق وكل واحدة من الطبقة السفلى يستمد بذي الجاه من أهل الطبقة التي فوقه ويزداد كسبه تصرفا فيمن تحت يده على قدر ما يستفيد منه,"Each class among the inhabitants of a town or zone of civilization has power over the classes lower than it. Each member of a lower class seeks the support of rank from members of the next higher class, and those who gain it become more active among the people under their control in proportion to the profit they get out of it."
والجاه على ذلك داخل على الناس في جميع أبواب المعاش ويتسع ويضيق بحسب الطبقة والطور الذي فيه صاحبه. فإن كان الجاه متسعا كان الكسب الناشئ عنه كذلك وإن كان ضيقا قليلا فمثله.,"Thus, rank affects people in whatever way they make their living. Whether it is influential or restricted depends on the class and status of the person who has a particular rank. If the rank in question is influential, the profit accruing from it is correspondingly great. If it is restricted and unimportant, (the profit) is correspondingly (small)."
وفاقد الجاه وإن كان له مال فلا يكون يساره إلا بمقدار عمله أو ماله ونسبة سعيه ذاهبا وآئبا في تنميته كأكثر التجار وأهل الفلاحة في الغالب,"A person who has no rank, even though he may have money, acquires a fortune only in proportion to the labor he is able to produce, or the property he owns, and in accordance with the efforts he makes coming and going to increase it. This is the case with most merchants and, as a rule, with farmers."
وأهل الصنائع كذلك إذا فقدوا الجاه واقتصروا على فوائد صنائعهم فإنهم يصيرون إلى الفقر والخصاصة في الأكثر ولا تسرع إليهم ثروة وإنما يرمقون العيش ترميقا ويدافعون ضرورة الفقر مدافعة.,"It also is the case with craftsmen. If they have no rank and are restricted to the profits of their crafts, they will mostly be reduced to poverty and indigence, and they do not quickly become wealthy. They make only a bare living, somehow fending off the distress of poverty."
وإذا تقرر ذلك وأن الجاه متفرع وأن السعادة والخير مقترنان بحصوله علمت أن بذله وإفادته من أعظم النعم وأجلها وأن باذله من أجل المنعمين,"If this has been established and if it further has become clear that rank is widely distributed and that one’s happiness and welfare are intimately connected with the acquisition of (rank), it will be realized that it is a very great and important favor to give away or grant a rank to someone, and that the person who gives it away is a very great benefactor."
وإنما يبذله لمن تحت يديه فيكون بذله بيد عالية وعزة فيحتاج طالبه ومبتغيه إلى خضوع وتملق كما يسأل أهل العز والملوك وإلا فيتعذر حصوله.,"He gives it only to people under his control. Thus, giving (rank) away (shows) influence and power. Consequently, a person who seeks and desires rank must be obsequious and use flattery, as powerful men and rulers require. Otherwise, it will be impossible for him to obtain any (rank)."
فلذلك قلنا إن الخضوع والتملق من أسباب حصول هذا الجاه المحصل للسعادة والكسب وإن أكثر أهل الثروة والسعادة بهذا التملق,"Therefore, we have stated that obsequiousness and flattery are the reasons why a person may be able to obtain a rank that produces happiness and profit, and that most wealthy and happy people have the quality (of obsequiousness and use flattery)."
ولهذا نجد الكثير ممن يتخلق بالترفع والشمم لا يحصل لهم غرض الجاه فيقتصرون في التكسب على أعمالهم ويصيرون إلى الفقر والخصاصة. واعلم أن هذا الكبر والترفع من الأخلاق المذمومة,"Thus, too, many people who are proud and supercilious have no use for rank. Their earnings, consequently, are restricted to (the results of) their own labors, and they are reduced to poverty and indigence. It should be known that such haughtiness and pride are blameworthy qualities."
إنما يحصل من توهم الكمال وأن الناس يحتاجون إلى بضاعته من علم أو صناعة كالعالم المتبحر في علمه والكاتب المجيد في كتابته أو الشاعر البليغ في شعره وكل محسن في صناعته يتوهم أن الناس محتاجون لما بيده فيحدث له ترفع عليهم بذلك,"They result from the assumption (by an individual) that he is perfect, and that people need the scientific or technical skill he offers. Such an individual, for instance, is a scholar who is deeply versed in his science, or a scribe who writes well, or a poet who makes good poetry. Anyone who knows his craft assumes that people need what he has. Therefore, he develops a feeling of superiority to them."
وكذا يتوهم أهل الأنساب ممن كان في آبائه ملك أو عالم مشهور أو كامل في طور يعبرون به بما رأوه أو سمعوه من رجال آبائهم في المدينة ويتوهمون أنهم استحقوا مثل ذلك بقرابتهم إليهم ووراثتهم عنهم.,"People of noble descent, whose forebears include a ruler or a famous scholar, or a person perfect in some position, also share this illusion. They are arrogant because of the position their forebears held in their town. They have seen it themselves or have heard about it. They assume that they deserve a similar position because of their relationship to such men and the fact that they are their heirs."
فهم متمسكون في الحاضر بالأمر المعدوم وكذلك أهل الحيلة والبصر والتجارب بالأمور قد يتوهم بعضهم كمالا في نفسه بذلك واحتياجا إليه.,"In fact, they cling to something that is a matter of the past, since perfection is not passed on by inheritance The same is the case with people who are skillful, experienced, and versed in affairs. Some of them assume that they are perfect and needed on that account."
وتجد هؤلاء الأصناف كلهم مترفعين لا يخضعون لصاحب الجاه ولا يتملقون لمن هو أعلى منهم ويستصغرون من سواهم لاعتقادهم الفضل على الناس فيستنكف أحدهم عن الخضوع ولو كان للملك ويعده مذلة وهوانا وسفها.,"All these types (of people) are found to be proud. They are not obsequious and do not flatter people of a higher station. They belittle all others, because they believe that they are better than other people. One of them may even disdain to be obsequious to a ruler and consider such obsequiousness humiliating, abasing, and stupid."
ويحاسب الناس في معاملتهم إياه بمقدار ما يتوهم في نفسه ويحقد على من قصر له في شيء مما يتوهمه من ذلك. وربما يدخل على نفسه الهموم والأحزان من تقصيرهم فيه ويستمر في عناء عظيم من إيجاب الحق لنفسه أو إباية الناس له من ذلك.,"He expects people to treat him in accordance with what he thinks of himself, and he hates those who in any respect fail to treat him as he expects to be treated. He often gets to feel very anxious and sad, because they fail (to treat him according to his expectations). He always worries much, because people refuse to give him what he considers his due."
ويحصل له المقت من الناس لما في طباع البشر من التأله، وقل أن يسلم أحد منهم لأحد في الكمال والترفع عليه إلا أن يكون ذلك بنوع من القهر والغلبة والاستطالة. وهذا كله في ضمن الجاه.,"People, (in turn,) come to hate him, because of the egoism of human nature. Rarely will (a human being) concede perfection and superiority to another, unless he is somehow forced to do so by superior strength. Such (forcefulness and superior strength) is implied in rank."
فإذا فقد صاحب هذا الخلق الجاه وهو مفقود له كما تبين لك مقته الناس بهذا الترفع ولم يحصل له حظ من إحسانهم وفقد الجاه لذلك من أهل الطبقة التي هي أعلى منه لأجل المقت وما يحصل له بذلك من القعود عن تعاهدهم وغشيان منازلهم ففسد معاشه وبقي في خصاصة وفقر أو فوق ذلك بقليل.,"Thus, when a haughty person has no rank-and he cannot have any, as has been explained – people hate him for his haughtiness, and he receives no share of their kindness. He obtains no rank from members of the next higher class, because he is hated (by them), and, therefore, he cannot associate with them and frequent their homes. In consequence, his livelihood is destroyed. He remains in a state of indigence and poverty, or (in a state) that is only a little better."
وأما الثروة فلا تحصل له أصلا. ومن هذا اشتهر بين الناس أن الكامل في المعرفة محروم من الحظ وأنه قد حوسب بما رزق من المعرفة واقتطع له ذلك من الحظ وهذا معناه. ومن خلق لشيء يسر له. والله المقدر لا رب سواه.,"The acquisition of wealth is altogether out of the question for him. In this (sense), it is widely said among the people that a person who is perfect in knowledge obtains no share (in worldly goods). The knowledge that is given to him is taken into account, and this is set apart as his share (in worldly goods). This is the meaning of it. Everyone is successful at the things for which he was created God decides. There is no Lord but Him."
ولقد يقع في الدول أضراب في المراتب من أهل الخلق ويرتفع فيها كثير من السلفة وينزل كثير من العلية بسبب ذلك وذلك أن الدول إذا بلغت نهايتها من التغلب والاستيلاء انفرد منها منبت الملك بملكهم وسلطانهم ويئس من سواهم من ذلك,"In a dynasty, the character quality mentioned may cause disturbances among the ranks. Many people of the low classes come up to fill them, and many people of the higher classes have to step down on that account. The reason is that when a dynasty has reached its limit of superiority and power, the royal clan claims royal and governmental authority exclusively for itself. Everybody else despairs of (getting any share in) it."
وإنما صاروا في مراتب دون مرتبة الملك وتحت يد السلطان وكأنهم خول له. فإذا استمرت الدولة وشمخ الملك تساوى حينئذ في المنزلة عند السلطان كل من انتمى إلى خدمته وتقرب إليه بنصيحة واصطنعه السلطان لغنائه في كثير من مهماته.,"(All the other people can only) hold ranks below the rank of the ruler and under the control of the government. They are a sort of servant of his. Now, when the dynasty continues and royal authority flourishes, those who go into the service of the ruler, who try to approach him with advice, or who are accepted as followers by him because of their capability in many of his important affairs, will all be equal in rank in his eyes."
فتجد كثيرا من السوقة يسعى في التقرب من السلطان بجده ونصحه ويتزلف إليه بوجوه خدمته ويستعين على ذلك بعظيم من الخضوع والتملق له ولحاشيته وأهل نسبه، حتى يرسخ قدمه معهم وينظمه السلطان في جملته,"Many common people will make efforts to approach the ruler with zealous counsel and come close to him through all kinds of services. For this purpose, such people make much use of obsequiousness and flattery toward the ruler, his entourage, and his family, so that eventually they will be firmly entrenched and the ruler will give them a place in the total (picture) of his (administration)."
فيحصل له بذلك حظ عظيم من السعادة وينتظم في عدد أهل الدولة وناشئة الدولة حينئذ من أبناء قومها الذين ذللوا أضغانهم ومهدوا أكنافهم مغترين بما كان لآبائهم في ذلك من الآثار لم تسمح به نفوسهم على السلطان ويعتدون بآثاره ويجرون في مضمار الدولة بسببه فيمقتهم السلطان لذلك ويباعدهم.,"Thus, they obtain a large share of happiness and are accepted among the people of the dynasty. At such a time, the new generation of the dynasty, the children of the people who had seen the dynasty through its difficulties and smoothed its path, are arrogant because of the noteworthy achievements of their forefathers. Because of them, they look down on the ruler. They rely on their influence (lasting) and become very presumptuous. This makes the ruler hate them and keep away from them."
ويميل إلى هؤلاء المصطنعين الذين لا يعتدون بقديم ولا يذهبون إلى دالة ولا ترفع.,He now leans toward those of his followers who do not rely upon any (achievements of the past) and would not think of being presumptuous and proud.
إنما دأبهم الخضوع له والتملق والاعتمال في غرضه متى ذهب إليه فيتسع جاههم وتعلو منازلهم وتنصرف إليهم الوجوه والخواطر بما يحصل لهم من قبل السلطان والمكانة عنده ويبقى ناشئة الدولة فيما هم فيه من الترفع والاعتداد بالقديم,"Their behavior is characterized by obsequiousness to (the ruler) and flattery (of him) and willingness to work for his purposes whenever he is ready for some undertaking. Their rank, consequently, becomes important. Their stations become high. The outstanding personalities and the elite turn to them, because they receive so many favors from the ruler and have great influence with him. The new generation of the dynasty, meanwhile, keeps its proud attitude and continues to rely upon the (achievements of the) past."
لا يزيدهم ذلك إلا بعدا من السلطان ومقتا وإيثارا لهؤلاء المصطنعين عليهم إلى أن تنقرض الدولة. وهذا أمر طبيعي في الدولة ومنه جاء شأن المصطنعين في الغالب,"They gain nothing from that. It merely alienates them from the ruler and makes him hate them and give preference to his (newly gained) supporters, until the dynasty is destroyed. This is natural in a dynasty, and this is usually at the origin of the importance of its followers."
الفصل السابع في أن القائمين بأمور الدين من القضاء والفتيا والتدريس والإمامة والخطابة والأذان ونحو ذلك لا تعظم ثروتهم في الغالب,"7. Persons who are in charge of ices dealing with religious matters, such as judge, mufti, teacher, prayer leader, preacher, muezzin, and the like, are not as a rule very wealthy."
والسبب لذلك أن الكسب كما قدمناه قيمة الأعمال وأنها متفاوتة بحسب الحاجة إليها. فإذا كانت الأعمال ضرورية في العمران عامة البلوى به كانت قيمتها أعظم وكانت الحاجة إليها أشد.,"The reason for this is that, as we have stated before, profit is the value realized from labor (products). (This value) differs according to the (varying degrees of) need for (a particular kind of labor). Certain (types of) labor (products) may be necessary in civilization and be a matter of general concern. Then, the value realized from (these products) is greater and the need for them more urgent (than otherwise)."
وأهل هذه الصنائع الدينية لا تضطر إليهم عامة الخلق وإنما يحتاج إلى ما عندهم الخواص ممن أقبل على دينه. وإن احتيج إلى الفتيا والقضاء في الخصومات فليس على وجه الاضطرار والعموم فيقع الاستغناء عن هؤلاء في الأكثر.,"Now, the common people have no compelling need for the things that religious (officials) have to offer. They are needed only by those special people who take a particular interest in their religion. (Even) if the offices of mufti and judge are needed in case of disputes, it is not a compelling and general need. Mostly, they can be dispensed with."
وإنما يهتم بإقامة مراسمهم صاحب الدولة بما ناله من النظر في المصالح فيقسم لهم حظا من الرزق على نسبة الحاجة إليهم على النحو الذي قررناه.,"Only the ruler is concerned with (religious officials) and (religious) institutions, as part of his duty to look after the (public) interests. He assigns (the religious officials) a share of sustenance proportionate to the need that exists for them in the sense (just) mentioned."
لا يساويهم بأهل الشوكة ولا بأهل الصنائع من حيث الدين والمراسم الشرعية لكنه يقسم بحسب عموم الحاجة وضرورة أهل العمران فلا يصح في قسمهم إلا القليل.,"He does not place them on an equal footing with people who have power or with people who ply the necessary crafts, even if the things that (the religious officials) have to offer are nobler, as they deal with religion and the legal institutions. He gives them their share in accordance with the general need and the demand of the population (for them). Their portion, therefore, can only be small."
وهم أيضا لشرف بضائعهم أعزة على الخلق وعند نفوسهم فلا يخضعون لأهل الجاه حتى ينالوا منه حظا يستدرون به الرزق بل ولا تفرغ أوقاتهم لذلك لما هم فيه من الشغل بهذه البضائع الشريفة المشتملة على إعمال الفكر والبدن.,"Furthermore, because the things (the religious officials) have to offer are so noble, they feel superior to the people and are proud of themselves. Therefore, they are not obsequious to persons of rank, in order to obtain something to improve their sustenance. In fact, they would not have time for that. They are occupied with those noble things they have to offer and which tax both the mind and the body."
بل ولا يسعهم ابتذال أنفسهم لأهل الدنيا لشرف بضائعهم فهم بمعزل عن ذلك، فلذلك لا تعظم ثروتهم في الغالب.,"Indeed, the noble character of the things they have to offer does not permit them to prostitute themselves openly. They would not do such a thing. As a consequence, they do not, as a rule, become very wealthy."
ولقد باحثت بعض الفضلاء فأنكر ذلك علي فوقع بيدي أوراق مخرقة من حسابات الدواوين بدار المأمون تشتمل على كثير من الدخل والخرج,I discussed this with an excellent man. He disagreed with me about it. But some stray leaves from the account books of the government offices in the palace of al-Ma’mun came into my hand. They gave a good deal of information about income and expenditures at that time.
وكان فيما طالعت فيه أرزاق القضاة والأئمة والمؤذنين فوقفته عليه وعلم منه صحة ما قلته ورجع إليه وقضينا العجب من أسرار الله في خلقه وحكمته في عوالمه,"Among the things I noticed, were the salaries of judges, prayer leaders, and muezzins. I called the attention of (the person mentioned) to it, and he realized that what I had said was correct. He became a convert to (my opinion), and we were both astonished at the secret ways of God with regard to His creation and His wise (planning) concerning His worlds."
والله الخالق القادر لا رب سواه.,"God is the Creator, and He decides."
الفصل الثامن في أن الفلاحة من معاش المتضعين وأهل العافية من البدو,8. Agriculture is a way of making a living for weak people and Bedouins in search of subsistence.
وذلك لأنه أصيل في الطبيعة وبسيط في منحاه ولذلك لا تجده ينتحله أحد من أهل الحضر في الغالب ولا من المترفين. ويختص منتحله بالمذلة,"This is because agriculture is a natural and simple procedure. Therefore, as a rule, sedentary people, or people who live in luxury, do not practice it. Those who practice it are characterized by humility."
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم وقد رأى السكة ببعض دور الأنصار: «ما دخلت هذه دار قوم إلا دخله الذل»,"When Muhammad saw a plowshare in one of the houses of the Ansar (in Medina), he said: “Such a thing never entered anyone’s house save accompanied by humbleness.”"
وحمله البخاري على الاستكثار منه. وترجم عليه باب ما يحذر من عواقب الاشتغال بآلة الزرع أو تجاوز الحد الذي أمر به.,Al-Bukhari explained this (statement) as referring to too intense an occupation with (agriculture) and he entitled the chapter in which he dealt with the tradition in question: “Warning against the consequences of (too intensive an) occupation with agricultural implements or transgression of the stipulated limit.”
والسبب فيه والله أعلم ما يتبعها من المغرم المفضي إلى التحكم واليد العالية فيكون الغارم ذليلا بائسا بما تتناوله أيدي القهر والاستطالة.,"(However,) the reason for it might possibly be that imposts come to be (exacted from farmers) and lead to (their) domination and control (by others). The person who has to pay imposts is humble and poor, because a superior force takes (his possessions) away (from him)."
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «لا تقوم الساعة حتى تعود الزكاة مغرما» إشارة إلى الملك العضوض القاهر للناس الذي معه التسلط والجور ونسيان حقوق الله تعالى في المتمولات واعتبار الحقوق كلها مغرم للملوك والدول.,"Muhammad said: “The Hour will not arise until the charity tax becomes an impost.” This refers to the tyrannical ruler who uses force against the people, who is domineering and unjust, and who forgets the divine rights of (private) capital and considers all rights to be (subject to) imposts (to be paid) to rulers and dynasties."
والله قادر على ما يشاء.,God has power to do what He wishes.
الفصل التاسع في معنى التجارة ومذاهبها وأصنافها,"9. The meaning, methods, and different kinds of commerce."
اعلم أن التجارة محاولة الكسب بتنمية المال بشراء السلع بالرخص وبيعها بالغلاء أيا ما كانت السلعة من دقيق أو زرع أو حيوان أو قماش.,"It should be known that commerce means the attempt to make a profit by increasing capital, through buying goods at a low price and selling them at a high price, whether these goods consist of slaves, grain, animals, weapons, or clothing material."
وذلك القدر النامي يسمى ربحا. فالمحاول لذلك الربح إما أن يختزن السلعة ويتحين بها حوالة الأسواق من الرخص إلى الغلاء فيعظم ربحه وإما بأن ينقله إلى بلد آخر تنفق فيه تلك السلعة أكثر من بلده الذي اشتراها فيه فيعظم ربحه.,"The accrued (amount) is called “profit” (ribh). The attempt to make such a profit may be undertaken by storing goods and holding them until the market has fluctuated from low prices to high prices. This will bring a large profit. Or, the merchant may transport his goods to another country where they are more in demand than in his own, where he bought them. This, (again,) will bring a large profit."
ولذلك قال بعض الشيوخ من التجار لطلب الكشف عن حقيقة التجارة أنا أعلمها لك في كلمتين: اشتراء الرخيص وبيع الغالي. فقد حصلت التجارة إشارة منه بذلك إلى المعنى الذي قررناه.,"Therefore, an old merchant said to a person who wanted to find out the truth about commerce: “I shall give it to you in two words: Buy cheap and sell dear. There is commerce for you.” By this, he meant the same thing that we have just established."
الفصل العاشر في أي أصناف الناس يحترف بالتجارة وأيهم ينبغي له اجتناب حرفها,"13. The kind of people who should practice commerce, and those who should not."
قد قدمنا أن معنى التجارة تنمية المال بشراء البضائع ومحاولة بيعها بأغلى من ثمن الشراء إما بانتظار حوالة الأسواق أو نقلها إلى بلد هي فيه أنفق وأغلى أو بيعها بالغلاء على الآجال.,"We have stated before that commerce means increasing one’s capital by buying merchandise and attempting to sell it for a price higher than its purchase price, either by waiting for market fluctuations or transporting the merchandise to a country where that particular merchandise is more in demand and brings higher prices, or by selling it for a high price to be paid at a future date."
وهذا الربح بالنسبة إلى أصل المال يسير إلا أن المال إذا كان كثيرا عظم الربح لأن القليل في الكثير كثير.,"The profit is small in relation to the capital (invested). However, when the capital is large, the profit becomes great, because many times a little is much."
ثم لا بد في محاولة هذه التنمية الذي هو الربح من حصول هذا المال بأيدي الباعة في شراء البضائع وبيعها، ومعاملتهم في تقاضي أثمانها. وأهل النصفة قليل، فلا بد من الغش والتطفيف المجحف بالبضائع ومن المطل في الأثمان المجحف بالربح. كتعطيل المحاولة في تلك المدة وبها نماؤه.,"In the attempt to earn the increase (of capital) that constitutes profit, it is unavoidable that one’s capital gets into the hands of traders, in the process of buying and selling and waiting for payment. Now, honest traders are few. It is unavoidable that there should be cheating, tampering with the merchandise which may ruin it, and delay in payment which may ruin the profit, since (such delay) while it lasts prevents any activity that could bring profit."
ومن الجحود والإنكار المسحت لرأس المال إن لم يتقيد بالكتاب والشهادة، وغنى الحكام في ذلك قليل لأن الحكم إنما هو على الظاهر، فيعاني التاجر من ذلك أحوالا صعبة.,"There will also be non-acknowledgement or denial of obligations, which may prove destructive of one’s capital unless (the obligation) has been stated in writing and properly witnessed. The judiciary is of little use in this connection, since the law requires clear evidence. All this causes the merchant a great deal of trouble."
ولا يكاد يحصل على ذلك التافه من الربح إلا بعظم العناء والمشقة، أو لا يحصل أو يتلاشى رأس ماله. فإن كان جريئا على الخصومة بصيرا بالحسبان شديد المماحكة مقداما على الحكام كان ذلك أقرب له إلى النصفة بجراءته منهم ومماحكته,"He may make a small profit, but only with great trouble and difficulty, or he may make no profit at all, or his capital may be lost. If he is not afraid of quarrels, knows (how to settle) an account, and is always willing to enter into a dispute and go to court, he stands a better chance of being treated fairly by (traders), because he is not afraid and always ready to enter into a dispute."
وإلا فلا بد له من جاه يدرع به، يوقع له الهيبة عند الباعة ويحمل الحكام على إنصافه من معامليه فيحصل له بذلك النصفة في ماله طوعا في الأول وكرها في الثاني,"Otherwise, he must have the protection of rank. It will give him respect in the eyes of traders and cause the magistrates to uphold his rights against his debtors. In this way, he will obtain justice and recover his capital from them, voluntarily in the first case, forcibly in the second."
وأما من كان فاقدا للجراءة والإقدام من نفسه فاقد الجاه من الحكام فينبغي له أن يجتنب الاحتراف بالتجارة,"On the other hand, the person who is afraid or unaggressive, and who, in addition, lacks the influence (of rank) with the judiciary, must avoid commerce."
"لأنه يعرض ماله للضياع والذهاب ويصير مأكلة للباعة ولا يكاد ينتصف منهم (لأن الغالب في الناس وخصوصا الرعاع والباعة شرهون إلى ما في أيدي الناس سواهم متوثبون عليه.
ولولا وازع الأحكام لأصبحت أموال الناس نهبا)","He risks the loss of his capital. He will become the prey of traders, and he may not get his rights from them. People as a rule covet the possessions of other people. Without the restraining influence of the laws, nobody’s property would be safe. This applies especially to traders and the low-class mob."
الفصل الحادي عشر في أن خلق التجار نازلة عن خلق الأشراف والملوك,14. The character qualities of merchants are inferior to those of noblemen and rulers.
وذلك أن التجار في غالب أحوالهم إنما يعانون البيع والشراء ولا بد فيه من المكايسة ضرورة فإن اقتصر عليها اقتصرت به على خلقها وهي أعني خلق المكايسة بعيدة عن المروءة التي تتخلق بها الملوك والأشراف.,"This is because merchants are mostly occupied with buying and selling. This necessarily requires cunning. If a merchant always practices cunning, it becomes his dominant character quality. The quality of cunning is remote from that of manliness which is the characteristic quality of rulers and noblemen."
وأما إن استرذل خلقه بما يتبع ذلك في أهل الطبقة السفلى منهم من المماحكة والغش والخلابة وتعاهد الأيمان الكاذبة على الأثمان ردا وقبولا فأجدر بذلك الخلق أن يكون في غاية المذلة لما هو معروف.,"If the character of (the merchant) then adopts the bad qualities that follow from (cunning) in low-class merchants, such as quarrelsomeness, cheating, defrauding, as well as (the inclination to) commit perjury in rejecting and accepting statements concerning prices, his character can be expected to be one of the lowest sort, for well-known reasons."
ولذلك تجد أهل الرئاسة يتحامون الاحتراف بهذه الحرفة لأجل ما يكسب من هذا الخلق. وقد يوجد منهم من يسلم من هذا الخلق ويتحاماه لشرف نفسه وكرم جلاله إلا أنه في النادر بين الوجود,"It is because of the character that one acquires
through the practice of commerce that political leaders avoid engaging in it. There are some merchants who are not affected by those character qualities and who are able to avoid them, because they have noble souls and are magnanimous, but they are very rare in this world."
والله يهدي من يشاء بفضله وكرمه وهو رب الأولين والآخرين.,“God guides whomever He wants to guide” with His bounty and generosity. He is the Lord of the first ones and the last ones.
الفصل الثاني عشر في نقل التاجر للسلع,10. The transportation of goods by merchants.
التاجر البصير بالتجارة لا ينقل من السلع إلا ما تعم الحاجة إليه من الغني والفقير والسلطان والسوقة إذ في ذلك نفاق سلعته.,"The merchant who knows his business will travel only with such goods as are generally needed by rich and poor, rulers and commoners alike. (General need) makes for a large demand for his goods."
وأما إذا اختص نقله بما يحتاج إليه البعض فقط فقد يتعذر نفاق سلعته حينئذ بإعواز الشراء من ذلك البعض لعارض من العوارض فتكسد سوقه وتفسد أرباحه.,"If he restricts his goods to those needed only by a few (people), it may be impossible for him to sell them, since these few may for some reason find it difficult to buy them. Then, his business would slump, and he would make no profit."
وكذلك إذا نقل السلعة المحتاج إليها فإنما ينقل الوسط من صنفها فإن العالي من كل صنف من السلع إنما يختص به أهل الثروة وحاشية الدولة وهم الأقل. وإنما يكون الناس أسوة في الحاجة إلى الوسط من كل صنف فليتحر ذلك جهده ففيه نفاق سلعة أو كسادها,"Also, a merchant who travels with needed goods should do so only with medium quality goods. The best quality of any type of goods is restricted to wealthy people and the entourage of the ruler. They are very few in number. As is well known, the medium quality of anything is what suits most people. This should by all means be kept in mind by the merchant, because it makes the difference between selling his goods and not selling them."
وكذلك نقل السلع من البلد البعيد المسافة أو في شدة الخطر في الطرقات يكون أكثر فائدة للتجار وأعظم أرباحا وأكفل بحوالة الأسواق,"Likewise, it is more advantageous and more profitable for the merchant’s enterprise, and a better guarantee (that he will be able to take advantage of) market fluctuations, if he brings goods from a country that is far away and where there is danger on the road."
لأن السلعة المنقولة حينئذ تكون قليلة معوزة لبعد مكانها أو شدة الغرر في طريقها فيقل حاملوها ويعز وجودها وإذا قلت وعزت غلت أثمانها.,"In such a case, the goods transported will be few and rare, because the place where they come from is far away or because the road over which they come is beset with perils, so that there are few who would bring them, and they are very rare. When goods are few and rare, their prices go up."
وأما إذا كان البلد قريب المسافة والطريق سابل بالأمن فإنه حينئذ يكثر ناقلوها فتكثر وترخص أثمانها ولهذا تجد التجار الذين يولعون بالدخول إلى بلاد السودان أرفه الناس وأكثرهم أموالا لبعد طريقهم ومشقته واعتراض المفازة الصعبة المخطرة بالخوف والعطش.,"On the other hand, when the country is near and the road safe for traveling, there will be many to transport the goods. Thus, they will be found in large quantities, and the prices will go down. Therefore, the merchants who dare to enter the Sudan country are the most prosperous and wealthy of all people. The distance and the difficulty of the road they travel are great. They have to cross a difficult desert which is made (almost) inaccessible by fear (of danger) and beset by (the danger of) thirst."
لا يوجد فيها الماء إلا في أماكن معلومة يهتدي إليها أدلاء الركبان فلا يرتكب خطر هذا الطريق وبعده إلا الأقل من الناس فتجد سلع بلاد السودان قليلة لدينا فتختص بالغلاء وكذلك سلعنا لديهم.,"Water is found there only in a few wellknown spots to which caravan guides lead the way. The distance of this road is braved only by a very few people. Therefore, the goods of the Sudan country are found only in small quantities among us, and they are particularly expensive. The same applies to our goods among them."
فتعظم بضائع التجار من تناقلها ويسرع إليهم الغنى والثروة من أجل ذلك. وكذلك المسافرون من بلادنا إلى المشرق لبعد الشقة أيضا. وأما المترددون في أفق واحد ما بين أمصاره وبلدانه ففائدتهم قليلة وأرباحهم تافهة لكثرة السلع وكثرة ناقليها,"Thus, merchandise becomes more valuable when merchants transport it from one country to another. (Merchants who do so) quickly get rich and wealthy. The same applies to merchants who travel from our country to the East, also because of the great distance to be traversed. On the other hand, those who travel back and forth between the cities and countries of one particular region earn little and make a very small profit, because their goods are available in large quantities and there is a great number of merchants who travel with them."
«والله هو الرزاق ذو القوة المتين»,God “gives sustenance. He is strong and solid.”
الفصل الثالث عشر في الاحتكار,11. Hoarding.
ومما اشتهر عند ذوي البصر والتجربة في الأمصار أن احتكار الزرع لتحين أوقات الغلاء مشئوم. وأنه يعود على فائدته بالتلف والخسران.,"Intelligent and experienced people in the cities know that it is inauspicious to hoard grain and to wait for high prices, and that the profit (expected) may be spoiled or lost through (hoarding)."
وسببه والله أعلم أن الناس لحاجتهم إلى الأقوات مضطرون إلى ما يبذلون فيها من المال اضطرارا فتبقى النفوس متعلقة به وفي تعلق النفوس بما لها سر كبير في وباله على من يأخذه مجانا ولعله الذي اعتبره الشارع في أخذ أموال الناس بالباطل,"The reason may perhaps lie in the facts that people need food, and that the money they spend on it, they are forced to spend. Therefore, their souls continue to cling to (their money). The fact that souls cling to what is theirs may be an important factor in bringing bad luck to the person who takes (someone’s money) giving nothing in return. This, perhaps, is what the Lawgiver (Muhammad) meant when he speaks about taking people’s property for nothing."
وهذا وإن لم يكن مجانا فالنفوس متعلقة به لإعطائه ضرورة من غير سعة في العذر فهو كالمكره وما عدا الأقوات والمأكولات من المبيعات لا اضطرار للناس إليها وإنما يبعثهم عليها التفنن في الشهوات فلا يبذلون أموالهم فيها إلا باختيار وحرص.,"In this particular case, it is not a question of (taking money) giving nothing in return. Still, people cling to (the money spent for food); they had to spend it and had no possible excuse, which is a sort of compulsion. For things that are traded, other than foodstuffs and victuals, people have no compelling need. It is merely the diversification of desires that calls their attention to them. On such, they spend their money voluntarily and willingly, and they retain no hankering after (the money) they have paid."
ولا يبقى لهم تعلق بما أعطوه فلهذا يكون من عرف بالاحتكار تجتمع القوى النفسانية على متابعته لما يأخذه من أموالهم فيفسد ربحه.,"Thus, the person known to be a hoarder is persecuted by the combined psychic powers of the people whose money he takes away. Therefore, he loses his profit."
والله تعالى أعلم.,And God knows better.
وسمعت فيما يناسب هذا حكاية ظريفة عن بعض مشيخة المغرب. أخبرني شيخنا أبو عبد الله الأبلي قال: حضرت عند القاضي بفاس لعهد السلطان أبي سعيد وهو الفقيه أبو الحسن المليلي وقد عرض عليه أن يختار بعض الألقاب المخزنية لجرايته,"In this connection, I heard an interesting story about a shaykh of the Maghrib. Our teacher Abu ‘Abdallah al-Abili told it to me as follows: “I was in the house of the (chief) judge of Fez, in the time of Sultan Abu Sa`id. He was the jurist Abul-Hasan al-Malili. He had just been offered, as his salary, the choice of one of the various sorts (of taxes) that were collected by the government.”"
قال فأطرق مليا ثم قال: من مكس الخمر. فاستضحك الحاضرون من أصحابه وعجبوا وسألوه عن حكمة ذلك. فقال: إذا كانت الجبايات كلها حراما فأختار منها ما لا تتابعه نفس معطيه,"He said: “The judge reflected a while. Then he said: ‘The customs duties on wine.’ Those of his friends who were present were amused and astonished. They questioned him as to what was in his mind. He replied: ‘All tax money is forbidden. Therefore, I choose the tax that is not haunted by the souls of those who had to pay it."
والخمر قل أن يبذل فيها أحد ماله إلا وهو طرب مسرور بوجوداته غير أسف عليه ولا متعلقة به نفسه وهذه ملاحظة غريبة,"Rarely would anybody spend his money on wine unless he were gay and happy with the experience of (drinking wine), and did not regret it. His soul, therefore, does not cling to the money he has had to spend.’ ” This is a remarkable observation."
والله سبحانه وتعالى يعلم ما تكن الصدور.,And God knows better.
الفصل الرابع عشر في أن رخص الأسعار مضر بالمحترفين بالرخص,"12. (Continued) low prices are harmful to merchants who, (have to) trade at low prices"
وذلك أن الكسب والمعاش كما قدمناه إنما هو بالصنائع أو التجارة. والتجارة هي شراء البضائع والسلع وادخارها. يتحين بها حوالة الأسواق بالزيادة في أثمانها ويسمى ربحا. ويحصل منه الكسب والمعاش للمحترفين بالتجارة دائما,"This is because, as we have stated before, profit and livelihood result from the crafts or from commerce. Commerce means the buying of merchandise and goods, storing them, and waiting until fluctuation of the market brings about an increase in the prices of (these goods). This is called profit (ribh). It provides a profit (kasb) and a livelihood for professional traders."
فإذا استديم الرخص في سلعة أو عرض من مأكول أو ملبوس أو متمول على الجملة ولم يحصل للتاجر حوالة الأسواق فسد الربح والنماء بطول تلك المدة وكسدت سوق ذلك الصنف ولم يحصل التاجر إلا على العناء فقعد التجار عن السعي فيها وفسدت رءوس أموالهم.,"When the prices of any type of goods, victuals, clothing material, or anything else (that may bring in) capital, remain low and the merchant cannot profit from any fluctuation of the market affecting these things, his profit and gain stop if the situation goes on for a long period. Business in this particular line (of goods) slumps, and the merchant has nothing but trouble. No (trading) will be done, and the merchants lose their capital."
واعتبر ذلك أولا بالزرع فإنه إذا استديم رخصه يفسد به حال المحترفين بسائر أطواره من الفلح والزراعة لقلة الربح فيه وندارته أو فقده.,"This may be exemplified in the instance of grain. While it remains cheap, the condition of all farmers and grain producers who have to do with any of the various stages of grain production is adversely affected, the profit they make being small, insignificant, or non-existent."
فيفقدون النماء في أموالهم أو يجدونه على قلة ويعودون بالإنفاق على رءوس أموالهم وتفسد أحوالهم ويصيرون إلى الفقر والخصاصة.,"They cannot increase their capital, or they find (the increase) to be small. They have to spend their capital. Their condition is adversely affected, and they are reduced to poverty and indigence."
ويتبع ذلك فساد حال المحترفين أيضا بالطحن والخبز وسائر ما يتعلق بالزراعة من الحرث إلى صيرورته مأكولا.,"This then, in turn, affects the condition of millers, bakers, and all the other occupations that are connected with grain from the time it is sown to the time it can be eaten."
وكذا يفسد حال الجند إذا كانت أرزاقهم من السلطان على أهل الفلح زرعا فإنها تقل جبايتهم من ذلك ويعجزون عن إقامة الجندية التي (هي بسببها ومطالبون بها ومنقطعون لها) فتفسد أحوالهم,"Likewise, the condition of soldiers is adversely affected. Their sustenance is provided by the ruler in the form of grain from farmers, through the grant of fiefs. Thus, (when the prices of agricultural products are low) the income from taxation is small, and soldiers are unable to render the military service for which they exist and for which they receive sustenance from the ruler. Thus, (the ruler) discontinues their sustenance, and heir condition is adversely affected."
وكذا إذا استديم الرخص في السكر أو العسل فسد جميع ما يتعلق به وقعد المحترفون عن التجارة فيه وكذا حال الملبوسات إذا استديم فيها الرخص أيضا فإذا الرخص المفرط يجحف بمعاش المحترفين بذلك الصنف الرخيص وكذا الغلاء المفرط أيضا.,"Likewise, while the prices of sugar and honey remain low, everything connected with (these commodities) is adversely affected, and the merchants who deal in it stop trading. The same is the case with clothing (material), while prices remain low. Thus, prices that are too low destroy the livelihood of the merchant who trades in any particular type of low-priced (merchandise). The same applies to prices that are too high."
وإنما معاش الناس وكسبهم في التوسط من ذلك وسرعة حوالة الأسواق وعلم ذلك يرجع إلى العوائد المتقررة بين أهل العمران. وإنما يحمد الرخص في الزرع من بين المبيعات لعموم الحاجة إليه واضطرار الناس إلى الأقوات من بين الغني والفقير.,"Occasionally and rarely, they may bring an increase in capital as a result of hoarding (some particular merchandise) and the large profit that goes with (hoarding), but it is medium prices and rapid fluctuations of the market that provide people with their livelihood and profit. This insight has a bearing upon customs established among civilized people. Low prices for grain, and of other things that are traded, are praised, because the need for grain is general and people, the rich as well as the poor, are compelled to buy food."
والعالة من الخلق هم الأكثر في العمران فيعم الرفق بذلك ويرجح جانب القوت على جانب التجارة في هذا الصنف الخاص,"Dependent people constitute the majority of people in civilization. Therefore, (low prices for foodstuffs) are of general usefulness, and food, (at least) as far as this particular kind of food (namely, grain) is concerned, weighs more heavily than commerce."
«والله الرزاق ذو القوة المتين»,God “gives sustenance. He is strong and solid.”
الفصل الخامس عشر في أن خلق التجارة نازلة عن خلق الرؤساء وبعيدة من المروءة,14. The character qualities of merchants are inferior to those of leading personalities and remote from manliness.
قد قدمنا في الفصل قبله أن التاجر مدفوع إلى معاناة البيع والشراء وجلب الفوائد والأرباح ولا بد في ذلك من المكايسة والمماحكة والتحذلق وممارسة الخصومات واللجاج وهي عوارض هذه الحرفة.,"In the preceding section, we stated that a merchant must concern himself with buying and selling, earning money and making a profit. This requires cunning, willingness to enter into disputes, cleverness, constant quarreling, and great persistence. These are things that belong to commerce."
وهذه الأوصاف نقص من الذكاء والمروءة وتجرح فيها لأن الأفعال لا بد من عود آثارها على النفس. فأفعال الخير تعود بآثار الخير والذكاء وأفعال الشر والسفسفة تعود بضد ذلك,"They are qualities detrimental to and destructive of virtuousness and manliness, because it is unavoidable that actions influence the soul. Good actions influence it toward goodness and virtue. Evil and deceitful actions influence it in the opposite sense."
فتتمكن وترسخ إن سبقت وتكررت وتنقص خلال الخير إن تأخرت عنها بما ينطبع من آثارها المذمومة في النفس شأن الملكات الناشئة عن الأفعال. وتتفاوت هذه الآثار بتفاوت أصناف التجار في أطوارهم,"If (evil and deceitful actions) come first and good qualities later, the former become firmly and deeply rooted and detract from the good qualities, since the blameworthy influence (of the evil actions) has left its imprint upon the soul, as is the case with all habits that originate from actions. These influences differ according to the different types of merchants."
فمن كان منهم سافل الطور محالفا لأشرار الباعة أهل الغش والخلابة والخديعة والفجور في الأثمان إقرارا وإنكارا، كانت رداءة تلك الخلق عنه أشد,"Those who are of a very low type and associated closely with bad traders who cheat and defraud and perjure themselves, asserting and denying statements concerning transactions and prices, are much more strongly affected by these bad character qualities."
وغلبت عليه السفسفة وبعد عن المروءة واكتسابها بالجملة. وإلا فلا بد له من تأثير المكايسة والمماحكة في مروءته، وفقدان ذلك منهم في الجملة.,"Deceitfulness becomes their main characteristic. Manliness is completely alien to them, beyond their power to acquire. At any rate, it is unavoidable that their cunning and their willingness to enter into disputes affects their manliness (adversely). The complete absence of (any adverse effect) is very rare among them."
ووجود الصنف الثاني منهم الذي قدمناه في الفصل قبله أنهم يدرعون بالجاه ويعوض لهم من مباشرة ذلك، فهم نادر وأقل من النادر.,"There exists a second kind of merchant, which we mentioned in the preceding section, namely, those who have the protection of rank and are thus spared (the onus) of having anything to do personally with such (business manipulations). They are most uncommon."
وذلك أن يكون المال قد يوجد عنده دفعة بنوع غريب أو ورثه عن أحد من أهل بيته فحصلت له ثروة تعينه على الاتصال بأهل الدولة وتكسبه ظهورا وشهرة بين أهل عصره فيرتفع عن مباشرة ذلك بنفسه ويدفعه إلى من يقوم له به من وكلائه وحشمه.,"For they are people who have all of a sudden come into the possession of a good deal of money in some unusual way, or have inherited money from a member of their family. Thus, they have obtained the wealth that helps them to associate with the people of the dynasty and to gain prominence and renown among their contemporaries. Therefore, they are too proud to have anything personally to do with such (business manipulations), and they leave them to the care of their agents and servants."
ويسهل له الحكام النصفة في حقوقهم بما يؤنسونه من بره وإتحافه فيبعدونه عن تلك الخلق بالبعد عن معاناة الأفعال المقتضية لها كما مر.,"It is easy for them to have the magistrates confirm their rights, because (the magistrates) are familiar with their beneficence and gifts. (These merchants) will thus be remote from such (bad) character qualities, since they have nothing to do with the actions that bring them about, as has just been mentioned."
فتكون مروءتهم أرسخ وأبعد عن تلك المحاجاة إلا ما يسري من آثار تلك الأفعال من وراء الحجاب فإنهم يضطرون إلى مشارفة أحوال أولئك الوكلاء ورفاقهم أو خلافهم فيما يأتون أو يذرون من ذلك إلا أنه قليل ولا يكاد يظهر أثره,"Their manliness, therefore, will be very firmly rooted and very remote from these destructive qualities, save for the influences of such evil actions as may slip in behind the scenes. For they are compelled to supervise their agents and to concur with or oppose the things they do and do not do. However, these (activities) are limited, and their influence is scarcely perceptible."
«والله خلقكم وما تعملون 37: 96».,“God created you and whatever you do.”
الفصل السادس عشر في أن الصنائع لا بد لها من العلم,15. The crafts require teachers.
اعلم أن الصناعة هي ملكة في أمر عملي فكري وبكونه عمليا هو جسماني محسوس.,"It should be known that a craft is the habit of something concerned with action and thought. In as much as it is concerned with action, it is something corporeal and perceptible by the senses."
والأحوال الجسمانية المحسوسة فنقلها بالمباشرة أوعب لها وأكمل، لأن المباشرة في الأحوال الجسمانية المحسوسة أتم فائدة والملكة صفة راسخة تحصل عن استعمال ذلك الفعل وتكرره مرة بعد أخرى حتى ترسخ صورته.,"Things that are corporeal and perceptible by the senses are transmitted through direct practice more comprehensively and more perfectly (than otherwise), because direct practice is more useful with regard to them. A habit is a firmly rooted quality acquired by doing a certain action and repeating it time after time, until the form of (that action) is firmly fixed."
وعلى نسبة الأصل تكون الملكة. ونقل المعاينة أوعب وأتم من نقل الخبر والعلم. فالملكة الحاصلة عن الخبر. وعلى قدر جودة التعليم وملكة المعلم يكون حذق المتعلم في الصناعة وحصول ملكته.,"A habit corresponds to the original (action after which it was formed). The transmission of things one has observed with one’s own eyes is something more comprehensive and complete than the transmission of information and things one has learned about. A habit that is the result of (personal observation) is more perfect and more firmly rooted than a habit that is the result of information. The skill a student acquires in a craft, and the habit he attains, correspond to the quality of instruction and the habit of the teacher."
ثم إن الصنائع منها البسيط ومنها المركب. والبسيط هو الذي يختص بالضروريات والمركب هو الذي يكون للكماليات. والمتقدم منها في التعليم هو البسيط لبساطته أولا، ولأنه مختص بالضروري الذي تتوفر الدواعي على نقله,"Furthermore, some crafts are simple, and others are composite. The simple ones concern the necessities. The composite ones belong to the luxuries. The simple crafts are the ones to be taught first, firstly because they are simple, and (then) because they concern the necessities and there is a large demand for having them transmitted."
فيكون سابقا في التعليم ويكون تعليمه لذلك ناقصا. ولا يزال الفكر يخرج أصنافها ومركباتها من القوة إلى الفعل بالاستنباط شيئا فشيئا على التدريج حتى تكمل.,"Therefore, they take precedence in instruction. (But) the instruction in them, as a consequence, is something inferior. The mind, (however,) does not cease transforming all kinds of (crafts), including the composite ones, from potentiality into actuality through the gradual discovery of one thing after the other, until they are perfect."
ولا يحصل ذلك دفعة وإنما يحصل في أزمان وأجيال إذ خروج الأشياء من القوة إلى الفعل لا يكون دفعة لا سيما في الأمور الصناعية فلا بد له إذن من زمان. ولهذا تجد الصنائع في الأمصار الصغيرة ناقصة ولا يوجد منها إلا البسيط,"This is not achieved all at one stroke. It is achieved in the course of time and of generations. Things are not transformed from potentiality into actuality all at one stroke, especially not technical matters. Consequently, a certain amount of time is unavoidable. Therefore, the crafts are found to be inferior in small cities, and only the simple (crafts) are found there."
فإذا تزايدت حضارتها ودعت أمور الترف فيها إلى استعمال الصنائع خرجت من القوة إلى الفعل.,"When sedentary civilization in (those cities) increases, and luxury conditions there cause the use of the crafts, they are transformed from potentiality into actuality."
الفصل السابع عشر في أن الصنائع إنما تكمل بكمال العمران الحضري وكثرته,16. The crafts are perfected only if there exists a large and perfect sedentary civilization.
والسبب في ذلك أن الناس ما لم يستوف العمران الحضري وتتمدن المدينة إنما همهم في الضروري من المعاش وهو تحصيل الأقوات من الحنطة وغيرها.,"The reason for this is that, as long as sedentary civilization is not complete and the city not fully organized, people are concerned only with the necessities of life, that is, with the obtaining of food, such as wheat and other things."
فإذا تمدنت المدينة وتزايدت فيها الأعمال ووفت بالضروري وزادت عليه صرف الزائد حينئذ إلى الكمالات من المعاش. ثم إن الصنائع والعلوم إنما هي للإنسان من حيث فكره الذي يتميز به عن الحيوانات والقوت له من حيث الحيوانية والغذائية,"Then, when the city is organized and the (available) labor increases and pays for the necessities and is more than enough (for the inhabitants), the surplus is spent on luxuries. The crafts and sciences are the result of man’s ability to think, through which he is distinguished from the animals. (His desire for) food, on the other hand, is the result of his animal and nutritive power."
فهو مقدم لضروريته على العلوم والصنائع وهي متأخرة عن الضروري.,It is prior to sciences and crafts because of its necessary character. (The sciences and crafts) come after the necessities.
وعلى مقدار عمران البلد تكون جودة الصنائع للتأنق فيها حينئذ واستجادة ما يطلب منها بحيث تتوفر دواعي الترف والثروة. وأما العمران البدوي أو القليل فلا يحتاج من الصنائع إلا البسيط خاصة المستعمل في الضروريات من نجار أو حداد أو خياط أو حائك أو جزار.,"The (susceptibility) of the crafts to refinement, and the quality of (the purposes) they are to serve in view of the demands made by luxury and wealth, then correspond to the civilization of a given country. A small or Bedouin civilization needs only the simple crafts, especially those used for the necessities, such as (the crafts of) the carpenter, the smith, the tailor, the butcher, or the weaver."
وإذا وجدت هذه بعد فلا توجد فيه كاملة ولا مستجادة وإنما يوجد منها بمقدار الضرورة إذ هي كلها وسائل إلى غيرها وليست مقصودة لذاتها.,"They exist there. Still, they are neither perfect nor well developed. They exist only in as much as they are needed, since all of them are means to an end and are not intended for their own sake."
وإذا زخر بحر العمران وطلبت فيه الكمالات كان من جملتها التأنق في الصنائع واستجادتها فكملت بجميع متمماتها وتزايدت صنائع أخرى معها مما تدعو إليه عوائد الترف وأحواله من جزار ودباغ وخراز وصائغ وأمثال ذلك.,"When civilization flourishes and the luxuries are in demand, it includes the refinement and development of the crafts. Consequently, (these crafts) are perfected with every finesse, and a number of other crafts, in addition to them, is added, as luxury-customs and conditions demand. Among (such crafts are) those of the cobbler, the tanner, the silk weaver, the goldsmith, and others."
وقد تنتهي هذه الأصناف إذا استبحر العمران إلى أن يوجد فيها كثير من الكمالات والتأنق فيها في الغاية وتكون من وجوه المعاش في المصر لمنتحلها.,"When the civilization is fully developed, these different kinds (of crafts are perfected and refined to the limit. In the cities, they become ways of making a living for those who practice them."
بل تكون فائدتها من أعظم فوائد الأعمال لما يدعو إليه الترف في المدينة مثل الدهان والصفار والحمامي والطباخ والشماع والهراس ومعلم الغناء والرقص وقرع الطبول على التوقيع. ومثل الوراقين الذين يعانون صناعة انتساخ الكتب وتجليدها وتصحيحها,"In fact, they become the most lucrative activities there are, because urban luxury demands them. Other such crafts are those of the perfumer, the coppersmith, the bath attendant, the cook, the biscuit baker, the harisah baker, the teacher of singing, dancing, and rhythmical drum beating. There are also the book producers who ply the craft of copying, binding, and correcting books."
فإن هذه الصناعة إنما يدعو إليها الترف في المدينة من الاشتغال بالأمور الفكرية وأمثال ذلك. وقد تخرج عن الحد إذا كان العمران خارجا عن الحد,This (last mentioned) craft is demanded by the urban luxury of occupation with intellectual matters. There are other similar (crafts). They become excessive when civilization develops excessively.
كما بلغنا عن أهل مصر أن فيهم من يعلم الطيور العجم والحمر الإنسية ويتخيل أشياء من العجائب بإيهام قلب الأعيان وتعليم الحداء والرقص والمشي على الخيوط في الهواء ورفع الأثقال من الحيوان والحجارة وغير ذلك من الصنائع التي لا توجد عندنا بالمغرب. لأن عمران أمصاره لم يبلغ عمران مصر والقاهرة.,"Thus, we learn that there are Egyptians who teach dumb creatures like birds and domestic donkeys who produce marvelous spectacles which give the illusion that objects are transformed, and who teach the use of the camel driver’s chant, how to dance and walk on ropes stretched in the air, how to lift heavy animals and stones, and other things. These crafts do not exist among us in the Maghrib, because the civilization of (Maghribi) cities does not compare with the civilization of Egypt and Cairo"
والله الحكيم العليم.,God is wise and knowing.
الفصل الثامن عشر في أن رسوخ الصنائع في الأمصار إنما هو برسوخ الحضارة وطول أمده,17. The crafts are firmly rooted in a city (only) when sedentary culture is firmly rooted and of long duration.
والسبب في ذلك ظاهر وهو أن هذه كلها عوائد للعمران والأوان. والعوائد إنما ترسخ بكثرة التكرار وطول الأمد فتستحكم صبغة ذلك وترسخ في الأجيال. وإذا استحكمت الصبغة عسر نزعها.,"The reason for this is obvious. All crafts are customs and colors of civilization. Customs become firmly rooted only through much repetition and long duration. Then, their coloring becomes firmly established and rooted in (successive) generations. Once such coloring is firmly established, it is difficult to remove it."
ولهذا نجد في الأمصار التي كانت استبحرت في الحضارة لما تراجع عمرانها وتناقص بقيت فيها آثار من هذه الصنائع ليست في غيرها من الأمصار المستحدثة العمران ولو بلغت مبالغها في الوفور والكثرة,"Therefore, we find that cities with a highly developed sedentary culture, the civilization (population) of which has receded and decreased, retain traces of crafts that do not exist in other more recently civilized cities, even though they may have reached the greatest abundance (of population)."
وما ذاك إلا لأن أحوال تلك القديمة العمران مستحكمة راسخة بطول الأحقاب وتداول الأحوال وتكررها وهذه لم تبلغ الغاية بعد.,"This is only because conditions in those (cities) with the old civilization had become well established and firmly rooted through their long duration and constant repetition, whereas the (other recently civilized cities) have not yet reached the limit"
وهذا كالحال في الأندلس لهذا العهد فإنا نجد فيها رسوم الصنائع قائمة وأحوالها مستحكمة راسخة في جميع ما تدعو إليه عوائد أمصارها,"This is the situation, for instance, in contemporary Spain. There we find the crafts and their institutions still in existence. They are well established and firmly rooted, as far as the things required by the customs of (Spanish) cities are concerned."
كالمباني والطبخ وأصناف الغناء واللهو من الآلات والأوتار والرقص وتنضيد الفرش في القصور، وحسن الترتيب والأوضاع في البناء وصوغ الآنية من المعادن والخزف وجميع المواعين وإقامة الولائم والأعراس وسائر الصنائع التي يدعو إليها الترف وعوائده.,"They include,) for instance, building, cooking, the various kinds of singing and entertainment, such as instrumental music, string instruments and dancing, the use of carpets in palaces, the construction of well-planned, well-constructed houses, the production of metal and pottery vessels, all kinds of utensils, the giving of banquets and weddings, and all the other crafts required by luxury and luxury customs."
فنجدهم أقوم عليها وأبصر بها. ونجد صنائعها مستحكمة لديهم فهم على حصة موفورة من ذلك وحظ متميز بين جميع الأمصار. وإن كان عمرانها قد تناقص. والكثير منه لا يساوي عمران غيرها من بلاد العدوة.,"(One finds that they practice and understand these things better (than any other nation) and that they know well the crafts that belong to them. They have an abundant share of these things and have distinctly more of them than any other city, even though civilization in (Spain) has receded and most of it does not equal that which exists in the other countries of the (Mediterranean) shore."
وما ذاك إلا لما قدمناه من رسوخ الحضارة فيهم برسوخ الدولة الأموية وما قبلها من دولة القوط وما بعدها من دولة الطوائف وهلم جرا. فبلغت الحضارة فيها مبلغا لم تبلغه في قطر إلا ما ينقل عن العراق والشام ومصر أيضا لطول آماد الدول فيها,"This is only because, as we have mentioned before, sedentary culture had become deeply rooted in Spain through the stability given it by the Umayyad dynasty, the preceding Gothic dynasty, and the reyes de taifas, successors to (the Umayyads), and so on. Therefore, sedentary culture had reached in (Spain) a stage that had not been reached in any other region except, reportedly, in the ‘Iraq, Syria, and Egypt. There, too, the reason was the long duration of the respective dynasties."
فاستحكمت فيها الصنائع وكملت جميع أصنافها على الاستجادة والتنميق. وبقيت صبغتها ثابتة في ذلك العمران لا تفارقه إلى أن ينتقض بالكلية حال الصبغ إذا رسخ في الثوب.,"Thus, the crafts became well established there. All the various kinds of crafts were developed and refined to perfection. Their coloring remained in that civilization and did not leave it, until it was totally destroyed. Like a garment’s fast color, (the color held fast until the garment was destroyed)."
وكذا أيضا حال تونس فيما حصل فيها بالحضارة من الدول الصنهاجية والموحدين من بعدهم وما استكمل لها في ذلك من الصنائع في سائر الأحوال وإن كان ذلك دون الأندلس.,"This was also the case in Tunis. A sedentary culture had been established there by the Sinhajah (Zirid) dynasty and its successors, the Almohads. The crafts were developed to perfection in every respect, though less so than in Spain."
إلا أنه متضاعف برسوم منها تنقل إليها من مصر لقرب المسافة بينهما وتردد المسافرين من قطرها إلى قطر مصر في كل سنة وربما سكن أهلها هناك عصورا فينقلون من عوائد ترفهم ومحكم صنائعهم ما يقع لديهم موقع الاستحسان.,"However, sedentary culture in Tunis has been greatly enriched by sedentary institutions imported from Egypt. The distance between the two countries is short, and travelers from Tunis visit Egypt every year. Also, (Tunisians) often live in (Egypt) for some time, and then bring back the (Egyptian) luxury customs and technical knowledge they like"
فصارت أحوالها في ذلك متشابهة من أحوال مصر لما ذكرناه ومن أحوال الأندلس لما أن أكثر ساكنها من شرق الأندلس حين الجلاء لعهد المائة السابعة. ورسخ فيها من ذلك أحوال وإن كان عمرانها ليس بمناسب لذلك لهذا العهد.,"Thus, the situation with regard to (sedentary culture in Tunis) has become similar to that of Egypt, for the reasons mentioned, and also to that of Spain, because many people from eastern Spain who were exiled in the seventh [thirteenth] century settled in Tunis. Thus, certain aspects of (sedentary culture) have become firmly rooted there, even though the civilization (population) of (Tunis) at this time is not adequate to them."
إلا أن الصبغة إذا استحكمت فقليلا ما تحول إلا بزوال محلها. وكذا نجد بالقيروان ومراكش وقلعة ابن حماد أثرا باقيا من ذلك وإن كانت هذه كلها اليوم خرابا أو في حكم الخراب. ولا يتفطن لها إلا البصير من الناس,"However, a fast coloring rarely changes, except when its basis ceases to exist. Thus, we also find in alQayrawan, in Marrakech, and in Qal’at Ibn Hammad some remnants of such (sedentary culture). All these places, it is true, are nowadays in ruins or destined soon to fall into ruins, and only people who know are able to discern these remnants."
فيجد من هذه الصنائع آثارا تدله على ما كان بها كأثر الخط الممحو في الكتاب,"They will find, however, traces of the crafts (there) showing what once existed there, like faded writing in a book."
«والله الخلاق العليم».,"God is “the Creator, the Knowing One.”"
الفصل التاسع عشر في أن الصنائع إنما تستجاد وتكثر إذا كثر طالبها,18. Crafts can improve and increase only when many people demand them.
والسبب في ذلك ظاهر وهو أن الإنسان لا يسمح بعمله أن يقع مجانا لأنه كسبه ومنه معاشه. إذ لا فائدة له في جميع عمره في شيء مما سواه فلا يصرفه إلا فيما له قيمة في مصره ليعود عليه بالنفع.,"The reason for this is that man cannot afford to give away his labor for nothing, because it is his (source of) profit and livelihood Throughout his life, he has no advantage from anything else. Therefore, he must employ his labor only on whatever has value in his city, if it is to be profitable to him."
وإن كانت الصناعة مطلوبة وتوجه إليها النفاق كانت حينئذ الصناعة بمثابة السلعة التي تنفق سوقها وتجلب للبيع، فتجتهد الناس في المدينة لتعلم تلك الصناعة ليكون منها معاشهم.,"If a particular craft is in demand and there are buyers for it, (that) craft, then, corresponds to a type of goods that is in great demand and imported for sale. People in the towns, therefore, are eager to learn (that particular) craft, in order to make a living through it."
وإذا لم تكن الصناعة مطلوبة لم تنفق سوقها ولا يوجه قصد إلى تعلمها، فاختصت بالترك وفقدت للإهمال.,"On the other hand, if a particular craft is not in demand, there are no buyers for it, and no one is interested in learning it. As a result, (the craft) is destined to be left alone and disappears because of neglect."
ولهذا يقال عن علي رضي الله عنه: «قيمة كل امرئ ما يحسن» بمعنى أن صناعته هي قيمته أي قيمة عمله الذي هو معاشه.,"Therefore, it has been said on the authority of ‘Ali: “Every man’s value consists in what he knows well.” This means that the craft he knows constitutes his value, that is, the value realized from his labor, which is his livelihood."
وأيضا فهنا سر آخر وهو أن الصنائع وإجادتها إنما تطلبها الدولة فهي التي تنفق سوقها وتوجه الطالبات إليها. وما لم تطلبه الدولة وإنما يطلبها غيرها من أهل المصر فليس على نسبتها لأن الدولة هي السوق الأعظم,"There is another secret to be understood in this connection. That is, that it is the ruling dynasty that demands crafts and their improvement. It causes the demand for them and makes them desirable. Crafts not in demand with the dynasty may be in demand with the other inhabitants of a city. However, that would not be the same thing, for the dynasty is the biggest market."
وفيها نفاق كل شيء والقليل والكثير فيها على نسبة واحدة. فما نفق منها كان أكثريا ضرورة.,"There, everything can be marketed. It does not make any difference whether it is little or much. Whatever is in demand with the dynasty is of necessity a major article."
والسوقة وإن طلبوا الصناعة فليس طلبهم بعام ولا سوقهم بنافقة.,"On the other hand, the demand of the common people for a particular craft is not general, nor is the business that the common people can provide of large volume."
والله سبحانه وتعالى قادر على ما يشاء.,God has power to do what He wishes.
الفصل العشرون في أن الأمصار إذا قاربت الخراب انتقضت منها الصنائع,19. The crafts recede from cities that are close to ruin.
وذلك لما بينا أن الصنائع إنما تستجاد إذا احتيج إليها وكثر طالبها. وإذا ضعفت أحوال المصر وأخذ في الهرم بانتقاض عمرانه وقلة ساكنه تناقص فيه الترف ورجعوا إلى الاقتصار على الضروري من أحوالهم,"This is because of what we have explained. The crafts can improve only when they are needed and when they are in demand with many people. When the condition of a city weakens and senility sets in as the result of a decrease of its civilization and the small number of its inhabitants, luxury in the city decreases and (its inhabitants) revert to restricting themselves to the necessities. T"
فتقل الصنائع التي كانت من توابع الترف لأن صاحبها حينئذ لا يصح له بها معاشه فيفر إلى غيرها، أو يموت ولا يكون خلف منه،,"he crafts belonging to luxury conditions and which depend on (luxury) become few. The master of (a particular craft) is no longer assured of making a living from it. Therefore, he deserts (his craft) for another, or he dies and leaves no successor."
فيذهب رسم تلك الصنائع جملة، كما يذهب النقاشون والصواغ والكتاب والنساخ وأمثالهم من الصنائع لحاجات الترف. ولا تزال الصناعات في التناقص إلى أن تضمحل.,"As a result, the institutions of the crafts disappear altogether. Thus, for instance, painters, goldsmiths, calligraphers, copyists, and similar artisans who cater to luxury needs disappear. The crafts continue to decrease, as long as the city continues to decrease, until they no longer exist."
والله الخلاق العليم وسبحانه وتعالى.,"God is “the Creator, the Knowing One.”"
الفصل الحادي والعشرون في أن العرب أبعد الناس عن الصنائع,"20. The Arabs, of all people, are least familiar with crafts."
والسبب في ذلك أنهم أعرق في البدو وأبعد عن العمران الحضري، وما يدعو إليه من الصنائع وغيرها. والعجم من أهل المشرق وأمم النصرانية عدوة البحر الرومي أقوم الناس عليها، لأنهم أعرق في العمران الحضري وأبعد عن البدو وعمرانه.,"The reason for this is that the Arabs are more firmly rooted in desert life and more remote from sedentary civilization, the crafts, and the other things which sedentary civilization calls for, (than anybody else). (On the other hand,) the nonArabs in the East and the Christian nations along the shores of the Mediterranean are very well versed in (the crafts), because they are more deeply rooted in sedentary civilization and more remote from the desert and desert civilization (than others)."
حتى إن الإبل التي أعانت العرب على التوحش في القفر، والإعراق في البدو، مفقودة لديهم بالجملة، ومفقودة مراعيها، والرمال المهيئة لنتاجها. ولهذا نجد أوطان العرب وما ملكوه في الإسلام قليل الصنائع بالجملة، حتى تجلب إليه من قطر آخر.,"They do not even have camels, which make it possible for the Arabs to retreat far into the wilderness of the desert, nor do they have pastures for (camels) or sand suitable for their breeding. Therefore, we find that the homelands of the Arabs and the places they took possession of in Islam had few crafts altogether, so that (crafts) had to be imported from other regions."
وانظر بلاد العجم من الصين والهند وأرض الترك وأمم النصرانية، كيف استكثرت فيهم الصنائع واستجلبها الأمم من عندهم.,"One may observe the great number of crafts in nonArab countries such as China, India, the lands of the Turks, and the Christian nations, and the fact that other nations imported (their own crafts) from them."
وعجم المغرب من البربر مثل العرب في ذلك لرسوخهم في البداوة منذ أحقاب من السنين. ويشهد لك بذلك قلة الأمصار بقطرهم كما قدمناه.,"The non-Arabs in the West, the Berbers, are like the Arabs in this respect, because for a very long period they remained firmly rooted in desert life. This is attested by the small number of cities in the (Berber) region, as we have stated before."
فالصنائع بالمغرب لذلك قليلة وغير مستحكمة الأماكن من صناعة الصوف من نسجه، والجلد في خرزه ودبغه. فإنهم لما استحضروا بلغوا فيها المبالغ لعموم البلوى بها وكون هذين أغلب السلع في قطرهم، لما هم عليه من حال البداوة.,"The crafts in the Maghrib, therefore, are few in number and are not well established. Exceptions are the weaving of wool and the tanning and stitching of leather. For, when they settled down, they developed these (crafts) greatly, because they were matters of general concern and (the wool and leather) needed for them were the most common raw materials in their region, on account of the Bedouin conditions prevailing among them."
وأما المشرق فقد رسخت الصنائع فيه منذ ملك الأمم الأقدمين من الفرس والنبط والقبط وبني إسرائيل ويونان والروم أحقابا متطاولة، فرسخت فيهم أحوال الحضارة، ومن جملتها الصنائع كما قدمناه، فلم يمح رسمها.,"On the other hand, the crafts had been firmly rooted in the East for a very long period, ever since the rule of the ancient nations, the Persians, the Nabataeans, the Copts, the Israelites, the Greeks, and the Romans (Rum). Thus, the conditions of sedentary culture became firmly rooted among them. It included the crafts, as we have stated before. Their traces have not been wiped out."
وأما اليمن والبحرين وعمان والجزيرة وإن ملكه العرب إلا أنهم تداولوا ملكه آلافا من السنين في أمم كثيرين منهم. واختطوا أمصاره ومدنه وبلغوا الغاية من الحضارة والترف مثل عاد وثمود والعمالقة وحمير من بعدهم والتبابعة والأذواء,"The Yemen, al-Bahrayn, Oman, and the Jazirah have long been in Arab possession, but for thousands of years, the rule of these areas has belonged to different (Arab) nations in succession. They also founded cities and towns (there) and promoted the development of sedentary culture and luxury to the highest degree. Among such nations were the ‘Ad and the Thamud, the Amalekites and the Himyar after them, the Tubbas, and the other South Arabian rulers (Adhwa)."
فطال أمد الملك والحضارة واستحكمت صبغتها وتوفرت الصنائع ورسخت، فلم تبل ببلى الدولة كما قدمناه.,"There was a long period of royal authority and sedentary culture. The coloring of (sedentary culture) established itself firmly. The crafts became abundant and firmly rooted. They were not wiped out simultaneously with (each ruling) dynasty, as we have stated."
فبقيت مستجدة حتى الآن. واختصت بذلك للوطن، كصناعة الوشي والعصب وما يستجاد من حوك الثياب والحرير فيها,"They have remained and have always renewed themselves down to this time, and they have become the specialty of that area. Such (special Yemenite) crafts are embroidered fabrics, striped cloth, and finely woven garments and silks."
والله وارث الأرض ومن عليها وهو خير الوارثين.,God inherits the earth and whomever is upon it.
الفصل الثاني والعشرون فيمن حصلت له ملكة في صناعة فقل أن يجيد بعد في ملكة أخرى,21. The person who has gained the habit of a particular craft is rarely able afterwards to master another.
ومثال ذلك الخياط إذا أجاد ملكة الخياطة وأحكمها ورسخت في نفسه فلا يجيد من بعدها ملكة النجارة أو البناء إلا أن تكون الأولى لم تستحكم بعد ولم ترسخ صبغتها.,"A tailor, for instance, who has acquired the habit of tailoring and knows it well and has that habit firmly rooted in his soul, will not afterwards master the habit of carpentry or construction, unless the first habit was not yet firmly established and its coloring not yet firmly rooted."
والسبب في ذلك أن الملكات صفات للنفس وألوان فلا تزدحم دفعة. ومن كان على الفطرة كان أسهل لقبول الملكات وأحسن استعدادا لحصولها.,The reason for this is that habits are qualities and colors of the soul. They do not come all at once. A person who is still in his natural state has (an) easier (time) acquiring certain habits and is better prepared to gain them.
فإذا تلونت النفس بالملكة الأخرى وخرجت عن الفطرة ضعف فيها الاستعداد باللون الحاصل من هذه الملكة فكان قبولها للملكة الأخرى أضعف.,"When the soul has been colored by a habit, it is no longer in its natural state, and it is less prepared (to master another habit), because it has taken on a certain coloring from that habit. As a result, it is less disposed to accept (another) habit."
وهذا بين يشهد له الوجود. فقل أن تجد صاحب صناعة يحكمها ثم يحكم من بعدها أخرى ويكون فيهما معا على رتبة واحدة من الإجادة. حتى أن أهل العلم الذين ملكتهم فكرية فهم بهذه المثابة.,"This is clear and attested by (the facts of) existence. One rarely finds a craftsman who, knowing his craft well, afterwards acquires a good knowledge of another craft and masters both equally well. This extends even to scholars whose habit has to do with thinking."
ومن حصل منهم على ملكة علم من العلوم وأجادها في الغاية فقل أن يجيد ملكة علم آخر على نسبته بل يكون مقصرا فيه إن طلبه إلا في الأقل النادر من الأحوال.,"(The scholar) who has acquired the habit of one particular science and masters it completely-will rarely achieve the same mastery of the habit of another science, and if he were to study (another science), he would, except under very rare circumstances, be deficient in it."
ومبني سببه على ما ذكرناه من الاستعداد وتلوينه بلون الملكة الحاصلة في النفس.,"The reason lies in the significance attaching, as we have mentioned, to preparedness and the fact that he becomes colored by the color that the soul receives from the habit it acquires."
والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم,And God knows better.
الفصل الثالث والعشرون في الإشارة إلى أمهات الصنائع,22. A brief enumeration of the basic crafts.
اعلم أن الصنائع في النوع الإنساني كثيرة لكثرة الأعمال المتداولة في العمران. فهي بحيث تشذ عن الحصر ولا يأخذها العد. إلا أن منها ما هو ضروري في العمران أو شريف بالموضع فنخصها بالذكر ونترك ما سواها.,"It should be known that the crafts practiced by the human species are numerous, because so much labor is continually available in civilization. They are so numerous as to defy complete enumeration. However, some of them are necessary in civilization or occupy a noble (position) because of (their) object. We shall single these two kinds out for mention and leave all others."
فأما الضروري فالفلاحة والبناء والخياطة والنجارة والحياكة، وأما الشريفة بالموضع فكالتوليد والكتابة والوراقة والغناء والطب. فأما التوليد فإنها ضرورية في العمران وعامة البلوى إذ بها تحصل حياة المولود وتتم غالبا.,"Necessary (crafts) are agriculture, architecture, tailoring, carpentry, and weaving. Crafts noble because of (their) object are midwifery, the art of writing, book production, singing, and medicine. Midwifery is something necessary in civilization and a matter of general concern, because it assures, as a rule, the life of the new-born child."
وموضوعها مع ذلك المولودون وأمهاتهم. وأما الطب فهو حفظ الصحة للإنسان ودفع المرض عنه ويتفرع عن علم الطبيعة، وموضوعة مع ذلك بدن الإنسان.,The object of (midwifery) is newborn children and their mothers. Medicine preserves the health of man and repels disease. It is a branch of physics. Its object is the human body.
وأما الكتابة وما يتبعها من الوراقة فهي حافظة على الإنسان حاجته ومقيدة لها عن النسيان ومبلغة ضمائر النفس إلى البعيد الغائب ومخلدة نتائج الأفكار والعلوم في الصحف ورافعة رتب الوجود للمعاني.,"The art of writing, and book production, which depends on it, preserve the things that are of concern to man and keep them from being forgotten. It enables the innermost thoughts of the soul to reach those who are far and absent. It perpetuates in books the results of thinking and scholarship. It makes four out of the (three) orders of existence (as it constitutes a special order of existence) for ideas."
وأما الغناء فهو نسب الأصوات ومظهر جمالها للأسماع. وكل هذه الصنائع الثلاث داع إلى مخالطة الملوك الأعاظم في خلواتهم ومجالس أنسهم فلها بذلك شرف ليس لغيرها.,"Singing is the harmony of sounds and the manifestation of their beauty to the ears. All these three crafts call for contact with great rulers in their privacy and at their intimate parties. Thus, they have nobility that other (crafts) do not have."
وما سوى ذلك من الصنائع فتابعة وممتهنة في الغالب. وقد يختلف ذلك باختلاف الأغراض والدواعي،,"The other crafts are, as a rule, secondary and subordinate. (The attitude toward them, however,) differs according to the different purposes and requirements."
والله أعلم بالصواب.,"God is “the Creator, the Knowing One.”"
الفصل الرابع والعشرون في صناعة الفلاحة,23. The craft of agriculture.
هذه الصناعة ثمرتها اتخاذ الأقوات والحبوب بالقيام على إثارة الأرض لها ازدراعها وعلاج نباتها وتعهده بالسقي والتنمية إلى بلوغ غايته ثم حصاد سنبله واستخراج حبه من غلافه وإحكام الأعمال لذلك، وتحصيل أسبابه ودواعيه.,"The fruit of this craft is the obtainment of foodstuffs and grains. People must undertake to stir the earth, sow, cultivate the plants, see to it that they are watered and that they grow until they reach their full growth, then, harvest the ears, and get the grain out of the husks. They also must understand all the related activities, and procure all the things required in this connection."
وهي أقدم الصنائع لما أنها محصلة للقوت المكمل لحياة الإنسان غالبا إذ يمكن وجوده من دون القوت. ولهذا اختصت هذه الصناعة بالبدو. إذ قدمنا أنه أقدم من الحضر وسابق عليه,"Agriculture is the oldest of all crafts, in as much as it provides the food that is the main factor in perfecting human life, since man can exist without anything else but not without food. Therefore, this craft has existed especially in the desert, since, as we have stated before, it is prior to and older than sedentary life."
فكانت هذه الصناعة لذلك بدوية لا يقوم عليها الحضر ولا يعرفونها لأن أحوالهم كلها ثانية على البداوة فصنائعهم ثانية عن صنائعها وتابعة لها.,"Thus, it became a Bedouin craft which is not practiced or known by sedentary people, because all their conditions are secondary to those of desert life and their crafts, thus, secondary and subsequent to (Bedouin) crafts"
الفصل الخامس والعشرون في صناعة البناء,24. The waft of architecture.
هذه الصناعة أول صنائع العمران الحضري وأقدمها وهي معرفة العمل في اتخاذ البيوت والمنازل للكن والمأوى للأبدان في المدن. وذلك أن الإنسان لما جبل عليه من الفكر في عواقب أحواله،,This is the first and oldest craft of sedentary civilization. It is the knowledge of how to go about using houses and mansions for cover and shelter. This is because man has the natural disposition to reflect upon the outcome of things.
لا بد أن يفكر فيما يدفع عنه الأذى من الحر والبرد كاتخاذ البيوت المكتنفة بالسقف والحيطان من سائر جهاتها,"Thus, it is unavoidable that he must reflect upon how to avert the harm arising from heat and cold by using houses which have walls. and roofs to intervene between him and those things on all sides."
والبشر مختلف في هذه الجبلة الفكرية فمنهم المعتدلون فيها فيتخذون ذلك باعتدال أهالي الثاني والثالث والرابع والخامس والسادس وأما أهل البدو فيبعدون عن اتخاذ ذلك لقصور أفكارهم عن إدراك الصنائع البشرية فيبادرون للغيران والكهوف المعدة من غير علاج.,"This natural disposition to think, which is the real meaning of humanity, exists among (men) in different degrees. Some men are more or less temperate in this respect. They use (housing) with moderation, as, for instance, the inhabitants of the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth zones. The inhabitants of the first and seventh zones, on the other hand, are unfamiliar with the use of (housing), because they are intemperate and their thinking does not go far enough to enable them to practice human crafts. Therefore, they take shelter in caverns and caves, just as they (also) eat unprepared and uncooked food."
ثم المعتدلون والمتخذون البيوت للمأوى قد يتكاثرون في البسيط الواحد بحيث يتناكرون ولا يتعارفون فيخشون طرق بعضهم بعضا بياتا فيحتاجون إلى حفظ مجتمعهم بإدارة ماء أو أسوار تحوطهم,"Now, the temperate people who use houses for shelter become very numerous and have many houses in one area. They become strangers to each other and no longer know each other. They fear surprise attacks at night. Therefore, they must protect their community by surrounding it with a wall to guard them."
ويصير جميعا مدينة واحدة ومصرا واحدا ويحوطهم الحكم من داخل يدفع بعضهم عن بعض وقد يحتاجون إلى الانتصاف ويتخذون المعاقل والحصون لهم ولمن تحت أيديهم وهؤلاء مثل الملوك ومن في معناهم من الأمراء وكبار القبائل.,"The whole thing thus becomes a single town or city in which they are guarded by authorities which keep them apart. They (also) need protection against the enemy. Thus, they use fortresses and castles for themselves and for the people under their control. These men (who control fortresses and castles) are like rulers or amirs or tribal chieftains of a corresponding position."
ثم تختلف أحوال البناء في المدن كل مدينة على ما يتعارفون ويصطلحون عليه ويناسب مزاج هوائهم واختلاف أحوالهم في الغنى والفقر.,"Also, building conditions are different in the (various) towns. Each city follows in this respect the procedure known to and within the technical (competence) of (its inhabitants) and corresponding to the climate and the different conditions of (the inhabitants) with regard to wealth and poverty."
وكذا حال أهل المدينة الواحدة فمنهم من يتخذ القصور والمصانع العظيمة الساحة المشتملة على عدة الدور والبيوت والغرف الكبيرة لكثرة ولده وحشمه وعياله وتابعه,"The situation of the inhabitants within each individual city also (differs). Some use castles and farflung constructions comprising a number of dwellings and houses and rooms, because they have a great number of children, servants, dependents, and followers."
ويؤسس جدرانها بالحجارة ويلحم بينها بالكلس ويعالي عليها بالأصبغة والجص ويبالغ في كل ذلك بالتنجيد والتنميق إظهارا للبسطة بالعناية في شأن المأوى.,"They make their walls of stones, which they join together with quicklime. They cover them with paint and plaster, and do the utmost to furnish and decorate everything. (They do so) in order to show how greatly they are concerned for their shelter."
ويهيئ مع ذلك الأسراب والمطامير للاختزان لأقواته والإسطبلات لربط مقرباته إذا كان من أهل الجنود وكثرة التابع والحاشية كالأمراء ومن في معناهم ومنهم من يبني الدويرة والبيوت لنفسه وسكنه وولده لا يبتغي ما وراء ذلك لقصور حاله عنه واقتصاره على الكن الطبيعي للبشر,"In addition, they prepare cellars and underground rooms for the storage of their food, and also stables for tying up their horses, if they are army people and have many followers and guests, such as amirs and people of a corresponding position. Others build a small dwelling or house for themselves and for their children to live in. Their desire goes no farther, because their situation permits them no more. Thus, they restrict themselves to a mere shelter, which is natural to human beings."
وبين ذلك مراتب غير منحصرة وقد يحتاج لهذه الصناعة أيضا عند تأسيس الملوك وأهل الدول المدن العظيمة والهياكل المرتفعة ويبالغون في إتقان الأوضاع وعلو الأجرام مع الإحكام بتبلغ الصناعة مبالغها.,"Between the two (extremes), there are innumerable degrees. Architecture is also needed when rulers and people of a dynasty build large towns and high monuments (hayakil). They try their utmost to make good plans and build tall structures with technical perfection, so that (architecture) can reach its highest development."
وهذه الصناعة هي التي تحصل الدواعي لذلك كله وأكثر ما تكون هذه الصناعة في الأقاليم المعتدلة من الرابع وما حواليه إذ الأقاليم المنحرفة لا بناء فيها. وإنما يتخذون البيوت حظائر من القصب والطين أو يأوون إلى الكهوف والغيران.,"Architecture is the craft that satisfies requirements in all these respects. It is found most (widely represented) in the temperate zones, that is, in the fourth zone and the adjacent area. In the intemperate zones, there is no building activity. The people there use enclosures of reeds and clay as houses, or take shelter in caverns and caves."
وأهل هذه الصناعة القائمون عليها متفاوتون: فمنهم البصير الماهر ومنهم القاصر.,The architects who exercise the craft differ. Some are intelligent and skillful. Others are inferior.
ثم هي تتنوع أنواعا كثيرة فمنها البناء بالحجارة المنجدة أو بالآجر يقام بها الجدران ملصقا بعضها إلى بعض بالطين والكلس الذي يعقد معها ويلتحم كأنها جسم واحد ومنها البناء بالتراب خاصة تقام منه حيطان يتخذ لها لوحان من الخشب مقدران طولا وعرضا باختلاف العادات في التقدير.,"Furthermore, (architecture) has many subdivisions. Thus, the building material may be smoothed stones or bricks. The walls made of (such material) are joined and firmly held together by clay and quicklime. They thus hold together as fast as if they were of one piece. Another (material) is simply earth. One builds walls with it by using two wooden boards, the measurements of which vary according to (local) custom."
وأوسطه أربع أذرع في ذراعين فينصبان على أساس وقد يوعد ما بينهما بما يراه صاحب البناء في عرض الأساس ويوصل بينهما بأذرع من الخشب يربط عليها بالحبال والجدر.,The average measurements are four cubits by two. They are set upon a foundation. The distance between them depends on the width of the foundation the builder considers appropriate. They are joined together with pieces of wood fastened with ropes or twine.
ويسد الجهتان الباقيتان من ذلك الخلاء بينهما بلوحين آخرين صغيرين ثم يوضع فيه التراب مخلطا بالكلس ويركز بالمراكز المعدة حتى ينعم ركزه ويختلط أجزاؤه بالكلس,"The two remaining sides of the empty space between the two boards are joined by two other small boards. Then, one puts earth mixed with quicklime into (this frame). The earth and quicklime are pounded with special mixers used only for this purpose, until everything is well mixed throughout."
ثم يزاد التراب ثانيا وثالثا إلى أن يمتلئ ذلك الخلاء بين اللوحين وقد تداخلت أجزاء الكلس والتراب وصارت جسما واحدا.,"Earth is then added a second and third time, until the space between the two boards is filled. The earth and quicklime have combined and become one substance."
ثم يعاد نصب اللوحين على صورة ويركز كذلك إلى أن يتم وينظم الألواح كلها سطرا من فوق سطر إلى أن ينتظم الحائط كله ملتحما كأنه قطعة واحدة ويسمى الطابية وصانعه الطواب.,"Then, two other boards are set up in the same fashion, and (the earth) is treated in the same manner, until it is ready. (All) the boards are then properly set up piece upon piece, until the whole wall is set up and joined together as tightly as if it were of one piece. This construction is called tabiyah, and the builder of it is called tawwab."
ومن صنائع البناء أيضا أن تجلل الحيطان بالكلس بعد أن يحل بالماء ويخمر أسبوعا أو أسبوعين على قدر ما يعتدل مزاجه عن إفراط النارية المفسدة للإلحام. فإذا تم له ما يرضاه من ذلك علاه من فوق الحائط وذلك إلى أن يلتحم.,"Another technique of construction is the covering of walls with quicklime. The quicklime is first diluted with water and let soak for a week or two depending on how long is required for it to become well-balanced in its temper and to lose any excess igneousness detrimental to its adhesiveness. When this process is completed to the satisfaction of (the builder), he puts it on the wall beginning at the top and rubs it in until it sticks."
ومن صنائع البناء عمل السقف بأن يمد الخشب المحكمة النجارة أو الساذجة على حائطي البيت ومن فوقها الألواح كذلك موصولة بالدسائر ويصب عليها التراب والكلس ويبسط بالمراكز حتى تتداخل أجزاؤها وتلتحم ويعالى عليها الكلس كما يعالى على الحائط.,"Another technique of construction is roofing. Pieces of wood (beams), either carefully smoothed by a carpenter or left rough, are placed over two walls of the house, and more boards are placed on top of them. They are joined together with nails. Upon that, earth and quicklime are poured. They are pounded with mixers until they combine and hold together. The roof is thus covered with quicklime (plaster), exactly as the walls were covered with it."
ومن صناعة البناء ما يرجع إلى التنميق والتزيين كما يصنع من فوق الحيطان الأشكال المجسمة من الجص يخمر بالماء ثم يرجع جسدا وفيه بقية البلل، فيشكل على التناسب تخريما بمثاقب الحديد إلى أن يبقى له رونق ورواء.,"Another technique of construction is decoration and ornamentation. Thus, figures formed from gypsum are placed upon the walls. (The gypsum) is mixed with water, and then solidified again, with some humidity remaining in it. Symmetrical figures are chiseled out of it with iron drills, until it looks brilliant and pleasant."
وربما عولي على الحيطان أيضا بقطع الرخام أو الآجر أو الخزف أو بالصدف أو السبج يفصل أجزاء متجانسة أو مختلفة وتوضع في الكلس على نسب وأوضاع مقدرة عندهم يبدو به الحائط للعيان، كأنه قطع الرياض المنمنمة.,"The walls are occasionally also covered with pieces of marble, brick, clay, shells (mother-of-pearl), or jet. (The material) may be divided either into identically shaped or differently shaped pieces. These pieces are arranged in whatever symmetrical figures and arrangements are being utilized by the (various artisans), and set into the quicklime (with which the walls have been covered). Thus, the walls come to look like colorful flower beds."
إلى غير ذلك من بناء الجباب والصهاريج لسفح الماء بعد أن تعد في البيوت قصاع الرخام القوراء المحكمة الخرط بالفوهات في وسطها لنبع الماء الجاري إلى الصهريج يجلب إليه من خارج القنوات المفضية إلى البيوت وأمثال ذلك من أنواع البناء.,"There are (other techniques of construction), such as the construction of wells and cisterns for running water. In the houses, large, well-cut marble basins are prepared. They have orifices in the middle to permit the water of the cistern to flow out. The water comes to the cistern from the outside through conduits bringing it into the houses. There are other similar kinds of architectural activity."
وتختلف الصناع في جميع ذلك باختلاف الحذق والبصر ويعظم عمران المدينة ويتسع فيكثرون. وربما يرجع الحكام إلى نظر هؤلاء فيما هم أبصر به من أحوال البناء.,"The workmen who do all these things differ in skill and intelligence. They grow in number when the civilization of a town increases and widens. The authorities often have recourse to the opinions of these men, about construction matters which they understand better."
وذلك أن الناس في المدن لكثرة الازدحام والعمران يتشاحون حتى في الفضاء والهواء الأعلى والأسفل ومن الانتفاع بظاهر البناء مما يتوقع معه حصول الضرر في الحيطان. فيمنع جاره من ذلك إلا ما كان له فيه حق.,"For in towns with large populations, people live in very crowded conditions. Therefore, they compete with each other for space and air above and below and for the use of the outside of a building. The owner fears lest (any encroachment) cause damage to the walls, and, therefore, forbids it to his neighbor, except where the neighbor has a legal right to it."
ويختلفون أيضا في استحقاق الطرق والمنافذ للمياه الجارية والفضلات المسربة في القنوات وربما يدعي بعضهم حق بعض في حائطه أو علوه أو قناته لتضايق الجوار,"(People) also have differences over rightof-way and about outlets for running water and about refuse disposed of through subterranean conduits. Occasionally, someone claims somebody else’s right to (use of) a wall, eaves, or a gutter, because the houses are so close to each other."
أو يدعي بعضهم على جاره اختلال حائطه خشية سقوطه ويحتاج إلى الحكم عليه بهدمه ودفع ضرره عن جاره عند من يراه أو يحتاج إلى قسمة دار أو عرضة بين شريكين بحيث لا يقع معها فساد في الدار ولا إهمال لمنفعتها. وأمثال ذلك.,"Or someone may claim that his neighbor’s wall is in bad condition and he fears that it will collapse. He needs a judgment against the other party from an expert to force the other party to tear the wall down and prevent damage to the neighbor(ing house). Or, a house or courtyard has to be divided between two parties, so that no damage to the house or curtailment of its usefulness is caused, and similar things."
ويخفى جميع ذلك إلا على أهل البصر العارفين بالبناء وأحواله المستدلين عليها بالمعاقد والقمط ومراكز الخشب وميل الحيطان واعتدالها وقسم المساكن على نسبة أوضاعها ومنافعها وتسريب المياه في القنوات مجلوبة ومرفوعة بحيث لا تضر بما مرت عليه من البيوت والحيطان وغير ذلك.,"All these matters are clear only to those who know architecture in all its details. They can judge these details by looking at the joints and ties and the wooden parts. (They can see whether) the walls are leaning over or are straight, (whether) dwellings are divided as. required by their construction and (intended) use, and (whether) water can flow in and out the conduits without causing harm to the houses or walls it flows through, and other things."
فلهم بهذا كله البصر والخبرة التي ليست لغيرهم. وهم مع ذلك يختلفون بالجودة والقصور في الأجيال باعتبار الدول وقوتها. فإنا قدمنا أن الصنائع وكمالها، إنما هو بكمال الحضارة وكثرتها بكثرة الطالب لها.,"They know about them and have the experience that others do not have. However, the quality of (architects) differs in the different groups. It depends on the (ruling) dynasties and their power. We have stated before that the perfection of the crafts depends on the perfection of sedentary culture and their extent (depends) on the number of those who demand them."
فلذلك عند ما تكون الدولة بدوية في أول أمرها تفتقر في أمر البناء إلى غير قطرها.,"At the beginning, the dynasty is a Bedouin one, and therefore needs for its construction activities (the help of) other regions."
كما وقع للوليد بن عبد الملك حين أجمع على بناء مسجد المدينة والقدس ومسجده بالشام. فبعث إلى ملك الروم بالقسطنطينية في الفعلة المهرة في البناء فبعث إليه منهم من حصل له غرضه من تلك المساجد,"This was the case when al-Walid b. ‘Abd-al-Malik decided to build the mosques of Medina and Jerusalem and his own mosque in Damascus. He sent to the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople for workmen skilled in construction work, and the Byzantine emperor sent him enough men to build these mosques as he had planned them."
وقد يعرف صاحب هذه الصناعة أشياء من الهندسة مثل تسوية الحيطان بالوزن وإجراء المياه بأخذ الارتفاع وأمثال ذلك فيحتاج إلى البصر بشيء من مسائله.,"Architects also make some use of geometry (engineering). For instance, they use the plumb to make walls perpendicular, and they use devices for lifting water, to make it flow, and similar things. Thus, they must know something about the problems connected with (engineering)."
وكذلك في جر الأثقال بالهندام فإن الأجرام العظيمة إذا شيدت بالحجارة الكبيرة يعجز قدر الفعلة عن رفعها إلى مكانها من الحائط فيتحيل لذلك بمضاعفة قوة الحبل بإدخاله في المعالق من أثقاب مقدرة على نسب هندسية تصير الثقيل عند معاناة الرفع خفيفا فيتم المراد من ذلك بغير كلفة,"They also must know how to move heavy loads with the help of machines. Big blocks of large stones cannot be lifted into place on a wall by the unaided strength of workmen alone. Therefore, the architect must contrive to multiply the strength of the rope by passing it through holes, constructed according to geometrical proportions, of the attachments called mikhal “pulleys.” They make the load easier to lift, so that the intended work can be completed without difficulty."
وهذا إنما يتم بأصول هندسية معروفة متداولة بين البشر وبمثلها كان بناء الهياكل الماثلة لهذا العهد التي يحسب أنها من بناء الجاهلية. وأن أبدانهم كانت على نسبتها في العظم الجسماني,This can be achieved only with the help of geometrical (engineering) principles which are commonly known among men. Such things made it possible to build the (ancient) monuments that are standing to this day. They are believed to have been built in pre-Islamic times and by persons whose bodies were (of a size) corresponding (to the) large (size of the monuments).
وليس كذلك وإنما تم لهم ذلك بالحيل الهندسية كما ذكرناه. فتفهم ذلك.,"This is not so. (The people who built them) used engineering devices, as we have mentioned. This should be understood."
والله يخلق ما يشاء سبحانه.,“God creates whatever He wishes.”
الفصل السادس والعشرون في صناعة النجارة,25. The craft of carpentry.
هذه الصناعة من ضروريات العمران ومادتها الخشب وذلك أن الله سبحانه وتعالى جعل للآدمي في كل مكون من المكونات منافع تكمل بها ضروراته وكان منها الشجر فإن له فيه من المنافع ما لا ينحصر مما هو معروف لكل أحد.,"This craft is one of the necessities of civilization. Its material is wood. This is as follows: God made all created things useful for man, so as to supply his necessities and needs. Trees belong among these things. They have innumerable uses known to everybody. One of their uses is their use as wood when they are dry."
ومن منافعها اتخاذها خشبا إذا يبست وأول منافعه أن يكون وقودا للنيران في معاشهم وعصيا للاتكاء والذود وغيرهما من ضرورياتهم ودعائم لما يخشى ميله من أثقالهم.,"The first use of wood is as wood for fires, which man needs to live; as sticks for support, protection (of flocks), and other necessities; and as supports for loads that one fears might topple over. After that, wood has other uses, for the inhabitants of the desert as well as for those of settled areas."
ثم بعد ذلك منافع أخرى لأهل البدو والحضر فأما أهل البدو فيتخذون منها العمد والأوتاد لخيامهم والحدوج لظعائنهم والرماح والقسي والسهام لسلاحهم وأما أهل الحضر فالسقف لبيوتهم والأغلاق لأبوابهم والكراسي لجلوسهم.,"Bedouins use wood for tent poles and pegs, for camel litters for their women, and for the lances, bows, and arrows they use for weapons. Sedentary people use wood for the roofs of their houses, for the locks of their doors, and for chairs to sit on."
وكل واحدة من هذه فالخشبة مادة لها ولا تصير إلى الصورة الخاصة بها إلا بالصناعة.,Wood is the raw material for all these things. The particular form needed in each case is the result of craftsmanship.
والصناعة المتكفلة بذلك المحصلة لكل واحد من صورها هي النجارة على اختلاف رتبها. فيحتاج صاحبها إلى تفصيل الخشب أولا: إما بخشب أصغر منه أو ألواح. ثم تركب تلك الفضائل بحسب الصور المطلوبة. وهو في كل ذلك يحاول بصنعته إعداد تلك الفصائل بالانتظام إلى أن تصير أعضاء لذلك الشكل المخصوص.,"The craft concerned with that and which gives every wooden object its form is carpentry in all its different grades. The master of (this craft) must first split the wood into smaller pieces or into boards. Then, he puts these pieces together in the required form. In this connection, he attempts with the aid of his craft to prepare these pieces by the proper arrangement for (their) becoming parts of the (desired) particular shape."
والقائم على هذه الصناعة هو النجار وهو ضروري في العمران. ثم إذا عظمت الحضارة وجاء الترف وتأنق الناس فيما يتخذونه من كل صنف من سقف أو باب أو كرسي أو ماعون، حدث التأنق في صناعة ذلك واستجادته بغرائب من الصناعة كمالية ليست من الضروري في شيء,"The man in charge of this craft is the carpenter. He is necessary to civilization. Then, when sedentary culture increases and luxury makes its appearance and people want to use elegant types of roofs, doors, chairs, and furniture, these things come to be produced in a most elegant way through mastery of remarkable techniques which are luxuries and in no way necessities."
مثل التخطيط في الأبواب والكراسي ومثل تهيئة القطع من الخشب بصناعة الخرط يحكم بريها وتشكيلها ثم تؤلف على نسب مقدرة وتلحم بالدسائر فتبدو لرأي العين ملتحمة,"Such (techniques) include, for instance, the use of carvings for doors and chairs. Or, one skillfully turns and shapes pieces of wood in a lathe, and then one puts these pieces together in certain symmetrical arrangements and nails them together, so that they appear to the eye to be of one piece."
وقد أخذ منها اختلاف الأشكال على تناسب. يصنع هذا في كل شيء يتخذ من الخشب فيجيء آنق ما يكون. وكذلك في جميع ما يحتاج إليه من الآلات المتخذة من الخشب من أي نوع كان.,"They consist of different shapes all symmetrically combined. This is done with all the (possible) shapes into which wood may be cut, which turn out to be very elegant things. The same applies to all wooden utensils (alat) of whatever kind."
وكذلك قد يحتاج إلى هذه الصناعة في إنشاء المراكب البحرية ذات الألواح والدسر وهي أجرام هندسية صنعت على قالب الحوت واعتبار سبحه في الماء بقوادمه وكلكله ليكون ذلك الشكل أعون لها في مصادمة الماء وجعل لها عوض الحركة الحيوانية التي للسمك تحريك الرياح.,"Carpentry is also needed for the construction of ships, which are made of boards and nails. Ships are bodies (constructed with the help) of geometry (engineering), fashioned after the form of a fish and the way a fish swims in the water with its fins and belly. The shape is intended to make it easier for the ship to brave the water. Instead of the animal motion that the fish has, the ship is moved by the winds."
وربما أعينت بحركة المقاذيف كما في الأساطيل.,"It is often supported by the movement of oars, as is the case in (naval) fleets."
وهذه الصناعة من أصلها محتاجة إلى أصل كبير من الهندسة في جميع أصنافها لأن إخراج الصور من القوة إلى الفعل على وجه الإحكام محتاج إلى معرفة التناسب في المقادير إما عموما أو خصوصا وتناسب المقادير لا بد فيه من الرجوع إلى المهندس.,"In view of its origin, carpentry needs a good deal of geometry of all kinds. It requires either a general or a specialized knowledge of proportion and measurement, in order to bring the forms (of things) from potentiality into actuality in the proper manner, and for the knowledge of – proportions one must have recourse to the geometrician."
ولهذا كانت أئمة الهندسة اليونانيون كلهم أئمة في هذه الصناعة فكان أوقليدوس صاحب كتاب الأصول في الهندسة نجارا وبها كان يعرف.,"Therefore, the leading Greek geometricians were all master carpenters. Euclid, the author of the Book of the Principles, on geometry, was a carpenter and was known as such."
وكذلك أبلونيوس صاحب كتاب المخروطات وميلاوش وغيرهم. وفيما يقال: أن معلم هذه الصناعة في الخليقة هو نوح عليه السلام وبها أنشأ سفينة النجاة التي كانت بها معجزته عند الطوفان.,"The same was the case with Apollonius, the author of the book on Conic Sections, and Menelaus, and others. It is said that Noah taught carpentry (first) in the world. With its help, he constructed the ship of salvation (the Ark) with which he performed his (prophetical) miracle during the Flood."
وهذا الخبر وإن كان ممكنا أعني كونه نجارا إلا أن كونه أول من علمها أو تعلمها لا يقوم دليل من النقل عليه لبعد الآماد.,"This story may be possible, that is, (Noah) may have been a carpenter. However, there is no reliable proof that he was the first to practice (carpentry), because (the event) lies so far back in the past."
وإنما معناه والله أعلم الإشارة إلى قدم النجارة لأنه لم يصح حكاية عنها قبل خبر نوح عليه السلام فجعل كأنه أول من تعلمها. فتفهم أسرار الصنائع في الخليقة.,"(The story) serves to indicate the great age of carpentry. There is no sound information about its (existence) before the story of Noah. Therefore, he was, in a way, considered the first to learn it. The true secrets (significance) of the crafts in the world should be understood."
والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم,"God is “the Creator, the Knowing One.”"
الفصل السابع والعشرون في صناعة الحياكة والخياطة,26. The craft of weaving and tailoring.
اعلم أن المعتدلين من البشر في معنى الإنسانية لا بد لهم من الفكر في الدفء كالفكر في الكن. ويحصل الدفء باشتمال المنسوج للوقاية من الحر والبرد.,"It should be known that people who are temperate in their humanity cannot avoid giving some thought to keeping warm, as they do to shelter. One manages to keep warm by using woven material as protective cover against both heat and cold."
ولا بد لذلك من إلحام الغزل حتى يصير ثوبا واحدا، وهو النسج والحياكة.,"This requires the interlacing of yarn, until it turns out to be a complete garment. This is spinning and weaving."
فإن كانوا بادية اقتصروا عليه، وإن قالوا إلى الحضارة فصلوا تلك المنسوجة قطعا يقدرون منها ثوبا على البدن بشكله وتعدد أعضائه واختلاف نواحيها.,Desert people restrict themselves to this. But people who are inclined toward sedentary culture cut the woven material into pieces of the right size to cover the form of the body and all of its numerous limbs in their various locations.
ثم يلائمون بين تلك القطع بالوصائل حتى تصير ثوبا واحدا على البدن ويلبسونها.,"They then put the different pieces together with thread, until they turn out to be a complete garment that fits the body and can be worn by people."
والصناعة المحصلة لهذه الملاءمة هي الخياطة.,The craft that makes things fit is tailoring.
هاتان الصناعتان ضروريتان في العمران لما يحتاج إليه البشر من الرفه فالأولى لنسج الغزل من الصوف والكتان والقطن إسداء في الطول وإلحاما في العرض وإحكاما لذلك النسج بالالتحام الشديد، فيتم منها قطع مقدرة:,"These two crafts are necessary in civilization, because human beings must keep warm. The purpose of (weaving) is to weave wool and cotton yarn in warp and woof and do it well, so that the texture will be strong. Pieces of cloth of certain measurements are thus produced."
فمنها الأكسية من الصوف للاشتمال، ومنها الثياب من القطن والكتان للباس.,Some are garments of wool for covering. Others are garments of cotton and linen for wear.
والصناعة الثانية لتقدير المنسوجات على اختلاف الأشكال والعوائد، تفصل بالمقراض قطعا مناسبة للأعضاء البدنية,The purpose of tailoring is to give the woven material a certain form in accordance with the many different shapes and customs (that may occur in this connection). The material is first cut with scissors into pieces that fit the limbs of the body.
ثم تلحم تلك القطع بالخياطة المحكمة وصلا أو تنبيتا أو تفسحا على حسب نوع الصناعة.,"The pieces are then joined together with the help of skillful tailoring according to ‘the rules, either by the use of thread, or with bands, or (one) quilts (them), or cuts openings."
وهذه الصناعة مختصة بالعمران الحضري لما أن أهل البدو يستغنون عنها وإنما يشتملون الأثواب اشتمالا. وإنما تفصيل الثياب وتقديرها وإلحامها بالخياطة للباس من مذاهب الحضارة وفنونها. وتفهم هذه في سر تحريم المخيط في الحج,"This (craft) is restricted to sedentary culture, since the inhabitants of the desert can dispense with it. They merely cover themselves with cloth. The tailoring of clothes, the cutting, fitting, and sewing of the material, is one of the various methods and aspects of sedentary culture. This should be understood, in order to understand the reason why the wearing of sewn garments is forbidden on the pilgrimage."
لما أن مشروعية الحج مشتملة على نبذ العلائق الدنيوية كلها والرجوع إلى الله تعالى «كما خلقنا أول مرة، حتى لا يعلق العبد قلبه بشيء من عوائد ترفه، لا طيبا ولا نساء ولا مخيطا ولا خفا،,"According to the religious law, the pilgrimage requires, among other things, the discarding of all worldly attachments and the return to God as He created us in the beginning. Man should not set his heart upon any of his luxury customs, such as perfume, women, sewn garments, or boots."
ولا يتعرض لصيد ولا لشيء من عوائده التي تلونت بها نفسه وخلقه، مع أنه يفقدها بالموت ضرورة.,"He should not go hunting or expose himself to any other of the customs with which his soul and character have become colored. When he dies, he will necessarily lose them (anyhow)."
وإنما يجيء كأنه وارد إلى المحشر ضارعا بقلبه مخلصا لربه. وكان جزاؤه إن تم له إخلاصه في ذلك أن يخرج من ذنوبه كيوم ولدته أمه.,"He should come (to the pilgrimage) as if he were going to the Last Judgment, humble in his heart, sincerely devoted to his Lord. If he is completely sincere in this respect, his reward will be that he will shed his sins (and be) like he was on the day when his mother gave birth to him."
سبحانك ما أرفقك بعبادك وأرحمك بهم في طلب هدايتهم إليك.,Praised be You! How kind have You been with Your servants and how compassionate have You been with them in their search for guidance toward You!
وهاتان الصنعتان قديمتان في الخليقة لما أن الدفء ضروري للبشر في العمران المعتدل. وأما المنحرف إلى الحر فلا يحتاج أهله إلى دفء.,"These two crafts are very ancient in the world, because it is necessary for man in a temperate civilization to keep warm. The inhabitants of less temperate, hotter zones do not need to keep warm."
ولهذا يبلغنا عن أهل الإقليم الأول من السودان أنهم عراة في الغالب. ولقدم هذه الصنائع ينسبها العامة إلى إدريس عليه السلام وهو أقدم الأنبياء.,"Therefore, we hear that the Negro inhabitants of the first zone are mostly naked. Because of the great age of these crafts, they are attributed by the common people to Idris, the most ancient of the prophets."
وربما ينسبونها إلى هرمس وقد يقال إن هرمس هو إدريس.,They are also often attributed to Hermes. Hermes is said to be identical with Idris.
والله سبحانه وتعالى هو الخلاق العليم.,"God is “the Creator, the Knowing One.”"
الفصل الثامن والعشرون في صناعة التوليد,27. The craft of midwifery.
وهي صناعة يعرف بها العمل في استخراج المولود الآدمي من بطن أمه من الرفق في إخراجه من رحمها وتهيئة أسباب ذلك. ثم ما يصلحه بعد الخروج على ما نذكر.,"Midwifery is a craft that shows how to proceed in bringing the new-born child gently out of the womb of his mother and how to prepare the things that go with that. It also shows what is good for (a new-born child), after it is born, as we shall mention."
وهي مختصة بالنساء في غالب الأمر لما أنهن الظاهرات بعضهن على عورات بعض. وتسمى القائمة على ذلك منهن القابلة. استعير فيها معنى الإعطاء والقبول كأن النفساء تعطيها الجنين وكأنها تقبله.,"The craft is as a rule restricted to women, since they, as women, may see the pudenda of other women. The woman who exercises this craft is called midwife (qabilah, literally, “the woman who receives”). The word implies the meaning of giving and receiving. The woman in labor in a way gives the embryo to the midwife, and the latter receives it."
وذلك أن الجنين إذا استكمل خلقه في الرحم وأطواره وبلغ إلى غايته والمدة التي قدرها الله لمكثه هي تسعة أشهر في الغالب فيطلب الخروج بما جعل الله في المولود من النزوع لذلك ويضيق عليه المنفذ فيعسر.,"This is as follows: When the embryo has gone through all its stages and is completely and perfectly formed in the womb – the period God determined for its remaining in the womb is as a rule nine months – it seeks to come out, because God implanted such a desire in (unborn children). But the opening is too narrow for it, and it is difficult for (the embryo to come out)."
وربما مزق بعض جوانب الفرج بالضغط وربما انقطع بعض ما كان من الأغشية من الالتصاق والالتحام بالرحم. وهذه كلها آلام يشتد لها الوجع,"It often splits one of the walls of the vagina by its pressure, and often the close connection and attachment of (its) covering membranes with the uterus are ruptured. All this is painful and hurts very much."
وهو معنى الطلق فتكون القابلة معينة في ذلك بعض الشيء بغمز الظهر والوركين وما يحاذي الرحم من الأسافل تساوق بذلك فعل الدافعة في إخراج الجنين وتسهيل ما يصعب منه بما يمكنها وعلى ما تهتدي إلى معرفة عسرة.,"This is the meaning of labor pains. In this connection, the midwife may offer some succor by massaging the back, the buttocks, and the lower extremities adjacent to the uterus. She thus stimulates the activity of the (force) pushing the embryo out, and facilitates the difficulties encountered in this connection as much as she can. She uses as much strength as she thinks is required by the difficulty of (the process)."
ثم إن أخرج الجنين بقيت بينه وبين الرحم الوصلة حيث كان يتغذى منها متصلة من سرته بمعاه.,"When the embryo has come out, it remains connected with the uterus by the umbilical cord at its stomach, through which it was fed."
وتلك الوصلة عضو فضلي لتغذية المولود خاصة فتقطعها القابلة من حيث لا تتعدى مكان الفضلة ولا تضر بمعاه ولا برحم أمه ثم تدمل مكان الجراحة منه بالكي أو بما تراه من وجوه الاندمال.,That cord is a superfluous special limb for feeding the child. The midwife cuts it but so that she does not go beyond the place where (it starts to be) superfluous and does not harm the stomach of the child or the uterus of the mother. She then treats the place of the operation with cauterization or whatever other treatment she sees fit.
ثم إن الجنين عند خروجه من ذلك المنفذ الضيق وهو رطب العظام سهل الانعطاف والانثناء فربما تتغير أشكال أعضائه وأوضاعها لقرب التكوين ورطوبة المواد فتتناوله القابلة بالغمز والإصلاح حتى يرجع كل عضو إلى شكله الطبيعي ووضعه المقدر له ويرتد خلقه سويا.,"When the embryo comes out of that narrow opening with its humid bones that can easily be bent and curved, it may happen that its limbs and joints change their shape, because they were only recently formed and because the – substances (of which it consists) are humid. Therefore, the midwife undertakes to massage and correct (the new-born child), until every limb has resumed its natural shape and the position destined for it, and (the child) has again its normal form."
ثم بعد ذلك تراجع النفساء وتحاذيها بالغمز والملاينة لخروج أغشية الجنين لأنها ربما تتأخر عن خروجه قليلا.,"After that, she goes back to the woman in labor and massages and kneads her, so that the membranes of the embryo may come out. They are sometimes somewhat late in coming out."
ويخشى عند ذلك أن تراجع الماسكة حالها الطبيعية قبل استكمال خروج الأغشية وهي فضلات فتتعفن ويسري عفنها إلى الرحم فيقع الهلاك,"On such an occasion, it is feared that the constricting power (muscle) might resume its natural position before all the membranes are brought out. They are superfluities. They might become putrid, and their putridity might enter the uterus, which could be fatal."
فتحاذر القابلة هذا وتحاول في إعانة الدفع إلى أن تخرج تلك الأغشية التي كانت قد تأخرت,"The midwife takes precautions against that. She tries to stimulate the ejection, until the membranes which are late in coming out come out, too."
ثم ترجع إلى المولود فتمرخ أعضاءه بالأدهان والذرورات القابضة لتشده وتجفف رطوبات الرحم وتحنكه لرفع لهاته وتسعطه لاستفراغ نطوف دماغه وتغرغره باللعوق لدفع السدد من معاه وتجويفها عن الالتصاق.,"She then returns to the child. She anoints its limbs with oils and dusts it with astringent powders, to strengthen it and to dry up the fluids of the uterus. She smears something upon the child’s palate to lift its uvula. She puts something into its nose, in order to empty the cavities of its brain. She makes it gargle with (swallow) an electuary, in order to prevent its bowels from becoming obstructed and their walls from sticking together."
ثم تداوي النفساء بعد ذلك من الوهن الذي أصابها بالطلق وما لحق رحمها من ألم الانفصال، إذ المولود إن لم يكن عضوا طبيعيا فحالة التكوين في الرحم صيرته بالالتحام كالعضو المتصل فلذلك كان في انفصاله ألم يقرب من ألم القطع.,"Then, she treats the woman in labor for the weakness caused by the labor pains and the pain that the separation causes her uterus. Although the child is no natural limb (of the mother), still, the way it is created in the uterus causes it to become attached (to the body of the mother) as if it were an inseparable limb (of her body). Therefore, its separation causes a pain similar to that caused by the amputation (of a limb)."
وتداوي مع ذلك ما يلحق الفرج من ألم من جراحة التمزيق عند الضغط في الخروج. وهذه كلها أدواء نجد هؤلاء القوابل أبصر بدوائها. وكذلك ما يعرض للمولود مدة الرضاع من أدواء في بدنه إلى حين الفصال نجدهن أبصر بها من الطبيب الماهر.,(The midwife) also treats the pain of the vagina that was torn and wounded by the pressure of (the child) coming out. All these are ills with the treatment of which midwives are better acquainted (than anyone else). We likewise find them better acquainted than a skillful physician with the means of treating the ills affecting the bodies of little children from the time they are sucklings until they are weaned.
وما ذاك إلا لأن بدن الإنسان في تلك الحالة إنما هو بدن إنساني بالقوة فقط.,"This is simply because the human body, at this stage, is only potentially a human body."
فإذا جاوز الفصال صار بدنا إنسانيا بالفعل فكانت حاجته حينئذ إلى الطبيب أشد.,"After (the child) is weaned, (its body) becomes actually a human one. Then, its need for a physician is greater (than its need for a midwife)."
فهذه الصناعة كما تراه ضرورية في العمران للنوع الإنساني، لا يتم كون أشخاصه في الغالب دونها.,"One can see that this craft is necessary to the human species in civilization. Without it, the individuals of the species could not, as a rule, come into being."
وقد يعرض لبعض أشخاص النوع الاستغناء عن هذه الصناعة، إما بخلق الله ذلك لهم معجزة وخرقا للعادة كما في حق الأنبياء صلوات الله وسلامه عليهم أو بإلهام وهداية يلهم لها المولود ويفطر عليها فيتم وجودهم من دون هذه الصناعة.,"Some individuals of the species may be able to dispense with this craft. God may arrange it for them that way as a miracle and extraordinary wonder. This, for instance, may be done for the prophets. Or there may be some instinct and guidance given to the child through instinct and natural disposition. Thus, such children may come into existence without the help of midwives."
فأما شأن المعجزة من ذلك فقد وقع كثيرا.,The miraculous kind (of births) has often occurred.
ومنه ما روي أن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم ولد مسرورا مختونا واضعا يديه على الأرض شاخصا ببصره إلى السماء.,"It has, thus, been reported that the Prophet was born with the umbilical cord cut and circumcised, placing his hands upon the earth and turning his eyes toward heaven."
وكذلك شأن عيسى في المهد وغير ذلك. وأما شأن الإلهام فلا ينكر.,"The same applies to Jesus (who spoke) in the cradle, and other things. The instinctive kind (of births) is not unknown."
وإذا كانت الحيوانات العجم تختص بغرائب الإلهامات كالنحل وغيرها فما ظنك بالإنسان المفضل عليها. وخصوصا بمن اختص بكرامة الله.,"Since dumb animals, such as, for instance, bees and others have remarkable instincts, why should one not assume the same for man who is superior to them, and especially for those human beings who are singled out by acts of divine grace?"
ثم الإلهام العام للمولودين في الإقبال على الثدي أوضح شاهد على وجود الإلهام العام لهم.,"Furthermore, the common instinct of new-born children that causes them to seek their mother’s breast is a clear testimony to the existence of an instinct in them."
فشأن العناية الإلهية أعظم من أن يحاط به. ومن هنا يفهم بطلان رأي الفارابي وحكماء الأندلس فيما احتجوا به لعدم انقراض الأنواع واستحالة انقطاع المكونات. وخصوصا في النوع الإنساني،,"The ways of divine foresight are too great to be grasped completely. This explains the incorrectness of the opinion of alFarabi and the Spanish philosophers. They argue for the non-existence of (the possibility) of a destruction of the various species (of beings) and the impossibility of an end of created things, especially of the human species."
وقالوا: لو انقطعت أشخاصه لاستحال وجودها بعد ذلك لتوقفه على وجود هذه الصناعة التي لا يتم كون الإنسان إلا بها. إذ لو قدرنا مولودا دون هذه الصناعة وكفالتها إلى حين الفصال لم يتم بقاؤه أصلا.,"They say that once there has been an end to (the existence of) individuals of (the human species), a later existence of them would be impossible. (Their existence) depends upon the existence of midwifery, without which man could not come into being, since even if we were to assume that a child might (come into existence) without the help of this craft and without being taken care of by (this craft) until it was weaned, still, it could certainly not survive."
ووجود الصنائع دون الفكر ممتنع لأنها ثمرته وتابعة له.,"(For not only midwifery but also other crafts are needed. However,) the crafts cannot possibly exist without the ability to think, because they are the fruit of thinking and depend on it."
وتكلف ابن سينا في الرد على هذا الرأي لمخالفته إياه وذهابه إلى إمكان انقطاع الأنواع وخراب عالم التكوين ثم عوده ثانيا لاقتضاءات فلكية وأوضاع غريبة تنذر في الأحقاب بزعمه فتقتضي تخمير طينة مناسبة لمزاجه بحرارة مناسبة فيتم كونه إنسانا,"Avicenna undertook the refutation of this opinion, because he was opposed to it and admitted the possibility of an end of the various species (of beings) and of the destruction of the world of creation and its subsequent re-establishment as a consequence of astronomical requirements and strange (astral) positions which, he thought, take place rarely over very long intervals of time. It requires the fermentation, with the help of appropriate heat, of a kind of clay that corresponds to the temper of (the being to be created). Thus, it comes to be a human being."
ثم يقيض له حيوان يخلق فيه إلهاما لتربيته والحنو عليه إلى أن يتم وجوده وفصاله. وأطنب في بيان ذلك في الرسالة التي سماها رسالة حي بن يقظان.,"Then, an animal is destined for that human being. In that animal, an instinctive (desire) is created (which is directed) toward bringing that human being up and being kind to him, until he exists fully and is weaned. Avicenna explained this lengthily in the treatise which he entitled the Treatise of Hayy b. Yaqzan."
وهذا الاستدلال غير صحيح وإن كنا نوافقه على انقطاع الأنواع لكن من غير ما استدل به. فإن دليله مبني على إسناد الأفعال إلى العلة الموجبة.,"His argumentation is not correct. We agree with him in regard to the (possibility of the) end of the various species (of beings), but not on the basis of his arguments. His argumentation depends on relating actions to a cause that makes (them) necessary."
ودليل القول بالفاعل المختار يرد عليه ولا واسطة على القول بالفاعل المختار بين الأفعال والقدرة القديمة ولا حاجة إلى هذا التكلف. ثم لو سلمناه جدلا فغاية ما يبنى عليه اطراد وجود هذا الشخص بخلق الإلهام لترتيبه في الحيوان الأعجم.,"The theory of the “voluntary agent” is a proof against him. According to the theory of the “voluntary agent,” there is no intermediary between the actions and the primeval power, and there is no need for such (a difficult) task. If we accepted (Avicenna’s argumentation) for the sake of the argument, (we might say that) it is saying no more than that the continued existence of the individual is the consequence of the instinctive desire to bring him up which has been created in dumb animals."
وما الضرورة الداعية لذلك؟ وإذا كان الإلهام يخلق في الحيوان الأعجم فما المانع من خلقه للمولود نفسه كما قررناه أولا.,"What, then, would be the necessity that might call for (such a procedure), and further, if such an instinctive desire can be created in a dumb animal, what would prevent its creation in the child itself, as we (for our part) assumed at the beginning?"
وخلق الإلهام في شخص لمصالح نفسه أقرب من خلقه فيه لمصالح غيره فكلا المذهبين شاهدان على أنفسهما بالبطلان في مناحيهما لما قررته لك,"It is more likely that an instinct directed toward his own interests is created in an individual than that one directed toward the interests of someone else is created in (someone). Thus, both theories (that of al-Farabi and that of Avicenna) prove themselves wrong in their particular approach, as I have established."
والله تعالى أعلم.,"God is “the Creator, the Knowing One.”"
الفصل التاسع والعشرون في صناعة الطب وانها محتاج إليها في الحواضر والأمصار دون البادية,28. The craft of medicine. The craft of medicine is needed in settled areas and cities but not in the desert.
هذه الصناعة ضرورية في المدن والأمصار لما عرف من فائدتها فإن ثمرتها حفظ الصحة للأصحاء ودفع المرض عن المرضى بالمداواة حتى يحصل لهم البرء من أمراضهم.,"This craft is necessary in towns and cities because of its recognized usefulness. Its fruit is the preservation of health among those who are healthy, and the repulsion of illness among those who are ill, with the help of medical treatment, until they are cured of their illnesses."
واعلم أن أصل الأمراض كلها إنما هو من الأغذية كما قال صلى الله عليه وسلم في الحديث الجامع للطب وهو قوله: «المعدة بيت الداء والحمية رأس الدواء وأصل كل داء البردة»,"It should be known that the origin of all illnesses is in food, as Muhammad said in the comprehensive tradition on medicine, that is reported among physicians but suspected by the religious scholars. He said: “The stomach is the home of disease. Dieting is the main medicine. The origin of every disease is indigestion.”"
فأما قوله المعدة بيت الداء فهو ظاهر وأما قوله الحمية راس الدواء فالحمية الجوع وهو الاحتماء من الطعام.,"The statement “The stomach is the home of disease,” is obvious. The statement: “Dieting is the main medicine,” is to be understood in the sense that himyah “dieting” means “going hungry,” since hunger means refraining (ihtima’) from food."
والمعنى أن الجوع هو الدواء العظيم الذي هو أصل الأدوية وأما قوله أصل كل داء البردة » فمعنى البردة إدخال الطعام على الطعام في المعدة قبل أن يتم هضم الأول.,"Thus, the meaning is that hunger is the greatest medicine, the origin of all medicines. The statement: “The origin of every disease is indigestion,” is to be understood in the sense that baradah “indigestion” is the addition of new food to the food already in the stomach before it has been digested."
وشرح هذا أن الله سبحانه خلق الإنسان وحفظ حياته بالغذاء يستعمله بالأكل وينفذ فيه القوى الهاضمة والغاذية إلى أن يصير دما ملائما لأجزاء البدن من اللحم والعظم، ثم تأخذه النامية فينقلب لحما وعظما.,"(The statement lends itself to) the following comment. God created man and preserves his life through nourishment. He gets it through eating, and he applies to it the digestive and nutritive powers, until it becomes blood fitting for the flesh and bone parts of the body. Then, the growing power takes it over, and it is turned into flesh and bones."
ومعنى الهضم طبخ الغذاء بالحرارة الغريزية طورا بعد طور حتى يصير جزءا بالفعل من البدن وتفسيره أن الغذاء إذا حصل في الفم ولاكته الأشداق أثرت فيه حرارة الفم طبخا يسيرا وقلبت مزاجه بعض الشيء، كما تراه في اللقمة إذا تناولتها طعاما ثم أجدتها مضغا,"Digestion means that the nourishment is boiled by natural heat, stage by stage, until it actually becomes a part of the body. This is to be explained as follows. The nourishment that enters the mouth and is chewed by the jaws undergoes the influence of the heat of the mouth, which boils it slightly. Thus, its composition is slightly altered. This can be observed in a bit of food that is taken and chewed well."
فترى مزاجها غير مزاج الطعام ثم يحصل في المعدة فتطبخه حرارة المعدة إلى أن يصير كيموسا وهو صفو ذلك المطبوخ وترسله إلى الكبد وترسل ما رسب منه في المعى ثقلا ينفذ إلى المخرجين.,"Its composition then can be observed to be different from that of the (original) food. The food then gets into the stomach, and the heat of the stomach boils it, until it becomes chyme, that is, the essence of the boiled (food). (The stomach) sends (the chyme) on into the liver, and ejects the part of the food that has become solid sediment in the bowels, through the two body openings."
ثم تطبخ حرارة الكبد ذلك الكيموس إلى أن يصير دما عبيطا وتطفو عليه رغوة من الطبخ هي الصفراء.,"The heat of the liver then boils the chyme, until it becomes fresh blood. On it, there swims a kind of foam as the result of the boiling. (That foam) is yellow bile."
وترسب منه أجزاء يابسة هي السوداء ويقصر الحار الغريزي بعض الشيء عن طبخ الغليظ منه فهو البلغم. ثم ترسلها الكبد كلها في العروق والجداول، ويأخذها طبخ الحال الغريزي هناك فيكون عن الدم الخالص بخار حار رطب يمد الروح الحيواني وتأخذ النامية مأخذها في الدم فيكون لحما ثم غليظة عظاما.,"Parts of it become dry and solid. They are black bile. The natural heat is not quite sufficient to boil the coarse parts. They are phlegm. The liver then sends all (these substances) into the veins and arteries. There, the natural heat starts to boil them. The pure blood thus generates a hot and humid vapor that sustains the animal spirit. The growing power acts upon the blood, and it becomes flesh. The thick part of it then becomes bones."
ثم يرسل البدن ما يفضل عن حاجاته من ذلك فضلات مختلفة من العرق واللعاب والمخاط والدمع. هذه صورة الغذاء وخروجه من القوة إلى الفعل لحما. ثم إن أصل الأمراض ومعظمها هي الحميات.,"Then, the body eliminates the (elements of the digested food) it does not need as the various superfluities, such as sweat, saliva, mucus, and tears. This is the process of nourishment, and the transformation of food from potential into actual flesh. Now, illnesses originate from fevers, and most illnesses are fevers."
وسببها أن الحار الغريزي قد يضعف عن تمام النضج في طبخه في كل طور من هذه، فيبقى ذلك الغذاء دون نضج، وسببه غالبا كثرة الغذاء في المعدة حتى يكون أغلب على الحار الغريزي أو إدخال الطعام إلى المعدة قبل أن تستوفي طبخ الأول فيستقل به الحار الغريزي ويترك الأول بحالة أو يتوزع عليهما فيقصر عن تمام الطبخ والنضج.,"The reason for fevers is that the natural heat is too weak to complete the process of boiling in each of those stages. The nourishment thus is not fully assimilated. The reason for that, as a rule, is either that there is a great amount of food in the stomach that becomes too much for the natural heat, or that food is put into the stomach before the first food has been completely boiled. In such a case, the natural heat either devotes itself exclusively to the new food, so that the first food is left in its (half-digested) state, or it divides itself between the old and the new food, and then is insufficient to boil and assimilate them completely."
وترسله المعدة كذلك إلى الكبد فلا تقوى حرارة الكبد أيضا على إنضاجه. وربما بقي في الكبد من الغذاء الأول فضلة غير ناضجة.,"The stomach sends the (food) in that state into the liver, and the heat of the liver likewise is not strong enough to assimilate it. Often, an unassimilated superfluity, resulting from food that had been taken in earlier, has (also) remained in the liver."
وترسل الكبد جميع ذلك إلى العروق غير ناضج كما هو. فإذا أخذ البدن حاجته الملائمة أرسله مع الفضلات الأخرى من العرق والدمع واللعاب إن اقتدر على ذلك. وربما يعجز عن الكثير منه فيبقى في العروق والكبد والمعدة وتتزايد مع الأيام. وكل ذي رطوبة من الممتزجات إذا لم يأخذه الطبخ والنضج يعفن فيتعفن ذلك الغذاء غير الناضج وهو المسمى بالخلط.,"The liver sends all of it to the veins unassimilated, as it is. When the body has received what it properly needs, it eliminates the (unassimilated superfluity) together with the other superfluities such as sweat, tears, and saliva, if it can. Often, (the body) cannot cope with the greater part of the (unassimilated superfluity). Thus, it remains in the veins, the liver, and the stomach, and increases with time. Any composite humid (substance) that is not boiled and assimilated undergoes putrefaction. Consequently, the unassimilated nourishment-what is called khilt becomes putrefied."
وكل متعفن ففيه حرارة غريبة وتلك هي المسماة في بدن الإنسان بالحمى.,"Anything in the process of putrefaction develops a strange heat. This heat is what, in the human body, is called fever."
واختبر ذلك بالطعام إذا ترك حتى يتعفن وفي الزبل إذا تعفن أيضا، كيف تنبعث فيه الحرارة وتأخذ مأخذها.,"This may be exemplified by food that is left over and eventually becomes putrefied, and by dung that has become putrefied. Heat develops in it and takes its course."
فهذا معنى الحميات في الأبدان وهي رأس الأمراض وأصلها كما وقع في الحديث. وهذه الحميات علاجها بقطع الغذاء عن المريض أسابيع معلومة ثم يتناول الأغذية الملائمة حتى يتم برؤه.,"This is what fevers in the human body mean. Fevers are the main cause and origin of illness, as was mentioned in the (Prophetic) tradition. Such fevers can be cured by not giving an ill person any nourishment for a certain number of weeks; then, he must take the proper nourishment until he is completely cured."
وذلك في حال الصحة له علاج في التحفظ من هذا المرض وغيره وأصله كما وقع في الحديث وقد يكون ذلك العفن في عضو مخصوص، فيتولد عنه مرض في ذلك العضو ويحدث جراحات في البدن: إما في الأعضاء الرئيسية أو في غيرها. وقد يمرض العضو ويحدث عنه مرض القوى الموجودة له. هذه كلها جماع الأمراض، وأصلها في الغالب من الأغذية وهذا كله مرفوع إلى الطبيب.,"In a state of health, the same procedure serves as a preventive treatment for this and other illnesses. Putrefaction may be localized in a particular limb. Then, a disease will develop in that limb, or the body will be affected either in the principal limbs or in others, because (that particular) limb is ill and its illness produces an illness of its powers. This covers all illnesses. Their origin as a rule is in the nourishment. All this is left to (the attention of) the physician."
ووقوع هذه الأمراض في أهل الحضر والأمصار أكثر، لخصب عيشهم وكثرة مأكلهم وقلة اقتصارهم على نوع واحد من الأغذية وعدم توقيتهم لتناولها. وكثيرا ما يخلطون بالأغذية من التوابل والبقول والفواكه، رطبا ويابسا في سبيل العلاج بالطبخ ولا يقتصرون في ذلك على نوع أو أنواع. فربما عددنا في اليوم الواحد من ألوان الطبخ أربعين نوعا من النبات والحيوان فيصير للغذاء مزاج غريب. وربما يكون غريبا عن ملاءمة البدن وأجزائه.,"The incidence of such illnesses is more frequent among the inhabitants of sedentary areas and cities (than elsewhere), because they live a life of. plenty. They eat a great deal and rarely restrict themselves to one particular kind of food. They lack caution in taking food, and they prepare their food, when they cook it, with the admixture of a good many things, such as spices, herbs, and fruits, (both) fresh and dry. They do not restrict themselves in this respect to one or even a few kinds. We have on occasion counted forty different kinds of vegetables and meats in a single cooked dish. This gives the nourishment a strange temper and often does not agree with the body and its parts."
ثم إن الأهوية في الأمصار تفسد بمخالطة الأبخرة العفنة من كثرة الفضلات. والأهوية منشطة للأرواح ومقوية بنشاطها الأثر الحار الغريزي في الهضم.,"Furthermore, the air in cities becomes corrupt through admixture of putrid vapors because of the great number of superfluities (in cities). It is the air that gives energy to the spirit and thus strengthens the influence of the natural heat upon digestion."
ثم الرياضة مفقودة لأهل الأمصار إذ هم في الغالب وادعون ساكنون لا تأخذ منهم الرياضة شيئا ولا تؤثر فيهم أثرا،,"Furthermore, the inhabitants of cities lack exercise. As a rule, they rest and remain quiet. Exercise has no part in their (life) and has no influence upon them."
فكان وقوع الأمراض كثيرا في المدن والأمصار وعلى قدر وقوعه كانت حاجتهم إلى هذه الصناعة.,"Thus, the incidence of illness is great in towns and cities, and the inhabitants’ need for medicine is correspondingly great."
وأما أهل البدو فمأكولهم قليل في الغالب والجوع أغلب عليهم لقلة الحبوب حتى صار لهم ذلك عادة. وربما يظن أنها جبلة لاستمرارها. ثم الأدم قليلة لديهم أو مفقودة بالجملة.,"On the other hand, the inhabitants of the desert, as a rule; eat little. Hunger prevails among them, because they have little grain. (Hunger) eventually becomes a custom of theirs which is often thought to be something natural to them because it is so lasting. Of seasonings they have few or none."
وعلاج الطبخ بالتوابل والفواكه إنما يدعو إلى ترف الحضارة الذين هم بمعزل عنه فيتناولون أغذيتهم بسيطة بعيدة عما يخالطها ويقرب مزاجها من ملاءمة البدن.,"The preparation of food boiled with spices and fruits is caused by the luxury of sedentary culture with which they have nothing to do. Thus, they take their nourishment plain and without admixtures, and its temper comes close to being agreeable to the body."
وأما أهويتهم فقليلة العفن لقلة الرطوبات والعفونات إن كانوا آهلين، أو لاختلاف الأهوية إن كانوا ظواعن.,"Their air has little putrescence, because there is little humidity and putrescence when they stay (anywhere), and the air is changing when they move around."
ثم إن الرياضة موجودة فيهم لكثرة الحركة في ركض الخيل أو الصيد أو طلب الحاجات لمهنة أنفسهم في حاجاتهم فيحسن بذلك كله الهضم ويجود ويفقد إدخال الطعام على الطعام فتكون أمزجتهم أصلح وأبعد من الأمراض فتقل حاجتهم إلى الطب.,"Too, they take exercise, and there is a lot of movement when they race horses, or go hunting, or search for things they need, or occupy themselves with their needs. For all these reasons, their digestion is very good. There is no adding of new food when the old food (has not yet completely been digested). Thus, their temper is healthier and more remote from illness (than that of sedentary people). As a result, their need for medicine is small."
ولهذا لا يوجد الطبيب في البادية بوجه. وما ذاك إلا للاستغناء عنه إذ لو احتيج إليه لوجد، لأنه يكون له بذلك في البدو معاش يدعوه إلى سكناه,"Therefore, physicians are nowhere to be found in the desert. The only reason for this is the lack of need for them, because if physicians were needed in the desert they would be there. There would then be a livelihood for them to lead them to settle there."
«سنة الله في عباده ولن تجد لسنة الله تبديلا 33: 62».,"This is how God proceeds with His servants. “And verily, you will not be able to change God’s way.”"
الفصل الثلاثون في أن الخط والكتابة من عداد الصنائع الإنسانية,"29. Calligraphy, (the art of) writing, is one of the human crafts."
وهو رسوم وأشكال حرفية تدل على الكلمات المسموعة الدالة على ما في النفس. فهو ثاني رتبة من الدلالة اللغوية وهو صناعة شريفة إذ الكتابة من خواص الإنسان التي يميز بها عن الحيوان.,"(Writing) is the outlining and shaping of letters to indicate audible words which, in turn, indicate what is in the soul. It comes second after oral expression, It is a noble craft, since it is one of the special qualities of man by which he distinguishes himself from the animals."
وأيضا فهي تطلع على ما في الضمائر وتتأدى بها الأغراض إلى البلاد البعيدة فتقضي الحاجات وقد دفعت مؤنة المباشرة لها,"Furthermore, it reveals what is in (people’s) minds. It enables the intention (of a person) to be carried to distant places, and, thus, the needs (of that person) may be executed without (him) personally taking care of them."
ويطلع بها على العلوم والمعارف وصحف الأولين وما كتبوه من علومهم وأخبارهم فهي شريفة بهذه الوجوه والمنافع. وخروجها في الإنسان من القوة إلى الفعل إنما يكون بالتعليم وعلى قدر الاجتماع والعمران والتناغي في الكمالات والطلب لذلك تكون جودة الخط في المدينة إذ هو من جملة الصنائع.,"It enables (people) to become acquainted with science, learning, with the books of the ancients, and with the sciences and information written down by them. Because of all these useful aspects, (writing) is a noble (craft). The transformation of writing in man from potentiality into actuality takes place through instruction. The quality of writing in a town corresponds to the social organization, civilization, and competition for luxuries (among its inhabitants), and the demand for (all) that, since (writing) is a craft."
وقد قدمنا أن هذا شأنها وأنها تابعة للعمران ولهذا نجد أكثر البدو أميين لا يكتبون ولا يقرءون ومن قرأ منهم أو كتب فيكون خطه قاصرا أو قراءته غير نافذة.,"We have stated before that (the crafts) are that way and that they depend on civilization. For this reason, we find that most Bedouins are illiterate. They are not able to read and write. Those of them who do read or write have an inferior handwriting or read haltingly."
ونجد تعليم الخط في الأمصار الخارج عمرانها عن الحد أبلغ وأحسن وأسهل طريقا لاستحكام الصنعة فيها. كما يحكى لنا عن مصر لهذا العهد وأن بها معلمين منتصبين لتعليم الخط,"(On the other hand,) we find that instruction in handwriting in cities with an extraordinarily developed civilization is more proficient, easier, and methodically better (than elsewhere) because the coloring (of the craft of writing) is firmly established in them. Thus, we are told about contemporary Cairo (Egypt) that there are teachers there who are specialized in the teaching of calligraphy."
يلقون على المتعلم قوانين وأحكاما في وضع كل حرف ويزيدون إلى ذلك المباشرة بتعليم وضعه فتعتضد لديه رتبة العلم والحس في التعليم وتأتي ملكته على أتم الوجوه.,"They teach the pupil by norms and laws how to write each letter. In addition, they let him teach (others) how to write each letter. This strengthens his (respect for) the rank of knowledge and (for) perception as far as teaching is concerned. His habit becomes one of the most perfect kind."
وإنما أتى هذا من كمال الصنائع ووفورها بكثرة العمران وانفساح الأعمال,"This comes from the perfection and abundance of crafts (there), the result of large civilization and the great amount of (available) labor."
وقد كان الخط العربي بالغا مبالغه من الإحكام والإتقان والجودة في دولة التبابعة لما بلغت من الحضارة والترف وهو المسمى بالخط الحميري. وانتقل منها إلى الحيرة لما كان بها من دولة آل المنذر نسباء التبابعة في العصبية والمجددين لملك العرب بأرض العراق.,"Arabic writing had already reached its most developed, accurate, and excellent stage in the Tubba’ dynasty, because (that dynasty) had achieved a great sedentary culture and luxury. The handwriting there was called the Himyarite script. (Writing) was transplanted from (South Arabia) to al-Hirah, because the dynasty of the family of al-Mundhir was there. They were relatives of the Tubba’s and shared their group feeling, and they were the founders of Arab rule in the ‘Iraq."
ولم يكن الخط عندهم من الإجادة كما كان عند التبابعة لقصور ما بين الدولتين. وكانت الحضارة وتوابعها من الصنائع وغيرها قاصرة عن ذلك. ومن الحيرة لقنه أهل الطائف وقريش فيما ذكر.,"Their writing was not as good as that of the Tubba’s, because (the time) between the two dynasties was short and, (therefore,) sedentary culture and the crafts and other things depending on it were not developed enough for (calligraphy). From al-Hirah, the inhabitants of at-Ta’if and the Quraysh learned (writing), as has been said."
ويقال إن الذي تعلم الكتابة من الحيرة هو سفيان بن أمية ويقال حرب بن أمية وأخذها من أسلم بن سدرة. وهو قول ممكن وأقرب ممن ذهب إلى أنهم تعلموها من إياد أهل العراق لقول شاعرهم:,"The person who learned the art of writing from al-Hirah is said to have been Sufyan b. Umayyah, or Harb b. Umayyah. He learned it from Aslam b. Sidrah. This is a possible theory. It is a more likely theory than that of those who say that they learned it from the Iyad, the inhabitants of the ‘Iraq, because of the verse of an [Iyadi] poet:"
قوم لهم ساحة العراق إذا *** ساروا جميعا والخط والقلم,"People to whom belongs the area of the ‘Iraq when They travel together, as well as writing and pen."
وهو قول بعيد لأن إيادا وإن نزلوا ساحة العراق فلم يزالوا على شأنهم من البداوة. والخط من الصنائع الحضرية.,"This is an unlikely theory. Even though the Iyad settled in the area of the ‘Iraq, they maintained their desert attitude, and handwriting is a sedentary craft."
وإنما معنى قول الشاعر أنهم أقرب إلى الخط والقلم من غيرهم من العرب لقربهم من ساحة الأمصار وضواحيها فالقول بأن أهل الحجاز إنما لقنوها من الحيرة ولقنها أهل الحيرة من التبابعة وحمير هو الأليق من الأقوال,"The meaning of the (verse of that) poet is that the Iyad were closer to handwriting and the pen than other Arabs, because they were closer to an urban environment. The theory that the inhabitants of the Hijaz learned (writing) from the inhabitants of alHirah, who, in turn, had learned it from the Tubba’s and the Himyar, is the most plausible one."
"ورأيت في كتاب التكملة لابن الأبار عند التعريف بابن فروخ الفيرواني القاسي الأندلسي من أصحاب مالك رضي الله عنه واسمه عبد الله بن فروخ بن عبد الرحمن بن زياد بن أنعم. عن أبيه قال: قلت لعبد الله بن عباس: يا معشر قريش، خبروني عن هذا الكتاب العربي، هل كنتم تكتبونه قبل أن يبعث الله محمدا صلى الله عليه وسلم تجمعون منه ما أجتمع وتفرقون منه ما افترق مثل الألف واللام والميم والنون؟ قال: نعم. قلت: وممن أخذتموه؟ قال: من حرب بن أمية. قلت! وممن أخذه حرب؟ قال: من عبد الله بن جدعان.
قلت: وممن أخذه عبد الله بن جدعان؟ قال: من أهل الأنبار. قلت: وممن أخذه أهل الأنبار؟ قال: من طارئ طرأ عليه من أهل اليمن. قلت وممن أخذه ذلك لطارئ؟ قال: من الخلجان بن القسم كاتب الوحي لهود النبي عليه السلام.","In the biography of one of Milik’s companions, Ibn Farrukh-‘Abdallah b. Farrukh-al-Qayrawani al-Firisi alAndalusi, in the Kitab at-Takmilah of Ibn alAbbar, I have seen the following remark, reported by Ibn Farrukh on the authority of ‘Abd-ar-Rahman b. Ziyid b. An’um, on the authority of his father, who said: “I said to ‘Abdallah b. ‘Abbas: ‘You Qurashites, tell me about the Arabic script. Did you use it in the same way, before God sent Muhammad, with its connected and unconnected letters, such as ‘, l, m, n?’ (Ibn ‘Abbas) replied: ‘Yes.’ I continued: ‘From whom did you learn it?’ He replied: ‘From Harb b. Umayyah.’ I asked: ‘From whom did Harb learn it?’ He replied: ‘From ‘Abdallah b. Jud’in.’ I asked: ‘From whom did ‘Abdallah b. Jud’in learn it?’ He replied: ‘From the inhabitants of al-Anbir.’ I asked: ‘From whom did they learn it?’ He replied: ‘From a Yemenite newcomer among them.’ I asked: ‘From whom did he learn it?’ He replied: ‘From al-Khullajin b. al-Qisim, who wrote down the revelation of the prophet Hid."
وهو الذي يقول:,He used to say:
"أفي كل عام سنة تحدثونها *** ورأي على غير الطريق يعبر
والموت خير من حياة تسبنا *** بها جرهم فيمن يسب وحمير","Do you invent a new procedure every year, Or an opinion that is to be explained in a different way? Indeed, death is better than a life in which among those who abuse us, There are the Jurhum and the Himyar.’ ‘"
انتهى ما نقله ابن الأبار في كتاب التكملة.,End of the quotation from the Kitab at-Takmilah of Ibn al-Abbar.
وزاد في آخره: حدثني بذلك أبو بكر بن أبي حميره في كتابه عن أبي بحر بن العاص عن أبي الوليد الوقشي عن أبي عمر الطلعنكي بن أبي عبد الله بن مفرح. ومن خطه نقلته عن أبي سعيد بن يونس عن محمد بن موسى بن النعمان عن يحيى بن محمد بن حشيش بن عمر بن أيوب المغافري التونسي عن بهلول بن عبيدة الحمي عن عبد الله بن فروخ. انتهى.,"At the end of the passage, Ibn al-Abbir added: “I was told this by Abu Bakr b. Abi Jamrah, in his book, on the authority of Abu Bahr b. al-‘Asi, on the authority ofAbul-Walid al-Waqqashi, on the authority of Abu ‘Umar atTalamanki, on the authority of Abu ‘Abdallah b. Mufarrij, who was my written source, on the authority of Abu Sa’id b. Yunus, on the authority of Muhammad b. Musa b. an-Nu’min, on the authority of Yahya b. Muhammad b. Khushaysh, on the authority of ‘Uthmin b. Ayyilb alMa’ifiri at-Tunisi, on the authority of Buhlul b. ‘Ubaydah atTujibi, on the authority of ‘Abdallah b. Farrukh."
وكان لحمير كتابة تسمى المسند حروفها منفصلة وكانوا يمنعون من تعلمها إلا بإذنهم. ومن حمير تعلمت مضر الكتابة العربية إلا أنهم لم يكونوا مجيدين لها شأن الصنائع إذا وقعت بالبدو فلا تكون محكمة المذاهب ولا مائلة إلى الإتقان والتنميق لبون ما بين البدو والصناعة واستغناء البدو عنها في الأكثر.,"The Himyarites had a script called musnad. The letters were written separately. It could be studied only with their permission. The Mudar learned the Arabic script from the Himyar. However, they did not write it well, as is the case with crafts practiced in the desert. The crafts there have no firmly established methods and show no inclination toward accuracy and elegance. There is a wide gap between the desert attitude and craftsmanship, and Bedouins can for the most part dispense with crafts."
وكانت كتابة العرب بدوية مثل كتابتهم أو قريبا من كتابتهم لهذا العهد أو نقول إن كتابتهم لهذا العهد أحسن صناعة لأن هؤلاء أقرب إلى الحضارة ومخالطة الأمصار والدول.,"Thus, the writing of the Arabs was a Bedouin (script), exactly like, or similar to, the writing the Arab (Bedouins) use at this time. Or, we might say that the writing the Arab (Bedouins) use at this time shows a better technique, because (the Arab Bedouins today) are closer to sedentary culture and have more contact with cities and dynasties (than the Mudar of old)."
وأما مضر فكانوا أعرق في البدو وأبعد عن الحضر من أهل اليمن وأهل العراق وأهل الشام ومصر فكان الخط العربي لأول الإسلام غير بالغ إلى الغاية من الإحكام والإتقان والإجادة ولا إلى التوسط لمكان العرب من البداوة والتوحش وبعدهم عن الصنائع، وانظر ما وقع لأجل ذلك في رسمهم المصحف,"The Mudar were more firmly rooted in desert life and more remote from sedentary areas than the inhabitants of the Yemen, the ‘Iraq, Syria, and Egypt. Arabic writing at the beginning of Islam was, therefore, not of the best quality nor of the greatest accuracy and excellence. It was not (even) of medium quality, because the Arabs possessed the savage desert attitude and were not familiar with crafts. One may compare what happened to the orthography of the Qur’an on account of this situation."
حيث رسمه الصحابة بخطوطهم وكانت غير مستحكمة في الإجادة فخالف الكثير من رسومهم ما اقتضته أقيسة رسوم صناعة الخط عند أهلها. ثم اقتفى التابعون من السلف رسمهم فيها تبركا بما رسمه أصحاب الرسول صلى الله عليه وسلم وخير الخلق من بعده المتلقون لوحيه من كتاب الله وكلامه.,"The men around Muhammad wrote the Qur’an in their own script, which was not of a firmly established, good quality. Most of the letters were in contradiction to the orthography required by persons versed in the craft of writing. The Qur’anic script of (the men around Muhammad) was then imitated by the men of the second generation, because of the blessing inherent in the use of an orthography that had been used by the men around Muhammad, who were the best human beings after (Muhammad himself) and who had received his revelation from the book and word of God."
كما يقتفي لهذا العهد خط ولي أو عالم تبركا ويتبع رسمه خطأ أو صوابا.,"At the present time, people similarly imitate the handwriting of saints or scholars because of the blessing (inherent in that), and they follow the orthography whether it be wrong or right."
وأين نسبة ذلك من الصحابة فيما كتبوه فاتبع ذلك وأثبت رسما ونبه العلماء بالرسم على مواضعه. ولا تلتفتن في ذلك إلى ما يزعمه بعض المغفلين من أنهم كانوا محكمين لصناعة الخط وأن ما يتخيل من مخالفة خطوطهم لأصول الرسم ليس كما يتخيل بل لكلها وجه.,"One could hardly compare these men to the men around Muhammad or the things they write down to (the divine revelation) they wrote down! Consequently, (the Quranic orthography of the men around Muhammad) was followed and became established, and the scholars acquainted with it have called attention to passages where (this is noticeable). No attention should be paid in this connection to the assumption of certain incompetent (scholars) that (the men around Muhammad) knew well the art of writing and that the alleged discrepancies between their writing and the principles of orthography are not discrepancies, as has been alleged, but have a reason."
يقولون في مثل زيادة الألف في لا أذبحنه: إنه تنبيه على أن الذبح لم يقع وفي زيادة الياء في بأييد إنه تنبيه على كمال القدرة الربانية,"For instance, they explain the addition of the alifin la-‘adhbahannahu “I shall indeed slaughter him” as an indication that the slaughtering did not take place (laadhbahannahu). The addition of the ya’ in bi-ayydin “with hands (power),” they explain as an indication that the divine power is perfect."
وأمثال ذلك مما لا أصل له إلا التحكم المحض. وما حملهم على ذلك إلا اعتقادهم أن في ذلك تنزيها للصحابة عن توهم النقص في قلة إجادة الخط.,"There are similar things based on nothing but purely arbitrary assumptions. The only reason that caused them to (assume such things) is their belief that (their explanations) would free the men around Muhammad from the suspicion of deficiency, in the sense that they were not able to write well."
وحسبوا أن الخط كمال فنزهوهم عن نقصه ونسبوا إليهم الكمال بإجادته وطلبوا تعليل ما خالف الإجادة من رسمه وذلك ليس بصحيح.,"They think that good writing is perfection. Thus, they do not admit the fact that the men around Muhammad were deficient in (writing). They (want to) consider them as perfect by ascribing good writing to them, and they seek to explain (orthographic peculiarities) that are contrary to good orthographic usage. This is not correct."
واعلم أن الخط ليس بكمال في حقهم إذ الخط من جملة الصنائع المدنية المعاشية كما رأيته فيما مر.,"It should be known that as far as (the men around Muhammad) are concerned, writing has nothing to do with perfection. Writing is an urban craft that serves to make a living, as has been shown above."
والكمال في الصنائع إضافي وليس بكمال مطلق إذ لا يعود نقصه على الذات في الدين ولا في الخلال وإنما يعود على أسباب المعاش وبحسب العمران والتعاون عليه لأجل دلالته على ما في النفوس. وقد كان صلى الله عليه وسلم أميا وكان ذلك كمالا في حقه وبالنسبة إلى مقامه لشرفه وتنزهه عن الصنائع العملية التي هي أسباب المعاش والعمران كلها.,"Perfection in a craft is something relative. It is not absolute perfection. A deficiency from (perfection in the crafts) does not essentially affect one’s religion or personal qualities. It merely affects things that have to do with making a living, and (does so) in accordance with the (existing) civilization and co-operation for (civilization), since writing indicates what is in the souls. The Prophet was illiterate. That was perfection so far as he was concerned and it was in keeping with his station, because he was noble and had nothing to do with the practical crafts, all of which are matters connected with making a living and with civilization."
وليست الأمية كمالا في حقنا نحن إذ هو منقطع إلى ربه ونحن متعاونون على الحياة الدنيا شأن الصنائع كلها حتى العلوم الاصطلاحية فإن الكمال في حقه هو تنزهه عنها جملة بخلافنا.,"(On the other hand,) as far as we are concerned, illiteracy is not a perfection. (Muhammad) was exclusively devoted to his Lord. We, however, must co-operate in order to make life in this world possible for us. The same applies to all the crafts, including even the theoretical sciences. As far as (Muhammad) is concerned, perfection means that he has nothing to do with any of them. The opposite is the case with us."
ثم لما جاء الملك للعرب وفتحوا الأمصار وملكوا الممالك ونزلوا البصرة والكوفة واحتاجت الدولة إلى الكتابة استعملوا الخط وطلبوا صناعته وتعلموه وتداولوه فترقت الإجادة فيه واستحكم وبلغ في الكوفة والبصرة رتبة من الإتقان إلا أنها كانت دون الغاية.,"Later, royal authority came to the Arabs. They conquered cities and took possession of provinces. They settled in alBasrah and al-Kufah, and the dynasty needed the art of writing. At that time, they (began) writing. They sought to practice and study it, and it came into common use. As a result, a high degree of excellence in (writing) was achieved. (Writing) became firmly established. In alKufah and alBasrah, it reached a great degree of accuracy, but did not reach the limit (of perfection)."
والخط الكوفي معروف الرسم لهذا العهد. ثم انتشر العرب في الأقطار والممالك وافتتحوا إفريقية والأندلس واختط بنو العباس بغداد وترقت الخطوط فيها إلى الغاية لما استبحرت في العمران وكانت دار الإسلام ومركز الدولة العربية وخالفت أوضاع الخط ببغداد أوضاعه بالكوفة، في الميل إلى إجادة الرسوم وجمال الرونق وحسن الرواء.,"The Kufic script is still known at this time. The Arabs then spread over all the regions and provinces and conquered Ifriqiyah and Spain. The ‘Abbasids founded Baghdad. There, the different kinds of writing reached the limit (of perfection), because civilization was highly developed in (Baghdad), since it had become the home of Islam and the center of the Arab dynasty. The norms of writing used in Baghdad were different from those in alKufah, in that they inclined toward wellshaped letters, brilliancy, and splendor."
واستحكمت هذه المخالفة في الأمصار إلى أن رفع رايتها ببغداد علي بن مقلة الوزير. ثم تلاه في ذلك علي بن هلال، الكاتب الشهير بابن البواب.,"This difference became established (and lasted) for a long time. The wazir (Aba) ‘Ali b. Muglah became its protagonist in Baghdad. He was followed in this respect by the secretary, ‘Ali b. Hilal, who is known as Ibn al-Bawwab."
ووقف سند تعليمها عليه في المائة الثالثة وما بعدها.,The tradition of instruction in the Baghdadi and Kufi writing ended with him in the fourth [tenth] century and afterwards.
وبعدت رسوم الخط البغدادي وأوضاعه عن الكوفة، حتى انتهى إلى المباينة. ثم ازدادت المخالفة بعد تلك القصور بتفنن الجهابذة في إحكام رسومه وأوضاعه، حتى انتهت إلى المتأخرين مثل ياقوت والولي علي العجمي.,"The forms and the norms of the Baghdadi script then departed still further from Kufic, and eventually, there was a complete break. Later on, the differences were accentuated by masters who always tried to find new forms and improved norms of writing, up to the time of such later calligraphers as Yaqut al-Musta’simi and al-Wall ‘Ali al-‘Ajami."
ووقف سند تعليم الخط عليهم وانتقل ذلك إلى مصر، وخالفت طريقة العراق بعض الشيء ولقنها العجم لك، وظهرت مخالفة لخط أهل مصر أو مباينة.,The tradition of the teaching of writing stopped with them. This (type of calligraphy) was transferred to Egypt where (the script) was somewhat different from the ‘Iraqi script. The non-Arabs learned the (‘Iraqi script) there (in the ‘Iraq). It turned out to be different or completely distinct from the writing of the Egyptians.
وكان الخط البغدادي معروف الرسم وتبعه الإفريقي المعروف رسمه القديم لهذا العهد.,"The Ifriqi script, the old form of which is (still) known at this time, was close to the forms of the eastern script."
ويقرب من أوضاع الخط المشرقي وتحيز ملك الأندلس بالأمويين فتميزوا بأحوالهم من الحضارة والصنائع والخطوط فتميز صنف خطهم الأندلسي كما هو معروف الرسم لهذا العهد. وطما بحر العمران والحضارة في الدول الإسلامية في كل قطر. وعظم الملك ونفقت أسواق العلوم,"Spain became the domain of the Umayyads. Their situation as to sedentary culture, the crafts, and the various scripts was a special one. As a result, the Spanish script, as it is known at the present time, became special, (too). Civilization and sedentary culture developed greatly everywhere in the (various) Muslim dynasties. Royal authority increased, and the sciences were cultivated."
وانتسخت الكتب وأجيد كتبها وتجليدها وملئت بها القصور والخزائن الملوكية بما لا كفاء له وتنافس أهل الأقطار في ذلك وتناغوا فيه.,"Books were copied, and they were well written and bound. Castles and royal libraries were filled with them in an incomparable way. The inhabitants of the different regions vied with and rivaled each other in this respect."
ثم لما انحل نظام الدولة الإسلامية وتناقص ذلك أجمع ودرست معالم بغداد بدروس الخلافة فانتقل شأنها من الخط والكتابة بل والعلم إلى مصر والقاهرة,"Then, the Muslim empire became disorganized and shrank. With its shrinking, all these things shrank, too. With the disappearance of the caliphate, Baghdad lost its outstanding position. The position it had held with regard to calligraphy and (the art of) writing, and, indeed, with regard to scholarship (in general) was taken over by Egypt and Cairo."
فلم تزل أسواقه بها نافقة لهذا العهد وله بها معلمون يرسمون لتعليم الحروف بقوانين في وضعها وأشكالها متعارفة بينهم فلا يلبث المتعلم أن يحكم أشكال تلك الحروف على تلك الأوضاع وقد لقنها حسنا وحذق فيها دربة وكتابا وأخذها قوانين علمية فتجيء أحسن ما يكون.,"The art of writing continues to be cultivated there at this time. There are teachers of writing there who are employed (just) to teach the letters. For that, they have norms of how the letters are to be drawn and shaped. These norms are generally recognized among them. The student soon learns to draw and form the letters well, as he learns them by sensual perception, becomes skilled in them through practice in writing them, and learns them in the form of scientific norms. Therefore, his letters turn out to be as well formed as possible."
وأما أهل الأندلس فافترقوا في الأقطار عند تلاشي ملك العرب بها ومن خلفهم من البربر، وتغلبت عليهم أمم النصرانية فانتشروا في عدوة المغرب وإفريقية من لدن الدولة اللمتونية إلى هذا العهد.,"The inhabitants of Spain, on the other hand, were dispersed throughout the (various) regions when the rule of the Arabs in Spain and that of the Berbers who succeeded (the Arabs), were annihilated and the Christian nations gained the upper hand. From (the time of) the Lamtunah (Almoravid) dynasty down to this time, they have spread all over the coast of the Maghrib and Ifriqiyah."
وشاركوا أهل العمران بما لديهم من الصنائع وتعلقوا بأذيال الدولة فغلب خطهم على الخط الإفريقي وعفى عليه ونسي خط القيروان والمهدية بنسيان عوائدهما وصنائعهما.,"They permitted the people settled (there) to share in the crafts they possessed, and they attached themselves to the ruling dynasty (in Northwest Africa). In this way, their script replaced the Ifriqi script and wiped it out. The scripts of al-Qayrawan and alMahdiyah were forgotten, once the customs and crafts of (the two cities) were forgotten."
وصارت خطوط أهل إفريقية كلها على الرسم الأندلسي بتونس وما إليها لتوفر أهل الأندلس بها عند الحالية من شرق الأندلس. وبقي منه رسم ببلاد الجريد الذين لم يخالطوا كتاب الأندلس ولا تمرسوا بجوارهم. إنما كانوا يغدون على دار الملك بتونس,"All the various scripts of the inhabitants of Ifriqiyah were assimilated to the Spanish script used in Tunis and adjacent regions, because there were so many Spaniards there after the exodus from eastern Spain. The (old script) has been preserved in the Jarid, where people had no contact with those who wrote the Spanish script and were not in close touch with them, because (the Spaniards who came to Northwest Africa) used to proceed to the capital city of Tunis."
فصار خط أهل إفريقية من أحسن خطوط أهل الأندلس حتى إذا تقلص ظل الدولة الموحدية بعض الشيء وتراجع أمر الحضارة والترف بتراجع العمران نقص حينئذ حال الخط وفسدت رسومه وجهل فيه وجه التعليم بفساد الحضارة وتناقص العمران.,"The script of the inhabitants of Ifriqiyah thus became a representative of the Spanish type of writing. Eventually, the shadow of the Almohad dynasty receded somewhat, and sedentary culture and luxury retrogressed with the retrogression of civilization. At that time, writing also suffered a setback, and its forms deteriorated. The method of teaching writing was no longer known, in consequence of the (general) corruption of sedentary culture and the decrease in civilization."
وبقيت فيه آثار الخط الأندلسي تشهد بما كان لهم من ذلك لما قدمناه من أن الصنائع إذا رسخت بالحضارة فيعسر محوها وحصل في دولة بني مرين من بعد ذلك بالمغرب الأقصى لون من الخط الأندلسي لقرب جرارهم وسقوط من خرج منهم إلى فاس قريبا واستعمالهم إياهم سائر الدولة.,"Traces of the Spanish script remain there. They attest to the (perfection in it) which the people had formerly possessed. The existence of such traces is explained by the fact that, as we have mentioned before, it is difficult to wipe out the crafts once they are firmly established in a sedentary culture. In the later Merinid dynasty in Morocco, a kind of Spanish script established itself, because (the Spaniards) were close neighbors and the (Spaniards) who left (Spain) soon settled in Fez, and the Merinids employed them during all the days of their rule."
ونسي عهد الخط فيما بعد عن سدة الملك وداره. كأنه لم يعرف.,"(But) in regions far from the seat and capital of the realm, writing was not cared for, and it was forgotten as if it had never been known."
فصارت الخطوط بإفريقية والمغربيين مائلة إلى الرداءة بعيدة عن الجودة وصارت الكتب إذا انتسخت فلا فائدة تحصل لمتصفحها منها إلا العناء والمشقة لكثرة ما يقع فيها من الفساد والتصحيف وتغيير الأشكال الخطية عن الجودة,"The (various) types of script used in Ifriqiyah and the two Maghribs inclined to be ugly and far from excellent. When books were copied, it was useless to look at them critically. (Study of them) merely caused pain and trouble, because the texts were very corrupt and full of clerical errors, and the letters were no longer well formed."
حتى لا تكاد تقرأ إلا بعد عسر ووقع فيه ما وقع في سائر الصنائع بنقص الحضارة وفساد الدول,"Thus, they could be read only with some difficulty. In this way, writing was affected like all the other crafts by the decrease of sedentary culture and the corruption of the (ruling) dynasties."
والله يحكم لا معقب لحكمه.,“God decides and no one can change His decision.”
وللأستاذ أبي الحسن علي بن هلال الكاتب البغدادي الشهير بابن البواب قصيدة من بحر البسيط على روي الراء يذكر فيها صناعة الخط وقواعدها من أحسن ما كتب في ذلك. رأيت إثباتها في هذا الكتاب من هذا الباب لينتفع بها من يريد تعلم هذه الصناعة. وأولها:,"Professor Abu 1-Hasan ‘Ali b. Hilal al-Katib alBaghdadi, who is known as Ibn al-Bawwab; wrote a poem in the basit meter with the rhyme on r, in which he mentions the craft of writing and the matters with which it has to do. The poem belongs among the best things ever written on (the subject). I considered it proper to insert it in this chapter, so that those who want to learn the craft of (writing) may profit from it. It begins:"
يا من يريد إجادة التحرير *** ويروم حسن الخط والتصوير,O you who want to write a calligraphic hand And desire to write and draw (the letters) well:
إن كان عزمك في الكتابة صادقا *** فارغب إلى مولاك في التيسير,"If you are truly desirous of mastering the art of writing, Pray that your Master make it easy (for you)!"
أعدد من الأقلام كل مثقف *** صلب يصوغ صناعة التحبير,"Prepare a calamus that is straight And strong, capable of fashioning elegant writing with craft."
وإذا عمدت لبرية فتوخه *** عند القياس بأوسط التقدير,"If you propose to nib the calamus, aim At applying to it the greatest symmetry."
انظر إلى طرفيه فاجعل بريه *** من جانب التدقيق والتحضير,"Look at both ends of it, and then nib it At the end where it is thin and narrow."
واجعل لجلفته قواما عادلا *** خلوا عن التطويل والتقصير,"Give the part of the calamus that is nibbed a moderate size, Neither too long nor too short,"
والشق وسطه ليبقى بريه *** من جانبيه مشاكل التقدير,And make the split precisely in the middle of the calamus so that the space nibbed On both sides of it will be exactly equal.
حتى إذا أيقنت ذلك كله *** فالقط فيه جملة التدبير,"Eventually, when you have done all this as carefully As the careful craftsman who knows what is wanted, Then, turn all your attention toward cutting the point, For cutting the point is the crux of the procedure."
لا تطمعن في أن أبوح بسره *** إني أضن بسره المستور,"Do not beg me to reveal its secret. I am chary of its secret, a thing concealed."
لكن جملة ما أقول بأنه *** ما بين تحريف إلى تدوير,But the sum total of what I want to say is that The (point) should be something between oblique and round.
وألق دواتك بالدخان مدبرا *** بالخل أو بالحصرم المعصور,Stir the (ink in the) inkstand with soot that is treated With vinegar or verjuice.
وأضف إليه قفرة قد صولت *** مع أصغر الزرنيخ والكافور,Add to it red pigment that has been diluted With orpiment and camphor.
حتى إذا ما خمرت فاعمد إلى *** الورق النقي الناعم المخبور,"Eventually, when (the ink) has fermented, Go to the clean, pleasant, tested paper."
فاكسبه بعد القطع بالمعصار كي *** ينأى عن التشعيث والتغيير,"After cutting it, press it with a press, so as To remove all trace of crumpling and soiling."
ثم اجعل التمثيل دأبك صابرا *** ما أدرك المأمول مثل صبور,"Then, make patient imitation your habit. Only a patient person achieves what he desires."
ابدأ به في اللوح منتفيا له *** غرما تجرده عن التشمير,"Begin by writing on a wooden slate, wearing it out With a resolution kept free from haste."
لا تخجلن من الردى تختطه *** في أول التمثيل والشطير,Do not be ashamed of your bad writing When you begin to imitate (the letters) and draw lines.
فالأمر يصعب ثم يرجع هينا *** ولرب سهل جاء بعد عسير,"The matter is difficult (at the beginning), and then becomes easy. Many a thing that is difficult (at the beginning) turns out later on to be easy."
حتى إذا أدركت ما أملته *** أضحيت رب مسرة وحبور,"Eventually, when you have achieved what you have hoped for, You will be filled with joy and gladness."
فاشكر إلهك واتبع رضوانه *** إن الإله يجيب كل شكور,"Then, thank your God and do His pleasure! God loves all those who are grateful."
وارغب لكفك أن تخط بنانها *** خيرا يخلفه بدار غرور,"Furthermore, pray that the fingers of your hand will write Only what is good for you to leave behind in the house of deception."
فجميع فعل المرء يلقاه غدا *** عند الشقاء كتابه المنشور,"Everything a man does, he will be confronted with on the morrow, When he is confronted with the written decree (on the Day of Resurrection)."
واعلم بأن الخط بيان عن القول والكلام، كما أن القول والكلام بيان عما في النفس والضمير من المعاني، فلا بد لكل منهما أن يكون واضح الدلالة.,"It should be known that writing shows the things that are spoken, just as the things that are spoken show the ideas that are in the soul and the mind. Both writing and speech must express clearly (what they want to express)."
قال الله تعالى: «خلق الإنسان، علمه البيان 55: 3- 4»,"God said: “He created man, taught him clarity.”"
وهو يشتمل بيان الأدلة كلها. فالخط المجود كماله أن تكون دلالته واضحة، بإبانة حروفه المتواضعة وإجادة وضعها ورسمها كل واحد على حدة متميز عن الآخر. إلا ما اصطلح عليه الكتاب من إيصال حرف الكلمة الواحدة بعضها ببعض.,"This includes clarity in all the things one expresses. The perfection of good handwriting consists in the fact that it is clear. (This is achieved) by indicating clearly the conventional letters of (the script), arranging and drawing them well. Each letter by itself is distinct from the others, except where connection between the letters within a word is an accepted technicality."
سوى حروف اصطلحوا على قطعها، مثل الألف المتقدمة في الكلمة، وكذا الراء والزاي والدال والذال وغيرها، بخلاف ما إذا كانت متأخرة، وهكذا إلى آخرها.,"This does not apply to letters that have been accepted as letters that should remain unconnected, such as ‘ when it precedes (another letter) in the word, nor to r, z, d, dh, and others. It is different when (these letters) follow (another letter in a word). It is this way with all (letters)."
ثم إن المتأخرين من الكتاب اصطلحوا على وصل كلمات، بعضها ببعض، وحذف حروف معروفة عندهم، لا يعرفها إلا أهل مصطلحهم فتستعجم على غيرهم وهؤلاء كتاب دواوين السلطان وسجلات القضاة، كأنهم انفردوا بهذا الاصطلاح عن غيرهم، لكثرة موارد الكتابة عليهم، وشهرة كتابتهم وإحاطة كثير من دونهم بمصطلحهم فإن كتبوا ذلك لمن لا خبرة له بمصطلحهم فينبغي أن يعدلوا عن ذلك إلى البيان ما استطاعوه، وإلا كان بمثابة الخط الأعجمي، لأنهما بمنزلة واحدة من عدم التواضع عليه.,"Later scribes then agreed to connect words with each other and omit letters
that were known to them but not to others who did not know the code, which, thus, remained unclear to others. These (scribes) are the officials who write government documents and keep court records. It seems that they use such a special code, from which others are excluded, because they have to write a great deal, and they are famous for their writing, and many people connected with them know their code. When they write to others who do not know their code, they cannot use it and have to try to write as clearly as possible. Otherwise, their writing would be like non-Arabic writing. It would be in the same category with it in as much as both (types of writing, the code and nonArabic writing) are not (generally) agreed upon (by conventional usage)."
وليس بعذر في هذا القدر، إلا كتاب الأعمال السلطانية في الأموال والجيوش، لأنهم مطلوبون بكتمان ذلك عن الناس فإنه من الأسرار السلطانية التي يجب إخفاؤها، فيبالغون في رسم اصطلاح خاص بهم، ويصير بمثابة المعمى.,"There is no (real) excuse for (writing in code), except in the case of officials of the government’s tax and army (bureaus). They are required to conceal (their affairs) from the people, since (these affairs) are government secrets that have to be kept secret. Therefore, they use a very special code among themselves, which is like a puzzle."
وهو الاصطلاح على العبارة عن الحروف بكلمات من أسماء الطيب والفواكه والطيور والأزاهير، ووضع أشكال أخرى غير أشكال الحروف المتعارفة يصطلح عليها المتخاطبون لتأدية ما في ضمائرهم بالكتابة.,"It makes use of the names of perfumes, fruits, birds, or flowers to indicate the letters, or it makes use of forms different from the accepted forms of the letters. Such a code is agreed upon by the correspondents between themselves, in order to be able to convey their thoughts in writing."
وربما وضع الكتاب للعثور على ذلك، وإن لم يضعوه أولا، قوانين بمقاييس استخرجوها لذلك بمداركهم يسمونها فك المعمى. وللناس في ذلك دواوين مشهورة.,"Occasionally, skillful secretaries, though not the first to invent a certain code (and with no previous knowledge of it), nonetheless find rules (for deciphering it) through combinations which they evolve for the purpose with the help of their intelligence, and which they call “solving the puzzle (decoding).” Well-known writings on the subject are in the possession of the people."
والله العليم الحكيم.,God is knowing and wise.
الفصل الحادي والثلاثون في صناعة الوراقة,30. The craft of book production.
كانت العناية قديما بالدواوين العلمية والسجلات في نسخها وتجليدها وتصحيحها بالرواية والضبط. وكان سبب ذلك ما وقع من ضخامة الدولة وتوابع الحضارة.,"Formerly, (people) were concerned with scholarly writings and (official) records. These were copied, bound, and corrected with the help of a transmission technique and with accuracy. The reason for this was the importance of the (ruling) dynasty and the existence of the things that depend on sedentary culture."
وقد ذهب ذلك لهذا العهد بذهاب الدولة وتناقص العمران بعد أن كان منه في الملة الإسلامية بحر زاخر بالعراق والأندلس إذ هو كله من توابع العمران واتساع نطاق الدولة ونفاق أسواق ذلك لديهما. فكثرت التآليف العلمية والدواوين وحرص الناس على تناقلهما في الآفاق والأعصار فانتسخت وجلدت.,"All that has disappeared at the present time as the result of the disappearance of the dynasties and the decrease of civilization. In Islam it had formerly reached tremendous proportions in the ‘Iraq and in Spain. All of it depends on civilization, on the extent of the (ruling) dynasties, and on the demand existing in (the dynasties) for it. Thus, scholarly works and writings were (formerly) numerous. People were desirous of transmitting them everywhere and at any time. They were copied and bound."
وجاءت صناعة الوراقين المعانين للانتساخ والتصحيح والتجليد وسائر الأمور الكتبية والدواوين واختصت بالأمصار العظيمة العمران.,"The craft of book producers, thus, made its appearance. (They are the craftsmen) concerned with copying, correcting, and binding books, and with all the other matters pertaining to books and writings. The craft of book production was restricted to cities of a large civilization."
وكانت السجلات أولا: لانتساخ العلوم وكتب الرسائل السلطانية والإقطاعات، والصكوك في الرقوق المهيأة بالصناعة من الجلد لكثرة الرفه وقلة التآليف صدر الملة كما نذكره،,"Originally, copies of scholarly works, government correspondence, letters of enfeoffment, and diplomas were written on parchment especially prepared from animal skins by craftsmen, because there was great prosperity at the beginning of Islam and the works that were written were few, as we shall mention."
وقلة الرسائل السلطانية والصكوك مع ذلك فاقتصروا على الكتاب في الرق تشريفا للمكتوبات وميلا بها إلى الصحة والإتقان.,"In addition, government documents and diplomas were few in number. Therefore, (the early Muslims) restricted themselves to writing on parchment. This was an expression of respect for what was to be written down, and of desire that it should be correct and accurate."
ثم طما بحر التآليف والتدوين وكثر ترسيل السلطان وصكوكه وضاق الرق عن ذلك.,The production of books and writings then developed greatly. Government documents and diplomas increased in number. There was not enough parchment for all that.
فأشار الفضل بن يحيى بصناعة الكاغد وصنعه وكتب فيه رسائل السلطان وصكوكه.,"Therefore, alFadl b. Yahya suggested the manufacture of paper. Thus, paper was used for government documents and diplomas."
واتخذه الناس من بعده صحفا لمكتوباتهم السلطانية والعلمية. وبلغت الإجادة في صناعته ما شاءت. ثم وقفت عناية أهل العلوم وهمم أهل الدول على ضبط الدواوين العلمية وتصحيحها بالرواية المسندة إلى مؤلفيها وواضعيها لأنه الشأن الأهم من التصحيح والضبط فبذلك تسند الأقوال إلى قائلها والفتيا إلى الحاكم بها المجتهد في طريق استنباطها.,"Afterwards, people used paper in sheets for government and scholarly writings, and the manufacture of (paper) reached a considerable degree of excellence. The concern of scholars and the interest of government people then concentrated on accuracy in scholarly writings and the establishment of their correctness with the help of a chain of transmitters leading back to their writers and authors, because that is the most important element in establishing a correct and accurate (text). Statements are thus led back to those who made them, and decisions (in legal questions, fatwa) are led back to the persons who decided in accordance with them and were able to pronounce them by means of independent judgment."
وما لم يكن تصحيح المتون بإسنادها إلى مدونها فلا يصح إسناد قول لهم ولا فتيا. وهكذا كان شأن أهل العلم وحملته في العصور والأجيال والآفاق. حتى لقد قصرت فائدة الصناعة الحديثية في الرواية على هذه فقط,"Wherever the correctness of a text is not established by a chain of transmitters going back to the person who wrote that particular text, the statement or decision in question cannot properly be ascribed to its (alleged author). This has been the procedure of scholars and experts in (all matters of religious knowledge) in all times, races, and regions, so much so that the usefulness of the craft connected with the transmission of traditions came to be restricted to this aspect (of the process of transmission)."
إذ ثمرتها الكبرى من معرفة صحيح الأحاديث وحسنها ومسندها ومرسلها ومقطوعها وموقوفها من موضوعها قد ذهبت وتمخضت زبدة في ذلك الأمهات المتلقاة بالقبول عند الأمة. وصار القصد إلى ذلك لغوا من العمل.,"The main fruit of (the craft concerned with the transmission of traditions) is the knowledge of which traditions are “sound,” which are “good,” which “go back in an uninterrupted chain of transmitters to the Prophet” (musnad), which have a chain of transmitters that “skips the first transmitter on the authority of Muhammad” (mursal), which have a chain that “stops with one of the men of the second generation” (magtu), and which have a chain that “stops with one of the men around Muhammad” (mawquf), in order to be able to distinguish (such traditions) from spurious ones. This is no longer (a subject of investigation). The cream of it has been churned in the principal collections (of traditions) that have found general acceptance by all Muslims. It would, thus, be a superfluous activity to attempt (to investigate the matter anew)."
ولم تبق ثمرة الرواية والاشتغال بها إلا في تصحيح تلك الأمهات الحديثية وسواها من كتب الفقه للفتيا، وغير ذلك من الدواوين والتآليف العلمية، واتصال سندها بمؤلفيها ليصح النقل عنهم، والإسناد إليهم.,"Therefore, the only remaining result to be gained from the process of transmission and occupation with it is that it can serve to establish a correct text of the principal collections of traditions and other books on jurisprudence used for legal decisions, as well as for other writings and scholarly works. (It also serves) to establish uninterrupted connection with their respective authors, so that transmission on their authority or ascription to them is sound."
وكانت هذه الرسوم بالمشرق والأندلس معبدة الطرق واضحة المسالك. ولهذا نجد الدواوين المنتسخة لذلك العهد في أقطارهم على غاية من الإتقان والإحكام والصحة. ومنها لهذا العهد بأيدي الناس في العالم أصول عتيقة تشهد ببلوغ الغاية لهم في ذلك. وأهل الآفاق يتناقلونها إلى الآن ويشدون عليها يد الضنانة,"Both in the East and in Spain, this method has been the tried and true path. We find that the copies made in (former) times in those regions are the most exact, well done, and correct. People everywhere at this time possess old copies attesting to the perfection previously reached in this respect. The inhabitants of the various regions have handed them down (and preserved) them to the present, and they do not like to part with them."
ولقد ذهبت هذه الرسوم لهذا العهد جملة بالمغرب وأهله لانقطاع صناعة الخط والضبط والرواية منه بانتقاص عمرانه وبداوة أهله,"At the present time, this method has altogether disappeared in the Maghrib and among Maghribis, because the craft of writing, accuracy, and the transmission technique were cut off there as the result of the destruction of the civilization of (the Maghrib) and its basic desert attitude."
وصارت الأمهات والدواوين تنسخ بالخطوط اليدوية تنسخها طلبة البربر صحائف مستعجمة برداءة الخط وكثرة الفساد والتصحيف فتستغلق على متصفحها ولا يحصل منها فائدة إلا في الأقل النادر.,The principal collections and writings were copied in Bedouin script. They were copied by Berber students in such a bad handwriting and with so much corruption and so many clerical errors that they cannot be understood. They remain incomprehensible to those who examine them critically. Only very rarely are they of any use.
وأيضا فقد دخل الخلل من ذلك في الفتيا فإن غالب الأقوال المعزوة غير مروية عن أئمة المذهب وإنما تتلقى من تلك الدواوين على ما هي عليه. وتبع ذلك أيضا ما يتصدى إليه بعض أئمتهم من التآليف لقلة بصرهم بصناعته وعدم الصنائع الوافية بمقاصده. ولم يبق من هذا الرسم بالأندلس إلا إثارة خفية بالامحاء وهي الاضمحلال فقد كاد العلم ينقطع بالكلية من المغرب.,"Furthermore, this (situation) has caused disintegration in the field of legal decisions (fatwa). Most statements ascribed to the school authorities are not (orally) transmitted but are taken from the writings as they are found there. This has also affected the attempts of some religious leaders to write books. They know little of the technical side of (authorship) and lack the crafts necessary for realizing the purposes of (authorship). Some slight remnant of this institution has remained in Spain. It is about to disappear. (Religious) scholarship has almost completely stopped in the Maghrib."
والله غالب على أمره.,“God has the power to execute His commands.”
ويبلغنا لهذا العهد أن صناعة الرواية قائمة بالمشرق وتصحيح الدواوين لمن يرومه بذلك سهل على مبتغيه لنفاق أسواق العلوم والصنائع كما نذكره بعد. إلا أن الخط الذي بقي من الإجادة في الانتساخ هنالك إنما هو للعجم وفي خطوطهم.,"We now hear that the craft of transmission (technique) still exists in the East. The sciences and crafts are in demand there, as we shall mention later on, and, therefore, those who want to, find it easy to establish the correct text of writings. However, the script for good copying surviving there is that of the non-Arabs, and found in their manuscripts."
وأما النسخ بمصر ففسد كما فسد بالمغرب وأشد.,"The copying (of books) has deteriorated in Egypt as it has in the Maghrib, and even more so."
والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم وبه التوفيق.,“God has the power to execute His commands.”
الفصل الثاني والثلاثون في صناعة الغناء,31. The craft of singing (and music).
هذه الصناعة هي تلحين الأشعار الموزونة بتقطيع الأصوات على نسب منتظمة معروفة يوقع كل صوت منها توقيعا عند قطعه فيكون نغمة.,"This craft is concerned with the setting of poems to music. (This is done) by scanning the sounds according to well-known fixed proportions, which causes any sound (complex) thus scanned to constitute a tune, a rhythmic mode."
ثم تؤلف تلك النغم بعضها إلى بعض على نسب متعارفة فيلذ سماعها لأجل ذلك التناسب وما يحدث عنه من الكيفية في تلك الأصوات.,These modes are then combined with each other according to accepted proportions. The result is pleasant to listen to because of its harmony and the quality (that harmony) gives to the sounds.
وذلك أنه تبين في علم الموسيقى أن الأصوات تتناسب، فيكون صوت نصف صوت وربع آخر وخمس آخر وجزء من أحد عشر من آخر واختلاف هذه النسب عند تأديتها إلى السمع بخروجها من البساطة إلى التركيب وليس كل تركيب منها ملذوذا عند السماع بل للملذوذ تراكيب خاصة وهي التي حصرها أهل علم الموسيقى وتكلموا عليها كما هو مذكور في موضعه,"This is as follows: As explained in the science of music, sounds are in certain proportions (intervals) to each other. A sound may be one-half, onequarter, one-fifth, or one-eleventh of another sound. The difference in interval between the sounds that reach the ear transforms them from simple (sounds) to combinations of (sounds). Not every combination is pleasant to listen to. There are special combinations (that are pleasant). They have been enumerated and discussed by musicologists, as is mentioned in the proper place."
وقد يساوق ذلك التلحين في النغمات الغنائية بتقطيع أصوات أخرى من الجمادات إما بالقرع أو بالنفخ في الآلات تتخذ لذلك فترى لها لذة عند السماع. فمنها لهذا العهد بالمغرب أصناف منها المزمار ويسمونه الشبابة,The music produced by the rhythmic modes of singing may be supplemented by scanning other sounds that come from solids and are produced by either beating or blowing into instruments used for the purpose. Such (instrumental music) adds to the pleasure of listening. Various kinds of instruments are used in the contemporary Maghrib. There is the wood-wind instrument called shabbabah.
وهي قصبة جوفاء بأبخاش في جوانبها معدودة ينفخ فيها فتصوت. فيخرج الصوت من جوفها على سداده من تلك الأبخاش ويقطع الصوت بوضع الأصابع من اليدين جميعا على تلك الأبخاش وضعا متعارفا حتى تحدث النسب بين الأصوات فيه وتتصل كذلك متناسبة فيلتذ السمع بإدراكها للتناسب الذي ذكرناه.,"It is a hollow reed with a number of holes on the sides. One blows into it, and it gives a sound. The sound escapes from the hollow of (the reed) straight through these holes. It is scanned by placing the fingers of both hands upon these holes in conventionally accepted ways. This creates the proper intervals between the sounds and also combines them harmoniously. As a result, they are pleasant to listen to when one hears them, because of the harmony we have mentioned."
ومن جنس هذه الآلة المزمار الذي يسمى الزلامي وهو شكل القصبة منحوتة الجانبين من الخشب جوفاء من غير تدوير لأجل ائتلافها من قطعتين منفردتين كذلك بأبخاش معدودة ينفخ فيها بقصبة صغيرة توصل فينفذ النفخ بواسطتها إليها وتصوت بنغمة حادة يجرى فيها من تقطيع الأصوات من تلك الأبخاش بالأصابع مثل ما يجري في الشبابة.,"Another similar kind of instrument is the wood-wind instrument called zulami. It has the form of a reed, with two wooden parts carved (hollow), hollow but not round, because it is made of two pieces put together. It also has a number of holes. One blows into it through a small connected reed which directs the wind to (the holes). This produces a highpitched tone. The fingers are placed upon (the holes) and the sounds are thus scanned in the same way as on the shabbabah."
ومن أحسن آلات الزمر لهذا العهد البوق وهو بوق من نحاس أجوف في مقدار الذراع يتسع إلى أن يكون انفراج مخرجه في مقدار دون الكف في شكل بري القلم. وينفخ فيه بقصبة صغيرة تؤدي الريح من الفم إليه فيخرج الصوت ثخينا دويا وفيه أبخاش أيضا معدودة. وتقطع نغمة منها كذلك بالأصابع على التناسب فيكون ملذوذا.,"One of the best wind instruments at this time is the bug This is a trumpet of copper (brass) which is hollow, one cubit long, widening toward the opening, the diameter of which is less than the palm of a hand in width. It has the form of a nibbed calamus. One blows into it through a small reed which conveys the wind from the mouth into it. The sound comes out compact and loud. It also has a number of holes, and (makes) a harmonious tune of pleasant effect, which is produced in the same way (as in the aforementioned instruments), by placing the fingers (on the holes)."
ومنها آلات الأوتار وهي جوفاء كلها إما على شكل قطعة من الكرة مثل المربط والرباب أو على شكل مربع كالقانون توضع الأوتار على بسائطها مشدودة في رأسها إلى دسر جائلة ليأتي شد الأوتار ورخوها عند الحاجة إليه بإدارتها.,"Then, there are the string instruments. They are all hollow. They may have either the shape of a section of a sphere, as, for instance, the barbiton and the rebec, or a square shape, such as the ganun. The strings are placed upon the surface of (the instrument). They are tied at the head to pegs that can be turned, so that it is possible to (tighten or) loosen (the strings) as required, by turning them."
ثم تقرع الأوتار إما بعود آخر أو بوتر مشدود بين طرفي قوس يمر عليها بعد أن يطلى بالشمع والكندر.,The strings are either plucked with another piece of wood or (played) with a string fastened between the two ends of a bow that passes over (the strings of the instrument) after it had been waxed with wax or mastic (kundur).
ويقطع الصوت فيه بتخفيف اليد في إمراره أو نقله من وتر إلى وتر. واليد اليسرى مع ذلك في جميع آلات الأوتار توقع بأصابعها على أطراف الأوتار فيما يقرع أو يحك بالوتر فتحدث الأصوات متناسبة ملذوذة.,"Sounds are scanned through lightening (the pressure of) the hand that guides (the bow) over the strings, or through transferring (the bow) from one string to another. Moreover, in all string instruments, the fingers of the left hand can be used to beat or pluck the ends of the strings. Thus, there originate harmonious, pleasant sounds."
وقد يكون القرع في الطسوت بالقضبان أو في الأعواد بعضها ببعض على توقيع مناسب يحدث عنه التذاذ بالمسموع.,"Moreover, brass kettles may be beaten with sticks, or pieces of wood may be beaten against each other in a harmonious rhythm. This creates a feeling of pleasure as the result of the music one hears."
ولنبين لك السبب في اللذة الناشئة عن الغناء.,Let us explain the reason for the pleasure resulting from music.
وذلك أن اللذة كما تقرر في موضعه هي إدراك الملائم والمحسوس إنما تدرك منه كيفية. فإذا كانت مناسبة للمدرك وملاءمة كانت ملذوذة، وإذا كانت منافية له منافرة كانت مؤلمة. فالملائم من الطعوم ما ناسبت كيفيته حاسة الذوق في مزاجها وكذا الملائم من الملموسات وفي الروائح ما ناسب مزاج الروح القلبي البخاري لأنه المدرك وإليه تؤديه الحاسة.,"This is as follows: As has been established in the proper place, pleasure is the attainment of something that is agreeable. (Such a thing,) in sensual perception, can only be a quality. If (such a quality) is proportionate and agreeable to the person who has the perception, it is pleasant. If it is repugnant to him or discordant, it is painful. Agreeable foods are those whose quality corresponds to the temper of the sense of taste. The same applies to agreeable sensations of touch. Agreeable smells are those that correspond to the temper of the vaporous cordial spirit, because that spirit is what perceives and receives them through the (medium of the) sense (of smell)."
ولهذا كانت الرياحين والأزهار العطريات أحسن رائحة وأشد ملاءمة للروح لغلبة الحرارة فيها التي هي مزاج الروح القلبي. وأما المرئيات والمسموعات فالملائم فيها تناسب الأوضاع في أشكالها وكيفياتها فهو أنسب عند النفس وأشد ملاءمة لها.,"Thus, aromatic plants and flowers smell better and are more agreeable to the spirit, because heat, which is the temper of the cordial spirit, is preponderant in them. Agreeable sensations of vision and hearing are caused by harmonious arrangement in the forms and qualities of (the things seen or heard). This impresses the soul as harmonious and is more agreeable to it."
فإذا كان المرئي متناسبا في أشكاله وتخاطيطه التي له بحسب مادته بحيث لا يخرج عما تقتضيه مادته الخاصة من كمال المناسبة والوضع وذلك هو معنى الجمال والحسن في كل مدرك، كان ذلك حينئذ مناسبا للنفس المدركة فتلتذ بإدراك ملائمها، ولهذا تجد العاشقين المستهترين في المحبة يعبرون عن غاية محبتهم وعشقهم بامتزاج أرواحهم بروح المحبوب.,"If an object of vision is harmonious in the forms and lines given to it in accordance with the matter from which it is made, so that the requirements of its particular matter as to perfect harmony and arrangement are not disregarded that being the meaning of beauty and loveliness whenever these terms are used for any object of sensual perception that (object of vision) is then in harmony with the soul that perceives (it), and the soul, thus, feels pleasure as the result of perceiving something that is agreeable to it. Therefore, lovers who are most deeply in love express their extreme infatuation by saying that their spirit is commingled with that of the beloved."
ومعناه من وجه آخر أن الوجود يشرك بين الموجودات كما تقوله الحكماء.,"In another sense, the meaning of it is that existence is shared by all existent things, as the philosophers say."
فتود أن يمتزج بمشاهدات فيه الكمال لتتحد به، بل تروم النفس حينئذ الخروج عن الوهم إلى الحقيقة التي هي اتحاد المبدإ والكون. ولما كان أنسب الأشياء إلى الإنسان وأقربها إلى أن يدرك الكمال في تناسب موضوعها هو شكله الإنساني فكان إدراكه للجمال والحسن في تخاطيطه وأصواته من المدارك التي هي أقرب إلى فطرته، فيلهج كل إنسان بالحسن من المرئي أو المسموع بمقتضى الفطرة.,"Therefore, (existent things) love to commingle with something in which they observe perfection, in order to become one with it. The object that is most suited to man and in which he is most likely to perceive perfect harmony, is the human form. Therefore, it is most congenial to him to perceive beauty and loveliness in the lines and sounds of the human form. Thus, every man desires beauty in the objects of vision and hearing, as a requirement of his nature."
والحسن في المسموع أن تكون الأصوات متناسبة لا متنافرة.,Beauty in the objects of hearing is harmony and lack of discordance in the sounds.
وذلك أن الأصوات لها كيفيات من الهمس والجهر والرخاوة والشدة والقلقلة والضغط وغير ذلك.,"This is as follows: Sounds have certain qualities. They may be whispered or loud, soft or strong, vibrant or constrained, and so on."
والتناسب فيها هو الذي يوجب لها الحسن.,Harmony between them is what gives them beauty.
فأولا: أن لا يخرج من الصوت إلى مده دفعة بل بتدريج، ثم يرجع كذلك، وهكذا إلى المثل، بل لا بد من توسط المغاير بين الصوتين. وتأمل هذا من افتتاح أهل اللسان التراكيب من الحروف المتنافرة أو المتقاربة المخارج فإنه من بابه.,"Firstly, the transition from one sound to a contrary or identical sound as well as the return to the first sound, is not made suddenly but gradually. There must be something to bridge the gap between the two sounds. This may be compared with the fact that linguists consider clusters of sounds of discordant or similar articulation ugly. This belongs to the same category."
وثانيا: تناسبها في الأجزاء كما مر أول الباب فيخرج من الصوت إلى نصفه أو ثلثه أو جزء من كذا منه، على حسب ما يكون التنقل متناسبا على ما حصره أهل الصناعة.,"Secondly, the sounds must have harmonious intervals, as was mentioned at the beginning of the chapter. The transition from a sound to a sound one-half, one-third, or some other fraction of it, must take place in a harmonious manner according to the rules established by musicologists."
فإذا كانت الأصوات على تناسب في الكيفيات كما ذكره أهل تلك الصناعة كانت ملاءمة ملذوذة.,"When the sounds are harmonious with regard to their qualities, as has been mentioned by musicologists, they are agreeable and pleasant."
ومن هذا التناسب ما يكون بسيطا ويكون الكثير من الناس مطبوعا عليه لا يحتاجون فيه إلى تعليم ولا صناعة كما نجد المطبوعين على الموازين الشعرية وتوقيع الرقص وأمثال ذلك.,"Such harmony may be a simple one. Many people are gifted to achieve it by nature. They do not need any (special) instruction or (craft) for it, for we find people who are gifted by nature for the meters of poetry, the rhythms of the dance, and similar things."
وتسمي العامة هذه القابلية بالمضمار.,The common people call such an aptitude “musicalness” (midmar).
وكثير من القراء بهذه المثابة يقرءون القرآن فيجيدون في تلاحين أصواتهم كأنها المزامير فيطربون بحسن مساقهم وتناسب نغماتهم.,"Many Qur’an readers belong in this category. In reciting the Qur’an, they know well how to modulate their voices, as if they were flutes. They thus cause emotion through the beauty of their performance and the harmony of their modes."
ومن هذا التناسب ما يحدث بالتركيب وليس كل الناس يستوي في معرفته ولا كل الطباع توافق صاحبها في العمل به إذا علم. وهذا هو التلحين الذي يتكفل به علم الموسيقى كما نشرحه بعد عند ذكر العلوم.,"Harmony may also result from composition. Not all human beings are alike in their knowledge of it, nor are they all equally able by nature to practice it, if they know it. This is the melodious music with which the science of music has to deal, as we shall explain later on among the sciences."
وقد أنكر مالك رحمه الله تعالى القراءة بالتلحين وأجازها الشافعي رضي الله تعالى عنه.,"Malik disapproved of the use of melodies in reciting the Qur’an, and ashShafi’i permitted it."
وليس المراد تلحين الموسيقى الصناعي فإنه لا ينبغي أن يختلف في حظره إذ صناعة الغناء مباينة للقرآن بكل وجه,Here it is not a question of artistic musical melodies. There can be no difference of opinion as to the fact that they are forbidden. The art of singing is something entirely unconnected with the Qur’an.
لأن القراءة والأداء تحتاج إلى مقدار من الصوت لتعين أداء الحروف لا من حيث اتباع الحركات في مواضعها ومقدار المد عند من يطلقه أو يقصره، وأمثال ذلك.,"It is true, in the recitation and pronunciation (of the Qur’an), each letter (sound) requires a certain quantity of sound for its particular pronunciation, in as much as, for instance, the lengthening of vowels in the proper places is concerned, the longer or shorter pronunciation of long vowels, and similar things."
واعتبار أحدهما قد يخل بالآخر إذا تعارضا. وتقديم الرواية متعين فرارا من تغيير الرواية المنقولة في القرآن، فلا يمكن اجتماع التلحين والأداء المعتبر في القرآن بوجه,"However, considering the one (thing) ruins the other, since they are the opposite of each other. The recitation of the Qur’an must be given preference, in order to avoid any change in traditional transmission in connection with the Qur’an. Thus, melodious music can, by no means, be combined with the pronunciation under consideration in connection with the Qur’an."
وإنما مرادهم التلحين البسيط الذي يهتدي إليه صاحب المضمار بطبعه كما قدمناه فيردد أصواته ترديدا على نسب يدركها العالم بالغناء وغيره ولا ينبغي ذلك بوجه وإنما المراد من اختلافهم التلحين البسيط الذي يهتدي إليه صاحب المضمار بطبعه كما قدمناه، فيردد أصواته ترديدا على نسب يدركها العالم بالغناء وغيره، ولا ينبغي ذلك بوجه كما قاله مالك. هذا هو محل الخلاف.,"As regards the difference of opinion (among authorities as to the permissibility of melodious music for the recitation of the Qur’an), the thing (the authorities) have in mind is the plain music to which nature guides the person who is musical (midmar), as we have stated.
Such a person arranges his sounds in certain harmonious cadences, which those who know about singing, as well as others, perceive (as music). This is the point about which the difference of opinion (revolves)."
والظاهر تنزيه القرآن عن هذا كله كما ذهب إليه الإمام رحمه الله تعالى لأن القرآن محل خشوع بذكر الموت وما بعده وليس مقام التذاذ بإدراك الحسن من الأصوات. وهكذا كانت قراءة الصحابة رضي الله عنهم كما في أخبارهم.,"The obvious (fact) is that the Qur’an is (to be) kept free of it, (exactly) as the imam (Malik) thought. The Qur’an is something that causes awe, as it reminds (man) of death and what comes after it. It is not an occasion to give pleasure in the perception of beautiful sounds. It was (in this spirit) that the men around Muhammad recited the Qur’an, as is stated in their biographies."
وأما قوله صلى الله عليه وسلم: «لقد أوتي مزمارا من مزامير آل داود» فليس المراد به الترديد والتلحين إنما معناه حسن الصوت وأداء القراءة والإبانة في مخارج الحروف والنطق بها.,"The statement by Muhammad, “A flute of those belonging to the family of David was brought to him,” does not refer to cadences and melodious music, but it refers to a beautiful voice, a clear pronunciation in reciting the Qur’an, and a clear distinction in the articulation and enunciation of the letters (sounds)."
وإذ قد ذكرنا معنى الغناء فاعلم أنه يحدث في العمران إذا توفر وتجاوز حد الضروري إلى الحاجي، ثم إلى الكمالي، وتفننوا فيه، فتحدث هذه الصناعة، لأنه لا يستدعيها إلا من فرغ من جميع حاجاته الضرورية والمهمة من المعاش والمنزل وغيره فلا يطلبها إلا الفارغون عن سائر أحوالهم تفننا في مذاهب الملذوذات.,"Since we have mentioned the meaning of singing, it should be known that singing originates in a civilization when it becomes abundant and (people) progress from the necessities to the conveniences, and then to the luxuries, and have a great diversity of (luxuries). Then, the craft of singing originates, because it is required only by those who are free from all the necessary and urgent needs of making a living and care for domestic and other needs. It is in demand only by those who are free from all other worries and seek various ways of having pleasure."
وكان في سلطان العجم قبل الملة منها بحر زاخر في أمصارهم ومدنهم.,"In the nonArab states before Islam, music was highly developed in cities and towns."
وكان ملوكهم يتخذون ذلك ويولعون به، حتى لقد كان لملوك الفرس اهتمام بأهل هذه الصناعة، ولهم مكان في دولتهم، وكانوا يحضرون مشاهدهم ومجامعهم ويغنون فيها.,The (nonArab) rulers cultivated it eagerly. It went so far that the Persian rulers felt a great concern for musicians. Musicians had a place in their dynasty and attended their sessions and gatherings and sang for them.
وهذا شأن العجم لهذا العهد في كل أفق من آفاقهم، ومملكة من ممالكهم.,The same is (still) the case with the nonArabs at this time in all their regions and provinces.
وأما العرب فكان لهم أولا فن الشعر يؤلفون فيه الكلام أجزاء متساوية على تناسب بينها في عدة حروفها المتحركة والساكنة.,"The Arabs originally had (only) poetry. They composed a kind of speech consisting of equal parts of harmonious proportions, as far as the number of consonants with and without vowels was concerned."
ويفصلون الكلام في تلك الأجزاء تفصيلا يكون كل جزء منها مستقلا بالإفادة، لا ينعطف على الآخر. ويسمونه البيت.,"Within these parts, they divided speech in such a way that each part made sense by itself and did not have to lean upon the other. Such (part of speech) they called verse."
فتلائم الطبع بالتجزئة أولا، ثم يتناسب الأجزاء في المقاطع والمبادئ، ثم بتأدية المعنى المقصود وتطبيق الكلام عليها. فلهجوا به فامتاز من بين كلامهم بخط من الشرف ليس لغيره لأجل اختصاصه بهذا التناسب.,"It is agreeable to nature first by its division into parts, then by the harmonious arrangements of its parts at the ends and beginnings, and then by the fact that it conveys the intended meaning and uses expressions conforming to (that meaning). (The Arabs) appreciated (poetry) very highly. It was distinguished in their speech through a certain nobility, because it alone possessed harmony."
وجعلوه ديوانا لأخبارهم وحكمهم وشرفهم ومحكا لقرائحهم في إصابة المعاني وإجادة الأساليب. واستمروا على ذلك.,"They made poetry the archive of their history, their wisdom, and their nobility, and the touchstone of their natural gift for expressing themselves correctly, choosing the best methods (uslub, of expression). They have continued to do so."
وهذا التناسب الذي من أجل الأجزاء والمتحرك والساكن من الحروف قطرة من بحر من تناسب الأصوات كما هو معروف في كتب الموسيقى.,"The harmony resulting from (a division of speech into) parts, and (into an equal number of) consonants with and without vowels, is just one small drop in the ocean of sound harmony, as is well known from the literature on music."
إلا أنهم لم يشعروا بما سواه لأنهم حينئذ لم ينتحلوا علما ولا عرفوا صناعة. وكانت البداوة أغلب نحلهم. ثم تغنى الحداة منهم في حداء إبلهم والفتيان في فضاء خلواتهم فرجعوا الأصوات وترنموا.,"However, (the Arabs) did not know anything except (poetry), because at that time, they practiced no science and knew no craft. The desert attitude was their dominant trait. Now, camel drivers sang when they drove their camels, and young men sang when they were alone (with each other at times of leisure and recreation). They repeated sounds and hummed them."
وكانوا يسمون الترنم إذا كان بالشعر غناء وإذا كان بالتهليل أو نوع القراءة تغبيرا بالغين المعجمة والباء الموحدة.,"When such humming was applied to poetry, it was called singing. When it was applied to the praise of God or some kind of recitation (of the Qur’an), it was called taghbir."
وعللها أبو إسحاق الزجاج بأنها تذكر بالغابر وهو الباقي أي بأحوال الآخرة. وربما ناسبوا في غنائهم بين النغمات مناسبة بسيطة كما ذكره ابن رشيق آخر كتاب العمدة وغيره. وكانوا يسمونه السناد.,"Abu Ishaq az-Zajjaj explained this word as (derived from al-ghdbir, that is, melodies) reminding one of al ghabir “that which remains,” that is, the affairs of the other world. When (the Arabs) sang, they often effected a simple harmony between the modes, as was mentioned by Ibn Rashiq at the end of the Kitab al-‘ Umdah, and by others. This was called sinad."
وكان أكثر ما يكون منهم في الخفيف الذي يرقص عليه ويمشى بالدف والمزمار فيضطرب ويستخف الحلوم. وكانوا يسمون هذا الهزج وهذا البسيط كله من التلاحين هو من أوائلها ولا يبعد أن تتفطن له الطباع من غير تعليم شأن البسائط كلها من الصنائع.,"Most (Arab music) was in the light rhythm (khafif) that is used for dancing and marching, accompanied by drums and flutes. It causes emotion and makes the seriousminded feel light. The Arabs called that hazaj. All these simple types of melodious music are primary ones. It is not unlikely to assume that they can be grasped by nature without any instruction, as is the case with all simple crafts."
ولم يزل هذا شأن العرب في بداوتهم وجاهليتهم. فلما جاء الإسلام واستولوا على ممالك الدنيا وحازوا سلطان العجم وغلبوهم عليه وكانوا من البداوة والغضاضة على الحال التي عرفت لهم مع غضارة الدين وشدته في ترك أحوال الفراغ وما ليس بنافع في دين ولا معاش فهجروا ذلك شيئا ما.,"The Arabs continued this way during their desert and pre-Islamic period. Then, Islam made its appearance. (The Arabs) took possession of (all) the realms of the world. They deprived the non-Arabs of their rule and took it over. They had their well-known desert attitude and low standard of living. In addition, they possessed the thriving religion (of Islam) and that (Muslim) religious severity which is directed against all activities of leisure and all the things that are of no utility in one’s religion or livelihood. Therefore, (music) was avoided to some degree."
ولم يكن الملذوذ عندهم إلا ترجيع القراءة والترنم بالشعر الذي هو ديدنهم ومذهبهم.,"In their opinion, only the cadenced recitation of the Qur’an and the humming of poetry which had always been their way and custom, were pleasurable things."
فلما جاءهم الترف وغلب عليهم الرفه بما حصل لهم من غنائم الأمم صاروا إلى نضارة العيش ورقة الحاشية واستحلاء الفراغ.,"Then, luxury and prosperity came to them, because they obtained the spoils of the nations. They came to lead splendid and refined lives and to appreciate leisure."
وافترق المغنون من الفرس والروم فوقعوا إلى الحجاز وصاروا موالي للعرب وغنوا جميعا بالعيدان والطنابير والمعازف والمزامير وسمع العرب تلحينهم للأصوات فلحنوا عليها أشعارهم.,"The singers (now) left the Persians and Byzantines. They descended upon the Hijaz and became clients of the Arabs. They all sang accompanied by lutes, pandores, lyres, and flutes. The Arabs heard their melodious use of sound, and they set their poems to music accordingly."
وظهر بالمدينة نشيط الفارسي وطويس وسائب بن جابر مولى عبيد الله بن جعفر فسمعوا شعر العرب ولحنوه وأجادوا فيه وطار لهم ذكر.,"In Medina, Nashit al-Farlsi, Tuways, and Sa’ib Khathir, a client of `Abdallah b. Jafar (b. Abt Talib), made their appearance. They heard the poems of the Arabs and set them to music. They did it well, and they became famous."
ثم أخذ عنهم معبد وطبقته وابن شريح وأنظاره.,"Ma’bad and his class of singers, as well as Ibn Surayj and his ilk, learned from them."
وما زالت صناعة الغناء تتدرج إلى أن كملت أيام بني العباس عند إبراهيم بن المهدي وإبراهيم الموصلي وابنه إسحاق وابنه حماد.,"Continual and gradual progress was made in the craft of singing. Eventually, in the days of the `Abbasids, (the craft of singing) reached its perfection with Ibrahim b. al-Mahdi, Ibrahim al-Mawsili, (Ibrahim’s) son Ishaq, and (Ishaq’s) son Hammid."
وكان من ذلك في دولتهم ببغداد ما تبعه الحديث بعده به وبمجالسه لهذا العهد وأمعنوا في اللهو واللعب واتخذت آلات الرقص في الملبس والقضبان والأشعار التي يترنم بها عليه. وجعل صنفا وحده,"(The music) and the (musical) sessions of Baghdad during the (‘Abbasid) dynasty have remained a topic of conversation down to the present time. (People at that time) constantly had games and entertainments. Dancing equipment, consisting of robes and sticks, and poems to which melodies were hummed, were used. That was transformed into a special kind (of entertainment)."
واتخذت آلات أخرى للرقص تسمى بالكرج وهي تماثيل خيل مسرجة من الخشب معلقة بأطراف أقبية يلبسها النسوان ويحاكين بها امتطاء الخيل فيكرون ويفرون ويتثاقفون وأمثال ذلك من اللعب المعد للولائم والأعراس وأيام الأعياد ومجالس الفراغ واللهو.,"Other dancing equipment, called kurraj, was also used. (The kurraj) is a wooden figure (resembling) a saddled horse and is attached to robes such as women wear. (The dancers) thus give the appearance of having mounted horses. They attack and withdraw and compete in skill (with weapons). There were other such games intended for banquets, wedding parties, festivals, and (other) gatherings for leisure and entertainment."
وكثر ذلك ببغداد وأمصار العراق وانتشر منها إلى غيرها.,There was much of that sort in Baghdad and the cities of the ‘Iraq. It spread from there to other regions.
وكان للموصليين غلام اسمه زرياب أخذ عنهم الغناء فأجاد فصرفوه إلى المغرب غيرة منه فلحق بالحكم بن هشام بن عبد الرحمن الداخل أمير الأندلس. فبالغ في تكرمته وركب للقائه وأسنى له الجوائز والإقطاعات والجرايات وأحله من دولته وندمائه بمكان.,"The Mawsilis had a young (apprentice) servant, by name Ziryab, who had learned from them how to sing. He learned so well that they became jealous of him and sent him away to the West. He joined al-Hakam b. Hisham b. `Abd-arRahman I, the amir of Spain. He (al-Hakam) honored him greatly. He rode out to welcome him. He showered him with gifts, fiefs, and allowances. He gave him a place in his dynasty as one of his boon companions."
فأورث بالأندلس من صناعة الغناء ما تناقلوه إلى أزمان الطوائف. وطما منها بأشبيلية بحر زاخر وتناقل منها بعد ذهاب غضارتها إلى بلاد العدوة بإفريقية والمغرب. وانقسم على أمصارها وبها الآن منها صبابة على تراجع عمرانها وتناقص دولها.,"The musical heritage Ziryab left in Spain was transmitted down to the time of the reyes de taifas. In Sevilla, (the craft of singing) was highly developed. After (Sevilla) had lost its affluence, (the craft of singing) was transplanted from there to the coast of Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib. It spread over the cities there. A sprinkling of it is still left there, despite retrogression in the civilization of the region and the decreasing power of its dynasties."
وهذه الصناعة آخر ما يحصل في العمران من الصنائع لأنها كمالية في غير وظيفة من الوظائف إلا وظيفة الفراغ والفرح. وهو أيضا أول ما ينقطع من العمران عند اختلاله وتراجعه.,"The craft of singing is the last of the crafts attained in civilization, because it constitutes (the last development toward) luxury with regard to no occupation in particular save that of leisure and gaiety. It also is the first to disappear from a given civilization when it disintegrates and retrogresses."
والله أعلم.,"God is “the Creator, the Knowing One.”"
الفصل الثالث والثلاثون في أن الصنائع تكسب صاحبها عقلا وخصوصا الكتابة والحساب,"32. The crafts, especially writing and calculation, give intelligence to the person who practices them."
قد ذكرنا في الكتاب أن النفس الناطقة للإنسان إنما توجد فيه بالقوة.,We have already mentioned in the book that the rational soul exists in man only potentially.
وأن خروجها من القوة إلى الفعل إنما هو بتجدد العلوم والإدراكات عن المحسوسات أولا، ثم ما يكتسب بعدها بالقوة النظرية إلى أن يصير إدراكا بالفعل وعقلا محضا فتكون ذاتا روحانية ويستكمل حينئذ وجودها.,"Its transformation from potentially into actuality is effected first by new sciences and perception derived from the sensibilia, and then by the later acquisition (of knowledge) through the speculative power. Eventually, it comes to be actual perception and pure intellect. Thus, it becomes a spiritual essence, and its existence then reaches perfection."
فوجب لذلك أن يكون كل نوع من العلم والنظر يفيدها عقلا فريدا والصنائع أبدا يحصل عنها وعن ملكتها قانون علمي مستفاد من تلك الملكة.,"Therefore it is necessary that each kind of learning and speculation should provide (the rational soul) with additional intelligence. Now, the crafts and the habit of (the crafts) always lead to the obtainment of scientific norms, which results from habit."
فلهذا كانت الحنكة في التجربة تفيد عقلا والحضارة الكاملة تفيد عقلا لأنها مجتمعة من صنائع في شأن تدبير المنزل ومعاشرة أبناء الجنس وتحصيل الآداب في مخالطتهم ثم القيام بأمور الدين واعتبار آدابها وشرائطها.,"Therefore, any experience provides intelligence. The habits of the crafts provide intelligence. Perfect sedentary culture provides intelligence, because it is a conglomerate of crafts characterized by concern for the (domestic) economy, contact with one’s fellow men, attainment of education through mixing with (one’s fellow men), and also administration of religious matters and understanding the ways and conditions governing them."
وهذه كلها قوانين تنتظم علوما فيحصل منها زيادة عقل. والكتابة من بين الصنائع أكثر إفادة لذلك لأنها تشتمل على العلوم والأنظار بخلاف الصنائع.,"All these (factors) are norms (of how to do things) which, properly arranged, constitute scientific disciplines. Thus, an increase in intelligence results from them. In this respect, writing is the most useful craft because, in contrast to the (other) crafts, it deals with matters of theoretical, scientific interest."
وبيانه أن في الكتابة انتقالا من الحروف الخطية إلى الكلمات اللفظية في الخيال ومن الكلمات اللفظية في الخيال إلى المعاني التي في النفس فهو ينتقل أبدا من دليل إلى دليل، ما دام ملتبسا بالكتابة وتتعود النفس ذلك دائما.,"This is explained through (the circumstance) that writing involves a transition from the forms of the written letters to the verbal expressions in the imagination, and from the verbal expressions in the imagination to the concepts (underlying them), which are in the soul. The writer, thus, always goes from one indication to another, as long as he is wrapped up in writing, and the soul becomes used to the constant (repetition of the process)."
فيحصل لها ملكة الانتقال من الأدلة إلى المدلولات وهو معنى النظر العقلي الذي يكسب العلوم المجهولة فيكسب بذلك ملكة من التعقل تكون زيادة عقل ويحصل به قوة فطنة وكيس في الأمور لما تعودوه من ذلك الانتقال.,"Thus, it acquires the habit of going over from the indications to the things meant by them. This is what is meant by intellectual speculation, by means of which the knowledge of (hitherto) unknown sciences is provided. As the result of being accustomed to the process of going (over from the indications to the things indicated by them) people acquire the habit of intellection, which constitutes an increase in intelligence and provides an additional insight into affairs and a shrewd understanding of them."
"ولذلك قال كسرى في كتابه لما رآهم بتلك الفطنة والكيس فقال:
«ديوانه أي شياطين وجنون. قالوا: وذلك أصل اشتقاق الديوان لأهل الكتابة ويلحق بذلك الحساب فإن في صناعة الحساب نوع تصرف في العدد بالضم والتفريق يحتاج فيه إلى استدلال كثير فيبقى متعودا للاستدلال والنظر وهو معنى العقل.","This is why Khosraw remarked of his secretaries, when he noticed that they had that kind of insight and shrewd understanding: “Dewaneh,” that is (they are) Satans (devils) and crazy. This is said to be the etymology of diwan (the ministry) of the secretaries. Calculation is connected with (writing). Calculation entails a kind of working with numbers, “combining” and separating them, which requires much deductive reasoning and speculation, and this is what is meant by intelligence."
والله أخرجكم من بطون أمهاتكم لا تعلمون شيئا، وجعل لكم السمع والأبصار والأفئدة، لعلكم تشكرون 16: 78.,“God brought you forth from the wombs of your mothers. You did not then know anything. And He gave you hearing and vision and hearts.” “You are little grateful.”
الباب السادس من الكتاب الأول,Chapter VI
في العلوم وأصنافها والتعليم وطرقه وسائر وجوهه وما يعرض في ذلك كله من الأحوال وفيه مقدمة ولواحق,THE VARIOUS KINDS OF SCIENCES. THE METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. THE CONDITIONS THAT OBTAIN IN THESE CONNECTIONS. THE CHAPTER INCLUDES A PREFATORY DISCUSSION AND APPENDICES.
المقدمة,PREFATORY DISCUSSION
في الفكر الإنساني، الذي تميز به البشر عن الحيوانات واهتدى به لتحصيل معاشه والتعاون عليه بأبناء جنسه والنظر في معبوده، وما جاءت به الرسل من عنده، فصار جميع الحيوانات في طاعته وملك قدرته وفضله به على كثير خلقه.,"On man’s ability to think, which distinguishes
human beings from animals and which enables
them to obtain their livelihood, to co-operate to
this end with their fellow men, and to study the Master whom they worship, and the revelations that the Messengers transmitted from Him. God thus caused all animals to obey man and to be in the grasp of his power. Through his ability to think, God gave man superiority over many of His creatures."
الفصل الثاني في أن التعليم للعلم من جملة الصنائع,7. Scientific instruction is a craft.
وذلك أن الحذق في العلم والتفنن فيه والاستيلاء عليه إنما هو بحصول ملكة في الإحاطة بمبادئه وقواعده والوقوف على مسائله واستنباط فروعه من أصوله.,"This is because skill in a science, knowledge of its diverse aspects, and mastery of it are the result of a habit which enables its possessor to comprehend all the basic principles of that particular science, to become acquainted with its problems, and to evolve the details of it from its principles."
وما لم تحصل هذه الملكة لم يكن الحذق في ذلك الفن المتناول حاصلا. وهذه الملكة هي في غير الفهم والوعي. لأنا نجد فهم المسألة الواحدة من الفن الواحد ووعيها مشتركا بين من شدا في ذلك الفن وبين من هو مبتدئ فيه وبين العامي الذي لم يعرف علما وبين العالم النحرير.,"As long as such a habit has not been obtained, skill in a particular discipline is not forthcoming. Habit is different from understanding and knowing by memory. Understanding of a single problem in a single discipline may be found equally in someone well versed in the particular discipline and in the beginner, in the common man who has no scientific knowledge whatever, and in the accomplished scholar."
والملكة إنما هي للعالم أو الشادي في الفنون دون من سواهما فدل على أن هذه الملكة غير الفهم والوعي.,"Habit, on the other hand, belongs solely and exclusively to the scholar or the person well versed in scientific disciplines. This shows that (scientific) habit is different from understanding."
والملكات كلها جسمانية سواء كانت في البدن أو في الدماغ من الفكر وغيره كالحساب.,"All habits are corporeal, whether they are of the body, or, like arithmetic, of the brain and resulting from man’s ability to think and so on."
والجسمانيات كلها محسوسة فتفتقر إلى التعليم. ولهذا كان السند في التعليم في كل علم أو صناعة يفتقر إلى مشاهير المعلمين فيها معتبرا عند كل أهل أفق وجيل.,"All corporeal things are sensibilia. Thus, they require instruction. Therefore, a tradition of famous teachers with regard to instruction in any science or craft, is acknowledged (to be necessary) by the people of every region and generation (race)."
ويدل أيضا على أن تعليم العلم صناعة اختلاف الاصطلاحات فيه. فلكل إمام من الأئمة المشاهير اصطلاح في التعليم يختص به شأن الصنائع كلها فدل على أن ذلك الاصطلاح ليس من العلم، وإذ لو كان من العلم لكان واحدا عند جميعهم.,"The fact that scientific instruction is a craft is also shown by the differences in technical terminologies. Every famous authority has his own technical terminology for scientific instruction, as is the case with all crafts. This shows that technical terminology is not a part of science itself. If it were, it would be one and the same with all scholars."
ألا ترى إلى علم الكلام كيف تخالف في تعليمه اصطلاح المتقدمين والمتأخرين وكذا أصول الفقه وكذا العربية وكذا كل علم يتوجه إلى مطالعته تجد الاصطلاحات في تعليمه متخالفة فدل على أنها صناعات في التعليم. والعلم واحد في نفسه.,"One knows how much the technical terminology used in the teaching of speculative theology differs between the ancients and the moderns. The same applies to the principles of jurisprudence as well as to Arabic (philology) and to jurisprudence. It applies to any science one undertakes to study. The technical terminologies used in teaching it are always found to be different. This shows that the (terminologies) are crafts used for instruction, while each individual science as such is one and the same."
وإذا تقرر ذلك فاعلم أن سند تعليم العلم لهذا العهد قد كاد ينقطع عن أهل المغرب باختلال عمرانه وتناقص الدول فيه. وما يحدث عن ذلك من نقص الصنائع وفقدانها كما مر.,"If this has been established, it should be known that the tradition of scientific instruction at this time has practically ceased (to be cultivated) among the inhabitants of the Maghrib, because the civilization of the Maghrib has disintegrated and its dynasties have lost their importance, and this has resulted in the deterioration and disappearance of the crafts, as was mentioned before."
وذلك أن القيروان وقرطبة كانتا حاضرتي المغرب والأندلس واستبحر عمرانهما وكان فيهما للعلوم والصنائع أسواق نافقة وبحور زاخرة. ورسخ فيهما التعليم لامتداد عصورهما وما كان فيهما من الحضارة. فلما خربتا انقطع التعليم من المغرب إلا قليلا كان في دولة الموحدين بمراكش مستفادا منها.,"Al-Qayrawan and Cordoba were centers of sedentary culture in the Maghrib and in Spain, respectively. Their civilization was highly developed, and the sciences and crafts were greatly cultivated and very much in demand in them. Since these two cities lasted a long time and possessed a sedentary culture, scientific instruction became firmly rooted in them. But when they fell into ruins, scientific instruction ceased (to be cultivated) in the West, Only a little of it, derived from (al-Qayrawan and Cordoba), continued to exist during the Almohad dynasty in Marrakech."
ولم ترسخ الحضارة بمراكش لبداوة الدولة الموحدية في أولها وقرب عهد انقراضها بمبدئها فلم تتصل أحوال الحضارة فيها إلا في الأقل. وبعد انقراض الدولة بمراكش ارتحل إلى المشرق من إفريقية القاضي أبو القاسم بن زيتون لعهد أواسط المائة السابعة فأدرك تلميذ الإمام ابن الخطيب فأخذ عنهم ولقن تعليمهم.,"Sedentary culture, however, was not firmly rooted in Marrakech because of the original Bedouin attitude of the Almohad dynasty and because of the shortness of time between its beginning and its destruction. Sedentary culture enjoyed only a very minor continuity there. After the destruction of the dynasty in Marrakech, in the middle of the seventh [thirteenth] century, Judge Abu1-Qasim b. Zaytun traveled from Ifrigiyah to the East. He entered into contact with the pupils of the imam Ibn alKhatib. He studied with them and learned their (method of) instruction."
وحذق في العقليات والنقليات ورجع إلى تونس بعلم كثير وتعليم حسن. وجاء على أثره من المشرق أبو عبد الله بن شعيب الدكالي. كان ارتحل إليه من المغرب فأخذ عن مشيخة مصر ورجع إلى تونس واستقر بها وكان تعليمه مفيدا فأخذ عنهما أهل تونس.,"He became skilled in intellectual and traditional matters. Then, he returned to Tunis with a great deal of knowledge and a good (method of) instruction. He was followed back from the East by Abu ‘Abdallah b. Shu’ayb ad-Dukkali, who had traveled from the Maghrib to (Ibn Zaytun). He studied with Egyptian professors and returned to Tunis, where he remained. His (method of) instruction was effective. The inhabitants of Tunis studied with both Ibn Zaytun and Ibn Shu’ayb."
واتصل سند تعليمهما في تلاميذهما جيلا بعد جيل حتى انتهى إلى القاضي محمد بن عبد السلام. شارح بن الحاجب وتلميذه وانتقل من تونس إلى تلمسان في ابن الإمام وتلميذه.,"Their tradition of scientific instruction was steadily continued by their pupils, generation after generation. Eventually, it reached Judge Muhammad b. ‘Abd-as-Salam, the commentator and pupil of Ibn alH ajib, and was transplanted from Tunis to Tlemcen through Ibn alImam and his pupils."
فإنه قرأ مع ابن عبد السلام على مشيخة واحدة في مجالس بأعيانها وتلميذ ابن عبد السلام بتونس وابن الإمام بتلمسان لهذا العهد إلا أنهم من القلة بحيث يخشى انقطاع سندهم.,"Ibn al-Imam had studied with Ibn ‘Abd-as-Salam under the same professors in the same classes. Pupils of Ibn ‘Abd-as-Salam can be found at this time in Tunis, and pupils of Ibn al-Imam in Tlemcen. However, they are so few that it is to be feared that the tradition may come to an end."
ثم ارتحل من زواوة في آخر المائة السابعة أبو علي ناصر الدين المشدالي وأدرك تلميذ أبي عمرو بن الحاجب وأخذ عنهم ولقن تعليمهم. وقرأ مع شهاب الدين القرافي في مجالس واحدة وحذق في العقليات والنقليات.,"At the end of the seventh [thirteenth] century, Abu ‘Ali Nasir-ad-din alMashaddali traveled eastward from Zawawah and got in touch with the pupils of Abu ‘Amr b. al-Hajib. He studied with them and learned their (method of) instruction. He studied with Shihab-ad-din al-Qarafi in the same classes. He became skilled in intellectual and traditional matters."
ورجع إلى المغرب بعلم كثير وتعليم مفيد. ونزل ببجاية واتصل سند تعليمه في طلبتها. وربما انتقل إلى تلمسان عمران المشدالي من تلميذه وأوطنها وبث طريقته فيها. وتلميذه لهذا العهد ببجاية وتلمسان قليل أو أقل من القليل.,"He returned to the Maghrib with much knowledge and an effective (method of) instruction. He settled in Bougie. His tradition of scientific instruction was steadily continued among the students of Bougie. Imran al-Mashaddali, one of his pupils, frequently went to Tlemcen. He settled in Tlemcen and propagated his method there. At this time, in Tlemcen and Bougie, his pupils are few, very few."
وبقيت فاس وسائر أقطار المغرب خلوا من حسن التعليم من لدن انقراض تعليم قرطبة والقيروان ولم يتصل سند التعليم فيهم فعسر عليهم حصول الملكة والحذق في العلوم.,"Fez and the other cities of the Maghrib have been without good instruction since the destruction of scientific instruction in Cordoba and al-Qayrawan. There has been no continuous tradition of scientific instruction in Fez. Therefore, it has been difficult for the people of Fez to obtain the scientific habit and skill."
وأيسر طرق هذه الملكة فتق اللسان بالمحاورة والمناظرة في المسائل العلمية فهو الذي يقرب شأنها ويحصل مرامها.,The easiest method of acquiring the scientific habit is through acquiring the ability to express oneself clearly in discussing and disputing scientific problems. This is what clarifies their import and makes them understandable.
فتجد طالب العلم منهم بعد ذهاب الكثير من أعمارهم في ملازمة المجالس العلمية سكوتا لا ينطقون ولا يفاوضون وعنايتهم بالحفظ أكثر من الحاجة. فلا يحصلون على طائل من ملكة التصرف في العلم والتعليم.,"Some students spend most of their lives attending scholarly sessions. Still, one finds them silent. They do not talk and do not discuss matters. More than is necessary, they are concerned with memorizing. Thus, they do not obtain much of a habit in the practice of science and scientific instruction."
ثم بعد تحصيل من يرى منهم أنه قد حصل تجد ملكته قاصرة في علمه إن فاوض أو ناظر أو علم وما أتاهم القصور إلا من قبل التعليم وانقطاع سنده.,"Some of them think that they have obtained (the habit). But when they enter into a discussion or disputation, or do some teaching, their scientific habit is found to be defective. The only reason for their deficiency is (lack of) instruction, together with the break in the tradition of scientific instruction (that affects them)."
وإلا فحفظهم أبلغ من حفظ سواهم لشدة عنايتهم به، وظنهم أنه المقصود من الملكة العلمية وليس كذلك. ومما يشهد بذلك في المغرب أن المدة المعينة لسكنى طلبة العلم بالمدارس عندهم ست عشرة سنة وهي بتونس خمس سنين.,"Apart from that, their memorized knowledge may be more extensive than that of other scholars, because they are so much concerned with memorizing. They think that scientific habit is identical with memorized knowledge. But that is not so. This is attested in the Maghrib (in Morocco) by the fact that the period specified for the residence of students in college there is sixteen years, while in Tunis it is five years."
وهذه المدة بالمدارس على المتعارف هي أقل ما يتأتى فيها لطالب العلم حصول مبتغاه من الملكة العلمية أو اليأس من تحصيلها فطال أمدها في المغرب لهذه المدة لأجل عسرها من قلة الجودة في التعليم خاصة لا مما سوى ذلك.,"Such a (fixed) period of attendance is recognized as the shortest in which a student can obtain the scientific habit he desires, or can realize that he will never be able to obtain it. In the Maghrib (in Morocco), the period is so long at the present day for the very reason that the poor quality of scientific instruction there makes it difficult (for the student to acquire the scientific habit), and not for any other reason."
وأما أهل الأندلس فذهب رسم التعليم من بينهم وذهبت عنايتهم بالعلوم لتناقص عمران المسلمين بها منذ مئين من السنين. ولم يبق من رسم العلم فيهم إلا فن العربية والأدب. اقتصروا عليه وانحفظ سند تعليمه بينهم فانحفظ بحفظه.,"The institution of scientific instruction has disappeared among the inhabitants of Spain. Their (former) concern with the sciences is gone, because Muslim civilization in Spain has been decreasing for hundreds of years. The only scholarly discipline remaining there is Arabic (philology) and literature, to which the (Spanish Muslims) restrict themselves. The tradition of teaching these disciplines is preserved among them, and thus the disciplines as such are preserved."
وأما الفقه بينهم فرسم خلو وأثر بعد عين. وأما العقليات فلا أثر ولا عين. وما ذاك إلا لانقطاع سند التعليم فيها بتناقص العمران وتغلب العدو على عامتها إلا قليلا بسيف البحر شغلهم بمعايشهم أكثر من شغلهم بما بعدها.,"Jurisprudence is an empty institution among them and a mere shadow of its real self. Of the intellectual disciplines, not even a shadow remains, The only reason for that is that the tradition of scientific instruction has ceased (to be cultivated) in Spain, because civilization there has deteriorated and the enemy has gained control over most of it, except for a few people along the coast who are more concerned with making a living than with the things that come after it."
والله غالب على أمره.,“God has the power to execute His commands.”
وأما المشرق فلم ينقطع سند التعليم فيه بل أسواقه نافقة وبحوره زاخرة لاتصال العمران الموفور واتصال السند فيه. وإن كانت الأمصار العظيمة التي كانت معادن العلم قد خربت مثل بغداد والبصرة والكوفة إلا أن الله تعالى قد أدال منها بأمصار أعظم من تلك.,"In the East, the tradition of scientific instruction has not ceased (to be cultivated). Scientific instruction is very much in demand and greatly cultivated in the East, because of the continuity of an abundant civilization and the continuity of the tradition (of scientific instruction) there. It is true that the old cities, such as Baghdad, al-Basrah, and al-Kufah, which were the (original) mines of scholarship, are in ruins. However, God has replaced them with cities even greater than they were."
وانتقل العلم منها إلى عراق العجم بخراسان، وما وراء النهر من المشرق، ثم إلى القاهرة وما إليها من المغرب، فلم تزل موفورة وعمرانها متصلا وسند التعليم بها قائما.,"Science was transplanted from the (early centers) to the non-Arab ‘Iraq of Khurasan, to Transoxania in the East, and to Cairo and adjacent regions in the West. These cities have never ceased to have an abundant and continuous civilization, and the tradition of scientific instruction has always persisted in them."
فأهل المشرق على الجملة أرسخ في صناعة تعليم العلم بل وفي سائر الصنائع. حتى إنه ليظن كثير من رحالة أهل المغرب إلى المشرق في طلب العلم أن عقولهم على الجملة أكمل من عقول أهل المغرب وأنهم أشد نباهة وأعظم كيسا بفطرتهم الأولى. وأن نفوسهم الناطقة أكمل بفطرتها من نفوس أهل المغرب.,"The inhabitants of the East are, in general, more firmly rooted in the craft of scientific instruction and, indeed, in all the other crafts (than Maghribis). In fact, many Maghribis who have traveled to the East in quest of knowledge, have been of the opinion that the intellect of the people of the East is, in general, more perfect than that of the Maghribis. They have supposed the rational souls (of the people of the East) to be by nature more perfect than those of the Maghribis."
ويعتقدون التفاوت بيننا وبينهم في حقيقة الإنسانية ويتشيعون لذلك ويولعون به لما يرون من كيسهم في العلوم والصنائع وليس كذلك.,"They have claimed that there exists a difference in the reality of humanity between ourselves (the Maghribis) and them, because their cleverness in the sciences and crafts seemed remarkable to them. This is not so."
وليس بين قطر المشرق والمغرب تفاوت بهذا المقدار الذي هو تفاوت في الحقيقة الواحدة اللهم إلا الأقاليم المنحرفة مثل الأول والسابع فإن الأمزجة فيها منحرفة والنفوس على نسبتها كما مر,"There is no difference between the East and the West great enough (to be considered) a difference in the reality (of human nature), which is one (and the same everywhere). (Such a difference) does in fact exist in the intemperate zones, such as the first and the seventh zones. The tempers there are intemperate, and the souls are correspondingly intemperate, as has been mentioned before."
وإنما الذي فضل به أهل المشرق أهل المغرب هو ما يحصل في النفس من آثار الحضارة من العقل المزيد كما تقدم في الصنائع، ونزيده الآن شرحا وتحقيقا.,"The superiority of the inhabitants of the East over those of the West lies in the additional intelligence that accrues to the soul from the influences of sedentary culture, as has been stated before in connection with the crafts. We are now going to comment on that and to verify it."
وذلك أن الحضر لهم آداب في أحوالهم في المعاش والمسكن والبناء وأمور الدين والدنيا وكذا سائر أعمالهم وعاداتهم ومعاملاتهم وجميع تصرفاتهم. فلهم في ذلك كله آداب يوقف عندها في جميع ما يتناولونه ويتلبسون به من أخذ وترك حتى كأنها حدود لا تتعدى. وهي مع ذلك صنائع يتلقاها الآخر عن الأول منهم.,"It is as follows; Sedentary people observe (a) particular (code of) manners in everything they undertake and do or do not do, and they thus acquire certain ways of making a living, finding dwellings, building houses, and handling their religious and worldly matters, including their customary affairs, their dealings with others, and all the rest of their activities. These manners constitute a kind of limitation which may not be transgressed, and, at the same time, they are crafts that (later) generations take over from the earlier ones."
ولا شك أن كل صناعة مرتبة يرجع منها إلى النفس أثر يكسبها عقلا جديدا تستعد به لقبول صناعة أخرى ويتهيأ بها العقل بسرعة الإدراك للمعارف.,"No doubt, each craft that has its proper place within the arrangement of the crafts, influences the soul and causes it to acquire an additional intelligence, which prepares the soul for accepting still other crafts. The intellect is thus conditioned for a quick reception of knowledge."
ولقد بلغنا في تعليم الصنائع عن أهل مصر غايات لا تدرك مثل أنهم يعلمون الحمر الإنسية والحيوانات العجم من الماشي والطائر مفردات من الكلام والأفعال يستغرب ندورها ويعجز أهل المغرب عن فهمها فضلا عن تعليمها وحسن الملكات في التعليم والصنائع وسائر الأحوال العادية يزيد الإنسان ذكاء في عقله وإضاءة في فكره بكثرة الملكات الحاصلة للنفس.,"We hear that the Egyptians have achieved things hardly possible in the teaching of the crafts. For instance, they teach domestic donkeys and (other) dumb animals, quadrupeds and birds, to speak words and to do things that are remarkable for their rarity and that the inhabitants of the Maghrib would not be capable of understanding, let alone teaching. Good habits in. scientific instruction, in the crafts, and in all the other customary activities, add insight to the intellect of a man and enlightenment to his thinking, since the soul thus obtains a great number of habits."
إذ قدمنا أن النفس إنما تنشأ بالإدراكات. وما يرجع إليها من الملكات فيزدادون بذلك كيسا لما يرجع إلى النفس من الآثار العلمية فيظنه العامي تفاوتا في الحقيقة الإنسانية وليس كذلك.,"We have stated before that the soul grows under the influence of the perceptions it receives and the habits accruing to it. Thus, (the people of the East) become more clever, because their souls are influenced by scientific activity. The common people then suppose that it is a difference in the reality of humanity. This is not so."
ألا ترى إلى أهل الحضر مع أهل البدو كيف تجد الحضري متحليا بالذكاء ممتلئا من الكيس حتى إن البدوي ليظنه أنه قد فاته في حقيقة إنسانيته وعقله وليس كذلك.,"If one compares sedentary people with Bedouins, one notices how much more insight and cleverness sedentary people have. One might, thus, come to think that they really differ from the Bedouins in the reality of humanity and in intelligence. This is not so."
وما ذاك إلا لإجادته في ملكات الصنائع والآداب في العوائد والأحوال الحضرية ما لا يعرفه البدوي.,"The only reason for the difference is that sedentary people have refined technical habits and manners as far as customary activities and sedentary conditions are concerned, all of them things that are unknown to the Bedouins."
فلما امتلأ الحضري من الصنائع وملكاتها وحسن تعليمها ظن كل من قصر عن تلك الملكات أنها لكمال في عقله وأن نفوس أهل البدو قاصرة بفطرتها وجبلتها عن فطرته وليس كذلك.,"Sedentary people possess numerous crafts, as well as the habits that go with them, and good (methods of) teaching the crafts. Therefore, those who do not have such habits think that they indicate an intellectual perfection possessed (exclusively) by sedentary people, and that the natural qualifications of the Bedouins are inferior to those of sedentary people. This is not so."
فإنا نجد من أهل البدو من هو في أعلى رتبة من الفهم والكمال في عقله وفطرته إنما الذي ظهر على أهل الحضر من ذلك هو رونق الصنائع والتعليم فإن لهما آثارا ترجع إلى النفس كما قدمناه.,"We find Bedouins whose understanding, intellectual perfection, and natural qualifications are of the highest rank. The seeming (superiority of) sedentary people is merely the result of a certain polish the crafts and scientific instruction give them. It influences the soul, as we have stated before."
وكذا أهل المشرق لما كانوا في التعليم والصنائع أرسخ رتبة وأعلى قدما وكان أهل المغرب أقرب إلى البداوة لما قدمناه في الفصل قبل هذا ظن المغفلون في بادئ الرأي أنه لكمال في حقيقة الإنسانية اختصوا به عن أهل المغرب وليس ذلك بصحيح فتفهمه,"Now, the inhabitants of the East are more firmly grounded and more advanced in scientific instruction and the crafts (than the Maghribis), and the Maghribis are closer to desert life, as we have stated before in the preceding section. This leads superficial people to think that the inhabitants of the East are distinguished from the Maghribis by a certain perfection (of theirs) touching the reality of humanity. That is not correct, as one should be able to understand."
والله يزيد في الخلق ما يشاء,God “gives in addition to the creatures whatever He wishes to give to them.”
الفصل الثالث في أن العلوم إنما تكثر حيث يكثر العمران وتعظم الحضارة,8. The sciences are numerous only where civilization is large and sedentary culture highly developed
والسبب في ذلك أن تعليم العلم كما قدمناه من جملة الصنائع. وقد كنا قدمنا أن الصنائع إنما تكثر في الأمصار. وعلى نسبة عمرانها في الكثرة والقلة والحضارة والترف تكون نسبة الصنائع في الجودة والكثرة لأنه أمر زائد على المعاش.,"The reason for this is that scientific instruction, as we have just stated, is one of the crafts. We have also stated before that the crafts are numerous only in cities. The quality and the number of the crafts depend on the greater or lesser extent of civilization in the cities and on the sedentary culture and luxury they enjoy, because (highly developed crafts) are something additional to just making a living."
فمتى فضلت أعمال أهل العمران عن معاشهم انصرفت إلى ما وراء المعاش من التصرف في خاصية الإنسان وهي العلوم والصنائع. ومن تشوف بفطرته إلى العلم ممن نشأ في القرى والأمصار غير المتمدنة فلا يجد فيها التعليم الذي هو صناعي لفقدان الصنائع في أهل البدو. كما قدمناه ولا بد له من الرحلة في طلبه إلى الأمصار المستبحرة شأن الصنائع كلها.,"When civilized people have more labor available than they need for mere subsistence, such (surplus) labor is used for activities over and above making a living. These activities are man’s prerogative. They are the sciences and the crafts. People who grow up in villages and uncivilized (thinly populated) cities and who have an innate desire for scientific activity, cannot find scientific instruction in those places. For scientific instruction is something technical, and there are no crafts among the inhabitants of the desert, as we have stated before. These people, therefore, must travel and seek scientific instruction in cities where (civilization) is highly developed, as is the case with all crafts."
واعتبر ما قررناه بحال بغداد وقرطبة والقيروان والبصرة والكوفة لما كثر عمرانها صدر الإسلام واستوت فيها الحضارة، كيف زخرت فيها بحار العلم وتفننوا في اصطلاحات التعليم وأصناف العلوم واستنباط المسائل والفنون حتى أربوا على المتقدمين وفاتوا المتأخرين.,"This may be exemplified by our previous statements concerning Baghdad, Cordoba, al-Qayrawan, al-Basrah, and al-Kufah. At the beginning of Islam, the civilizations (populations) were large, and sedentary culture existed in them. The sciences were then greatly cultivated there, and the people were widely versed in the various technical terminologies of scientific instruction, in the different kinds of sciences, and in posing problems and (inventing new) disciplines. They exceeded (all) who had come before them and surpassed (all) who came after them."
ولما تناقص عمرانها وابذعر سكانها انطوى ذلك البساط بما عليه جملة، وفقد العلم بها والتعليم، وانتقل إلى غيرها من أمصار الإسلام. ونحن لهذا العهد نرى أن العلم والتعليم إنما هو بالقاهرة من بلاد مصر لما أن عمرانها مستبحر وحضارتها مستحكمة منذ آلاف من السنين، فاستحكمت فيها الصنائع وتفننت ومن جملتها تعليم العلم.,"But when the civilization of those cities decreased and their inhabitants were dispersed, the picture was completely reversed. Science and scientific instruction no longer existed in those cities, but were transplanted to other Muslim cities. We, at this time, notice that science and scientific instruction exist in Cairo in Egypt, because the civilization of (Egypt) is greatly developed and its sedentary culture has been well established for thousands of years. Therefore, the crafts are firmly established there and exist in many varieties. One of them is scientific instruction."
وأكد ذلك فيها وحفظه ما وقع لهذه العصور بها منذ مائتين من السنين في دولة الترك من أيام صلاح الدين بن أيوب وهلم جرا.,"This (state of affairs) has been strengthened and preserved in Egypt by the events of the last two hundred years under the Turkish dynasty, from the days of Salah-ad-din b. Ayyub on."
وذلك أن أمراء الترك في دولتهم يخشون عادية سلطانهم على من يتخلفونه من ذريتهم لما له عليهم من الرق أو الولاء ولما يخشى من معاطب الملك ونكباته.,"This is because the Turkish amirs under the Turkish dynasty were afraid that their ruler might proceed against the descendants they would leave behind, in as much as they were his slaves or clients, and because chicanery and confiscation are always to be feared from royal authority."
فاستكثروا من بناء المدارس والزوايا والربط ووقفوا عليها الأوقاف المغلة يجعلون فيها شركا لولدهم ينظر عليها أو يصيب منها مع ما فيهم غالبا من الجنوح إلى الخير والتماس الأجور في المقاصد والأفعال.,"Therefore, they built a great many colleges, hermitages, and monasteries, and endowed them with mortmain endowments that yielded income. They saw to it that their children would participate in these endowments, either as administrators or by having some other share in them. (This was their intention) in addition to the fact that they were inclined to do good deeds and hoped for (a heavenly) reward for their aspirations and actions."
فكثرت الأوقاف لذلك وعظمت الغلات والفوائد وكثر طالب العلم ومعلمه بكثرة جرايتهم منها وارتحل إليها الناس في طلب العلم من العراق والمغرب ونفقت بها أسواق العلوم وزخرت بحارها.,"As a consequence, mortmain endowments became numerous, and the income and profit (from them) increased. Students and teachers increased in numbers, because a large number of stipends became available from the endowments. People traveled to Egypt from the `Iraq and the Maghrib in quest of knowledge. Thus, the sciences were very much in demand and greatly cultivated there."
والله يخلق ما يشاء.,“God creates whatever He wishes.”
الفصل الرابع في أصناف العلوم الواقعة في العمران لهذا العهد,9.The various sciences that exist in contemporary civilization.
اعلم أن العلوم التي يخوض فيها البشر ويتداولونها في الأمصار تحصيلا وتعليما هي على صنفين: صنف طبيعي للإنسان يهتدي إليه بفكره، وصنف نقلي يأخذه عمن وضعه.,"It should be known that the sciences with which people concern themselves in cities and which they acquire and pass on through instruction, are of two kinds: one that is natural to man and to which he is guided by his own ability to think, and a traditional kind that he learns from those who invented it."
والأول هي العلوم الحكمية الفلسفية وهي التي يمكن أن يقف عليها الإنسان بطبيعة فكره ويهتدي بمداركه البشرية إلى موضوعاتها ومسائلها وأنحاء براهينها ووجوه تعليمها حتى يقفه نظره ويحثه على الصواب من الخطإ فيها من حيث هو إنسان ذو فكر.,"The first kind comprises the philosophical sciences. They are the ones with which man can become acquainted through the very nature of his ability to think and to whose objects, problems, arguments, and methods of instruction he is guided by his human perceptions, so that he is made aware of the distinction between what is correct and what is wrong in them by his own speculation and research, in as much as he is a thinking human being."
والثاني هي العلوم النقلية الوضعية وهي كلها مستندة إلى الخبر عن الواضع الشرعي.,"The second kind comprises the traditional, conventional sciences. All of them depend upon information based on the authority of the given religious law."
ولا مجال فيها للعقل إلا في إلحاق الفروع من مسائلها بالأصول لأن الجزئيات الحادثة المتعاقبة لا تندرج تحت النقل الكلي بمجرد وضعه فتحتاج إلى الإلحاق بوجه قياسي.,"There is no place for the intellect in them, save that the intellect may be used in connection with them to relate problems of detail with basic principles. Particulars that constantly come into being are not included in the general tradition by the mere fact of its existence. Therefore, they need to be related (to the general principles) by some kind of analogical reasoning."
إلا أن هذا القياس يتفرع عن الخبر بثبوت الحكم في الأصل وهو نقلي فرجع هذا القياس إلى النقل لتفرعه عنه.,"However, such analogical reasoning is derived from the (traditional) information, while the character of the basic principle, which is traditional, remains valid (unchanged). Thus, analogical reasoning of this type reverts to being tradition (itself), because it is derived from it."
وأصل هذه العلوم النقلية كلها هي الشرعيات من الكتاب والسنة التي هي مشروعة لنا من الله ورسوله وما يتعلق بذلك من العلوم التي تهيئوها للإفادة. ثم يستتبع ذلك علوم اللسان العربي الذي هو لسان الملة وبه نزل القرآن.,"The basis of all the traditional sciences is the legal material of the Qur’an and the Sunnah, which is the law given us by God and His messenger, as well as the sciences connected with that material, by means of which we are enabled to utilize it. This, further, requires as auxiliary sciences the sciences of the Arabic language. Arabic is the language of Islam, and the Qur’an was revealed in it."
وأصناف هذه العلوم النقلية كثيرة لأن المكلف يجب عليه أن يعرف أحكام الله تعالى المفروضة عليه وعلى أبناء جنسه وهي مأخوذة من الكتاب والسنة بالنص أو بالإجماع أو بالإلحاق,"The different kinds of traditional sciences are numerous, because it is the duty of the responsible Muslim to know the legal obligations God placed upon him and upon his fellow men. They are derived from the Qur’an and the Sunnah, either from the text, or through general consensus, or through combination."
فلا بد من النظر بالكتاب ببيان ألفاظه أولا وهذا هو علم التفسير ثم بإسناد نقله وروايته إلى النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم الذي جاء به من عند الله واختلاف روايات القراء في قراءته,"Thus, he must first study the explicit wording of the Qur’an. This is the science of Qur’an interpretation. Then, he must study the Qur’an, both with reference to the manner in which it has been transmitted and related on the authority of the Prophet who brought it from God, and with reference to the differences in the readings of the Qur’an readers."
وهذا هو علم القراءات ثم بإسناد السنة إلى صاحبها والكلام في الرواة الناقلين لها ومعرفة أحوالهم وعدالتهم ليقع الوثوق بأخبارهم بعلم ما يجب العمل بمقتضاه من ذلك، وهذه هي علوم الحديث.,"This is the science of Qur’an reading. Then, he must study the manner in which the Sunnah is related to its originator (Muhammad), and he must discuss the transmitters who have handed it down. He must know their circumstances and their probity, so that the information one receives from them may be trusted and so that one may be able to know the part of it, in accordance with the implications of which one must act. These are the sciences of tradition."
ثم لا بد في استنباط هذه الأحكام من أصولها من وجه قانوني يفيد العلم بكيفية هذا الاستنباط وهذا هو أصول الفقه.,"Then, the process of evolving the laws from their basic principles requires some normative guidance to provide us with the knowledge of how that process takes place. This is the (science of the) principles of jurisprudence."
وبعد هذا تحصل الثمرة بمعرفة أحكام الله تعالى في أفعال المكلفين وهذا هو الفقه.,"After one knows the principles of jurisprudence, one can enjoy, as its result, the knowledge of the divine laws that govern the actions of all responsible Muslims. This is jurisprudence."
ثم إن التكاليف منها بدني، ومنها قلبي، وهو المختص بالإيمان وما يجب أن يعتقد مما لا يعتقد.,"Furthermore, the duties (of the Muslim) may concern either the body or the heart. The (duties of the heart) are concerned with faith and the distinction between what is to be believed and what is not to be believed."
وهذه هي العقائد الإيمانية في الذات والصفات وأمور الحشر والنعيم والعذاب والقدر. والحجاج عن هذه بالأدلة العقلية هو علم الكلام.,"This concerns the articles of faith which deal with the essence and attributes (of God), the events of the Resurrection, Paradise, punishment, and predestination, and entails discussion and defense of these subjects with the help of intellectual arguments. This is speculative theology."
ثم النظر في القرآن والحديث لا بد أن تتقدمه العلوم اللسانية لأنه متوقف عليها وهي أصناف. فمنها علم اللغة وعلم النحو وعلم البيان وعلم الآداب حسبما نتكلم عليها.,"The discussion of the Qur’an and hadith must be preceded by the (study of the) philological sciences, because it is based upon them. There are various kinds, such as lexicography, grammar, syntax and style, and literature. We shall discuss each of these."
وهذه العلوم النقلية كلها مختصة بالملة الإسلامية وأهلها وإن كانت كل ملة على الجملة لا بد فيها من مثل ذلك فهي مشاركة لها في الجنس البعيد من حيث إنها العلوم الشرعية المنزلة من عند الله تعالى على صاحب الشرعية المبلغ لها. وأما على الخصوص فمباينة لجميع الملل لأنها ناسخة لها.,"These traditional sciences are all restricted to Islam and the Muslims, even though every religious group has to have something of the sort. (The traditional sciences of Islam) are remotely comparable to (those of other religious groups), in that they are sciences of a religious law revealed by God to the lawgiver who transmits it. But as to the particulars, (Islam) is different from all other religious groups, because it abrogates them."
وكل ما قبلها من علوم الملل فمهجورة والنظر فيها محظور. فقد نهى الشرع عن النظر في الكتب المنزلة غير القرآن.,"All the pre-Islamic sciences concerned with religious groups are to be discarded, and their discussion is forbidden. The religious law has forbidden the study of all revealed scriptures except the Qur’an."
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «لا تصدقوا أهل الكتاب ولا تكذبوهم وقولوا آمنا بالذي أنزل علينا وأنزل إليكم وإلهنا وإلهكم واحد»,Muhammad said: “Consider the People of the Book neither as truthful nor as untruthful. Just say: ‘We believe in what was revealed to us and revealed to you. Our God and your God are one.’ “
ورأى النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم في يد عمر رضي الله عنه ورقة من التوراة فغضب حتى تبين الغضب في وجهه ثم قال: «ألم آتكم بها بيضاء نقية؟ والله لو كان موسى حيا ما وسعه إلا أتباعي.»,"And when the Prophet saw a leaf of the Torah in ‘Umar’s hand, he got so angry that his anger showed in his face. Then, he said: “Did I not bring it to you white and clean? By God, if Moses were alive, he would have no choice but to follow me.”"
ثم إن هذه العلوم الشرعية قد نفقت أسواقها في هذه الملة بما لا مزيد عليه وانتهت فيها مدارك الناظرين إلى الغاية التي لا شيء فوقها وهذبت الاصطلاحات ورتبت الفنون فجاءت من وراء الغاية في الحسن والتنميق.,"The traditional legal sciences were cultivated in Islam in a way that permitted no further increase. The students of those sciences reached the farthest possible limit in knowledge of them. The various technical terminologies were refined, and order was brought into the various disciplines. The traditional sciences thus achieved exceeding excellence and refinement."
وكان لكل فن رجال يرجع إليهم فيه وأوضاع يستفاد منها التعليم. واختص المشرق من ذلك والمغرب بما هو مشهور منها حسبما نذكره الآن عند تعديد هذه الفنون.,"Each discipline had its authorities to whom one referred, and its rules that were used for instruction. The West as well as the East had its share of famous traditional scholarship, as we are shortly going to mention, when we enumerate these disciplines."
وقد كسدت لهذا العهد أسواق العلم بالمغرب لتناقص العمران فيه وانقطاع سند العلم والتعليم كما قدمناه في الفصل قبله.,"At this time, however, science is at a standstill in the Maghrib, because civilization has decreased there and the tradition of science and scientific instruction has broken off, as we stated in the preceding section."
وما أدري ما فعل الله بالمشرق والظن به نفاق العلم فيه واتصال التعليم في العلوم وفي سائر الصنائع الضرورية والكمالية لكثرة عمرانه والحضارة ووجود الإعانة لطالب العلم بالجراية من الأوقاف التي اتسعت بها أرزاقهم.,"I do not know what God has done with the East. The assumption is that science is very much cultivated there and that the teaching of the sciences and of all necessary and luxury crafts continues there without interruption. The civilization and sedentary culture of the East are extensive, and students find support there through stipends from mortmain endowments which give them ample sustenance."
الفصل الخامس في علوم القرآن من التفسير والقراءات,10. The Qur’anic sciences of Qur’an interpretation and Qur’an reading.
القرآن هو كلام الله المنزل على نبيه المكتوب بين دفتي المصحف.,The Qur’an is the word of God that was revealed to His Prophet and that is written down between the two covers of copies of the Qur’an (mushaf).
وهو متواتر بين الأمة إلا أن الصحابة رووه عن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم على طرق مختلفة في بعض ألفاظه وكيفيات الحروف في أدائها. وتنوقل ذلك واشتهر إلى أن استقرت منها سبع طرق معينة تواتر نقلها أيضا بأدائها واختصت بالانتساب إلى من اشتهر بروايتها من الجم الغفير فصارت هذه القراءات السبع أصولا للقراءة.,"Its transmission has been continuous in Islam. However, the men around Muhammad transmitted it on the authority of the Messenger of God in different ways. These differences affect certain of the words in it and the manner in which the letters were pronounced. They were handed down and became famous. Eventually, seven specific ways of reading the Qur’an became established. Transmission (of the Qur’an readings), with their particular pronunciation, also was continuous. They came to be ascribed to certain men from among a large number of persons who had become famous as their transmitters. The seven Qur’an readings became the basis for reading the Qur’an."
وربما زيد بعد ذلك قراءات أخر لحقت بالسبع إلا أنها عند أئمة القراءة لا تقوى قوتها في النقل.,"Later on, other readings were occasionally added to the seven. However, they are not considered by the authorities on Qur’an reading to be as reliably transmitted as (the seven)."
وهذه القراءات السبع معروفة في كتبها. وقد خالف بعض الناس في تواتر طرقها لأنها عندهم كيفيات للأداء وهو غير منضبط. وليس ذلك عندهم بقادح في تواتر القرآن.,"The seven Qur’an readings are well known from books which deal with them. Certain people have contested the continuity of their transmission. In their opinion, they are ways of indicating the pronunciation, and pronunciation is something that cannot definitely be fixed. This, however, they thought not to reflect upon the continuity of the transmission of the Qur’an."
وأباه الأكثر وقالوا بتواترها وقال آخرون بتواتر غير الأداء منها كالمد والتسهيل لعدم الوقوف على كيفيته بالسمع وهو الصحيح. ولم يزل القراء يتداولون هذه القراءات وروايتها إلى أن كتبت العلوم ودونت فكتبت فيما كتب من العلوم وصارت صناعة مخصوصة وعلما منفردا وتناقله الناس بالمشرق والأندلس في جيل بعد جيل.,"The majority did not admit their view. They asserted the continuity of the transmission of the (seven readings). Others asserted the continuity (of all seven), except with regard to (the fine points of) pronunciation, such as the longer pronunciation of the long vowels and the weakening of the alif, because the ear is not able to determine how it must be done. This is the correct opinion. Qur’an readers continued to circulate and transmit those readings, until the sciences were fixed in writing and treated systematically. Those readings, then, were set down in writing, along with the other sciences, and became a special craft and science in itself. People in the East and in Spain handed them down generation after generation."
إلى أن ملك بشرق الأندلس مجاهد من موالي العامريين وكان معتنيا بهذا الفن من بين فنون القرآن لما أخذه به مولاه المنصور بن أبي العامر واجتهد في تعليمه وعرضه على من كان من أئمة القراء بحضرته فكان سهمه في ذلك وافرا.,"Eventually, Mujahid, a client of the ‘Amirids, became ruler of eastern Spain, He concerned himself with this particular Qur’anic discipline, because he was held to it by his master, al-Mansur b. Abi ‘Amir, who made every effort to instruct him (in it) and to have him study (it) with the authoritative Qur’an readers at his court. Thus, he acquired a very good knowledge of it."
واختص مجاهد بعد ذلك بإمارة دانية والجزائر الشرقية فنفقت بها سوق القراءة لما كان هو من أئمتها وبما كان له من العناية بسائر العلوم عموما وبالقراءات خصوصا.,"Later on, Mujahid became amir of Denia and the eastern islands (the Baleares). As a result, the reading of the Qur’an was greatly cultivated there, because he was an authority in it and because he was much concerned with all sciences in general and with the reading of the Qur’an in particular."
فظهر لعهده أبو عمرو الداني وبلغ الغاية فيها ووقفت عليه معرفتها.,"In his time, there appeared Abu ‘Amr ad-Dani. He achieved the greatest perfection in the reading of the Qur’an. The knowledge of it rests with him, and its transmission in its entirety goes through him."
وانتهت إلى روايته أسانيدها وتعددت تآليفه فيها. وعول الناس عليها وعدلوا عن غيرها واعتمدوا من بينها كتاب التيسير له.,"He composed numerous works on the subject, which became the authoritative works, and people no longer consulted anyone else. Among (ad-Dani’s) works, the Kitab at-taysir became the general reference work."
ثم ظهر بعد ذلك فيما يليه من العصور والأجيال أبو القاسم بن فيره من أهل شاطبة فعمد إلى تهذيب ما دونه أبو عمرو وتلخيصه فنظم ذلك كله في قصيدة لغز فيها أسماء القراء بحروف (أب ج د) ترتيبا أحكمه ليتيسر عليه ما قصده من الاختصار وليكون أسهل للحفظ لأجل نظمها.,"In the times and generations closely following that, there appeared Abul-Qasim b. Firruh (ash-Shatibi), of Jativa. He set out to correct and abridge the systematic works of Abu ‘Amr (ad-Din!). He versified the whole material in a poem in which he referred cryptically to the names of the Qur’an readers by the letters of the alphabet, according to his own arrangement. His purpose was to be as brief as he could be and to make the subject easier to memorize by means of the rhymed form."
فاستوعب فيها الفن استيعابا حسنا وعني الناس بحفظها وتلقينها للولدان المتعلمين وجرى العمل على ذلك في أمصار المغرب والأندلس.,He skillfully compressed the whole subject in his poem. People undertook to memorize it and to teach it to children studying (the subject). That was the practice in the cities of the Maghrib and Spain.
وربما أضيف إلى فن القراءات فن الرسم أيضا وهي أوضاع حروف القرآن في المصحف ورسومه الخطية لأن فيه حروفا كثيرة وقع رسمها على غير المعروف من قياس الخط كزيادة الياء في بأييد وزيادة الألف في لا أذبحنه ولا أوضعوا والواو في جزاء الظالمين وحذف الألفات في مواضع دون أخرى وما رسم فيه من التاءات ممدودا، والأصل فيه مربوط على شكل الهاء وغير ذلك,"The discipline of Qur’an readings is often extended to include also the discipline of Qur’an orthography (rasm), which deals with usage of the letters in copies of the Qur’an and with the orthography of the Qur’an. The Qur’an contains many letters that are used differently than is usual in writing. There is, for instance, the addition of the y in biayydin “with hands (power)”; the addition of the alifin
la’-‘adhbahannahu “I shall indeed slaughter him” and in wa-la’-‘awda’u “and, indeed, they would walk swiftly”; the addition of the w in jaza’uw-z-zalimina “the sinners’ reward”; and the omission of the alifin some places and not in others. Then, there are the is that are written in the Qur’an with the letter t, while they should be written with the h with two dots over it, and other things."
وقد مر تعليل هذا الرسم المصحفي عند الكلام في الخط.,An explanation of Qur’anic orthography was given earlier in connection with the discussion of writing.
فلما جاءت هذه المخالفة لأوضاع الخط وقانونه احتيج إلى حصرها، فكتب الناس فيها أيضا عند كتبهم في العلوم.,"When the divergences in the usage and norm of writing made their appearance, it became necessary to deal with them comprehensively. Therefore, they, too, were written down, when scholars fixed the sciences in writing."
وانتهت بالمغرب إلى أبي عمر الداني المذكور فكتب فيها كتبا من أشهرها: كتاب المقنع وأخذ به الناس وعولوا عليه.,"In the West, they reached the afore-mentioned Abu ‘Amr ad-Dani. He wrote a number of books about them, the best known being the Kitab al-Mugni’. People took up the book and employed it as a reference work."
ونظمه أبو القاسم الشاطبي في قصيدته المشهورة على روي الراء وولع الناس بحفظها.,Abul-Qasim (b. Firruh) ash-Shatibi versified the (Kitab al-Mugni’) in his famous poem rhyming on r. People eagerly memorized that poem.
ثم كثر الخلاف في الرسم في كلمات وحروف أخرى، ذكرها أبو داود سليمان بن نجاح من موالي مجاهد في كتبه وهو من تلاميذ أبي عمرو الداني والمشتهر بحمل علومه ورواية كتبه ثم نقل بعده خلاف آخر فنظم الخراز من المتأخرين بالمغرب أرجوزة أخرى زاد فيها على المقنع خلافا كثيرا،,"Then, there were more orthographic divergences which concerned other words and letters. (These words and letters) were mentioned by Abu Dawud Sulayman b. Najah, a client of Mujahid, in his works. He was a pupil of Abu ‘Amr ad-Dani, and famous for the fact that he preserved ad-Dani’s learning and transmitted his works. After him, other divergences came up. A modern Maghribi scholar, alKharraz, composed another rajaz poem. In it, he added many divergences to those of the Muqni’."
وعزاه لناقليه، واشتهرت بالمغرب، واقتصر الناس على حفظها. وهجروا بها كتب أبي داود وأبي عمرو والشاطبي في الرسم.,"He indicated (in each instance) who their transmitters were. This poem became famous in the Maghrib. People now memorized only it, and they discarded in its favor the works of Abu Dawud, Abu ‘Amr, and ash-Shatibi on Qur’an orthography."
وأما التفسير.,Qur’an interpretation
فاعلم أن القرآن نزل بلغة العرب وعلى أساليب بلاغتهم فكانوا كلهم يفهمونه ويعلمون معانيه في مفرداته وتراكيبه. وكان ينزل جملا جملا وآيات آيات لبيان التوحيد والفروض الدينية بحسب الوقائع.,"It should be known that the Qur’an was revealed in the language of the Arabs and according to their rhetorical methods. All Arabs understood it and knew the meaning of the individual words and composite statements. It was revealed in chapters and verses, in order to explain the oneness of God and the religious duties according to the (various) occasions."
ومنها ما هو في العقائد الإيمانية، ومنها ما هو في أحكام الجوارح، ومنها ما يتقدم ومنها ما يتأخر ويكون ناسخا له.,"Some passages of the Qur’an concern articles of faith. Others concern the duties of the limbs of the body. Some are early and are followed by other, later passages that abrogate the earlier ones."
وكان النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم هو المبين لذلك كما قال تعالى: «لتبين للناس ما نزل إليهم 16: 44»,"The Prophet used to explain these things, as it is said: “So that you may explain to the people that which was revealed to them.”"
فكان النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم يبين المجمل ويميز الناسخ من المنسوخ ويعرفه أصحابه فعرفوه وعرفوا سبب نزول الآيات ومقتضى الحال منها منقولا عنه.,"He used to explain the unclear statements (in the Qur’an) and to distinguish the abrogating statements from those abrogated by them, and to inform the men around him in this sense. The men around him, thus, became acquainted with (the subject). They knew why individual verses had been revealed, and the situation that had required them, directly on (Muhammad’s) authority."
كما علم من قوله تعالى: «إذا جاء نصر الله والفتح 110: 1» إنها نعي النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم وأمثال ذلك ونقل ذلك عن الصحابة رضوان الله تعالى عليهم أجمعين.,"Thus, the verse of the Qur’an, “When God’s help comes and the victory,” refers to the announcement of the Prophet’s death, and similar things. These (explanations) were transmitted on the authority of the men around Muhammad and were circulated by the men of the second generation after them on their authority."
وتداول ذلك التابعون من بعدهم ونقل ذلك عنهم. ولم يزل متناقلا بين الصدر الأول والسلف حتى صارت المعارف علوما ودونت الكتب فكتب الكثير من ذلك ونقلت الآثار الواردة فيه عن الصحابة والتابعين,"They continued to be transmitted among the early Muslims, until knowledge became organized in scholarly disciplines and systematic scholarly works were written. At that time, most of these (explanations) were committed to writing. The traditional information concerning them, which had come down from the men around Muhammad and the men of the second generation, was transmitted farther."
وانتهى ذلك إلى الطبري والواقدي والثعالبي وأمثال ذلك من المفسرين فكتبوا فيه ما شاء الله أن يكتبوه من الآثار.,"That (material) reached at-Tabari, al-Waqidi, ath-Tha’alibi, and other Qur’an interpreters. They committed to writing as much of the traditional information as God wanted them to do."
ثم صارت علوم اللسان صناعية من الكلام في موضوعات اللغة وأحكام الإعراب والبلاغة في التراكيب فوضعت الدواوين في ذلك بعد أن كانت ملكات للعرب لا يرجع فيها إلى نقل ولا كتاب فتنوسي ذلك وصارت تتلقى من كتب أهل اللسان.,"The linguistic sciences then became technical discussions of the lexicographical meaning of words, the rules governing vowel endings (i’rab), and style (balaghah) in (the use of) word combinations. Systematic works were written on these subjects. Formerly, these subjects had been habits with the Arabs. No recourse to oral and written transmission had been necessary with respect to them. Now, that (state of affairs) was forgotten, and these subjects were learned from the books of philologists."
فاحتيج إلى ذلك في تفسير القرآن لأنه بلسان العرب وعلى منهاج بلاغتهم. وصار التفسير على صنفين: تفسير نقلي مسند إلى الآثار المنقولة عن السلف وهي معرفة الناسخ والمنسوخ وأسباب النزول ومقاصد الآي.,"They were needed for the interpretation of the Qur’an, because the Qur’an is in Arabic and follows the stylistic technique of the Arabs. Qur’an interpretation thus came to be handled in two ways. One (kind of Qur’an interpretation) is traditional. It is based upon information received from the early Muslims. It consists of knowledge of the abrogating verses and of the verses that are abrogated by them, of the reasons why a (given) verse was revealed, and of the purposes of individual verses."
وكل ذلك لا يعرف إلا بالنقل عن الصحابة والتابعين. وقد جمع المتقدمون في ذلك وأوعوا، إلا أن كتبهم ومنقولاتهم تشتمل على الغث والسمين والمقبول والمردود.,"All this can be known only through traditions based on the authority of the men around Muhammad and the men of the second generation. The early scholars had already made complete compilations on the subject. However, their works and the information they transmit contain side by side important and unimportant matters, accepted and rejected statements."
والسبب في ذلك أن العرب لم يكونوا أهل كتاب ولا علم وإنما غلبت عليهم البداوة والأمية. وإذا تشوقوا إلى معرفة شيء مما تتشوق إليه النفوس البشرية في أسباب المكونات وبدء الخليقة وأسرار الوجود فإنما يسألون عنه أهل الكتاب قبلهم ويستفيدونه منهم وهم أهل التوراة من اليهود ومن تبع دينهم من النصارى.,"The reason is that the Arabs had no books or scholarship. The desert attitude and illiteracy prevailed among them. When they wanted to know certain things that human beings are usually curious to know, such as the reasons for the existing things, the beginning of creation, and the secrets of existence, they consulted the earlier People of the Book about it and got their information from them. The People of the Book were the Jews who had the Torah, and the Christians who followed the religion of (the Jews)."
وأهل التوراة الذين بين العرب يومئذ بادية مثلهم ولا يعرفون من ذلك إلا ما تعرفه العامة من أهل الكتاب ومعظمهم من حمير الذين أخذوا بدين اليهودية.,"Now, the people of the Torah who lived among the Arabs at that time were themselves Bedouins. They knew only as much about these matters as is known to ordinary People of the Book (in contrast to learned rabbis). The majority of those Jews were Himyarites who had adopted Judaism."
فلما أسلموا بقوا على ما كان عندهم مما لا تعلق له بالأحكام الشرعية التي يحتاطون لها مثل أخبار بدء الخليقة وما يرجع إلى الحدثان والملاحم وأمثال ذلك.,"When they became Muslims, they clung to the (information) they possessed, such as information about the beginning of creation and information of the type of forecasts and predictions. That information had no connection with the (Jewish or Christian) religious laws they were preserving as theirs."
وهؤلاء مثل كعب الأحبار ووهب بن منبه وعبد الله بن سلام وأمثالهم.,"Such men were Ka’b al-ahbar, Wahb b. Munabbih, ‘Abdallah b. Salim, and similar people."
فامتلأت التفاسير من المنقولات عندهم في أمثال هذه الأغراض أخبار موقوفة عليهم وليست مما يرجع إلى الأحكام فيتحرى في الصحة التي يجب بها العمل. وتساهل المفسرون في مثل ذلك,"The Qur’an commentaries were filled with material of such tendencies transmitted on their authority. It is information that entirely depends on them. It has no relation to (religious) laws, such that one might claim for it the soundness that would make it necessary to act (in accordance with it). The Qur’an interpreters were not very rigorous in this respect."
وملئوا كتب التفسير بهذه المنقولات. وأصلها كما قلناه عن أهل التوراة الذين يسكنون البادية، ولا تحقيق عندهم بمعرفة ما ينقلونه من ذلك إلا أنهم بعد صيتهم وعظمت أقدارهم، لما كانوا عليه من المقامات في الدين والملة، فتلقيت بالقبول من يومئذ.,"They filled the Qur’an commentaries with such material, which originated, as we have stated, with the people of the Torah who lived in the desert and were not capable of verifying the information they transmitted. However, they were famous and highly esteemed, because they were people of rank in (their) religion and religious group. Therefore, their interpretation has been accepted from that time onwards."
فلما رجع الناس إلى التحقيق والتمحيص وجاء أبو محمد بن عطية من المتأخرين بالمغرب فلخص تلك التفاسير كلها وتحرى ما هو أقرب إلى الصحة منها ووضع ذلك في كتاب متداول بين أهل المغرب والأندلس حسن المنحى.,"Later, scholars applied themselves to verification and critical investigation. Abu Muhammad b. ‘Atiyah, a recent Maghribi scholar, made his appearance. He abridged all the commentaries and selected the most likely interpretations. He set that material down in a good book, which is in general circulation among the inhabitants of the Maghrib and of Spain."
وتبعه القرطبي في تلك الطريقة على منهاج واحد في كتاب آخر مشهور بالمشرق.,"Al-Qurtubi adopted his method in this respect in another work, which is well known in the East."
والصنف الآخر من التفسير وهو ما يرجع إلى اللسان من معرفة اللغة والإعراب والبلاغة في تأدية المعنى بحسب المقاصد والأساليب.,"The other kind of Qur’an interpretation has recourse to linguistic knowledge, such as lexicography and the stylistic form (balaghah) used for conveying meaning through the appropriate means and methods."
وهذا الصنف من التفسير قل أن ينفرد عن الأول إذ الأول هو المقصود بالذات.,This kind of Qur’an interpretation rarely appears separately from the first kind. The first kind is the one that is wanted essentially.
وإنما جاء هذا بعد أن صار اللسان وعلومه صناعة. نعم قد يكون في بعض التفاسير غالبا ومن أحسن ما اشتمل عليه هذا الفن من التفاسير كتاب الكشاف للزمخشري من أهل خوارزم العراق,"The second kind made its appearance only after language and the philological sciences had become crafts. However, it has become preponderant, as far as certain Qur’an commentaries are concerned. The commentary in which this discipline is best represented is the Kitab alKashshafby az-Zamakhshari, of Khuwarizm in the ‘Iraq."
إلا أن مؤلفه من أهل الاعتزال في العقائد فيأتي بالحجاج على مذاهبهم الفاسدة حيث تعرض له في آي القرآن من طرق البلاغة. فصار ذلك للمحققين من أهل السنة انحراف عنه وتحذير للجمهور من مكامنه مع إقرارهم برسوخ قدمه فيما يتعلق باللسان والبلاغة,"However, its author is a Mu’tazilah in his dogmatic views. Therefore, he uses the various methods of rhetoric (balaghah), arguing in favor of the pernicious doctrines of the Mu’tazilah, wherever he believed they occurred in the verses of the Qur’an. Competent orthodox scholars have, therefore, come to disregard his work and to warn everyone against its pitfalls. However, they admit that he is on firm ground in everything relating to language and style (balaghah)."
وإذا كان الناظر فيه واقفا مع ذلك على المذاهب السنية محسنا للحجاج عنها فلا جرم إنه مأمون من غوائله فلتغتنم مطالعته لغرابة فنونه في اللسان.,"If the student of the work is acquainted with the orthodox dogmas and knows the arguments in their defense, he is no doubt safe from its fallacies. Therefore, he should seize the opportunity to study it, because it contains remarkable and varied linguistic information."
ولقد وصل إلينا في هذه العصور تأليف لبعض العراقيين وهو شرف الدين الطيبي من أهل توريز من عراق العجم شرح فيه كتاب الزمخشري هذا وتتبع ألفاظه وتعرض لمذاهبه في الاعتزال بأدلة تزيفها ويبين أن البلاغة إنما تقع في الآية على ما يراه أهل السنة لا على ما يراه المعتزلة,"Recently, a work by an ‘Iraqi scholar, Sharaf-ad-din at-Tibi, of Tabriz in the non-Arab ‘Iraq, has reached us. It is a commentary on the work of azZamakhshari. At-Tibi follows az-Zamakhshari’s work literally, but opposes its Mu’tazilah dogmas and arguments, showing their lack of validity and (always) explaining that an eloquent style exists in a given verse but it reflects the opinions of orthodox Muslims, and not the dogmas of the Mu’tazilah."
فأحسن في ذلك ما شاء مع إمتاعه في سائر فنون البلاغة,"He does that very well, and he also possesses all the various disciplines of rhetoric (balaghah)."
وفوق كل ذي علم عليم 12: 76.,“And He knows more than any scholar.”
الفصل السادس في علوم الحديث,11. The sciences concerned with Prophetic traditions.
وأما علوم الحديث فهي كثيرة ومتنوعة لأن منها ما ينظر في ناسخه ومنسوخه وذلك بما ثبت في شريعتنا من جواز النسخ ووقوعه لطفا من الله بعباده وتخفيفا عنهم باعتبار مصالحهم التي تكفل الله لهم بها.,The sciences concerned with Prophetic traditions (hadith) are numerous and varied. One of them concerns abrogating and abrogated traditions. The permission to abrogate (previous statements) and the occurrence of abrogation have been established in our religious law. It is a favor shown by God to His servants and a kind of relief granted them to help them along in matters affecting their well-being (masalih) for which He is responsible to them.
قال تعالى: «ما ننسخ من آية أو ننسها نأت بخير منها أو مثلها 2: 106»,"God said: “Whenever We abrogate a verse or consign it to oblivion, We bring one that is better, or as good.”"
(ومعرفة الناسخ والمنسوخ وإن كان عاقا للقرآن والحديث إلا أن الذي في القرآن منه اندرج في تفاسيره وبقي ما كان خاصا بالحديث راجعا إلى علومه. فإذا تعارض الخبران بالنفي والإثبات وتعذر الجمع بينهما ببعض التأويل وعلم تقدم أحدهما تعين أن المتأخر ناسخ).,"The knowledge of abrogating and abrogated verses belongs both to the Qur’an and to the traditions. Everything about (abrogation), as far as it concerns the Qur’an, is included in the Qur’an commentaries. Whatever is restricted to traditions falls under the sciences of tradition. Two traditions may be mutually exclusive, and it may be difficult to reconcile them with the help of interpretation. If, in such a case, it is known that one is earlier than the other, it is definite that the later (tradition) abrogates (the earlier one)."
ومعرفة الناسخ والمنسوخ من أهم علوم الحديث وأصعبها.,This is one of the most important and difficult of the sciences of tradition.
قال الزهري: «أعيا الفقهاء وأعجزهم أن يعرفوا ناسخ حديث رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم من منسوخه».,"Az-Zuhri said: “It has been a baffling and impossible task for the jurists to distinguish traditions of the Messenger of God abrogating others, from those that were abrogated by them.”"
وكان للشافعي رضي الله عنه فيه قدم راسخة.,Ash-Shafi’i was firmly grounded in this subject.
(ومن علوم الأحاديث النظر في الأسانيد ومعرفة ما يجب العمل به من الأحاديث بوقوعه على السند الكامل الشروط,"Another of the sciences of tradition is the knowledge of the norms that leading hadith scholars have invented in order to know the chains of transmitters, the (individual) transmitters, their names, how the transmission took place, their conditions, their classes, and their different technical terminologies."
لأن العمل إنما وجب بما يغلب على الظن صدقه من أخبار رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم,This is because general consensus makes it obligatory to act in accordance with information established on the authority of the Messenger of God. This requires probability for the assumption that the information is true.
فيجتهد في الطريق التي تحصل ذلك الظن وهو بمعرفة رواة الحديث بالعدالة والضبط.,"Thus, the independent student must verify all the means by which it is possible to make such an assumption. He may do this by scrutinizing the chains of transmitters of traditions."
وكذلك مراتب هؤلاء النقلة من الصحابة والتابعين وتفاوتهم في ذلك وتميزهم فيه واحدا واحدا.,"Then, there are the differences in rank that exist among transmitters."
ويختلف في المتوسط بحسب المنقول عن أئمة الشأن. ولهم في ذلك ألفاظ اصطلحوا على وضعها لهذه المراتب المرتبة.,"< Then, there is the difference> with regard to the (degree of) soundness or acceptability of the transmitted material."
مثل الصحيح والحسن والضعيف والمرسل والمنقطع والمعضل والشاذ والغريب،,"The highest grade of transmitted material is called “sound” by (the hadith scholars). Next comes “good.” The lowest grade is “weak.” (The classification of traditions) includes also: “skipping the first transmitter on Muhammad’s authority” (mursal), “omitting one link” (munqati’), “omitting two links” (mu’dal), “affected by some infirmity” (mu’allal), “singular” (shadhdh), “unusual” (gharib),"
وبوبوا على كل واحد منها ونقلوا ما فيه من الخلاف لأئمة اللسان أو الوفاق.,"Hadith scholars differ greatly in their explanations of these terms. Then, there follows the discussion of terms applying to the texts of the traditions."
وكانت أحوال نقلة الحديث في عصور السلف من الصحابة والتابعين معروفة عند أهل بلده فمنهم بالحجاز ومنهم بالبصرة والكوفة من العراق ومنهم بالشام ومصر والجميع معروفون مشهورون في أعصارهم وكانت طريقة أهل الحجاز في أعصارهم في الأسانيد أعلى ممن سواهم وأمتن في الصحة لاستبدادهم في شروط النقل من العدالة والضبط وتجافيهم عن قبول المجهول الحال في ذلك),"It should be known that the men around Muhammad and the men of the second generation who transmitted the Sunnah were well known in the cities of Islam. There were transmitters in the Hijaz, in al-Basrah and al-Kufah, and then in Syria and Egypt. They were famous in their time. The transmitters of the Hijaz had fewer links in their chains of transmitters (than others), and they were sounder (transmitters), because they were reluctant to accept (as reliable transmitters) those who were obscure and whose conditions were not known."
وسند الطريقة الحجازية بعد السلف الإمام مالك عالم المدينة رضي الله تعالى عنه ثم أصحابه مثل الإمام محمد بن إدريس الشافعي رضي الله تعالى عنه، وابن وهب وابن بكير والقضبي ومحمد بن الحسن ومن بعدهم الإمام أحمد بن حنبل وفي آخرين من أمثالهم.,"After the early Muslims, the master of the Hijazi tradition was the imam Malik, the leading scholar of Medina. Then came his colleagues, such as the imam Muhammad b. Idris ash-Shafi`i, Ibn Wahb, Ibn Bukayr al-Qa`nabi Muhammad b. al-Hasan and after them, the imam Ahmad b. Hanbal, and other later scholars."
وكان علم الشريعة في مبدإ هذا الأمر نقلا صرفا شمر لها السلف وتحروا الصحيح حتى أكملوها. وكتب مالك رحمه الله كتاب الموطإ أودعه أصول الأحكام من الصحيح المتفق عليه ورتبه على أبواب الفقه.,"At the beginning, knowledge of the religious law was entirely based on (oral) tradition. It involved no speculation, no use of opinion, and no intricate reasoning. The early Muslims occupied themselves with it, selecting the sound material, and thus eventually perfected it. Malik wrote the Kitab al-Muwatta’ according to the Hijazi tradition, in which he laid down the principal laws on the basis of sound, generally agreed-upon (material). He arranged the work according to juridical categories."
ثم عني الحافظ بمعرفة طرق الأحاديث وأسانيدها المختلفة.,"The hadith experts concerned themselves with knowledge of the recensions of traditions and of the different chains of transmitters, such as the Hijazi and the ‘Iraqi transmissions and others."
وربما يقع إسناد الحديث من طرق متعددة عن رواة مختلفين وقد يقع الحديث أيضا في أبواب متعددة باختلاف المعاني التي اشتمل عليها. وجاء محمد بن إسماعيل البخاري إمام المحدثين في عصره,"A certain tradition may be known in one way only or in numerous ways, and it may be repeated in (different) chapters (of works of jurisprudence) because it deals with several subjects. There was Muhammad b. Isma’il al-Bukhari, the leading hadith scholar of his time."
فخرج أحاديث السنة على أبوابها في مسندة الصحيح بجميع الطرق التي للحجازيين والعراقيين والشاميين. واعتمد منها ما أجمعوا عليه دون ما اختلفوا فيه,"In his Musnad as-Sahih, he widened the area of tradition and published the orthodox traditions arranged according to subject. He combined all the different ways of the Hijazis, ‘Iraqis, and Syrians, accepting the material upon which they all agreed, but excluding the material concerning which there were differences of opinion."
وكرر الأحاديث يسوقها في كل باب بمعنى ذلك الباب الذي تضمنه الحديث,"He repeated a (given) tradition in every chapter upon which the contents of that particular tradition had some bearing. Therefore, his traditions were repeated in several chapters, because a (single) tradition may deal with different subjects, as we have indicated."
فتكررت لذلك أحاديثه حتى يقال: إنه اشتمل على تسعة آلاف حديث ومائتين، منها ثلاثة آلاف متكررة وفرق الطرق والأسانيد عليها مختلفة في كل باب.,"His work thus comprised 7,200 traditions, of which 3,000 are repeated. In each chapter, he kept separate the recensions with the different chains of transmitters belonging to them."
ثم جاء الإمام مسلم بن الحجاج القشيري رحمه الله تعالى فألف مسندة الصحيح. حذا فيه حذو البخاري في نقل المجمع عليه وحذف المتكرر منها وجمع الطرق والأسانيد وبوبه على أبواب الفقه وتراجمه.,"Then came the imam Muslim b. al-Hajjaj al-Qushayri. He composed his Musnad as-Sahih, in which he followed al-Bukhari, in that he transmitted the material that was generally agreed upon, but he omitted the repetitions and did not keep the recensions and chains of transmitters separate. He arranged his work according to juridical categories and the chapter headings of jurisprudence."
وقد استدرك الناس عليهما في ذلك.,"Scholars have corrected the two (authors), noting the cases of the sound traditions not (included in their works). They have mentioned the cases where (they) neglected (to include traditions which, according to) the conditions governing the inclusion of traditions in their works, (should have been included)."
ثم كتب أبو داود السجستاني وأبو عيسى الترمذي وأبو عبد الرحمن النسائي في السنن بأوسع من الصحيح وقصدوا ما توفرت فيه شروط العمل إما من الرتبة العالية في الأسانيد وهو الصحيح كما هو معرف وإما من الذي دونه من الحسن وغيره ليكون ذلك إماما للسنة والعمل.,"Abu Dawud as-Sijistani, Abu ‘Isa at-Tirmidhi, and Abu `Abd-ar-Rahman an-Nasa’i wrote sunan works which included more than merely “sound” traditions. Their intention was to include all traditions that amply fulfilled the conditions making them actionable traditions. They were either traditions with few links in the chain of transmitters, which makes them sound (traditions), as is (generally) acknowledged, or they were lesser traditions, such as “good” traditions and others. It was to serve as a guide to orthodox practice."
وهذه هي المسانيد المشهورة في الملة وهي أمهات كتب الحديث في السنة,These are the collections of traditions that are used as reference works in Islam. They are the chief orthodox works on traditions.
فإنها وإن تعددت ترجع إلى هذه في الأغلب.,"Other collections have been added to these five,"
ومن فحول علمائه وأئمتهم أبو عبد الله الحاكم وتآليفه فيه مشهورة وهو الذي هذبه وأظهر محاسنه.,The first outstanding hadith scholar to lay down such a canon was Abu ‘Abdallah al-Hakim. He improved it and presented it to its best advantage. His works on the subject are famous.
وأشهر كتاب للمتأخرين فيه كتاب أبي عمرو بن الصلاح كان لعهد أوائل المائة السابعة,Other leading hadith scholars followed him and wrote works on the subject. The most famous work by a modern scholar on the subject is the book of Abu ‘Amr b. as-Salah. He lived in the early part of the seventh [thirteenth] century.
وتلاه محيي الدين النووي بمثل ذلك.,His example was followed by Muhyi-ad-din an-Nawawi.
والفن شريف في مغزاه لأنه معرفة ما يحفظ به السنن المنقولة عن صاحب الشريعة,"The purpose of the discipline is a noble one. It is concerned with the knowledge of how to preserve the traditions (sunan) transmitted on the authority of the Master of the religious law (Muhammad), until it is definite which are to be accepted and which are to be rejected."
كابن بطال وابن المهلب وابن التين ونحوهم.,"Commentators of this sort include Ibn Battal, Ibn al-Muhallab, Ibn at-Tin, and others."
ولقد سمعت كثيرا من شيوخنا رحمهم الله يقولون: شرح كتاب البخاري دين على الأمة,I have heard many of our teachers say: “The Muslims still have the obligation to write a commentary on al-Bukhari.”
يعنون أن أحدا من علماء الأمة لم يوف ما يجب له من الشرح بهذا الاعتبار.,They meant that no Muslim scholar has so far completely fulfilled the task of a commentator in the sense indicated.
وأما صحيح مسلم فكثرت عناية علماء المغرب به وأكبوا عليه وأجمعوا على تفصيله على كتاب البخاري من غير الصحيح مما لم يكن على شرطه وأكثر ما وقع له في التراجم.,"The Sahih of Muslim has been given much attention by Maghribi scholars. They applied themselves to it and agreed that it was superior to the work of al Bukhari. Ibn as-Salah said: “It is considered superior (by Maghribis and other scholars) to the work of al-Bukhari, because it is free from admixtures of material that is not sound and that al-Bukhari wrote down disregarding his own conditions (of soundness), mostly in connection with the chapter headings.”"
وأملى الإمام المارزي من فقهاء المالكية عليه شرحا وسماه (المعلم بفوائد مسلم),"The imam al-Mazari, a Malikite jurist, dictated a commentary on the Sahih of Muslim which he entitled al-Mu’lim bi fawa’id Muslim."
اشتمل على عيون من علم الحديث وفنون من الفقه,It contains much important source material from the science of tradition and solid juridical knowledge.
ثم أكمله القاضي عياض من بعده وتممه وسماه إكمال المعلم وتلاهما محيي الدين النووي بشرح استوفى ما في الكتابين وزاد عليهما فجاء شرحا وافيا.,"The work was later on perfected by Judge ‘Iyad. He called his work Ikmal al-Mu’lim. The two of them were followed by Muhyi-ad-din an-Nawawl with a commentary containing all the material of the two works and adding to it, thus becoming a complete commentary."
وأما كتب السنن الأخرى وفيها معظم مآخذ الفقهاء فأكثر شرحها في كتب الفقه إلا ما يختص بعلم الحديث فكتب الناس عليها واستوفوا من ذلك ما يحتاج إليه من علم الحديث وموضوعاتها والأسانيد التي اشتملت على الأحاديث المعمول بها من السنة.,"The other three collections of traditions contain the most extensive source material for jurists. Most comment on (that material) is found in the law books, except for those things that are peculiar to the science of tradition. Scholars wrote on (that material) and exhaustively presented in this respect as much as was needed of the sciences of tradition, their subjects, and the collections which contain traditions considered (norms) for action."
واعلم أن الأحاديث قد تميزت مراتبها لهذا العهد بين صحيح وحسن وضعيف ومعلول وغيرها تنزلها أئمة الحديث وجهابذته وعرفوها.,"It should be known that, at this time, traditions are classified in grade as “sound,” “good,” “weak,” “ill,” and so on. The classification was fixed and made known by the leading hadith authorities."
ولم يبق طريق في تصحيح ما يصح من قبل.,"It is no longer possible to declare a tradition sound, that had not been (known as) sound before."
ولقد كان الأئمة في الحديث يعرفون الأحاديث بطرقها وأسانيدها بحيث لو روي حديث بغير سنده وطريقه يفطنون إلى أنه قلب عن وضعه,"The hadith authorities made known the traditions in their various recensions and with their chains of transmitters. They were so thorough in this respect that, if a tradition had been transmitted with a chain of transmitters or in a recension not belonging to it, they would have realized that it had been tampered with."
ولقد وقع مثل ذلك للإمام محمد بن إسماعيل البخاري حين ورد على بغداد وقصد المحدثون امتحانه فسألوه عن أحاديث قبلوا أسانيدها فقال: «لا أعرف هذه ولكن حدثني فلان». ثم أتى بجميع تلك الأحاديث على الوضع الصحيح ورد كل متن إلى سنده وأقروا له بالإمامة.,"Something of the sort happened to the imam Muhammad b. Ismail al-Bukhari. He came to Baghdad, and the hadith scholars wanted to examine him. They asked him about several traditions, transposing the chains of transmitters (cited). He said: “I do not know those traditions, but I was told by so-and-so . . .” and then he repeated all the traditions in the correct order, supplying each text with the chain of transmitters to which it belonged. The hadith scholars (in Baghdad), in consequence, acknowledged (alBukhari’s) leadership."
واعلم أيضا أن الأئمة المجتهدين تفاوتوا في الإكثار من هذه الصناعة والإقلال فأبو حنيفة رضي الله تعالى عنه يقال بلغت روايته إلى سبعة عشر حديثا أو نحوها ومالك رحمه الله إنما صح عنده ما في كتاب الموطإ وغايتها ثلاثمائة حديث أو نحوها.,It should also be known that religious leaders of independent judgment differed in the extent of their knowledge of traditions. It is said that the (number of) traditions that Abu Hanifah transmitted came to only seventeen or so. Malik accepted as sound only the traditions found in the Muwatta’. They are at most three hundred or so.
وأحمد بن حنبل رحمه الله تعالى في مسندة خمسون ألف حديث ولكل ما أداه إليه اجتهاده في ذلك.,"Ahmad b.Hanbal has 50,000 traditions in his Musnad. Each (authority) has as many traditions as his independent judgment in this respect allowed him to have."
وقد تقول بعض المبغضين المتعسفين إلى أن منهم من كان قليل البضاعة في الحديث فلهذا قلت روايته.,"A certain biased, unfair person dared to say that some (of the authorities) knew little about traditions and, therefore, did not transmit many."
ولا سبيل إلى هذا المعتقد في كبار الأئمة لأن الشريعة إنما تؤخذ من الكتاب والسنة. ومن كان قليل البضاعة من الحديث فيتعين عليه طلبه وروايته والجد والتشمير في ذلك ليأخذ الدين عن أصول صحيحة ويتلقى الأحكام عن صاحبها المبلغ لها.,"It is impossible to believe such a thing about the great religious leaders. The religious law is derived from the Qur’an and the Sunnah, and those who know little about traditions definitely have to study and transmit them with eagerness and zeal, in order to be able to derive the religion from (its) sound basic principles and to get the laws from their Master (Muhammad) who brought them from God."
وإنما قلل منهم من قلل الرواية لأجل المطاعن التي تعترضه فيها والعلل التي تعرض في طرقها سيما والجرح مقدم عند الأكثر فيؤديه الاجتهاد إلى ترك الأخذ بما يعرض مثل ذلك فيه من الأحاديث وطرق الأسانيد ويكثر ذلك فتقل روايته لضعف في الطرق.,"Therefore, the great religious leaders who transmitted only a few traditions, did so (not because they knew little about traditions but) because they might have been attacked with regard to the traditions they transmitted, and because their transmission might have been accused of defects, especially since the majority (of scholars) gives preference to negative (as against positive) personality criticism. Therefore, their independent judgment induced them to leave aside traditions and chains of transmitters in which such (defects) might occur and which are numerous. Therefore, they transmitted few traditions, because of the weakness of the ways of transmission."
هذا مع أن أهل الحجاز أكثر رواية للحديث من أهل العراق لأن المدينة دار الهجرة ومأوى الصحابة ومن انتقل منهم إلى العراق كان شغلهم بالجهاد أكثر.,"Furthermore, the Hijazis transmitted more traditions than the ‘Iraqis. Medina was the place to which Muhammad emigrated and where the men around him made their home. Those of them who moved to the ‘Iraq were more occupied with the holy war (than with the transmission of traditions)."
والإمام أبو حنيفة إنما قلت روايته لما شدد في شروط الرواية والتحمل وضعف رواية الحديث اليقيني إذا عارضها الفعل النفسي. وقلت من أجلها رواية فقل حديثه.,"The imam Abu Hanifah transmitted only a few traditions, because he was very strict in applying the conditions governing the transmission and retention of traditions. He declared traditions weak when they were contradicted by decisive logical (arguments). Therefore, it was difficult for him to transmit traditions, and his traditions are few."
لأنه ترك رواية الحديث متعمدا فحاشاه من ذلك. ويدل على أنه من كبار المجتهدين في علم الحديث اعتماد مذهبه بينهم والتعويل عليه واعتباره ردا وقبولا.,"However, it can by no means be assumed that he purposely omitted to transmit traditions. He would not have done such a thing. He was one of the greatest scholars of independent judgment in the science of tradition. This is proven by the fact that the hadith scholars follow his school and refer to it and take it into consideration in rejecting or accepting (arguments)."
وأما غيره من المحدثين وهم الجمهور فتوسعوا في الشروط وكثر حديثهم والكل عن اجتهاد وقد توسع أصحابه من بعده في الشروط وكثرت روايتهم.,"Other hadith scholars, that is, the great majority, permitted a certain latitude in applying the conditions (governing the soundness of traditions). They transmitted many traditions, everyone relying on his own independent judgment. The later (Hanafites) permitted a certain latitude in applying the conditions and transmitted many traditions."
وروى الطحطاوي فأكثر وكتب مسندة وهو جليل القدر إلا أنه لا يعدل الصحيحين لأن الشروط التي اعتمدها البخاري ومسلم في كتابيهما مجمع عليها بين الأمة كما قالوه. وشروط الطحطاوي غير متفق عليها كالرواية عن المستور الحال وغيره فلهذا قدم الصحيحان بل وكتب السنن المعروفة عليه لتأخر شروطه عن شروطهم.,"At-Tahawi was a transmitter who transmitted many traditions. He wrote his Musnad, which is an important work. However, it does not have the same value as the two Sahihs, because the conditions applied by al-Bukhari and Muslim in their works are those accepted by the general consensus of all Muslims, as has been said. The conditions applied by at-Tahawi, on the other hand, are not generally agreed upon. For instance, he transmits traditions on the authority of persons whose condition is obscure, and other things. Therefore, the two Sahihs, as, indeed, the other well-known collections of traditions, are preferable to (at-Tahawi), because his conditions are inferior to theirs."
ومن أجل هذا قيل في الصحيحين بالإجماع على قبولهما من جهة الإجماع على صحة ما فيهما من الشروط المتفق عليها.,"Therefore it is said that the two Sahihs are accepted by general consensus, as there is general consensus concerning the soundness of the conditions applied in them and generally agreed upon."
فلا تأخذك ريبة في ذلك فالقوم أحق الناس بالظن الجميل بهم والتماس المخارج الصحيحة لهم.,"No one should be in any doubt about this. Of all people, scholars most deserve that one have a good opinion of them and that one be eager to find sound excuses for them."
الفصل السابع في علم الفقه وما يتبعه من الفرائض,"12. Jurisprudence and its subdivision, inheritance laws."
الفقه معرفة أحكام الله تعالى في أفعال المكلفين بالوجوب والحذر والندب والكراهة والإباحة وهي متلقاة من الكتاب والسنة وما نصبه الشارع لمعرفتها من الأدلة فإذا استخرجت الأحكام من تلك الأدلة قيل لها فقه.,"Jurisprudence is the knowledge of the classification of the laws of God, which concern the actions of all responsible Muslims, as obligatory, forbidden, recommendable, disliked, or permissible. These (laws) are derived from the Qur’an and the Sunnah (traditions), and from the evidence the Lawgiver (Muhammad) has established for knowledge of (the laws). The laws evolved from the (whole) of this evidence are called “jurisprudence” (fiqh)."
وكان السلف يستخرجونها من تلك الأدلة على اختلاف فيما بينهم. ولا بد من وقوعه ضرورة.,"The early Muslims evolved the laws from that evidence, though, unavoidably, they differed in (the interpretation of) it."
فإن الأدلة غالبها من النصوص وهي بلغة العرب وفي اقتضاءات ألفاظها لكثير من معانيها وخصوصا الأحكام الشرعية اختلاف بينهم معروف.,"The evidence is mainly derived from texts. The texts are in Arabic. In many instances, and especially with regard to legal concepts, there are celebrated differences among them as to the meaning implicit in the words."
وأيضا فالسنة مختلفة الطرق في الثبوت وتتعارض في الأكثر أحكامها فتحتاج إلى الترجيح وهو مختلف أيضا.,"Furthermore, the traditions (Sunnah) differ widely in respect of the reliability of the recensions. Their legal contents, as a rule, are contradictory. Therefore, a decision is needed. This makes for differences of opinion."
فالأدلة من غير النصوص مختلف فيها وأيضا فالوقائع المتجددة لا توفى بها النصوص.,"Furthermore, evidence not derived from texts causes (still other) differences of opinion. Then, there are new cases which arise and are not covered by the texts."
وما كان منها غير ظاهر في المنصوص فيحمل على المنصوص لمشابهة بينهما وهذه كلها إشارات للخلاف ضرورية الوقوع. ومن هنا وقع الخلاف بين السلف والأئمة من بعدهم.,"They are referred by analogy to things that are covered by the texts. All of this serves to stir up unavoidable differences of opinion, and this is why differences of opinion occurred among the early Muslims and the religious leaders after them."
ثم إن الصحابة كلهم لم يكونوا أهل فتيا ولا كان الدين يؤخذ عن جميعهم. وإنما كان ذلك مختصا بالحاملين للقرآن العارفين بناسخه ومنسوخه ومتشابهه ومحكمه وسائر دلالته بما تلقوه من النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم أو ممن سمعه منهم ومن عليتهم.,"Moreover, not all of the men around Muhammad were qualified to give legal decisions. Not all of them could serve as sources for religious (practice). That was restricted to men who knew the Qur’an and were acquainted with the abrogating and abrogated, the ambiguous and unambiguous verses, and with all the rest of the evidence that can be derived from the Qur’an, since they had learned (these matters) from the Prophet directly or from their higher ranking colleagues who had learned it from him."
وكانوا يسمون لذلك القراء أي الذين يقرءون الكتاب لأن العرب كانوا أمة أمية، فاختص من كان منهم قارئا للكتاب بهذا الاسم لغرابته يومئذ.,"These men, therefore, were called “readers,” that is, men who (were able to) read the Qur’an. Because the Arabs were an illiterate nation, those who were able to read the Qur’an were distinguished by the name of “readers.” Their ability to read was a remarkable thing in those days."
وبقي الأمر كذلك صدر الملة.,It continued to be that way at the beginning of Islam.
ثم عظمت أمصار الإسلام وذهبت الأمية من العرب بممارسة الكتاب وتمكن الاستنباط وكمل الفقه وأصبح صناعة وعلما فبدلوا باسم الفقهاء والعلماء من القراء.,"Then, the cities of Islam grew, and illiteracy disappeared from among the Arabs because of their constant occupation with the Qur’an. Now the development (of jurisprudence from its sources) took place. Jurisprudence was perfected and came to be a craft and science. The Qur’an readers were no longer called Qur’an readers but jurists and religious scholars."
وانقسم الفقه فيهم إلى طريقتين: طريقة أهل الرأي والقياس وهم أهل العراق وطريقة أهل الحديث وهم أهل الحجاز.,The jurists developed two different approaches to jurisprudence. One was the use of opinion (reasoning) and analogy. It was represented by the ‘Iraqis. The other was the use of traditions. It was represented by the Hijazis.
وكان الحديث قليلا في أهل العراق لما قدمناه فاستكثروا من القياس ومهروا فيه فلذلك قيل أهل الرأي.,"As we have stated before, few traditions circulated among the ‘Iraqis. Therefore, they made much use of analogy and became skilled in it. That gave them the name of the representatives of opinion (reasoning)."
ومقدم جماعتهم الذي استقر المذهب فيه وفي أصحابه أبو حنيفة وإمام أهل الحجاز مالك بن أنس والشافعي من بعده.,"Their chief, around whom and whose followers their school centered, was the imam Abu Hanifah. The leader of the Hijazis was Malik b. Anas and, after him, ash-Shafi’i."
ثم أنكر القياس طائفة من العلماء وأبطلوا العمل به وهم الظاهرية.,"Later on, a group of religious scholars disapproved of analogy and rejected its use. They were the Zahirites."
وجعلوا المدارك كلها منحصرة في النصوص والإجماع وردوا القياس الجلي والعلة المنصوصة إلى النص، لأن النص على العلة نص على الحكم في جميع محالها.,"They restricted the sources of the law to the texts and the general consensus. They considered obvious analogy and causality suggested by the texts as resting in the texts themselves, because a text that indicates a ratio legis permits legal decision for all the cases covered by (such a kind of reasoning)."
وكان إمام هذا المذهب داود بن علي وابنه وأصحابهما. وكانت هذه المذاهب الثلاثة هي مذاهب الجمهور المشتهرة بين الأمة.,The leaders of this school were Dawud b. ‘Ali and his son and their followers. These were the three schools famous among the great mass of Muslims.
وشذ أهل البيت بمذاهب ابتدعوها وفقه انفردوا به وبنوه على مذهبهم في تناول بعض الصحابة بالقدح، وعلى قولهم بعصمة الأئمة ورفع الخلاف عن أقوالهم وهي كلها أصول واهية وشذ بمثل ذلك الخوارج ولم يحتفل الجمهور بمذاهبهم بل أوسعوها جانب الإنكار والقدح.,"The ‘Alids invented their own school and had their own jurisprudence. They based it upon their dogma requiring abuse of some of the men around Muhammad, and upon their stated opinion concerning the infallibility of the imams and the inadmissibility of differences in their statements. All these are futile principles. The Kharijites similarly had their own school. The great mass did not care for these (unorthodox) schools, but greatly disapproved of them and abused them."
فلا نعرف شيئا من مذاهبهم ولا نروي كتبهم ولا أثر لشيء منها إلا في مواطنهم. فكتب الشيعة في بلادهم وحيث كانت دولتهم قائمة في المغرب والمشرق واليمن والخوارج كذلك.,"Nothing is known of the opinions of these schools. Their books are not being transmitted. No trace of them can be found except in regions inhabited (by these sectarians). The (legal text) books of the Shi’ah are thus found in Shi’ah countries and wherever Shi’ah dynasties exist, in the West, the East, and in the Yemen. The same applies to the Kharijites."
ولكل منهم كتب وتآليف وآراء في الفقه غريبة.,All of them have (legal) writings and books and hold strange opinions on jurisprudence.
ثم درس مذهب أهل الظاهر اليوم بدروس أئمته وإنكار الجمهور على منتحله ولم يبق إلا في الكتب المجلدة وربما يعكف كثير من الطالبين ممن تكلف بانتحال مذهبهم على تلك الكتب يروم أخذ فقههم منها ومذهبهم فلا يخلو بطائل ويصير إلى مخالفة الجمهور وإنكارهم عليه وربما عد بهذه النحلة من أهل البدع بنقله العلم من الكتب من غير مفتاح المعلمين.,"The Zahirite school has become extinct today as the result of the extinction of their religious leaders and disapproval of their adherents by the great mass of Muslims. It has survived only in books, which have eternal life. Worthless persons occasionally feel obliged to follow this school and study these books in the desire to learn the (Zahirite) system of jurisprudence from them, but they get nowhere and encounter the opposition and disapproval of the great mass of Muslims. In doing so, they often are considered innovators, as they accept knowledge from books for which no key is provided by teachers."
وقد فعل ذلك ابن حزم بالأندلس على علو رتبته في حفظ الحديث وصار إلى مذهب أهل الظاهر ومهر فيه باجتهاد زعمه في أقوالهم.,That was done by Ibn Hazm al-Andalusi; although he occupies a high rank in the expert knowledge of traditions. He turned to the Zahirite school and became skilled in it. He gave his own independent interpretation of their stated opinions.
وخالف إمامهم داود وتعرض للكثير من الأئمة المسلمين فنقم الناس ذلك عليه وأوسعوا مذهبه استهجانا وإنكارا، وتلقوا كتبه بالإغفال والترك حتى إنها ليحصر بيعها بالأسواق وربما تمزق في بعض الأحيان. ولم يبق إلا مذهب أهل الرأي من العراق وأهل الحديث من الحجاز.,"He opposed their leader Dawud and attacked most of the Muslim religious leaders. For that, the scholars took their revenge on him. They greatly vilified his school and completely disregarded his books. It went so far that sale of his books on the market was prohibited. At certain times, they were (even) torn up. Nothing has remained except the schools of the representatives of opinion (reasoning) in the `Iraq and of the representatives of traditions in the Hijaz."
فأما أهل العراق فإمامهم الذي استقرت عنده مذاهبهم أبو حنيفة النعمان بن ثابت ومقامه في الفقه لا يلحق شهد له بذلك أهل جلدته وخصوصا مالك والشافعي.,"The leading authority of the `Iraqis, around whom their school centered, was Abu Hanifah an-Nu`man b. Thabit. His place in jurisprudence is unrivaled. This has been attested by persons of his own caliber, in particular, Malik and ash-Shafi’i."
وأما أهل الحجاز فكان إمامهم مالك ابن أنس الأصبحي إمام دار الهجرة رحمه الله تعالى واختص بزيادة مدرك آخر للأحكام غير المدارك المعتبرة عند غيره وهو عمل أهل المدينة لأنه رأى أنهم فيما ينفسون عليه من فعل أو ترك متابعون لمن قبلهم ضرورة لدينهم واقتدائهم، وهكذا إلى الجبل المباشرين لفعل النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم الآخذين ذلك عنه. وصار ذلك عنده من أصول الأدلة الشرعية.,"The leading authority of the IIijazts was Malik b. Anas al-Asbahi, who held the leading position in Medina. He is distinguished by the fact that he added another source of law to those known to other scholars, namely, the practice of the Medinese. He was of the opinion that by virtue of their religion and traditionalism, the Medinese always necessarily followed each immediately preceding generation of Medinese, in respect of what they cared to do or not to do. The (process would have gone back) to the generation that was in contact with the actions of the Prophet, and they would have learned from him (what to do and not to do). In (Malik’s) opinion, the practice of the Medinese, thus, is basic legal evidence."
وظن كثير أن ذلك من مسائل الإجماع فأنكره لأن دليل الإجماع لا يخص أهل المدينة من سواهم بل هو شامل للأمة. واعلم أن الإجماع إنما هو الاتفاق على الأمر الديني عن اجتهاد.,"Many scholars have thought that the (practice of the Medinese) is (rather) one of the problems of the general consensus. Therefore, they have disapproved of (Malik’s use of) it, because use of the general consensus as a source of law is not restricted to the inhabitants of Medina to the exclusion of other (Muslims), but extends to all Muslims. However, it should be known that general consensus means agreement concerning a religious matter on the strength of independent judgment."
ومالك رحمه الله تعالى لم يعتبر عمل أهل المدينة من هذا المعنى وإنما اعتبره من حيث اتباع الجيل بالمشاهدة للجيل إلى أن ينتهي إلى الشارع صلوات الله وسلامه عليه.,"Malik did not consider the practice of the Medinese in this light. He considered it in the light of the continuity of personal observation over successive generations, (going) back to the time of the Lawgiver (Muhammad)."
وضرورة اقتدائهم بعين ذلك يعم الملة ذكرت في باب الإجماع والأبواب بها من حيث ما فيها من الاتفاق الجامع بينها وبين الإجماع.,"The necessity of the traditionalism of the Medinese (caused by the fact that they have such excellent models to follow), supports that (attitude). It is true that the problem (of the practice of the Medinese) has been mentioned in the chapter (of legal works) dealing with the general consensus. This is the most appropriate place for it, because both the (practice of the Medinese) and the general consensus are concerned with agreement."
إلا أن اتفاق أهل الإجماع عن نظر واجتهاد في الأدلة واتفاق هؤلاء في فعل أو ترك مستندين إلى مشاهدة من قبلهم.,"However, the agreement of general consensus is the result of independent judgment and opinion (reasoning), in view of the (available) evidence. The agreement of the Medinese, on the other hand, affects their practice in as much as it involves reliance upon personal observation of (the practice of) their predecessors."
ولو ذكرت المسألة في باب فعل النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم وتقريره أو مع الأدلة المختلف فيها مثل مذهب الصحابي وشرع من قبلنا والاستصحاب لكان أليق بها,"It would, indeed, have been more appropriate if the problem (of the practice of the Medinese) were mentioned in the chapter on the actions of the Prophet, or in connection with (the topic of) evidence concerning which there are differences of opinion – as, for example, (the use as legal evidence) of the law of the religions preceding us (Islam), the (legal) opinions of men around Muhammad, and (the problems of) praesumptio legis (istishab)."
ثم كان من بعد مالك بن أنس محمد بن إدريس المطلبي الشافعي رحمهما الله تعالى. رحل إلى العراق من بعد مالك ولقي أصحاب الإمام أبي حنيفة وأخذ عنهم ومزج طريقة أهل الحجاز بطريقة أهل العراق واختص بمذهب، وخالف مالكا رحمه الله تعالى في كثير من مذهبه.,Malik b. Anas was followed by Muhammad b. Idris al-Muttalibi ash-Shafi’i. He traveled to the ‘Iraq after Malik’s time. He met the followers of the imam Abu Hanifah and learned from them. He combined the approach of the Hijazis with those of the ‘Iraqis. He founded his own school and opposed Malik on many points.
وجاء من بعدهما أحمد بن حنبل رحمه الله. وكان من علية المحدثين وقرأ أصحابه على أصحاب الإمام أبي حنيفة مع وفور بضاعتهم من الحديث فاختصوا بمذهب آخر.,"Malik and ash-Shafi’i were followed by Ahmad b. Hanbal. He was one of the highest-ranking hadith scholars. His followers studied with those of Abu Hanifah, notwithstanding the abundant knowledge of traditions they themselves possessed. They founded another school."
ووقف التقليد في الأمصار عند هؤلاء الأربعة ودرس المقلدون لمن سواهم. وسد الناس باب الخلاف وطرقه لما كثر تشعب الاصطلاحات في العلوم. ولما عاق عن الوصول إلى رتبة الاجتهاد,"These four authorities are the ones recognized by tradition in the (Muslim) cities. Tradition-bound people obliterated all other (authorities), and scholars no longer admit any differences of opinion. The technical terminology of the sciences has become very diversified, and there are obstacles preventing people from attaining the level of independent judgment."
ولما خشي من إسناد ذلك إلى غير أهله ومن لا يوثق برأيه ولا بدينه فصرحوا بالعجز والإعواز وردوا الناس إلى تقليد هؤلاء كل من اختص به من المقلدين.,"It is also feared that (the existence of differences of opinion) might affect unqualified people whose opinion (reasoning) and religion could not be trusted. Thus, (scholars) came to profess their inability (to apply independent judgment), and had the people adopt the tradition of the (authorities) mentioned and of the respective group of adherents of each."
وحظروا أن يتداول تقليدهم لما فيه من التلاعب ولم يبق إلا نقل مذاهبهم. وعمل كل مقلد بمذهب من قلده منهم بعد تصحيح الأصول واتصال سندها بالرواية لا محصول اليوم للفقه غير هذا.,"They forbade one to modify his traditional (allegiance), because that would imply frivolity. All that remained after basic textbooks had been produced in the correct manner, and the continuity of their transmission had been established, was to hand down the respective school traditions and, for each individual adherent, to act in accordance with the traditions of his school. Today, jurisprudence means this, and nothing else."
ومدعي الاجتهاد لهذا العهد مردود على عقبه مهجور تقليده وقد صار أهل الإسلام اليوم على تقليد هؤلاء الأئمة الأربعة.,The person who would claim independent judgment nowadays would be frustrated and have no adherents. The Muslims today follow the tradition of one of the four (authorities).
فأما أحمد بن حنبل فمقلده قليل لبعد مذهبه عن الاجتهاد وأصالته في معاضدة الرواية وللأخبار بعضها ببعض. وأكثرهم بالشام والعراق من بغداد ونواحيها وهم أكثر الناس حفظا للسنة ورواية الحديث وميلا بالاستنباط إليه عن القياس ما أمكن.,"The adherents of Ibn Hanbal are few in number. Most of them are in Syria and in the ‘Iraq, that is, in Baghdad and environs. They are the people who have the best knowledge of the Sunnah and of the transmission of traditions and prefer them to analogical reasoning as a source of law, as far as possible."
وكان لهم ببغداد صولة وكثرة حتى كانوا يتواقعون مع الشيعة في نواحيها. وعظمت الفتنة من أجل ذلك ثم انقطع ذلك عند استيلاء التتر عليها. ولم يراجع وصارت كثرتهم بالشام.,"They were strong and numerous in Baghdad, until they clashed with the Shi’ah in the territory of (Baghdad). That caused much unrest in Baghdad. It stopped when the Tatars took possession of Baghdad, and was never resumed later on. The majority of Hanbalites are now to be found in Syria."
وأما أبو حنيفة فقلده اليوم أهل العراق ومسلمة الهند والصين وما وراء النهر وبلاد العجم كلها.,"Abu Hanifah’s adherents today are the ‘Iraqis and the Muslims of India, China, Transoxania, and all the non-Arab (Persian-Turkish) countries."
ولما كان مذهبه أخص بالعراق ودار السلام وكان تلميذه صحابة الخلفاء من بني العباس فكثرت تآليفهم ومناظراتهم مع الشافعية وحسنت مباحثهم في الخلافيات، وجاءوا منها بعلم مستظرف وأنظار غريبة وهي بين أيدي الناس.,His school had formerly been restricted rather to Baghdad and the ‘Iraq. There had been pupils of his at the court of the ‘Abbasid caliphs. Their writings were numerous and their disputations with the Shafi’ites were frequent. Their ways of dealing with controversial questions were excellent. They made a nice discipline out of (the subject of controversial questions) and developed remarkable ideas in this connection. All that is in the hands of scholars.
وبالمغرب منها شيء قليل نقله إليه القاضي بن العربي وأبو الوليد الباجي في رحلتهما.,The Maghrib has some knowledge of it. It was brought there by Judge Ibn al-‘Arabi and Abul-Walid al-Baji from their travels.
وأما الشافعي فمقلدوه بمصر أكثر مما سواها وقد كان انتشر مذهبه بالعراق وخراسان وما وراء النهر وقاسموا الحنفية في الفتوى والتدريس في جميع الأمصار.,"Ash-Shafi’i has more adherents in Egypt than anywhere else. His school had formerly spread through the ‘Iraq, Khurasan, and Transoxania. The Shafi’ites had shared with the Hanafites the task of giving legal decisions and teaching in all (Muslim) cities."
وعظمت مجالس المناظرات بينهم وشحنت كتب الخلافيات بأنواع استدلالاتهم. ثم درس ذلك كله بدروس المشرق وأقطاره.,"They had many discussion meetings, and the books on controversial questions are full of the various kinds of (Shafi’ite) argumentation. Later on, all this stopped when the eastern countries were wiped out."
وكان الإمام محمد بن إدريس الشافعي لما نزل على بني عبد الحكم بمصر أخذ عنه جماعة منهم.,"When the imam Muhammad b. Idris ash-Shafi’i took up his residence with the ‘Abd-al-Hakam family in Egypt, a number of them studied with him."
وكان من تلميذه بها: البويطي والمزني وغيرهم،,"His pupils in Egypt included al-Buwayti, al-Muzani, and others."
وكان بها من المالكية جماعة من بني عبد الحكم وأشهب وابن القاسم وابن المواز وغيرهم ثم الحارس بن مسكين وبنوه ثم القاضي أبو إسحاق بن شعبان وأولاده.,"Malikites in Egypt were certain members of the ‘Abd-al-Hakam family, Ashhab, Ibn alQasim, Ibn alMawwaz, and, further, al-Harith b. Miskin and his family; then, Judge Abu Ishaq b. Sha’ban and his followers."
ثم انقرض فقه أهل السنة من مصر بظهور دولة الرافضة وتداول بها فقه أهل البيت وتلاشى من سواهم وارتحل إليها القاضي عبد الوهاب من بغداد، آخر المائة الرابعة على ما أعلم، من الحاجة والتقليب في المعاش.,"Orthodox jurisprudence was then cut off from Egypt by the appearance of the Shi’ah dynasty. ‘Alid jurisprudence came into use there. All the other (schools with their) scholars were on the point of complete disappearance, when Judge ‘Abd-al-Wahhab came to Egypt from Baghdad at the end of the fourth [tenth] century, because he was in need and had to seek a livelihood."
فتأذن خلفاء العبيديين بإكرامه، وإظهار فضله نعيا على بني العباس في اطراح مثل هذا الإمام، والاغتباط به.,"The ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimid) caliphs proceeded to honor him. They advertised his great qualifications, in order to be able to blame the ‘Abbasids for driving out such a religious leader, and showed satisfaction with him."
فنفقت سوق المالكية بمصر قليلا، إلى أن ذهبت دولة العبيديين من الرافضة على يد صلاح الدين يوسف بن أيوب فذهب منها فقه أهل البيت وعاد فقه الجماعة إلى الظهور بينهم ورجع إليهم فقه الشافعي وأصحابه من أهل العراق والشام فعاد إلى أحسن ما كان ونفقت سوقه واشتهر منهم محيي الدين النووي من الحلبة التي ربيت في ظل الدولة الأيوبية بالشام وعز الدين بن عبد السلام أيضا. ثم ابن الرقعة بمصر وتقي الدين بن دقيق العيد ثم تقي الدين السبكي بعدهما إلى أن انتهى ذلك إلى شيخ الإسلام بمصر لهذا العهد وهو سراج الدين البلقيني فهو اليوم أكبر الشافعية بمصر كبير العلماء بل أكبر العلماء من أهل العصر.,"As a result, the Malikite school saw some flourishing in Egypt, until the extremist Shi’ah ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimid) dynasty was wiped out by Salah-ad-din b. Ayyub. That meant the end of ‘Alid jurisprudence in Egypt and the return of orthodox jurisprudence among the Egyptians. The jurisprudence of ash-Shafi’i and his ‘Iraqi followers now flourished (in Egypt). It turned out to be in a better position than before, and was greatly cultivated. The book of ar-Rafi’i was imported from the ‘Iraq into Syria and Egypt. Among famous Shaft’ites were Muhyi-ad-din an-Nawawi, one of the champions who had grown up in the shadow of the Ayyubid dynasty in Syria, further, ‘Izz-ad-din b. ‘Abd-as-Salam, then, Ibn ar-Raf’ah in Egypt, and Taqi-ad-din b. Daqiqal-‘id. After the latter two, there was Taqi-ad-din asSubki. Finally, (Shafi’ite leadership) was assumed by the present Shaykh of Islam in Egypt, Siraj-ad-din al-Bulqini. He is the greatest Shafi’ite in Egypt today and, indeed, the greatest Egyptian religious scholar."
وأما مالك رحمه الله تعالى فاختص بمذهبه أهل المغرب والأندلس. وإن كان يوجد في غيرهم إلا أنهم لم يقلدوا غيره إلا في القليل لما أن رحلتهم كانت غالبا إلى الحجاز وهو منتهى سفرهم.,"Malik’s school was restricted to Maghribis and Spaniards, even though it was also found among other peoples. However, (Maghribis and Spaniards) very rarely follow other schools. (This situation is explained by the fact that) they mostly traveled to the Hijaz. There, their journey ended."
والمدينة يومئذ دار العلم ومنها خرج إلى العراق ولم يكن العراق في طريقهم فاقتصروا عن الأخذ عن علماء المدينة. وشيخهم يومئذ وإمامهم مالك وشيوخه من قبله وتلميذه من بعده. فرجع إليه أهل المغرب والأندلس وقلدوه دون غيره ممن لم تصل إليهم طريقته.,"Medina, at that time, was the home of religious scholarship, which spread to the ‘Iraq from there. The ‘Iraq did not lie in the way of (the travels of the Maghribis and the Spaniards). Thus, they restricted themselves to studying with the scholars of Medina, that is, with Malik, the leading Medinese scholar at that time, as with his teachers before him and with his pupils after him. Thus, Maghribis and Spaniards (always) referred to (Malik) and became his adherents and nobody else’s, as the methods of other (authorities) did not reach them."
وأيضا فالبداوة كانت غالبة على أهل المغرب والأندلس ولم يكونوا يعانون الحضارة التي لأهل العراق فكانوا إلى أهل الحجاز أميل لمناسبة البداوة، ولهذا لم يزل المذهب المالكي غضا عندهم، ولم يأخذه تنقيح الحضارة وتهذيبها كما وقع في غيره من المذاهب.,"Furthermore, the desert attitude was predominant among Maghribis and Spaniards. They did not care for sedentary culture, such as existed among the ‘Iraqis. Therefore, they were more inclined toward the Hijazis, because the Hijazis also had the desert attitude. Thus, the Malikite school among them always retained its simplicity and was not affected by the refinement and improvement of sedentary culture that took effect in other schools."
ولما صار مذهب كل إمام علما مخصوصا عند أهل مذهبه ولم يكن لهم سبيل إلى الاجتهاد والقياس فاحتاجوا إلى تنظير المسائل في الإلحاق وتفريقها عند الاشتباه بعد الاستناد إلى الأصول المقررة من مذاهب إمامهم.,"The school doctrine of each authority became, among his adherents, a scholarly discipline in its own right. They were no longer in a position to apply independent judgment and analogy. Therefore, they had to make reference to the established principles from the school doctrine of their authority, in order to be able to analyze problems in their context and disentangle them when they got confused."
وصار ذلك كله يحتاج إلى ملكة راسخة يقتدر بها على ذلك النوع من التنظير أو التفرقة واتباع مذهب إمامهم فيهما ما استطاعوا.,A firmly rooted habit was required to enable a person to undertake such analysis and disentanglement and to apply the school doctrine of his particular authority to those (processes) according to the best of his ability.
وهذه الملكة هي علم الفقه لهذا العهد.,This habit is (what is meant) at this time by the science of jurisprudence.
وأهل المغرب جميعا مقلدون لمالك رحمه الله. وقد كان تلاميذه افترقوا بمصر والعراق، فكان بالعراق منهم القاضي إسماعيل وطبقته مثل ابن خويز منداد وابن اللبان والقاضي وأبي بكر الأبهري والقاضي أبي حسين بن القصار والقاضي عبد الوهاب ومن بعدهم. وكان بمصر ابن القاسم وأشهب وابن عبد الحكم والحارث بن مسكين وطبقتهم ورحل من الأندلس يحيى بن يحيى الليثي، ولقي مالكا. وروى عنه كتاب الموطأ، وكان من جملة أصحابه.,"All Maghribis are adherents of Malik. His pupils were formerly spread over Egypt and the ‘Iraq. In the ‘Iraq, they were represented by Judge Ismail and his contemporaries, such as Ibn Khuwazmandad, Ibn al-Muntab, Judge Abu Bakr al-Abhari, Judge Abul-Hasan b. al-Qassar, Judge ‘Abd-al-Wahhab, and their successors. In Egypt, there was Ibn al-Qasim, Ashhab, Ibn ‘Abd-alHakam, al-Harith b. Miskin, and their contemporaries. Yahya b. Yahya alLaythi traveled from Spain (to the East) and met Malik and transmitted the Muwatta’ on his authority. He was an important pupil of Malik."
ورحل بعده عبد الملك بن حبيب فأخذ عن ابن القاسم وطبقته وبث مذهب مالك في الأندلس ودون فيه كتاب الواضحة. ثم دون العتبي من تلامذته كتاب العتبية.,"Also, ‘Abd-al-Malik b. Habib traveled from Spain (to the East) and studied with Ibn alasim and his contemporaries. He spread the school of Malik in Spain. He wrote a systematic work on it, in the Kitab al-Wadihah. A pupil of his, al-‘Utbi, wrote the ‘Utbiyah."
ورحل من إفريقية أسد بن الفرات فكتب عن أصحاب أبي حنيفة أولا، ثم انتقل إلى مذهب مالك.,"Asad b. al-Furat traveled from Ifrigiyah (to the East) and studied first with the followers of Abu Hanifah, but then changed over to the school of Malik."
وكتب على ابن القاسم في سائر أبواب الفقه وجاء إلى القيروان بكتابه وسمي الأسدية نسبة إلى أسد بن الفرات، فقرأ بها سحنون على أسد ثم ارتحل إلى المشرق ولقي ابن القاسم وأخذ عنه وعارضه بمسائل الأسدية فرجع عن كثير منها. وكتب سحنون مسائلها ودونها وأثبت ما رجع عنه منها,"He studied with Ibn al-Qasim all the chapters of jurisprudence and wrote down what he learned. He brought his book back to al-Qayrawan. It was called al-Asadiyah, after Asad b. al-Furat. Sahnun studied it with Asad (himself). He, then, traveled to the East and met Ibn al-Qasim. He studied with him and confronted him with the problems of the Asadiyah. He reconsidered many of them,"
وكتب لأسد وأن يأخذ بكتاب سحنون فأنف من ذلك فترك الناس كتابه واتبعوا مدونة سحنون على ما كان فيها من اختلاط المسائل في الأبواب فكانت تسمى المدونة والمختلطة.,"and Sahnun wrote down his own problems in a systematic work, and stated which of the problems of the Asadiyah he had reconsidered. Ibn al-Qasim and he together wrote to Asad and asked him to delete from the Asadiyah the problems that had been reconsidered (by Ibn al-Qasim and Sahnun) and to accept the book of Sahnun. Asad, however, refused to do that. As a result, people disregarded Asad’s book and followed the Mudawwanah ofSahnun, despite the fact that (in the Mudawwanah) different problems were (confusingly) lumped together in the various chapters. Therefore, the
Mudawwanah was called Mudawwanah-and-Mukhtalitah (the “mixed up, confused one”)."
وعكف أهل القيروان على هذه المدونة وأهل الأندلس على الواضحة والعتبية.,"The inhabitants of al-Qayrawan concentrated upon the Mudawwanah, whereas the Spaniards concentrated upon the Wadihah and the ‘Utbiyah."
ثم اختصر ابن أبي زيد المدونة والمختلطة في كتابه المسمى بالمختصر ولخصه أيضا أبو سعيد البرادعي من فقهاء القيروان في كتابه المسمى بالتهذيب وأعتمده المشيخة من أهل إفريقية وأخذوا به وتركوا ما سواه.,"Ibn Abi Zayd, then, made a compendium of the Mudawwanah-andMukhtalitah in a book entitled al-Mukhtasar. One of the jurists of al-Qayrawan, Abu Sa’id al-Baradhi’i, also made a compendium of it in a book entitled atTahdhib. The shaykhs of Ifriqiyah used the Tahdhib as their textbook. They accepted it and disregarded all other works."
وكذلك اعتمد أهل الأندلس كتاب العتبية وهجروا الواضحة وما سواها.,"In the same way, the Spaniards used the ‘Utbiyah as their textbook and kept away from the Wadihah and other works."
ولم تزل علماء المذهب يتعاهدون هذه الأمهات بالشرح والإيضاح والجمع فكتب أهل إفريقية على المدونة ما شاء الله أن يكتبوا مثل ابن يونس واللخمي وابن محرز التونسي وابن بشير وأمثالهم.,"Malikite scholars have never ceased writing commentaries, explanations, and synopses of these main works. The people of Ifrigiyah wrote a good deal on the Mudawwanah. Scholars such as Ibn Yunus, al-Lakhmi, Ibn Muhriz, atTunisi, Ibn Bashir, and others, wrote on it."
وكتب أهل الأندلس على العتبية ما شاء الله أن يكتبوا مثل ابن رشد وأمثاله.,The Spaniards wrote a good deal on the ‘Utbiyah. Scholars such as Ibn Rushd and others wrote on it.
وجمع ابن أبي زيد جميع ما في الأمهات من المسائل والخلاف والأقوال في كتاب النوادر فاشتمل على جميع أقوال المذاهب وفرع الأمهات كلها في هذا الكتاب ونقل ابن يونس معظمه في كتابه على المدونة وزخرت بحار المذهب المالكي في الأفقين إلى انقراض دولة قرطبة والقيروان.,"Ibn Abi Zayd collected all the problems, contradictions, and statements from the main works in the Kitab anNawadir. He dealt with all the stated opinions of the school and listed in detail in that book the contents of all the main works. Most of it was taken over by Ibn Yunus into his book on the Mudawwanah. The Malikite school was very actively cultivated in the two countries (Spain and northwestern Africa), until the dynasties of Cordoba and al-Qayrawan were destroyed."
ثم تمسك بهما أهل المغرب بعد ذلك,"Later on, the Maghribis held on to the (Malikite tradition of the) two (cities)."
(إلى أن جاء كتاب أبي عمرو بن الحاجب لخص فيه طرق أهل المذهب في كل باب وتعديد أقوالهم في كل مسألة فجاء كالبرنامج للمذهب.,"Eventually, there appeared the book of Abu ‘Amr b. alHajib, in which he summarized the various approaches of the Malikite (authorities) to every subject and enumerated their statements on every individual problem. Thus, his work came to be a kind of synopsis of the school."
وكانت الطريقة المالكية بقيت في مصر من لدن الحارث بن مسكين وابن المبشر وابن اللهيث وابن الرشيق وابن شاس.,"The Malikite school had been in Egypt since the times of al-Harith b. Miskin, Ibn al-Muyassar, Ibn al-Lahib, Ibn Rashiq, and Ibn Shas."
وكانت بالإسكندرية في بني عوف وبني سند وابن عطاء الله.,"In Alexandria, it was cultivated by the ‘Awf and Sanad families, and by Ibn ‘Ata’llah."
ولم أدر عمن أخذها أبو عمرو بن الحاجب لكنه جاء بعد انقراض دولة العبيديين وذهاب فقه أهل البيت وظهور فقهاء السنة من الشافعية والمالكية,"I do not know from whom Abu ‘Amr b. al-Hajib got his knowledge of the Malikite school, but
he lived after the destruction of the ‘Ubaydid(-Fatimid) dynasty and the disappearance of ‘Alid jurisprudence and after the orthodox Shdf’ite and Malikite jurisprudence had reappeared (in Egypt)."
وانتشر بقطر بجاية في تلميذه، ومنهم انتقل إلى سائر الأمصار المغربية وطلبة الفقه بالمغرب لهذا العهد يتداولون قراءته ويتدارسونه لما يؤثر عن الشيخ ناصر الدين من الترغيب فيه.,"It spread among his pupils in the region of Bougie and was introduced by them into all the other cities of the Maghrib. Contemporary Maghribi students of jurisprudence use and study it, because of the interest the shaykh Nasir-ad-din is said to have aroused in it."
وقد شرحه جماعة من شيوخهم: كابن عبد السلام وابن رشد وابن هارون وكلهم من مشيخة أهل تونس وسابق حلبتهم في الإجادة في ذلك ابن عبد السلام,"A number of Maghribi shaykhs, such as Ibn ‘Abd-asSalim, Ibn Rashid, and Ibn Harun, commented on it. All of them are shaykhs of Tunis. Their principal champion in this respect is Ibn ‘Abd-as-Salam."
وهم مع ذلك يتعاهدون كتاب التهذيب في دروسهم.,"In addition, they use the Kitab at-TahdhIb as textbook in their teaching."
والله يهدي من يشاء إلى صراط مستقيم 2: 213.,“God guides whomever He wants to guide.”
الفصل الثامن في علم الفرائض,The science of inheritance laws
وهو معرفة فروض الوراثة وتصحيح سهام الفريضة مما تصح باعتبار فروضها الأصول أو مناسختها.,The science of inheritance laws is the knowledge of estate division and the correct determination of the proper shares in an estate with regard to the relation of the individual shares to the basic divisions. It also includes (the knowledge of) the readjustment of shares (munasakhah).
وذلك إذا هلك أحد الورثة وانكسرت سهامه على فروض ورثته فإنه حينئذ يحتاج إلى حسب تصحيح الفريضة الأولى حتى يصل أهل الفروض جميعا في الفريضتين إلى فروضهم من غير تجزئة. وقد تكون هذه المناسخات أكثر من واحد واثنين وتتعدد لذلك بعدد أكثر. وبقدر ما تحتاج إلى الحسبان,"(Such readjustment) is necessary when one of the (original) heirs dies and his portion is to be distributed among his heirs. This requires a calculation to adjust the first division of the estate, so that all the heirs who are entitled to shares in the estate get (to know) their shares without an (actual) distribution (taking place[?]). Such readjustments may have to be undertaken more than once or twice. Thus, there may be a greater number of them. Every time, a (new) calculation is needed."
وكذلك إذا كانت فريضة ذات وجهين مثل أن يقر بعض الورثة بوارث وينكره الآخر فتصحح على الوجهين حينئذ.,"Also, the division of an estate may have to consider two possibilities, in that, for instance, one heir may acknowledge an(other) heir, while a (third) heir does not acknowledge (that second heir). Then, the division of the estate is adjusted (and figured out) according to the two possibilities, and the amount of the shares is considered."
وينظر مبلغ السهام ثم تقسم التركة على نسب سهام الورثة من أصل الفريضة.,"Then, the estate is divided among the heirs in shares proportionate to the basic fractions."
وكل ذلك يحتاج إلى الحسبان وكان غالبا فيه وجعلوه فنا مفردا.,"All this requires calculation. Therefore, jurists made of it a separate subject, because, in addition to jurisprudence, it requires calculation as the predominant element in it. They considered it a discipline in its own right."
وللناس فيه تآليف كثيرة أشهر ما عند المالكية من متأخري الأندلس كتاب ابن ثابت ومختصر القاضي أبي القاسم الحوفي ثم الجعدي,"Scholars have written many works on it. The most famous work on the subject among the more recent Spanish Malikites is the work of Ibn Thabit and the Mukhtasar ofJudge Abul-Qasim al-Hawfi, and then (the one by) al-Ja’di."
ومن متأخري إفريقية ابن النمر الطرابلسي وأمثالهم.,"Among the more recent Africans who wrote on the subject, there is Ibn alMunammar at-Tarabulusi, and others."
وأما الشافعية والحنفية والحنابلة فلهم فيه تآليف كثيرة وأعمال عظيمة صعبة شاهدة لهم باتساع الباع في الفقه والحساب,"The Shafi’ites, Hanafites, and Hanbalites have (also) written many works on the subject. They have given important and difficult practical instances showing their competence in jurisprudence and calculation."
وخصوصا أبا المعالي رضي الله تعالى عنه وأمثاله من أهل المذاهب وهو فن شريف لجمعه بين المعقول والمنقول والوصول به إلى الحقوق في الوراثات بوجوه صحيحة يقينية عند ما تجهل الحظوظ وتشكل على القاسمين.,"There is, especially, Abul-Ma’ali (Imam al-Haramayn) and similar jurists. This is a noble discipline. It combines intellectual and traditional knowledge. It figures the claims in inheritance matters in a sound and definite way, whenever those who are charged with the division of an estate do not know the portion (of the estate that should go to each heir) and have difficulties with it."
وللعلماء من أهل الأمصار بها عناية. ومن المصنفين من يحتاج فيها إلى الغلو في الحساب وفرض المسائل التي تحتاج إلى استخراج المجهولات من فنون الحساب كالجبر والمقابلة والتصرف في الجذور وأمثال ذلك فيملئون بها تآليفهم.,"Religious scholars in the Muslim cities have paid much attention to it. Some authors are inclined to exaggerate the mathematical side of the discipline and to pose problems requiring for their solution various branches of arithmetic, such as algebra, the use of roots, and similar things. They fill their works with such matters."
وهو وإن لم يكن متداولا بين الناس ولا يفيد فيما يتداولونه من وراثتهم لغرابته وقلة وقوعه فهو يفيد المران وتحصيل الملكة في المتداول على أكمل الوجوه.,"It is not something that is much used by the people, and it is of no practical use for them in their inheritance matters, because it deals with unusual and rare cases. However, it is useful for practice and offers the best opportunity for acquiring the proper habit, (which can then be) applied to actual cases."
وقد يحتج الأكثر من أهل هذا الفن على فضله بالحديث المنقول عن أبي هريرة رضي الله عنه أن الفرائض ثلث العلم وأنها أول ما ينسى,"Most of the scholars who are concerned with this discipline refer, in order to prove its excellence, to the following tradition, which is transmitted on the authority of Abu Hurayrah: “The fard’id (inheritance laws) constitute onethird of (religious) scholarship, and they are the first (discipline) to be forgotten.”"
وفي رواية نصف العلم خرجه أبو نعيم الحافظ واحتج به أهل الفرائض بناء على أن المراد بالفرائض فروض الوراثة.,"Another recension has: “Onehalf of (religious) scholarship.” The tradition was published by the hadIth expert Abu Nu’aym. People who are concerned with inheritance laws use it as an argument (in favor of the importance of their science), because they think that
fard’id in the tradition quoted refers to estate division (furud)."
والذي يظهر أن هذا المحل بعيد وأن المراد بالفرائض إنما هي الفرائض التكليفية في العبادات والعادات والمواريث وغيرها.,"However, it is obvious that such an interpretation is farfetched. Fard’id here is intended to mean “obligations” (furud) imposed upon Muslims in connection with religious worship, customs, matters of inheritance, and other things."
وبهذا المعنى يصح فيها النصفية والثلثية.,"If understood in this sense, it is correct to state that (the fard’id) constitute one-half or one-third of scholarship."
وأما فروض الوراثة فهي أقل من ذلك كله بالنسبة إلى علم الشريعة كلها يعني هذا المراد أن حمل لفظ الفرائض على هذا الفن المخصوص أو تخصيصه بفروض الوراثة إنما هو اصطلاح ناشئ للفقهاء عند حدوث الفنون والاصطلاحات.,"The inheritance laws (by themselves) constitute a much lesser portion of religious scholarship as a whole. This interpretation of the meaning of fard’id in the tradition quoted, is supported by the fact that the application of the word fard’id to a particular discipline, or its restriction to estate division, is part of the technical terminology the jurists created when the various disciplines and terminologies came into existence."
ولم يكن صدر الإسلام يطلق على هذا إلا على عمومه مشتقا من الفرض الذي هو لغة التقدير أو القطع.,"At the beginning of Islam, the word (fard’id) was used only in a general way. It was derived from fard, which means “to determine” or “to cut.”"
وما كان المراد به في إطلاقه إلا جميع الفروض كما قلناه وهي حقيقته الشرعية,"It was intended to be used for all the furud “obligations,” as we have stated. Such was its actual use in the religious law."
فلا ينبغي أن يحمل إلا على ما كان يحمل في عصرهم فهو أليق بمرادهم منه.,"(In interpreting the tradition quoted,) the word must not be taken to mean anything but what it meant at the time of the (early Muslims). That indicates most correctly what they meant by it."
والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم,And God knows better.
الفصل التاسع في أصول الفقه وما يتعلق به من الجدل والخلافيات,"13. The science of the principles of jurisprudence
and its subdivisions, dialectics and
controversial questions."
اعلم أن أصول الفقه من أعظم العلوم الشرعية وأجلها قدرا وأكثرها فائدة وهو النظر في الأدلة الشرعية من حيث تؤخذ منها الأحكام والتآليف.,"It should be known that the science of the principles of jurisprudence is one of the greatest, most important, and most useful disciplines of the religious law. It is concerned with the evidence of the religious law from which the laws and legal obligations of the Muslims are derived."
وأصول الأدلة الشرعية هي الكتاب الذي هو القرآن ثم السنة المبنية له.,"The basic sources of legal evidence are the Book -that is, the Qur’an – and, then, the Sunnah, which clarifies the Qur’an."
فعلى عهد النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم كانت الأحكام تتلقى منه بما يوحى إليه من القرآن ويبينه بقوله وفعله بخطاب شفاهي لا يحتاج إلى نقل ولا إلى نظر وقياس.,"At the time of the Prophet, the laws were received (directly) from him. He possessed the Qur’anic revelation, and he explained it directly by his words and deeds. No transmission, speculation, or analogical reasoning was needed."
ومن بعده صلوات الله وسلامه عليه تعذر الخطاب الشفاهي وانحفظ القرآن بالتواتر.,"After the Prophet’s death, direct (explanation of the Qur’an’s legal significance) was no longer possible. The Qur’an was preserved through a general and continuous transmission."
وأما السنة فأجمع الصحابة رضوان الله تعالى عليهم على وجوب العمل بما يصل إلينا منها قولا أو فعلا بالنقل الصحيح الذي يغلب على الظن صدقه.,"As to the Sunnah, the men around Muhammad all agreed that it is necessary for us to act in accordance with whatever of it has reached us, as statement or practice, through a sound tradition that can be assumed to be truthful."
وتعينت دلالة الشرع في الكتاب والسنة بهذا الاعتبار ثم ينزل الإجماع منزلتهما لإجماع الصحابة على النكير على مخالفيهم.,"It is in this sense that legal evidence is determined by Qur’an and Sunnah. Then, general consensus (ijma’) took its place next to (Qur’an and Sunnah). The men around Muhammad agreed to disapprove of those who held opinions different from theirs."
ولا يكون ذلك إلا عن مستند لأن مثلهم لا يتفقون من غير دليل ثابت مع شهادة الأدلة بعصمة الجماعة فصار الإجماع دليلا ثابتا في الشرعيات.,"They would not have done that without some basis for doing so, because people like the men around Muhammad do not agree upon something without a valid argument. In addition, the evidence attests the infallibility of the whole group. Thus, general consensus became a valid proof in legal matters."
ثم نظرنا في طرق استدلال الصحابة والسلف بالكتاب والسنة فإذا هم يقيسون الأشباه بالأشباه منهما، ويناظرون الأمثال بالأمثال بإجماع منهم، وتسليم بعضهم لبعض في ذلك.,"Then, we looked into the methods according to which the men around Muhammad and the early generations made their deductions from Qur’an and Sunnah. It was found that they compared similar (cases) and drew conclusions from analogy, in that they either all agreed or some of them made concessions in this connection to others."
فإن كثيرا من الواقعات بعده صلوات الله وسلامه عليه لم تندرج في النصوص الثابتة فقاسوها بما ثبت وألحقوها بما نص عليه بشروط في ذلك الإلحاق، تصحح تلك المساواة بين الشبيهين أو المثلين. حتى يغلب على الظن أن حكم الله تعالى فيهما واحد,"Many of the things that happened after the Prophet are not included in the established texts. Therefore, they compared and combined them with the established indications that are found in the texts, (and drew their conclusions from analogy) according to certain rules that governed their combinations. This assured the soundness of their comparison of two similar (cases), so that it could be assumed that one and the same divine law covered both cases."
وصار ذلك دليلا شرعيا بإجماعهم عليه، وهو القياس وهو رابع الأدلة.,"This became (another kind of) legal evidence, because the (early Muslims) all agreed upon it. This is analogy (qiyas), the fourth kind of evidence."
واتفق جمهور العلماء على أن هذه هي أصول الأدلة وإن خالف بعضهم في الإجماع والقياس إلا أنه شذوذ.,The great mass of religious scholars is agreed that these are the four basic kinds of evidence. Some scholars differed on the matters of general consensus and analogy. But this is exceptional.
وألحق بعضهم بهذه الأدلة الأربعة أدلة أخرى لا حاجة بنا إلى ذكرها، لضعف مداركها وشذوذ القول فيها. فكان من أول مباحث هذا الفن النظر في كون هذه أدلة.,"Others added further kinds of evidence to the four. We do not have to mention them here, because the basis (upon which they rest) is weak, and they are rarely referred to. The first task of this discipline is to study the (right of) existence of the four kinds of evidence."
فأما الكتاب فدليله المعجزة القاطعة في متنه والتواتر في نقله، فلم يبق فيه مجال للاحتمال.,"(1) Proofs for the Qur’an are the decisively miraculous, (inimitable) character of its text, and the general continuity of its transmission. This leaves no room for any doubt."
وأما السنة وما نقل إلينا منها فالإجماع على وجوب العمل بما يصح منها كما قلناه، معتضدا بما كان عليه العمل في حياته صلوات الله وسلامه عليه من إنفاذ الكتب والرسل إلى النواحي بالأحكام والشرائع آمرا وناهيا.,"(2) The Sunnah, as it has been transmitted to us, is justified by the general consensus (to the effect) that Muslims must act in accordance with traditions that are sound, as we have mentioned before. This is supported by Muhammad’s practice, during his lifetime, of sending letters and messengers to the various regions with legal and religious commands and prohibitions."
وأما الإجماع فلاتفاقهم رضوان الله تعالى عليهم على إنكار مخالفتهم مع العصمة الثابتة للأمة.,"(3) The general consensus is justified by the fact that the men around Muhammad had agreed to disapprove of those who held opinions different from theirs. In addition, there is the established infallibility of the Muslim nation (as a whole)."
وأما القياس فبإجماع الصحابة رضي الله عنهم عليه كما قدمناه. هذه أصول الأدلة.,"(4) Analogy is justified by the general consensus of the men around Muhammad concerning its (admissibility), as we have mentioned before. These are the basic kinds of evidence."
ثم إن المنقول من السنة محتاج إلى تصحيح الخبر بالنظر في طرق النقل وعدالة الناقلين لتتميز الحالة المحصلة للظن بصدقة الذي هو مناط وجوب العمل بالخير.,"The transmitted traditions of the Sunnah need verification through an investigation of the ways of transmission and the probity (‘adalah) of transmitters, so that the likelihood of the truthfulness of the transmitted information, which is the basis for the necessity to act in accordance with it, becomes clear."
وهذه أيضا من قواعد الفن.,This also is one of the basic subjects of the discipline.
ويلحق بذلك عند التعارض بين الخبرين وطلب المتقدم منها معرفة الناسخ والمنسوخ وهي من فصوله أيضا وأبوابه.,"Added to this is the knowledge of abrogating and abrogated traditions, when two traditions are mutually contradictory and the earlier one of the two is sought. This, too, is another subject of the discipline."
ثم بعد ذلك يتعين النظر في دلالة الألفاظ وذلك أن استفادة المعاني على الإطلاق من تراكيب الكلام على الإطلاق يتوقف على معرفة الدلالات الوضعية مفردة ومركبة.,"After that, there comes the study of the meaning of words. This is because one depends upon knowledge of the conventional meanings of single or composite utterances, for deriving ideas in general from word combinations in general."
والقوانين اللسانية في ذلك هي علوم النحو والتصريف والبيان.,"The philological norms needed in this connection are found in the sciences of grammar, inflection, and syntax and style."
وحين كان الكلام ملكة لأهله لم تكن هذه علوما ولا قوانين ولم يكن الفقه حينئذ يحتاج إليها لأنها جبلة وملكة.,"Now, when speech was a habit of those who used it, these (linguistic matters) were neither sciences nor norms. At that time, jurists did not need them, because linguistic matters were familiar to them by natural habit."
فلما فسدت الملكة في لسان العرب قيدها الجهابذة المتجردون لذلك بنقل صحيح ومقاييس مستنبطة صحيحة وصارت علوما يحتاج إليها الفقيه في معرفة أحكام الله تعالى.,"But when the habit of the Arabic language was lost, the experts who made it their specialty determined it once and for all with the help of a sound tradition and of sound rules of analogy they evolved. (Linguistic matters,) thus, became sciences the jurists had to know, in order to know the divine laws."
ثم إن هناك استفادات أخرى خاصة من تراكيب الكلام وهي استفادة الأحكام الشرعية بين المعاني من أدلتها الخاصة من تراكيب الكلام وهو الفقه.,"Then, there is certain other, special information to be derived from word combinations. One must derive what constitutes law, among the various ideas, from special indications in word combinations that have a bearing upon law. This is jurisprudence."
ولا يكفي فيه معرفة الدلالات الوضعية على الأطلاق بل لا بد من معرفة أمور أخرى تتوقف عليها تلك الدلالات الخاصة,"Knowledge of the conventional meanings in general is not sufficient for that. A knowledge of certain other things on which that special information depends, is needed."
وبها تستفاد الأحكام بحسب ما أصل أهل الشرع وجهابذة العلم من ذلك وجعلوه قوانين لهذه الاستفادة.,"The laws can be derived from (those things) in accordance with the principles evolved by expert scholars in the religious disciplines, who established those things as norms for the purpose."
مثل أن اللغة لا تثبت قياسا والمشترك لا يراد به معناه معا والواو لا تقتضي الترتيب والعام إذا أخرجت أفراد الخاص منه هل يبقى حجة فيما عداها؟ والأمر للوجوب أو الندب وللفور أو التراخي والنهي يقتضي الفساد أو الصحة والمطلق هل يحمل على المقيد؟ والنص على العلة كاف في التعدد أم لا؟ وأمثال هذه.,"Among such norms, for instance, are: The word meaning is not established by analogy. A word of two meanings cannot be used to mean both things at the same time. The use of wa- “and” does not imply an order (in time, or classification). If certain special particulars are taken out of some general (term), does it remain proof for the rest? Does a command imply necessary or voluntary (action), immediate or delayed (action)? Does a prohibition imply corruption or soundness (in an action)? Is something general applicable to something circumscribed? Is a text indicating the ratio legis sufficient or not for extension (of a rule to other cases)? There are other such things."
فكانت كلها من قواعد هذا الفن. ولكونها من مباحث الدلالة كانت لغوية.,"All of them are basic in this discipline, but since they are semantic problems, they have to do with philology."
ثم إن النظر في القياس من أعظم قواعد هذا الفن لأن فيه تحقيق الأصل والفرع فيما يقاس ويماثل من الأحكام وينفتح الوصف الذي يغلب على الظن أن الحكم علق به في الأصل من تبين أوصاف ذلك المحل أو وجود ذلك الوصف في الفرع من غير معارض يمنع من ترتيب الحكم عليه في مسائل أخرى من توابع ذلك كلها قواعد لهذا الفن.,"Next, the study of analogy is a very important basis of this discipline. It helps to ascertain the correctness of both principal and special aspects of laws depending on reasoning and analogy; to examine the particular characteristic of a case on which the law is considered probably to depend, as to whether it (exists) in the principle; and to find out whether that characteristic exists in the special case without anything contradicting (it), which would make it impossible to base the law upon it. There are other problems that belong together with this one. All of them are basic in this discipline."
(واعلم) أن هذا الفن من الفنون المستحدثة في الملة وكان السلف في غنية عنه بما أن استفادة المعاني من الألفاظ لا يحتاج فيها إلى أزيد مما عندهم من الملكة اللسانية.,It should be known that this discipline is of recent origin in Islam. The early Muslims could dispense with it. Nothing more than the linguistic habit they possessed was needed for deriving ideas from words.
وأما القوانين التي يحتاج إليها في استفادة الأحكام خصوصا فمنهم أخذ معظمها.,The (early Muslims themselves also) were the source for most of the norms needed in special cases for deriving laws.
وأما الأسانيد فلم يكونوا يحتاجون إلى النظر فيها لقرب العصر وممارسة النقلة وخبرتهم بهم.,"They had no need to study the chains of transmitters, because they were close to the (transmitters) in time and had personal knowledge and experience of them."
فلما انقرض السلف وذهب الصدر الأول وانقلبت العلوم كلها صناعة كما قررناه من قبل احتاج الفقهاء والمجتهدون إلى تحصيل هذه القوانين والقواعد لاستفادة الأحكام من الأدلة فكتبوها فنا قائما برأسه سموه أصول الفقه.,"Then the early Muslims died, and the first period of Islam was over. All the sciences became technical, as we established earlier. Jurists and religious scholars of independent judgment now had to acquire these norms and basic rules, in order to be able to derive the laws from the evidence. They wrote them down as a discipline in its own right and called it “principles of jurisprudence.”"
وكان أول من كتب فيه الشافعي رضي الله تعالى عنه. أملى فيه رسالته المشهورة تكلم فيها في الأوامر والنواهي والبيان والخبر والنسخ وحكم العلة المنصوصة من القياس.,"The first scholar to write on the subject was ash-Shafi’i. He dictated his famous Risalah on the subject. In it, he discussed commands and prohibitions, syntax and style, traditions, abrogations, and the position of ratio legis indicated in a text in relation to analogy."
ثم كتب فقهاء الحنفية فيه وحققوا تلك القواعد وأوسعوا القول فيها.,"Later on, Hanafite jurists wrote on the subject. They verified the basic rules and discussed them extensively."
وكتب المتكلمون أيضا كذلك إلا أن كتابة الفقهاء فيها أمس بالفقه وأليق بالفروع لكثرة الأمثلة منها والشواهد وبناء المسائل فيها على النكت الفقهية.,"The speculative theologians also wrote on the subject. However, treatment by jurists is more germane to jurisprudence and more suited for (practical application to) special cases, (than treatment of the subject by speculative theologians), because (juridical works) mention many examples and cases and base their problems on legal points."
والمتكلمون يجردون صور تلك المسائل عن الفقه ويميلون إلى الاستدلال العقلي ما أمكن لأنه غالب فنونهم ومقتضى طريقتهم,"The theologians, on the other hand, present these problems in their bare outlines, without reference to jurisprudence, and are inclined to use (abstract) logical deduction as much as possible, since that is their scholarly approach and required by their method."
فكان لفقهاء الحنفية فيها اليد الطولى من الغوص على النكت الفقهية والتقاط هذه القوانين من مسائل الفقه ما أمكن.,"Hanafite jurists were especially accomplished in extensive use of legal points and in derivation of the norms from the (actual) problems of jurisprudence, as far as possible."
وجاء أبو زيد الدبوسي من أئمتهم فكتب في القياس بأوسع من جميعهم وتمم الأبحاث والشروط التي يحتاج إليها فيه وكملت صناعة أصول الفقه بكماله وتهذبت مسائله وتمهدت قواعده وعني الناس بطريقة المتكلمين فيه.,"One of their leading scholars, Abu Zayd ad-Dabusi, wrote more widely on analogical reasoning than any other (Hanafite). He completed the research methods and conditions governing this discipline. Thus, the technique of the principles of jurisprudence was perfected. The problems were refined and the basic rules were laid down. Scholars also occupied themselves with the methods of speculative theologians in connection with this discipline."
وكان من أحسن ما كتب فيه المتكلمون كتاب البرهان لإمام الحرمين والمستصفى للغزالي وهما من الأشعرية وكتاب العهد لعبد الجبار وشرحه المعتمد لأبي الحسين البصري وهما من المعتزلة.,"The best books written by theologians on this subject were the Kitab al-Burhan, by the Imam al-Haramayn, and the Mustasfa, by al-Ghazzali. Both authors were Ash’arites. There were two more books, the Kitab al-‘ Umad by ‘Abd-alJabbar, and the commentary on it, entitled al-Mu’tamad, by Abul-Husayn al-Basri. Both authors were Mu’tazilah."
وكانت الأربعة قواعد هذا الفن وأركانه.,These four books were the basic works and pillars of this discipline.
ثم لخص هذه الكتب الأربعة فحلان من المتكلمين المتأخرين وهما الإمام فخر الدين بن الخطيب في كتاب المحصول وسيف الدين الآمدي في كتاب الأحكام.,"They were later on abridged by two excellent recent theologians, the imam Fakhr-ad-din Ibn al-Khatib, in the Kitab al-Mahsul, and Sayf-ad-din al-Amidi, in the Kitab al-Ihkam."
واختلفت طرائقهما في الفن بين التحقيق والحجاج.,Their approaches to the discipline differed in (the degree of emphasis they placed upon) verification and argumentation.
فابن الخطيب أميل إلى الاستكثار من الأدلة والاحتجاج والآمدي مولع بتحقيق المذاهب وتفريع المسائل.,"Ibn al-Khatib was more inclined to present many proofs and arguments, while al-Amidi was eager to verify the views of the schools and to present the problems in detail."
وأما كتاب المحصول فاختصره تلميذ الإمام سراج الدين الأرموي في كتاب التحصيل وتاج الدين الأرموي في كتاب الحاصل واقتطف شهاب الدين القرافي منهما مقدمات وقواعد في كتاب صغير سماه التنقيحات. وكذلك فعل البيضاوي في كتاب المنهاج.,"The Kitab al-Mahsul was abridged by such pupils of the imam (Fakhr-addin) as Siraj-ad-din al-Urmawi, in the Kitab at-Tahsil, and Taj-ad-din alUrmawi, in the Kitab al-Hasil. Shihab-ad-din al-Qarafi selected certain propositions and basic points from these works in a small book which he entitled atTanqihat. The same was done by alBaydawi in the Kitab al-Minhaj."
وعني المبتدءون بهذين الكتابين وشرحهما كثير من الناس. وأما كتاب الإحكام للآمدي وهو أكثر تحقيقا في المسائل فلخصه أبو عمر بن الحاجب في كتابه المعروف بالمختصر الكبير.,"Beginners occupied themselves with these two books, and many people wrote commentaries on them. The Kitab al-Ihkam by al-Amidi is more concerned with verifying the problems. It was abridged by Abu ‘Amr b. al-Hajib, in the work of his known as the large Mukhtasar."
ثم اختصره في كتاب آخر تداوله طلبة العلم وعني أهل المشرق والمغرب به وبمطالعته وشرحه وحصلت زبدة طريقة المتكلمين في هذا الفن في هذه المختصرات.,"Ibn al-Hajib then made another compendium of it, which is used by students. People both in the East and the West studied it and wrote commentaries on it. These compendia represent at its best the approach of the theologians to this discipline."
وأما طريقة الحنفية فكتبوا فيها كثيرا وكان من أحسن كتابة فيها، للمتقدمين تأليف أبي زيد الدبوسي وأحسن كتابة المتأخرين فيها تأليف سيف الإسلام البزدوي من أئمتهم وهو مستوعب,"The Hanafites have written a great deal on their approach (to the discipline). The best writings on it by an early scholar are the works of Abu Zayd ad-Dabusi. The best works on it by a recent scholar are those by Sayf-al-Islam al-Bazdawi, a leading Hanafite. They exhaust the subject."
وجاء ابن الساعاتي من فقهاء الحنفية فجمع بين كتاب الإحكام وكتاب البزدوي في الطريقتين وسمي كتابه بالبدائع فجاء من أحسن الأوضاع وأبدعها وأئمة العلماء لهذا العهد يتداولونه قراءة وبحثا.,"Later on, the Hanafite jurist Ibn as-Sa’ati combined the approaches of the Kitab al-Ihkam and the work of al-Bazdawi in a book entitled Kitab al-Badi’. The Kitab al-Badi’ turned out to be a very well-written and original work. Leading contemporary religious scholars use it for teaching and research."
وأولع كثير من علماء العجم بشرحه. والحال على ذلك لهذا العهد.,"Many non-Arab scholars have been eager to write commentaries on it, and the situation is (still) the same at the present time."
هذه حقيقة هذا الفن وتعيين موضوعاته وتعديد التآليف المشهورة لهذا العهد فيه.,"The (foregoing remarks) have explained the real meaning of this discipline, described the subjects with which it deals, and enumerated the works on it known at the present time."
والله ينفعنا بالعلم ويجعلنا من أهله بمنه وكرمه,May God let us profit from scholarship and make us scholars through His kindness and generosity.
وأما الخلافات.,The controversial questions
فاعلم أن هذا الفقه المستنبط من الأدلة الشرعية كثر فيه الخلاف بين المجتهدين باختلاف مداركهم وأنظارهم خلافا لا بد من وقوعه لما قدمناه.,"It should be known that the jurisprudence described, which is based upon religious evidence, involves many differences of opinion among scholars of independent judgment. Differences of opinion result from the different sources they use and their different outlooks, and are unavoidable, as we have stated before."
واتسع ذلك في الملة اتساعا عظيما وكان للمقلدين أن يقلدوا من شاءوا منهم,"(These differences) occupied a very large space in Islam. (Originally,) people could adhere to any (juridical authority) they wished."
ثم لما انتهى ذلك إلى الأئمة الأربعة من علماء الأمصار وكانوا بمكان من حسن الظن بهم اقتصر الناس على تقليدهم ومنعوا من تقليد سواهم لذهاب الاجتهاد لصعوبته وتشعب العلوم التي هي مواده باتصال الزمان وافتقاد من يقوم على سوى هذه المذاهب الأربعة.,"Later on, the matter was in the hands of the four leading authorities in the Muslim cities. They enjoyed a very high prestige. Adherence was restricted to them, and people were thus prevented from adhering to anyone else. This situation was the result of the disappearance of independent judgment, because (the exercise of independent judgment) was too difficult a matter and because, in the course of time, the scholarly disciplines constituting material for independent judgment had multiplied. Also, there existed nobody who might have organized a school in addition to the existing four."
فأقيمت هذه المذاهب الأربعة أصول الملة وأجري الخلاف بين المتمسكين بها والآخذين بأحكامها مجرى الخلاف في النصوص الشرعية والأصول الفقهية.,"Thus, they were set up as the basic schools of Islam. Differences of opinion among their adherents and the followers of their laws received equal status with differences of opinion concerning religious texts and legal principles (in general)."
وجرت بينهم المناظرات في تصحيح كل منهم مذهب إمامه تجري على أصول صحيحة وطرائق قويمة يحتج بها كل على صحة مذهبه الذي قلده وتمسك به وأجريت في مسائل الشريعة كلها وفي كل باب من أبواب الفقه فتارة يكون الخلاف بين الشافعي ومالك وأبو حنيفة يوافق أحدهما وتارة بين مالك وأبي حنيفة والشافعي يوافق أحدهما وتارة بين الشافعي وأبي حنيفة ومالك يوافق أحدهما وكان في هذه المناظرات بيان مآخذ هؤلاء الأئمة ومثارات اختلافهم ومواقع اجتهادهم. كان هذا الصنف من العلم يسمى بالخلافيات.,"The adherents of the four schools held disputations, in order to prove the correctness of their respective founders. These disputations took place according to sound principles and fast rules. Everyone argued in favor of the correctness of the school to which he adhered and which he followed. The disputations concerned all the problems of religious law and every subject of jurisprudence. The difference of opinion was on occasion between ash-Shafi’i and Malik, with Abu Hanifah agreeing with one of them. Or it was between Malik and Abu Hanifah, with ash-Shafi’i agreeing with one of them. Or it was between ashShafi’i and Abu Hanifah, with Malik agreeing with one of them. The disputations clarified the sources of the authorities as well as the motives of their differences and the occasions when they exercised independent judgment. This kind of scholarship was called “controversial questions.”"
ولا بد لصاحبه من معرفة القواعد التي يتوصل بها إلى استنباط الأحكام كما يحتاج إليها المجتهد إلا أن المجتهد يحتاج إليها للاستنباط وصاحب الخلافيات يحتاج إليها لحفظ تلك المسائل المستنبطة من أن يهدمها المخالف بأدلته. وهو لعمري علم جليل الفائدة في معرفة مآخذ الأئمة وأدلتهم ومران المطالعين له على الاستدلال فيما يرومون الاستدلال عليه.,"The persons who cultivate it must know the basic rules through which laws can be evolved, just as they are known to scholars of independent judgment. However, the latter need those basic rules in order to find the law, while the former need them in order to guard the legal problems that have been evolved against destruction by the arguments of an opponent. It is, indeed, a very useful discipline. It affords acquaintance with the sources and evidence of the authorities, and gives students practice in arguing whatever they wish to prove."
وتآليف الحنفية والشافعية فيه أكثر من تآليف المالكية لأن القياس عند الحنفية أصل للكثير من فروع مذهبهم كما عرفت فهم لذلك أهل النظر والبحث. وأما المالكية فالأثر أكثر معتمدهم وليسوا بأهل نظر وأيضا فأكثرهم أهل الغرب وهم بادية غفل من الصنائع إلا في الأقل.,"Works by Hanafites and Shafi’ites are more numerous on the subject than those by Malikites. As one knows, analogy is for the Hanafites a principle on which many details of their school depend. Therefore, they are the people who speculate and investigate. The Malikites, on the other hand, mostly rely on tradition. They do not speculate. Furthermore, most of them are Maghribis who are Bedouins, who care only a little for the crafts."
وللغزالي رحمه الله تعالى فيه كتاب المآخذ ولأبي بكر العربي من المالكية كتاب التلخيص جلبه من المشرق. ولأبي زيد الدبوسي كتاب التعليقة ولابن القصار من شيوخ المالكية عيون الأدلة وقد جمع ابن الساعاتي في مختصره في أصول الفقه جميع ما يبنى عليها من الفقه الخلافي مدرجا في كل مسألة ما يبنى عليها من الخلافيات.,"There are the following works on the subject: the Kitab al-Ma’akhidh by al-Ghazzali, the Kitab at-Talkhis by the Malikite Abu Bakr b. al-‘Arabi, who imported (the subject) from the East, the Kitab at-Ta’liqah by Abu Zayd adDabusi, and the ‘ Uyun al-adillah by the Malikite shaykh Ibn al-Qassar. In his Mukhtasar on the principles of jurisprudence, Ibn as-Sa’ati has collected all the controversial law that is based on the principles of jurisprudence. In connection with every problem, he noted the controversial questions that are based on it."
وأما الجدال.,Dialectics
وهو معرفة آداب المناظرة التي تجري بين أهل المذاهب الفقهية وغيرهم فإنه لما كان باب المناظرة في الرد والقبول متسعا وكل واحد من المتناظرين في الاستدلال والجواب يرسل عنانه في الاحتجاج.,"“Dialectics” involves knowledge of the proper behavior in disputations among the adherents of the legal schools and others. The choices of rejection and acceptance in disputations are numerous. In arguing and answering, each disputant lets himself go in his argumentation."
ومنه ما يكون صوابا ومنه ما يكون خطأ,Some of it is correct. Some of it is wrong.
فاحتاج الأئمة إلى أن يضعوا آدابا وأحكاما يقف المتناظران عند حدودها في الرد والقبول وكيف يكون حال المستدل والمجيب وحيث يسوغ له أن يكون مستدلا وكيف يكون مخصوصا منقطعا ومحل اعتراضه أو معارضته وأين يجب عليه السكوت ولخصمه الكلام والاستدلال.,"Therefore, the authorities had to lay down the proper rules of behavior by which the disputants would have to abide. These concern rejection and acceptance; how the person advancing an argument should behave and how the person replying to the argument should behave; when it is permissible for a disputant to advance an argument; how he (should admit) defeat and stop; when he should interrupt or contradict (his opponent); and where he should be silent and permit his opponent to talk and advance his arguments."
ولذلك قيل فيه إنه معرفة بالقواعد من الحدود والآداب في الاستدلال التي يتوصل بها إلى حفظ رأي وهدمه سواء كان ذلك الرأي من الفقه أو غيره.,"It has, therefore, been said that this discipline is the knowledge of the basic rules of proper behavior in arguing, which help either to safeguard an opinion or to demolish it, whether that opinion concerns jurisprudence or any other subject."
وهي طريقتان طريقة البزدوي وهي خاصة بالأدلة الشرعية من النص والإجماع والاستدلال وطريقة العميدي وهي عامة في كل دليل يستدل به من أي علم كان وأكثره استدلال.,"There are two methods. There is the method of alBazdawi, which is limited to the evidence of the religious law from texts, general consensus, and argumentation. And there is the method of al-‘Amidi which applies quite generally to every argument used in argumentation, no matter to which scholarly discipline it belongs. Most of the (subject) is concerned with argumentation."
وهو من المناحي الحسنة والمغالطات فيه في نفس الأمر كثيرة. وإذا اعتبرنا النظر المنطقي كان في الغالب أشبه بالقياس المغالطي والسوفسطائي.,"It is a good procedure, but, by its very nature, it contains much sophistry. If it is considered under the aspect of logic, it is, as a rule, quite similar to sophistical reasoning."
إلا أن صور الأدلة والأقيسة فيه محفوظة مراعاة يتحرى فيها طرق الاستدلال كما ينبغي.,"However, the (correct) forms of arguments and syllogisms are carefully observed in it, in that the methods of argumentation in this respect are chosen as it is proper."
وهذا العميدي هو أول من كتب فيها ونسبت الطريقة إليه. وضع الكتاب المسمى بالإرشاد مختصرا وتبعه من بعده من المتأخرين كالنسفي وغيره جاءوا على أثره وسلكوا مسلكه وكثرت في الطريقة التآليف.,"The ‘Amidi just mentioned was the first to write on his method. Therefore, its (invention) was ascribed to him, He wrote a brief book, entitled al-Irshad. Later on, he was followed by such recent scholars as an-Nasafi and others who walked in his steps and followed the way he had shown. Many works were written on the method."
وهي لهذا العهد مهجورة لنقص العلم والتعليم في الأمصار الإسلامية. وهي مع ذلك كمالية وليست ضرورية,"At this time, no regard is paid to it, because scholarship and scientific instruction have dwindled in the Muslim cities. It is, after all, a luxury, and not a necessity."
الفصل العاشر في علم الكلام,14. The science of speculative theology.
هو علم يتضمن الحجاج عن العقائد الإيمانية بالأدلة العقلية والرد على المبتدعة المنحرفين في الاعتقادات عن مذاهب السلف وأهل السنة.,This is a science that involves arguing with logical proofs in defense of the articles of faith and refuting innovators who deviate in their dogmas from the early Muslims and Muslim orthodoxy.
وسر هذه العقائد الإيمانية هو التوحيد. فلنقدم هنا لطيفة في برهان عقلي يكشف لنا عن التوحيد على أقرب الطرق والمآخذ ثم نرجع إلى تحقيق علمه وفيما ينظر ويشير إلى حدوثه في الملة وما دعا إلى وضعه,"The real core of the articles of faith is the oneness of God. Therefore, we shall present here, first, a nice specimen of logical argumentation that will show us the oneness of God in the most direct method and manner. We shall then go back and give a correct description of speculative theology and the (subjects) it studies. We shall also indicate the reason why it developed in Islam and what it was that called for its invention."
فنقول: اعلم أن الحوادث في عالم الكائنات سواء كانت من الذوات أو من الأفعال البشرية أو الحيوانية فلا بد لها من أسباب متقدمة عليها بها تقع في مستقر العادة وعنها يتم كونه.,"We say: It should be known that the things that come into being in the world of existing things, whether they belong to essences or to either human or animal actions, require appropriate causes which are prior to (their coming into being). They introduce the things that come into being into the realm dominated by custom, and effect their coming into being."
وكل واحد من هذه الأسباب حادث أيضا فلا بد له من أسباب أخرى ولا تزال تلك الأسباب مرتقية حتى تنتهي إلى مسبب الأسباب وموجدها وخالقها سبحانه لا إله إلا هو.,"Each one of these causes, in turn, comes into being and, thus, requires other causes. Causes continue to follow upon causes in an ascending order, until they reach the Causer of causes, Him who brings them into existence and creates them, Praised be He, there is no God but Him."
وتلك الأسباب في ارتقائها تتفسح وتتضاعف طولا وعرضا ويحار العقل في إدراكها وتعديدها.,"In the process, the causes multiply and widen in extent vertically and horizontally. The intellect becomes confused in the attempt to perceive and enumerate them."
فإذا لا يحصرها إلا العلم المحيط سيما الأفعال البشرية والحيوانية فإن من جملة أسبابها في الشاهد القصود والإرادات إذ لا يتم كون الفعل إلا بإرادته والقصد إليه. والقصود والإرادات أمور نفسانية ناشئة في الغالب عن تصورات سابقة يتلو بعضها بعضا.,"Only a comprehensive knowledge can encompass them all, especially (all) human and animal actions. Among the causes of (action), there evidently belong the various kinds of intention and volition, since no action can materialize except through volition and intention: The various kinds of intention and volition are matters pertaining to the soul. As a rule, they originate from previous consecutive perceptions (tasawwurat)."
وتلك التصورات هي أسباب قصد الفعل وقد تكون أسباب تلك التصورات تصورات أخرى وكل ما يقع في النفس من التصورات مجهول سببه، إذ لا يطلع أحد على مبادئ الأمور النفسانية ولا على ترتيبها.,"These perceptions cause the intention to act. The causes of such perceptions are, again, other perceptions. Now, the cause of all the perceptions taking place in the soul is unknown, since no one is able to know the beginnings or order of matters pertaining to the soul."
إنما هي أشياء يلقيها الله في الفكر يتبع بعضها بعضا والإنسان عاجز عن معرفة مبادئها وغاياتها. وإنما يحيط علما في الغالب بالأسباب التي هي طبيعة ظاهرة ويقع في مداركها على نظام وترتيب لأن الطبيعة محصورة للنفس وتحت طورها.,"They are consecutive notions that God puts into the mind of man, who is unable to understand their beginnings and ends. As a rule, man is able only to comprehend the causes that are natural and obvious and that present themselves to our perception in an orderly and wellarranged manner, because nature is encompassed by the soul and on a lower level than it."
وأما التصورات فنطاقها أوسع من النفس لأنها للعقل الذي هو فوق طور النفس فلا تدرك الكثير منها فضلا عن الإحاطة. وتأمل من ذلك حكمة الشارع في نهيه عن النظر إلى الأسباب والوقوف معها فإنه واد يهيم فيه الفكر ولا يحلو منه بطائل ولا يظفر بحقيقة.,"The range of perceptions, however, is too large for the soul, because they belong to the intellect, which is on a higher level than the soul. The soul, therefore, can scarcely perceive very many of them, let alone all of them. This shows the wisdom of the Lawgiver (Muhammad) when he forbade (us) to speculate about causes and to stop with them. Such speculation is a field in which the mind becomes lost and gets nowhere, nor gains any real insight."
قال الله: «ثم ذرهم في خوضهم يلعبون 6: 91».,"“Say: ‘God,’ and then let them amuse themselves with their idle talk.”"
وربما انقطع في وقوفه عن الارتقاء إلى ما فوقه فزلت قدمه وأصبح من الضالين الهالكين نعوذ بالله من الحرمان والخسران المبين.,Man often stops (to speculate about causes) and thereby is prevented from ascending to the next higher stage. His feet slip. He becomes one of those who go astray and perish. We ask God for protection against disappointment and obvious perdition.
ولا تحسبن أن هذا الوقوف أو الرجوع عنه في قدرتك واختيارك بل هو لون يحصل للنفس وصبغة تستحكم من الخوض في الأسباب على نسبة لا نعلمها. إذ لو علمناها لتحرزنا منها.,"One should not think that iman has the power, or can choose at will, to stop or to retrace his steps. No! Talking about causes results in giving the soul a fast coloring. We do not know how (this comes about), for if we knew it, we could be on guard against it."
فلنتحرز من ذلك بقطع النظر عنها جملة. وأيضا فوجه تأثير هذه الأسباب في الكثير من مسبباتها مجهول لأنها إنما يوقف عليها بالعادة لاقتران الشاهد بالاستناد إلى الظاهر.,"Therefore, one must be on guard against it by completely abandoning any speculation about the (causes). Furthermore, the way in which the causes exercise their influence upon the majority of the things caused is unknown. They are only known through customary (experience) and through conclusions which attest to (the existence of an) apparent (causal) relationship."
وحقيقة التأثير وكيفيته مجهولة،,What that influence really is and how it takes place is not known.
«وما أوتيتم من العلم إلا قليلا 17: 85».,“And you were given but little knowledge.”
فلذلك أمرنا بقطع النظر عنها وإلغائها جملة والتوجه إلى مسبب الأسباب كلها وفاعلها وموجدها لترسخ صفة التوحيد في النفس على ما علمنا الشارع الذي هو أعرف بمصالح ديننا وطرق سعادتنا لاطلاعه على ما وراء الحس.,"Therefore, we have been commanded completely to abandon and suppress any speculation about them and to direct ourselves to the Causer of all causes, who made them and brought them into existence, so that the soul will be firmly colored with the oneness of God. So were we taught by the Lawgiver (Muhammad) who knows better (than we do) the things that are to the interest of our religion and the ways that lead us to happiness, because he saw that which is beyond sensual perception."
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «من مات يشهد أن لا إله إلا الله دخل الجنة».,"He said: “Whoever dies confessing that there is no God but God, enters Paradise.”"
فإن وقف عند تلك الأسباب فقد انقطع وحقت عليه كلمة الكفر وأن سبح في بحر النظر والبحث عنها وعن أسبابها وتأثيراتها واحدا بعد واحد فأنا الضامن له أن لا يعود إلا بالخيبة.,"A man who stops at the causes is frustrated. He is rightly (said to be) an unbeliever. If he ventures to swim in the ocean of speculation and of research into (causes), (seeking) each one of the causes that cause them and the influence they exercise, I can guarantee him that he will return unsuccessful."
فلذلك نهانا الشارع عن النظر في الأسباب وأمرنا بالتوحيد المطلق,"Therefore, we were forbidden by the Lawgiver (Muhammad) to study causes. We were commanded to recognize the absolute oneness of God."
«قل هو الله أحد الله الصمد لم يلد ولم يولد ولم يكن له كفوا أحد 112: 1- 4»,"“Say: ‘God, He is one. God is the samad. He did not give birth, and He was not born. He has no one like Him.'”"
ولا تثقن بما يزعم لك الفكر من أنه مقتدر على الإحاطة بالكائنات وأسبابها والوقوف على تفصيل الوجود كله وسفه رأيه في ذلك.,"Man should not trust the suggestion that his mind makes, that it is able to comprehend all existing things and their causes, and to know all the details of existence. Such a suggestion of the mind should be dismissed as stupid."
واعلم أن الوجود عند كل مدرك في بادئ رأيه منحصر في مداركه لا يعدوها والأمر في نفسه بخلاف ذلك والحق من ورائه.,"It should be known that every person with perception has the superficial impression that the (whole of) existence is comprised by his perceptions, and that it does not extend beyond (the realm of his perceptions). The matter is different in fact. The truth lies beyond that."
ألا ترى الأصم كيف ينحصر الوجود عنده في المحسوسات الأربع والمعقولات ويسقط من الوجود عنده صنف المسموعات.,One knows that a deaf person feels that the (whole of) existence is comprised in the perceptions of his four senses and his intellect. The whole group of audible things constitutes no part of existence for him.
وكذلك الأعمى أيضا يسقط عنده صنف المرئيات,The same applies to a blind person. The whole group of visible things constitutes no part of existence for him.
ولولا ما يردهم إلى ذلك تقليد الآباء والمشيخة من أهل عصرهم والكافة لما أقروا به لكنهم يتبعون الكافة في إثبات هذه الأصناف لا بمقتضى فطرتهم وطبيعة إدراكهم,"If (people with such defects) were not set right by their adherence to information they receive from their fathers and teachers who are their contemporaries, and from the majority of people in general, they would not admit (the existence of audible things, things visible, etc.). They follow the majority in admitting the existence of these groups (of sensibilia), but (the admission) is not in their natural disposition nor in the nature of their sense perception."
ولو سئل الحيوان الأعجم ونطق لوجدناه منكرا للمعقولات وساقطة لديه بالكلية,"If dumb animals were asked and could speak, we would find that they would ignore the whole group of intelligibilia. It would simply not exist for them."
فإذا علمت هذا فلعل هناك ضربا من الإدراك غير مدركاتنا لأن إدراكاتنا مخلوقة محدثة وخلق الله أكبر من خلق الناس.,"Now, it might be assumed that there exists another kind of perception different from ours, since our sense perceptions are created and brought into existence. God’s creation extends beyond the creation of man."
والحصر مجهول والوجود أوسع نطاقا من ذلك,Complete knowledge does not exist (in man). The world of existence is too vast for him.
والله من ورائهم محيط.,“God has comprehension beyond theirs.”
فاتهم إدراكك ومدركاتك في الحصر واتبع ما أمرك الشارع به من اعتقادك وعملك فهو أحرص على سعادتك وأعلم بما ينفعك,"Therefore, everyone should be suspicious of the comprehensiveness of his perceptions and the results of his perception, and should follow what the Lawgiver (Muhammad) commanded him to believe and to do.. He is more desirous of his happiness (than man himself) and he knows better what is good for him."
لأنه من طور فوق إدراكك ومن نطاق أوسع من نطاق عقلك,His level (of perception) is higher than that of human perception. The territory he covers (in his mind) is wider than that of human intelligence.
وليس ذلك بقادح في العقل ومداركه بل العقل ميزان صحيح فأحكامه يقينية لا كذب فيها.,"This does not speak against the intellect and intellectual perceptions. The intellect, indeed, is a correct scale. Its indications are completely certain and in no way wrong."
غير أنك لا تطمع أن تزن به أمور التوحيد والآخرة وحقيقة النبوة وحقائق الصفات الإلهية وكل ما وراء طوره فإن ذلك طمع في محال.,"However, the intellect should not be used to weigh such matters as the oneness of God, the other world, the truth of prophecy, the real character of the divine attributes, or anything else that lies beyond the level of the intellect. That would mean to desire the impossible."
ومثال ذلك مثال رجل رأى الميزان الذي يوزن به الذهب فطمع أن يزن به الجبال وهذا لا يدرك.,"One might compare it with a man who sees a scale in which gold is being weighed, and wants to weigh mountains in it."
على أن الميزان في أحكامه غير صادق لكن العقل قد يقف عنده ولا يتعدى طوره حتى يكون له أن يحيط بالله وبصفاته,"The (fact that this is impossible) does not prove that the indications of the scale are not true (when it is used for its proper purpose). However, there is a limit at which the intellect must stop. It cannot go beyond its own level. Thus, it cannot comprehend God and His attributes."
فإنه ذرة من ذرات الوجود الحاصل منه. وتفطن في هذا الغلط ومن يقدم العقل على السمع في أمثال هذه القضايا وقصور فهمه واضمحلال رأيه فقد تبين لك الحق من ذلك,"It is but one of the atoms of the world of existence which results from (God). This shows that those who give the intellect preference over (traditional) information in such matters are wrong, deficient in understanding, and faulty in reasoning. This, then, explains the true situation in this respect."
وإذ تبين ذلك فلعل الأسباب إذا تجاوزت في الارتقاء نطاق إدراكنا ووجودنا خرجت عن أن تكون مدركة فيضل العقل في بيداء الأوهام ويحار وينقطع.,"If this is clear, it is possible that the ascending sequence of causes reaches the point where it transcends the realm of human perception and existence and thus ceases to be perceivable. The intellect would here become lost, confused, and cut off in the wilderness of conjectures."
فإذا التوحيد هو العجز عن إدراك الأسباب وكيفيات تأثيرها وتفويض ذلك إلى خالقها المحيط بها إذ لا فاعل غيره وكلها ترتقي إليه وترجع إلى قدرته وعلمنا به إنما هو من حيث صدورنا عنه لا غير,"Thus, (recognition of the) oneness of God is identical with inability to perceive the causes and the ways in which they exercise their influence, and with reliance in this respect upon the Creator of the causes who comprises them. There is no maker but Him. All (causes) lead up to Him and go back to His power. We know about Him only in as much as we have issued from Him."
وهذا هو معنى ما نقل عن بعض الصديقين: «العجز عن الإدراك إدراك».,This is the meaning of the statement transmitted on the authority of a certain truthful (person): “The inability to perceive is perception.”
ثم إن المعتبر في هذا التوحيد ليس هو الإيمان فقط الذي هو تصديق حكمي فإن ذلك من حديث النفس وإنما الكمال فيه حصول صفة منه تتكيف بها النفس,"Such (declaration of the) oneness of God does not merely refer to faith, which is affirmation based upon judgment. It belongs to the talk of the soul. Its perfection lies in its acquisition in a form that becomes an attribute of the soul."
كما أن المطلوب من الأعمال والعبادات أيضا حصول ملكة الطاعة والانقياد وتفريغ القلب عن شواغل ما سوى المعبود حتى ينقلب المريد السالك ربانيا.,"In the same way, the object of (all human) actions and divine worship is acquisition of the habit of obedience and submissiveness and the freeing of the heart from all preoccupations save the worshiped Master, until the novice on the path to God becomes a holy person."
والفرق بين الحال والعلم في العقائد فرق ما بين القول والاتصاف. وشرحه أن كثيرا من الناس يعلم أن رحمة اليتيم والمسكين قربة إلى الله تعالى مندوب إليها ويقول بذلك ويعترف به ويذكر مأخذه من الشريعة,The difference between “state” and knowledge in questions of dogma is the same as that between talking (about attributes) and having them. This may be explained as follows: Many people know that mercy to the orphans and the poor brings (a human being) close to God and is recommendable. They say so and acknowledge the fact. They quote the sources for it from the religious law.
وهو لو رأى يتيما أو مسكينا من أبناء المستضعفين لفر عنه واستنكف أن يباشره فضلا عن التمسح عليه للرحمة وما بعد ذلك من مقامات العطف والحنو والصدقة.,"But if they were to see an orphan or a poor person of the destitute classes, they would run away from him and disdain to touch him, let alone show mercy to him or any of the higher “stations” of sympathy, affection, and charity."
فهذا إنما حصل له من رحمة اليتيم مقام العلم ولم يحصل له مقام الحال والاتصاف.,Their mercy for the orphan was the result of having reached the station of knowledge. It was not the result of the station of “state” nor of an attribute of theirs.
ومن الناس من يحصل له مع مقام العلم والاعتراف بأن رحمة المسكين قربة إلى الله تعالى مقام آخر أعلى من الأول وهو الاتصاف بالرحمة وحصول ملكتها.,"Now, there are people who, in addition to the station of knowledge and the realization of the fact that mercy to the poor brings (a human being) close to God, have attained another, higher “station”: they have attained the attribute and habit of mercy."
فمتى رأى يتيما أو مسكينا بادر إليه ومسح عليه والتمس الثواب في الشفقة عليه لا يكاد يصبر عن ذلك ولو دفع عنه.,"When they see an orphan or a poor person, they approach him and show him (mercy). They wish to receive the (heavenly) reward for the compassion they show him. They are hardly able to refrain from (showing compassion), even if they are repulsed."
ثم يتصدق عليه بما حضره من ذات يده,They give as charity whatever they have available from their own property.
وكذا علمك بالتوحيد مع اتصافك به والعلم حاصل عن الاتصاف ضرورة وهو أوثق مبنى من العلم الحاصل قبل الاتصاف.,"The relationship of man’s knowledge of the oneness of God to his possession of it as an attribute, is of the same character. Knowledge results by necessity from possession of an attribute. It is a kind of knowledge that exists on a more solid basis than knowledge attained previous to the possession of the attribute."
وليس الاتصاف بحاصل عن مجرد العلم حتى يقع العمل ويتكرر مرارا غير منحصرة,"An attribute (on the other hand) is not obtained from knowledge alone. There must be an action, and it must be repeated innumerable times."
فترسخ الملكة ويحصل الاتصاف والتحقيق ويجيء العلم الثاني النافع في الآخرة.,"(Only) this results in a firmly rooted habit, in the acquisition of the attribute and real (knowledge). Another kind of knowledge thus makes its appearance. It is the kind that is useful in the other world."
فإن العلم الأول المجرد عن الاتصاف قليل الجدوى والنفع وهذا علم أكثر النظار والمطلوب إنما هو العلم الحالي الناشئ عن العادة.,"The original knowledge which was devoid of being an attribute is of little advantage or use. It is the (kind of) knowledge that the majority of thinkers (possesses). But the (real) object is knowledge as a “state,” and it originates from divine worship."
واعلم أن الكمال عند الشارع في كل ما كلف به إنما هو في هذا فما طلب اعتقاده فالكمال فيه في العلم الثاني الحاصل عن الاتصاف وما طلب عمله من العبادات فالكمال فيها في حصول الاتصاف والتحقق بها.,"It should be known that, in the opinion of the Lawgiver (Muhammad), perfection with regard to any of the obligations he has imposed (upon Muslims) requires this (distinction). Perfection in matters of belief depends on the other knowledge, that which results from the possession of (these matters) as an attribute. Perfection in matters of divine worship depends on acquisition of (these matters) as an attribute, on real (knowledge) of them."
ثم إن الإقبال على العبادات والمواظبة عليها هو المحصل لهذه الثمرة الشريفة. قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «في رأس العبادات جعلت قرة عيني في الصلاة»,Divine worship and its continuous practice leads to this noble result. Muhammad says concerning the principal act of divine worship: “My consolation lies in prayer.”
فإن الصلاة صارت له صفة وحالا يجد فيها منتهى لذاته وقرة عينه وأين هذا من صلاة الناس ومن لهم بها؟,"Prayer, for Muhammad, was an attribute and “state” in which he found his ultimate pleasure and consolation. How different is the prayer of the people! Who could bring them to pray in that way!"
«فويل للمصلين الذين هم عن صلاتهم ساهون 107: 4- 5»,"“Woe unto those who pray, who are careless with regard to their prayer.”"
اللهم وفقنا «واهدنا الصراط المستقيم صراط الذين أنعمت عليهم غير المغضوب عليهم ولا الضالين 1: 6- 7»,"O God, give us success. “And guide us on the straight path, the path of those to whom you have shown kindness, not of those with whom you are angry, and not of those who go astray.” Amen."
فقد تبين لك من جميع ما قررناه أن المطلوب في التكاليف كلها حصول ملكة راسخة في النفس يحصل عنها علم اضطراري للنفس هو التوحيد وهو العقيدة الإيمانية وهو الذي تحصل به السعادة وأن ذلك سواء في التكاليف القلبية والبدنية.,"It is clear from all the statements we have made that the object of all (religious) obligations is the acquisition of a habit firmly rooted in the soul, from which a necessary knowledge results for the soul. It is the (recognition of the) oneness of God, which is the (principal) article of faith and the thing through which happiness is attained. There is no difference whether the obligations of the heart or those of the body are concerned in this respect."
ويتفهم منه أن الإيمان الذي هو أصل التكاليف وينبوعها هو بهذه المثابة ذو مراتب.,"This shows that faith, which is the basis and source of all the (religious) obligations, is of that type and has several degrees."
أولها التصديق القلبي الموافق للسان وأعلاها حصول كيفية من ذلك الاعتقاد القلبي وما يتبعه من العمل مستولية على القلب فيستتبع الجوارح.,"The first degree is the affirmation by the heart of what the tongue says. The highest degree is the acquisition, from the belief of the heart and the resulting actions, of a quality that has complete control over the heart. It commands the actions of the limbs."
وتندرج في طاعتها جميع التصرفات حتى تنخرط الأفعال كلها في طاعة ذلك التصديق الإيماني. وهذا أرفع مراتب الإيمان وهو الإيمان الكامل الذي لا يقارف المؤمن معه صغيرة ولا كبيرة إذ حصول الملكة ورسوخها مانع من الانحراف عن مناهجه طرفة عين,"Every activity takes place in submissiveness to it. Thus, all actions, eventually, become subservient to this affirmation by faith, and this is the highest degree of faith. It is perfect faith. The believer who has it will commit neither a great nor a small sin. The acquisition of the firmly rooted habit (of faith) prevents even the briefest deviation from its ways."
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «لا يزني الزاني حين يزني وهو مؤمن»,"Thus, Muhammad says: “An adulterer does not commit adultery, if he commits adultery while he is a believer.”"
وفي حديث هرقل لما سأل أبا سفيان بن حرب عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم وأحواله فقال في أصحابه: «هل يرتد أحد منهم سخطة لدينه بعد أن يدخل فيه؟ قال: لا! قال: وكذلك الإيمان حين تخالط بشاشته القلوب.,"Then, there is the tradition of Heraclius, who asked Abu Sufyan b. Harb about the Prophet and his position. He asked whether any of the men around Muhammad would become an apostate, out of displeasure with his religion, after he had become a Muslim. The reply was: “No.” (Heraclius) remarked: “The same applies to faith when its cheerfulness has penetrated the hearts.”"
ومعناه أن ملكة الإيمان إذا استقرت عسر على النفس مخالفتها شأن الملكات إذا استقرت فإنها تحصل بمثابة الجبلة والفطرة وهذه هي المرتبة العالية من الإيمان وهي في المرتبة الثانية من العصمة. لأن العصمة واجبة للأنبياء وجوبا سابقا وهذه حاصلة للمؤمنية حصولا تابعا لأعمالهم وتصديقهم. وبهذه الملكة ورسوخها يقع التفاوت في الإيمان كالذي يتلى عليك من أقاويل السلف.,"This means that it is as difficult for the soul to oppose the habit of faith, once it has been firmly established, as is the case with all other habits, once they have become firmly established. For they become a kind of natural disposition. This is the highest degree of faith. It comes second after infallibility, because infallibility is a primary necessity of prophets, while this (degree of faith) comes to the believers secondarily, as a result of their actions and of their affirmation.
The (varying) firmness of this habit causes differences in faith, as is known from the statements of the early Muslims."
وفي تراجم البخاري رضي الله عنه في باب الإيمان كثير منه. مثل أن الإيمان قول وعمل ويزيد وينقص وأن الصلاة والصيام من الإيمان وأن تطوع رمضان من الإيمان والحياء من الإيمان.,Much of it can be found in the chapter headings of alBukhari’s chapter on faith. For instance: “Faith consists of words and actions”; “it may be more or less”; “prayer and fasting are part of faith”; “supererogatory (prayer) in Ramadan is part of faith”; and “bashfulness is part of the faith.”
والمراد بهذا كله الإيمان الكامل الذي أشرنا إليه وإلى ملكته وهو فعلي. وأما التصديق الذي هو أول مراتبه فلا تفاوت فيه.,"All these statements envisage perfect faith. We have referred to it and to how the habit of it can be attained. Perfect faith is something connected with action. Affirmation, the first degree of perfect faith, admits of no differences (in intensity)."
فمن اعتبر أوائل الأسماء وحمله على التصديق منع من التفاوت كما قال أئمة المتكلمين ومن اعتبر أواخر الأسماء وحمله على هذه الملكة التي هي الإيمان الكامل ظهر له التفاوت.,"Those who consider the first (meanings) of terms and thus think of (faith) as affirmation cannot show any differences (in the intensity of their affirmation), as the leading speculative theologians have stated. But those who consider the final (meanings) of terms and thus think of (faith) as the habit that is perfect faith, do show differences (in the intensity of their faith)."
وليس ذلك بقادح في اتحاد حقيقته الأولى التي هي التصديق إذ التصديق موجود في جميع رتبه لأنه أقل ما يطلق عليه اسم الإيمان وهو المخلص من عهدة الكفر والفيصل بين الكافر والمسلم فلا يجزي أقل منه.,"This does not speak against the unity of the primary reality of (perfect faith), which is affirmation, since affirmation exists in all degrees of (faith). It is the lowest degree for which the term “faith” may be used. It absolves (the person who has it) from the responsibility of unbelief and is the distinguishing element between unbeliever and believer. Anything less would not be sufficient."
وهو في نفسه حقيقة واحدة لا تتفاوت وإنما التفاوت في الحال الحاصلة عن الأعمال كما قلناه فافهم.,"Thus, by definition, it is a reality that is uniform and admits of no differences. Differences appear only in the “state” that is the result of action, as we have stated. This should be understood."
واعلم أن الشارع وصف لنا هذا الإيمان الذي في المرتبة الأولى الذي هو تصديق وعين أمورا مخصوصة كلفنا التصديق بها بقلوبنا واعتقادها في أنفسنا مع الإقرار بها بألسنتنا وهي العقائد التي تقررت في الدين.,"It should be known that the Lawgiver (Muhammad) described to us this first degree of faith which is affirmation. He specified particular matters he charged us to affirm with our hearts and to believe in our souls, while at the same time acknowledging them with our tongues. They are the established articles of the Muslim faith."
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم حين سئل عن الإيمان فقال: «أن تؤمن بالله وملائكته وكتبه ورسله واليوم الآخر وتؤمن بالقدر خيره وشره»,"When Muhammad was asked about faith, he said: “(Faith is) the belief in God, His angels, His Scriptures, His messengers, the Last Day, and the belief in predestination, be it good or bad.”"
وهذه هي العقائد الإيمانية المقررة في علم الكلام. ولنشر إليها مجملة لتتبين لك حقيقة هذا الفن وكيفية حدوثه,"These are articles of faith as established in the science of speculative theology. Let us describe them in summary fashion, so that the real character of speculative theology and the way in which it originated may become clear."
فنقول: اعلم أن الشارع لما أمرنا بالإيمان بهذا الخالق الذي رد الأفعال كلها إليه وأفرده به كما قدمناه وعرفنا أن في هذا الإيمان نجاتنا عند الموت إذا حضرنا لم يعرفنا بكنه حقيقة هذا الخالق المعبود وهو إذ ذاك متعذر على إدراكنا ومن فوق طورنا.,"We say: It should be known that the Lawgiver (Muhammad) commanded us to believe in the Creator whom he considered as the sole source of all actions, as we have mentioned before. He informed us that this belief means our salvation, if we have it when we die. However, he did not inform us about the real being of this worshiped Creator, because it is something too difficult for our perception and above our level."
فكلفنا أولا: اعتقاد تنزيهه في ذاته عن مشابهة المخلوقين وإلا لما صح أنه خالق لهم لعدم الفارق على هذا التقدير,"He made it our first obligation to believe that He in His essence cannot be compared with created beings. Otherwise, it would not be correct that He was their creator, since in this way there would be no distinction (between Him and them)."
ثم تنزيهه عن صفات النقص وإلا لشابه المخلوقين,"Then, he (made it our obligation to believe that) He cannot be described in any way as deficient. Otherwise, He would be similar to created beings."
ثم توحيده بالاتحاد وإلا لم يتم الخلق للتمانع,"Then, he (made it our obligation to believe in) His oneness as divine being. Otherwise, the creation (of the world) could not have materialized, on account of mutual antagonism."
ثم اعتقاد أنه عالم قادر فبذلك تتم الأفعال شاهد قضيته لكمال الاتحاد والخلق ومريد وإلا لم يخصص شيء من المخلوقات ومقدر لكل كائن وإلا فالإرادة حادثة.,"Then, there are the following articles of faith: God is knowing and powerful. In this way, (all) actions materialize as witness(es), by syllogism, to the perfection of the act of creation. He has volition. Otherwise, no created thing would be differentiated from the other. He determines the fate of each created thing. Otherwise, volition would be something that comes into being."
وأنه يعيدنا بعد الموت تكميلا لعنايته بالإيجاد ولو كان لأمر فإن كان عبثا فهو للبقاء السرمدي بعد الموت.,"He causes our resurrection after death. This constitutes the final touch to His concern with the first creation. If (created things) were destined to disappear completely, their creation would have been frivolous. They are destined for eternal existence after death."
ثم اعتقاد بعثة الرسل للنجاة من شقاء هذا المعاد لاختلاف أحواله بالشقاء والسعادة وعدم معرفتنا بذلك وتمام لطفه بنا في الإيتاء بذلك وبيان الطريقين. وأن الجنة للنعيم وجهنم للعذاب.,"Further articles of faith are: God sent (His) messengers in order to save (us) from trouble on the (Day of) Resurrection, because (that Day) may mean either trouble or happiness (for us), and we would not know about it. He wanted to complete His kindness toward us by informing us about this situation and explaining to us the two possibilities and that Paradise means bliss and Hell punishment."
هذه أمهات العقائد الإيمانية معللة بأدلتها العقلية وأدلتها من الكتاب والسنة كثيرة.,These main articles of faith are proven by the logical evidence that exists for them. Evidence for them from Qur’an and Sunnah (also) is ample.
وعن تلك الأدلة أخذها السلف وأرشد إليها العلماء وحققها الأئمة إلا أنه عرض بعد ذلك خلاف في تفاصيل هذه العقائد أكثر مثارها من الآي المتشابهة فدعا ذلك إلى الخصام والتناظر والاستدلال بالعقل وزيادة إلى النقل. فحدث بذلك علم الكلام.,"The early Muslims derived them from that evidence. The scholars showed the way to them and the religious leaders verified them. However, later on, there occurred differences of opinion concerning details of these articles of faith. Most of the differences concerned ambiguous verses. This led to hostility and disputation. Logical argumentation was used in addition to the traditional (material). In this way, the science of speculative theology originated."
ولنبين لك تفصيل هذا المجمل. وذلك أن القرآن ورد فيه وصف المعبود بالتنزيه المطلق الظاهر الدلالة من غير تأويل في آي كثيرة وهي سلوب كلها وصريحة في بابها فوجب الإيمان بها.,"We shall now explain the (preceding) summary statement in detail. In many verses of the Qur’an, the worshiped Master is described as being absolutely devoid (of human attributes) in obvious terms requiring no interpretation. All those verses are negative (in their statements). They are clear on the subject. It is necessary to believe them."
ووقع في كلام الشارع صلوات الله عليه وكلام الصحابة والتابعين تفسيرها على ظاهرها.,Statements of the Lawgiver (Muhammad) and the men around him and the men of the second generation have explained them in accordance with their plain meaning.
ثم وردت في القرآن آي أخرى قليلة توهم التشبيه مرة في الذات وأخرى في الصفات.,"Then, there are a few other verses in the Qur’an suggesting anthropomorphism, with reference to either the essence or the attributes (of God)."
فأما السلف فغلبوا أدلة التنزيه لكثرتها ووضوح دلالتها، وعلموا استحالة التشبيه. وقضوا بأن الآيات من كلام الله فآمنوا بها ولم يتعرضوا لمعناها ببحث ولا تأويل.,"The early Muslims gave preference to the evidence for God’s freedom (from human attributes), because it was ample and clear. They knew that anthropomorphism is absurd. They decided that (those) verses were the word of God, and, therefore, believed in them and did not try to investigate or interpret their meaning."
وهذا معنى قول الكثير منهم: اقرءوها كما جاءت أي آمنوا بأنها من عند الله. ولا تتعرضوا لتأويلها ولا تفسيرها لجواز أن تكون ابتلاء، فيجب الوقف والإذعان له.,"This is what is meant by the statement made by most early Muslims: “Let them pass on as they have come.” That is, believe that they are from God, and do not try to interpret or change them; they may be a temptation. It is, thus, necessary to stop and submit to (God)."
وشذ لعصرهم مبتدعة اتبعوا ما تشابه من الآيات وتوغلوا في التشبيه. ففريق أشبهوا في الذات باعتقاد اليد والقدم والوجه عملا بظواهر وردت بذلك فوقعوا في التجسيم الصريح ومخالفة آي التنزيه المطلق التي هي أكثر موارد وأوضح دلالة لأن معقولية الجسم تقتضي النقص والافتقار.,"But there were a few innovators in their time who occupied themselves with the ambiguous verses and delved into anthropomorphism. One group operated with the plain meaning of the relevant verses. They assumed anthropomorphism for God’s essence, in that they believed that He has hands, feet, and a face. Thus, they adopted a clear anthropomorphism and were in opposition to the verses stating that God is devoid (of human attributes). The idea of body entails deficiency and imperfection."
وتغليب آيات السلوب في التنزيه المطلق التي هي أكثر موارد وأوضح دلالة أولى من التعلق بظواهر هذه التي لنا عنها غنية وجمع بين الدليلين بتأويلها ثم يفرون من شناعة ذلك بقولهم جسم لا كالأجسام.,"It is more proper to give preference to the negative verses indicating that God is absolutely devoid (of human attributes), which are very numerous and clear, than to cling to the plain meaning of the (anthropomorphic) verses with which we can dispense, and to try to combine the two indications with the help of interpretation of (the anthropomorphic verses). The (people who gave consideration to the anthropomorphic verses) then tried to escape from the anthropomorphic abomination by stating that (God has) “a body unlike (ordinary human) bodies.”"
وليس ذلك بدافع عنهم لأنه قول متناقض وجمع بين نفي وإثبات إن كانا بالمعقولية واحدة من الجسم، وإن خالفوا بينهما ونفوا المعقولية المتعارفة فقد وافقونا في التنزيه ولم يبق إلا جعلهم لفظ الجسم اسما من أسمائه. ويتوقف مثله على الأذن.,"This is no defense for them, because it is a statement contradictory in itself and a combination of negation and assertion, if both (negation and assertion) are used here for one and the same concept of body. But if the two differ among themselves and (thus) disavow the commonly accepted concept of body, those (people) rather agree with us that God is devoid (of human attributes). They consider the word “body” to be merely one of His names (used in a peculiar sense in connection with Him). Things like that depend on permission."
وفريق منهم ذهبوا إلى التشبيه في الصفات كإثبات الجهة والاستواء والنزول والصوت والحرف وأمثال ذلك.,"Another group turned to anthropomorphism with regard to the attributes of God. They assumed direction, sitting, descending, voice, letter (sound), and similar things (for God)."
وآل قولهم إلى التجسيم فنزعوا مثل الأولين إلى قولهم صوت لا كالأصوات جهة لا كالجهات نزول لا كالنزول يعنون من الأجسام.,"Their stated opinions imply anthropomorphism. Like the former group, they took refuge in statements such as: “A voice unlike voices”; “a direction unlike directions”; “descending unlike descending.” By that, they meant: “(not as those things are used) in connection with (human) bodies.”"
واندفع ذلك بما اندفع به الأول، ولم يبق في هذه الظواهر إلا اعتقادات السلف ومذاهبهم والإيمان بها كما هي لئلا يكر النفي على معانيها بنفيها مع أنها صحيحة ثابتة من القرآن.,"The refutation here is the same as in the former case. The only thing that remains to be done with the plain (seemingly anthropomorphic) statements is (to follow) the beliefs and theories expressed by the early Muslims. One must believe in the (statements) as they stand, so that it cannot happen that by disavowing their meaning, one disavows them as such, although they are a sound and established part of the Qur’an."
ولهذا تنظر ما تراه في عقيدة الرسالة لابن أبي زيد وكتاب المختصر له وفي كتاب الحافظ ابن عبد البر وغيرهم فإنهم يحومون على هذا المعنى.,"That is what is behind the statements found in the creed of the Risalah of Ibn Abi Zayd and in his Mukhtasar and in the books of the hadith expert Ibn ‘Abdal-Barr, and others. They try to convey the idea mentioned."
ولا تغمض عينك عن القرائن الدالة على ذلك في غضون كلامهم.,One should not close one’s eyes to the propositions in their discussion that prove it.
ثم لما كثرت العلوم والصنائع وولع الناس بالتدوين والبحث في سائر الأنحاء وألف المتكلمون في التنزيه حدثت بدعة المعتزلة في تعميم هذا التنزيه في آي السلوب فقضوا بنفي صفات المعاني من العلم والقدرة والإرادة والحياة زائدة على أحكامها,"Later on, the sciences and crafts increased. People were eager to write systematic works and to do research in all fields. The speculative theologians wrote on God’s freedom (from human attributes). At that juncture, the Mu’tazilah innovation came into being. The Mu’tazilah extended the subject to the negative verses and decided to deny (God’s possession of) the ideal attributes of knowledge, power, volition, and life, in addition to (denying) their consequences."
لما يلزم على ذلك من تعدد القديم بزعمهم وهو مردود بأن الصفات ليست عين الذات ولا غيرها,"Their use (in connection with God) would imply, in (Mu’tazilah) opinion, a manifoldness of things primeval. This (assumption) is refuted by the (assumption) that the attributes are neither identical with the (divine) essence nor different from it."
وقضوا بنفي صفة الإرادة فلزمهم نفي القدر لأن معناه سبق الإرادة للكائنات وقضوا بنفي السمع والبصر لكونهما من عوارض الأجسام.,"The Mu’tazilah further decided to deny (God’s possession) of the attribute of volition. This forced them to deny predestination, because predestination requires the existence of volition prior to the created things. They also decided to deny God hearing and vision, because both hearing and vision are corporeal accidents."
وهو مردود لعدم اشتراط البنية في مدلول هذا اللفظ وإنما هو إدراك المسموع أو المبصر.,"This (assumption) is refuted by the (assumption) that the meaning of the words (hearing and vision) does not require (the existence of) corporeal shape, but merely the perception of audible or visible things."
وقضوا بنفي الكلام لشبه ما في السمع والبصر ولم يعقلوا صفة الكلام التي تقوم بالنفس فقضوا بأن القرآن مخلوق وذلك بدعة صرح السلف بخلافها.,"They further decided to deny God speech for reasons similar to those (they used) in connection with hearing and vision. They did not understand the attribute of speech as an essential function. Thus, the Mu’tazilah decided that the Qur’an was created. This was an innovation. The early Muslims had openly expressed the contrary view."
وعظم ضرر هذه البدعة ولقنها بعض الخلفاء عن أئمتهم فحمل الناس عليها وخالفهم أئمة السلف فاستحل لخلافهم إيسار كثير منهم ودماؤهم،,"The damage done by this innovation was great. Certain leading Mu’tazilah indoctrinated certain caliphs with it, and the people were forced to adopt it. The Muslim religious leaders opposed them. Because of their opposition, it was considered permissible to flog and kill many of them."
وكان ذلك سببا لانتهاض أهل السنة بالأدلة العقلية على هذه العقائد دفعا في صدور هذه البدع وقام بذلك الشيخ أبو الحسن الأشعري إمام المتكلمين,"This caused orthodox people to rise in defense of the articles of faith with logical evidence and to push back the innovations. The leader of the speculative theologians, Abul-Hasan al-Ash’ari, took care of that."
فتوسط بين الطرق ونفى التشبيه وأثبت الصفات المعنوية وقصر التنزيه على ما قصره عليه السلف. وشهدت له الأدلة المخصصة لعمومه فأثبت الصفات الأربع المعنوية والسمع والبصر والكلام القائم بالنفس بطريق النقل والعقل.,"He mediated between the different approaches. He disavowed anthropomorphism and recognized the ideal attributes. He restricted God’s freedom (from human attributes) to the extent to which it had been restricted by the early Muslims, and which had been recognized by the proofs stating the general applicability (of the principle) to special cases. He recognized the four ideal attributes, as well as hearing, vision, and speech as an essential function, (and proved his position) with the help of logical and traditional methods."
ورد على المبتدعة في ذلك كله وتكلم معهم فيما مهدوه لهذه البدع من القول بالصلاح والأصلح والتحسين والتقبيح وكمل العقائد في البعثة وأحوال المعاد والجنة والنار والثواب والعقاب.,"He refuted the innovators in all these respects. He discussed with them (their) stated opinions with regard to (God’s concern for human) welfare and with what is best (for man), and their definition of good and evil, which they had invented as the basis for their innovation. He perfected the dogmas concerning the rising of the dead, the circumstances of the Resurrection, Paradise, and Hell, and reward and punishment."
وألحق بذلك الكلام في الإمامة لما ظهر حينئذ من بدعة الإمامية من قولهم إنها من عقائد الإيمان وإنه يجب على النبي تعيينها والخروج عن العهدة في ذلك لمن هي له، وكذلك على الأمة.,"He added a discussion of the imamate, because the Imamiyah (Shi’ah) at that time suggested the novel idea that the imamate was one of the articles of faith and that it was the duty of the Prophet as well as the Muslim nation to fix (the succession to) the (imamate) and free the person who would become the imam from any responsibility in this respect."
وقصارى أمر الإمامة أنها قضية مصلحية إجماعية ولا تلحق بالعقائد فلذلك ألحقوها بمسائل هذا الفن وسموا مجموعه علم الكلام: إما لما فيه من المناظرة على البدع وهي كلام صرف وليست براجعة إلى عمل،,"(However, in fact,) the imamate is at best a matter of public interest and social organization. It is not an article of faith. (But, because of the Shi’ah attitude, the question of the imamate) was added to the problems of this discipline. The whole was called “the science of speculative theology.” The reason why this name (which, literally, means “science of speech,” or “talk”) was chosen, may have been that it included the disputation of innovations. That is merely talk and implies no action."
وإما لأن سبب وضعه والخوض فيه هو تنازعهم في إثبات الكلام النفسي.,"Or, the reason may have been that the discipline was invented and cultivated as a consequence of dissension concerning the existence of essential speech."
وكثر أتباع الشيخ أبي الحسن الأشعري واقتفى طريقته من بعده تلميذه كابن مجاهد وغيره.,"The followers of Abul-Hasan al-Ash’ari became numerous. His approach was later on followed by his pupils, such as Ibn Mujahid and others."
وأخذ عنهم القاضي أبو بكر الباقلاني فتصدر للإمامة في طريقتهم وهذبها ووضع المقدمات العقلية التي تتوقف عليها الأدلة والأنظار وذلك مثل إثبات الجوهر الفرد والخلاء.,"Judge Abu Bakr alBaqillani learned from them. He attacked the problem of the imamate in accordance with the way they had approached it, and improved on it. He laid down the logical premises on which arguments and speculation on the subject depend. He affirmed, for instance, the existence of the atom (al jawhar al fard) and of the vacuum."
وأن العرض لا يقوم بالعرض وأنه لا يبقى زمانين.,"He made statements such as “An accident cannot sustain another accident,” and “An accident does not persist two moments.”"
وأمثال ذلك مما تتوقف عليه أدلتهم.,There are similar (premises) on which the arguments of (the Ash’arites) depend.
وجعل هذه القواعد تبعا للعقائد الإيمانية في وجوب اعتقادها لتوقف تلك الأدلة عليها وأن بطلان الدليل يؤذن ببطلان المدلول.,"He considered the basic premises as secondary only to the articles of faith, as far as the necessity of believing in them was concerned. The arguments depend on them, and if the arguments are wrong, it is possible to conclude that the thing proven (by them) is also wrong."
وجملت هذه الطريقة وجاءت من أحسن الفنون النظرية والعلوم الدينية. إلا أن صور الأدلة فيها بعض الأحيان، على غير الوجه الصناعي لسذاجة القوم ولأن صناعة المنطق التي تسير بها الأدلة وتعتبر بها الأقيسة ولم تكن حينئذ ظاهرة في الملة،,"Thus, (al-Ash’ari’s) approach was perfected and became one of the best speculative disciplines and religious sciences. However, the forms of its arguments are, at times, not technically perfect), because the scholars (of al-Ash’ari’s time) were simple and the science of logic which probes arguments and examines syllogisms had not yet made its appearance in Islam."
ولو ظهر منها بعض الشيء فلم يأخذ به المتكلمون لملابستها للعلوم الفلسفية المباينة للعقائد الشرعية بالجملة فكانت مهجورة عندهم لذلك.,"Even if some of it had existed, the theologians would not have used it, because it was so closely related to the philosophical sciences, which are altogether different from the beliefs of the religious law and were, therefore, avoided by them."
ثم جاء بعد القاضي أبي بكر الباقلاني من أئمة الأشعرية إمام الحرمين أبو المعالي فأملى في الطريقة كتاب الشامل وأوسع القول فيه.,"The Ash’arite leader, Judge Abu Bakr (al-Baqillani), was followed by the Imam al-Haramayn Abul-Ma’ali. He dictated a comprehensive work on the Ash’arite approach. He was very explicit in it."
ثم لخصه في كتاب الإرشاد واتخذه الناس إماما لعقائدهم. ثم انتشرت من بعد ذلك علوم المنطق في الملة وقرأه الناس وفرقوا بينه وبين العلوم الفلسفية بأنه قانون ومعيار للأدلة فقط يسبر به الأدلة منها كما يسبر من سواها.,"He then abridged the work in the Kitab al-Irshad. People use the (Irshad) as their guide in matters of (dogmatic) belief. After that, the science of logic spread in Islam. People studied it. They made a distinction between it and the philosophical sciences, in that (they stated that) logic was merely a norm and yardstick for arguments and served to probe the arguments of the (philosophical sciences) as well as (those of) all other (disciplines)."
ثم نظروا في تلك القواعد والمقدمات في فن الكلام للأقدمين فخالفوا الكثير منها بالبراهين التي أدلت إلى ذلك وربما أن كثيرا منها مقتبس من كلام الفلاسفة في الطبيعيات والإلهيات.,"(Scholars,) then, studied the basic premises the earlier theologians had established. They refuted most of them with the help of arguments leading them to (a different opinion). Many of these (arguments) were derived from philosophical discussions of physics and metaphysics."
فلما سبروها بمعيار المنطق ردهم إلى ذلك فيها ولم يعتقدوا بطلان المدلول من بطلان دليله كما صار إليه القاضي فصارت هذه الطريقة في مصطلحهم مباينة للطريقة الأولى وتسمى طريقة المتأخرين وربما أدخلوا فيها الرد على الفلاسفة فيما خالفوا فيه من العقائد الإيمانية وجعلوهم من خصوم العقائد لتناسب الكثير من مذاهب المبتدعة ومذاهبهم.,"When they probed them with the yardstick of logic, it showed that they were applicable (only) to those (other disciplines and not to theology, but) they did not believe that if the arguments were wrong, the thing proven (by the arguments) was also wrong, as had been the opinion of the Judge (alBaqillani). This approach differed in its technical terminology from the older one. It was called “the school of recent scholars.” Their approach often included refutation of the philosophers where the (opinions of the) latter differed from the articles of faith. They considered the (philosophers) enemies of the articles of faith, because, in most respects, there is a relationship between the opinions of the innovators and the opinions of the philosophers."
وأول من كتب في طريقة الكلام على هذا المنحى الغزالي رحمه الله وتبعه الإمام ابن الخطيب وجماعة قفوا أثرهم واعتمدوا تقليدهم ثم توغل المتأخرون من بعدهم في مخالطة كتب الفلسفة,The first (scholar) to write in accordance with the (new) theological approach was al-Ghazzali. He was followed by the imam Ibn al-Khatib. A large number of scholars followed in their steps and adhered to their tradition. The later scholars were very intent upon meddling with philosophical works.
والتبس عليهم شأن الموضوع في العلمين فحسبوه فيهما واحدا من اشتباه المسائل فيهما.,"The subjects of the two disciplines (theology and philosophy) were thus confused by them. They thought that there was one and the same (subject) in both disciplines, because the problems of each discipline were similar."
واعلم أن المتكلمين لما كانوا يستدلون في أكثر أحوالهم بالكائنات وأحوالها على وجود البارئ وصفاته وهو نوع استدلالهم غالبا.,"It should be known that the theologians most often deduced the existence and attributes of the Creator from the existing things and their conditions. As a rule, this was their line of argument."
والجسم الطبيعي الذي ينظر فيه الفيلسوف في الطبيعيات وهو بعض من هذه الكائنات.,"The physical bodies form part of the existing things, and they are the subject of the philosophical study of physics."
إلا أن نظره فيها مخالف لنظر المتكلم وهو ينظر في الجسم من حيث يتحرك ويسكن والمتكلم ينظر فيه من حيث يدل على الفاعل.,"However, the philosophical study of them differs from the theological. The philosophers study bodies in so far as they move or are stationary. The theologians, on the other hand, study them in so far as they serve as an argument for the Maker."
وكذا نظر الفيلسوف في الإلهيات إنما هو نظر في الوجود المطلق وما يقتضيه لذاته ونظر المتكلم في الوجود من حيث إنه يدل على الموجد.,"In the same way, the philosophical study of metaphysics studies existence as such and what it requires for its essence. The theological study (of metaphysics), on the other hand, is concerned with the existentia, in so far as they serve as argument for Him who causes existence."
وبالجملة فموضوع علم الكلام عند أهله إنما هو العقائد الإيمانية بعد فرضها صحيحة من الشرع من حيث يمكن أن يستدل عليها بالأدلة العقلية فترفع البدع وتزول الشكوك والشبيه عن تلك العقائد,"In general, to the theologians, the subject of theology is (to find out) how the articles of faith which the religious law has laid down as correct, can be proven with the help of logical arguments, so that innovations may be repulsed and doubts and misgivings concerning the articles of faith be removed."
وإذا تأملت حال الفن في حدوثه وكيف تدرج كلام الناس فيه صدرا بعد صدر وكلهم يفرض العقائد صحيحة ويستنهض الحجج والأدلة علمت حينئذ ما قررناه لك في موضوع الفن وأنه لا يعدوه.,"If one considers how this discipline originated and how scholarly discussion was incorporated within it step by step, and how, during that process, scholars always assumed the correctness of the articles of faith and paraded proofs “and arguments (in their defense), one will realize that the character of the subject of this discipline is as we have established it, and one will realize that (the discipline) cannot go beyond it."
ولقد اختلطت الطريقتان عند هؤلاء المتأخرين والتبست مسائل الكلام بمسائل الفلسفة بحيث لا يتميز أحد الفنين من الآخر. ولا يحصل عليه طالبه من كتبهم كما فعله البيضاوي في الطوالع ومن جاء بعده من علماء العجم في جميع تآليفهم.,"However, the two approaches have been mixed up by recent scholars. The problems of theology have been confused with those of philosophy. This has gone so far that the one discipline is no longer distinguishable from the other. The student (of theology) cannot learn (theology) from the books of (the recent scholars, and the same situation also confronts the student of philosophy). Such (mixing of theology and philosophy) was done by al-Baydawi, in the Tawali`, and by later, non-Arab scholars, in all their works."
إلا أن هذه الطريقة قد يعنى بها بعض طلبة العلم للاطلاع على المذاهب والإغراق في معرفة الحجاج لوفور ذلك فيها. وأما محاذاة طريقة السلف بعقائد علم الكلام فإنما هو في الطريقة القديمة للمتكلمين وأصلها كتاب الإرشاد وما حذا حذوه.,"However, some students have occupied themselves with the (mixed) approach (in spite of its uselessness for the study of theology), in order to learn the different school opinions and to become versed in the knowledge of argumentation, which is amply represented in (the works which follow the mixed approach). The approach of the early Muslims can be reconciled with the beliefs of the science of speculative theology only if one follows the old approach of the theologians (and not the mixed approach of recent scholars). The basic work here is the Kitab al-Irshad, as well as works that follow its example."
ومن أراد إدخال الرد على الفلاسفة في عقائده فعليه بكتب الغزالي والإمام ابن الخطيب فإنها وإن وقع فيها مخالفة للاصطلاح القديم فليس فيها من الاختلاط في المسائل والالتباس في الموضوع ما في طريقة هؤلاء المتأخرين من بعدهم وعلى الجملة فينبغي أن يعلم أن هذا العلم الذي هو علم الكلام غير ضروري لهذا العهد على طالب العلم,"Those who want to inject a refutation of the philosophers into their dogmatic beliefs must use the books of al-Ghazzali and the imam Ibn al-Khatib. They do show some divergence from the old technique, but do not make such a confusion of problems and subjects as is found in the approach of the recent scholars who have come after them. In general, it must be known that this science – the science of speculative theology -is not something that is necessary to the contemporary student."
إذ الملحدة والمبتدعة قد انقرضوا والأئمة، من أهل السنة كفونا شأنهم فيما كتبوا ودونوا والأدلة العقلية إنما احتاجوا إليها حين دافعوا ونصروا.,Heretics and innovators have been destroyed. The orthodox religious leaders have given us protection against heretics and innovators in their systematic works and treatments. Logical arguments were needed only when they defended and supported (their own views with them).
وأما الآن فلم يبق منها إلا كلام تنزه البارئ عن كثير إيهاماته وإطلاقه,"Now, all that remains of them is a certain amount of discussion, from most of whose ambiguities and inferences the Creator can be considered to be free."
ولقد سئل الجنيد رحمه الله عن قوم مر بهم بعض المتكلمين يفيضون فيه فقال: ما هؤلاء؟ فقيل: قوم ينزهون الله بالأدلة عن صفات الحدوث وسمات النقص.,"Al-Junayd was once passing a group of theologians discussing the (problem of the freedom of the Creator from human attributes). He asked who they were. He was told that they were people who, by the aid of arguments, were trying to free God from the attributes of createdness and from the qualities that indicate deficiency."
فقال: «نفي العيب حيث يستحيل العيب عيب»,Whereupon alJunayd said: “The denial of a fault where (the existence of) a fault is impossible is (in itself) a fault.”
لكن فائدته في آحاد الناس وطلبة العلم فائدة معتبرة إذ لا يحسن بحامل السنة الجهل بالحجج النظرية على عقائدها.,"However, the usefulness of (speculative theology) for certain individuals and students is considerable. Orthodox Muslims should not be ignorant of speculative argumentation in defense of the articles of orthodox faith."
والله ولي المؤمنين.,“God is the friend of the believers.”
الفصل الحادي عشر في أن عالم الحوادث الفعلية إنما يتم بالفكر,"2. The world of the things that come into being as the result of action, materializes through thinking."
اعلم أن عالم الكائنات يشتمل على ذوات محضة، كالعناصر وآثارها والمكونات الثلاثة عنها، التي هي المعدن والنبات والحيوان. وهذه كلها متعلقات القدرة الإلهية وعلى أفعال صادرة عن الحيوانات، واقعة بمقصودها، متعلقة بالقدرة التي جعل الله لها عليها:,"It should be known that the world of existent things comprises pure essences, such as the elements, the things resulting from their influence, and the three things that come into being from the elements, namely, minerals, plants, and animals. All these things are connected with the divine power. It also comprises actions proceeding from living beings, that happen through their intentions, and are connected with the power that God has given them."
فمنها منتظم مرتب، وهي الأفعال البشرية، ومنها غير منتظم ولا مرتب، وهي أفعال الحيوانات غير البشر.,Some of their actions are well arranged and orderly. Such are human actions. Others are not well arranged and orderly. They are the actions of living beings other than man.
وذلك الفكر يدرك الترتيب بين الحوادث بالطبع أو بالوضع، فإذا قصد إيجاد شيء من الأشياء، فلأجل الترتيب بين الحوادث لا بد من التفطن بسببه أو علته أو شرطه، وهي على الجملة مبادئه، إذ لا يوجد إلا ثانيا عنها ولا يمكن إيقاع المتقدم متأخرا ولا المتأخر متقدما.,"This is because thinking perceives the order that exists among the things that come into being either by nature or through arbitrary arrangement. When it intends to create something, it must understand the reason or cause of that thing, or the conditions governing it, for the sake of the order that exists among the things that come into being. (Reason, cause, or conditions) are, in general, the principles of that particular thing, since it is secondary to them, and it is not possible to arrange for something that comes earlier to come later, or for something that comes later to come earlier."
وذلك المبدأ قد يكون له مبدأ آخر من تلك المبادئ لا يوجد إلا متأخرا عنه، وقد يرتقي ذلك أو ينتهي. فإذا انتهى إلى آخر المبادئ في مرتبتين أو ثلاث أو أزيد، وشرع في العمل الذي يوجد به ذلك الشيء بدأ بالمبدإ الأخير الذي انتهى إليه الفكر، فكان أول عمله.,"Such a principle must have another principle to which its own existence is posterior. This (regression) may go on in an ascending order (from principle to principle), or it may come to an end. Now, when man, in his thinking, has reached the last principle on two, three, or more levels, and starts the action that will bring the (planned) thing into existence, he will start with the last principle that has been reached by his thinking. Thus, (that last principle) will be the beginning of action."
ثم تابع ما بعده إلى آخر المسببات التي كانت أول فكرته. مثلا: لو فكر في إيجاد سقف يكنه انتقل بذهنه إلى الحائط الذي يدعمه، ثم إلى الأساس الذي يقف عليه الحائط فهو آخر الفكر. ثم يبدأ في العمل بالأساس، ثم بالحائط، ثم بالسقف. وهو آخر العمل.,"He, then, will follow things up to the last element in the causal chain that had been the starting point of his thinking activity. For instance, if a man thinks of bringing into existence a roof to shelter him, he will progress in his mind (from the roof) to the wall supporting the roof, and then to the foundation upon which the wall stands. Here, his thinking will end, and he will then start to work on the foundation, then (go on to) the wall, and then (to) the roof, with which his action will end."
وهذا معنى قولهم: (أول العمل آخر الفكرة، وأول الفكرة آخر العمل)،,"This is what is meant by the saying: “The beginning of action is the end of thinking, and the beginning of thinking is the end of action.”"
فلا يتم فعل الإنسان في الخارج إلا بالفكر في هذه المرتبات لتوقف بعضها على بعض. ثم يشرع في فعلها.,"Thus, human action in the outside world materializes only through thinking about the order of things, since things are based upon each other. After (he has finished thinking), he starts doing things."
وأول هذا الفكر هو المسبب الأخير، وهو آخرها في العمل. وأولها في العمل هو المسبب الأول وهو آخرها في الفكر. ولأجل العثور على هذا الترتيب يحصل الانتظام في الأفعال البشرية.,"His thinking starts with the thing that comes last in the causal chain and is done last. His action starts with the first thing in the causal chain, which thinking reaches last. Once this order is taken into consideration, human actions proceed in a well-arranged manner."
وأما الأفعال الحيوانية لغير البشر فليس فيها انتظام لعدم الفكر الذي يعثر به الفاعل على الترتيب فيما يفعل، إذ الحيوانات إنما تدرك بالحواس,"On the other hand, the actions of living beings other than man are not well arranged. They lack the thinking that acquaints the agent with the order of things governing his actions. Animals perceive only with the senses."
ومدركاتها متفرقة خلية من الربط لأنه لا يكون إلا بالفكر.,"Their perceptions are disconnected and lack a connecting link, since only thinking can constitute such (a connecting link)."
ولما كانت الحواس المعتبرة في عالم الكائنات هي المنتظمة، وغير المنتظمة إنما هي تبع لها، اندرجت حينئذ أفعال الحيوانات فيها، فكانت مسخرة للبشر.,"Now, the things that come into being that are of consequence in the world of existent things, are those that are orderly. Those that are not orderly are secondary to them. The actions of animals, therefore, are subordinate to (orderly human actions). Consequently, their services are forcibly utilized by man."
واستولت أفعال البشر على عالم الحوادث، بما فيه، فكان كله في طاعته وتسخره.,"Thus, human actions control the (whole) world of things that come into being and all it contains. Everything is subservient to man and works for him."
وهذا معنى الاستخلاف المشار إليه في قوله تعالى: «إني جاعل في الأرض خليفة 2: 30»,This is what is meant by the “appointing of a representative” mentioned in the Qur’an: “I am appointing a representative on earth.”
فهذا الفكر هو الخاصة البشرية التي تميز بها البشر عن غيره من الحيوان. وعلى قدر حصول الأسباب والمسببات في الفكر مرتبة تكون إنسانيته. فمن الناس من تتوالى له السببية في مرتبتين أو ثلاث، ومنهم من لا يتجاوزها، ومنهم من ينتهي إلى خمس أو ست فتكون إنسانيته أعلى.,"The ability to think is the quality of man by which human beings are distinguished from other living beings. The degree to which a human being is able to establish an orderly causal chain determines his degree of humanity. Some people are able to establish a causal nexus for two or three levels. Some are not able to go beyond that. Others may reach five or six. Their humanity, consequently, is, higher."
واعتبر ذلك بلاعب الشطرنج: فإن في اللاعبين من يتصور الثلاث حركات والخمس الذي ترتيبها وضعي، ومنهم من يقصر عن ذلك لقصور ذهنه.,"For instance, some chess players are able to perceive (in advance) three or five moves the order of which is arbitrary. Others are unable to do that, because their mind is not good enough for it."
وإن كان هذا المثال غير مطابق، لأن لعب الشطرنج بالملكة، ومعرفة الأسباب والمسببات بالطبع، لكنه مثال يحتذي به الناظر في تعقل ما يورد عليه من القواعد.,"This example is not quite to the point, because (the knowledge of) chess is a habit, whereas the knowledge of causal chains is something natural. However, it is an example the student may use to gain an intellectual understanding of the basic facts mentioned here."
والله خلق الإنسان وفضله على كثير ممن خلق تفضيلا.,God created man and gave him superiority over many of His creatures.
الفصل الثاني عشر في العقل التجريبي وكيفية حدوثه,3. The experimental intellect and how it comes into
إنك تسمع في كتب الحكماء قولهم أن الإنسان هو مدني الطبع، يذكرونه في إثبات النبوات وغيرها.,One knows from philosophical works the statement that “man is political by nature.” The philosophers cite that statement in connection with establishing the existence of prophecy and other things.
والنسبة فيه إلى المدينة، وهي عندهم كناية عن الاجتماع البشري.,"The adjective “political” refers to the “town” (polis), which they use as another word for human social organization."
ومعنى هذا القول، أنه لا تمكن حياة المنفرد من البشر، ولا يتم وجوده إلا مع أبناء جنسه. وذلك لما هو عليه من العجز عن استكمال وجوده وحياته، فهو محتاج إلى المعاونة في جميع حاجاته أبدا بطبعه.,"The statement means that a single human being cannot live by himself, and his existence can materialize only in association with his fellow men. (Alone) he would be unable to have a complete existence and lead a complete life. By his very nature, he needs the co-operation of others to satisfy all his needs."
وتلك المعاونة لا بد فيها من المفاوضة أولا، ثم المشاركة وما بعدها. وربما تفضي المعاملة عند اتحاد الأعراض إلى المنازعة والمشاجرة فتنشأ المنافرة والمؤالفة، والصداقة والعداوة. ويؤول إلى الحرب والسلم بين الأمم والقبائل.,"Such cooperation requires, firstly, consultation, and, then, association and the things that follow after it. Dealings with other people, when there is oneness of purpose  may lead to strife and altercation. Thus, mutual dislike and mutual affection, friendship and hostility, originate. This leads to war and peace among nations and tribes."
وليس ذلك على أي وجه اتفق، كما بين الهمل من الحيوانات، بل للبشر بما جعل الله فيهم من انتظام الأفعال وترتيبها بالفكر، كما تقدم.,"(Among human beings,) this does not happen haphazardly, as is the case among stray animals. God caused human beings to act in an orderly and wellarranged manner, as the result of their ability to think, as has been mentioned before."
جعل منتظما فيهم، ويسرهم لإيقاعه على وجوه سياسية وقوانين حكمية، ينكبون فيها عن المفاسد إلى المصالح، وعن الحسن إلى القبيح، بعد أن يميزوا القبائح والمفسدة، بما ينشأ عن الفعل من ذلك عن تجربة صحيحة، وعوائد معروفة بينهم:,"Therefore, God had (their actions) take place among them in an orderly manner, and He enabled them to arrange for (their activities) under political aspects and according to philosophical norms. Those (political aspects and philosophical norms) lead human beings from the things that are detrimental (to them), to those that are in their interest, and from evil to the good, First, however, they must recognize the things that are evil, and the detrimental effect of doing them, from sound experience and current customs."
فيفارقون الهمل من الحيوان، وتظهر عليهم نتيجة الفكر في انتظام الأفعال وبعدها عن المفاسد. هذه المعاني التي يحصل بها ذلك لا تبعد عن الحس كل البعد ولا يتعمق فيها الناظر،,"Thus, they are distinguished from stray animals. The result of their ability to think shows itself in the fact that their actions are orderly and not likely to be detrimental. The concepts bringing this about are not completely divorced from sensual perception and do not require very deep study."
بل كلها تدرك بالتجربة وبها يستفاد، لأنها معان جزئية تتعلق بالمحسوسات وصدقها وكذبها، يظهر قريبا في الواقع، فيستفيد طالبها حصول العلم بها من ذلك.,All of them are obtained through experience and derived from it. They are particular concepts connected with the sensibilia. Their truth or falsehood soon comes out in events. From (events) the student of these concepts can learn them.
ويستفيد كل واحد من البشر القدر الذي يسر له منها مقتنصا له بالتجربة بين الواقع في معاملة أبناء جنسه، حتى يتعين له ما يجب وينبغي، فعلا وتركا.,"Each human being can learn as much of them as he is able to. He can pick up (his knowledge) with the help of experience among the events that occur in his dealings with his fellow men. Eventually, he will have what is necessary and must be done, and must not be done, fixed in his (mind)."
وتحصل في ملابسة الملكة في معاملة أبناء جنسه.,"By knowing this well, then, the proper habit of dealing with his fellow men will be obtained by him."
ومن تتبع ذلك سائر عمره حصل له العثور على كل قضية. ولا بد بما تسعه التجربة من الزمن.,"Those who follow this (procedure) during their whole life become acquainted with every single problem, (but) things that depend on experience require time."
وقد يسهل الله على كثير من البشر تحصيل ذلك في أقرب زمن التجربة، إذ قلد فيها الآباء والمشيخة والأكابر، ولقن عنهم ووعى تعليمهم، فيستغني عن طول المعانات في تتبع الوقائع واقتناص هذا المعنى من بينها.,"God made it easy for many human beings to obtain this (social knowledge) in a time shorter than the time required to obtain it through experience, if they will follow the experience of their fathers, teachers, and elders, learn from them, and accept their instruction. People can, thus, dispense with lengthy and careful (personal) study of events and need not attempt to pick out concepts from them."
ومن فقد العلم في ذلك والتقليد فيه أو أعرض عن حسن استماعه واتباعه، طال عناؤه في التأديب بذلك، فيجري في غير مألوف ويدركها على غير نسبة، فتوجد آدابه ومعاملاته سيئة الأوضاع بادية الخلل، ويفسد حاله في معاشه بين أبناء جنسه.,"But people who have no knowledge or tradition in this respect, or people who are not willing to learn and to follow (others), need long and careful study in order to be educated in these things. They are unfamiliar to them, and the knowledge they obtain of them is uneven. Their manners and dealings with others will be badly planned and show defects. Their chances of making a living among their fellow men will be spoiled."
وهذا معنى القول المشهور: «من لم يؤدبه والده أدبه الزمان».,This is the meaning of the famous saying: “He who is not educated by his parents will be educated by time.”
أي من لم يلقن الآداب في معاملة البشر من والديه- وفي معناهما المشيخة والأكابر- ويتعلم ذلك منهم، رجع إلى تعلمه بالطبع من الواقعات على توالي الأيام،,"That is, he who does not acquire the manners needed in dealing with human beings from his parents -which includes teachers and elders – and does not learn these things from them, has to fall back upon learning them with the help of nature from the events that happen in the course of time."
فيكون الزمان معلمه ومؤدبه لضرورة ذلك بضرورة المعاونة التي في طبعه.,"Thus, time will teach and educate him, because he needs that education, since, by his very nature, he needs the co-operation of others."
وهذا هو العقل التجريبي، وهو يحصل بعد العقل التمييزي الذي تقع به الأفعال كما بيناه.,"Such is the experimental intellect. It is obtained after the discerning intellect that leads to action, as we have explained."
وبعد هذين مرتبة العقل النظري الذي تكفل بتفسيره أهل العلوم، فلا يحتاج إلى تفسيره في هذا الكتاب.,"After these two intellects, there is the (higher) degree of the speculative intellect. (Many) scholars have undertaken to explain it, and it is, therefore, not necessary to explain it in this book."
والله جعل لكم السمع والأبصار والأفئدة قليلا ما تشكرون.,“God gave you hearing and vision and hearts.” “You are little grateful.”
الفصل الثالث عشر في علوم البشر وعلوم الملائكة,4. The sciences (knowledge) of human beings and the sciences (knowledge) of angels.
إنا نشهد في أنفسنا بالوجدان الصحيح وجود ثلاثة عوالم: أولها: عالم الحس، ونعتبره بمدارك الحس الذي شاركنا فيه الحيوانات بالإدراك، ثم نعتبر الفكر الذي اختص به البشر فنعلم منه وجود النفس الإنسانية علما ضروريا بما بين جنبينا من مدارك العلمية التي هي فوق مدارك الحس، فتراه عالما آخر فوق عالم الحس.,"We observe in ourselves through sound intuition the existence of three worlds. The first of them is the world of sensual perception. We become aware of it by means of the perception of the senses, which the animals share with us. Then, we become aware of the ability to think which is a special quality of human beings. We learn from it that the human soul exists. This knowledge is necessitated by the fact that we have in us scientific perceptions which are above the perceptions of the senses. They must thus be considered as another world, above the world of the senses."
ثم نستدل على عالم ثالث فوقنا بما نجد فينا من آثاره التي تلقى في أفئدتنا كالإرادات والوجهات، نحو الحركات الفعلية، فنعلم أن هناك فاعلا يبعثنا عليها من عالم فوق عالمنا وهو عالم الأرواح والملائكة. وفيه ذوات مدركة لوجود آثارها فينا مع ما بيننا وبينها من المغايرة.,"Then, we deduce (the existence of) a third world, above us, from the influences that we find it leaves in our hearts, such as volition and an inclination toward active motions. Thus, we know that there exists an agent there who directs us toward those things from a world above our world. That world is the world of spirits and angels. It contains essences that can be perceived because of the existence of influences they exercise upon us, despite the gap between us and them."
وربما يستدل على هذا العالم الأعلى الروحاني وذواته بالرؤيا وما نجد في النوم، ويلقى إلينا فيه من الأمور التي نحن في غفلة عنها في اليقظة، وتطابق الواقع في الصحيحة منها، فنعلم أنها حق ومن عالم الحق.,"Often, we may deduce (the existence of) that high spiritual world and the essences it contains, from visions and things we had not been aware of while awake but which we find in our sleep and which are brought to our attention in it and which, if they are true (dreams), conform with actuality. We thus know that they are true and come from the world of truth."
وأما أضغاث الأحلام فصور خيالية يخزنها الإدراك في الباطن ويجول فيها الفكر بعد الغيبة عن الحس. ولا نجد على هذا العالم الروحاني برهانا أوضح من هذا، فنعلمه كذلك على الجملة ولا ندرك له تفصيلا.,"“Confused dreams,” on the other hand, are pictures of the imagination that are stored inside by perception and to which the ability to think is applied, after (man) has retired from sense perception. We do not find any clearer proof than this for (the existence) of the spiritual world. Thus, we have a general knowledge of it, but no particulars."
وما يزعمه الحكماء الإلهيون في تفصيل ذواته وترتيبها، المسماة عندهم بالعقول، فليس شيء من ذلك بيقيني لاختلال شرط البرهان النظري فيه، كما هو مقرر في كلامهم في المنطق. لأن من شرطه أن تكون قضاياه أولية ذاتية. وهذه الذوات الروحانية مجهولة الذاتيات، فلا سبيل للبرهان فيها.,"The metaphysicians make conjectures about details concerning the essences of the spiritual world and their order. They call these essences “intellects.” However, none of it is certain, because the conditions of logical argumentation as established in logic do not apply to it. One of these conditions is that the propositions of the argument must be primary and essential, but the spiritual essences are of an unknown essentiality. Thus, logical argumentation cannot be applied to them."
ولا يبقى لنا مدرك في تفاصيل هذه العوالم إلا ما نقتبسه من الشرعيات التي يوضحها الإيمان ويحكمها. وأعقد هذه العوالم في مدركنا عالم البشر، لأنه وجداني مشهود في مداركنا الجسمانية والروحانية.,"Our only means of perceiving something of the details of these worlds are what we may glean from matters of religious law, as explained and established by religious faith. Of the (three) worlds, the one we can perceive best is the world of human beings, since it is existential and attested by our corporeal and spiritual perceptions."
ويشترك في عالم الحس مع الحيوانات وفي عالم العقل والأرواح مع الملائكة الذين ذواتهم من جنس ذواته، وهي ذوات مجردة عن الجسمانية والمادة، وعقل صرف يتحد فيه العقل والعاقل والمعقول، وكأنه ذات حقيقتها الإدراك والعقل، فعلومهم حاصلة دائما مطابقة بالطبع لمعلوماتهم لا يقع فيها خلل البتة.,"The world of the senses is shared by us with the animals, but the world of the intellect and the spirits is shared by us with the angels, whose essences are of the same kind as the essences of that world. They are essences free from corporeality and matter, and they are pure intellect in which intellect, thinker, and the object of thinking are one. It is, in a way, an essence the reality of which is perception and intellect. The sciences (knowledge) of the (angels), thus, always agree by nature with the things to be known. They can never have any defect."
وعلم البشر هو حصول صورة المعلوم في ذواتهم بعد أن لا تكون حاصلة. فهو كله مكتسب، والذات التي يحصل فيها صور المعلومات وهي النفس مادة هيولانية تلبس صور الوجود بصور المعلومات الحاصلة فيها شيئا شيئا، حتى تستكمل، ويصح وجودها بالموت في مادتها وصورتها.,"The knowledge of human beings, on the other hand, is the attainment of the form of the thing to be known in their essences, after it had not been there. It is all acquired. The essence in which the forms of the things to be known are obtained, namely, the soul, is a material substance that gradually takes over the forms of existence with the help of the forms of the things to be known that it obtains. Eventually, it reaches perfection, and, through death, its existence fulfills itself as regards both its matter and its form."
فالمطلوبات فيها مترددة بين النفي والإثبات دائما، بطلب أحدهما بالوسط الرابط بين الطرفين. فإذا حصل وصار معلوما افتقر إلى بيان المطابقة، وربما أوضحها البرهان الصناعي، لكنه من وراء الحجاب. وليس كالمعاينة التي في علوم الملائكة.,"The objects in the soul are subject to constant vacillation between negation and assertion. One of the two is sought by means of some middle (term) to connect the two extremes. When that is achieved and the object has become known, it must be explained that there exists agreement (between knowledge and the thing known). Such agreement may often be clarified by technical logical argumentation, but that is from “behind the veil,” and it is not like the direct vision that is found in connection with the sciences (knowledge) of the angels."
وقد ينكشف ذلك الحجاب فيصير إلى المطابقة بالعيان الإدراكي. فقد تبين أن البشر جاهل بالطبع للتردد في علمه، وعالم بالكسب والصناعة لتحصيله المطلوب بفكرة الشروط الصناعية.,"The “veil” may be removed, and the agreement may, thus, be effected through direct perceptive vision. It has been explained that human beings are ignorant by nature, because vacillation affects their knowledge. They learn through acquisition (of knowledge) and technique, because they obtain the objects they seek by applying their ability to think according to technical rules."
وكشف الحجاب الذي أشرنا إليه إنما هو بالرياضة بالأذكار التي أفضلها صلاة تنتهي عن الفحشاء والمنكر، وبالتنزه عن المتناولات المهمة ورأسها الصوم، وبالوجهة إلى الله بجميع قواه.,"The removal of the veil to which we have referred is achieved only through training in dhikr exercises of which the best is prayer, which forbids sinful and evil actions-through abstinence from all distracting food of consumption – of which the most important part is fasting – and through devoting oneself to God with all one’s powers."
والله علم الإنسان ما لم يعلم.,“God taught man what he did not know.”
الفصل الرابع عشر في علوم الأنبياء عليهم الصلاة والسلام,5. The sciences (knowledge) of the prophets.
إنا نجد هذا الصنف من البشر تعتريهم حالة إلهية خارجة عن منازع البشر وأحوالهم فتغلب الوجهة الربانية فيهم على البشرية في القوى الإدراكية والنزوعية من الشهوة والغضب وسائر الأحوال البدنية،,"We find that this kind of human being is in a divine condition that is different from (ordinary) human ambitions and conditions. In prophets, the trend toward the divine is more powerful than their humanity, as far as the powers of perception, the powers of desire-that is, concupiscence and wrath – and the other conditions of the body are concerned. (Prophets) keep away from things human, except in as much as they are necessary for life."
فتجدهم متنزهين عن الأحوال الربانية، من العبادة والذكر لله بما يقتضي معرفتهم به، مخبرين عنه بما يوحى إليهم في تلك الحالة، من هداية الأمة على طريقة واحدة وسنن معهود منهم لا يتبدل فيهم كأنه جبلة فطرهم الله عليها.,"They turn toward divine matters, such as worship and the remembrance (dhikr) of God, as their knowledge of Him requires. They give information about Him and (transmit) the revelation for the guidance of the nation (of believers) which they received in (their divine) condition. They do that according to one particular method and in a manner known to be peculiar to them. It undergoes no change in them and is like a natural disposition which God has given them."
وقد تقدم لنا الكلام في الوحي أول الكتاب في فصل المدركين للغيب.,"Revelation has already been discussed by us at the beginning of the book, in the chapter dealing with people who possess supernatural perception."
وبينا لك أن الوجود كله في عوالمه البسيطة والمركبة على تركيب طبيعي من أعلاها وأسفلها متصلة كلها اتصالا لا ينخرم.,"We explained there that the whole of existence in (all) its simple and composite worlds is arranged in a natural order of ascent and descent, so that everything constitutes an uninterrupted continuum."
وأن الذوات التي في آخر كل أفق من العوالم مستعدة لأن تنقلب إلى الذات التي تجاوزها من الأسفل والأعلى، استعدادا طبيعيا، كما في العناصر الجسمانية البسيطة، وكما في النخل والكرم من آخر أفق النبات مع الحلزون والصدف من أفق الحيوان وكما في القردة التي استجمع فيها الكيس والإدراك مع الإنسان صاحب الفكر والروية.,"The essences at the end of each particular stage of the worlds are by nature prepared to be transformed into the essence adjacent to them, either above or below them. This is the case with the simple material elements; it is the case with palms and vines, (which constitute) the last stage of plants, in their relation to snails and shellfish, (which constitute) the (lowest) stage of animals. It is also the case with monkeys, creatures combining in themselves cleverness and perception, in their relation to man, the being who has the ability to think and to reflect."
وهذا الاستعداد الذي في جانبي كل أفق من العوالم هو معنى الاتصال فيها.,"The preparedness (for transformation) that exists on either side, at each stage of the worlds, is meant when (we speak about) their connection."
وفوق العالم البشري عالم روحاني، شهدت لنا به الآثار التي فينا منه، بما يعطينا من قوى الإدراك والإرادة فذوات العلم العالم إدراك صرف وتعقل محض، وهو عالم الملائكة، فوجب من ذلك كله أن يكون للنفس الإنسانية استعداد للانسلاخ من البشرية إلى الملكية، لتصير بالفعل من جنس الملائكة وقتا من الأوقات، وفي لمحة من اللمحات.,"Above the human world, there is a spiritual world. It is known to us by its influence upon us, in that it gives us the powers of perception and volition. The essences of that spiritual world are pure perception and absolute intellection. It is the world of the angels. It follows from all this that the human soul must be prepared to exchange humanity for angelicality, in order actually to become part of the angelic species at any time, in a single instant."
ثم تراجع بشريتها وقد تلقت في عالم الملكية ما كلفت بتبليغه إلى أبناء جنسها من البشر. وهذا هو معنى الوحي وخطاب الملائكة.,"It will afterwards resume its humanity. But in the world of angelicality, it has meanwhile accepted (ideas) that it is charged to transmit to its fellow human beings. That is the meaning of revelation and being addressed by the angels."
والأنبياء كلهم مفطورون عليه، كأنه جبلة لهم ويعالجون في ذلك الانسلاخ من الشدة والغطيط ما هو معروف عنهم.,"All prophets possess this predisposition. It is like a natural disposition for them. In exchanging (their humanity for angelicality), they experience strain and sensations of choking, as is known in this connection."
وعلومهم في تلك الحالة علم شهادة وعيان، لا يلحقه الخطأ والزلل، ولا يقع فيه الغلط والوهم، بل المطابقة فيه ذاتية لزوال حجاب الغيب وحصول الشهادة الواضحة، عند مفارقة هذه الحالة إلى البشرية، لا يفارق علمهم الوضوح، استصحابا له من تلك الحالة الأولى،,"Their (supernatural) knowledge is one of direct observation and vision. No mistake or slip attaches itself to it, and it is not affected by errors or unfounded assumptions. The agreement in it is an essential one, because the veil of the supernatural is gone, and clear and direct observation has been attained. When (the prophets) quit that state and reassume their humanity, this clarity does not quit the knowledge they have, for it has become attached to it in the former condition."
ولما هم عليه من الذكاء المفضي بهم إليها، يتردد ذلك فيهم دائما إلى أن تكمل هداية الأمة التي بعثوا لها،,"And because they possess the virtue that brings them to that condition, their (experience) constantly repeats itself, until their guidance of the nation (of believers), which was the purpose for which they were sent, is accomplished."
كما في قوله تعالى: «إنما أنا بشر مثلكم يوحى إلي أنما إلهكم إله واحد، فاستقيموا إليه واستغفروه 41: 6».,"Thus, it is said in the Qur’an: “I am merely a human being like you, to whom it has been revealed that your God is one God. Thus, be straightforward with Him and ask Him for forgiveness.”"
فافهم ذلك وراجع ما قدمناه لك أول الكتاب، في أصناف المدركين للغيب، يتضح لك شرحه وبيانه، فقد بسطناه هنالك بسطا شافيا. والله الموفق.,"This should be understood. One should compare what we said earlier at the beginning of the book, about the different kinds of people possessing supernatural perception. It will constitute clear comment and explanation. There, we have explained the matter at sufficient length. God gives success."
الفصل الخامس عشر في أن الإنسان جاهل بالذات عالم بالكسب,"6. Man is essentially ignorant, and becomes learned through acquiring (knowledge)."
قد بينا أول هذه الفصول أن الإنسان من جنس الحيوانات، وأن الله تعالى ميزه عنها بالفكر الذي جعل له، يوقع به أفعاله على انتظام وهو العقل التمييزي أو يقتنص به العلم بالآراء والمصالح والمفاسد من أبناء جنسه، وهو العقل التجريبي، أو يحصل به في تصور الموجودات غائبا وشاهدا، على ما هي عليه، وهو العقل النظري.,"We have already explained at the beginning of these sections that man belongs to the genus of animals and that God distinguished him from them by the ability to think, which He gave man and through which man is able to arrange his actions in an orderly manner. This is the discerning intellect. Or, when it helps him to acquire from his fellow men a knowledge of ideas and of the things that are useful or detrimental to him, it is the experimental intellect. Or, when it helps him to obtain perception of the existent things as they are, whether they are absent or present, it is the speculative intellect."
وهذا الفكر إنما يحصل له بعد كمال الحيوانية فيه، ويبدأ من التمييز، فهو قبل التمييز خلو من العلم بالجملة، معدود من الحيوانات، لاحق بمبدئه في التكوين، من النطفة والعلقة والمضغة.,"Man’s ability to think comes to him (only) after the animality in him has reached perfection. It starts from discernment. Before man has discernment, he has no knowledge whatever, and is counted one of the animals. His origin, the way in which he was created from a drop of sperm, a clot of blood, and a lump of flesh, still determines his (mental make-up)."
وما حصل له بعد ذلك فهو بما جعل الله له من مدارك الحس والأفئدة التي هي الفكر. قال تعالى في الامتنان علينا: «وجعل لكم السمع والأبصار والأفئدة 16: 78»,"Whatever he attains subsequently is the result of sensual perception and the “hearts” – that is, the ability to think – God has given him. In recounting the favor He bestowed upon us, God said: “And He gave you hearing and vision and hearts.”"
فهو في الحالة الأولى قبل التمييز هيولى فقط، لجهله بجميع المعارف. ثم تستكمل صورته بالعلم الذي يكتسبه بآلاته، فكمل ذاته الإنسانية في وجودها.,"In his first condition, before he has attained discernment, man is simply matter, in as much as he is ignorant of all knowledge. He reaches perfection of his form through knowledge, which he acquires through his own organs. Thus, his human essence reaches perfection of existence."
وانظر إلى قوله تعالى مبدإ الوحي على نبيه «اقرأ باسم ربك الذي خلق، خلق الإنسان من علق، اقرأ وربك الأكرم الذي علم بالقلم، علم الإنسان ما لم يعلم 96: 1- 5»,"One may compare the word of God when His Prophet began to receive the revelation. “Recite: In the name of your Lord who created, created man out of a clot of blood. Recite: And your Lord the most noble who taught with the calamus, taught man what he did not know.”"
أي أكسبه من العلم ما لم يكن حاصلا له بعد أن كان علقة ومضغة فقد كشفت لنا طبيعته وذاته ما هو عليه من الجهل الذاتي والعلم الكسبي وأشارت إليه الآية الكريمة تقرر فيه الامتنان عليه بأول مراتب وجوده، وهي الإنسانية. وحالتاه الفطرية والكسبية في أول التنزيل ومبدإ الوحي.,"That is, He let him acquire knowledge he did not yet possess, after he had been a clot of blood and a lump of flesh. Man’s nature and essence reveal to us the essential ignorance and acquired (character of the) knowledge that man possesses, and the noble verse of the Qur’an refers to it at the very beginning and opening of the revelation, and establishes through it the fact that (man) has received (from God) as a favor the first of the stages of his existence, which is humanity and its two conditions, the innate one and the acquired one."
وكان الله عليما حكيما.,“God has been knowing and wise.”
الفصل السادس عشر في كشف الغطاء عن المتشابه من الكتاب والسنة وما حدث لأجل ذلك من طوائف السنية والمبتدعة في الاعتقادات,"15. An exposition of ambiguity in the Qur’an and
the Sunnah and of the resulting dogmatic schools among both the orthodox and the innovators."
اعلم أن الله سبحانه بعث إلينا نبينا محمدا صلى الله عليه وسلم يدعونا إلى النجاة والفوز بالنعيم، وأنزل عليه الكتاب الكريم باللسان العربي المبين، يخاطبنا فيه بالتكاليف المفضية بنا إلى ذلك. وكان في خلال هذا الخطاب، ومن ضروراته، ذكر صفاته سبحانه وأسمائه، ليعرفنا بذاته، وذكر الروح المتعلقة بنا، وذكر الوحي والملائكة، الوسائط بينه وبين رسله إلينا.,"It should be known that God sent our Prophet Muhammad to us, in order to call us to salvation and bliss. He revealed to him His noble book in the clear Arabic language. He told us in it about the (religious) obligations that would enable us to attain (salvation and bliss). This process included and necessitated references to God’s names and attributes, in order to make us acquainted with His essence. (It also included and necessitated) references to the spirit attaching itself to us, and to the revelation and the angels constituting the connection between God and His messengers who were sent to us."
وذكر لنا يوم البعث وإنذاراته ولم يعين لنا الوقت في شيء منه. وثبت في هذا القرآن الكريم حروفا من الهجاء مقطعة في أوائل بعض سوره، لا سبيل لنا إلى فهم المراد بها. وسمى هذه الأنواع كلها من الكتاب متشابها.,"The Day of Resurrection and its warning signs have been mentioned to us (in the Qur’an), but the exact time when any of these things is to take place is not indicated. Also, at the beginning of certain surahs, the noble Qur’an contains, distributed (in various places, combinations of) individual letters of the alphabet the meaning of which we are not able to understand. All these particulars of the Qur’an were called “ambiguous” (in the Qur’an itself)."
وذم على اتباعها فقال تعالى: «هو الذي أنزل عليك الكتاب منه آيات محكمات هن أم الكتاب وأخر متشابهات، فأما الذين في قلوبهم زيغ فيتبعون ما تشابه منه ابتغاء الفتنة وابتغاء تأويله وما يعلم تأويله إلا الله، والراسخون في العلم يقولون آمنا به كل من عند ربنا وما يذكر إلا أولوا الألباب 3: 7 »,"Those who followed them were censured, as indicated in the verse: “It is He who revealed the Book to you. It contains unambiguous verses that are the mother of the Book, and other verses that are ambiguous. Those who are inclined in their hearts toward deviation follow that which is ambiguous in the Qur’an, because they desire trouble, and they desire to interpret it. But only God knows how to interpret it. Those who are firmly rooted in knowledge say, ‘We believe in it. It is all from our Lord.’ Only those who have a heart remember.”"
وحمل العلماء من سلف الصحابة والتابعين هذه الآية على أن المحكمات هي المبينات الثابتة الأحكام. ولذا قال الفقهاء في اصطلاحهم: المحكم المتضح المعنى.,"The early Muslim scholars from among the men around Muhammad and the men of the second generation understood this verse to mean that the “unambiguous (verses)” are those that are clear and definite. The jurists, therefore, define “unambiguous” in their terminology as “clear in meaning.”"
وأما المتشابهات فلهم فيها عبارات. فقيل هي التي تفتقر إلى نظر وتفسير يصحح معناها، لتعارضها مع آية أخرى أو مع العقل، فتخفى دلالتها وتشتبه. وعلى هذا قال ابن عباس: «المتشابه يؤمن به ولا يعمل به»,"Concerning the “ambiguous (verses),” people have different notions. It has been said that they are (verses) requiring study and interpretation in order to establish their correct meaning, because they are in contradiction with other verses or with logic. Therefore, their meaning is obscure and “ambiguous.” In this sense, Ibn ‘Abbas said: “One must believe in the ‘ambiguous (verses),’ but one need not act in accordance with them.”"
وقال مجاهد وعكرمة: «كلما سوى آيات الأحكام والقصص متشابه» وعليه القاضي أبو بكر وإمام الحرمين. وقال الثوري والشعبي وجماعة من علماء السلف: «المتشابه، ما لم يكن سبيل إلى علمه، كشروط الساعة وأوقات الإنذارات وحروف الهجاء في أوائل السور، وقوله في الآية «هذه أم الكتاب» أي معظمه وغالبة والمتشابه أقله، وقد يرد إلى المحكم.,"Mujahid and ‘Ikrimah said: “Everything, with the exception of (clearly) unambiguous verses and narrative passages, is ambiguous.” This statement was accepted by Judge Abu Bakr (al-Baqillani) and by the Imam al-Haramayn. Ath-Thawri, ash-Sha’bi, and a number of early Muslim scholars said: ” ‘Ambiguous’ is what cannot be known, such as the conditions of the Hour, the dates of the warning signs, and the letters at the beginning of certain surahs. ” The phrase “Mother of the Book,” in the verse quoted, means “the largest and most prominent part of (the Book),” whereas the “ambiguous (verses)” constitute the smallest part of it, and they have no meaning except with reference to the unambiguous (verses)."
ثم ذم المتبعين للمتشابه بالتأويل أو بحملها على معان لا تفهم منها في لسان العرب الذي خوطبنا به.,"(The verse,) then, censures those who follow the “ambiguous (verses)” and interpret them or give them a meaning they do not have in the Arabic language which the Qur’an addresses us in."
وسماهم أهل زيغ، أي ميل عن الحق من الكفار والزنادقة وجهلة أهل البدع.,"The verse calls those persons “deviators” – that is, people who turn away from the truth – unbelievers, heretics, stupid innovators."
"وأن فعلهم ذلك قصد الفتنة التي هي الشرك أو اللبس على المؤمنين أو قصدا لتأويلها بما يشتهونه فيقتدون به في بدعتهم.
ثم أخبر سبحانه بأنه استأثر بتأويلها ولا يعلمه إلا هو فقال: وما يعلم تأويله إلا الله 3: 7.","The verse says that they act so in order to cause trouble – that is, polytheism and confusion among the believers – or in order to be able to interpret the (ambiguous verses) to suit their desires and to use (their interpretations) as a model for their innovations. God then informs (us in the verse quoted) that He has reserved the interpretation of the (ambiguous verses) exclusively to Himself. Nobody knows their interpretation, save only Him. He says: “But only God knows how to interpret them.”"
ثم أثنى على العلماء بالإيمان بها فقط. فقال: والراسخون في العلم يقولون آمنا به.,"The verse then praises scholars for simply believing in the (ambiguous verses). It says: “Those who are firmly rooted in knowledge say, ‘We believe in them.’ “"
ولهذا جعل السلف والراسخون مستأنفا، ورجحوه على العطف لأن الإيمان بالغيب أبلغ في الثناء ومع عطفه إنما يكون إيمانا بالشاهد، لأنهم يعلمون التأويل حينئذ فلا يكون غيبا.,"The early Muslims considered this statement as the beginning of a new sentence. They did not consider it to be coupled (with the preceding statement, in which case it would mean “. . . Only God knows how to interpret them, and so do those who are firmly rooted in knowledge, who say …”). Belief in something not known deserves greater praise (than belief in something visible). Now, assuming that the two sentences are to be coupled with each other, we would have belief in something visible, because (this interpretation) implies that (the scholars) know the interpretation, and that it is not something unknown."
ويعضد ذلك قوله: «كل من عند ربنا 3: 7» ويدل على أن التأويل فيها غير معلوم للبشر. إن الألفاظ اللغوية إنما يفهم منها المعاني التي وضعها العرب لها،,"This is confirmed by the continuation of the verse, “It is all from our Lord.” That shows that human beings do not know the interpretation of the (ambiguous verses). For the words of the language present to the understanding only those meanings given them by the Arabs."
فإذا استحال إسناد الخبر إلى مخبر عنه جهلنا مدلول الكلام حينئذ، وإن جاءنا من عند الله فوضنا علمه إليه ولا نشغل أنفسنا بمدلول نلتمسه، فلا سبيل لنا إلى ذلك.,"Thus, in cases where it is impossible to relate a certain (piece of) information to the (person) who gives it, we do not know what the words mean. When such information comes to us from God, we leave the knowledge of it to Him and do not bother to find out what it might mean. It would not be possible for us anyhow."
وقد قالت عائشة رضي الله عنها: «إذا رأيتم الذين يجادلون في القرآن، فهم الذين عنى الله»، فاحذروهم.,"‘A’ishah said: “If you see those who dispute about the Qur’an, they are the ones whom God meant (in the verse quoted) -beware of them!”"
هذا مذهب السلف في الآيات المتشابهة. وجاء في السنة ألفاظ مثل ذلك محملها عندهم محمل الآيات لأن المنبع واحد.,"This was the opinion of the early Muslims concerning the “ambiguous verses” (of the Qur’an). The traditions contain similarly (ambiguous) expressions which were considered by them in the same light, because the source is one and the same."
وإذا تقررت أصناف المتشابهات على ما قلناه، فلنرجع إلى اختلاف الناس فيها.,"Now that the different kinds of “ambiguous” statements have been established by our remarks, let us return to the differences of opinion regarding them found among people (scholars)."
فأما ما يرجع منها على ما ذكروه إلى الساعة وأشراطها وأوقات الإنذارات وعدد الزبانية وأمثال ذلك، فليس هذا والله أعلم من المتشابه، لأنه لم يرد فيه لفظ مجمل ولا غيره وإنما هي أزمنة لحادثات استأثر الله بعلمها بنصه في كتابه وعلى لسان نبيه.,"The statements that people consider “ambiguous” and that have reference to the Hour and its conditions, to the dates of the warning signs, to the number of the guardians of Hell, and similar things, hardly are “ambiguous” statements. They contain no equivocal expression or anything else (that may properly be considered ambiguous). They simply (refer to) dates of events, the knowledge of which God has reserved exclusively to Himself, as expressly stated in His Book and through His Prophet."
وقال: «إنما علمها عند الله 7: 187».,God says: “The knowledge of them is with God.”
والعجب ممن عددا من المتشابه. وأما الحروف المقطعة في أوائل السور فحقيقتها حروف الهجاء وليس ببعيد أن تكون مرادة.,"It is strange that these things could ever have been counted among the “ambiguous” statements. The (combinations of) individual letters at the beginning of certain surahs (al-huruf al-muqatta’ah) are, in matter of fact, letters of the alphabet. It is not improbable that they are intended (merely as meaningless letters of the alphabet)."
وقد قال الزمخشري: فيها إشارة إلى بعد الغاية في الإعجاز، لأن القرآن المنزل مؤلف منها، والبشر فيها سواء، والتفاوت موجود في دلالتها بعد التأليف. وإن عدل عن هذا الوجه الذي يتضمن الدلالة على الحقيقة فإنما يكون بنقل صحيح، كقولهم في طه، إنه نداء من طاهر وهادي وأمثال ذلك.,"Az-Zamakhshari says: “They indicate the wide sweep of the inimitability of the Qur’an. The revealed Qur’an is composed of (letters). Anybody could use them, but since their composition (in the Qur’an), there is a difference in their significance (and they have acquired a superior, divine quality).” Abandonment of the point of view which implies that (these Quranic hetters) do in fact indicate (just meaningless letters), would be justified only on the strength of sound tradition. Thus, it is said that taha is an appellation consisting of tahir “pure” and hath “guide,” and so on."
والنقل الصحيح متعذر، فيجيء المتشابه فيها من هذا الوجه.,"But it is difficult to have a sound tradition. In this sense, the letters might be (called) “ambiguous.”"
وأما الوحي والملائكة والروح والجن، فاشتباهها من حاء دلالتها الحقيقية لأنها غير متعارفة، فجاء التشابه فيها من أجل ذلك.,"The ambiguity in statements concerning the revelation, angels, the spirit, and jinn, results from obscurity in the real meaning of (those terms). They are not commonly accepted (terms). Therefore, they are ambiguous."
وقد ألحق بعض الناس بها كل ما في معناها من أحوال القيامة والجنة والدجال والفتن والشروط، وما هو بخلاف العوائد المألوفة، وهو غير بعيد، إلا أن الجمهور لا يوافقونهم عليه.,"Some people have added (to these things) all related matters, such as the conditions of Resurrection, Paradise, Hell, the Antichrist, the disturbances (preceding the Last Day), the conditions (governing it), and anything that is contrary to familiar custom. They may be right. However, the great mass (of scholars), especially the speculative theologians, do not agree to that."
وسيما المتكلمون فقد عينوا محاملها على ما تراه في كتبهم، ولم يبق من المتشابه إلا الصفات التي وصف الله بها نفسه في كتابه وعلى لسان نبيه، مما يوهم ظاهره نقصا أو تعجيزا.,"They have determined the significance of those (terms), as we notice, in their works. Thus, the only ambiguous statements remaining are those concerning the attributes that God has attributed to Himself in His Book and through His Prophet, the plain meaning of which would seem to suggest a deficiency or weakness on the part of God."
وقد اختلف الناس في هذه الظواهر من بعد السلف الذين قررنا مذهبهم. وتنازعوا وتطرقت البدع إلى العقائد.,"After the early Muslims whose opinions (on the subject) we have already clarified, there were differences of opinion among the people concerning these plain statements. There was discussion. Innovations came to affect dogmatic beliefs."
فلنشر إلى بيان مذاهبهم وإيثار الصحيح منه على الفاسد فنقول، «وما توفيقي إلا بالله 11: 88»:,Let us explain those opinions and give preference to the sound ones (among them) as against the corrupt ones. I say -and only God can give me success.
اعلم أن الله سبحانه وصف نفسه في كتابه بأنه عالم، قادر، مريد، حي، سميع، بصير، متكلم، جليل، كريم، جواد، منعم، عزيز، عظيم.,"It should be known that God described Himself to us in His Book as knowing, powerful, having volition, living, hearing, seeing, speaking, majestic, noble, generous, beneficent, strong, and great."
وكذا أثبت لنفسه اليدين والعينين والوجه والقدم واللسان، إلى غير ذلك من الصفات:,"He also established with regard to Himself that He had hands, eyes, a face, a foot, a leg, and other attributes."
فمنها ما يقتضي صحة ألوهية، مثل العلم والقدرة والإرادة، ثم الحياة التي هي شرط جميعها، ومنها ما هي صفة كمال، كالسمع والبصر والكلام،,"Some of them imply true divinity, such as knowledge, power, volition, as well as life, which is a condition for all of them. Others are attributes of perfection, such as hearing, vision, and speech."
ومنها ما يوهم النقص كالاستواء والنزول والمجيء، وكالوجه واليدين والعينين التي هي صفات المحدثات. ثم أخبر الشارع أنا نرى ربنا يوم القيامة كالقمر ليلة البدر، لا نضام في رؤيته كما ثبت في الصحيح.,"Others, again, seem to suggest deficiency, such as sitting, descending, and coming, as well as face, hands, and eyes, which are attributes of created things. The Lawgiver (Muhammad) then informed (us) that we shall see our Lord on the Day of Resurrection like the moon on a night when the moon is full, and shall not suffer any harm in seeing Him, as is established in sound tradition (the Sahih)."
فأما السلف من الصحابة والتابعين فأثبتوا له صفات الألوهية والكمال وفوضوا إليه ما يوهم النقص ساكتين عن مدلوله.,"The early Muslims, the men around Muhammad and the men of the second generation, affirmed God’s (possession of) the attributes of divinity and perfection. They left to Him (the question of attributes) that seem to suggest deficiency, and did not say anything as to what they might mean."
ثم اختلف الناس من بعدهم، وجاء المعتزلة فأثبتوا هذه الصفات أحكاما ذهنية مجردة، ولم يثبتوا صفة تقوم بذاته، وسموا ذلك توحيدا،,"Later on, people held divergent opinions. The Mu’tazilah came and affirmed those attributes as abstract data of the mind but did not assume the existence of a (divine) attribute persisting in the (divine) essence. This they called “declaration of the oneness of God” (tawhid)."
وجعلوا الإنسان خالقا لأفعاله، ولا تتعلق بها قدرة الله تعالى، سيما الشرور والمعاصي منها، إذ يمتنع على الحكيم فعلها.,"Then, they considered man the creator of his own actions, and that the latter have nothing to do with the divine power, especially not man’s evil actions and sins, since a wise (Deity) would find it impossible to do them."
وجعلوا مراعاة الأصلح للعباد واجبة عليه. وسموا ذلك عدلا، بعد أن كانوا أولا يقولون بنفي القدر، وأن الأمر كله مستأنف بعلم حادث وقدرة وإرادة كذلك، كما ورد في الصحيح. وأن عبد الله بن عمر تبرأ من معبد الجهني وأصحابه القائلين بذلك.,"They also considered it God’s duty to observe what is best for mankind. This they called (divine) justice (‘adl). Originally, they had denied predestination. They had maintained that everything starts through knowledge which comes into being (in each particular instance), as well as through power and volition which likewise (come into being). This is mentioned in (the sound tradition of) the Sahih, and ‘Abdallah b. ‘Umar refused to have anything to do with Ma’bad alJuhani and his companions who held those opinions."
وانتهى نفي القدر إلى واصل بن عطاء الغزالي، منهم، تلميذ الحسن البصري، لعهد عبد الملك بن مروان. ثم آخرا إلى معمر السلمي، ورجعوا عن القول به.,"The denial of predestination was taken up by the Mu’tazilah Wasil b. ‘Ata al-Ghazzal, the pupil of al-Hasan al-Basri, at the time of ‘Abd-al-Malik b. Marwan, and eventually by Mu’ammar as-Sullami. The Mu’tazilah, then, retracted their former opinion in this respect."
وكان منهم أبو الهذيل العلاف، وهو شيخ المعتزلة. أخذ الطريقة عن عثمان بن خالد الطويل عن واصل. وكان من نفات القدر، واتبع رأي الفلاسفة في نفي الصفات الوجودية لظهور مذاهبهم يومئذ.,"One of the Mu’tazilah was Abul-Hudhayl al-‘Allaf. He was the chief of the Mu’tazilah. He had learned the Mu’tazilah approach from ‘Uthman b. Khalid atTawil, who had it from Wasil. He was one of those who denied predestination. He followed the opinions of the philosophers in denying the existential attributes, because the philosophical opinions made their appearance at that time."
ثم جاء إبراهيم النظام، وقال بالقدر، واتبعوه. وطالع كتب الفلاسفة وشدد في نفي الصفات وقرر قواعد الاعتزال.,"Then came Ibrahim an-Nazzam. He professed (belief in) predestination, and (the Mu’tazilah) followed him. He studied the philosophical works. He strictly denied the (existence of the divine) attributes and firmly established the basic (dogmas) of Mu’tazilism."
ثم جاء الجاحظ والكعبي والجبائي، وكانت طريقتهم تسمى علم الكلام: إما لما فيها من الحجاج والجدال، وهو الذي يسمى كلاما، وإما أن أصل طريقتهم نفي صفة الكلام.,"Then came al-Jahiz, al-Ka’bi, and the Jubba’iyah. Their approach was called “the science of speculative theology.” (This name, which, literally, means “science of speech,” or “talk,” was chosen) either because the school implied argumentation and disputation, which is what might be called talk, or because it originated from denial of the attribute of speech."
فلهذا كان الشافعي يقول: حقهم أن يضربوا بالجريد ويطاف بهم. وقرر هؤلاء طريقتهم وأثبتوا منها وردوا،,"Therefore, ashShafi’i used to say: “They deserve to be beaten with palm rods and to be led around (in public).” Those men firmly established the Mu’tazilah school. They confirmed part of it and rejected (other parts)."
إلى أن ظهر الشيخ أبو الحسن الأشعري وناظر بعض مشيختهم في مسائل الصلاح والأصلح، فرفض طريقتهم، وكان على رأي عبد الله بن سعيد بن كلاب وأبي العباس القلانسي والحرث ابن أسد المحاسبي من أتباع السلف وعلى طريقة السنة.,"Eventually, Abul-Hasan al-Ash’ari appeared. He disputed (the opinions of) certain Mu’tazilah shaykhs concerning the problems of (God’s concern for human) welfare and what is best for man. He abolished Mu’tazilism. He followed the opinions of ‘Abdallah b. Sa’id b. Kullab, Abul- ‘Abbas al-Qalanisi, and al-Harith b. Asad al-Muhasibi, who were followers of the ancient Muslims according to the orthodox approach."
فأيد مقالاتهم بالحجج الكلامية وأثبت الصفات لي قائمة بذات الله تعالى، من العلم والقدرة والإرادة التي يتم بها دليل التمانع وتصح المعجزات للأنبياء.,"He strengthened the statements they had made with speculative theological arguments. He affirmed the existence of knowledge, power, volition, and life, as attributes persisting in the essence of God. (These attributes) are necessary for the argument of mutual antagonism, and they establish the correctness of prophetical miracles."
وكان من مذهبهم إثبات الكلام والسمع والبصر لأنها وإن أوهم ظاهرا النقص بالصوت والحرف الجسمانيين، فقد وجد للكلام عند العرب مدلول آخر غير الحروف والصوت، وهو ما يدور في الخلد.,"It also was (Ash’arite) doctrine to affirm the existence of (the divine attributes of) speech, hearing, and vision. On the surface, (these attributes) seem to suggest deficiency, (as they seem to be connected) with corporeal voice and corporeal letter (sound). However, among the Arabs, speech has another meaning, different from letter (sound) and voice, namely, “that which goes around in the soul” (khalad)."
والكلام حقيقة فيه دون الأول، فأثبتوها لله تعالى وانتفى إيهام النقص. وأثبتوا هذه الصفة قديمة عامة التعلق بشأن الصفات الأخرى.,"Speech in it is a reality, in contradistinction to the first (kind of speech). They ascribed such (eternal speech) to God. Thus, the suggestion of deficiency was eliminated. They affirmed the attribute of (speech) as one that is primeval and of general application, as is the case with the other attributes."
وصار القرآن اسما مشتركا بين القديم بذات الله تعالى، وهو الكلام النفسي والمحدث الذي هو الحروف المؤلفة المقروءة بالأصوات.,"The Qur’an, thus, became a term with a double meaning. It is primeval and persisting in the essence of God. This is essential speech. But it is (also) created, in as much as it consists of combinations of letters (sounds) produced in the recital (of the Qur’an) by (human) voices."
فإذا قيل قديم، فالمراد الأول، وإذا قيل مقروء، مسموع، فلدلالة القراءة والكتابة عليه. وتورع الإمام أحمد بن حنبل من إطلاق لفظ الحدوث عليه، لأنه لم يسمع من السلف قبله: لا إنه يقول أن المصاحف المكتوبة قديمة، ولا أن القراءة الجارية على السنة قديمة، وهو شاهدها محدثة.,"When it is called primeval, the first thing is meant. When it is called recitable or audible, this refers to its recitation and written fixation. His scrupulousness prevented the imam Ahmad (b. Hanbal) from using the word “created” for (the Qur’an in any way). He had not heard from the ancient Muslims before his time (anything to the effect) that he (was to) say that written copies of the Qur’an are primeval, or that the recitation (of the Qur’an) which is done by (human) tongues was something primeval, as he could observe with his own eyes that it was something created."
وإنما منعه من ذلك الورع الذي كان عليه. وأما غير ذلك فإنكار للضروريات، وحاشاه منه.,"But only his scrupulousness prevented him from (using the term “created” in those cases). Had he (avoided using it for any other reason), he would have denied something that is necessary. He certainly would not have done that."
وأما السمع والبصر، وإن كان يوهم إدراك الجارحة، فهو يدل أيضا لغة على إدراك المسموع والبصر، وينتفي إيهام النقص حينئذ لأنه حقيقة لغوية فيهما.,"Hearing and vision seem to suggest perception by parts of the body. However, linguistically, they also may mean the perception of audible and visible things. This, then, eliminates the suggestion of deficiency, because here we have a real linguistic meaning for the two terms (that may be applicable in connection with the divine attributes)."
وأما لفظ الاستواء والمجيء والنزول والوجه واليدين والعينين وأمثال ذلك، فعدلوا عن حقائقها اللغوية لما فيها من إيهام النقص بالتشبيه إلى مجازاتها، على طريقة العرب، حيث تتعذر حقائق الألفاظ، فيرجعون إلى المجاز. كما في قوله تعالى: «يريد أن ينقض» وأمثاله،,"On the other hand, in the case of the expressions sitting, coming, descending, face, hands, eyes, and the like, the (theologians) abandoned their real linguistic meaning, which would suggest deficiency, anthropomorphically, for metaphoric interpretation. It is the method of the Arabs to resort to metaphoric interpretation whenever the real meanings of words present difficulties. This is done, for instance, in connection with the verse of the Qur’an: “(A wall) that wanted to collapse,” and similar cases."
طريقة معروفة لهم غير منكرة ولا مبتدعة.,It is a well-known method of the Arabs which is not disapproved of and constitutes no innovation.
وحملهم على هذا التأويل، وإن كان مخالفا لمذهب السلف في التفويض أن جماعة من أتباع السلف وهم المحدثون والمتأخرون من الحنابلة ارتكبوا في محمل هذه الصفات فحملوها على صفات ثابتة لله تعالى، مجهولة الكيفية.,"(It is true,) the (metaphoric) interpretation (of the attributes mentioned) is contrary to the opinions of the early Muslims, who left (the matter to God). However, the theologians were led to adopt it by the fact that a number of followers of the early Muslims, namely, the novelty-conscious and more recent Hanbalites, erred with regard to the significance of those attributes. They considered them to be definite attributes of God of which it is not known “how” they are."
فيقولون في «استوى على العرش 7: 54» تثبت له استواء، بحيث مدلول اللفظة، فرارا من تعطيله. ولا نقول بكيفيته فرارا من القول بالتشبيه الذي تنفيه آيات السلوب، من قوله «ليس كمثله شيء 42: 11، سبحان الله عما يصفون 23: 91، تعالى الله عما يقول الظالمون، لم يلد ولم يولد 112: 3»,"With regard to the statement, “He sat upright upon the throne,” they say, “We affirm that He sits, as the word indicates, because we fear to negate Him, but we do not say how, because we fear anthropomorphism, which is denied in negative verses such as (these): ‘There is nothing like Him’; ‘Praised be God, beyond the attributes they give (Him)’; ‘God is above what evildoers say’; and ‘He did not give birth, and He was not born.’"
ولا يعلمون مع ذلك أنهم ولجوا من باب التشبيه في قولهم بإثبات استواء، والاستواء عند أهل اللغة إنما موضوعة الاستقرار والتمكن، وهو جسماني. وأما التعطيل الذي يشنعون بإلزامه، وهو تعطيل اللفظ، فلا محذور فيه.,"These people do not realize that it comes under the subject of anthropomorphism for them to affirm the attribute of sitting, because according to the lexicographers, the word “sitting” implies being firmly settled in a place, which is something corporeal. The negation they hate to bring about would (merely) affect the word, and there is nothing dangerous in that."
وإنما المحذور في تعطيل الآلة. وكذلك يشنعون بإلزام التكليف بما لا يطاق، وهو تمويه. لأن التشابه لم يقع في التكاليف.,"What is to be avoided is the negation of divinity. They also hate to assume the imposition of an obligation that (human beings) are unable to fulfill. This, however, is a delusion, because ambiguous statements have no bearing upon obligations."
ثم يدعون أن هذا مذهب السلف، وحاشا لله من ذلك. وإنما مذهب السلف ما قررناه أولا من تفويض المراد بها إلى الله، والسكوت عن فهمها. وقد يحتجون لإثبات الاستواء لله بقول مالك: «إن الاستواء معلوم الثبوت لله» وحاشاه من ذلك، لأنه يعلم مدلول الاستواء.,"Then, they claim that (their opinion) is the opinion of the early Muslims, who, in fact, held no such opinion. Their opinion was the one we established at the beginning, namely, to leave to God (the question of) what is meant by the (attributes), and not to say that one understands them. The (Hanbalites) argue in favor of (God’s) sitting, using Malik’s statement, “(The fact of God’s) sitting is known, but it is not known how (God sits).” Malik did not mean that sitting is known as a definite (attribute) of God. He certainly would not have said such a thing, because he knew the meaning of “sitting.”"
وإنما أراد أن الاستواء معلوم من اللغة، وهو الجسماني، وكيفيته أي حقيقته. لأن حقائق الصفات كلها كيفيات، وهي مجهولة الثبوت لله.,"He merely meant that (the meaning of) sitting is known linguistically, and it is something corporeal, but how it takes place – that is, its reality, since the reality of all attributes concerns the how – is not known definitely (in connection) with God."
وكذلك يحتجون على إثبات المكان بحديث السوداء، وأنها لما قال لها النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم. أين الله؟ وقالت في السماء، فقال أعتقها فإنها مؤمنة.,"These people also argue in favor of a “place” (for God). They do so by using the tradition of the black (slave girl). The Prophet asked her: “Where is God?” She answered: “In heaven.” Whereupon (the Prophet) said (to her owner): “Set her free, for she is a believer.”"
قول النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم لم يثبت لها الإيمان بإثباتها المكان لله، بل لأنها آمنت بما جاء به من ظواهر، أن الله في السماء، فدخلت في جملة الراسخين الذين يؤمنون بالمتشابه من غير كشف عن معناه.,"Now, the Prophet did not assume that she was a believer because she affirmed the existence of a place for God, but because she believed the plain statements in His Revelation which say that God is in heaven. Thus, she became one of those “firmly rooted (in knowledge),” who believe in ambiguous statements without searching for their meaning."
والقطع بنفي المكان حاصل من دليل العقل النافي للافتقار. ومن أدلة السلوب المؤذنة بالتنزيه مثل «ليس كمثله شيء 42: 11» وأشباهه. ومن قوله: «وهو الله في السماوات وفي الأرض 6: 3»،,"It is definite that one has to disavow the existence of a “place” for God. This follows from the logical argument denying (God’s) need (for anything), and from the negative evidence that calls for freeing (God’ from attributes), as found, for instance, (in the verse), “There is nothing like Him,” and similar statements. It also follows from the Qur’anic statement, “He, God, is in the heavens and upon earth.”"
إذ الموجود لا يكون في مكانين، فليست في هذا للمكان قطعا، والمراد غيره. ثم طردوا ذلك المحمل الذي ابتدعوه في ظواهر الوجه والعينين واليدين، والنزول والكلام بالحرف والصوت يجعلون لها مدلولات أعم من الجسمانية وينزهونه عن مدلول الجسماني منها.,"Nothing that exists can be in two places (at the same time). Thus, the verse is not a definite indication that God is located in a certain place, but must mean something else. These people then extended the interpretation they had invented to the plain meaning of face, eyes, hands, coming, descending, and speech with letter (sound) and voice. They assumed that these words had meanings that were more general than (mere) references to the body. They declared God free from the corporeal meaning of these attributes."
وهذا شيء لا يعرف في اللغة. وقد درج على ذلك الأول والآخر منهم ونافرهم أهل السنة من المتكلمين الأشعرية والحنفية. ورفضوا عقائدهم في ذلك،,"However, this is something that is not recognized in the language. All of them followed this course. The orthodox Ash’arites and the Hanafite theologians shunned them and tried to uproot their dogmatic belief in this respect."
ووقع بين متكلمي الحنفية ببخارى وبين الإمام محمد بن إسماعيل البخاري ما هو معروف.,"An episode that happened between Hanafite speculative theologians in Bukhara and the imam Muhammad b. Isma’il al-Bukhari, is well known."
وأما المجسمة ففعلوا مثل ذلك في إثبات الجسمية، وأنها لا كالأجسام. ولفظ الجسم له يثبت في منقول الشرعيات. وإنما جرأهم عليه إثبات هذه الظواهر، فلم يقتصروا عليه، بل توغلوا وأثبتوا الجسمية، يزعمون فيها مثل ذلك وينزهونه بقول متناقض سفساف، وهو قولهم: «جسم لا كالأجسام».,"The anthropomorphists (mujassimah) did something similar in affirming that God has a body but not one like (ordinary human) bodies. The word “body” is not used in connection with (God) in the Muslim religio-legal tradition, but they were emboldened in their statement by the fact that they affirmed the (literal) existence of these plain statements. They did not restrict themselves to them, but went deeper into the matter and affirmed the corporeality (of God). They assumed something like (what has just been mentioned) concerning (the meaning of corporeality). They (wanted to) free (God from human attributes) by the contradictory, nonsensical statement, “A body not like (ordinary human) bodies.”"
والجسم في لغة العرب هو العميق المحدود وغير هذا التفسير من أنه القائم بالذات أو المركب من الجواهر وغير ذلك، فاصطلاحات للمتكلمين يريدون بها غير المدلول اللغوي.,"But in the language of the Arabs, body is something that has depth and is limited. Other interpretations, such as the one that (body) is something persisting in itself, or is something composed of the elements, and other things, reflect the technical terms of speculative theology, through which (the theologians) want to get at another meaning than that indicated by the language."
فلهذا كان المجسمة أوغل في البدعة بل والكفر. حيث أثبتوا لله وصفا موهما يوهم النقص لم يرد في كلامه، ولا كلام نبيه.,"Thus, the anthropomorphists are more involved (than others) in innovation, and, indeed, in unbelief. They assume puzzling attributes for God which suggest deficiency (on His part) and which are not mentioned in either the Word of God or that of His Prophet."
فقد تبين لك الفرق بين مذاهب السلف والمتكلمين السنية والمحدثين والمبتدعة من المعتزلة والمجسمة بما أطلعناك عليه. وفي المحدثين غلاة يسمون المشبه لتصريحهم بالتشبيه، حتى إنه يحكى عن بعضهم أنه قال: اعفوني من اللحية والفرج وسلوا عما بدا لكم من سواهما.,"The differences between the dogmatic opinions of the early Muslims, the orthodox theologians, the noveltyconscious (scholars), and the innovators among the Mu’tazilah, has thus become clear through our remarks. Among the novelty conscious (scholars), there are extremists who are called al-mushabbihah, because they come out openly for anthropomorphism (tashbih). The story goes that one of them even said: “Spare me from speaking about God’s beard and genitals. Rather ask me about anything else, whatever you please.”"
وإن لم يتأول ذلك لهم، بأنهم يريدون حصر ما ورد من هذه الظواهر الموهمة، وحملها على ذلك المحمل الذي لأئمتهم، وإلا فهو كفر صريح والعياذ بالله.,"Unless one tries to explain such (a remark) in their own interest, by assuming that they want to deal exhaustively with these puzzling plain attributes, and that they consider all of them in the same light as their authorities, it is clear unbelief. God help us!"
وكتب أهل السنة مشحونة بالحجاج على هذه البدع، وبسط الرد عليهم بالأدلة الصحيحة. وإنما أومأنا إلى ذلك إيماء يتميز به فصول المقالات وجملها. «والحمد لله الذي هدانا لهذا وما كنا لنهتدي لولا أن هدانا الله 7: 43».,"The books of orthodox scholars are full of argumentations against such innovations and of lengthy refutations of (innovators) with the help of sound evidence. But we have briefly referred to the (subject) in a way that will help to distinguish the details and general outlines of dogmatics. “Praised be God who guided us to this. We would not be persons who are guided aright, had God not guided us.”"
وأما الظواهر الخفية الأدلة والدلالة، كالوحي والملائكة والروح والجن والبرزخ وأحوال القيامة والدجال والفتن والشروط، وسائر ما هو متعذر على الفهم أو مخالف للعادات، فإن حملناه على ما يذهب إليه الأشعرية في تفاصيله، وهم أهل السنة، فلا تشابه، وإن قلنا فيه بالتشابه، فلنوضح القول فيه بكشف الحجاب عنه,"The plain (words) the evidence for and meaning of which are obscure – such as revelation, angels, spirit, jinn, Purgatory (barzakh), the conditions of the Resurrection, the Antichrist, the disturbances (preceding the Last Day), the conditions (governing it), and everything else that is difficult to understand or contrary to custom – are considered by us in the same light as the Ash’arites, who are orthodox people, considered such details. There is no ambiguity in it, even though we speak of it as ambiguous. Therefore, we want to elucidate the matter and speak clearly about it."
فنقول: اعلم أن العالم البشري أشرف العوالم من الموجودات، وأرفعها. وهو وإن اتحدت حقيقة الإنسانية فيه فله أطوار يخالف كل واحد منها الآخر بأحوال تختص به حتى كأن الحقائق فيها مختلفة.,"We say: It should be known that the world of man is the most noble and exalted of the worlds of existent things. Even though human reality is a uniform (element) in (the world), it contains different levels which differ from each other through conditions peculiar to them, to such a degree that the realities at each level are different ones."
فالطور الأول: عالمه الجسماني بحسه الظاهر وفكره المعاشي وسائر تصرفاته التي أعطاه إياها وجوده الحاضر.,"The first level is constituted by the human world of the body including (man’s) external sense perception, his thinking which is directed toward making a living, and all the other activities which are granted to him by his present existence."
الطور الثاني: عالم النوم، وهو تصور الخيال بإنفاذ تصوراته جائلة في باطنه فيدرك منها بحواسه الظاهرة مجردة عن الأزمنة والأمكنة وسائر الأحوال الجسمانية، ويشاهدها في إمكان ليس هو فيه. ويحدث للصالح منها البشرى بما يترقب من مسراته الدنيوية والأخروية، كما وعد به الصادق صلوات الله عليه.,"The second level is constituted by the world of sleep (dream visions). It involves perception by the imagination. Man lets the perceptions of his imagination rove in his inward (being). With his external senses, he perceives some of them as unencumbered by time, place, or any other condition of the body. He sees them in places where he (himself) is not. If they are good, they present him with the glad tidings of pleasure he may expect in this world and the other world as our truthful (Prophet) promised."
وهذان الطوران عامان في جميع أشخاص البشر، وهما مختلفان في المدارك كما تراه.,"These two levels are shared by all human individuals, but, as one has seen, they differ as to the way perceptions are attained in them."
الطور الثالث: طور النبوة، وهو خاص بإشراف صنف البشر بما خصهم الله به من معرفته وتوحيده، وتنزل ملائكته عليهم بوحيه، وتكليفهم بإصلاح البشر في أحوال كلها مغايرة للأحوال البشرية الظاهرة.,"The third level is that of prophecy. It is restricted to the noblest representatives of humankind by virtue of the fact that God has distinguished them through the knowledge of Himself and (the declaration of) His oneness, through His revelation brought to them by His angels, and through the obligation to achieve the improvement of mankind with respect to conditions altogether different from the outward human conditions."
الطور الرابع: طور الموت الذي تفارق أشخاص البشر فيه حياتهم الظاهرة إلى وجود قبل القيامة يسمى البرزخ يتنعمون فيه ويعذبون على حسب أعمالهم ثم يفضون إلى يوم القيامة الكبرى، وهي دار الجزاء الأكبر نعيما وعذابا في الجنة أو في النار.,"The fourth level is that of death. Here, human individuals leave their outward life for an(other) existence before the Resurrection. (That existence) is called Purgatory (barzakh), In it, they enjoy bliss or receive punishment, depending on their activities (while alive). Then, they come to the Great Resurrection, where they receive the great reward, that is, either bliss in Paradise or punishment in Hell."
والطوران الأولان شاهدهما وجداني، والطور الثالث النبوي شاهده المعجزة والأحوال المختصة بالأنبياء، والطور الرابع شاهده ما تنزل على الأنبياء من وحي الله تعالى في المعاد وأحوال البرزخ والقيامة، مع أن العقل يقتضي به، كما نبهنا الله عليه، في كثير من آيات البعثة.,"The first two levels are attested by (concrete) intuition. The third level, that of prophecy, is attested to by the prophetic miracle (s) and the conditions peculiar to the prophets. The fourth level is attested to by the divine revelation given to the prophets (and which speaks) of revivification, the conditions of Purgatory (barzakh), and the Resurrection. Moreover, logic requires its (existence). God has called our attention to that in many verses concerned with the rising (of the dead)."
ومن أوضح الدلالة على صحتها أن أشخاص الإنسان لو لم يكن لهم وجود آخر بعد الموت غير هذه المشاهد يتلقى فيه أحوالا تليق به، لكان إيجاده الأول عبثا. إذ الموت إذا كان عدما كان مال الشخص إلى العدم، فلا يكون لوجوده الأول حكمة. والعبث على الحكيم محال.,"The best argument for the correctness (of these verses) is that if, apart from their visible (existence in this world), human individuals had no existence after death, where they will encounter conditions befitting them, it would have been something frivolous to create them in the first place. If death is non-existence, it would mean the return of the individual to non-existence. In that case, there would have been no sense in creating them in the first place. It is, however, absurd to assume that the wise (Deity) would act frivolously."
وإذا تقررت هذه الأحوال الأربعة، فلنأخذ في بيان مدارك الإنسان فيها كيف تختلف اختلافا بينا يكشف لك غور المتشابه. فأما مداركه في الطور الأول فواضحة جلية.,"Now, after (the existence of) the four levels has been established, we want to explain how human perceptions with regard to those four levels clearly differ. This will reveal the intricacy of (the problem of) ambiguity. At the first level, human perceptions are clear and obvious."
قال الله تعالى: «والله أخرجكم من بطون أمهاتكم لا تعلمون شيئا، وجعل لكم السمع والأبصار والأفئدة 16: 78».,God says: “God brought you forth from the wombs of your mothers. You did not then know anything. And He gave you hearing and vision and hearts.”
فبهذه المدارك يستولي على ملكات المعارف ويستكمل حقيقة إنسانية ويوفي حق العبادة المفضية به إلى النجاة.,"With the help of these perceptions, man is able to master the habits of knowledge, to perfect his human reality, and to satisfy the requirements of divine worship which brings him to salvation."
وأما مداركه في الطور الثاني، وهو طور النوم، فهي المدارك التي في الحس الظاهر بعينها. لكن ليست في الجوارح كما هي في اليقظة. لكن الرأي يتيقن كل شيء أدركه في نومه لا يشك فيه ولا يرتاب، مع خلو الجوارح عن الاستعمال العادي لها.,"At the second level – that of sleep (dream visions) – human perceptions are the same as those of external sense perception. Although the limbs of the body are not used as they are in the waking state, yet the person who has a (dream) vision ascertains everything perceived by him in his sleep without any doubt or misgiving. The limbs of the body are not employed in their ordinary manner."
والناس في حقيقة هذه الحال فريقان: الحكماء، ويزعمون أن الصور الخيالية يدفعها الخيال بحركة الفكر إلى الحس المشترك الذي هو الفصل المشترك بين الحس الظاهر والحس الباطن، فتصور محسوسه بالظاهر في الحواس كلها.,"Concerning the real character of this state, people are divided into two groups: The philosophers assume that imaginary pictures are transmitted by the imagination through the motion of thinking to the “common sense” which constitutes the connecting link between external and inner sensual perception. As a result, (these pictures) are represented as something perceived in the external (world) by all the senses."
ويشكل عليهم هذا بأن المرائي الصادقة التي هي من الله تعالى أو من الملك أثبت وأرسخ في الإدراك من المرائي الخيالية الشيطانية، مع أن الخيال فيها على ما قرروه واحد.,"The difficulty here is that true visions from God or the angels are more firmly and definitely perceived than visions of Satanic imaginations, although the imagination active in both is one and the same, as the (philosophers) have established."
الفريق الثاني: المتكلمون، أجملوا فيها القول، وقالوا: هو إدراك يخلقه الله في الحاسة فيقع كما يقع في اليقظة، وهذا أليق، وإن كنا لا نتصور كيفيته.,"The second group is that of the speculative theologians. Their summary statement of the problem is that it is a kind of perception created by God in (the realm of) the senses, and thus takes place in the same way that (perception) takes place in the waking state. This (explanation) is better, even though we are not able to perceive how it takes place."
وهذا الإدراك النومي أوضح شاهد على ما يقع بعده من المدارك الحسية في الأطوار.,Perception in sleep is the clearest evidence (we have) for the fact that sensual perception operates at the subsequent levels.
وأما الطور الثالث، وهو طور الأنبياء، فالمدارك الحسية فيها مجهولة الكيفية عند وجدانيته عندهم بأوضح من اليقين.,It is not known to us how sensual perception takes place on the third level-that of the prophets – but they themselves have a more than certain (knowledge of) perception through intuition.
فيرى النبي الله والملائكة، ويسمع كلام الله منه أو من الملائكة، ويرى الجنة والنار، والعرش والكرسي، ويخترق السماوات السبع في إسرائه ويركب البراق فيها، ويلقى النبيين لك، ويصلي بهم، ويدرك أنواع المدارك الحسية، كما يدرك في طوره الجسماني والنومي، بعلم ضروري يخلقه الله له، لا بالإدراك العادي للبشر في الجوارح،,"The Prophet sees God and the angels. He hears God’s speech from God Himself or from the angels. He sees Paradise, Hell, and the divine throne and chair. He breaks through the seven heavens in his ascension. He rides al-Buraq and meets the prophets in (the seven heavens) and prays with them. He perceives all kinds of sensual perceptions, exactly as he perceives them at the levels of body and sleep, (but) through a kind of necessary knowledge that God creates for him, and not through ordinary human perception by means of the limbs of the body."
ولا يلتفت في ذلك إلى ما يقوله ابن سينا من تنزيله أمر النبوة على أمر النوم في دفع الخيال صورة إلى الحس المشترك. فإن الكلام عليهم هنا أشد من الكلام في النوم، لأن هذا التنزيل طبيعة واحدة كما قررناه،,"In this connection, no attention should be paid to Avicenna’s remarks. He brings prophecy down to the level of sleep and says that the imagination transmits a picture to the “common sense.” The argument against the (philosophers) in this connection is (even) stronger in the case of sleep (dream visions). As we have established, that process of transmission (by the imagination) is by nature one and the same."
فيكون على هذا حقيقة الوحي والرؤيا من النبي واحدة في يقينها وحقيقتها، وليست كذلك على ما علمت من رؤيا النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم قبل الوحي ستة أشهر وأنها كانت بمدة الوحي ومقدمته، ويشعر ذلك بأنه رؤية في الحقيقة.,"In this way, revelation and prophetic dream vision would in reality be identical as to their certainty and reality. However, this is not so, as one knows from the dream vision of the Prophet just six months before the Revelation. The dream was the beginning of the Revelation and the prelude to it, which shows that, in reality, it is inferior to (revelation)."
وكذلك حال الوحي في نفسه فقد كان يصعب عليه ويقاسي منه شدة كما هي في الصحيح، حتى كان القرآن يتنزل عليه آيات مقطعات. وبعد ذلك نزل عليه (براءة) في غزوة (تبوك) جملة واحدة، وهو يسير على ناقته. فلو كان ذلك من تنزل الفكر إلى الخيال فقط، ومن الخيال إلى الحس المشترك، لم يكن بين هذه الحالات فرق.,"The same follows from the process of revelation itself. It was a very difficult matter for the Prophet, as is stated in sound tradition (the Sahih). The Qur’an was (at the beginning) revealed to him in individual verses. Later on, the (long) ninth surah (al-Bara’ah) was revealed to him in one piece during the expedition to Tabuk while he was riding on his camel. If the revelation had merely been the result of a process whereby thinking descends to the imagination and from the imagination to the “common sense,” there would not have been any difference between those stages (of the revelation)."
وأما الطور الرابع، وهو طور الأموات في برزخهم الذي أوله القبر. وهم مجردون عن البدن، أو في بعثتهم عند ما يرجعون إلى الأجسام، فمداركهم الحسية موجودة، فيرى الميت في قبره المكان يسائلانه، ويرى مقعده من الجنة أو النار بعيني رأسه، ويرى شهود الجنازة ويسمع كلامهم وخفق نعالهم في الانصراف عنه، ويسمع ما يذكرونه به من التوحيد أو من تقرير الشهادتين، وغير ذلك.,"At the fourth level – that of the dead in Purgatory (barzakh), which starts with the grave when they are free from the body, or during their rising when they reassume a body -the dead do have sensual perceptions. In his grave, a dead person sees two angels who question him. With the two eyes of his head, he sees the seat he will occupy in either Paradise or Hell. He sees the persons who attend the burial and hears what they say, and he hears the tapping of their shoes when they leave him. He hears the (declaration of the) oneness of God or the affirmation of the two confessions of faith which they suggest to him, and other things."
وفي الصحيح أن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم وقف على قليب بدر ، وفيه قتلى المشركين من قريش، وناداهم بأسمائهم، فقال عمر: يا رسول الله! أتكلم هؤلاء الجيف؟,"According to sound tradition (the Sahih), the Messenger of God was standing at the well of Badr into which the dead Qurashite polytheists had been thrown. When he called them by their names, ‘Umar asked him: “O Messenger of God, are you speaking to those dead bodies?”"
فقال صلى الله عليه وسلم: والذي نفسي بيده، ما أنتم بأسمع منهم لما أقول.,"Muhammad replied, “By Him in Whose hand my soul rests, you people do not hear what I am saying any better than they.”"
ثم في البعثة يوم القيامة يعاينون بأسمائهم وأبصارهم- كما كانوا يعاينون في الحياة- من نعيم الجنة على مراتبه وعذاب النار على مراتبه، ويرون الملائكة ويرون ربهم،,"Furthermore, during the rising of the dead and on the Day of Resurrection, the dead behold the different grades of bliss in Paradise and punishment in Hell with their own eyes and ears, exactly as they used to behold (things) during their life. They see the angels and they see their Lord."
كما ورد في الصحيح: إنكم ترون ربكم يوم القيامة، كالقمر ليلة البدر لا تضامون في رؤيته.,"Thus, sound tradition (in the Sahih) mentions, “You will see your Lord on the Day of Resurrection like the moon on a night when the moon is full. You will not suffer any harm in seeing Him.”"
وهذه المدارك لم تكن لهم في الحياة الدنيا وهي حسية مثلها، وتقع في الجوارح بالعلم الضروري الذي يخلقه الله كما قلناه.,"The dead did not have such perceptions while they were alive. (Still,) they are sensual perceptions like those (they had while they were alive). They take place in the limbs of the body by means of (some kind of) necessary knowledge that God creates, as we have stated."
وسر هذا أن تعلم أن النفس الإنسانية هي تنشأ بالبدن وبمداركه، فإذا فارقت البدن بنوم أو بموت أو صار النبي حالة الوحي من المدارك البشرية إلى المدارك الملكية، فقد استصبحت ما كان معها من المدارك البشرية مجردة عن الجوارح، فيدرك بها في ذلك الطور أي إدراك شاءت منها، أرفع من إدراكها، وهي في الجسد.,"The (explanation for the) secret of it lies in the knowledge that the human soul grows in the body and through the perceptions of the body. When it leaves the body in sleep or in death, or when a prophet, in the state of revelation, changes from human perceptions to angelic ones, the soul takes its means of perceptions along, but free of the limbs of the body. With (these means of perception), the soul perceives, on the (other) level, whatever perceptions it wants to perceive, but these perceptions are on a higher plane than those that the soul had while it was in the body."
قاله الغزالي رحمه الله، وزاد على ذلك أن النفس الإنسانية صورة تبقى لها، ب عد المفارقة فيها العينان والأذنان وسائر الجوارح المدركة أمثالا لها، كان في البدن وصورا.,"This was stated by al-Ghazzali, who added that the human soul has a form that it retains after its separation (from the body) and that, just like the body’s own structure, includes two eyes, two ears, and all the rest of the limbs of the body serving (man) to attain perception."
وأنا أقول: إنما يشير بذلك إلى الملكات الحاصلة من تصريف هذه الجوارح في بدنها زيادة على الإدراك. فإذا تفطنت لهذا كله علمت أن هذه المدارك موجودة في الأطوار الأربعة، لكن ليس على ما كانت في الحياة الدنيا، وإنما هي تختلف بالقوة والضعف بحسب ما يعرض لها من الأحوال.,"I would say, (however,) that alGhazzali here refers to the habits obtained through using all those limbs of the body in addition to (mere) perception. When one understands all this, one will realize that perceptions exist on all four levels. However, they are not everywhere the same as in the life of this world. They differ in intensity according to the conditions affecting them."
ويشير المتكلمون إلى ذلك إشارة مجملة بأن الله يخلق فيها علما ضروريا بتلك المدارك، أي مدرك كان، ويعنون به هذا القدر الذي أوضحناه.,"The theologians have indicated this fact in the summary statement that God creates in (the senses) a necessary knowledge of the thing perceived, whatever it may be. By that, they are referring to the same thing we have been explaining."
وهذه نبذة أومأنا بها إلى ما يوضح القول في المتشابه. ولو أوسعنا الكلام فيه لقصرت المدارك عنه.,"This is our brief attempt at classifying the problem of “ambiguity.” To attempt to discuss it more widely, would take us beyond comprehension."
فلنفزع إلى الله سبحانه في الهداية والفهم عن أنبيائه وكتابه، بما يحصل به الحق في توحيدنا، والظفر بنجاتنا والله يهدي من يشاء 2: 213.,Let us beseech God that He may guide us and that we may learn through His prophets and His Book how to acknowledge His oneness properly and how to attain salvation. “God guides whomever He wants to guide.”
الفصل السابع عشر في علم التصوف,16. The science of Sufism.
هذا العلم من العلوم الشرعية الحادثة في الملة وأصله أن طريقة هؤلاء القوم لم تزل عند سلف الأمة وكبارها من الصحابة والتابعين ومن بعدهم طريقة الحق والهداية,"This science belongs to the sciences of the religious law that originated in Islam. Sufism is based on (the assumption) that the method of those people (who later on came to be called Sufis) had always been considered by the important early Muslims, the men around Muhammad and the men of the second generation, as well as those who came after them, as the path of truth and right guidance."
وأصلها العكوف على العبادة والانقطاع إلى الله تعالى والإعراض عن زخرف الدنيا وزينتها، والزهد فيما يقبل عليه الجمهور من لذة ومال وجاه والانفراد عن الخلق في الخلوة للعبادة وكان ذلك عاما في الصحابة والسلف. فلما فشا الإقبال على الدنيا في القرن الثاني وما بعده وجنح الناس إلى مخالطة الدنيا اختص المقبلون على العبادة باسم الصوفية والمتصوفة.,"The (Sufi) approach is based upon constant application to divine worship, complete devotion to God, aversion to the false splendor of the world, abstinence from the pleasure, property, and position to which the great mass aspires, and retirement from the world into solitude for divine worship. These things were general among the men around Muhammad and the early Muslims. Then, worldly aspirations increased in the second [eighth] century and after. People now inclined toward worldly affairs. At that time, the special name of Sufis (Sufiyah and Mutasawwifah) was given to those who aspired to divine worship."
وقال القشيري رحمه الله: ولا يشهد لهذا الاسم اشتقاق من جهة العربية ولا قياس. والظاهر أنه لقب.,AlQushayri says: “No etymology or analogy can be found for this term in the Arabic language. It is obvious that it is a nickname.
ومن قال اشتقاقه من الصفاء أو من الصفة فبعيد من جهة القياس اللغوي، قال: وكذلك من الصوف لأنهم لم يختصوا بلبسه. قلت: والأظهر إن قيل بالاشتقاق أنه من الصوف وهم في الغالب مختصون بلبسه لما كانوا عليه من مخالفة الناس في لبس فاخر الثياب إلى لبس الصوف فلما اختص هؤلاء بمذهب الزهد والانفراد عن الخلق والإقبال على العبادة اختصوا بمآخذ مدركة لهم وذلك أن الإنسان بما هو إنسان إنما يتميز عن سائر الحيوان بالإدراك,"Theories deriving the word from assafa’ (purity, sincerity), or from as-suffah (bench), or from as-saff (row) are improbable from the point of view of linguistic analogy.” (Al-Qushayri) continued: “The same applies to the derivation from as-suf(wool), because the Sufis were not the only ones who wore Wool.” I say: The most obvious etymology, if one uses one, is that which connects the word with as-suf, because Sufis as a rule were characterized by the fact that they wore woolen garments. They were opposed to people wearing gorgeous garments, and, therefore, chose to wear wool. The Sufis came to represent asceticism, retirement from the world, and devotion to divine worship. Then, they developed a particular kind of perception which comes about through ecstatic experience. This comes about as follows. Man, as man, is distinguished from all the other animals by his ability to perceive."
وإدراكه نوعان: إدراك للعلوم والمعارف من اليقين والظن والشك والوهم وإدراك للأحوال القائمة من الفرح والحزن والقبض والبسط والرضى والغضب والصبر والشكر وأمثال ذلك.,"His perception is of two kinds. He can perceive sciences and matters of knowledge, and these may be certain, hypothetical, doubtful, or imaginary. Also, he can perceive “states” persisting in himself, such as joy and grief, anxiety and relaxation, satisfaction, anger, patience, gratefulness, and similar things."
فالروح العاقل والمتصرف في البدن تنشأ من إدراكات وإرادات وأحوال وهي التي يميز بها الإنسان. وبعضها ينشأ من بعض كما ينشأ العلم من الأدلة والفرح والحزن عن إدراك المؤلم أو المتلذذ به والنشاط عن الحمام والكسل عن الإعياء.,"The reasoning part active in the body originates from perceptions, volitions, and states. It is through them that man is distinguished (from the other animals), as we have stated. They originate from each other. Thus, knowledge originates from evidence, grief and joy from the perception of what is painful or pleasurable, energy from rest, and inertia from being tired."
وكذلك المريد في مجاهدته وعبادته لا بد وأن ينشأ له عن كل مجاهدة حال نتيجة تلك المجاهدة.,"In the same way, the exertion and worship of the Sufi novice must lead to a “state” that is the result of his exertion."
وتلك الحال إما أن تكون نوع عبادة فترسخ وتصير مقاما للمريد وإما أن لا تكون عبادة وإنما تكون صفة حاصلة للنفس من حزن أو سرور أو نشاط أو كسل أو غير ذلك من المقامات.,"That state may be a kind of divine worship. Then, it will be firmly rooted in the Sufi novice and become a “station” for him. Or, it may not be divine worship, but merely an attribute affecting the soul, such as joy or gladness, energy or inertia, or something else. The “stations” (form an ascending order)."
ولا يزال المريد يترقى من مقام إلى مقام إلى أن ينتهي إلى التوحيد والمعرفة التي هي الغاية المطلوبة للسعادة.,"The Sufi novice continues to progress from station to station, until he reaches the (recognition of the) oneness of God (tawhid) and the gnosis (ma’rifah) which is the desired goal of happiness."
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم «من مات يشهد أن لا إله إلا الله دخل الجنة» فالمريد لا بد له من الترقي في هذه الأطوار وأصلها كلها الطاعة والإخلاص ويتقدمها الإيمان ويصاحبها، وتنشأ عنها الأحوال والصفات نتائج وثمرات. ثم تنشأ عنها أخرى وأخرى إلى مقام التوحيد والعرفان.,"Muhammad says: “Whoever dies confessing that there is no God but God, enters Paradise.” Thus, the novice must progress by such stages. The basis of all of them is obedience and sincerity. Faith precedes and accompanies all of them. Their result and fruit are states and attributes. They lead to others, and again others, up to the station of the (recognition of the) oneness of God and of gnosis (‘irfan)."
وإذا وقع تقصير في النتيجة أو خلل فنعلم أنه إنما أتى من قبل التقصير في الذي قبله.,"If the result shows some shortcoming or defect, one can be sure that it comes from some shortcoming that existed in the previous stage."
وكذلك في الخواطر النفسانية والواردات القلبية. فلهذا يحتاج المريد إلى محاسبة نفسه في سائر أعماله وينظر في حقائقها لأن حصول النتائج عن الأعمال ضروري وقصورها من الخلل فيها كذلك.,"The same applies to the ideas of the soul and the inspirations of the heart. The novice, therefore, must scrutinize (muhasabah) himself in all his actions and study their concealed import, because the results, of necessity, originate from actions, and shortcomings in the results, thus, originate from defects in the actions."
والمريد يجد ذلك بذوقه ويحاسب نفسه على أسبابه. ولا يشاركهم في ذلك إلا القليل من الناس لأن الغفلة عن هذا كأنها شاملة. وغاية أهل العبادات إذا لم ينتهوا إلى هذا النوع أنهم يأتون بالطاعات مخلصة من نظر الفقه في الأجزاء والامتثال.,"The Sufi novice finds out about that through his mystical experience and he scrutinizes himself as to its reasons. Very few people share the (self-scrutiny) of the Sufis, for negligence in this respect is almost universal. Pious people who do not get that far perform, at best, acts of obedience freed from the juridical study of how to be satisfactory and conforming (in the execution of the acts of divine worship)."
وهؤلاء يبحثون عن نتائجها بالأذواق والمواجد ليطلعوا على أنها خالصة من التقصير أو لا، فظهر أن أصل طريقتهم كلها محاسبة النفس على الأفعال والتروك والكلام في هذه الأذواق والمواجد التي تحصل عن المجاهدات,"The (Sufis), however, investigate the results of (acts of obedience) with the help of mystical and ecstatic experience, in order to learn whether they are free from deficiency or not. Thus, it is evident that the Sufis’ path in its entirety depends upon self-scrutiny with regard to what they do or do not do, and upon discussion of the various kinds of mystical and ecstatic experience that result from their exertions."
ثم تستقر للمريد مقاما يترقى منها إلى غيرها ثم لهم مع ذلك آداب مخصوصة بهم واصطلاحات في ألفاظ تدور بينهم إذ الأوضاع اللغوية إنما هي للمعاني المتعارفة.,"This, then, crystallizes for the Sufi novice in a “station.” From that station, he can progress to another, higher one. Furthermore, the Sufis have their peculiar form of behavior and a (peculiar) linguistic terminology which they use in instruction. Linguistic data apply only to commonly accepted ideas."
فإذا عرض من المعاني ما هو غير متعارف اصطلحنا عن التعبير عنه بلفظ يتيسر فهمه منه. فلهذا اختص هؤلاء بهذا النوع من العلم الذي ليس لواحد غيرهم من أهل الشريعة الكلام فيه.,"When there occur ideas not commonly accepted, technical terms facilitating the understanding of those ideas are coined to express them. Thus, the Sufis had their special discipline, which is not discussed by other representatives of the religious law."
وصار علم الشريعة على صنفين: صنف مخصوص بالفقهاء وأهل الفتيا وهي الأحكام العامة في العبادات والعادات والمعاملات، وصنف مخصوص بالقوم في القيام بهذه المجاهدة ومحاسبة النفس عليها والكلام في الأذواق والمواجد العارضة في طريقها وكيفية الترقي منها من ذوق إلى ذوق وشرح الاصطلاحات التي تدور بينهم في ذلك.,"As a consequence, the science of the religious law came to consist of two kinds. One is the special field of jurists and muftis. It is concerned with the general laws governing the acts of divine worship, customary actions, and mutual dealings. The other is the special field of the “people” (Sufis). It is concerned with pious exertion, self-scrutiny with regard to it, discussion of the different kinds of mystical and ecstatic experience occurring in the course of (selfscrutiny), the mode of ascent from one mystical experience to another, and the interpretation of the technical terminology of mysticism in use among them."
فلما كتبت العلوم ودونت وألف الفقهاء في الفقه وأصوله والكلام والتفسير وغير ذلك.,"When the sciences were written down systematically and when the jurists wrote works on jurisprudence and the principles of jurisprudence, on speculative theology, Qur’an interpretation, and other subjects, the Sufis, too, wrote on their subject."
كتب رجال من أهل هذه الطرقة في طريقهم فمنهم من كتب في الورع ومحاسبة النفس على الاقتداء في الأخذ والترك كما فعله القشيري في كتاب الرسالة والسهروردي في كتاب عوارف المعارف وأمثالهم.,"Some Sufis wrote on the laws governing asceticism and self-scrutiny, how to act and not act in imitation of model (saints). That was done by al-Muhasibi, in his Kitab ar-Ri’ayah. Other (Sufi authors) wrote on the behavior of (Sufis) and their different kinds of mystical and ecstatic experience in the “states.” Al-Qushayri in his Kitab ar-Risalah, and as-Suhrawardi in the Kitab `Awarif al-ma`arif, as well as others, did this."
وجمع الغزالي رحمه الله بين الأمرين في كتاب الإحياء فدون فيه أحكام الورع والاقتداء ثم بين آداب القوم وسننهم وشرح اصطلاحاتهم في عباراتهم وصار علم التصوف في الملة علما مدونا بعد أن كانت الطريقة عبادة فقط وكانت أحكامها إنما تتلقى من صدور الرجال كما وقع في سائر العلوم التي دونت بالكتاب من التفسير والحديث والفقه والأصول وغير ذلك.,"Al-Ghazzali combined the two matters in the Kitab alIhya’. In it, he dealt systematically with the laws governing asceticism and the imitation of models. Then, he explained the behavior and customs of the people (Sufis) and commented on their technical vocabulary. Thus, the science of Sufism became a systematically treated discipline in Islam. Before that, mysticism had merely consisted of divine worship, and its laws had existed in the breasts of men. The same had been the case with all other disciplines, such as Qur’an interpretation, the science of tradition, jurisprudence, the principles of jurisprudence, and other disciplines."
ثم إن هذه المجاهدة والخلوة والذكر يتبعها غالبا كشف حجاب الحس والاطلاع على عوالم من أمر الله ليس لصاحب الحس إدراك شيء منها. والروح من تلك العوالم.,"(They were only later on) treated systematically. Mystical exertion, retirement, and dhikr exercises are as a rule followed by the removal of the veil (kashf) of sensual perception. The Sufi beholds divine worlds which a person subject to the senses cannot perceive at all. The spirit belongs to those worlds."
وسبب هذا الكشف أن الروح إذا رجع عن الحس الظاهر إلى الباطن ضعفت أحوال الحس وقويت أحوال الروح وغلب سلطانه وتجدد نشؤه وأعان على ذلك الذكر فإنه كالغذاء لتنمية الروح ولا يزال في نمو وتزيد إلى أن يصير شهودا بعد أن كان علما، ويكشف حجاب الحس، ويتم وجود النفس الذي لها من ذاتها، وهو عين الإدراك.,"The reason for the removal of (the veil) is the following. When the spirit turns from external sense perception to inner (perception), the senses weaken, and the spirit grows strong. It gains predominance and a new growth. The
dhikr exercise helps to bring that about. It is like food to make the spirit grow. The spirit continues to grow and to increase. It had been knowledge. Now, it becomes vision. The veil of sensual perception is removed, and the soul realizes its essential existence. This is identical with perception."
فيتعرض حينئذ للمواهب الربانية والعلوم اللدنية والفتح الإلهي وتقرب ذاته في تحقيق حقيقتها من الأفق الأعلى أفق الملائكة.,"(The spirit) now is ready for the holy gifts, for the sciences of the divine presence, and for the outpourings of the Deity. Its essence realizes its own true character and draws close to the highest sphere, the sphere of the angels."
وهذا الكشف كثيرا ما يعرض لأهل المجاهدة فيدركون من حقائق الوجود ما لا يدرك سواهم وكذلك يدركون كثيرا من الواقعات قبل وقوعها ويتصرفون بهممهم وقوى نفوسهم في الموجودات السفلية وتصير طوع إرادتهم.,"The removal of (the veil) often happens to people who exert themselves (in mystical exercise). They perceive the realities of existence as no one else (does). They also perceive many (future) happenings in advance. With the help of their minds and psychic powers they are active among the lower existentia, which thus become obedient to their will."
فالعظماء منهم لا يعتبرون هذا الكشف ولا يتصرفون ولا يخبرون عن حقيقة شيء لم يؤمروا بالتكلم فيه بل يعدون ما يقع لهم من ذلك محنة ويتعوذون منه إذا هاجمهم.,"The great Sufis do not think much of the removal (of the veil) and of activity (among the low existentia). They give no information about the reality of anything they have not been ordered to discuss. They consider it a tribulation, when things of that sort happen to them, and try to escape them whenever they afflict them."
وقد كان الصحابة رضي الله عنهم على مثل هذه المجاهدة وكان حظهم من هذه الكرامات أوفر الحظوظ لكنهم لم يقع لهم بها عناية.,"The men around Muhammad practiced that kind of (mystical) exertion. They had a very abundant share in the acts of divine grace, but they did not bother with them."
وفي فضائل أبي بكر وعمر وعثمان وعلي رضي الله عنهم كثير منها. وتبعهم في ذلك أهل الطريقة ممن اشتملت رسالة القشيري على ذكرهم ومن تبع طريقتهم من بعدهم.,"(The description of) the virtues of Abu Bakr, Umar, and Ali contain much (information) to this effect. They were followed in this respect by the Sufis who are mentioned in the Risalah of al-Qushayri, and their later successors."
ثم إن قوما من المتأخرين انصرفت عنايتهم إلى كشف الحجاب والكلام في المدارك التي وراءه واختلفت طرق الرياضة عنهم في ذلك باختلاف تعليمهم في إماتة القوى الحسية وتغذية الروح العاقل بالذكر حتى يحصل للنفس إدراكها الذي لها من ذاتها بتمام نشوتها وتغذيتها فإذا حصل ذلك زعموا أن الوجود قد انحصر في مداركها حينئذ وأنهم كشفوا ذوات الوجود وتصوروا حقائقها كلها من العرش إلى الطش.,"Recent mystics, then, have turned their attention to the removal of the veil and the discussion of perceptions beyond (sensual perception). Their ways of mystical exercise in this respect differ. They have taught different methods of mortifying the powers of sensual perception and nourishing the reasoning spirit with dhikr exercises, so that the soul might fully grow and attain its own essential perception. When this happens, they believe that the whole of existence is encompassed by the perceptions of the soul, that the essences of existence are revealed to them, and that they perceive the reality of all the essences from the (divine) throne to light rain."
هكذا قال الغزالي رحمه الله في كتاب الإحياء بعد أن ذكر صورة الرياضة.,"This was said by al-Ghazzali in the Kitab al-Ihya’, after he had mentioned the forms of mystical exercise."
ثم إن هذا الكشف لا يكون صحيحا كاملا عندهم إلا إذا كان ناشئا عن الاستقامة لأن الكشف قد يحصل لصاحب الجوع والخلوة وإن لم يكن هناك استقامة كالسحرة وغيرهم من المرتاضين.,"The (Sufis) do not consider removal (of the veil) sound, unless it originates in straightforwardness. People who do not eat and who retire (from the world), such as sorcerers, Christians, and other ascetics, may obtain removal (of the veil) without the existence of straightforwardness."
وليس مرادنا إلا الكشف الناشئ عن الاستقامة ومثاله أن المرآة الصقيلة إذا كانت محدبة أو مقعرة وحوذي بها جهة المرئي فإنه يتشكل فيه معوجا على غير صورته. وإن كانت مسطحة تشكل فيها المرئي صحيحا. فالاستقامة للنفس كالانبساط للمرآة فيما ينطبع فيها من الأحوال.,"However, we mean only that removal (of the veil) which originates in straightforwardness. It may be compared with (the reflections of) a mirror. If it is convex or concave, the object reflected by it appears in a distorted form different from the actual form of the object, but if the mirror is flat, the object appears in its correct form. As far as the “states” impressed upon the soul are concerned, straightforwardness means to the soul what flatness means in a mirror."
ولما عني المتأخرون بهذا النوع من الكشف تكلموا في حقائق الموجودات العلوية والسفلية وحقائق الملك والروح والعرش والكرسي وأمثال ذلك.,"The recent (Sufis) who have occupied themselves with this kind of removal (of the veil) talk about the real character of the higher and lower existentia and about the real character of the (divine) kingdom, the spirit, the (divine) throne, the (divine) seat, and similar things."
وقصرت مدارك من لم يشاركهم في طريقهم عن فهم أذواقهم ومواجدهم في ذلك. وأهل الفتيا بين منكر عليهم ومسلم لهم. وليس البرهان والدليل بنافع في هذا الطريق ردا وقبولا إذ هي من قبيل الوجدانيات.,"Those who did not share their approach were not able to understand their mystical and ecstatic experiences in this respect. The muftis partly disapprove of these Sufis and partly accept them. Arguments and proofs are of no use in deciding whether the Sufi approach should be rejected or accepted, since it belongs to intuitive experience."
تفصيل وتحقيق: يقع كثيرا في كلام أهل العقائد من علماء الحديث والفقه أن الله تعالى مباين لمخلوقاته.,Some details in explanation: Hadith scholars and jurists who discuss the articles of faith often mention that God is separate from His creatures.
ويقع للمتكلمين أنه لا مباين ولا متصل. ويقع للفلاسفة أنه لا داخل العالم ولا خارجة.,The speculative theologians say that He is neither separate nor connected. The philosophers say that He is neither in the world nor outside it.
ويقع للمتأخرين من المتصوفة أنه متحد بالمخلوقات: إما بمعنى الحلول فيها، أو بمعنى إنه هو عينها، وليس هناك غيره جملة ولا تفصيلا.,"The recent Sufis say that He is one with the creatures, in the sense that He is incarnate in them, or in the sense that He is identical with them and there exists nothing but Himself either (in the) whole or (in) any part (of it)."
فلنبين تفصيل هذه المذاهب ونشرح حقيقة كل واحد منها، حتى تتضح معانيها,"Let us explain in detail these dogmatic opinions and the real meaning of each of them, so that their significance will be clarified."
فنقول، إن المباينة تقال لمعنيين: أحدهما المباينة في الحيز والجهة، ويقابله الاتصال. ونشعر هذه المقابلة على هذه التقيد بالمكان إما صريحا وهو تجسيم، أو لزوما وهو تشبيه من قبيل القول بالجهة.,"We say: Separateness has two meanings. It may mean “separateness in space and direction.” The opposite, then, would be connectedness. In this sense, the statement of (separation) implies (that God is in some) place, either directly which would be direct anthropomorphism (tajsim) or in directly – which would be indirect anthropomorphism (tashbih) in the way in which one speaks about (God’s having) direction."
وقد نقل مثله عن بعض علماء السلف من التصريح بهذه المباينة، فيحتمل غير هذا المعنى. ومن أجل ذلك أنكر المتكلمون هذه المباينة,"It has been reported that an early Muslim scholar similarly professed the separateness of God, but a different interpretation is possible. The speculative theologians, therefore, did not acknowledge this (kind of) separateness."
وقالوا: لا يقال في البارئ أنه مباين مخلوقاته، ولا متصل بها، لأن ذلك إنما يكون للمتحيزات. وما يقال من أن المحل لا يخلو عن الاتصاف بالمعنى وضده، فهو مشروط بصحة الاتصاف أولا، وأما مع امتناعه فلا، بل يجوز الخلو عن المعنى وضده، كما يقال في الجماد، لا عالم ولا جاهل، ولا قادر ولا عاجز ولا كاتب ولا أمي.,"They said: It cannot be said that the Creator is separate from His creatures, and it cannot be said that He is connected with them, because such a statement can be made only about things in space. The statement that a particular thing can be described as devoid of one concept and at the same time of the opposite of that concept depends upon whether the description is sound in the first place (or not). If it is impossible, (the statement is) not (correct). It is, in fact, permissible to describe (a certain thing) as devoid of one concept and at the same time of the opposite of that concept. Thus, a solid substance may be described as not wise and not ignorant, not powerful and not weak, not causing harm [?] and not being harmed."
وصحة الاتصاف بهذه المباينة مشروط بالحصول في الجهة على ما تقرر من مدلولها. والبارئ سبحانه منزه عن ذلك.,"Now, the correctness of describing God as separate in the way mentioned is predicated upon the possibility of ascribing direction to Him in the proper meaning of the word, but this cannot be done with the Creator, who is free from (such a description)."
ذكره ابن التلمساني في شرح اللمع لإمام الحرمين وقال: «ولا يقال في البارئ مباين للعالم ولا متصل به، ولا داخل فيه ولا خارج عنه.,"This was mentioned by Ibn at-Tilimsani in his commentary on the Luma’ of the Imam al-Haramayn. He said: The Creator can neither be said to be separate from the world, nor to be connected with it. He is not in it and not outside it."
وهو معنى ما يقوله الفلاسفة أنه لا داخل العالم ولا خارجة، بناء على وجود الجواهر غير المتحيزة. وأنكرها المتكلمون لما يلزم من مساواتها للبارئ في أخص الصفات، وهو مبسوط في علم الكلام.,"That is what is meant by the philosophers when they say that He is neither in the world nor outside it. They base themselves (on the assumption) that there exist substances (atoms) that exist not in space. The speculative theologians did not acknowledge their (existence), because they would have to be considered equal to the Creator in the most specific qualities. That is fully dealt with in the science of speculative theology."
وأما المعنى الآخر للمباينة، فهو المغايرة والمخالفة فيقال: البارئ مباين لمخلوقاته في ذاته وهويته ووجوده وصفاته. ويقابله الاتحاد والامتزاج والاختلاط. وهذه المباينة هي مذهب أهل الحق كلهم من جمهور السلف وعلماء الشرائع والمتكلمين والمتصوفة الأقدمين كأهل الرسالة ومن نحا منحاهم.,"The other meaning of separateness is “being distinct and different.” The Creator is called separate from His creatures in His essence, identity, existence, and attributes. The opposite is being one, mingled, and merged (with something else). (God’s) separateness in this sense is assumed in the dogmas of all orthodox people, such as the great mass of early Muslims, the religious scholars, the speculative theologians, and the ancient Sufis, such as the men mentioned in (alQushayri’s) Risalah, and those who follow them."
وذهب جماعة من المتصوفة المتأخرين الذين صيروا المدارك الوجدانية علمية نظرية، إلى أن البارئ تعالى متحد بمخلوقاته في هويته ووجوده وصفاته.,"A number of recent Sufis who consider intuitive perceptions to be scientific and logical, hold the opinion that the Creator is one with His creatures in His identity, His existence, and His attributes."
وربما زعموا أنه مذهب الفلاسفة قبل أرسطو، مثل أفلاطون وسقراط، وهو الذي يقينه المتكلمون حيث ينقلونه في علم الكلام عن المتصوفة ويحاولون الرد عليه لأنه ذاتان، تنتفي إحداهما، أو تندرج اندراج الجزء، فإن تلك مغايرة صريحة، ولا يقولون بذلك.,"They often assume that this was the opinion of the philosophers before Aristotle, such as Plato and Socrates. That is what the speculative theologians mean when they speak about the (oneness of God with His creatures) in theology and try to refute it. They do not mean that there could be a question of two essences, one of which must be negated or comprised (in the other) as a part (in the whole). That would be clear distinctness, and they do not maintain that to be the case."
وهذا الاتحاد هو الحلول الذي تدعيه النصارى في المسيح عليه السلام، وهو أغرب لأنه حلول قديم في محدث أو اتحاده به. وهو أيضا عين ما تقوله الإمامية من الشيعة في الأئمة.,"The oneness (assumed by the Sufis) is identical with the incarnation the Christians claim for the Messiah. It is even stranger, in that it is the incarnation of something primeval in something created and the oneness of the former with the latter. (The oneness assumed by the Sufis) is also identical with the stated opinion of the Imamiyah Shi’ah concerning their imams."
وتقرير هذا الاتحاد في كلامهم على طريقين:,"In their discussion, the (Shi’ah) consider two ways in which the oneness (of the Deity with the imams) is achieved."
الأولى: أن ذات القديم كائنة في المحدثات محسوسها ومعقولها، متحدة بها في المتصورين، وهي كلها مظاهر له، وهو القائم عليها، أي المقدم لوجودها، بمعنى لولاه كانت عدما وهو رأي أهل الحلول.,"(1) The essence of the primeval (Deity) is hidden in all created things, both sensibilia and intelligibilia, and is one with them in both kinds of perception. All of them are manifestations of it, and it has control over them-that is, it controls their existence in the sense that, without it, they would not exist. Such is the opinion of the people who believe in incarnation."
الثانية: طريق أهل الوحدة المطلقة وكأنهم استشعروا من تقرير أهل الحلول الغيرية المنافية لمعقول الاتحاد، فنفوها بين القديم وبين المخلوقات في الذات والوجود والصفات. وغالطوا في غيرية المظاهر المدركة بالحس والعقل بأن ذلك من المدارك البشرية، وهي أوهام.,"(2) There is the approach of those who believe in absolute oneness. It seems as if in the exposition of the people who believe in incarnation, they have sensed the existence of a differentness contradicting the concept of oneness. Therefore, they disavowed the (existence of differentness) between the primeval (Deity) and the creatures in essence, existence, and attributes. In (order to explain) the differentness of the manifestations perceived by the senses and the intellect, they used the specious argument that those things were human perceptions that are imaginary."
ولا يريدون الوهم الذي هو قسيم العلم والظن والشك، إنما يريدون أنها كلها عدم في الحقيقة، ووجود في المدرك البشري فقط. ولا وجود بالحقيقة إلا للقديم، لا في الظاهر ولا في الباطن كما نقرره بعد، بحسب الإمكان.,"By imaginary, they do not mean imaginary as part of the sequence: known, hypothetical, doubtful, but they mean that all those things do not exist in reality and exist only in human perception. Only the primeval (Deity) has real existence (and nothing else) either outwardly or inwardly. Later on, we shall, as far as possible, establish this."
والتعويل في تعقل ذلك على النظر والاستدلال، كما في المدارك البشرية، غير مفيد، لأن ذلك إنما ينقل من المدارك الملكية، وإنما هي حاصلة للأنبياء بالفطرة ومن بعدهم للأولياء بهدايتهم.,"In order to understand this intellectually, it is useless to rely upon speculation and argumentation, as is done in connection with human perceptions. This (sort of insight corresponds to) angelic perceptions and is transferred from them (to human beings). Prophets have it through natural disposition. After them, saints have it through divine guidance."
وقصد من يقصد الحصول عليها بالطريقة العلمية ضلال. وربما قصد بعض المصنفين ذلك في كشف الموجودات وترتيب حقائقه على طريق أهل المظاهر فأتى بالأغمض فالأغمض. وربما قصد بعض المصنفين بيان مذهبهم في كشف الوجود وترتيب حقائقه فأتى بالأغمض فالأغمض بالنسبة إلى أهل النظر والاصطلاحات والعلوم,"But one errs if one wants to obtain it by scientific methods. Authors have occasionally tried to explain the (Sufi) opinions concerning the revelation (kashf) of existence and the order of the realities of existence according to the approach of the people who (have the theory of) “manifestations” (mazahir). As compared to people who cultivate speculation, technical terminology, and the sciences, (it must be said that) they have always added obscurity to obscurity."
كما فعل الفرغاني شارح قصيدة ابن الفارض في الديباجة التي كتبها في صدر ذلك الشرح فإنه ذكر في صدور الوجود عن الفاعل وترتيبه أن الوجود كله صادر عن صفة الوحدانية التي هي مظهر الأحدية وهما معا صادران عن الذات الكريمة التي هي عين الوحدة لا غير.,"An example is al-Farghani, the commentator on Ibn al-Farid’s Poem He wrote a preface at the beginning of his commentary. In connection with the origin of the world of existence from the Maker and its order, he mentions that all existence comes forth from the attribute of uniqueness (wahadniyah) which is the manifestation of unity (ahadiyah) Both of them together issue from the noble essence that is identical with oneness and nothing else."
ويسمون هذا الصدور بالتجلي.,This process is called “revelation” (tajalli).
وأول مراتب التجليات عندهم تجلي الذات على نفسه وهو يتضمن الكمال بإفاضة الإيجاد والظهور لقوله في الحديث الذي يتناقلونه: «كنت كنزا مخفيا فأحببت أن أعرف فخلقت الخلق ليعرفوني»,"The first degree of revelation (tajalli), in (Sufi) opinion, is the revelation, as such of the essence. This implies perfection, because it emanates creation and appearance, according to (God’s) statement in the prophetic tradition transmitted by (the Sufis): “I was a concealed treasure. I wanted to be known. Therefore, I created the creatures, so that they might know Me.”"
وهذا الكمال في الإيجاد المتنزل في الوجود وتفصيل الحقائق وهو عندهم عالم المعاني والحضرة الكمالية والحقيقة المحمدية وفيها حقائق الصفات واللوح والقلم وحقائق الأنبياء والرسل أجمعين والكمل من أهل الملة المحمدية.,"This is perfection in creation descending to the level of existence and particularization of the realities. It is, in (Sufi) opinion, the world of ideas, the nubilous (‘amd’iyah) presence, and Muhammadan reality. It contains the realities of the attributes, the writing tablet and the pen, the realities of all the prophets and messengers, and the whole of the people of the Muhammadan nation."
وهذا كله تفصيل الحقيقة المحمدية. ويصدر عن هذه الحقائق حقائق أخرى في الحضرة الهبائية وهي مرتبة المثال ثم عنها العرش ثم الكرسي ثم الأفلاك، ثم عالم العناصر، ثم عالم التركيب.,"All this is the particularization of the Muhammadan reality. From these realities, other realities issue in the atomic (haba’iyah) presence, which is the level of the ideas (mithal). From there, then, issue in succession the (divine) throne, the (divine) seat, the spheres, the world of the elements, and the world of composition."
هذا في عالم الرتق فإذا تجلت فهي في عالم الفتق. ويسمى هذا المذهب مذهب أهل التجلي والمظاهر والحضرات وهو كلام لا يقتدر أهل النظر إلى تحصيل مقتضاه لغموضه وانغلاقه وبعد ما بين كلام صاحب المشاهدة والوجدان وصاحب الدليل.,"All this is (originally) in the world of mending (ratq), but when these things manifest themselves, they are in the world of rending (fatq). End of the quotation. This school is called that of the people of revelation, manifestations, and presences. It is a theory that people cultivating (logical) speculation cannot properly grasp, because it is obscure and cryptic. There also is a great gap between the theories of people who have vision and intuitive experience and those of people who cultivate logical reasoning."
وربما أنكر بظاهر الشرع هذا الترتيب,"(Sufi) systems (like the one mentioned) are often disapproved of on the strength of the plain wording of the religious law, for no indication of them can be found in it anywhere."
وكذلك ذهب آخرون منهم إلى القول بالوحدة المطلقة,Other (Sufis) turned to affirming absolute oneness.
وهو رأي أغرب من الأول في تعقله وتفاريعه، يزعمون فيه أن الوجود له قوى في تفاصيله بها كانت حقائق الموجودات وصورها وموادها.,"This is a theory (even) stranger than the first one to understand in its implications and details. They believe the components of everything in existence to possess powers that bring the realities, forms, and matters of the existing things into being."
والعناصر إنما كانت بما فيها من القوى وكذلك مادتها لها في نفسها قوة بها كان وجودها. ثم إن المركبات فيها تلك القوى متضمنة في القوة التي كان بها التركيب،,"The elements come into being through the powers that are in them. The same is the case with matter, which has in itself a power that has brought about its existence. Composite things contain such powers implicit in the power that brought about (their) composition."
كالقوة المعدنية فيها قوى العناصر بهيولاها وزيادة القوة المعدنية ثم القوة الحيوانية تتضمن القوة المعدنية وزيادة قوتها في نفسها وكذا القوة الإنسانية مع الحيوانية ثم الفلك يتضمن القوة الإنسانية وزيادة.,"For instance, the mineral power contains the powers of the elements of matter and, in addition, the mineral power. The animal power contains the mineral power and, in addition, its own power. The same is the case with the human power as compared to animal power. The firmament contains the human power and something in addition."
وكذا الذوات الروحانية والقوة الجامعة للكل من غير تفصيل هي القوة الإلهية التي انبثت في جميع الموجودات كلية وجزئية وجمعتها وأحاطت بها من كل وجه، لا من جهة الظهور ولا من جهة الخفاء ولا من جهة الصورة ولا من جهة المادة فالكل واحد وهو نفس الذات الإلهية وهي في الحقيقة واحدة بسيطة والاعتبار هو المفصل لها كالإنسانية مع الحيوانية. ألا ترى أنها مندرجة فيها وكائنة بكونها.,"The same applies to the spiritual essences. Now, the power combining everything without any particularization is the divine power. It is the power distributed over all existing things, whether they are universals or particulars, combining and comprising them in every aspect, with regard to appearance and hiddenness and with regard to form and matter. Everything is one. (Oneness) is identical with the divine essence. In reality, (the divine essence) is one and simple. The thing that divides it is the way (we) look at it. For instance, as to the relationship of humanity to animality, it is clear that the former is included under the latter and comes into being when it comes into being."
فتارة يمثلونها بالجنس مع النوع، في كل موجود كما ذكرناه وتارة بالكل مع الجزء على طريقة المثال.,"At times, (the Sufis) represent the relationship as that of genus to species, (which exists) in every existing thing, as we have mentioned. Or, they represent it as that of the universal to the particular, according to the theory of ideas (mithal)."
وهم في هذا كله يفرون من التركيب والكثرة بوجه من الوجوه وإنما أوجبها عندهم الوهم والخيال.,"At any rate, they always try to get away from any thought of composition or manifoldness. They think that (manifoldness) is brought about by fancy and imagination."
والذي يظهر من كلام ابن دهقان في تقرير هذا المذهب أن حقيقة ما يقولونه في الوحدة شبيه بما تقوله الحكماء في الألوان من أن وجودها مشروط بالضوء فإذا عدم الضوء لم تكن الألوان موجودة بوجه.,"It appears from the discussion of Ibn Dihaq, who explains this (Sufi) theory, that what the (Sufis) say about oneness is actually similar to what the philosophers say about colors, namely, that their existence is predicated upon light. When there is no light, no colors whatever exist."
وكذا عندهم الموجودات المحسوسة كلها مشروطة بوجود المدرك الحسي، بل والموجودات المعقولة والمتوهمة أيضا مشروطة بوجود المدرك العقلي فإذا الوجود المفصل كله مشروط بوجود المدرك البشري.,"Thus, the (Sufis) think that all existing sensibilia are predicated upon the existence of some (faculty of) sensual perception and, in fact, that all existing intelligibilia and objects of imagination are predicated upon the existence of some (faculty of) intellectual perception. Thus, every particular in existence is predicated upon (the existence of) the human (faculty) that perceives it."
فلو فرضنا عدم المدرك البشري جملة لم يكن هناك تفصيل الوجود بل هو بسيط واحد فالحر والبرد والصلابة واللين بل والأرض والماء والنار والسماء والكواكب، إنما وجدت لوجود الحواس المدركة لها لما جعل في المدرك من التفصيل الذي ليس في الموجود وإنما هو في المدارك فقط فإذا فقدت المدارك المفصلة فلا تفصيل إنما هو إدراك واحد وهو أنا لا غيره.,"If we assumed that no human being with perception exists, there would be no particularization in existence. Existence would be simple and one. Thus, heat and cold, solidity and softness, and, indeed, earth, water, fire, heaven, and the stars, exist only because the senses perceiving them exist, because particularization that does not exist in existence is made possible for the (person) who perceives. It exists only in perception. If there were no perceptions to create distinctions, there would be no particularization, but just one single perception, namely, the “I” and nothing else."
ويعتبرون ذلك بحال النائم فإنه إذا نام وفقد الحس الظاهر فقد كل محسوس وهو في تلك الحالة إلا ما يفصله له الخيال. قالوا: فكذا اليقظان إنما يعتبر تلك المدركات كلها على التفصيل بنوع مدركة البشري ولو قدر فقد مدركة فقد التفصيل وهذا هو معنى قولهم الموهم لا الوهم الذي هو من جملة المدارك البشرية.,"They consider this comparable to the condition of a sleeper. When he sleeps and has no external sense perception, he loses in that condition all (perception of) sensibilia, with the exception of the things that the imagination particularizes for him. They continued by saying that a person who is awake likewise experiences particularized perceptions only through the type of human perception (that exists) in him. If he had not that something in him that perceives, there would be no particularization. This is what the (Sufis) mean when they say “imaginary.” They do not mean “imaginary” as a part (in the sequence) of human perceptions."
هذا ملخص رأيهم على ما يفهم من كلام ابن دهقان وهو في غاية السقوط لأنا نقطع بوجود البلد الذي نحن مسافرون عنه وإليه يقينا مع غيبته عن أعيننا وبوجود السماء المظلة والكواكب وسائر الأشياء الغائبة عنا. والإنسان قاطع بذلك ولا يكابر أحد نفسه في اليقين مع أن المحققين من المتصوفة المتأخرين يقولون إن المريد عند الكشف ربما يعرض له توهم هذه الوحدة ويسمى ذلك عندهم مقام الجمع ثم يترقى عنه إلى التمييز بين الموجودات ويعبرون عن ذلك بمقام الفرق وهو مقام العارف المحقق,"This is a short exposition of (Sufi) opinion, as gathered from the discussion of Ibn Dihaq. It is most erroneous. We know for certain that a country which we have quitted on our travels or to which we are traveling, exists, despite the fact that we do not see it any more. We also have definite knowledge of the existence of heaven that overlooks (everything), and of the stars, and of all the other things that are remote from us. Man knows these things for certain. No one would deny to himself (the existence of) certain knowledge. In addition, competent recent Sufis say that during the removal (of the veil), the Sufi novice often has a feeling of the oneness (of existence). Sufis call that the station of “combination” (jam’). But then, he progresses to distinguishing between existent things. That is considered by the Sufis the station of “differentiation” (farq). That is the station of the competent gnostic."
ولا بد للمريد عندهم من عقبة الجمع وهي عقبة صعبة لأنه يخشى على المريد من وقوفه عندها فتخسر صفقته فقد تبينت مراتب أهل هذه الطريقة,"The (Sufis) believe that the novice cannot avoid the ravine of “combination,” and this ravine causes difficulties for him because there is danger that he might be arrested at it and his enterprise thus come to nought. The different kinds of mystics have thus been explained."
ثم إن هؤلاء المتأخرين من المتصوفة المتكلمين في الكشف وفيما وراء الحس توغلوا في ذلك فذهب الكثير منهم إلى الحلول والوحدة كما أشرنا إليه وملئوا الصحف منه مثل الهروي في كتاب المقامات له وغيره.,"The recent Sufis who speak of the removal (of the veil) and supersensory perception have delved deeply into these (subjects). Many of them turned to (the theory of) incarnation and oneness, as we have indicated. They have filled many pages with (their exposition of) it. That was done, for instance, by al-Harawi, in the Kitab al-Maqamat, and by others."
وتبعهم ابن العربي وابن سبعين وتلميذهما ابن العفيف وابن الفارض والنجم الإسرائيلي في قصائدهم. وكان سلفهم مخالطين للإسماعيلية المتأخرين من الرافضة الدائنين أيضا بالحلول وإلهية الأئمة مذهبا لم يعرف لأولهم فأشرب كل واحد من الفريقين مذهب الآخر.,"They were followed by Ibn al-‘Arabi and Ibn Sab’in and their pupils, and then by Ibn al-‘Afif (‘Afif-ad-din), Ibn al-Farid, and Najm-ad-din al-Isra’ili, in the poems they composed. The early (Sufis) had had contact with the Neo-Ismailiyah Shi’ah extremists who also believed in incarnation and the divinity of the imams, a theory not known to the early (Isma’iliyah). Each group came to be imbued with the dogmas of the other."
واختلط كلامهم وتشابهت عقائدهم. وظهر في كلام المتصوفة القول بالقطب ومعناه رأس العارفين.,"Their theories and beliefs merged and were assimilated. In Sufi discussion, there appeared the theory of the “pole” (qutb), meaning the chief gnostic."
يزعمون أنه لا يمكن أن يساويه أحد في مقامه في المعرفة حتى يقبضه الله. ثم يورث مقامه لآخر من أهل العرفان.,"The Sufis assumed that no one can reach his station in gnosis, until God takes him unto Himself and then gives his station to another gnostic who will be his heir."
وقد أشار إلى ذلك ابن سينا في كتاب الإشارات في فضول التصوف منها فقال: «جل جناب الحق أن يكون شرعة لكل وارد أو يطلع عليه إلا الواحد بعد الواحد».,"Avicenna referred to this in the sections on Sufism in the Kitab al-Isharat. He said: “The majestic Truth is too exalted to be available equally to all who seek it, or to be seen save by one person at a time. “"
وهذا كلام لا تقوم عليه حجة عقلية ولا دليل شرعي وإنما هو من أنواع الخطابة وهو بعينه ما تقوله الرافضة ودانوا به. ثم قالوا بترتيب وجود الإبدال بعد هذا القطب كما قاله الشيعة في النقباء.,"The theory of (successive “poles”) is not confirmed by logical arguments or evidence from the religious law. It is a sort of rhetorical figure of speech. It is identical with the theory of the extremist Shi’ah about the succession of the imams through inheritance. Clearly, mysticism has plagiarized this idea from the extremist Shi’ah and come to believe in it. The (Sufis), furthermore, speak about the order of existence of the “saints” who come after the “pole,” exactly as the Shi’ah speak about their “chiefs.”"
حتى إنهم لما أسندوا لباس خرقة التصوف ليجعلوه أصلا لطريقتهم ونحلتهم رفعوه إلى علي رضي الله عنه وهو من هذا المعنى أيضا.,"They go so far (in the identification of their own concepts with those of the Shi’ah) that when they construed a chain of transmitters for the wearing of the Sufi cloak (khirqah) as a basic requirement of the mystic way and practice, they made it go back to ‘Ali. This points in the same direction and can only (be explained as Shi’ah influence)."
وإلا فعلي رضي الله عنه لم يختص من بين الصحابة بتخلية ولا طريقة في لباس ولا حال. بل كان أبو بكر وعمر رضي الله عنهما أزهد الناس بعد رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم وأكثرهم عبادة. ولم يختص أحد منهم في الدين بشيء يؤثر عنه في الخصوص بل كان الصحابة كلهم أسوة في الدين والزهد والمجاهدة.,"Among the men around Muhammad, ‘Ali was not distinguished by any particular practice or way of dressing or by any special condition. Abu Bakr and ‘Umar were the most ascetic and pious people after the Messenger of God. Yet, none of these men was distinguished by the possession of any particular religious practice exclusively peculiar to him. In fact, all the men around Muhammad were models of religion, austerity, asceticism, and (pious) exertion."
تشهد بذلك سيرهم وأخبارهم،,This is attested by their way of life and history.
نعم إن الشيعة يخيلون بما ينعلون من ذلك اختصاص علي (رضي الله عنه) بالفضائل دون من سواه من الصحابة ذهابا مع عقائد التشيع المعروفة لهم.,"Indeed, with the help of these stories, the Shi’ah try to suggest that ‘All is distinguished from the other men around Muhammad by being in possession of particular virtues, in conformity with well-known Shi’ah beliefs."
والذي يظهر أن المتصوفة بالعراق، لما ظهرت الإسماعيلية من الشيعة، وظهر كلامهم في الإمامة وما يرجع إليها ما هو معروف، فاقتبسوا من ذلك الموازنة بين الظاهر والباطن وجعلوا الإمامة لسياسة الخلف في الانقياد إلى الشرع، وأفردوه بذلك أن لا يقع اختلاف كما تقرر في الشرع.,"It is obvious that the Sufis in the ‘Iraq derived their comparison between the manifest and the inner (world) from the Isma’iliyah Shi’ah and their well-known theory concerning the imamate and connected matters, at the time when the Isma’iliyah Shi’ah made its appearance. The (Isma’iliyah Shi’ah) considered the leadership of mankind and its guidance toward the religious law a duty of the imam. Therefore, they assumed that there could be no more than one imam if the possibility of a split were to be avoided, as is established in the religious law."
ثم جعلوا القطب لتعليم المعرفة بالله لأنه رأس العارفين، وأفردوه بذلك تشبيها بالإمام في الظاهر وأن يكون على وزانه في الباطن وسموه قطبا لمدار المعرفة عليه، وجعلوا الأبدال كالنقباء مبالغة في التشبيه فتأمل ذلك.,"(Correspondingly, the Sufis) then regarded as a duty of the “pole,” who is the chief gnostic, the instruction (of mankind) in the gnosis of God. Therefore, they assumed that there could be only one, on analogy from the imam in the manifest (world), and that he was the counterpart of the imam. They called him “pole,” because the gnosis revolves around him, and they equated the “saints” with the ‘Alid “chiefs,” in their exaggerated desire to identify (their concepts with those of the Shi’ah)."
يشهد لذلك من كلام هؤلاء المتصوفة في أمر الفاطمي وما شحنوا كتبهم في ذلك مما ليس لسلف المتصوفة فيه كلام بنفي أو إثبات وإنما هو مأخوذ من كلام الشيعة والرافضة ومذاهبهم في كتبهم.,An instance of what I have just been saying is the lengthy discussion of the Fatimid in Sufi works. The early Sufis made neither negative nor affirmative statements on the Fatimid. The lengthy discussion of (recent) Sufis was derived from the discussion (of the subject) and the dogmas (concerning it) expressed by the extremist Shi’ah in their works.
والله يهدي إلى الحق.,“God guides to the truth.”
وقد رأيت أن أجلب هنا فصلا من كلام شيخنا العارف كبير الأولياء بالأندلس، أبي مهدي عيسى بن الزيات,"I consider it appropriate to quote here a remark made by our shaykh, the gnostic and chief saint in Spain, Abu Mahdi ‘Isa b. az-Zayyat."
كان يقع له أكثر الأوقات على أبيات الهروي التي وقعت له في كتاب المقامات توهم القول بالوحدة المطلقة أو يكاد يصرح بها وهي قوله:,"He repeated it very often. It concerns some verses from the Kitab al-Maqamat of al-Harawi which suggest, and almost profess openly, the theory of absolute oneness. These are the verses:"
"ما وحد الواحد من واحد *** إذ كل من وحده جاحد
توحيد من ينطق عن نعته *** تثنية أبطلها الواحد
توحيده إياه توحيده *** ونعت من ينعته لأحد","The oneness of the Unique One has never been declared (properly) by anyone, Since anyone who declares His oneness is one who denies (His true oneness).
Declaration of the divine oneness by a person who speaks about His attributes, Is dualism, which the Unique One has nullified.
His (Own) declaration of His (Own) oneness is the (true) declaration of His oneness. And to describe Him with attributes is deviation."
فيقول رحمه الله على سبيل العذر عنه: «استشكل الناس إطلاق لفظ الجمود على كل من وحد الواحد ولفظ الإلحاد على من نعته ووصفه.,"Abu Mahdi says in defense of al-Harawi: People have found it difficult to (explain how one could) use the expression “one who denies” for those who “declare the oneness of the Unique One,” and the expression “deviation, heresy,” for those who describe Him with attributes."
واستبشعوا هذه الأبيات وحملوا قائلها على الكفر واستخفوه.,They have disapproved of the verses quoted. They have attacked the author and contemned him.
ونحن نقول على رأي هذه الطائفة أن معنى التوحيد عندهم انتفاء عين الحدوث بثبوت عين القدم وأن الوجود كله حقيقة واحدة وانية واحدة.,"But we say that, according to the view of that group (of Sufis to whom al-Harawi belongs), declaration of the divine oneness means the negation of the very essence of createdness through affirmation of the very essence of primevalness. The whole existence is one reality and one being (anniyah)."
وقد قال أبو سعيد الجزار من كبار القوم: الحق عين ما ظهر وعين ما بطن.,"The great mystic, Abu Sa’id al-Kharraz, thus said, “The Truth is the very essence of that which is manifest, and the very essence of that which is inwardly hidden.”"
ويرون أن وقوع التعدد في تلك الحقيقة وجود الاثنينية. وهم باعتبار حضرات الحس بمنزلة صور الضلال والصدا والمرأى.,"The (Sufis) are of the opinion that the occurrence of any numerical plurality in that (divine) reality and the existence of duality are imaginary and, compared with sensual data, are on the level of shadow pictures, or the pictures in mirrors."
وأن كل ما سوى عين القدم، إذا استتبع فهو عدم.,"Everything, except the very essence of primevalness, if one follows it up, turns out to be non-existent."
وهذا معنى: كان الله، ولا شيء معه، وهو الآن على ما هو عليه كان عندهم. ومعنى قول كبير الذي صدقه رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم في قوله: «ألا كل شيء، ما خلا الله باطل».,"This, they think, is the meaning (of the statement), “God was, and nothing (was) with Him. He is now in the same state in which He was.” This, too, is what is meant by the verse of Labid, which the Messenger of God considered to be true: Indeed, everything but God is vanity."
قالوا: فمن وحد ونعت، فقد قال بموجد محدث، هو نفسه، وتوحيد محدث هو فعله، موجود قديم، هو معبود.,"(This is what) the (Sufis) say. Consequently, a person who “declares the divine oneness and describes God with attributes” speaks about: (1) a created being who declares the divine oneness -that is, he himself; (2) a created declaration of the divine oneness-that is, his action (of declaring the divine oneness); and (s) a primeval being who is declared to be one-that is, his worshiped Master."
وقد تقدم معنى التوحيد انتفاء عين الحدوث، وعين الحدوث، الآن ثابتة بل متعددة، والتوحيد مجحود والدعوى كاذبة.,"Now, it has been mentioned before that declaration of divine oneness is negation of the very essence of createdness, but now, the very essence of createdness is (here) definitely stated (in connection with the declaration of divine oneness) and, in fact, in more than one (way). Thus, the divine oneness is actually denied, and the claim (to have declared the divine oneness) is false."
كمن يقول لغيره، وهما معا في بيت واحد: ليس في البيت غيرك، فيقول الآخر بلسان حاله: لا يصح هذا إلا لو عدمت أنت!,"It is the same as if someone were to say to someone else who is with him in a house, “There is nobody in the house except you.” Whereupon the other person would reply at once, “This could be correct only if you were non-existent.”"
وقد قال بعض المحققين في قولهم: «خلق الله الزمان» هذه ألفاظ تناقض أصولها لأن خلق الزمان متقدم على الزمان وهو فعل لا بد من وقوعه في الزمان، وإنما حمل ذلك ضيق العبارة عن الحقائق وعجز اللغات عن تأدية الحق فيها وبها.,"And a competent (scholar) remarked in connection with the statement, “God created time,” that these words contain a basic contradiction, because the creation of time precedes time, yet is an action that must take place in time. These things are caused by the difficulty of expressing the realities and the inability of language to convey the truth with regard to them and give them their due."
فإذا تحقق أن الموحد هو الموحد، وعدم ما سواه جملة، صح التوحيد حقيقة.,"If it is certain that he who declares (the divine) oneness is identical with Him whose oneness is declared, and that anything else is altogether non-existent, then the (declaration of) divine oneness is truly a sound one."
وهذا معنى قولهم «لا يعرف الله إلا الله»,"This is what is meant by the (Sufi) statement, “Only God knows God.”"
ولا حرج على من وحد الحق مع بقاء الرسوم والآثار، وإنما هو من باب: «حسنات الأبرار سيئات المقربين». لأن ذلك لازم التقييد والعبودية والشفعية.,"There is no objection to a person’s declaring the oneness of the Truth, while retaining the outlines and traces (of worldliness). This belongs to the chapter (dealing with the fact) that the good actions of pious people may be the bad actions of persons who are close to the Divine. It results from the lack of freedom, servitude, and doubleness (of the human condition)."
ومن ترقى إلى مقام الجمع كان في حقه نقصا، مع علمه بمرتبته، وأنه تلبيس تستلزمه العبودية ويرمعه الشهود ويطهر من دنس حدوثه عين الجمع.,"For those who have ascended to the station of “combination,” it constitutes a defect. They are conscious of their rank and know that (their imperfection) is a deception resulting from (human) servitude, that vision can eliminate it, and that the very essence of “combination” can cleanse them from the uncleanliness of their createdness."
وأعرق الأصناف في هذا الزعم القائلون بالوحدة المطلقة. ومدار المعرفة بكل اعتبار على الانتهاء إلى الواحد، وإنما صدر هذا القول من الناظم على سبيل التحريض والتنبيه والتفطين لمقام أعلى ترتفع فيه الشفعية ويحصل التوحيد المطلق عينا لا خطابا.,"The type (of persons) most firmly rooted in this assumption is that of those who hold the theory of absolute oneness and who say that gnosis, however interpreted, revolves around reaching the Unique One. The poet uttered the remark (quoted) as an incitement and exhortation, referring to a higher station in which doubleness is eliminated and absolute oneness in (its) essence, not merely as a figure of speech or (some kind of) expression, is attained."
وعبارة: فمن سلم استراح ومن نازعته حقيقة أنس بقوله: كنت سمعه وبصره.,"Those who are safe and sound can rest. Those who have trouble with the reality of (oneness ought to become) familiar with (God’s) statement, “I am his hearing and vision.”"
وإذا عرفت المعاني لا مشاحة في الألفاظ. والذي يفيده هذا كله تحقق أمر فوق هذا الطور، لا نطق فيه ولا خبر عنه. وهذا المقدار من الإشارة كاف. والتعمق في مثل هذا حجاب، وهو الذي أوقع في المقالات المعروفة. انتهى كلام الشيخ أبي مهدي الزيات،,"If the concepts are known, there can be no quarrels about the words. All this teaches realization of the fact that there is something above this level, something about which one cannot speak and about which there is no information. This much of a hint is sufficient. Going deeply into matters like this (lowers) the veil. That is the gist of the wellknown (Sufi) statements. Here ends the quotation from shaykh Abu Mahdi b. azZayyat."
ونقلته من كتاب الوزير ابن الخطيب الذي ألفه في المحبة، وسماه التعريف بالحب الشريف.,"I quoted it from the book on love by the wazir Ibn al-Khatib, entitled at-Ta’r f bi-l-hubb
ash-sharif(“Information on the Noble Love [of God]”)."
وقد سمعته من شيخنا أبي مهدي مرارا، إلا أني رأيت رسوم الكتاب أوعى له، لطول عهدي به. والله الموفق.,"I heard it from our shaykh Abu Mahdi himself several times. However, I think that the written form (in Ibn alKhatib’s work) preserves it better (than my memory), because it has been a long time (since I heard Abu Mahdi tell it). God gives success."
ثم إن كثيرا من الفقهاء وأهل الفتيا انتدبوا للرد على هؤلاء المتأخرين في هذه المقالات وأمثالها وشملوا بالنكير سائر ما وقع لهم في الطريقة.,Many jurists and muftis have undertaken to refute these and similar statements by recent Sufis. They summarily disapproved of everything they came across in the (Sufi) path.
والحق أن كلامهم معهم فيه تفصيل فإن كلامهم في أربعة مواضع:,The truth is that discussion with the (Sufis) requires making a distinction. (The Sufis) discuss four topics.
أحدها الكلام على المجاهدات وما يحصل من الأذواق والمواجد ومحاسبة النفس على الأعمال لتحصل تلك الأذواق التي تصير مقاما ويترقى منه إلى غيره كما قلناه،,"(1) Firstly, they discuss pious exertions, the resulting mystical and ecstatic experiences, and – self-scrutiny concerning (one’s) actions. (They discuss these things) in order to obtain mystical experiences, which then become a station from which one progresses to the next higher one, as we have stated."
وثانيها الكلام في الكشف والحقيقة المدركة من عالم الغيب مثل الصفات الربانية والعرش والكرسي والملائكة والوحي والنبوة والروح وحقائق كل موجود غائب أو شاهد وتركيب الألوان في صدورها عن موجودها وتكونها كما مر،,"(2) Secondly, they discuss the removal (of the veil) and the perceivable supernatural realities, such as the divine attributes, the (divine) throne, the (divine) seat, the angels, revelation, prophecy, the spirit, and the realities of everything in existence, be it supernatural or visible; furthermore, they discuss the order of created things, how they issue from the Creator Who brings them into being, as mentioned before."
وثالثها التصرفات في العوالم والأكوان بأنواع الكرامات،,(3) The third topic is concerned with activities in the various worlds and among the various created things connected with different kinds of acts of divine grace.
ورابعها ألفاظ موهمة الظاهر صدرت من الكثير من أئمة القوم يعبرون عنها في اصطلاحهم بالشطحات تستشكل ظواهرها فمنكر ومحسن ومتأول.,"(4) The fourth topic (finally) is concerned with expressions that are suspect (if understood) in their plain meaning. Such (expressions) have been uttered by most Sufi leaders. In Sufi technical terminology, they are called “ecstatic utterances” (shatahat). Their plain meaning is difficult to understand. They may be something that must be disapproved of, or something that can be approved, or something that requires interpretation."
فأما الكلام في المجاهدات والمقامات وما يحصل من الأذواق والمواجد في نتائجها ومحاسبة النفس على التقصير في أسبابها فأمر لا مدفع فيه لأحد وأذواقهم فيه صحيحة والتحقق بها هو عين السعادة.,"As for their discussion of pious exertions and stations, of the mystical and ecstatic experiences that result, and of self-scrutiny with regard to (possible) shortcomings in the things that cause these (experiences), this is something that nobody ought to reject. These mystical experiences of (the Sufis) are sound ones. Their realization is the very essence of happiness."
وأما الكلام في كرامات القوم وأخبارهم بالمغيبات وتصرفهم في الكائنات فأمر صحيح غير منكر. وإن مال بعض العلماء إلى إنكارها فليس ذلك من الحق.,"As for their discussion of the acts of divine grace experienced by Sufis, the information they give about supernatural things, and their activity among the created things, these (also) are sound and cannot be. disapproved of, even though some religious scholars tend to disapprove. That is not right."
وما احتج به الأستاذ أبو إسحاق الأسفرايني من أئمة الأشعرية على إنكارها لالتباسها بالمعجزة فقد فرق المحققون من أهل السنة بينهما بالتحدي وهو دعوى وقوع المعجزة على وفق ما جاء به.,"Professor Abu Ishaq alIsfarayini, a leading Ash’arite, argued that these things should be disapproved of, since they might be confused with the (prophetical) miracles. However, competent orthodox scholars have made a distinction between (miracles and acts of divine grace) by referring to “the (advance) challenge” (tahaddi), that is, the claim (made by a prophet in advance) that the miracle would occur in agreement with the prophetic revelation."
قالوا: ثم إن وقوعها على وفق دعوى الكاذب غير مقدور لأن دلالة المعجزة على الصدق عقلية فإن صفة نفسها التصديق.,"It is not possible, they said, that a miracle could happen in agreement with the claim of a liar. Logic requires that a miracle indicate truthfulness. By definition, a (miracle is something that) can be verified."
فلو وقعت مع الكاذب لتبدلت صفة نفسها وهو محال.,"If it were performed by a liar, it (could not be verified, and thus) would have changed its character, which is absurd."
هذا مع أن الوجود شاهد بوقوع الكثير من هذه الكرامات وإنكارها نوع مكابرة.,"In addition, the world of existence attests the occurrence of many such acts of divine grace. Disapproval of them would be a kind of negative approach."
وقد وقع للصحابة وأكابر السلف كثير من ذلك وهو معلوم مشهور.,Many such acts of divine grace were experienced by the men around Muhammad and the great early Muslims. This is a well-known and famous (fact).
وأما الكلام في الكشف وإعطاء حقائق العلويات وترتيب صدور الكائنات فأكثر كلامهم فيه نوع من المتشابه لما أنه وجداني عندهم وفاقد الوجدان عندهم بمعزل عن أذواقهم فيه. واللغات لا تعطى له دلالة على مرادهم منه لأنها لم توضع إلا للمتعارف وأكثره من المحسوسات.,"Most of the (Sufi) discussion of the removal (of the veil), of the reception of the realities of the higher things, and of the order in which the created things issue, falls, in a way, under the category of ambiguous statements. It is based upon the intuitive experience of (Sufis), and those who lack such intuitive experience cannot have the mystical experience that the (Sufis receive from) it. No language can express the things that (Sufis) want to say in this connection, because languages have been invented only for (the expression of) commonly accepted concepts, most of which apply to the sensibilia."
فينبغي أن لا نتعرض لكلامهم في ذلك ونتركه فيما تركناه من المتشابه ومن رزقه الله فهم شيء من هذه الكلمات على الوجه الموافق لظاهر الشريعة فأكرم بها سعادة.,"Therefore, we must not bother with the (Sufi) discussion of those matters. We ought merely to leave it alone, just as we leave alone the ambiguous statements (of the Qur’an and the Sunnah). Those to whom God grants some understanding of those (mystical) utterances in a way that agrees with the plain meaning of the religious law do, indeed, enjoy happiness."
وأما الألفاظ الموهمة التي يعبرون عنها بالشطحات ويؤاخذهم بها أهل الشرع فاعلم أن الإنصاف في شأن القوم أنهم أهل غيبة عن الحس والواردات تملكهم حتى ينطقوا عنها بما لا يقصدونه وصاحب الغيبة غير مخاطب والمجبور معذور.,"(Finally,) there are the suspect expressions which the Sufis call “ecstatic utterances” (shatahat) and which provoke the censure of orthodox Muslims. As to them, it should be known that the attitude that would be fair to the (Sufis) is (to observe) that they are people who are removed from sense perception. Inspiration grips them. Eventually, they say things about their inspiration that they do not intend to say. A person who is removed (from sense perception) cannot be spoken to. He who is forced (to act) is excused (when he acts, no matter what he does)."
فمن علم منهم فضله واقتداؤه حمل على القصد الجميل من هذا وأمثاله وأن العبارة عن المواجد صعبة لفقدان الوضع لها كما وقع لأبي يزيد البسطامي وأمثاله.,"(Sufis) who are known for their excellence and exemplary character are considered to act in good faith in this and similar respects. It is difficult to express ecstatic experiences, because there are no conventional ways of expressing them. This was the experience of Abu Yazid al-Bistami and others like him."
ومن لم يعلم فضله ولا اشتهر فمؤاخذ بما صدر عنه من ذلك إذا لم يتبين لنا ما يحملنا على تأويل كلامه. وأما من تكلم بمثلها وهو حاضر في حسه ولم يملكه الحال فمؤاخذ أيضا. ولهذا أفتى الفقهاء وأكابر المتصوفة بقتل الحلاج لأنه تكلم في حضور وهو مالك لحاله. والله أعلم.,"However, (Sufis) whose excellence is not known and famous deserve censure for utterances of this kind, since the (data) that might cause us to interpret their statements (so as to remove any suspicion attached to them) are not clear to us. (Furthermore, any Sufis) who are not removed from sense perception and are not in the grip of a state when they make utterances of this kind, also deserve censure. Therefore, the jurists and the great Sufis decided that al-Hallaj was to be killed, because he spoke (ecstatically) while not removed (from sense perception) but in control of his state. And God knows better."
وسلف المتصوفة من أهل الرسالة أعلام الملة الذين أشرنا إليهم من قبل لم يكن لهم حرص على كشف الحجاب ولا هذا النوع من الإدراك إنما همهم الاتباع والاقتداء ما استطاعوا.,"The early Sufis who are mentioned in (al-Qushayri’s) Risalah, those outstanding Muslims to whom we have referred above, had no desire to remove the veil and to have such. (supernatural) perception. Their concern was to follow their models and to lead an exemplary life as far as possible."
ومن عرض له شيء من ذلك أعرض عنه ولم يحفل به بل يفرون منه ويرون أنه من العوائق والمحن وأنه إدراك من إدراكات النفس مخلوق حادث وأن الموجودات لا تنحصر في مدارك الإنسان. وعلم الله أوسع وخلقه أكبر وشريعته بالهداية أملك فلا ينطقون بشيء مما يدركون.,"Whenever they had a (supernatural) experience, they turned away from it and paid no attention to it. Indeed, they tried to avoid it. They were of the opinion that it was an obstacle and a tribulation and belonged to the (ordinary) perceptions of the soul, and, as such, was something created. They also thought that human perception could not comprise all the existentia and that the knowledge of God was wider, His creation greater, and His religious law more certain for guidance (than any mystical experience). Therefore, they did not speak about any of their (supernatural) perceptions."
بل حظروا الخوض في ذلك ومنعوا من يكشف له الحجاب من أصحابهم من الخوض فيه والوقوف عنده بل يلتزمون طريقتهم كما كانوا في عالم الحس قبل الكشف من الاتباع والاقتداء ويأمرون أصحابهم بالتزامها.,"In fact, they forbade the discussion of those things and prevented their companions, for whom the veil (of sense perception) was removed, from discussing the matter or from giving it the slightest consideration. They continued following their models and leading exemplary lives as they had done in the world of sensual perception before the removal (of the veil), and they commanded their companions to do the same."
وهكذا ينبغي أن يكون حال المريد والله الموفق للصواب,Such ought to be the state of the Sufi novice. God gives success.
الفصل الثامن عشر في علم تعبير الرؤيا,17. The science of dream interpretation.
هذا العلم من العلوم الشرعية وهو حادث في الملة عند ما صارت العلوم صنائع وكتب الناس فيها. وأما الرؤيا والتعبير لها فقد كان موجودا في السلف كما هو في الخلف. وربما كان في الملوك والأمم من قبل إلا أنه لم يصل إلينا للاكتفاء فيه بكلام المعبرين من أهل الإسلام.,"This science belongs to the sciences of the religious law. It originated in Islam when the sciences became crafts and scholars wrote books on them. Dream visions and dream interpretation existed among the ancients, as among later generations. It existed among former (pre-Islamic) religious groups and nations. However, their dream interpretation did not reach us, because we have been satisfied with the discussions of Muslim dream interpreters."
وإلا فالرؤيا موجودة في صنف البشر على الإطلاق ولا بد من تعبيرها. فلقد كان يوسف الصديق صلوات الله عليه يعبر الرؤيا كما وقع في القرآن. وكذلك ثبت عن الصحيح عن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم وعن أبي بكر رضي الله عنه والرؤيا مدرك من مدارك الغيب.,"In any case, all human beings can have dream visions, and these visions must be interpreted. Truthful Joseph already interpreted visions, as is mentioned in the Qur’an. (Sound tradition in) the Sahih, on the authority of the Prophet and on the authority of Abu Bakr, likewise establishes (the existence of dream visions). Dream vision is a kind of supernatural perception."
وقال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «الرؤيا الصالحة جزء من ستة وأربعين جزءا من النبوة». وقال: «لم يبق من المبشرات إلا الرؤيا الصالحة يراها الرجل الصالح أو ترى له».,"Muhammad said: “A good dream vision is the forty-sixth part of prophecy.” He also said: “The only remaining bearer of glad tidings is a good dream vision, beheld by – or shown to – a good man.”"
وأول ما بدأ به النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم من الوحي الرؤيا فكان لا يرى رؤيا إلا جاءت مثل فلق الصبح.,The revelation given to the Prophet began with a dream vision. Every dream vision he saw appeared to him like the break of dawn.
وكان النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم إذا انفتل من صلاة الغداة يقول لأصحابه: «هل رأى أحد منكم الليلة رؤيا؟,"When Muhammad went away from the morning prayer, he used to ask the men around him, “Did any one of you see a dream vision during the night?”"
يسألهم عن ذلك ليستبشر بما وقع من ذلك مما فيه ظهور الدين وإعزازه.,"He asked this question in order to derive good news from dream visions, which might refer to the victory of Islam and the growth of its power."
وأما السبب في كون الرؤيا مدركا للغيب فهو أن الروح القلبي وهو البخار اللطيف المنبعث من تجويف القلب اللحمي ينتشر في الشريانات ومع الدم في سائر البدن وبه تكمل أفعال القوى الحيوانية وإحساسها.,"The reason for perception of the supernatural in dream visions is as follows: The spirit of the heart, which is the fine vapor coming from the cavity in the flesh of the heart, spreads into the veins and, through the blood, to all the rest of the body. It serves to perfect the actions and sensations of the animal powers."
فإذا أدركه الملال بكثرة التصرف في الإحساس بالحواس الخمس وتصريف القوى الظاهرة وغشي سطح البدن ما يغشاه من برد الليل انحبس الروح من سائر أقطار البدن إلى مركزه القلبي فيستجم بذلك لمعاودة فعله فتعطلت الحواس الظاهرة كلها وذلك هو معنى النوم كما تقدم في أول الكتاب.,"The (spirit) may be affected by lassitude, because it is very busy with the sensual perception of the five senses and with the employment of the external powers. When the surface of the body, then, is covered by the chill of night, the spirit withdraws from all the other regions of the body to its center, the heart. It rests, in order to be able to resume its activity, and all the external senses are (for the time being) unemployed. This is the meaning of sleep, as was mentioned before at the beginning of the book."
ثم إن هذا الروح القلبي هو مطية للروح العاقل من الإنسان والروح العاقل مدرك لجميع ما في عالم الأمر بذاته إذ حقيقته وذاته عين الإدراك.,"Now, the spirit of the heart is the vehicle of man’s rational spirit. Through its essence, the rational spirit perceives everything that is in the divine world, since its reality and its essence are identical with perception."
وإنما يمنع من تعلقه للمدارك الغيبية ما هو فيه من حجاب الاشتغال بالبدن وقواه وحواسه.,It is prevented from assimilating any supernatural perception by the veil of its preoccupation with the body and the corporeal powers and senses.
فلو قد خلا من هذا الحجاب وتجرد عنه لرجع إلى حقيقته وهو عين الإدراك فيعقل كل مدرك. فإذا تجرد عن بعضها خفت شواغله فلا بد له من إدراك لمحة من عالمه بقدر ما تجرد له وهو في هذه الحالة قد خفت شواغل الحس الظاهر كلها وهي الشاغل الأعظم فاستعد لقبول ما لك من المدارك اللائقة من عالمه.,"If it were without that veil or stripped of it, it would return to its reality, which is identical with perception. It would thus be able to assimilate any object of perception. If it were stripped of part of it, its preoccupation would be less. It is thus able to catch a glimpse of its own world, since external sense perception, its greatest preoccupation, now occupies it less. Its (supernatural perception) corresponds (in intensity) to the degree to which the veil is withdrawn from it. Thus it becomes prepared to receive the available perceptions from its own world that are appropriate for it."
وإذا أدرك ما يدرك من عوالمه رجع به إلى بدنه. إذ هو ما دام في بدنه جسماني لا يمكنه التصرف إلا بالمدارك الجسمانية. والمدارك الجسمانية للعلم إنما هي الدماغية والمتصرف منها هو الخيال.,"When it has perceived these perceptions from its own worlds, it returns with them to its body, since, as long as it remains in its corporeal body, it cannot be active except through corporeal means of perception. The faculties through which the body perceives knowledge are all connected with the brain. The active part among them is the imagination."
فإنه ينتزع من الصور المحسوسة صورا خيالية ثم يدفعها إلى الحافظة تحفظها له إلى وقت الحاجة إليها عند النظر والاستدلال. وكذلك تجرد النفس منها صورا أخرى نفسانية عقلية فيترقى التجريد من المحسوس إلى المعقول والخيال واسطة بينهما.,"It derives imaginary pictures from the pictures perceived by the senses and turns them over to the power of memory, which retains them until they are needed in connection with speculation and deduction. From the (imaginary pictures), the soul also abstracts other spiritualintellectual pictures. In this way, abstraction ascends from the sensibilia to the intelligibilia. The imagination is the intermediary between them."
ولذلك إذا أدركت النفس من عالمها ما تدركه ألقته إلى الخيال فيصوره بالصورة المناسبة له ويدفعه إلى الحس المشترك فيراه النائم كأنه محسوس فيتنزل المدرك من الروح العقلي إلى الحسي. والخيال أيضا واسطة. هذه حقيقة الرؤيا.,"Also, when the soul has received a certain number of perceptions from its own world, it passes them on to the imagination, which forms them into appropriate pictures and turns those perceptions over to the common sense. As a result, the sleeper sees them as if they were perceived by the senses. Thus, the perceptions come down from the rational spirit to the level of sensual perception, with the imagination again being the intermediary. This is what dream visions actually are."
ومن هذا التقرير يظهر لك الفرق بين الرؤيا الصالحة وأضغاث الأحلام الكاذبة فإنها كلها صور في الخيال حالة النوم. ولكن إن كانت تلك الصور متنزلة من الروح العقلي المدرك فهو رؤيا. وإن كانت مأخوذة من الصور التي في الحافظة التي كان الخيال أودعها إياها منذ اليقظة فهي أضغاث أحلام.,"The (preceding) exposition shows the difference between true dream visions and false, “confused dreams.” All of them are pictures in the imagination while an individual is asleep. However, if these pictures come down from the rational spirit that perceives (them), they are dream visions. But if they are derived from the pictures preserved in the power of memory, where the imagination deposits them when the individual is awake, they are “confused dreams.”"
واعلم أن للرؤيا الصادقة علامات تؤذن بصدقها وتشهد بصحتها فيستشعر الرائي البشارة من الله مما ألقى إليه في نومه: فمنها سرعة انتباه الرائي عند ما يدرك الرؤيا، كأنه يعاجل الرجوع إلى الحس باليقظة ولو كان مستغرقا في نومه، لتقل ما ألقي عليه من ذلك الإدراك فيفر من تلك الحالة إلى حالة الحس التي تبقى النفس فيها منغمسة بالبدن وعوارضه،,"It should be known that true dream visions have signs indicating their truthfulness and attesting their soundness, so that the person who has the dream vision becomes conscious of the glad tidings from God given him in his sleep. The first of these signs is that the person who has the dream vision wakes up quickly, as soon as he has perceived it. It seems as if he is in a hurry to get back to being awake and having sensual perception. Were he (to continue) to sleep soundly, the perception given him would weigh heavily on him. Therefore, he tries to escape from the state (in which he has supernatural perception) to the state of sensual perception in which the soul is always fully immersed in the body and the corporeal accidents."
ومنها ثبوت ذلك الإدراك ودوامه بانطباع تلك الرؤيا بتفاصيلها في حفظه، فلا يتخللها سهو ولا نسيان.,Another sign is that the dream vision stays and remains impressed with all its details in the memory of (the person who perceived it). Neither neglect nor forgetfulness affects it.
ولا يحتاج إلى إحضارها بالفكر والتذكير، بل تبقى متصورة في ذهنه إذا انتبه.,"No thinking or remembering is required, in order to have it present (to one’s mind). The (dream vision) remains pictured in the mind of (the dreamer) when he awakes."
ولا يغرب عنه شيء منها، لأن الإدراك النفساني ليس بزماني ولا يلحقه ترتيب، بل يدركه دفعة في زمن فرد.,"Nothing of it is lost to him. This is because perception by the soul does not take place in time and requires no consecutive order, but takes place all at once and within a single time element."
وأضغاث الأحلام زمانية، لأنها في القوى الدماغية يستخرجها الخيال من الحافظة إلى الحس المشترك كما قلناه. وأفعال البدن كلها زمانية فيلحقها الترتيب في الإدراك والمتقدم والمتأخر.,"“Confused dreams,” on the other hand, take place in time, because they rest in the powers of the brain and are brought from the power of memory to the common sense by the imagination, as we have stated. (The process is an action of the body,) and all actions of the body take place in time. Thus, they (require) a consecutive order, in order to perceive anything, with something coming first and something else coming later."
ويعرض النسيان العارض للقوى الدماغية. وليس كذلك مدارك النفس الناطقة إذ ليست بزمانية، ولا ترتيب فيها. وما ينطبع فيها من الإدراكات فينطبع دفعة واحدة في أقرب من لمح البصر.,"Forgetfulness, which always affects the powers of the brain, affects (them). That is not the case with the perceptions of the rational soul. They do not take place in time and have no consecutive order. Perceptions that are impressed in (the rational soul) are impressed all at once in the briefest moment."
وقد تبقى الرؤيا بعد الانتباه حاضرة في الحفظ أياما من العمر، لا تشذ بالغفلة عن الفكر بوجه إذا كان الإدراك الأول قويا، وإذا كان إنما يتذكر الرؤيا بعد الانتباه من النوم بإعمال الفكر والوجهة إليها، وينسى الكثير من تفاصيلها حتى يتذكرها فليست الرؤيا بصادقة، وإنما هي من أضغاث الأحلام.,"Thus, after (the sleeper) is awake, (his) dream vision remains present in his memory for quite some time. In no way does it slip his mind as the result of neglect, if it originally made a strong impression. However, if it requires thinking and application to remember a dream vision after a sleeper is awake, and if he has forgotten many of its details before he can remember them again, the dream vision is not a true one but a “confused dream.”"
وهذه العلامات من خواص الوحي. قال الله تعالى لنبيه صلى الله عليه وسلم «لا تحرك به لسانك لتعجل به، إن علينا جمعه وقرآنه فإذا قرأناه فاتبع قرآنه، ثم إن علينا بيانه 75: 16- 19»,"These signs belong in particular to (prophetic) revelation. God said to His Prophet: “Do not set your tongue in motion to make haste with (the revelation of the Qur’an). It is up to us to put it together and to recite it. And when we recite it, follow its recitation. Then, it is up to us to explain it.”"
والرؤيا لها نسبة من النبوة والوحي كما في الصحيح. قال صلى الله عليه وسلم «الرؤيا جزء من ستة وأربعين جزءا من النبوة» فلخواصها أيضا نسبة إلى خواص النبوة، بذلك القدر، فلا تستبعد ذلك، فهذا وجه الحق. والله الخالق لما يشاء.,"Dream visions are related to prophecy and revelation, as is stated in (the sound tradition of) the Sahih. Thus, Muhammad said: “A dream vision is the forty-sixth part of prophecy.” In the same way, the characteristics of dream visions are related to the characteristics of prophecy. One should not consider that as unlikely. It appears to be this way. God creates whatever He wishes to create."
وأما معنى التعبير فاعلم أن الروح العقلي إذا أدرك مدركة وألقاه إلى الخيال فصوره فإنما يصوره في الصور المناسبة لذلك المعنى بعض الشيء كما يدرك معنى السلطان الأعظم فيصوره الخيال بصورة البحر أو يدرك العداوة فيصورها الخيال في صورة الحية.,"As to the idea of dream interpretation, the following should be known. The rational spirit has its perceptions and passes them on to the imagination. (The imagination) then forms them into pictures but it forms them only into such pictures as are somehow related to the (perceived) idea. For instance, if the idea of a mighty ruler is perceived, the imagination depicts it in the form of an ocean. Or, the idea of hostility is depicted by the imagination in the form of a serpent."
فإذا استيقظ وهو لم يعلم من أمره إلا أنه رأى البحر أو الحية فينظر المعبر بقوة التشبيه بعد أن يتيقن أن البحر صورة محسوسة وأن المدرك وراءها وهو يهتدي بقرائن أخرى تعين له المدرك,"A person wakes up and knows only that he saw an ocean or a serpent. Then, the dream interpreter, who is certain that the ocean is the picture conveyed by the senses and that the perceived idea is something beyond that picture, puts the power of comparison to work. He is guided by further data that establish the character of the perceived idea for him."
فيقول مثلا: هو السلطان لأن البحر خلق عظيم يناسب أن يشبه بها السلطان وكذلك الحية يناسب أن تشبه بالعدو لعظم ضررها وكذا الأواني تشبه بالنساء لأنهن أوعية وأمثال ذلك.,"Thus, he will say, for instance, that the ocean means a ruler, because an ocean is something big with which a ruler can appropriately be compared. Likewise, a serpent can appropriately be compared with an enemy, because it does great harm. Also, vessels can be compared with women, because they are receptacles, and so on."
ومن المرئي ما يكون صريحا لا يفتقر إلى تعبير لجلائها ووضوحها أو لقرب الشبه فيها بين المدرك وشبهه.,"Dream visions may be evident and require no interpretation, because they are clear and distinct, or because (the ideas) perceived in them may be very similar to (the pictures) by which they are represented."
ولهذا وقع في الصحيح الرؤيا ثلاث: رؤيا من الله ورؤيا من الملك ورؤيا من الشيطان. فالرؤيا التي من الله هي الصريحة التي لا تفتقر إلى تأويل والتي من الملك هي الرؤيا الصادقة تفتقر إلى التعبير والرؤيا التي من الشيطان هي الأضغاث.,"Therefore, it has been said in (the sound tradition of) the Sahih, “There are three kinds of dream visions. There are dream visions from God, dream visions from the angels, and dream visions from Satan.” Dream visions from God are those that are evident and need no explanation. Dream visions from an angel are true dreams that require interpretation. And dream visions from Satan are “confused dreams.”"
واعلم أن الخيال إذا ألقى إليه الروح مدركة. فإنما يصوره في القوالب المعتادة للحس وما لم يكن الحس أدركه قط من القوالب فلا يصور فيه شيئا فلا يمكن من ولد أعمى أن يصور له السلطان بالبحر ولا العدو بالحية ولا النساء بالأواني لأنه لم يدرك شيئا من هذه وإنما يصور له الخيال أمثال هذه في شبهها ومناسبها من جنس مداركه التي هي المسموعات والمشمومات.,"It should be known that when the spirit passes its perceptions on to the imagination, (the latter) depicts them in the customary molds of sensual perception. Where such molds never existed in sensual perception, (the imagination) cannot form any pictures. A (person who was) born blind could not depict a ruler by an ocean, an enemy by a serpent, or women by vessels, because he had never perceived any such things. For him, the imagination would depict those things through similarly appropriate (pictures) derived from the type of perceptions with which he is familiar – that is, things which can be heard or smelled."
وليتحفظ المعبر من مثل هذا فربما اختلط به التعبير وفسد قانونه. ثم إن علم التعبير علم بقوانين كلية يبني عليها المعبر عبارة ما يقص عليه.,The dream interpreter must be on guard against such things. They often cause confusion in dream interpretation and spoil its rules. The science of dream interpretation implies a knowledge of general norms upon which the dream interpreter bases the interpretation and explanation of what he is told.
وتأويله كما يقولون: البحر يدل على السلطان، وفي موضع آخر يقولون: البحر يدل على الغيظ، وفي موضع آخر يقولون: البحر يدل على الهم والأمر الفادح. ومثل ما يقولون: الحية تدل على العدو، وفي موضع آخر يقولون: هي كاتم سر، وفي موضع آخر يقولون: تدل على الحياة وأمثال ذلك.,"For instance, they say that an ocean represents a ruler. Elsewhere, they say that an ocean represents wrath. Again, elsewhere, they say that it represents worry and calamity. Or, they say that a serpent represents an enemy, but elsewhere they say that it represents one who conceals a secret. Elsewhere again, they say that it represents life, and so on."
فيحفظ المعبر هذه القوانين الكلية، ويعبر في كل موضع بما تقتضيه القرائن التي تعين من هذه القوانين ما هو أليق بالرؤيا.,The dream interpreter knows these general norms by heart and interprets the dreams in each case as required by the data establishing which of these norms fits a particular dream vision best.
وتلك القرائن منها في اليقظة ومنها في النوم ومنها ما ينقدح في نفس المعبر بالخاصية التي خلقت فيه وكل ميسر لما خلق له. ولم يزل هذا العلم متناقلا بين السلف.,"The data may originate in the waking state. They may originate in the sleeping state. Or, they may be created in the soul of the dream interpreter himself by the special quality with which he is endowed. Everyone is successful at the things for which he was created. This science never ceased being transmitted in the circles of the early Muslims."
وكان محمد بن سيرين فيه من أشهر العلماء وكتب عنه في ذلك القوانين وتناقلها الناس لهذا العهد. وألف الكرماني فيه من بعده.,Muhammad b. Sirin was one of the most famous experts in (dream interpretation) among them. Certain norms of dream interpretation were written down on his authority. People have transmitted them down to this time. Al-Kirmani wrote on the subject after Ibn Sirin.
ثم ألف المتكلمون المتأخرون وأكثروا. والمتداول بين أهل المغرب لهذا العهد كتب ابن أبي طالب القيرواني من علماء القيروان مثل الممتع وغيره وكتاب الإشارة للسالمي من أنفع الكتب فيه وأحضرها.,"Recent scholars have written many works on it. The books in use among contemporary Maghribis are the Mumti’ and other works by Ibn Abi Talib al-Qayrawini, a scholar from alQayrawan, and the Kitab al-Isharah by as-Salimi which is one of the most useful and briefest books on the subject."
وكذلك كتاب المرقبة العليا لابن راشد من مشيختنا بتونس. وهو علم مضيء بنور النبوة للمناسبة التي بينهما ولكونها كانت من مدارك الوحي كما وقع في الصحيح,"There also is the Kitab al-Marqabah al-
‘ulya by Ibn Rashid, who belonged to (the circle of) our shaykhs in Tunis. Dream interpretation is a science resplendent with the light of prophecy, because prophecy and dreams are related to each other, and (dreams) played a part in the (prophetic) revelation, as has been established in sound tradition."
والله علام الغيوب.,“God knows the supernatural.”
الفصل التاسع عشر في العلوم العقلية وأصنافها,18. The various kinds of intellectual sciences.
وأما العلوم العقلية التي هي طبيعية للإنسان من حيث إنه ذو فكر فهي غير مختصة بملة بل بوجه النظر فيها إلى أهل الملل كلهم ويستوون في مداركها ومباحثها.,"The intellectual sciences are natural to man, in as much as he is a thinking being. They are not restricted to any particular religious group. They are studied by the people of all religious groups who are all equally qualified to learn them and to do research in them."
وهي موجودة في النوع الإنساني منذ كان عمران الخليقة. وتسمى هذه العلوم علوم الفلسفة والحكمة وهي مشتملة على أربعة علوم:,They have existed (and been known) to the human species since civilization had its beginning in the world. They are called the sciences of philosophy and wisdom. They comprise four different sciences.
الأول علم المنطق وهو علم يعصم الذهن عن الخطإ في اقتناص المطالب المجهولة من الأمور الحاصلة المعلومة وفائدته تمييز الخطإ من الصواب. فيما يلتمسه الناظر في (الموجودات وعوارضها) ليقف على تحقيق الحق في الكائنات نفيا وثبوتا بمنتهى فكره.,"(1) The first science is logic. It is a science protecting the mind from error in the process of evolving unknown facts one wants to know from the available, known facts. Its use enables the student to distinguish right from wrong wherever he so desires in his study of the essential and accidental perceptions and apperceptions. Thus, he will be able to ascertain the truth concerning created things, negatively or positively, within the limits of his ability to think."
ثم النظر بعد ذلك عندهم إما في المحسوسات من الأجسام العنصرية والمكونة عنها من المعدن والنبات والحيوان والأجسام الفلكية والحركات الطبيعية. والنفس التي تنبعث عنها الحركات وغير ذلك. ويسمى هذا الفن بالعلم الطبيعي وهو العلم الثاني منها.,"(2) Then, philosophers may study the elemental substances perceivable by the senses, namely, the minerals, the plants, and the animals which are created from (the elemental substances), the heavenly bodies, natural motions, and the soul from which the motions originate, and other things. This discipline is called “physics.” It is the second of the intellectual sciences."
وإما أن يكون النظر في الأمور التي وراء الطبيعة من الروحانيات ويسمونه العلم الإلهي وهو الثالث منها.,"(3) Or they may study metaphysical, spiritual matters. This science is called “metaphysics” (al-‘ilm al-ilahi). It is the third of the intellectual sciences."
والعلم الرابع وهو الناظر في المقادير ويشتمل على أربعة علوم وتسمى التعاليم.,"(4) The fourth science is the study of quantities (measurements). It comprises four different sciences, which are called the “mathematical sciences” (ta’alim)."
أولها: علم الهندسة وهو النظر في المقادير على الإطلاق. إما المنفصلة من حيث كونها معدودة أو المتصلة وهي إما ذو بعد واحد وهو الخط أو ذو بعدين وهو السطح، أو ذو أبعاد ثلاثة وهو الجسم التعليمي. ينظر في هذه المقادير وما يعرض لها إما من حيث ذاتها أو من حيث نسبة بعضها إلى بعض.,"The first mathematical science is geometry. It is the study of quantities (measurements) in general. The quantities (measurements) may be either discontinuous, in as much as they constitute numbers, or continuous (as geometrical figures). They may be of one dimension – the line; of two dimensions – the plane; or of three dimensions – the mathematical solid. These quantities (measurements) and the qualities they possess, either by themselves or in combination with each other, are (what is) studied (in geometry)."
وثانيها علم الأرتماطيقي وهو معرفة ما يعرض للكم المنفصل الذي هو العدد ويؤخذ له من الخواص والعوارض اللاحقة.,"The second mathematical science is arithmetic. It is the knowledge of the essential and accidental properties of the discontinuous quantity, number."
وثالثها علم الموسيقى وهو معرفة نسب الأصوات والنغم بعضها من بعض وتقديرها بالعدد وثمرته معرفة تلاحين الغناء.,The third mathematical science is music. It is the knowledge of the proportions of sounds and modes and their numerical measurements. Its fruit is the knowledge of musical melodies.
ورابعها علم الهيئة وهو تعيين الأشكال للأفلاك وحصر أوضاعها وتعددها لكل كوكب من السيارة والثابتة والقيام على معرفة ذلك من قبل الحركات السماوية المشاهدة الموجودة لكل واحد منها ومن رجوعها واستقامتها وإقبالها وإدبارها.,"The fourth mathematical science is astronomy. It fixes the (various) shapes of the spheres, determines the position and number of each planet and fixed star, and makes it possible to learn these things from the visible heavenly motions of each (sphere), their motions, both retrograde and direct, their precession and recession."
فهذه أصول العلوم الفلسفية وهي سبعة: المنطق وهو المقدم منها وبعده التعاليم فالأرتماطيقي أولا ثم الهندسة ثم الهيئة ثم الموسيقى ثم الطبيعيات ثم الإلهيات ولكل واحد منها فروع تتفرع عنه.,"These are the basic philosophical sciences. They are seven (in number). Logic comes first. Then comes mathematics, beginning with arithmetic, followed in succession by geometry, astronomy, and music. Then comes physics and, finally, metaphysics. Each of these sciences has subdivisions."
فمن فروع الطبيعيات الطب ومن فروع علم العدد علم الحساب والفرائض والمعاملات ومن فروع الهيئة الأزياج وهي قوانين لحساب حركات الكواكب وتعديلها للوقوف على مواضعها متى قصد ذلك (ومن فروعها النظر في النجوم على الأحكام النجومية) ونحن نتكلم عليها واحدا بعد واحد إلى آخرها.,"One subdivision of physics is medicine. Subdivisions of arithmetic are calculation, the inheritance laws, and business (arithmetic). A subdivision of astronomy is the astronomical tables (zij). They are norms for computing the motions of the stars and adjusting (the data) in order to be able to know their positions, whenever desired. Another subdivision of the study of the stars is the science of stellar judgments (astrology). We shall discuss all these sciences, one after the other."
واعلم أن أكثر من عني بها في الأجيال الذين عرفنا أخبارهم الأمتان العظيمتان في الدولة قبل الإسلام وهما فارس والروم,"It should be known that as far as our historical information goes, these sciences were most extensively cultivated by the two great pre-Islamic nations, the Persians and the Greeks (Rum)."
فكانت أسواق العلوم نافقة لديهم على ما بلغنا لما كان العمران موفورا فيهم والدولة والسلطان قبل الإسلام وعصره لهم فكان لهذه العلوم بحور زاخرة في آفاقهم وأمصارهم.,"According to the information we have, the sciences were greatly in demand among them, because they possessed an abundant civilization and were the ruling nations immediately before Islam and its time. In their regions and cities, the sciences flourished greatly."
وكان للكلدانيين ومن قبلهم من السريانيين ومن عاصرهم من القبط عناية بالسحر والنجامة وما يتبعها من الطلاسم وأخذ ذلك عنهم الأمم من فارس ويونان فاختص بها القبط وطمى بحرها فيهم كما وقع في المتلو من خبر هاروت وماروت وشأن السحرة وما نقله أهل العلم من شأن البراري بصعيد مصر.,"The Chaldaeans and, before them, the Syrians, as well as their contemporaries, the Copts, were much concerned with sorcery and astrology and the related subjects of powerful (charms) and talismans. The Persian and Greek nations learned these things from them. The Copts especially cultivated those things, which enjoyed great prominence among them. The Qur’an (al-matltuw) mentions this fact in the story of Harut and Marut, and the affair of the sorcerers. There also are the reports of informed persons on the temples of Upper Egypt."
ثم تتابعت الملل بحظر ذلك وتحريمه فدرست علومه وبطلت كأن لم تكن إلا بقايا يتناقلها منتحلو هذه الصنائع. والله أعلم بصحتها. مع أن سيوف الشرع قائمة على ظهورها مانعة من اختبارها.,"Later on, these things were declared forbidden and illegal by successive religious groups: As a result, the sciences concerned with them were wiped out and vanished, as if they had never been. Only a small remnant, transmitted by the practitioners of those crafts, has remained. And God knows better whether those crafts are sound. The sword of the religious law hangs over them and prevents choice of them (as a subject of study)."
وأما الفرس فكان شأن هذه العلوم العقلية عندهم عظيما ونطاقها متسعا لما كانت عليه دولتهم من الضخامة واتصال الملك. ولقد يقال إن هذه العلوم إنما وصلت إلى يونان منهم حين قتل الإسكندر دارا وغلب على مملكة الكينية فاستولى على كتبهم وعلومهم.,"Among the Persians, the intellectual sciences played a large and important role, since the Persian dynasties were powerful and ruled without interruption. The intellectual sciences are said to have come to the Greeks from the Persians, (at the time) when Alexander killed Darius and gained control of the Achaemenid empire. At that time, he appropriated the books and sciences of the Persians."
إلا أن المسلمين لما افتتحوا بلاد فارس، وأصابوا من كتبهم وصحائف علومهم مما لا يأخذه الحصر ولما فتحت أرض فارس ووجدوا فيها كتبا كثيرة كتب سعد بن أبي وقاص إلى عمر بن الخطاب ليستأذنه في شأنها وتنقيلها للمسلمين.,"However, when the Muslims conquered Persia and came upon an indescribably large number of books and scientific papers, Sa’d b. Abi Waqqas wrote to ‘Umar b. al-Khattab, asking him for permission to take them and distribute them as booty among the Muslims."
فكتب إليه عمر أن اطرحوها في الماء. فإن يكن ما فيها هدى فقد هدانا الله بأهدى منه وإن يكن ضلالا فقد كفانا الله. فطرحوها في الماء أو في النار وذهبت علوم الفرس فيها عن أن تصل إلينا.,"On that occasion, ‘Umar wrote him: “Throw them into the water. If what they contain is right guidance, God has given us better guidance. If it is error, God has protected us against it.” Thus, the (Muslims) threw them into the water or into the fire, and the sciences of the Persians were lost and did not reach us."
وأما الروم فكانت الدولة منهم ليونان أولا وكان لهذه العلوم بينهم مجال رحب وحملها مشاهير من رجالهم مثل أساطين الحكمة وغيرهم. واختص فيها المشاءون منهم أصحاب الرواق بطريقة حسنة في التعليم كانوا يقرءون في رواق يظلهم من الشمس والبرد على ما زعموا.,"The dynasty of the Rum originally belonged to the Greeks, among whom the intellectual sciences occupied a large place. They were cultivated by famous Greek personalities, among them the pillars of philosophy, and others. The Peripatetic philosophers, in particular the Stoics, possessed a good method of instruction in the intellectual sciences. It has been assumed that they used to study in which protected them from the sun and the cold."
واتصل فيها سند تعليمهم على ما يزعمون من لدن لقمان الحكيم في تلميذه بقراط الدن، ثم إلى تلميذه أفلاطون ثم إلى تلميذه أرسطو ثم إلى تلميذه الإسكندر الأفرودسي، وتامسطيون وغيرهم. وكان أرسطو معلما للإسكندر ملكهم الذي غلب الفرس على ملكهم وانتزع الملك من أيديهم.,"Their school tradition is assumed to have passed from the sage Luqman and his pupils to Socrates of the barrel; so and then, in succession, to Socrates pupil, Plato, to Plato’s pupil, Aristotle, to Aristotle’s pupils, Alexander of Aphrodisias and Themistius, and others. Aristotle was the teacher of Alexander, the ruler of the (Greeks) who defeated the Persians and deprived them of their realm."
وكان أرسخهم في هذه العلوم قدما وأبعدهم فيه صيتا وشهرة. وكان يسمى المعلم الأول فطار له في العالم ذكر.,He was the greatest Greek scientist and enjoyed the greatest prestige and fame. He has been called “the First Teacher.” He became world-famous.
ولما انقرض أمر اليونان وصار الأمر للقياصرة وأخذوا بدين النصرانية هجروا تلك العلوم كما تقتضيه الملل والشرائع فيها. وبقيت في صحفها ودواوينها مخلدة باقية في خزائنهم ثم ملكوا الشام وكتب هذه العلوم باقية فيهم.,"When the Greek dynasty was destroyed and the Roman emperors seized power and adopted Christianity, the intellectual sciences were shunned by them, as religious groups and their laws require. (But) they continued to have a permanent life in scientific writings and treatments which were preserved in their libraries. The (Roman emperors) later on took possession of Syria. The (ancient) scientific books continued to exist during their (rule)."
ثم جاء الله بالإسلام وكان لأهله الظهور الذي لا كفاء له وابتزوا الروم ملكهم فيما ابتزوه للأمم.,"Then, God brought Islam, and its adherents gained their incomparable victory. They deprived the Byzantines (Rum), as well as all other nations, of their realms."
وابتدأ أمرهم بالسذاجة والغفلة عن الصنائع حتى إذا تبحبح من السلطان والدولة وأخذ الحضارة بالحظ الذي لم يكن لغيرهم من الأمم وتفننوا في الصنائع والعلوم.,"At the beginning, they were simple (in their ways) and disregarded the crafts. Eventually, however, the Muslim rule and dynasty flourished. The Muslims developed a sedentary culture, such as no other nation had ever possessed. They became versed in many different crafts and sciences."
تشوقوا إلى الاطلاع على هذه العلوم الحكمية بما سمعوا من الأساقفة والاقسة المعاهدين بعض ذكر منها وبما تسمو إليه أفكار الإنسان فيها.,"Then, they desired to study the philosophical disciplines. They had heard some mention of them by the bishops and priests among (their) Christian subjects, and man’s ability to think has (in any case) aspirations in the direction of the intellectual sciences."
فبعث أبو جعفر المنصور إلى ملك الروم أن يبعث إليه بكتب التعاليم مترجمة فبعث إليه بكتاب أوقليدس وبعض كتب الطبيعيات.,"Abu Ja’far al-Mansur, therefore, sent to the Byzantine Emperor and asked him to send him translations of mathematical works. The Emperor sent him Euclid’s book and some works on physics."
فقرأها المسلمون واطلعوا على ما فيها وازدادوا حرصا على الظفر بما بقي منها. وجاء المأمون بعد ذلك وكانت له في العلم رغبة بما كان ينتحله فانبعث لهذه العلوم حرصا وأوفد الرسل على ملوك الروم في استخراج علوم اليونانيين وانتساخها بالخط العربي وبعث المترجمين لذلك فأوعى منه واستوعب.,"The Muslims read them and studied their contents. Their desire to obtain the rest of them grew. Later on, al-Ma’mun came. He had some (scientific knowledge). Therefore, he had a desire for science. His desire aroused him to action in behalf of the (intellectual) sciences. He sent ambassadors to the Byzantine emperors. (These ambassadors were) to discover the Greek sciences and to have them copied in Arabic writing. He sent translators for that purpose (into Byzantine territory). As a result, a good deal of the material was preserved and collected."
وعكف عليها النظار من أهل الإسلام وحذقوا في فنونها وانتهت إلى الغاية أنظارهم فيها. وخالفوا كثيرا من آراء المعلم الأول واختصوه بالرد والقبول لوقوف الشهرة عنده. ودونوا في ذلك الدواوين وأربوا على من تقدمهم في هذه العلوم,"Muslim scientists assiduously studied the (Greek sciences). They became skilled in the various branches. The (progress they made in the) study of those sciences could not have been better. They contradicted the First Teacher (Aristotle) on many points. They considered him the decisive authority as to whether an opinion should be rejected or accepted, because he possessed the greatest fame. They wrote systematic works on the subject. They surpassed their predecessors in the intellectual sciences."
وكان من أكابرهم في الملة أبو نصر الفارابي وأبو علي بن سينا بالمشرق والقاضي أبو الوليد بن رشد والوزير أبو بكر بن الصائغ بالأندلس إلى آخرين بلغوا الغاية في هذه العلوم.,"Abu Nasr al-Farabi and Abu ‘Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna) in the East, and Judge Abul-Walid b. Rushd (Averroes) and the wazir Abu Bakr b. as-Sa’igh (Avempace) in Spain, were among the greatest Muslim (philosophers), and there were others who reached the limit in the intellectual sciences."
واختص هؤلاء بالشهرة والذكر واقتصر كثيرون على انتحال التعاليم وما ينضاف إليها من علوم النجامة والسحر والطلسمات.,"The men mentioned enjoy especial fame and prestige. Many (scientists) restricted themselves to cultivating the mathematical disciplines and the related sciences of astrology, sorcery, and talismans."
ووقفت الشهرة في هذا المنتحل على جابر بن حيان من أهل المشرق ومسلمة بن أحمد المجريطي من أهل الأندلس وتلميذه.,"The most famous practitioners of these sciences were Jabir b. Hayyan in the East, and the Spaniard, Maslamah b. Ahmad al-Majriti, and his pupils."
ودخل على الملة من هذه العلوم وأهلها داخلة واستهوت الكثير من الناس بما جنحوا إليها وقلدوا آراءها والذنب في ذلك لمن ارتكبه. ولو شاء الله ما فعلوه.,"The intellectual sciences and their representatives succeeded to some degree in penetrating Islam. They seduced many people who were eager to study those sciences and accept the opinions expressed in them. In this respect, the sin falls’ upon the person who commits it. “If God had wanted it, they would not have done it.”"
ثم إن المغرب والأندلس لما ركدت ريح العمران بهما وتناقصت العلوم بتناقصه اضمحل ذلك منهما إلا قليلا من رسومه تجدها في تفاريق من الناس وتحت رقبة من علماء السنة. ويبلغنا عن أهل المشرق أن بضائع هذه العلوم لم تزل عندهم موفورة وخصوصا في عراق العجم وما بعده فيما وراء النهر,"Later on, civilizational activity stopped in the Maghrib and in Spain. The sciences decreased with the decrease of civilization. As a consequence, scientific activity disappeared there, save for a few remnants that may be found among scattered individuals and that are controlled by orthodox religious scholars. We hear that the intellectual sciences are still amply represented among the inhabitants of the East, in particular in the non-Arab ‘Iraq and, farther east, in Transoxania."
وأنهم على بح من العلوم العقلية لتوفر عمرانهم واستحكام الحضارة فيهم. ولقد وقفت بمصر على تآليف في المعقول متعددة لرجل من عظماء هراة من بلاد خراسان يشتهر بسعد الدين التفتازاني,"The people there are said to be very successful in the intellectual and traditional sciences, because their civilization is abundant and their sedentary culture firmly established. In Egypt, I have become acquainted with numerous works by a great scholar of Herat in Khurasan, by name Sa’d-ad-din at-Taftazani."
منها في علم الكلام وأصول الفقه والبيان تشهد بأن له ملكة راسخة في هذه العلوم. وفي أثنائها ما يدل على أن له اطلاعا على العلوم الحكمية وقدما عالية في سائر الفنون العقلية والله يؤيد بنصره من يشاء.,"Some of his works are on speculative theology, the principles of jurisprudence, and syntax and style (bayan). They show that he is well grounded in these sciences. They (also) contain things proving that he has studied and knows the philosophical sciences and is well versed in all the intellectual disciplines. “God aids whomever He wishes to aid.”"
كذلك بلغنا لهذا العهد أن هذه العلوم الفلسفية ببلاد الإفرنجة من أرض رومة وما إليها من العدوة الشمالية نافقة الأسواق وأن رسومها هناك متجددة ومجالس تعليمها متعددة ودواوينها جامعة متوفرة وطلبتها متكثرة,"We further hear now that the philosophical sciences are greatly cultivated in the land of Rome and along the adjacent northern shore of the country of the European Christians. They are said to be studied there again and to be taught in numerous classes. Existing systematic expositions of them are said to be comprehensive, the people who know them numerous, and the students of them very many."
والله أعلم بما هنالك وهو يخلق ما يشاء ويختار.,"God knows better what exists there. “He creates whatever He wishes, and His is the choice.”"
الفصل العشرون في العلوم العددية,19. The sciences concerned with numbers.
وأولها الأرتماطيقي وهو معرفة خواص الأعداد من حيث التأليف إما على التوالي أو بالتضعيف,The first of them is arithmetic. Arithmetic is the knowledge of the properties of numbers combined in arithmetic or geometric progressions.
مثل أن الأعداد إذا توالت متفاضلة بعدد واحد فإن جمع الطرفين منها مساو لجمع كل عددين بعدهما من الطرفين بعد واحد,"For instance, in an arithmetic progression, in which each number is always higher by one than the preceding number, the sum of the first and last numbers of the progression is equal to the sum of any two numbers (in the progression) that are equally far removed from the first and the last number, respectively, of the progression."
ومثل ضعف الواسطة إن كانت عدة تلك الأعداد فردا مثل الأفراد على تواليها والأزواج على تواليها,"Or, (the sum of the first and last numbers of a progression) is twice the middle number of the progression, if the total number of numbers (in the progression) is an odd number. It can be a progression of even and odd numbers, or of even numbers, or of odd numbers."
ومثل أن الأعداد إذا توالت على نسبة واحدة يكون أولها نصف ثانيها وثانيها نصف ثالثها إلخ، أو يكون أولها ثلث ثانيها وثانيها ثلث ثالثها إلخ، فإن ضرب الطرفين أحدهما في الآخر كضرب كل عددين بعدهما من الطرفين بعد واحد أحدهما في الآخر. ومثل مربع الواسطة إن كانت العدة فردا وذلك مثل أعداد زوج الزوج المتوالية من اثنين فأربعة فثمانية فستة عشر,"Or, if the numbers of a (geometrical) progression are such that the first is one-half of the second and the second onehalf of the third, and so on, or if the first is one-third of the second and the second one-third of the third, and so on, the result of multiplying the first number by the last number of the progression is equal to the result of multiplying any two numbers of the progression that are equally far removed from the first and the last number, respectively, (of the progression). Or, (the result of multiplying the first number by the last number of a geometrical progression,) if the number of numbers (in the progression) is odd, is equal to the square of the middle number of the progression. For instance, the progression may consist of the powers of two: two, four, eight, sixteen."
ومثل ما يحدث من الخواص العددية في وضع المثلثات العددية والمربعات والمخمسات والمسدسات إذا وضعت متتالية في سطورها بأن يجمع من الواحد إلى العدد الأخير فتكون مثلثة.,"Or, there are the properties of numbers that originate in the formation of numerical muthallathah (triangle), murabba’ah (square), mukhammasah (pentagon), and musaddasah (hexagon) progressions, where the numbers are arranged progressively in their rows by adding them up from one to the last number. Thus, a muthallath(ah) is formed."
وتتوالى المثلثات هكذا في سطر تحت الأضلاع ثم تزيد على كل مثلث ثلث الضلع الذي قبله فتكون مربعة.,"(Other) muthallathahs (are placed) successively in rows under the “sides.” Then, each muthallathah is increased by the “side” in front of it. Thus, a murabba’ah is formed."
وتزيد على كل مربع مثلث الضلع الذي قبله فتكون مخمسة وهلم جرا.,"Then, each murabba'(ah) is increased (by the “side”) in front of it. Thus, a mukhammasah is formed, and so on."
وتتوالى الأشكال على توالي الأضلاع ويحدث جدول ذو طول وعرض.,"The (various) progressions of “sides” form figures. Thus, a table is formed with vertical and horizontal rows."
ففي عرضه الأعداد على تواليها ثم المثلثات على تواليها ثم المربعات ثم المخمسات إلخ,"The horizontal rows are constituted by the progression of the numbers (one, two, etc.), followed by the muthallathah, murabba’ah, mukhammasah progressions, and so on."
وفي طوله كل عدد وأشكاله بالغا ما بلغ وتحدث في جمعها وقسمة بعضها على بعض طولا وعرضا خواص غريبة استقريت منها وتقررت في دواوينهم مسائلها,"The vertical rows contain all the numbers and certain numerical combinations. The totals and (the results of) dividing some of the numbers by others, both vertically and horizontally, (reveal) remarkable numerical properties. They have been evolved by the inductive method. The problems connected with them have been laid down in the systematic treatments of (arithmeticians)."
كذلك ما يحدث للزوج والفرد وزوج الزوج وزوج الفرد وزوج الزوج والفرد فإن لكل منها خواص مختصة به تضمنها هذا الفن وليست في غيره.,"The same applies to special properties originating in connection with even numbers, odd numbers, the powers of two, odd numbers multiplied by two, and odd numbers multiplied by multiples of two. They are dealt with in this discipline, and in no other discipline."
وهذا الفن أول أجزاء التعاليم وأثبتها ويدخل في براهين الحساب.,This discipline is the first and most evident part of mathematics. It is used in the proofs of the mathematicians.
وللحكماء المتقدمين والمتأخرين فيه تآليف، وأكثرهم يدرجونه في التعاليم ولا يفردونه بالتآليف.,"Both early and later philosophers have written works on it. Most of them include it under mathematics in general and, therefore, do not write monographs on it."
فعل ذلك ابن سينا في كتاب الشفاء والنجاة وغيره من المتقدمين.,"This was done by Avicenna in the Kitab ash-Shifa’ and the Kitab an-Najah, and by other early scholars."
وأما المتأخرون فهو عندهم مهجور إذ هو غير متداول ومنفعته في البراهين لا في الحساب فهجروه لذلك بعد أن استخلصوا زبدته في البراهين الحسابية كما فعله ابن البناء في كتاب رفع الحجاب وغيره,"The subject is avoided by later scholars, since it is not commonly used (in practice), being useful in (theoretical mathematical) proofs rather than in (practical) calculation. (They handled the subject the way) it was done, for instance, by Ibn al-Banna, in the Kitab Raf al-hijab. They extracted the essence of the subject (as far as it was useful) for the theory of (practical) calculation and then avoided it."
والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم.,And God knows better.
ومن فروع علم العدد صناعة الحساب.,The craft of calculation
وهي صناعة علمية في حساب الأعداد بالضم والتفريق. فالضم يكون في الأعداد بالأفراد وهو الجمع.,"A subdivision of arithmetic is the craft of calculation. It is a scientific craft concerned with the counting operations of “combining,” and “separating.” The “combining” may take place by (adding the) units. This is addition."
وبالتضعيف تضاعف عددا بآحاد عدد آخر وهذا هو الضرب,Or it may take place by increasing a number as many times as there are units in another number. This is multiplication.
والتفريق أيضا يكون في الأعداد إما بالإفراد مثل إزالة عدد من عدد ومعرفة الباقي وهو الطرح,The “separating” may take place by taking away one number from another and seeing what remains. This is subtraction.
أو تفصيل عدد بأجزاء متساوية تكون عدتها محصلة وهو القسمة.,Or it may take place by separating a number into equal parts of a given number. This is division.
وسواء كان هذا الضم والتفريق في الصحيح من العدد أو الكسر. ومعنى الكسر نسبة عدد إلى عدد وتلك النسبة تسمى كسرا.,These operations may concern either whole numbers or fractions. A fraction is the relationship of one number to another number. Such relationship is called fraction.
وكذلك يكون بالضم والتفريق في الجذور ومعناها العدد الذي يضرب في مثله فيكون منه العدد المربع.,"Or they may concern “roots.” “Roots” are numbers that, when multiplied by themselves, lead to square numbers."
فإن تلك الجذور أيضا يدخلها الضم والتفريق وهذه الصناعة حادثة احتيج إليها للحساب في المعاملات وألف الناس فيها كثيرا وتداولوها في الأمصار بالتعليم للولدان.,Such roots are also included in the operations of “combining” and “separating.” This craft is something newly created. It is needed for business calculations. Scholars have written many works on it. They are used in the cities for the instruction of children.
ومن أحسن التعليم عندهم الابتداء بها لأنها معارف متضحة وبراهين منتظمة فينشأ عنها في الغالب عقل مضيء درب على الصواب.,"The best method of instruction is to begin with (calculation), because it is concerned with lucid knowledge and systematic proofs. As a rule, it produces an enlightened intellect that is trained along correct lines."
وقد يقال من أخذ نفسه بتعليم الحساب أول أمره إنه يغلب عليه الصدق لما في الحساب من صحة المباني ومناقشة النفس فيصير ذلك خلقا ويتعود الصدق ويلازمه مذهبا.,"It has been said that whoever applies himself to the study of calculation early in his life will as a rule be truthful, because calculation has a sound basis and requires self-discipline. (Soundness and self-discipline) will, thus, become character qualities of such a person. He will get accustomed to truthfulness and adhere to it methodically."
ومن أحسن التآليف المبسوطة فيها لهذا العهد بالمغرب كتاب الحصار الصغير.,"In the contemporary Maghrib, one of the best simple works on the subject is the small work by al-Hassar."
ولابن البناء المراكشي فيه تلخيص ضابط لقوانين أعماله مفيد ثم شرحه بكتاب سماه رفع الحجاب وهو مستغلق على المبتدئ بما فيه من البراهين الوثيقة المباني وهو كتاب جليل القدر أدركنا المشيخة تعظمه وهو كتاب جدير بذلك.,"Ibn al-Banna’ al-Marrakushi deals with the (subject) in an accurate and useful brief description (talkhis) of the rules of calculation. Ibn al-Banna’ later wrote a commentary on it in a book which he entitled Raf al-hijab. The (Raf al-hijab) is too difficult for beginners, because it possesses a solid groundwork of (theoretical) proofs. It is an important book. We have heard our teachers praise it. It deserves that."
وساوق فيه المؤلف رحمه الله كتاب فقه الحساب، لابن منعم والكامل للأحدب، ولخص براهينها وغيرها عن اصطلاح الحروف فيها إلى علل معنوية ظاهرة، هي سر الإشارة بالحروف وزبدتها.,"In the (work), the author competed with the Kitab Fiqh alhisab by Ibn Mun’im, and the Hamid by al-Ahdab. He gave a resume of the proofs dealt with in these two works, but he changed them in as much as, instead of ciphers, he used clear theoretical reasons in the proofs. They bring out the real meaning and essence of (what in the work itself is expressed by calculations with ciphers)."
وهي كلها مستغلقة، وإنما جاءه الاستغلاق من طريق البرهان ببيان علوم التعاليم لأن مسائلها وأعمالها واضحة كلها. وإذا قصد شرحها فإنما هو إعطاء العلل في تلك الأعمال. وفي ذلك من العسر على الفهم ما لا يوجد في أعمال المسائل فتأمله.,"All of them are difficult. The difficulty here lies in the attempt to bring proof. This is usually the case in the mathematical sciences. All the problems and operations are clear, but if one wants to comment on them – that is, if one wants to find the reasons for the operations – it causes greater difficulties to the understanding than (does) practical treatment of the problems. This should be taken into consideration."
والله يهدي بنوره من يشاء وهو القوي المتين.,God guides with His light whomever He wants (to guide).
ومن فروعه الجبر والمقابلة.,"Algebra
Another subdivision of arithmetic is algebra."
وهي صناعة يستخرج بها العدد المجهول من قبل المعلوم المفروض إذا كان بينهما نسبة تقتضي ذلك.,"This is a craft that makes it possible to discover the unknown from the known data, if there exists a relationship between them requiring it."
فاصطلحوا فيها على أن جعلوا للمجهولات مراتب من طريق التضعيف بالضرب. أولها العدد لأنه به يتعين المطلوب المجهول باستخراجه من نسبة المجهول إليه,"Special technical terms have been invented in algebra for the various multiples (powers) of the unknown. The first of them is called “number,”
because by means of it one determines the unknown one is looking for, discovering its value from the relationship of the unknown to it."
وثانيها الشيء لأن كل مجهول فهو من جهة إبهامه شيء وهو أيضا جذر لما يلزم من تضعيفه في المرتبة الثانية,"The second is (called) “thing,” because every unknown as such refers to some “thing.” It also is called “root,” because (the same element) requires multiplication in second degree (equations)."
وثالثها المال وهو أمر مبهم وما بعد ذلك فعلى نسبة الأس في المضروبين.,The third is (called) “property.” It is the square of the unknown. Everything beyond that depends on the exponents of the two (elements) that are multiplied.
ثم يقع العمل المفروض في المسألة فتخرج إلى معادلة بين مختلفين أو أكثر من هذه الأجناس فيقابلون بعضها ببعض ويجبرون ما فيها من الكسر حتى يصير صحيحا.,"Then, there is the operation that is conditioned by the problem. One proceeds to create an equation between two or more different (units) of the (three) elements (mentioned). The various elements are “confronted,” and “broken” portions (in the equation) are “set” and thus become “healthy.”"
ويحطون المراتب إلى أقل الأسوس إن أمكن حتى يصير إلى الثلاثة التي عليها مدار الجبر عندهم وهي العدد والشيء والمال.,"The degrees of equations are reduced to the fewest possible basic forms. Thus, they come to be three. Algebra revolves around these three basic forms. They are “number,” “thing,” and “property.”"
فإن كانت المعادلة بين واحد وواحد تعين فالمال والجذر يزول إبهامه بمعادلة العدد ويتعين.,"When an equation consists of one (element) on each side, the value of the unknown is fixed. The value of “property” or “root” becomes known and fixed, when equated with “number.”"
والمال وإن عادل الجذور فيتعين بعدتها.,A “property” equated with “roots” is fixed by the multiples of those “roots.”
وإن كانت المعادلة بين واحد واثنين أخرجه العمل الهندسي من طريق تفصيل الضرب في الاثنين وهي مبهمة فيعينها ذلك الضرب المفصل. ولا يمكن المعادلة بين اثنين واثنين.,"When an equation consists of one (element) on one side and two on the other, there is a geometrical solution for it by multiplication in part on the unknown side of the equation with the two (elements). Such multiplication in part fixes the (value) of (the equation). Equations with two (elements) on one side and two on the other are not possible."
وأكثر ما انتهت المعادلة بينهم إلى ست مسائل لأن المعادلة بين عدد وجذر ومال مفردة أو مركبة تجيء ستة.,"The largest number of equations recognized by algebraists is six. The simple and composite equations of “numbers,” “roots,” and “properties” come to six."
وأول من كتب في هذا الفن أبو عبد الله الخوارزمي وبعده أبو كامل شجاع بن أسلم، وجاء الناس على أثره فيه.,"The first to write on this discipline was Abu ‘Abdallah al-Khuwarizmi. After him, there was Abu Kamil Shuja’ b. Aslam. People followed in his steps."
وكتابه في مسائله الست من أحسن الكتب الموضوعة فيه. وشرحه كثير من أهل الأندلس فأجادوا ومن أحسن شروحاته كتاب القرشي.,His book on the six problems of algebra is one of the best books written on the subject. Many Spanish scholars wrote good commentaries on it. One of the best Spanish commentaries is the book of al-Qurashi.
وقد بلغنا أن بعض أئمة التعاليم من أهل المشرق أنهى المعاملات إلى أكثر من هذه الستة الأجناس، وبلغها إلى فوق العشرين واستخرج لها كلها أعمالا وأتبعه ببراهين هندسية.,"We have heard that great eastern mathematicians have extended the algebraic operations beyond the six types and brought them up to more than twenty. For all of them, they discovered solutions based on solid geometrical proofs."
والله يزيد في الخلق ما يشاء سبحانه وتعالى.,God “gives in addition to the creatures whatever He wishes to give to them.”
ومن فروعه أيضا المعاملات.,"Business (arithmetic)
Another subdivision of arithmetic is business (arithmetic)."
وهو تصريف الحساب في معاملات المدن في البياعات والمساحات والزكوات وسائر ما يعرض فيه العدد من المعاملات يصرف في صناعتنا ذلك الحساب في المجهول والمعلوم والكسر والصحيح والجذور وغيرها.,"This is the application of arithmetic to business dealings in cities. These business dealings may concern the sale (of merchandise), the measuring (of land), the charity taxes, as well as other business dealings that have something to do with numbers. In this connection, one uses both arithmetical techniques, (and one has to deal) with the unknown and the known, and with fractions, whole (numbers), roots, and other things."
والغرض من تكثير المسائل المفروضة فيها حصول المران والدربة بتكرار العمل حتى ترسخ الملكة في صناعة الحساب.,"In this connection, very many problems have been posed. Their purpose is to give (the student) exercise and experience through repeated practice, until he has the firm habit of the craft of arithmetic."
ولأهل الصناعة الحسابية من أهل الأندلس تآليف فيها متعددة من أشهرها معاملات الزهراوي وابن السمح وأبي مسلم بن خلدون من تلميذ مسلمة المجريطي وأمثالهم.,"Spanish mathematicians have written numerous works on the subject. The best known of these works are the business arithmetics of az-Zahrawi, Ibn asSamh, Abu Muslim b. Khaldun, who were pupils of Maslamah al-Majriti, and others."
ومن فروعه أيضا الفرائض.,"Inheritance laws
Another subdivision of arithmetic is inheritance laws."
وهي صناعة حسابية في تصحيح السهام لذوي الفروض في الوراثات إذا تعددت وهلك بعض الوارثين وانكسرت سهامه على ورثته أو زادت الفروض عند اجتماعها وتزاحمها على المال كله,"It is a craft concerned with calculation, that deals with determining the correct shares of an estate for the legal heirs. It may happen that there is a large number of heirs, and one of the heirs dies and his portions have to be (re-)distributed among his heirs. Or, the individual portions, when they are counted together and added up, may exceed the whole estate."
أو كان في الفريضة إقرار وإنكار من بعض الورثة فتحتاج في ذلك كله إلى عمل يعين به سهام الفريضة من كم تصح وسهام الورثة من كل بطن مصححا حتى تكون حظوظ الوارثين من المال على نسبة سهامهم من جملة سهام الفريضة.,"Or, there may be a problem when one heir acknowledges, but the others do not acknowledge, (another heir, and vice versa). All this requires solution, in order to determine the correct amount of the shares in an estate and the correct share that goes to each relative, so that the heirs get the amounts of the estate to which they are entitled in view of the total amount of the shares of the estate."
فيدخلها من صناعة الحساب جزء كبير من صحيحه وكسره وجذره ومعلومه ومجهوله وترتب على ترتيب أبواب الفرائض الفقهية ومسائلها.,"A good deal of calculation comes in here. It is concerned with whole (numbers), fractions, roots, knowns and unknowns; it is arranged according to the chapters and problems of inheritance law."
فتشتمل حينئذ هذه الصناعة على جزء من الفقه وهو أحكام الوراثة من الفروض والعول والإقرار والإنكار والوصايا والتدبير وغير ذلك من مسائلها وعلى جزء من الحساب وهو تصحيح السهمان باعتبار الحكم الفقهي وهي من أجل العلوم.,"This craft, therefore, has something to do with jurisprudence, namely, with inheritance law, as far as it is concerned with the laws concerning the legal shares of inheritance, the reduction of the individual shares (‘awl), the acknowledgement or non-acknowledgement (of heirs), wills, manumission by will, and other problems. And it has also a good deal to do with arithmetic, in as much as it is concerned with determining the correct amount of the shares in accordance with the law evolved by the jurists. It is a very important discipline."
وقد يورد أهلها أحاديث نبوية تشهد بفضلها مثل الفرائض ثلث العلم وأنها أول ما يرفع من العلوم وغير ذلك.,"The scholars who cultivate it have produced traditions attesting to its excellence, such as, for instance: “The fara’id (inheritance laws) constitute one-third of (religious) scholarship, and they are the first science to be abolished,” and other such traditions."
وعندي أن ظواهر تلك الأحاديث كلها إنما هي في الفرائض العينية كما تقدم لا فرائض الوراثات فإنها أقل من أن تكون في كميتها ثلث العلم. وأما الفرائض العينية فكثيرة,"However, as was mentioned before, I am of the opinion that according to their plain meaning, all those traditions refer to individual “obligations” (fara’id), and not to the inheritance laws (fara’id). The latter are too few in number to constitute one-third of (religious) scholarship, whereas individual obligations are numerous."
وقد ألف الناس في هذا الفن قديما وحديثا وأوعبوا ومن أحسن التآليف فيه على مذهب مالك رحمه الله كتاب ابن ثابت ومختصر القاضي أبي القاسم الحوفي وكتاب ابن المنمر والجعدي والصردي وغيرهم.,"Scholars, in early and late times, have written extensive works on the subject. Among the best works on the subject according to the school of Malik are the book of Ibn Thabit, the Mukhtasar of Judge Abul-Qasim al-Hawfi, and the books of Ibn al-Munammar, al-Ja’di, az-Zawdi, and others."
لكن الفضل للحوفي فكتابه مقدم على جميعها. وقد شرحه من شيوخنا أبو عبد الله محمد بن سليمان الشطي كبير مشيخة فاس فأوضح وأوعب. ولإمام الحرمين فيها تآليف على مذهب الشافعي تشهد باتساع باعه في العلوم، ورسوخ قدمه، وكذا للحنفية والحنابلة.,"But al-Hawfi is pre-eminent. His book is preferable to all the others. A clear and comprehensive commentary on it was written by one of our teachers, Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad b. Sulayman as-Satti, the leading shaykh of Fez. The Imam alHaramayn wrote works on the subject according to the school of ashShafi’i. They attest to his great scholarly capability and his firm grounding in scholarship. The Hanafites and the Hanbalites also (wrote works on the subject)."
ومقامات الناس في العلوم مختلفة.,The positions of scholars in scholarship vary.
والله يهدي من يشاء بمنه وكرمه لا رب سواه.,“God guides whomever He wants to guide.”
الفصل الحادي والعشرون في العلوم الهندسية,20. The geometrical sciences.
هذا العلم هو النظر في المقادير إما المتصلة كالخط والسطح والجسم وإما المنفصلة كالأعداد وفيما يعرض لها من العوارض الذاتية. مثل أن كل مثلث فزواياه مثل قائمتين.,"This science studies quantities (measurements) Quantities (measurements) may be continuous, like lines, planes, and (geometrical) solids, or discontinuous, like numbers. It also studies the essential properties of the quantities (measurements), as, for instance: The angles of any triangle are equal to two right angles."
ومثل أن كل خطين متوازيين لا يلتقيان في وجه ولو خرجا إلى غير نهاية.,"Parallel lines do not intersect anywhere, even when they extend to infinity."
ومثل أن كل خطين متقاطعين فالزاويتان المتقابلتان منهما متساويتان.,The opposite angles formed when two lines intersect are equal to each other.
ومثل أن الأربعة مقادير المتناسبة ضرب الأول منها في الثالث كضرب الثاني في الرابع وأمثال ذلك.,The result of multiplying the first and the third of four quantities in a proportion is equal to that of multiplying the second and the fourth. And so on.
والكتاب المترجم لليونانيين في هذه الصناعة كتاب أوقليدس ويسمى كتاب الأصول وكتاب الأركان وهو أبسط ما وضع فيها للمتعلمين وأول ما ترجم من كتاب اليونانيين في الملة أيام أبي جعفر المنصور ونسخه مختلفة باختلاف المترجمين.,"The Greek work on this craft which has been translated (into Arabic) is the book of Euclid. It is entitled Kitab alusul wa-l-arkan (“Book of Basic Principles and Pillars”).It is the simplest book on the subject for students. It was the first Greek work to be translated in Islam in the days of Abu Jafar al-Mansur. The existing recensions differ, depending on the respective translators."
فمنها لحنين بن إسحاق ولثابت بن قرة وليوسف بن الحجاج ويشتمل على خمس عشرة مقالة، أربع في السطوح وواحدة في الأقدار المتناسبة وأخرى في نسب السطوح بعضها إلى بعض وثلاث في العدد والعاشرة في المنطقات والقوى على المنطقات ومعناه الجذور وخمس في المجسمات.,"There are the recensions of }Hunayn b. Ishaq, Thabit b. Qurrah, and Yusuf b. al-Hajjaj. The work contains fifteen books, four on the planes, one on proportions, another one on the relationship of planes to each other, three on numbers, the tenth on rational and irrational (quantities) the “roots” – and five on solids."
وقد اختصره الناس اختصارات كثيرة كما فعله ابن سينا في تعاليم الشفاء. أفرد له جزءا منها اختصه به.,"Many abridgments of Euclid’s work have been written. Avicenna, for instance, devoted a special monograph treatment to it in (the section on) the mathematical disciplines in the Shifa’."
وكذلك ابن الصلت في كتاب الاقتصار وغيرهم. وشرحه آخرون شروحا كثيرة وهو مبدأ العلوم الهندسية بإطلاق.,"Ibn as-Salt made another abridgment in the Kitab al-Iqtisar, and the same was done by others. Many scholars have also written commentaries on it. It is the starting point of the geometrical sciences in general."
واعلم أن الهندسة تفيد صاحبها إضاءة في عقله واستقامة في فكره لأن براهينها كلها بينة الانتظام جلية الترتيب لا يكاد الغلط يدخل أقيستها لترتيبها وانتظامها فيبعد الفكر بممارستها عن الخطإ,"It should be known that geometry enlightens the intellect and sets one’s mind right. All its proofs are very clear and orderly. It is hardly possible for errors to enter into geometrical reasoning, because it is well arranged and orderly. Thus, the mind that constantly applies itself to geometry is not likely to fall into error."
وينشأ لصاحبها عقل على ذلك المهيع وقد زعموا أنه كان مكتوبا على باب أفلاطون: «من لم يكن مهندسا فلا يدخلن منزلنا»,"In this convenient way, the person who knows geometry acquires intelligence. It has been assumed that the following statement was written upon Plato’s door: “No one who is not a geometrician may enter our house.”"
وكان شيوخنا رحمهم الله يقولون: «ممارسة علم الهندسة للفكر بمثابة الصابون للثوب الذي يغسل منه الأقذار وينقيه من الأوضار والأدران». وإنما ذلك لما أشرنا إليه من ترتيبه وانتظامه.,"Our teachers used to say that one’s application to geometry does to the mind what soap does to a garment. It washes off stains and cleanses it of grease and dirt. The reason for this is that geometry is well arranged and orderly, as we have mentioned."
ومن فروع هذا الفن الهندسة المخصوصة بالأشكال الكروية والمخروطات.,"Spherical figures, conic sections, (and mechanics)
A subdivision of this discipline is the geometrical study of spherical figures (spherical trigonometry) and conic sections."
أما الأشكال الكروية ففيها كتابان من كتب اليونانيين لثاوذوسيوس وميلاوش في سطوحها وقطوعها وكتاب ثاوذوسيوس مقدم في التعليم على كتاب ميلاوش لتوقف كثير من براهينه عليه. ولا بد منهما لمن يريد الخوض في علم الهيئة لأن براهينها متوقفة عليه.,"There are two Greek works on spherical figures, namely, the works of Theodosius and Menelaus on planes and sections of (spherical figures). In (mathematical) instruction, the book by Theodosius is (studied) before the book by Menelaus, since many of the (latter’s) proofs depend on the former. Both works are needed by those who want to study astronomy, because the astronomical proofs depend on (the material contained in) them."
فالكلام في الهيئة كله كلام في الكرات السماوية وما يعرض فيها من القطوع والدوائر بأسباب الحركات كما نذكره فقد يتوقف على معرفة أحكام الأشكال الكروية سطوحها وقطوعها.,"All astronomical discussion is concerned with the heavenly spheres and the sections and circles found in connection with them as the result of the various motions, as we shall mention. (Astronomy,) therefore, depends on knowledge of the laws governing planes and sections of spherical figures."
وأما المخروطات فهو من فروع الهندسة أيضا. وهو علم ينظر فيما يقع في الأجسام المخروطة من الأشكال والقطوع ويبرهن على ما يعرض لذلك من العوارض ببراهين هندسية متوقفة على التعليم الأول.,Conic sections also are a branch of geometry. This discipline is concerned with study of the figures and sections occurring in connection with cones. It proves the properties of cones by means of geometrical proofs based upon elementary geometry.
وفائدتها تظهر في الصنائع العملية التي موادها الأجسام مثل النجارة والبناء وكيف تصنع التماثيل الغريبة والهياكل النادرة وكيف يتخيل على جر الأثقال ونقل الهياكل بالهندام والميخال وأمثال ذلك.,"Its usefulness is apparent in practical crafts that have to do with bodies, such as carpentry and architecture. It is also useful for making remarkable statues and rare large objects (effigies, hayakil) and for moving loads and transporting large objects (hayakil) with the help of mechanical contrivances, engineering (techniques), pulleys, and similar things."
وقد أفرد بعض المؤلفين في هذا الفن كتابا في الحيل العلمية يتضمن من الصناعات الغريبة والحيل المستظرفة كل عجيبة. وربما استغلق على الفهوم لصعوبة براهينه الهندسية وهو موجود بأيدي الناس ينسبونه إلى بني شاكر.,"There exists a book on mechanics that mentions every astonishing, remarkable technique and nice mechanical contrivance. It is often difficult to understand, because the geometrical proofs occurring in it are difficult. People have copies of it. They ascribe it to the Banu Shakir."
ومن فروع الهندسة المساحة,"Surveying
Another subdivision of geometry is surveying."
وهو فن يحتاج إليه في مسح الأرض ومعناه استخراج مقدار الأرض المعلومة بنسبة شبر أو ذراع أو غيرهما ونسبة أرض من أرض إذ قويست بمثل ذلك.,"This discipline is needed to survey the land. This means that it serves to find the measurements of a given piece of land in terms of spans, cubits, or other (units), or to establish the relationship of one piece of land to another when they are compared in this way."
ويحتاج إلى ذلك في توظيف الخراج على المزارع والفدن وبساتين الغراسة وفي قسمة الحوائط والأراضي بين الشركاء أو الورثة وأمثال ذلك. وللناس فيها موضوعات حسنة وكثيرة,"Such surveying is needed to determine the land tax on (wheat) fields, lands, and orchards. It is also needed for dividing enclosures and lands among partners or heirs, and similar things. Scholars have written many good works on the subject."
المناظرة من فروع الهندسة,"Optics
Another subdivision of geometry is optics."
وهو علم يتبين به أسباب الغلط في الإدراك البصري بمعرفة كيفية وقوعها بناء على أن إدراك البصر يكون بمخروط شعاعي رأسه نقطة الباصر وقاعدته المرئي.,"This science explains the reasons for errors in visual perception, on the basis of knowledge as to how they occur. Visual perception takes place through a cone formed by rays, the top of which is the point of vision and the base of which is the object seen."
ثم يقع الغلط كثيرا في رؤية القريب كبيرا والبعيد صغيرا. وكذا رؤية الأشباح الصغيرة تحت الماء ووراء الأجسام الشفافة كبيرة ورؤية النقطة النازلة من المطر خطا مستقيما والسلقة دائرة وأمثال ذلك.,"Now, errors often occur. Nearby things appear large. Things that are far away appear small. Furthermore, small objects appear large under water or behind transparent bodies. Drops of rain as they fall appear to form a straight line, flame a circle, and so on."
فيتبين في هذا العلم أسباب ذلك وكيفياته بالبراهين الهندسية ويتبين به أيضا اختلاف المنظر في القمر باختلاف العروض الذي يبنى عليه معرفة رؤية الأهلة وحصول الكسوفات وكثير من أمثال هذا.,"This discipline explains with geometrical proofs the reasons for these things and how they come about. Among many other similar things, optics also explains the difference in the view of the moon at different latitudes. Knowledge of the visibility of the new moon and of the occurrence of eclipses is based on that. There are many other such things."
وقد ألف في هذا الفن كثير من اليونانيين. وأشهر من ألف فيه من الإسلاميين ابن الهيثم. ولغيره أيضا تآليف وهو من هذه الرياضة وتفاريعها.,"Many Greeks wrote works on the subject. The most famous Muslim author on optics is Ibn al-Haytham. Others, too, have written works on the subject. It is a branch of the mathematical sciences."
الفصل الثاني والعشرون في علم الهيئة,21. Astronomy.
وهو علم ينظر في حركات الكواكب الثابتة والمحركة والمتحيرة. ويستدل بكيفيات تلك الحركات على أشكال وأوضاع للأفلاك لزمت عنها لهذه الحركات المحسوسة بطرق هندسية.,"This science studies the motions of the fixed stars and the planets. From the manner in which these motions take place, astronomy deduces by geometrical methods the existence of certain shapes and positions of the spheres requiring the occurrence of those motions which can be perceived by the senses."
كما يبرهن على أن مركز الأرض مباين لمركز فلك الشمس بوجود حركة الإقبال والإدبار وكما يستدل بالرجوع والاستقامة للكواكب على وجود أفلال صغيرة حاملة لها متحركة داخل فلكها الأعظم وكما يبرهن على وجود الفلك الثامن بحركة الكواكب الثابتة وكما يبرهن على تعدد الأفلاك للكوكب الواحد بتعداد الميول له وأمثال ذلك.,"Astronomy thus proves, for instance, by the existence of the precession of the equinoxes, that the center of the earth is not identical with the center of the sphere of the sun. Furthermore, from the retrograde and direct motions of the stars, astronomy deduces the existence of small spheres (epicycles) carrying the (stars) and moving inside their great spheres. Through the motion of the fixed stars, astronomy then proves the existence of the eighth sphere. It also proves that a single star has a number of spheres, from the (observation) that it has a number of declinations, and similar things."
وإدراك الموجود من الحركات وكيفياتها وأجناسها إنما هو بالرصد فإنا إنما علمنا حركة الإقبال والإدبار به. وكذا تركيب الأفلاك في طبقاتها وكذا الرجوع والاستقامة وأمثال ذلك.,"Only astronomical observation can show the existing motions and how they take place, and their various types. It is only by this means that we know the precession of the equinoxes and the order of the spheres in their different layers as well as the retrograde and direct motions (of the stars), and similar things."
وكان اليونانيون يعتنون بالرصد كثيرا ويتخذون له الآلات التي توضع ليرصد بها حركة الكوكب المعين. وكانت تسمى عندهم ذات الحلق وصناعة عملها والبراهين عليه في مطابقة حركتها بحركة الفلك منقول بأيدي الناس.,"The Greeks occupied themselves very much with astronomical observation. They used instruments that were invented for the observation of the motion of a given star. They called them astrolabes. The technique and theory of how to make them, so that their motion conforms to the motion of the sphere, are a (living) tradition among the people."
وأما في الإسلام فلم تقع به عناية إلا في القليل. وكان في أيام المأمون شيء منه وصنع هذه الآلة المعروفة للرصد المسماة ذات الحلق. وشرع في ذلك فلم يتم. ولما مات ذهب رسمه وأغفل واعتمد من بعده على الأرصاد القديمة وليست بمغنية لاختلاف الحركات باتصال الأحقاب.,"In Islam, only very little attention has been paid to astronomical observation. In the days of al-Ma’mun, there was some interest in it. The construction of the instrument known as the astrolabe was begun but was not completed. When alMa’mun died, the institution of astronomical observation was lost and neglected. Later on, (scholars) based themselves upon the ancient observations. These were of no use because of the change in the motions (of the stars) over the course of time."
وأن مطابقة حركة الآلة للرصد بحركة الأفلاك والكواكب إنما هو بالتقريب.,"The motion of the instrument used in astronomical observations conforms only approximately to the motion of the spheres and the stars and is not absolutely exact. When a certain amount of time has elapsed, the differences are revealed."
وهذه الهيئة صناعة شريفة وليست على ما يفهم في المشهور أنها تعطي صورة السماوات وترتيب الأفلاك والكواكب بالحقيقة بل إنما تعطي أن هذه الصور والهيئات للأفلاك لزمت عن هذه الحركات.,"Astronomy is a noble craft. It does not, as is generally thought, teach the real form of the heavens nor the order of the spheres, but it teaches that the forms and shapes of the spheres are the result of those motions."
وأنت تعلم أنه لا يبعد أن يكون الشيء الواحد لازما لمختلفين وإن قلنا إن الحركات لازمة فهو استدلال باللازم على وجود الملزوم ولا يعطي الحقيقة بوجه على أنه علم جليل وهو أحد أركان التعاليم.,"As one knows, it is not improbable that one and the same thing may produce two different results. Therefore, when we say that the motions produce a result, we (merely) deduce from the (existence of) what produces the result that the result exists, but the statement in no way teaches (us) the real character (of the resulting thing). Still, astronomy is an important science. It is one of the pillars of the mathematical disciplines."
ومن أحسن التآليف فيه كتاب المجسطي منسوب لبطليموس. وليس من ملوك اليونان الذين أسماؤهم بطليموس على ما حققه شراح الكتاب. وقد اختصره الأئمة من حكماء الإسلام كما فعله ابن سينا وأدرجه في تعاليم الشفاء. ولخصه ابن رشد أيضا من حكماء الأندلس وابن السمح وابن أبي الصلت في كتاب الاقتصار.,"One of the best works on the subject is the Majisti (Almagest). It is ascribed to Ptolemy, who, as the commentators of the work have established, was not one of the Greek rulers called Ptolemy. The leading Muslim philosophers have abridged Ptolemy’s work. Avicenna, for instance, did that. He inserted his abridgment in the mathematical section of the Shifa’. Ptolemy’s work was also
abbreviated by the Spanish philosopher Averroes, by Ibn as-Samh, and by Ibn as-Salt, in the Kitdb al-Iqtisar."
ولابن الفرغاني هيئة ملخصة قربها وحذف براهينها الهندسية.,"Ibn alFarghani wrote an abridged astronomy. In it, he treated the subject along more easily understandable lines. He omitted the geometrical proofs."
والله علم الإنسان ما لم يعلم.,“God taught man what he did not know.”
ومن فروعه علم الأزياج.,"Astronomical tables
A subdivision of astronomy is the science of astronomical tables."
وهي صناعة حسابية على قوانين عددية فيما يخص كل كوكب من طريق حركته وما أدى إليه برهان الهيئة في وضعه من سرعة وبطء واستقامة ورجوع وغير ذلك يعرف به مواضع الكواكب في أفلاكها لأي وقت فرض من قبل حسبان حركاتها على تلك القوانين المستخرجة من كتب الهيئة.,"This is a craft based upon calculations according to arithmetical rules. It is concerned with the courses of motions peculiar to each star and with the character of that motion, fast, slow, direct, retrograde, and so on, as proven by astronomical means. This serves to show the positions of the stars in their spheres at any given time, by calculating their motions according to the rules evolved from astronomical works."
ولهذه الصناعة قوانين كالمقدمات والأصول لها في معرفة الشهور والأيام والتواريخ الماضية وأصول متقررة من معرفة الأوج والحضيض والميول وأصناف الحركات واستخراج بعضها من بعض يضعونها في جدول مرتبة تسهيلا على المتعلمين وتسمى الأزياج، ويسمى استخراج مواضع الكواكب للوقت المفروض لهذه الصناعة تعديلا وتقويما.,"This craft follows certain norms. They constitute a sort of introductory and basic material for it. They deal with months and days and past eras. It (further) follows established basic principles. They deal with apogee and perigee, declinations, the different kinds of motions, and how (these things) shed light upon each other. They are written down in well-arranged tables, in order to make it easy for students. These tables are called zij. The determination of the positions of the stars at a given time by means of this craft is called “adjustment and tabulation.”"
وللناس فيه تآليف كثيرة للمتقدمين والمتأخرين مثل البتاني وابن الكماد. وقد عول المتأخرون لهذا العهد بالمغرب على زيج منسوب لابن إسحاق من منجمي تونس في أول المائة السابعة. ويزعمون أن ابن إسحاق عول فيه على الرصد.,"Both early and later scholars have written many works on the subject. Among such scholars, for instance, were alBattani and Ibn al-Kammad. Recent contemporary Maghribi scholars are using, as their reference work, the zij that is ascribed to Ibn Ishaq. It is thought that Ibn Ishaq based his work on astronomical observations."
وأن يهوديا كان بصقلية ماهرا في الهيئة والتعاليم وكان قد عني بالرصد وكان يبعث إليه بما يقع في ذلك من أحوال الكواكب وحركاتها فكان أهل المغرب لذلك عنوا به لوثاقة مبناه على ما يزعمون.,"A Jew in Sicily who was skilled in astronomy and the mathematical sciences, and who occupied himself with astronomical observation, sent (Ibn Ishaq) information on the conditions and motions of the stars he had ascertained. Thus, the Maghribis have been using Ibn Ishaq’s work, because they assume that it is based upon reliable information."
ولخصه ابن البناء في آخر سماه المنهاج فولع به الناس لما سهل من الأعمال فيه وإنما يحتاج إلى مواضع الكواكب من الفلك لتبتني عليها الأحكام النجومية وهو معرفة الآثار التي تحدث عنها بأوضاعها في عالم الإنسان من الملك والدول والمواليد البشرية والكوائن الحادثة,"Ibn al-Banna, wrote an abridgment (of Ibn Ishaq’s Zij) which he entitled al-Minhaj. People have been very eager to use the Minhaj, because the operations described in it are easy. (Knowledge of the) positions of the stars in the spheres is the necessary basis for astrological judgments, that is, knowledge of the various kinds of influence over the world of man that are exercised by the stars depending on their positions and that affect religious groups, dynasties, human activities, and all events."
كما نبينه بعد ونوضح فيه أدلتهم إن شاء الله تعالى.,"We shall explain this later on, and we shall clarify the evidence adduced by astrologers, if God, He is exalted, wills."
الفصل الثالث والعشرون في علم المنطق,22. The science of logic.
وهو قوانين يعرف بها الصحيح من الفاسد في الحدود المعرفة للماهيات والحجج المفيدة للتصديقات وذلك لأن الأصل في الإدراك إنما هو المحسوسات بالحواس الخمس.,"(Logic concerns) the norms enabling a person to distinguish between right and wrong, both in definitions that give information about the essence of things, and in arguments that assure apperception. This comes about as follows: The basis of perception is the sensibilia that are perceived by the five senses."
وجميع الحيوانات مشتركة في هذا الإدراك من الناطق وغيره وإنما يتميز الإنسان عنها بإدراك الكليات وهي مجردة من المحسوسات. وذلك بأن يحصل في الخيال من الأشخاص المتفقة صورة منطبقة على جميع تلك الأشخاص المحسوسة وهي الكلي.,"All living beings, those which are rational as well as the others, participate in this kind of perception. Man is distinguished from the animals by his ability to perceive universals, which are things abstracted from the sensibilia. Man is enabled to do this by virtue of the fact that his imagination obtains, from individual objects perceived by the senses and which agree with each other, a picture conforming to all these individual objects. Such (a picture) is a universal."
ثم ينظر الذهن بين تلك الأشخاص المتفقة وأشخاص أخرى توافقها في بعض فيحصل له صورة تنطبق أيضا عليهما باعتبار ما اتفقا فيه.,"The mind then compares the individual objects that agree with each other, with other objects that (also) agree with them in some respects. It thus obtains a picture conforming to both of the two groups of objects compared), .in as much as they agree with each other."
ولا يزال يرتقي في التجريد إلى الكل الذي لا يجد كليا آخر معه يوافقه فيكون لأجل ذلك بسيطا.,"In this way, abstraction continues to progress. Eventually, it reaches the universal (concept), which admits no other universal (concept) that would, agree with it, and is, therefore, simple."
وهذا مثل ما يجرد من أشخاص الإنسان صورة النوع المنطبقة عليها. ثم ينظر بينه وبين الحيوان ويجرد صورة الجنس المنطبقة عليهما. ثم ينظر بينهما وبين النبات إلى أن ينتهي إلى الجنس العالي وهو الجوهر فلا يجد كليا يوافقه في شيء فيقف العقل هنالك عن التجريد.,"For instance, from the individual specimens of man, the picture of the species to which all the individual specimens conform is abstracted. Then, man (the human species) is compared with the animals, and the picture of the genus to which both men and animals conform is abstracted. Then, this is compared with the plants, until, eventually, the highest genus is reached, which is “substance.” There is no (other) universal (concept) that would in any way agree with it. Therefore, the intellect stops here and makes no further abstraction."
ثم إن الإنسان لما خلق الله له الفكر الذي به يدرك العلوم والصنائع وكان العلم: إما تصورا للماهيات ويعنى به إدراك ساذج من غير حكم معه وإما تصديقا أي حكما بثبوت أمر لأمر,"God created in man the ability to think. Through it, he perceives the sciences and crafts. Knowledge is either a perception (tasawwur) of the essence of things tasawwur meaning a primitive kind of perception not accompanied by (the exercise of) judgment – or it is apperception (tasdiq), that is, the judgment that a thing is so."
فصار سعي الفكر في تحصيل المطلوبات إما بأن تجمع تلك الكليات بعضها إلى بعض على جهة التأليف فتحصل صورة في الذهن كلية منطبقة على أفراد في الخارج فتكون تلك الصورة الذهنية مفيدة لمعرفة ماهية تلك الأشخاص وإما بأن يحكم بأمر على أمر فيثبت له ويكون ذلك تصديقا.,"(Man’s) ability to think may try to obtain the desired (information) by combining the universals with each other, with the result that the mind obtains a universal picture that conforms to details outside. Such a picture in the mind assures a knowledge of the quiddity of the individual objects. Or, (man’s) ability to think may judge one thing by another and draw conclusions (from the one thing as to the other). Thus, (the other thing) is established in (the mind). This is apperception."
وغايته في الحقيقة راجعة إلى التصور لأن فائدة ذلك إذا حصل إنما هي معرفة حقائق الأشياء التي هي مقتضى العلم الحكمي.,"In fact, (apperception) ultimately reverts to perception, because the only use of having (perception) is (to achieve) knowledge of the realities of things, which is the required goal of apperceptive knowledge."
وهذا السعي من الفكر قد يكون بطريق صحيح وقد يكون بطريق فاسد فاقتضى ذلك تمييز الطريق الذي يسعى به الفكر في تحصيل المطالب العلمية ليتميز الصحيح من الفاسد فكان ذلك قانون المنطق.,"(Man’s) ability to think may embark on this (process) in either the right or the wrong way. Selection of the way to be followed by man’s ability to think in its effort to attain the knowledge desired, requires discernment, so that (man) can distinguish between right and wrong. This (process) became the canon of logic."
وتكلم فيه المتقدمون أول ما تكلموا به جملا جملا ومفترقا مفترقا. ولم تهذب طرقه ولم تجمع مسائله حتى ظهر في يونان أرسطو فهذب مباحثه ورتب مسائله وفصوله وجعله أول العلوم الحكمية وفاتحتها.,"When the ancients first began to discuss (logic), they did so in a sententious, disconnected manner by selecting certain stray propositions. Logical methods were unimproved. The problems of logic were not seen together. Eventually, Aristotle appeared among the Greeks. He improved the methods of logic and systematized its problems and details. He assigned to logic its proper place as the first philosophical discipline and the introduction to philosophy."
ولذلك يسمى بالمعلم الأول وكتابه المخصوص بالمنطق يسمى النص وهو يشتمل على ثمانية كتب أربعة منها في صورة القياس وأربعة في مادته.,"Therefore (Aristotle) is called “the First Teacher.” His work on logic is called “the Text.” It comprises eight books, three on the forms of analogical reasoning, and five on the matter (to which analogical reasoning is applied)."
وذلك أن المطالب التصديقية على أنحاء. فمنها ما يكون المطلوب فيه اليقين بطبعه ومنها ما يكون المطلوب فيه الظن وهو على مراتب فينظر في القياس من حيث المطلوب الذي يفيده وما ينبغي أن تكون مقدماته بذلك الاعتبار ومن أي جنس يكون من العلم أو من الظن.,"This is because the objects of apperception are of different kinds. Some of them concern things that are certain by nature. Others concern things that are hypothetical in various degrees. Therefore, logic studies analogical reasoning from the point of view of the desired (information) it is expected to yield. It studies what the premises (of the desired information) ought to be, as seen in this light, and to which kind of certain or hypothetical knowledge the (desired information) belongs."
وقد ينظر في القياس لا باعتبار مطلوب مخصوص بل من جهة إنتاجه خاصة. ويقال للنظر الأول إنه من حيث المادة ونعني به المادة المنتجة للمطلوب المخصوص من يقين أو ظن ويقال للنظر الثاني إنه من حيث الصورة وإنتاج القياس على الإطلاق,"Logic studies analogical reasoning (the syllogism), not with some particular object in mind but exclusively with regard to the way in which it is produced. Therefore, the first study, it is said, is undertaken with regard to matter, that is, the matter that produces some particular certain or hypothetical information. The second study, it is said, is undertaken with regard to the form and the manner in which analogical reasoning (the syllogism) in general is produced."
فكانت لذلك كتب المنطق ثمانية: الأول في الأجناس العالية التي ينتهي إليها تجريد المحسوسات وهي التي ليس فوقها جنس ويسمى كتاب المقولات.,"Thus, the number of the books on logic came to be eight. The first book deals with the highest genera that abstraction among the
sensibilia may attain in the mind and that admit no (more universal) genera above them. It is called Kitab al-Maqulat (Categories)."
والثاني في القضايا التصديقية وأصنافها ويسمى كتاب العبارة.,The second book deals with the various kinds of apperceptive propositions. It is called Kitab al-‘Ibarah (Hermeneutics).
والثالث في القياس وصورة إنتاجه على الإطلاق ويسمى كتاب القياس وهذا آخر النظر من حيث الصورة.,The third book deals with analogical reasoning (the syllogism) and the form in which it is produced in general. It is called Kitab al-Qiyas (Analytics). Here ends the logical study from the point of view of (its) form.
ثم الرابع كتاب البرهان وهو النظر في القياس المنتج لليقين وكيف يجب أن تكون مقدماته يقينية. ويختص بشروط أخرى لإفادة اليقين مذكورة فيه مثل كونها ذاتية وأولية وغير ذلك. وفي هذا الكتاب الكلام في المعرفات والحدود إذ المطلوب فيها إنما هو اليقين لوجوب المطابقة بين الحد والمحدود لا تحتمل غيرها فلذلك اختصت عند المتقدمين بهذا الكتاب.,"The fourth book is the Kitab al-Burhan (Apodeictica). It studies the kind of analogical reasoning (the syllogism) that produces certain (knowledge). It also studies (the problem of) why its premises must be certain ones. In particular, it mentions other conditions for yielding certain knowledge. For instance, the (premises) must be essential, primary, and so on. This book contains a discussion of determinatives and definitions, because one wants them to be certain, since it is necessary – nothing else is possible – that a definition conform to the thing defined. Therefore, (definitions) were treated by the ancients in this book."
والخامس: كتاب الجدل وهو القياس المفيد قطع المشاغب وإفحام الخصم وما يجب أن يستعمل فيه من المشهورات ويختص أيضا من جهة إفادته لهذا الغرض بشروط أخرى من حيث إفادته لهذا الغرض وهي مذكورة هناك. وفي هذا الكتاب يذكر المواضع التي يستنبط منها صاحب القياس قياسه وفيه عكوس القضايا.,"The fifth book is the Kitab al-Jadl (Topics). Jadl (“disputation”) is the kind of analogical reasoning that shows how to cut off a troublesome adversary and silence one’s opponent, and teaches the famous (methods) to be employed to this end. It is also concerned with other conditions required in this connection. They are mentioned here. The book deals with the “places” (topoi) from which the syllogism is evolved by using them to clarify the so-called middle term that brings the two ends of the desired information together. It also deals with the conversion of terms."
والسادس: كتاب السفسطة وهو القياس الذي يفيد خلاف الحق ويغالط به المناظر صاحبه وهو فاسد وهذا إنما كتب ليعرف به القياس المغالطي فيحذر منه.,The sixth book is the Kitab as-Safsatah (Sophistici Elenchi). Sophistry is the kind of analogical reasoning that teaches the opposite of the truth and enables a disputant to confuse his opponent. The (book) is bad because of its purpose. It was written only so that one might know sophistical reasoning and be on guard against it.
والسابع: كتاب الخطابة وهو القياس المفيد ترغيب الجمهور وحملهم على المراد منهم وما يجب أن يستعمل في ذلك من المقالات.,The seventh book is the Kitab al-Khitabah (Rhetoric). Rhetoric is the kind of analogical reasoning that teaches how to influence the great mass and get them to do what one wants them to do. It also teaches the forms of speech to be employed in this connection.
والثامن: كتاب الشعر وهو القياس الذي يفيد التمثيل والتشبيه خاصة للإقبال على الشيء أو النفرة عنه وما يجب أن يستعمل فيه من القضايا التخيلية.,"The eighth book is the Kitdb ash-Shi’r (Poetics). Poetics is the kind of analogical reasoning that teaches the invention of parables and similes, especially for the purpose of (encouraging oneself and others) to undertake something or avoid doing something. It also teaches the imaginary propositions to be employed in this connection."
هذه هي كتب المنطق الثمانية عند المتقدمين.,These are the eight books on logic according to the ancients.
ثم إن حكماء اليونانيين بعد أن تهذبت الصناعة ورتبت رأوا أنه لا بد من الكلام في الكليات الخمس المفيدة للتصور المطابق للماهيات في الخارج، أو لأجزائها أو عوارضها وهي الجنس والفصل والنوع والخاص والعرض العام،,"After logic had been improved and systematized, the Greek philosophers were of the opinion that it was necessary to discuss the five universals providing the perception that conforms to the quiddities outside or to their parts or accidents. The (five) are genus, difference, species, property, and general accident."
فاستدركوا فيها مقالة تختص بها مقدمة بين يدي الفن فصارت تسعا وترجمت كلها في الملة الإسلامية. وكتبها وتداولها فلاسفة الإسلام بالشرح والتلخيص كما فعله الفارابي وابن سينا ثم ابن رشد من فلاسفة الأندلس.,"Therefore, they took the subject up in a special book concerned with the (five universals), which serves as an introduction to the discipline. Thus, the books on (logic) came to be nine. All of them were translated in Islam. The Muslim philosophers wrote commentaries and abridgments of them. Al-Farabi and Avicenna, for instance, did this, and, later on, the Spanish philosopher, Averroes."
ولابن سينا كتاب الشفاء استوعب فيه علوم الفلسفة السبعة كلها. ثم جاء المتأخرون فغيروا اصطلاح المنطق وألحقوا بالنظر في الكليات الخمس ثمرته وهي الكلام في الحدود والرسوم نقلوها من كتاب البرهان.,"Avicenna wrote the Kitab ash-Shifa’, which comprises all the seven philosophical disciplines. Later on, more recent scholars have changed the terminology of logic. They added to the study of the five universals the (study of) its fruit, namely, the discussion of definitions and descriptions which they took over from the Apodeictica."
وحذفوا كتاب المقولات لأن نظر المنطقي فيه بالعرض لا بالذات. وألحقوا في كتاب العبارة الكلام في العكس. وإن كان من كتاب الجدل في كتب المتقدمين لكنه من توابع الكلام في القضايا ببعض الوجوه ثم تكلموا في القياس من حيث إنتاجه للمطالب على العموم لا بحسب مادة وحدقوا النظر فيه بحسب المادة,"They discarded the Categories, because (the logicians’) study of the book is accidental and not essential. To the Hermeneutics they added the discussion of the conversion (of terms), whereas the ancient books included that subject in the Topics, but, in some respects, it does fall under the discussion of propositions. Then, they discussed analogical reasoning in as much as it produces the desired information in general, and without regard to any matter. They discarded study of the matter to which analogical reasoning (is applied)."
وهي الكتب الخمسة: البرهان والجدل والخطابة والشعر والسفسطة.,"That concerned five books, the Apodeictica, the Topics, the Rhetoric, the Poetics, and the Sophistici Elenchi."
وربما يلم بعضهم باليسير منها إلماما وأغفلوها كأن لم تكن هي المهم المعتمد في الفن. ثم تكلموا فيما وضعوه من ذلك كلاما مستبحرا ونظروا فيه من حيث إنه فن برأسه لا من حيث إنه آلة للعلوم فطال الكلام فيه واتسع.,"Some of them occasionally touched a little on those books. (But in general,) they neglected them, as if they had never been, whereas they are a very important basis of the discipline. Then, they thoroughly discussed their writings on logic and studied them as a discipline in its own right, not as an instrument for the sciences. This resulted in a long and extensive discussion of the subject."
وأول من فعل ذلك الإمام فخر الدين بن الخطيب ومن بعده أفضل الدين الخونجي وعلى كتبه معتمد المشارقة لهذا العهد. وله في هذه الصناعة كتاب كشف الأسرار وهو طويل واختصر فيها مختصر الموجز وهو حسن في التعليم ثم مختصر الجمل في قدر أربعة أوراق أخذ بمجامع الفن وأصوله فتداوله المتعلمون لهذا العهد فينتفعون به.,"The first to do this was the imam Fakhr-ad-din b. al-Khatib. He was followed by Afdal-ad-din al-Khunaji. AlKhunaji’s books are used by contemporary easterners as reference works. On logic, he wrote the long Kitab Kashf al-asrar, the Mukhtasar al-mujiz which is good as a textbook, and the Mukhtasar al jumal. The last-mentioned work consists of four leaves and gives a synopsis of the discipline and its basic principles. Contemporary students use it and profit from it."
وهجرت كتب المتقدمين وطرقهم كأن لم تكن وهي ممتلئة من ثمرة المنطق وفائدته كما قلناه. والله الهادي للصواب.,"The books and methods of the ancients are avoided, as if they had never been, although they are full of the results and useful aspects of logic, as we have stated. God is the guide to that which is correct."
اعلم أن هذا الفن قد اشتد النكير على انتحاله من متقدمي السلف والمتكلمين، وبالغوا في الطعن عليه والتحذير منه، وحظروا تعلمه وتعليمه.,It should be known that the early Muslims and the early speculative theologians greatly disapproved of the study of this discipline. They vehemently attacked it and warned against it. They forbade the study and teaching of it.
وجاء المتأخرون من بعدهم من لدن الغزالي والإمام ابن الخطيب، فسامحوا في ذلك بعض الشيء. وأكب الناس على انتحاله من يومئذ إلا قليلا، يجنحون فيه إلى رأي المتقدمين، فينفرون عنه ويبالغون في إنكاره.,"Later on, ever since al-Ghazzali and the imam Ibn al-Khatib, scholars have been somewhat more lenient in this respect. Since that time, they have gone on studying (logic), except for a few who have recourse to the opinion of the ancients concerning it and shun it and vehemently disapprove of it."
فلنبين لك نكتة القبول والرد في ذلك، لتعلم مقاصد العلماء في مذاهبهم، وذلك أن المتكلمين لما وضعوا علم الكلام لنصر العقائد الإيمانية بالحجج العقلية، كانت طريقتهم في ذلك بأدلة خاصة وذكروها في كتبهم كالدليل على حدث العالم بإثبات الأعراض وحدوثها، وامتناع خلو الأجسام عنها، وما لا يخلو عن الحوادث حادث.,"Let us explain on what the acceptance or rejection of (logic) depends, so that it will be known what scholars have in mind with their different opinions. This comes about as follows: When the theologians invented the science of speculative theology, in order to support the articles of faith with rational evidence, their approach was to use some particular evidence, which they mentioned in their books. Thus, they proved the createdness of the world by affirming that accidents exist and are created, that bodies cannot possibly be free from accidents, and that something that cannot be free from created things must itself be created."
وكإثبات التوحيد بدليل التمانع، وإثبات الصفات القديمة بالجوامع الأربعة إلحاقا للغائب بالشاهد، وغير ذلك من أدلتهم المذكورة في كتبهم.,"Or, they affirmed the oneness of God by the argument of mutual antagonism. They affirmed the existence of primeval attributes with reference to the four comprehensive (attributes), in that they drew conclusions from the visible as to the supernatural. There are other such arguments mentioned in their books."
ثم مرروا تلك الادلة بتمهيد قواعد وأصول هي كالمقدمات لها مثل إثبات الجوهر الفرد والزمن الفرد والخلاء بين الأجسام ونفي الطبيعة والتركيب العقلي للماهيات.,"Then, they strengthened that evidence by inventing basic principles constituting a sort of premises for the evidence. Thus, they affirmed the existence of atomic matter and atomic time and the vacuum. They denied nature and the intellectual combination of quiddities."
وأن العرض لا يبقى زمنين وإثبات الحال وهي صفة لموجود، لا موجودة ولا معدمة وغير ذلك من قواعدهم التي بنوا عليها أدلتهم الخاصة.,"They affirmed that an accident does not persist two moments. They also affirmed the existence of the “state,” that is, an attribute of something existing, that neither exists nor yet does not exist. They have still other basic principles upon which they have built their particular arguments."
ثم ذهب الشيخ أبو الحسن، والقاضي أبو بكر والأستاذ أبو إسحاق إلا أن أدلة العقائد منعكسة بمعنى أنها إذا بطلت بطل مدلولها. ولهذا رأى القاضي أبو بكر أنها بمثابة العقائد والقدح فيها قدح في العقائد لابتنائها عليها.,"It then came to be the opinion of Shaykh Abul-Hasan (al-Ash’ari), Judge Abu Bakr (al-Baqillani), and Professor Abu Ishaq (al-Isfarayini), that the evidence for the articles of faith is reversible in the sense that if the arguments are wrong, the things proven (by them) are wrong. Therefore, Judge Abu Bakr thought that the arguments for the articles of faith hold the same position as the articles of faith themselves and that an attack against them is an attack against the articles of faith, because they rest on those (arguments)."
وإذا تأملت المنطق وجدته كله يدور على التركيب العقلي، وإثبات الكلي الطبيعي في الخارج لينطبق عليه الكلي الذهني المنقسم إلى الكليات الخمس، التي هي الجنس والنوع والفصل والخاصة والعرض العام، وهذا باطل عند المتكلمين.,"Now, if one considers logic, one will find that it all revolves around intellectual combination and the affirmation of the outside existence of a natural universal to which must correspond the mental universal that is divided into the five universals, namely, genus, species, difference, property, and general accident. This is wrong in the opinion of the speculative theologians."
والكلي والذاتي عندهم إنما اعتبار ذهني ليس في الخارج ما يطابقه، أو حال عند من يقول بها فتبطل الكليات الخمس والتعريف المبني عليها. والمقولات العشر، ويبطل العرض الذاتي، فتبطل ببطلانه القضايا الضرورية الذاتية المشروطة في البرهان وتبطل المواضع التي هي لباب كتاب الجدل.,"The universal and essential is to them merely a mental concept having no correspondence outside (the mind), or – to those who believe in the theory of “states”- (it is merely) a “state.” Thus, the five universals, the definitions based on them, and the ten categories are wrong, and the essential attribute is a wrong (concept and does not exist). This implies that the essential and necessary propositions on which argumentation is predicated are wrong and that the rational cause is a wrong (concept and does not exist). Thus, the Apodeictica is wrong, and the “places” (topoi) which are the central part of the Topics are a wrong (concept)."
وهي التي يؤخذ منها الوسط الجامع بين الطرفين في القياس، ولا يبقى إلا القياس الصوري، ومن التعريفات المساوئ في الصادقية على أفراد المحمود، لا يكون أعم منها، فيدخل غيرها، ولا أخص فيخرج بعضها، وهو الذي يعبر عنه النحاة بالجمع والمنع والمتكلمون بالطرد والعكس، وتنهدم أركان المنطق جملة.,"They were the things from which one derives the middle term that brings the two ends together in analogical reasoning. The only thing that remains is formal analogical reasoning (the syllogism). The only remaining definition is the one that is equally true for all details of the thing defined and cannot be more general, because then other matters would enter it, nor can it be more restricted, because then part of those details would be left out. That is what the grammarians express by jam’ and man’, and the speculative theologians by tard and ‘aks (complete identity of the definition and the thing defined, and reversibility of the definition). Thus, all the pillars of logic are destroyed."
وإن أثبتنا هذه كما في علم المنطق أبطلنا كثيرا من مقدمات المتكلمين فيؤدي إلى إبطال أدلتهم على العقائد كما مر. فلهذا بالغ المتقدمون من المتكلمين في النكير على انتحال المنطق وعده بدعة أو كفرا على نسبة الدليل الذي يبطل.,"(On the other hand,) if we affirm their existence, as is done in logic, we (thereby) declare wrong many of the premises of the speculative theologians. This, then, leads to considering wrong their arguments for the articles of faith, as has been mentioned before. This is why the early theologians vehemently disapproved of the study of logic and considered it innovation or unbelief, depending on the particular argument declared wrong (by the use of logic)."
والمتأخرون من لدن الغزالي لما أنكروا انعكاس الأدلة، ولم يلزم عندهم من بطلان الدليل بطلان مدلوله، وصح عندهم رأي أهل المنطق في التركيب العقلي ووجود الماهيات الطبيعية وكلياتها في الخارج، قضوا بأن المنطق غير مناف للعقائد الإيمانية، وإن كان منافيا لبعض أدلتها، بل قد يستدلون على إبطال كثير من تلك المقدمات الكلامية،,"However, recent theologians since al-Ghazzali have disapproved of (the idea of the) reversibility of arguments and have not assumed that the fact that the arguments are wrong requires as its necessary consequence that the thing proven (by them) be wrong. They considered correct the opinion of logicians concerning intellectual combination and the outside existence of natural quiddities and their universals. Therefore, they decided that logic is not in contradiction with the articles of faith, even though it is in contradiction to some of the arguments for them. In fact, they concluded that many of the premises of the speculative theologians were wrong."
كنفي الجوهر الفرد والخلاء وبقاء الأعراض وغيرها، ويستبدلون من أدلة المتكلمين على العقائد بأدلة أخرى يصححونها بالنظر والقياس العقلي.,"For instance, they deny the existence of atomic matter and the vacuum and (affirm) the persistence of accidents, and so on. For the arguments of the theologians for the articles of faith, they substituted other arguments which they proved to be correct by means of speculation and analogical reasoning."
ولم يقدح ذلك عندهم في العقائد السنية بوجه. وهذا رأي الإمام والغزالي وتابعهما لهذا العهد، فتأمل ذلك واعرف مدارك العلماء ومآخذهم فيما يذهبون إليه.,"They hold that this goes in no way against the orthodox articles of faith. This is the opinion of the imam (Fakhr-ad-din Ibn alKhatib), al-Ghazzali, and their contemporary followers. This should be considered. The methods and sources used by religious scholars to form their opinions should be understood."
والله الهادي والموفق للصواب.,God gives guidance and success to that which is correct.
الفصل الرابع والعشرون في الطبيعيات,23. Physics.
وهو علم يبحث عن الجسم من جهة ما يلحقه من الحركة والسكون فينظر في الأجسام السماوية والعنصرية وما يتولد عنها من حيوان وإنسان ونبات ومعدن وما يتكون في الأرض من العيون والزلازل وفي الجو من السحاب والبخار والرعد والبرق والصواعق وغير ذلك.,"This is a science that investigates bodies from the point of view of the motion and stationariness which attach to them. It studies the heavenly and the elementary bodies (substances), as well as the human beings, the animals, the plants, and the minerals created from them. It also studies the springs and earthquakes that come into being in the earth, as well as the clouds, vapors, thunder, lightning, and storms that are in the atmosphere, and other things."
وفي مبدإ الحركة للأجسام وهو النفس على تنوعها في الإنسان والحيوان والنبات.,"It further studies the beginning of motion in bodies – that is, the soul in the different forms in which it appears in human beings, animals, and plants."
وكتب أرسطو فيه موجودة بين أيدي الناس ترجمت مع ما ترجم من علوم الفلسفة أيام المأمون وألف الناس على حذوها مستتبعين لها بالبيان والشرح وأوعب من ألف في ذلك ابن سينا في كتاب الشفاء جمع فيه العلوم السبعة للفلاسفة كما قدمنا,"The books of Aristotle on the subject are available to scholars. They were translated together with the other books on the philosophical sciences in the days of al-Ma’mun. Scholars wrote books along the same lines and followed them up with explanation and comment. The most comprehensive work written on the subject is Avicenna’s Kitab ashShifa’. In it, Avicenna treats all the seven philosophical sciences, as we have mentioned before."
ثم لخصه في كتاب النجا وفي كتاب الإشارات وكأنه يخالف أرسطو في الكثير من مسائلها ويقول برأيه فيها. وأما ابن رشد فلخص كتب أرسطو وشرحها متبعا له غير مخالف.,"Avicenna later on abridged the Kitab
ash-Shifa’ in the Kitab an-Najah and the Kitab al-Isharat. In a way, he opposed Aristotle on most (physical) problems and expressed his own opinion on them. Averroes, on the other hand, abridged the books of Aristotle and commented on them, but followed him and did not oppose him."
وألف الناس في ذلك كثيرا لكن هذه هي المشهورة لهذا العهد والمعتبرة في الصناعة.,"Scholars have written many works on the subject, but these are the works that are famous at this time and to which attention is paid when one (studies) the craft (of physics)."
ولأهل المشرق عناية بكتاب الإشارات لابن سينا وللإمام ابن الخطيب عليه شرح حسن وكذا الآمدي وشرحه أيضا نصير الدين الطوسي المعروف بخواجه من أهل المشرق وبحث مع الإمام في كثير من مسائله فأوفى على أنظاره وبحوثه,"The people of the East are concerned with Avicenna’s Kitab al-Isharat. The imam Ibn al-Khatib wrote a good commentary on it. The same was done by alAmid! Another commentary on the work was written by Nasir-ad-din atTusi, who is known as Khawajah (Khoja), an ‘Iraqi scholar. He investigated many of the problems (of the Isharat) and compared what the imam (Ibn al-Khatib) had to say about them. He went beyond (Ibn al-Khatib’s) studies and investigations."
وفوق كل ذي علم عليم,“And He knows more than any scholar.”
الفصل الخامس والعشرون في علم الطب,24. The science of medicine.
بدن الإنسان من حيث يمرض ويصح فيحاول صاحبها حفظ الصحة وبرء المرض بالأدوية والأغذية بعد أن يتبين المرض الذي يخص كل عضو من أعضاء البدن وأسباب تلك الأمراض التي تنشأ عنها وما لكل مرض من الأدوية مستدلين على ذلك بأمزجة الأدوية وقواها وعلى المرض بالعلامات المؤذن بنضجه وقبوله الدواء أولا: في السجية والفضلات والنبض محاذين لذلك قوة الطبيعة فإنها المدبرة في حالتي الصحة والمرض.,"Medicine is a craft that studies the human body in its illness and health. The physician attempts to preserve health and to cure illness with the help of medicines and diets, but first he ascertains the illness(es) peculiar to each limb of the body, and the reasons causing them. He also ascertains the medicines existing for each illness. Physicians deduce the (effectiveness of) medicines from their composition and powers. They deduce (the stage of) an illness from signs indicating whether the illness is ripe and will accept the medicine or not. (These signs show themselves) in the color (of the patient), the excretions, and the pulse. The physicians in this imitate the power of nature, which is the controlling element in both health and illness."
ومن فروع الطبيعيات صناعة الطب وهي صناعة تنظر في وإنما الطبيب يحاذيها ويعينها بعض الشيء بحسب ما تقتضيه طبيعة المادة والفصل والسن ويسمى العلم الجامع لهذا كله علم الطب.,"They imitate nature and help it a little, as the nature of the matter (underlying the illness), the season (of the year), and the age (of the patient) may require in each particular case. The science dealing with all these things is called medicine."
وربما أفردوا بعض الأعضاء بالكلام وجعلوه علما خاصا، كالعين وعللها وأكحالها. وكذلك ألحقوا بالفن من منافع الأعضاء ومعناها المنفعة التي لأجلها خلق كل عضو من أعضاء البدن الحيواني.,"Certain limbs are occasionally discussed as individual subjects and are considered to (form the subjects of) special sciences. This is the case, for instance, with the eye, the diseases of the eye, and the collyria (used in the treatment of eye diseases). (Scholars) have also added to this discipline the (study of the) uses of the parts of the body, that is, the useful purpose for which each limb of the animal body was created."
وإن لم يكن ذلك من موضوع علم الطب إلا أنهم جعلوه من لواحقه وتوابعه. وإمام هذه الصناعة التي ترجمت كتبه فيها من الأقدمين جالينوس يقال إنه كان معاصرا لعيسى عليه السلام ويقال إنه مات بصقلية في سبيل تغلب ومطاوعة اغتراب.,"This is not a medical subject, but it has been made into an annex and subdivision of medicine. Galen has written an important and very useful work on this discipline. Galen is the leading ancient authority on medicine. His works have been translated (into Arabic). He is said to have been a contemporary of Jesus and to have died in Sicily on his wanderings while in voluntary exile."
وتآليفه فيها هي الأمهات التي اقتدى بها جميع الأطباء بعده. وكان في الإسلام في هذه الصناعة أئمة جاءوا من وراء الغاية مثل الرازي والمجوسي وابن سينا ومن أهل الأندلس أيضا كثير وأشهرهم ابن زهر.,"His works on medicine are classics which have been models for all later physicians. There have been leading physicians in Islam of surpassing skill, such as, for instance, ar-Razi, al-Majusi, and Avicenna. There have also been many Spanish physicians. Most famous among them was Ibn Zuhr."
وهي لهذا العهد في المدن الإسلامية كأنها نقصت لوقوف العمران وتناقصه وهي من الصنائع التي لا تستدعيها إلا الحضارة والترف كما نبينه بعد.,"In contemporary Muslim cities, the (craft of medicine) seems to have deteriorated, because the civilization (population) has decreased and shrunk. (Medicine) is a craft required only by sedentary culture and luxury, as we shall explain later on."
وللبادية من أهل العمران طب يبنونه في غالب الأمر على تجربة قاصرة على بعض الأشخاص متوارثا عن مشايخ الحي وعجائزه، وربما يصح منه البعض إلا أنه ليس على قانون طبيعي ولا على موافقة المزاج. وكان عند العرب من هذا الطب كثير وكان فيهم أطباء معروفون كالحارث بن كلدة وغيره.,"Civilized Bedouins have a kind of medicine which is mainly based upon individual experience. They inherit its use from the shaykhs and old women of the tribe. Some of it may occasionally be correct. However, (that kind of medicine) is not based upon any natural norm or upon any conformity (of the treatment) to the temper of the humors. Much of this sort of medicine existed among the Arabs. They had well-known physicians, such as al-Harith b. Kaladah and others."
والطب المنقول في الشرعيات من هذا القبيل وليس من الوحي في شيء وإنما هو أمر كان عاديا للعرب. ووقع في ذكر أحوال النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم من نوع ذكر أحواله التي هي عادة وجبلة لا من جهة أن ذلك مشروع على ذلك النحو من العمل.,"The medicine mentioned in religious tradition is of the (Bedouin) type. It is in no way part of the divine revelation. (Such medical matters) were merely (part of) Arab custom and happened to be mentioned in connection with the circumstances of the Prophet, like other things that were customary in his generation. They were not mentioned in order to imply that that particular way of practicing (medicine) is stipulated by the religious law."
فإنه صلى الله عليه وسلم إنما بعث ليعلمنا الشرائع ولم يبعث لتعريف الطب ولا غيره من العاديات. وقد وقع له في شأن تلقيح النخل ما وقع فقال: «أنتم أعلم بأمور دنياكم».,"Muhammad was sent to teach us the religious law. He was not sent to teach us medicine or any other ordinary matter. In connection with the story of the fecundation of the palms, he said: “You know more about your worldly affairs (than I).”"
فلا ينبغي أن يحمل شيء من الطب الذي وقع في الأحاديث الصحيحة المنقولة على أنه مشروع فليس هناك ما يدل عليه اللهم إلا إذا استعمل على جهة التبرك وصدق العقد الإيماني فيكون له أثر عظيم في النفع.,"None of the statements concerning medicine that occur in sound traditions should be considered to (have the force of) law. There is nothing to indicate that this is the case. The only thing is that if that type of medicine is used for the sake of a divine blessing and in true religious faith, it may be very useful."
وليس ذلك في الطب المزاجي وإنما هو من آثار الكلمة الإيمانية كما وقع في مداواة المبطون بالعسل ونحوه,"However, that would have nothing to do with humoral medicine but be the result of true faith. This happened in the case of the person who had a stomach-ache and was treated with honey, and similar stories."
والله الهادي إلى الصواب,God guides to that which is correct.
الفصل السادس والعشرون في الفلاحة,25. The science of agriculture.
هذه الصناعة من فروع الطبيعيات وهي النظر في النبات من حيث تنميته ونشؤه بالسقي والعلاج وتعهده بمثل ذلك وكان للمتقدمين بها عناية كثيرة وكان النظر فيها عندهم عاما في النبات من جهة غرسه وتنميته ومن جهة خواصه وروحانيته ومشاكلتها لروحانيات الكواكب والهياكل المستعمل ذلك كله في باب السحر فعظمت عنايتهم به لأجل ذلك.,"This craft is a branch of physics. It concerns the study of the cultivation and growth of plants through irrigation, proper treatment, improvement of the soil, (observance of) the suitable season, and the care for them by applying these things in a way that will benefit them and help them to grow. The ancients were very much concerned with agriculture. Their study of agriculture was general. They considered the plants both from the point of view of planting and cultivation and from the point of view of their properties, their spirituality, and the relationship of (their spirituality) to the spiritualities of the stars and the great (heavenly) bodies, which is something (also) used in sorcery. Thus, they were very much concerned with the subject."
وترجم من كتب اليونانيين كتاب الفلاحة النبطية منسوبة لعلماء النبط مشتملة من ذلك على علم كبير. ولما نظر أهل الملة فيما اشتمل عليه هذا الكتاب وكان باب السحر مسدودا والنظر فيه محظورا فاقتصروا منه على الكلام في النبات من جهة غرسه وعلاجه وما يعرض له في ذلك وحذفوا الكلام في الفن الآخر منه جملة.,"One of the Greek works, the Kitab al-Falahah anNabatiyah, was translated. It is ascribed to Nabataean scholars. It contains much information of the type (mentioned). The Muslims who studied the contents of the work (noticed that it belonged to) sorcery, which is barred (by the religious law) and the study of which is forbidden. Therefore, they restricted themselves to the part of the book dealing with plants from the point of view of their planting and treatment and the things connected with that. They completely banished all discussion of the other part of the book."
واختصر ابن العوام كتاب الفلاحة النبطية على هذا المنهاج وبقي الفن الآخر منه مغفلا، نقل منه مسلمة في كتبه السحرية أمهات من مسائله كما نذكره عند الكلام على السحر إن شاء الله تعالى.,"Ibn al-‘Awwam abridged the Kitab al-Falahah an-Nabatiyah in this sense. The other part of it remained neglected. Some of the main problems of (that other part) were transmitted by Maslamah in his magical works. We shall mention that in connection with the discussion of sorcery, if God, He is exalted, wills."
وكتب المتأخرين في الفلاحة كثيرة ولا يعدون فيها الكلام في الغراس والعلاج وحفظ النبات من حوائجه وعوائقه وما يعرض في ذلك كله وهي موجودة.,"There are many books on agriculture by recent scholars. They do not go beyond discussion of the planting and treatment of plants, their preservation from things that might harm them or affect their growth, and all the things connected with that. (These works) are available."
الفصل السابع والعشرون في علم الإلهيات,26. The science of metaphysics.
وهو علم ينظر في الوجود المطلق فأولا في الأمور العامة للجسمانيات والروحانيات من الماهيات والوحدة والكثرة والوجوب والإمكان وغير ذلك ثم ينظر في مبادئ الموجودات وأنها روحانيات ثم في كيفية صدور الموجودات عنها ومراتبها ثم في أحوال النفس بعد مفارقة الأجسام وعودها إلى المبدإ.,"Metaphysics is a science that, (metaphysicians) assume, studies existence as such. First, (it studies) general matters affecting corporeal and spiritual things, such as the quiddities, oneness, plurality, necessity, possibility, and so on. Then, it studies the beginnings of existing things and (finds) that they are spiritual things. It goes on (to study) the way existing things issue from (spiritual things), and also (studies) their order. Then, (it studies) the conditions of the soul after its separation from the body and its return to (its) beginning."
وهو عندهم علم شريف يزعمون أنه يوقفهم على معرفة الوجود على ما هو عليه وأن ذلك عين السعادة في زعمهم. وسيأتي الرد عليهم بعد. وهو تال للطبيعيات في ترتيبهم ولذلك يسمونه علم ما وراء الطبيعة.,"The (metaphysicians) are of the opinion that (metaphysics) is a noble discipline. They assume that it gives them a knowledge of existence as it is. This, they think, is identical with happiness. They will be refuted later on. In their arrangements, metaphysics comes after physics. Therefore, they called it “that which comes after physics” (metaphysics)."
وكتب المعلم الأول فيه موجودة بين أيدي الناس. ولخصه ابن سينا في كتاب الشفاء والنجاة وكذلك لخصه ابن رشد من حكماء الأندلس ولما وضع المتأخرون في علوم القوم ودونوا فيها,"The books of the First Teacher on the subject are available to scholars. They were abridged by Avicenna in the Kitab ash-Shifa’ and the Najah. They were also abridged by the Spanish philosopher, Averroes. Recent scholars wrote systematic treatments of the sciences of the people (the Muslims)."
ورد عليهم الغزالي ما رد منها ثم خلط المتأخرون من المتكلمين مسائل علم الكلام بمسائل الفلسفة لاشتراكهما في المباحث، وتشابه موضوع علم الكلام بموضوع الإلهيات ومسائله بمسائلها فصارت كأنها فن واحد ثم غيروا ترتيب الحكماء في مسائل الطبيعيات والإلهيات وخلطوهما فنا واحدا,"Al-Ghazzali, at that time, refuted a good many of the (opinions of the metaphysicians). Recent speculative theologians, then, confused the problems of theology with those of philosophy, because the investigations of theology and philosophy go in the same direction, and the subject and problems of theology are similar to the subject and problems of metaphysics. (Theology and metaphysics,) thus, in a way came to be one’ and the same discipline. (The recent theologians,) then, changed the order in which the philosophers (had treated) the problems of physics and metaphysics. They merged the two sciences in one and the same discipline."
قدموا الكلام في الأمور العامة ثم أتبعوه بالجسمانيات وتوابعها ثم بالروحانيات وتوابعها إلى آخر العلم كما فعله الإمام ابن الخطيب في المباحث المشرقية وجميع من بعده من علماء الكلام.,"Now, in (that discipline), they first discussed general matters. This was followed, successively, by (the discussion of) the corporeal things and the matters that belong to them, the spiritual things and the matters that belong to them, and so on to the end of the discipline. The imam Ibn alKhatib, for instance, proceeded in this manner in the Mabdhith al-mashriqiyah, and so did all later theologians."
وصار علم الكلام مختلطا بمسائل الحكمة وكتبه محشوة بها كأن الغرض من موضوعهما ومسائلهما واحد. والتبس ذلك على الناس وهو صواب لأن مسائل علم الكلام إنما هي عقائد متلقاة من الشريعة كما نقلها السلف من غير رجوع فيها إلى العقل ولا تعويل عليه بمعنى أنها لا تثبت إلا به,"The science of speculative theology thus merged with the problems of philosophy, and theological works were filled with the latter. It seemed as if the purpose which theology and philosophy followed in their respective subjects and problems was one and the same. This confused people, but it is not correct. The problems with which the science of speculative theology deals are articles of faith derived from the religious law as transmitted by the early Muslims. They have no reference to the intellect and do not depend on it in the sense that they could not be established except through it."
فإن العقل معزول عن الشرع وأنظاره وما تحدث فيه المتكلمون من إقامة الحجج فليس بحثا عن الحق فيها فالتعليل بالدليل بعد أن لم يكن معلوما هو شأن الفلسفة بل إنما هو التماس حجة عقلية تعضد عقائد الإيمان ومذاهب السلف فيها وتدفع شبه أهل البدع عنها الذين زعموا أن مداركهم فيها عقلية.,"The intellect has nothing to do with the religious law and its views. Speculative theologians do not use the (rational) arguments they talk about as do the philosophers, in order to investigate the truth of the (articles of faith), to prove the truth of what had previously not been known, and to make it known. (Their use of rational arguments) merely expresses a desire to have rational arguments with which to bolster the articles of faith and the opinions of the early Muslims concerning them, and to refute the doubts of innovators who believe that their perceptions of (the articles of faith in their interpretation) are rational ones."
وذلك بعد أن تفرض صحيحة بالأدلة النقلية كما تلقاها السلف واعتقدوها وكثير ما بين المقامين. وذلك أن مدارك صاحب الشريعة أوسع لاتساع نطاقها عن مدارك الأنظار العقلية فهي فوقها ومحيطة بها لاستمدادها من الأنوار الإلهية فلا تدخل تحت قانون النظر الضعيف والمدارك المحاط بها.,"(Rational arguments were used only) after the correctness of the articles of faith, as they had been received and believed in by the early Muslims, had been stipulated by traditional evidence. There is a great difference between the two positions. The perceptions which the Master of the religious law (Muhammad) had are wider (than those of philosophers), because they go beyond rational views. They are above them and include them, because they draw their support from the divine light. Thus, they do not fall into the canon of weak speculation and circumscribed perceptions."
فإذا هدانا الشارع إلى مدرك فينبغي أن نقدمه على مداركنا ونثق به دونها ولا ننظر في تصحيحه بمدارك العقل ولو عارضه بل نعتمد ما أمرنا به اعتقادا وعلما ونسكت عما لم نفهم من ذلك ونفوضه إلى الشارع ونعزل العقل عنه.,"When the Lawgiver (Muhammad) guides us toward some perception, we must prefer that (perception) to our own perceptions. We must have more confidence in it than in them. We must not seek to prove its correctness rationally, even if (rational intelligence) contradicts it. We must believe and know what we have been commanded (to believe and to know). We must be silent with regard to things of this sort that we do not understand. We must leave them to the Lawgiver (Muhammad) and keep the intellect out of it."
والمتكلمون إنما دعاهم إلى ذلك كلام أهل الإلحاد في معارضات العقائد السلفية بالبدع النظرية فاحتاجوا إلى الرد عليهم من جنس معارضاتهم واستدعى ذلك الحجج النظرية ومحاذاة العقائد السلفية بها وأما النظر في مسائل الطبيعيات والإلهيات بالتصحيح والبطلان فليس من موضوع علم الكلام ولا من جنس أنظار المتكلمين.,"The only thing that caused the theologians (to use rational arguments) was the discussions of heretics who opposed the early Muslim articles of faith with speculative innovations. Thus, they had to refute these heretics with the same kind of arguments. This (situation) called for using speculative arguments and checking on the early Muslim articles of faith with these arguments. The verification or rejection of physical and metaphysical problems, on the other hand, is not part of the subject of speculative theology and does not belong to the same kind of speculations as those of the theologians."
فاعلم ذلك لتميز به بين الفنين فإنهما مختلطان عند المتأخرين في الوضع والتأليف والحق مغايرة كل منهما لصاحبه بالموضوع والمسائل وإنما جاء الالتباس من اتحاد المطالب عند الاستدلال وصار احتجاج أهل الكلام كأنه إنشاء لطلب الاعتداد بالدليل وليس كذلك بل إنما هو رد على الملحدين والمطلوب مفروض الصدق معلومه.,"This should be known, so that one may be able to distinguish between the two disciplines, as they have been confused in the works of recent scholars. The truth is that they are different from each other in their respective subjects and problems. The confusion arose from the sameness of the topics discussed. The argumentation of the theologians thus came to look as though it were inaugurating a search for faith through (rational) evidence. This is not so. (Speculative theology) merely wants to refute heretics. The things it investigates are stipulated (by the religious law) and known to be true."
وكذا جاء المتأخرون من غلاة المتصوفة المتكلمين بالمواجد أيضا فخلطوا مسائل الفنين بفنهم وجعلوا الكلام واحدا فيها كلها مثل كلامهم في النبوءات والاتحاد والحلول والوحدة وغير ذلك.,"Likewise, recent extremist Sufis, those who speak about ecstatic experiences, have confused the problems of (metaphysics and speculative theology) with their own discipline. They discussed all these things as part of one and the same subject. Thus, they discussed prophecy, union, incarnation, oneness, and other things."
والمدارك في هذه الفنون الثلاثة متغايرة مختلفة وأبعدها من جنس الفنون والعلوم مدارك المتصوفة لأنهم يدعون فيها الوجدان ويفرون عن الدليل والوجدان بعيد عن المدارك العلمية وأبحاثها وتوابعها كما بيناه ونبينه.,"In fact, however, the perceptions of the three disciplines are distinct and different from each other. The Sufi perceptions are the ones that are least scientific. The Sufis claim intuitive experience in connection with their perceptions and shun (rational) evidence. But intuitive experience is far removed from scientific perceptions and ways and the things that go with them, as we have explained above and as we shall (again) explain later on."
والله يهدي من يشاء إلى طريق مستقيم والله أعلم بالصواب.,God is the guide to that which is correct.
الفصل الثامن والعشرون في علوم السحر والطلسمات,27. The sciences of sorcery and talismans.
وهي علوم بكيفية استعدادات تقتدر النفوس البشرية بها على التأثيرات في عالم العناصر إما بغير معين أو بمعين من الأمور السماوية والأول هو السحر والثاني هو الطلسمات,"These are sciences showing how human souls may become prepared to exercise an influence upon the world of the elements, either without any aid or with the aid of celestial matters. The first kind is sorcery. The second kind is talismans."
ولما كانت هذه العلوم مهجورة عند الشرائع لما فيها من الضرر ولما يشترط فيها من الوجهة إلى غير الله من كوكب أو غيره كانت كتبها كالمفقودة بين الناس.,"These sciences are forbidden by the (various) religious laws, because they are harmful and require (their practitioners) to direct themselves to (beings) other than God, such as stars and other things. Therefore, books dealing with them are almost nonexistent among the people."
إلا ما وجد في كتب الأمم الأقدمين فيما قبل نبوة موسى عليه السلام مثل النبط والكلدانيين فإن جميع من تقدمه من الأنبياء لم يشرعوا الشرائع ولا جاءوا بالأحكام إنما كانت كتبهم مواعظ وتوحيدا لله وتذكيرا بالجنة والنار وكانت هذه العلوم في أهل بابل من السريانيين والكلدانيين وفي أهل مصر من القبط وغيرهم.,"The only exceptions are the books of the ancient nations from before the time of Moses’ prophecy, such as the Nabataeans and the Chaldeans. None of the prophets who preceded (Moses) made or brought any laws. Their books were concerned with exhortations, with the recognition of the oneness of God, and with references to Paradise and Hell The (magical) sciences were cultivated among the Syrian and Chaldean inhabitants of Babel and among the Copts of Egypt, and others."
وكان لهم فيها التآليف والآثار ولم يترجم لنا من كتبهم فيها إلا القليل مثل الفلاحة النبطية من أوضاع أهل بابل فأخذ الناس منها هذا العلم وتفننوا فيه ووضعت بعد ذلك الأوضاع مثل مصاحف الكواكب السبعة وكتاب طمطم الهندي في صور الدرج والكواكب وغيرها.,"They composed books dealing with them and left information (concerning their occupation with them). Only very few of their books have been translated for us. (One book that was translated), for instance, is the Falahah anNabatiyah, a Babylonian work. People learned the science of sorcery from that work and developed its manifold branches. Later on, other works on sorcery were composed. Among such works were the Books (Masahif) of the Seven Stars and the book of Tumtum the Indian on the Figures of the Degrees (of the Signs of the Zodiac) and the Stars, and (works by) other (authors)."
ثم ظهر بالمشرق جابر بن حيان كبير السحرة في هذه الملة فتصفح كتب القوم واستخرج الصناعة وغاص في زبدتها واستخرجها ووضع فيها غيرها من التآليف وأكثر الكلام فيها وفي صناعة السيمياء لأنها من توابعها لأن إحالة الأجسام النوعية من صورة إلى أخرى إنما يكون بالقوة النفسية لا بالصناعة العملية فهو من قبيل السحر كما نذكره في موضعه.,"Later on, Jabir b. Hayyan, the chief sorcerer of Islam, appeared in the East. He scrutinized the scholarly books and discovered the Art (the craft of sorcery and alchemy). He studied its essence and brought it out. He wrote a number of works on (sorcery). He lengthily discussed both sorcery and the craft of alchemy which goes together with sorcery, because the transformation of specific bodies (substances) from one form into another is effected by psychic powers, and not by a practical technique. Thus it is a sort of sorcery, as we shall mention in the proper place."
ثم جاء مسلمة بن أحمد المجريطي إمام أهل الأندلس في التعاليم والسحريات فلخص جميع تلك الكتب وهذبها وجمع طرقها في كتابه الذي سماه غاية الحكيم ولم يكتب أحد في هذا العلم بعده.,"Then, Maslamah b. Ahmad al-Majriti, the leading Spanish scholar in the mathematical (scientific) and magical sciences, made his appearance. He abridged all these books and corrected them and collected all their different approaches in his Ghayat al-hakim. Nobody has written on this science since."
ولتقدم هنا مقدمة يتبين بها حقيقة السحر وذلك أن النفوس البشرية وإن كانت واحدة بالنوع فهي مختلفة بالخواص وهي أصناف كل صنف مختص بخاصية واحدة بالنوع لا توجد في الصنف الآخر.,"Let us present here some prefatory remarks that will explain the real meaning of sorcery. It is as follows. Human souls are one in species. However, they differ in view of their particular qualities. They are of different kinds. Each kind is distinguished by a particular quality which does not exist in any other kind (of soul)."
وصارت تلك الخواص فطرة وجبلة لصنفها فنفوس الأنبياء عليهم الصلاة والسلام لها خاصية تستعد بها للانسلاخ من الروحانية البشرية إلى الروحانية الملكية حتى يصير ملكا في تلك اللمحة التي انسلخت فيها، وهذا هو معنى الوحي كما مر في موضعه، وهي في تلك الحالة محصلة للمعرفة الربانية ومخاطبة الملائكة عليهم السلام عن الله سبحانه وتعالى كما مر. وما يتسع في ذلك من التأثير في الأكوان ونفوس السحرة لها خاصة التأثير في الأكوان واستجلاب روحانية الكواكب للتصرف فيها والتأثير بقوة نفسانية أو شيطانية.,"These qualities come to constitute a natural disposition belonging (exclusively) to its particular kind (of soul). The souls of the prophets have a particular quality through which they are prepared to have divine knowledge, to be addressed by the angels in the name of God, as has been mentioned before, and to exercise the influence upon created beings that goes with all that. The souls of certain sorcerers also have the quality (of being able) to exercise influence upon created beings and to attract the spirituality of the stars, so that they can use it for being active (among created beings) and be able to exercise an influence through either a psychic or a Satanic power."
فأما تأثير الأنبياء فمدد إلهي وخاصية ربانية ونفوس الكهنة لها خاصية الاطلاع على المغيبات بقوى شيطانية. وهكذا كل صنف مختص بخاصية لا توجد في الآخر.,"Now, the prophets are able to exercise their influence with the help of God and by means of a divine quality. The souls of soothsayers, on the other hand, have a quality enabling them to observe supernatural things by means of Satanic powers. Thus, every kind (of soul) is distinguished by (its) particular quality, which does not exist in any other kind."
والنفوس الساحرة على مراتب ثلاث يأتي شرحها فأولها المؤثرة بالهمة فقط من غير آلة ولا معين وهذا هو الذي تسميه الفلاسفة السحر,"The souls that have magical ability are of three degrees. These three degrees will now be explained here. The first (kind) exercises its influence merely through mental power, without any instrument or aid. This is what the philosophers call sorcery."
والثاني بمعين من مزاج الأفلاك أو العناصر أو خواص الأعداد ويسمونه الطلسمات وهو أضعف رتبة من الأول,"The second (kind) exercises its influence with the aid of the temper of the spheres and the elements, or with the aid of the properties of numbers. This is called talismans. It is weaker in degree than the first (kind)."
والثالث تأثير في القوى المتخيلة. يعمد صاحب هذا التأثير إلى القوى المتخيلة فيتصرف فيها بنوع من التصرف ويلقي فيها أنواعا من الخيالات والمحاكاة وضورا مما يقصده من ذلك ثم ينزلها إلى الحس من الرائين بقوة نفسه المؤثرة فيه فينظر الراءون كأنها في الخارج وليس هناك شيء من ذلك،,"The third (kind) exercises its influence upon the powers of imagination. The person who exercises this kind of influence relies upon the powers of imagination. He is somehow active in them. He plants among them different sorts of phantasms, images, and pictures, whichever he intends to use. Then, he brings them down to the level of the sensual perception of the observers with the help of the power of his soul that exercises an influence over that (sensual perception). As a result, the (phantasms, etc.) appear to the observers to exist in the external world, while, in fact, there is nothing (of the sort)."
كما يحكى عن بعضهم أنه يري البساتين والأنهار والقصور وليس هناك شيء من ذلك ويسمى هذا عند الفلاسفة الشعوذة أو الشعبذة.,"For instance, a person is said to have seen gardens, rivers, and castles, while, in fact, there was nothing of the sort. This is what the philosophers call “prestidigitation” (sha’wadhah or sha’badhah)."
هذا تفصيل مراتبه ثم هذه الخاصية تكون في الساحر بالقوة شأن القوى البشرية كلها وإنما تخرج إلى الفعل بالرياضة ورياضة السحر كلها إنما تكون بالتوجه إلى الأفلاك والكواكب والعوالم العلوية والشياطين بأنواع التعظيم والعبادة والخضوع والتذلل فهي لذلك وجهة إلى غير الله وسجود له.,"Those are the different degrees of (sorcery). Now, the sorcerer possesses his particular quality in potentiality, as is the case with all human powers. It is transformed (from potentiality) into actuality by exercise. All magical exercise consists of directing oneself to the spheres, the stars, the higher worlds, or to the devils by means of various kinds of veneration and worship and submissiveness and humiliation. Thus, magical exercise is devotion and adoration directed to (beings) other than God."
والوجهة إلى غير الله كفر فلهذا كان السحر كفرا والكفر من مواده وأسبابه كما رأيت.,"Such devotion is unbelief. Therefore, sorcery is unbelief, or unbelief forms part of the substance and motives of sorcery, as has been seen."
ولهذا اختلف الفقهاء في قتل الساحر هل هو لكفره السابق على فعله أو لتصرفه بالإفساد وما ينشأ عنه من الفساد في الأكوان والكل حاصل منه.,"Consequently, (sorcerers must be killed). Jurists differ (only) as to whether they must be killed because of the unbelief which is antecedent to the practice (of sorcery), or because of their corrupting activity and the resulting corruption of created beings. All this comes from (sorcerers and sorcery)."
ولما كانت المرتبتان الأوليان من السحر لها حقيقة في الخارج والمرتبة الأخيرة الثالثة لا حقيقة لها اختلف العلماء في السحر هل هو حقيقة أو إنما هو تخييل فالقائلون بأن له حقيقة نظروا إلى المرتبتين الأوليين والقائلون بأن لا حقيقة له نظروا إلى المرتبة الثالثة الأخيرة.,"Furthermore, since the first two degrees of sorcery are real and the third and last degree is not real, scholars differ as to whether sorcery is real or merely imaginary. Those who say that it is real have the first two degrees in mind. Those who say that it is not real have the third and last degree in mind."
فليس بينهم اختلاف في نفس الأمر بل إنما جاء من قبل اشتباه هذه المراتب والله أعلم.,"There is no difference of opinion among them about the matter itself, but (the difference of opinion) results from confusing the different degrees (of sorcery). And God knows better."
واعلم أن وجود السحر لا مرية فيه بين العقلاء من أجل التأثير الذي ذكرناه وقد نطق به القرآن.,"It should be known that no intelligent person doubts the existence of sorcery, because of the influence mentioned, which sorcery exercises. The Qur’an refers to it."
قال الله تعالى: «ولكن الشياطين كفروا يعلمون الناس السحر وما أنزل على الملكين ببابل هاروت وماروت وما يعلمان من أحد حتى يقولا إنما نحن فتنة فلا تكفر فيتعلمون منهما ما يفرقون به بين المرء وزوجه وما هم بضارين به من أحد إلا بإذن الله 2: 102».,"It says, “… but the devils were unbelievers, teaching the people sorcery and that which had been revealed in Babel to the two angels, Harut and Marut. Those two always said before they taught anyone, ‘We are a temptation. Do not be an unbeliever.’ People learned from them how to cause discord between a man and his wife. (However,) they were not able to harm anyone except with God’s permission.”"
وسحر رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم حتى كان يخيل إليه أنه يفعله وجعل سحره في مشط ومشاقة وجف طلعة ودفن في بئر ذروان فأنزل الله عز وجل عليه في المعوذتين: «ومن شر النفاثات في العقد 113: 4»,"The Messenger of God, according to (the sound tradition of) the Sahih, was put under a magic spell, so that he imagined that he was doing a thing while, in fact, he was not doing it. The spell against him was placed in a comb, in flakes of wool, and in the spathe of a palm, and buried in the well of Dharwan Therefore, God revealed to him the following verses in the Mu’awwidhatan: “And (I take refuge in God) from the evil of the women who blow into knots.”"
قالت عائشة رضي الله عنها: «كان لا يقرأ على عقدة من تلك العقد التي سحر فيها إلا انحلت.,"‘A’ishah said, “As soon as he recited the Qur’an over one of those knots into which a spell against him had been placed, that particular knot became untied.”"
وأما وجود السحر في أهل بابل وهم الكلدانيون من النبط والسريانيين فكثير ونطق به القرآن وجاءت به الأخبار وكان للسحر في بابل ومصر أزمان بعثة موسى عليه السلام أسواق نافقة.,"There was much sorcery among the inhabitants of Babel, that is, the Nabataean and Syrian Chaldeans. The Qur’an mentions much of it, and there are traditions about it. Sorcery was greatly cultivated in Babel and in Egypt at the time of Moses’ prophetic mission."
ولهذا كانت معجزة موسى من جنس ما يدعون ويتاناغون فيه وبقي من آثار ذلك في البراري بصعيد مصر شواهد دالة على ذلك ورأينا بالعيان من يصور صورة الشخص المسحور بخواص أشياء مقابلة لما نواه وحاوله موجودة بالمسحور وأمثال تلك المعاني من أسماء وصفات في التأليف والتفريق.,"Therefore, the miracle Moses performed (as a proof of his prophecy) was of the kind claimed and bragged about (by sorcerers). The temples in Upper Egypt are remnants (of sorcery) attesting to the (cultivation of sorcery in ancient Egypt). We have seen with our own eyes (how a sorcerer) formed the picture of a person who was to be cast under a spell. He represented in it the characteristics of things he intended and planned (to make) that person adopt, as already existing in him in the shape of symbols of names and attributes in homonym fashion[?]."
ثم يتكلم على تلك الصورة التي أقامها مقام الشخص المسحور عينا أو معنى ثم ينفث من ريقه بعد اجتماعه في فيه بتكرير مخارج تلك الحروف من الكلام السوء ويعقد على ذلك المعنى في سبب أعده لذلك تفاؤلا بالعقد واللزام وأخذ العهد على من أشرك به من الجن في نفثه في فعله ذلك استشعارا للعزيمة بالعزم.,"Then he spoke (magic words) over the picture he had made to take the place of the person who was to be cast under a spell, concretely or symbolically During the repeated pronunciation of the evil words, he collected spittle in his mouth and spat upon (the picture). Then he tied a knot over the symbol in an object that he had prepared for the purpose, since he considered tying knots and (making things) stick together to be auspicious (and effective in magical operations). He also entered into a pact with the jinn, asking them to participate in his spitting during the operation, intending to make the spell forceful."
ولتلك البنية والأسماء السيئة روح خبيثة تخرج منه مع النفخ متعلقة بريقه الخارج من فيه بالنفث فتنزل عنها أرواح خبيثة ويقع عن ذلك بالمسحور ما يحاوله الساحر.,"This (human) figure and the evil names have a harmful spirit. It issues from (the sorcerer) with his breath and attaches to the spittle he spits out. It produces (more) evil spirits. As a result, the things that the sorcerer intends (to happen to) the person who is cast under a spell, actually befall him."
وشاهدنا أيضا من المنتحلين للسحر وعمله من يشير إلى كساء أو جلد ويتكلم عليه في سره فإذا هو مقطوع متخرق. ويشير إلى بطون الغنم كذلك في مراعيها بالبعج فإذا أمعاؤها ساقطة من بطونها إلى الأرض. وسمعنا أن بأرض الهند لهذا العهد من يشير إلى إنسان فيتحتت قلبه ويقع ميتا وينقلب عن قلبه فلا يوجد في حشاه ويشير إلى الرمانة وتفتح فلا يوجد من حبوبها شيء.,"We have also observed how people who practice sorcery point at a garment or a piece of leather and inwardly speak (magic words) over it, and behold! the object is torn to shreds. Others point in the same way at the bellies of sheep and goats at pasture with (a) ripping (gesture), and behold! the guts of the animals fall out of their bellies to the ground. We have also heard that in contemporary India, there still are (sorcerers) who point at a man, and his heart is extracted and he falls dead. When someone looks for his heart, he cannot find it among his inner parts. Or, they point to a pomegranate. When someone opens it, no seeds are found in it."
وكذلك سمعنا أن بأرض السودان وأرض الترك من يسحر السحاب فيمطر الأرض المخصوصة. وكذلك رأينا من عمل الطلسمات عجائب في الأعداد المتحابة وهي ر ك ر ف د أحد العددين مائتان وعشرون والآخر مائتان وأربعة وثمانون ومعنى المتحابة أن أجزاء كل واحد التي فيه من نصف وثلث وربع وسدس وخمس وأمثالها إذا جمع كان متساويا للعدد الآخر صاحبه فتسمى لأجل ذلك المتحابة.,"We have likewise heard that in the Sudan and in the land of the Turks, there are (sorcerers) who cast a spell on a cloud, and rain falls upon a particular area Also, we have observed remarkable things as to the efficacy of talismans that make use of “the loving numbers” 220 and 284. The sum of the aliquot parts of each of the loving numbers, such as one-half, one-fourth, one-sixth, onefifth, and so on, is equal to the other number. This is why the two numbers are called “loving numbers.”"
ونقل أصحاب الطلسمات أن لتلك الأعداد أثرا في الألفة بين المتحابين واجتماعهما إذا وضع لهما مثالان أحدهما بطالع الزهرة وهي في بيتها أو شرفها ناظرة إلى القمر نظر مودة وقبول ويجعل طالع الثاني سابع الأول ويضع على أحد التمثالين أحد العددين والآخر على الآخر.,"It is a tradition among the people who know about talismans that these numbers may effect friendship and union between two lovers. Two effigies are made, one of them with Venus as the ascendant, when, either in her house or in her exaltation, she looks at the moon lovingly and invitingly. As the ascendant of the other effigy, the seventh (house counting) from (that of) the first is taken. One of the loving numbers is placed upon the one effigy, and the other upon the other."
ويقصد بالأكثر الذي يراد ائتلافه أعني المحبوب ما أدري الأكثر كمية أو الأكثر أجزاء فيكون لذلك من التألف العظيم بين المتحابين ما لا يكاد ينفك أحدهما عن الآخر.,"The larger number is meant for the person whose friendship is sought, that is, the beloved. I do not know whether “larger number” means the higher number, or the one with the greater number of aliquot parts. The result (of the magical operation) is a close connection between the two lovers, so that the one is hardly able to break away from the other."
قاله صاحب الغاية وغيره من أئمة هذا الشأن وشهدت له التجربة.,"This was reported by the author of the Ghayah and other authorities on magic, and it is attested by experience."
وكذا طابع الأسد ويسمى أيضا طابع الحصى وهو أن يرسم في قالب (هند إصبع) صورة أسد شائلا ذنبه عاضا على حصاة قد قسمها بنصفين وبين يديه صورة حية منسابة من رجليه إلى قبالة وجهه فاغرة فاها فيه وعلى ظهره صورة عقرب تدب.,"Then, there is “the lion seal,” which is also called “the pebble seal.” On a steel thimble, the sorcerer engraves the picture of a lion dragging its tail and biting on pebbles which it thus divides into two parts. A snake is represented in front of the lion. It is coiled at the lion’s feet stretching upwards opposite the lion’s head, so that its open mouth faces the lion’s mouth. Upon the lion’s back, a crawling scorpion is represented."
ويتحين برسمه حلول الشمس بالوجه الأول أو الثالث من الأسد بشرط صلاح النيرين وسلامتهما من النحوس.,"In order to make the engraving, (the sorcerer) waits for a time when the sun enters the first or third decan of Leo, provided (further) that the two luminaries (the sun and the moon) are well and out of their misfortune."
فإذا وجد ذلك وعثر عليه طبع في ذلك الوقت في مقدار المثقال فما دونه من الذهب وغمس بعد في الزعفران محلولا بماء الورد ورفع في خرقة حرير صفراء فإنهم يزعمون أن لممسكه من العز على السلاطين في مباشرتهم وخدمتهم وتسخيرهم له ما لا يعبر عنه.,"When he finds and gets this (constellation), he makes an impression (of the engraving) upon a mithqal or less of gold, which he then dips into saffron dissolved in rose water and preserves in a yellow silk rag. (People) assume that the person who holds on to it has an indescribable power over rulers and is able to have close contact with them, to serve them, and to use them for his own ends."
وكذلك للسلاطين فيه من القوة والعز على من تحت أيديهم. ذكر ذلك أيضا أهل هذا الشأن في الغاية وغيرها وشهدت له التجربة.,"Likewise, the rulers themselves find in it strength and power over their subjects. This, too, was mentioned by authors on magic in the Ghayah and other works, and it is attested by experience."
وكذلك وفق المسدس المختص بالشمس ذكروا أنه يوضع عند حلول الشمس في شرفها وسلامتها من النحوس وسلامة القمر بطالع ملوكي يعتبر فيه نظر صاحب العاشر لصاحب الطالع نظر مودة وقبول ويصلح فيه ما يكون من مواليد الملوك من الأدلة الشريفة ويرفع في خرقة حرير صفراء بعد أن يغمس في الطيب.,"Then, there is the magic square of thirty-six fields that belongs to the sun. It has been said that it should be made when the sun enters its exaltation and is out of its misfortune, and when the moon is well and under a royal ascendant in which the master of the tenth (house) is considered to look upon the master of the ascendant; lovingly and invitingly and in which exalted indications concerning royal nativities prosper. It is preserved in a yellow silk rag, after having been dipped in perfume."
فزعموا أن له أثرا في صحابة الملوك وخدمتهم ومعاشرتهم. وأمثال ذلك كثير.,(People) think that it influences one’s friendship with rulers and one’s (opportunity) to serve them and to be admitted into their company. There are many similar things.
وكتاب الغاية لمسلمة بن أحمد المجريطي هو مدونة هذه الصناعة وفيه استيفاؤها وكمال مسائلها وذكر لنا أن الإمام الفخر بن الخطيب وضع كتابا في ذلك وسماه بالسر المكتوم وأنه بالمشرق يتداوله أهله ونحن لم نقف عليه.,The Kitab al-Ghayah by Maslamah b. Ahmad al-Majriti is the systematic treatment of this craft. It has it complete and presents its problems perfectly. We have been told that the imam Fakhr-ad-din b. alKhatib wrote a book on the subject which he entitled as-Sirr al-maktum. It is said to be in common use among the people in the East. We have not come across it.
والإمام لم يكن من أئمة هذا الشأن فيما نظن ولعل الأمر بخلاف ذلك. وبالمغرب صنف من هؤلاء المنتحلين لهذه الأعمال السحرية يعرفون بالبعاجين وهم الذين ذكرت أولا أنهم يشيرون إلى الكساء أو الجلد فيتخرق ويشيرون إلى بطون الغنم بالبعج فتنبعج.,"The imam (Fakhrad-din) is not considered an authority on magic, though the contrary might be the case (and he might have been an authority on magic) In the Maghrib, there is a type of magical practitioners who are known as “rippers” (ba”aj). They are the people to whom I referred above. They point at a garment or a piece of leather, and it is torn to shreds. Or they point at the bellies of sheep and goats (with a) ripping (gesture), and they are ripped open."
ويسمى أحدهم لهذا العهد باسم البعاج لأن أكثر ما ينتحل من السحر بعج الأنعام يرهب بذلك أهلها ليعطوه من فضلها وهم مستترون بذلك في الغاية خوفا على أنفسهم من الحكام،,"Such (sorcerers) nowadays are called “rippers,” (in the Maghrib,) because most of their magical practice concerns ripping animals open. In that way, they frighten the owners of animals into giving them some (animal) they can spare. They keep their activities very much under cover, because they are afraid of the authorities."
لقيت منهم جماعة وشاهدت من أفعالهم هذه بذلك وأخبروني أن لهم وجهة ورياضة خاصة بدعوات كفرية وإشراك لروحانيات الجن والكواكب، سطرت فيها صحيفة عندهم تسمى الخزيرية يتدارسونها وأنهم بهذه الرياضة والوجهة يصلون إلى حصول هذه الأفعال لهم وأن التأثير الذي لهم إنما هو فيما سوى الإنسان الحر من المتاع والحيوان والرفيق ويعبرون عن ذلك بقولهم إنما نفعل فيما تمشي فيه الدراهم أي ما يملك ويباع ويشترى من سائر المتملكات هذا ما زعموه.,"I have met a number of them and witnessed their kind of magical practice. They informed me that they practice devotions and exercises. (Their devotions and exercises) consist, in particular, of heretical prayers and of association with the spiritualities of jinn and stars. These things are written down on a sheet (of paper) they possess, and called al-Khinziriyah. They study it together. With the help of such exercises and devotions, they succeed in performing their magical actions. The influence they are able to exercise affects only objects other than free men. It affects, for instance, utensils, animals, and slaves. They express the (idea) by the words, “things into which there goes money,” that is, all the things that are owned, sold, and bought. This is what they think."
وسألت بعضهم فأخبرني به وأما أفعالهم فظاهرة موجودة وقفنا على الكثير منها وعاينتها من غير ريبة في ذلك. هذا شأن السحر والطلسمات وأثارهما في العالم فأما الفلاسفة ففرقوا بين السحر والطلسمات بعد أن أثبتوا أنهما جميعا أثر للنفس الإنسانية واستدلوا على وجود الأثر للنفس الإنسانية بأن لها آثارا في بدنها على غير المجرى الطبيعي وأسبابه الجسمانية بل آثار عارضة من كيفيات الأرواح تارة كالسخونة الحادثة عن الفرح والسرور ومن جهة التصورات النفسانية أخرى كالذي يقع من قبل التوهم.,"I questioned one of them, and he told me (what I have mentioned here). Their magical actions are plain fact. We have come across very much of it. We have observed them with our own eyes and have no doubt about it. This is the situation with regard to sorcery and talismans and their influence in the world. The philosophers made a distinction between sorcery and talismans. First, however, they affirmed that both (derive their effectiveness) from influences of the human soul. They deduced the existence of an influence of the human soul from the fact that the soul exercises an influence upon its own body that cannot be explained by the natural course of affairs or from corporeal reasons. At times, it results from the qualities of the spirits-such as heat, which originates from pleasure and joy and at other times, it results from other psychic perceptions such as the things that result from imagination (tawahhum)."
فإن الماشي على حرف حائط أو حبل منتصب إذا قوي عنده توهم السقوط سقط بلا شك. ولهذا تجد كثيرا من الناس يعودون أنفسهم ذلك بالدربة عليه حتى يذهب عنهم هذا الوهم فتجدهم يمشون على حرف الحائط والحبل المنتصب ولا يخافون السقوط. فثبت أن ذلك من آثار النفس الإنسانية وتصورها للسقوط من أجل الوهم.,"Thus, a person who walks upon the ledge of a wall or upon a high tightrope will certainly fall down if the idea of falling down is strongly present in his imagination. Therefore, there are many people who train themselves to get used to such things, so that they are not troubled by their imagination. They can walk upon the ledge of a wall or a high tightrope without fear of falling down. It is thus definite that we have here the result of an influence of the human soul and of the soul’s imagining of the idea of falling down."
وإذا كان ذلك أثرا للنفس في بدنها من غير الأسباب الجسمانية الطبيعية فجائز أن يكون لها مثل هذا الأثر في غير بدنها إذ نسبتها إلى الأبدان في ذلك النوع من التأثير واحدة لأنها غير حالة في البدن ولا منطبعة فيه فثبت أنها مؤثرة في سائر الأجسام.,"If the soul can thus influence its own body without any natural corporeal causes, it is also possible that it can exercise a similar influence upon bodies other than its own. Its position with regard to its ability to exercise this type of influence is the same with regard to all bodies, since it is neither inherent nor firmly impressed in a (particular) body. Therefore, it is definite that the soul is able to exercise an influence upon other bodies."
وأما التفرقة عندهم بين السحر والطلسمات فهو أن السحر لا يحتاج الساحر فيه إلى معين وصاحب الطلسمات يستعين بروحانيات الكواكب وأسرار الأعداد وخواص الموجودات وأوضاع الفلك المؤثرة في عالم العناصر كما يقوله المنجمون,"Now, the distinction the (philosophers) make between sorcery and talismans is this. In sorcery, the sorcerer does not need any aid, while those who work with talismans seek the aid of the spiritualities of the stars, the secrets of numbers, the particular qualities of existing things, and the positions of the sphere that exercise an influence upon the world of the elements, as the astrologers maintain."
ويقولون: السحر اتحاد روح بروح والطلسم اتحاد روح بجسم ومعناه عندهم ربط الطبائع العلوية السماوية بالطبائع السفلية، والطبائع العلوية هي روحانيات الكواكب ولذلك يستعين صاحبه في غالب الأمر بالنجامة.,"The (philosophers, therefore,) say that sorcery is a union of spirit with spirit, while the talisman is a union of spirit with body (substance) As they understand it, that means that the high celestial natures are tied together with the low (terrestrial) natures, the high natures being the spiritualities of the stars. Those who work with (talismans), therefore, as a rule, seek the aid of astrology."
والساحر عندهم غير مكتسب لسحره بل هو مفطور عندهم على تلك الجبلة المختصة بذلك النوع من التأثير.,"(The philosophers) think that a sorcerer does not acquire his magical ability but has, by nature, the particular disposition needed for exercising that type of influence."
والفرق عندهم بين المعجزة والسحر أن المعجزة قوة إلهية تبعث على النفس ذلك التأثير فهو مؤيد بروح الله على فعله ذلك. والساحر إنما يفعل ذلك من لدن نفسه وبقوته النفسانية وبإمداد الشياطين في بعض الأحوال فبينهما الفرق في المعقولية والحقيقة والذات في نفس الأمر وإنما نستدل نحن على التفرقة بالعلامات الظاهرة وهي وجود المعجزة لصاحب الخير وفي مقاصد الخير وللنفوس المتمحصة للخير والتحدي بها على دعوى النبوة.,"They think that the difference between miracles and sorcery is this. A miracle is a divine power that arouses in the soul (the ability) to exercise influence. The (worker of miracles) is supported in his activity by the spirit of God. The sorcerer, on the other hand, does his work by himself and with the help of his own psychic power, and, under certain conditions, with the support of devils. The difference between the two actually concerns the idea, reality, and essence of the matter. We, however, (prefer to) deduce the differentiation merely from obvious signs. That is, miracles are found (to be wrought) by good persons for good purposes and by souls that are entirely devoted to good deeds. Moreover, (they include) the “advance challenge” (tahaddi) of the claim to prophecy."
والسحر إنما يوجد لصاحب الشر وفي أفعال الشر في الغالب من التفريق بين الزوجين وضرر الأعداء وأمثال ذلك. وللنفوس المتمحصة للشر.,"Sorcery, on the other hand, is found (practiced) only by evil persons and as a rule is used for evil actions, such as causing discord between husband and wife, doing harm to enemies, and similar things. And it is found (practiced) by souls that are entirely devoted to evil deeds."
هذا هو الفرق بينهما عند الحكماء الإلهيين: وقد يوجد لبعض المتصوفة وأصحاب الكرامات تأثير أيضا في أحوال العالم وليس معدودا من جنس السحر وإنما هو بالإمداد الإلهي لأن طريقتهم ونحلتهم من آثار النبوة وتوابعها ولهم في المدد الإلهي حفظ على قدر حالهم وإيمانهم وتمسكهم بكلمة الله وإذا اقتدر أحد منهم على أفعال الشر لا يأتيها لأنه متقيد فيما يأتيه يذره للأمر الإلهي.,"This is the difference between (prophecy and sorcery) in the opinion of metaphysicians. Among the Sufis some who are favored by acts of divine grace are also able to exercise an influence upon worldly conditions. This, however, is not counted as a kind of sorcery. It is effected with divine support, because the attitude and approach (of these men) result from prophecy and are a consequence of it. They enjoy divine support, as befits their state and faith and belief in the cause of God. Were someone among them capable of doing evil deeds, he would not do them, because he is bound by the divine command in whatever he may do or not do."
فما لا يقع لهم فيه الإذن لا يأتونه بوجه ومن أتاه منهم فقد عدل عن طريق الحق وربما سلب حاله.,"Whatever he is not permitted to do, he would certainly not do. Were he to, he would deviate from the path of truth and would in all likelihood lose his “state.”"
ولما كانت المعجزة بإمداد روح الله والقوى الإلهية فلذلك لا يعارضها شيء من السحر.,"Miracles take place with the support of the spirit of God and the divine powers. Therefore, no piece of sorcery can match them."
وانظر شأن سحرة فرعون مع موسى في معجزة العصا كيف تلقفت ما كانوا به يأفكون وذهب سحرهم واضمحل كأن لم يكن.,"One may compare the affair of the sorcerers of Pharaoh with Moses and the miracle of the staff. Moses’ staff devoured the phantoms the sorcerers produced, and their sorcery completely disappeared as if it had never been."
وكذلك لما أنزل على النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم في المعوذتين ومن شر النفاثات في العقد. 113: 4 قالت عائشة رضي الله عنها: «فكان لا يقرأها على عقدة من العقد التي سحر فيها إلا انحلت».,"Also, the following verse was revealed to the Prophet in the Mu’awwidhatan: “And (I take refuge in God) from the evil of the women who blow into knots.” In this connection, ‘A’ishah said: “As soon as he recited the Qur’an over one of the knots into which a spell against him had been placed, that particular knot became untied.”"
فالسحر لا يثبت مع اسم الله وذكره بالهمة الإيمانية وقد نقل المؤرخون أن زركش كاويان وهي راية كسرى كان فيها الوفق المئيني العددي منسوجا بالذهب في أوضاع فلكية رصدت لذلك الوفق.,"Sorcery cannot last whenever the name of God is mentioned in a believing state of mind. The historians report that the Darafsh-i-Kaviyan – that is, the banner of the Persian emperor – had a magic square of a hundred fields woven into it in gold. (That had been done) when there were certain astronomical positions that had been (especially) observed for the purpose of writing down the magic square."
ووجدت الراية يوم قتل رستم بالقادسية واقعة على الأرض بعد انهزام أهل فارس وشتاتهم.,The banner was found on the day Rustum was killed at al-Qadisiyah. It was lying on the ground after the flight and dispersal of the Persians.
وهو فيما تزعم أهل الطلسمات والأوفاق مخصوص بالغلب في الحروب وأن الراية التي يكون فيها أو معها لا تنهزم أصلا.,The people who work with talismans and magic squares think that such (a magic square) means victory in war and that a banner containing it or accompanied by it could never be routed.
إلا أن هذه عارضها المدد الإلهي من إيمان أصحاب رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم وتمسكهم بكلمة الله فانحل معها كل عقد سحري ولم يثبت وبطل ما كانوا يعملون.,"However, (the spell) was counteracted by divine support, which resulted from the faith of the men around the Prophet and their belief in the cause of God. Through the presence of (faith), any magic spell was dissolved and did not last (this time, as it will always happen whenever faith is involved), “and what they did came to naught.”"
وأما الشريعة فلم تفرق بين السحر والطلسمات وجعلته كله بابا واحدا محظورا. لأن الأفعال إنما أباح لنا الشارع منها ما يهمنا في ديننا الذي فيه صلاح آخرتنا أو في معاشنا الذي فيه صلاح دنيانا وما لا يهمنا في شيء منهما فإن كان فيه ضرر أو نوع ضرر كالسحر الحاصل ضرره بالوقوع ويلحق به الطلسمات لأن أثرهما واحد,"The religious law makes no distinction between sorcery, talismans, and prestidigitation. It puts them all into the same class of forbidden things. The Lawgiver (Muhammad) permitted us only those actions that are of relevance to us in our religion, which concerns the well-being of our life in the other world, and in our livelihood, which concerns the wellbeing of our life in this world. Things that are of no relevance in these two respects and that may cause harm or some kind of harm, are forbidden, (and the strictness of the prohibition is) in proportion to the harm they might do. Among such (irrelevant and harmful) things are sorcery, which causes harm when it is practiced. Talismans belong together with it, because the effect of sorcery and talismans is the same."
وكالنجامة التي فيها نوع ضرر باعتقاد التأثير فتفسد العقيدة الإيمانية برد الأمور إلى غير الله فيكون حينئذ ذلك الفعل محظورا على نسبته في الضرر.,"There is also astrology, which causes a certain harm in that the belief in astral influences, referring as it does to (beings) other than God, corrupts the Muslim faith."
وإن لم يكن مهما علينا ولا فيه ضرر فلا أقل من تركه قربة إلى الله فإن من حسن إسلام المرء تركه ما لا يعنيه. فجعلت الشريعة باب السحر والطلسمات والشعوذة بابا واحدا لما فيها من الضرر وخصته بالحظر والتحريم.,"As to things that are of no relevance to us but cause no harm, nothing is easier than not to do them, in order to be close to God, for “a good Muslim does not do what does not concern him.” Thus, the religious law puts sorcery, talismans, and prestidigitation into one and the same class, because they may cause harm. It brands them as forbidden and illegal."
وأما الفرق عندهم بين المعجزة والسحر فالذي ذكره المتكلمون أنه راجع إلى التحدي وهو دعوى وقوعها على وفق ما ادعاه. قالوا: والساحر مصروف عن مثل هذا التحدي فلا يقع منه. ووقوع المعجزة على وفق دعوى الكاذب غير مقدور لأن دلالة المعجزة على الصدق عقلية لأن صفة نفسها التصديق فلو وقعت مع الكذب لاستحال الصادق كاذبا وهو محال فإذا لا تقع المعجزة مع الكاذب بإطلاق.,"The speculative theologians said that the difference between miracles and sorcery lies in the “advance challenge” (tahaddi), that is, the claim that a (miracle) will occur just as it has been claimed (in advance that it would happen). It is not possible, they said, that a miracle could happen in agreement with the claim of a liar. Logic requires that a miracle indicate truthfulness. By definition, a miracle is something that can be verified. If it were performed with lying (intentions), it (could not be verified and thus) truth would have changed into falsehood, and that is absurd. Therefore, miracles never occur together with lying (intentions)."
وأما الحكماء فالفرق بينهما عندهم كما ذكرناه فرق ما بين الخير والشر في نهاية الطرفين. فالساحر لا يصدر منه الخير ولا يستعمل في أسباب الخير وصاحب المعجزة لا يصدر منه الشر ولا يستعمل في أسباب الشر وكأنهما على طرفي النقيض في أصل فطرتهما.,"As we have mentioned, the philosophers assume that the difference between miracles and sorcery is the difference between the two extremes of good and evil. Nothing good issues from a sorcerer, and (sorcery) is not employed in good causes. Nothing evil issues from a worker of miracles, and (miracles) are not employed in evil causes. (Miracles and sorcery) are in a way contradictory by their very natures, as are good and evil."
والله يهدي من يشاء,“God guides whomever He wants to guide.”
الإصابة بالعين,The evil eye
ومن قبيل هذه التأثيرات النفسية الإصابة بالعين وهو تأثير من نفس المعيان عند ما يستحسن بعينه مدركا من الذوات أو الأحوال ويفرط في استحسانه وينشأ عن ذلك الاستحسان حسد يروم معه سلب ذلك الشيء عمن اتصف به فيؤثر فساده.,"Another psychic influence is that of the eye – that is, an influence exercised by the soul of the person who has the evil eye. A thing or situation appears pleasing to the eye of a person, and he likes it very much. This (circumstance) creates in him envy and the desire to take it away from its owner. Therefore, he prefers to destroy him."
وهو جبلة فطرية أعني هذه الإصابة بالعين.,"It is a natural gift – I mean, the eye."
والفرق بينها وبين التأثيرات النفسانية أن صدوره فطري جبلي لا يتخلف ولا يرجع اختيار صاحبه ولا يكتسبه.,"The difference between it and the (other)
psychic influences is that it appears (and acts) as something natural and innate. It cannot be left alone. It does not depend on the free choice of its possessor. It is not acquired by him."
وسائر التأثيرات وإن كان منها ما لا يكتسب فصدورها راجع إلى اختيار فاعلها والفطري منها قوة صدورها,"Some of the other (psychic) influences may (also) not be acquired ones, but their appearance (in action) depends on the free choice of the person who exercises them. The thing that characterizes them as natural is their (possessors’) potential ability to exercise them, not their (automatic) action."
ولهذا قالوا: القاتل بالسحر أو بالكرامة يقتل والقاتل بالعين لا يقتل. وما ذلك إلا أنه ليس مما يريده ويقصده أو يتركه وإنما هو مجبور في صدوره عنه.,"Therefore it has been said: “A person who kills by means of sorcery or a miraculous act must be killed, but the person who kills with the eye must not be killed.” The only reason for the (distinction) is that the (person who kills with the eye) did not want or intend to do so, nor could he have avoided doing so. The application (of the eye) was involuntary on his part."
والله أعلم,And God knows better.
الفصل التاسع والعشرون علم أسرار الحروف,28. The science of the secrets of letters.
وهو المسمى لهذا العهد بالسيمياء. نقل وضعه من الطلسمات إليه في اصطلاح أهل التصرف من المتصوفة، فاستعمل استعمال العام في الخاص.,"At the present time, this science is called simiya’ “letter magic.” The word was transferred from talismans to this science and used in this conventional meaning in the technical terminology of Sufi practitioners of magic. Thus, a general (magical) term came to be used for some particular aspect (of magic)."
وحدث هذا العلم في الملة بعد صدر منها، وعند ظهور الغلاة من المتصوفة وجنوحهم إلى كشف حجاب الحس، وظهور الخوارق على أيديهم والتصرفات في عالم العناصر، وتدوين الكتب والاصطلاحات، ومزاعمهم في تنزل الوجود عن الواحد وترتيبه.,"This science originated in Islam after some time of (its existence) had passed. When the extremist Sufis appeared, they turned to the removal of the veil of sense perception, produced wonders, and were active in the world of the elements. At that time, they wrote systematic works on (Sufism) and (Sufi) terminology. They believed in the gradual descent of existence from the One."
وزعموا أن الكمال الأسمائي مظاهره أرواح الأفلاك والكواكب، وأن طبائع الحروف وأسرارها سارية في الأسماء، فهي سارية في الأكوان على هذا النظام.,"They believed that verbal perfection consists in helping the spirits of the spheres and the stars (through words). The natures and secrets of the letters are alive in the words, while the words, in turn, are correspondingly alive in the created things."
والأكوان من لدن الإبداع الأول تتنقل في أطواره وتعرب عن أسراره، فحدث لذلك علم أسرار الحروف، وهو من تفاريع علم السيمياء لا يوقف على موضوعة ولا تحاط بالعدد مسائله. تعددت فيه تآليف البوني وابن العربي وغيرهما ممن اتبع آثارهما.,"The created things have been moving in the different stages of (creation) and telling its secrets since the first creation. These (Sufi beliefs) caused the science of the secrets of the letters to originate. It is a subdivision of the science of simiya’ “letter magic.” It is an unfathomable subject with innumerable problems. Al-Buni, Ibn al-‘Arabi, and others in their wake wrote numerous works on it."
وحاصله عندهم وثمرته تصرف النفوس الربانية في عالم الطبيعة بالأسماء الحسنى والكلمات الإلهية الناشئة عن الحروف المحيطة بالأسرار السارية في الأكوان.,These authors assume that the result and fruit of letter magic is that the divine souls are active in the world of nature by means of the beautiful names of God and the divine expressions that originate from the letters comprising the secrets that are alive in the created things.
ثم اختلفوا في سر التصرف الذي في الحروف بما هو: فمنهم من جعله للمزاج الذي فيه، وقسم الحروف بقسمة الطبائع إلى أربعة أصناف كما للعناصر.,The authorities on letter magic then differed as to the secret of the (magic) activity lying in the letters. Some of them assumed that it was due to inherent temper. They divided the letters into four groups corresponding to the elements.
واختصت كل طبيعة بصنف من الحروف يقع التصرف في طبيعتها فعلا وانفعالا بذلك الصنف: فتنوعت الحروف بقانون صناعي يسمونه التكسير إلى نارية وهوائية ومائية وترابية على حسب تنوع العناصر،,"Each nature (element) had its own group of letters. Through this group (of letters), it can be active actively and passively. A technical procedure, which the (authorities on letter magic) call “breaking down” (taksir), classifies the letters as the elements are classified, as fiery, airy, watery, and earthy."
فالألف للنار والباء للهواء والجيم للماء والدال للتراب. ثم ترجع كذلك على التوالي من الحروف والعناصر إلى أن تنفذ.,"The alif is fiery, b airy, j watery, and d earthy. Then, it starts again with the next letter, and so on, through the whole alphabet and the sequence of the elements."
فتعين لعنصر النار حروف سبعة: الألف والهاء والطاء والميم والفاء والسين والذال،,"Thus, seven letters are fiery, namely, alif, h, t, m, f, s, and dh."
وتعين لعنصر الهواء سبعة أيضا: الباء والواو والياء والنون والضاد والتاء والظاء،,"Seven are airy, namely, b, w, y, n, d, t, and x."
وتعين لعنصر الماء أيضا سبعة: الجيم والزاي والكاف والصاد والقاف والثاء والغين،,"Seven are watery, namely, j, x, k, s, q, th, and gh."
وتعين لعنصر التراب أيضا سبعة: الدال والحاء واللام والعين والراء والخاء والشين.,"And seven are earthy, namely, d,
h, l, ‘ayn, r, kh, and sh."
والحروف النارية لدفع الأمراض الباردة ولمضاعفة قوة الحرارة حيث تطلب مضاعفتها، إما حسا أو حكما، كما في تضعيف قوى المريخ في الحروب والقتل والفتك. والمائية أيضا لدفع الأمراض الحارة من حميات وغيرها، ولتضعيف القوى الباردة حيث تطلب مضاعفتها حسا أو حكما، كتضعيف قوى القمر وأمثال ذلك.,"The fiery letters serve to repel cold diseases and to increase the power of heat wherever desired, either in the sensual (physical) or in the astrological (sense). Thus, for instance, (one may want to) increase the power of Mars for warfare, the killing (of enemies), and aggressiveness. In the same way, the watery letters serve to repel hot diseases, such as fevers and others, and to increase the cold powers, wherever desired, either in the sensual (physical) sense or in the astrological (sense). Thus, for instance, (one may want to) increase the power of the moon, and so on."
ومنهم من جعل سر التصرف الذي في الحروف للنسبة العددية: فإن حروف أبجد دالة على أعدادها المتعارفة وضعا وطبعا فبينها من أجل تناسب الأعداد تناسب في نفسها أيضا، كما بين الباء والكاف والراء لدلالتها كلها على الاثنين كل في مرتبته، فالباء على اثنين في مرتبة الآحاد، والكاف على اثنين في مرتبة العشرات، والراء على اثنين في مرتبة المئين.,"Other (authorities on letter magic) assumed that the secret of the (magic) activity that lies in the letters was their numerical proportion. The letters of the alphabet indicate numerical values which by convention and nature are generally accepted to be (inherent in) them. Thus, there exists a relationship between the letters themselves as a result of the relationship of their numerical values. For instance, there is a relationship between b, k, and r, because all three of them indicate two in its different positions. (The letter) b indicates two in the units, k indicates two in the tens (20), and r indicates two in the hundreds (200)."
وكالذي بينها وبين الدال والميم والتاء لدلالتها على الأربعة، وبين الأربعة والاثنين نسبة الضعف. وخرج للأسماء أوفاق كما للأعداد يختص كل صنف من الحروف بصنف من الأوفاق الذي يناسبه من حيث عدد الشكل أو عدد الحروف، وامتزج التصرف من السر الحرفي والسر العددي لأجل التناسب الذي بينهما.,"Or, there is a special relationship between the letters mentioned and d, m, and t. The (latter group of letters) indicates four, and the proportion of four to two is that of two to one. Then, there are magic squares for words as there are for numbers. Each group of letters has its particular kind of magic square which fits it in view either of the numerical value of the figure or of the numerical value of the letters. (Magic) activity based on letter magic thus merges with that based on number magic, because there exists a relationship between letters and numbers."
فأما سر التناسب الذي بين هذه الحروف وأمزجة الطبائع، أو بين الحروف والأعداد، فأمر عسير على الفهم، إذ ليس من قبيل العلوم والقياسات، وإنما مستندهم فيه الذوق والكشف.,"The real significance of the relationship existing between letters and natural humors and between letters and numbers is difficult to understand. It is not a matter of science or reasoning. According to the (authorities on letter magic), it is based on mystical experience and the removal (of the veil)."
قال البوني: ولا تظن أن سر الحروف مما يتوصل إليه بالقياس العقلي، وإنما هو بطريق المشاهدة والتوفيق الإلهي.,"Al-Buni said, “One should not think that one can get at the secret of the letters with the help of logical reasoning. One gets to it with the help of vision and divine aid.”"
وأما التصرف في عالم الطبيعة بهذه الحروف والأسماء المركبة فيها وتأثر الأكوان عن ذلك فأمر لا ينكر لثبوته عن كثير منهم تواترا.,"The fact that it is possible to be active in the world of nature with the help of the letters and the words composed of them, and that the created things can be influenced in this way, cannot be denied. It is confirmed by continuous tradition on the authority of many (practitioners of letter magic)."
وقد يظن أن تصرف هؤلاء وتصرف أصحاب الطلسمات واحد، وليس كذلك، فإن حقيقة الطلسم وتأثيره على ما حققه أهله أنه قوى روحانية من جوهر القهر، تفعل فيما له ركب فعل غلبة وقهر، بأسرار فلكية ونسب عددية وبخورات جالبات لروحانية ذلك الطلسم، مشدودة فيه بالهمة، فائدتها ربط الطبائع العلوية بالطبائع السفلية، وهو عندهم كالخميرة المركبة من هوائية وأرضية ومائية ونارية حاصلة في جملتها، تخيل وتصرف ما حصلت فيه إلى ذاتها وتقلبه إلى صورتها.,"It has been thought that this activity and the activity of people who work with talismans are one and the same thing. This is not so. The people who work with talismans have made it clear that the influence of a talisman actually comes from spiritual powers derived from the substance of force. These powers exercise a powerful and forceful activity upon the things for which the (talisman) is composed, with the help of spherical secrets, numerical proportions, and vapors that attract the spirituality of the talisman and are mentally enclosed in it. The result is that the high natures come to be tied to the low ones. Talismans, they think, are like a ferment composed of and including earthy, airy, watery, and fiery (elements). Such ferment is instrumental in transforming and changing anything into which it might get, into its own essence and in turning it into its own form."
وكذلك الإكسير للأجسام المعدنية، كالخميرة تقلب المعدن الذي تسري فيه إلى نفسها بالإحالة. ولذلك يقولون: موضوع الكيمياء جسد في جسد لأن الإكسير أجزاؤه كلها جسدانية. ويقولون: موضوع الطلسم روح في جسد لأنه ربط الطبائع العلوية بالطبائع السفلية. والطبائع السفلية جسد والطبائع العلوية روحانية.,"The elixir for metals, likewise, is a ferment that by transformation turns the mineral in which it is alive into itself. Therefore, it has been said that the subject of alchemy is body (substance) in body (substance), because all parts of an elixir are corporeal (substances). The subject of talismans, on the other hand, is spirit in body (substance), because talismans tie the high natures to the low natures. The low natures are bodies (substances), while the high natures are spiritualities."
وتحقيق الفرق بين تصرف أهل الطلسمات وأهل الأسماء، بعد أن تعلم أن التصرف في عالم الطبيعة كله إنما هو للنفس الإنسانية والهمم البشرية أن النفس الإنسانية محيطة بالطبيعة وحاكمة عليها بالذات،,"One should realize that all (magic) activity in the world of nature comes from the human soul and the human mind, because the human soul essentially encompasses and governs nature."
إلا أن تصرف أهل الطلسمات إنما هو في استنزال روحانية الأفلاك وربطها بالصور أو بالنسب العددية، حتى يحصل من ذلك نوع مزاج يفعل الإحالة والقلب بطبيعته، فعل الخميرة فيما حصلت فيه.,"The activity of people who work with talismans consists in bringing down the spirituality of the spheres and tying it down with the help of pictures or numerical proportions. The result is a kind of composition that, through its nature, effects a transformation and change comparable to those effected by a ferment in the thing into which it gets."
وتصرف أصحاب الأسماء إنما هو بما حصل لهم بالمجاهدة والكشف من النور الإلهي والإمداد الرباني، فيسخر الطبيعة لذلك طائعة غير مستعصية، ولا يحتاج إلى مدد من القوى الفلكية ولا غيرها، لأن مدده أعلى منها.,"The activity of people who work with words, on the other hand, is the effect of the divine light and the support of the Lord which they obtain through exertion and the removal (of the veil). Thus, nature is forced to work (for them) and does so willingly with no attempt at disobedience. Their activity needs no support from the spherical powers or anything else, because the support it has is of a higher order than (all that)."
ويحتاج أهل الطلسمات إلى قليل من الرياضة تفيد النفس قوة على استنزال روحانية الأفلاك. وأهون بها وجهة ورياضة. بخلاف أهل الأسماء فإن رياضتهم هي الرياضة الكبرى، وليست لقصد التصرف في الأكوان إذ هو حجاب. وإنما التصرف حاصل لهم بالعرض، كرامة من كرامات الله لهم.,"People who work with talismans, therefore, need (only) a little exercise to give the soul the power to bring down the spirituality of the spheres. Devotions and exercises certainly play a very insignificant role in it. The opposite is the case with people who work with words. Their exercise is the most extensive that can be. It is not for the purpose of being active in the existing things, since that is a veil (standing between them and their real task). Such activity comes to them accidentally, as an act of divine grace."
فإن خلا صاحب الأسماء عن معرفة أسرار الله وحقائق الملكوت، الذي هو نتيجة المشاهدة والكشف، واقتصر على مناسبات الأسماء وطبائع الحروف والكلمات، وتصرف بها من هذه الحيثية وهؤلاء هم أهل السيمياء في المشهور- كأن إذا لا فرق بينه وبين صاحب الطلسمات، بل صاحب الطلسمات أوثق منه لأنه يرجع إلى أصول طبيعية علمية وقوانين مرتبة.,"A person who works with words may have no knowledge of the secrets of God and the realities of divinity, which is the result of vision and the removal (of the veil). He may restrict himself to the various relationships between words and the natures of letters and expressions, and he may become (magically) active with them in this capacity, and that is what people who practice letter magic are commonly supposed to do. But then, there is no difference between such a person and the people who work with talismans. In fact, a person who works with talismans is more reliable than he, because he has recourse to scientific natural principles and orderly norms."
وأما صاحب أسرار الأسماء إذا فاته الكشف الذي يطلع به على حقائق الكلمات وآثار المناسبات بفوات الخلوص في الوجهة، وليس له في العلوم الاصطلاحية قانون برهاني يعول عليه يكون حاله أضعف رتبة.,"A person who works with the secrets of words but is not sincere in his devotion and (in addition) has no technical norms of evidence on which he may rely and, therefore, lacks the removal (of the veil) that would show him the realities of expressions and the influence of relationships, is in a weaker position (than a person who works with talismans)."
وقد يمزج صاحب الأسماء قوى الكلمات والأسماء بقوى الكواكب، فيعين لذكر الأسماء الحسنى، أو ما يرسم من أوفاقها، بل ولسائر الأسماء، أوقاتا تكون من حظوظ الكواكب الذي يناسب ذلك الاسم، كما فعله البوني في كتابه الذي سماه الأنماط.,"The person who works with words may mingle the powers of expressions and words with the powers of the stars. He may then set certain times for mentioning the beautiful names of God or the magic squares composed of them or, indeed, any word. These times must be under the propitious influence of the star that is related to a particular word. That was done, for instance, by al-Buni in his book entitled al-Anmat."
وهذه المناسبة عندهم هي من لدن الحضرة العمائية. وهي برزخية الكمال الأسمائي، وإنما تنزل تفصيلها في الحقائق على ما هي عليه من المناسبة. وإثبات هذه المناسبة عندهم إنما هو بحكم المشاهدة.,"The relationship (between star and magic word) is assumed to come from the nubilous (‘amaiyah) presence, which is the purgatory station (barzakhiyah) of verbal perfection and which particularizes itself in the realities in accordance with the relationship they have (to the magic words [?]). They think that those expressions depend on vision to be established."
فإذا خلا صاحب الأسماء عن تلك المشاهدة، وتلقى تلك المناسبة تقليدا، كأن عمله بمثابة عمل صاحب الطلسم، بل هو أوثق منه كما قلناه. وكذلك قد يمزج أيضا صاحب الطلسمات عمله وقوى كواكبه بقوى الدعوات المؤلفة من الكلمات المخصوصة لمناسبة بين الكلمات والكواكب،,"If a person who works with words lacks vision but knows about that relationship through tradition, his actions correspond to those of the person who works with talismans. Indeed, as we have stated, the (latter) is more reliable than he. In the same way, the person who works with talismans may mingle his actions and the powers of the stars which govern them, with the powers of prayers composed of special expressions indicating a relationship between those expressions and the stars."
إلا أن مناسبة الكلمات عندهم ليست كما هي عند أصحاب الأسماء من الاطلاع في حال المشاهدة، وإنما يرجع إلى ما اقتضته أصول طريقتهم السحرية، من اقتسام الكواكب لجميع ما في عالم المكونات، من جواهر وأعراض وذوات ومعان، والحروف. والأسماء من جملة ما فيه.,"In his case, however, the relationship of expressions is not, as in the case of people who work with words, the result of direct observation in a state of vision. It is merely based upon the (general) basic requirement of the magic approach, namely, that the stars share in all the substances, accidents, essences, and ideas existing in the world of created things. Letters and words belong to the things that exist in it."
فلكل واحد من الكواكب قسم منها يخصه، ويبنون على ذلك مباني غريبة منكرة من تقسيم سور القرآن وآيه على هذا النحو، كما فعله مسلمة المجريطي في الغاية.,"Thus, each star has its particular share in them. On this basis (magical practitioners) construct strange and disapproved theories. Namely, they divide the sarahs and verses of the Qur’an in this manner. That was what Maslamah al-Majriti, for instance, did in the Ghayah."
والظاهر من حال البوني في أنماطه أنه اعتبر طريقتهم. فإن تلك الأنماط إذا تصفحتها، وتصفحت الدعوات التي تضمنتها، وتقسيمها على ساعات الكواكب السبعة، ثم وقفت على الغاية، وتصفحت قيامات الكواكب التي فيها، وهي الدعوات التي تختص بكل كوكب، ويسمونها قيامات الكواكب، أي الدعوة التي يقام له بها، شهد له ذلك: إما بأنه من مادتها، أو بأن التناسب الذي كان في أصل الإبداع وبرزخ العلم قضى بذلك كله.,"It is also obvious from alBuni’s attitude in the Anmat that he takes this method into consideration. A critical study of the Anmat and of the prayers the work contains and their distribution among the hours of the seven stars, as well as a look at the Ghayah and a critical study of the prayers (qiyamat) of the stars contained in it – “qiyamat of the stars” is the name they give to the prayers that belong to each individual star, that is, the prayer performed (yuqdmu biha) for it – will show that this (procedure) belongs to the substance of (these works on letter magic) or that the relationship that came about in the original creation and in the purgatory (barzakh) of knowledge made all that necessary."
«وما أوتيتم من العلم إلا قليلا 17: 85».,“And you were given but little knowledge.”
وليس كل ما حرمه الشارع من العلوم بمنكر الثبوت، فقد ثبت أن السحر حق مع حظره. لكن حسبنا من العلم ما علمنا.,"One cannot deny the actual existence of all the sciences declared illegal by the religious law. It is definite that sorcery is true, although it is forbidden. But we are satisfied with the knowledge God taught us."
ومن فروع علم السيمياء عندهم استخراج الأجوبة من الأسئلة، بارتباطات ش بين الكلمات- حرفية، يوهمون أنها أصل في معرفة ما يحاولون علمه من الكائنات الاستقبالية، وإنما هي شبه المعاياة والمسائل السيالة.,"The Za’irajah A branch of the science of letter magic, (practiced) among the (authorities on letter magic), is (the technique of) finding out answers from questions by means of connections existing between the letters of the expressions (used in the question). They imagine that these (connections) can form the basis for knowing the future happenings they want to know. Here we have something like puzzles and trick problems."
ولهم في ذلك كلام كثير من أدعية وأوراد. وأعجبه زايرجة العالم للسبتي، وقد تقدم ذكرها.,There are many discussions of the subject by them. The most comprehensive and most remarkable discussion of it is as-Sabti’s Za’irajah of the World. It has been mentioned before.
ونبين هنا ما ذكروه في كيفية العمل بتلك الزايرجة بدائرتها وجدولها المكتوب حولها، ثم نكشف عن الحق فيها وأنها ليست من الغيب، وإنما هي مطابقة بين مسألة وجوابها في الإفادة فقط، وقد أشرنا إلى ذلك من قبل.,"Here, we shall explain what has been said about how to operate it. We shall quote the poem that, it is thought, as-Sabti wrote on the subject. Then, we shall give a description of the Za’irajah with its circle and the table written on the verso. Finally, we shall reveal the truth about it. It is nothing supernatural; (the indications derived from it) result from an agreement in the wording of question and answer. It is (just) one interesting way among others, and a curious one, for finding out the answer from the question with the help of the technique called the technique of “breaking down.” We have referred to all this before."
وليس عندنا رواية يعول عليها في صحة هذه القصيدة إلا أننا تحرينا أصح النسخ منها في ظاهر الأمر. والله الموفق بمنه. وهي هذه:,"We have no authoritative tradition on which we might rely for the correctness of the poem and its attribution to asSabti However, we have chosen (for our quotation) what gave the impression of being the best manuscript. This is the poem:"
يقول سبيتي ويحمد ربه *** مصل على هاد إلى الناس أرسلا,"There speaks a little Ceutian, praising his Lord, Praying for a guide who was God’s messenger to mankind,"
محمد المبعوث خاتم الأنبيا *** ويرضى عن الصحب ومن لهم تلا,"(namely,) Muhammad who was sent as a prophet, the Seal of the Prophets, And expressing his satisfaction with the men around him and those who followed them:"
ألا هذه زايرجة العالم الذي *** تراه بحيكم وبالعقل قد حلا,"Behold, this is the Za’irajah of the World which You [sing.] see revealed through your [pl.] senses, and through the intellect."
فمن أحكم الوضع فيحكم جسمه *** ويدرك أحكاما تدبرها العلا,"Whoever knows how to compose (the za’irajah) will know his body, And will obtain laws given from on high."
ومن أحكم الربط فيدرك قوة *** ويدرك للتقوى وللكل حصلا,Whoever knows how to tie (it down) will obtain power And be noted for having obtained the fear of God and everything.
وفي عالم الأمر تراه محققا *** وهذا مقام من بالأذكار كملا,He is seen taking on reality in the divine world. This is the station of those who are perfected through dhikr exercises.
فهذي سرائر عليكم بكتمها *** أقمها دوائر وللحاء عدلا,These are the secrets that you have to keep concealed. Set them up in circles and balance (them) with h
فطاء لها عرش وفيظ نقوشنا *** بنظم ونثر قد تراه مجدولا,"And with t which has a “throne” on which it is engraved, In poetry and prose, or which one sees arranged as a table."
ونسب دوائر كنسبة فلكها *** وارسم كواكبا لأدراجها العلا,Set up circles corresponding to the relationship of their spheres And draw stars for their highest degrees.
وأخرج لأوتار وارسم حروفها *** وكور بمثله على حد من خلا,"Come out for its strings (chords), and draw letters for them, And repeat the same (letters) on the border of those that are free."
أقم شكل زيرهم وسو بيوته *** وحقق بهامهم ونورهم جلا,"Set up the shape of their zir, and make its houses, And verify with a bamm wherever their light is apparent."
وحصل علوما للطباع مهندسا *** وعلما لموسيقى والأرباع مثلا,"Present sciences as an engineer for the natures (elements), And an established knowledge of figurations and the quadrants."
وسو لموسيقى وعلم حروفهم *** وعلم بآلات فحقق وحصلا,Work with music and the knowledge of their letters And the knowledge of an instrument. And verify and bring about
وسو دوائرها ونسب حروفها *** وعالمها أطلق والإقليم جدولا,And make circles and set down their letters in the right relationship. Set free their world and list the zones in a table.
أمير لنا فهو نهاية دولة *** زناتية آبت وحكم لها خلا,"We have an amir who desires Bougie for a Zanatah Dynasty, which has appeared and which has manifestly seized power,"
وقطر لأندلس فابن لهودهم *** وجاء بنو نصر وظفرهم تلا,"And a region of Spain, then[. . . ] The Banu Nasr [?] came, and their victory followed."
ملوك وفرسان وأهل لحكمة *** فإن شئت نصبهم وقطرهم حلا,"Rulers, knights, and people of wisdom, If you wish, write them down. Their region is empty."
ومهدي توحيد بتونس حكمهم *** ملوك وبالشرق بالأوفاق نزلا,"A Mahdi of the Almohads who rule in Tunis, Rulers for an East set down in magic squares,"
واقسم على القطر وكن متفقدا *** فإن شئت للروم فبالحر شكلا,"Cast a spell over the region, and believe. If you wish, represent (it) in Latin without linguistic error,"
ففنش وبرشنون الراء حرفهم *** وإفرنسهم دال وبالطاء كملا,"And (Al)fonso and Barcelona. R is the letter for it. Their Franc(is) is dh, and is perfected with t."
ملوك كناوة دلوا لقافهم *** وإعراب قومنا بترقيق أعملا,"Rulers of Kinawah. They have pointed to their q. And the Arabs, our people, have been weakened."
فهند حباشي وسند فهرمس *** وفرس ططاري وما بعدهم طلا,"Abyssinian India and Sind (Western India), then Hurmus [?] And Tatar Persians, and what beyond them.. . ."
فقيصرهم جاء ويزدجردهم *** لكاف وقبطيهم بلامه طولا,"Their Byzantine Emperor is a h. Their (Persian) Yazdjard Belongs to k. Their Copt was written with a long l,"
وعباس كلهم شريف معظم *** ولكن تركي بذا الفعل عطلا,"And ‘Abbas, all of them noble and venerable. But (they are) a Turk when the (magical) activity ceases."
فإن شئت تدقيق الملوك وكلهم *** فختم بيوتا ثم نسب وجدولا,"If you want to know the rulers exactly and to find them out, Seal fields, then bring (them) into relation and list (them) in a table"
على حكم قانون الحروف وعلمها *** وعلم طبائعها وكله مثلا,"According to the norm and science of the letters And the knowledge of their nature, and set up the whole of it."
فمن علم العلوم تعلم علمنا *** ويعلم أسرار الوجود وأكملا,Whoever knows the sciences will know our science. He will know the secrets of existence and become perfect.
فيرسخ علمه ويعرف ربه *** وعلم ملاحيم بحاميم فصلا,"He, then, has firmly rooted knowledge and knows His Lord, And has a knowledge of predictions which is broken down through h-m."
وحيث أتى اسم والعروض يشقه *** فحكم الحكيم فيه قطعا ليقتلا,"And whenever there comes a name, and the meter prefers it A wise man will definitely decide that he must be killed."
وتأتيك أحرف فسو لضربها *** وأحرف سيبويه تأتيك فيصلا,"Letters will come to you. Then, try to pick them. The letters of Sibawayh will come to you disconnected."
فمكن بتنكير وقابل وعوضن *** بترنيمك الغالي للأجزاء خلخلا,"Then, strengthen with transformations and confront and exchange. With your precious warble shake the parts ……………………………………….."
واختر لمطلع وسويه رتبة *** واعكس بجذريه وبالدور عدلا؟,Select a (star) rise. Figure out its signs. Reverse its root [?]. Straighten (it) out with the cycle.
ويدركها المرء فيبلغ قصده *** وتعطي حروفها وفي نظمها انجلا,Someone will perceive those things. He will achieve his purpose And be given their letters in whose arrangement the evidence lies.
إذا كان سعد والكواكب أسعدت *** فحسبك في الملك ونيل اسمه العلا,"If it is lucky and the stars are lucky, It should suffice you to have royal authority [?] and to in, have reached the dim star (d) in Ursa Major on high [?]."
وإيقاع دالهم بمرموز ثممة *** فنسب دنادينا تجد فيه منهلا,"The melody of their d with its bridled bamm! Thus, sound harmonic chimes, and you will find the right place in it,"
وأوتار زيرهم فللحاء بمهم *** ومثناهم المثلث بجيمه قد جلا,The strings of their zir. To the h belongs their bamm And their mathna. The mathlath has appeared through its j.
وأدخل بأفلاك وعدل بجدول *** وأرسم أبا جاد وباقيه جملا,Make entries with spheres. Straighten things out with a table. Draw a b c and the remaining letters of the alphabet according to their numerical value
وجوز شذوذ النو تجري ومثله *** أتى في عروض الشعر عن جملة ملا,And permit the irregularity of the meter that occurs. Something similar Has occurred in the prosody of a number of people.
فأصل لديننا وأصل لفقهنا *** وعلم لنحونا فاحفظ وحصلا,"A principle of our religion, a principle of our jurisprudence, And some knowledge of grammar, keep and obtain!"
فادخل لفسطاط على الوفق جذره *** وسبح باسمه وكبر وهللا,"Bring in the wall [?] for a large tent in harmony [?]! Praise His name and say, “God is great,” and “There is no God but God,”"
فتخرج أبياتا وفي كل مطلب *** بنظم طبيعي وسر من العلا,And you will (succeed in) bringing out verses on any desired object Through natural rhyme and a secret from on high.
وتفنى بحصرها كذا حكم عدهم *** فعلم الفواتيح ترى فيه منهلا,"If they are thus brought together, the judgment implied in their number will be acquired, And…"
فتخرج أبياتا وعشرون ضعفت *** من الألف طبعيا فيا صاح جدولا,"And you will bring out verses. Twenty multiplied By one thousand by nature, O master of the Table,"
تريك صنائعا من الضرب أكملت *** فصح لك المنى وصح لك العلا,"Will show crafts of multiplication that are perfect. Thus, (your) wishes will come out right for you, and the (world) on high will come out right for you."
وسجع بزيرهم وأثنى بنقرة *** أقمها دوائر الزير وحصلا,"And rhyme with their zir and praise with a beat. Set it up in circles for a zir, and obtain (it)."
أقمها بأوفاق وأصل لعدها *** من أسرار أحرفهم فعذبه سلسلا,"Set it up with magic squares and a principle that you prepare From the secrets of their letter, and bring it back in chain form."
الكلام على استخراج نسبة الأوزان وكيفياتها ومقادير المقابل منها وقوة الدرجة المتميزة بالنسبة إلى موضع المعلق من امتزاج طبائع وعلم طب أو صناعة الكيميا,"Discussion of how to discover the relationships and qualities of the weights, the powers of their opposites, the power of the grade which is distinguished according to the relationship to the place of attached mixtures of natures (elements), and the science of medicine, or the craft of alchemy."
أيا طالبا للطب مع علم جابر *** وعالم مقدار المقادير بالولا,"O student of medicine and of Jabir’s science (alchemy), And you who know the extent of the powers in succession,"
إذا شئت علم الطب لا بد نسبة *** لأحكام ميزان تصادف منهلا,"If you want the science of medicine, there must exist a relationship For the laws of scales, which will hit upon a (possible) way."
فيشفى عليلكم والإكسير محكم *** وأمزاج وضعكم بتصحيح انجلى,Your patient will be cured. The elixir will be right. The soundness of the mixtures of your composition will be apparent.
الطب الروحاني,Spiritual Medicine
وشئت إيلاوش 565 هـ ودهنه بحلا *** لبهرام برجيس وسبعة أكملا,"And you want Hawush -[SIGNS]-and his mind. . . For Bahram-Birjis and seven, who is perfect,"
لتحليل أوجاع البوارد صححوا *** كذلك والتركيب حيث تنقلا,"For dissolving pains of cold diseases. Make it correct This way, and (make) the composition (correct) wherever it has been handed down."
مطاريح الشعاعات في مواليد الملوك وبنيهم,Appearances of rays that concern the nativities of rulers and their children.
وعلم مطاريح الشعاعات مشكل *** وضلع قسيها بمنطقة جلا,The knowledge of rays cast is difficult. The side of their bows shows itself in a belt [?].
ولكن في حج مقام إمامنا *** ويبدو إذا عرض الكواكب عدلا,"But on a pilgrimage, there is the place where our imam stands. He appears when the latitude of the stars is straightened out."
بدال مراكز بين طول وعرضها *** فمن أدرك المعنى علا ثم فوضلا,"There are positions whose longitude is made clear, And (also their) latitude. By reaching that, he becomes a junction [?]."
مواقع تربيع وسه مسقط *** لتسديسهم تثليث بيت التي تلا,"Places where there is a quartile with its sign in the dejection, Their sextile has the trine of the sign of the one that follows."
يزاد لتربيع وهذا قياسه *** يقينا وجذره وبالعين أعملا,"One adds to the quartile. That is its analogy In certainty, and its root [?]. With the ‘ayn, it is made to work."
ومن نسبة الربعين ركب شعاعك *** بصاد وضعفه وتربيعه انجلى,From the relationship of the two quarters combine your rays With a s and double it. Its quartile will thus show itself.
هذا العمل هنا للملوك والقانون مطرد عمله ولم ير أعجب منه. مقامات الملوك,This operation here concerns rulers. The operation of the rule is consistent. Nothing more remarkable has ever been seen. The position of rulers:
الانفعال الروحاني والانقياد الرباني,(On) being spiritually influenced and divinely guided:
أيا طالب السر لتهليل ربه *** لدى أسمائه الحسنى تصادف منهلا,"O student of the secret of praising (the oneness) of God, With the beautiful names of God you will hit upon a (possible) way."
تطيعك أخيار الأنام بقلبهم *** كذلك ريسهم وفي الشمس أعملا,"The Rabbis of mankind will obey you with their heart(s), As well as their chief. It is operated in the sun [??]."
ترى عامة الناس إليك تقيدوا *** وما قلته حقا وفي الغير أهملا,You will see all mankind tied to you ………………………………………..
إذا شئت تحيا في الوجود مع التقى *** ودينا متينا أو تكن متوصلا,"If you wish, you will live in (the world of) existence together with the fear of God And solid religion, or you will be firmly rooted"
كذي النون والجنيد مع سر صنعة *** وفي سر بسطام أراك مسر بلا,Like Dhu n-Nun and al-Junayd together with the secret of an art. I see you clothed in the secret of Bistam.
وفي العالم العلوي تكون محدثا *** كذا قالت الهند وصوفية الملا,"You will come into being created in the world on high, As the Indians have said, and the Sufi crowd."
طريق رسول الله بالحق ساطع *** وما حكم صنع مثل جبريل أنزلا,The path of the Messenger of God sparkles with the truth. No work of a quality similar to (that of) Gabriel has yet been invented.
فبطشك تهليل وقوسك مطلع *** ويوم الخميس البدء والأحد انجلى,"Your courage is saying, “There is no God but God,” and your bow is the (East where the sun) rises [?]. Thursday is the beginning. Sunday appears."
وفي جمعة أيضا بالأسماء مثله *** وفي اثنين للحسنى تكون مكملا,"On a Friday, too, the same (will be done [?]) with the names, And on Monday, you will perfect the beautiful names of God."
وفي طائه سر في هائه إذا *** أراك بها مع نسبة الكل أعطلا,"In its t, there is a secret, as well as in its h …………………………………………"
وتتلو عليها آخر الحشر دعوة *** والإخلاص والسبع المثاني مرتلا,"At the end of the Resurrection, it is followed by a prayer And sincere devotion, with the seven mathani being chanted."
(اتصال أنوار الكواكب),The junction of the lights of the stars:
وفي يدك اليمنى حديد وخاتم *** وكل برأسك وفي دعوة فلا,"In your right hand, there is an iron (ring) and a seal … but not in prayer."
وآية حشر فاجعل القلب وجهها *** واتلو إذا نام الأنام ورتلا,Make (your) heart the tablet (to write on) the verse of Resurrection. Recite and chant (it) when people are asleep.
هي السر في الأكوان لا شيء غيرها *** هي الآية العظمى فحقق وحصلا,"It is the secret contained in the created beings; there is nothing but it. It is the greatest verse. Therefore, make (it) accurate and get (it)."
تكون بها قطبا إذا جدت خدمة *** وتدرك أسرارا من العالم العلا,"Through it, you will become a “pole” if you serve well. You will perceive secrets from the world on high."
سري بها ناجي ومعروف قبله *** وباح بها الحلاج جهرا فأعقلا؟,"Sari communicated them and, after him, Ma`ruf Al-Hallaj divulged them and was killed."
وكان بها الشبلي يدأب دائما *** إلى أن رقى فوق المريدين واعتلى,"Ash-Shibli always worked on them, Until he went up higher than the (ordinary) Sufis and was exalted."
فصف من الأدناس قلبك جاهدا *** ولازم لاذكار وصم وتنقلا,"Therefore, clean your heart eagerly from impurities. Practice dhikr exercises constantly. Fast. Do supererogatory devotions."
فما نال سر القوم إلا محقق *** عليم بأسرار العلوم محصلا,The secret of the people (the mystics) has been attained only by thorough (devotees) Who knew the secret of the sciences and were competent.
مقامات المحبة وميل النفوس والمجاهدة والطاعة والعبادة وحب وتعشق وفناء الفناء وتوجه ومراقبة وخلة وأئمة,"The position of love, of the inclination of the souls, of exertion, obedience, worship, love, infatuation, annihilation of annihilation (nonbeing), devotion, observance, and friendship with permanent physical passivity."
لبرجيس في المحبة الوفق صرفوا *** بقزدير أو نحاس الخلط أكملا,"Birjis has the magic square for love. The mixture has been prepared with tin or copper which were caused to work,"
وقيل بفضة صحيحا رأيته *** فجعلك طالعا خطوطه ما علا,Or with silver. Correct I have seen it: Your making its lucky position an ascendant is not improper.
توخ به زيادة النور للقمر *** وجعلك للقبول شمسه أصلا,Try to get through it an increase of light for the moon. Your making its sun ready to accept is something firmly grounded.
ويومه والبخور عود لهندهم *** ووقت لساعة ودعوته ألا,"Put it to sleep with the incense being aloe wood belonging to their India, And fix an hour. Its prayer is a benefit [?]."
ودعوته بغاية فهي أعملت *** وعن طسيمان دعوة ولها جلا,"Its prayer is for a purpose. Thus, it is caused to work. Its prayer from Taysaman, which is ornamented,"
وقيل بدعوة حروف لوضعها *** بحر هواء أو مطالب أهلا,"Is used, or a prayer for whose composition letters Or problems are prepared with hot air."
فتنقش أحرفا بدال ولأمها *** وذلك وفق للمربع حصلا,You shall engrave letters with d and its l. That is a magic square which consists of sixteen fields.
إذا لم يكن يهوى هواك دلالها *** فدال ليبدو واو زينب معطلا,"If their indication [?] does not please you, ……………………………………….."
فحسن لبائه وبائهم إذا *** هواك وباقيهم قليلة جملا,"Make good its b, and bring them away to That which pleases you. The small remainder of them is summarized."
ونقش مشاكل بشرط لوضعهم *** وما زدت أنسبه لفعلك عدلا,"Engrave certain shapes from some of them. Whatever you add, make it proportionate, equal to your action"
ومفتاح مريم ففعلهما سوا *** فبوري وبسطامي بسورتها تلا,"And the key of Maryam. For the actions of both of them are alike. A call went out, and a Bistami recited her (Maryam’s) surah."
وجعلك بالقصد وكن متفقدا *** أدلة وحشي لقبضة ميلا,Let your acting (be) with support. Search for The proofs of a savage person who was set up for his text.
فاعكس بيوتها بألف ونيف *** فباطنها سر وفي سرها انجلا,"Turn over its houses with a thousand and more. Inside it, there is a secret. In the search for it, it has become apparent."
فصل في المقامات للنهاية,On the stations for the end.
لك الغيب صورة من العالم العلا *** وتوجدها دار أو ملبسها الحلا,"You have the supernatural, a picture from the world on high. You make it find a house. Its clothing is jewelry."
ويوسف في الحسن وهذا شبيهه *** بنثر وترتيل حقيقة أنزلا,"Beautiful like Joseph-this one, similar to him, Was sent down with . . . and a chant of reality."
وفي يده طول وفي الغيب ناطق *** فيحكي إلى عود يجاوب بلبلا,He is powerful and speaks about the supernatural. He resembles a lute that competes with a nightingale.
وقد جن بهلول بعشق جمالها *** وعند تجليها لبسطام أخذلا,"Buhlul went crazy from love of her beauty. When she appeared to Bistam, he was forsaken"
ومات أجليه وأشرب حبها *** جنيد وبصرى والجسم أهملا,"And died. . . . The love of her was instilled into Junayd and Basri. They (he) neglected (their, his) body."
فتطلب في التهليل غايته ومن *** بأسمائه الحسنى بلا نسبة خلا,"The ultimate in praise (of the oneness) of God is sought. Whoever has God’s beautiful names for himself without any relationship,"
ومن صاحب الحسنى له الفوز بالمنى *** ويسهم بالزلفى لدى جيرة العلا,"And whoever possesses them, succeeds with wisdom And attains nearness to the neighbors of (the world) on high."
وتخبر بالغيب إذا جدت خدمة *** تريك عجائبا بمن كان موئلا,"You will be informed about the supernatural, if you render good service, Which will show you remarkable things, to Him who is a refuge."
فهذا هو الفوز وحسن تناله *** ومنها زيادات لتفسيرها تلا,"This is true success. (It is) goodness that attains it. From (those things), there result additions for their interpretation which follows [?]."
الوصية والتختم والإيمان والإسلام والتحريم والاهلية,"Testament, final statement, faith, Islam, prohibition, and suitability."
فهذا قصيدنا وتسعون عده *** وما زاد خطبة وختما وجدولا,"This is our poem. Ninety is its number And the additional (verses) for introduction, end, and table."
عجبت لابيات وتسعون عدها *** تولد أبياتا وما حصرها انجلا,"I am surprised by verses, whose number is ninety, Which produce (more) verses whose complete number is not apparent."
فمن فهم السر فيفهم نفسه *** ويفهم تفسيرا تشابه أشكلا,"Whosoever understands the secret, let him understand himself, And let him understand an ambiguous commentary which is difficult,"
حرام وشرعي لإظهار سرنا *** لناس وان خصوا وكان التأهلا,"Forbidden and lawful, in order to show our secret To people, even if they are a select group and have the suitable qualification."
فان شئت أهليه فغلظ يمينهم *** وتفهم برحلة ودين تطولا,"If you want people suitable for it, place them under a strong oath. Maltreat them with manliness and extended religiosity."
لعلك أن تنجو وسامع سرهم *** من القطع والافشا فترأس بالعلا,"Perhaps you will be saved, as well as the one who hears their secret, From deciding to divulge (it), and you will become a chief on high."
فنجل لعباس لسره كاتم *** فنال سعادات وتابعه علا,"A son of ‘Abbas keeps his secret hidden. Thus, he obtained much happiness, and high rank followed him."
وقام رسول الله في الناس خاطبا *** فمن يرأس عرشا فذلك أكملا,"The Messenger of God rose among the people as preacher, ……………………………………….."
وقد ركب الأرواح أجساد مظهر *** فآلت لقتلهم بدق تطولا,"The spirits have boarded bodies to manifest themselves [?], And have applied themselves, in order to kill them, by prolonged knocking"
إلى العالم العلوي يفنى فناؤنا *** ويلبس أثواب الوجود على الولا,"At the high world. Our nonexistence becomes nonexistent, And we put on the garment of existence in succession."
فقد تم نظمأ وصلى إلهنا *** على خاتم الرسل صلاة بها العلا,"Our rhyming is completed. Pray, our God, For the seal of the messengers a prayer that will effect exaltation."
وصلى إله العرش ذو المجد والعلا *** على سيد ساد الأنام وكملا,"Pray, O God of the throne, Glorious and Exalted, For a lord who ruled and perfected mankind,"
محمد الهادي الشفيع إمامنا *** وأصحابه أهل المكارم والعلا,"Muhammad, the guide, the intercessor, our leader, And (pray for) the men around him, the noble, exalted people."
كيفية العمل في استخراج أجوبة المسائل من زايرجة العالم بحول الله منقولا عمن لقيناه من القائمين عليها,The procedure of finding answers from questions through the Za’irajah of the World with the help of the might of God.
السؤال له ثلاثمائة وستون جوابا عدة الدرج، وتختلف الأجوبة عن سؤال واحد في طالع مخصوص باختلاف الأسئلة المضافة إلى حروف الأوتار، وتناسب العمل من استخراج الأحرف من بيت القصيد.,"A question may have three hundred and sixty answers, according to the degrees (of the firmament). The answers to one question under a given ascendant differ in accordance with different questions (forming part of the question asked), which are referred to the letters of the chords of the za’irajah and (in accordance with) the operation applied to finding out the letters from the verse of the poem."
(تنبيه) – تركيب حروف الأوتار والجدول على ثلاثة أصول: حروف عربية تنقل على هيئاتها، وحروف برسم الغبار. وهذه تتبدل: فمنها ما ينقل على هيئته متى لم تزد الأدوار عن أربعة، فإن زادت عن أربعة نقلت إلى المرتبة الثانية من مرتبة العشرات، وكذلك لمرتبة المئين على حسب العمل كما سنبينه، ومنها حروف برسم الزمام كذلك، غير أن رسم الزمام يعطي نسبة ثانية، فهي بمنزلة واحد ألف وبمنزلة عشرة، ولها نسبة من خمسة بالعربي،,"Note: The letters of the chords and the table are composed of three basic types. (1) Arabic letters, which are taken at their face value (as numerals). (2) Ghubar letters. They are treated differently. Some are taken at their face value, when there are no more than four cycles. If there are more than four, they are used as tens as well as hundreds, as required by the operation, as we shall explain. (3) Zimam letters. They are treated in the same way (as ghubar letters). However, the zimam letters offer another possibility. One may be used as one thousand and ten (as ten thousand), and they (may be used) in the proportion of five (to one) in relation to the Arabic letters [?]."
فاستحق البيت من الجدول أن توضع فيه ثلاثة حروف في هذا الرسم وحرفان في الرسم، فاختصروا من الجدول بيوتا خالية. فمتى كانت أصول الأدوار زائدة على أربعة حسبت في العدد في طول الجدول، وإن لم تزد على أربعة لم يحسب إلا العامر منها.,"One may place in (each) field of the table three letters of this type and two of the (other) type. Empty fields may be left in the table. If there are more than four basic cycles, (the empty fields) are counted in vertically. If there are no more than four, only the filled fields are counted."
والعمل في السؤال يفتقر إلى سبعة أصول:,The operation with the question requires seven principles.
عدة حروف الأول حساب أدوارها بعد طرحها، اثني عشر اثني عشر، وهي ثمانية أحرف في الكامل وستة في الناقص أبدا. ومعرفة درج الطالع وسلطان البرج، والدور الأكبر الأصلي، وهو واحد أبدا.,"(1) The number of the letters of the chords. (2) The retention of their cycles after division by twelve. There are always eight cycles in the complete one, and six in the incomplete one. (3) The knowledge of the degree of the ascendant. (4) The ruler of the sign (of the zodiac). (5) The greatest principal cycle, which is always one. (6)"
وما يخرج من إضافة الطالع للدور الأصلي، وما يخرج من ضرب الطالع والدور في سلطان البرج. وإضافة سلطان البرج للطالع والعمل جميعه ينتج عن ثلاثة أدوار مضروبة في أربعة، تكون اثني عشر دورا.,"The result of adding the ascendant to the principal cycle. And (7) the result of multiplying ascendant plus cycle by the ruler of the sign (of the zodiac), and (8) of the ruler of the sign (of the zodiac) added to the ascendant. The whole operation takes place in three cycles multiplied by four, thus making twelve cycles."
ونسبة هذه الثلاثة الأدوار التي هي كل دور من أربعة نشأة ثلاثية، كل نشأة لها ابتداء. ثم إنها تضرب أدوارا رباعية أيضا ثلاثية. ثم إنها من ضرب ستة في اثنين، فكان لها نشأة، يظهر ذلك في العمل. ويتبع هذه الأدوار الاثني عشر نتائج، وهي في الأدوار، إما أن تكون نتيجة أو أكثر إلى ستة.,"The relationship of these three cycles, which are [. . .] each growth having a beginning. Then, they are multiplied as quadruple cycles as well as triple cycles [?]. Then, they may be the result of six multiplied by two, and thus have a(nother) growth. This is something apparent in the operation. These cycles are followed by “results.” They are in [?] the cycles. There may be one result, or more than one, up to six."
فأول ذلك نفرض سؤالا عن الزايرجة، هل هي علم قديم، أو محدث بطالع أول درجة من القوس أثناء حروف الأوتار؟ ثم حروف السؤال. فوضعنا حروف وتر رأس القوس ونظيره من رأس الجوزاء. وثالثه وتر رأس الدلو إلى حد المركز، وأضفنا إليه حروف السؤال، ونظرنا عدتها وأقل ما تكون ثمانية وثمانين، وأكثر ما تكون ستة وتسعين، وهي جملة الدور الصحيح، فكانت في سؤالنا ثلاثة وتسعين. ويختصر السؤال إن زاد عن ستة وتسعين، بأن يسقط جميع أدواره الاثني عشرية،,"Now, to begin with, let us assume that someone asks, “Is the za’irajah a modern or an ancient science?” The ascendant is in the first degree of Sagittarius. Thus, we place the letters of the chord of the beginning of Sagittarius and the corresponding chord of the beginning of Gemini and, in the third place, the chord of the beginning of Aquarius up to the limit of the center. We add to it the letters of the questions. We look at the number of (the letters). The smallest number there can be is eighty-eight, and the largest ninetysix. This is the total of a complete cycle. Our question consists of ninety-three letters. If the question contained more than ninety-six letters, it would be shortened by dropping all twelve cycles."
ويحفظ ما خرج منها وما بقي، فكانت في سؤالنا سبعة أدوار، الباقي تسعة، أثبتها في الحروف ما لم يبلغ الطالع اثنتي عشرة درجة، فإن بلغها لم تثبت لها عدة ولا دور.,"One keeps what comes out from them and what remains. In our question, there are seven cycles. The remainder is nine. They are set down among the letters, as long as the ascendant has not reached twelve degrees. If it has reached twelve degrees, no number or cycle is set down for them."
ثم تثبت أعدادها أيضا إن زاد الطالع عن أربعة وعشرين في الوجه الثالث، ثم تثبت الطالع وهو واحد، وسلطان الطالع وهو أربعة، والدور الأكبر وهو واحد،,"But their numbers are again set down, when the ascendant has reached more than twenty-four degrees in the third decan. The ascendant is then set down as one, the ruler of the ascendant (the sign of the zodiac) as four, and the greatest cycle as one."
واجمع ما بين الطالع والدور وهو اثنان في هذا السؤال، واضرب ما خرج منهما في سلطان البرج يبلغ ثمانية، وأضف السلطان للطالع فيكون خمسة، فهذه سبعة أصول.,"The total of ascendant and cycle is added up, and, in this question, makes two. This total is multiplied by the ruler of the sign. This is eight. The ruler is added to the ascendant. This is five. These are (the) seven principles."
فما خرج من ضرب الطالع والدور الأكبر في سلطان القوس، مما لم يبلغ اثني عشر فيه تدخل في ضلع ثمانية من أسفل الجدول صاعدا، وإن زاد على اثني عشر طرح أدوارا، وتدخل بالباقي في ضلع ثمانية،,"The result of multiplying the ascendant and the greatest cycle by the ruler of Sagittarius, when it is less than twelve, is entered at the “side of eight” from the bottom of the table upward. When it is more than twelve, it is divided in cycles. The remainder is entered at the side of eight."
وتعلم على منتهى العدد والخمسة المستخرجة من السلطان والطالع، يكون الطالع في ضلع السطح المبسوط الأعلى من الجدول، وتعد متواليا خمسات أدوارا، وتحفظها إلى أن يقف العدد على حرف من أربعة، وهي ألف أو باء أو جيم أو زاي. فوقع العدد في عملنا على حرف الألف وخلف ثلاثة أدوار،,"A mark is put upon the end of the number. The five that is the result of the addition of ruler and ascendant is what is entered on the side of the uppermost large surface of the table. One counts, consecutively, groups of five cycles and keeps them until the number stops opposite the fields of the table that are filled. If it stops opposite one of the empty fields of the table, one should not pay any attention and go on with the cycles, until one reaches one of four letters, namely, alif, b, j, or z. In our operation, the number falls upon alifand leaves three cycles behind."
فضربنا ثلاثة في ثلاثة كانت تسعة، وهو عدد الدور الأول. فأثبته واجمع ما بين الضلعين: القائم والمبسوط يكن في بيت ثمانية في مقابلة البيوت العامرة بالعدد من الجدول،,"Thus, we multiply three by three, which gives nine. That is the number of the first cycle. This must be set down. The total between the vertical and long sides must be added up. Then it will be in the field of eight."
وأدخل بعدد ما في الدور الأول، وذلك تسعة في صدر الجدول مما يلي البيت الذي اجتمعا فيه، وهي ثمانية، مارا إلى جهة اليسار،,"The number in the first cycle, which is nine, must be entered in the front (recto) of the table adjacent to the field in which the two are brought together, going towards the left, which is (the field of) eight."
فوقع على حرف لام ألف ولا يخرج منها أبدا حرف مركب. وإنما هو إذن حرف تاء أربعمائة برسم الزمام، فعلم عليها بعد نقلها من بيت القصيد، واجمع عدد الدور للسلطان يبلغ ثلاثة عشر، أدخل بها في حروف الأوتار، وأثبت ما وقع عليه العدد وعلم عليه من بيت القصيد.,"It thus falls upon the letter lam-alif, but no composite letter ever comes out of it. It thus is just the letter t – four hundred in zimam letters A mark is put on it, after removing it, (indicating that it belongs) to the verse of the poem. Then, one adds up the numbers of the cycle of the ruler. one gets thirteen, which is entered among the letters of the chords. One sets down (the letter) upon which the number falls and puts a mark upon it, (indicating that it belongs to) the verse of the poem."
ومن هذا القانون تدري كم تدور الحروف في النظم الطبيعي، وذلك أن تجمع حروف الدور الأول وهو تسعة لسلطان البرج وهو أربعة تبلغ ثلاثة عشر، أضعفها بمثلها تكون ستة وعشرين، أسقط منها درج الطالع وهو واحد في هذا السؤال الباقي خمسة وعشرون.,"This rule shows how much the letters circulate according to the natural order. This is as follows. One adds the letter of the first cycle, which is nine, to the ruler of the sign (of the zodiac), which is four. Thus, one gets thirteen. This is doubled. Thus, one gets twenty-six. From this, one subtracts the degree of the ascendant, which, in this particular question, is one. Thus, there remains twentyfive."
فعلى ذلك يكون نظم الحروف الأول، ثم ثلاثة وعشرون مرتين، ثم اثنان وعشرون مرتين، على حسب هذا الطرح إلى أن ينتهي للواحد من آخر البيت المنظوم.,"Accordingly, the first order of the letter , then twenty-three twice, then twenty-two twice, according to that subtraction, until the (procedure) reaches one at the end of the rhymed verse."
ولا تقف على أربعة وعشرين لطرح ذلك الواحد أولا. ثم ضع الدور الثاني وأضف حروف الدور الأول إلى ثمانية، الخارجة من ضرب الطالع والدور في السلطان تكن سبعة عشر الباقي خمسة.,"One does not stop at twenty-four, because the one (which would make twenty-four out of twentyfive) had originally been subtracted. Then, one takes the second cycle and adds the letters of the first cycle to the eight resulting from the multiplication of ascendant and cycle by the ruler. This gives seventeen. The remainder is five."
فاصعد في ضلع ثمانية بخمسة من حيث انتهيت في الدور الأول وعلم عليه، وأدخل في صدر الجدول بسبعة عشر، ثم بخمسة.,"Thus, one goes up five on the side of eight from where one had stopped in the first cycle. One puts a mark on (that place). One enters seventeen on the front (recto) of the table, and then five."
ولا تعد الخالي، والدور عشرون، فوجدنا حرف ثاء خمسمائة، وإنما هو نون لأن دورنا في مرتبة العشرات، فكانت الخمسمائة بخمسين لأن دورها سبعة عشر فلو لم تكن سبعة عشر لكانت مئين.,"One does not count empty fields. The cycle is that of tens. We find the letter th – five hundred, but it (counts the same as) n, because our cycle represents the tens. Thus, five hundred is (counted as) fifty, because its cycle is seventeen. If it had been twentyseven, it would have been in the hundreds."
فأثبت نونا ثم أدخل بخمسة أيضا من أوله. وانظر ما حاذى ذلك من السطح تجد واحدا، فقهقر العدد واحدا يقع على خمسة، أضف لها واحدا لسطح تكن ستة.,"Thus, one sets down an n. Then, one enters five, also from the beginning, and notes what (number of) the surface it confronts. It is found to be one. One reverses the number one. It falls upon five. One adds the one of the surface to five, and gets six."
أثبت واوا وعلم عليها من بيت القصيد أربعة، وأضفها للثمانية الخارجة من ضرب الطالع مع الدور في السلطان تبلغ اثني عشر، أضف لها الباقي من الدور الثاني وهو خمسة تبلغ سبعة عشر، وهو ما للدور الثاني.,"One sets down a w and marks it with four [?] (as belonging) to the verse of the poem. One adds them to the eight which was the result of the multiplication of ascendant and cycle by the ruler. Thus, one gets twelve. The remainder of the second cycle, namely five, is added to twelve. Thus, one gets seventeen. That is something that belongs to the second cycle."
فدخلنا بسبعة عشر في حروف الأوتار، فوقع العدد على واحد. أثبت الألف وعلم عليها من بيت القصيد وأسقط من حروف الأوتار ثلاثة حروف عدة الخارج من الدور الثاني، وضع الدور الثالث وأضف خمسة إلى ثمانية تكن ثلاثة عشر، الباقي واحد.,"Thus, we enter seventeen among the letters of the chords. The number falls upon one. Thus, one sets down alif and puts a mark upon it (as belonging) to the verse of the poem. Of the letters of the chords, one drops three, the number of the result of the second cycle. Then, one makes the third cycle. One adds five to eight and gets thirteen. The remainder is one."
انقل الدور في ضلع ثمانية بواحد وأدخل في بيت القصيد بثلاثة عشر، وخذ ما وقع عليه العدد وهو (ق) وعلم عليه.,One moves the cycle at the side of eight by one. One enters thirteen into the verse of the poem. One takes the (letter) upon which the number falls. It is q. A mark is put upon it.
وأدخل بثلاثة عشر في حروف الأوتار وأثبت ما خرج، وهو سين، وعلم عليه من بيت القصيد، ثم أدخل مما يلي السين الخارجة بالباقي من دور ثلاثة عشر وهو واحد، فخذ مما يلي حرف سين من الأوتار فكان (ب) أثبتها وعلم عليها من بيت القصيد.,"Thirteen is entered among the letters of the chords. One sets down what comes out. It is s. A mark is put upon it (as belonging) to the verse of the poem. Then, the one which is the remainder of the cycle of thirteen is entered next to the resulting s. One takes the chord next to the letters. It is b. It is set down, and a mark (indicating that it belongs) to the verse of the poem is put upon it."
وهذا يقال له: الدور المعطوف، وميزانه صحيح، وهو أن تضعف ثلاثة عشر بمثلها، وتضيف إليها الواحد الباقي من الدور تبلغ سبعة وعشرين، وهو حرف باء المستخرج من الأوتار من بيت القصيد.,"This is called the “leaning cycle.” Its scale is correct. This is as follows. One doubles thirteen and adds to it the one which remains of the cycle. Thus, one gets twenty-seven. This is the letter b, which is derived from the chords (as belonging) to the verse of the poem."
وأدخل في صدر الجدول بثلاثة عشر، وانظر ما قابله من السطح وأضعفه بمثله، وزد عليه الواحد الباقي من ثلاثة عشر، فكان حرف جيم، وكانت للجملة سبعة، فذلك حرف زاي فأثبتناه وعلمنا عليه من بيت القصيد.,"Thirteen is entered at the front part of the table. One notes what (part of) the surface confronts it. One doubles it and adds to it the one which is the remainder of thirteen. This is the letter j. The total, thus, is seven. This is the letter z. We set it down and put a mark upon it (indicating that it belongs) to the verse of the poem."
وميزانه أن تضعف السبعة بمثلها وزد عليها الواحد الباقي من ثلاثة عشر يكن خمسة عشر، وهو الخامس عشر من بيت القصيد وهذا آخر أدوار الثلاثيات، وضع الدور الرابع وله من العدد تسعة بإضافة الباقي من الدور السابق، فاضرب الطالع مع الدور في السلطان، وهذا الدور آخر العمل في البيت الأول من الرباعيات.,"The scale of it is that one doubles seven and adds to it the one which is the remainder of thirteen. Thus, one gets fifteen. It is the fifteenth of the verse of the poem. This is the end of the triple cycles. Then, one makes the fourth cycle. It has the number nine, (obtained) by adding the remainder of the previous cycle. One then multiplies ascendant and cycle by the ruler. This cycle ends the operation in the first field of the quadruple (cycles)."
فاضرب على حرفين من الأوتار واصعد بتسعة في ضلع ثمانية وأدخل بتسعة من دور الحرف الذي أخذته آخرا من بيت القصيد، فالتاسع حرف راء، فأثبته وعلم عليه. وأدخل في صدر الجدول بتسعة وانظر ما قابلها من السطح يكون (ج)، قهقر العدد واحدا يكون ألف وهو الثاني من حرف الراء من بيت القصيد فأثبته وعلم عليه.,"Then, one picks two letters from the chords, goes up nine on the side of eight, and enters nine from the cycle of the letter which was taken last from the verse of the poem. The ninth is the letter r. It is set down, and a mark is put upon it. Then, nine is entered on the front (recto) of the table, and one notes what (letter of) the surface faces it. It is j. One reverses the number one. That is alif. This is the second after [?] the letter r (belonging) to the verse of the poem. It is set down, and a mark is put upon it."
وعد مما يلي الثاني تسعة يكون ألف أيضا أثبته وعلم عليه وأضرب على حرف من الأوتار، وأضعف تسعة بمثلها تبلغ ثمانية عشر، أدخل بها في حروف الأوتار تقف على حرف راء، أثبتها وعلم عليها من بيت القصيد ثمانية وأربعين.,"One counts nine, starting next to the second. It again is an alif. It is set down, and a mark is put upon it. Then, one picks a letter from the chords and doubles nine. This gives eighteen. One enters it among the letters of the chords and comes to a stop at the letter r. It is set down and marked with eight and four, (indicating that it belongs) to the verse of the poem."
وأدخل بثمانية عشر في حروف الأوتار تقف على (س) أثبتها وعلم عليها اثنين، وأضف اثنين إلى تسعة تكون أحد عشر. أدخل في صدر الجدول بأحد عشر تقابلها من السطح ألف أثبتها وعلم عليها ستة، وضع الدور الخامس وعدته سبعة عشر الباقي خمسة.,"Then, one enters eighteen among the letters of the chords and comes to a stop at the letter s. It is put down and marked with two. One adds two to nine, which is eleven, and enters eleven on the front (recto) of the table. It is confronted by an alif from the surface. It is set down and marked with six. Then, one makes the fifth cycle. Its number is seventeen. The remainder is five."
اصعد بخمسة في ضلع ثمانية واضرب على حرفين من الأوتار وأضعف خمسة بمثلها، وأضفها إلى سبعة عشر عدد دورها الجملة سبعة وعشرون، أدخل بها في حروف الأوتار تقع على (ب) أثبتها وعلم عليها اثنين وثلاثين واطرح من سبعة عشر اثنين التي هي في أس اثنين وثلاثين الباقي خمسة عشر.,"One goes up five on the side of eight. One picks two letters from the chords. One doubles five and adds the result to seventeen, the number of its cycle. The total is twenty-seven. It is entered among the letters of the chords. It falls upon t. It is set down and marked with thirtytwo. One subtracts the two which is at the base of thirtytwo, from seventeen. The remainder is fifteen."
أدخل في حروف الأوتار تقف على (ق) أثبتها وعلم عليها ستة وعشرين، وأدخل في صدر الجدول بست وعشرين تقف على اثنين بالغبار، وذلك حرف (ب) أثبته وعلم عليه أربعة وخمسين، وأضرب على حرفين من الأوتار وضع الدور السادس، وعدته ثلاثة عشر، الباقي منه واحد،,"One enters it among the letters of the chords and comes to a stop at q. It is set down and marked with twenty-six. On the front part of the table one enters twenty-six. One comes to a stop at two in ghubar letters. That is the letter b. It is entered and marked with fifty-four. Then, one picks two letters from the chords and makes the sixth cycle. Its number is thirteen. The remainder is one."
فتبين إذ ذاك أن دور النظم من خمسة وعشرين، فإن الأدوار خمسة وعشرون وسبعة عشر وخمسة وثلاثة عشر وواحد، فاضرب خمسة في خمسة تكن خمسة وعشرين، وهو الدور في نظم البيت، فانقل الدور في ضلع ثمانية بواحد.,"Thus, it becomes clear that the cycle of order (rhyming [?]) belongs to twenty-five. The cycles are ninety [?]-five, seventeen, five, thirteen, and one. One multiplies five by five which gives twentyfive. This is the cycle in the order of the verse. One removes the cycle on the side of eight by one."
ولكن لم يدخل في بيت القصيد بثلاثة عشر كما قدمناه، لأنه دور ثان من نشأة تركيبية ثانية، بل أضفنا الأربعة التي من أربعة وخمسين الخارجة على حروف (ب) من بيت القصيد إلى الواحد تكون خمسة، تضيف خمسة إلى ثلاثة عشر التي للدور تبلغ ثمانية عشر، أدخل بها في صدر الجدول وخذ ما قابلها من السطح وهو ألف، أثبته وعلم عليه من بيت القصيد اثني عشر واضرب على حرفين من الأوتار.,"But, as we have mentioned before, thirteen is not entered in the verse of the poem, because it is a second cycle of a second compositional growth. But we add to one the four that belongs to the fifty-four which led to b (as belonging) to the verse of the poem. This gives five. One adds five to the thirteen that belongs to the cycle, and gets eighteen. One enters it on the front (recto) of the table and takes (the letter of) the surface that confronts it. It is alif. It is set down and marked with twelve, (as belonging) to the verse of the poem. One picks two letters from the chords."
ومن هذا الجدول تنظر أحرف السؤال، فما خرج منها زده مع بيت القصيد من آخره وعلم عليه من حروف السؤال ليكون داخلا في العدد في بيت القصيد، وكذلك تفعل بكل حرف بعد ذلك مناسبا لحروف السؤال، فما خرج منها زده إلى بيت القصيد من آخره وعلم عليه، ثم أضف إلى ثمانية عشر ما علمته على حرف الألف من الآحاد، فكان اثنين تبلغ الجملة عشرين.,"At this point, one looks at the letters of the question. The (letters) that have come out (in the preceding operation) are paired with the verse of the poem, beginning at the end. One marks them with the letters of the question, so that it enters numerically into the verse of the poem. The same is done with every letter that comes out hereafter, in correspondence with the letters of the question. All the letters coming out are paired with the verse of the poem, beginning at the end, and a mark is put on them. Then, one adds to eighteen the units with which one has marked the letter alif. They come to two. Thus, one gets a total of twenty."
أدخل بها في حروف الأوتار تقف على حرف راء، أثبته وعلم عليه من بيت القصيد، ستة وتسعين وهو نهاية الدور في الحرف الوتري.,"One enters it among the letters of the chords and comes to a stop at the letter r. It is set down and marked with ninety-six, (as belonging) to the verse of the poem. This is the end of the cycle with regard to chord letters."
فاضرب على حرفين من الأوتار وضع الدور السابع، وهو ابتداء لمخترع ثان ينشأ من الاختراعين. ولهذا الدور من العدد تسعة، تضيف لها واحدا تكون عشرة للنشأة الثانية، وهذا الواحد تزيده بعد إلى اثني عشر دورا، إذا كان من هذه النسبة، أو تنقصه من الأصل تبلغ الجملة خمسة عشر. فاصعد في ضلع ثمانية وتسعين وأدخل في صدر الجدول بعشرة تقف على خمسمائة، وإنما هي خمسون، نون مضاعفة بمثلها،,"Then, one picks two letters from the chords and makes the seventh cycle. It is the beginning of the second of the two “inventions.” This cycle contains the number nine. One adds one to it. Thus, one gets ten for the second growth. This one is added later on to twelve cycles, if it belongs to that proportion, or it is taken away from the principal (cycle). Thus, one gets a total of ten. One goes up on the side of ninety-eight, enters ten on the front (recto) of the table, and gets thus to stop at five hundred. It is, however, (counted) only as fifty, n. It is to be doubled."
وتلك (ق) أثبتها وعلم عليها من بيت القصيد اثنين وخمسين، وأسقط من اثنين وخمسين اثنين، وأسقط تسعة التي للدور، الباقي واحد وأربعون، فأدخل بها في حروف الأوتار تقف على واحد أثبته.,"Thus, it is q. It is set down and marked with fifty-two (as belonging) to the verse of the poem. Two is dropped from fifty-two, and the nine which belongs to the cycle is dropped. The remainder is forty-one. One enters it among the letters of the chords and thus comes to a stop at one, which is set down."
وكذلك أدخل بها في بيت القصيد تجد واحدا، فهذا ميزان هذه النشأة الثانية فعلم عليه من بيت القصيد علامتين. علامة على الألف الأخير الميزاني، وأخرى على الألف الأولى فقط، والثانية أربعة وعشرون واضرب على حرفين من الأوتار، وضع الدور الثامن وعدته سبعة عشر الباقي خمسة، أدخل في ضلع ثمانية وخمسين وأدخل في بيت القصيد بخمسة تقع على عين بسبعين، أثبتها وعلم عليها.,"One also enters (forty-one) in the verse of the poem and thus finds one. This is the scale of the second growth. It is marked with two signs (as belonging) to the verse of the poem, one (which is put) upon the last alif of the scale, and another upon the first alif. The second is twenty-four. Then, one picks two letters from the chords and makes the eighth cycle. Its number is seventeen. The remainder is five. One enters (it) on the side of fifty-eight, enters five in the verse of the poem, and thus comes to a stop at ‘ayn, seventy. It is set down, and a mark is put upon it."
وأدخل في الجدول بخمسة، وخذ ما قابلها من السطح، وذلك واحد، أثبته وعلم عليه من البيت ثمانية وأربعين، وأسقط واحدا من ثمانية وأربعين للأس الثاني وأضف إليها خمسة، الدور. الجملة اثنان وخمسون.,"Five is entered in the table. One takes the (number) of the surface confronting it. It is one. It is set down and marked with forty-eight, (as belonging) to [?]the verse. One drops one from forty-eight for the second base and adds to it the five of the cycle. The total is fiftytwo."
أدخل بها في صدر الجدول تقف على حرف (ب) غبارية وهي مرتبة مئينية لتزايد العدد، فتكون مائتين وهي حرف راء، أثبتها وعلم عليها من القصيد أربعة وعشرين، فانتقل الأمر من ستة وتسعين إلى الابتداء وهو أربعة وعشرون، فأضف إلى أربعة وعشرين خمسة، الدور، وأسقط واحدا تكون الجملة ثمانية وعشرين.,"That is entered on the front (recto) of the table. One thus comes to a stop at the ghubar letter two. It is in the order of hundreds, because it should be a larger number. Thus, it is (counted as) two hundred, which is the letter r. It is set down and marked with twenty-four; (as belonging) to the verse of the poem. Having reached ninetysix, the whole thing starts from the beginning, which is twenty-four. One adds the five of the cycle to twenty-four and drops one. The total is twentyeight."
أدخل بالنصف منها في بيت القصيد تقف على ثمانية، أثبت (2) وعلم عليها وضع الدور التاسع، وعدده ثلاثة عشر الباقي واحد، اصعد في ضلع ثمانية بواحد.,"One enters half of it in the verse of the poem and thus comes to a stop at eight. Thus, h is set down, and a mark is put upon it. One makes the ninth cycle. Its number is thirteen. The remainder is one. One goes up one on the side of eight."
وليست نسبة العمل هنا كنسبتها في الدور السادس لتضاعف العدد، ولأنه من النشأة الثانية، ولأنه أول الثلث الثالث من مربعات البروج وآخر الستة الرابعة من المثلثات.,"Here the operation does not follow the same procedure as in the sixth cycle, because the number should be many times larger. Also, the (cycle) belongs to the second growth and is the beginning of the third third of the quadruple (arrangement) of the signs of the zodiac and the end of the third fourth of the triple (arrangement)."
فاضرب ثلاثة عشر التي للدور في أربعة التي هي مثلثات البروج السابقة، الجملة اثنان وخمسون، أدخل بها في صدر الجدول تقف على حرف اثنين غبارية، وإنما هي مئينية لتجاوزها في العدد عن مرتبتي الآحاد والعشرات، فأثبته مائتين راء، وعلم عليها من بيت القصيد ثمانية وأربعين، وأضف إلى ثلاثة عشر، الدور، واحد الأس، وأدخل بأربعة عشر في بيت القصيد تبلغ ثمانية، فعلم عليها ثمانية وعشرين، واطرح من أربعة عشر سبعة يبقى سبعة اضرب على حرفين من الأوتار، وأدخل بسبعة تقف على حرف لام، أثبته وعلم عليه من البيت.,"Thus, one multiplies the thirteen of the cycle by the four that is (the number of) the preceding triple (arrangement) of the signs of the zodiac. The total is fiftytwo. One enters it on the front (recto) of the table and thus comes to a stop at the ghubar letter two. However, it is in the hundreds, having gone beyond the units and tens. Therefore, it is set down as two hundred, r, and marked with forty-eight, (as belonging) to the verse of the poem. One adds the one of the base to the thirteen of the cycle, enters fourteen in the verse of the poem, and thus comes to a stop at h. It is marked with twenty-eight. Seven is subtracted from fourteen. There remains seven. Then, one picks two letters from the chords. One enters seven and thus comes to a stop at the letter l. It is set down, and a mark (indicating that it belongs) to the verse is put on it."
وضع الدور العاشر وعدده تسعة، وهذا ابتداء المثلثة الرابعة، واصعد في ضلع ثمانية بتسعة، تكون خلاء، فاصعد بتسعة ثانية تصير في السابع من الابتداء. اضرب تسعة في أربعة لصعودنا بتسعتين، وإنما كانت تضرب في اثنين، وأدخل في الجدول بستة وثلاثين تقف على أربعة زمامية وهي عشرية، فأخذناها أحادية لقلة الأدوار، فأثبت حرف دال، وإن أضفت إلى ستة وثلاثين واحد الأس كان حدها من بيت القصيد، فعلم عليها،,"Then, one makes the tenth cycle. Its number is nine. It is the beginning of the fourth triple (arrangement). One goes up nine on the side of eight. There is an empty (field). One goes up another nine and gets into the seventh (field) from the beginning. One multiplies nine by four, because we have gone up twice nine, so that (nine) was only multiplied by two. One enters thirty-six in the table and thus comes to a stop at the zimam letter four. It should be in the tens, but we take is as a unit, because there are too few cycles. Thus, the letter d is set down. If one adds the one of the base to thirtysix, its limit [?] belongs to the verse of the poem. A mark is put upon it."
ولو دخلت بالتسعة لا غير من ضرب في صدر الجدول لوقف على ثمانية، فاطرح من ثمانية أربعة الباقي أربعة وهو المقصود. ولو دخلت في صدر الجدول بثمانية عشر التي هي تسعة في اثنين لوقف على واحد زمامي وهو عشري، فاطرح منه اثنين تكرار التسعة، الباقي ثمانية نصفها المطلوب. ولو دخلت في صدر الجدول بسبعة وعشرين بضربها في ثلاثة لوقعت على عشرة زمامية، والعمل واحد.,"If one had entered on the front (recto) of the table nine and nothing else, without multiplication, one would have come to a stop at eight. Thus, one divides forty-eight (by twelve). The remainder is four. This is what one wants. If one had entered eighteen, which is nine multiplied by two, on the front (recto) of the table, one would have come to a stop at the zimam letter one, which belongs to the tens. One subtracts two, which was used to double the nine. The remainder is eight, half of which is (four. Again, this is) what one looks for. If, by multiplying (nine) by three, one were to enter twenty-seven on the front (recto) of the table, one would come to a stop at the zimam letter ten. The operation is the same."
ثم أدخل بتسعة في بيت القصيد وأثبت ما خرج وهو ألف، ثم اضرب تسعة في ثلاثة التي هي مركب تسعة الماضية وأسقط واحدا وأدخل في صدر الجدول بستة وعشرين، وأثبت ما خرج وهو مائتان بحرف راء وعلم عليه من بيت القصيد ستة وتسعين.,"Then, nine is entered into the verse of the poem. (The letter) which comes out is set down. It is alif. Then, one multiplies nine with the three which is the component of the previous nine, drops one, and enters twenty-six in the front (recto) of the table. The number that comes out – two hundred -is set down with the letter r. It is marked with ninetysix, (as belonging) to the verse of the poem."
واضرب على حرفين من الأوتار وضع الدور الحادي عشر وله سبعة عشر الباقي خمسة، اصعد في ضلع ثمانية بخمسة وتحسب ما تكرر عليه المشي في الدور الأول، وأدخل في صدر الجدول بخمسة تقف على خال، فخذ ما قابله من السطح وهو واحد، فأدخل بواحد في بيت القصيد تكن سين، أثبته وعلم عليه أربعة.,"Then, one picks two letters from the chords and makes the eleventh cycle. It has (the number) seventeen. The remainder is five. One goes up five on the side of eight, corresponding to what had been undertaken in the first cycle. One enters four on the front (recto) of the table and comes to a stop at an empty (field). One takes (the number of) the surface which confronts it. It is one. Thus, one enters one into the verse of the poem. This is r-s It is set down and marked with four."
ولو يكون الوقف في الجدول على بيت عامر لأثبتنا الواحد ثلاثة. وأضعف سبعة عشر بمثلها وأسقط واحدا وأضعفها بمثلها وزدها أربعة تبلغ سبعة وثلاثين، أدخل بها في الأوتار تقف على ستة أثبتها وعلم عليها، وأضعف خمسة بمثلها. وأدخل في البيت تقف على لام أثبتها وعلم عليها عشرين، واضرب على حرفين من الأوتار. وضع الدور الثاني عشر وله ثلاثة عشر الباقي واحد،,"If we had come to a stop at a filled field of the table, we would have set down the one as three. One doubles seventeen, drops the one, and adds four. Thus, one gets thirtyseven. One enters it in the chords and comes to a stop at h It is entered and marked with five. One doubles five, enters (ten) into the verse, and thus comes to a stop at l. It is set down and marked with twenty. Then, one picks two letters from the chords and makes the twelfth cycle. It has (the number) thirteen. The remainder is one."
اصعد في ضلع ثمانية بواحد، وهذا الدور آخر الأدوار وآخر الاختراعين وآخر المربعات الثلاثية وآخر المثلثات الرباعية. والواحد في صدر الجدول يقع على ثمانين زمامية، وإنما هي آحاد ثمانية، وليس معنا من الأدوار إلا واحد، فلو زاد عن أربعة من مربعات اثني عشر أو ثلاثة من مثلثات اثني عشر لكانت (ح)، وإنما هي (د)، فأثبتها وعلم عليها من بيت القصيد أربعة وسبعين،,"One goes up one on the side of eight. This cycle is the last cycle, the end of the two inventions, the end of the three quadruple (arrangements), and the end of the four triple (arrangements). The one on the front (recto) of the table falls upon the zimam letter eight, which is just eight units. The only (number) we have in the cycles is one. Were there more than a four in the quadruple (arrangement) of the twelve, or more than a three in the triple (arrangement) of the twelve, there would be h (eight). But it is just d (four). Therefore, it is set down and marked with seventy-four, (as belonging) to the verse of the poem."
ثم انظر ما ناسبها من السطح تكن خمسة، أضعفها بمثلها للأس تبلغ عشرة، أثبت (ى) وعلم عليها، وانظر في أي المراتب وقعت: وجدناها في الرابعة، دخلنا بسبعة في حروف الأوتار، وهذا المدخل يسمى التوليد الحرفي فكانت (ف)، أثبتها وأضف إلى سبعة واحد الدور، الجملة ثمانية.,"Then, one notes which (number) from the surface corresponds to it. It is five. The five which belongs to the base, is added to it. Thus, one gets ten. A y is set down, and a mark is put upon it. One notes in which rank it occurs. We find it in the seventh. Thus, we enter seven among the letters of the chords. This entry is called the “letter birth.” There is an f. One sets it down and adds the one of the cycle to seven. The total is eight."
أدخل بها في الأوتار تبلغ (س) أثبتها وعلم عليها ثمانية، واضرب ثمانية في ثلاثة الزائدة على عشرة الدور، فإنها آخر مربعات الأدوار بالمثلثات تبلغ أربعة وعشرين، أدخل بها في بيت القصيد وعلم على ما يخرج منها وهو مائتان وعلامتها ستة وتسعون، وهو نهاية الدور الثاني في الأدوار الحرفية، واضرب على حرفين من الأوتار وضع النتيجة الأولى ولها تسعة.,"One enters it among the chords and gets to s. It is set down and marked with eight. One multiplies eight by the three that is in excess of the ten of the cycle – because it is the end of three quadruple (arrangements) of the cycles – and gets twenty-four. It is entered into the verse of the poem, and a mark is put upon (the number) which comes out from it. It is two hundred (r). Its sign is ninety-six, which is the end of the second cycle of the letter cycles. One picks two letters from the chords and writes down the first result. It has a nine."
وهذا العدد يناسب أبدا الباقي من حروف الأوتار بعد طرحها أدوارا وذلك تسعة، فاضرب تسعة في ثلاثة التي هي زائدة على تسعين من حروف الأوتار، وأضف لها واحدا الباقي من الدور الثاني عشر تبلغ ثمانية وعشرين، فأدخل بها في حروف الأوتار تبلغ ألفا، أثبته وعلم عليه ستة وتسعين. وإن ضربت سبعة التي هي أدوار الحروف التسعينية في أربعة وهي الثلاثة الزائدة على تسعين، والواحد الباقي من الدور الثاني عشر كان كذلك، واصعد في ضلع ثمانية بتسعة وأدخل في الجدول بتسعة تبلغ اثنين زمامية.,"This number always corresponds to the remainder of the letters of the chords, after they have been divided into (twelve) cycles. It is nine. Then, one multiplies nine with the three which is in excess of the ninety letters of the chords, and adds to it the one which is the remainder in the twelfth cycle. Thus, one gets twenty-eight. One enters it among the letters of the chords and gets to an alif. It is set down and marked with ninety-six. If the seven – which is the cycles of the ninety letters is multiplied by four – which is the three that is in excess of ninety plus the one that is the remainder in the twelfth cycle – the result is the same. One goes up nine on the side of eight and enters nine in the table. Thus, one gets to the zimam letter two."
واضرب تسعة فيما ناسب من السطح، وذلك ثلاثة، وأضف لذلك سبعة، عدد الأوتار الحرفية، واطرح واحدا الباقي من دور اثني عشر تبلغ ثلاثة وثلاثين، أدخل بها في البيت تبلغ خمسة، فأثبتها وأضف تسعة بمثلها وأدخل في صدر الجدول بثمانية عشر، وخذ ما في السطح وهو واحد، أدخل به في حروف الأوتار تبلغ (م) أثبته وعلم عليه،,"One multiplies nine with the (number) of the surface corresponding to it, namely, three. Seven, the number of the chords with letters, is added to it, and the one which is the remainder in the twelfth cycle is subtracted. Thus, one gets thirty-three. One enters it into the verse and gets to five. One puts it down (as h), doubles nine, and enters eighteen on the front (recto) of the table. One takes (the number) which is on the surface. It is one. One enters it among the letters of the chords and gets to an m. It is set down, and a mark is put upon it."
واضرب على حرفين من الأوتار. وضع النتيجة الثانية ولها سبعة عشر الباقي خمسة، فاصعد في ضلع ثمانية بخمسة واضرب خمسة في ثلاثة الزائدة على تسعين تبلغ خمسة عشر، أضف لها واحدا الباقي من الدور الثاني عشر تكن تسعة، وأدخل بستة عشر في بيت القصيد تبلغ (ت) أثبته وعلم عليه أربعة وستين،,"Then, one picks two letters from the chords and writes down the second result. It has (the number) seventeen. The remainder is five. One goes up on the side of fifty-eight Five is multiplied by the three which is in excess of ninety. Thus, one gets fifteen. One adds to it the one which is the remainder in the twelfth cycle. This is nine. One enters sixteen into the verse and gets to a t. It is set down and marked with sixty-four."
وأضف إلى خمسة الثلاثة الزائدة على تسعين، وزد واحدا الباقي من الدور الثاني عشر يكن تسعة، أدخل بها في صدر الجدول تبلغ ثلاثين زمامية، وانظر ما في السطح تجد واحدا أثبته وعلم عليه من بيت القصيد وهو التاسع أيضا من البيت، وأدخل بتسعة في صدر الجدول تقف على ثلاثة وهي عشرات، فأثبت (لام) وعلم عليه وضع النتيجة الثالثة وعددها ثلاثة عشر الباقي واحد.,"One adds to five the three which is in excess of ninety, and one adds the one which is the remainder in the twelfth cycle. This is thirty-nine. One enters it on the front (recto) of the table and gets to the zimam letter thirty. One notes what (number) is on the surface. It is found to be one. It is set down (as alif), and a mark (indicating that it belongs) to the verse of the poem is put upon it. It also is the ninth from the verse. One enters nine on the front (recto) of the table and comes to a stop at a three in the tens. Therefore, an l (thirty) is set down, and a mark is put upon it. Then, one writes down the third result. Its number is thirteen. The remainder is one."
فانقل في ضلع ثمانية بواحد وأضف إلى ثلاثة عشر الثلاثة الزائدة على التسعين، وواحد الباقي من الدور الثاني عشر تبلغ سبعة عشر، وواحد النتيجة تكن ثمانية عشر، أدخل بها في حروف الأوتار تكن لا ما أثبتها فهذا آخر العمل.,"One moves one on the side of eight. The three which is in excess of ninety, and the one which is the remainder in the twelfth cycle are added to thirteen. Thus, one gets seventeen, plus the one of the result, which gives eighteen. It is entered among the letters of the chords. It is an l, which is set down. This is the end of the operation."
والمثال في هذا السؤال السابق: أردنا أن نعلم أن هذه الزايرجة علم محدث أو قديم، بطالع أول درجة من القوس، أثبتنا حروف الأوتار، ثم حروف السؤال، ثم الأصول، وهي عدة الحروف ثلاثة وتسعون أدوارها سبعة الباقي منها تسعة، الطالع واحد، سلطان القوس أربعة، الدور الأكبر واحد، درج الطالع مع الدور اثنان، ضرب الطالع مع الدور في السلطان ثمانية، إضافة السلطان للطالع خمسة بيت القصيد.,"The example in the preceding question was this. We wanted to know whether the za’irajah was a modern or an ancient science. The ascendant was in the first degree of Sagittarius. We set down: The letters of the chords. The letters of the question. The principles, which are: (1) The number of the letters – ninety-three. (2) The cycles of (the letters) – seven, with the remainder of nine. (3) The ascendant – one. (4) The ruler of Sagittarius – four. (5) The greatest cycle – one. (6) The degrees of the ascendant plus the cycle – two. (7) Ascendant plus cycle multiplied by the ruler eight. (8) The ruler added to the ascendant-five. The verse of the poem:"
سؤال عظيم الخلق حزت فصن إذن *** غرائب شك ضبطه الجد مثلا,"A weighty question you have got. Keep, then, to yourself Remarkable doubts which have been raised and which can be straightened out with diligence."
حروف الأوتار: ص ط هـ ر ث ك هـ م ص ص ون ب هـ س أن ل م ن ص ع ف ص ور س ك ل م ن ص ع ف ض ق ر س ت ث خ ذ ظ غ ش ط ى ع ح ص ر وح ر وح ل ص ك ل م ن ص أب ج د هـ وز ح ط ى.,"The letters of the chords: s, t, d, t, h, n, th, k, h, m, d, s, w, n, th, h, s, alif, b, l, m, n, s, ‘ayn, f, d, q, r, s, y, k, 1, m, n, s, ‘ayn, f, q, r, s, t, th, kh, dh, z, gh, sh, t, k, n, ‘ayn, h, s, z, w, h, l, s, k, l, m, n, s, alif, b, j, d, h, w, z, h, t, y."
(حروف السؤال) أل ز أى ر ج ة ع ل م م ح د ث أم ق د ى م,"The letters of the question: alif, l, z, y, r, j, t; ‘ayn, l, m; m, h, d, th, alif, m; q, d, y, m."
دورها على خمسة وعشرين ثم على ثلاثة وعشرين مرتين ثم على واحد وعشرين مرتين إلى أن تنتهي إلى الواحد من آخر البيت وتنقل الحروف جميعا والله أعلم,"Their period is according to twenty-five, then twentythree twice, then twenty-one twice, until one gets to the one at the end of the verse [?]. All the letters are moved. And God knows better."
هذا آخر الكلام في استخراج الأجوبة من زايرجة العالم منظومة. وللقوم طرائق أخرى من غير الزايرجة يستخرجون بها أجوبة المسائل غير منظومة.,"End of the discussion of how to find answers in rhymed form from the Za’irajah of the World. People have methods other than the zd’irajah for finding out answers from questions. (However,) those answers are not rhymed."
وعندهم أن السر في استخراج الجواب منظوما من الزايرجة، إنما هو مزجهم بيت مالك بن وهيب وهو: سؤال عظيم الخلق البيت، ولذلك يخرج الجواب على روية. وأما الطرق الأخرى فيخرج الجواب غير منظوم. فمن طرائقهم في استخراج الأجوبة ما ننقله عن بعض المحققين منهم.,"I think that the secret of obtaining a rhymed answer from the za’irajah lies in the fact that a verse, namely, that of Malik b. Wuhayb -“A weighty question, etc.”- enters (into the operation). Thus, one gets an answer which rhymes on the rhyme letter of Malik’s verse. In other methods, there is no rhymed answer. We are going to report this much about other methods of finding answers. A competent (practitioner of letter magic) said:"
فصل في الاطلاع على الأسرار الخفية من جهة الارتباطات الحرفية,On learning hidden secrets from letter connections
اعلم أرشدنا الله وإياك أن هذه الحروف أصل الأسئلة في كل قضية، وإنما تستنتج الأجوبة على تجزئته بالكلية، وهي ثلاثة وأربعون حرفا كما ترى والله علام الغيوب,"Let it be known to you – God guide us and you – that the following letters are the basis for answers to any problem. They produce the answers through total division. There are forty-three letters, as one can see:"
أول أع ظ س أل م خ ى د ل ز ق ت أر ذ ص ف ن غ ش أك ك ى ب م ض ب ح ط ل ج هـ د ن ل ث أ.,"alif, w, l, alif, ‘ayn, z, s, atif, l, m, kh, y, d, l, z, q, t, alif, f, dh, s, r, n, gh, sh, r, alif, k, k, y, b, m, d, b, j, t, l, h, h, d, th, l, th, alif"
"وقد نظمها بعض الفضلاء في بيت جعل فيه كل حرف مشدد من حرفين وسماه القطب فقال:
سؤال عظيم الخلق حزت فصن إذن *** غرائب شك ضبطه الجد مثلا","Some excellent man has worked these letters into the form of a verse in which every double consonant stands for two letters. He called the (verse) the “pole.” It runs: A weighty question you have got. Keep, then, to yourself Remarkable doubts which have been raised and which can be straightened out with diligence."
فإذا أردت استنتاج المسألة فاحذف ما تكرر من حروفها وأثبت ما فضل منه. ثم احذف من الأصل وهو القطب لكل حرف فضل من المسألة حرفا يماثله، وأثبت ما فضل منه.,"If one wants to produce the (answer from the) question, one must eliminate the letters of the question that are repeated and set down those that remain. Then, one eliminates one letter that is similar to (a letter of the question) from the basic (verse), the “pole,” for each remaining letter of the question. One sets down what remains."
ثم امزج الفضلين في سطر واحد تبدأ بالأول من فضله، والثاني من فضل المسألة. وهكذا إلى أن يتم الفضلان أو ينفد أحدهما قبل الآخر، فتضع البقية على ترتيبها.,"Then, one mixes the two remainders together in one line. One begins by taking as the first (letter), one from the remainder from the basic (verse), and as the second, one from the remainder from the question, and so forth, until the two remainders are finished, or until one of them is finished before the other. (In the latter case,) one leaves the rest as it is."
فإذا كان عدد الحروف الخارجة بعد المزج موافقا لعدد حروف الأصل قبل الحذف فالعمل صحيح، فحينئذ تضيف إليها خمس نونات لتعدل بها الموازين الموسيقية وتكمل الحروف ثمانية وأربعين حرفا، فتعمر بها جدولا مربعا يكون آخر ما في السطر الأول أول ما في السطر الثاني، وتنقل البقية على حالها، وهكذا إلى أن تتم عمارة الجدول. ويعود السطر الأول بعينه,"If the number of the letters that come out after the mixing agrees with the number of the letters in the basic (verse), before elimination, the operation is correct. Then, one adds to them five n’s, in order to have the musical scales balanced and to have a complete complement of forty-eight letters. With those letters, one fills a table of squares. The end of the first line is the beginning of the second, and the rest is moved as it is, and so forth, until the table is filled and the first line reoccurs."
وتتوالى الحروف في القطر على نسبة الحركة، ثم تخرج وتر كل حرف بقسمة مربعة على أعظم جزء يوجد له، وتضع الوتر مقابلا لحرفه، ثم تستخرج النسب العنصرية للحروف الجدولية، وتعرف قوتها الطبيعية وموازينها الروحانية وغرائزها النفسانية وأسوسها الأصلية من الجدول الموضوع لذلك، وهذه صورته:,"The letters in the “region” follow each other in proportion to the motion. Then, one finds out the chord of each letter through square division by the smallest aliquot part found in it, and one puts (each) chord opposite its letter. Then, one finds out the elemental relations for the letters of the table and indicates their natural power, their spiritual power, their spiritual scales, their psychic dispositions, and their principal bases from the table which has been composed for the purpose and which looks as follows:"
ثم تأخذ وتر كل حرف بعد ضربه في أسوس أوتاد الفلك الأربعة، واحذر ما يلي الأوتاد وكذلك السواقط لأن نسبتها مضطربة. وهذا الخارج هو أول رتب السريان.,"Then, one takes the chord of each letter after multiplying it by the bases of the four cardines of the (celestial) spheres. One should avoid what is adjacent to the cardines and also the sawaqit, because their relationship is confused. The result here is the first degree of diffusion."
ثم تأخذ مجموع العناصر وتحط منها أسوس المولدات، يبقى أس عالم الخلق بعد عروضه للمدد الكونية، فتحمل عليه بعض المجردات عن المواد وهي عناصر الأمداد، يخرج أفق النفس الأوسط، وتطرح أول رتب السريان من مجموع العناصر يبقى عالم التوسط.,"Then, one takes the total of the elements and subtracts from it [?] the bases of the generated things. There remain the bases of the world of creation, after it has been exposed to the moments [?] of creation. Then, there are transferred to it some abstractions from matter – the elements that constitute matter. The result is the middle horizon of the soul. The first degree of diffusion is subtracted from the total of the elements. There remains the world of mediation."
وهذا مخصوص بعوالم الأكوان البسيطة لا المركبة. ثم تضرب عالم التوسط في أفق النفس الأوسط يخرج الأفق الأعلى، فتحمل عليه أول رتب السريان، ثم تطرح من الرابع أول عناصر الأمداد الأصلي يبقى ثالث رتبة السريان، فتضرب مجموع أجزاء العناصر الأربعة أبدا في رابع مرتبة السريان، يخرج أول عالم التفصيل، والثاني في الثاني يخرج ثاني عالم التفصيل، والثالث في الثالث يخرج ثالث عالم التفصيل، والرابع في الرابع يخرج رابع عالم التفصيل.,"It has to do with the world of simple beings, and not with (those of) composite ones. The world of mediation is then multiplied by the middle horizon of the soul. The result is the most high horizon. To it, the first degree of diffusion is transferred. Then, the first of the elements basically constituting matter is subtracted from the fourth (degree of diffusion [?]). There remains the third degree of diffusion. The total of the particulars of the elements is always multiplied by the fourth degree of diffusion. The result is the first world of particularization. The result of the multiplication of the second (element) with the second (degree of diffusion) is the second world of particularization; that of the third with the third is the third; and that of the fourth with the fourth is the fourth world of particularization."
فتجمع عوالم التفصيل وتحط من عالم الكل، تبقى العوالم المجردة، فتقسم على الأفق الأعلى يخرج الجزء الأول، ويقسم المنكسر على الأفق الأوسط يخرج الجزء الثاني، وما انكسر فهو الثالث، ويتعين الرابع هذا في الرباعي.,The worlds of particularization are added up and subtracted from the world of totality. There remain the worlds of abstraction. They are divided by the most high horizon. The result is the first particular. The remainder is divided by the middle horizon. The result is the second particular. The remainder is the third. The fourth here is fixed for the fourth (division [?]).
وإن شئت أكثر من الرباعي فتستكثر من عوالم التفصيل ومن رتب السريان ومن الأوفاق بعد الحروف.,"If one wants more than four (divisions [?]), one must increase the number of the worlds of particularization, that of the degrees of diffusion, and that of the magic squares containing letters in their numerical value."
والله يرشدنا وإياك.,God guide us and you.
وكذلك إذا قسم عالم التجريد على أول رتب السريان خرج الجزء الأول من عالم التركيب، وكذلك إلى نهاية الرتبة الأخيرة من عالم الكون. فافهم,"Likewise, if the world of abstraction is divided by the first degree of diffusion, the result is the first particular of the world of composition, and so forth to the end of the last degree of the world of existence. This should be understood and contemplated."
وتدبر والله المرشد المعين.,God is guide and helper.
ومن طريقهم أيضا في استخراج الجواب، قال بعض المحققين منهم: اعلم أيدنا الله وإياك بروح منه، أن علم الحروف جليل يتوصل العالم به لما لا يتوصل بغيره من العلوم المتداولة بين العالم، وللعمل به شرائط تلتزم.,Another method to find the answer is this. A competent (practitioner of letter magic) said: Let it be known to you – God strengthen us and you with a spirit coming from Him – that the science of letters is an important science. The scholar who knows it comes to know things that he would not be able to know with the help of any other science in the world. The practice of the science of (letter magic) requires certain conditions.
وقد يستخرج العالم أسرار الخليقة وسرائر الطبيعة، فيطلع بذلك على نتيجتي الفلسفة، أعني السيميا وأختها، ويرفع له حجاب المجهولات ويطلع بذلك على مكنون خبايا القلوب. وقد شهدت جماعة بأرض المغرب، ممن اتصل بذلك، فأظهر الغرائب وخرق العوائد وتصرف في الوجود بتأييد الله.,"With its help, the scholar may discover the secrets of creation and the inner workings of nature. Thus, he learns the two results of philosophy, which are letter magic and its sister (alchemy). The veil of the unknown is lifted for him. He thus learns the contents of the secret recesses of the heart. A number of people in the Maghrib have been observed to have a knowledge of the science (of letter magic). They have produced remarkable and extraordinary things and have been active in the world of existence with the help of God."
واعلم أن ملاك كل فضيلة الاجتهاد وحسن الملكة مع الصبر، مفتاح كل خير، كما أن الخرق والعجلة رأس الحرمان، فأقول: إذا أردت أن تعلم قوة كل حرف من حروف الفابيطوس أعني أبجد إلى آخر العدد، وهذا أول مدخل من علم الحروف، فانظر ما لذلك الحرف من الأعداد،,"It should be known that every virtue depends on exertion. A good habit, together with patience, is the key to everything good, just as a lack of skill and haste are the beginning of all failure. I say: If one wants to know the power of each letter of the alphabetos – the alphabet – to the last number – and this is the beginning of the science of letters one must look for the number that belongs to each letter."
فتلك الدرجة التي هي مناسبة للحرف هي قوته في الجسمانيات. ثم اضرب العدد في مثله تخرج لك قوته في الروحانيات وهي وتره. وهذا في الحروف المنقوطة لا يتم بل يتم لغير المنقوطة، لأن المنقوطة منها مراتب لمعان يأتي عليها البيان فيما بعد.,"This degree, which means harmony for the letters [?], constitutes the power that a (particular letter) possesses with regard to the corporealia. The number is then multiplied by itself. The result is the power that a (particular letter) possesses with regard to the spiritualia. It is the “chord” (of the particular letter). This cannot be done with letters that have diacritical points. It can be done only with those that have no diacritical points, because the letters with diacritical points have degrees of meaning which will be explained later on."
واعلم أن لكل شكل من أشكال الحروف شكلا في العالم العلوي أعني الكرسي، ومنها المتحرك والساكن والعلوي والسفلي كما هو مرقوم في أماكنه من الجداول الموضوعة في الزيارج.,"It should be known that the form of every letter has a (corresponding) form in the world on high, the (divine) throne. These (forms) may be moving or stationary, high or low, as is indicated in the proper places on the tables written down in (connection with) the za’irajahs."
واعلم أن قوى الحروف ثلاثة أقسام: الأول وهو أقلها قوة تظهر بعد كتابتها، فتكون كتابته لعالم روحاني مخصوص بذلك الحرف المرسوم، فمتى خرج ذلك الحرف بقوة نفسانية وجمع همة كانت قوى الحروف مؤثرة في عالم الأجسام.,"It should be known that the powers of the letters fall into three categories. The first (category) is the least (important one). It is a power that becomes manifest after (the letters) have been written down. Such (a letter) is thus written down for a spiritual world which belongs to that particular letter. Whenever the letter produces a psychic power and concentration of mind, the powers of letters exercise an influence upon the world of the bodies."
الثاني قوتها في الهيئة الفكرية وذلك ما يصدر عن تصريف الروحانيات لها، فهي قوة في الروحانيات العلويات، وقوة شكلية في عالم الجسمانيات.,"The second (category) is the power of (the letters) in the realm of thought. It is the result of the activation of the spiritualia for (the letters). It is a power among the spiritualia on high, and a formal power in the world of corporealia."
الثالث وهو يجمع الباطن، أعني القوة النفسانية على تكوينه، فتكون قبل النطق به صورة في النفس، بعد النطق به صورة في الحروف وقوة في النطق.,"The third (category) is what causes the inward – the psychic power – to concentrate upon bringing (the letter) into being. Before (a letter) is pronounced, it is a form in the soul. After it is pronounced, it is a form among the letters and a power in speech."
وأما طبائعها فهي الطبيعيات المنسوبة للمتولدات في الحروف وهي الحرارة واليبوسة، والحرارة والرطوبة والبرودة واليبوسة والبرودة والرطوبة، فهذا سر العدد اليماني، والحرارة جامعة للهواء والنار,"The natures of (the letters) are the same as those attributed to (all) created things, namely, heat-and-dryness, heat-and-cold, cold-and-humidity, and cold-anddryness. This is the secret of the ogdoad. Heat combines air and fire."
وهما: (أهـ ط م ف ش ذ ج ز ك س ق ث ظ)، والبرودة جامعة للهواء والماء (ب وى ن ص ت ض د ح ل ع ر خ غ) واليبوسة جامعة للنار والأرض (أهـ ط م ف ش ذ ب وى ن ص ت ض),"The two are (represented by the letters) alif, h, t, m,, f, sh, dh, j, z, k, s, q, th, and z. Cold combines earth and water: d, h, l, ‘ayn, r, kh, gh, b, w, y, n, s, t, and d. Humidity combines air and water: j, z, k, s, q, th, z, d, h, l, ‘ayn, r, kh, and gh. Dryness combines fire and earth: alif, h, t, m, f, sh, dh, b, w, y, n, s, t, and d."
فهذه نسبة حروف الطبائع وتداخل أجزاء بعضها في بعض. وتداخل أجزاء العالم فيها علويات وسفليات بأسباب الأمهات الأول، أعني الطبائع الأربع المنفردة، فمتى أردت استخراج مجهول من مسألة ما، فحقق طالع السائل أو طالع مسألته,"This is the relationship and mutual interpenetration of the letters representing the natures and the interpenetration of the particulars of the world within (the letters) on high and here below, through the agency of the primary mothers, that is, the four individual natures (elements). If one wants to find out the unknown from a given question, one must ascertain the ascendant of the questioner, or the ascendant of his question."
وأستنطق حروف أوتارها الأربعة: الأول والرابع والسابع والعاشر مستوية مرتبة، واستخرج أعداد القوى والأوتار كما سنبين، واحمل وانسب واستنتج الجواب يخرج لك المطلوب، إما بصريح اللفظ أو بالمعنى. وكذلك في كل مسألة تقع لك.,"Then, the letters of the four cardines of (the horoscope) – one, five, seven, and ten must be “spelled” (istintaq) equally and according to order, and the numbers of the powers and the chords must be found out, as we shall explain. One adds up, establishes proportions, and tries to open up [?] the answer. Thus, one will find what one is looking for, either clearly expressed or implied. The same is the case with any question one may happen to have to explain."
بيانه: إذا أردت أن تستخرج قوى حروف الطالع، مع اسم السائل والحاجة، فاجمع أعدادها بالجمل الكبير، فكان الطالع الحمل رابعه السرطان سابعه الميزان عاشره الجدي، وهو أقوى هذه الأوتاد، فأسقط من كل برج حرفي التعريف، وانظر ما يخص كل برج من الأعداد المنطقة الموضوعة في دائرتها، واحذف أجزاء الكسر في النسب الاستنطاقية كلها وأثبت تحت كل حرف ما يخصه من ذلك، ثم أعداد حروف العناصر الأربعة وما يخصها كالأول.,"If one wants to discover the powers of the letters of the ascendant, together with the name of the questioner and the object, one must add up the numerical values of (the letters) according to the “great calculation.” The ascendant, (let us assume,) is Aries, (and) the fourth (sign after Aries) is Cancer, the seventh Libra, and the tenth Capricornus, which is. the strongest of the cardines. The article that goes with the name of each sign is omitted. One notes which rational numbers placed in their circle belong to each house (of the zodiac). Then, all the parts of multiples [?] in the proportions resulting from istintaq are eliminated. Under each letter, (the number [? ]) which belongs to it in this connection is written down. Then, one follows the same procedure with regard to the numerical values of the letters of the four elements and (the number [?]) that belongs to them."
وارسم ذلك كله أحرفا ورتب الأوتاد والقوى والقرائن سطرا ممتزجا. وكسر واضرب ما يضرب لاستخراج الموازين، واجمع واستنتج الجواب يخرج لك الضمير وجوابه.,"All these (numbers) are written as letters. The cardines, powers, and dispositions are arranged in a mixed line. One spells the letters out and multiplies whatever must be multiplied, in order to find out the (various) scales. One sums up and tries to open up [?] the answer. Thus, the hidden thought and its answer will be found."
مثاله افرض أن الطالع الحمل كما تقدم، ترسم (ح م ل): فللحاء من العدد ثمانية لها النصف والربع والثمن (د ب أ) الميم لها من العدد أربعون، لها النصف والربع والثمن والعشر ونصف العشر إذا أردت التدقيق (م ك ى هـ د ب) اللام لها من العدد ثلاثون، لها النصف والثلثان والثلث والخمس والسدس والعشر (ك ى وهـ ج).,"For instance, let us assume that the ascendant is Aries (al-hamal), as mentioned before. It is written down (in unconnected letters) h-m-l. The numerical value of h is eight, which can be divided by two, four, and eight. (It thus yields) d (four), b (two), and alif(one). The numerical value of m is forty, which can be divided by two, four, eight, ten, and twenty. (It thus yields,) to be precise, [m (forty),] k (twenty), y (ten), h (five), d (four), and b (two). The numerical value of l is thirty, which can be divided by two, two-thirds, three, five, six, and ten. (It thus yields) k (twenty), y (ten), w (six), h (five), and j (three)."
وهكذا تفعل بسائر حروف المسألة والاسم من كل لفظ يقع لك.,The same is done with all the letters of the question and the name in each word which happens to occur (in connection with the problem).
وأما استخراج الأوتار فهو أن تقسم مربع كل حرف على أعظم جزء يوجد له. مثاله: حرف (د) له من الأعداد أربعة مربعها ستة عشر، اقسمها على أعظم جزء يوجد لها وهو اثنان يخرج وترا لدال ثمانية.,"The chords are found by dividing the square of each letter by its smallest aliquot part. For instance, the numerical value of d is four, the square of four is sixteen. This (number) is to be divided by its smallest aliquot part, namely, two. Thus, the chord of d is eight."
ثم تضع كل وتر مقابلا لحرفه. ثم تستخرج النسب العنصرية، كما تقدم في شرح الاستنطاق، ولها قاعدة تطرد في استخراجها من طبع الحروف وطبع البيت الذي يحل فيه من الجدول كما ذكر الشيخ لمن عرف الاصطلاح.,"Each chord, then, is placed opposite its letter. Then, the elemental relationships are found out, as has been mentioned before in connection with the explanation of the spelling (method of the great calculation). They have a foundation useful for finding them out from the nature of the letter and the nature of the field of the table in which the (letter) occurs, as was mentioned by the shaykh for (the benefit of) those who know the technical terminology."
فصل في الاستدلال على ما في الضمائر الخفية بالقوانين الحرفية,Deductions that can be drawn with the help of letter systems as to deeply hidden thoughts.
وذلك لو سأل سائل عن عليل لم يعرف مرضه ما علته، وما الموافق لبرئه منه، فمر السائل أن يسمي ما شاء من الأشياء على اسم العلة المجهولة، لتجعل ذلك الاسم قاعدة لك.,"This goes as follows: If someone asks what is the sickness of the patient, the cause of whose disease is not known, and what medicine will be appropriate for its cure, one orders the person who asks the question to name something that can be applied to the name of the unknown sickness, so that the word he names can be made the foundation of (the operation)."
ثم أستنطق الاسم مع اسم الطالع والعناصر والسائل واليوم والساعة إن أردت التدقيق في المسألة، وإلا اقتصرت على الاسم الذي سماه السائل، وفعلت به كما نبين.,"The word is “spelled out” (istintaq) together with the name of the ascendant, the elements, the questioner, the day, and the hour, if one wants to go thoroughly into the question. If not, one restricts oneself to the word that the questioner says, and uses it, as we shall explain."
فأقول مثلا: سمى السائل فرسا فأثبت الحروف الثلاثة مع أعدادها المنطقة. بيانه: أن للفاء من العدد ثمانين ولها (م ك ي ح ب) ثم الراء لها من العدد مائتان (ق ن ك ى) ثم السين لها من العدد ستون ولها (م ل ك) فالواو عدد تام له (د ج ب) والسين مثله ولها (م ل ك).,"For instance, the questioner says “horse” (faras). The numerical value of the three letters (f-r-s) with their rational aliquot parts is set down. The numerical value off is eighty, which has the aliquot parts m (forty), k (twenty), y (ten), h (eight), and d (four). The numerical value of r is two hundred, which has the aliquot parts q (one hundred), n (fifty), k-h (twenty-five), k (twenty), and y (ten). The numerical value of s is sixty, which has the aliquot parts m (forty), l (thirty), k (twenty), y (ten), w (six), and j (three). W is a perfect number, having (the aliquot parts) four, three, and two, and so is s, having (the aliquot parts) forty, thirty, twenty, and ten."
فإذا بسطت حروف الأسماء وجدت عنصرين متساويين، فاحكم لأكثرهما حروفا بالغلبة على الآخر، ثم احمل عدد حروف عناصر اسم المطلوب وحروفه دون بسط، وكذلك اسم الطالب واحكم للأكثر والأقوى بالغلبة.,"If one simplifies the letters of the words and then finds two elements equal, one assumes that the one that has more letters has superiority over the other. Then, one adds up the number of the letters of the elements in the name of the desired object, together with its letters, without simplification. One does the same with the name of the questioner. One assumes that the greater and stronger (number) has superiority."
وصفة قوى استخراج العناصر,Description of how to find out the powers of the elements.
فتكون الغلبة هنا للتراب وطبعه البرودة، واليبوسة طبع السوداء، فتحكم على المريض بالسوداء.,"The superiority here goes to the earth. Its nature, coldand-dryness, is the nature of the black bile. Thus, one assumes that the sick person suffers from the black bile."
فإذا ألفت من حروف الاستنطاق كلاما على نسبة تقريبية خرج موضع الوجع في الحلق، ويوافقه من الأدوية حقنة، ومن الأشربة شراب الليمون.,"After one has composed an appropriate statement from the letters resulting from the breakdown into aliquot parts, it turns out that the throat is the place where the pain is located. The appropriate medicine is a clyster, and the appropriate liquid lemon juice."
هذا ما خرج من قوى أعداد حروف اسم فرس وهو مثال تقريبي مختصر. وأما استخراج قوى العناصر من الأسماء العلمية فهو أن تسمي مثلا محمدا، فترسم أحرفه مقطعة، ثم تضع أسماء العناصر الأربعة على ترتيب الفلك، يخرج لك ما في كل عنصر من الحروف والعدد.,"This results from the powers of the numbers of the letters of the word “horse.” The (preceding discussion) is a brief, appropriate example. In order to find out the powers of the elements from proper names, one proceeds in the following way. For instance, one takes “Muhammad” and writes it with unconnected letters (m-h-m-d). Then, one writes down the names of the four elements according to the composition of the (celestial) sphere. The result will be the letters and number of each element."
ومثاله:,For instance:
"فتجد أقوى هذه العناصر من هذا الاسم المذكور عنصر الماء، لأن عدد حروفه عشرون حرفا، فجعلت له الغلبة على بقية عناصر الاسم المذكور، وهكذا يفعل بجميع الأسماء. حينئذ تضاف إلى أوتارها، أو للوتر المنسوب للطالع في الزايرجة، أو لوتر البيت المنسوب لمالك بن وهيب، الذي جعله قاعدة لمزج الأسئلة وهو هذا:
سؤال عظيم الخلق حزت فصن إذن *** غرائب شك ضبطه الجد مثلا","One will find that the strongest of the elements of the name mentioned is the element of water, because the number of its letters is twenty. Therefore, one gives it superiority over the other elements of the name mentioned. One proceeds in the same way with all names. They are then added to their chords, or to the chord attributed to the ascendant in the za’irajah, or to the chord of the verse ascribed to Malik b. Wuhayb which he made the basis for the mixture of questions and which runs: A weighty question you have got. Keep, then, to yourself Remarkable doubts which have been raised and which can be straightened out with diligence."
وهو وتر مشهور لاستخراج المجهولات، وعليه كان يعتمد ابن الرقام وأصحابه. وهو عمل تام قائم بنفسه في المثالات الوضعية. وصفة العمل بهذا الوتر المذكور أن ترسمه مقطعا ممتزجا بألفاظ السؤال على قانون صنعة التكسير.,"This is a famous chord for finding out unknown things. It served as the basis for Ibn ar-Raqqam and his colleagues. It is a complete, self-sufficient operation (that works) in (all) arbitrary instances. The operation with this mentioned chord is as follows One writes it down with its letters unconnected and mixed with the word of the question according to the technique of “breaking down.”"
وعدة حروف هذا الوتر أعني البيت ثلاثة وأربعون حرفا، لأن كل حرف مشدد من حرفين.,"The number of the letters of this chord – that is, the verse – is forty-three, because every doubled letter counts as two."
ثم تحذف ما تكرر عند المزج من الحروف ومن الأصل، لكل حرف فضل من المسألة حرف يماثله، وتثبت الفضلين سطرا ممتزجا بعضه ببعض الحروف. الأول من فضلة القطب والثاني من فضلة السؤال، حتى يتم الفضلتان جميعا، فتكون ثلاثة وأربعين،,"Then, the letters (of the questions), which are repeated in the mixing, are eliminated, and one letter which is similar to the letter of the question is eliminated from the basic (verse) for each remaining letter of the question. The two remainders are set down on one line, so mixed that the first letter is taken from the remainder of the “pole,” and the second from the remainder of the question, (and so forth), until the two remainders are used up. This yields forty-three (letters)."
فتضيف إليها خمس نونات ليكون ثمانية وأربعين، لتعدل بها الموازين الموسيقية. ثم تضع الفضلة على ترتيبها فإن كان عدد الحروف الخارجة بعد المزج يوافق العدد الأصلي قبل الحذف فالعمل صحيح، ثم عمر بما مزجت جدولا مربعا يكون آخر ما في السطر الأول أول ما في السطر الثاني. وعلى هذا النسق حتى يعود السطر الأول بعينه،,"Five n’s are then added, so that there are forty-eight letters, and the musical scales are balanced through them. Then, one writes down the remainder in order. If the number of the letters that come out after the mixing, agrees with the original number before elimination, the operation is correct. Then, a table of squares is filled with the (letters) that have been mixed. The end of the first line is the beginning of the second, and so on, until the first line reoccurs."
وتتوالى الحروف في القطر على نسبة الحركة. ثم تخرج وتر كل حرف كما تقدم تضعه مقابلا لحرفه، ثم تستخرج النسب العنصرية للحروف الجدولية، لتعرف قوتها الطبيعية وموازينها الروحانية وغرائزها النفسانية وأسوسها الأصلية من الجدول الموضوع لذلك.,"The letters in the “region” follow each other in proportion to the motion. Then, the chord of each letter is brought out, as was mentioned before. It is put opposite its letters. Then, the elemental relations of the letters of the table are found out, in order to indicate their natural power, their spiritual scales, their psychic dispositions, and their principal bases from the table that has been composed for that purpose."
وصفة استخراج النسب العنصرية هو أن تنظر الحرف الأول من الجدول ما طبيعته وطبيعة البيت الذي حل فيه، فإن اتفقت فحسن، وإلا فاستخرج بين الحرفين نسبة.,"The way to find out the elementary relations is to note what the nature of the first letter of the table is, and what the nature of the field in which it resides is. If the two agree, it is good. If not, a relation between the two letters must be found out."
ويتسع هذا القانون في جميع الحروف الجدولية. وتحقيق ذلك سهل على من عرف قوانينه كما هو مقرر في دوائرها الموسيقية. ثم تأخذ وتر كل حرف بعد ضربه في أسوس أوتاد الفلك الأربعة كما تقدم.,"This rule extends to all the letters of the table. Those who know the rules as they have been established in the musical circle can easily prove the correctness of this (procedure). Then, one takes the chord of each letter after multiplying it by the bases of the four cardines of the (celestial) sphere, as was mentioned before."
واحذر ما يلي الأوتاد. وكذلك السواقط لأن نسبتها مضطربة. وهذا الذي يخرج لك هو أول مراتب السريان. ثم تأخذ مجموع العناصر وتحط منها أسوس المولدات يبقى أس عالم الخلق بعد عروضه للمدد الكونية.,"One should avoid what is adjacent to the cardines, and also the sawaqit, because their relationship is confused. The result here is the first degree of diffusion. Then, one takes the total of the elements and subtracts from it [?] the bases of the generated things. There remains the base of the world of creation after it has been exposed to the moments [?] of creation."
فتحمل عليه بعض المجردات عن المواد وهي عناصر الإمداد، يخرج أفق النفس الأوسط. وتطرح أول رتب السريان من مجموع العناصر يبقى عالم التوسط.,"Then, there are transferred to it some abstractions from matter – the elements that constitute matter. The result is the middle horizon of the soul. The first degree of diffusion is subtracted from the total of the elements. There remains the world of mediation."
وهذا مخصوص بعوالم الأكوان البسيطة لا المركبة. ثم تضرب عالم التوسط في أفق النفس الأوسط يخرج الأفق الأعلى، فتحمل عليه أول رتب السريان، ثم تطرح من الرابع أول عناصر الإمداد الأصلي يبقى ثالث رتبة السريان.,"It has to do with the worlds of simple beings and not with (those of) composite ones. The world of mediation is then multiplied by the middle horizon of the soul. The result is the most high horizon. To it, the first degree of diffusion is transferred. Then, the first of the elements basically constituting matter is subtracted from the fourth (degree of diffusion [?]). There remains the third degree of diffusion."
ثم تضرب مجموع أجزاء العناصر الأربعة أبدأ في رابع رتب السريان يخرج أول عالم التفصيل، والثاني في الثاني يخرج ثاني عالم التفصيل، وكذلك الثالث والرابع، فتجمع عوالم التفصيل وتحط من عالم الكل، تبقى العوالم المجردة، فتقسم على الأفق الأعلى يخرج الجزء الأول.,The total of the particulars of the elements is always multiplied by the fourth degree of diffusion. The result is the first world of particularization. The result of the multiplication of the second (element) with the second (degree of diffusion) is the second world of particularization. The same is the case with the third and fourth. The worlds of particularization are added up and subtracted from the world of totality. There remain the worlds of abstraction. They are divided by the most high horizon. The result is the first particular.
ومن هنا يطرد العمل في التامة. وله مقامات في كتب ابن وحشية والبوني وغيرهما.,"From here, the operation is continued until its completion. There are preliminary remarks to it in the books of Ibn Wahshiyah, al-B:uni, and others."
وهذا التدبير يجري على القانون الطبيعي الحكمي في هذا الفن وغيره من فنون الحكمة الإلهية، وعليه مدار وضع الزيارج الحرفية والصنعة الإلهية والنيرجات الفلسفية.,"The procedure follows a natural and definite norm that applies to this and other metaphysical disciplines. The construction of letter za’irajahs, as well as the divine art and philosophical magic center around it."
والله الملهم وبه المستعان وعليه التكلان، وحسبنا الله ونعم الوكيل.,God gives inspiration. He is asked for help. He is trusted. He suffices us. He is a good protector.
الفصل الثلاثون في علم الكيمياء,29. The science of alchemy.
وهو علم ينظر في المادة التي يتم بها كون الذهب والفضة بالصناعة ويشرح العمل الذي يوصل إلى ذلك فيتصفحون المكونات كلها بعد معرفة أمزجتها وقواها لعلهم يعثرون على المادة المستعدة لذلك حتى من العضلات الحيوانية كالعظام والريش والبيض والعذرات فضلا عن المعادن.,"This is a science that studies the substance through which the generation of gold and silver may be artificially accomplished, and comments on the operation leading to it. The (alchemists) acquire knowledge of the tempers and powers of all created things and investigate them critically. They hope that they may thus come upon the substance that is prepared to (produce gold and silver). They even investigate the waste matter of animals, such as bones, feathers, hair, eggs, and excrements, not to mention minerals."
ثم يشرح الأعمال التي تخرج بها تلك المادة من القوة إلى الفعل مثل حل الأجسام إلى أجزائها الطبيعية بالتصعيد والتقطير وجمد الذائب منها بالتكليس وإمهاء الصلب بالقهر والصلابة وأمثال ذلك. وفي زعمهم أنه يخرج بهذه الصناعات كلها جسم طبيعي يسمونه الإكسير.,"Alchemy, then, comments on the operations through which such a substance may be transformed from potentiality into actuality, as, for instance, by the dissolution of bodies (substances) into their natural components through sublimation and distillation, by the solidification of meltable (substances) through calcification, by the pulverization of solid materials with the help of pestles and mullers and similar things. The (alchemists) assume that all these techniques lead to the production of a natural substance which they call “the elixir.”"
وأنه يلقى منه على الجسم المعدني المستعد لقبول صورة الذهب أو الفضة بالاستعداد القريب من الفعل مثل الرصاص والقصدير والنحاس بعد أن يحمى بالنار فيعود ذهبا إبريزا.,"When some mineral substance, such as lead, tin, or copper, which is prepared, in a manner (and degree) that closely approaches (preparedness) in actuality, for receiving the form of gold or silver, is heated in the fire and some (quantity) of the elixir is added to it, that substance turns into pure gold."
ويكنون عن ذلك الإكسير إذا ألغزوا في اصطلاحاتهم بالروح وعن الجسم الذي يلقى عليه بالجسد. فشرح هذه الاصطلاحات وصورة هذا العمل الصناعي الذي يقلب هذه الأجساد المستعدة إلى صورة الذهب والفضة هو علم الكيمياء.,"In the technical terminology that the (alchemists) use for purposes of mystification, they give the cover name of “spirit” to the elixir and that of “body” to the substance to which the elixir is added. The science that comments on this technical terminology and on the form of the technical operation by which predisposed substances are turned into the form of gold and silver, is the science of alchemy."
وما زال الناس يؤلفون فيها قديما وحديثا. وربما يعزى الكلام فيها إلى من ليس من أهلها. وإمام المدونين فيها جابر بن حيان حتى إنهم يخصونها به فيسمونها علم جابر وله فيها سبعون رسالة كلها شبيهة بالألغاز.,"In both ancient and modern times, people have written works on alchemy. Discussions of alchemy are occasionally ascribed to people who were not alchemists. The chief systematic writer on alchemy, according to the alchemists, is Jabir b. Hayyan. Alchemists even consider alchemy Jabir’s special preserve and call it “the science of Jabir.” He wrote seventy treatises on alchemy. All of them read like puzzles."
وزعموا أنه لا يفتح مقفلها إلا من أحاط علما بجميع ما فيها.,It is thought that only those who know all that is in (Jabir’s treatises) can unlock the secrets of alChemy.
والطغراءي من حكماء المشرق المتأخرين له فيها دواوين ومناظرات مع أهلها وغيرهم من الحكماء. وكتب فيها مسلمة المجريطي من حكماء الأندلس كتابه الذي سماه رتبة الحكيم وجعله قرينا لكتابه الآخر في السحر والطلسمات الذي سماه غاية الحكيم.,"At-Tughra’i, a recent Eastern philosopher, wrote systematic works on alchemy and disputations with alchemists and other philosophers. Maslamah al-Majriti, a Spanish philosopher, wrote on alchemy the Rutbat al-hakim. He wrote the Rutbah as a counterpart to his work on sorcery and talismans entitled Ghayat al-hakim."
وزعم أن هاتين الصناعتين هما نتيجتان للحكمة وثمرتان للعلوم ومن لم يقف عليهما فهو فاقد ثمرة العلم والحكمة أجمع. وكلامه في ذلك الكتاب وكلامهم أجمع في تآليفهم هي ألغاز يتعذر فهمها على من لم يعان اصطلاحاتهم في ذلك. ونحن نذكر سبب عدو لهم إلى هذه الرموز والألغاز.,"He thought that the two arts (alchemy and sorcery) were both results and fruits of philosophy and science, and that those who were not acquainted with them would miss the fruit of scholarship and philosophy altogether. Maslamah’s discussion in the Rutbah and the discussions of all the (alchemists) in their respective works employ puzzling means of expression which are difficult for those who-have not familiarized themselves with the technical terminology of (alchemists), to understand. We shall mention the reason why the alchemists had recourse to these cover names and puzzling means of expression."
ولابن المغيربي من أئمة هذا الشأن كلمات شعرية على حروف المعجم من أبدع ما يجيء في الشعر ملغوزة كلها لغز الأحاجي والمعاياة فلا تكاد تفهم.,"Ibn al-Mughayribi, a leading alchemist, has (written alchemical) maxims in verses the rhyme letter of which is each letter of the alphabet, taken up in turn. The verses belong among the most original poetry there is. All of them employ a puzzling manner of expression, (and they are) like elusive riddles. They can hardly be understood."
وقد ينسبون للغزالي رحمه الله بعض التآليف فيها وليس بصحيح لأن الرجل لم تكن مداركه العالية لتقف عن خطإ ما يذهبون إليه حتى ينتحله.,"Works on alchemy are attributed to al-Ghazzali, but this attribution is not correct, because al-Ghazzali’s lofty perceptions would not have permitted him to study, or, eventually, to adopt the errors of alchemical theories."
وربما نسبوا بعض المذاهب والأقوال فيها لخالد بن يزيد بن معاوية ربيب مروان بن الحكم ومن المعلوم البين أن خالدا من الجيل العربي والبداوة إليه أقرب فهو بعيد عن العلوم والصنائع بالجملة فكيف له بصناعة غريبة المنحى مبنية على معرفة طبائع المركبات وأمزجتها وكتب الناظرين في ذلك من الطبيعيات والطب لم تظهر بعد ولم تترجم اللهم إلا أن يكون خالد بن يزيد آخر من أهل المدارك الصناعية تشبه باسمه فممكن.,"Some alchemical theories and opinions are occasionally attributed to Khalid b. Yazid b. Mu’awiyah, a stepson of Marwan b. al-Hakam. However, it is very well known that Khalid was an Arab by race and close to the Bedouin attitude. Thus, he was not familiar with the sciences and crafts in general. How, then, could he have known an unusual craft based upon knowledge of the natures and tempers of composite things, when the physical and medical works of scholars who did research on those subjects had not yet appeared and had not yet been translated? The only possibility is that there existed another Khalid b. Yazid among persons versed in the various crafts, and that the mix-up was caused by identical names."
وأنا أنقل لك هنا رسالة أبي بكر بن بشرون لأبي السمح في هذه الصناعة وكلاهما من تلاميذ مسلمة فيستدل من كلامه فيها على ما ذهب إليه في شأنها إذا أعطيته حقه من التأمل,"I shall pass on here an epistle on alchemy written by Abu Bakr b. Bishrun to Ibn as-Samh. Both were pupils of Maslamah. If considered as carefully as it deserves to be, the discussion of (Ibn Bishr(n) will show my attitude toward alchemy."
"قال ابن بشرون بعد صدر من الرسالة خارج عن الغرض:
«والمقدمات التي لهذه الصناعة الكريمة قد ذكرها الأولون واقتص جميعها أهل الفلسفة من معرفة تكوين المعادن وتخلق الأحجار والجواهر وطباع البقاع والأماكن فمنعنا اشتهارها من ذكرها","After some introductory (remarks) in the epistle, which have nothing to do with the subject, Ibn Bishrun said: “The premises of this noble craft were mentioned by the ancients. All of them were reported by the philosophers. Such premises are knowledge of the generation of minerals, of the creation of rocks and precious stones, and of the different natures of regions and localities. As they are well known, we shall not mention them."
ولكن أبين لك من هذه الصنعة ما يحتاج إليه فتبدأ بمعرفته فقد قالوا: ينبغي لطلاب هذا العلم أن يعلموا أولا ثلاث خصال: أولها هل تكون؟ والثانية من أي تكون؟ والثالثة من أي كيف تكون؟,"But I shall explain to you what one needs to know of this craft. Thus, let us start with that knowledge. “It has been said: The students of this science must first know three things: (1) whether it exists, (2) what brings it into being, and (3) how it comes into being."
فإذا عرف هذه الثلاثة وأحكمها فقد ظفر بمطلوبه وبلغ نهايته من هذا العلم وأما البحث عن وجودها والاستدلال عن تكونها فقد كفيناكه بما بعثنا به إليك من الإكسير.,"If the student of alchemy knows these three things well, he achieves his object and knows as much as can be known about this science. “As to the problem of the existence of alchemy and the proofs for the (forces) that bring alchemy into existence, the elixir that we have sent to you is a satisfying answer."
وأما من أي شيء تكون فإنما يريدون بذلك البحث عن الحجر الذي يمكنه العمل وإن كان العمل موجودا من كل شيء بالقوة لأنها من الطبائع الأربع منها تركبت ابتداء وإليها ترجع انتهاء,"“The question of what brings alchemy into being implies, according to alchemists, search for the stone that makes the (alchemical) operation possible. Potentially, the operation may be performed with any (conceivable) thing, because the (potentiality to perform the operation) comes from the four natures (elements). It originated from their composition at the beginning and will revert to them at the end."
ولكن من الأشياء ما يكون فيه بالقوة ولا يكون بالفعل وذلك أن منها ما يمكن تفصيلها تعالج وتدبر وهي التي تخرج من القوة إلى الفعل والتي لا يمكن تفصيلها لا تعالج ولا تدبر لأنها فيها بالقوة فقط وإنما لم يمكن تفصيلها لاستغراق بعض طبائعها في بعض وفضل قوة الكبير منها على الصغير.,"However, there are things that might be used for the operation (only) potentially, not actually. This comes about as follows. There are some things that can be decomposed. There are others that cannot be decomposed. Those that can be decomposed can be processed and treated. They are the things that can be transformed from potentiality into actuality. On the other hand, the things that cannot be decomposed cannot be processed and treated, because they have nothing but potentiality in them. They cannot be decomposed, in order to give some of the elements they contain an advantage over the others and to have the power of the bigger (elements) predominate over the lesser ones."
فينبغي لك وفقك الله أن تعرف أوفق الأحجار المنفضلة التي يمكن فيها العمل وجنسه وقوته وعمله وما يدبر من الحل والعقد والتنقية والتكليس والتنشيف والتقليب فإن من لم يعرف هذه الأصول التي هي عماد هذه الصنعة لم ينجح ولم يظفر بخير أبدا.,"“You – may God give you success – must therefore know the most suitable of the decomposable stones that can be used for the operation. You must know its genus, power, action, and which kind of dissolution or solidification, purification, calcification, absorption, or transformation it may be able to effect. People who do not know these basic principles of alchemy will never be successful or achieve any good results."
وينبغي لك أن تعلم هل يمكن أن يستعان عليه بغيره أو يكتفى به وحده وهل هو واحد في الابتداء أو شاركه غيره فصار في التدبير واحدا فسمي حجرا.,"You must know whether (the stone) can be aided by something else or is sufficient by itself, and whether it is one (thing by itself) at the beginning or is associated with something else and becomes one (thing by itself) during the treatment, and is therefore called ‘stone.’"
وينبغي لك أن تعلم كيفية عمله وكمية أوزانه وأزمانه وكيف تركيب الروح فيه وإدخال النفس عليه؟ وهل تقدر النار على تفصيلها منه بعد تركيبها؟ فإن لم تقدر فلأي علة وما السبب الموجب لذلك؟ فإن هذا هو المطلوب,"You must also know how it works; how much its components must weigh and what times (are suitable) for it; how the spirit is inserted and the soul made to enter into it; whether fire can separate (the soul) from (the stone) after it has been inserted (in it); if not, why (not), and what makes it necessary that it be that way. This is what one wants (to know)."
فافهم واعلم أن الفلاسفة كلها مدحت النفس وزعمت أنها المدبرة للجسد والحاملة له والدافعة عنه والفاعلة فيه. وذلك أن الجسد إذا خرجت النفس منه مات وبرد فلم يقدر على الحركة والامتناع من غيره لأنه لا حياة فيه ولا نور.,"“It should be understood and realized that all philosophers have praised the soul and thought that it is the soul that governs, sustains, and defends the body and is active in it. For, when the soul leaves the body, the body dies and gets cold. It cannot move or defend itself, because there is no life in it and no light."
وإنما ذكرت الجسد والنفس لأن هذه الصفات شبيهة بجسد الإنسان الذي تركيبه على الغذاء والعشاء وقوامه وتمامه بالنفس الحية النورانية التي بها يفعل العظائم والأشياء المتقابلة التي لا يقدر عليها غيرها بالقوة الحية التي فيها.,"I have mentioned the body and the soul only because this craft (alchemy) is similar to the body of man, which is built up by regular meals and which persists and is perfected by the living, luminous soul, which enables the body to do the great and mutually contradictory things that only the living power of the soul can do."
وإنما انفعل الإنسان لاختلاف تركيب طبائعه ولو اتفقت طبائعه لسلمت من الأعراض والتضاد ولم تقدر النفس على الخروج من بدنه ولكان خالدا باقيا. فسبحان مدبر الأشياء تعالى.,"Man suffers from the disharmony of his component elements. If his elements were in complete harmony and (thus) not affected by accidents and (inner) contradictions, the soul would not be able to leave his body. Man would then live eternally. Praised be He who governs all things, He is exalted."
واعلم أن الطبائع التي يحدث عنها هذا العمل كيفية دافعة في الابتداء فيضية محتاجة إلى الانتهاء وليس لها إذا صارت في هذا الحد أن تستحيل إلى ما منه تركبت كما قلناه آنفا في الإنسان لأن طبائع هذا الجوهر قد لزم بعضها بعضا وصارت شيئا واحدا شبيها بالنفس في قوتها وفعلها وبالجسد في تركيبه ومجسته بعد أن كانت طبائع مفردة بأعيانها.,"“It should be known that the natures (elements) producing the (alchemical) operation constitute a quality that pushes (forward) at the beginning, and a process of emanation requiring an end. When they have reached this limit, they cannot be transformed (back) into the (state) that (formed the starting point of) their composition, as we stated at the outset with regard to man The natures of the substance had been separate, but now they adhere to each other and have become one thing, similar to the soul in power and activity, and similar to the body in having composition and pulse."
فيا عجبا من أفاعيل الطبائع إن القوة للضعيف الذي يقوى على تفصيل الأشياء وتركيبها وتمامها فلذلك قلت قوي وضعيف. وإنما وقع التعبير والفناء في التركيب الأول للاختلاف وعدم ذلك في الثاني للاتفاق.,"There is a strange thing about the actions of the elements. It is the weak (element) that is powerful, since it has power over the decomposition, composition, and completion of things. It is in this sense that I use (the words) ‘powerful’ and ‘weak.’ Change and nonbeing in the first composition occur only as the result of disharmony (among the component elements). They do not occur in the second composition, because there then is harmony (among the component elements)."
وقد قال بعض الأولين التفصيل والتقطيع في هذا العمل حياة وبقاء والتركيب موت وفناء. وهذا الكلام دقيق المعنى لأن الحكيم أراد بقوله حياة وبقاء خروجه من العدم إلى الوجود لأنه ما دام على تركيبه الأول فهو فان لا محالة فإذا ركب التركيب الثاني عدم الفناء.,"“An early (philosopher-alchemist) has said: ‘Decomposition and division mean life and duration, as far as the alchemical operation is concerned, while composition means death and nonbeing.’ This statement has ‘a subtle meaning. The philosopher meant by ‘life and duration’ its transformation from nonexistence into existence. As long as it remains in (the state of) its first composition, it is, no doubt, nonbeing."
والتركيب الثاني لا يكون إلا بعد التفصيل والتقطيع فإذا التفصيل والتقطيع في هذا العمل خاصة.,"But when the second composition takes place, nonbeing no longer exists. Now, the second composition comes about only after decomposition and division. Thus, decomposition and division are peculiar to the (alchemical) operation."
فإذا بقي الجسد المحلول انبسط فيه لعدم الصورة لأنه قد صار في الجسد بمنزلة النفس التي لا صورة لها وذلك أنه لا وزن له فيه,"If it is applied to the soluble body (substance), it spreads in it, because it has no form, since it has come to take in the body the place of the soul which has no form. This is because it has no weight as far as (the substance) is concerned."
وسترى ذلك إن شاء الله تعالى وقد ينبغي لك أن تعلم أن اختلاط اللطيف باللطيف أهون من اختلاط الغليظ وإنما أريد بذلك التشاكل في الأرواح والأجساد لأن الأشياء تتصل بأشكالها.,"You will see this, if God – He is exalted – wills. “You must realize that mixing a fine thing with another fine thing is easier than mixing a coarse thing with another coarse thing. I have in mind here the similarity in form among spirits (on the one hand) and bodies (substances, on the other), for it is the form of things that causes their union."
وذكرت لك ذلك لتعلم أن العمل أوفق وأيسر من الطبائع اللطائف الروحانية منها من الغليظة الجسمانية.,"I mention this to you, so that you may know that the (alchemical) operation is more agreeable and simpler if it is undertaken with fine spiritual elements than if it is undertaken with coarse corporeal (substances)."
وقد يتصور في العقل أن الأحجار أقوى وأصبر على النار من الأرواح كما ترى أن الذهب والحديد والنحاس أصبر على النار من الكبريت والزئبق وغيرهما من الأرواح فأقول إن الأجساد قد كانت أرواحا في بدنها فلما أصابها حر الكيان قلبها أجسادا لزجة غليظة فلم تقدر النار على أكلها لإفراط غلظها وتلزجها.,"“It is logical that stones are stronger in their resistance to fire than spirits. Likewise, gold, iron, and copper are observed to offer more resistance to fire than sulphur, mercury, and other spirits. Therefore, I say: The substances were spirits at the beginning. When the heat of the natural process (kiyan) affects them, they are transformed by it into coarse, coherent substances. Fire is not able to consume them, because they are exceedingly coarse and coherent."
فإذا أفرطت النار عليها صيرتها أرواحا كما كانت أول خلقها. وإن تلك الأرواح اللطيفة إذا أصابتها النار أبقت ولم تقدر على البقاء عليها فينبغي لك أن تعلم ما صير الأجساد في هذه الحالة وصير الأرواح في هذا الحال فهو أجل ما تعرفه.,"When an exceedingly great amount of fire is applied to them, it turns them again into spirits, as they had been when they were first created. If fire (then again) affects the fine spirits, they flee and are not able to endure it. Thus, you must know what brought the substances to their particular condition and (what) brought the spirits to theirs. That is the most important knowledge you can have."
أقول إنما أبقت تلك الأرواح لاشتعالها ولطافتها. وإنما اشتعلت لكثرة رطوبتها ولأن النار إذا أحست بالرطوبة تعلقت بها لأنها هوائية تشاكل النار ولا تزال تغتذي بها إلى أن تفنى.,"“I say: The spirits flee and are burned, because of their combustibility and fineness. They became combustible because of their great share of humidity. When fire notices humidity, it attaches itself to it, because (humidity) is airy and (thus) similar to fire. (The fire) does not stop eating it, until (the humidity) is consumed."
وكذلك الأجساد إذا أحست بوصول النار إليها لقلة تلزجها وغلظها وإنما صارت تلك الأجساد لا تشتعل لأنها مركبة من أرض وماء صابر على النار فلطيفه متحد بكثيفه لطول الطبخ اللين المازج للأشياء.,"The same applies to substances when, (noticing) the approach of fire, they flee, because they have little coherence and are coarse. (But) they are not combustible, because they are composed of earth and water which offers resistance to fire, in that the fine (components of water) unite with its coarse (components) through a long (process of) cooking which softens and mixes things."
وذلك أن كل متلاش إنما يتلاشى بالنار لمفارقة لطيفه من كثيفه ودخول بعضه في بعض على غير التحليل والموافقة فصار ذلك الانضمام والتداخل مجاورة لا ممازجة فسهل بذلك افتراقهما كالماء والدهن وما أشبههما.,"For, anything that is annihilated through fire is annihilated only because its fine (components) separate (under the influence of fire) from its coarse (components), and its parts merge with each other without dissolution and adaptation, Thus, the resulting combination and interpenetration is (mere) aggregation, not (real) mixture. Therefore, (the fine and the coarse elements) are as easily separated (under the influence of fire) as water and oil (are), or similar things."
وإنما وصفت ذلك لتستدل به على تركيب الطبائع وتقابلها فإذا علمت ذلك علما شافيا فقد أخذت حظك منها. وينبغي لك أن تعلم أن الأخلاط التي هي طبائع هذه الصناعة موافقة بعضها لبعض مفصلة من جوهر واحد يجمعها نظام واحد بتدبير واحد,"I describe this merely so that you may learn from it (the facts) about composition and opposition with regard to the elements. If you have a sufficient knowledge of this, you know as much about the (elements) as can be known by you. “You must (further) know that the mixtures, which are the elements of alchemy, agree with one another. They are derived from one substance. One order and one treatment unite them all."
لا يدخل عليه غريب في الجزء منه ولا في الكل كما قال الفيلسوف: إنك إذا أحكمت تدبير الطبائع وتآليفها ولم تدخل عليها غريبا فقد أحكمت ما أردت إحكامه وقوامه إذ الطبيعة واحدة لا غريب فيها فمن أدخل عليها غريبا فقد زاغ عنها ووقع في الخطإ.,"Nothing strange enters into either a (single) part or into the whole of it. In this sense, the philosopher has said: ‘If you have a good knowledge of the treatment and composition of the elements, and if you do not permit anything strange to enter into them, you have a good knowledge of what you want to know well and definitely, since the (alchemical) element is one (element) and contains nothing that is strange to it. He who brings something strange into it falsifies it and commits an error.’"
واعلم أن هذه الطبيعة إذا حل لها جسد من قرائنها على ما ينبغي في الحل حتى يشاكلها في الرقة واللطافة انبسطت فيه وجرت معه حيثما جرى لأن الأجساد ما دامت غليظة جافية لا تنبسط ولا تتزاوج وحل الأجساد لا يكون بغير الأرواح فافهم هداك الله هذا القول.,"“It should be known that if a cognate substance is properly dissolved for this (alchemical) element, so that it becomes similar to it in respect of fineness and subtleness, the (alchemical) element expands in it and follows it wherever it goes. As long as substances remain coarse and rough, they cannot expand or be paired, and they can dissolve only with the help of spirits. “You – may God guide you – should understand this statement in that sense."
واعلم هداك الله أن هذا الحل في جسد الحيوان هو الحق الذي لا يضمحل ولا ينقص وهو الذي يقلب الطبائع ويمسكها ويظهر لها ألوانا وأزهارا عجيبة.,"You – may God guide you – should know that such dissolution in the animal substance is the truth, which neither perishes nor decreases. It is the thing that transforms the elements, holds them, and produces for them marvelous colors and blossoms."
وليس كل جسد يحل خلاف هذا هو الحل التام لأنه مخالف للحياة، وإنما حله بما يوافقه ويدفع عنه حرق النار، حتى يزول عن الغلظ، وتنقلب الطبائع عن حالاتها إلى ما لها أن تنقلب من اللطافة والغلظ. فإذا بلغت الأجساد نهايتها من التحليل والتلطيف ظهرت لها لك قوة تمسك وتغوص وتقلب وتنفذ وكل عمل لا يرى له مصداق في أوله فلا خير فيه.,"Not every substance dissolves in this way, which is (the way of) complete dissolution, because it is contrary to life. It dissolves only in so far as (the process of dissolution) is agreeable to it and serves to defend it against the burning action of fire, until it is no longer coarse and the elements are transformed to the degree of fineness or coarseness possible for them. When the substances have reached their limit of dissolution and refinement, they then obtain a power that holds, immerses, transforms, and pervades. An (alchemical) operation, the test of whose truthfulness does not appear at the beginning, is no good."
واعلم أن البارد من الطبائع هو ييبس الأشياء ويعقد رطوبتها والحار منها يظهر رطوبتها ويعقد يبسها وإنما أفردت الحر والبرد لأنهما فاعلان والرطوبة واليبس منفعلان وعلى انفعال كل واحد منهما لصاحبه تحدث الأجسام وتتكون وإن كان الحر أكثر فعلا في ذلك من البرد لأن البرد ليس له نقل الأشياء ولا تحركها والحر هو علة الحركة.,"“It should be known that the cold nature dries things out and ties down their humidity, while heat causes the humidity of things to appear and ties down their dryness. I have singled out heat and cold because they are active, and humidity and dryness (because they) are passive. The passivity of (the two opposites) toward each other creates and generates the substances. Heat, however, does so more actively than cold, because the cold cannot transport and move things, while heat is the cause of motion."
ومتى ضعفت علة الكون وهو الحرارة لم يتم منها شيء أبدا كما أنه إذا أفرطت الحرارة على شيء ولم يكن ثم برد أحرقته وأهلكته. فمن أجل هذه العلة احتيج إلى البارد في هذه الأعمال ليقوى به كل ضد على ضده ويدفع عنه حر النار.,"When the heat that causes generation is weak, it never achieves anything. Correspondingly, if the heat affecting a thing is excessive, and there is no cold there, it burns the thing and destroys it. For this reason, some cold is needed in (alchemical) operations, so that the power of opposites may be balanced and there may be protection against the heat of fire."
ولم يحذر الفلاسفة أكبر شيء إلا من النيران المحرقة. وأمرت بتطهير الطبائع والأنفاس وإخراج دنسها ورطوبتها ونفي آفاتها وأوساخها عنها على ذلك استقام رأيهم وتدبيرهم فإنما عملهم إنما هو مع النار أولا وإليها يصير أخيرا,"“There is nothing the philosophers have warned against more insistently than burning fires. They have commanded (alchemists) to cleanse the elements and the breaths, to remove their dirt and humidity, and to keep away their harmful (actions) and uncleanliness from (fires). That is the sound basis of their doctrine and treatment. The (alchemical) operation begins with fire and ends with fire."
"فلذلك قالوا: إياكم والنيران المحرقات. وإنما أرادوا بذلك نفي الآفات التي معها فتجمع على الجسد آفتين فتكون أسرع لهلاكه.
وكذلك كل شيء إنما يتلاشى ويفسد من ذاته لتضاد طبائعه واختلافه فيتوسط بين شيئين فلم يجد ما يقويه ويعينه إلا قهرته الآفة وأهلكته.","Therefore, the philosophers have said, ‘Beware of burning fires.’ By that they meant that one should keep away the harmful (actions) that go with (fire). (Otherwise,) two kinds of harmful (actions) would combine against the substance and speed its destruction. Also, anything may suffer annihilation and corruption through itself, because its elements are opposed to each other and there is disharmony in it. It thus stands in the middle between two things and does not find anything to strengthen and aid it, but the harmful (actions) overpower and destroy it."
واعلم أن الحكماء كلها ذكرت ترداد الأرواح على الأجساد مرارا ليكون ألزم إليها وأقوى على قتال النار إذا هي باشرتها عند الألفة أعني بذلك النار العنصرية فاعلمه.,"“It should be known that the sages have mentioned that spirits return repeatedly to bodies (substances), so that they may have greater coherence with them and greater strength to fight the fire, since they (the spirits) come into contact with (the fire) at the moment of union – I mean here elemental fire. This should be realized."
ولنقل الآن على الحجر الذي يمكن منه العمل على ما ذكرته الفلاسفة فقد اختلفوا فيه فمنهم من زعم أنه في الحيوان ومنهم من زعم أنه في النبات ومنهم من زعم أنه في المعادن ومنهم من زعم أنه في الجميع.,"“We are now going to speak about the stone that makes the (alchemical) operation possible, as mentioned by the philosophers. They have held different opinions about it. Some have thought that it is (to be found) in animals; some have thought, in plants; some have thought, in minerals; and, according to some, in everything."
وهذه الدعاوى ليست بنا حاجة إلى استقصائها ومناظرة أهلها عليها لأن الكلام يطول جدا وقد قلت فيما تقدم إن العمل يكون في كل شيء بالقوة لأن الطبائع موجودة في كل شيء فهو كذلك فنريد أن تعلم من أي شيء يكون العمل بالقوة والفعل,"We do not have to examine these claims and enter into a dispute concerning them with the people who make them, because that would be a very long discussion. I have already stated that the (alchemical) operation might potentially, be performed with anything, because the elements exist in every thing. This is so. “We want to know what produces the (alchemical) operation (both) potentially and actually."
فنقصد إلى ما قاله الحراني إن الصبغ كله أحد صبغين:,"Therefore, we turn to the statement of al-Harrani that all dyeing consists of two kinds."
إما صبغ جسد كالزعفران في الثوب الأبيض حتى يحول فيه وهو مضمحل منتقض التركيب،,"One may use a substance such as saffron, which is used to dye a white garment. The (saffron) eventually changes in it, vanishing and being decomposed."
والصبغ الثاني تقليب الجوهر من جوهر نفسه إلى جوهر غيره ولونه كتقليب الشجر بل التراب إلى نفسه وقلب الحيوان والنبات إلى نفسه حتى يصير التراب نباتا والنبات حيوانا ولا يكون إلا بالروح الحي والكيان الفاعل الذي له توليد الأجرام وقلب الأعيان.,"The second kind of dyeing is transformation of the substance of one thing into the substance and color of something else. Thus trees, for instance, transform the soil into themselves, and animals the plants, so that eventually the soil becomes plants, and the plants animals. This can come about only with the help of the living spirit and the active nature (kiyan) which has the ability to generate substances and change essences."
فإذا كان هذا هكذا فنقول إن العمل لا بد أن يكون إما في الحيوان وإما في النبات وبرهان ذلك أنهما مطبوعان على الغذاء وبه قوامهما وتمامهما.,"“If this be so, I say that the (alchemical) operation must be either in animals or in plants. Proof of this is that both animals and plants need food by their very nature, in order to subsist and to materialize."
فأما النبات فليس فيه ما في الحيوان من اللطافة والقوة ولذلك قل خوض الحكماء فيه.,"“Plants do not have the same fineness and power that animals have. Therefore, the sages rarely turned to them."
وأما الحيوان فهو آخر الاستحالات الثلاث ونهايتها وذلك أن المعدن يستحيل نباتا والنبات يستحيل حيوانا والحيوان لا يستحيل إلى شيء هو الطف منه إلا أن ينعكس راجعا إلى الغلظ وأنه أيضا لا يوجد في العالم شيء تتعلق فيه الروح الحية غيره,"Animals are the last and final stage of the three permutations. Minerals turn into plants, and plants into animals, but animals cannot turn into anything finer than themselves. They may, however, revert back to (greater) coarseness. Furthermore, animals are the only things in the world to which the living spirit attaches itself."
والروح ألطف ما في العالم ولم تتعلق الروح بالحيوان إلا بمشاكلته إياها.,"Now, the spirit is the finest thing there is in the world. It attaches itself to animals only because it is similar to them."
فأما الروح التي في النبات فإنها يسيرة فيها غلظ وكثافة وهي مع ذلك مستغرقة كامنة فيه لغلظها وغلظ جسد النبات فلم يقدر على الحركة لغلظه وغلظ روحه.,"The spirit existing in plants is insignificant. It is coarse and thick. In addition, it is submerged and hidden in plants, because it is coarse itself and because the substance of plants is coarse. (Plants,) thus, cannot move, because they themselves are coarse and because their spirit is coarse."
والروح المتحركة ألطف من الروح الكامنة كثيرا وذلك أن المتحركة لها قبول الغذاء والتنقل والتنفس وليس للكامنة غير قبول الغذاء وحده. ولا تجري إذا قيست بالروح الحية إلا كالأرض عند الماء. كذلك النبات عند الحيوان فالعمل في الحيوان أعلى وأرفع وأهون وأيسر.,"The mobile spirit is much finer than the hidden one. The former accepts food. It can be moved, and it can breathe. The latter can only accept food. As compared with the living spirit, it occupies no better position than that of earth as compared to water. This is how plants compare with animals. Therefore, it is much more advanced and much simpler to use animals for the (alchemical) operation."
فينبغي للعاقل إذا عرف ذلك أن يجرب ما كان سهلا ويترك ما يخشى فيه عسرا.,The intelligent person who knows this must try the (method) that is easy. He must not do what he fears might be difficult.
واعلم أن الحيوان عند الحكماء ينقسم أقساما من الأمهات التي هي الطبائع والحديثة التي هي المواليد وهذا معروف متيسر الفهم فلذلك قسمت الحكماء العناصر والمواليد أقساما حية وأقساما ميتة فجعلوا كل متحرك فاعلا حيا وكل ساكن مفعولا ميتا.,“It should be known that the sages have divided living beings into ‘mothers’- the elements – and ‘young ones’ – the generated beings. That is well known and easy to understand. The sages thus divided the elements and the generated beings into living ones and dead ones. They assumed that anything that moves is active and living and that anything that is stationary is passive and dead.
وقسموا ذلك في جميع الأشياء وفي الأجساد الذائبة وفي العقاقير المعدنية فسموا كل شيء يذوب في النار ويطير ويشتعل حيا وما كان على خلاف ذلك سموه ميتا فأما الحيوان والنبات فسموا كل ما انفصل منها طبائع أربعا حيا وما لم ينفصل سموه ميتا ثم إنهم طلبوا جميع الأقسام الحية.,"They made this division for all things, for the melt able substances and the mineral drugs. Anything that is melt able in fire and volatile and combustible, they called ‘living.’ Anything of the opposite qualities, they called ‘dead.’ The animals and plants that can be decomposed into the four elements, they called living. Those that cannot, they called dead. “Then, they searched all the living groups."
فلم يجدوا لوفق هذه الصناعة مما ينفصل فصولا أربعة ظاهرة للعيان ولم يجدوا غير الحجر الذي في الحيوان فبحثوا عن جنسه حتى عرفوه وأخذوه ودبروه فتكيف لهم منه الذي أرادوا.,"Among the things that can be decomposed into four components obvious to the eye, they did not find anything suitable for alchemy. The only (suitable) thing they found was ‘the stone’ which is in animals. They studied its genus. Eventually, they came to know it. They took it and treated it. As a result, they obtained the desired qualities from it."
وقد يتكيف مثل هذا في المعادن والنبات بعد جمع العقاقير وخلطها ثم تفصل بعد ذلك. فأما النبات فمنه ما ينفصل ببعض هذه الفصول مثل الأشنان وأما المعادن ففيها أجساد وأرواح وأنفاس إذا مزجت ودبرت كان منها ما له تأثير.,"“Similar qualities may be obtained in minerals and plants, after (various mineral or vegetable) drugs are combined, mixed, and then separated again. There are plants, such as saltwort, that can be decomposed into certain of the (four) components. Minerals contain substances, spirits, and breaths which, when they are mixed and treated, produce something that may exercise an influence."
وقد دبرنا كل ذلك فكان الحيوان منها أعلى وأرفع وتدبيره أسهل وأيسر. فينبغي لك أن تعلم ما هو الحجر الموجود في الحيوان وطريق وجوده.,"We have tried all that out. “Animals are much more advanced. Their treatment is much simpler. Thus, one must know what is the stone that exists in animals, and how it can be found."
إنا بينا أن الحيوان أرفع المواليد وكذا ما تركب منه فهو ألطف منه كالنبات من الأرض. وإنما كان النبات ألطف من الأرض لأنه إنما يكون من جوهره الصافي وجسده اللطيف فوجب له بذلك اللطافة والرقة.,"“We have made it clear that animals are the highest of generated things. In the same sense, whatever is composed from them (animals) is finer than (plants), just as plants are finer than earth. Plants are finer than earth, because they are created from its pure essence and fine substance. Therefore, they are necessarily fine and subtle."
وكذا هذا الحجر الحيواني بمنزلة النبات في التراب. وبالجملة فإنه ليس في الحيوان شيء ينفصل طبائع أربعا غيره فافهم هذا القول فإنه لا يكاد يخفى إلا على جاهل بين الجهالة ومن لا عقل له.,"The animal stone is in the same position (among animals) as plants are in the soil. In general, there is nothing in living beings that can be decomposed into four elements except (that stone). This statement must be understood. It can hardly remain concealed from anyone except an obviously stupid person who has no intelligence."
فقد أخبرتك ماهية هذا الحجر وأعلمتك جنسه وأنا أبين لك وجوه تدابيره حتى يكمل الذي شرطناه على أنفسنا من الإنصاف إن شاء الله سبحانه»..,"“I have thus informed you about the quiddity and genus of the stone. Now I am going to explain to you the different kinds of treatment. Thus, we shall give you your fair share (of information), as we have taken it upon ourselves to do, if God praised be He – wills."
(التدبير على بركة الله) خذ الحجر الكريم فأودعه القرعة والإنبيق وفصل طبائعه الأربع التي هي النار والهواء والأرض والماء وهي الجسد والصبغ,"“With God’s blessing, here is the treatment: Take the noble stone. Deposit it in the cucurbit and alembic. Separate its four elements, which are water, air, earth, and fire. They are substance, spirit, soul, and dyeing."
فإذا عزلت الماء عن التراب والهواء عن النار فارفع كل واحد في إنائه على حدة وخذ الهابط أسفل الإناء وهو الثفل فاغسله بالنار الحارة حتى تذهب النار عنه سواده ويزول غلظه وجفاؤه وبيضه تبييضا محكما وطير عنه فضول الرطوبات المستجنة فيه فإنه يصير عند ذلك ماء أبيض لا ظلمة فيه ولا وسخ ولا تضاد.,"When you have separated the water from the earth and the air from the fire, keep each one apart in its own vessel. Take the dregs – the sediment – at the bottom of the vessel. Wash it with hot fire, until the fire has removed its blackness, and its coarseness and toughness have disappeared. Blanch it carefully and evaporate the superfluities of the humidities concealed in it. It will thus become white water, which contains no darkness, dirt, or disharmony."
ثم اعمد إلى تلك الطبائع الأول الصاعدة منه فطهرها أيضا من السواد والتضاد وكرر عليها الغسل والتصعيد حتى تلطف وترق وتصفو.,"Then, turn to those primary elements that are distilled from it. Cleanse them, too, of blackness and disharmony. Wash them repeatedly and sublimate them, until they become fine, subtle, and pure."
فإذا فعلت ذلك فقد فتح الله عليك فابدأ بالتركيب الذي عليه مدار العمل. وذلك أن التركيب لا يكون إلا بالتزويج والتعفين فأما التزويج فهو اختلاط اللطيف بالغليظ وأما التعفين فهو التمشية والسحق حتى يختلط بعضه ببعض ويصير شيئا واحدا لا اختلاف فيه ولا نقصان بمنزلة الامتزاج بالماء.,"When you have done this, God has given you success. “Then, start with the composition around which the operation centers. This is as follows. Composition comes about only through pairing (marriage) and putrefaction. Pairing (marriage) is the mixture of the fine with the coarse. Putrefaction is purgation and pulverization undertaken so that the various parts may mix, as water does, with each other and form one thing containing no confusion
or deficiency in itself."
فعند ذلك يقوى الغليظ على إمساك اللطيف وتقوى الروح على مقابلة النار وتصبر عليها وتقوى النفس على الغوص في الأجساد والدبيب فيها.,"In this condition, the coarse (components) have the strength to hold the fine ones back; the spirit has the strength to oppose the fire and can tolerate it; and the soul has the strength to immerse itself and slip into the substances."
وإنما وجد ذلك بعد التركيب لأن الجسد المحلول لما ازدوج بالروح مازجه بجميع أجزائه ودخل بعضها في بعض لتشاكلها فصار شيئا واحدا ووجب من ذلك أن يعرض للروح من الصلاح والفساد والبقاء والثبوت وما يعرض للجسد لموضع الامتزاج.,"“This (situation) exists only after composition. When the soluble substance is paired with the spirit, it mingles with it in all its parts, and the parts interpenetrate, because they are similar to each, other. Thus, (the resulting mixture) becomes one thing. The fact that (the spirit) is mixed (with the body) makes it necessary for the spirit to be affected by well-being, corruption, duration [?],and persistence, like the body."
وكذلك النفس إذا امتزجت بهما ودخلت فيهما بخدمة التدبير اختلطت أجزاؤها بجميع أجزاء الآخرين أعني الروح والجسد وصارت هي وهما شيئا واحدا لا اختلاف فيه بمنزلة الجزء الكلي الذي سلمت طبائعه واتفقت أجزاؤه,"Likewise, when the soul mixes with (substance and spirit) and penetrates them through the services of the (alchemical) treatment, all the parts of the (soul) mingle with all the parts of the two other (things), that is, spirit and substance. Thus, the (soul) and the two become one thing that contains no disagreement and is in the position of the universal particular whose elements are intact and whose parts are in harmony with each other."
فإذا ألقى هذا المركب الجسد المحلول وألح عليه النار وأظهر ما فيه من الرطوبة على وجهه ذاب في الجسد المحلول. ومن شأن الرطوبة الاشتعال وتعلق النار بها فإذا أرادت النار التعلق بها منعها من الاتحاد بالنفس ممازجة الماء لها. فإن النار لا تتحد بالدهن حتى يكون خالصا.,"“When this compound meets the soluble substance, and fire is constantly applied to it, and the humidity in it is brought to the surface, it melts in the soluble substance. Humidity implies combustion and an attachment of the fire to itself. But when the fire wants to attach itself to it, its admixture of water prevents it from union with the soul, for fire does not unite with oil, until it is pure."
وكذلك الماء من شأنه النفور من النار. فإذا ألحت عليه النار وأرادت تطييره حبسه الجسد اليابس الممازج له في جوفه فمنعه من الطيران فكان الجسد علة لإمساك الماء والماء علة لبقاء الدهن والدهن علة لثبات الصبغ والصبغ علة لظهور الدهن وإظهار الدهنية في الأشياء المظلمة التي لا نور لها ولا حياة فيها. فهذا هو الجسد المستقيم وهكذا يكون العمل.,"Likewise, water implies aversion to fire. Thus, when fire is constantly applied to it and wants to evaporate it, the dry substance which is mixed with (the water) keeps it back inside and prevents it from evaporation. Thus, the substance is the cause of holding the water; the water is the cause of the duration of the oil; the oil is the cause of the persistence of the dyeing; and the dyeing is the cause of the appearance of color and the indication of oiliness in dark things that have no light and no life. This is the right substance. The (alchemical) operation comes about in this way."
وهذه التصفية التي سألت عنها وهي التي سمتها الحكماء بيضة وإياها يعنون لا بيضة الدجاج واعلم أن الحكماء لم تسمها بهذا الاسم لغير معنى بل أشبهتها.,"“The ‘egg about which you have inquired (is the thing) the sages call ‘egg.’ It is what they have in mind (when they speak about the ‘egg’), and not the egg of the chicken. It should be known that the sages did not choose an inappropriate name by calling it ‘egg.’ They called it ‘egg,’ because it can be compared to an egg."
ولقد سألت مسلمة عن ذلك يوما وليس عنده غيري فقلت له: أيها الحكيم الفاضل أخبرني لأي شيء سمت الحكماء مركب الحيوان بيضة؟ اختيارا منهم لذلك أم لمعنى دعاهم إليه؟,"I asked Maslamah about it one day when I was alone with him. I said to him, ‘O excellent sage, tell me, why did the sages call the animal compound “egg”? Was that something arbitrary on their part, or was there some reason that caused them to do so?’"
فقال: بل لمعنى غامض فقلت أيها الحكيم وما ظهر لهم من ذلك من المنفعة والاستدلال على الصناعة حتى شبهوها وسموها بيضة؟ فقال: لشبهها وقرابتها من المركب ففكر فيه فإنه سيظهر لك معناه. فبقيت بين يديه مفكرا لا أقدر على الوصول إلى معناه.,"He replied, ‘Indeed, there is deep meaning in it.’ I said, ‘O sage, what advantage (did they see) and what indication of a connection with alchemy did they find in comparing it with an egg and calling it “egg”? ‘ He said, ‘Because the egg is similar to and related to the compound. Think it over, and the meaning of it will appear to you.’ I remained with him, thinking it over, but I could not get at the meaning of it."
فلما رأى ما بي من الفكر وأن نفسي قد مضت فيها أخذ بعضدي وهزني هزة خفيفة وقال لي: يا أبا بكر ذلك للنسبة التي بينهما في كمية الألوان عند امتزاج الطبائع وتأليفها. فلما قال ذلك انجلت عني الظلمة وأضاء لي نور قلبي وقوي عقلي على فهمه,"When he saw that I was deep in thought and my soul immersed in it, he grasped my arm, nudged me slightly, and said to me, ‘O Abu Bakr, it is because of the relationship that exists between the two with regard to the quantity of colors at the time of the mixture and composition of the elements.’ When he said that, the darkness (that had enveloped my mind) left me. A light lit up my heart and gave my intellect the power to understand it."
فنهضت شاكرا الله عليه إلى منزلي وأقمت على ذلك شكلا هندسيا يبرهن به على صحة ما قاله مسلمة. وأنا واضعه لك في هذا الكتاب.,"I stood up and went home, thanking God – He is exalted – for it. I constructed a geometrical figure to illustrate it. It proves the correctness of Maslamah’s statement. I am writing it down for you in this book (epistle)."
مثال ذلك أن المركب إذا تم وكمل كان نسبة ما فيه من طبيعة الهواء إلى ما في البيضة من طبيعة الهواء كنسبة ما في المركب من طبيعة النار إلى ما في البيضة من طبيعة النار.,"“For instance: when the compound is complete and perfect, the element of air in it is, to the element of air in the egg, in the same proportion as the element of fire in the former is to the element of fire in the latter."
وكذلك الطبيعتان الأخريان: الأرض والماء فأقول: إن كل شيئين متناسبين على هذه الصفة هما متشابهان.,"The same applies to the two other elements, earth and water. Now, I say: two things that in this manner are proportionate to each other are similar to each other."
ومثال ذلك أن تجعل لسطح البيضة هزوح فإذا أردنا ذلك فإنا نأخذ أقل طبائع المركب وهي طبيعة اليبوسة ونضيف إليها مثلها من طبيعة الرطوبة وندبرهما حتى تنشف طبيعة اليبوسة طبيعة الرطوبة وتقبل قوتها.,"For example, assume that the plane of the egg is HZWH. If we want that, we take the smallest element of the compound, that of dryness, and add to it the same (amount) of the element of humidity. We treat the two, until the element of dryness absorbs the element of humidity and takes over its power."
وكأن في هذا الكلام رمزا ولكنه لا يخفى عليك. ثم تحمل عليهما جميعا مثليهما من الروح وهو الماء فيكون الجميع ستة أمثال.,"This discussion contains a certain secret hint which, however, will not remain concealed from you. Then we add to the two the same (amount as theirs) of the spirit, that is, water. Thus, the whole consists of six equal (parts)."
ثم تحمل على الجميع بعد التدبير مثلا من طبيعة الهواء التي هي النفس وذلك ثلاثة أجزاء فيكون الجميع تسعة أمثال اليبوسة بالقوة.,"Then we treat the whole and add to it the same (amount) of the element of air, which is the soul. That is three parts. Thus, the whole consists of nine parts equal in power to dryness."
وتجعل تحت كل ضلعين من المركب الذي طبيعته محيطة بسطح المركب طبيعتين فتجعل أولا الضلعين المحيطين بسطحه طبيعة الماء وطبيعة الهواء وهما ضلعا (أح د) وسطح (ابجد) وكذلك الضلعان المحيطان بسطح البيضة اللذان هما الماء والهواء ضلعا (هزوح) فأقول إن سطح (ابجد) يشبه سطح (هزوح) طبيعة الهواء التي تسمى نفسا وكذلك (بج) من سطح المركب. والحكماء لم تسم شيئا باسم شيء إلا لشبهة به.,"Under each of two sides of this compound whose nature (element) encloses the plane of the compound, we then put two elements. The first two sides that enclose the plane of the compound are assumed to be those of the elements of water and air. They are the two sides AJD. The plane is ABJD. Correspondingly, the two sides that enclose the plane of the ‘egg'( and) which represent water and air are two sides of the (plane) HZWH. Now, I say: the plane
ABJD is similar to the plane HZWH <...> the element of air which is called ‘soul.’
The same applies to (the side) BJ of the plane of the compound. The sages never called anything by the name of something (else), except when the first thing could be compared to the other."
والكلمات التي سألت عن شرحها الأرض المقدسة وهي المنعقدة من الطبائع العلوية والسفلية. والنحاس هو الذي أخرج سواده وقطع حتى صار هباء ثم حمر بالزاج حتى صار نحاسيا والمغنيسيا حجرهم الذي تجمد فيه الأرواح وتخرجه الطبيعة العلوية التي تستجن فيها الأرواح لتقابل عليها النار والفرفرة لون أحمر قان يحدثه الكيان.,"“Words for an explanation of which you have asked (me) are ‘holy land’ it means the combination of the higher and the lower elements; ‘copper,’ which is the (substance) the blackness of which has been removed and which was cut in pieces until it became an atom, and was then colored red with copperas, until it came to be copper. ‘Maghnisiya’ is the stone of the (alchemists) in which the spirits are frozen and which is brought forth by the higher nature in which the spirits are emprisoned, in order to fight the fire (and protect) them against it. ‘Furfurah’ (purple) is a perishable red color that is produced by nature (kiyan)."
والرصاص حجر له ثلاث قوى مختلفة الشخوص ولكنها متشاكلة ومتجانسة. فالواحدة روحانية نيرة صافية وهي الفاعلة والثانية نفسانية وهي متحركة حساسة غير أنها أغلظ من الأولى ومركزها دون مركز الأولى والثالثة قوة أرضية حاسة قابضة منعكسة إلى مركز الأرض لثقلها وهي الماسكة الروحانية والنفسانية جميعا والمحيطة بهما.,"‘Lead’ is a stone that has three powers of different individualities which, however, are similar to each other in form and genus. One of them is spiritual, luminous, and clear. It is the active power. The second is psychic. It moves and has sensual perception. However, it is coarser than the first power. Its center is below that of the first (power). The third power is an earthy power. It is solid and astringent. It turns back toward the center of the earth because of its gravity. It is the power that holds the spiritual and psychic powers together and encloses them."
وأما سائر الباقية فمبتدعة ومخترعة، إلباسا على الجاهل، ومن عرف المقدمات استغنى عن غيرها.,“All the remaining (words) are innovations created in order to confuse the ignorant. He who knows the (basic) premises can dispense with everything else.
فهذا جميع ما سألتني عنه وقد بعثت به إليك مفسرا ونرجو بتوفيق الله أن تبلغ أملك والسلام.,“That is all you have asked me about. I have explained it to you in this epistle. We hope with God’s help that you will achieve your wish. Farewell.”
انتهى كلام ابن بشرون وهو من كبار تلاميذ مسلمة المجريطي شيخ الأندلس في علوم الكيمياء والسيمياء والسحر في القرن الثالث وما بعده.,"Here ends the discussion by Ibn Bishrun, one of the great pupils of Maslamah al-Majriti, the Spanish authority on alchemy, letter magic, and sorcery, for the third [ninth] century and later (times)."
وأنت ترى كيف صرف ألفاظهم كلها في الصناعة إلى الرمز والألغاز التي لا تكاد تبين ولا تعرف وذلك دليل على أنها ليست بصناعة طبيعية.,"One can see how all the expressions used by (alchemists) tend to be secret hints and puzzles, scarcely to be explained or understood. This is proof of the fact that alchemy is not a natural craft."
والذي يجب أن يعتقد في أمر الكيمياء وهو الحق الذي يعضده الواقع أنها من جنس آثار النفوس الروحانية وتصرفها في عالم الطبيعة: إما من نوع الكرامة إن كانت النفوس خيرة أو من نوع السحر إن كانت النفوس شريرة فاجرة.,"The truth with regard to alchemy, which is to be believed and which is supported by actual fact, is that alchemy is one of the ways in which the spiritual souls exercise an influence and are active in the world of nature. (It may) belong among the (miraculous) acts of divine grace, if the souls are good. Or it may be a kind of sorcery, if the souls are bad and wicked."
فأما الكرامة فظاهرة وأما السحر فلأن الساحر كما ثبت في مكان تحقيقه يقلب الأعيان المادية بقوته السحرية.,"It is obvious that (alchemy may materialize) as a (miraculous) act of divine grace. It may be sorcery, because the sorcerer, as has been established in the proper place, may change the identity of matter by means of his magic power."
ولا بد له مع ذلك عندهم من مادة يقع فعله السحري فيها كتخليق بعض الحيوانات من مادة التراب أو الشجر والنبات وبالجملة من غير مادتها المخصوصة بها، كما وقع لسحرة فرعون في الحبال والعصي وكما ينقل عن سحرة السودان والهنود في قاصية الجنوب والترك في قاصية الشمال أنهم يسحرون الجو للأمطار وغير ذلك.,"(People) think that a (sorcerer) must use some substance (in order) for his magical activity to take place. Thus, certain animals may be created from the substance of earth, of hair, or of plants, or, in general, from substances other than their own. That, for instance, happened to the sorcerers of Pharaoh with their ropes and sticks. It also is reported, for instance, of the Negro and Indian sorcerers in the far south and of the Turks in the far north, that by sorcery they force the air to produce rain, and other things."
ولما كانت هذه تخليقا للذهب في غير مادته الخاصة به كان من قبيل السحر والمتكلمون فيه من أعلام الحكماء مثل جابر ومسلمة. ومن كان قبلهم من حكماء الأمم إنما نحوا هذا المنحى,"Now, since alchemy is the creation of gold in a substance other than that of (gold), it is a kind of sorcery. The famous sages who discussed the subject, men such as Jabir, Maslamah, and their non-Muslim predecessors, followed this line."
ولهذا كان كلامهم فيه ألغازا حذرا عليها من إنكار الشرائع على السحر وأنواعه لا أن ذلك يرجع إلى الضنانة بها كما هو رأي من لم يذهب إلى التحقيق في ذلك.,"Therefore, they used puzzling expressions. They wanted to protect alchemy from the disapproval that religious laws express for the various kinds of sorcery. It was not because they were reluctant to communicate it (to others), as was thought by people who did not investigate the matter thoroughly."
وانظر كيف سمى مسلمة كتابه فيها رتبة الحكيم وسمى كتابه في السحر والطلسمات غاية الحكيم إشارة إلى عموم موضوع الغاية وخصوص موضوع هذه لأن الغاية أعلى من الرتبة فكأن مسائل الرتبة بعض من مسائل الغاية وتشاركها في الموضوعات.,"One may compare the fact that Maslamah called his book on alchemy Rutbat al-hakim, while he called his book on sorcery and talismans Ghayat al-hakim. He wanted to intimate that the subject of the Ghayah is a general one, whereas the subject of the Rutbah is a restricted one, for ghayah “final goal” is a higher (stage in research) than rutbah “degree, rank.” The problems of the Rutbah are in a way part of the problems of the Ghayah, or deal with the same subjects."
ومن كلامه في الفنين يتبين ما قلناه ونحن نبين فيما بعد غلط من يزعم أن مدارك هذا الأمر بالصناعة الطبيعية.,"(Maslamah’s) discussion of the two disciplines clarifies what we have said. Later on, we shall explain that those who assume that the achievements of alchemy are the result of a natural craft are wrong."
والله العليم الخبير.,God is “wise and knowing.”
الفصل الحادي والثلاثون في إبطال الفلسفة وفساد منتحلها,"30. A refutation of philosophy. The corruption of
the students of philosophy."
هذا الفصل وما بعده مهم لأن هذه العلوم عارضة في العمران كثيرة في المدن.,"This and the following (two) sections are important. The sciences (of philosophy, astrology, and alchemy) occur in civilization. They are much cultivated in the cities."
وضررها في الدين كثير فوجب أن يصدع بشأنها ويكشف عن المعتقد الحق فيها. وذلك أن قوما من عقلاء النوع الإنساني زعموا أن الوجود كله الحسي منه وما وراء الحسي تدرك أدواته وأحواله بأسبابها وعللها بالأنظار الفكرية والأقيسة العقلية وأن تصحيح العقائد الإيمانية من قبل النظر لا من جهة السمع فإنها بعض من مدارك العقل.,"The harm they (can) do to religion is great. Therefore, it is necessary that we make it clear what they are about and that we reveal what the right attitude concerning them (should be). There are (certain) intelligent representatives of the human species who think that the essences and conditions of the whole of existence, both the part of it perceivable by the senses and that beyond sensual perception, as well as the reasons and causes of (those essences and conditions), can be perceived by mental speculation and intellectual reasoning. They also think that the articles of faith are established as correct through (intellectual) speculation and not through tradition, because they belong among the intellectual perceptions."
وهؤلاء يسمون فلاسفة جمع فيلسوف وهو باللسان اليوناني محب الحكمة.,"Such people are called “philosophers” falasifah, plural of faylasuf – which is Greek and means “lover of wisdom”."
فبحثوا عن ذلك وشمروا له وحوموا على إصابة الغرض منه ووضعوا قانونا يهتدي به العقل في نظره إلى التمييز بين الحق والباطل وسموه بالمنطق.,"They did research on the (problem of perception). With great energy, they tried to find the purpose of it. They laid down a norm enabling intellectual speculation to distinguish between true and false. They called (that norm) “logic.”"
ومحصل ذلك أن النظر الذي يفيد تمييز الحق من الباطل إنما هو للذهن في المعاني المنتزعة من الموجودات الشخصية فيجرد منها أولا صور منطبقة على جميع الأشخاص كما ينطبق الطابع على جميع النقوش التي ترسمها في طين أو شمع.,"The quintessence of it is that the mental speculation which makes it possible to distinguish between true and false, concentrates on ideas abstracted from the individual existentia. From these (individual existentia), one first abstracts pictures that conform to all the individual (manifestations of the existentia), just as a seal conforms to all the impressions it makes in clay or wax."
وهذه مجردة من المحسوسات تسمى المعقولات الأوائل. ثم تجرد من تلك المعاني الكلية إذا كانت مشتركة مع معان أخرى وقد تميزت عنها في الذهن فتجرد منها معان أخرى وهي التي اشتركت بها.,"The abstractions derived from the sensibilia are called “primary intelligibilia. ” These universal ideas may be associated with other ideas, from which, however, they are distinguished in the mind. Then, other ideas, namely those that are associated (and have ideas in common) with (the primary intelligibilia), are abstracted from them."
ثم تجرد ثانيا إن شاركها غيرها وثالثا إلى أن ينتهي التجريد إلى المعاني البسيطة الكلية المنطبقة على جميع المعاني والأشخاص ولا يكون منها تجريد بعد هذا وهي الأجناس العالية.,"Then, if still other ideas are associated with them, a second and third abstraction is made, until the process of abstraction reaches the simple universal ideas, which conform to all ideas and individual (manifestations of the existentia). No further abstraction is possible. They are the highest genera."
وهذه المجردات كلها من غير المحسوسات هي من حيث تأليف بعضها مع بعض لتحصيل العلوم منها تسمى المعقولات الثواني. فإذا نظر الفكر في هذه المعقولات المجردة وطلب تصور الوجود كما هو فلا بد للذهن من إضافة بعضها إلى بعض ونفي بعضها عن بعض بالبرهان العقلي اليقيني ليحصل تصور الوجود تصورا صحيحا مطابقا إذا كان ذلك بقانون صحيح كما مر.,"All abstract (ideas) that are not derived from the sensibilia serve, if combined with each other, to produce the sciences. They are called “secondary intelligibilia. ” (Man through his) ability to think studies these abstract intelligibilia and seeks through them to perceive existence as it is. For this purpose, the mind must combine some of them with others or keep them apart with the help of unequivocal rational argumentation. This should give (the mind) a correct and conformable perception of existence, if the (process) takes place according to a sound norm, as mentioned before."
وصنف التصديق الذي هو تلك الاضافة والحكم متقدم عندهم على صنف التصور في النهاية والتصور متقدم عليه في البداءة والتعليم لأن التصور التام عندهم هو غاية الطلب الإدراكي وإنما التصديق وسيلة له وما تسمعه في كتب المنطقيين من تقدم التصور وتوقف التصديق عليه فبمعنى الشعور لا بمعنى العلم التام,"The combination of (abstract intelligibilia) and the judgment (concerning them) is apperception (tasdiq). At the end, philosophers give apperception precedence over perception (tasawwur), but at the beginning and during the process of instruction, they give perception precedence over apperception, because they think that perfected perception is the goal of the search for understanding and that apperception is merely a means for (undertaking that search). In the books of the logicians, one finds a statement to the effect that perception has precedence and that apperception depends upon it. This statement must be understood in the sense of (arriving at) consciousness and not in the sense of (achieving) complete knowledge."
وهذا هو مذهب كبيرهم أرسطو ثم يزعمون أن السعادة في إدراك الموجودات كلها ما في الحس وما وراء الحس بهذا النظر وتلك البراهين.,"This is the opinion of the greatest of them, Aristotle. Then, philosophers think that happiness consists in arriving at perception of all existing things, both the sensibilia and the (things) beyond sensual perception, with the help of (rational) speculation and argumentation."
وحاصل مداركهم في الوجود على الجملة وما آلت إليه وهو الذي فرعوا عليه قضايا أنظارهم أنهم عثروا أولا على الجسم السفلي بحكم الشهود والحس ثم ترقى إدراكهم قليلا فشعروا بوجود النفس من قبل الحركة والحس في الحيوانات ثم أحسوا من قوى النفس بسلطان العقل. ووقف إدراكهم فقضوا على الجسم العالي السماوي بنحو من القضاء على أمر الذات الإنسانية.,"The sum total of their perceptions of existence, the result to which (their perceptions) lead, that is, the detailed conclusions of their speculative propositions, is the following. First, they conclude from observation and sensual perception that there is a lower substance. Then, their perception progresses a little. (The existence of) motion and sensual perception in animals makes them conscious of the existence of the soul. The powers of the soul, then, make them aware of the dominant position of the intellect. Here, their perception stops. They draw their conclusions with regard to the most high celestial body in the same way they drew their conclusions with regard to the human essence."
ووجب عندهم أن يكون للفلك نفس وعقل كما للإنسان ثم أنهوا ذلك نهاية عدد الآحاد وهي العشر، تسع مفصلة ذواتها جمل وواحد أول مفرد وهو العاشر.,"They (thus) consider it necessary that the (celestial) sphere must have a soul and an intellect, like human beings. Then, they take as a limit for the (whole system), the number of units, which is ten. Nine are derived in essence and pluralistic. One, the tenth, is primary and singular."
ويزعمون أن السعادة في إدراك الوجود على هذا النحو من القضاء مع تهذيب النفس وتخلقها بالفضائل وأن ذلك ممكن للإنسان ولو لم يرد شرع لتمييزه بين الفضيلة والرذيلة من الأفعال بمقتضى عقله ونظره وميله إلى المحمود منها واجتنابه للمذموم بفطرته,"They assume that happiness consists in the perception of existence with the help of such conclusions (if, at the same time, such perception is) combined with the improvement of the soul and the soul’s acceptance of a virtuous character. Even if no religious law had been revealed (to help man to distinguish between virtue and vice), they think the (acquisition of virtue) possible by man because he is able to distinguish between vice and virtue in (his) actions by means of his intellect, his (ability to) speculate, and his natural inclination toward praiseworthy actions, his natural disinclination for blameworthy actions."
وأن ذلك إذا حصل للنفس حصلت لها البهجة واللذة وأن الجهل بذلك هو الشقاء السرمدي وهذا عندهم هو معنى النعيم والعذاب في الآخرة إلى خبط لهم في تفاصيل ذلك معروف في كلماتهم.,"They assume that when the soul becomes (virtuous), it attains joy and pleasure, and that ignorance of (moral qualities) means eternal pain. This, in their opinion, is the meaning of bliss or punishment in the other world. They go further in this manner, and by the words they use, they display their well-known obtuseness as far as details are concerned."
وإمام هذه المذاهب الذي حصل مسائلها ودون علمها وسطر حججها فيما بلغنا في هذه الأحقاب هو أرسطو المقدوني من أهل مقدونية من بلاد الروم من تلاميذ أفلاطون وهو معلم الإسكندر ويسمونه المعلم الأول على الإطلاق يعنون معلم صناعة المنطق إذ لم تكن قبله مهذبة,"The leading representative of these doctrines, who presented the problems connected with them, wrote books on them as (the subject of) a systematic science, and penned the arguments in favor of them, as far as we presently know, was Aristotle the Macedonian, from Macedonia in Byzantine territory, a pupil of Plato and the teacher of Alexander. He is called “the First Teacher,” with no further qualification. It means “teacher of logic,” because logic did not exist in an improved form before Aristotle."
وهو أول من رتب قانونها واستوفى مسائلها وأحسن بسطها ولقد أحسن في ذلك القانون ما شاء لو تكفل له بقصدهم في الإلهيات ثم كان من بعده في الإسلام من أخذ بتلك المذاهب واتبع فيها رأيه حذو النعل بالنعل إلا في القليل.,"He was the first to systematize the norms of logic and to deal with all its problems and to give a good and extensive treatment of it. He would, in fact, have done very well with his norm of logic if (only) it had absolved him of responsibility for the philosophical tendencies that concern metaphysics. Later, in Islam, there were men who adopted these doctrines and followed (Aristotle’s) opinion with respect to them very closely except on a few points."
وذلك أن كتب أولئك المتقدمين لما ترجمها الخلفاء من بني العباس من اللسان اليوناني إلى اللسان العربي تصفحها كثير من أهل الملة وأخذ من مذاهبهم من أضله الله من منتحلي العلوم وجادلوا عنها واختلفوا في مسائل من تفاريعها,This came about as follows. The `Abbasid caliphs had the works of the ancient (philosophers) translated from Greek into Arabic. Many Muslims investigated them critically. Scholars whom God led astray adopted their doctrines and defended them in disputations. They held different opinions on some points of detail.
وكان من أشهرهم أبو نصر الفارابي في المائة الرابعة لعهد سيف الدولة وأبو علي بن سينا في المائة الخامسة لعهد نظام الملك من بني بويه بأصبهان وغيرهما.,"The most famous of these (Muslim philosophers) were Abu Nasr al-Farabi in the fourth [tenth] century, at the time of Sayf-ad-dawlah, and Abu `Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna) in the fifth [eleventh] century, at the time of the Buyids in Isfahan, and others."
واعلم أن هذا الرأي الذي ذهبوا إليه باطل بجميع وجوهه. فأما إسنادهم الموجودات كلها إلى العقل الأول واكتفاؤهم به في الترقي إلى الواجب فهو قصور عما وراء ذلك من رتب خلق الله فالوجود أوسع نطاقا من ذلك,"It should be known that the (opinion) the (philosophers) hold is wrong in all its aspects. They refer all existentia to the first intellect and are satisfied with (the theory of the first intellect) in their progress toward the Necessary One (the Deity). This means that they disregard all the degrees of divine creation beyond the (first intellect). Existence, however, is too wide to (be explained by so narrow a view)."
«ويخلق ما لا تعلمون 16: 8»,“And He creates what you do not know.”
وكأنهم في اقتصارهم على إثبات العقل فقط والغفلة عما وراءه بمثابة الطبيعيين المقتصرين على إثبات الأجسام خاصة المعرضين عن النقل والعقل المعتقدين أنه ليس وراء الجسم في حكمة الله شيء.,"The philosophers, who restrict themselves to affirming the intellect and neglect everything beyond it, are in a way comparable, to physicists who restrict themselves to affirming the body and who disregard (both) soul and intellect in the belief that there is nothing beyond the body in (God’s) wise plan concerning (the world of) existence."
وأما البراهين التي يزعمونها على مدعياتهم في الموجودات ويعرضونها على معيار المنطق وقانونه فهي قاصرة وغير وافية بالغرض.,"The arguments that (the philosophers) parade for their claims regarding the existentia and that they offer to the test of the norms of logic, are insufficient for the purpose."
أما ما كان منها في الموجودات الجسمانية ويسمونه العلم الطبيعي فوجه قصوره أن المطابقة بين تلك النتائج الذهنية التي تستخرج بالحدود والأقيسة كما في زعمهم وبين ما في الخارج غير يقيني لأن تلك أحكام ذهنية كلية عامة والموجودات الخارجية متشخصة بموادها.,"The arguments concerning the corporeal existentia constitute what they call the science of physics. The insufficiency lies in the fact that conformity between the results of thinking – which, as they assume, are produced by rational norms and reasoning – and the outside world, is not unequivocal. All the judgments of the mind are general ones, whereas the existentia of the outside world are individual in their substances."
ولعل في المواد ما يمنع مطابقة الذهني الكلي للخارجي الشخصي اللهم إلا ما لا يشهد له الحس من ذلك فدليله شهوده لا تلك البراهين فأين اليقين الذي يجدونه فيها؟,"Perhaps, there is something in those substances that prevents conformity between the universal (judgments) of the mind and the individual (substances) of the outside world. At any rate, however, whatever (conformity) is attested by sensual perception has its proof in the fact that it is observable. (It does not have its proof) in (logical) arguments. Where, then, is the unequivocal character they find in (their arguments)?"
وربما يكون تصرف الذهن أيضا في المعقولات الأول المطابقة للشخصيات بالصور الخيالية لا في المعقولات الثواني التي تجريدها في الرتبة الثانية فيكون الحكم حينئذ يقينيا بمثابة المحسوسات إذ المعقولات الأول أقرب إلى مطابقة الخارج لكمال الانطباق فيها فنسلم لهم حينئذ دعاويهم في ذلك.,"The mind is also often applied to the primary intelligibilia, which conform to the individual (existentia), with the help of pictures of the imagination, but not to the secondary intelligibilia, which are abstractions of the second degree. In this case, judgment becomes unequivocal, comparable to (judgment in the case of) sensibilia, since the primary intelligibilia are more likely to agree with the outside world, because they conform perfectly (by definition, to the individual manifestations of the existentia). Therefore, in this case, one must concede (the philosophers’) claims in this respect."
إلا أنه ينبغي لنا الإعراض عن النظر فيها إذ هو من ترك المسلم لما لا يعنيه فإن مسائل الطبيعيات لا تهمنا في ديننا ولا معاشنا فوجب علينا تركها.,"However, we must refrain from studying these things, since such (restraint) falls under (the duty of) the Muslim not to do what does not concern him. The problems of physics are of no importance for us in our religious affairs or our livelihoods. Therefore, we must leave them alone."
وأما ما كان منها في الموجودات التي وراء الحس وهي الروحانيات ويسمونه العلم الإلهي وعلم ما بعد الطبيعة فإن ذواتها مجهولة رأسا ولا يمكن التوصل إليها ولا البرهان عليها لأن تجريد المعقولات من الموجودات الخارجية الشخصية إنما هو ممكن فيما هو مدرك لنا.,"The arguments concerning the existentia beyond sensual perception – the spiritualia – constitute what the (philosophers) call “the divine science” or science of metaphysics. The essences of (the spiritualia) are completely unknown. One cannot get at them, nor can they be proven by logical arguments, because an abstraction of intelligibilia from the individual existentia of the outside world is possible only in the case of things we can perceive by the senses, from which the universals are thus derived."
ونحن لا ندرك الذوات الروحانية حتى نجرد منها ماهيات أخرى بحجاب الحس بيننا وبينها فلا يتأتى لنا برهان عليها ولا مدرك لنا في إثبات وجودها على الجملة إلا ما نجده بين جنبينا من أمر النفس الإنسانية وأحوال مداركها وخصوصا في الرؤيا التي هي وجدانية لكل أحد وما وراء ذلك من حقيقتها وصفاتها فأمر غامض لا سبيل إلى الوقوف عليه.,"We cannot perceive the spiritual essences and abstract, further quiddities from them, because the senses constitute a veil between us and them. We have, thus, no (logical) arguments for them, and we have no way whatever of affirming their existence. There are only available to us (in this connection) the situations in which perceptions of the human soul take place, and especially the dream visions which are within the intuitive experience of all. But beyond that, the reality and attributes of the (spiritualia) are an obscure matter, and there is no way to learn about them. Competent (philosophers) have clearly said so."
وقد صرح بذلك محققوهم حيث ذهبوا إلى أن مالا مادة له لا يمكن البرهان عليه لأن مقدمات البرهان من شرطها أن تكون ذاتية.,"They have expressed the opinion that whatever is immaterial cannot be proven by (logical) arguments, because it is a condition of (logical) arguments that their premises must be essential ones."
وقال كبيرهم أفلاطون: إن الإلهيات لا يوصل فيها إلى أينين وإنما يقال فيها بالأخلق والأولى يعني الظن: وإذا كنا إنما نحصل بعد التعب والنصب على الظن فقط فيكفينا الظن الذي كان أولا فأي فائدة لهذه العلوم والاشتغال بها ونحن إنما عنايتنا بتحصيل اليقين فيما وراء الحس من الموجودات وهذه هي غاية الأفكار الإنسانية عندهم.,"The great philosopher Plato said that no certainty can be achieved with regard to the Divine, and one can state about the Divine only what is most suitable and proper that is, conjectures. If, after all the toil and trouble, we find only conjectures, the (conjectures) that we had at the beginning may as well suffice us. What use, then, do these sciences and the pursuit of them have? We want certainty about the existentia that are beyond sensual perception, while, in their (philosophy), (those conjectures) are the limit that human thinking can reach."
وأما قولهم إن السعادة في إدراك الموجودات على ما هي عليه بتلك البراهين فقول مزيف مردود وتفسيره أن الإنسان مركب من جزءين أحدهما جسماني والآخر روحاني ممتزج به,"The (philosophers) say that happiness consists in coming to perceive existence as it is, by means of (logical) arguments. This is a fraudulent statement that must be rejected. The matter is as follows. Man is composed of two parts. One is corporeal. The other is spiritual, and mixed with the former."
ولكل واحد من الجزءين مدارك مختصة به والمدرك فيهما واحد وهو الجزء الروحاني يدرك تارة مدارك روحانية وتارة مدارك جسمانية إلا أن المدارك الروحانية يدركها بذاته بغير واسطة والمدارك الجسمانية بواسطة آلات الجسم من الدماغ والحواس.,"Each one of these parts has its own perceptions, though the (part) that perceives is the same in both cases, namely, the spiritual part. At times, it perceives spiritual perceptions. At other times, it perceives corporeal perceptions. However, it perceives the spiritual perceptions through its own essence without any intermediary, while it perceives the corporeal perceptions through the intermediary of organs of the body, such as the brain and the senses."
وكل مدرك فله ابتهاج بما يدركه. واعتبره بحال الصبي في أول مداركه الجسمانية التي هي بواسطة كيف يبتهج بما يبصره من الضوء وبما يسمعه من الأصوات فلا شك أن الابتهاج بالإدراك الذي للنفس من ذاتها بغير واسطة يكون أشد وألذ.,"Now, anybody who has perceptions greatly enjoys whatever he perceives. For example, a child having its first corporeal perceptions, which (like all corporeal perceptions) come through an intermediary, greatly enjoys the light it sees and the sounds it hears. Thus, there can be no doubt that the soul finds even greater joy and pleasure in perceptions that come from its own essence without an intermediary."
فالنفس الروحانية إذا شعرت بإدراكها الذي لها من ذاتها بغير واسطة حصل لها ابتهاج ولذة لا يعبر عنهما وهذا الإدراك لا يحصل بنظر ولا علم وإنما يحصل بكشف حجاب الحس ونسيان المدارك الجسمانية بالجملة.,"When the spiritual soul becomes conscious of the perception coming to it from its own essence without an intermediary, it derives from it inexpressible joy and pleasure. Such perception cannot be achieved by (intellectual) speculation and science. It is achieved by the removal of the veil of sensual perception and by forgetting all corporeal perceptions."
والمتصوفة كثيرا ما يعنون بحصول هذا الإدراك للنفس بحصول هذه البهجة فيحاولون بالرياضة إماتة القوى الجسمانية ومداركها حتى الفكر من الدماغ وليحصل للنفس إدراكها الذي لها من ذاتها عند زوال الشواغب والموانع الجسمانية يحصل لهم بهجة ولذة لا يعبر عنهما.,"The Sufis are very much concerned with achieving this great joy through having the soul achieve that kind of perception. They attempt to kill the bodily powers and perceptions through exercise, and even the thinking power of the brain. In this way, the soul is to achieve the perception that comes to it from its own essence, when all the disturbances and hindrances caused by the body are removed. (The Sufis,) thus, achieve inexpressible joy and pleasure."
وهذا الذي زعموه بتقدير صحته مسلم لهم وهو مع ذلك غير واف بمقصودهم. فأما قولهم إن البراهين والأدلة العقلية محصلة لهذا النوع من الإدراك والابتهاج عنه فباطل كما رأيته إذ البراهين والأدلة من جملة المدارك الجسمانية لأنها بالقوى الدماغية من الخيال والفكر والذكر.,"This, (the philosophers) imply, is a correct assumption, and must be conceded them; yet it does not account for (the idea) they had in mind. (At any rate,) their statement that logical arguments and proofs produce this kind of perception and the resulting great joy is false, as one can see. The arguments and proofs belong in the category of corporeal perceptions, because they are produced by the powers of the brain, which are imagination, thinking, and memory."
ونحن نقول إن أول شيء نعنى به في تحصيل هذا الإدراك إماتة هذه القوى الدماغية كلها لأنها منازعة له قادحة فيه وتجد الماهر منهم عاكفا على كتاب الشفاء والإشارات والنجاء وتلاخيص ابن رشد للقص من تأليف أرسطو وغيره يبعثر أوراقها ويتوثق من براهينها ويلتمس هذا القسط من السعادة فيها ولا يعلم أنه يستكثر بذلك من الموانع عنها.,"The first thing we are concerned with when we want to attain this kind of perception is to kill all these powers of the brain, because they object to such (perception) and work against it. One finds able (philosophers) poring over the Kitab ash-Shifa’, the Isharat, the Najah (of Avicenna), and over Averroes’ abridgements of the “Text” (Organon) and other works by Aristotle. They wear out the pages of these works. They firmly ground themselves in the arguments they contain, and they desire to find in them that portion of happiness (they believe they contain). They do not realize that in this way they (only) add to the obstacles on (the road to happiness)."
ومستندهم في ذلك ما ينقلونه عن أرسطو والفارابي وابن سينا أن من حصل له إدراك العقل الفعال واتصل به في حياته فقد حصل حظه من هذه السعادة.,"They base themselves on statements reported on the authority of Aristotle, al-Farabi, and Avicenna, to the effect that those who have attained perception of the active intellect and are united with it in their life in this world
have attained their share of happiness."
والعقل الفعال عندهم عبارة عن أول رتبة ينكشف عنها الحس من رتب الروحانيات ويحملون الاتصال بالعقل الفعال على الإدراك العلمي وقد رأيت فساده وإنما يعني أرسطو وأصحابه بذلك الاتصال والإدراك إدراك النفس الذي لها من ذاتها وبغير واسطة وهو لا يحصل إلا بكشف حجاب الحس.,"To them, the active intellect means the first (highest) of the degrees of the spiritualia from which (the veil of) sensual perception is removed. They assume union with the active intellect to be (the result of) scientific perception. One has seen that this is wrong. When Aristotle and his colleagues speak about union and perception in this way, they mean the perception of the soul that comes to it from its own essence and without an intermediary, but such (perception) is attained only by the removal of the veil of sensual perception."
وأما قولهم إن البهجة الناشئة عن هذا الإدراك هي عين السعادة الموعود بها فباطل أيضا لأنا إنما تبين لنا بما قرروه أن وراء الحس مدركا آخر للنفس من غير واسطة وأنها تبتهج بإدراكها ذلك ابتهاجا شديدا وذلك لا يعين لنا أنه عين السعادة الأخروية ولا بد بل هي من جملة الملاذ التي لتلك السعادة.,"Furthermore, (philosophers) state that the great joy originating in that kind of perception is identical with the promised happiness. This, too, is wrong. The things that have been established by the (philosophers) make it clear to us that, beyond sensual perception, there is something else perceived by the soul without an intermediary. This causes very great joy to the soul, but we do not think that this makes it definite that it is identical with the happiness of the other world, although it must be one of the pleasures that constitute that happiness."
وأما قولهم إن السعادة في إدراك هذه الموجودات على ما هي عليه فقول باطل مبني على ما كنا قدمناه في أصل التوحيد من الأوهام والأغلاط في أن الوجود عند كل مدرك منحصر في مداركه وبينا فساد ذلك وإن الوجود أوسع من إن يحاط به أو يستوفي إدراكه بجملته روحانيا أو جسمانيا.,"(At any rate,) their statement that happiness consists in coming to perceive the existentia as they are, is wrong. It is based upon the erroneous supposition, which we mentioned before in connection with the principle of divine oneness, that anybody who has perception comprises (the whole) of existence in his perceptions. We explained that this (assumption) is wrong, and that existence is too vast to be completely encompassed or perceived, either spiritually or corporeally."
والذي يحصل من جميع ما قررناه من مذاهبهم أن الجزء الروحاني إذا فارق القوى الجسمانية أدرك إدراكا ذاتيا له مختصا بصنف من المدارك وهي الموجودات التي أحاط بها علمنا وليس بعام الإدراك في الموجودات كلها إذ لم تنحصر,"The sum total of all the (philosophical) doctrines we have set down (here) is that the spiritual part (of man), when it separates from the powers of the body, has an essential perception belonging to a special kind of perceptions, namely, the existentia that are encompassed by our knowledge. It does not have a general perception of all the existentia, since they cannot be encompassed in their totality."
وأنه يبتهج بذلك النحو من الإدراك ابتهاجا شديدا كما يبتهج الصبي بمداركه الحسية في أول نشوءه ومن لنا بعد ذلك بإدراك جميع الموجودات أو بحصول السعادة التي وعدنا بها الشارع إن لم نعمل لها،,"It greatly enjoys this kind of perception, exactly as a child is pleased with its sensual perceptions when it begins to grow up. Nobody, then, (should try to tell) us that it is possible to perceive all the existentia or to achieve the happiness the Lawgiver (Muhammad) promised us, if we do not work for it."
هيهات هيهات لما توعدون.,"“Away, away with what you are promised.”"
وأما قولهم إن الإنسان مستقل بتهذيب نفسه وإصلاحها بملابسة المحمود من الخلق ومجانبة المذموم فأمر مبني على أن ابتهاج للنفس بإدراكها الذي لها من ذاتها هو عين السعادة الموعود بها لأن الرذائل عائقة للنفس عن تمام إدراكها ذلك بما يحصل لها من الملكات الجسمانية وألوانها.,"(Philosophers) further state that man is able, by himself, to refine and improve his soul by adopting praiseworthy character qualities and avoiding blameworthy ones. This is connected with the assumption that the great joy that the soul has through the perception coming to it from its own essence, is identical with the promised happiness. For the vices give the soul corporeal habits and the resulting coloring."
وقد بينا أن أثر السعادة والشقاوة ومن وراء الإدراكات الجسمانية والروحانية فهذا التهذيب الذي توصلوا إلى معرفته إنما نفعه في البهجة الناشئة عن الإدراك الروحاني فقط الذي هو على مقاييس وقوانين. وأما ما وراء ذلك من السعادة التي وعدنا بها الشارع على امتثال ما أمر به من الأعمال والأخلاق فأمر لا يحيط به مدارك المدركين.,"Thus, they impede it in the realization of that perception. Now, we have already explained that happiness and unhappiness are found beyond corporeal and spiritual perceptions. The improvement (of the soul that the philosophers) have come to know is useful only in that it (produces) great joy, originating from the spiritual perception that takes place according to rational and established norms. But the happiness beyond such (joy), which the Lawgiver (Muhammad) promised us if we would act and behave as he commanded us, is something that cannot be encompassed by anybody’s perceptions."
وقد تنبه لذلك زعيمهم أبو علي ابن سينا فقال في كتاب المبدإ والمعاد ما معناه: إن المعاد الروحاني وأحواله هو مما يتوصل إليه بالبراهين العقلية والمقاييس لأنه على نسبة طبيعية محفوظة ووتيرة واحدة فلنا في البراهين عليه سعة.,"The leading philosopher, Abu ‘Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna), was aware of this. He expressed himself in the following sense in his Kitab al-Mabda’ wa-l-ma’ad: “The spiritual resurrection and its circumstances are something that we may come to know by means of rational arguments and reasoning, because it proceeds in a safely natural and uniform manner. Thus, we can use (logical) arguments for it."
وأما المعاد الجسماني وأحواله فلا يمكن إدراكه بالبرهان لأنه ليس على نسبة واحدة وقد بسطته لنا الشريعة الحقة المحمدية فلينظر فيها وليرجع في أحواله إليها.,"But the bodily resurrection and its circumstances cannot be perceived by means of (logical arguments), because it does not proceed in a uniform manner. It has been explained to us by the true Muhammadan religious law. The religious law should, therefore, be considered and consulted with regard to the circumstances of (the bodily resurrection).”"
فهذا العلم كما رأيته غير واف بمقاصدهم التي حوموا عليها مع ما فيه من مخالفة الشرائع وظواهرها. وليس له فيما علمنا إلا ثمرة واحدة وهي شحذ الذهن في ترتيب الأدلة والحجج لتحصيل ملكة الجودة والصواب في البراهين.,"Thus, as one has seen, the science (of logic) is not adequate to achieve the avowed intentions (of the philosophers). In addition, it contains things that are contrary to the religious laws and their obvious meaning. As far as we know, this science has only a single fruit, namely, it sharpens the mind in the orderly presentation of proofs and arguments, so that the habit of excellent and correct arguing is obtained."
وذلك أن نظم المقاييس وتركيبها على وجه الإحكام والإتقان هو كما شرطوه في صناعتهم المنطيقية وقولهم بذلك في علومهم الطبيعية وهم كثيرا ما يستعملونها في علومهم الحكمية من الطبيعيات والتعاليم وما بعدها فيستولي الناظر فيها بكثرة استعمال البراهين بشروطها على ملكة الإتقان والصواب في الحجج والاستدلالات,"This is because the orderly process and the solid and exact method of reasoning are as the philosophers have prescribed them in their science of logic. They employ (logic) a good deal in the physical and mathematical sciences as well as in the science that comes after them (metaphysics). Since (logical) arguments are much employed in those sciences in the way they should be employed, the student of them is able to master the habit of exact and correct arguing and deducing."
لأنها وإن كانت غير وافية بمقصودهم فهي أصح ما علمناه من قوانين الأنظار.,"Even if (those sciences) are not adequate to achieve the intentions of the (philosophers), they constitute the soundest norm of (philosophical) speculation that we know of."
هذه ثمرة هذه الصناعة مع الاطلاع على مذاهب أهل العلم وآرائهم ومضارها ما علمت.,Such is the fruit of this craft (of logic). It also affords acquaintance with the doctrines and opinions of the people of the world. One knows what harm it can do.
فليكن الناظر فيها متحرزا جهده معاطبها وليكن نظر من ينظر فيها بعد الامتلاء من الشرعيات والاطلاع على التفسير والفقه,"Therefore, the student of it should beware of its pernicious aspects as much as he can. Whoever studies it should do so (only) after he is saturated with the religious law and has studied the interpretation of the Qur’an and jurisprudence."
ولا يكبن أحد عليها وهو خلو من علوم الملة فقل أن يسلم لذلك من معاطبها.,"No one who has no knowledge of the Muslim religious sciences should apply himself to it. Without that knowledge, he can hardly remain safe from its pernicious aspects."
والله الموفق للصواب وللحق والهادي إليه. وما كنا لنهتدي لولا أن هدانا الله 7: 43.,"God gives success and guidance to the truth. “We would not be persons who are guided aright, had God not guided us.”"
الفصل الثاني والثلاثون في إبطال صناعة النجوم وضعف مداركها وفساد غايتها,31. A refutation of astrology. The weakness of its achievements. The harmfulness of its goal.
هذه الصناعة يزعم أصحابها أنهم يعرفون بها الكائنات في عالم العناصر قبل حدوثها من قبل معرفة قوى الكواكب وتأثيرها في المولدات العنصرية مفردة ومجتمعة فتكون لذلك أوضاع الأفلاك والكواكب دالة على ما سيحدث من نوع من أنواع الكائنات الكلية والشخصية.,"Astrologers think that astrology, with the knowledge it gives of astral powers, individually or in combination, and of astral influences upon elemental creations, enables them to know the things that are going to be in the world of the elements, before they are created. The positions of the spheres and the stars (are) thus (taken to) indicate every single kind of future event, both universal and individual."
فالمتقدمون منهم يرون أن معرفة قوى الكواكب وتأثيراتها بالتجربة وهو أمر تقصر الأعمار كلها لو اجتمعت عن تحصيله إذ التجربة إنما تحصل في المرات المتعددة بالتكرار ليحصل عنها العلم أو الظن.,"The ancient (astrologers) were of the opinion that the knowledge of astral powers and influence is acquired through experience. It (thus) is something that all (human) lives combined would not be able to achieve, because experience is obtained through numerous repetitions which make the obtainment of (empirical) knowledge or conjectures possible."
وأدوار الكواكب منها ما هو طويل الزمن فيحتاج تكرره إلى آماد وأحقاب متطاولة يتقاصر عنها ما هو طويل من أعمار العالم.,Astral revolutions may be very long. Greatly extended periods of time are required for their repetition. Even (all) the lives in the world (combined) would be too short for (observing) them.
وربما ذهب ضعفاء منهم إلى أن معرفة قوى الكواكب وتأثيراتها كانت بالوحي وهو رأي فائل وقد كفونا مؤنة إبطاله.,Some weak-minded (astrologers) take the attitude that the knowledge of astral powers and influences comes through revelation. This is a fallacy. They themselves have furnished us arguments sufficient to refute it.
ومن أوضح الأدلة فيه أن تعلم أن الأنبياء عليهم الصلاة والسلام أبعد الناس عن الصنائع وأنهم لا يتعرضون للإخبار عن الغيب إلا أن يكون عن الله فكيف يدعون استنباطه بالصناعة ويشيرون بذلك لتابعيهم من الخلق.,"The clearest proof is that, as one knows, of all people, the prophets are least familiar with the crafts. They do not undertake to give information about the supernatural, unless (such information) comes (to them) from God. Why, then, should they claim to produce (supernatural information) through a craft (such as astrology) and make it the law for their followers to do so?"
وأما بطليمس ومن تبعه من المتأخرين فيرون أن دلالة الكواكب على ذلك دلالة طبيعية من قبل مزاج يحصل للكواكب في الكائنات العنصرية قال لأن فعل النيرين وأثرهما في العنصريات ظاهر لا يسع أحدا حجده مثل فعل الشمس في تبدل الفصول وأمزجتها ونضج الثمار والزرع وغير ذلك وفعل القمر في الرطوبات والماء وإنضاج المواد المتعفنة وفواكه القناء وسائر أفعاله.,"Ptolemy and his followers were of the opinion that the stars are able to indicate (the future) as the natural result of a temper they produce in the elemental existing things. He said: “(This must be so,) because the activity of sun and moon and their influence upon elemental things are so obvious that no one can deny them. For instance, the sun influences the changes and tempers of the seasons, the ripening of fruits and grains, and so on. The moon influences humidity, the water, the (process) of ripening (putrefaction) in putrescent substances and cucumbers, and so on.”"
ثم قال: ولنا فيما بعدها من الكواكب طريقان الأولى التقليد لمن نقل ذلك عنه من أئمة الصناعة إلا أنه غير مقنع للنفس والثانية الحدس والتجربة بقياس كل واحد منها إلى النير الأعظم الذي عرفنا طبيعته وأثره معرفة ظاهرة فننظر هل يزيد ذلك الكوكب عند القران في قوته ومزاجه فتعرف موافقته له في الطبيعة أو ينقص عنها فتعرف مضادته.,"Ptolemy continued: “With regard to the stars that come after sun and moon, we have two approaches. One – which, however, is unsatisfactory – is to follow the tradition of the astrological authorities. The other is (to rely upon) conjecture and empirical knowledge gained through comparing each star to the sun, whose nature and influence is clearly known to us. We thus note whether a given star increases the power and temper of (the sun) at (its) conjunction (with it). If this is the case, we know that the nature of that particular star agrees with that of the sun. If, on the other hand, (the star) diminishes (the power and temper of the sun), we know that its nature is opposite to that of (the sun)."
ثم إذا عرفنا قواها مفردة عرفناها مركبة وذلك عند تناظرها بأشكال التثليث والتربيع وغيرهما ومعرفة ذلك من قبل طبائع البروج بالقياس أيضا إلى النير الأعظم. وإذا عرفنا قوى الكواكب كلها فهي مؤثرة في الهواء وذلك ظاهر.,"Then, when we know the individual powers of the stars, we (can also) know them in combination. That happens when they look upon each other in the trine, the quartile, or other aspects. The knowledge here is derived from the natures of the signs (of the zodiac), which similarly (are known) through comparison with the sun. “Thus, we get to know all the astral powers. They exercise an influence upon the air. This is obvious."
والمزاج الذي يحصل منها للهواء يحصل لما تحته من المولدات وتتخلق به النطف والبزر فتصير حالا للبدن المتكون عنها وللنفس المتعلقة به الفائضة عليه المكتسبة لما لها منه ولما يتبع النفس والبدن من الأحوال لأن كيفيات البزرة والنطفة كيفيات لما يتولد عنهما وينشأ منهما.,"The resulting temper of the air communicates itself to the created things below the air, and shapes sperm and seeds. Thus, (this temper) comes to underlie the body created from (sperm or seed), the soul which attaches itself to the body, pours itself into the body, and acquires its perfection from the body, and all the conditions depending on soul and body. The qualities of sperm and seed are the qualities of the things that are created and produced from (sperm and seed).”"
قال: وهو مع ذلك ظني وليس من اليقين في شيء وليس هو أيضا من القضاء الإلهي يعني القدر إنما هو من جملة الأسباب الطبيعية للكائن والقضاء الإلهي سابق على كل شيء.,"(Ptolemy) continued: “Still, (astrology) remains conjectural and is not certain in any respect. It also forms no part of the divine decree – that is, predestination. It is just one of the natural causes common to all existing things, whereas the divine decree is prior to everything.”"
هذا محصل كلام بطليمس وأصحابه وهو منصوص في كتابه الأربع وغيره.,This is the sum total of the discussion by Ptolemy and his colleagues. (This discussion) is found in the Quadriiartitum and other works.
ومنه يتبين ضعف مدرك هذه الصناعة وذلك أن العلم الكائن أو الظن به إنما يحصل عن العلم بجملة أسبابه من الفاعل والقابل والصورة والغاية على ما يتبين في موضعه.,"It makes the weakness of the achievements of astrology clear. Knowledge of, or conjectures about, things that come into being can only result from knowledge of all their causes, that is, agent, recipient, form, and end, as has been explained in the proper place."
والقوى النجومية على ما قرروه إنما هي فاعلة فقط والجزء العنصري هو القابل ثم إن القوى النجومية ليست هي الفاعل بجملتها بل هناك قوى أخرى فاعلة معها في الجزء المادي مثل قوة التوليد للأب والنوع التي في النطفة وقوى الخاصة التي تميز بها صنف من النوع وغير ذلك.,"According to (the astrologers), the astral powers are merely agents. The elemental part is the recipient. Furthermore, the astral powers are not the sole agents. There are other powers that act together with (the astral powers) upon the material element (involved), such as the generative power of father and species contained in the sperm, the powers of the particular quality distinguishing each variety within the species, and other things."
فالقوى النجومية إذا حصل كمالها وحصل العلم فيها إنما هي فاعل واحد من جملة الأسباب الفاعلة للكائن. ثم إنه يشترط مع العلم بقوى النجوم وتأثيراتها مزيد حدس وتخمين وحينئذ يحصل عنده الظن بوقوع الكائن.,"When the astral powers reach perfection and are known, they (still) are only one among many causes that go into the making of a thing that comes into being. Furthermore, in addition to a knowledge of astral powers and influences, a great amount of conjecturing and guesswork is required. Only then is (the astrologer) able to guess that a thing might happen."
والحدس والتخمين قوى للناظر في فكره وليس من علل الكائن ولا من أصول الصناعة فإذا فقد هذا الحدس والتخمين رجعت أدراجها عن الظن إلى الشك.,"Now, conjecturing and guesswork are powers in the mind of the student. They are not causes or reasons of the things that come into being; Without conjectures and guesswork, (astrology) steps down from conjecture to doubtfulness."
هذا إذا حصل العلم بالقوى النجومية على سداده ولم تعترضه آفة وهذا معوز لما فيه من معرفة حسبانات الكواكب في سيرها لتتعرف به أوضاعها ولما أن اختصاص كل كوكب بقوة لا دليل عليه.,"Such is the situation (even) if one’s knowledge of the astral powers is accurate and without defect. Now, that is difficult. The ability to calculate the courses of the stars is required in order to know their positions. Moreover, it is not proven that every star has its own particular power."
ومدرك بطليمس في إثبات القوى للكواكب الخمسة بقياسها إلى الشمس مدرك ضعيف لأن قوة الشمس غالبة لجميع القوى من الكواكب ومستولية عليها فقل أن يشعر بالزيادة فيها أو النقصان منها عند المقارنة كما قال وهذه كلها قادحة في تعريف الكائنات الواقعة في عالم العناصر بهذه الصناعة.,"The method Ptolemy used in establishing the powers of the five planets, that is, comparison with the sun, is a weak one, because the power of the sun is superior to all (other) astral powers and dominates them. Thus, one hardly ever becomes aware of an increase or decrease in the (powers of the sun) at its conjunction (with a given star), as Ptolemy said. All this speaks against the assumption that it is possible to predict things that will happen in the world of the elements with the help of astrology."
ثم إن تأثير الكواكب فيما تحتها باطل إذ قد تبين في باب التوحيد أن لا فاعل إلا الله بطريق استدلالي كما رأيته واحتج له أهل علم الكلام بما هو غني عن البيان من أن إسناد الأسباب إلى المسببات مجهول الكيفية والعقل منهم على ما يقضى به فيما يظهر بادئ الرأي من التأثير فلعل استنادها على غير صورة التأثير المتعارف.,"Furthermore, it is wrong to assume that the stars exercise an influence on (the world) below them. It has been proven deductively in the chapter on the Oneness of God, as one has seen, that there is no agent but God. In this connection, speculative theologians use the self-evident argument that how causes are related to the things caused is not known, and suspicion attaches to the conclusions of the intellect regarding what appears superficially to be (due to some definite) influence. Perhaps, the relationship of (the causes to the things caused) is effected by some other than the ordinary form of influence."
والقدرة الإلهية رابطة بينهما كما ربطت جميع الكائنات علوا وسفلا سيما والشرع يرد الحوادث كلها إلى قدرة الله تعالى ويبرأ مما سوى ذلك.,"The divine power (would seem to) tie the two together, as it does with all created things, (both) high and low, especially since the religious law attributes all happenings to the power of God and does not want to have anything to do with anything else."
والنبوءات أيضا منكرة لشأن النجوم وتأثيراتها. واستقراء الشرعيات شاهد بذلك في مثل قوله: إن الشمس والقمر لا يخسفان لموت أحد ولا لحياته وفي قوله أصبح من عبادي مؤمن بي وكافر بي. فأما من قال مطرنا بفضل الله ورحمته فذلك مؤمن بي كافر بالكواكب وأما من قال مطرنا بنوء كذا فذلك كافر بي مؤمن بالكواكب الحديث الصحيح.,"Prophecy also denies the importance and influence of the stars. A perusal of the legal material also attests this fact. For instance, (Muhammad) said: “No eclipse of either sun or moon takes place to indicate the death or life of anybody.” And (God) said: “Some of My servants believe in Me. Others do not. Those who say, ‘We had rain through the kindness and mercy of God,’ believe in Me and do not believe in the stars. Whereas those who say, ‘We had rain through such and such a constellation,’ do not believe in Me, but believe in the stars,” (as) the sound tradition (goes)."
فقد بان لك بطلان هذه الصناعة من طريق الشرع وضعف مداركها مع ذلك من طريق العقل مع ما لها من المضار في العمران الإنساني بما تبعث من عقائد العوام من الفساد إذا اتفق الصدق من أحكامها في بعض الأحايين اتفاقا لا يرجع إلى تعليل ولا تحقيق فيلهج بذلك من لا معرفة له ويظن اطراد الصدق في سائر أحكامها وليس كذلك.,"Thus, the worthlessness of astrology from the point of view of the religious law, as well as the weakness of its achievements from the rational point of view, are evident. In addition, astrology does harm to human civilization. It hurts the faith of the common people when an astrological judgment occasionally happens to come true in some unexplainable and unverifiable manner. Ignorant people are taken in by that and suppose that all the other (astrological) judgments must be true, which is not the case."
فيقع في رد الأشياء إلى غير خالقها.,"Thus, they are led to attribute things to some (being) other than their Creator."
ثم ما ينشأ عنها كثيرا في الدول من توقع القواطع وما يبعث عليه ذلك التوقع من تطاول الأعداء والمتربصين بالدولة إلى الفتك والثورة.,"Further, astrology often produces the expectation that signs of crisis will appear in a dynasty. This encourages the enemies and rivals of the dynasty to attack (it) and revolt (against it)."
وقد شاهدنا من ذلك كثيرا فينبغي أن تحظر هذه الصناعة على جميع أهل العمران لما ينشأ عنها من المضار في الدين والدول، ولا يقدح في ذلك كون وجودها طبيعيا للبشر بمقتضى مداركهم وعلومهم.,"We have (personally) observed much of the sort. It is, therefore, necessary that astrology be forbidden to all civilized people, because it may cause harm to religion and dynasty. The fact that it exists as a natural part of human perceptions and knowledge does not speak against (the need to forbid it)."
فالخير والشر طبيعتان موجودتان في العالم لا يمكن نزعهما وإنما يتعلق التكليف بأسباب حصولهما فيتعين السعي في اكتساب الخير بأسبابه ودفع أسباب الشر والمضار. هذا هو الواجب على من عرف مفاسد هذا العلم ومضاره.,"God and evil exist side by side in the world and cannot be removed. Responsibility comes in connection with the things that cause good and evil. It is (our) duty to try to acquire goodness with the help of the things that cause it, and to avoid the causes of evil and harm. That is what those who realize the corruption and harmfulness of this science must do."
وليعلم من ذلك أنها وإن كانت صحيحة في نفسها فلا يمكن أحدا من أهل الملة تحصيل علمها ولا ملكتها بل إن نظر فيها ناظر وظن الإحاطة بها فهو في غاية القصور في نفس الأمر.,"This (situation) should make one realize that even if astrology were in itself sound, no Muslim could acquire the knowledge and habit of it. He who studies it and thinks that he knows it fully, is most ignorant of the actual situation."
فإن الشريعة لما حظرت النظر فيها فقد الاجتماع من أهل العمران لقراءتها والتحليق لتعليمها وصار المولع بها من الناس وهم الأقل وأقل من الأقل إنما يطالع كتبها ومقالاتها في كسر بيته متسترا عن الناس وتحت ربقة الجمهور مع تشعب الصناعة وكثرة فروعها واعتياصها على الفهم فكيف يحصل منها على طائل؟,"Since the religious law forbids the study of astrology, civilized people no longer gather to study it and to form classes for the study of astrology. Those who are eager to learn it and they are very, very few – have to read the books and treatises on astrology in a secluded corner of their houses. They have to hide from the people and are under the watchful eye of the great mass. And then, astrology is a very complicated subject with many branches and subdivisions and is difficult to understand. How could people under such conditions acquire a mastery of it?"
ونحن نجد الفقه الذي عم نفعه دينا ودنيا وسهلت مآخذه من الكتاب والسنة وعكف الجمهور على قراءته وتعليمه ثم بعد التحقيق والتجميع وطول المدارسة وكثرة المجالس وتعددها إنما يحذق فيه الواحد بعد الواحد في الأعصار والأجيال.,"Jurisprudence is of general usefulness in both religious and worldly affairs; its sources are easily available in the Qur’an and the accepted Sunnah, and it has been studied and taught by the great mass of Muslims. There have been classes and seminars (on jurisprudence). There has been much instruction (in it) and a great many lectures. Still, only an occasional individual in each age and generation (race) has been able to master it."
فكيف يعلم مهجور للشريعة مضروب دونه سد الخطر والتحريم مكتوم عن الجمهور صعب المآخذ محتاج بعد الممارسة والتحصيل لاصوله وفروعه إلى مزيد حدس وتخمين يكتنفان به من الناظر فأين التحصيل والحذق فيه مع هذه كلها.,"How, then, can anyone learn a subject (such as astrology) that is discarded by the religious law, banned as forbidden and illegal, concealed from the great mass, its sources difficult of access, and that, after the study and acquisition of its basic principles and details, requires a great amount of support from conjecture and guesswork on the part of the student? How could anyone acquire and become skilled in such a subject in the face of all (these difficulties)?"
ومدعى ذلك من الناس مردود على عقبه ولا شاهد له يقوم بذلك لغرابة الفن بين أهل الملة وقلة حملته فاعتبر ذلك يتبين لك صحة ما ذهبنا إليه. والله أعلم بالغيب فلا يظهر على غيبه أحدا.,"Anybody who claims (such astrological skill) is frustrated and has no witness to attest (to his claim), because the discipline (of astrology) is unusual in Islam and few people cultivate it. When all this is taken into consideration, the soundness of our opinion (with regard to astrology) will become clear. God “knows the supernatural (secrets), and He does not disclose to anyone His supernatural (secrets).”"
ومما وقع في هذا المعنى لبعض أصحابنا من أهل العصر عند ما غلب العرب عساكر السلطان أبي الحسن وحاصروه بالقيروان وكثر إرجاف الفريقين الأولياء والأعداء,"Some of our contemporaries had an experience of the (futility of astrology) when the Arabs overpowered the army of Sultan Abul-Hasan. They laid siege to him in alQayrawan. There was much unrest among the two parties, both friends and foes."
وقال في ذلك أبو القاسم الروحي من شعراء أهل تونس:,"On that occasion, the Tunisian poet Abul-Qasim ar-Rahawi, said:"
أستغفر الله كل حين *** قد ذهب العيش والهناء,"Constantly, I ask God for forgiveness. Gone is life and ease."
أصبح في تونس وأمسى *** والصبح لله والمساء,"In Tunis, both in the morning and in the evening"
الخوف والجوع والمنايا *** يحدثها الهرج والوباء,"There is fear and hunger and death, Stirred up by tumult and pestilence."
والناس في مرية وحرب *** وما عسى ينفع المراء,"People are in rebellion and at war
Rarely does anything good come out of rebellion."
فأحمدي يرى عليا *** حل به الهلك والتواء,The partisans of Ahmad think that perdition And ruin have descended upon ‘Ali.
وآخر قال سوف يأتي *** به إليكم صبا رخاء,And the others say: He (‘Ali) will be brought (back) To you by a mild zephyr.
والله من فوق ذا وهذا *** يقضي لعبديه ما يشاء,God is above this one and that one. He destines for His two servants whatever He wishes.
يا راصد الخنس الجواري *** ما فعلت هذه السماء,"O you observer of the retreating, running (stars)! What did these heaven(ly bodies) do?"
مطلتمونا وقد زعمتم *** أنكم اليوم أملياء,"You have been putting us off while you pretended (each day)
That today you would pay off."
مر خميس على خميس *** وجاء سبت وأربعاء,"One Thursday went by after the other. Saturday came, and Wednesday."
ونصف شهر وعشر ثان *** وثالث ضمه القضاء,"Half a month, and a second decade, And a third came to an end,"
ولا نرى غير زور قول *** أذاك جهل أم ازدراء,And we see nothing but false statements. Is this stupidity or contempt?
إنا إلى الله قد علمنا *** أن ليس يستدفع القضاء,We belong to God. We know That destiny cannot be repulsed.
رضيت بالله لي إلها *** حسبكم البدر أو ذكاء,We belong to God. We know That destiny cannot be repulsed. I am pleased to have Allah as my God. You are satisfied with the moon or the sun.
ما هذه الأنجم السواري *** إلا عباديد أو إماء,"Those roving stars are nothing but Slaves, male or female."
يقضى عليها وليس تقضي *** وما لها في الورى اقتضاء,Their fate is destined. They do not destine (anybody’s fate). They have no power over mankind.
ضلت عقول ترى قديما *** ما شأنه الجرم والفناء,Intellects erred in considering primeval What is subject to death and nonexistence.
وحكمت في الوجود طبعا *** يحدثه الماء والهواء,"They appointed as judge over (the world of) existence an element Created from water and air,"
لم تر حلوا إزاء مر *** تغذوهم تربة وماء,"Not considering sweet versus bitter, Both being nourished by soil and water."
الله ربي ولست أدري *** ما الجوهر الفرد والخلاء,God is my Lord. I do not know What atom and vacuum are;
ولا الهيولى التي تنادي *** ما لي عن صورة عراء,Nor what the hyle is which proclaims: “I cannot be without form”;
ولا وجود ولا، انعدام *** ولا ثبوت ولا انتفاء,"Nor what existence is or nonexistence, Nor persistence and annihilation."
والكسب لم أدر فيه إلا *** ما جلب البيع والشراء,"I do not know what acquisition is except
Something resulting from buying and selling."
وإنما مذهبي وديني *** ما كان للناس أولياء,"My dogma and religion are What (dogma and religion) were when the people were saints,"
إذ لا فصول ولا أصول *** ولا جدال ولا رياء,"Since there are no details, no basic principles, No dispute, and no doubting,"
ما تبع الصدر واقتفينا *** يا حبذا كان الاقتفاء,"As long as one follows early Islam and the remainder.
What a good thing it is to take (early Islam) as model!"
كانوا كما يعلمون منهم *** ولم يكن ذلك الهذاء,"(The early Muslims) were as one knows them to have been. (In their time,) the babble (of the theologians) did not exist."
يا أشعري الزمان إني *** أشعرني الصيف والشتاء,O you contemporary Ash’aris! I Have been taught by summer and winter:
لم أجز بالشر غير شر *** والخير عن مثله جزاء,"I am requited for evil with evil, And good is the reward for good."
وإنني إن أكن مطيعا *** فلست أعصى ولي رجاء,"If I am obedient (to God), I shall be saved. If I am disobedient, still, I have hope."
وإنني تحت حكم بار *** أطاعه العرش والثراء,I am under the control of a Creator Who is obeyed by the (divine) throne and the earth.
ليس انتصار بكم ولكن *** أتاحه الحكم والقضاء,"It is not in your writings, but The (divine) judgment and fate have predestined it:"
لو حدث الأشعري عمن *** له إلى رأيه انتماء,"If al-Ash’ari were told who The (present-day) followers of his opinions are,"
لقال أخبرهم بأني *** مما يقولونه براء,"He would say, “Tell them that I Have nothing to do with what they say.”"
الفصل الثالث والثلاثون في انكار ثمرة الكيميا واستحالة وجودها وما ينشأ من المفاسد عن انتحالها,"[32] A denial of the effectiveness of alchemy. The impossibility of its existence. The harm that
arises from practicing it."
اعلم أن كثيرا من العاجزين عن معاشهم تحملهم المطامع على انتحال هذه الصنائع ويرون أنها أحد مذاهب المعاش ووجوهه وأن اقتناء المال منها أيسر وأسهل على مبتغيه فيرتكبون فيها من المتاعب والمشاق ومعاناة الصعاب وعسف الحكام وخسارة الأموال في النفقات زيادة على النيل من غرضه والعطب آخرا إذا ظهر على خيبة وهم يحسبون أنهم يحسنون صنعا.,"Many people who are unable to earn their living are led by greed to cultivate alchemy. They are of the opinion that it is a (proper) means and method of making a living and that the practitioners of (alchemy) find it easier and simpler (than other people) to acquire property. In fact, however, they have to pay for (their efforts) in the form of trouble, hardship, and difficulties, and in the form of persecution by the authorities and loss of property through expenditures. In addition, he loses standing and, eventually, when his secret is discovered, faces ruin. They think that (in practicing alchemy) they know some gainful craft."
وإنما أطمعهم في ذلك رؤية أن المعادن تستحيل وينقلب بعضها إلى بعض للمادة المشتركة فيحاولون بالعلاج صيرورة الفضة ذهبا والنحاس والقصدير فضة,"However, they have been stimulated (to practice alchemy) solely by the thought that some minerals may be changed and transformed artificially into others, because of the matter common (to all minerals). Thus, they try to treat silver and transform it into gold; copper and tin (they try to transform) into silver."
ويحسبون أنها من ممكنات عالم الطبيعة ولهم في علاج ذلك طرق مختلفة لاختلاف مذاهبهم في التدبير وصورته وفي المادة الموضوعة عندهم للعلاج المسماة عندهم بالحجر المكرم هل هي العذرة أو الدم أو الشعر أو البيض أو كذا أو كذا مما سوى ذلك.,"They think that it is possible in the realm of nature to do this. There are different procedures followed by (the alchemists). These depend on the different opinions held concerning the character and form of the (alchemical) treatment and concerning the substance invented for the treatment and which they call “the Noble Stone.” This may be excrements, or blood, or hair, or eggs, or anything else."
وجملة التدبير عندهم بعد تعين المادة أن تمهى بالفهر على حجر صلد أملس وتسقى أثناء إمهائها بالماء وبعد أن يضاف إليها من العقاقير والأدوية ما يناسب القصد منها ويؤثر في انقلابها إلى المعدن المطلوب.,"After the substance has been specified, it is treated by them along the following lines. The (substance) is pulverized with a pestle, on a solid and smooth stone. During the pulverization it is macerated in water, after drugs have been added, suitable for the purpose (the substance) is to achieve and able to effect its transformation into the desired mineral."
ثم تجفف بالشمس من بعد السقي أو تطبخ بالنار أو تصعد أو تكلس لاستخراج مائها أو ترابها,"After having been macerated, (the substance) is dried in the sun, or cooked in a fire, or sublimated, or calcified, in order to eliminate the water or earth it contains."
فإذا رضي بذلك كله من علاجها وتم تدبيره على ما اقتضته أصول صنعته حصل من ذلك كله تراب أو مائع يسمونه الإكسير,"If this process and treatment are completed to the satisfaction of the (alchemist) and in accordance with the requirements of the basic principles of alchemy, the result is an earthen or fluid (substance) which is called “the elixir.”"
ويزعمون أنه إذا ألقي على الفضة المحماة بالنار عادت ذهبا أو النحاس المحمي بالنار عاد فضة على ما قصد به في عمله.,"(Alchemists) think that if the elixir is added to silver which has been heated in a fire, the silver turns into gold. If added to copper which has been heated in a fire, the copper turns into silver, just as (the alchemists), by means of the (alchemical) operation, intend it to be."
ويزعم المحققون منهم أن ذلك الإكسير مادة مركبة من العناصر الأربعة حصل فيها بذلك العلاج الخاص والتدبير مزاج ذو قوى طبيعية تصرف ما حصلت فيه إليها وتقلبه إلى صورتها ومزاجها وتبث فيه ما حصل فيها من الكيفيات والقوى كالخميرة للخبز تقلب العجين إلى ذاتها وتعمل فيه ما حصل لها من الانفشاش والهشاشة ليحسن هضمه في المعدة ويستحيل سريعا إلى الغذاء.,"Competent (alchemists) think that the elixir is a substance composed of the four elements. The special (alchemical) processing and treatment give the substance a certain temper and certain natural powers. These powers assimilate to themselves everything with which they come into contact, and transform it into their own form and temper. They transmit their own qualities and powers to it, just as yeast in bread assimilates the dough to its own essence and produces in the bread its own looseness and fluffiness, so that the bread will be easily digestible in the stomach and quickly transformed into nourishment."
وكذا إكسير الذهب والفضة فيما يحصل فيه من المعادن يصرفه إليهما ويقلبه إلى صورتهما.,"In the same way, the elixir of gold and silver assimilates the minerals with which it comes into contact to (gold and silver) and transforms them into the forms of (gold and silver)."
هذا محصل زعمهم على الجملة فتجدهم عاكفين على هذا العلاج يبتغون الرزق والمعاش فيه ويتناقلون أحكامه وقواعده من كتب لأئمة الصناعة من قبلهم يتداولونها بينهم ويتناظرون في فهم لغوزها وكشف أسرارها إذ هي في الأكثر تشبه المعمى.,"This, in general, is the sum total of the theory (of alchemists). We find that the (alchemists) constantly experiment with the (alchemical) process and hope to find their sustenance and livelihood in it. They transmit to each other the rules and basic principles (of the treatment as derived) from the books of the leading earlier alchemists. They pass these books around among themselves and discuss the meaning and interpretation of the puzzling expressions and secrets in them. For the most part, they are like riddles."
كتآليف جابر بن حيان في رسائله السبعين ومسلمة المجريطي في كتابه رتبة الحكيم والطغرائي والمغيربي في قصائده العريقة في إجادة النظم وأمثالها ولا يحلون من بعد هذا كله بطائل منها. ففاوضت يوما شيخنا أبا البركات التلفيقي كبير مشيخة الأندلس في مثل ذلك,"Such books are the Seventy Treatises of Jabir b. Hayyan, the Rutbat al-hakim of Maslamah al-Majriti, (the works) of atTughra’i, and the very well-composed poem of al-Mughayribi, and similar works. However, after all (these efforts), the (alchemists) do not get anywhere. I once discussed something of the sort with our teacher, the leading Spanish scholar, Abul-Barakat al-Ballafigi."
ووقفته على بعض التآليف فيها فتصفحه طويلا ثم رده إلي وقال لي وأنا الضامن له أن لا يعود إلى بيته إلا بالخيبة.,"I called his attention to a certain work on (alchemy). Reexamined it for a long time, then returned it to me and said: “I guarantee it to (the author) that he will come home a failure.”"
ثم منهم من يقتصر في ذلك على الدلسة فقط. إما الظاهرة كتمويه الفضة بالذهب أو النحاس بالفضة أو خلطهما على نسبة جزء أو جزءين أو ثلاثة,"Certain (alchemists) restricted themselves to mere forgery. It may be of an obvious type, such as covering silver with gold, or copper with silver, or mixing the (two metals) in the ratio of one to two, or one to three."
أو الخفية كإلقاء الشبه بين المعادن بالصناعة مثل تبييض النحاس وتلبيسه بالزوق المصعد فيجيء جسما معدنيا شبيها بالفضة ويخفى إلا على النقاد المهرة,"Or it may be a concealed type of forgery, such as treating a mineral to make it look like another similar one. Copper, for instance, may be blanched and softened with sublimate of mercury. Thus, it turns into a mineral that looks like silver to anyone but an expert assayer."
فيقدر أصحاب هذه الدلس مع دلستهم هذه سكة يسربونها في الناس ويطبعونها بطابع السلطان تمويها على الجمهور بالخلاص.,"Such forgers use their product to coin money with the official imprint, which they circulate among the people. Thus, they cheat the great mass with impunity."
وهؤلاء أخس الناس حرفة وأسوأهم عاقبة لتلبسهم بسرقة أموال الناس فإن صاحب هذه الدلسة إنما هو يدفع نحاسا في الفضة وفضة في الذهب ليستخلصها لنفسه فهو سارق أو شر من السارق.,"Theirs is the most contemptible and pernicious profession (there could be). The forgers conspire to steal the property of the people, for they give copper for silver, and silver for gold, so as to get exclusive possession of (other people’s property). They are thieves, or worse than thieves."
ومعظم هذا الصنف لدينا بالمغرب من طلبة البربر المنتبذين بأطراف البقاع ومساكن الأغمار يأوون إلى مساجد البادية ويموهون على الأغنياء منهم بأن بأيديهم صناعة الذهب والفضة والنفوس مولعة بحبهما والاستهلاك في طلبهما فيحصلون من ذلك على معاش.,Most of that sort of people here in the Maghrib are Berber “students” who choose for their territory remote regions and the homes of stupid people. They visit the mosques of the Bedouins and convince rich (Bedouins) that they know how to make gold and silver. People are very much in love with (gold and silver). They are eager to spend all (their money) to search for them. This (attitude) enables the (Berber students) to make a living.
ثم يبقى ذلك عندهم تحت الخوف والرقبة إلى أن يظهر العجز وتقع الفضيحة فيفرون إلى موضع آخر ويستجدون حالا أخرى في استهواء بعض أهل الدنيا بأطماعهم فيما لديهم. ولا يزالون كذلك في ابتغاء معاشهم,"They must go about their activity fearfully and under the watchful eye (of the authorities). Eventually, (their) inability (to produce gold and silver) becomes evident and they are disgraced. Then, they flee to another place and start the whole business anew. They cause wealthy people to succumb to the desire of obtaining what they have to offer. In this way, they constantly work hard trying to make a living."
وهذا الصنف لا كلام معهم لأنهم بلغوا الغاية في الجهل والرداءة والاحتراف بالسرقة ولا حاسم لعلتهم إلا اشتداد الحكام عليهم وتناولهم من حيث كانوا وقطع أيديهم متى ظهروا على شأنهم لأن فيه إفسادا للسكة التي تعم بها البلوى وهي متمول الناس كافة.,"There is no point talking with that sort of people, because they have reached the limit in ignorance and viciousness and make a business out of thievery. The only way to cure them is for the government to take energetic measures against them, to seize them wherever they are, and to cut off their hands (as thieves) whenever their activities are discovered, for those activities mean deterioration of the currency, a matter of general concern. The currency (in circulation) is the very backbone of everyone’s wealth."
والسلطان مكلف بإصلاحها والاحتياط عليها والاشتداد على مفسديها. وأما من انتحل هذه الصناعة ولم يرض بحال الدلسة بل استنكف عنها ونزه نفسه عن إفساد سكة المسلمين ونقودهم وإنما يطلب إحالة الفضة للذهب والرصاص والنحاس والقصدير إلى الفضة بذلك النحو من العلاج وبالإكسير الحاصل عنده فلنا مع هؤلاء متكلم وبحث في مداركهم لذلك.,"The ruler has the obligation to keep it intact, to watch over it, and to take energetic measures against those who corrupt it. However, it is possible for us to talk with alchemists who do not like such forgeries, but avoid them and refrain from corrupting the currency and coinage of the Muslims. They merely seek to transform silver into gold, or lead and copper and tin into silver, with the help of a particular alchemical process and the elixir which results from it. We can discuss with them and investigate their achievements in this respect."
مع أنا لا نعلم أن أحدا من أهل العالم تم له هذا الغرض أو حصل منه على بغية إنما تذهب أعمارهم في التدبير والفهر والصلابة والتصعيد والتكليس واعتيام الأخطار بجمع العقاقير والبحث عنها.,"Yet, we know of not one in the world who has attained the goal (of alchemy) or got any desirable result out of it. Alchemists spend their lives on the (alchemical) treatment, (using the) pestle and muller, subliming and calcifying, and running risks in collecting drugs and searching for them."
ويتناقلون في ذلك حكايات وقعت لغيرهم ممن تم له الغرض منها أو وقف على الوصول يقنعون باستماعها والمفاوضات فيها ولا يستريبون في تصديقها شأن الكلفين المغرمين بوساوس الأخبار فيما يكلفون به فإذا سئلوا عن تحقيق ذلك بالمعاينة أنكروه وقالوا إنما سمعنا ولم نر.,"They tell stories about other (alchemists) who attained the goal (of alchemy) or were successful. They are satisfied with listening to these stories and discussing them. They have no suspicions as to whether (or not) they can be considered true. They are like people who are infatuated with something and taken in by fanciful stories about the subject of their infatuation. When they are asked whether the (story) has been verified by actual observation, they do not know. They say, “We have heard (about it), but have not seen it.”"
هكذا شأنهم في كل عصر وجيل واعلم أن انتحال هذه الصنعة قديم في العالم وقد تكلم الناس فيها من المتقدمين والمتأخرين فلننقل مذاهبهم في ذلك ثم نتلوه بما يظهر فيها من التحقيق الذي عليه الأمر في نفسه فنقول إن مبنى الكلام في هذه الصناعة عند الحكماء على حال المعادن السبعة المتطرقة وهي الذهب والفضة والرصاص والقصدير والنحاس والحديد والخارصين,"This has been the case with (alchemists) in every age and of every race (generation). It should be known that the practice of this art is something very ancient in the world. Ancient and modern (scholars) have discussed it. We shall report their opinions in this connection and then state what seems to us the actual truth of the matter. God gives success to that which is correct. We say: The philosophers base their discussion of alchemy on the condition of the seven malleable minerals: gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, iron, and
kharsini."
هل هي مختلفات بالفصول وكلها أنواع قائمة بأنفسها أو إنها مختلفة بخواص من الكيفيات وهي كلها أصناف لنوع واحد؟,"The question is whether these (seven metals) are different in their (specific) differences, each constituting a distinct species, or whether they differ in certain properties and constitute different kinds of one and the same species."
فالذي ذهب إليه أبو النصر الفارابي وتابعه عليه حكماء الأندلس أنها نوع واحد وأن اختلافها إنما هو بالكيفيات من الرطوبة واليبوسة واللين والصلابة والألوان من الصفرة والبياض والسواد,"Abu Nasr al-Farabi and the Spanish philosophers who followed him held the opinion that all (the metals) are of one and the same species and that their difference is caused by qualities, such as humidity and dryness, softness and hardness, and colors, such as yellow, white, and black."
وهي كلها أصناف لذلك النوع الواحد والذي ذهب إليه ابن سينا وتابعه عليه حكماء المشرق أنها مختلفة بالفصول وأنها أنواع متباينة كل واحد منها قائم بنفسه متحقق بحقيقته له فصل وجنس شان سائر الأنواع.,"All of them are different kinds of one and the same species. On the other hand, Avicenna and the eastern philosophers who followed him were of the opinion that the (metals) differ in (specific) – difference and constitute different species of their own, each of which exists in its own right and has its own (specific) difference and genus, like all other species."
وبنى أبو نصر الفارابي على مذهبه في اتفاقها بالنوع إمكان انقلاب بعضها إلى بعض لإمكان تبدل الأغراض حينئذ وعلاجها بالصنعة.,"On the strength of his opinion that all (the metals) are of one and the same species, Abu Nasr al-Farabi assumed that it is possible for one metal to be transformed into another, because it is possible to transform accidents and treat them artificially."
فمن هذا الوجه كانت صناعة الكيمياء عنده ممكنة سهلة المأخذ.,"From this point of view, he considered alchemy possible and easy"
وبنى أبو علي بن سينا على مذهبه في اختلافها بالنوع إنكار هذه الصنعة واستحالة وجودها بناء على أن الفصل لا سبيل بالصناعة إليه وإنما يخلقه خالق الأشياء ومقدرها وهو الله عز وجل.,". Avicenna, on the other hand, on the strength of his opinion that (all the metals) belong to different species, assumed that the existence of alchemy must be denied and is impossible. His assumption is based on the fact that (specific) differences cannot be influenced by artificial means. They are created by the Creator and Determiner of things, God Almighty."
والفصول مجهولة الحقائق رأسا بالتصور فكيف يحاول انقلابها بالصنعة. وغلطه الطغرائي من أكابر أهل هذه الصناعة في هذا القول.,"Their real character is utterly unknown and cannot be perceived (tasawwur). How, then, could one attempt to transform them by artificial means? At-Tughra’i, one of the great alchemists, considered Avicenna’s statement erroneous."
ورد عليه بأن التدبير والعلاج ليس في تخليق الفصل وإبداعه وإنما هو في إعداد المادة لقبوله خاصة. والفصل يأتي من بعد الإعداد من لدن خالقه وبارئه كما يفيض النور على الأجسام بالصقل والإمهاء.,"He objected that (alchemical) treatment and processing does not mean a new creation of a (specific) difference, but merely the conditioning of a substance for the acceptance of a particular (specific difference). After (a given substance) is conditioned, it gets (its new specific) difference from its Creator and Originator. This might be compared to the way light pours upon bodies as the result of polishing and giving (them) luster."
ولا حاجة بنا في ذلك إلى تصوره ومعرفته,We do not have to perceive (tasawwur) or know (how) this (comes about).
قال: «وإذا كنا قد عثرنا على تخليق بعض الحيوانات مع الجهل بفصولها مثل العقرب من التراب والنتن ومثل الحيات المتكونة من الشعر ومثل ما ذكره أصحاب الفلاحة من تكوين النحل إذا فقدت من عجاجيل البقر. وتكوين القصب من قرون ذوات الظلف وتصييره سكرا بحشو القرون بالعسل بين يدي ذلك الفلح للقرون,"At-Tughra’i continued: “In fact, we know about the (spontaneous) generation of certain animals, even though we are ignorant of their (specific) differences. For instance, scorpions are created from earth and straw. Snakes are created from hair. Agricultural scholars mention that bees, when they no longer exist, are created (again) from calves, and that reeds come out of the horns of cloven-hoofed animals and are transformed into sugar cane, when the horns are filled with honey while the soil is being prepared for them (to be planted)."
فما المانع إذا من العثور على مثل ذلك في الذهب والفضة. فتتخذ مادة تضيفها للتدبير بعد أن يكون فيها استعداد أول لقبول صورة الذهب والفضة. ثم تحاولها بالعلاج إلى أن يتم فيها الاستعداد لقبول فصلها». انتهى كلام الطغرائي بمعناه.,“We attempt something similar with regard to gold and silver. We take a certain matter possessing primary preparedness for the acceptance of the form of gold and silver. We treat it and then we attempt to process it until it possesses fully the preparedness to accept the (specific) difference of(gold and silver).” This is the gist ofat-Tughra’i’s discussion.
وهو الذي ذكره في الرد على ابن سينا صحيح.,He is right in his refutation of Avicenna.
لكن لنا في الرد على أهل هذه الصناعة مأخذا آخر يتبين منه استحالة وجودها وبطلان مزعمهم أجمعين لا الطغرائي ولا ابن سينا.,"We, however, have another starting point for refuting the alchemists. It shows that the existence ofalchemy is impossible and that the assumptions ofall (who defend alchemy), not only those of at. Tughra’i and Avicenna, are – wrong."
وذلك أن حاصل علاجهم أنهم بعد الوقوف على المادة المستعدة بالاستعداد الأول يجعلونها موضوعا ويحاذون في تدبيرها وعلاجها تدبير الطبيعة في الجسم المعدني حتى أحالته ذهبا أو فضة ويضاعفون القوى الفاعلة والمنفعلة ليتم في زمان أقصر.,"(Our argument) is as follows: The (alchemical) process follows these lines: The (alchemists) take a substance possessing primary preparedness. They use it as the basis. In treating and processing it, they imitate the way nature processes substances in mines and, eventually, transforms them into gold or silver. They (try) hard to increase the active and passive powers (in the process), so that it will be completed in a shorter time (than required by nature)."
لأنه تبين في موضوعة أن مضاعفة قوة الفاعل تنقص من زمن فعله وتبين أن الذهب إنما يتم كونه في معدنه بعد ألف وثمانين من السنين دورة الشمس الكبرى فإذا تضاعفت القوى والكيفيات في العلاج كان زمن كونه أقصر من ذلك ضرورة على ما قلناه أو يتحرون بعلاجهم ذلك حصول صورة مزاجية لتلك المادة تصيرها كالخميرة فتفعل في الجسم المعالج الأفاعيل المطلوبة في إحالته وذلك هو الإكسير على ما تقدم.,"It has been explained in the proper place that an increase in the power ofthe agent shortens the time needed for his activity. (Now,) it is clear that the generation ofgold in the mine is completed only after 1,080 years, which is the period ofthe great revolution ofthe sun. If the powers and qualities used in the process are greatly increased, the time needed for the generation of(gold) will necessarily be shorter than (1,080 years), as we have stated. Or, through processing, the (alchemists) choose to give the (basic) substance a form of composition to make it like yeast, and thus capable of producing the desired transformation in the processed matter. That is “the elixir,” mentioned before."
واعلم أن كل متكون من المولدات العنصرية فلا بد فيه من اجتماع العناصر الأربعة على نسبة متفاوتة إذ لو كانت متكافئة في النسبة لما تم امتزاجها فلا بد من الجزء الغالب على الكل.,"(Now,) it should be known that every generated elemental thing must contain a combination of the four elements in different proportions. If they were all alike in proportion, no mixture would take place. Therefore, there must always be a part that is superior to all the (others)."
ولا بد في كل ممتزج من المولدات من حرارة غريزية هي الفاعلة لكونه الحافظة لصورته. ثم كل متكون في زمان فلا بد من اختلاف أطواره وانتقاله في زمن التكوين من طور إلى طور حتى ينتهي إلى غايته.,"Likewise, everything generated through mixture must contain some natural heat which is active in creating it and preserves its form. Furthermore, everything that is created in time must go through different stages and pass from one stage to another during the time ofits creation, until it reaches its goal."
وانظر شأن الإنسان في طور النطفة ثم العلقة ثم المضغة ثم التصوير ثم الجنين ثم المولود ثم الرضيع ثم إلى نهايته.,"For instance, man goes through the successive stages ofsemen, blood clot, and lump offlesh. Next, he receives his form, becomes an embryo, a (newborn) child, a suckling, and so on, until he reaches the end ofhis (development)."
ونسب الأجزاء في كل طور تختلف في مقاديرها وكيفياتها وإلا لكان الطور الأول بعينه هو الآخر وكذا الحرارة الغريزية في كل طور مخالفة لها في الطور الآخر.,"The proportion of the parts varies in quantity and quality at every stage. Were that not the case, the first stage would be identical with the last. The natural heat, too, is different at each stage."
فانظر إلى الذهب ما يكون له في معدنه من الأطوار منذ ألف سنة وثمانين وما ينتقل فيه من الأحوال فيحتاج صاحب الكيمياء إلى أن يساوق فعل الطبيعة في المعدن ويحاذيه بتدبيره وعلاجه إلى أن يتم.,"One may now consider through how many stages and conditions gold (must have) passed in the mine over (a period of) 1,080 years. The alchemist has to follow the action of nature in the mine and imitate it in his treatment and processing, until.it is completed."
ومن شرط الصناعة أبدا تصور ما يقصد إليه بالصنعة فمن الأمثال السائرة للحكماء أول العمل آخر الفكرة وآخر الفكرة أول العمل.,"(Now,) it is a condition of (every) craft that (its practitioner) perceive (and know, tasawwur) the goals he intends to reach with the help of that particular craft. A current saying of the sages to this effect runs: “The beginning of action is the end ofthinking, and the end ofthinking is the beginning of action.”"
فلا بد من تصور هذه الحالات للذهب في أحواله المتعددة ونسبها المتفاوتة في كل طور واختلاف الحار الغريزي عند اختلافها ومقدار الزمان في كل طور وما ينوب عنه من مقدار القوى المضاعفة ويقوم مقامه حتى يحاذي بذلك كله فعل الطبيعة في المعدن أو تعد لبعض المواد صورة مزاجية كصورة الخميرة للخبز وتفعل في هذه المادة بالمناسبة لقواها ومقاديرها.,"Thus, (the alchemist) must perceive (and know) the different conditions of gold in the numerous stages of its (development), the different proportions (of its component elements) belonging to the different stages, the resulting differences in natural heat, how much time is spent at each stage, and how much of an increase in power (is needed) to substitute for and supplant (the natural development). All this should finally enable him to imitate the action of nature in the mine or to prepare for a certain substance a form of composition that would be what the form of yeast is for bread, active in the particular substance in proportion to its powers and quantity."
وهذه كلها إنما يحصرها العلم المحيط والعلوم البشرية قاصرة عن ذلك وإنما حال من يدعي حصوله على الذهب بهذه الصنعة بمثابة من يدعي بالصنعة تخليق إنسان من المني.,All this is known only to the all-comprehensive knowledge (of God). Human science is unable to achieve it. Those who claim to have made gold with the help of alchemy are like those who might claim the artificial creation of man from semen.
ونحن إذا سلمنا له الإحاطة بأجزائه ونسبته وأطواره وكيفية تخليقه في رحمه وعلم ذلك علما محصلا بتفاصيله حتى لا يشذ منه شيء عن علمه سلمنا له تحليق هذا الإنسان وأنى له ذلك.,"If we (could) grant to someone an all – comprehensive knowledge of the parts of man, his proportions, the stages of his (development), the way he is created in the womb, if he could know all this in all its details, so that nothing escapes his knowledge, then we (would) grant him the (ability to) create a human being. But where does anyone possess such (knowledge)?"
ولنقرب هذا البرهان بالاختصار ليسهل فهمه فنقول: حاصل صناعة الكيمياء وما يدعونه بهذا التدبير أنه مساوقة الطبيعية المعدنية بالفعل الصناعي ومحاذاتها به إلى أن يتم كون الجسم المعدني أو تخليق مادة بقوى وأفعال وصورة مزاجية تفعل في الجسم فعلا طبيعيا فتصيره وتقلبه إلى صورتها.,"Let us present here a short restatement of the argument, so that it can be easily understood. We say: The general lines followed in alchemy and the sum total of the claims (alchemists) make for the (alchemical) treatment are that it follows and imitates mineral nature by artificial action, until a particular mineral substance is generated, or until a substance is created that has certain powers, a (capacity to) act, and a form of composition acting upon a given substance as nature does, thus changing and transforming it into its own form."
والفعل الصناعي مسبوق بتصورات أحوال الطبيعة المعدنية التي يقصد مساوقتها أو محاذاتها أو فعل المادة ذات القوى فيها تصورا مفصلا واحدة بعد أخرى. وتلك الأحوال لا نهاية لها والعلم البشري عاجز عن الإحاطة بما دونها وهو بمثابة من يقصد تخليق إنسان أو حيوان أو نبات.,"The technical action must be preceded by detailed, consecutive perceptions (tasawwur) of the various stages of the mineral nature one intends to follow and imitate, or in which one intends the powerful substance to be active. Now, there is an unlimited number of such stages. Human knowledge is not able to comprehend even a lesser number. It is comparable to wanting to create human beings or animals or plants."
هذا محصل هذا البرهان وهو أوثق ما علمته وليست الاستحالة فيه من جهة الفصول كما رأيته ولا من الطبيعة إنما هو من تعذر الإحاطة وقصور البشر عنها. وما ذكره ابن سينا بمعزل عن ذلك وله وجه آخر في الاستحالة من جهة غايته.,"This is the sum total of the argument. It is the most reliable argument I know of. It proves the impossibility (of alchemy), but neither from the point of view of the (specific) differences (of the metals), as above, nor from that of nature. It proves it from the point of view of the impossibility of complete comprehension and the inability of human beings to have (an all-comprehensive knowledge). Avicenna’s remarks say nothing of the sort. There is another aspect to alchemy proving its impossibility. It concerns the result of alchemy."
وذلك أن حكمة الله في الحجرين وندورهما أنهما قيم لمكاسب الناس ومتمولاتهم. فلو حصل عليهما بالصنعة لبطلت حكمة الله في ذلك وكثر وجودهما حتى لا يحصل أحد من اقتنائهما على شيء.,"This is as follows. It was God’s wise plan that gold and silver, being rare, should be the standard of value by which the profits and capital accumulation of human beings are measured. (Now,) if it were possible to obtain (gold and silver) artificially, God’s wise plan in this respect would be foiled. Gold and silver would exist in such large quantities that it would be no use to acquire them."
وله وجه آخر من الاستحالة أيضا وهو أن الطبيعة لا تترك أقرب الطرق في أفعالها وترتكب الأعوص والأبعد.,There is still another aspect (to alchemy) proving its impossibility. Nature always takes the shortest way in what it does. It does not take the longest and most complicated one.
فلو كان هذا الطريق الصناعي الذي يزعمون أنه صحيح وأنه أقرب من طريق الطبيعة في معدنها أو أقل زمانا لما تركته الطبيعة إلى طريقها الذي سلكته في كون الفضة والذهب وتخلقهما وأما تشبيه الطغراءي هذا التدبير بما عثر عليه من مفردات لأمثاله في الطبيعة كالعقرب والنحل والحية وتخليقها فأمر صحيح في هذه أدى إليه العثور كما زعم.,"(Now) if, as (the alchemists) suppose, the artificial method were sound, shorter, and took less time than that which nature follows in the mine, nature would not have abandoned it in favor of the method it has chosen for the generation and creation of gold and silver. At-Tughra’i’s comparison of the (alchemical) process with individual similar instances noticed in nature, such as the (spontaneous) generation of scorpions, bees, and snakes, is sound, in as much as those things, as he assumes, have been (actually) observed (and thus proven)."
وأما الكيمياء فلم ينقل عن أحد من أهل العالم أنه عثر عليها ولا على طريقها وما زال منتحلوها يخبطون فيها عشواء إلى هلم جرا ولا يظفرون إلا بالحكايات الكاذبة.,But nowhere in the world is there a report stating that anybody ever observed (the soundness of) alchemy and its method. The practitioners of (alchemy) have constantly been groping in the dark. They have found nothing but lying stories.
ولو صح ذلك لأحد منهم لحفظه عنه أولاده أو تلميذه وأصحابه وتنوقل في الأصدقاء وضمن تصديقه صحة العمل بعده إلى أن ينتشر ويبلغ إلينا وإلى غيرنا.,"Had any (alchemist) found a correct method, his children, his pupils, or his colleagues would have preserved it. It would have been handed down among friends. Its correctness would have been guaranteed by its later successful application. (Knowledge of) it would eventually have spread. Ourselves or others would have learned about it."
وأما قولهم إن الإكسير بمثابة الخميرة. وإنه مركب يحيل ما يحصل فيه ويقلبه إلى ذلك فاعلم أن الخميرة إنما تقلب العجين وتعده للهضم وهو فساد والفساد في المواد سهل يقع بأيسر شيء من الأفعال والطبائع.,"The (alchemists also) state that the elixir is similar to yeast and that it is a compound for transmuting and transforming everything with which it comes in contact into its own essence. However, it should be realized that yeast transforms the dough and conditions it for digestion. This is (a process of) corruption, and material destruction is an easy process which may be produced by the slightest of actions and of elemental (influences)."
والمطلوب بالإكسير قلب المعدن إلى ما هو أشرف منه وأعلى فهو تكوين وصلاح والتكوين أصعب من الفساد فلا يقاس الإكسير بالخميرة.,"However, the purpose of the elixir is to transform one mineral into a nobler and higher one. That is something creative and constructive. Creation is more difficult than destruction. Thus, the elixir cannot be compared with yeast."
وتحقيق الأمر في ذلك أن الكيمياء إن صح وجودها كما تزعم الحكماء المتكلمون فيها مثل جابر بن حيان ومسلمة بن أحمد المجريطي وأمثالهم فليست من باب الصنائع الطبيعية ولا تتم بأمر صناعي.,"The truth of the matter is that if it is correct that alchemy exists, as the philosophers who discuss alchemy, such as Jabir b. Hayyan, Maslamah b. Ahmad al-Majriti, and others, think, it does’not (at any rate) fall under the category of natural crafts, and it does not come about by any technical process."
وليس كلامهم فيها من منحى الطبيعيات إنما هو من منحى كلامهم في الأمور السحرية وسائر الخوارق وما كان من ذلك للحلاج وغيره وقد ذكر مسلمة في كتاب الغاية ما يشبه ذلك.,The discussion of alchemy by (alchemists) is not like that of physics (by physicists). It is like the discussion of magical and other extraordinary matters or the wonders performed by al-Hallaj and others. Maslamah mentioned something of the sort in the Kitab al-Ghayah.
وكلامه فيها في كتاب رتبة الحكيم من هذا المنحى وهذا كلام جابر في رسائله ونحو كلامهم فيه معروف ولا حاجة بنا إلى شرحه,His discussion of alchemy in the Kitab Rutbat al-hakim points in the same direction. Jabir’s discussion in his treatises is also of the same type. This tendency of (alchemical) discussion is well known. We do not have to comment on it.
وبالجملة فأمرها عندهم من كليات المواد الخارجة عن حكم الصنائع,"In general, (alchemy) as they understand it, has to do with universal creations which are outside the (sphere of) effectiveness of the crafts."
فكما لا يتدبر ما منه الخشب والحيوان في يوم أو شهر خشبا أو حيوانا فيما عدا مجرى تخليقه كذلك لا يتدبر ذهب من مادة الذهب في يوم ولا شهر ولا يتغير طريق عادته إلا بإرفاد ما وراء عالم الطبائع وعمل الصنائع فكذلك من طلب الكيمياء طلبا صناعيا ضيع ماله وعمله,"Wood and animals cannot be developed from their (respective matters) in a day or a month, if such is not the (ordinary) course of their creation. In the same way, gold cannot be developed from its matter in a day or a month. Its customary course (of development) can be changed only with the help of something beyond the world of nature and the activity of the crafts. Thus, those who try to practice alchemy as a craft lose their money and labor."
ويقال لهذا التدبير الصناعي التدبير العقيم لأن نيله إن كان صحيحا فهو واقع مما وراء الطبائع والصنائع كالمشي على الماء وامتطاء الهواء والنفوذ في كشائف الأجساد ونحو ذلك من كرامات الأولياء الخارقة للعادة,"The alchemical treatment is, therefore, called a “sterile treatment.” In so far as it is sound, it is the result of (powers) beyond those of nature and the crafts. It is comparable to walking upon water, riding in the air, passing through solid substances, and similar acts of divine grace that are performed by saints and break through the customary course of nature."
أو مثل تخليق الطير ونحوها من معجزات الأنبياء.,"Or, it may be compared to the creation of birds and similar miracles of the prophets."
قال تعالى: «وإذ تخلق من الطين كهيئة الطير بإذني فتنفخ فيها فتكون طيرا بإذني 5: 110»,"God says: “And when you created something like the form of a bird from clay with my permission, and you blew into it, and the form thus became a bird with the permission of God.”"
وعلى ذلك فسبيل تيسيرها مختلف بحسب حال من يؤتاها. فربما أوتيها الصالح ويؤتيها غيره فتكون عنده معارة. وربما أوتيها الصالح ولا يملك إيتاءها فلا تتم في يد غيره.,"The way in which (miracles of an alchemical nature) are performed depends on the condition of the person to whom (such miracles) are granted. They may be granted to a pious person who passes them on to someone else. They are in this case loaned to the other person, (but he, at any rate, is able to perform them). Or, they may be granted to a worthless person who cannot pass them on. In this case, they cannot be performed by someone else."
ومن هذا الباب يكون عملها سحريا فقد تبين أنها إنما تقع بتأثيرات النفوس وخوارق العادة إما معجزة أو كرامة أو سحرا.,"It is in this sense that the performance (of alchemical miracles) is magical. Thus, it is clear that (alchemical miracles) are the result of psychic influences and extraordinary wonders, either as miracles or acts of divine grace, or as sorcery."
ولهذا كان كلام الحكماء كلهم فيها إلغازا لا يظفر بحقيقته إلا من خاض لجة من علم السحر واطلع على تصرفات النفس في عالم الطبيعة.,"Therefore, all the sages who have discussed (alchemy) use puzzling expressions whose real meaning is known only to those who have delved deeply into sorcery and are acquainted with the (magic) activities of the soul in the world of nature."
وأمور خرق العادة غير منحصرة ولا يقصد أحد إلى تحصيلها. والله بما يعملون محيط.,"(But) matters breaking through the ordinary course (of nature) are unlimited, and no one could get to know them (all). God “comprehends all you do.”"
وأكثر ما يحمل على التماس هذه الصناعة وانتحالها هو كما قلناه العجز عن الطرق الطبيعية للمعاش وابتغاؤه من غير وجوهه الطبيعية كالفلاحة والتجارة والصناعة فيستصعب العاجز ابتغاءه من هذه ويروم الحصول على الكثير من المال دفعة بوجوه غير طبيعية من الكيمياء وغيرها.,"The most common cause of the desire to practice alchemy is, as we have stated; a person’s inability to make his living in a natural way and the wish to make a living in some way that, unlike agriculture, commerce, and (handi)craft, is not natural. A person without ability finds it difficult to make his living in such (legitimate occupations). He wants to get rich all at once through some (occupation) that is not natural, such as alchemy and other things."
وأكثر من يعنى بذلك الفقراء من أهل العمران حتى في الحكماء المتكلمين في إنكارها واستحالتها.,Alchemy is cultivated mostly by the poor among civilized people. (The fact that economic status is decisive for the recognition or nonrecognition of alchemy) applies even to the philosophers who discuss the possibility or impossibility of (alchemy).
فإن ابن سينا القائل باستحالتها كان علية الوزراء فكان من أهل الغنى والثروة والفارابي القائل بإمكانها كان من أهل الفقر الذين يعوزهم أدنى بلغة من المعاش وأسبابه.,"Avicenna, who states that alchemy is impossible, was a great wazir and a very wealthy person, while al-Faribi, who states that it is possible, was one of those poor persons who have not the slightest success in making a living by any means."
وهذه تهمة ظاهرة في أنظار النفوس المولعة بطرقها وانتحالها.,This is an obvious suspicion as to the attitude of people who are eager to try (alchemy) out and practice it.
والله الرازق ذو القوة المتين,God “gives sustenance. He is strong and solid.”
الفصل الرابع والثلاثون في أن كثرة التآليف في العلوم عائقة عن التحصيل,34. The great number of scholarly works (available) is an obstacle on the path to attaining scholarship.
اعلم أنه مما أضر بالناس في تحصيل العلم والوقوف على غاياته كثرة التآليف واختلاف الاصطلاحات في التعاليم وتعدد طرقها ثم مطالبة المتعلم والتلميذ باستحضار ذلك.,"It should be known that among the things that are harmful to the human quest for knowledge and to the attainment of a thorough scholarship are the great number of works (available), the large variety in technical terminology (needed for purposes) of instruction, and the numerous (different) methods (used in those works). The student is required to have a ready knowledge of (all) that."
وحينئذ يسلم له منصب التحصيل فيحتاج المتعلم إلى حفظها كلها أو أكثرها ومراعاة طرقها.,"Only then is he considered an accomplished scholar. Thus, the student must know all the (works), or most of them, and observe the methods used in them."
ولا يفي عمره بما كتب في صناعة واحدة إذا تجرد لها فيقع القصور ولا بد دون رتبة التحصيل. ويمثل ذلك من شأن الفقه في المذهب المالكي بالكتب المدونة مثلا وما كتب عليها من الشروحات الفقهية مثل كتاب ابن يونس واللخمي وابن بشير والتنبيهات والمقدمات والبيان والتحصيل على العتبية وكذلك كتاب ابن الحاجب وما كتب عليه.,"His whole lifetime would not suffice to know all the literature that exists in a single discipline, (even) if he were to devote himself entirely to it. Thus, he must of necessity fall short of attaining scholarship. For the Malikite school of jurisprudence, this (situation) may be exemplified, for instance, by the Mudawwanah, its legal commentaries, such as the books of Ibn Yunus, alLakhmi, and Ibn Bashir, and the notes and introductions (to it) Or (one may take) the sister work of the Mudawwanah, the ‘ Utblyah and the work written on it (by Ibn Rushd under the title of) al-Bayan wa-t-tahsil; or the book of Ibn al-Hajib and the works written on it."
ثم إنه يحتاج إلى تمييز الطريقة القيروانية من القرطبية والبغدادية والمصرية وطرق المتأخرين عنهم والإحاطة بذلك كله,"Furthermore, the student must be able to distinguish between the Qayrawani method (of the Malikite school) and the methods of Cordovan, Baghdadi, and Egyptian (Malikites) and those of their more recent successors. He must know all that."
وحينئذ يسلم له منصب الفتيا وهي كلها متكررة والمعنى واحد. والمتعلم مطالب باستحضار جميعها وتمييز ما بينها والعمر ينقضي في واحد منها.,"Only then is a person considered able to give juridical decisions. All of (these things) are variations of one and the same subject. The student is required to have a ready knowledge of all of them and to be able to distinguish between them. (Yet,) a whole lifetime could be spent on (but) one of them."
ولو اقتصر المعلمون بالمتعلمين على المسائل المذهبية فقط لكان الأمر دون ذلك بكثير وكان التعليم سهلا ومأخذه قريبا ولكنه داء لا يرتفع لاستقرار العوائد عليه فصارت كالطبيعة التي لا يمكن نقلها ولا تحويلها,"If teachers and students were to restrict themselves to the school problems, (the task) would be much easier and (scholarly) instruction would be simple and easily accessible. However, this is an evil that cannot be cured, because it has become firmly ingrained through custom. In a way, it has become something natural, which cannot be moved or transformed."
ويمثل أيضا علم العربية من كتاب سيبويه وجميع ما كتب عليه وطرق البصريين والكوفيين والبغداديين والأندلسيين من بعدهم وطرق المتقدمين والمتأخرين مثل ابن الحاجب وابن مالك وجميع ما كتب في ذلك كيف يطالب به المتعلم وينقضي عمره دونه ولا يطمع أحد في الغاية منه إلا في القليل النادر,"Another example is Arabic philology. There is the Book of Sibawayh and all the literature on it; (there are) the methods of the Basrians, the Kufians, the Baghdadis, and, later on, the Spaniards; and (there are) the methods of the ancient and modern philologists, such as Ibn al-Hajib and Ibn Malik, and all the literature on that. This (wealth of material) requires a great deal from the student. He could spend his (whole) life on less (material). No one would aspire to complete knowledge of it, though there are a few, rare exceptions (of men who have a complete knowledge of philology)."
مثل ما وصل إلينا بالمغرب لهذا العهد من تآليف رجل من أهل صناعة العربية من أهل مصر يعرف بابن هاشم ظهر من كلامه فيها أنه استولى على غاية من ملكة تلك الصناعة لم تحصل إلا لسيبويه وابن جني وأهل طبقتهما لعظم ملكته وما أحاط به من أصول ذلك الفن وتفاريعه وحسن تصرفه فيه.,"For instance, we modern Maghribis have received the works of an Egyptian philologist whose name is Ibn Hisham. The contents show that Ibn Hisham has completely mastered the habit of philology as it had not been mastered (before) save by Sibawayh, Ibn Jinni, and people of their class, so greatly developed is his philological habit and so comprehensive is his knowledge and experience as regards the principles and details of philology."
ودل على أن الفضل ليس منحصرا في المتقدمين سيما مع ما قدمناه من كثرة الشواغب بتعدد المذاهب والطرق والتآليف ولكن فضل الله يؤتيه من يشاء.,"This proves that excellence (in scholarship) is not restricted to the ancients, especially if (one considers) our remarks about the many obstacles (on the path to mastery of a science in modern times), which the great number of schools, methods, and works presents. No! “His excellence God bestows upon whomever He wants to.”"
وهذا نادر من نوادر الوجود وإلا فالظاهر أن المتعلم ولو قطع عمره في هذا كله فلا يفي له بتحصيل علم العربية مثلا الذي هو آلة من الآلات ووسيلة فكيف يكون في المقصود الذي هو الثمرة؟,"(Ibn Hisham) is one of the rare wonders of the world. Otherwise, it is obvious that were the student to spend his entire lifetime on all these things, it would not be long enough for him to acquire, for instance, (a complete knowledge of) Arabic philology, which is (but) an instrument and means (for further studies). How, then, is it with the intended fruit (of study, the acquisition of thorough and comprehensive scholarship)?"
ولكن الله يهدي من يشاء.,But “God guides whomever He wants to guide.”
الفصل الخامس والثلاثون في المقاصد التي ينبغي اعتمادها بالتأليف والغاء ما سواها,33. The purposes that must be kept in mind in literary composition and that alone are to be considered valid.
اعلم أن العلوم البشرية خزانتها النفس الإنسانية بما جعل الله فيها من الإدراك الذي يفيدها ذلك الفكر المحصل لها ذلك بالتصور للحقائق أولا، ثم بإثبات العوارض الذاتية لها أو نفيها عنها ثانيا، إما بغير وسط أو بوسط، حتى يستنتج الفكر بذلك مطالبه التي يعنى بإثباتها أو نفيها.,"It should be known that the storehouse of human science is the soul of man. In it, God has implanted perception (idrak) enabling it to think and, thus, to acquire (scientific knowledge). (The process) starts with perception (tasawwur) of the realities and is then continued by affirmation or negation of the essential attributes of the (realities), either directly or through an intermediary. (Man’s) ability to think thus eventually produces a problematic situation which it tries to solve affirmatively or negatively."
فإذا استقرت من ذلك صورة علمية في الضمير فلا بد من بيانها لآخر، إما على وجه التعليم، أو على وجه المفاوضة، تصقل الأفكار في تصحيحها.,"When scientific picture has been established in the mind (of one person) through these (efforts), it must, of necessity, be communicated to someone else, either through instruction or through discussion, in order to polish the mind by trying to show its soundness."
وذلك البيان إنما يكون بالعبارة، وهي الكلام المركب من الألفاظ النطقية التي خلقها الله في عضو اللسان مركبة من الحروف، وهي كيفيات الأصوات المقطعة بعضلة اللهاة واللسان ليتبين بها ضمائر المتكلمين بعضهم لبعض في مخاطباتهم,"Such communication takes place through “verbal expression,” that is, speech composed of spoken words which God created in a limb (of the human body), the tongue, as combinations of “letters (sounds)” – that is, the various qualities of sound as broken by uvula and tongue – so that the thoughts of people can be communicated in speech."
وهذه رتبة أولى في البيان عما في الضمائر، وإن كان معظمها وأشرفها العلوم، فهي شاملة لكل ما يندرج في الضمير من خبر أو إنشاء على العموم.,"This is the first step in the communication of thoughts. As its most important and noble part, it includes the sciences. However, it comprises every statement or wish (command) that in general enters the mind."
وبعد هذه الرتبة الأولى من البيان رتبة ثانية يؤدى بها ما في الضمير، لمن توارى أو غاب شخصه وبعد، أو لمن يأتي بعد ولم يعاصره ولا لقيه.,"After this first step in communication, there is a second. It is the communication of one’s thoughts to persons who are out of sight or bodily far away, or to persons who live later and whom one has not met, since they are not contemporaries."
وهذا البيان منحصر في الكتابة، وهي رقوم باليد تدل أشكالها وصورها بالتواضع على الألفاظ النطقية حروفا بحروف وكلمات بكلمات، فصار البيان فيها على ما في الضمير بواسطة الكلام المنطقي، فلهذا كانت في الرتبة الثانية واحدا،,"This kind of communication is written communication. Writing is figures made by the hand, whose shapes and forms, by convention, indicate the individual letters (sounds) and words of speech. Thus, they communicate thought through the medium of speech. Writing, therefore, constitutes the second step of communication and is one of its two parts."
يدل على ما في الضمائر من العلوم والمعارف، فهو أشرفها. وأهل الفنون معتنون بإيداع ما يحصل في ضمائرهم من ذلك في بطون الأوراق بهذه الكتابة، لتعلم الفائدة في حصوله للغائب والمتأخر، وهؤلاء هم المؤلفون.,"It gives information about the noblest part of thinking, namely, science and knowledge. Scholars take care to deposit all their scientific thoughts in books by means of writing, so that all those who are absent and live at a later time may have the benefit of them. People who do that are authors."
والتآليف بين العوالم البشرية والأمم الإنسانية كثير، ومنتقلة في الأجيال والأعصار وتختلف باختلاف الشرائع والملل والأخبار عن الأمم والدول.,"Everywhere in the world, written works are numerous. They are handed down among all races and in all ages. They differ as the result of differences in religious laws and organizations and in the information available about nations and dynasties."
وأما العلوم الفلسفية، فلا اختلاف فيها، لأنها إنما تأتي على نهج واحد، فيما تقتضيه الطبيعة الفكرية، في تصور الموجودات على ما هي عليه، جسمانيها وروحانيها وفلكيها وعنصريها ومجردها ومادتها.,"The philosophical sciences do not show (such) differences. They have developed uniformly, as required by the very nature of thinking, which is concerned with the perception (tasawwur) of existing things as they are, whether corporeal, spiritual, celestial, elemental, abstract, or material."
فإن هذه العلوم لا تختلف، وإنما يقع الاختلاف في العلوم الشرعية لاختلاف الملل، أو التاريخية لاختلاف خارج الخبر. ثم الكتابة مختلفة باصطلاحات البشر في رسومها وأشكالها، ويسمى ذلك قلما وخطا. فمنها الخط الحميري، ويسمى المسند، وهو كتابة حمير وأهل اليمن الأقدمين،,"These sciences show no differences. Differences occur in the religious sciences because of differences among the various religions, and in the historical sciences because of differences in the outward character of historical information. Writing differs in that human beings have come to use different forms and shapes of it. (These differences) are called “pen” and script. There is the Himyarite script, which is called musnad. It is the script of the Himyar and the ancient inhabitants of the Yemen."
وهو يخالف كتابة العرب المتأخرين من مضر، كما يخالف لغتهم. وإن الكل عربيا. إلا أن ملكة هؤلاء في اللسان والعبارة غير ملكة أولئك. ولكل منهما قوانين كلية مستقرأة من عبارتهم غير قوانين الآخرين.,"It differs from the writing of the later Mudar Arabs, exactly as the (language written in the Himyarite script) is different from the language of (the Mudar Arabs), though all of them are Arabs. However, the habit of linguistic expression among (the Himyar) differed from that of (the Mudar Arabs). Both have their own general norms, which are evolved inductively from their (ways of linguistic) expression, and are different from the norms of the other (group)."
وربما يغلط في ذلك من لا يعرف ملكات العبارة. ومنها الخط السرياني، وهو كتابة النبط والكلدانيين. وربما يزعم بعض أهل الجهل أنه الخط الطبيعي لقدمه فإنهم كانوا أقدم الأمم، وهذا وهم، ومذهب عامي.,"Those who do not know the habits of (linguistic) expression often are mistaken (about the relationship between the language of the Himyar and that of the other Arabs). Another script is the Syrian script. This is the writing of the Nabataeans and Chaldeans. Ignorant people often think that because the (Nabataeans and Chaldeans) were the most powerful nations (in antiquity), and the (Syrian script) is of great antiquity, it is the natural script (whereas all other scripts are conventional ones). This is a fanciful, vulgar idea."
لأن الأفعال الاختيارية كلها ليس شيء منها بالطبع، وإنما هو يستمر بالقدم والمران حتى يصير ملكة راسخة، فيظنها المشاهد طبيعية كما هو رأي كثير من البلداء في اللغة العربية،,"No action resulting from choice is a natural one. The fact is simply that (the Syrian script is) so old and was used for so long that it became a firmly rooted habit, thought by the observer to be a natural one. Many simpletons have the same idea about the Arabic language."
فيقولون: العرب كانت تعرب بالطبع وتنطق بالطبع، وهذا وهم. ومنها الخط العبراني الذي هو كتابة بني عابر بن شالح من بني إسرائيل وغيرهم. ومنها الخط اللطيني، خط اللطينيين من الروم، ولهم أيضا لسان مختص بهم.,"They say that the Arabs express themselves in good Arabic and speak (it) by nature. This is a fanciful (idea). Another script is the Hebrew script. It is the writing of the children of Eber, the son of Shelah, who are Israelites, and of other (people). Another script is the Latin script, the script of the Latin Byzantines (Romans). They also have their own language."
ولكل أمة من الأمم اصطلاح في الكتاب يعزى إليها ويختص بها. مثل الترك والفرنج والهنود وغيرهم. وإنما وقعت العناية بالأقلام الثلاثة الأولى. أما السرياني فلقدمه كما ذكرنا، وأما العربي والعبري فلتنزل القرآن والتوراة بهما بلسانهما.,"Each nation has its own particular form of writing, which is attributed to it in particular. (This applies,) for instance, to the Turks, the European Christians, the Indians, and others. (However,) only three scripts are of interest. First, Syrian, because of its antiquity, as we have mentioned. Then, there are Arabic ,since the Qur’an and the Torah were revealed in the Arabic and Hebrew scripts and languages, respectively."
وكان هذان الخطان بيانا لمتلوهما، فوقعت العناية بمنظومهما أولا وانبسطت قوانين لاطراد العبارة في تلك اللغة على أسلوبها لتفهم الشرائع التكليفية من ذلك الكلام الرباني.,"These two scripts came to be (the medium of) communication for the texts (written in them, that is, the Qur’an and the Torah). There arose very early an interest in works composed in them, and norms for expressing oneself in that language according to its particular method (uslub) were set forth, so that the obligations of the religious law might be properly deduced from the divine speech of (the Qur’an)."
وأما اللطيني فكان الروم، وهم أهل ذلك اللسان، لما أخذوا بدين النصرانية، وهو كله من التوراة، كما سبق في أول الكتاب، ترجموا التوراة وكتب الأنبياء الإسرائيليين إلى لغتهم، ليقتنصوا منها الأحكام على أسهل الطرق. وصارت عنايتهم بلغتهم وكتابتهم آكد من سواها.,"Then, (thirdly) there is Latin, the language of the Byzantine (Romans). When they adopted Christianity, which, as mentioned at the beginning of this book, is entirely based upon the Torah, they translated the Torah and the books of the Israelite prophets into their language, in order to he able to derive the law from (Scripture) as easily as possible. Thus, they came to be more interested in their own language and writing than (in) any other."
وأما الخطوط الأخرى فلم تقع بها عناية، وإنما هي لكل أمة بحسب اصطلاحها. ثم إن الناس حصروا مقاصد التأليف التي ينبغي اعتمادها وإلغاء ما سواها، فعدوها سبعة:,"The other scripts are of no interest. Every people employs its own particular kind of script. Now, the purposes that must be kept in mind in literary composition and that alone are to be considered valid were restricted to seven."
أولها: استنباط العلم بموضوعه وتقسيم أبوابه وفصوله وتتبع مسائله، أو استنباط مسائل ومباحث تعرض للعالم المحقق ويحرص على إيصاله بغيره، لتعم المنفعة به فيودع ذلك بالكتاب في المصحف، لعل المتأخر يظهر على تلك الفائدة، كما وقع في الأصول في الفقه.,"(1) The invention of a science with its subject, its division into chapters and sections, and the discussion of its problems. Or the invention of problems and topics of research which occur to a competent scholar and which he wants to communicate to someone else, so that they may become generally known and useful. This, then, is deposited in a written volume, so that a later (generation) may have the benefit of it. This is what happened, for instance, with the principles of jurisprudence."
تكلم الشافعي أولا في الأدلة الشرعية اللفظية ولخصها، ثم جاء الحنفية فاستنبطوا مسائل القياس واستوعبوها، وانتفع بذلك من بعدهم إلى الآن.,"AshShafi’i was the first to discuss, and briefly to describe, the legal arguments based on the wording (of the traditions). Then, the Hanafites appeared and invented the problems of analogical reasoning and presented them fully. This (material) has been used by subsequent generations down to the present time."
وثانيها: أن يقف على كلام الأولين وتآليفهم فيجدها مستغلقة على الأفهام ويفتح الله له في فهمها فيحرص على إبانة ذلك لغيره ممن عساه يستغلق عليه، لتصل الفائدة لمستحقها. وهذه طريقة البيان لكتب المعقول والمنقول، وهو فصل شريف.,"(2) (A scholar) may find the discussion and works of ancient (scholars) difficult to understand. God may open understanding of them to him. He will then wish to communicate his (knowledge) to someone else who may perhaps have difficulties with (the same problems), so that all those who are worthy may have the benefit of (his knowledge). This is the interpretational approach to books on the intellectual and traditional (sciences). It is a noble chapter."
وثالثها: أن يعثر المتأخر على غلط أو خطإ في كلام المتقدمين ممن اشتهر فضله وبعد في الإفادة صيته،,(3) Some later (scholar) may come across an error or mistake in discussions by ancient (scholars) of renowned merit and famous authority as teachers.
ويستوثق في ذلك بالبرهان الواضح الذي لا مدخل للشك فيه، فيحرص على إيصال ذلك لمن بعده، إذ قد تعذر محوه ونزعه بانتشار التأليف في الآفاق والأعصار، وشهرة المؤلف ووثوق الناس بمعارفه، فيودع ذلك الكتاب ليقف على بيان ذلك.,"He may have clear proof for it, admitting of no doubt. He will then wish to communicate this (discovery) to those after him, since it is impossible to eradicate a mistake (in the work in question) in view of its wide dissemination in space and time, the fame of (its) author, and the reliance people place in his learning. Therefore, he deposits this (discovery of the mistake) in writing, so that (future) students may learn the explanation of it."
ورابعها: أن يكون الفن الواحد قد نقصت منه مسائل أو فصول بحسب انقسام موضوعة فيقصد المطلع على ذلك أن يتمم ما نقص من تلك المسائل ليكمل الفن بكمال مسائله وفصوله، ولا يبقى للنقص فيه مجال.,"(4) A particular discipline may be incomplete, certain problems or details indicated by the division of the subject of the discipline requiring treatment. The (scholar) who becomes aware of the fact will want to supply these lacking problems, in order to perfect the discipline by having all its problems and details treated and leaving no room for deficiency in it."
وخامسها: أن تكون مسائل العلم قد وقعت غير مرتبة في أبوابها ولا منتظمة، فيقصد المطلع على ذلك أن يرتبها ويهذبها، ويجعل كل مسألة في بابها، كما وقع في المدونة من رواية سحنون عن ابن القاسم، وفي العتبية من رواية العتبي عن أصحاب مالك،,"(5) The problems of a particular science may have been treated without (the proper) arrangement into chapters and without order. The (scholar) who becomes aware of that (situation) will arrange and improve on the problems and put every problem in the chapter where it belongs. This happened to the Mudawwanah, as transmitted by Sahnun on the authority of Ibn al-Qasim, and to the ‘Utbiyah, as transmitted by al-‘Utbi on the authority of the companions of Malik."
"فإن مسائل كثيرة من أبواب الفقه منها قد وقعت في غير بابها فهذب ابن أبي زيد المدونة وبقيت العتبية غير مهذبة.
فنجد في كل باب مسائل من غيره. واستغنوا بالمدونة وما فعله ابن أبي زيد فيها والبرادعي من بعده.","In these works, many problems of jurisprudence were not mentioned in the proper chapters. Therefore, Ibn Abi Zayd improved upon the Mudawwanah, while the ‘Utbiyah remained unimproved. Thus, in every chapter (of. the ‘ Utbiyah), we find problems that belong in another, and (scholars) restricted themselves to the Mudawwanah and the (improvements) made on it by Ibn Abi Zayd and, after him, by al-Baradhi’i."
وسادسها: أن تكون مسائل العلم مفرقة في أبوابها من علوم أخرى فيتنبه بعض الفضلاء إلى موضوع ذلك الفن وجميع مسائله، فيفعل ذلك، ويظهر به فن ينظمه في جملة العلوم التي ينتحلها البشر بأفكارهم، كما وقع في علم البيان.,"(6) The problems of a certain science might (only) exist scattered among the proper chapters of other sciences. Some excellent (scholar) will then become aware of the subject of that particular discipline (as a subject in its own right) and of (the need of) collecting its problems. He will do that, and a (new) discipline will make its appearance. He will give it its place among the sciences that mankind, with its ability to think, cultivates. This happened with the science of literary criticism (bayan)."
فإن عبد القاهر الجرجاني وأبا يوسف السكاكي وجدا مسائله مستقرية في كتب النحو وقد جمع منها الجاحظ في كتاب البيان والتبيين مسائل كثيرة، تنبه الناس فيها لموضوع ذلك العلم وانفراده عن سائر العلوم،,"‘Abd-al-Qahir al-Jurjani and Abu (Ya’qub) Yusuf as-Sakkaki found its problems mentioned more or less correctly in the books on grammar. In his Kitab al-Bayan wa-t-tabyin, al-Jahiz had already brought together many of the problems of this science. In (dealing with) them, people became aware of the subject of (this science) and the fact that it constitutes a science in its own right."
فكتبت في ذلك تآليفهم المشهورة، وصارت أصولا لفن البيان، ولقنها المتأخرون فأربوا فيها على كل متقدم.,"(Later,) the famous works (by the literary critics mentioned) were written on the subject. They became the basic works of the discipline of literary criticism. Later (scholars) studied (those works) and exceeded all their predecessors in (improving upon) them."
وسابعها: أن يكون الشيء من التآليف التي هي أمهات للفنون مطولا مسهبا فيقصد بالتأليف تلخيص ذلك، بالاختصار والإيجاز وحذف المتكرر، إن وقع، مع الحذر من حذف الضروري لئلا يخل بمقصد المؤلف الأول.,"(7) Something in the main scholarly works may be too long and prolix. One will then try to compose a brief and succinct abridgment, omitting all repetitions. However, one has to be careful not to eliminate anything essential, so that the purpose of the first author will not be vitiated."
فهذه جماع المقاصد التي ينبغي اعتمادها بالتأليف ومراعاتها. وما سوى ذلك ففعل غير محتاج إليه وخطأ عن الجادة التي يتعين سلوكها في نظر العقلاء،,"These are the purposes that must be kept in mind and not lost sight of in literary composition. All else is unnecessary, a mistake (or deviation) from the road that (all) intelligent (scholars) think must be followed."
مثل انتحال ما تقدم لغيره من التآليف أن ينسبه إلى نفسه ببعض تلبيس، من تبديل الألفاظ وتقديم المتأخر وعكسه، أو يحذف ما يحتاج إليه في الفن أو يأتي بما لا يحتاج إليه، أو يبدل الصواب بالخطإ، أو يأتي بما لا فائدة فيه.,"For. instance, (someone may try) to ascribe the work of an earlier author to himself with the aid of certain tricks, such as changing the wording and the arrangement of the contents. Or, someone may eliminate material essential to a particular discipline, or mention unnecessary material, or replace correct (statements) with wrong ones, or mention useless material."
فهذا شأن الجهل والقحة. ولذا قال أرسطو، لما عدد هذه المقاصد، وانتهى إلى آخرها فقال: وما سوى ذلك ففصل أو شره، يعني بذلك الجهل والقحة. نعوذ بالله من العمل في ما لا ينبغي للعاقل سلوكه.,"All this shows ignorance and impudence. Aristotle, when he enumerated the purposes (by which an author must be guided) and had come to the last one, therefore said: “Everything else is either superfluousness or greed,” by which he meant ignorance and insolence. We take refuge in God from doing what an intelligent person ought not to do."
والله يهدي للتي هي أقوم.,God “guides to the things that are most correct.”
الفصل السادس والثلاثون في أن كثرة الاختصارات المؤلفة في العلوم مخلة بالتعليم,35. The great number of brief handbooks (available) on scholarly subjects is detrimental to (the process of) instruction.
ذهب كثير من المتأخرين إلى اختصار الطرق والأنحاء في العلوم يولعون بها ويدونون منها برنامجا مختصرا في كل علم يشتمل على حصر مسائله وأدلتها باختصار في الألفاظ وحشو القليل منها بالمعاني الكثيرة من ذلك الفن.,"Many recent scholars have turned to brief presentations of the methods and contents of the sciences. They want to know (the methods and contents), and they present them systematically in the form of brief programs for each science. (These) brief handbooks express all the problems of a given discipline and the evidence for them in a few brief words that are full of meaning."
وصار ذلك مخلا بالبلاغة وعسرا على الفهم. وربما عمدوا إلى الكتب الأمهات المطولة في الفنون للتفسير والبيان فاختصروها تقريبا للحفظ كما فعله ابن الحاجب في الفقه وابن مالك في العربية والخونجي في المنطق وأمثالهم.,"This (procedure) is detrimental to good style and makes difficulties for the understanding. (Scholars) often approach the main scholarly works on the various disciplines, which are very lengthy, intending to interpret and explain (them). They abridge them, in order to make it easier (for students) to acquire expert knowledge of them. Such, for instance, was done by Ibn al-Hajib in jurisprudence and the principles of jurisprudence, by Ibn Malik in Arabic philology, by al-Khunaji in logic, and so on."
وهو فساد في التعليم وفيه إخلال بالتحصيل وذلك لأن فيه تخليطا على المبتدئ بإلقاء الغايات من العلم عليه وهو لم يستعد لقبولها بعد وهو من سوء التعليم كما سيأتي.,"This (procedure) has a corrupting influence upon the process of instruction and is detrimental to the attainment of scholarship. For it confuses the beginner by presenting the final results of a discipline to him before he is prepared for them. This is a bad method of instruction, as will be mentioned."
ثم فيه مع ذلك شغل كبير على المتعلم بتتبع ألفاظ الاختصار العويصة للفهم بتزاحم المعاني عليها وصعوبة استخراج المسائل من بينها. لأن ألفاظ المختصرات تجدها لأجل ذلك صعبة عويصة فينقطع في فهمها حظ صالح عن الوقت.,"(The procedure) also involves a great deal of work for the student. He must study carefully the words of the abridgment, which are complicated to understand because they are crowded with ideas, and try to find out from them what the problems of (the given discipline) are. Thus, the texts of such brief handbooks are found to be difficult and complicated (to understand). A good deal of time must be spent on (the attempt to) understand them."
ثم بعد ذلك فالملكة الحاصلة من التعليم في تلك المختصرات إذا تم على سداده ولم تعقبه آفة فهي ملكة قاصرة عن الملكات التي تحصل من الموضوعات البسيطة المطولة لكثرة ما يقع في تلك من التكرار والإحالة المفيدين لحصول الملكة التامة.,"Moreover, after all these (difficulties), the (scholarly) habit that results from receiving instruction from brief handbooks, (even) when (such instruction) is at its best and is not accompanied by any flaw, is inferior to the habits resulting from (the study of) more extensive and lengthy works. The latter contain a great amount of repetition and lengthiness, but both are useful for the acquisition of a perfect habit."
وإذا اقتصر على التكرار قصرت الملكة لقلته كشأن هذه الموضوعات المختصرة فقصدوا إلى تسهيل الحفظ على المتعلمين فأركبوهم صعبا يقطعهم عن تحصيل الملكات النافعة وتمكنها.,"When there is little repetition, an inferior habit is the result. This is the case with the abridgments. The intention was to make it easy for students to acquire expert knowledge (of scholarly subjects), but the result is that it has become (more) difficult for them, because they are prevented from acquiring useful and firmly established habits."
«ومن يهد الله فلا مضل له ومن يضلل فلا هادي له». والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم.,"Those whom God guides, no one can lead astray, and “those whom God leads astray have no one to guide them.”"
الفصل السابع والثلاثون في وجه الصواب في تعليم العلوم وطريق إفادته,56. The right attitude in scientific instruction and toward the method of giving such instruction.
اعلم أن تلقين العلوم للمتعلمين إنما يكون مفيدا إذا كان على التدريج شيئا فشيئا وقليلا قليلا يلقى عليه أولا مسائل من كل باب من الفن هي أصول ذلك الباب.,"It should be known that the teaching of scientific subjects to students is effective only when it proceeds gradually and little by little. At first, (the teacher) presents (the student) with the principal problems within each chapter of a given discipline."
ويقرب له في شرحها على سبيل الإجمال ويراعى في ذلك قوة عقله واستعداده لقبول ما يرد عليه حتى ينتهي إلى آخر الفن وعند ذلك يحصل له ملكة في ذلك العلم إلا أنها جزئية وضعيفة,"He acquaints him with them by commenting on them in a summary fashion. In the course of doing so, he observes the student’s intellectual potential and his preparedness for understanding the material that will come his way until the end of the discipline under consideration (is reached). In the process, (the student) acquires the habit of the-science (he studies). However, that habit will be an approximate and weak one."
وغايتها أنها هيأته لفهم الفن وتحصيل مسائله. ثم يرجع به إلى الفن ثانية فيرفعه في التلقين عن تلك الرتبة إلى أعلى منها ويستوفي الشرح والبيان ويخرج عن الإجمال,"The most it can do is to enable the student to understand the discipline (he studies) and to know its problems. (The teacher,) then, leads (the student) back over the discipline a second time. He gives him instruction in it on a higher level. He no longer gives a summary but full commentaries and explanations."
ويذكر له ما هنالك من الخلاف ووجهه إلى أن ينتهي إلى آخر الفن فتجود ملكته.,"He mentions to him the existing differences of opinion and the form these differences take all the way through to the end of the discipline under consideration. Thus, the student’s (scholarly) habit is improved."
ثم يرجع به وقد شد فلا يترك عويصا ولا مهما ولا مغلقا إلا وضحه وفتح له مقفله فيخلص من الفن وقد استولى على ملكته هذا وجه التعليم المفيد وهو كما رأيت إنما يحصل في ثلاث تكرارات.,"Then, (the teacher) leads (the student) back again, now that he is solidly grounded. He leaves nothing (that is) complicated, vague, or obscure, unexplained. He bares all the secrets (of the discipline) to him. As a result, the student, when he finishes with the discipline, has acquired the habit of it. This is the effective method of instruction. As one can see, it requires a threefold repetition."
وقد يحصل للبعض في أقل من ذلك بحسب ما يخلق له ويتيسر عليه وقد شاهدنا كثيرا من المعلمين لهذا العهد الذي أدركنا يجهلون طرق التعليم وإفاداته ويحضرون للمتعلم في أول تعليمه المسائل المقفلة من العلم ويطالبونه بإحضار ذهنه في حلها,"Some students can get through it with less than that, depending on their natural dispositions and qualifications. We have observed that many teachers of the time in which we are living are ignorant of this effective method of instruction. They begin their instruction by confronting the student with obscure scientific problems. They require him to concentrate on solving them."
ويحسبون ذلك مرانا على التعليم وصوابا فيه ويكلفونه رعي ذلك وتحصيله ويخلطون عليه بما يلقون له من غايات الفنون في مبادئها وقبل أن يستعد لفهمها,"They think that that is experienced and correct teaching, and they make it the task of the student to comprehend and know such things. In actual fact, they (merely) confuse him by exposing him to the final results of a discipline at the beginning (of his studies) and before he is prepared to understand them."
فإن قبول العلم والاستعدادات لفهمه تنشأ تدريجا ويكون المتعلم أول الأمر عاجزا عن الفهم بالجملة إلا في الأقل وعلى سبيل التقريب والإجمال والأمثال الحسية.,"Preparedness for and receptivity to scientific knowledge and understanding grow gradually. At the beginning, the student is completely unable to understand any but a very few (points). (His understanding is) only approximate and general and (can be achieved only) with the help of pictures (muthul) derived from sensual perception."
ثم لا يزال الاستعداد فيه يتدرج قليلا قليلا بمخالفة مسائل ذلك الفن وتكرارها عليه والانتقال فيها من التقريب إلى الاستيعاب الذي فوقه، حتى تتم الملكة في الاستعداد ثم في التحصيل ويحيط هو بمسائل الفن,"His preparedness, then, keeps growing gradually and little by little when he faces the problems of the discipline under consideration and has them repeated (to him) and advances from approximate understanding of them to a complete, higher knowledge. Thus the habit of preparedness and, eventually, that of attainment materialize in the student, until he has a comprehensive knowledge of the problems of the discipline (he studies)."
وإذا ألقيت عليه الغايات في البداءات وهو حينئذ عاجز عن الفهم والوعي وبعيد عن الاستعداد له كل ذهنه عنها وحسب ذلك من صعوبة العلم في نفسه فتكاسل عنه وانحرف عن قبوله وتمادى في هجرانه.,"But if a student is exposed to the final results at the beginning, while he is still unable to understand and comprehend (anything) and is still far from being prepared to (understand), his mind is not acute enough to (grasp them). He gets the impression that scholarship is difficult and becomes loath to occupy himself with it. He constantly dodges and avoids it."
وإنما أتى ذلك من سوء التعليم. ولا ينبغي للمعلم أن يزيد متعلمه على فهم كتابه الذي أكب على التعليم منه بحسب طاقته وعلى نسبة قبوله للتعليم مبتدئا كان أو منتهيا,"That is the result of poor instruction, and nothing else. The teacher should not ask more from a student than that he understand the book he is engaged in studying, in accordance with his class (age group) and his receptivity to instruction, whether he is at the start or at the end (of his studies)."
ولا يخلط مسائل الكتاب بغيرها حتى يعيه من أوله إلى آخره ويحصل أغراضه ويستولي منه على ملكة بها ينفذ في غيره.,"(The teacher) should not bring in problems other than those found in that particular book, until the student knows the whole (book) from beginning to end, is acquainted with its purpose, and has gained a habit from it, which he then can apply to other (books)."
لأن المتعلم إذا حصل ملكة ما في علم من العلوم استعد بها لقبول ما بقي وحصل له نشاط في طلب المزيد والنهوض إلى ما فوق حتى يستولي على غايات العلم وإذا خلط عليه الأمر عجز عن الفهم وأدركه الكلال وانطمس فكره ويئس من التحصيل وهجر العلم والتعليم.,"When the student has acquired (the scholarly) habit in one discipline, he is prepared for learning all the others. He also has become interested in looking for more and in advancing to higher (learning). Thus, he eventually acquires a complete mastery of scholarship. But if one confuses a student, he will be unable to understand (anything). He becomes indolent. He stops thinking. He despairs of becilning a scholar and avoids scholarship and instruction."
والله يهدي من يشاء.,“God guides whomever He wants to guide.”
وكذلك ينبغي لك أن لا تطول على المتعلم في الفن الواحد بتفريق المجالس وتقطيع ما بينها لأنه ذريعة إلى النسيان وانقطاع مسائل الفن بعضها من بعض فيعسر حصول الملكة بتفريقها.,"It is also necessary (for the teacher) to avoid prolonging the period of instruction in a single discipline or book, by breaks in the sessions and long intervals between them. This causes (the student) to forget and disrupts the nexus between the different problems (of the discipline being studied). The result of such interruptions is that attainment of the (scholarly) habit becomes difficult."
وإذا كانت أوائل العلم وأواخره حاضرة عند الفكرة مجانبة للنسيان كانت الملكة أيسر حصولا وأحكم ارتباطا وأقرب صبغة لأن الملكات إنما تحصل بتتابع الفعل وتكراره وإذا تنوسي الفعل تنوسيت الملكة الناشئة عنه.,"If the first and last things of a discipline are present in the mind and prevent the effects of forgetfulness, the (scholarly) habit is more easily acquired, more firmly established, and closer to becoming a (true) coloring. For habits are acquired by continuous and repeated activity. When one forgets to act, one forgets the habit that results from that particular action."
والله علمكم ما لم تكونوا تعلمون.,God “taught you what you did not know.”
ومن المذاهب الجميلة والطرق الواجبة في التعليم أن لا يخلط على المتعلم علمان معا فإنه حينئذ قل أن يظفر بواحد منهما لما فيه من تقسيم البال وانصرافه عن كل واحد منهما إلى تفهم الآخر فيستغلقان معا ويستصعبان ويعود منهما بالخيبة.,"A good and necessary method and approach in instruction is not to expose the student to two disciplines at the same time. Otherwise, he will rarely master one of them, since he has to divide his attention and is diverted from each of them by his attempt to understand the other. Thus, he will consider both of them obscure and difficult, and be unsuccessful in both."
وإذا تفرغ الفكر لتعليم ما هو بسبيله مقتصرا عليه فربما كان ذلك أجدر لتحصيله,"But if the (student’s) mind is free to study the subject that he is out (to study) and can restrict himself to it, that (fact) often makes it simpler (for the student) to learn (the subject in question)."
والله سبحانه وتعالى الموفق للصواب.,God gives success to that which is correct.
واعلم أيها المتعلم أني أتحفك بفائدة في تعلمك فإن تلقيتها بالقبول وأمسكتها بيد الصناعة ظفرت بكنز عظيم وذخيرة شريفة وأقدم لك مقدمة تعينك في فهمها وذلك أن الفكر الإنساني طبيعة مخصوصة فطرها الله كما فطر سائر مبتدعاته,"You, student, should realize that I am here giving you useful (hints) for your study. If you accept them and follow them assiduously, you will find a great and noble treasure. As an introduction that will help you to understand these (hints), I shall tell you the following: Man’s ability to think is a special natural gift which God created exactly as He created all His other creations."
وهو (وجدان حركة للنفس) في البطن الأوسط من الدماغ. تارة يكون مبدأ للأفعال الإنسانية على نظام وترتيب وتارة يكون مبدأ لعلم ما لم يكن حاصلا بأن يتوجه إلى المطلوب.,"It is an action and motion in the soul by means of a power (located) in the middle cavity of the brain. At times, (thinking) means the beginning of orderly and well-arranged human actions. At other times, it means the beginning of the knowledge of something that had not been available (before)."
وقد يصور طرفيه يروم نفيه أو إثباته فيلوح له الوسط الذي يجمع بينهما أسرع من لمح البصر إن كان واحدا. أو ينتقل إلى تحصيل آخر إن كان متعددا ويصير إلى الظفر بمطلوبه هذا شأن هذه الطبيعة الفكرية التي تميز بها البشر من بين سائر الحيوانات.,"The (ability to think) is directed toward some objective whose two extremes it has perceived (tasawwur), and (now) it desires to affirm or deny it. In almost no time, it recognizes the middle term which combines the two (extremes), if (the objective) is uniform. Or, it goes on to obtain another middle term, if (the objective) is manifold. It thus finds its objective. It is in this way that the ability to think, by which man is distinguished from all the other animals, works."
ثم الصناعة المنطقية هي كيفية فعل هذه الطبيعة الفكرية النظرية تصفه لتعلم سداده من خطئه وأنها وإن كان الصواب لها ذاتيا,"Now, the craft of logic is (knowledge of the) way in which the natural ability to think and speculate operates. Logic describes it, so that correct operation can be distinguished from erroneous. To be right, though, is in the essence of the ability to think."
إلا أنه قد يعرض لها الخطأ في الأقل من تصور الطرفين على غير صورتهما من اشتباه الهيئات في نظم القضايا وترتيبها للنتاج فتعين المنطق للتخلص من ورطة هذا الفساد إذا عرض.,"However, in very rare cases, it is affected by error. This comes from perceiving (tasawwur) the two extremes in forms other than are properly theirs, as the result of confusion in the order and arrangement of the propositions from which the conclusion is drawn."
فالمنطق إذا أمر صناعي مساوق للطبيعة الفكرية ومنطبق على صورة فعلها ولكونه أمرا صناعيا استغني عنه في الأكثر.,"Logic helps to avoid such traps. Thus, it is a technical procedure which parallels (man’s) natural ability to think and conforms to the way in which it functions. Since it is a technical procedure, it can be dispensed with in most cases."
"ولذلك تجد كثيرا من فحول النظار في الخليقة يحصلون على المطالب في العلوم دون صناعة علم المنطق ولا سيما مع صدق النية والتعرض لرحمة الله تعالى فإن
ذلك أعظم معنى.","Therefore, one finds that many of the world’s most excellent thinkers have achieved scholarly results without employing the craft of logic, especially when their intention was sincere and they entrusted themselves to the mercy of God, which is the greatest help (anyone may hope to find)."
ويسلكون بالطبيعة الفكرية على سدادها فيفضي بالطبع إلى حصول الوسط والعلم بالمطلوب كما فطرها الله عليه.,"They proceeded with the aid of the natural ability to think at its best, and this (ability), as it was created by God, permitted them by (its very) nature to find the middle term and knowledge of their objective."
ثم من دون هذا الأمر الصناعي الذي هو المنطق مقدمة أخرى من التعلم وهي معرفة الألفاظ ودلالتها على المعاني الذهنية تردها من مشافهة الرسوم بالكتاب ومشافهة اللسان بالخطاب.,"Besides the technical procedure called logic, the (process of) study involves another introductory (discipline), namely, the knowledge of words and the way in which they indicate ideas in the mind by deriving them from what the forms (of the letters) say, in the case of writing, and from what the tongue – speech – says in the case of spoken utterances."
فلا بد أيها المتعلم من مجاوزتك هذه الحجب كلها إلى الفكر في مطلوبك.,"You, the student, must pass through all these veils, in order to reach (the state where you can) think about your objective."
فأولا: دلالة الكتابة المرسومة على الألفاظ المقولة وهي أخفها ثم دلالة الألفاظ المقولة على المعاني المطلوبة ثم القوانين في ترتيب المعاني للاستدلال في قوالبها المعروفة في صناعة المنطق.,"First, there is the way in which writing indicates spoken words. This is the easiest part of it. Then, there is the way in which the spoken words indicate the ideas one is seeking. Further, there are the rules for arranging the ideas in their proper molds, as they are known from the craft of logic, in order to (be able to) make deductions."
ثم تلك المعاني مجردة في الفكر اشتراطا يقتنص بها المطلوب بالطبيعة الفكرية بالتعرض لرحمة الله ومواهبه.,"Then, there are those ideas in the mind that are abstract and (used) as nets with which one goes hunting for the (desired) objective with the help of one’s natural ability to think (and) entrusting oneself to the mercy and generosity of God."
وليس كل أحد يتجاوز هذه المراتب بسرعة ولا يقطع هذه الحجب في التعليم بسهولة، بل ربما وقف الذهن في حجب الألفاظ بالمناقشات أو عثر في اشتراك الأدلة بشغب الجدال والشبهات وقعد عن تحصيل المطلوب.,"Not everyone is able to pass through all these stages quickly and to cut through all these veils easily during the (process of) instruction. Disputes often cause the mind to stop at the veils of words. Disturbing quarrels and doubts cause it to fall into the nets of argument, so that the mind is prevented from attaining its objective."
ولم يكد يتخلص من تلك الغمرة إلا قليلا ممن هداه الله. فإذا ابتليت بمثل ذلك وعرض لك ارتباك في فهمك أو تشغيب بالشبهات في ذهنك فاطرح ذلك وانتبذ حجب الألفاظ وعوائق الشبهات,"Rarely do more than a few (individuals), who are guided by God, succeed in extricating themselves from this abyss. If you are afflicted by such (difficulties) and hampered in your understanding (of the problems) by misgivings or disturbing doubts in your mind, cast them of ! Discard the veils of words and the obstacles of doubt!"
واترك الأمر الصناعي جملة وأخلص إلى فضاء الفكر الطبيعي الذي فطرت عليه. وسرح نظرك فيه وفرغ ذهنك فيه للغوص على مرامك منه واضعا لها حيث وضعها أكابر النظار قبلك مستعرضا للفتح من الله كما فتح عليهم من ذهنهم من رحمته وعلمهم ما لم يكونوا يعلمون.,"Leave all the technical procedures and take refuge in the realm of the natural ability to think given to you by nature! Let your speculation roam in it and let your mind freely delve in it, according to whatever you desire (to obtain) from it! Set foot in the places where the greatest thinkers before you did! Entrust yourself to God’s aid, as in His mercy He aided them and taught them what they did not know!"
فإذا فعلت ذلك أشرقت عليك أنوار الفتح من الله بالظفر بمطلوبك وحصل الإمام الوسط الذي جعله الله من مقتضيات هذا الفكر ونظره عليه كما قلناه,"If you do that, God’s helpful light will shine upon you and show you your objective. Inspiration will indicate (to you) the middle term which God made a natural requirement of the (process of) thinking, as we have stated."
وحينئذ فارجع به إلى قوالب الأدلة وصورها فأفرغه فيها ووفه حقه من القانون الصناعي ثم اكسه صور الألفاظ وأبرزه إلى عالم الخطاب والمشافهة وثيق العرى صحيح البنيان.,"At that particular moment, return with (the middle term) to the molds and forms (to be used) for the arguments, dip it into them, and give it its due of the technical norm (of logic)! Then, clothe it with the forms of words and bring it forth into the world of spoken utterances, firmly girt and soundly constructed!"
وأما إن وقفت عند المناقشة والشبهة في الأدلة الصناعية وتمحيص صوابها من خطئها وهذه أمور صناعية وضعية تستوي جهاتها المتعددة وتتشابه لأجل الوضع والاصطلاح,"Verbal disputes and doubts concerning the distinction between right and wrong logical evidence are all technical and conventional matters. Their numerous aspects are all alike or similar, because of their conventional and technical character."
فلا تتميز جهة الحق منها إذ جهة الحق إنما تستبين إذا كانت بالطبع فيستمر ما حصل من الشك والارتياب وتسدل الحجب على المطلوب وتقعد بالناظر عن تحصيله.,"If they stop you, (you will not be able) to distinguish the truth in them, for the truth becomes distinguishable only if it exists by nature. All the doubts and uncertainties will remain. The veils will cover the objective sought and prevent the thinker from attaining it."
وهذا شأن الأكثرين من النظار والمتأخرين سيما من سبقت له عجمة في لسانه فربطت عن ذهنه ومن حصل له شغب بالقانون المنطقي تعصب له فاعتقد أنه الذريعة إلى إدراك الحق بالطبع فيقع في الحيرة بين شبه الأدلة وشكوكها ولا يكاد يخلص منها.,"That has been the case with most recent thinkers, especially with those who formerly spoke a language other than Arabic, which was a mental handicap, or those who were enamored with logic and partial to it. They believe that logic is a natural means for the perception of the truth. They become confused when doubts and misgivings arise concerning the evidence, and they are scarcely able to free themselves from (such doubts)."
والذريعة إلى إدراك الحق بالطبع إنما هو الفكر الطبيعي كما قلناه إذا جرد عن جميع الأوهام وتعرض الناظر فيه إلى رحمة الله تعالى وأما المنطق فإنما هو واصف لفعل هذا الفكر فيساوقه في الأكثر.,"As a matter of fact, the natural means for the perception of the truth is, as we have stated, (man’s natural ability to think, when it is free from all imaginings and when the thinker entrusts himself to the mercy of God. Logic merely describes the process of thinking and mostly parallels it."
فاعتبر ذلك واستمطر رحمة الله تعالى متى أعوزك فهم المسائل تشرق عليك أنواره بالإلهام إلى الصواب.,"Take that into consideration and ask for God’s mercy when you have difficulty in understanding problems! Then, the divine light will shine upon you and give you the right inspiration."
والله الهادي إلى رحمته وما العلم إلا من عند الله.,God guides in His mercy. Knowledge comes only from God.
الفصل الثامن والثلاثون في أن العلوم الإلهية لا توسع فيها الأنظار ولا تفرع المسائل,"37. Study of the auxiliary sciences should not be prolonged, and their problems should not be treated in detail."
اعلم أن العلوم المتعارفة بين أهل العمران على صنفين: علوم مقصودة بالذات كالشرعيات من التفسير والحديث والفقه وعلم الكلام وكالطبيعيات والإلهيات من الفلسفة،,"It should be known that the sciences customarily known among civilized people are of two kinds. There are the sciences that are wanted per se, such as the religious sciences of Qur’an interpretation, Prophetic traditions, jurisprudence, and speculative theology, and the physical and metaphysical sciences of philosophy."
وعلوم هي وسيلة آلية لهذه العلوم كالعربية والحساب وغيرهما للشرعيات كالمنطق للفلسفة. وربما كان آلة لعلم الكلام ولأصول الفقه على طريقة المتأخرين,"Among such auxiliary sciences are Arabic philology, arithmetic, and others, which are auxiliary to the religious sciences, and logic which is auxiliary to philosophy and often also to speculative theology and the science of the principles of jurisprudence (when treated) according to the method of recent scholars."
فأما العلوم التي هي مقاصد فلا حرج في توسعة الكلام فيها وتفريع المسائل واستكشاف الأدلة والأنظار فإن ذلك يزيد طالبها تمكنا في ملكته وإيضاحا لمعانيها المقصودة.,"In the case of the sciences that are wanted (per se), it does no harm to extend their discussion, to treat their problems in detail, and to present all the evidence and (all the different) views (which exist concerning them). It gives the student of them a firmer habit and clarifies the ideas they contain which one wants to know."
وأما العلوم التي هي آلة لغيرها مثل العربية والمنطق وأمثالهما فلا ينبغي أن ينظر فيها إلا من حيث هي آلة لذلك الغير فقط. ولا يوسع فيها الكلام ولا تفرع المسائل لأن ذلك مخرج لها عن المقصود إذ المقصود منها ما هي آلة له لا غير.,"But the sciences that are auxiliary to other sciences, such as Arabic philology, logic, and the like, should be studied only in so far as they are aids to the other (sciences). Discussion of them should not be prolonged, and the problems should not be treated in detail, as this would lead away from their purpose, and their purpose is (to facilitate understanding of) the sciences to which they are auxiliary, nothing else."
فكلما خرجت عن ذلك خرجت عن المقصود وصار الاشتغال بها لغوا مع ما فيه من صعوبة الحصول على ملكتها بطولها وكثرة فروعها.,"Whenever the (auxiliary sciences) cease to be (auxiliary to other sciences), they abandon their purpose, and occupation with them becomes an idle pastime. Moreover, it is (also) difficult to acquire the habit of them, because they are large subjects with many details."
وربما يكون ذلك عائقا عن تحصيل العلوم المقصودة بالذات لطول وسائلها مع أن شأنها أهم والعمر يقصر عن تحصيل الجميع على هذه الصورة فيكون الاشتغال بهذه العلوم الآلية تضييعا للعمر وشغلا بما لا يغني.,"Their (difficulty) is often an obstacle to acquiring the sciences wanted per se, because it takes so long to get to them. However, they are more important, and life is too short to acquire a knowledge of everything in this (thorough) form. Thus, occupation with the auxiliary sciences constitutes a waste of one’s life, occupation with something that is of no concern."
وهذا كما فعل المتأخرون في صناعة النحو وصناعة المنطق وأصول الفقه لأنهم أوسعوا دائرة الكلام فيها وأكثروا من التفاريع والاستدلالات بما أخرجها عن كونها آلة وصيرها من المقاصد,"Recent scholars have done this with grammar and logic and even with the principles of jurisprudence. They have prolonged the discussion of these disciplines both by transmitting (more material) and (by adding to the material) through deductive reasoning. They have increased the number of details and problems, causing them to be no longer auxiliary sciences, but disciplines that are wanted per se."
وربما يقع فيها لذلك أنظار ومسائل لا حاجة بها في العلوم المقصودة فهي من نوع اللغو وهي أيضا مضرة بالمتعلمين على الإطلاق لأن المتعلمين اهتمامهم بالعلوم المقصودة أكثر من اهتمامهم بوسائلها فإذا قطعوا العمر في تحصيل الوسائل فمتى يظفرون بالمقاصد؟,"In consequence, (the auxiliary sciences) often deal with views and problems for which there is no need in the disciplines that are wanted per se (and are the sole raison d’etre of the auxiliary sciences). Thus, they are a sort of idle pastime and also do outright harm to students, because the sciences that are wanted (per se) are more important for them than the auxiliary and instrumental sciences. (Now,) if they spend all their lives on the auxiliary (sciences), when will they get around to (the sciences) that are wanted (per se)?"
فلهذا يجب على المعلمين لهذه العلوم الآلية أن لا يستبحروا في شأنها ولا يستكثروا من مسائلها وينبهوا المتعلم على الغرض منها ويقفوا به عنده.,"Therefore, teachers of the auxiliary sciences ought not to delve too deeply in them and increase the number of their problems. They must advise the student concerning their purpose and have him stop there."
فمن نزعت به همته بعد ذلك إلى شيء من التوغل ورأى من نفسه قياما بذلك وكفاية به فليرق له ما شاء من المراقي صعبا أو سهلا وكل ميسر لما خلق له.,"Those who have the mind to go more deeply (into them) and consider themselves capable and able to do so, may choose (such a course) for themselves. Everyone is successful at the things for which he was created."
الفصل التاسع والثلاثون في تعليم الولدان واختلاف مذاهب الأمصار الإسلامية في طرقه,38. The instruction of children and the different methods employed in the Muslim cities.
اعلم أن تعليم الولدان للقرآن شعار الدين أخذ به أهل الملة ودرجوا عليه في جميع أمصارهم لما يسبق فيه إلى القلوب من رسوخ الإيمان وعقائده من آيات القرآن وبعض متون الأحاديث.,"It should be known that instructing children in the Qur’an is a symbol of Islam. Muslims have, and practice, such instruction in all their cities, because it imbues hearts with a firm belief (in Islam) and its articles of faith, which are (derived) from the verses of the Qur’an and certain Prophetic traditions."
وصار القرآن أصل التعليم الذي يبنى عليه ما يحصل بعد من الملكات. وسبب ذلك أن التعليم في الصغر أشد رسوخا وهو أصل لما بعده لأن السابق الأول للقلوب كالأساس للملكات. وعلى حسب الأساس وأساليبه يكون حال من يبنى عليه.,"The Qur’an has become the basis of instruction, the foundation for all habits that may be acquired later on. The reason for this is that the things one is taught in one’s youth take root more deeply (than anything else). They are the basis of all later (knowledge). The first impression the heart receives is, in a way, the foundation of (all scholarly) habits. The character of the foundation determines the condition of the building."
واختلفت طرقهم في تعليم القرآن للولدان باختلافهم باعتبار ما ينشأ عن ذلك التعليم من الملكات. فأما أهل المغرب فمذهبهم في الولدان الاقتصار على تعليم القرآن فقط، وأخذهم أثناء المدارسة بالرسم ومسائله واختلاف حملة القرآن فيه,"The methods of instructing children in the Qur’an differ according to differences of opinion as to the habits that are to result from that instruction. The Maghribi method is to restrict the education of children to instruction in the Qur’an and to practice, during the course (of instruction), in Qur’an orthography and its problems and the differences among Qur’an experts on this score."
لا يخلطون ذلك بسواه في شيء من مجالس تعليمهم لا من حديث ولا من فقه ولا من شعر ولا من كلام العرب إلى أن يحذق فيه أو ينقطع دونه فيكون انقطاعه في الغالب انقطاعا عن العلم بالجملة.,"The (Maghribis) do not bring up any other subjects in their classes, such as traditions, jurisprudence, poetry, or Arabic philology, until the pupil is skilled in (the Qur’an), or drops out before becoming skilled in it. In the latter case, it means, as a rule, that he will not learn anything."
وهذا مذهب أهل الأمصار بالمغرب ومن تبعهم من قرى البربر، أمم المغرب في ولدانهم إلى أن يجاوزوا حد البلوغ إلى الشبيبة. وكذا في الكبير إذا رجع مدارسة القرآن بعد طائفة من عمره. فهم لذلك أقوم على رسم القرآن وحفظه من سواهم.,"This is the method the urban population in the Maghrib and the native Berber Qur’an teachers who follow their (urban compatriots), use in educating their children up to the age of manhood. They use it also with old people who study the Qur’an after part of their life has passed. Consequently, (Maghribis) know the orthography of the Qur’an, and know it by heart, better than any other (Muslim group)."
وأما أهل الأندلس فمذهبهم تعليم القرآن والكتاب من حيث هو، وهذا هو الذي يراعونه في التعليم. إلا أنه لما كان القرآن أصل ذلك وأسه ومنبع الدين والعلوم جعلوه أصلا في التعليم.,"The Spanish method is instruction in reading and writing as such. That is what they pay attention to in the instruction (of children). However, since the Qur’an is the basis and foundation of (all) that and the source of Islam and (all) the sciences, they make it the basis of instruction, but they do not restrict their instruction of children exclusively to (the Qur’an)."
"فلا يقتصرون لذلك عليه فقط بل يخلطون في تعليمهم للولدان رواية الشعر في الغالب والترسل وأخذهم بقوانين
العربية وحفظها وتجويد الخط والكتاب. ولا تختص عنايتهم في التعليم بالقرآن دون هذه، بل عنايتهم فيه بالخط أكثر من جميعها إلى أن يخرج الولد من عمر البلوغ إلى الشبيبة","They also bring in (other subjects), mainly poetry and composition, and they give the children an expert knowledge of Arabic and teach them a good handwriting. They do not stress teaching of the Qur’an more than the other subjects. In fact, they are more concerned with teaching handwriting than any other subject, until the child reaches manhood."
وقد شدا بعض الشيء في العربية والشعر والبصر بهما وبرز في الخط والكتاب وتعلق بأذيال العلم على الجملة لو كان فيها سند لتعليم العلوم. لكنهم ينقطعون عن ذلك لانقطاع سند التعليم في آفاقهم ولا يحصل بأيديهم إلا ما حصل من ذلك التعليم الأول.,"He then has some experience and knowledge of the Arabic language and poetry. He has an excellent knowledge of handwriting, and he would have a thorough acquaintance with scholarship in general, if the tradition of scholarly instruction (still) existed in (Spain), but he does not, because the tradition no longer exists there. Thus, (presentday Spanish children) obtain no further (knowledge) than what their primary instruction provides."
وفيه كفاية لمن أرشده الله تعالى واستعداد إذا وجد المعلم. وأما أهل إفريقية فيخلطون في تعليمهم للولدان القرآن بالحديث في الغالب ومدارسة قوانين العلوم وتلقين بعض مسائلها,"It is enough for those whom God guides. It prepares (them for further studies), in the event that a teacher (of them) can be found. The people of Ifriqiyah combine the instruction of children in the Qur’an, usually, with the teaching of traditions. They also teach basic scientific norms and certain scientific problems."
إلا أن عنايتهم بالقرآن واستنظار الولدان إياه ووقوفهم على اختلاف رواياته وقراءاته أكثر مما سواه وعنايتهم بالخط تبع لذلك.,"However, they stress giving their children a good knowledge of the Qur’an and acquainting them with its various recensions and readings more than anything else. Next they stress handwriting."
وبالجملة فطريقهم في تعليم القرآن أقرب إلى طريقة أهل الأندلس لأن سند طريقتهم في ذلك متصل بمشيخة الأندلس الذين أجازوا عند تغلب النصارى على شرق الأندلس، واستقروا بتونس وعنهم أخذ ولدانهم بعد ذلك.,"In general, their method of instruction in the Qur’an is closer to the Spanish method (than to Maghribi or Eastern methods), because their (educational tradition) derives from the Spanish shaykhs who crossed over when the Christians conquered Spain, and asked for hospitality in Tunis. From that time on, they were the teachers of (Tunisian) children."
وأما أهل المشرق فيخلطون في التعليم كذلك على ما يبلغنا ولا أدري بم عنايتهم منها.,"The people of the East, as far as we know, likewise have a mixed curriculum. I do not know what (subjects) they stress (primarily)."
والذي ينقل لنا أن عنايتهم بدراسة القرآن وصحف العلم وقوانينه في زمن الشبيبة ولا يخلطون بتعليم الخط بل لتعليم الخط عندهم قانون ومعلمون له على انفراده كما تتعلم سائر الصنائع ولا يتداولونها في مكاتب الصبيان.,"We have been told that they are concerned with teaching the Qur’an and the works and basic norms of (religious) scholarship once (the children) are grown up. They do not combine (instruction in the Qur’an) with instruction in handwriting. They have (special) rule(s) for teaching it, and there are special teachers for it, just like any other craft which is taught (separately) and not included in the school curriculum for children."
وإذا كتبوا لهم الألواح فبخط قاصر عن الإجادة ومن أراد تعلم الخط فعلى قدر ما يسنح له بعد ذلك من الهمة في طلبه ويبتغيه من أهل صنعته.,"The children’s slates (on which they practice) exhibit an inferior form of handwriting. Those who want to learn a (good) handwriting may do so later on (in their lives) from professional (calligraphers), to the extent of their interest in it and desire."
فأما أهل إفريقية والمغرب فأفادهم الاقتصار على القرآن القصور عن ملكة اللسان جملة وذلك أن القرآن لا ينشأ عنه في الغالب ملكة لما أن البشر مصروفون عن الإتيان بمثله فهم مصروفون لذلك عن الاستعمال على أساليبه والاحتذاء بها.,"The fact that the people of Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib restrict themselves to the Qur’an makes them altogether incapable of mastering the linguistic habit. For as a rule, no (scholarly) habit can originate from the (study of the) Qur’an, because no human being can produce anything like it. Thus, human beings are unable to employ or imitate its ways (uslub), and they also can form no habit in any other respect."
وليس لهم ملكة في غير أساليبه فلا يحصل لصاحبه ملكة في اللسان العربي وحظه الجمود في العبارات وقلة التصرف في الكلام.,"Consequently, a person who knows (the Qur’an) does not acquire the habit of the Arabic language. It will be his lot to be awkward in expression and to have little fluency in speaking."
وربما كان أهل إفريقية في ذلك أخف من أهل المغرب لما يخلطون في تعليمهم القرآن بعبارات العلوم في قوانينها كما قلناه فيقتدرون على شيء من التصرف ومحاذاة المثل بالمثل,"This situation is not quite so pronounced among the people of Ifriqiyah as among the Maghribis, because, as we have stated, the former combine instruction in the Qur’an with instruction in the terminology of Scientific terms. Thus, they get some practice and have some examples to imitate."
إلا أن ملكتهم في ذلك قاصرة عن البلاغة كما سيأتي في فصله.,"However, their habit in this respect does not amount to a good style (eloquence), because their knowledge mostly consists of scholarly terminology which falls short of good style, as will be mentioned in the proper section."
وأما أهل الأندلس فأفادهم التفنن في التعليم وكثرة رواية الشعر والترسل ومدارسة العربية من أول العمر، حصول ملكة صاروا بها أعرف في اللسان العربي.,"As for the Spaniards, their varied curriculum with its great amount of instruction in poetry, composition, and Arabic philology gave them, from their early years on, a habit providing for a better acquaintance with the Arabic language."
وقصروا في سائر العلوم لبعدهم عن مدارسة القرآن والحديث الذي هو أصل العلوم وأساسها. فكانوا لذلك أهل حظ وأدب بارع أو مقصر، على حسب ما يكون التعليم الثاني من بعد تعليم الصبي .,"They were less proficient in all the other (religious) sciences, because they were little familiar with study of the Qur’an and the traditions that are the basis and foundation of the (religious) sciences. Thus, they were people who knew how to write and who had a literary education that was either excellent or deficient, depending on the secondary education they received after their childhood education."
ولقد ذهب القاضي أبو بكر بن العربي في كتاب رحلته إلى طريقة غريبة في وجه التعليم وأعاد في ذلك وأبدأ,"In his Rihlah, Judge Abu Bakr b. al-‘Arabi made a remarkable statement about instruction, which retains (the best of) the old, and presents (some good) new features."
وقدم تعليم العربية والشعر على سائر العلوم كما هو مذهب أهل الأندلس. قال: «لأن الشعر ديوان العرب ويدعو على تقديمه وتعليم العربية في التعليم ضرورة فساد اللغة,"He placed instruction in Arabic and poetry ahead of all the other sciences, as in the Spanish method, since, he said, “poetry is the archive of the Arabs. Poetry and Arabic philology should be taught first because of the (existing) corruption of the language."
ثم ينتقل منه إلى الحساب فيتمرن فيه حتى يرى القوانين ثم ينتقل إلى درس القرآن فإنه يتيسر عليك بهذه المقدمة».,"From there, the (student) should go on to arithmetic and study it assiduously, until he knows its basic norms. He should then go on to the study of the Qur’an, because with his (previous) preparation, it will be easy for him.”"
ثم قال: «ويا غفلة أهل بلادنا في أن يؤخذ الصبي بكتاب الله في أوامره يقرأ ما لا يفهم وينصب في أمر غيره أهم ما عليه منه».,(Ibn al-‘Arabi) continued: “How thoughtless are our compatriots in that they teach children the Qur’an when they are first starting out. They read things they do not understand and work hard at something that is not as important for them as other matters.”
ثم قال: «ينظر في أصول الدين ثم أصول الفقه ثم الجدل ثم الحديث وعلومه» ونهى مع ذلك أن يخلط في التعليم علمان إلا أن يكون المتعلم قابلا لذلك بجودة الفهم والنشاط.,"He concluded: “The student should study successively the principles of Islam, the principles of jurisprudence, disputation, and then the Prophetic traditions and the sciences connected with them.” He also forbade teaching two disciplines at the same time, save to the student with a good mind and sufficient energy."
هذا ما أشار إليه القاضي أبو بكر رحمه الله وهو لعمري مذهب حسن إلا أن العوائد لا تساعد عليه وهي أملك بالأحوال,"This is Judge Abu Bakr’s advice. It is a good method indeed. However, accepted custom is not favorable to it, and custom has greater power over conditions (than anything else)."
ووجه ما اختصت به العوائد من تقدم دراسة القرآن إيثارا للتبرك والثواب، وخشية ما يعرض للولد في جنون الصبي من  عن العلم فيفوته القرآن، لأنه ما دام في الحجر منقاد للحكم.,"Accepted custom gives preference to the teaching of the Qur’an. The reason is the desire for the blessing and reward (in the other world resulting from knowledge of the Qur’an) and a fear of the things that might affect children in “the folly of youth” and harm them and keep them from acquiring knowledge. They might miss the chance to learn the Qur’an. As long as they remain at home, they are amenable to authority."
فإذا تجاوز البلوغ وانحل من ربقة القهر فربما عصفت به رياح الشبيبة فألقته بساحل البطالة فيغتنمون في زمان الحجر وربقة الحكم تحصيل القرآن لئلا يذهب خلوا منه.,"When they have grown up and shaken off the yoke of authority, the tempests of young manhood often cast them upon the shores of wrongdoing. Therefore, while the children are still at home and under the yoke of authority, one seizes the opportunity to teach them the Qur’an, so that they will not remain without knowledge of it."
ولو حصل اليقين باستمراره في طلب العلم وقبوله التعليم لكان هذا المذهب الذي ذكره القاضي أولى ما أخذ به أهل المغرب والمشرق.,"If one could be certain that a child would continue to study and accept instruction (when he has grown up), the method mentioned by the Judge would be the most suitable one ever devised in East or West."
ولكن الله يحكم ما يشاء لا معقب لحكمه.,"“God decides, and no one can change His decision.”"
الفصل الأربعون في أن الشدة على المتعلمين مضرة بهم,39. Severity to students does them harm.
وذلك أن إرهاف الحد بالتعليم مضر بالمتعلم سيما في أصاغر الولد لأنه من سوء الملكة.,"This comes about as follows. Severe punishment in the course of instruction does harm to the student, especially to little children, because it belongs among (the things that make for a) bad habit."
ومن كان مرباه بالعسف والقهر من المتعلمين أو المماليك أو الخدم سطا به القهر وضيق عن النفس في انبساطها وذهب بنشاطها ودعاه إلى الكسل وحمل على الكذب والخبث وهو التظاهر بغير ما في ضميره خوفا من انبساط الأيدي بالقهر عليه,"Students, slaves, and servants who are brought up with injustice and (tyrannical) force are overcome by it. It makes them feel oppressed and causes them to lose their energy. It makes them lazy and induces them to lie and be insincere. That is, their outward behavior differs from what they are thinking, because they are afraid that they will have to suffer tyrannical treatment (if they tell the truth)."
وعلمه المكر والخديعة لذلك وصارت له هذه عادة وخلقا وفسدت معاني الإنسانية التي له من حيث الاجتماع والتمرن وهي الحمية والمدافعة عن نفسه ومنزله. وصار عيالا على غيره في ذلك,"Thus, they are taught deceit and trickery. This becomes their custom and character. They lose the quality that goes with social and political organization and makes people human, namely, (the desire to) protect and defend themselves and their homes, and they become dependent on others."
بل وكسلت النفس عن اكتساب الفضائل والخلق الجميل فانقبضت عن غايتها ومدى إنسانيتها فارتكس وعاد في أسفل السافلين.,"Indeed, their souls become too indolent to (attempt to) acquire the virtues and good character qualities. Thus, they fall short of their potentialities and do not reach the limit of their humanity. As a result, they revert to the stage of “the lowest of the low.”"
وهكذا وقع لكل أمة حصلت في قبضة القهر ونال منها العسف واعتبره في كل من يملك أمره عليه. ولا تكون الملكة الكافلة له رفيقة به.,That is what happened to every nation that fell under the yoke of tyranny and learned through it the meaning of injustice. One may check this by (observing) any person who is not in control of his own affairs and has no authority on his side to guarantee his (safety).
وتجد ذلك فيهم استقراء وأنظره في اليهود وما حصل بذلك فيهم من خلق السوء حتى إنهم يوصفون في كل أفق. وعصر بالحرج ومعناه في الاصطلاح المشهور التخابث والكيد وسببه ما قلناه,"One will thus be able to infer (from the observable facts) that things are (as I have stated). One may look at the Jews and the bad character they have acquired, such that they are described in every region and period as having the quality of khurj, which, according to well-known technical terminology, means “insincerity and trickery.” The reason is what we have (just) said."
فينبغي للمعلم في متعلمه والوالد في ولده أن لا يستبدا عليهما في التأديب.,"Thus, a teacher must not be too severe toward his pupil, nor a father toward his son, in educating them."
وقد قال محمد بن أبي زيد في كتابه الذي ألفه في حكم المعلمين والمتعلمين: «لا ينبغي لمؤدب الصبيان أن يزيد في ضربهم إذا احتاجوا إليه على ثلاثة أسواط شيئا».,"In the book that Abu Muhammad b. Abi Zayd wrote on the laws governing teachers and pupils, he said: “If children must be beaten, their educator must not strike them more than three times.”"
ومن كلام عمر رضي الله عنه: «من لم يؤدبه الشرع لا أدبه الله». حرصا على صون النفوس عن مذلة التأديب وعلما بأن المقدار الذي عينه الشرع لذلك أملك له فإنه أعلم بمصلحته.,"‘Umar said: “Those who are not educated (disciplined) by the religious law are not educated (disciplined) by God.” He spoke out of a desire to preserve the souls from the humiliation of disciplinary punishment and in the knowledge that the amount (of disciplinary punishment) that the religious law has stipulated is fully adequate to keep (a person) under control, because the (religious law) knows best what is good for him."
ومن أحسن مذاهب التعليم ما تقدم به الرشيد لمعلم ولده. قال خلف الأحمر: بعث إلي الرشيد في تأديب ولده محمد الأمين فقال:,"One of the best methods of education was suggested by ar-Rashid to Khalaf b. Ahmar, the teacher of his son Muhammad al-Amin. Khalaf b. Ahmar said: “Ar-Rashid told me to come and educate his son Muhammad al-Amin, and he said to me:"
«يا أحمر إن أمير المؤمنين قد دفع إليك مهجة نفسه وثمرة قلبه فصير يدك عليه مبسوطة وطاعته لك واجبة وكن له بحيث وضعك أمير المؤمنين أقرئه القرآن وعرفه الأخبار وروه الأشعار وعلمه السنن وبصره بمواقع الكلام وبدئه وامنعه من الضحك إلا في أوقاته,"‘O Ahmar, the Commander of the Faithful is entrusting (his son) to you, the life of his soul and the fruit of his heart. Take firm hold of him and make him obey you. Occupy in relation to him the place that the Commander of the Faithful has given you. Teach him to read the Qur’an. Instruct him in history. Let him transmit poems and teach him the Sunnah of the Prophet. Give him insight into the proper occasions for speech and how to begin a (speech). Forbid him to laugh, save at times when it is proper."
وخذه بتعظيم مشايخ بني هاشم إذا دخلوا عليه ورفع مجالس القواد إذا حضروا مجلسه. ولا تمرن بك ساعة إلا وأنت مغتنم فائدة تفيده إياها من غير أن تحزنه فتميت ذهنه.,"Accustom him to honor the Hashimite dignitaries when they come to him, and to give the military leaders places of honor when they come to his salon. Let no hour pass in which you not seize the opportunity to teach him something useful. But do so without vexing him, which would kill his mind."
ولا تمعن في مسامحته فيستجلي الفراغ ويألفه. وقومه ما استطعت بالقرب والملاينة فإن أباهما فعليك بالشدة والغلظة».,"Do not always be too lenient with him, or he will get to like leisure and become used to it. As much as possible, correct him kindly and gently. If he does not want it that way, you must then use severity and harshness.’ “"
الفصل الحادي والأربعون في أن الرحلة في طلب العلوم ولقاء المشيخة مزيد كمال في التعلم,40. A scholar’s education is greatly improved by traveling in quest of knowledge and meeting the authoritative teachers (of his time).
والسبب في ذلك أن البشر يأخذون معارفهم وأخلاقهم وما ينتحلون به من المذاهب والفضائل: تارة علما وتعليما وإلقاء وتارة محاكاة وتلقينا بالمباشرة.,"The reason for this is that human beings obtain their knowledge and character qualities and all their opinions and virtues either through study, instruction, and lectures, or through imitation of a teacher and personal contact with him."
إلا أن حصول الملكات عن المباشرة والتلقين أشد استحكاما وأقوى رسوخا. فعلى قدر كثرة الشيوخ يكون حصول الملكات ورسوخها.,"The only difference here is that habits acquired through personal contact with a teacher are more strongly and firmly rooted. Thus, the greater the number of authoritative teachers (shaykhs), the more deeply rooted is the habit one acquires."
والاصطلاحات أيضا في تعليم العلوم مخلطة على المتعلم حتى لقد يظن كثير منهم أنها جزء من العلم. ولا يدفع عنه ذلك إلا مباشرته لاختلاف الطرق فيها من المعلمين.,"Furthermore, the technical terminologies used in scientific instruction are confusing to the student. Many students even suppose them to be part of a given science. The only way to deliver them from that (wrong notion) is by personal contact with teachers, for different teachers employ different terminologies."
فلقاء أهل العلوم وتعدد المشايخ يفيده تمييز الاصطلاحات بما يراه من اختلاف طرقهم فيها فيجرد العلم عنها ويعلم أنها أنحاء تعليم وطرق توصل,"Thus, meeting scholars and having many authoritative teachers (shaykhs) enables the student to notice the difference in the terminologies used by different teachers and to distinguish among them. He will thus be able to recognize the science itself behind the (technical terminology it uses). He will realize that (terminologies) are (merely) means and methods for imparting (knowledge)."
وتنهض قواه إلى الرسوخ والاستحكام في المكان وتصحح معارفه وتميزها عن سواها مع تقوية ملكته بالمباشرة والتلقين وكثرتهما من المشيخة عند تعددهم وتنوعهم.,"His powers will work toward acquiring strongly and firmly rooted habits. He will improve the knowledge he has and be able to distinguish it from other (knowledge). In addition, his habits will be strengthened through his intensive personal contact with teachers, when they are many and of various types."
وهذا لمن يسر الله عليه طرق العلم والهداية. فالرحلة لا بد منها في طلب العلم لاكتساب الفوائد والكمال بلقاء المشايخ ومباشرة الرجال.,"This is for those for whom God facilitated the ways of scholarship and right guidance. Thus, traveling in quest of knowledge is absolutely necessary for the acquisition of useful knowledge and perfection through meeting authoritative teachers (shaykhs) and having contact with (scholarly) personalities."
والله يهدي من يشاء إلى صراط مستقيم 2: 213.,God “guides whomever He wants to guide to a straight path.”
الفصل الثاني والأربعون في أن العلماء من بين البشر أبعد عن السياسة ومذاهبها,"41. Scholars are, of all people, those least familiar with the ways of politics."
والسبب في ذلك أنهم معتادون النظر الفكري والغوص على المعاني وانتزاعها من المحسوسات وتجريدها في الذهن، أمورا كلية عامة ليحكم عليها بأمر العموم لا بخصوص مادة ولا شخص ولا جيل ولا أمة ولا صنف من الناس.,"The reason for this is that (scholars) are used to mental speculation and to a searching study of ideas which they abstract from the sensibilia and conceive in their minds as general universals, so that they may be applicable to some matter in general but not to any particular matter, individual, race, nation, or group of people."
ويطبقون من بعد ذلك الكلي على الخارجيات. وأيضا يقيسون الأمور على أشباهها وأمثالها بما اعتادوه من القياس الفقهي.,"(Scholars,) then, make such universal ideas conform (in their minds) to facts of the outside world. They also compare things with others that are similar to or like them, with the help of analogical reasoning as used in jurisprudence, which is something familiar to them."
فلا تزال أحكامهم وأنظارهم كلها في الذهن ولا تصير إلى المطابقة إلا بعد الفراغ من البحث والنظر. ولا تصير بالجملة إلى المطابقة وإنما يتفرع ما في الخارج عما في الذهن من ذلك,"All their conclusions and views continue to be something in the mind. They come to conform (to the facts of the outside world) only after research and speculation has come to an end, or they may never come to conform (to them). The facts of the outside world are merely special cases of the (ideas) that are in the mind."
كالأحكام الشرعية فإنها فروع عما في المحفوظ من أدلة الكتاب والسنة فتطلب مطابقة ما في الخارج لها عكس الأنظار في العلوم العقلية التي تطلب في صحتها مطابقتها لما في الخارج.,"For instance, the religious laws are special cases derived from the well-known (texts) of the Qur’an and the Sunnah. In their case, one expects the facts of the outside world to conform to them, in contrast with the intellectual sciences, where, in order to (prove) the soundness of views, one expects those views to conform to the facts of the outside world."
فهم متعودون في سائر أنظارهم الأمور الذهنية والأنظار الفكرية لا يعرفون سواها.,"Thus, in all their intellectual activity, scholars are accustomed to dealing with matters of the mind and with thoughts. They do not know anything else."
والسياسة يحتاج صاحبها إلى مراعاة ما في الخارج وما يلحقها من الأحوال ويتبعها فإنها خفية. ولعل أن يكون فيها ما يمنع من إلحاقها بشبه أو مثال وينافي الكلي الذي يحاول تطبيقه عليها.,"Politicians, on the other hand, must pay attention to the facts of the outside world and the conditions attaching to and depending on (politics). (These facts and conditions) are obscure. They may contain some (element) making it impossible to refer them to something like and similar, or contradicting the universal (idea) to which one would like them to conform."
ولا يقاس شيء من أحوال العمران على الآخر كما اشتبها في أمر واحد فلعلهما اختلفا في أمور فتكون العلماء لأجل ما تعودوه من تعميم الأحكام وقياس الأمور بعضها على بعض إذا نظروا في السياسة افرغوا ذلك في قالب أنظارهم ونوع استدلالاتهم,"The conditions existing in civilization cannot (always) be compared with each other. They may be alike in one respect, but they may differ in other respects. (Now,) scholars are accustomed to generalizations and analogical conclusions. When they look at politics, they press (their observations) into the mold of their views and their way of making deductions."
فيقعون في الغلط كثيرا ولا يؤمن عليهم. ويلحق بهم أهل الذكاء والكيس من أهل العمران لأنهم ينزعون بثقوب أذهانهم إلى مثل شأن الفقهاء من الغوص على المعاني والقياس والمحاكاة فيقعون في الغلط.,"Thus, they commit many errors, or (at least) they cannot be trusted (not to commit errors). The intelligent and alert (segment) of civilized people falls into the same category as (scholars). Their penetrating minds drive them toward a searching occupation with ideas, analogy, and comparison, as is the case with jurists. Thus, they (too) commit errors."
والعامي السليم الطبع المتوسط الكيس لقصور فكره عن ذلك وعدم اعتياده إياه يقتصر لكل مادة على حكمها وفي كل صنف من الأحوال والأشخاص على ما اختص به,"The average person of a healthy disposition and a mediocre intelligence has not got the mind for (such speculation) and does not think of it. Therefore, he restricts himself to considering every matter as it is, and to judging every kind of situation and every type of individual by its particular (circumstances)."
"ولا يعدي الحكم بقياس ولا تعميم ولا يفارق في أكثر نظره المواد المحسوسة ولا يجاوزها في ذهنه كالسابح لا يفارق البر عند الموج. قال الشاعر:
فلا توغلن إذا ما سبحت *** فإن السلامة في الساحل","His judgment is not infected with analogy and generalization. Most of his speculation stops at matters perceivable by the senses, and he does not go beyond them in his mind, like a swimmer who stays in the water near the shore, as the poet says: Do not go out too deep when swimming. Safety lies near the shore."
فيكون مأمونا من النظر في سياسته مستقيم النظر في معاملة أبناء جنسه فيحسن معاشه وتندفع آفاته ومضاره باستقامة نظره.,"Such a man, therefore, can be trusted when he reflects upon his political activities. He has the right outlook in dealing with his fellow men. Thus, he makes a good living and suffers no damage or harm in the (process of making a living), because he has the right outlook."
وفوق كل ذي علم عليم.,“And He knows more than any scholar.”
ومن هنا يتبين أن صناعة المنطق غير مأمونة الغلط لكثرة ما فيها من الانتزاع وبعدها عن المحسوس فإنها تنظر في المعقولات الثواني. ولعل المواد فيها ما يمانع تلك الأحكام وينافيها عند مراعاة التطبيق اليقيني.,"This (situation) makes one realize that logic cannot be trusted to prevent the commission of errors, because it is too abstract and remote from the sensibilia. (Logic) considers the secondary intelligibilia. It is possible that material things contain something that does not admit of (logical) conclusions and contradicts them, when one looks for unequivocal conformity (between them and the facts of the outside world)."
وأما النظر في المعقولات الأول وهي التي تجريدها قريب فليس كذلك لأنها خيالية وصور المحسوسات حافظة مؤذنة بتصديق انطباقه.,"It is different with speculation about the primary intelligibilia, which are less abstract. They are matters of the imagination and pictures of the sensibilia. They retain (certain features of the sensibilia) and permit verification of the conformity of (the sensibilia to the primary intelligibilia)."
الفصل الثالث والأربعون في أن حملة العلم في الإسلام أكثرهم العجم,42. Most of the scholars in Islam have been nonArabs (Persians).
من الغريب الواقع أن حملة العلم في الملة الإسلامية أكثرهم العجم لا من العلوم الشرعية ولا من العلوم العقلية إلا في القليل النادر.,"It is a remarkable fact that, with few exceptions, most Muslim scholars both in the religious and in the intellectual sciences have been non-Arabs."
وإن كان منهم العربي في نسبته فهو أعجمي في لغته ومرباه ومشيخته مع أن الملة عربية وصاحب شريعتها عربي.,"When a scholar is of Arab origin, he is non-Arab in language and upbringing and has nonArab teachers. This is so in spite of the fact that Islam is an Arabic religion, and its founder was an Arab."
والسبب في ذلك أن الملة في أولها لم يكن فيها علم ولا صناعة لمقتضى أحوال السذاجة والبداوة وإنما أحكام الشريعة التي هي أوامر الله ونواهيه كان الرجال ينقلونها في صدورهم وقد عرفوا مأخذها من الكتاب والسنة بما تلقوه من صاحب الشرع وأصحابه.,"The reason for it is that at the beginning Islam had no sciences or crafts. That was due to the simple conditions (that prevailed) and the desert attitude. The religious laws, which are the commands and prohibitions of God, were in the breasts of the authorities. They knew their sources, the Qur’an and the Sunnah, from information they had received directly from the Lawgiver (Muhammad) himself and from the men around him."
والقوم يومئذ عرب لم يعرفوا أمر التعليم والتأليف والتدوين ولا دفعوا إليه ولا دعتهم إليه حاجة. وجرى الأمر على ذلك زمن الصحابة والتابعين,The people at that time were Arabs. They did not know anything about scientific instruction or the writing of books and systematic works. There was no incentive or need for that. This was the situation during the time of the men around Muhammad and the men of the second generation.
وكانوا يسمون المختصين بحمل ذلك. ونقله إلى القراء أي الذين يقرءون الكتاب وليسوا أميين لأن الأمية يومئذ صفة عامة في الصحابة بما كانوا عربا فقيل لحملة القرآن يومئذ قراء إشارة إلى هذا.,"The persons who were concerned with knowing and transmitting the (religious laws) were called “Qur’an readers,” that is, people who were able to read the Qur’an and were not illiterate. Illiteracy was general at that time among the men around Muhammad, since they were (Arab) Bedouins. People who knew the Qur’an were at that time called “Qur’an readers” with reference to the fact (that they were literate)."
فهم قراء لكتاب الله والسنة المأثورة عن الله لأنهم لم يعرفوا الأحكام الشرعية إلا منه ومن الحديث الذي هو في غالب موارده تفسير له وشرح.,"They read the Qur’an and the Sunnah, which were transmitted from God, (in order to know the religious laws,) because the religious laws were known only from the (Qur’an) and from the traditions which are mostly explanations of and commentaries upon, the (Qur’an)."
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم: «تركت فيكم أمرين لن تضلوا ما تمسكتم بهما: كتاب الله وسنتي».,Muhammad said: “I left among you two things. You will not go astray as long as you hold on to them: the Qur’an and my Sunnah.”
فلما بعد النقل من لدن دولة الرشيد فما بعد احتيج إلى وضع التفاسير القرآنية وتقييد الحديث مخافة ضياعه ثم احتيج إلى معرفة الأسانيد وتعديل الناقلين للتمييز بين الصحيح من الأسانيد وما دونه,"By the time of the reign of ar-Rashid, (oral) tradition had become far removed (from its starting point). It was thus necessary to write commentaries on the Qur’an and to fix the traditions in writing, because it was feared that they might be lost. It was also necessary to know the chains of transmitters and to assess their reliability, in order to be able to distinguish sound chains of transmitters from inferior ones."
ثم كثر استخراج أحكام الواقعات من الكتاب والسنة وفسد مع ذلك اللسان فاحتيج إلى وضع القوانين النحوية وصارت العلوم الشرعية كلها ملكات في الاستنباطات والاستخراج والتنظير والقياس,"Then, more and more laws concerning actual cases were derived from the Qur’an and the Sunnah. Moreover, the (Arabic) language became corrupt, and it was necessary to lay down grammatical rules. All the religious sciences had (thus) become habits connected with producing and deriving (laws and norms) and with comparison and analogical reasoning."
واحتاجت إلى علوم أخرى وهي الوسائل لها من معرفة قوانين العربية وقوانين ذلك الاستنباط والقياس والذب عن العقائد الإيمانية بالأدلة لكثرة البدع والإلحاد فصارت هذه العلوم كلها علوما ذات ملكات محتاجة إلى التعليم فاندرجت في جملة الصنائع.,"Other, auxiliary sciences became necessary, such as knowledge of the rules of the Arabic language, (knowledge of) the rules that govern the derivation (of laws) and analogical reasoning, and defense of the articles of faith by means of arguments, because a great number of innovations and heresies (had come into existence). All these things developed into sciences with their own habits, requiring instruction (for their acquisition). Thus, they came to fall under the category of crafts."
وقد كنا قدمنا أن الصنائع من منتحل الحضر وأن العرب أبعد الناس عنها فصارت العلوم لذلك حضرية وبعد عنها العرب وعن سوقها.,"We have mentioned before that the crafts are cultivated by sedentary people and that of all peoples the Arab (Bedouins) are least familiar with the crafts. Thus, the sciences came to belong to sedentary culture, and the Arabs were not familiar with them or with their cultivation."
والحضر لذلك العهد هم العجم أو من هم في معناهم من الموالي وأهل الحواضر الذين هم يومئذ تبع للعجم في الحضارة وأحوالها من الصنائع والحرف لأنهم أقوم على ذلك للحضارة الراسخة فيهم منذ دولة الفرس,"Now, the (only) sedentary people at that time were non-Arabs and, what amounts to the same thing, the clients and sedentary people who followed the non-Arabs at that time in all matters of sedentary culture, including the crafts and professions. They were most versed in those things, because sedentary culture had been firmly rooted among them from the time of the Persian Empire."
فكان صاحب صناعة النحو سيبويه والفارسي من بعده والزجاج من بعدهما وكلهم عجم في أنسابهم. وإنما ربوا في اللسان العربي فاكتسبوه بالمربى ومخالطة العرب وصيروه قوانين وفنا لمن بعدهم.,"Thus, the founders of grammar were Sibawayh and, after him, al-Farisi and az-Zajjaj. All of them were of nonArab (Persian) descent. They were brought up in the Arabic language and acquired the knowledge of it through their upbringing and through contact with Arabs. They invented the rules of (grammar) and made (grammar) into a discipline (in its own right) for later (generations to use)."
وكذا حملة الحديث الذين حفظوه عن أهل الإسلام أكثرهم عجم أو مستعجمون باللغة والمربى لاتساع الفن بالعراق. وكان علماء أصول الفقه كلهم عجما كما يعرف وكذا حملة علم الكلام وكذا أكثر المفسرين.,"Most of the hadith scholars who preserved traditions for the Muslims also were non-Arabs (Persians), or Persian in language and upbringing, because the discipline was widely cultivated in the ‘Iraq and the regions beyond. (Furthermore,) all the scholars who worked in the science of the principles of jurisprudence were non-Arabs (Persians), as is well known. The same applies to speculative theologians and to most Qur’an commentators."
ولم يقم بحفظ العلم وتدوينه إلا الأعاجم. وظهر مصداق قوله صلى الله عليه وسلم: «لو تعلق العلم بأكناف السماء لناله قوم من أهل فارس».,"Only the non-Arabs (Persians) engaged in the task of preserving knowledge and writing systematic scholarly works. Thus, the truth of the following statement by the Prophet becomes apparent: “If scholarship hung suspended at the highest parts of heaven, the Persians would (reach it and) take it.”"
وأما العرب الذين أدركوا هذه الحضارة وسوقها وخرجوا إليها عن البداوة فشغلتهم الرئاسة في الدولة العباسية وما دفعوا إليه من القيام بالملك عن القيام بالعلم، والنظر فيه،,"The Arabs who came into contact with that flourishing sedentary culture and exchanged their Bedouin attitude for it, were diverted from occupying themselves with scholarship and study by their leading position in the ‘Abbasid dynasty and the tasks that confronted them in government."
فإنهم كانوا أهل الدولة وحاميتها وأولي سياستها مع ما يلحقهم من الأنفة عن انتحال العلم حينئذ بما صار من جملة الصنائع. والرؤساء أبدا يستنكفون عن الصنائع والمهن وما يجر إليها ودفعوا ذلك إلى من قام به من العجم والمولدين.,"They were the men of the dynasty, at once its protectors and the executors of its policy. In addition, at that time, they considered it a contemptible thing to be a scholar, because scholarship is a craft, and political leaders are always contemptuous of the crafts and professions and everything that leads to them. Thus, they left such things to non-Arabs and persons of mixed Arab and non-Arab parentage (muwallad)."
وما زالوا يرون لهم حق القيام به فإنه دينهم وعلومهم ولا يحتقرون حملتها كل الاحتقار.,"The latter cultivated them, and (the Arabs) always considered it their right to cultivate them, as they were their custom (din) and their sciences, and never felt complete contempt for the men learned in them."
حتى إذا خرج الأمر من العرب جملة وصار للعجم صارت العلوم الشرعية غريبة النسبة عند أهل الملك بما هم عليه من البعد عن نسبتها وأمتهن حملتها بما يرون أنهم بعداء عنهم مشتغلين بما لا يغني ولا يجدي عنهم في الملك والسياسة كما ذكرناه في نقل المراتب الدينية.,"The final result, (law ever,) was that when the Arabs lost power and the non-Arabs took over, the religious sciences had no place with the men in power, because the latter had no relations with (scholarship). Scholars were viewed with contempt, because the (men in power) saw that (scholars) had no contact with them and were occupying themselves with things that were of no interest to the (men in power) in governmental and political matters, as we mentioned in connection with the religious ranks."
فهذا الذي قررناه هو السبب في أن حملة الشريعة أو عامتهم من العجم.,"The fact established here is the reason why (all) scholars in the religious sciences, or most of them, are nonArabs."
وأما العلوم العقلية أيضا فلم تظهر في الملة إلا بعد أن تميز حملة العلم ومؤلفوه. واستقر العلم كله صناعة فاختصت بالعجم وتركتها العرب وانصرفوا عن انتحالها فلم يحملها إلا المعربون من العجم شأن الصنائع كما قلناه أولا.,"The intellectual sciences, as well, made their appearance in Islam only after scholars and authors had become a distinct group of people and all scholarship had become a craft. (The intellectual sciences) were then the special preserve of nonArabs, left alone by the Arabs, who did not cultivate them. They were cultivated only by Arabicized non-Arabs (Persians) as was the case with all the crafts, as we stated at the beginning."
فلم يزل ذلك في الأمصار الإسلامية ما دامت الحضارة في العجم وبلادهم من العراق وخراسان وما وراء النهر.,"This situation continued in the cities as long as the Persians and the Persian countries, the ‘Iraq, Khurasan, and Transoxania, retained their sedentary culture."
فلما خربت تلك الأمصار وذهبت منها الحضارة التي هي سر الله في حصول العلم والصنائع ذهب العلم من العجم جملة لما شملهم من البداوة واختص العلم بالأمصار الموفورة الحضارة.,"But when those cities fell into ruins, sedentary culture, which God has devised for the attainment of sciences and crafts, disappeared from them. Along with it, scholarship altogether disappeared from among the non-Arabs (Persians), who were (now) engulfed by the desert attitude. Scholarship was restricted to cities with an abundant sedentary culture."
ولا أوفر اليوم في الحضارة من مصر فهي أم العالم وإيوان الإسلام وينبوع العلم والصنائع. وبقي بعض الحضارة في ما وراء النهر لما هناك من الحضارة بالدولة التي فيها فلهم بذلك حصة من العلوم والصنائع لا تنكر.,"Today, no (city) has a more abundant sedentary culture than Cairo (Egypt). It is the mother of the world, the great center (Iwan) of Islam, and the mainspring of the sciences and the crafts. Some sedentary culture has also survived in Transoxania, because the dynasty there provides some sedentary culture. Therefore, they have there a certain number of the sciences and the crafts, which cannot be denied."
وقد دلنا على ذلك كلام بعض علمائهم من تآليف وصلت إلينا إلى هذه البلاد وهو سعد الدين التفتازاني. وأما غيره من العجم فلم نر لهم من بعد الإمام ابن الخطيب ونصير الدين الطوسي كلاما يعول على نهايته في الإصابة.,"Our attention was called to this fact by the contents of the writings of a (Transoxanian) scholar, which have reached us in this country. He is Sa’d-ad-din at-Taftazani. As far as the other non-Arabs (Persians) are concerned, we have not seen, since the imam Ibn al-Khatib and Nasir-ad-din at-Tusi, any discussions that could be referred to as indicating their ultimate excellence."
فاعتبر ذلك وتأمله تر عجبا في أحوال الخليقة.,"When one considers and ponders this fact, one will observe (in it) one of the wondrous circumstances of this world."
والله يخلق ما يشاء لا شريك له,“God creates whatever He wishes.” “There is no God but Him.”
الفصل الرابع والأربعون في أن العجمة إذا سبقت إلى اللسان قصرت بصاحبها في تحصيل العلوم عن أهل اللسان العربي,43. A person whose first language was not Arabic finds it harder than the (native) speaker of Arabic to acquire the sciences.
والسر في ذلك أن مباحث العلوم كلها إنما هي في المعاني الذهنية والخيالية، من بين العلوم الشرعية، التي هي أكثر مباحثها في الألفاظ وموادها من الأحكام المتلقاة من الكتاب والسنة ولغاتها المؤدية لها، وهي كلها في الخيال، وبين العلوم العقلية، وهي في الذهن.,"This is explained by the fact that all scientific research deals with ideas of the mind and the imagination. This applies to the religious sciences in which research is mostly concerned with words and the substance of which is the laws derived from the Qur’an, the Sunnah, and the language used in (both the Qur’an and the Sunnah) that leads to (the formulation of) these (laws). These are all matters of the imagination. The same fact also applies to the intellectual sciences, which are matters of the mind."
واللغات إنما هي ترجمان عما في الضمائر من تلك المعاني، يؤديها بعض إلى بعض بالمشافهة في المناظرة والتعليم، وممارسة البحث بالعلوم لتحصيل ملكتها بطول المران على ذلك.,"Linguistic expression is merely the interpreter of ideas that are in the mind. One (person) conveys them to another in oral discussion, instruction, and constant scientific research. His purpose is to obtain the (various) habits of (all these things) through constant application."
والألفاظ واللغات وسائط وحجب بين الضمائر، وروابط وختام عن المعاني. ولا بد في اقتناص تلك المعاني من ألفاظها لمعرفة دلالاتها اللغوية عليها، وجودة الملكة لناظر فيها، وإلا فيعتاض عليه اقتناصها زيادة على ما يكون في مباحثها الذهنية من الاعتياص.,"Words and expressions are media and veils between the ideas. They constitute the bonds between them and give them their final imprint. The student of ideas must extract them from the words that express them. For this he needs a knowledge of their linguistic meaning and a good (linguistic) habit. Otherwise, it is difficult for him to get (the ideas), apart from the (usual) difficulties inherent in mental investigation of them."
وإذا كانت ملكته في تلك الدلالات راسخة، بحيث يتبادر المعاني إلى ذهنه من تلك الألفاظ عند استعمالها، شأن البديهي والجبلي، زال ذاك الحجاب بالجملة بين المعاني والفهم، أو خف، ولم يبق إلا معاناة ما في المعاني من المباحث فقط.,"When he has a firmly rooted habit as far as semantics is concerned, so that the (correct) ideas present themselves to his mind when he (hears) certain words used, spontaneously and naturally, the veil between the ideas and the understanding is either totally removed, or becomes less heavy, and the only task that remains is to investigate the problems inherent in the ideas."
هذا كله إذا كان التعليم تلقينا وبالخطاب والعبارة. وأما إن احتاج المتعلم إلى الدراسة والتقييد بالكتاب ومشافهة الرسوم الخطية من الدواوين بمسائل العلوم، كان هنالك حجاب آخر بين الخط ورسومه في الكتاب، وبين الألفاظ المقولة في الخيال.,"All this applies to instruction by personal contact in the form of oral address and explanation. But when the student has to rely upon the study of books and written material and must understand scientific problems from the forms of written letters in books, he is confronted with another veil, (namely, the veil) that separates handwriting and the form of letters (found) in writing from the spoken words (found) in the imagination."
لأن رسوم الكتابة لها دلالة خاصة على الألفاظ المقولة. وما لم تعرف تلك الدلالة تعذرت معرفة العبارة، وإن عرفت بملكة قاصرة كانت معرفتها أيضا قاصرة،,"The written letters have their own way of indicating the spoken words. As long as that way is not known, it is impossible to know what they express. If it is known imperfectly, (the meaning) expressed (by the letters) is known imperfectly."
ويزداد على الناظر والمتعلم بذلك حجاب آخر بينه وبين مطلوبة، من تحصيل ملكات العلوم أعوص من الحجاب الأول. وإذا كانت ملكته في الدلالة اللفظية والخطية مستحكمة ارتفعت الحجب بينه وبين المعاني.,"Thus, the student is confronted with another veil standing between him and his objective of attaining scientific habits, one that is more difficult to cope with than the first one. (Now,) if his habit, as far as the meaning of words and writing goes, is firmly established, the veils between him and the ideas are lifted."
وصار إنما يعاني فهم مباحثها فقط. هذا شأن المعاني مع الألفاظ والخط بالنسبة إلى كل لغة. والمتعلمون لذلك في الصغر أشد استحكاما لملكاتهم.,"He has merely to occupy himself with understanding the problems inherent in the (ideas). The same relationship of ideas with words and writing exists in every language. The habits of students who learn these things while they are young, are more firmly established (than those of other people)."
ثم إن الملة الإسلامية لما اتسع ملكها واندرجت الأمم في طيها ودرست علوم الأولين بنبوتها وكتابها، وكانت أمية النزعة والشعار،,"Furthermore, the Muslim realm was far-flung and included many nations. The sciences of the ancients were wiped out through the prophecy of (Islam) and its (holy) book. Illiteracy was the proper thing and symbol (of Islam)."
فأخذ الملك والعزة وسخرية الأمم لهم بالحضارة والتهذيب، وصيروا علومهم الشرعية صناعة، بعد أن كانت نقلا، فحدثت فيهم الملكات، وكثرت الدواوين والتآليف،,"Islam then gained royal authority and power. (Foreign) nations served the (Muslims) with their sedentary culture and refinement. The religious sciences, which had been traditional, were turned by the (Muslims) into crafts. Thus, (scholarly) habits originated among them. Many systematic works and books were written."
وتشوفوا إلى علوم الأمم فنقلوها بالترجمة إلى علومهم وأفرغوها في قالب أنظارهم، وجردوها من تلك اللغات الأعجمية إلى لسانهم وأربوا فيها على مداركهم، وبقيت تلك الدفاتر التي بلغتهم الأعجمية نسيا منسيا وطللا مهجورا وهباء منثورا.,"(The Muslims) desired to learn the sciences of the (foreign) nations. They made them their own through translations. They pressed them into the mold of their own views. They took them over into their own language from the non-Arab languages and surpassed the achievements of (the non-Arabs) in them. The manuscripts in the non-Arabic language were forgotten, abandoned, and scattered."
وأصبحت العلوم كلها بلغة العرب، ودواوينها المسطرة بخطهم، واحتاج القائمون بالعلوم إلى معرفة الدلالات اللفظية والخطية في لسانهم دون ما سواه من الألسن، لدروسها وذهاب العناية بها.,"All the sciences came to exist in Arabic. The systematic works on them were written in (Arabic) writing. Thus, students of the sciences needed a knowledge of the meaning of (Arabic) words and (Arabic) writing. They could dispense with all other languages, because they had been wiped out and there was no longer any interest in them."
وقد تقدم لنا أن اللغة ملكة في اللسان، وكذا الخط صناعة ملكتها في اليد، فإذا تقدمت في اللسان ملكة العجمة، صار مقصرا في اللغة العربية، لما قدمناه من أن الملكة إذا تقدمت في صناعة بمحل، فقل أن يجيد صاحبها ملكة في صناعة أخرى، وهو ظاهر.,"We have mentioned before that language is a habit of the tongue. Likewise, handwriting is a craft, the habit of which is located in the hand. The tongue which had at first the habit of speaking another language than Arabic, becomes deficient in (its mastery of) Arabic, because, as we have mentioned before, the person whose habit has advanced to a certain point in a particular craft is rarely able to master another one. This is obvious."
وإذا كان مقصرا في اللغة العربية ودلالاتها اللفظية والخطية اعتاص عليه فهم المعاني منها كما مر.,"(Now,) if (a person) is deficient in (his mastery of) Arabic, in (his knowledge of) the meaning of its words and its writing, it is difficult for him to derive the ideas from (Arabic words and Arabic writing), as has been mentioned before."
إلا أن تكون ملكة العجمة السابقة لم تستحكم حين انتقل منها إلى العربية، كأصاغر أبناء العجم الذين يربون مع العرب قبل أن تستحكم عجمتهم، فتكون اللغة العربية كأنها السابقة لهم، ولا يكون عندهم تقصير في فهم المعاني من العربية.,"Only if the early habit of speaking a nonArab language is not yet firmly established in a person when he makes the transition from it to Arabic, as is the case with small non-Arab children who grow up with Arabs before their (habit) of speaking a non-Arab language is firmly established, only then does the Arabic language come to be like a first (native) language, and his ability to derive the ideas from (the words of) the Arabic language is not deficient."
وكذا أيضا شأن من سبق له تعلم الخط الأعجمي قبل العربي.,The same applies to persons who learned non-Arabic writing before Arabic writing.
ولهذا نجد الكثير من علماء الأعاجم في دروسهم ومجالس تعليمهم يعدلون عن نقل التفاسير من الكتب إلى قراءتها ظاهرا يخففون بذلك عن أنفسهم مئونة بعض الحجب ليقرب عليهم تناول المعاني.,"This is why we find that most non-Arab scholars in their research and classes do not copy comments (directly) from books but read them aloud. In this way they are less disturbed by the veils (between words and ideas), so that they can get more easily at the ideas."
وصاحب الملكة في العبارة والخط مستغن عن ذلك، بتمام ملكته، وإنه صار له فهم الأقوال من الخط، والمعاني من الأقوال، كالجبلة الراسخة، وارتفعت الحجب بينه وبين المعاني.,"When a person possesses the perfect habit as far as verbal and written expression is concerned, he does not have to (read aloud). For him, it has become like a firmly ingrained natural disposition to derive an understanding of words from writing and of ideas from words. The veils between him and the ideas are lifted."
وربما يكون الدؤوب على التعليم والمران على اللغة، وممارسة الخط يفيضان لصاحبهما إلى تمكن الملكة، كما نجده في الكثير من علماء الأعاجم، إلا أنه في النادر.,"Intensive study and constant practice of the language and of writing may lead a person to a firmly rooted habit, as we find in most non-Arab scholars. However, this occurs rarely."
وإذا قرن بنظيره من علماء العرب وأهل طبقته منهم، كان باع العربي أطول وملكته أقوى، لما عند المستعجم من الفتور بالعجمة السابقة التي يؤثر القصور بالضرورة ولا يعترض ذلك بما تقدم بأن علماء الإسلام أكثرهم العجم،,"When one compares such a person with an Arabic scholar of equal merit, the latter is the more efficient, and his habit the stronger. The non-Arab has trouble because his early use of a non-Arab language necessarily makes him inferior. This is not in contradiction with the afore-mentioned fact that most Muslim scholars are non-Arabs."
لأن المراد بالعجم هنالك عجم النسب لتداول الحضارة فيهم التي قررنا أنها سبب لانتحال الصنائع والملكات ومن جملتها العلوم. وأما عجمة اللغة فليست من ذلك، وهي المرادة هنا.,"In that connection, “non-Arab” meant non-Arab by descent. Such non-Arabs had a long (history of) sedentary culture which, as we have established, causes cultivation of the crafts and habits, including the sciences. Being non-Arab in language is something quite different, and this is what is meant here."
ولا يعترض ذلك أيضا مما كان لليونانيين في علومهم من رسوخ القدم فإنهم إنما تعلموها من لغتهم السابقة لهم وخطهم المتعارف بينهم. والأعجمي المتعلم للعلم في الملة الإسلامية يأخذ العلم بغير لسانه الذي سبق إليه، ومن غير خطه الذي يعرف ملكته.,"It is also not in contradiction with the fact that the Greeks were highly accomplished scholars. They learned their sciences in their own first (native) language and in their own writing, such as was customarily used among them. The nonArab Muslim who studies to become a scholar learns his subject in a language other than his first (native) one and from a writing other than the one whose habit he has mastered."
فلهذا يكون له ذلك حجابا كما قلناه. وهذا عام في جميع أصناف أهل اللسان الأعجمي من الفرس والروم والترك والبربر والفرنج، وسائر من ليس من أهل اللسان العربي.,"This, then, becomes a veil for him, as we have stated. This applies quite generally to all kinds of speakers of non-Arab languages, such as the Persians, the Turks, the Berbers, the European Christians, and all others whose language is not Arabic."
وفي ذلك آيات للمتوسمين.,“Here are signs for people who understand signs.”
الفصل الخامس والأربعون في علوم اللسان العربي,44. The sciences concerned with the Arabic language.
أركانه أربعة وهي اللغة والنحو والبيان والأدب ومعرفتها ضرورية على أهل الشريعة إذ مأخذ الأحكام الشرعية كلها من الكتاب والسنة وهي بلغة العرب,"The pillars of the Arabic language are four: lexicography, grammar, syntax and style (bayan), and literature. Knowledge of them all is necessary for religious scholars, since the source of all religious laws is the Qur’an and the Sunnah, which are in Arabic."
ونقلتها من الصحابة والتابعين عرب وشرح مشكلاتها من لغاتهم فلا بد من معرفة العلوم المتعلقة بهذا اللسان لمن أراد علم الشريعة. وتتفاوت في التأكيد بتفاوت مراتبها في التوفية بمقصود الكلام حسبما يتبين في الكلام عليها فنا فنا,"Their transmitters, the men around Muhammad and the men of the second generation, were Arabs. Their difficulties are to be explained from the language they used. Thus, those who want to be religious scholars must know the sciences connected with the Arabic language. These sciences differ in emphasis (as to their importance) according to the different degrees (of usefulness) they possess for conveying the intended meaning of speech, as will become clear when they are discussed one by one."
والذي يتحصل أن الأهم المقدم منها هو النحو إذ به تتبين أصول المقاصد بالدلالة فيعرف الفاعل من المفعول والمبتدأ من الخبر ولولاه لجهل أصل الإفادة.,"The conclusion will be that the first and most important of them is grammar, since it gives a clear. indication of the basic principles (used in expressing) the various intended meanings. Thus, one can distinguish between subject and object, as wells as between the subject of a nominal sentence and its predicate. Without grammar, one would not know on what to base giving information (about anything)"
وكان من حق علم اللغة التقدم لولا أن أكثر الأوضاع باقية في موضوعاتها لم تتغير بخلاف الإعراب الدال على الإسناد والمسند والمسند إليه فإنه تغير بالجملة ولم يبق له أثر.,"Lexicography would deserve to be first, were not most of its data constant (and restricted) to their (conventional) meanings, incapable of changing, in contrast to the case endings (in grammar) which indicate dependence, the (person or thing) that is dependent, and the (person or thing) on which (something else) depends. They always change completely and leave no trace."
فلذلك كان علم النحو أهم من اللغة إذ في جهله الإخلال بالتفاهم جملة وليست كذلك اللغة,"Thus, grammar is more important than lexicography, since ignorance of (grammar) is very harmful to mutual understanding. This is not the case with lexicography."
والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم وبه التوفيق.,And God knows better.
علم النحو,Grammar
اعلم أن اللغة في المتعارف هي عبارة المتكلم عن مقصوده. وتلك العبارة فعل لساني ناشئ عن القصد بإفادة الكلام,"It should be known that language, as the term is customarily used, is the expression by a speaker of his intention. Such expression is an act of the tongue which originates in an intention to convey the meaning of speech."
فلا بد أن تصير ملكة متقررة في العضو الفاعل لها وهو اللسان وهو في كل أمة بحسب اصطلاحاتهم. وكانت الملكة الحاصلة للعرب من ذلك أحسن الملكات وأوضحها إبانة عن المقاصد لدلالة غير الكلمات فيها على كثير من المعاني.,"Therefore, (language) must become an established habit (located) in the part of the body that produces it, namely, the tongue. In every nation, the (formation of language takes place) according to their own terminology. The linguistic habit that the Arabs obtained in that way is the best there is. It is the one most clearly expressing the intended meaning, since many ideas are indicated in it by something else than words."
مثل الحركات التي تعين الفاعل أي المفعول من المجرور أعني المضاف ومثلي الحروف التي تفضي بالأفعال أي الحركات إلى الذوات من غير تكلف ألفاظ أخرى. وليس يوجد ذلك إلا في لغة العرب.,"There are, for instance, vowels to distinguish the subject from object and i-case – that is, the genitive – and (there are) letters to transform actions (verbs) – that is, motions -into essences, without need of other words. These (features) are found in no other language but Arabic."
وأما غيرها من اللغات فكل معنى أو حال لا بد له من ألفاظ تخصه بالدلالة ولذلك نجد كلام العجم من مخاطباتهم أطول مما تقدره بكلام العرب.,All other languages need special words to indicate a particular idea or situation. Therefore; we find non-Arabs lengthier in their speech than we would consider necessary in Arabic.
وهذا هو معنى قوله صلى الله عليه وسلم: «أوتيت جوامع الكلم واختصر لي الكلام اختصارا». فصار للحروف في لغتهم. والحركات والهيئات أي الأوضاع اعتبار في الدلالة على المقصود غير متكلفين فيه لصناعة يستفيدون ذلك منها.,"This is what was meant in the following remark by Muhammad: “I was given the most comprehensive words, and speech was made short for me.” The consonants, vowels, and positions (of letters [sounds]), that is, the forms of the Arabic language, came to indicate the intended meaning in a definite manner. The (Arabs) did not need a craft to teach them their meaning."
إنما هي ملكة في ألسنتهم يأخذها الآخر عن الأول كما تأخذ صبياننا لهذا العهد لغاتنا. فلما جاء الإسلام وفارقوا الحجاز لطلب الملك الذي كان في أيدي الأمم والدول وخالطوا,"It was a habit in their tongues that one generation learned from the other, as our children nowadays learn our languages. Then Islam came. The Arabs left the Hijaz to seek the royal authority that was in the hands of (foreign) nations and dynasties. They came into contact with non-Arabs."
العجم تغيرت تلك الملكة بما ألقى إليها السمع من المخالفات التي للمستعربين والسمع أبو الملكات اللسانية,"As a result, their linguistic habit changed under the influence of the solecisms they heard non-Arab speakers of Arabic make, and it is hearing that begets the linguistic habit."
ففسدت بما ألقي إليها مما يغايرها لجنوحها إليه باعتياد السمع. وخشي أهل العلوم منهم أن تفسد تلك الملكة رأسا ويطول العهد بها فينغلق القرآن والحديث على المفهوم,"Thus, the (Arab linguistic habit began to) incline toward adopting forms of speech at variance with it, because (the Arabs) became used to hearing them spoken, and (their linguistic habit) became corrupted. Cultured people feared that the (Arab linguistic) habit would become entirely corrupted and that, if the (process of corruption) went on for a long time, the Qur’an and the traditions would no longer be understood."
فاستنبطوا من مجاري كلامهم قوانين لتلك الملكة مطردة شبه الكليات والقواعد يقيسون عليها سائر أنواع الكلام ويلحقون الأشباه بالأشباه,"Therefore, they derived certain norms for the (Arab linguistic) habit from their way of speaking. (These norms are) of general applicability, like universals and basic principles. They checked all the other parts of speech with them and combined like with like."
مثل أن الفاعل مرفوع والمفعول منصوب والمبتدأ مرفوع.,"(Among such norms,) for instance, are these: The agent has the u-ending. The object has the a-ending. The subject of a nominal sentence has the u-ending."
ثم رأوا تغير الدلالة بتغير حركات هذه الكلمات فاصطلحوا على تسميته إعرابا وتسمية الموجب لذلك التغير عاملا وأمثال ذلك.,"Then, they considered (the fact) that the meaning changes with the change of vowel (endings). For this (phenomenon), they used the technical term of i’rab. For the thing that necessitates the change (in meaning), they used the technical term “agent,” (‘amil), and so on."
وصارت كلها اصطلاحات خاصة بهم فقيدوها بالكتاب وجعلوها صناعة لهم مخصوصة. واصطلحوا على تسميتها بعلم النحو.,All these things came to be technical terms peculiar to the (grammarians) who set them down in writing and made a particular craft of them. The technical term they used for that (craft) is “grammar” (nahw).
وأول من كتب فيها أبو الأسود الدؤلي من بني كنانة، ويقال بإشارة علي رضي الله عنه لأنه رأى تغير الملكة فأشار عليه بحفظها ففزع إلى ضبطها بالقوانين الحاضرة المستقرأة.,"The first to write on (grammar) was Abul-Aswad adDu’ali, of the Banu Kinanah. It is said that he did so upon the advice of ‘Ali, who noticed that the (linguistic) habit was changing. Therefore he advised (ad-Du’ali) to protect it, and (ad-Du’ali) anxiously went about the task of fixing it accurately by means of comprehensive, inductively evolved rules."
ثم كتب فيها الناس من بعده إلى أن انتهت إلى الخليل بن أحمد الفراهيدي أيام الرشيد وكان الناس أحوج ما كان الناس إليها لذهاب تلك الملكة من العرب. فهذب الصناعة وكمل أبوابها.,"Later on, scholars wrote books on (grammar). Eventually, in the time of alKhalil b. Ahmad al-Farahidi, in the days of ar-Rashid, people were more in need of (grammatical rules than ever before), because the (linguistic) habit was disappearing from among the Arabs. (Al-Khalil) improved the craft (of grammar) and perfected its various chapters."
وأخذها عنه سيبويه فكمل تفاريعها واستكثر من أدلتها وشواهدها ووضع فيها كتابه المشهور الذي صار إماما لكل ما كتب فيها من بعده. ثم وضع أبو علي الفارسي وأبو القاسم الزجاج كتبا مختصرة للمتعلمين يحذون فيها حذو الإمام في كتابه.,"Sibawayh learned (grammar) from him. He perfected its details and increased the number of proofs and examples used in connection with it. He wrote on it his famous Book which became the model for everything subsequently written on (grammar). Short books for students were later written by Abu-Ali al-Farisi and Abul-Qasim az-Zajjaji. In them, they followed the model of (Sibawayh’s) Book."
ثم طال الكلام في هذه الصناعة وحدث الخلاف بين أهلها في الكوفة والبصرة المصرين القديمين للعرب. وكثرت الأدلة والحجاج بينهم وتباينت الطرق في التعليم,"Then, there was much grammatical discussion. Divergent opinions originated among the grammarians of al-Kufah and al-Basrah, the two old cities of the Arabs. They used an increasing number of proofs and arguments. The methods of (grammatical) instruction also became different."
وكثر الاختلاف في إعراب كثير من آي القرآن باختلافهم في تلك القواعد وطال ذلك على المتعلمين.,"There was much difference of opinion with regard to vowel endings in many verses of the Qur’an, since the grammarians held different opinions as to the basic rules of (grammar). This became a lengthy subject for students (to study)."
وجاء المتأخرون بمذاهبهم في الاختصار فاختصروا كثيرا من ذلك الطول مع استيعابهم لجميع ما نقل كما فعله ابن مالك في كتاب التسهيل وأمثاله أو اقتصارهم على المبادئ للمتعلمين، كما فعله الزمخشري في المفصل وابن الحاجب في المقدمة له.,"Then recent scholars came, with their method of being brief. They cut short a good deal of the long discussion, though they included everything that had been transmitted. That, for instance, was what Ibn Malik did in the Kitab at-Tashil, and others. Or, they restricted themselves to elementary rules for (beginning) students. That, for instance, was what azZamakhshari did in the Mufassal and Ibn al-Hajib in the Muqaddimah."
وربما نظموا ذلك نظما مثل ابن مالك في الأرجوزتين الكبرى والصغرى وابن معطي في الأرجوزة الألفية. وبالجملة فالتآليف في هذا الفن أكثر من أن تحصى أو يحاط بها وطرق التعليم فيها مختلفة فطريقة المتقدمين مغايرة لطريقة المتأخرين.,"They also frequently versified the subject. That was done, for instance, by Ibn Malik in two rajaz poems, the large and the small one, and by Ibn Mu’ti in a rajaz poem of a thousand verses (ay’zyah). In general, the works on this subject are innumerable and cannot all be known, and the methods of (grammatical) instruction are varied. The method of the ancients is different from that of recent (grammarians)."
والكوفيون والبصريون والبغداديون والأندلسيون مختلفة طرقهم كذلك. وقد كادت هذه الصناعة تؤذن بالذهاب لما رأينا من النقص في سائر العلوم والصنائع بتناقص العمران,"The methods of the Kufians, the Basrians, the Baghdadis, and the Spaniards also, are all different. Grammar has come to the point of being allowed to disappear, along with the decrease in the other sciences and crafts which we have noted and which is the result of a decrease in civilization."
ووصل إلينا بالمغرب لهذه العصور ديوان من مصر منسوب إلى جمال الدين بن هشام من علمائها استوفى فيه أحكام الإعراب مجملة ومفصلة.,"At the present time, there has reached us in the Maghrib a systematic work (diwan) from Egypt attributed to the Egyptian scholar, Jamal-ad-din b. Hisham. He treats in it all the rules governing vowel endings, both in general and in detail."
وتكلم على الحروف والمفردات والجمل وحذف ما في الصناعة من المتكرر في أكثر أبوابها وسماه بالمغني في الإعراب.,He discusses the letters (sounds) and the individual words and sentences. He omits the repetitions found in most chapters of grammar. He called his work al-Mughni fi l-i’rab.
وأشار إلى نكت إعراب القرآن كلها وضبطها بأبواب وفصول وقواعد انتظم سائرها فوقفنا منه على علم جم يشهد بعلو قدره في هذه الصناعة ووفور بضاعته منها,He indicates all the fine points of the vowel endings in the Qur’an and sets them down accurately in chapters and sections and according to basic norms all of which are very orderly. We have found in (the work) much information attesting to (the author’s) great ability and abundant knowledge of grammar.
وكأنه ينحو في طريقته منحاة أهل الموصل الذين اقتفوا أثر ابن جني واتبعوا مصطلح تعليمه فأتى من ذلك بشيء عجيب دال على قوة ملكته واطلاعه.,"In a way, his approach follows the method of the Mosul grammarians who followed in the footsteps of Ibn Jinni and adopted his technical terminology for (grammatical) instruction. In this way, he has produced a remarkable work that shows his powerful (linguistic) habit and his acquaintance with the subject."
والله يزيد في الخلق ما يشاء,God “gives in addition to the creatures whatever He wishes to give to them.”
علم اللغة,The science of lexicography
هذا العلم هو بيان الموضوعات اللغوية وذلك أنه لما فسدت ملكة اللسان العربي في الحركات المسماة عند أهل النحو بالإعراب واستنبطت القوانين لحفظها كما قلناه.,"This science is concerned with explaining the (conventional) meanings of the (words of the) language. This comes about as follows. The habit of the Arabic language, as far as the vowels called i’rab by the grammarians are concerned, became corrupted. Rules for protecting the (vowel endings) were developed, as we have stated."
ثم استمر ذلك الفساد بملابسة العجم ومخالطتهم حتى تأدى الفساد إلى موضوعات الألفاظ فاستعمل كثير من كلام العرب في غير موضوعة عندهم ميلا مع هجنة المستعربين في اصطلاحاتهم المخالفة لصريح العربية,"However, the (process of) corruption continued on account of the close contact (of the Muslims) with non-Arabs. Eventually, it affected the (conventional) meanings of words. Many Arabic words were no (longer) used in their proper meaning. This was the result of indulgence shown to the incorrect language used by non-Arab speakers of Arabic in their terminologies, in contradiction to the pure Arabic language."
فاحتيج إلى حفظ الموضوعات اللغوية بالكتاب والتدوين خشية الدروس وما ينشأ عنه من الجهل بالقرآن والحديث فشمر كثير من أئمة اللسان لذلك وأملوا فيه الدواوين.,"It was, therefore, necessary to protect the (conventional) meanings of the (words of the) language with the help of writing and systematic works, because it was to be feared that (otherwise) they might be wiped out and that ignorance of the Qur’an and the traditions would result. Many leading philologists set out eagerly on this task and dictated systematic works on the subject."
وكان سابق الحلبة في ذلك الخليل بن أحمد الفراهيدي. ألف فيها كتاب العين فحصر فيه مركبات حروف المعجم كلها من الثنائي والثلاثي والرباعي والخماسي وهو غاية ما ينتهي إليه التركيب في اللسان العربي.,"The champion in this respect was al-Khalil b. Ahmad al Farahidi. He wrote the Kitab al-‘Ayn on lexicography. In it, he dealt with all (possible) combinations of the letters of the alphabet, that is, with words of two, three, four, and five consonants. (Fiveconsonant words) are the longest letter combinations found in Arabic."
وتأتى له حصر ذلك بوجوه عديدة حاضرة وذلك أن جملة الكلمات الثنائية تخرج من جميع الأعداد على التوالي من واحد إلى سبعة وعشرين وهو دون نهاية حروف المعجم بواحد.,It was possible for al-Khalil to calculate arithmetically the total number of such combinations. This goes as follows. The total number of two-consonant words is the sum of the arithmetical progression from one to twenty-seven. Twentyseven is one letter less than the number of letters in the alphabet.
لأن الحرف الواحد منها يؤخذ مع كل واحد من السبعة والعشرين فتكون سبعة وعشرين كلمة ثنائية. ثم يؤخذ الثاني مع الستة والعشرين كذلك. ثم الثالث والرابع. ثم يؤخذ السابع والعشرون مع الثامن والعشرين,"For the first consonant (of the alphabet) is combined with the remaining twenty-seven letters. This results in twenty-seven two-consonant words. Then, the second letter is combined with the remaining twenty-six consonants, then the third and the fourth, and so on, to the twentyseventh consonant, which is combined (only) with the twentyeighth consonant."
فيكون واحدا فتكون كلها أعدادا على توالي العدد من واحد إلى سبعة وعشرين فتجمع كما هي بالعمل المعروف عند أهل الحساب وهو أن تجمع الأول مع الأخير وتضرب المجموع في نصف العدة.,"This results in one two-consonant word. Thus, the number of twoconsonant words is the arithmetical progression from one to twenty-seven. The total can be figured out with the help of a well-known arithmetical operation – that is, one adds up the first and last (numbers of the progression) and multiplies the total by one-half of the number (of numbers in the progression)."
ثم تضاعف لأجل قلب الثنائي لأن التقديم والتأخير بين الحروف معتبر في التركيب فيكون الخارج جملة الثنائيات.,"The resulting number is then doubled, because the position of the consonants can be inverted. The position of consonants must be taken into consideration in combining them. The result is the total number of two-consonant words."
وتخرج الثلاثيات من ضرب عدد الثنائيات فيما يجمع من واحد إلى ستة وعشرين على توالي العدد لأن كل ثنائية يزيد عليها حرفا فتكون ثلاثية. فتكون الثنائية بمنزلة الحرف الواحد مع كل واحد من الحروف الباقية وهي ستة وعشرون حرفا بعد الثنائية,"The number of three-consonant words is the result of multiplying the number of two-consonant words by the sum of the arithmetical progression from one to twenty-six. For every two-consonant word becomes a three-consonant word through the addition of one consonant. Thus, the twoconsonant words may take the place of one consonant to be combined with each of the remaining consonants of the alphabet, which number twenty-six."
فتجمع من واحد إلى ستة وعشرين على توالي العدد ويضرب فيه جملة الثنائيات. ثم تضرب الخارج في ستة، جملة مقلوبات الكلمة الثلاثية فيخرج مجموع تراكيبها من حروف المعجم. وكذلك في الرباعي والخماسي.,"Thus, the sum of the arithmetical progression from one to twenty-six is calculated and multiplied by the number of two-consonant words. The result, then, is multiplied by six, which is the possible number of combinations of three consonants. The result is the total number (of words of three consonants that can be made) from the consonants of the alphabet. The same is done with four-consonant and five-consonant words."
فانحصرت له التراكيب بهذا الوجه ورتب أبوابه على حروف المعجم بالترتيب المتعارف.,"In this way, the total number of (possible) letter combinations was calculated (by al-Khalil). Al-Khalil did  arrange the chapters of the book according to the customary sequence of the letters of the alphabet."
واعتمد فيه ترتيب المخارج فبدأ بحروف الحلق ثم بعده من حروف الحنك ثم الأضراس ثم الشفة وجعل حروف العلة آخرا وهي الحروف الهوائية. وبدأ من حروف الحلق بالعين لأنه الأقصر منها فلذلك سمي كتابه بالعين,"(Instead,) he used the sequence of the positions (in throat and mouth) in which the various sounds are produced. Thus, he started with the laryngeals. They were followed, successively, by velars, dentals, and labials. Al-Khalil put the weak consonants, which are the (so-called) airy consonants (alif, w, y), in the last place. Among the laryngeals, he started with ‘ayn, because it is the (sound produced) farthest (back in the throat). Therefore, his book was called Kitab al-‘Ayn."
لأن المتقدمين كانوا يذهبون في تسمية دواوينهم إلى مثل هذا وهو تسميته بأول ما يقع فيه من الكلمات والألفاظ.,The ancient (scholars) did such things when they selected titles for their works. They called them after the first words or phrases that occurred in them.
ثم بين المهمل منها من المستعمل وكان المهمل في الرباعي والخماسي أكثر لقلة استعمال العرب له لثقله ولحق به الثنائي لقلة دورانه وكان الاستعمال في الثلاثي أغلب فكانت أوضاعه أكثر لدورانه.,"(Al-Khalil) then made a distinction between (letter combinations) that are not used and those that are. The largest number of (letter combinations) that are not used are among words of four or five consonants. The Arabs rarely use them because of their heaviness. Next come the two-consonant words. They have little circulation. The three-consonant words are the ones used most. Thus, they possess the greatest number of (conventional) meanings, because they are (so much) in circulation."
وضمن الخليل ذلك كله في كتاب العين واستوعبه أحسن استيعاب وأوعاه .,All this was included by (al-Khalil) in the Kitab al-‘Ayn and treated very well and exhaustively.
وجاء أبو بكر الزبيدي وكتب لهشام المؤيد بالأندلس في المائة الرابعة فاختصره مع المحافظة على الاستيعاب وحذف منه المهمل كله وكثيرا من شواهد المستعمل ولخصه للحفظ أحسن تلخيص.,"Abu Bakr az-Zubaydi, the writing teacher of Hisham al-Mu’ayyad in Spain in the fourth [tenth] century, abridged the (Kitab al-‘Ayn) but preserved its complete character. He omitted all the words that are not used. He also omitted many of the examples clarifying words in use. Thus, he produced a very good abridgment for memorizing."
وألف الجوهري من المشارقة كتاب الصحاح على الترتيب المتعارف لحروف المعجم فجعل البداءة منها بالهمزة وجعل الترجمة بالحروف على الحرف الأخير من الكلمة لاضطرار الناس في الأكثر إلى أواخر الكلم,"Among eastern scholars, al-Jawhari composed the Kitab as-Sihah, which follows the ordinary alphabetical sequence. He started with hamzah (alif). He arranged the words according to their last letter, since people have mostly to do with the last consonants of words."
فجعل ذلك بابا. ثم يأتي بالحروف أول الكلمة على ترتيب حروف المعجم أيضا ويترجم عليها بالفصول إلى آخرها. وحصر اللغة اقتداء بحصر الخليل.,"He made a special chapter (of each last letter), and within each chapter he also proceeded alphabetically by the first (letters) of the words and listed all of them as separate entries to the end. He gave a comprehensive presentation of the (lexicographical facts of the Arabic) language in imitation of the work of alKhalil."
ثم ألف فيها من الأندلسيين ابن سيده من أهل دانية في دولة علي بن مجاهد كتاب المحكم على ذلك المنحى من الاستيعاب وعلى نحو ترتيب كتاب العين. وزاد فيه التعرض لاشتقاقات الكلم وتصاريفها فجاء من أحسن الدواوين.,"Among Spanish scholars, Ibn Sidah, of Denia, wrote the Kitab alMuhkam, a similarly comprehensive work following the arrangement of the Kitab al-‘Ayn. He wrote during the reign of ‘Ali b. Mujahid. Ibn Sidah’s own contribution was an attempt to give the etymologies and grammatical forms of the words. Thus, his work turned out to be one of the best systematic works (on lexicography)."
ولخصه محمد بن أبي الحسين صاحب المستنصر من ملوك الدولة الحفصية بتونس. وقلب ترتيبه إلى ترتيب كتاب الصحاح في اعتبار أواخر الكلم وبناء التراجم عليها فكانا توأمي رحم وسليلي أبوة,"An abridgment of it was written by Muhammad b. Abil-Husayn, a companion of the Hafsid ruler al-Mustansir in Tunis. He changed the (alphabetical) sequence to that of the Kitab as-Sihah, in that he considered the last consonants of the words and arranged the entries according to them. The two (works) are thus like real twins."
ولكراع من أئمة اللغة كتاب المنجد، ولابن دريد كتاب الجمهرة ولابن الأنباري كتاب الزاهر هذه أصول كتب اللغة فيما علمناه. وهناك مختصرات أخرى مختصة بصنف من الكلم,"Kura’, a leading philologist, wrote the Kitab al-Munajjad, Ibn Durayd the Kitab al-Jamharah, and Ibn al-Anbari the Kitab az-Zahir. These are the principal works on lexicography, as far as we know. There are other brief works restricted to particular kinds of words."
ومستوعبة لبعض الأبواب أو لكلها. إلا أن وجه الحصر فيها خفي ووجه الحصر في تلك جلي من قبل التراكيب كما رأيت.,"They contain some chapters, or they may contain all of them, but, still, they are obviously not comprehensive, while comprehensiveness is an obvious feature in the works (mentioned), dealing with all (the possible letter) combinations, as one has seen."
ومن الكتب الموضوعة أيضا في اللغة كتاب الزمخشري في المجاز سماه أساس البلاغة بين فيه كل ما تجوزت به العرب من الألفاظ وفيما تجوزت به من المدلولات وهو كتاب شريف الإفادة,"Another work on lexicography is the one by az-Zamakhshari on metaphoric usage, entitled Asas al-balaghah. Az-Zamakhshari explains in it all the words used metaphorically by the Arabs, (and he explains) what meanings are used metaphorically by them. It is a highly useful work."
ثم لما كانت العرب تضع الشيء على العموم ثم تستعمل في الأمور الخاصة ألفاظا أخرى خاصة بها فوق ذلك عندنا، وبين الوضع والاستعمال واحتاج إلى فقه في اللغة عزيز المأخذ,"Furthermore, the Arabs may use a general term for one (particular) meaning, but (for the expression of the same idea) in connection with particular objects, they may employ other words that can be used (in this particular meaning) only with those particular objects. Thus, we have a distinction between (conventional) meaning and usage. This (situation) requires a lexicographical “jurisprudence.” It is something difficult to develop."
كما وضع الأبيض بالوضع العام لكل ما فيه بياض ثم اختص ما فيه بياض من الخيل بالأشهب ومن الإنسان بالأزهر ومن الغنم بالأملح حتى صار استعمال الأبيض في هذه كلها لحنا وخروجا عن لسان العرب.,"For instance, “white” is used for anything that contains whiteness. However, the whiteness of horses is indicated by the special word ashhab, that of men by the word azhar, and that of sheep by the word amlah. Eventually, the use of the ordinary word for “white” in all these cases came to be (considered) a solecism and deviation from the Arabic language."
واختص بالتأليف في هذا المنحى الثعالبي وأفرده في كتاب له سماه فقه اللغة وهو من أكد ما يأخذ به اللغوي نفسه أن يحرف استعمال العرب عن مواضعه. فليس معرفة الوضع الأول بكاف في الترتيب حتى يشهد له استعمال العرب لذلك.,"Ath-Tha’alibi, in particular, wrote in this sense. He composed a monograph on the subject entitled Fiqh al-lughah “Jurisprudence of Lexicography.” It is the best control a philologist has, in order to keep himself from deviating from (proper) Arabic usage. A knowledge of the primary (conventional) meaning is not enough for (the use of proper) word combinations. It must be attested by (actual) Arabic usage."
وأكثر ما يحتاج إلى ذلك الأديب في فني نظمه ونثره حذرا من أن يكثر لحنه في الموضوعات اللغوية في مفرداتها وتراكيبها وهو أشد من اللحن في الإعراب وأفحش.,"This (knowledge) is needed most by poets and prose writers, in order to avoid committing frequent solecisms in connection with the (conventional) meanings of words, whether they are used in individual words or in combinations. (Improper use in this respect) is worse than solecisms in (use of the) vowel endings."
وكذلك ألف بعض المتأخرين في الألفاظ المشتركة وتكفل بحصرها وإن لم تبلغ إلى النهاية في ذلك فهو مستوعب للأكثر.,"Likewise, a recent scholar wrote on homonyms and undertook to give a comprehensive presentation of them. However, he did not fully succeed, though his work contains most of the (material). There are many brief works on the subject."
وأما المختصرات الموجودة في هذا الفن المخصوصة بالمتداول من اللغة الكثير الاستعمال تسهيلا لحفظها على الطالب فكثيرة مثل الألفاظ لابن السكيت والفصيح لثعلب وغيرهما. وبعضها أقل لغة من بعض لاختلاف نظرهم في الأهم على الطالب للحفظ.,"They are particularly concerned with widespread and much used lexicographical materials. Their purpose is to make it easy for the student to memorize them. For instance, there are the Alfaz of Ibn asSikkit, the Fasih of Tha’lab, and others. Some contain less lexicographical material than others, depending on the different views of their authors as to what is most important for the student to know."
والله الخلاق العليم لا رب سواه.,"God is “the Creator, the Knowing One.”"
واعلم أن النقل الذي تثبت به اللغة، إنما هو النقل عن العرب أنهم استعملوا هذه الألفاظ لهذه المعاني، لا تقل إنهم وضعوها لأنه متعذر وبعيد، ولم يعرف لأحد منهم.,It should be known that the tradition through which (any particular) lexicographical (usage) is confirmed is a tradition indicating that the Arabs used certain words in certain meanings. It does not indicate that they invented their (conventional meanings). This is impossible and improbable. It is not known (for certain) that any one of them ever did that.
وكذلك لا تثبت اللغات بقياس ما لم نعلم استعماله، على ما عرف استعماله في ماء العنب، باعتبار الإسكار الجامع.,"Likewise, the meanings of words cannot be established by analogy, if their usage is not known, although, for jurists, their usage may be. known by virtue of (the existence of) an inclusive (concept) that attests to the applicability of (a wider meaning) to the first (word). (The use of the word) khamr “grape wine” for nabidh “date wine” is established by its use for “juice of grapes” and by application of the inclusive (concept) of “causing intoxication.”"
لأن شهادة الاعتبار في باب القياس إنما يدركها الشرع الدال على صحة القياس من أصله. وليس لنا مثله في اللغة إلا بالعقل، وهو محكم،,"(This is so) only because the use of analogy (in this case) is attested by the religious law, which deduces the soundness of (the application of) analogy (in this case) from the (general norms) on which it is based. We do not have anything like it in lexicography. There, only the intellect can be used, which means (relying on) judgment."
وعلى هذا جمهور الأئمة. وإن مال إلى القياس فيها القاضي وابن سريح وغيرهم. لكن القول بنفيه أرجح.,"This is the opinion of most authorities, even though the Judge (alBaqillani) and Ibn Surayj and others are inclined to (use) analogy in connection with (the meaning of words). However, it is preferable to deny its (applicability)."
ولا تتوهمن أن إثبات اللغة في باب الحدود اللفظية، لأن الحد راجع إلى المعاني، ببيان أن مدلول اللفظ المجهول الخفي هو مدلول الواضح المشهور،,It should not be thought that the establishment of word meanings falls under the category of word definitions. A definition indicates (the meaning of) a given idea by showing that the meaning of an unknown and obscure word is identical with the meaning of a clear and well-known word.
واللغة إثبات أن اللفظ كذا، لمعنى كذا، والفرق في غاية الظهور.,"Lexicography, on the other hand, affirms that suchand-such a word is used to express such-and-such an idea. The difference here is very clear."
علم البيان,The science of syntax and style and literary criticism
هذا العلم حادث في الملة بعد علم العربية واللغة، وهو من العلوم اللسانية لأنه متعلق بالألفاظ وما تفيده. ويقصد بها الدلالة عليه من المعاني,"This is a ‘science which originated in Islam after Arabic philology and lexicography. It belongs among the philological sciences, because it is concerned with words and the ideas they convey and are intended to indicate."
وذلك أن الأمور التي يقصد المتكلم بها إفادة السامع من كلامه هي: إما تصور مفردات تسند ويسند إليها ويفضي بعضها إلى بعض، والدالة على هذه هي المفردات من الأسماء والأفعال والحروف,"This is as follows: The thing that the speaker intends to convey to the listener through speech may be a perception (tasawwur) regarding individual words which are dependent and on which (something else) depends and of which one leads to the other. These (concepts) are indicated by individual nouns, verbs, and particles."
وإما تمييز المسندات من المسند إليها والأزمنة، ويدل عليها بتغير الحركات من الإعراب وأبنية الكلمات. وهذه كلها هي صناعة النحو.,"Or, (what the speaker intends to convey) may be the distinction between the things that are dependent and those that depend on them and (the distinction between) tenses. These (concepts) are indicated by the change of vowel endings and the forms of the words. All this belongs to grammar."
ويبقى من الأمور المكتنفة بالواقعات المحتاجة للدلالة أحوال المتخاطبين أو الفاعلين وما يقتضيه حال الفعل وهو محتاج إلى الدلالة عليه لأنه من تمام الإفادة وإذا حصلت للمتكلم فقد بلغ غاية الإفادة في كلامه.,"Among the things that are part of the facts and need to be indicated, there still remain the conditions of speakers and agents and the requirements of the situation under which the action takes place. This needs to be indicated, because it completes (the information) to be conveyed. If the speaker is able to bring out these (facts), his speech conveys everything that it can possibly convey."
وإذا لم يشتمل على شيء منها فليس من جنس كلام العرب فإن كلامهم واسع ولكل مقام عندهم مقال يختص به بعد كمال الإعراب والإبانة.,"If his speech does not have anything of that, it is not real Arabic speech. The Arabic language is vast. The Arabs have a particular expression for each situation, in addition to a perfect use of vowel endings and clarity."
ألا ترى أن قولهم (زيد جاءني) مغاير لقولهم (جاءني زيد) من قبل أن المتقدم منهما هو الأهم عند المتكلم,It is known that “Zayd came to me” does not mean the same as “There came to me Zayd.” Something mentioned in the first place (such as “Zayd” in the first example) has greater importance in the mind of the speaker.
فمن قال: جاءني زيد أفاد أن اهتمامه بالمجيء قبل الشخص المسند إليه، ومن قال: زيد جاءني أفاد أن اهتمامه بالشخص قبل المجيء المسند. وكذا التعبير عن أجزاء الجملة بما يناسب المقام من موصول أو مبهم أو معرفة.,"The person who says: “There came to me Zayd,” indicates that he is more concerned with the coming than with the person who comes. (On the other hand,) the person who says: “Zayd came to me,” indicates that he is more concerned with the person than with his coming, which (grammatically) depends on (the person who comes)."
وكذا تأكيد الإسناد على الجملة كقولهم: زيد قائم وإن زيدا قائم وإن زيدا لقائم متغايرة كلها في الدلالة وإن استوت من طريق الإعراب,"The same applies to the indication of the parts of a sentence by relative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, or determinations appropriate to the situation. It also applies to “emphatic” connection in general. For instance, (the three sentences): “Zayd is standing,” “Behold, Zayd is standing,” and “Behold, Zayd is indeed standing,” all mean something different, even if they are alike as far as vowel endings are concerned."
فإن الأول العاري عن التأكيد إنما يفيد الخالي الذهن والثاني المؤكد بأن يفيد المتردد والثالث يفيد المنكر فهي مختلفة.,"The first (sentence), without the emphatic particle, informs a person who has no previous knowledge as to (whether Zayd is standing or not). The second (sentence), with the emphatic particle “behold,” informs a person who hesitates (whether he should acknowledge the fact of Zayd’s standing or not). And the third (sentence) informs a person who (persists in) denying (the fact of Zayd’s standing). Thus, they are all different."
وكذلك تقول: جاءني الرجل ثم تقول مكانه بعينه جاءني رجل إذا قصدت بذلك التنكير تعظيمه وأنه رجل لا يعادله أحد من الرجال.,"The same applies to a statement such as: “There came to me the man,” which is then replaced by the statement: “There came to me a man.” The use of the form without the article may be intended as an honor (for the man in question) and as an indication that he is a man who has no equal."
ثم الجملة الإسنادية تكون خبرية وهي التي لها خارج تطابقه أولا، وإنشائية وهي التي لا خارج لها. كالطلب وأنواعه.,"Furthermore, a sentence may have the structure of a statement and thus be a sentence that conforms, originally (at least), to something in the outside world. Or, it may have the structure of a command and thus be a sentence that has no correspondence in the outside world, as, for example, requests and the different ways they (can be expressed)."
ثم قد يتعين ترك العاطف بين الجملتين إذا كان للثانية محل من الإعراب: فيشرك بذلك منزلة التابع المفرد نعتا وتوكيدا وبدلا بلا عطف,"Furthermore, the copula between two (parts of a) sentence must be omitted, if the second (part) has an integral place in the sentence structure. In this way, the (second part) takes the place of an individual apposition and is either attribute, or emphasis, or substitute (attached to the part of the sentence to which it belongs), without copula."
أو يتعين العطف إذا لم يكن للثانية محل من الإعراب: ثم يقتضي المحل الإطناب والإيجاز فيورد الكلام عليهما.,"Or, if the second (part of the) sentence has no such integral place in the sentence structure, the copula must be used. Also, the given situation may require either lengthiness or brevity. (The speaker) will express himself accordingly. Then, an expression may be used other than in its literal meaning."
ثم قد يدل باللفظ ولا يراد منطوقه ويراد لازمه إن كان مفردا كما تقول: زيد أسد فلا تريد حقيقة الأسد المنطوقة وإنما تريد شجاعته اللازمة وتسندها إلى زيد وتسمى هذه استعارة.,"It may be intended to indicate some implication of it. This may apply to an individual word. For instance, in the statement: “Zayd is a lion,” no actual lion, but the bravery implicit in lions, is meant and referred to Zayd. This is called metaphorical usage."
وقد تريد باللفظ المركب الدلالة على ملزومه كما تقول: زيد كثير الرماد وتريد ما لزم ذلك عنه من الجود وقرى الضيف لأن كثرة الرماد ناشئة عنهما فهي دالة عليهما.,"It also may be a combination of words intended to express some implication that results from it. The statement: “Zayd has a great deal of ash on his pots,” is intended to indicate the implied (qualities) of generosity and hospitality, because a great deal of ash is the result (of generosity and hospitality). Thus, it indicates those (qualities)."
وهذه كلها دلالة زائدة على دلالة الألفاظ من المفرد والمركب وإنما هي هيئات وأحوال الواقعات جعلت للدلالة عليها أحوال وهيئات في الألفاظ كل بحسب ما يقتضيه مقامه،,"All these things are meanings in addition to the (original) meaning of the individual word or combination of words. They are forms and conditions that the facts may take and that can be expressed by conditions and forms of speech that have been invented for that purpose, as required by the particular situation in each case."
فاشتمل هذا العلم المسمى بالبيان على البحث عن هذه الدلالة التي للهيئات والأحوال والمقامات وجعل على ثلاثة أصناف: الصنف الأول يبحث فيه عن هذه الهيئات والأحوال التي تطابق باللفظ جميع مقتضيات الحال ويسمى علم البلاغة،,"The discipline called syntax and style (bayan) expresses the meaning that the forms and conditions of speech have in various situations. It has been divided into three subdivisions. The first subdivision has as its subject the investigation of forms and conditions of speech, in order to achieve conformity with all the requirements of a given situation. This is called “the science of rhetoric” (balaghah)."
والصنف الثاني يبحث فيه عن الدلالة على اللازم اللفظي وملزومه وهي الاستعارة والكناية كما قلناه ويسمى علم البيان.,"The second subdivision has as its subject the investigation of what a word implies or is implied by it-that is, metaphor and metonymy, as we have just stated. This is called “the science of style” (bayan)."
وألحقوا بهما صنفا آخر وهو النظر في تزيين الكلام وتحسينه بنوع من التنميق إما بسجع يفصله أو تجنيس يشابه بين,"(Scholars) have added a (third) subdivision, the study of the artistic embellishment of speech. Such embellishment may be achieved through the ornamental use of rhymed prose (saj’), which divides (speech) into sections; or through the use of paronomasia (tajnis), which establishes a similarity among the words used;"
ألفاظه أو ترصيع يقطع أو تورية عن المعنى المقصود بإيهام معنى أخفى منه لاشتراك اللفظ بينهما وأمثال ذلك,"or through the use of internal rhyme (tarsi’), which cuts down the units of rhythmic speech (into smaller units); or through the use of allusion (tawriyah) to the intended meaning by suggesting an even more cryptic idea which is expressed by the same words; or through the use of antithesis (tibaq); and similar things."
ويسمى عندهم علم البديع. وأطلق على الأصناف الثلاثة عند المحدثين اسم البيان وهو اسم الصنف الثاني لأن الأقدمين أول من تكلموا فيه،,"They called this “the science of rhetorical figures” (‘ilm al-badi’). Recent scholars have used the name of the second subdivision, bayan (syntax and style), for all three subdivisions because the ancient scholars had discussed it first."
ثم تلاحقت مسائل الفن واحدة بعد أخرى وكتب فيها جعفر بن يحيى والجاحظ وقدامة وأمثالهم إملاءات غير وافية فيها. ثم لم تزل مسائل الفن تكمل شيئا فشيئا إلى أن محص السكاكي زبدته وهذب مسائله ورتب أبوابه على نحو ما ذكرناه آنفا من الترتيب,"The problems of the discipline, then, made their appearance one after the other. Insufficient works on the subject were dictated by Ja’far b. Yahya, alJahiz, Qudamah, and others. The problems continued to be perfected one by one. Eventually, as-Sakkaki sifted out the best part of the discipline, refined its problems, and arranged its chapters in the manner mentioned by us at the start."
وألف كتابه المسمى بالمفتاح في النحو والتصريف والبيان فجعل هذا الفن من بعض أجزائه.,"He composed the book entitled al-Miftah fi n-nahw wa-t-tasrif wa-l-bayan “On Grammar, Inflection, and Syntax and Style.” He made the discipline of bayan one of the parts (of the book)."
وأخذه المتأخرون من كتابه ولخصوا منه أمهات هي المتداولة لهذا العهد كما فعله السكاكي في كتاب التبيان وابن مالك في كتاب المصباح وجلال الدين القزويني في كتاب الإيضاح والتلخيص وهو أصغر حجما من الإيضاح,"Later scholars took the subject over from (as-Sakkaki’s) work. They abridged it in authoritative works which are in circulation at this time. That was done, for instance, by as-Sakkaki (himself) in the Kitab at-Tibyan, by Ibn Malik in the Kitab al-Misbah, and by Jalal-ad-din al-Qazwini in the Kitab al-Idah and the Kitab at-Talkhis, which is shorter than the Idah."
والعناية به لهذا العهد عند أهل المشرق في الشرح والتعليم منه أكثر من غيره. وبالجملة فالمشارقة على هذا الفن أقوم من المغاربة وسببه والله أعلم أنه كمالي في العلوم اللسانية والصنائع الكمالية توجد في وفور العمران. والمشرق أوفر عمرانا من المغرب كما ذكرناه.,"Contemporary Easterners are more concerned with commenting on and teaching (the Miftah) than any other (work). In general, the people of the East cultivate this discipline more than the Maghribis. The reason is perhaps that it is a luxury, as far as the linguistic sciences are concerned, and luxury crafts exist (only) where civilization is abundant, and civilization is (today) more abundant in the East than in the West, as we have mentioned."
أو نقول لعناية العجم وهم معظم أهل المشرق كتفسير الزمخشري، وهو كله مبني على هذا الفن، وهو أصله. وإنما اختص بأهل المغرب من أصنافه علم البديع خاصة، وجعلوه من جملة علوم الأدب الشعرية، وفرعوا له ألقابا وعددوا أبوابا ونوعوا أنواعا.,"Or, we might say (the reason is that) the non-Arabs (Persians) who constitute the majority of the population of the East occupy themselves with the Qur’an commentary of az-Zamakhshari, which is wholly based upon this discipline. The people of the West chose as their own field the (third) subdivision of this discipline, the science of rhetorical figures (‘ilm al-badi’). They made it a part of poetical literature. They invented a detailed (nomenclature of rhetorical) figures
for it and divided it into many chapters and subdivisions."
وزعموا أنهم أحصوها من لسان العرب وإنما حملهم على ذلك الولوع بتزيين الألفاظ، وأن علم البديع سهل المأخذ. وصعبت عليهم مآخذ البلاغة والبيان لدقة أنظارهما وغموض معانيهما فتجافوا عنهما.,"They thought that they could consider all that part of the Arabic language. However, the reason (why they cultivated the subject) was that they liked to express themselves artistically. (Furthermore,) the science of rhetorical figures is easy to learn, while it was difficult for them to learn rhetoric and style, because the theories and ideas of (rhetoric and style) are subtle and intricate."
وممن ألف في البديع من أهل إفريقية ابن رشيق وكتاب العمدة له مشهور.,"Therefore, they kept away from those two subjects. One of the authors in Ifrigiyah who wrote on rhetorical figures was Ibn Rashiq. His Kitab al-‘Umdah is famous."
وجرى كثير من أهل إفريقية والأندلس على منحاه. واعلم أن ثمرة هذا الفن إنما هي في فهم الإعجاز من القرآن,Many of the people of Ifriqiyah and Spain wrote along the lines of (the ‘Umdah). It should be known that the fruit of this discipline is understanding of the inimitability of the Qur’an.
لأن إعجازه في وفاء الدلالة منه بجميع مقتضيات الأحوال منطوقة ومفهومة وهي أعلى مراتب الكمال مع الكلام فيما يختص بالألفاظ في انتفائها وجودة رصفها وتركيبها وهذا هو الإعجاز الذي تقصر الأفهام عن إدراكه.,"The inimitability of (the Qur’an) consists in the fact that the (language of the Qur’an) indicates all the requirements of the situations (referred to), whether they are stated or understood. This is the highest stage of speech. In addition, (the Qur’an) is perfect in choice of words and excellence of arrangement and combination. This is (its) inimitability, (a quality) that surpasses comprehension."
وإنما يدرك بعض الشيء منه من كان له ذوق بمخالطة اللسان العربي وحصول ملكته فيدرك من إعجازه على قدر ذوقه.,Something of it may be understood by those who have a taste for it as the result of their contact with the (Arabic) language and their possession of the habit of it. They may thus understand as much of the inimitability of the Qur’an as their taste permits.
مقاما في ذلك لأنهم فرسان الكلام وجها بذته والذوق عندهم موجود بأوفر ما يكون وأصحه.,"Therefore, the Arabs who heard the Qur’an directly from (the Prophet) who brought it (to them) had a better understanding of its (inimitability than later Muslims)."
فلهذا كانت مدارك العرب الذين سمعوه من مبلغه أعلى وأحوج ما يكون إلى هذا الفن المفسرون وأكثر تفاسير المتقدمين غفل عنه حتى ظهر جار الله الزمخشري,"They were the champions and arbiters of speech, and they possessed the greatest and best taste (for the language) that anyone could possibly have. This discipline is needed most by Qur’an commentators. Most ancient commentators disregarded it, until Jar-Allah az-Zamakhshari appeared."
ووضع كتابه في التفسير وتتبع آي القرآن بأحكام هذا الفن بما يبدي البعض من إعجازه فانفرد بهذا الفضل على جميع التفاسير لولا أنه يؤيد عقائد أهل البدع عند اقتباسها من القرآن بوجوه البلاغة.,"When he wrote his Qur’an commentary, he investigated each verse of the Qur’an according to the rules of this discipline. This brings out, in part, its inimitability. It gives his commentary greater distinction than is possessed by any other commentary. However, he tried to confirm the articles of faith of the (Mu’tazilah) innovators by deriving them from the Qur’an by means of different aspects of rhetoric (balaghah)."
ولأجل هذا يتحاماه كثير من أهل  المشاركة حتى يقتدر على الرد عليه من جنس كلامه أو يعلم أنه بدعة,"Therefore, many orthodox Muslims have been on their guard against his (commentary), despite his abundant knowledge of rhetoric (balaghah). However, there are people who have a good knowledge of the orthodox articles of faith and who have some experience in this discipline. They are able to refute him with his own weapons, or (at least) they know that (his work) contains innovations."
فيعرض عنها ولا تضر في معتقده فإنه يتعين عليه النظر في هذا الكتاب للظفر بشيء من الإعجاز مع السلامة من البدع والأهواء.,"They can avoid them, so that no harm is done to their religious beliefs. Such persons do not risk being affected by the innovations and sectarian beliefs. They should study (asZamakhshari’s commentary), in order to find out about certain (aspects of) the inimitability of the Qur’an."
والله الهادي من يشاء إلى سواء السبيل.,God guides whomever He wants to guide to “an even road.”
علم الأدب,The science of literature
هذا العلم لا موضوع له ينظر في إثبات عوارضه أو نفيها. وإنما المقصود منه عند أهل اللسان ثمرته، وهي الإجادة في فني المنظوم والمنثور، على أساليب العرب ومناحيهم،,"This science has no object the accidents of which may be studied and thus be affirmed or denied. Philologists consider its purpose identical with its fruit, which is (the acquisition of) a good ability to handle prose and poetry according to the methods and ways of the Arabs."
فيجمعون لذلك من كلام العرب ما عساه تحصل به الكلمة، من شعر عالي الطبقة، وسجع متساو في الإجادة، ومسائل من اللغة والنحو مبثوثة أثناء ذلك، متفرقة، يستقري منها الناظر في الغالب معظم قوانين العربية،,"Therefore, they collect and memorize (documents) of Arabic speech that are likely to aid in acquiring the (proper linguistic) habit. (Such documents include) high-class poetry, rhymed prose of an even quality, and (certain) problems of lexicography and grammar, found scattered among (documents of Arabic poetry and prose) and from which the student is, as a rule, able to derive inductively most of the rules of Arabic."
مع ذكر بعض من أيام العرب يفهم به ما يقع في أشعارهم منها. وكذلك ذكر المهم من الأنساب الشهيرة والأخبار العامة.,"In addition, they mention certain of the battle-day narratives of the Arabs, which serve to explain the references to (battle days) occurring in the poems. Likewise, they mention famous pedigrees and general historical information of importance."
والمقصود بذلك كله أن لا يخفى على الناظر فيه شيء من كلام العرب وأساليبهم ومناحي بلاغتهم إذا تصفحه لأنه لا تحصل الملكة من حفظه إلا بعد فهمه فيحتاج إلى تقديم جميع ما يتوقف عليه فهمه.,"The purpose of all this is not to leave the students investigating such things in the dark about any (of the documents of) Arabic speech, about any of the (literary) methods used, or about any of the methods of Arab eloquence. Merely memorizing them does not give (a student the proper linguistic) habit, unless he first understands them. Therefore, he must give preference to everything upon which understanding of (Arabic literature) depends."
ثم إنهم إذا أرادوا حد هذا الفن قالوا: الأدب هو حفظ أشعار العرب وأخبارها والأخذ من كل علم بطرف يريدون من علوم اللسان أو العلوم الشرعية من حيث متونها فقط وهي القرآن والحديث.,"(Philologists) who wanted to define this discipline said: “Literature is expert knowledge of the poetry and history of the Arabs as well as the possession of some knowledge regarding every science.” They meant (knowledge) of the linguistic sciences and the religious sciences, but only the contents (of the latter) that is, the Qur’an and the traditions."
إذ لا مدخل لغير ذلك من العلوم في كلام العرب إلا ما ذهب إليه المتأخرون عند كلفهم بصناعة البديع من التورية في أشعارهم وترسلهم بالاصطلاحات العلمية فاحتاج صاحب هذا الفن حينئذ إلى معرفة اصطلاحات العلوم ليكون قائما على فهمها.,"No other science has anything to do with Arab speech, save in as much as recent scholars who have occupied themselves with the craft of rhetorical figures (‘ilm al-badi’) have come to use allusion (tawriyah) by means of (references to terms of) scientific terminologies, in their poetry and their straight prose (tarsil). Therefore, litterateurs need to know scientific terminologies, in order to be able to understand (such allusions)."
وسمعنا من شيوخنا في مجالس التعليم أن أصول هذا الفن وأركانه أربعة دواوين وهي: أدب الكتاب لابن قتيبة وكتاب الكامل للمبرد وكتاب البيان والتبيين للجاحظ وكتاب النوادر لأبي علي القالي البغدادي.,"We heard our shaykhs say in class that the basic principles and pillars of this discipline are four works: the Adab al-katib by Ibn Qutaybah, the Kitab alKamil by al-Mubarrad, the Kitab al-Bayan wa-t-tabyin by al-Jahiz and the Kitab an-Nawadir by Abu ‘Ali al-Qali al-Baghdadi."
وما سوى هذه الأربعة فتبع لها وفروع عنها.,All other books depend on these four and are derived from them.
وكتب المحدثين في ذلك كثيرة. وكان الغناء في الصدر الأول من أجزاء هذا الفن لما هو تابع للشعر إذ الغناء إنما هو تلحينه.,"The works of recent writers on the subject are numerous. At the beginning of (Islam) singing (music) belonged to this discipline. (Singing) depends on poetry, because it is the setting of poetry to music."
وكان الكتاب والفضلاء من الخواص في الدولة العباسية يأخذون أنفسهم به حرصا على تحصيل أساليب الشعر وفنونه فلم يكن انتحاله قادحا في العدالة والمروءة.,"Secretaries and outstanding persons in the ‘Abbasid dynasty occupied themselves with it, because they were desirous of becoming acquainted with the methods and (literary) disciplines of the Arabs. Its cultivation was no blemish on probity or manliness."
وقد ألف القاضي أبو الفرج الأصبهاني كتابه في الأغاني جمع فيه أخبار العرب وأشعارهم وأنسابهم وأيامهم ودولهم.,"The early Hijazi Muslims in Medina and elsewhere, who are models for everybody else to follow, cultivated it. Such a great (scholar) as Judge AbulFaraj al-Isfahani wrote a book on songs, the Kitab al-Aghani. In it, he dealt with the whole of the history, poetry, genealogy, battle days, and ruling dynasties of the Arabs."
وجعل مبناه على الغناء في المائة صوتا التي اختارها المغنون للرشيد فاستوعب فيه ذلك أتم استيعاب وأوفاه.,The basis for the work were one hundred songs which the singers had selected for ar-Rashid. His work is the most complete and comprehensive one there is.
ولعمري إنه ديوان العرب وجامع أشتات المحاسن التي سلفت لهم في كل فن من فنون الشعر والتأريخ والغناء وسائر الأحوال,"Indeed, it constitutes an archive of the Arabs. It is a collection of the disjecta membra of all the good things in Arab poetry, history, song, and all the other conditions (of the Arabs)."
ولا يعدل به كتاب في ذلك فيما نعلمه وهو الغاية التي يسمو إليها الأديب ويقف عندها وأنى له بها. ونحن الآن نرجع بالتحقيق على الإجمال فيما تكلمنا عليه من علوم اللسان.,"There exists no book comparable to it, as far as we know. It is the ultimate goal to which a litterateur can aspire and where he must stop – as though he could ever get so far! Let us now return to the verification of our remarks about the linguistic sciences in general (terms)."
والله الهادي للصواب.,God is the guide to that which is correct.
الفصل السادس والأربعون في أن اللغة ملكة صناعية,45. Language is a technical habit
اعلم أن اللغات كلها ملكات شبيهة بالصناعة إذ هي ملكات في اللسان للعبارة عن المعاني وجودتها وقصورها بحسب تمام الملكة أو نقصانها. وليس ذلك بالنظر إلى المفردات وإنما هو بالنظر إلى التراكيب.,It should be known that all languages are habits similar to crafts (techniques). They are habits (located) in the tongue and serve the purpose of expressing ideas. The good or inadequate (character of such expression) depends on the perfection or deficiency of the habit. This does not apply to individual words but to word combinations.
فإذا حصلت الملكة التامة في تركيب الألفاظ المفردة للتعبير بها عن المعاني المقصودة ومراعاة التأليف الذي يطبق الكلام على مقتضى الحال بلغ المتكلم حينئذ الغاية من إفادة مقصوده للسامع وهذا هو معنى البلاغة.,"A speaker who possesses a perfect (linguistic) habit and is thus able to combine individual words so as to express the ideas he wants to express, and who is able to observe the form of composition that makes his speech conform to the requirements of the situation, is as well qualified as is (humanly) possible to convey to the listener what he wants to convey. This is what is meant by eloquence."
"والملكات لا تحصل إلا بتكرار الأفعال لأن الفعل يقع أولا وتعود منه للذات صفة ثم تتكرر فتكون حالا. ومعنى الحال
أنها صفة غير راسخة ثم يزيد التكرار فتكون ملكة أي صفة راسخة.","Habits result only from repeated action. An action is done first (once). Thus, it contributes an attribute to the essence. With repetition it becomes a condition, which is an attribute that is not firmly established. After more repetition it becomes a habit, that is, a firmly established attribute."
فالمتكلم من العرب حين كانت ملكته اللغة العربية موجودة فيهم يسمع كلام أهل جيله وأساليبهم في مخاطباتهم وكيفية تعبيرهم عن مقاصدهم,"As long as the habit of the Arabic language existed among the Arabs, an Arab speaker always heard the people of his generation (race) speak (Arabic). He hears their ways of address and how they express what they want to express."
كما يسمع الصبي استعمال المفردات في معانيها فيلقنها أولا ثم يسمع التراكيب بعدها فيلقنها كذلك. ثم لا يزال سماعهم لذلك يتجدد في كل لحظة ومن كل متكلم واستعماله يتكرر إلى أن يصير ذلك ملكة وصفة راسخة ويكون كأحدهم.,"He is like a child hearing individual words employed in their proper meanings. He learns them first. Afterwards, he hears word combinations and learns them likewise. He hears something new each moment from every speaker, and his own practice is constantly repeated, until (use of proper speech) becomes a habit and a firmly established attribute. Thus, (the child) becomes like one of (the Arabs)."
هكذا تصيرت الألسن واللغات من جيل إلى جيل وتعلمها العجم والأطفال. وهذا هو معنى ما تقوله العامة من أن اللغة للعرب بالطبع أي بالملكة الأولى التي أخذت عنهم ولم يأخذوها عن غيرهم.,"In this way, (Arab) languages and dialects have passed from generation to generation, and both non-Arabs and children have learned them. This is (what is) meant by the common saying: “The Arabs have (their) language from nature.” That is, they have it from (their own) original habit, and while (others) learned it from them, they themselves did not learn it from anyone else."
ثم إنه لما فسدت هذه الملكة لمضر بمخالطتهم الأعاجم وسبب فسادها أن الناشئ من الجيل صار يسمع في العبارة عن المقاصد كيفيات أخرى غير الكيفيات التي كانت للعرب فيعبر بها عن مقصوده لكثرة المخالطين للعرب من غيرهم,"The (linguistic) habit of the Mudar became corrupt when they came into contact with non-Arabs. The reason for that corruption was that the generation growing up heard other ways of expressing the things they wanted to express than the Arab (ways). They used them to express what they wanted to express, because there were so many non-Arabs coming into contact with the Arabs."
ويسمع كيفيات العرب أيضا فاختلط عليه الأمر وأخذ من هذه وهذه فاستحدث ملكة وكانت ناقصة عن الأولى. وهذا معنى فساد اللسان العربي.,"They also heard the ways in which the Arabs expressed themselves. As a result, matters became confused for them. They adopted (ways of expressing themselves) from both sides. Thus, there originated a new habit which was inferior to the first one. This is what is meant by “corruption of the Arabic language.”"
ولهذا كانت لغة قريش أفصح اللغات العربية وأصرحها لبعدهم عن بلاد العجم من جميع جهاتهم. ثم من اكتنفهم من ثقيف وهذيل وخزاعة وبني كنانة وغطفان وبني أسد وبني تميم.,"Therefore, the dialect of the Quraysh was the most correct and purest Arabic dialect, because the Quraysh were on all sides far removed from the lands of the non-Arabs. Next came (the tribes) around the Quraysh, the Thaqif, the Hudhayl, the Khuza’ah, the Banu Kinanah, the Ghatafan, the Banu Asad, and the Banu Tamim."
وأما من بعد عنهم من ربيعة ولخم وجذام وغسان وإياد وقضاعة وعرب اليمن المجاورين لأمم الفرس والروم والحبشة فلم تكن لغتهم تامة الملكة بمخالطة الأعاجم.,"The Rabi’ah, the Lakhm, the Judham, the Ghassan, the Iyad, the Quda’ah, and the Arabs of the Yemen lived farther away from the Quraysh, and were (variously) neighbors of the Persians, the Byzantines, and the Abyssinians. Because they had contact with non-Arabs, their linguistic habit was not perfect."
وعلى نسبة بعدهم من قريش كان الاحتجاج بلغاتهم في الصحة والفساد عند أهل الصناعة العربية.,The Arabic dialects were used by Arab philologists as arguments for (linguistic) soundness or corruption according to the (degree of) remoteness of (the tribes speaking them) from the Quraysh.
والله سبحانه وتعالى أعلم وبه التوفيق.,And God knows better.
الفصل السابع والأربعون في أن لغة العرب لهذا العهد مستقلة مغايرة للغة مضر وحمير,46. Contemporary Arabic is an independent language different from the languages of the Mudar and the Himyar.
وذلك أنا نجدها في بيان المقاصد والوفاء بالدلالة على سنن اللسان المضري ولم يفقد منها إلا دلالة الحركات على تعين الفاعل من المفعول فاعتاضوا منها بالتقديم والتأخير وبقرائن تدل على خصوصيات المقاصد.,"This is as follows. We find that with regard to clear indication of what one wants to express and full expression of meaning, Arabic (as it is spoken today) follows the ways of the Mudar language. The only loss is that of the vowels indicating the distinction between subject and object. Instead, one uses position within the sentence and syntactic combinations (qara’in) to indicate certain special meanings one wants to express."
إلا أن البيان والبلاغة في اللسان المضري أكثر وأعرق، لأن الألفاظ بأعيانها دالة على المعاني بأعيانها.,"However, the clarity and eloquence of the Mudar language are greater and more firmly rooted (than those of present-day Arabic). The words themselves indicate the ideas."
ويبقى ما تقتضيه الأحوال ويسمى بساط الحال محتاجا إلى ما يدل عليه. وكل معنى لا بد وأن تكتنفه أحوال تخصه فيجب أن تعتبر تلك الأحوال في تأدية المقصود لأنها صفاته,"What still requires indication are the requirements of a particular situation, called “the spread of the situation.” Of necessity, every idea is surrounded by situations peculiar to it. Therefore, it is necessary to indicate those situations in conveying the meaning one wants to convey, because they belong to it as attributes."
وتلك الأحوال في جميع الألسن أكثر ما يدل عليها بألفاظ تخصها بالوضع. وأما في اللسان العربي فإنما يدل عليها بأحوال وكيفيات في تراكيب الألفاظ وتأليفها من تقديم أو تأخير أو حذف أو حركة أعراب.,"In all (other) languages, the situations are as a rule indicated by expressions restricted, by convention, to (those situations). But in the Arabic language, they are indicated by the conditions and possibilities of combining words (in a sentence), such as earlier or later position (of words in a sentence), ellipsis, or vowel endings."
وقد يدل عليها بالحروف غير المستقلة. ولذلك تفاوتت طبقات الكلام في اللسان العربي بحسب تفاوت الدلالة على تلك الكيفيات كما قدمناه فكان الكلام العربي لذلك أوجز وأقل ألفاظا وعبارة من جميع الألسن.,"They are (also) indicated by letters that are not used independently. Hence, the classes of speech in the Arabic language differ according to the different ways of indicating the possibilities, as we have stated before. Therefore, Arabic speech is more concise and uses fewer words and expressions than any other language."
وهذا معنى قوله صلى الله عليه وسلم: «أوتيت جوامع الكلم واختصر لي الكلام اختصارا».,"This is what was meant in the following remark by Muhammad: “I was given the most comprehensive words, and speech was made short for me.”"
واعتبر ذلك بما يحكى عن عيسى بن عمر وقد قال له بعض النحاة: «إني أجد في كلام العرب تكرارا في قولهم: زيد قائم وإن زيدا قائم وإن زيدا لقائم والمعنى واحد».,"One may compare the story of Isa b. ‘Umar. A grammarian said to him: “I find duplications in Arabic speech. The (three) sentences, ‘Zayd is standing,’ ‘Behold, Zayd is standing,’ and ‘Behold, Zayd is indeed standing,’ all mean the same.”"
فقال له: إن معانيها مختلفة، فالأول: لإفادة الخالي الذهن من قيام زيد، والثاني: لمن سمعه فتردد فيه، والثالث: لمن عرف بالإصرار على إنكاره فاختلفت الدلالة باختلاف الأحوال.,"Isa replied: “(No! All three) mean something different. The first (sentence) gives information to a person who has no previous knowledge as to whether Zayd is standing (or not). The second (sentence) gives information to a person who has heard about it but denies it. And the third (sentence) gives information to a person who knows it but persists in denying it. Thus, the meaning differs according to the different situations (one wants to express).”"
وما زالت هذه البلاغة والبيان ديدن العرب ومذهبهم لهذا العهد.,Such eloquence and stylistic (precision) has continued to this day to be a part of Arab custom and method.
ولا تلتفتن في ذلك إلى خرفشة النحاة أهل صناعة الإعراب القاصرة مداركهم عن التحقيق حيث يزعمون أن البلاغة لهذا العهد ذهبت وأن اللسان العربي فسد اعتبارا بما وقع في أواخر الكلم من فساد الإعراب الذي يتدارسون قوانينه.,"No attention should be paid to the nonsensical talk of certain professional grammarians who are not capable of understanding the situation correctly and who think that eloquence no longer exists and that the Arabic language is corrupt. They draw this conclusion from the corruption of the vowel endings, the rules for which are their (particular) subject of study."
وهي مقالة دسها التشيع في طباعهم وألقاها القصور في أفئدتهم وإلا فنحن نجد اليوم الكثير من ألفاظ العرب لم تزل في موضوعاتها الأولى والتعبير عن المقاصد والتعاون فيه بتفاوت الإبانة موجود في كلامهم لهذا العهد,"But such a statement is inspired by both partisan attitude and lack of ability. Actually, we find that most Arabic words are still used today in their original meanings. Arabic speech can still today express what one wants to express with different degrees of clarity."
وأساليب اللسان وفنونه من النظم والنثر موجودة في مخاطباتهم وفهم الخطيب المصقع في محافلهم ومجامعهم والشاعر المفلق على أساليب لغتهم.,In their speeches (the Arabs) still employ the methods and the different branches of the (old language of) prose and poetry. There still exist eloquent speakers at (Arab) parties and gatherings. There are poets who are gifted in all the ways of the Arabic language.
والذوق الصحيح والطبع السليم شاهدان بذلك.,(The existence of) a sound taste and healthy disposition (as far as linguistic matters are concerned) attests to the fact that (the Arabic language is still intact).
ولم يفقد من أحوال اللسان المدون إلا حركات الإعراب في أواخر الكلم فقط الذي لزم في لسان مضر طريقة واحدة ومهيعا معروفا وهو الإعراب. وهو بعض من أحكام اللسان.,"The only part of the codified language that no longer exists is the i’rab, the vowel endings that were used in the language of the Mudar in a uniform and definite manner and that form part of the laws of (the Arabic) language."
وإنما وقعت العناية بلسان مضر لما فسد بمخالطتهم الأعاجم حين استولوا على ممالك العراق والشام ومصر والمغرب وصارت ملكته على غير الصورة التي كانت أولا فانقلب لغة أخرى.,"Concern for the Mudar language was only felt when that language became corrupt through the contact of (Arabs) with non-Arabs, at the time when (the Arabs) gained control of the provinces of the Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and the Maghrib. (At that time) the (Arabic linguistic) habit took on a form different from the one it had had originally."
وكان القرآن منزلا به والحديث النبوي منقولا بلغته وهما أصلا الدين والملة فخشي تناسيهما وانغلاق الأفهام عنهما بفقدان اللسان الذي نزلا به,"The (Mudar language) was thus transformed into another language. (Now,) the Qur’an was revealed in (the language of the Mudar), and the Prophetical traditions were transmitted in it, and both the Qur’an and the traditions are the basis of Islam. It was feared that, as a result of the disappearance of the language in which they were revealed, they themselves might be forgotten and no longer be understood."
فاحتيج إلى تدوين أحكامه ووضع مقاييسه واستنباط قوانينه.,"Therefore, a systematic treatment of its laws, a presentation of the analogical formations used in it, and the derivation of its rules were needed."
وصار علما ذا فصول وأبواب ومقدمات ومسائل سماه أهله بعلم النحو وصناعة العربية فأصبح فنا محفوظا وعلما مكتوبا وسلما إلى فهم كتاب الله وسنة رسوله صلى الله عليه وسلم وافيا .,"(Knowledge of Arabic) thus became a science with subdivisions, chapters, premises, and problems. The scholars who cultivated that science called it grammar and Arabic philology. It became a discipline known by heart and fixed in writing, a ladder leading up to the understanding of the Book of God and the Sunnah of His Prophet."
ولعلنا لو اعتنينا بهذا اللسان العربي لهذا العهد واستقرينا أحكامه نعتاض عن الحركات الإعرابية في دلالتها بأمور أخرى موجودة فيه تكون بها قوانين تخصها.,"Perhaps, if we were to concern ourselves with the presentday Arabic language and evolve its laws inductively, we would find other things and possibilities indicating what the vowel endings, which no longer exist, (used to) indicate, things that exist in the (present-day language) and that have their own peculiar rules."
ولعلها تكون في أواخره على غير المنهاج الأول في لغة مضر فليست اللغات وملكاتها مجانا.,"Perhaps, (certain rules) apply to the endings of (the words of the present-day Arabic language, only) in a manner different from that which existed originally in the language of the Mudar. Languages and (linguistic) habits are not matters of chance."
ولقد كان اللسان المضري مع اللسان الحميري بهذه المثابة وتغير عند مضر كثير من موضوعات اللسان الحميري وتصاريف كلماته.,The relationship of the Mudar language to the Himyarite language was of the same type. Many of the meanings and inflections of the words of the Himyarite language were changed in Mudar usage.
تشهد بذلك الأنقال الموجودة لدينا خلافا لمن يحمله القصور على أنها لغة واحدة ويلتمس إجراء اللغة الحميرية على مقاييس اللغة المضرية وقوانينها,"This fact is attested by the transmitted material available to us. It is contrary to the opinions of those whose deficient (knowledge) leads them to assume that the Mudar and Himyar languages are one and the same, and who want to interpret the Himyarite language according to the formations and rules of the Mudar language."
كما يزعم بعضهم في اشتقاق القيل في اللسان الحميري أنه من القول وكثير من أشباه هذا وليس ذلك بصحيح.,"For instance, certain of these persons assume that the Himyarite word qayl “leader” is derived from qawl “speaking,” and so on. This is not correct."
ولغة حمير لغة أخرى مغايرة للغة مضر في الكثير من أوضاعها وتصاريفها وحركات إعرابها كما هي لغة العرب لعهدنا مع لغة مضر إلا أن العناية بلسان مضر من أجل الشريعة كما قلناه حمل ذلك على الاستنباط والاستقراء,"The Himyarite language is another language and differs from the Mudar language in most of its (conventional) meanings, inflections, and vowels, (and has) the same relationship (to it) that the Mudar language has to present-day Arabic. The only difference is that the interest in the Mudar language which, we have stated, exists on account of (the connection of that language with) the religious law, caused (scholars) to evolve and derive (its rules)."
وليس عندنا لهذا العهد ما يحملنا على مثل ذلك ويدعونا إليه.,There is nothing nowadays to move us to do the same (for presentday Arabic).
ومما وقع في لغة هذا الجيل العربي لهذا العهد حيث كانوا من الأقطار شأنهم في النطق بالقاف فإنهم لا ينطقون بها من مخرج القاف عند أهل الأمصار كما هو مذكور في كتب العربية أنه من أقصى اللسان وما فوقه من الحنك الأعلى.,"A characteristic feature of the language of present-day Arab (Bedouins), wherever they may live, is the pronunciation of q. They do not pronounce it as the urban population pronounces it and as it is indicated in works on Arabic philology, namely, where the hindmost part of the tongue meets the soft palate above it."
وما ينطقون بها أيضا من مخرج الكاف وإن كان أسفل من موضع القاف وما يليه من الحنك الأعلى كما هي بل يجيئون بها متوسطة بين الكاف والقاف,"Neither is it pronounced as k is pronounced, even though k is articulated in a place below that where q is articulated in the vicinity of the soft palate, as it is (when properly articulated). It is pronounced somewhere between k and q."
وهو موجود للجيل أجمع حيث كانوا من غرب أو شرق حتى صار ذلك علامة عليهم من بين الأمم والأجيال مختصا بهم لا يشاركهم فيها غيرهم.,"This is the case with all Arab Bedouins, wherever they are, in the West or the East. It has eventually become their distinguishing mark among the nations and races. It is a characteristic of theirs that no one else shares with them."
حتى إن من يريد التقرب والانتساب إلى الجيل والدخول فيه يحاكيهم في النطق بها. وعندهم أنه إنما يتميز العربي الصريح من الدخيل في العروبية والحضري بالنطق بهذه القاف.,This goes so far that those who want to Arabicize themselves and to affiliate themselves with the Arabs imitate the Arab pronunciation of (q). (Arabs) think that a pure Arab can be distinguished from Arabicized and sedentary people by this pronunciation of q.
ويظهر بذلك أنها لغة مضر بعينها فإن هذا الجيل الباقين معظمهم ورؤساؤهم شرقا وغربا في ولد منصور بن عكرمة بن خصفة بن قيس بن عيلان من سليم بن منصور ومن بني عامر بن صعصعة بن معاوية بن بكر بن هوازن بن منصور.,It is thus obvious that this is the (pronunciation of q found in) the Mudar language. The largest and leading group of Arab Bedouins who still live in the East and the West consists of descendants of Mansur b. ‘Ikrimah b. Khasafah b. Qays b. ‘Aylan through Sulaym b. Mansur and through the Banu ‘Amir b. Sa’sa’ah b. Mu’awiyah b. Bakr b. Hawazin b. Mansur.
وهم لهذا العهد أكثر الأمم في المعمور وأغلبهم وهم من أعقاب مضر وسائر الجيل معهم من بني كهلان في النطق بهذه القاف أسوة.,"Nowa-days, they constitute the most numerous and powerful nation of the inhabited part of the earth. They are descendants of the Mudar. They and all the other (Arab Bedouins) of the Banu Kahlan are the model for the pronunciation of q mentioned."
وهذه اللغة لم يبتدعها هذا الجيل بل هي متوارثة فيهم متعاقبة ويظهر من ذلك أنها لغة مضر الأولين ولعلها لغة النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم بعينها قد ادعى ذلك فقهاء أهل البيت,It was not invented by these Arab Bedouins but inherited by them over the generations. This makes it obvious that it was the pronunciation of the ancient Mudar. Perhaps it is the very pronunciation that was used by the Prophet. ‘Alid jurists made that claim.
وزعموا أن من قرأ في أم القرآن «اهدنا إلى الصراط المستقيم» بغير القاف التي لهذا الجيل فقد لحن وأفسد صلاته,"They thought that he who reads in the first surah the words “the straight path” (as-sirata l-mustaqima) without pronouncing the q (in al-mustaqim) as is done by (present-day) Arab Bedouins, commits an error, and his prayer is not valid."
ولم أدر من أين جاء هذا؟ فإن لغة أهل الأمصار أيضا لم يستحدثوها وإنما تناقلوها من لدن سلفهم وكان أكثرهم من مضر لما نزلوا الأمصار من لدن الفتح.,"I do not know how this (differentiation in the pronunciation of q) came about. The language of the urban population was not invented by the urban population itself, either. It was transmitted to them from their ancestors, most of whom belonged to the Mudar, when they settled in the cities at the time of the (Muslim) conquest and later."
وأهل الجيل أيضا لم يستحدثوها إلا أنهم أبعد من مخالطة الأعاجم من أهل الأمصار. فهذا يرجح فيما يوجد من اللغة لديهم أنه من لغة سلفهم.,"The Arab Bedouins did not invent (their pronunciation of q), either. However, they had less contact with the non-Arab urban population. Therefore, the linguistic features found in their (speech) can preferably be assumed to belong to the language of their ancestors."
هذا مع اتفاق أهل الجيل كلهم شرقا وغربا في النطق بها وأنها الخاصية التي يتميز بها العربي من الهجين والحضري.,"In addition, all Arab Bedouins in the East and the West agree upon that (pronunciation of q). It is the peculiar characteristic that distinguishes the Arabs from halfbreeds and sedentary people."
والظاهر أن هذه القاف التي ينطق بها أهل الجيل العربي البدوي هو من مخرج القاف عند أولهم من أهل اللغة، وأن مخرج القاف متسع، فأوله من أعلى الحنك وآخره مما يلي الكاف.,"It is obvious that the pronunciation of q as practiced by (present-day) Arab Bedouins is the same as that of the ancient speakers (of Arabic). The place (where the sound) of q may be produced is wide, ranging from the soft palate to the place next to where k is articulated."
فالنطق بها من أعلى الحنك هو لغة الأمصار، والنطق بها مما يلي الكاف هي لغة هذا الجيل البدوي. وبهذا يندفع ما قاله أهل البيت من فساد الصلاة بتركها في أم القرآن، فإن فقهاء الأمصار كلهم على خلاف ذلك.,The velar pronunciation is the urban one. The pronunciation close to k is that of (present-day) Arab Bedouins. This fact refutes the statement of the ‘Alids that failure to pronounce the q in the first surah (as it is pronounced by present-day Bedouins) invalidates one’s prayer. All the jurists of the (great) cities hold the contrary opinion.
وبعيد أن يكونوا أهملوا ذلك، فوجهه ما قلناه. نعم نقول إن الأرجح والأولى ما ينطق به أهل الجيل البدوي لأن تواترها فيهم كما قدمناه، شاهد بأنها لغة الجيل الأول من سلفهم، وأنها لغة النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم.,"It is improbable that all of them would have overlooked this (point). The matter is to be explained as we have stated it. We do say (however) that the Arab Bedouins’ pronunciation (of q) is preferable and more proper, because, as we have mentioned before, its continuity among them shows that it was the pronunciation of their early Arab-Bedouin ancestors and the pronunciation of the Prophet."
ويرجح ذلك أيضا إدغامهم لها في الكاف لتقارب المخرجين. ولو كانت كما ينطق بها أهل الأمصار من أصل الحنك، لما كانت قريبة المخرج من الكاف، ولم تدغم.,"The fact that they assimilate q to k (in pronunciation) because of the proximity of the places where the two sounds are articulated, also makes this (assumption) appear preferable. If it were pronounced far back, as a velar, as is done by the urban population, it would not be close to k in its place of articulation and would not be assimilated (to it)."
ثم إن أهل العربية قد ذكروا هذه القاف القريبة من الكاف، وهي التي ينطق بها أهل الجيل البدوي من العرب لهذا العهد، وجعلوها متوسطة بين مخرجي القاف والكاف. على أنها حرف مستقل، وهو بعيد.,"Arab philologists have mentioned this q which is close to k, as pronounced by present-day Arab Bedouins. They consider it a sound intermediary between q and k, and an independent sound (phoneme). This is improbable."
والظاهر أنها من آخر مخرج القاف لاتساعه كما قلناه. ثم إنهم يصرحون باستهجانه واستقباحه كأنهم لم يصح عندهم أنها لغة الجيل الأول.,"It is obvious that it is a q pronounced at the end. of the wide range of articulation available for q, as we have stated. The (philologists) then openly denounced (that q) as an ugly, un-Arabic sound, as if they did not recognize that (the way in which it was pronounced) was the pronunciation of the early Arabs."
وفيما ذكرناه من اتصال نطقهم بها، لأنهم إنما ورثوها من سلفهم جيلا بعد جيل، وأنها شعارهم الخاص بهم، دليل على أنها لغة ذلك الجيل الأول، ولغة النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم كما تقدم ذلك كله.,"As we have mentioned, it belonged to (Arab) linguistic tradition, because (the Arabs) inherited it from their ancestors, generation after generation, and it was their particular symbol. That is proof that (the way in which it is pronounced) was the pronunciation of the early Arabs and the pronunciation of the Prophet, as has all been mentioned before."
وقد يزعم زاعم أن هذه القاف التي ينطق بها أهل الأمصار ليست من هذا الحرف، وأنها إنما جاءت من مخالطتهم للعجم، وإنهم ينطقون بها كذلك، فليست من لغة العرب. ولكن الأقيس كما قدمناه من أنهما حرف واحد متسع المخرج.,"There is a theory that q as pronounced by the urban population does not belong to the (original) q-sound, but is the result of their contact with non-Arabs. They pronounce it as. they do, but it is not an Arabic sound. However, our aforementioned statement that it is (all) one sound with a wide (range of) articulation is more appropriate."
فتفهم ذلك. والله الهادي المبين.,This should be understood. God is the clear guide.
الفصل الثامن والأربعون في أن لغة أهل الحضر والأمصار لغة قائمة بنفسها للغة مضر,47. The language of the sedentary and urban population is an independent language different from the language of the Mudar.
اعلم أن عرف التخاطب في الأمصار وبين الحضر ليس بلغة مضر القديمة ولا بلغة أهل الجيل بل هي لغة أخرى قائمة بنفسها بعيدة عن لغة مضر وعن لغة هذا الجيل العربي الذي لعهدنا وهي عن لغة مضر أبعد.,"It should be known that the usual form of address used among the urban and sedentary population is not the old Mudar language nor the language of the (presentday) Arab Bedouins. It is another independent language, remote from the language of the Mudar and from the language of presentday Arab Bedouins. It is more remote from the former (than from the latter)."
فأما إنها لغة قائمة بنفسها فهو ظاهر يشهد له ما فيها من التغاير الذي يعد عند صناعة أهل النحو لحنا. وهي مع ذلك تختلف باختلاف الأمصار في اصطلاحاتهم,"It is obvious that it is an independent language by itself. The fact is attested by the changes it shows, which grammatical scholarship considers solecisms. Moreover, it is different in the various cities depending on the differences in terminologies used by their (inhabitants)."
فلغة أهل المشرق مباينة بعض الشيء للغة أهل المغرب وكذا أهل الأندلس معهما وكل منهم متوصل بلغته إلى تأدية مقصوده والإبانة عما في نفسه. وهذا معنى اللسان واللغة.,"The language of the inhabitants of the East differs somewhat from that of the inhabitants of the West. The same applies to the relationship of the language of the Spaniards to either of them. All these people are able to express in their own language whatever they want to express, and to explain their ideas. That is what languages and dialects are for."
وفقدان الإعراب ليس بضائر لهم كما قلناه في لغة العرب لهذا العهد.,"Loss of the vowel endings does not disturb them, as we have stated in connection with the language of present-day Arab (Bedouins)."
وأما إنها أبعد عن اللسان الأول من لغة هذا الجيل فلأن البعد عن اللسان إنما هو بمخالطة العجمة . فمن خالط العجم أكثر كانت لغته عن ذلك اللسان الأصلي أبعد,The fact that (the language spoken in present-day cities) is more remote from the ancient (Arabic) language than the language of present-day Arab Bedouins is conditioned by the fact that remoteness from the (ancient Arabic) language is due to contact with non-Arabs. More contact with non-Arabs means greater remoteness from the original language.
لأن الملكة إنما تحصل بالتعليم كما قلناه. وهذه ملكة ممتزجة من الملكة الأولى التي كانت للعرب ومن الملكة الثانية التي للعجم. فعلى مقدار ما يسمعونه من العجم ويربون عليه يبعدون عن الملكة الأولى.,"For, as we have stated, a (linguistic) habit results only from instruction, and the (new) habit is a mixture of the ancient (linguistic) habit of the Arabs and the later (acquired linguistic) habit of the non-Arabs. The longer people listen to non-Arab (speech) and the longer they are brought up in such a condition, the more remote from the ancient habit do they become."
واعتبر ذلك في أمصار إفريقية والمغرب والأندلس والمشرق. أما إفريقية والمغرب فخالطت العرب فيها البرابرة من العجم بوفور عمرانها بهم ولم يكد يخلو عنهم مصر ولا جيل فغلبت العجمة فيها على اللسان العربي الذي كان لهم,"In this connection, one may compare the cities of Ifriqiyah, the Maghrib, Spain, and the East. In Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib, the Arabs had contact with the non-Arab Berbers who constitute the bulk of the population (‘umran) of (those countries). Hardly any city or group was without (Berbers). Therefore, the non-Arab (element) there gained preponderance over the language of the Arabs."
وصارت لغة أخرى ممتزجة. والعجمة فيها أغلب لما ذكرناه فهي عن اللسان الأول أبعد.,"Thus, there originated another, mixed language in which the non-Arab (element) was preponderant, for the reasons mentioned. (The language spoken there) is more remote from the ancient language (than other dialects)."
وكذا المشرق لما غلب العرب على أممه من فارس والترك فخالطوهم وتداولت بينهم لغاتهم في الأكرة والفلاحين والسبي الذين اتخذوهم خولا ودايات وأظآرا ومراضع ففسدت لغتهم بفساد الملكة حتى انقلبت لغة أخرى.,"Likewise, in the East, the Arabs gained superiority over the Persian and Turkish nations there. They had contact with them. These languages circulated among them in (the speech of) farmers, peasants, and captives whom they used as servants, wet nurses, and foster mothers. Thus, their (linguistic) habit was corrupted. With that, their language (also was corrupted, and) eventually it came to be another language."
وكذا أهل الأندلس مع عجم الجلالقة والإفرنجة. وصار أهل الأمصار كلهم من هذه الأقاليم أهل لغة أخرى مخصوصة بهم تخالف لغة مضر ويخالف أيضا بعضهم بعضا كما نذكره وكأنه لغة أخرى لاستحكام ملكتها في أجيالهم.,"The same (happened to) the Spaniards in their relations with the non-Arab Galicians and European Christians. The entire urban population of those zones came to speak another language, one peculiar to them and different from the language of the Mudar. It also showed (dialectical) differences within itself, as we are going to mention. In a way, it was another language (and no longer Arabic), in as much as the habit of it became firmly rooted among those people (in Spain)."
والله يخلق ما يشاء ويقدر.,“God creates whatever He wishes.”
الفصل التاسع والأربعون في تعليم اللسان المضري,48. Instruction in the Mudar language.
اعلم أن ملكة اللسان المضري لهذا العهد قد ذهبت وفسدت ولغة أهل الجيل كلهم مغايرة للغة مضر التي نزل بها القرآن وإنما هي لغة أخرى من امتزاج العجمة بها كما قدمناه.,"It should be known that the habit of the Mudar language has disappeared and become corrupted at this time. All Arab Bedouins speak a language that differs from the Mudar language in which the Qur’an was revealed. It has become another language through the admixture of non-Arab elements, as we have stated before."
إلا أن اللغات لما كانت ملكات كما مر كان تعلمها ممكنا شأن سائر الملكات.,"However, since languages are habits, as mentioned before, it is possible to learn them like any other habit."
ووجه التعليم لمن يبتغي هذه الملكة ويروم تحصيلها أن يأخذ نفسه بحفظ كلامهم القديم الجاري على أساليبهم من القرآن والحديث وكلام السلف ومخاطبات فحول العرب في أسجاعهم وأشعارهم وكلمات المولدين أيضا في سائر فنونهم,"The obvious method of instruction for those who desire to obtain the habit of the ancient (Mudar) language is to acquire expert knowledge of the linguistic documents (written) in it, such as the Qur’an, the traditions, the speeches in rhymed prose and verse of the ancients and of outstanding Arabs, as well as the statements of (early) men of mixed Arab and non-Arab parentage (muwallad) in all disciplines."
حتى يتنزل لكثرة حفظه لكلامهم من المنظوم والمنثور منزلة من نشأ بينهم ولقن العبارة عن المقاصد منهم.,"Eventually, the student obtains expert knowledge of a great amount of such poetical and prose material. As a result, he is like a person who grew up among the (old speakers of Arabic) and learned from them how to express what he wants to express."
ثم يتصرف بعد ذلك في التعبير عما في ضميره على حسب عباراتهم وتأليف كلماتهم وما وعاه وحفظه من أساليبهم وترتيب ألفاظهم فتحصل له هذه الملكة بهذا الحفظ والاستعمال ويزداد بكثرتهما رسوخا وقوة,"After that, he may try to express his own thoughts with the expressions and in the style they would have used and to follow their ways and word arrangement, of which he has, by now, an expert knowledge. His expert and practical use (of the material) gives him the habit of (the old language). With the increase in (his knowledge and practical use of the material, his habit) becomes more firmly rooted and stronger."
ويحتاج مع ذلك إلى سلامة الطبع والتفهم الحسن لمنازع العرب وأساليبهم في التراكيب ومراعاة التطبيق بينها وبين مقتضيات الأحوال.,"In addition, the student needs a healthy disposition and a good understanding of the aspirations and ways of the Arabs in (their) word combinations and in (their) efforts that those word combinations should conform to the requirements of the given situation."
والذوق يشهد بذلك وهو ينشأ ما بين هذه الملكة والطبع السليم فيهما كما نذكر. وعلى قدر المحفوظ وكثرة الاستعمال تكون جودة المقول المصنوع نظما ونثرا.,"Taste attests to the fact that (these things are needed by the student), for it originates as the result of the (existence of the proper linguistic) habit and of a healthy disposition, as we shall mention later on. The more the student knows by heart and the more he uses (the material), the better will his utterances in prose and verse turn out to be."
ومن حصل على هذه الملكات فقد حصل على لغة مضر وهو الناقد البصير بالبلاغة فيها وهكذا ينبغي أن يكون تعلمها.,The (student) who has obtained these (linguistic) habits knows the Mudar language. He has a critical understanding of what constitutes good style (eloquence) in it. This is how the (Mudar language) must be studied.
والله يهدي من يشاء بفضله وكرمه.,God “guides whomever He wants to guide.”
الفصل الخمسون في أن ملكة هذا اللسان غير صناعة العربية ومستغنية عنها في التعليم,49. The habit of the (Mudar) language is different fromArabic philology and can dispense with it in(the process of) instruction.
والسبب في ذلك أن صناعة العربية إنما هي معرفة قوانين هذه الملكة ومقاييسها خاصة. فهو علم بكيفية لا نفس كيفية. فليست نفس الملكة وإنما هي بمثابة من يعرف صناعة من الصنائع علما ولا يحكمها عملا.,"The reason for this is that Arabic philology is merely a knowledge of the rules and forms of this habit. It is the knowledge of a quality, and not a quality itself. It is not the habit itself. Rather, it is comparable to a person who has a theoretical knowledge of a craft but does not know how to exercise it in practice."
مثل أن يقول بصير بالخياطة غير محكم لملكتها في التعبير عن بعض أنواعها الخياطة,"For instance, someone may know all about tailoring but not possess the habit of it. Such a person might explain some of the aspects of tailoring as follows:"
هي أن يدخل الخيط في خرت الإبرة ثم يغرزها في لفقي الثوب مجتمعين ويخرجها من الجانب الآخر بمقدار كذا ثم يردها إلى حيث ابتدأت ويخرجها قدام منفذها الأول بمطرح ما بين الثقبين الأولين,"One introduces the thread into the eye of the needle; one inserts the needle into two pieces of material held together; one brings it out on the other side at such-and-such a distance; returns it to (the side) where he started; brings it out in front of the place where it first went in, so that there is some room between the first two holes."
ثم يتمادى على ذلك إلى آخر العمل ويعطي صورة الحبك والتثبيت والتفتيح وسائر أنواع الخياطة وأعمالها. وهو إذا طولب أن يعمل ذلك بيده لا يحكم منه شيئا.,"In this way, the person might go on and describe the whole operation and give a description of how to use bands, to quilt, and to cut openings, along with all the other aspects and operations of tailoring. But if he were challenged to do something like the (things he talks about) with his own hands, he would in no way be able to."
وكذا لو سئل عالم بالنجارة عن تفصيل الخشب فيقول: هو أن تضع المنشار على رأس الخشبة وتمسك بطرفه وآخر قبالتك ممسك بطرفه الآخر وتتعاقبانه بينكما وأطرافه المضرسة المحددة تقطع ما مرت عليه ذاهبة وجائية إلى أن ينتهي إلى آخر الخشبة.,"Likewise, a person who knows about carpentry might be asked about splitting wood. He would say: One places the saw on top of a piece of wood; one person holds one end of the saw, and another person opposite him the other; the two alternately push and pull, and the sharp teeth of the saw cut the part of the piece of wood over which they pass back and forth, until one gets through the bottom of the wood."
وهو لو طولب بهذا العمل أو شيء منه لم يحكمه.,"If such a person were challenged actually to do it, or some part of it, he might not be able to."
وهكذا العلم بقوانين الإعراب مع هذه الملكة في نفسها فإن العلم بقوانين الإعراب إنما هو علم بكيفية العمل وليس هو نفس العمل,"The same applies to the relationship between knowledge of the rules governing the vowel endings and the (linguistic) habit itself. Knowledge of the rules is a knowledge of how to use them, but it is not the actual use of them."
ولذلك نجد كثيرا من جهابذة النحاة والمهرة في صناعة العربية المحيطين علما بتلك القوانين إذا سئل في كتابة سطرين إلى أخيه أو ذي مودته أو شكوى ظلامة أو قصد من قصوده أخطأ فيها عن الصواب وأكثر من اللحن,"Therefore, we find that many outstanding grammarians and skilled Arab philologists who have a comprehensive knowledge of those rules make many mistakes and commit many solecisms when they are asked to write one or two lines to a colleague or friend, or to write a complaint concerning some injustice or anything else they might want to say."
ولم يجد تأليف الكلام لذلك والعبارة عن المقصود على أساليب اللسان العربي.,They cannot put (the words) together and express what they want to say in a way that corresponds to the ways of the Arabic language.
وكذا نجد كثيرا ممن يحسن هذه الملكة ويجيد الفنين من المنظوم والمنثور وهو لا يحسن إعراب الفاعل من المفعول ولا المرفوع من المجرور ولا شيئا من قوانين صناعة العربية.,"Likewise, we find many people who have a good (linguistic) habit and a good (ability to express themselves in) both prose and poetry, but cannot distinguish between the vowel endings of subject and object, or nominative and genitive, and know nothing about the rules of Arabic philology."
فمن هذا تعلم أن تلك الملكة هي غير صناعة العربية وأنها مستغنية عنها بالجملة. وقد نجد بعض المهرة في صناعة الإعراب بصيرا بحال هذه الملكة وهو قليل واتفاقي وأكثر ما يقع للمخالطين لكتاب سيبويه.,"This shows that the (linguistic) habit is different from Arabic philology and can completely dispense with it. We find that some scholars who are skilled in the vowel endings have a good knowledge of how it is with the (linguistic) habit. This, however, is rare and a matter of chance. It happens mostly to those (students) who have close contact with the Book of Sibawayh."
فإنه لم يقتصر على قوانين الإعراب فقط بل ملأ كتابه من أمثال العرب وشواهد أشعارهم وعباراتهم فكان فيه جزء صالح من تعليم هذه الملكة فتجد العاكف عليه والمحصل له قد حصل على حظ من كلام العرب,"For Sibawayh did not restrict himself to the rules governing the vowel endings, but filled his work with Arab proverbs and evidential Arab verses and expressions. Thus, his work contains a good deal of (the things that go with) teaching the (linguistic habit). Therefore, we find that the (students) who apply themselves diligently to (Sibawayh’s Book) and come to know it, learn a good deal of Arab speech (from it)."
واندرج في محفوظه في أماكنه ومفاصل حاجاته. وتنبه به لشأن الملكة فاستوفى تعليمها فكان أبلغ في الإفادة.,"Where, and according to what arrangement, (Arab speech) is properly used becomes impressed in the (student’s) memory and makes him aware of the importance of the (linguistic) habit, with the result that he is taught the habit in its entirety. Therefore, (Sibawayh’s Book) is more instructive (than any other work)."
ومن هؤلاء المخالطين لكتاب سيبويه من يغفل عن التفطن لهذا فيحصل على علم اللسان صناعة ولا يحصل عليه ملكة.,"(However,) some of the (students) who have contact with the Book of Sibawayh fail to realize this. Thus, they learn philology as a craft but do not obtain a (linguistic) habit."
وأما المخالطون لكتب المتأخرين العارية عن ذلك إلا من القوانين النحوية مجردة عن أشعار العرب وكلامهم، فقل ما يشعرون لذلك بأمر هذه الملكة أو ينتبهون لشأنها,"Students who have close contact with the books of recent scholars that have nothing of the sort but deal only with grammatical rules and contain no Arab poems or (documents of) Arab speech, for this very reason are rarely conscious of (linguistic) habit or aware of its importance."
فتجدهم يحسبون أنهم قد حصلوا على رتبة في لسان العرب وهم أبعد الناس عنه.,"One finds that they think they have gotten somewhere in knowledge of the Arabic language. In fact, they are farther from it than anyone else."
وأهل صناعة العربية بالأندلس ومعلموها أقرب إلى تحصيل هذه الملكة وتعليمها من سواهم لقيامهم فيها على شواهد العرب وأمثالهم والتفقه في الكثير من التراكيب في مجالس تعليمهم,The Arabic philologists and teachers of Arabic in Spain are closer to acquiring and teaching the (linguistic) habit than others. They use evidential Arab verses and proverbs in this connection and investigate a good deal of (Arabic) word combinations in the classroom.
فيسبق إلى المبتدئ كثير من الملكة أثناء التعليم فتنقطع النفس لها وتستعد إلى تحصيلها وقبولها. وأما من سواهم من أهل المغرب وإفريقية وغيرهم فأجروا صناعة العربية مجرى العلوم بحثا وقطعوا النظر عن التفقه في تراكيب كلام العرب,"Thus, a good deal of (linguistic) habit comes to the beginners early in (their) instruction. (Their) souls are impressed by it and are prepared to obtain and accept it. Other people, such as the inhabitants of the Maghrib and Ifriqiyah and others, treated Arabic philology like any other research discipline. They did not tolerate investigations of the word combinations of Arab speech."
إلا إن أعربوا شاهدا أو رجحوا مذهبا من جهة الاقتضاء الذهني لا من جهة محامل اللسان وتراكيبه.,"They merely provided an evidential verse with the ending vowels, or decided in favor of one rule (against another), in accordance with theoretical requirements, and not in accordance with the usage and word combinations of the (Arabic) language."
فأصبحت صناعة العربية كأنها من جملة قوانين المنطق العقلية أو الجدل وبعدت عن مناحي اللسان وملكته وأفاد ذلك حملتها في هذه الأمصار وآفاقها البعد عن الملكة بالكلية، وكأنهم لا ينظرون في كلام العرب.,"With them, Arabic philology thus came to be, in a way, one of the intellectual norms of logic and dialectics and (thereby) remote from the ways and habit of language. Arabic philologists in these cities and their adjacent regions thus became totally estranged from the (linguistic) habit, and it was as if they had not studied the Arabic language (at all)."
وما ذلك إلا لعدولهم عن البحث في شواهد اللسان وتراكيبه وتمييز أساليبه وغفلتهم عن المران في ذلك للمتعلم فهو أحسن ما تفيده الملكة في اللسان.,"The only reason was their aversion to investigating the evidential verses and word combinations and to making a discerning study of the methods of the (Arabic) language, as well as their disregard for the (necessity of) constant practice of those things by the student. In fact, (to investigate these things) is the best way to teach the habit of the (Arabic) language."
وتلك القوانين إنما هي وسائل للتعليم لكنهم أجروها على غير ما قصد بها وأصاروها علما بحتا وبعدوا عن ثمرتها.,"The (grammatical) rules are merely means for purposes of instruction. However, (scholars) employed them as they were not intended to be employed, and caused them to become a purely scholarly discipline. (Thus,) they were deprived of their (real) fruit."
وتعلم مما قررناه في هذا الباب أن حصول ملكة اللسان العربي إنما هو بكثرة الحفظ من كلام العرب حتى يرتسم في خياله المنوال الذي نسجوا عليه تراكيبهم فينسج هو عليه,"Our remarks in this chapter show that the habit of the Arabic language can be obtained only through expert knowledge of the (documents of) Arab speech. Thereby, the imagination of (the student) will eventually have a picture of the loom on which the Arabs wove their word combinations, so that he can use it himself."
ويتنزل بذلك منزلة من نشأ معهم وخالط عباراتهم في كلامهم حتى حصلت له الملكة المستقرة في العبارة عن المقاصد على نحو كلامهم.,"Thus, he achieves the position of one who grew up with them and had close personal contact with the ways they expressed themselves in their speech and who, thus, eventually obtains the firm habit of expressing what he wants to express in the manner in which they would have said it."
والله مقدر الأمور كلها,God determines all affairs.
الفصل الواحد والخمسون في تفسير الذوق في مصطلح أهل البيان وتحقيق معناه وبيان أنه لا يحصل للمستعربين من العجم,50. The interpretation and real meaning of the word “taste” according to the technical terminology of literary critics. An explanation of why Arabicized non-Arabs as a rule do not have it.
اعلم أن لفظة الذوق يتداولها المعتنون بفنون البيان ومعناها حصول ملكة البلاغة للسان. وقد مر تفسير البلاغة وأنها مطابقة الكلام للمعنى من جميع وجوهه بخواص تقع للتراكيب في إفادة ذلك.,"It should be known that the word “taste” is in current use among those who are concerned with the various branches of literary criticism (bayan). It means the tongue’s possession of the habit of eloquence. What eloquence is was explained above. It is the conformity of speech to the meaning (intended), in every aspect, (and this is achieved) by means of certain qualities that give this (conformity) to the word combinations."
فالمتكلم بلسان العرب والبليغ فيه يتحرى الهيئة المفيدة لذلك على أساليب العرب وأنحاء مخاطباتهم وينظم الكلام على ذلك الوجه جهده,An eloquent speaker of the Arabic language chooses the form (of expression) that affords such (conformity) according to the methods and ways of Arab address. He arranges (his) speech along such lines so far as he is able.
فإذا اتصلت مقاماته بمخالطة كلام العرب حصلت له الملكة في نظم الكلام على ذلك الوجه وسهل عليه أمر التركيب حتى لا يكاد ينحو فيه غير منحى البلاغة التي للعرب,"When he does this constantly in his use of Arabic speech, he gets the habit of arranging (his) speech along those lines. (The use of proper) word combinations becomes a simple matter for him. In this respect he hardly ever swerves from the way of Arab eloquence."
وإن سمع تركيبا غير جار على ذلك المنحى مجه ونبا عنه سمعه بأدنى فكر، بل وبغير فكر، إلا بما استفاد من حصول هذه الملكة. فإن الملكات إذا استقرت ورسخت في محالها ظهرت كأنها طبيعة وجبلة لذلك المحل.,"If he hears a word combination that is not along those lines, he spits it out, and his ear recoils from it upon the slightest reflection. Indeed, no reflection whatever (is needed, for his reaction is) the consequence of the (linguistic) habit he has obtained. Habits that are firmly established and rooted in their proper places appear to be natural and innate in those places."
ولذلك يظن كثير من المغفلين ممن لم يعرف شأن الملكات أن الصواب للعرب في لغتهم إعرابا وبلاغة أمر طبيعي. ويقول كانت العرب تنطق بالطبع وليس كذلك,"Therefore, many ignorant people who are not acquainted with the importance of habits, think that the correct use of vowel endings and the proper eloquence of Arabs in their language are natural things. They say that “the Arabs speak (correct Arabic) by nature.” This is not so."
وإنما هي ملكة لسانية في نظم الكلام تمكنت ورسخت فظهرت في بادئ الرأي أنها جبلة وطبع. وهذه الملكة كما تقدم إنما تحصل بممارسة كلام العرب وتكرره على السمع والتفطن لخواص تراكيبه,"(Correct Arabic speech) is a linguistic habit of (proper) speech arrangement that has become firmly established and rooted (in speakers of Arabic), so that, superficially, it appears to be something natural and innate. However, as mentioned before, this habit results from the constant practice of Arabic speech and from repeated listening to it and from understanding the peculiar qualities of its word combinations."
وليست تحصل بمعرفة القوانين العلمية في ذلك التي استنبطها أهل صناعة اللسان فإن هذه القوانين إنما تفيد علما بذلك اللسان ولا تفيد حصول الملكة بالفعل في محلها وقد مر ذلك.,It is not obtained through knowledge of the scientific rules evolved by literary critics. Those rules merely afford a knowledge of the (Arabic) language. They do not give (a person) possession of the actual habit in its proper place. This was mentioned before.
وإذا تقرر ذلك فملكة البلاغة في اللسان تهدي البليغ إلى وجود النظم وحسن التركيب الموافق لتراكيب العرب في لغتهم ونظم كلامهم.,"(Now,) if this is established, (we may say that it is) the tongue’s habit of eloquence that guides an eloquent person toward the various aspects of (word) arrangement and toward use of the correct combinations (of words) corresponding to the word combinations and arrangement used by Arabs when they speak Arabic."
ولو رام صاحب هذه الملكة حيدا عن هذه السبل المعينة والتراكيب المخصوصة لما قدر عليه ولا وافقه عليه لسانه لأنه لا يعتاده ولا تهديه إليه ملكته الراسخة عنده.,"When a person who possesses the (Arabic linguistic) habit attempts to deviate from the specific ways and the word combinations peculiar (to Arabic speech), he is not able to do so. His tongue will not go along with him, because it is not used to (improper speech), and its firmly rooted habit will not let it use it."
وإذا عرض عليه الكلام حائدا عن أسلوب العرب وبلاغتهم في نظم كلامهم أعرض عنه ومجه وعلم أنه ليس من كلام العرب الذين مارس كلامهم.,"Should any (form of) speech that deviates from the method of the Arabs and the eloquence they use in arranging their speech occur to him, he would avoid it, spit it out, and know that it does not belong to the Arabic speech that he has assiduously practiced."
وربما يعجز عن الاحتجاج لذلك كما تصنع أهل القوانين النحوية والبيانية فإن ذلك استدلال بما حصل من القوانين المفادة بالاستقراء. وهذا أمر وجداني حاصل بممارسة كلام العرب حتى يصير كواحد منهم.,"He may often be unable to support his attitude by arguments, as the people who know the grammatical and stylistic rules can do. But such is a matter of argumentation with the help of inductively derived rules, whereas (correct use of the language) is something intuitive, resulting from the constant practice of Arabic speech until such time as (the person who practices it) comes to be like one of (the Arabs)."
ومثاله: لو فرضنا صبيا من صبيانهم نشأ وربي في جيلهم فإنه يتعلم لغتهم ويحكم شأن الإعراب والبلاغة فيها حتى يستولي على غايتها. وليس من العلم القانوني في شيء وإنما هو بحصول هذه الملكة في لسانه ونطقه.,"For comparison, let us assume an Arab child who grows up and is reared among Arab Bedouins. He learns their language and has a good knowledge of the vowel endings and of eloquent (Arabic) expression. He masters (all) that completely, but he does not have any knowledge whatever of grammatical rules. His (correctness and eloquence of speech) is purely the result of the linguistic habit he has obtained."
وكذلك تحصل هذه الملكة لمن بعد ذلك الجيل بحفظ كلامهم وأشعارهم وخطبهم والمداومة على ذلك بحيث يحصل الملكة ويصير كواحد ممن نشأ في جيلهم وربي بين أجيالهم .,"In the same way, the (linguistic) habit may be acquired by those who live after the time of the (ancient) Arab Bedouins, with the help of expert knowledge of, and constant occupation with, (the documents of) their speech, their poems, and addresses. This will eventually give them the (linguistic) habit and make them like persons who grew up and were reared among them."
والقوانين بمعزل عن هذا واستعير لهذه الملكة عند ما ترسخ وتستقر اسم الذوق الذي اصطلح عليه أهل صناعة البيان والذوق وإنما هو موضوع لإدراك الطعوم.,"The (grammatical) rules cannot do that. This habit, if firmly rooted and established, is metaphorically called “taste,” a technical term of literary criticism. “Taste” is (conventionally) used for the sensation caused by food."
لكن لما كان محل هذه الملكة في اللسان من حيث النطق بالكلام كما هو محل لإدراك الطعوم استعير لها اسمه. وأيضا فهو وجداني اللسان كما أن الطعوم محسوسة له فقيل له ذوق.,"But, since the (linguistic) habit is located in the tongue, which is the seat of speech as it is the seat of the sensation caused by food, the name of “taste” is metaphorically used for it. Furthermore, it is something intuitively observed by the tongue, just as food is something sensually perceived by it. Therefore, it is called “taste.”"
وإذا تبين لك ذلك علمت منه أن الأعاجم الداخلين في اللسان العربي الطارئين عليه المضطرين إلى النطق به لمخالطة أهله كالفرس والروم والترك بالمشرق وكالبربر بالمغرب فإنه لا يحصل لهم هذا الذوق لقصور حظهم في هذه الملكة التي قررنا أمرها,"If this is clear, it will make one realize that non-Arabs, such as Persians, Byzantines, and Turks in the East, and Berbers in the West, who are strangers to the Arabic language and adopt it and are forced to speak it as the result of contact with the Arabs, do not possess such taste. They have too small a share in the (linguistic) habit the significance of which we have established."
لأن قصاراهم بعد طائفة من العمر وسبق ملكة أخرى إلى اللسان وهي لغاتهم أن يعتنوا بما يتداوله أهل مصر بينهم في المحاورة من مفرد ومركب لما يضطرون إليه من ذلك.,"They formerly had another linguistic habit – their own language – and part of their lives had gone by (before they got to know Arabic). Now, the most they can do is to occupy themselves with the individual words and word combinations in current use in the conversation of the (Muslim) urban population in their midst and which they are forced to use."
وهذه الملكة قد ذهبت لأهل الأمصار وبعدوا عنها كما تقدم. وإنما لهم في ذلك ملكة أخرى وليست هي ملكة اللسان المطلوبة. ومن عرف أحكام تلك الملكة من القوانين المسطرة في الكتب فليس من تحصيل الملكة في شيء.,"The (ancient Arabic linguistic) habit is lost to the urban population, and they are strangers to it, as mentioned before. They have another linguistic habit, which is not the desired linguistic habit (of the Arabs). Those who know the (Arabic linguistic) habit (merely) from rules codified in books are in no way in the possession of (that) habit."
إنما حصل أحكامها كما عرفت. وإنما تحصل هذه الملكة بالممارسة والاعتياد والتكرر لكلام العرب. فإن عرض لك ما تسمعه من أن سيبويه والفارسي والزمخشري وأمثالهم من فرسان الكلام كانوا أعجاما مع حصول هذه الملكة لهم,"They merely know the laws governing it, as one knows (now after our preceding discussion). The (linguistic) habit can be obtained only through constant practice, becoming accustomed to Arab speech, and repeatedly (using and listening to) it. One may hear it said that Sibawayh, al-Farisi, azZamakhshari, and other authorities on Arab speech were nonArabs and yet possessed the (Arab linguistic) habit."
فاعلم أن أولئك القوم الذين تسمع عنهم إنما كانوا عجما في نسبهم فقط. وأما المربى والنشأة فكانت بين أهل هذه الملكة من العرب ومن تعلمها منهم,"Then one should realize that these people one hears about were non-Arab only by descent. They grew up and were reared among Arabs who possessed the (Arabic linguistic) habit, or among people who had learned it from them."
فاستولوا بذلك من الكلام على غاية لا شيء وراءها وكأنهم في أول نشأتهم من العرب الذين نشئوا في أجيالهم حتى أدركوا كنه اللغة وصاروا من أهلها,"Thus, they were able to master (Arabic) speech to a degree that cannot be surpassed. In a way, in their early childhoods they were in the position of Arab children who grow up among Arab Bedouins and thus achieve a knowledge of all the finesses of the language and become speakers of (pure) Arabic."
فهم وإن كانوا عجما في النسب فليسوا بأعجام في اللغة والكلام لأنهم أدركوا الملة في عنفوانها واللغة في شبابها ولم تذهب آثار الملكة ولا من أهل الأمصار ثم عكفوا على الممارسة والمدارسة لكلام العرب حتى استولوا على غايته.,"Although these (scholars) were non-Arab by descent, they were not non-Arabs as far as language and speech are concerned, because they lived in a time when Islam was in its prime and the Arabic language in its young manhood. The (linguistic) habit had not yet entirely disappeared, not even among the urban population. They assiduously devoted themselves to the constant study and practice of Arab speech. Eventually, they mastered it completely."
واليوم الواحد من العجم إذا خالط أهل اللسان العربي بالأمصار فأول ما يجد تلك الملكة المقصودة من اللسان العربي ممتحية الآثار. ويجد ملكتهم الخاصة بهم ملكة أخرى مخالفة لملكة اللسان العربي.,"(However,) nowadays, when a non-Arab has contact with Arabic speakers in, the cities, the first thing he finds is that the desired Arabic linguistic habit is completely” gone, and he finds that the (linguistic) habit peculiar to them is another one and different from the Arabic linguistic habit."
ثم إذا فرضنا أنه أقبل على الممارسة لكلام العرب وأشعارهم بالمدارسة والحفظ يستفيد تحصيلها فقل أن يحصل له ما قدمناه من أن الملكة إذا سبقتها ملكة أخرى في المحل فلا تحصل إلا ناقصة مخدوشة.,"Assuming that he proceeds with persistence to study and memorize the speech and poems of the Arabs, in order to obtain the (linguistic habit), still,. he will rarely be successful, because, as mentioned before, a habit the place of which was originally taken by another habit, will be defective and mutilated."
وإن فرضنا أعجميا في النسب سلم من مخالطة اللسان العجمي بالكلية وذهب إلى تعلم هذه الملكة بالحفظ والمدارسة فربما يحصل له ذلك لكنه من الندور بحيث لا يخفى عليك بما تقرر.,"Assuming (further) that he is non-Arab by descent but has had no contact whatever with a non-Arabic language, and that he now sets out to learn the (Arabic linguistic) habit through memorizing and studying, he may occasionally be successful. This, however, is rare, a fact about which the previous remarks will have left no doubt."
وربما يدعي كثير ممن ينظر في هذه القوانين البيانية حصول هذا الذوق له بها وهو غلط أو مغالطة وإنما حصلت له الملكة إن حصلت في تلك القوانين البيانية وليست من ملكة العبارة في شيء.,"Those who have studied the stylistic norms (of Arabic) occasionally claim that they have given them the “taste” (of the Arabic language). This, (however,) is an error and a deception. If they have obtained any habit, it is the habit of the stylistic norms. That habit has nothing whatever to do with the habit of (linguistic) expression."
والله يهدي من يشاء إلى طريق مستقيم.,God “guides whomever He wants to guide to a straight path.”
الفصل الثاني والخمسون في أن أهل الأمصار على الإطلاق قاصرون في تحصيل هذه الملكة اللسانية التي تستفاد بالتعليم ومن كان منهم أبعد عن اللسان العربي كان حصولها له أصعب وأعسر,"51. The urban population is in general deficient in obtaining the linguistic habit that results from instruction. The more remote urban people are from the Arabic language, the more difficult it is for them to obtain it."
والسبب في ذلك ما يسبق إلى المتعلم من حصول ملكة منافية للملكة المطلوبة بما سبق إليه من اللسان الحضري الذي أفادته العجمة حتى نزل بها اللسان عن ملكته الأولى إلى ملكة أخرى هي لغة الحضر لهذا العهد.,"The reason for this is that the student has previously obtained a habit incompatible with the desired (Arabic linguistic) habit, since he has grown up speaking the sedentary language, which was influenced by non-Arab (speech) to such a degree that, eventually, the original habit of the (Arabic) language was replaced by another. This (other habit) is the language of the present-day sedentary population."
ولهذا نجد المعلمين يذهبون إلى المسابقة بتعليم اللسان للولدان. وتعتقد النحاة أن هذه المسابقة بصناعتهم وليس كذلك وإنما هي بتعليم هذه الملكة بمخالطة اللسان وكلام العرب.,"Therefore, we find that teachers (attempt to) teach children the (Arabic) language first. The grammarians think that this is done through grammar. But this is not so. It is done through teaching them the (linguistic) habit through direct contact with the (Arabic) language and Arab speech."
نعم صناعة النحو أقرب إلى مخالطة ذلك وما كان من لغات أهل الأمصار أعرق في العجمة وأبعد عن لسان مضر قصر بصاحبه عن تعلم اللغة المضرية وحصول ملكتها لتمكن المنافاة حينئذ.,"It is true that grammar comes closer (than anything else) to bringing about contact with those (things). The more firmly rooted in non-Arab (speech habits) an urban language is and the more remote it is from the language of the Mudar, the less able are its speakers to learn the language of the Mudar and to obtain the habit of it. In such cases, the forces that are incompatible with (acquisition of the habit of the Mudar language) are firmly entrenched."
واعتبر ذلك في أهل الأمصار. فأهل إفريقية والمغرب لما كانوا أعرق في العجمة وأبعد عن اللسان الأول كان لهم قصور تام في تحصيل ملكته بالتعليم.,"One may compare the inhabitants of the various regions. The inhabitants of Ifriqiyah and the Maghrib were more firmly rooted in non-Arab (speech habits) and more remote from the ancient language (than other Arabic speakers). Thus, they were altogether deficient in obtaining the habit of (the ancient language) through instruction."
ولقد نقل ابن الرفيق أن بعض كتاب القيروان كتب إلى صاحب له: يا أخي ومن لا عدمت فقده أعلمني أبو سعيد كلاما أنك كنت ذكرت أنك تكون مع الذين تأتي وعاقنا اليوم فلم يتهيأ لنا الخروج.,"Ibn ar-Raqiq tells the story of a secretary in al-Qayrawan who wrote to a colleague of his: “O my friend and whose loss I may indeed be denied, Abu Sa’id taught me word that you had been mentioning that we was to be with those who was to come, but it hindered us today, and it was not possible for us to go out."
وأما أهل المنزل الكلاب من أمر الشين فقد كذبوا هذا باطلا ليس من هذا حرفا واحدا. وكتابي إليك وأنا مشتاق إليك إن شاء الله. وهكذا كانت ملكتهم في اللسان المضري شبيه بما ذكرنا.,"The people of (my) house, those dogs, concerning the straw lied this falsely; there is not a single letter of that (true). I am writing to you. I am missing you.” Such was the habit of the Mudar language that those (people possessed). The facts we have mentioned explain why."
وكذلك أشعارهم كانت بعيدة عن الملكة نازلة عن الطبقة ولم تزل كذلك لهذا العهد ولهذا ما كان بإفريقية من مشاهير الشعراء إلا ابن رشيق وابن شرف.,"Likewise, their poems did not show the (correct linguistic) habit and were inferior. This has continued to be so to this time. There have been no famous poets in Ifriqiyah, except for Ibn Rashiq and Ibn Sharaf."
وأكثر ما يكون فيها الشعراء طارئين عليها ولم تزل طبقتهم في البلاغة حتى الآن مائلة إلى القصور. وأهل الأندلس أقرب منهم إلى تحصيل هذه الملكة بكثرة معاناتهم وامتلائهم من المحفوظات اللغوية نظما ونثرا.,"Most of the poets there have been recent immigrants. Down to this day, their eloquence has inclined to the inferior. The Spaniards came closer to obtaining the (linguistic) habit (than the people of Ifriqiyah), because they were greatly interested in it and saturated with poetry and prose they had memorized."
وكان فيهم ابن حيان المؤرخ إمام أهل الصناعة في هذه الملكة ورافع الراية لهم فيها وابن عبد ربه والقسطلي وأمثالهم من شعراء ملوك الطوائف لما زخرت فيها بحار اللسان والأدب,"They had the historian Ibn Hayyan as their leading craftsman in matters of language and standard-bearer of the (Arabic linguistic) habit. They also had Ibn ‘Abdrabbih, al-QastallI, and other poets in the (time of the) reyes de ta’ifas. Language-and literature flourished in (Spain)."
وتداول ذلك فيهم مئين من السنين حتى كان الانفضاض والجلاء أيام تغلب النصرانية. وشغلوا عن تعلم ذلك وتناقص العمران فتناقص لذلك شأن الصنائع كلها فقصرت الملكة فيهم عن شأنها حتى بلغت الحضيض.,"They were cultivated there for hundreds of years, down to the time of the dispersion and exile when the Christians gained the upper hand. Thereafter, the (Spaniards) had no leisure to occupy themselves with such things. Civilization decreased. As a result, (language and literature) decreased, as is the case with all crafts (under such conditions). The (linguistic) habit among (Spaniards) was then no longer adequate to its purpose. Eventually, it sank to the lowest point."
وكان من آخرهم صالح بن شريف ومالك بن مرحل من تلاميذ الطبقة الإشبيليين بسبتة وكتاب دولة بني الأحمر في أولها. وألقت الأندلس أفلاذ كبدها من أهل تلك الملكة بالجلاء إلى العدوة لعدوة الإشبيلية إلى سبتة ومن شرقي الأندلس إلى إفريقية.,"Among the last (of the Spanish litterateurs) were Salih b. Sharif and Malik b. al-Murahhal (who was) a pupil of the Sevillian community in Ceuta, when the dynasty of the Banu al-Ahmar (the Nasrids of Granada) was just beginning. Spain (at that time) sent its most treasured (children and best) speakers of Arabic into exile on the (African) shore. From Sevilla, they went to Ceuta, and from eastern Spain to Ifriqiyah."
ولم يلبثوا إلى أن انقرضوا وانقطع سند تعليمهم في هذه الصناعة لعسر قبول العدوة لها وصعوبتها عليهم بعوج ألسنتهم ورسوخهم في العجمة البربرية وهي منافية لما قلناه.,"But soon, their time was up. The tradition of teaching Arabic philology as cultivated by them, came to an end. (Arabic) was too hard and difficult for (the people of) the (African) shore to learn. Their tongues were too twisted, and they were too firmly rooted in non-Arabic Berber (speech habits), which are incompatible with (the Arabic linguistic habit) for the reasons we have stated."
ثم عادت الملكة من بعد ذلك إلى الأندلس كما كانت ونجم بها ابن بشرين وابن جابر وابن الجياب وطبقتهم. ثم إبراهيم الساحلي الطريحي وطبقته وقفاهم ابن الخطيب من بعدهم الهالك لهذا العهد شهيدا بسعاية أعدائه.,"Afterwards, the (Arabic linguistic) habit came to exist again in Spain, as it had been before. There appeared there Ibn Shibrin, Ibn Jabir, Ibn alJayyab, and (other men of) their class. After them came Ibrahim as-Sahili atTuwayjin and (other men of) his class. They were followed by Ibn alKhatib, who recently died a martyr’s death as the result of denunciation by his enemies."
وكان له في اللسان ملكة لا تدرك واتبع أثره تلميذه من بعده. وبالجملة فشأن هذه الملكة بالأندلس أكثر وتعليمها أيسر وأسهل بما هم عليه لهذا العهد كما قدمناه من معاناة علوم اللسان ومحافظتهم عليها وعلى علوم الأدب وسند تعليمها.,"He possessed an unequaled linguistic habit. His pupils followed in his footsteps. In general, the (Arabic linguistic) habit plays a greater role in Spain, and instruction in it is simpler and easier (there than elsewhere), because the (Spaniards) are nowadays greatly interested in, and concerned with, philology and literature and the teaching tradition in those (subjects), as we have mentioned before."
ولأن أهل اللسان العجمي الذين تفسد ملكتهم إنما هم طارئون عليهم. وليست عجمتهم أصلا للغة أهل الأندلس والبربر في هذه العدوة وهم أهلها ولسانهم لسانها إلا في الأمصار فقط.,"Also, non-Arabic speakers with a corrupt (linguistic) habit are only recent immigrants in (Spain), and non-Arabic (speech habits) are not the basis of the language of the Spaniards. (On the other hand,) the Berbers on the (African) shore constitute the (native) inhabitants of the region. Their language is the language (of the country), except in the cities."
وهم منغمسون في بحر عجمتهم ورطانتهم البربرية فيصعب عليهم تحصيل الملكة اللسانية بالتعليم بخلاف أهل الأندلس.,"(The language there) is entirely submerged in the non-Arab native idiom of the Berbers. It is difficult for them, therefore, in contrast to the Spaniards, to obtain the (Arabic) linguistic habit through instruction."
واعتبر ذلك بحال أهل المشرق لعهد الدولة الأموية والعباسية فكان شأنهم شأن أهل الأندلس في تمام هذه الملكة وإجادتها لبعدهم لذلك العهد عن الأعاجم ومخالطتهم إلا في القليل. فكان أمر هذه الملكة في ذلك العهد أقوم,"The situation (of the people) of the East at the time of the Umayyad and ‘Abbasid dynasties was the same as we find it in Spain, with reference to the perfection and refinement of their (linguistic) habit. At that time, apart from rare cases, they were remote from contact with non-Arabs. Therefore, the (linguistic) habit was at that time more firmly entrenched (than at any other time)."
وكان فحول الشعراء والكتاب أوفر لتوفر العرب وأبنائهم بالمشرق.,"Excellent poets and secretaries existed in abundant numbers, because the number of Arabs and their descendants was abundant in the East."
وانظر ما اشتمل عليه كتاب الأغاني من نظمهم ونثرهم فإن ذلك الكتاب هو كتاب العرب وديوانهم وفيه لغتهم وأخبارهم وأيامهم وملتهم العربية وسيرتهم وآثار خلفائهم وملوكهم وأشعارهم وغناؤهم وسائر معانيهم له فلا كتاب أوعب منه لأحوال العرب.,"Glance (in this connection) at the poems and prose texts of the Kitab al It deals with their language, their history, their battle days, the Arab religious organization and the biography of their Prophet, the remarkable deeds of their caliphs and rulers, their poems and songs, and all the other conditions (of the Arabs). There is no book that gives more complete information about the conditions of the Arabs."
وبقي أمر هذه الملكة مستحكما في المشرق في الدولتين وربما كانت فيهم أبلغ ممن سواهم ممن كان في الجاهلية كما نذكره بعد.,"During the rule of the (Umayyad and ‘Abbasid) dynasties, the (linguistic) habit remained firmly established in the East. (Poets and litterateurs of that period) were often superior to the pre-Islamic (poets and litterateurs) with regard to (their linguistic habit), as we shall mention later on."
حتى تلاشى أمر العرب ودرست لغتهم وفسد كلامهم وانقضى أمرهم ودولتهم وصار الأمر للأعاجم والملك في أيديهم والتغلب لهم. وذلك في دولة الديلم والسلجوقية.,"Eventually, however, the Arabs lost power. Their language was wiped out. Their speech was corrupted. Their power and dynasties came to an end. The nonArabs seized power. They gained royal authority and superiority. This happened under the dynasty of the Daylam and the Saljugs."
وخالطوا أهل الأمصار وكثروهم فامتلأت الأرض بلغاتهم، واستولت العجمة على أهل الأمصار والحواضر حتى بعدوا عن اللسان العربي وملكته وصار متعلمها منهم مقصرا عن تحصيلها.,"They had contact with the urban population and exceeded them in number. The earth came to be full of their languages, and non-Arab (speech habits) gained power over the urban and sedentary population. Eventually, people came to be remote from the Arabic language and the habit of it. Those who studied it were not able to obtain it."
وعلى ذلك نجد لسانهم لهذا العهد في فني المنظوم والمنثور وإن كانوا مكثرين منه.,"This we find to be the condition in which their language finds itself today. It affects both their prose and poetry, even if much is being produced by them in (both fields)."
والله يخلق ما يشاء ويختار,"God “creates whatever He wishes, and His is the choice.”"
الفصل الثالث والخمسون في انقسام الكلام إلى فني النظم والنثر,52. The division of speech into poetry and prose.
اعلم أن لسان العرب وكلامهم على فنين في الشعر المنظوم وهو الكلام الموزون المقفى ومعناه الذي تكون أوزانه كلها على روي واحد وهو القافية.,"It should be known that the Arabic language and Arab speech are divided into two branches. (One of them) is rhymed poetry. It is speech with meter and rhyme, which means that every line of it ends upon a definite letter, which is called the “rhyme.”"
وفي النثر وهو الكلام غير الموزون وكل واحد من الفنين يشتمل على فنون ومذاهب في الكلام.,"The other branch is prose, that is, non-metrical speech. Each of the two branches comprises various sub-branches and ways of speech."
فأما الشعر فمنه المدح والهجاء والرثاء وأما النثر فمنه السجع الذي يؤتى به قطعا ويلتزم في كل كلمتين منه قافية واحدة يسمى سجعا ومنه المرسل,"Poetry comprises laudatory and heroic poems and elegies (upon the dead). Prose may be rhymed prose. Rhymed prose consists of cola ending on the same rhyme throughout, or of sentences rhymed in pairs. This is called “rhymed prose” (saj’ ). Prose may also be “straight prose” (murassal)."
وهو الذي يطلق فيه الكلام إطلاقا ولا يقطع أجزاء بل يرسل إرسالا من غير تقييد بقافية ولا غيرها.ويستعمل في الخطب والدعاء وترغيب الجمهور وترهيبهم.,"In (straight prose), the speech goes on and is not divided into cola, but is continued straight through without any divisions, either of rhyme or of anything else. (Prose) is employed in sermons and prayers and in speeches intended to encourage or frighten the masses."
وأما القرآن وإن كان من المنثور إلا أنه خارج عن الوصفين وليس يسمى مرسلا مطلقا ولا مسجعا. بل تفصيل آيات ينتهي إلى مقاطع يشهد الذوق بانتهاء الكلام عندها.,"The Qur’an is in prose. However, it does not belong in either of the two categories. It can neither be called straight prose nor rhymed prose. It is divided into verses. One reaches breaks where taste tells one that the speech stops."
ثم يعاد الكلام في الآية الأخرى بعدها ويثنى من غير التزام حرف يكون سجعا ولا قافية,"It is then resumed and “repeated” in the next verse. (Rhyme) letters which would make that (type of speech) rhymed prose are not obligatory, nor do rhymes (as used in poetry) occur."
وهو معنى قوله تعالى: «الله نزل أحسن الحديث كتابا متشابها مثاني تقشعر منه جلود الذين يخشون ربهم 39: 23».,"This (situation) is what is meant by the verse of the Qur’an: “God revealed the best story, a book harmoniously arranged with repeated verses (mathaniya). It raises goose pimples on the skin of those who fear their Lord.”"
وقال: «قد فصلنا الآيات 6: 97».,God also said: “We have divided the verses.”
ويسمى آخر الآيات منها فواصل إذ ليست أسجاعا ولا التزم فيها ما يلتزم في السجع ولا هي أيضا قواف. وأطلق اسم المثاني على آيات القرآن كلها على العموم لما ذكرناه,"That is why the ends of the individual verses are called “dividers” (fawasil). They are not really rhymed prose, since the (rhyme) which is obligatory in rhymed prose is not obligatory in them, nor are there rhymes as in poetry. The name “repeated verses” (mathani) is generally used for all the verses of the Qur’an, for the reasons mentioned."
واختصت بأم القرآن للغلبة فيها كالنجم للثريا ولهذا سميت السبع المثاني. وانظر هذا مع ما قاله المفسرون في تعليل تسميتها بالمثاني يشهد لك الحق برجحان ما قلناه.,"It is used in particular for the first surah, because of the prominence (of repeated verses) in it, just as the (general) word “star” is used for the Pleiades. Therefore, the (first surah) was called “the seven repeated (verses).” One may compare what the Qur’an commentators have said in explanation of the fact that the first surah is called “the repeated (verses).” One will find that our explanation deserves the preference."
واعلم أن لكل واحد من هذه الفنون أساليب تختص به عند أهله ولا تصلح للفن الآخر ولا تستعمل فيه مثل النسيب المختص بالشعر والحمد والدعاء المختص بالخطب والدعاء المختص بالمخاطبات وأمثال ذلك.,"It should be known that each of these branches of poetry has its own particular methods, which are considered peculiar to it by the people who cultivate that branch and which do not apply to any other (branch) and cannot be employed for it. For instance, there is the nasib, which is restricted to poetry. There are the praise of God and prayer (du’a’), which are restricted to sermons, and there are the formulas of blessing (du’a’), which are restricted to addresses, and so on."
وقد استعمل المتأخرون أساليب الشعر وموازينه في المنثور من كثرة الأسجاع والتزام التقفية وتقديم النسب بين يدي الأغراض. وصار هذا المنثور إذا تأملته من باب الشعر وفنه ولم يفترقا إلا في الوزن.,"Recent authors employ the methods and ways of poetry in writing prose. (Their writing) contains a great deal of rhymed prose and obligatory rhymes as well as the use of the nasib before the authors say what they want to say. When one examines such prose, (one gets the impression that) it has actually become a kind of poetry. It differs from poetry only through the absence of meter."
واستمر المتأخرون من الكتاب على هذه الطريقة واستعملوها في المخاطبات السلطانية وقصروا الاستعمال في المنثور كله على هذا الفن الذي ارتضوه وخلطوا الأساليب فيه وهجروا المرسل وتناسوه وخصوصا أهل المشرق.,"In recent times, secretaries took this up and employed it in government correspondence. They restricted all prose writing to this type, which they liked. They mixed up (all the different) methods in it. They avoided straight prose and affected to forget it, especially the people of the East."
وصارت المخاطبات السلطانية لهذا العهد عند الكتاب الغفل جارية على هذا الأسلوب الذي أشرنا إليه وهو غير صواب من جهة البلاغة لما يلاحظ في تطبيق الكلام على مقتضى الحال من أحوال المخاطب والمخاطب.,"At the hand of stupid secretaries, present-day government correspondence is handled in the way described. From the point of view of good style (balaghah), it is not correct, since (in good style) one looks for conformity between what is said and the requirements of the given situations in which the speaker and the person addressed find themselves."
وهذا الفن المنثور المقفى أدخل المتأخرون فيه أساليب الشعر فوجب أن تنزه المخاطبات السلطانية عنه إذ أساليب الشعر تنافيها اللوذعية وخلط الجد بالهزل والإطناب في الأوصاف وضرب الأمثال وكثرة التشبيهات والاستعارات حيث لا تدعو ضرورة إلى ذلك في الخطاب.,"In recent times, secretaries introduced the methods of poetry into this type of prose-with-rhyme. However, it is necessary that government correspondence be kept free from it. The methods of poetry admit wittiness, the mixture of humor with seriousness, long descriptions, and the free use of proverbs, as well as frequent similes and metaphoric expressions, (even) where none of these are required in (ordinary) address."
والتزام التقفية أيضا من اللوذعة والتزيين وجلال الملك والسلطان وخطاب الجمهور عن الملوك بالترغيب والترهيب ينافي ذلك ويباينه.,The (constant) obligatory use of rhyme is also something witty and ornamental. All of this is quite incompatible with the dignity of royal and governmental authority and with the task of encouraging or frightening the masses in the name of the ruler.
والمحمود في المخاطبات السلطانية الترسل وهو إطلاق الكلام وإرساله من غير تسجيع إلا في الأقل النادر. وحيث ترسله الملكة إرسالا من غير تكلف له ثم إعطاء الكلام حقه في مطابقته لمقتضى الحال,"In government correspondence, what deserves praise is the use of straight prose – that is, straightforward speech with only a very occasional use of rhymed prose in places where (sound linguistic) habit can use rhymed prose in an unforced manner – and (forms of) speech that conform properly to the requirements of a given situation."
فإن المقامات مختلفة ولكل مقام أسلوب يخصه من إطناب أو إيجاز أو حذف أو إثبات أو تصريح أو إشارة أو كناية واستعارة.,"The (existing) situations are always different. Each situation has its peculiar method (of expression. A situation may require) lengthiness or brevity, ellipsis or assertion, directness or allusion, the use of metonymy or metaphors."
وأما إجراء المخاطبات السلطانية على هذا النحو الذي هو على أساليب الشعر فمذموم وما حمل عليه أهل العصر إلا استيلاء العجمة على ألسنتهم وقصورهم لذلك عن إعطاء الكلام حقه في مطابقته لمقتضى الحال,"Government correspondence done in the (afore-mentioned) way, that is, in a method proper to poetry, deserves censure. The only reason why (our) contemporaries do it is the fact that non-Arab (speech habits) exercise a firm hold over their tongues, and, as a result, they are unable to give their speech its proper measure of conformity with the requirements of a given situation."
فعجزوا عن الكلام المرسل لبعد أمده في البلاغة وانفساح خطوبه . وولعوا بهذا المسجع يلفقون به ما نقصهم من تطبيق الكلام على المقصود ومقتضى الحال فيه.,"Thus, they are unable to use straight speech. It is a difficult task and (takes) long effort to achieve eloquence in it. They eagerly use the type of rhymed prose (mentioned), in this way covering up their inability to make their speech conform to the things they want to say and to the requirements of the particular situation (with which they deal)."
ويجبرونه بذلك القدر من التزيين بالأسجاع والألقاب البديعة ويغفلون عما سوى ذلك.,"They make up for their (inability in this respect) by greatly embellishing (their speech) with rhymed prose and rhetorical figures (alqab), They neglect everything else."
وأكثر من أخذ بهذا الفن وبالغ فيه في سائر أنحاء كلامهم كتاب المشرق وشعراؤه لهذا العهد حتى إنهم ليخلون بالإعراب في الكلمات والتصريف إذا دخلت لهم في تجنيس أو مطابقة لا يجتمعان معها,Present-day secretaries and poets in the East use this method most and apply it in an exaggerated manner to all kinds of speech. They go so far as to tamper with the vowel endings and inflections of words when it happens to them that these conflict with some paronomasia or antithesis (that they want to use).
فيرجحون ذلك الصنف من التجنيس. ويدعون الإعراب ويفسدون بنية الكلمة عساها تصادف التجنيس.,"In such a case, they give preference to the paronomasia and pay no attention to the (correct) vowel ending, (preferring to) corrupt the form of the word so that it might fit the paronomasia."
فتأمل ذلك بما قدمناه لك تقف على صحة ما ذكرناه.,"When this matter is studied critically from the point of view of our preceding remarks, it will be seen that our remarks are correct."
والله الموفق للصواب.,God gives success.
الفصل الرابع والخمسون في أنه لا تتفق الإجادة في فني المنظوم والمنثور معا إلا للأقل,53. The ability to write both good poetry and good prose is only very rarely found together in one person.
والسبب في ذلك أنه كما بيناه ملكة في اللسان فإذا تسبقت إلى محله ملكة أخرى قصرت بالمحل عن تمام الملكة اللاحقة. لأن تمام الملكات وحصولها للطبائع التي على الفطرة الأولى أسهل وأيسر.,"The reason for this is that, as we have explained, it is a habit (located) in the tongue. If another habit previously occupied the place of (that habit), the subsequent habit has not enough room to develop, because the acceptance and obtainment of habits is simpler and easier for natures in their original state."
وإذا تقدمتها ملكة أخرى كانت منازعة لها في المادة القابلة وعائقة عن سرعة القبول فوقعت المنافاة وتعذر التمام في الملكة وهذا موجود به في الملكات الصناعية كلها على الإطلاق. وقد برهنا عليه في موضعه بنحو من هذا البرهان.,"If there are other previous habits, they resist the (new habit) in the substance that is to receive the (new habit). They prevent it from being quickly accepted. Thus, there arises incompatibility. It becomes impossible for the (new) habit to develop (to perfection). This is, in general, the case with all technical habits. We have proved that fact in the proper place with an argument similar to the one used here."
فاعتبر مثله في اللغات فإنها ملكات اللسان وهي بمنزلة الصناعة. وانظر من تقدم له شيء من العجمة كيف يكون قاصرا في اللسان العربي أبدا.,The same applies to languages. They are habits of the tongue which are in the same position as the crafts. It can be observed how persons with some previous non-Arab (speech habits) are always deficient in (their knowledge of) the Arabic language.
فالأعجمي الذي سبقت له اللغة الفارسية لا يستولي على ملكة اللسان العربي ولا يزال قاصرا فيه ولو تعلمه وعلمه. وكذا البربري والرومي. والإفرنجي قل أن تجد أحدا منهم محكما لملكة اللسان العربي.,"Non-Arabs who previously spoke Persian cannot master the Arabic linguistic habit and will always be deficient in Arabic, even though they may study and (come to) know it. The same is the case with Berbers, Byzantines, and European Christians. One rarely finds among them any one who possesses a good Arabic linguistic habit."
وما ذلك إلا لما سبق إلى ألسنتهم من ملكة اللسان الآخر حتى إن طالب العلم من أهل هذه الألسن إذا طلبه بين أهل اللسان العربي جاء مقصرا في معارفه عن الغاية والتحصيل وما أوتي إلا من قبل اللسان.,"The only reason here is that their tongues previously had the habit of another language. This goes so far that a student whose native language is one of the (non-Arabic) languages, but who studies (his subjects) among Arabic speakingpeople and from Arabic books, will never be perfect in his knowledge and attainments. The only reason is the language."
وقد تقدم لك من قبل أن الألسن واللغات شبيهة بالصنائع. وقد تقدم لك أن الصنائع وملكاتها لا تزدحم. وأن من سبقت له إجادة في صناعة فقل أن يجيد في أخرى أو يستولي فيها على الغاية.,It was mentioned before that languages and dialects are similar to the crafts. It was also mentioned before that the crafts and the habits of them do not come together in groups. Persons who previously had some good habit are rarely able to become skilled in another or to master it completely.
والله خلقكم وما تعملون 37: 96.,“God created you and whatever you do.”
الفصل الخامس والخمسون في صناعة الشعر ووجه تعلمه,54. The craft of poetry and the way of learning it.
هذا الفن من فنون كلام العرب وهو المسمى بالشعر عندهم ويوجد في سائر اللغات إلا أننا الآن إنما نتكلم في الشعر الذي للعرب.,"This discipline is one of the disciplines connected with Arab speech. (The Arabs) call it “poetry” (shi’r). It exists in all the other languages. Here, however, we speak only about Arabic poetry."
فإن أمكن أن تجد فيه أهل الألسن الأخرى مقصودهم من كلامهم وإلا فلكل لسان أحكام في البلاغة تخصه.,"It is possible that the speakers of other languages, too, find in (poetry) the things they desire to express in their speech. However, each language has its own particular laws concerning eloquence."
وهو في لسان العرب غريب النزعة عزيز المنحى إذ هو كلام مفصل قطعا قطعا متساوية في الوزن متحدة في الحرف الأخير من كل قطعة وتسمى كل قطعة من هذه القطعات عندهم بيتا ويسمى الحرف الأخير الذي تتفق فيه رويا وقافية ويسمى جملة الكلام إلى آخره قصيدة وكلمة.,"(Poetry) in the Arabic language is remarkable in (its) manner and powerful in (its) way. It is speech that is divided into cola having the same meter and held together by the last letter of each colon. Each of those cola is called a “verse.” The last letter, which all the verses (of a poem) have in common, is called the “rhyme letter.” The whole complex is called a “poem” (qasidah or kalimah)."
وينفرد كل بيت منه بإفادته في تراكيبه حتى كأنه كلام وحده مستقل عما قبله وما بعده. وإذا أفرد كان تاما في بابه في مدح أو تشبيب أو رثاء فيحرص الشاعر على إعطاء ذلك البيت ما يستقل في إفادته.,"Each verse, with its combinations of words, is by itself a meaningful unit. In a way, it is a statement by itself, and independent of what precedes and what follows. By itself it makes perfect sense, either as a laudatory or an erotic (statement), or as an elegy. It is the intention of the poet to give each verse an independent meaning."
ثم يستأنف في البيت الآخر كلاما آخر كذلك ويستطرد للخروج من فن إلى فن ومن مقصود إلى مقصود بأن يوطئ المقصود الأول ومعانيه إلى أن يناسب المقصود الثاني ويبعد الكلام عن التنافر.,"Then, in the next verse, he starts anew, in the same way, with some other (matter). He changes over from one (poetical) type to another, and from one topic to another, by preparing the first topic and the ideas expressing it in such a way that it becomes related to the next topic. Sharp contrasts are kept out of the poem."
كما يستطرد من التشبيب إلى المدح ومن وصف البيداء والطلول إلى وصف الركاب أو الخيل أو الطيف ومن وصف الممدوح إلى وصف قومه وعساكره ومن التفجع والعزاء في الرثاء إلى التأثر وأمثال ذلك.,"The poet thus continuously changes over from the erotic to the laudatory (verses). From a description of the desert and the traces of abandoned camps, he changes over to a description of camels on the march, or horses, or apparitions (of the beloved in a dream). From a description of the person to be praised, he changes over to a description of his people and his army. From (an expression of) grief and condolence in elegies, he changes over to praise of the deceased, and so on."
ويراعي فيه اتفاق القصيدة كلها في الوزن الواحد حذرا من أن يتساهل الطبع في الخروج من وزن إلى وزن يقاربه. فقد يخفى ذلك من أجل المقاربة على كثير من الناس ولهذه الموازين شروط وأحكام تضمنها علم العروض.,"Attention is paid to retaining the same meter throughout the whole poem, in order to avoid one’s natural inclination to pass from one meter to another, similar one. Since (the meters) are similar (to each other), many people do not notice (the need to retain the same meter). The meters are governed by certain conditions and rules. They are the subject of the science of prosody."
وليس كل وزن يتفق في الطبع استعملته العرب في هذا الفن وإنما هي أوزان مخصوصة تسميها أهل تلك الصناعة البحور. وقد حصروها في خمسة عشر بحرا بمعنى أنهم لم يجدوا للعرب في غيرها من الموازين الطبيعية نظما.,"Not every meter that may occur in nature was used by the Arabs in poetry. The (meters used) are special ones called meters (buhur) by the prosodists, who restricted their number to fifteen, indicating that they did not find the Arabs using other natural meters in poetry."
واعلم أن فن الشعر من بين الكلام كان شريفا عند العرب. ولذلك جعلوه ديوان علومهم وأخبارهم وشاهد صوابهم وخطئهم وأصلا يرجعون إليه في الكثير من علومهم وحكمهم. وكانت ملكته مستحكمة فيهم شأن الملكات كلها.,"It should be known that the Arabs thought highly of poetry as a form of speech. Therefore, they made it the archive of their sciences and their history, the evidence for what they considered right and wrong, and the principle basis of reference for most of their sciences and wisdom. The poetical habit was firmly established in them, like all their other habits."
والملكات اللسانية كلها إنما تكتسب بالصناعة والارتياض في كلامهم حتى يحصل شبه في تلك الملكة.,"The (Arabic) linguistic habits can be acquired only through technical (skill) and (constant) practice of (Arab) speech. Eventually, some sign of the (poetical) habit may be obtained."
والشعر من بين فنون الكلام صعب المأخذ على من يريد اكتساب ملكته بالصناعة من المتأخرين لاستقلال كل بيت منه بأنه كلام تام في مقصوده ويصلح أن ينفرد دون ما سواه,"Of the forms of speech, poetry is a difficult thing for modem people to learn, if they want to acquire the habit of it through (study of it as) a technique. Each verse is an independent statement of meaning suitable for (quotation) by itself."
فيحتاج من أجل ذلك إلى نوع تلطف في تلك الملكة حتى يفرغ الكلام الشعري في قوالبه التي عرفت له في ذلك المنحى من شعر العرب ويبرزه مستقلا بنفسه. ثم يأتي ببيت آخر كذلك ثم ببيت آخر ويستكمل الفنون الوافية بمقصوده.,"It requires a kind of refinement of the (poetical) habit, for the (poet) to be able to pour poetical speech into molds suitable to this tendency of Arabic poetry (to have verses that are units by themselves). A poet must produce (a verse that) stands alone, and then make another verse in the same way, and again another, and thus go through all the different topics suitable to the thing he wants to express."
ثم يناسب بين البيوت في موالاة بعضها مع بعض بحسب اختلاف الفنون التي في القصيدة. ولصعوبة منحاه وغرابة فنه كان محكا للقرائح في استجادة أساليبه وشحذ الأفكار في تنزيل الكلام في قوالبه.,"Then, he establishes harmony among the verses as they follow upon each other in accordance with the different topics occurring in the poem. (Poetry) is difficult in its tendency and strange in its subject matter. Therefore, it constitutes a severe test of a person’s natural talent, if he wants to have a good knowledge of (poetical) methods. (The desire) to press speech into the molds of (poetry) sharpens the mind."
ولا يكفي فيه ملكة الكلام العربي على الإطلاق بل يحتاج بخصوصه إلى تلطف ومحاولة في رعاية الأساليب التي اختصته العرب بها واستعمالها فيه.,"(Possession of) the Arabic linguistic habit in general does not suffice. In particular, a certain refinement is needed, as well as the exercise of a certain skill in observing the special poetic methods which the Arabs used."
لنذكر هنا سلوك الأسلوب عند أهل هذه الصناعة وما يريدون بها في إطلاقهم. فاعلم أنها عبارة عندهم عن المنوال الذي ينسج فيه التراكيب أو القالب الذي يفرغ به.,"Let us mention the significance of (the word) “method” (uslub) as used by (poets), and what they mean by it. It should be known that they use it to express the loom on which word combinations are woven, or the mold into which they are packed."
ولا يرجع إلى الكلام باعتبار إفادته أصل المعنى الذي هو وظيفة الإعراب ولا باعتبار إفادته كمال المعنى من خواص التراكيب الذي هو وظيفة البلاغة والبيان ولا باعتبار الوزن كما استعمله العرب فيه الذي هو وظيفة العروض.,"It is not used to express the basis (upon which) the meaning (of a statement rests). That is the task of the vowel endings. It also is not used for perfect expression of the idea resulting from the particular word combination used. That is the task of eloquence and style (bayan). It also is not used in the sense of meter, as employed by the Arabs in (connection with poetry. That is the task of prosody."
فهذه العلوم الثلاثة خارجة عن هذه الصناعة الشعرية وإنما يرجع إلى صورة ذهنية للتراكيب المنتظمة كلية باعتبار انطباقها على تركيب خاص.,These three sciences fall outside the craft of poetry. (Poetical method) is used to refer to a mental form for metrical word combinations which is universal in the sense of conforming with any particular word combination.
وتلك الصورة ينتزعها الذهن من أعيان التراكيب وأشخاصها ويصيرها في الخيال كالقالب أو المنوال ثم ينتقي التراكيب الصحيحة عند العرب باعتبار الإعراب والبيان فيرصها فيه رصا كما يفعله البناء في القالب أو النساج في المنوال,"This form is abstracted by the mind from the most prominent individual word combinations and given a place in the imagination comparable to a mold or loom. Word combinations that the Arabs consider sound, in the sense of having the (correct) vowel endings and the (proper) style, are then selected and packed by (the mind) into (that form), just as the builder does with the mold, or the weaver with the loom."
حتى يتسع القالب بحصول التراكيب الوافية بمقصود الكلام ويقع على الصورة الصحيحة باعتبار ملكة اللسان العربي فيه,"Eventually, the mold is sufficiently widened to admit the word combinations that fully express what one wants to express. It takes on the form that is sound in the sense (that it corresponds to) the Arabic linguistic habit."
فإن لكل فن من الكلام أساليب تختص به وتوجد فيه على أنحاء مختلفة فسؤال الطلول في الشعر يكون بخطاب الطلول كقوله: «يا دار مية بالعلياء فالسند»,"Each branch of (poetical) speech has methods peculiar to it and existing in it in different ways. Thus, in poetry the subject of inquiring after the traces of abandoned camps is treated in the form of direct address. For instance: O house of Mayyah on the height, and the cliff."
ويكون باستدعاء الصحب للوقوف والسؤال كقوله: «قفا نسأل الدار التي خف أهلها». أو باستبكاء الصحب على الطلل كقوله: «قفا نبك من ذكرى حبيب ومنزل».,"Or, it is treated in the form of inviting one’s (traveling) companions to stop and inquire. For instance: Stop you two, and let us inquire about the house whose inhabitants left so suddenly. Or, it is treated in the form of asking one’s (traveling) companions to weep for the abandoned camp. For instance: Stop you two, and let us weep in remembrance of a beloved and an encampment."
أو بالاستفهام عن الجواب لمخاطب غير معين كقوله: «ألم تسأل فتخبرك الرسوم». ومثل تحية الطلول بالأمر لمخاطب غير معين بتحيتها كقوله: «حي الديار بجانب الغزل» .,"Or, it is treated in the form of asking about the answer given to an unspecified addressee. For instance: Did you not ask, and the traces informed you? Or, for instance, the traces of abandoned camps are greeted by commanding an unspecified addressee to greet them. For instance: Greet the houses near al-‘Azl."
"أو بالدعاء لها بالسقيا كقوله:
أسقى طلولهم أجش هزيم *** وغدت عليهم نضرة ونعيم
أو سؤاله السقيا لها من البرق كقوله:
يا برق طالع منزلا بالأبرق *** واحد السحاب لها حداء الأينق","Or, (they are greeted) in the form of praying for rain for them. For instance: Let a pouring rain water the traces of their abandoned camps, And let them be covered by luxuriant verdure. Or, (they are greeted) in the form of asking the lightning to give them rain. For instance: O lightning, look out over an encampment in al-Abraq And drive the clouds there, just as she-camels are driven."
"أو مثل التفجع في الجزع باستدعاء البكاء كقوله:
كذا فليجل الخطب وليفدح الأمر *** وليس لعين لم يفض ماؤها عذر
أو باستعظام الحادث كقوله: «أرأيت من حملوا على الأعواد أرأيت كيف خبا ضياء النادي».","Or, for instance, in an elegy grief is expressed in the form of asking (people) to weep. For instance: So be it. Let the matter be described and treated as an odious one. There is no excuse for an eye whose tears are not shed. Or, (it is expressed) in the form of stressing the importance of the happening. For instance: Did you see whom they carried by on wooden boards? Did you see how the light of the (tribal) council went out?"
"أو بالتسجيل على الأكوان بالمصيبة لفقده كقوله:
منابت العشب لا حام ولا راع *** مضى الردى بطويل الرمح والباع","Or, (it is expressed) in the form of stating that (all) created things are destined to misfortune because of the loss (of the mourned person). For instance: Verdant pastures! (You have) no protector and guardian. Death took away the (warrior) with the long lance and the great power."
"أو بالإنكار على من لم يتفجع له من الجمادات كقول الخارجية:
أيا شجر الخابور مالك مورقا *** كأنك لم تجزع على ابن طريف","Or, (it is expressed) in the form of expressing disapproval of the lifeless objects that show no grief, as in the verse of the Kharijite (poetess): O trees of the Khabur! What is the matter with you that you are green, As if you were feeling no grief for Ibn Tarif."
"أو بتهنئة فريقه بالراحة من ثقل وطأته كقوله:
ألقى الرماح ربيعة بن نزار *** أودى الردى بفريقك المغوار","Or, (it is expressed) in the form of congratulating the adversary of (the deceased), that he can now rest from the force of (the deceased’s) onslaught. For instance: Rabi’ah b. Nizar, lay down (your) lances. Death took away your adversary, who was always going on raids."
وأمثال ذلك كثير من سائر فنون الكلام ومذاهبه. وتنتظم التراكيب فيه بالجمل وغير الجمل إنشائية وخبرية، اسمية وفعلية، متفقة، مفصولة وموصولة، على ما هو شأن التراكيب في الكلام العربي في مكان كل كلمة من الأخرى.,"There are many similar things in all branches and ways of (poetical) speech. Word combinations in (poetry) may or may not be sentences. They may be commands or statements, nominal sentences or verbal sentences, followed by appositions or not followed by appositions, separate or connected, as is the case with the word combinations of Arabic speech and the position of individual words in respect to each other."
يعرفك فيه ما تستفيده بالارتياض في أشعار العرب من القالب الكلي المجرد في الذهن من التراكيب المعينة التي ينطبق ذلك القالب على جميعها.,"This teaches a person the universal mold which he can learn through (constant) practice in Arabic poetry. (This universal mold) is an abstraction in the mind derived from specific word combinations, to all of which the (universal) mold conforms."
فإن مؤلف الكلام هو كالبناء أو النساج والصورة الذهنية المنطبقة كالقالب الذي يبنى فيه أو المنوال الذي ينسج عليه. فإن خرج عن القالب في بنائه أو عن المنوال في نسجه كان فاسدا.,"The author of a spoken utterance is like a builder or weaver. The proper mental form is like the mold used in building, or the loom used in weaving. The builder who abandons his mold, or the weaver who abandons his loom, is unsuccessful."
ولا تقولن إن معرفة قوانين البلاغة كافية لذلك لأنا نقول قوانين البلاغة إنما هي قواعد علمية قياسية تفيد جواز استعمال التراكيب على هيئتها الخاصة بالقياس. وهو قياس علمي صحيح مطرد كما هو قياس القوانين الإعرابية.,"It should not be said that knowledge of the rules of eloquence suffices in this respect. We say: They are merely basic scientific rules which are the result of analogical reasoning and which indicate by means of analogical reasoning that the word combinations may be used in their particular forms. We have here scientific analogical reasoning that is sound and coherent, as is the analogical reasoning that establishes the rules concerning the vowel endings."
وهذه الأساليب التي نحن نقررها ليست من القياس في شيء إنما هي هيئة ترسخ في النفس من تتبع التراكيب في شعر العرب لجريانها على اللسان حتى تستحكم صورتها فيستفيد بها العمل على مثالها والاحتذاء بها في كل تركيب من الشعر كما قدمنا ذلك في الكلام بإطلاق.,"(But) the (poetical) methods which we try to establish here have nothing to do with analogical reasoning. They are a form that is firmly rooted in the soul. It is the result of the continuity of word combinations in Arabic poetry when the tongue uses them. Eventually, the form of (those word combinations) becomes firmly established. It teaches (the poet) the use of similar (word combinations). (It teaches him) to imitate them for each word combination (that he may use) in the poetry (he produces), just as we have mentioned before in connection with speech in general."
وإن القوانين العلمية من العربية والبيان لا يفيد تعليمه بوجه. وليس كل ما يصح في قياس كلام العرب وقوانينه العلمية استعملوه. وإنما المستعمل عندهم من ذلك أنحاء معروفة يطلع عليها الحافظون لكلامهم تندرج صورتها تحت تلك القوانين القياسية.,"The scientific rules that govern the word endings or syntax and style (bayan) do not teach (poetry). Not everything that is correct according to analogical reasoning, as used in connection with Arabic speech and the scientific (grammatical) rules, is used by (poets). They use certain ways (of expressing themselves) which are known and studied by those who have expert knowledge of (poetical) speech and the forms of which fall (automatically) under those analogical rules."
فإذا نظر في شعر العرب على هذا النحو وبهذه الأساليب الذهنية التي تصير كالقوالب كان نظرا في المستعمل من تراكيبهم لا فيما يقتضيه القياس. ولهذا قلنا إن المحصل لهذه القوالب في الذهن إنما هو حفظ أشعار العرب وكلامهم.,"If Arabic poetry is to be studied under this aspect and under the aspect of the methods in the mind that are like molds (for poetical expression), it means studying word combinations as they are used by the (Arabs). It does not mean studying the things required by analogical reasoning. Therefore, we have stated that the molds in the mind are the result of expert knowledge of Arab poetry and speech."
وهذه القوالب كما تكون في المنظوم تكون في المنثور فإن العرب استعملوا كلامهم في كلا الفنين وجاءوا به مفصلا في النوعين.,"Such molds exist not only for poetry but also for prose. The Arabs used their speech for both (poetry and prose), and they used certain types of divisions for both kinds of speech."
ففي الشعر بالقطع الموزونة والقوافي المقيدة واستقلال الكلام في كل قطعة وفي المنثور يعتبرون الموازنة والتشابه بين القطع غالبا وقد يقيدونه بالأسجاع. وقد يرسلونه وكل واحدة من هذه معروفة في لسان العرب.,"In poetry, these are metrical cola, fixed rhymes, and the fact that each colon constitutes a statement by itself. In prose, as a rule, (the Arabs) observed symmetry and parallelism between the cola. Sometimes, they used prose rhymes, and sometimes straight prose. The molds for each kind of (expression) are well known in Arabic."
والمستعمل منها عندهم هو الذي يبني مؤلف الكلام عليه تأليفه ولا يعرفه إلا من حفظ كلامهم حتى يتجرد في ذهنه من القوالب المعينة الشخصية قالب كلي مطلق يحذو حذوه في التأليف كما يحذو البناء على القالب والنساج على المنوال.,"The author of a spoken utterance builds his utterance in (the molds) used by (the Arabs). They are known only to those who have expert knowledge of (Arabic) speech, such that in their minds they have an absolute universal mold, which is the result of abstraction from specific individual molds. They use (that universal mold) as their model in composing utterances, just as builders use the mold as their model, and weavers the loom."
فلهذا كان من تآليف الكلام منفردا عن نظر النحوي والبياني والعروضي. نعم إن مراعاة قوانين هذه العلوم شرط فيه لا يتم بدونها فإذا تحصلت هذه الصفات كلها في الكلام اختص بنوع من النظر لطيف في هذه القوالب التي يسمونها أساليب.,"The discipline of speech composition, therefore, differs from the studies of the grammarian, the stylist (literary critic), and the prosodist. It is true, though, that observance of the rules of those sciences is obligatory for and indispensable to (the poet). When all these qualities together are found to apply to a spoken utterance, it is distinguished by a subtle kind of insight into those molds which are called “methods.”"
ولا يفيده إلا حفظ كلام العرب نظما ونثرا.,Only expert knowledge of both Arab poetry and Arab prose gives (that insight).
وإذا تقرر معنى الأسلوب ما هو فلنذكر بعده حدا أو رسما للشعر به تفهم حقيقته على صعوبة هذا الغرض. فإنا لم نقف عليه لأحد من المتقدمين فيما رأيناه. وقول العروضيين في حده إنه الكلام الموزون المقفى ليس بحد لهذا الشعر الذي نحن بصدده ولا رسم له.,"Now that the meaning of “method” is clear, let us give a definition or description of poetry that will make its real meaning clear to us. This is a difficult task, for, as far as we can see, there is no such definition by any older (scholar). The definition of the prosodists, according to whom (poetry) is metrical rhymed speech, is no definition or description of the kind of poetry we have in mind."
وصناعتهم إنما تنظر في الشعر من حيث اتفاق أبياته في عدد المتحركات والسواكن على التوالي، ومماثلة عروض أبيات الشعر لضربها. وذلك نظر في وزن مجدد عن الألفاظ ودلالتها.,"Prosody considers poetry only under the aspect of the agreement of the verses (of a poem), with respect to the number of successive syllables with and without vowels, as well as with respect to the similarity of the last foot of the first hemistich of the verses of a poem to the last foot of the second hemistich. This concerns meter alone and has nothing to do with the words and their meaning."
فناسب أن يكون حدا عندهم، ونحن هنا ننظر في الشعر باعتبار ما فيه من الإعراب والبلاغة والوزن والقوالب الخاصة. فلا جرم إن حدهم ذلك لا يصلح له عندنا فلا بد من تعريف يعطينا حقيقته من هذه الحيثية,"(The definition of the prosodists mentioned) can serve as a definition (of poetry) for them. But as we look at poetry, as including vowel endings, eloquence, meter, and special molds (of expression peculiar to poetry), there can be no doubt that the definition of (the prosodists) is not a valid (definition of poetry) for us. We must have a definition that will give us the real meaning of poetry in our sense."
فنقول: الشعر هو الكلام البليغ المبني على الاستعارة والأوصاف، المفصل بأجزاء متفقة في الوزن والروي مستقل كل جزء منها في غرضه ومقصده عما قبله وبعده الجاري على أساليب العرب المخصوصة به.,"We say: Poetry is eloquent speech built upon metaphoric usage and descriptions; divided into cola agreeing in meter and rhyme letter, each colon being independent in purpose and meaning from what comes before and after it; and using the methods of the Arabs peculiar to it."
فقولنا الكلام البليغ جنس وقولنا المبني على الاستعارة والأوصاف فصل له عما يخلو من هذه فإنه في الغالب ليس بشعر وقولنا المفصل بأجزاء متفقة الوزن والروي فصل له عن الكلام المنثور الذي ليس بشعر عند الكل,"The phrase “eloquent speech” in our definition takes the place of genus. (The phrase) “built upon metaphoric usage and descriptions” differentiates (poetry) from (eloquent speech), which does not have that (and which must be differentiated) because it is mostly not poetry. The phrase “divided into cola agreeing in meter and rhyme letter” differentiates (poetry) from the (kind of) prose speech that nobody would consider poetry."
وقولنا مستقل كل جزء منها في غرضه ومقصده عما قبله وبعده بيان للحقيقة لأن الشعر لا تكون أبياته إلا كذلك ولم يفصل به شيء.,"The phrase “each colon being independent in purpose and meaning from what comes before and after it” explains the real character of (poetry), because the verses of poetry can be only this way. This does not differentiate (poetry) from other things."
وقولنا الجاري على الأساليب المخصوصة به فصل له عما لم يجر منه على أساليب العرب المعروفة فإنه حينئذ لا يكون شعرا إنما هو كلام منظوم لأن الشعر له أساليب تخصه لا تكون للمنثور.,"The phrase “using the methods . . . peculiar to it” differentiates (poetry) from (speech) that does not use the well-known methods of poetry. Without them, it would not be poetry but merely poetical speech, because poetry has special methods which prose does not have."
وكذا أساليب المنثور لا تكون للشعر فما كان من الكلام منظوما وليس على تلك الأساليب فلا يكون شعرا.,"Likewise, prose has methods which do not apply to poetry. Rhymed speech that does not use those methods is not poetry."
وبهذا الاعتبار كان الكثير ممن لقيناه من شيوخنا في هذه الصناعة الأدبية يرون أن نظم المتنبي والمعري ليس هو من الشعر في شيء لأنهما لم يجريا على أساليب العرب فيه،,"It was in this sense that most of the professors of literature whom we have met were of the opinion that the rhymes of al-Mutanabbi’ and al-Ma’arri are by no means poetry, because these (two men) did not follow Arab poetical methods."
وقولنا في الحد الجاري على أساليب العرب فصل له عن شعر غير العرب من الأمم عند ما يرى أن الشعر يوجد للعرب وغيرهم. ومن يرى أنه لا يوجد لغيرهم فلا يحتاج إلى ذلك ويقول مكانه الجاري على الأساليب المخصوصة.,"The phrase in (our) definition, “using the methods of the Arabs . . .” differentiates it from the poetry of non-Arab, nations. (This is) for those who are of the opinion that poetry exists both among Arabs and among other (people). (On the other hand,) those who are of the opinion that poetry exists only among the Arabs would not need the phrase. They might say instead: “using the methods peculiar to it” (omitting the words “of the Arabs”)."
وإذ قد فرغنا من الكلام على حقيقة الشعر فلنرجع إلى الكلام في كيفية عمله فنقول: اعلم أن لعمل الشعر وإحكام صناعته شروطا أولها: الحفظ من جنسه أي من جنس شعر العرب,"Having finished with the discussion of the real character of poetry, we shall now return to the discussion of how poetry is produced. We say: It should be known that the production of poetry and the laws governing the (poetical) craft are subject to a number of conditions. The first condition is to have an expert knowledge of its genus-that is, the genus of Arabic poetry."
حتى تنشأ في النفس ملكة ينسج على منوالها ويتخير المحفوظ من الحر النقي الكثير الأساليب.,"(This is the thing) that eventually creates a habit in the soul upon which, as on a loom, (the poet is able) to weave. The material for memorizing should be selected from the most genuine and purest and most varied (poetry)."
وهذا المحفوظ المختار أقل ما يكفي فيه شعر شاعر من الفحول الإسلاميين مثل ابن ربيعة وكثير وذي الرمة وجرير وأبي نواس وحبيب والبحتري والرضي وأبي فراس.,"The selection, at the least, should comprise the poetry of outstanding Muslim poets such as Ibn Abi Rabi’ah, Kuthayyir, Dhu rRummah, Jarir, Abu Nuwas, Habib (Abu Tammam), alBuhturi, arRadi, and Abu Firas."
وأكثره شعر كتاب الأغاني لأنه جمع شعر أهل الطبقة الإسلامية كله والمختار من شعر الجاهلية. ومن كان خاليا من المحفوظ فنظمه قاصر رديء ولا يعطيه الرونق والحلاوة إلا كثرة المحفوظ.,"Most of the material would come from the Kitab al-Aghani, because it is a collection of all Muslim poetry and the choicest pre-Islamic poetry. The poetry of poets who have no expert knowledge of (the old poetical material) is inferior and bad. Brilliance and sweetness is given to poetry only with the help of memorized knowledge of much (old poetical material)."
فمن قل حفظه أو عدم لم يكن له شعر وإنما هو نظم ساقط. واجتناب الشعر أولى بمن لم يكن له محفوظ.,Those who know little or nothing of it cannot (produce) any (real) poetry: They merely produce bad rhymes. They would do better to keep away from poetry.
ثم بعد الامتلاء من الحفظ وشحذ القريحة للنسج على المنوال يقبل على النظم وبالإكثار منه تستحكم ملكته وترسخ. وربما يقال إن من شرطه نسيان ذلك المحفوظ لتمحى رسومه الحرفية الظاهرة إذ هي صادرة عن استعمالها بعينها.,"After the poet is saturated with memorized (poetical material) and has sharpened his talent, in order to be able to follow the great examples, he proceeds to make rhymes himself. Through more and more (practice), the habit of (rhyme making) becomes firmly established and rooted (in him). It is often said that one of the conditions governing (poetical production) is to forget the memorized material, so that its external literal forms will be wiped out (of the memory), since they prevent the real use of (the poetical habit)."
فإذا نسيها وقد تكيفت النفس بها انتقش الأسلوب فيها كأنه منوال يؤخذ بالنسج عليه بأمثالها من كلمات أخرى ضرورة.,"After the soul has been conditioned by them, and they are forgotten, the method (of poetry) is engraved upon the (soul), as though it were a loom upon which similar such words can be woven as a matter of course."
ثم لا بد له من الخلوة واستجادة المكان المنظور فيه من المياه والأزهار وكذا المسموع لاستنارة القريحة باستجماعها وتنشيطها بملاذ السرور. ثم مع هذا كله فشرطه أن يكون على جمام ونشاط فذلك أجمع له وأنشط للقريحة أن تأتي بمثل ذلك المنوال الذي في حفظه.,"The poet, then, needs solitude. The place he looks at should be a beautiful one with water and flowers. He likewise needs music. He must stir up his talent by refreshing it and stimulate it through pleasurable joy. In addition to the (afore-mentioned) conditions, there is another. The (poet) must be rested and energetic. This makes him more collected and is better for his talent, so that he is able to create a loom similar to that which is in his memory."
قالوا: وخير الأوقات لذلك أوقات البكر عند الهبوب من النوم وفراغ المعدة ونشاط الفكر وفي هؤلاء الجمام.,"It has been said: “The best time for it is in the morning right after waking up, when the stomach is empty and the mind energetic, and in the atmosphere of the bath.”"
وربما قالوا إن من بواعثه العشق والانتشاء ذكر ذلك ابن رشيق في كتاب العمدة وهو الكتاب الذي انفرد بهذه الصناعة وإعطاء حقها ولم يكتب فيها أحد قبله ولا بعده مثله.,It has (also) often been said: “Stimuli to poetry are love and drunkenness.” This was mentioned by Ibn Rashiq in the Kitab al-‘ Umdah. The ‘Umdah is especially devoted to poetry and has given it its due. No work on poetry like it has been written either before or since.
قالوا: فإن استصعب عليه بعد هذا كله فليتركه إلى وقت آخر ولا يكره نفسه عليه.,"(Then too,) it has been said: “If (the poet) finds it difficult (to make a poem) after all that, he should leave it for another time. He should not force himself to do it.”"
وليكن بناء البيت على القافية من أول صوغه ونسجه بعضها ويبني الكلام عليها إلى آخره لأنه إن غفل عن بناء البيت على القافية صعب عليه وضعها في محلها. فربما تجيء نافرة قلقة وإذا سمح الخاطر بالبيت ولم يناسب الذي عنده فليتركه إلى موضعه الأليق به,"(The poet) should have the rhyme (in mind), when the verse is first given shape and form. He should set it down and build (his) speech on it all the way through to the end, because, if the poet neglects to have the rhyme (in mind) when he makes a verse, it may be difficult for him to get the rhyme into its proper place, for it often is loose and unstable. If a verse is satisfactory but does not fit in its context, (the poet) should save it for a place more fitting to it."
فإن كل بيت مستقل بنفسه ولم تبق إلا المناسبة فليتخير فيها كما يشاء وليراجع شعره بعد الخلاص منه بالتنقيح والنقد ولا يضن به على الترك إذا لم يبلغ الإجادة,"Every verse is an independent unit, and all that is to be done is to fit (the verse into the context of the poem). Therefore, (the poet) may choose to do in this respect whatever he wishes. After a poem is finished, (the poet) should revise it carefully and critically. He should not hesitate to throw it away, if it is not good enough."
فإن الإنسان مفتون بشعره إذ هو نبات فكره واختراع قريحته ولا يستعمل فيه من الكلام إلا الأفصح من التراكيب. والخالص من الضرورات اللسانية فليهجرها فإنها تنزل بالكلام عن طبقة البلاغة.,"Every man is fond of his own poetry, since it is a product of his mind and a creation of his talent. (The poet) should use only the most correct word combinations and a language free from all (poetic) license, since the (use of it) is a defect as far as the linguistic habit is concerned. He should avoid it, because it might deprive (his) speech of eloquence."
وقد حظر أئمة اللسان المولد من ارتكاب الضرورة إذ هو في سعة منها بالعدول عنها إلى الطريقة المثلى من الملكة. ويجتنب أيضا المعقد من التراكيب جهده. وإنما يقصد منها ما كانت معانيه تسابق ألفاظه إلى الفهم.,"The leading authorities forbade the later-born (poets) to use (poetic) license, since by avoiding it they might be able to obtain the most exemplary (linguistic) habit. (The poet) should also keep away, as much as he can, from involved word combinations. He should try to use only those whose meaning can be understood more quickly than the (individual) words they contain."
وكذلك كثرة المعاني في البيت الواحد فإن فيه نوع تعقيد على الفهم. وإنما المختار منه ما كانت ألفاظه طبقا على معانيه أو أوفى منها.,"The same applies to putting too many ideas into one verse, which make it somewhat complicated to understand. The choicest (verse) is the one whose words conform to the ideas (it contains) or are more copious (than the ideas)."
فإن كانت المعاني كثيرة كان حشوا واستعمل الذهن بالغوص عليها فمنع الذوق عن استيفاء مدركة من البلاغة.,"If there are many ideas, the verse becomes crowded. The mind examines the (ideas) and is distracted. As a result, (the listener’s literary) taste is prevented from fully understanding, as it should, the eloquence (of the verse)."
ولا يكون الشعر سهلا إلا إذا كانت معانيه تسابق ألفاظه إلى الذهن. ولهذا كان شيوخنا رحمهم الله يعيبون شعر أبي بكر بن خفاجة شاعر شرق الأندلس لكثرة معانيه وازدحامها في البيت الواحد,"A poem is easy only when its ideas are more quickly grasped by the mind than its words. Thus, our shaykhs used to criticize the poetry of the poet of eastern Spain, [Abu Bakr b. Khafajah, for crowding too many ideas into one verse."
كما كانوا يعيبون شعر المتنبي والمعري بعدم النسج على الأساليب العربية كما مر فكان شعرهما كلاما منظوما نازلا عن طبقة الشعر والحاكم بذلك هو الذوق.,"They used also to criticize the poetry of alMutanabbi’ and al-Ma’arri, because it does not follow the methods of the Arabs, as was mentioned before. Thus, the poetry of the (two men) was rhymed speech inferior to poetry. The judge in such matters is (one’s) taste."
وليجتنب الشاعر أيضا الحوشي من الألفاظ والمقصر وكذلك السوقي المبتذل بالتداول بالاستعمال فإنه ينزل بالكلام عن طبقة البلاغة,The poet should also keep away from farfetched and pretentious words. (He should) also (keep away) from vulgar words that become hackneyed through usage. (The use of such words) deprives the poem of eloquence.
وكذلك المعاني المبتذلة بالشهرة فإن الكلام ينزل بها عن البلاغة أيضا فيصير مبتذلا ويقرب من عدم الإفادة كقولهم: النار حارة والسماء فوقنا.,"(He should) also (keep away) from ideas that have become hackneyed by being generally known. (Their use,) too, deprives the speech of eloquence. It becomes hackneyed and almost meaningless. For instance, such phrases as “The fire is hot” and “The heaven above us” (belong in this category)."
وبمقدار ما يقرب من طبقة عدم الإفادة يبعد عن رتبة البلاغة إذ هما طرفان. ولهذا كان الشعر في الربانيات والنبويات قليل الإجادة في الغالب ولا يحذق فيه إلا الفحول وفي القليل على العشر لأن معانيها متداولة بين الجمهور فتصير مبتذلة لذلك.,"The closer a poem gets to being ‘meaningless, the less can it claim to be eloquent, since (meaninglessness and eloquence) are (opposing) extremes. For this reason, poetry on mystical and prophetical subjects is not, as a rule, very good. Only the best poets are good in it, and (even they) only in small (portions of such poetry) and with great difficulty, because the ideas with which such poetry deals are generally known to the great mass and, thus, have become hackneyed."
وإذا تعذر الشعر بعد هذا كله فليراوضه ويعاوده فإن القريحة مثل الضرع يدر بالامتراء ويجف بالترك والإهمال.,"If a person, after (observing) all (these conditions), (still) finds it impossible to produce poetry, he should (try and) practice it again and again, since talent is like an udder, giving milk only when it is milked, drying up and giving little milk when it is left alone and neglected."
وبالجملة فهذه الصناعة وتعلمها مستوفى في كتاب العمدة لابن رشيق وقد ذكرنا منها ما حضرنا بحسب الجهد. ومن أراد استيفاء ذلك فعليه بذلك الكتاب ففيه البغية من ذلك. وهذه نبذة كافية,"In general, (the subject of) poetry and how to learn it is exhaustively treated in the Kitab al-‘Umdah by Ibn Rashiq. We have mentioned (such information) on poetry available to us, as far as we were able. Those who would like to study the subject exhaustively must turn to the (‘Umdah). It contains all one could wish. (Our remarks) should suffice to give an idea."
والله المعين.,God gives support.
"وقد نظم الناس في أمر هذه الصناعة الشعرية ما يجب فيها. ومن أحسن ما قيل في ذلك وأظنه لابن رشيق:
لعن الله صنعة الشعر ماذا *** من صنوف الجهال منه لقينا","People have written poems dealing with poetry and its requirements. The following poem, which, I believe, is by Ibn Rashiq, is among the best statements made on the subject: God curse poetry! How many Kinds of stupid poets have we met!"
"يؤثرون الغريب منه على ما *** كان سهلا للسامعين مبينا
ويرون المحال معنى صحيحا *** وخسيس الكلام شيئا ثمينا
يجهلون الصواب منه ولا يدرون *** للجهل أنهم يجهلونا","They prefer strange (expressions) to what Would be easy and clear to the listener. They consider the absurd a sound idea, And vile speech something precious. They ignore what is right in (poetry). On account of (their) ignorance, they do not know that they are ignorant."
"فهم عند من سوانا يلامون *** وفي الحق عندنا يعذرونا
إنما الشعر ما يناسب في النظم *** وإن كان في الصفات فنونا
فأتى بعضه يشاكل بعضا *** وأقامت له الصدور المتونا","Not we, but others, blame them. We, in fact, find them excusable. Poetry is that which is harmonious in its rhymes, Even if in (its) descriptions, it is varied. Each part of it has the same form as the other parts. Front and back have come to be alike in it."
"كل معنى أتاك منه على ما *** تتمنى ولم يكن أن يكونا
فتناهى من البيان إلى أن *** كاد حسنا يبين للناظرينا
فكأن الألفاظ منه وجوه *** والمعاني ركبن فيها عيونا","Every idea in a (poem) comes to you as you Wish it would be, if it were not. It has attained such great beauty of style that Its beauty comes close to being clear to those who look (at it). Its words are like faces, And the ideas contained in it are (their) eyes."
"إنما في المرام حسب الأماني *** يتحلى بحسنة المنشدونا
فإذا ما مدحت بالشعر حرا *** رمت فيه مذاهب المشتهينا
فجعلت النسيب سهلا قريبا *** وجعلت المديح صدقا مبينا","It fulfills all the wishes one might have. Those who recite it are adorned with its beauty. When you praise a noble free man in a poem, You should set out to be as profuse as anyone. You should make the nasib easy and to the point. You should make the laudatory (part) truthful and clear."
"وتنكبت ما يهجن في السمع *** وإن كان لفظه موزونا
وإذا ما عرضته بهجاء *** عبت فيه مذاهب المرقبينا
فجعلت التصريح منه دواء *** وجعلت التعريض داء دفينا","You should avoid whatever might not be nice to hear, Even if it is properly put metrically. When you satirize him, You should consider the ways of those who use gross language blameworthy. You should consider frank statement in (satire) medicine. Recourse to allusions you should consider a hidden illness."
"وإذا ما بكيت فيه على *** الغادين يوما للبين والظاعنينا
حلت دون الأسى وذللت ما كان *** من الدمع في العيون مصونا
ثم إن كنت عاتبا جئت بالوعد *** وعيدا وبالصعوبة بينا","Whenever in (a poem) you lament those who will one day soon Depart, and the women who are carried away (in their litters), You should suppress (your) grief, You should subdue The tears that are stored up in (your) eyes. And when you express censure (of a friend), you should mingle promises With threats, and harshness with gentleness."
"فتركت الذي عتبت عليه *** حذرا آمنا عزيزا مهينا
وأصح القريض ما قارب النظم *** وإن كان واضحا مستبينا
فإذا قيل أطمع الناس طرا *** وإذا ريم أعجز المعجزينا","Thus you will leave the person whom you censure Wary as well as assured, strong as well as weak. The soundest poetry is that which is outstanding in poetical (Form), clear and transparent. When recited, it must make everyone desirous (of producing something similar), And when one wishes to make a (poem like it), this must be found impossible."
"ومن ذلك أيضا قول بعضهم وهو الناشي:
الشعر ما قومت ربع صدوره *** وشددت بالتهذيب أس متونه
ورأيت بالإطناب شعب صدوعه *** وفتحت بالإيجاز عور عيونه","The same subject is also dealt with in the following verses of a poet anNashi: Poetry is (a thing) the crookedness of whose front you have straightened out, And the belt of whose back you have tightened through careful revision, The cracks in which you have repaired through profuseness, And whose half-blind eyes you have opened through conciseness."
"وجمعت بين قريبه وبعيده *** وجمعت بين مجمه ومعينة
وإذا مدحت به جوادا ماجدا *** وقضيته بالشكر حق ديونه
أصفيته (بتفتش ورضيته) *** وخصصته بخطيره وثمينه","The near and remote parts of which you have gathered together, And whose stagnant (well water) and spring water you have united, And in which you have provided, wherever required, (Like with) like, and counterpart with counterpart. If you praise in a (poem) a noble, generous person, And repay with gratitude all the debts due him, You should present him with what is (most) precious and grave (in poetry) And distinguish him with what is important and valuable (in it)."
"فيكون جزلا في مساق صنوفه *** ويكون سهلا في اتفاق فنونه
وإذا بكيت به الديار وأهلها *** أجريت للمحزون ماء شئونه
وإذا أردت كناية عن ريبة *** باينت بين ظهوره وبطونه","Thus, (poetry) should be generous in the use of its various types, And easy (to understand) in the (general) agreement of its various branches. If in (a poem) you lament dwelling places and the people who lived there, You should make the grieved person to shed the water of the sutures of his skull. If you want to hint at something dubious, You should leave the matter midway between clear and cryptic."
"فجعلت سامعه يشوب شكوكه *** بثبوته وظنونه بيقينه
وإذا عتبت على أخ في زلة *** أدمجت شدته له في لينه
فتركته مستأنسا بدماثة *** مستأمنا لوعوثه وحزونه.
وإذا نبذت إلى الذي علقتها *** إذ صارمتك بفاتنات شئونه","Thus you make the person who hears it mingle his doubts With clarity, and his conjectures with certainty. If you censure a friend because of a slip, You should cover the severity of censure with gentleness. Thus, you will leave him civilized by mildness, Reassured in the face of his sadness and grievances. (But) if you want to attack the (girl) you love, When she breaks with you, with seductive (poetry)."
"تيمتها بلطيفه ورفيقه *** وشغفتها بخبيه وكمنه
وإذا اعتذرت لسقطة أسقطتها *** وأشكت بين مخيله ومبينه
فيحول ذنبك عند من يعتده *** عتبا عليه مطالبا بيمينه","You should (try to) enslave her with fine and subtle (verses) And inflame her with (their) concealed and hidden (meanings). If you would apologize for a mistake you (yourself) have made, You should go at it (with verses somewhere) between fanciful and clear. Thus, your sin will turn out in the eyes of him who is affected by (your poetry), To be a censure of himself obliging him to swear (that he did nothing wrong)."
الفصل السادس والخمسون في أن صناعة النظم والنثر إنما هي في الألفاظ لا في المعاني,"55. Poetry and prose work with words, and not with ideas."
اعلم أن صناعة الكلام نظما ونثرا إنما هي في الألفاظ لا في المعاني وإنما المعاني تبع لها وهي أصل.,"It should be known that both poetry and prose work with words, and not with ideas. The ideas are secondary to the (words). The (words) are basic."
فالصانع الذي يحاول ملكة الكلام في النظم والنثر إنما يحاولها في الألفاظ بحفظ أمثالها من كلام العرب ليكثر استعماله وجريه على لسانه,"The craftsman who tries to acquire the habit of poetry and prose uses words for that purpose. He memorizes appropriate words from Arab speech, so as to be able to employ it frequently and have it on his tongue."
حتى تستقر له الملكة في لسان مضر ويتخلص من العجمة التي ربي عليها في جيله ويفرض نفسه مثل وليد نشأ في جيل العرب ويلقن لغتهم كما يلقنها الصبي حتى يصير كأنه واحد منهم في لسانهم.,"Eventually, the habit of the Mudar language becomes firmly established in him. He becomes free from the nonArab (linguistic habits) in which he was reared among the people of his race. He considers himself like a (half-breed) child who grows up among Arab Bedouins and learns their language as a child learns it. Thus, eventually, he becomes like one of them, as far as their language is concerned."
وذلك أنا قدمنا أن للسان ملكة من الملكات في النطق يحاول تحصيلها بتكرارها على اللسان حتى تحصل شأن الملكات والذي في اللسان والنطق إنما هو الألفاظ وأما المعاني فهي في الضمائر.,"As we have mentioned before, this comes about as follows. Language is a habit concerned with speech. One tries to acquire it by repeated practice with the tongue, until one has acquired it, as is the case with (all other) habits. Now, tongue and speech deal only with words. Ideas are in the mind."
وأيضا فالمعاني موجودة عند كل واحد وفي طوع كل فكر منها ما يشاء ويرضى فلا يحتاج إلى تكلف صناعة في تأليفها وتأليف الكلام للعبارة عنها هو المحتاج للصناعة كما قلناه وهو بمثابة القوالب للمعاني.,"Furthermore, everyone may have ideas. Everyone has the capacity to grasp with his mind whatever (ideas) his mind wants and likes. No technique is required for their composition. But the composition of speech, for the purpose of expressing (ideas), requires a technique, as we have stated. (Speech) is like a mold for ideas."
فكما أن الأواني التي يغترف بها الماء من البحر منها آنية الذهب والفضة والصدف والزجاج والخزف والماء واحد في نفسه. وتختلف الجودة في الأواني المملوءة بالماء باختلاف جنسها لا باختلاف الماء.,"The vessels in which water is drawn from the sea may be of gold, silver, shells (mother-of-pearl), glass, or clay. But the water is one and the same."
كذلك جودة اللغة وبلاغتها في الاستعمال تختلف باختلاف طبقات الكلام في تأليفه باعتبار تطبيقه على المقاصد.,"In the same way, the quality of language, and eloquence in its use, differ according to different levels (of attainment) in the composition of speech, depending on the manner in which an utterance conforms to (the situation) that it wants to express."
والمعاني واحدة في نفسها وإنما الجاهل بتأليف الكلام وأساليبه على مقتضى ملكة اللسان إذا حاول العبارة عن مقصوده ولم يحسن بمثابة المقعد الذي يروم النهوض ولا يستطيعه لفقدان القدرة عليه.,"But the ideas are one and the same. A person who is ignorant of the composition of speech and its methods, as required by the (Arabic) linguistic habit, and who unsuccessfully attempts to express what he wants to express, is like an invalid who attempts to get up but cannot, because he lacks the power to do so."
والله يعلمكم ما لم تكونوا تعلمون.,God “teaches you what you did not know.”
الفصل السابع والخمسون في أن حصول هذه الملكة بكثرة الحفظ وجودتها بجودة المحفوظ,56.The (linguistic) habit is obtained by much memorizing. The good quality of (the linguistic habit is the result of) the good quality of the memorized material.
قد قدمنا أنه لا بد من كثرة الحفظ لمن يروم تعلم اللسان العربي وعلى قدر جودة المحفوظ وطبقته في جنسه وكثرته من قلته تكون جودة الملكة الحاصلة عنه للحافظ.,"We have mentioned before that those who desire to learn the Arabic language must memorize much material. The quality of the resulting habit depends on the quality, type, and amount of the memorized material."
فمن كان محفوظه من أشعار العرب الإسلاميين شعر حبيب أو العتابي أو ابن المعتز أو ابن هانئ أو الشريف الرضي أو رسائل ابن المقفع أو سهل ابن هارون أو ابن الزيات أو البديع أو الصابيء تكون ملكته أجود وأعلى مقاما ورتبة في البلاغة ممن يحفظ شعر ابن سهل من المتأخرين أو ابن النبيه أو ترسل البيساني أو العماد الأصبهاني لنزول طبقة هؤلاء عن أولئك,"Those who memorize the poetry of Arab Muslims or the poetry of Habib (Abu Tammam), al- ‘Attabi, Ibn al-Mu’tazz, Ibn Hani, or ash-Sharif ar-Radi, or the Rasa’il (prose letters) of Ibn al-Mugaffa’, Sahl b. Harun, Ibn azZayyat, al-Badi, or as-Sabi, will acquire a better habit, of a higher order of eloquence, than those who memorize the poetry of such recent poets as Ibn Sahl or Ibn an-Nabih, or the prose correspondence of al-Baysani or the ‘Imad al-Isfahani, because they are inferior to the (older writers)."
يظهر ذلك للبصير الناقد صاحب الذوق. وعلى مقدار جودة المحفوظ أو المسموع تكون جودة الاستعمال من بعده ثم إجادة الملكة من بعدهما.,"This is obvious to the intelligent critic who has (literary) taste. The quality of a person’s own later use (of the language) depends on the quality of the material learned or memorized. After (a person has improved his material and his use of it), he can improve his habit."
فبارتقاء المحفوظ في طبقته من الكلام ترتقي الملكة الحاصلة لأن الطبع إنما ينسج على منوالها وتنمو قوى الملكة بتغذيتها.,"By raising the level of the memorized literary material, the resulting level (of one’s habit) becomes higher, since nature takes (habit) as its model and the powers of a habit grow through nourishing it."
وذلك أن النفس وإن كانت في جبلتها واحدة بالنوع فهي تختلف في البشر بالقوة والضعف في الإدراكات. واختلافها إنما هو باختلاف ما يرد عليها من الإدراكات والملكات والألوان التي تكيفها من خارج.,"This comes about as follows. The soul is one in species according to its natural disposition. It differs in human beings depending on (its) greater or lesser intensity in connection with perceptions. This difference of the (soul) is the result of the differing perceptions, habits, and colorings that condition the soul from the outside."
فبهذه يتم وجودها وتخرج من القوة إلى الفعل صورتها والملكات التي تحصل لها إنما تحصل على التدريج كما قدمناه.,"(Such conditioning) causes its existence to materialize and transforms its form from potentiality into actuality. (Now,) the habits obtained by the soul are obtained only gradually, as we have mentioned before."
فالملكة الشعرية تنشأ بحفظ الشعر وملكة الكتابة بحفظ الأسجاع والترسيل، والعلمية بمخالطة العلوم والإدراكات والأبحاث والأنظار، والفقهية بمخالطة الفقه وتنظير المسائل وتفريعها وتخريج الفروع على الأصول،,"The poetical habit originates with the memorizing of poetry. The habit of secretary-ship originates with the memorizing of rhymed prose and prose correspondence. The scientific habit originates in contact with the sciences and with various perceptions, research, and speculation. The juridical habit originates in contact with jurisprudence and through comparing the problems and considering them in detail and through deriving special cases from general principles."
والتصوفية الربانية بالعبادات والأذكار وتعطيل الحواس الظاهرة بالخلوة والانفراد عن الخلق ما استطاع حتى تحصل له ملكة الرجوع إلى حسه الباطن وروحه وينقلب ربانيا وكذا سائرها.,"The mystical habit originates through worship and dhikr exercises and through inactivation of the outward senses by means of solitude and as much isolation from human beings as possible, until (the person who does that) acquires the habit of retiring to his inner sense and his spirit and thus becomes a mystic. The same is the case with all the other (habits)."
وللنفس في كل واحد منها لون تتكيف به وعلى حسب ما نشأت الملكة عليه من جودة أو رداءة تكون تلك الملكة في نفسها فملكة البلاغة العالية الطبقة في جنسها إنما تحصل بحفظ العالي في طبقته من الكلام,Each one of them gives the soul a special coloring that conditions it. The good or bad quality of a particular habit depends on the (condition) under which the habit originated. A highclass habit of eloquence results only from the memorizing of high-class language material.
ولهذا كان الفقهاء وأهل العلوم كلهم قاصرين في البلاغة وما ذلك إلا لما يسبق إلى محفوظهم ويمتلئ به من القوانين العلمية والعبارات الفقهية الخارجة عن أسلوب البلاغة والنازلة عن الطبقة لأن العبارات عن القوانين والعلوم لا حظ لها في البلاغة,"This is why all jurists and scholars are deficient in eloquence. The sole reason is in the original character of the material they memorize, in the scientific rules and juridical expressions of which (their material) is full and which deviate from the proper method of eloquence and are inferior (to it). The expressions used for rules and sciences have nothing to do with eloquence."
فإذا سبق ذلك المحفوظ إلى الفكر وكثر وتلونت به النفس جاءت الملكة الناشئة عنه في غاية القصور وانحرفت عباراته عن أساليب العرب في كلامهم.,"(Now,) when such memorized material is the first to occupy the mind and is large and colors the soul, the resulting habit comes to be very deficient and the expressions connected with (that material) deviate from the methods of Arab speech."
وهكذا نجد شعر الفقهاء والنحاة والمتكلمين والنظار وغيرهم ممن لم يمتلئ من حفظ النقي الحر من كلام العرب.,"This, we find, applies to the poetry of jurists, grammarians, speculative theologians, philosophers, and others who are not saturated with memorized knowledge of the purest and noblest (most genuine) Arabic speech."
أخبرني صاحبنا الفاضل أبو القاسم بن رضوان كاتب العلامة بالدولة المرينية قال: ذكرت يوما صاحبنا أبا العباس بن شعيب كاتب السلطان أبي الحسن وكان المقدم في البصر باللسان لعهده فأنشدته مطلع قصيدة ابن النحوي ولم أنسبها له,"Our excellent colleague, Abul-Qasim b. Ridwan, the writer of the ‘alamah of the Merinid dynasty, told me the following story. “One day, I had a conversation with our colleague Abul-‘Abbas b. Shu’ayb, the secretary of Sultan Abul-Hasan, who was the leading philologist of his time. I recited to him the beginning of a qasidah by Ibn anNahwi, without mentioning him as the author."
"وهو هذا:
لم أدر حين وقفت بالأطلال *** ما الفرق بين جديدها والبالي
فقال لي على البديهة: هذا شعر فقيه، فقلت له: ومن أين لك ذلك،","(The qasidah runs:) I did not know when I stood near the traces of the abandoned dwelling places What the difference was between the new ones and those that were almost effaced. (Ibn Shu’ayb) said to me immediately, ‘That is a poem by a jurist.’ I asked him how he knew that."
فقال: من قوله ما الفرق؟ إذ هي من عبارات الفقهاء وليست من أساليب كلام العرب، فقلت له: لله أبوك إنه ابن النحوي.,"He replied: ‘Because he says: “What the difference was.” That is a juridical expression and does not belong to the methods of (proper) Arab speech.’ Full of admiration, I told him that it was indeed a poem by Ibn an-Nahwi.”"
وأما الكتاب والشعراء فليسوا كذلك لتخيرهم في محفوظهم ومخالطتهم كلام العرب وأساليبهم في الترسل وانتقائهم لهم الجيد من الكلام.,Secretaries and poets are not like that. They choose carefully the material they memorize. They have contact with the methods of Arab speech with regard to prose correspondence. They select the good material from (Arab) speech.
ذاكرت يوما صاحبنا أبا عبد الله بن الخطيب وزير الملوك بالأندلس من بني الأحمر وكان الصدر المقدم في الشعر والكتابة,"One day, I had a conversation with Abu ‘Abdallah b. alKhatib, the wazir of the rulers of Spain. He was the leading authority on poetry and secretaryship."
فقلت له: أجد استصعابا علي في نظم الشعر متى رمته مع بصري به وحفظي للجيد من الكلام من القرآن والحديث وفنون من كلام العرب وإن كان محفوظي قليلا.,"I said to him, “I find it difficult to compose poetry when I want to, despite my understanding of (poetry) and my knowledge of the good language material in the Qur’an, the traditions, and the various (other) branches of Arab speech, although I know little by heart."
وإنما أتيت والله أعلم بحقيقة الحال من قبل ما حصل في حفظي من الأشعار العلمية والقوانين التألفية.,"It may be that I am affected by my knowledge of scientific poems and the rules of (literary) composition. I have memorized the large and the small poem by ashShatibi on Qur’an readings and Qur’an orthography, and I know them by heart."
فإني حفظت قصيدتي الشاطبي الكبرى والصغرى في القراءات في الرسم واستظهرتهما وتدارست كتابي ابن الحاجب في الفقه والأصول وجمل الخونجي في المنطق وبعض كتاب التسهيل وكثيرا من قوانين التعليم في المجالس,"I studied the two works of Ibn alHajib on jurisprudence and the principles of jurisprudence, the Jumal on logic by al-Khunaji, and many of the rules of scientific school instruction."
فامتلأ محفوظي من ذلك وخدش وجه الملكة التي استعددت لها بالمحفوظ الجيد من القرآن والحديث وكلام العرب تعاق القريحة عن بلوغها. فنظر إلي ساعة معجبا ثم قال: لله أنت وهل يقول هذا إلا مثلك؟,"That has filled my memory and harmed the habit for which I was prepared through the good material from the Qur’an, the traditions, and (other documents of) Arab speech. It prevented my talent from developing.” (Ibn al-Khatib) looked at me in amazement for a while. Then he said, full of admiration: “Would anyone but you say a thing like that?”"
ويظهر لك من هذا الفصل وما تقرر فيه سر آخر وهو إعطاء السبب في أن كلام الإسلاميين من العرب أعلى طبقة في البلاغة وأذواقها من كلام الجاهلية في منثورهم ومنظومهم.,The remarks made in this section explain another problem. They explain why both the poetry and the prose of the Muslim Arabs are on a higher level of eloquence and literary taste than those of pre-Islamic Arabs.
فإنا نجد شعر حسان بن ثابت وعمر بن أبي ربيعة والحطيئة وجرير والفرزدق ونصيب وغيلان ذي الرمة والأحوص وبشار ثم كلام السلف من العرب في الدولة الأموية وصدرا من الدولة العباسية في خطبهم وترسيلهم ومحاوراتهم للملوك أرفع طبقة في البلاغة من شعر النابغة وعنترة وابن كلثوم وزهير وعلقمة بن عبدة وطرفة بن العبد,"We find that the poetry of Hassin b. Thabit, ‘Umar b. Abi Rabi’ah, alHutay’ah, Jarir, al-Farazdaq, Nusayb, Ghaylan Dhur-Rummah, al-Ahwas, and Bashshir, as well as the literary products of the ancient Arabs of the Umayyad dynasty and the early years of the Abbasid dynasty, (including) their sermons, their prose correspondence, and their discussions with the rulers, are on a much higher level of eloquence than the poetry of an-Nibighah, ‘Antarah, Ibn Kulthum, Zuhayr, ‘Alqamah b. ‘Abadah, and Tarafah b. al’Abd."
ومن كلام الجاهلية في منثورهم ومحاوراتهم والطبع السليم والذوق الصحيح شاهدان بذلك للناقد البصير بالبلاغة.,(They also are on a higher level) than the prose and discussions of pre-Islamic (authors). A sound taste and a healthy natural disposition will confirm the (correctness of this observation) to the intelligent critic of eloquence.
والسبب في ذلك أن هؤلاء الذين أدركوا الإسلام سمعوا الطبقة العالية من الكلام في القرآن والحديث اللذين عجز البشر عن الإتيان بمثليهما لكونها ولجت في قلوبهم ونشأت على أساليبها نفوسهم,"The reason for this is that (authors) who lived in Islam learned the highest form of speech (as it is found) in the Qur’an and in the traditions, which for human beings is inimitable. It entered into their hearts. Their souls were brought up on the (linguistic) methods (of this kind of speech)."
فنهضت طباعهم وارتقت ملكاتهم في البلاغة على ملكات من قبلهم من أهل الجاهلية ممن لم يسمع هذه الطبقة ولا نشأ عليها,"As a result, their nature was lifted, and their habits with regard to eloquence were elevated, to greater heights than had ever been reached by their pre-Islamic predecessors, who had not learned the (highest) form of speech and had not been brought up on it."
فكان كلامهم في نظمهم ونثرهم أحسن ديباجة وأصفى رونقا من أولئك وأرصف مبنى وأعدل تثقيفا بما استفادوه من الكلام العالي الطبقة. وتأمل ذلك يشهد لك به ذوقك إن كنت من أهل الذوق والبصر بالبلاغة.,"Therefore, their prose and poetry were better in texture and of a purer brilliance than their (predecessors’). They were more solid in construction and more even in execution, because their (authors) had learned the high-class speech (of the Qur’an and the traditions). When a person thinks this (explanation) over, his literary taste will attest to its correctness, if he has taste and understands eloquence."
ولقد سألت يوما شيخنا الشريف أبا القاسم قاضي غرناطة لعهدنا وكان شيخ هذه الصناعة أخذ بسبتة عن جماعة من مشيختها من تلاميذ الشلوبين واستبحر في علم اللسان وجاء من وراء الغاية فيه فسألته يوما ما بال العرب الإسلاميين أعلى طبقة في البلاغة من الجاهليين؟ ولم يكن ليستنكر ذلك بذوقه,"I once asked our shaykh, the sharif Abul-Qasim, the (chief) judge of Granada in our day, why the Muslim Arabs were on a higher level (of eloquence) than the pre-Islamic Arabs. (Abul-Qasim) was the chief authority on poetry. He had studied (it) in Ceuta with certain shaykhs there who were pupils of ash-Shalubin. He had (also) made a profound study of philology and acquired a more than perfect knowledge of it. Thus, he was a man who, with his taste, could be expected not to be ignorant of (this question)."
فسكت طويلا ثم قال لي: والله ما أدري، فقلت: أعرض عليك شيئا ظهر لي في ذلك ولعله السبب فيه. وذكرت له هذا الذي كتبت فسكت معجبا ثم قال لي: يا فقيه هذا كلام من حقه أن يكتب بالذهب.,"He remained silent for. a long while. Then he said to me, “By God, I do not know.” Whereupon I said, “I shall suggest to you (an idea) concerning this problem that has come to my mind. Perhaps, it explains it.” And I mentioned to him what I have noted (here). He was silent in amazement. Then, he said to me: “Doctor (faqih), this is a remark that deserves to be written down in gold(en letters).”"
وكان من بعدها يؤثر محلي ويصيخ في مجالس التعليم إلى قولي ويشهد لي بالنباهة في العلوم،,"After that, he (always) treated me with deference. He listened to what I had to say in class and acknowledged my excellence in scholarship."
والله خلق الإنسان وعلمه البيان.,God “created man” and “taught him clarity.”
الفصل الثامن والخمسون في بيان المطبوع من الكلام والمصنوع وكيف جودة المصنوع أو قصوره,57. An explanation of the meaning of natural and contrived speech. How contrived speech may be either good or deficient.
اعلم أن الكلام الذي هو العبارة والخطاب، إنما سره وروحه في إفادة المعنى. وأما إذا كان مهملا فهو كالموات الذي لا عبرة به. وكمال الإفادة هو البلاغة على ما عرفت من حدها عند أهل البيان,"It should be known that the secret and spirit of speech that is, expression and address – lie in conveying ideas. If no effort is made to (convey ideas), (speech) is like “dead land” (mawat) which does not count. The perfect way of conveying (ideas) is eloquence. This is shown by the literary critics, definition of eloquence."
لأنهم يقولون هي مطابقة الكلام لمقتضى الحال، ومعرفة الشروط والأحكام التي بها تطابق التراكيب اللفظية مقتضى الحال، هو فن البلاغة. وتلك الشروط والأحكام للتراكيب في المطابقة استقريت من لغة العرب وصارت كالقوانين.,They say that (eloquence) is conformity of speech to the requirements of the situation. Knowledge of the conditions and laws governing the conformity of word combinations to the requirements of the situation is the discipline of eloquence (rhetoric). The conditions and laws were deduced from the Arabic language and have become a sort of rules.
فالتراكيب بوضعها تفيد الإسناد بين المسندين، بشروط وأحكام هي جل قوانين العربية.,The manner in which word combinations are used indicates the relationship that exists between two interdependent (parts of an utterance). (It does so) with the help of conditions and laws constituting the main part of the rules of Arabic.
وأحوال هذه التراكيب من تقديم وتأخير، وتعريف وتنكير، وإضمار وإظهار، وتقييد وإطلاق وغيرها، يفيد الأحكام المكتنفة من خارج بالإسناد، وبالمتخاطبين حال التخاطب بشروط وأحكام هي قوانين لفن، يسمونه علم المعاني من فنون البلاغة.,"The situations that apply to the word combinations – which may be earlier or later position, determination or indetermination, implicit or explicit (reference), statements used restricted or absolute, and so on – indicate the situations that envelop from outside the (existing) relationship and the persons discoursing with each other. (They do so) with the help of conditions and laws that constitute the rules of a discipline belonging to rhetoric and called the “science of idea expression” (‘ilm al-ma’ani)."
فتندرج قوانين العربية لذلك في قوانين علم المعاني لأن إفادتها الإسناد جزء من إفادتها للأحوال المكتنفة بالإسناد.,"Thus, the rules of Arabic are comprised under those of the science of idea expression, because the (purpose of) indicating the (existing) relationship is part of the (purpose of) indicating the situations that envelop that relationship."
وما قصر من هذه التراكيب عن إفادة مقتضى الحال لخلل في قوانين الإعراب أو قوانين المعاني كان قاصرا عن المطابقة لمقتضى الحال، ولحق بالمهمل الذي هو في عداد الموات.,"Any word combinations unable to indicate the requirements of a given situation because of some defect in the rules governing the vowel endings or the rules governing the ideas, are (likewise) unable to establish conformity (between themselves and) the requirements of the situation; they belong to the (group of things) of which no use is made, which belong in the category of “dead land.”"
ثم يتبع هذه الإفادة لمقتضى الحال التفنن في انتقال التركيب بين المعاني بأصناف الدلالات،,"After the requirements of a given situation have thus been indicated, there come the diverse ways in which the mind moves among the ideas with the help of different kinds of (word) meanings."
لأن التركيب يدل بالوضع على معنى، ثم ينتقل الذهن إلى لازمه أو ملزومه أو شبهه، فيكون فيها مجازا: إما باستعارة أو كناية كما هو مقرر في موضعه، ويحصل للفكر بذلك الانتقال لذة كما تحصل في الإفادة وأشد.,"In its conventional meaning, a word combination indicates one particular idea, but then the mind moves on to what might be the consequence of, or have as its consequence, that idea, or (what might) be similar to it and, thus, express (some idea) indirectly as metaphor or metonymy, as has been established in the proper places. This moving around causes pleasure to the mind, perhaps even more than (the pleasure) that results from indicating (the requirements of the situation)"
لأن في جميعها ظفر بالمدلول من دليله. والظفر من أسباب اللذة كما علمت. ثم لهذه الانتقالات أيضا شروط وأحكام كالقوانين صيروها صناعة، وسموها بالبيان.,"All these things mean attainment of a conclusion from the argument used to prove it, and attainment, as one knows, is one of the things that cause pleasure. The different ways the (mind) moves around in this way also have (their) conditions and laws, which are like rules. They were made into a (special) craft and called “the (science of) style” (bayan)."
وهي شقيقة علم المعاني المفيد لمقتضى الحال، لأنها راجعة إلى معاني التراكيب ومدلولاتها. وقوانين علم المعاني راجعة إلى أحوال التراكيب أنفسها من حيث الدلالة. واللفظ والمعنى متلازمان متضايقان كما علمت.,"(This science) is sister to the science of idea expression, which indicates the requirements of a given situation. The (science of style) has reference to the ideas and meanings of the word combinations. The rules of the science of idea expression have reference to the very situations that apply to the word combinations, as far as they affect the meaning. Word and idea depend on each other and stand side by side, as one knows."
فإذا علم المعاني وعلم البيان هما جزء البلاغة، وبهما كمال الإفادة، فهو مقصر عن البلاغة ويلتحق عند البلغاء بأصوات الحيوانات العجم وأجدر به أن لا يكون عربيا، لأن العربي هو الذي يطابق بإفادته مقتضى الحال.,"Thus, the science of idea expression and the science of style are both part of rhetoric, and both (together) produce perfect indication and conformity to the requirements of the situation. Consequently, word combinations that fall short of conformity and perfect indication are inferior in eloquence. (Such word combinations) are linked by rhetoricians to the sounds dumb animals make. The preferred assumption is that they are not Arabic, because Arabic is (the kind of speech) in which indications are in conformity with the requirements of the situation."
فالبلاغة على هذا هي أصل الكلام العربي وسجيته وروحه وطبيعته.,"Thus, eloquence is the basis, genius, spirit, and nature of Arabic speech."
ثم اعلم أنهم إذا قالوا: «الكلام المطبوع» فإنهم يعنون به الكلام الذي كملت طبيعته وسجيته من إفادة مدلوله المقصود منه، لأنه عبارة وخطاب، ليس المقصود منه النطق فقط. بل المتكلم يقصد به أن يفيد سامعه ما في ضميره إفادة تامة، ويدل به عليه دلالة وثيقة.,"It should further be known that in the usage of (philologists), “natural speech” means the (type of) speech that conveys the intended meaning and, thus, is perfect in its nature and genius. Just speaking is not what is meant by (natural speech) as a (kind of) expression and address; the speaker (who uses natural speech) wants to convey what is in his mind to the listeners in a complete and definite fashion."
ثم يتبع تراكيب الكلام في هذه السجية التي له بالأصالة ضروب من التحسين والتزيين، بعد كمال الإفادة,"Thus, after perfect indication (of the requirements of the situation has been achieved), the word combinations, (if expressed) according to that genius that is basic (to Arabic speech), have (their) different kinds of artistic embellishment."
وكأنها تعطيها رونق الفصاحة من تنميق الأسجاع، والموازنة بين حمل الكلام وتقسيمه بالأقسام المختلفة الأحكام والتورية باللفظ المشترك عن الخفي من معانيه، والمطابقة بين المتضادات، ليقع التجانس بين الألفاظ والمعاني،,"In a way, they give them the brilliance of correct speech. Such (kinds of artistic embellishment) include the ornamental use of rhymed prose, the use of phrases of identical structure at the end of successive cola (muwazanah), allusion (tawriyah) to a cryptic idea by a homonym, and * antithesis, so that there will be affinity (tajanus) between the words and ideas (used)."
فيحصل للكلام رونق ولذة في الأسماع وحلاوة وجمال كلها زائدة على الإفادة.,"This gives brilliance to speech and pleasure to the ear, and sweetness and beauty, all in addition to indicating (the meaning)."
وهذه الصنعة موجودة في الكلام المعجز في مواضع متعددة مثل: «والليل إذا يغشى والنهار إذا تجلى 92: 1- 2»، ومثل: «فأما من أعطى واتقى وصدق بالحسنى 92: 5- 6»، إلى آخر التقسيم في الآية.,"This craft is found represented in the inimitable speech (of the Qur’an) in numerous passages, as, for instance: By the night when it covers; and the day when it reveals itself. Or: As to those who give and fear God and believe in what is most beautiful … and so on, to the end of the cola division in the passage."
وكذا: «فأما من طغى وآثر الحياة الدنيا 79: 37- 38» إلى آخر الآية. وكذا: «هم يحسبون أنهم يحسنون صنعا 18: 104». وأمثاله كثير.,"Or: But as to those who deviate and prefer the life of this world, and so on, to the end of the passage.Also: And they think that they are doing good. There are many similar things (in the Qur’an)."
وذلك بعد كمال الإفادة في أصل هذه التراكيب قبل وقوع هذا البديع فيها. وكذا وقع في كلام الجاهلية منه، لكن عفوا من غير قصد ولا تعمد. ويقال إنه وقع في شعر زهير.,"(But) it comes (only) after (the meaning) has been indicated perfectly by the word combinations (as they are) basically, before the rhetorical figures occur in them. (Rhetorical figures) also occurred in pre-Islamic speech, but spontaneously and unintentionally. They are said to occur in the poetry of Zuhayr."
وأما الإسلاميون فوقع لهم عفوا وقصدا، وأتوا منه بالعجائب. وأول من أحكم طريقته حبيب بن أوس والبحتري ومسلم بن الوليد، فقد كانوا مولعين بالصنعة، ويأتون منها بالعجب.,"Among the (early) Muslim (authors), they occur both spontaneously and intentionally. These (authors) did remarkable things with them. The first to have a good knowledge of the method of (rhetorical figures) were Habib b. Aws (Abu Tammam), al-Buhturi, and Muslim b. alWalid. They very eagerly set out to achieve a (contrived) technique and did remarkable things with it."
وقيل ان أول من ذهب إلى معاناتها بشار بن برد وابن هرمة، وكانا آخر من يستشهد بشعره في اللسان العربي. ثم اتبعهما عمرو بن كلثوم والعتابي ومنصور النميري ومسلم بن الوليد وأبو نواس.,"It is (also) said that the first to concern themselves with (rhetorical figures) were Bashshar b. Burd and Ibn Harmah, who were the last (poets whose poems) are used as evidence for (the grammatical and lexicographical problems of) the Arabic language. They were followed by Kulthum b. ‘Amr al-‘Attabi, Mansur an-Numayri, Muslim b. al-Walid, and Abu Nuwas."
وجاء على آثارهم حبيب والبحتري. ثم ظهر ابن المعتز فختم على البديع والصناعة أجمع.,"After them came Habib (Abu Tammam) and al-Buhturi. Then, there appeared Ibn alMu’tazz. He gave the whole craft of rhetorical figures its definitive form."
"ولنذكر مثالا من المطبوع الخالي من الصناعة، مثل قول قيس بن ذريح:
وأخرج من بين البيوت لعلني *** أحدث عنك النفس في السر خاليا","Let us mention examples of natural (speech) which is free from (contrived) technique, such as, for instance, the verse of Qays b. Dharih: I go out from among the tents; perhaps, I Shall talk about you to my(self) in secret, being alone."
"وقول كثير:
وإني وتهيامي بعزة بعد ما *** تخليت عما بيننا وتخلت
لكالمرتجي ظل الغمامة كلها *** تبوأ منها للمقيل اضمحلت","Or the verse-of -Kuthayyir: I, in my passion for ‘Azzah after Our relationship had come to an end for me, and for her, Am indeed like one who hopes for shade from a cloud that, as soon as He settles down to his siesta, clears away."
فتأمل هذا المطبوع، الفقيد الصنعة، في إحكام تأليفه وثقافة تركيبه. فلو جاءت فيه الصنعة من بعد هذا الأصل زادته حسنا.,"This, indeed, is natural (poetry) that is uncontrived in its good composition and in the solidity of its word combinations. If, later on, some (contrived) technique were added upon such a foundation, its beauty would (merely) be increased."
وأما المصنوع فكثير من لدن بشار، ثم حبيب وطبقتهما، ثم ابن المعتز خاتم الصنعة الذي جرى المتأخرون بعدهم في ميدانهم، ونسجوا على منوالهم.,Contrived (speech) has been frequent since the time of Bashshar and Habib (Abu Tammam) and other (authors) of their class. (They were followed) by Ibn alMu’tazz who gave the craft of (rhetorical figures) its definitive form. (These authors) served as models to later (writers) who used the course they had prepared and wove on their loom.
وقد تعددت أصناف هذه الصنعة عند أهلها، واختلفت اصطلاحاتهم في ألقابها. وكثير منهم يجعلها مندرجة في البلاغة على أنها غير داخلة في الإفادة، وأنها هي تعطي التحسين والرونق.,"People who cultivate the craft of (rhetorical figures) distinguish numerous subdivisions and use different terminologies for the rhetorical figures (alqab). Many of them consider them part of rhetoric, although (these figures) are not concerned with indicating (the meaning of speech), but provide embellishment and brilliance."
وأما المتقدمون من أهل البديع، فهي عندهم خارجة عن البلاغة. ولذلك يذكرونها في الفنون الأدبية التي لا موضوع لها. وهو رأي ابن رشيق في كتاب العمدة له، وأدباء الأندلس.,"The early representatives of the discipline of rhetorical figures considered them not to be a part of rhetoric. Therefore, they mentioned them as part of the literary disciplines (adab) which have no (particular, defined) subject. This was the opinion of Ibn Rashiq in his Kitab al-‘Umdah, and of the Spanish litterateurs."
وذكروا في استعمال هذه الصنعة شروطا، منها أن تقع من غير تكلف ولا اكتراث في ما يقصد منها.,"They mentioned various conditions governing the use of the (rhetorical figures). Among them, there is the condition that they should express the intended meaning in an unforced and unstudied manner."
وأما العفو فلا كلام فيه لأنها إذا برئت من التكلف سلم الكلام من عيب الاستهجان، لأن تكلفها ومعاناتها يصير إلى الغفلة عن التراكيب الأصلية للكلام، فتخل بالإفادة من أصلها، وتذهب بالبلاغة رأسا.,"The spontaneous occurrence of (rhetorical figures) causes no comment, because (in such cases, the rhetorical figures) are in no way forced, and the speech (in which they occur) cannot, therefore, be criticized as (linguistically) faulty. The forced and studied use of (rhetorical figures) leads to disregard of the basic word combinations of speech and thus destroys all basis for indication (of the meaning of speech)."
ولا يبقى في الكلام إلا تلك التحسينات، وهذا هو الغالب اليوم على أهل العصر. وأصحاب الأذواق في البلاغة يسخرون من كلفهم بهذه الفنون، ويعدون ذلك من القصور عن سواه.,"It removes outright all eloquence and leaves speech only the (rhetorical) embellishments. This (however, actually) is the situation that is preponderant among (our) contemporaries. (But) people who have taste in eloquence despise (them because of) their infatuation with the various (rhetorical figures) and consider that (propensity an indication of their) inability to do better."
وسمعت شيخنا الأستاذ أبا البركات البلفيقي، وكان من أهل البصر في اللسان والقريحة في ذوقه يقول:,"(Thus,) I heard our shaykh, Professor Abul-Barakat alBallaffiqi, who knew the language and had a natural taste for it, say:"
إن من أشهى ما تقترحه علي نفسي أن أشاهد في بعض الأيام من ينتحل فنون هذا البديع في نظمه أو نثره، وقد عوقب بأشد العقوبة، ونودي عليه، يحذر بذلك تلميذه أن يتعاطوا هذه الصنعة، فيكلفون بها، ويتناسون البلاغة.,"“The thing I most desire is some day to see one of those who practice the different branches of (the craft of) rhetorical figures in poetry or prose, punished with the most severe punishment and publicly denounced thus giving warning to his pupils not to concern themselves with this (contrived) technique. (Otherwise,) they might fall in love with it and forget all eloquence.”"
ثم من شروط استعمالها عندهم الإقلال منها وأن تكون في بيتين أو ثلاثة من القصيد، فتكفي في زينة الشعر ورونقه. والإكثار منها عيب، قاله ابن رشيق وغيره.,"Another condition (governing the use of rhetorical figures) is that they be used sparingly and in no more than two or three verses of a poem, which suffices to adorn and give it brilliance, while the use of many (such rhetorical figures) would be a blemish. This was stated by Ibn Rashiq and others."
وكان شيخنا أبو القاسم الشريف السبتي منفق اللسان العربي بالأندلس لوقته يقول: هذه الفنون البديعية إذا وقعت للشاعر أو للكاتب فيقبح أن يستكثر منها،,"Our shaykh, the sharif Judge Abul-Qasim as-Sabti, who was the chief cultivator of the Arabic language in his time, used to say: “The different kinds of rhetorical figures may occur to a poet or a secretary, but it is ugly if he uses many of them."
لأنها من محسنات الكلام ومزيناته، فهي بمثابة الخيلان في الوجه يحسن بالواحد والاثنين منها، ويقبح بتعدادها.,"They belong among the things that embellish speech and constitute its beauty. They are like moles on a face. One or two make it beautiful, but many make it ugly.”"
وعلى نسبة الكلام المنظوم هو الكلام المنثور في الجاهلية والإسلام. كان أولا مرسلا معتبر الموازنة بين جمله وتراكيبه، شاهدة موازنته بفواصله، من غير التزام سجع ولا اكتراث بصنعة.,"Pre-Islamic and (early) Islamic prose followed the same lines as poetry. Originally, it was straight prose, considering (only) creation of a balance between the larger portions of (speech) and its word combinations, to indicate that it’s balanced by means of cola into which it is divided, without adherence to rhyme or concern for (contrived) techniques."
حتى نبغ إبراهيم بن هلال الصابي كاتب بني بويه، فتعاطى الصنعة والتقفية وأتى بذلك بالعجب. وعاب الناس عليه كلفه بذلك في المخاطبات السلطانية.,"(This was so) until the appearance of Ibrahim b. Hilal as-Sabi’, the secretary to the Buyids. He concerned himself with (contrived) techniques and the use of rhyme. He did marvelous things with it. (However,) people criticized him because of his propensity for (using such things) in government correspondence."
وإنما حمله عليه ما كان في ملوكه من العجمة والبعد عن صولة الخلافة المنفقة لسوق البلاغة. ثم انتشرت الصناعة بعده في منثور المتأخرين ونسي عهد الترسيل وتشابهت السلطانيات والإخوانيات والعربيات بالسوقيات. واختلط المرعي بالهمل.,"He could do that only because his rulers were used to non-Arabic (speech) and had nothing to do with the authority of the caliphate which caused eloquence to flourish. Afterwards, the prose of later (authors) became more and more contrived. One forgot the period when straight prose had been used. Government correspondence came to be like private correspondence, and Arabic came to be like the common language. Good and bad became (inextricably) confused with each other."
وهذا كله يدلك على أن الكلام المصنوع بالمعاناة والتكليف، قاصر عن الكلام المطبوع، لقلة الاكتراث فيه بأصل البلاغة، والحاكم في ذلك الذوق.,"All these (statements) show that contrived, studied, or forced speech is inferior to natural speech, because it has little concern for what is basic to eloquence. The judge in such matters is (one’s) taste."
والله خلقكم وعلمكم ما لم تكونوا تعلمون.,And God created you and “taught you what you did not know.”
الفصل التاسع والخمسون في ترفع أهل المراتب عن انتحال الشعر,58. People of rank are above cultivating poetry.
اعلم أن الشعر كان ديوانا للعرب فيه علومهم وأخبارهم وحكمهم. وكان رؤساء العرب منافسين فيه وكانوا يقفون بسوق عكاظ لإنشاده وعرض كل واحد منهم ديباجته على فحول الشأن وأهل البصر لتمييز حوله.,"It should be known that poetry was the archive of the Arabs, containing their sciences, their history, and their wisdom. Leading Arabs competed in it. They used to stop at the fair of ‘Ukaz to recite poetry. Each would submit his product for criticism to outstanding and intelligent personalities."
حتى انتهوا إلى المناغاة في تعليق أشعارهم بأركان البيت الحرام موضع حجهم وبيت أبيهم إبراهيم,"Eventually, (Arab poets) came to vie in having their poems hung up at the corners of the Holy Sanctuary to which they made pilgrimage, the house of their ancestor Ibrahim (the Ka’bah)."
كما فعل امرؤ القيس ابن حجر والنابغة الذبياني وزهير بن أبي سلمى وعنترة بن شداد وطرفة بن العبد وعلقمة بن عبدة والأعشى وغيرهم من أصحاب المعلقات السبع .,"This was done by Imru’u-l-Qays b. Hujr, an-Nabighah adh-Dhubyani, Zuhayr b. Abi Sulma, ‘Antarah b. Shaddad, Tarafah b. al-‘Abd, ‘Alqamah b. ‘Abadah, al-A’sha, and the other authors of the nine Mu’allaqat:"
فإنه إنما كان يتوصل إلى تعليق الشعر بها من كان له قدرة على ذلك بقومه وعصبيته ومكانه في مضر على ما قيل في سبب تسميتها بالمعلقات.,"Only a person who had enough power among his people and his group (‘asabIyah) and who held the proper position among the Mudar, was able to get so far as to have his poem hung up there. This (fact) is stated in connection with the reason why such poems were called Mu’allaqat."
ثم انصرف العرب عن ذلك أول الإسلام بما شغلهم من أمر الدين والنبوة والوحي وما أدهشهم من أسلوب القرآن ونظمه فأخرسوا عن ذلك وسكتوا عن الخوض في النظم والنثر زمانا. ثم استقر ذلك وأونس الرشد من الملة.,"Then, at the beginning of Islam, the Arabs gave up the (custom). They were occupied with the affairs of Islam, with prophecy and revelation. They were awed by the (linguistic) method and form of the Qur’an. They were (thus) silenced. For a time, they no longer discussed poetry and prose. Then, those (great happenings) continued, and right guidance came to be something familiar to the Muslims."
ولم ينزل الوحي في تحريم الشعر وحظره وسمعه النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم وأثاب عليه، فرجعوا حينئذ إلى ديدنهم منه.,"There was no revelation (saying) that poetry was forbidden or prohibited. The Prophet listened to poetry and rewarded (the poet) for it. Under these circumstances, the Arabs returned to their old customs with regard to poetry."
وكان لعمر بن أبي ربيعة كبير قريش لذلك العهد مقامات فيه عالية وطبقة مرتفعة وكان كثيرا ما يعرض شعره على ابن عباس فيقف لاستماعه معجبا به. ثم جاء من بعد ذلك الملك الفحل والدولة العزيزة,"‘Umar b. Abi Rabi’ah, the leading Qurashite of his time, wrote poetry of a high rank and on a high level. He often submitted his poetry to Ibn ‘Abbas, who paused to listen to it in admiration. Then there came great royal authority and a mighty dynasty."
وتقرب إليهم العرب بأشعارهم يمتدحونهم بها. ويجيزهم الخلفاء بأعظم الجوائز على نسبة الجودة في أشعارهم ومكانهم من قومهم ويحرصون على استهداء أشعارهم يطلعون منها على الآثار والأخبار واللغة وشرف اللسان. والعرب يطالبون ولدهم بحفظها.,"The Arabs approached the (caliphs) with their laudatory poems, and the caliphs rewarded them most generously according to the quality of the poems and their position among their people. They were eager to have poems presented to them. From them they learned remarkable stories, history, lexicography, and noble speech. The Arabs saw to it that their children memorized the poems."
ولم يزل هذا الشأن أيام بني أمية وصدرا من دولة بني العباس.,This remained the situation during the days of the Umayyads and in the early days of the ‘Abbasid dynasty.
وانظر ما نقله صاحب العقد في مسامرة الرشيد للأصمعي في باب الشعر والشعراء تجد ما كان عليه الرشيد من المعرفة بذلك والرسوخ فيه والعناية بانتحاله والتبصر بجيد الكلام ورديئه وكثرة محفوظه منه.,"One may compare the report, by the author of the ‘Iqd, about the conversation of ar-Rashid with al-Asma’i, in the chapter on poetry and poets. It shows that ar-Rashid possessed a good knowledge of the subject and was firmly grounded in it. He was concerned with the cultivation of (poetry). He was able to discern good speech from bad speech, and he possessed a wide memorized knowledge of (poetry)."
ثم جاء خلق من بعدهم لم يكن اللسان لسانهم من أجل العجمة وتقصيرها باللسان وإنما تعلموه صناعة ثم مدحوا بأشعارهم أمراء العجم الذين ليس اللسان لهم طالبين معروفهم فقط لا سوى ذلك من الأغراض,"Later on, people came whose language was not Arabic, because they had a non-Arab (background) and a deficient knowledge of the (Arabic) language, which they had learned as a craft. (Poets) did write laudatory poems for the nonArab amirs, who did not possess the (Arabic) language, (but) they did so only in order to win their favor, and not for any other reason."
كما فعله حبيب والبحتري والمتنبي وابن هانئ ومن بعدهم وهلم جرا. فصار غرض الشعر في الغالب إنما هو الكذب والاستجداء لذهاب المنافع التي كانت فيه للأولين كما ذكرناه آنفا.,"This was done, for instance, by Habib (Abu Tammam), al-Buhturi, al-Mutanabbi, Ibn Hani, and later (poets). Thus, the predominant purpose of producing poetry came to be mere begging and asking for favors, because the particular use that, as we have mentioned, the early (Arabs) had made of poetry no longer existed."
وأنف منه لذلك أهل الهمم والمراتب من المتأخرين وتغير الحال وأصبح تعاطيه هجنة في الرئاسة ومذمة لأهل المناصب الكبيرة.,"This is why people of ambition and rank among later (Muslims) disdained poetry. The situation, thus, changed. Concern with poetry came to be (considered) a blemish or fault in leaders and people holding great positions."
والله مقلب الليل والنهار.,God causes the change of night and day.
الفصل الستون في أشعار العرب وأهل الأمصار لهذا العهد,"59. Contemporary Arab poetry, Bedouin and urban."
اعلم أن الشعر لا يختص باللسان العربي فقط بل هو موجود في كل لغة سواء كانت عربية أو عجمية وقد كان في الفرس شعراء وفي يونان كذلك وذكر منهم أرسطو في كتاب المنطق أو ميروس الشاعر وأثنى عليه. وكان في حمير أيضا شعراء متقدمون.,"It should be known that poetry is not restricted exclusively to the Arabic language. It exists in every language, Arabic and non-Arabic. There were poets among the Persians and among the Greeks. (The Greek poet) Homer was mentioned and praised by Aristotle in the Logic. The Himyarites, too, had their poets in ancient times."
ولما فسد لسان مضر ولغتهم التي دونت مقاييسها وقوانين إعرابها وفسدت اللغات من بعد بحسب ما خالطها ومازجها من العجمة,"Later on, corruption affected the language of the Mudar, whose forms, and whose rules governing the vowel endings, had been systematized (as the pure Arabic language). The various later dialects differed according to the (more or less close) contact with (non-Arabs) and the (larger or smaller) admixture of non-Arab (elements)."
فكانت تحيل العرب بأنفسهم لغة خالفت لغة سلفهم من مضر في الإعراب جملة وفي كثير من الموضوعات اللغوية وبناء الكلمات.,"As a result, the Bedouin Arabs themselves came to speak a language completely different from that of their Mudar ancestors with regard to vowel endings, and different in many respects with regard to the (conventional) meanings and forms of words."
وكذلك الحضر أهل الأمصار نشأت فيهم لغة أخرى خالفت لسان مضر في الإعراب وأكثر الأوضاع والتصاريف وخالفت أيضا لغة الجيل من العرب لهذا العهد.,"Among the urban population, too, another language originated, which was different from that of the Mudar with regard to vowel endings, as well as most meanings and grammatical inflections. It differs also from the language of present-day Arab Bedouins."
واختلفت هي في نفسها بحسب اصطلاحات أهل الآفاق فلأهل الشرق وأمصاره لغة غير لغة أهل المغرب وأمصاره وتخالفهما أيضا لغة أهل الأندلس وأمصاره.,"Again, it differs within itself according to the (different) terminologies of the inhabitants of the various regions. Thus, the urban population of the East speaks a dialect different from that of the Maghribis. And the language of the urban population in Spain differs from both of them."
ثم لما كان الشعر موجودا بالطبع في أهل كل لسان لأن الموازين على نسبة واحدة في أعداد المتحركات والسواكن وتقابلها موجودة في طباع البشر فلم يهجر الشعر بفقدان لغة واحدة وهي لغة مضر الذين كانوا فحوله وفرسان ميدانه حسبما اشتهر بين أهل الخليقة.,"Now, poetry exists by nature among the speakers of every language, since meters of a certain harmonious arrangement, with the alternation of (fixed) numbers of consonants, with and without vowels, exist in the nature of all human beings. Therefore, poetry is never abolished as the result of the disappearance of one particular language in this case, that of the Mudar, who, as everybody knows, were outstanding champions of poetry."
بل كل جيل وأهل كل لغة من العرب المستعجمين والحضر أهل الأمصار يتعاطون منه ما يطاوعهم في انتحاله ورصف بنائه على مهيع كلامهم.,"In fact, every racial and dialect group among the Arab Bedouins who have undergone some non-Arab influence, or the urban population, attempts to cultivate poetry and to fit it into the pattern of their speech, as much as it suits them."
فأما العرب أهل هذا الجيل المستعجمون عن لغة سلفهم من مضر فيقرضون الشعر لهذا العهد في سائر الأعاريض على ما كان عليه سلفهم المستعربون,"Contemporary Arab Bedouins who gave up the language of their Mudar ancestors under non-Arab influence, produce poetry in all the meters used by their Arab ancestors."
ويأتون منه بالمطولات مشتملة على مذاهب الشعر وأغراضه من النسيب والمدح والرثاء والهجاء ويستطردون في الخروج من فن إلى فن في الكلام.,"They make long poems in (those meters). (Their poems) represent all the ways and purposes of poetry, the erotic (nasib), the laudatory, the elegiac, and the satirical (parts of the ancient qasidahs). They switch from one subject to another in their speech (as was done in the ancient gasidahs)."
وربما هجموا على المقصود لأول كلامهم وأكثر ابتدائهم في قصائدهم باسم الشاعر ثم بعد ذلك ينسبون. فأهل أمصار المغرب من العرب يسمون هذه القصائد بالأصمعيات نسبة إلى الأصمعي راوية العرب في أشعارهم.,"They often brusquely state what they want to say at the beginning of the poem. Most of their poems begin with the name of the poet. Then, they pass on to the erotic part (nasib). The Western Arabs call those poems Asma`iyat, after alAsma`i, the great transmitter of Arab poetry."
وأهل المشرق من العرب يسمون هذا النوع من الشعر بالبدوي والحوراني والقيسي. وربما يلحنون فيه ألحانا بسيطة لا على طريقة الصناعة الموسيقية.,"The Eastern Arabs call it Baddawi (Bedouin) and Hawrani and Qubaysi [?]poetry. In connection with it, they often use plain melodies which are not artistic musical compositions."
ثم يغنون به ويسمون الغناء به باسم الحوراني نسبة إلى حوران من أطراف العراق والشام وهي من منازل العرب البادية ومساكنهم إلى هذا العهد.,"They sing the (poems). They call such songs Hawrani songs, after the Hawran, a section of the ‘Iraq and Syria where Bedouin Arabs used to live and are still living at this time."
ولهم فن آخر كثير التداول في نظمهم يجيئون به معصبا على أربعة أجزاء يخالف آخرها الثلاثة في رويه ويلتزمون القافية الرابعة في كل بيت إلى آخر القصيدة شبيها بالمربع والمخمس الذي أحدثه المتأخرون من المولدين.,"The (Arabs) have another kind (of poetry) which is widely in use among them. It employs four lines, of which the fourth has a rhyme different from that of the first three. The fourth rhyme, then, is continued in each stanza through the whole poem, similar to the quatrains and the stanzas of five lines which were originated by recent poets of mixed Arab and non-Arab parentage (muwallaa)."
ولهؤلاء العرب في هذا الشعر بلاغة فائقة وفيهم الفحول والمتأخرون والكثير من المنتحلين للعلوم لهذا العهد وخصوصا علم اللسان يستنكر صاحبها هذه الفنون التي لهم إذا سمعها ويمج نظمهم إذا أنشد ويعتقد أن ذوقه إنما نبا عنها لاستهجانها وفقدان الإعراب منها.,"These Arabs show an admirable eloquence in the use of this type of poetry. There are outstanding and less outstanding poets among them: Most contemporary scholars, philologists in particular, disapprove of these types (of poems) when they hear them, and refuse to consider them poetry when they are recited. They believe that their (literary) taste recoils from them, because they are (linguistically) incorrect and lack vowel endings."
وهذا إنما أتى من فقدان الملكة في لغتهم فلو حصلت له ملكة من ملكاتهم لشهد له طبعه وذوقه ببلاغتها إن كان سليما من الآفات في فطرته ونظره وإلا فالإعراب لا مدخل له في البلاغة,"This, however, is merely the result of the loss of the habit (of using vowel endings) in the dialect of the (Arabs). If these (philologists) possessed the same (speech) habit, taste and natural (feeling) would prove to them that these poems are eloquent, provided that their (own) natural dispositions and point of view were not distorted. Vowel endings have nothing to do with eloquence."
إنما البلاغة مطابقة الكلام للمقصود ولمقتضى الحال من الوجود فيه سواء كان الرفع دالا على الفاعل والنصب دالا على المفعول أو بالعكس وإنما يدل على ذلك قرائن الكلام كما هو في لغتهم هذه.,"Eloquence is the conformity of speech to what one wants to express and to the requirements of a given situation, regardless of whether the u-ending indicates the subject and the a-ending the object, or vice versa. These things are indicated by syntactic combinations (qara’in) as used in the particular dialect used by the (Arabs)."
فالدلالة بحسب ما يصطلح عليه أهل الملكة فإذا عرف اصطلاح في ملكة واشتهر صحة الدلالة وإذا طابقت تلك الدلالة المقصود ومقتضى الحال صحت البلاغة ولا عبرة بقوانين النحاة في ذلك.,"The meanings are based upon the technical conventions of people who have a particular (linguistic) habit. When the technical terminology (as it is used) in a particular (linguistic) habit is generally known, the meaning comes out correctly. And if the indicated meaning is in conformity with what one wants to express and with the requirements of the situation, we have sound eloquence. The rules of the grammarians have nothing to do with that."
وأساليب الشعر وفنونه موجودة في أشعارهم هذه ما عدا حركات الإعراب في أواخر الكلم فإن غالب كلماتهم موقوفة الآخر. ويتميز عندهم الفاعل من المفعول والمبتدأ من الخبر بقرائن الكلام لا بحركات الإعراب.,"The poems of (the Arabs) show all the methods and forms of (true) poetry. They lack only the vowel endings. Most words have no vowel after the last consonant, and the subject and object of verbal sentences as well as the subject and predicate of nominal sentences are distinguished from each other by syntactic means (qara’in), and not by vowel endings."
فمن أشعارهم على لسان الشريف بن هاشم يبكي الجازية بنت سرحان، ويذكر ظعنها مع قومها إلى المغرب:,"One such poem is put in the mouth of the sharif Ibn Hashim. In it, he weeps for al-Jaziyah bint Sarhan and mentions her departure with her people to the Maghrib."
"قال الشريف ابن هاشم علي *** ترى كبدي حرى شكت من زفيرها
يغز للإعلام أين ما رأت خاطري *** يرد غلام البدو يلوي عصيرها","(It runs:) Then spoke the war hero, the sharif Ibn Hashim, concerning The affliction of his soul, complaining of its misfortune. He hastened to tell (us) how his mind has gone After a young Bedouin who torments (his soul), already afflicted."
"وماذا شكاة الروح مما طرا لها *** عداة وزائغ تلف الله خبيرها
يحس إن قطاع عامر ضميرها *** طوى وهند جافي ذكيرها","(He told) of how (his) spirit complains about its affliction, (How) when the morning to say farewell had come – God may destroy him who knows about it! (His spirit) felt as if a man with a scalpel had sliced down through it With a blade of pure Indian steel."
"وعادت كما خوارة في يد غاسل *** على مثل شوك الطلح عقدوا يسيرها
تجابذوها اثنين والنزع بينهم *** على شوك لعه والبقايا جريرها","It has become a bleating (sheep) in the hand of (the man who) washes it, Whose harshness in handling its strap is (as painful) as the thorns of an acacia. Double (fetters) hold together its feet and its head, And while (the washer) scrubs it, he holds it by the end of a rope [?]."
"وباتت دموع العين ذارفات لشأنها *** شبيه دوار السواني يديرها
تدارك منها النجم حذرا وزادها *** مرون يجي متراكبا من صبيرها
يصب من القيعان من جانب الصفا *** عيون ولجاز البرق في غزيرها","My tears have begun to flow, as if Controlled by the operator who turns the water wheels. At the least let-up, (the tears) are made to flow all the more copiously, (Like) the rain that pours down in sheets from the rain clouds, (That) flows from the plains at as-Safi Heavily, blocking the lightning, it is so abundant."
"هذا الغنى حتى تسابيت غزوة *** ناضت من بغداد حتى فقيرها
ونادى المنادي بالرحيل وشدوا *** وعرج عاريها على مستعيرها
وشد لها الأدهم دياب بن غانم *** على أيدين ماضي وليد مقرب ميرها","This song of mine is preparation for a raid, Which has aroused even the poor people of Baghdad. The crier called out the departure, and people secured (their baggage), And the money lenders of (the tribe) pressed the borrowers. Hinder her [them?] from leaving now, O Dhiyib b. Ghinim! Midi b. Muqarrab controls her [their?] journey."
"وقال لهم حسن بن سرحان غربوا *** وسوقوا النجوع إن كان أنا هو غفيرها
ويركض وبيده شهامه بالتسامح *** وباليمين لا يجدوا في مغيرها","Hasan [?]b. Sarhan says to them: Go west! Drive (before you) the herds! I am their watchman. He urges them and drives them on, with the bleating [sheep?]. ……………………………………….."
"غدرني زيان السيح من عابس *** وما كان يرضى زين حمير وميرها
غدرني وهو زعما صديقي وصاحبي *** وأناليه ما من درقتي ما يديرها","Zayyan b. ‘Abis, the kind, left me. He was not satisfied with the splendor and provision of (the) Himyar. He left me, who pretended to be my friend and companion, And I have no shield (left) to turn around."
"ورجع يقول لهم بلال بن هاشم *** بحر البلاد العطشى ما بخيرها
حرام علي باب بغداد وأرضها *** داخل ولا عائد ركيزه من نعيرها
تصدف روحي عن بلاد ابن هاشم *** على الشمس أو حول الغظامن هجيرها","He says to them again: The land of Ibn Hashim I can protect, but not if it is parched by thirst. The entrance and territory of Baghdad are forbidden to me. We cannot go in or out there, and my mount is scared away from it. My spirit turns away from the country of Ibn Hashim Because of the (parching) sun. (Otherwise), death will come upon me in its noontime heat."
وباتت نيران العذارى قوادح *** بلوذ وبجرجان يشدوا أسيرها,"The fires of the maids continued all night to send off sparks, Looking for shelter [?], while they bind the captive of their (charms) with [in?]… ."
ومن قولهم في رثاء أمير زناتة أبي سعدى اليفرني مقارعهم بإفريقية وأرض الزاب ورثاؤهم له على جهة التهكم:,"Another such poem is the mocking elegy in which the (Hilal) mourned the Zanatah amir, Abu Su’di al-Yafrani, their adversary in Ifriqiyah and the land of Zab."
"تقول فتاة الحي سعدى وهاضها *** لها في ظعون الباكرين عويل
أيا سائلي عن قبر الزناتي خليفة *** خذ النعت مني لا تكون هبيل","(It runs:) Then spoke Su’da, she with the pure cheeks, while The lament among the litter-bearing camels, kneeling (ready to depart), renewed her grief: O you who ask about the grave of Khalifah az-Zanati, Take the description from me! Do not be stupid!"
"تراه يعالي وادي ران وفوقه *** من الربط عيساوي بناه طويل
أراه يميل النور من شارع النقا *** به الواد شرقا واليراع دليل","I see him go up the river Ran [?],above which There is a Christian monastery [?] of a lofty construction. I see him where the low ground turns aways from the road up the sand hill, The river to the east of him, and the patch of reeds indicating (where he is)."
"أيا لهف كبدي على الزناتي خليفة *** قد كان لأعقاب الجياد سليل
قتيل فتى الهيجا دياب بن غانم *** جراحة كأفواه المزاد تسيل","Oh, how my soul suffers because of Khalifah az-Zanati, Who was the offspring of generous ancestors. He was killed by the fighting hero, Dhiyib b. Ghinim, By wounds that made (his blood) to flow (as water flows out of) the openings of a water bag."
"أيا جائزا مات الزناتي خليفة *** لا ترحل إلا أن يريد رحيل
ألا واش رحلنا ثلاثين مرة *** وعشرا وستا في النهار قليل","O Jaziyah! Khalifah az-Zanati is dead! Do not leave, unless you want to leave! Go, calumniator! We sent you away thirty times. And ten and six during the day (which is) little [?]."
"ومن قولهم على لسان الشريف بن هاشم يذكر عتابا وقع بينه وبين ماضي بن مقرب:
تبدى ماضي الجبار وقال لي *** أشكر ما نحنا عليك رضاش
أشكر أعد ما بقي ود بيننا *** ورانا عريب عربا لابسين نماش","Another such poem is put in the mouth of the sharif Ibn Hashim, with reference to an altercation between him and Midi b. Muqarrab. (It runs:) The excellent Midi started to say: O Shukr, we are not satisfied with you. O Shukr, return to the Najd, and do not add any more censure! (Only) he who cultivates his own land (really) lives. You have kept away from us, O Shukr. You have approached others. You have attracted (to yourself) Arabs who wear fine garments."
"نحن غدينا نصدفو ما قضى لنا *** كما صادفت طعم الزباد طشاش
أشكر أعد إلى يزيد ملامه *** ليحدو ومن عمر بلاده عاش
ان كان نبت الشوك يلقح بأرضكم *** هنا العرب ما زدنا لهن صياش","We have come to face what is destined for us Just as . . . If she-camels in the seventh month can become pregnant again in your land, We Arabs here could not have more fertile ones."
"ومن قولهم في ذكر رحلتهم إلى الغرب وغلبهم زناتة عليه:
وأي جميل ضاع لي في الشريف بن هاشم *** وأي رجال ضاع قبلي جميلها
لقد كنت أنا وياه في زهو بيتنا *** عناني بحجة ما غباني دليلها","Another such poem deals with the journey of (the Hilal) to the Maghrib and how they took it away from the Zanatah. (It runs:) What a good friend have I lost in Ibn Hashim! (But) what men before me have lost good friends! He and I had a proud (quarrel) between ourselves, And he defeated me with an argument whose force did not escape me."
"وعدت كأني شارب من مدامة *** من الخمر فهو ما قدر من يميلها
أو مثل شمطامات مظنون كبدها *** غريبا وهي مدوخه عن قبيلها
أتاها زمان السوء حتى تدوحت *** وهي بين عربا غافلا عن نزيلها","I remained (dumbfounded), as if (the argument) had been pure and Strong wine, which renders powerless those who gulp it down. Or (I could be compared) with a gray-haired woman who dies consumed by grief In a strange country, driven out from her tribe, Who had come upon hard times and finally was rejected And had to live among Arabs who disregarded their guest."
"كذلك أنا مما لحاني من الوجى *** شاكي بكبد باديتها زعيلها
وأمرت قومي بالرحيل وبكروا *** وقووا وشداد الحوايا حميلها","Like (her), I am as the result of humiliating experience Complaining about my soul, which has been killed by boredom. I ordered my people to depart, and in the morning They firmly fastened the packsaddles to the backs of their mounts."
"قعدنا سبعة أيام محبوس نجعنا *** والبدو ما ترفع عمود يقيلها
نظل على حداب الثنايا نوازي *** يظل الجرى فوق النضا ونصيلها","For seven days, our tents remained folded, And the Bedouin did not erect tent poles to set them up, Spending all the time upon the humps of hills parallel to each other
……………………………………….."
ومن شعر سلطان بن مظفر بن يحيى من الزواودة أحد بطون رياح وأهل الرئاسة فيهم، يقولها وهو معتقل بالمهدية في سجن الأمير أبي زكريا بن أبي حفص أول ملوك إفريقية من الموحدين:,"The following verses are from a poem of Sultan b. Muzaffar b. Yahya of the Dawawidah, a subtribe of the Riyah, and one of their chieftains. He composed them when he was confined in al-Mahdiyah in the prison of the amir, Abu Zakariya’ b. Abi Hafs, the first Almohad ruler of Ifriqiyah:"
"يقول وفي بوح الدجا بعد وهنة *** حرام على أجفان عيني منامها
يا من لقلب حالف الوجد والأسى *** وروح هيامي طال ما في سقامها
حجازية بدوية عربية *** عداوية ولها بعيد مرامها","(The poet) speaks, when, with the coming of the morning, his weakness has left him: May sleep be forbidden to the lids of my eyes! Who will help a heart that has become the ally of pain and sorrow, And a spirit that is tormented by love, whose illness has long been with me? (I love) a woman from the Hijaz, an Arab Bedouin woman, A young kid [?],a passionate one, who is hard to catch."
"مولعة بالبدو لا تألف القرى *** سوى عانك الوعسا يؤتي خيامها
غيات ومشتاها بها كل شتوة *** ممحونة بيها وبيها صحيح غرامها
ومر باها عشب الأراضي من الحيا *** يواتي من الخور الخلايا جسامها","Who loves the desert and is not used to villages, But only (to) sandy plains where the tents receive The spring rains. There, she spends her winters, For she is tempted by the desert and in love with it. She spends the spring among lands green from the rain ……………………………………….."
"تشوق شوق العين مما تداركت *** عليها من السحب السواري عمامها
وماذا بكت بالما وماذا تناحطت *** عيون غرار المزن عذبا حمامها
كأن عروس البكر لاحت ثيابها *** عليها ومن نور الأقاحي خزامها","(The lands) charm the eye, after they have received Rain from the passing clouds. How do (these clouds) shed tears of water, and how do Gushing springs with their abundance of fresh water compete with each other in murmuring? (The lands are) a virgin bride with garment resplendent Upon her and with a belt of camomile blossoms."
"فلاة ودهنا واتساع ومنة *** ومرعى سوى ما في مراعي نعامها
ومشروبها من مخض ألبان شولها *** غنيم ومن لحم الجوازي طعامها
تفانت عن الأبواب والموقف الذي *** يشيب الفتى مما يقاسي زحامها","(They are) a desert, a plain, a vast expanse, a far place to travel, A pasture where ostriches wander among animals led to pasture. The drink of (the desert) is the pure milk of shecamels in their seventh month, Which are milked in the evening. Its food is the meat of sheep [?].It has no need of gates, nor of battles whose Ferocity turns the hair of the young men gray."
"سقى الله ذا الوادي المشجر بالحيا *** وبلا ويحيى ما بلي من رمامها
فكافأتها بالود مني وليتني *** ظفرت بأيام مضت في ركامها
ليالي أقواس الصبا في سواعدي *** إذا قمت لم تحظ من أيدي سهامها","May God water the winding valleys of al-Musayjid with rain Continuously, so that the decayed bones there come to life again. Their recompensation (for the happiness they brought me shall be) my love. Would that I Could relive the days that went by in their sandy hills! The nights when the bows of youth were in my arms, Whose arrows never missed, when I stood up (to shoot)!"
"وفرسي عديد تحت سرجي مشاقة *** زمان الصبا سرجا وبيدي لجامها
وكم من رداح أسهرتني ولم أرى *** من الخلق أبهى من نظام ابتسامها
وكم غيرها من كاعب مرجحنة *** مطرزة الأجفان باهي وشامها","And my horse, always ready under my saddle, a mare In the time of (my) youth in (my) prime, while my hand was holding its reins! And how many fleshy beauties kept me awake! I did not think That there could be anything more splendid in the world than the rows of their teeth when they smiled. And how many other maids with full bosoms and swaying hips, With blackened eyelids and brilliant tattooing!"
"وصفقت من وجدي عليها طريجة *** بكفي ولم ينسى جداها ذمامها
ونار بخطب الوجد توهج في الحشا *** وتوهج لا يطفأ من الماء ضرامها
أيا من وعدتي الوعد هذا إلى متى *** فني العمر في دار عماني ظلامها","My passion for them makes (me) beat myself heavily [?] With my hand. My heart will not forget their claims (on me), Nor the fire kindled by passion that burns in my entrails, Burns in a flame that cannot be extinguished by the water (of my tears). O you who gave me your promise (to set me free), until when Shall (my) life be spent in a house whose darkness makes me blind?"
"ولكن رأيت الشمس تكسف ساعة *** ويغمى عليها ثم يبدأ غيامها
بنود ورايات من السعد أقبلت *** إلينا بعون الله يهفو علامها
أرى في الفلا بالعين أظعان عزوتي *** ورمحي على كتفي وسيري أمامها","But I have seen the sun in eclipse for a while And overcast, and then, the clouds (that covered it) disappeared. Banner and flags, let them come to us and bring us luck With the help of God! May their insignia flutter in the wind. There come into (my) sight the warriors ready to go. My lance on my shoulder, I march in front of them,"
"بجرعا عتاق النوق من فوق شامس *** أحب بلاد الله عندي حشامها
إلى منزل بالجعفرية للوى *** مقيم بها ما لذ عندي مقامها
ونلقى سراة من هلال بن عامر *** يزيل الصدا والغل عني سلامها","On the sandy plain of Ghiyath al-Farq above Shamis, God’s country whose hillocks I like best of all, To a camping place at al-Ja’fariyah, near the sands, Staying there, as long as it pleases me. (There) we shall meet the generous leader of Hilal b. ‘Amir Whose greeting will remove all my burning thirst from me."
"بهم تضرب الأمثال شرقا ومغربا *** إذا قاتلوا قوما سريع انهزامها
عليهم ومن هو في حمامهم تحية *** مدى الدهر ما غنى يفينا حمامها
فدع ذا ولا تأسف على سالف مضى *** فذي الدنيا ما دامت لأحد دوامها","They are proverbial (for their courage) in the West and the East. People attacked by them are quickly routed. Greetings to them and to everyone under their tents! Fate may let (it) last, as long as the pigeons coo in Ghina! But leave that alone! Do not be grieved by something that has gone! In this world, nothing is permanent for anyone."
ومن أشعار المتأخرين منهم قول خالد بن حمزة بن عمر، شيخ الكعوب، من أولاد أبي الليل، يعاتب أقتالهم أولاد مهلهل ويجيب شاعرهم شبل بن مسكيانة بن مهلهل، عن أبيات فخر عليهم فيها بقومه:,"A poem by a recent (Maghribi Arab) poet is that of Khalid b. Hamzah b. ‘Umar, the shaykh of the Ku’ub, of the Awlad Abul-Layl. In it, the poet censures their enemies, the Awlad Muhalhil, and replies to verses by their poet Shibl b. Miskiyanah b. Muhalhil, in which he boasted of the superiority of his tribe to the (Ku’ub)."
"يقول وذا قول المصاب الذي نشا *** قوارع قيعان يعاني صعابها
يريح بها حادي المصاب إذا سعى فنونا من إنشاد القوافي عذابها محيرة مختارة من نشادها تحدى بها تام الوشا ملتهابها","(It runs:) Thus speaks -and this is said by an unfortunate person who has smelled The blows of abuse of critical pundits, having had to deal with the hardest of them, Which smell to him like the stench of drainage areas [?]Who, however, (on his part) has selected the sweetest kinds of rhymes for recitation, Well-embroidered, choice ones, of our own composition [?],With which you will find me amusing myself, when my detractors are asleep."
مغربلة عن ناقد في غضونها محكمة القيعان دأبي ودأبها وهيض بتذكاري لها يا ذوي الندى قوارع من شبل وهذي جوابها اشبل جنينا من حباك طرائفا فراح يريح الموجعين الغنا بها,"Sieved ones (separated) from him who might criticize them as to their stanzas, Whose ways, as well as mine, have been well established by the critical pundits. My mentioning them (here), O noble people, serves the purpose of breaking
Blows from a young lion (Shibl), with a lamb-like answer: O Shibl, there came to us from among nice pregnant (she-camels) Several full-grown ones, whose possession is reassuring to those in pain,"
فخرت ولم تقصر ولا أنت عادم سوى قلت في جمهورها ما أعابها لقولك في أم المتين بن حمزة وحامي حماها عاديا في حرابها أما تعلم أنه قامها بعد ما لقي رصاص بني يحيى وغلاق دأبها,"But you appropriated them and took all you could, though you were not in need. However, you said, of the people who own them, things that make those (camels) blameworthy. Your statement concerning the mother of . . . , the son of Hamzah, The protector of their grounds, … the rebuilder of their ruins, (is wrong). Do you not know that he raised them up after he had met The lead [?] of the Banu Yahya and . . . which he melted [?]?"
شهابا من أهل الأمر يا شبل خارق وهل ريت من جا للوغى واصطلى بها سواها طفاها أضرمت بعد طفيه وأثنى طفاها جاسرا لا يهابها وأضرمت بعد الطفيتين ألن صحت لفاس إلى بيت المنى يقتدى بها,"A firebrand of a leader, O Shibl, a burning one. Have you ever seen one who (dared to) approach (the fire of) Hell and warm himself at it? (There are) Hell fires [?] which he extinguished, yet they started burning again after being extinguished, And he extinguished them a second time, being a bold person, not fearing them. And they started burning again after being twice extinguished. . . . [?] ……………………………………….."
كما كان هو يطلب على ذا تجنبت رجال بني كعب الذي يتقى بها وبان لوالي الأمر في ذا انشحابها فصار وهي عن كبر الاسنة تهابها,"As he is in demand on account of his (heroism), Thus, the men of the Banu Ka’b, on account of whom he is feared, are to be avoided. It has, thus, become clear to him who has sense that they stretch out to the limit And that they belong among the greatest things he has to fear."
"ومنها في العتاب:
وليدا تعاتبتوا أنا أغنى لأنني *** غنيت بمعلاق الثنا واغتصابها
علي ونا ندفع بها كل مبضع *** بأسياف ننتاش العدا من رقابها
فإن كانت الأملاك بغت عرائس *** علينا بأطراف القنا اختضابها","Verses on censure from the same poem: Whenever you brag about what you possess, I possess more because My possession consists of the firm tie and connection of glory. I have a dignity [?]with the help of which I can repel every group [?]With swords from whose necks (backs) hostile people back away. If property is the requirement for brides, We are able to woo them with (booty gained at) the points of (our) spears."
"ولا بعدها الارهاف وذبل *** وزرق كالسنة الحناش انسلابها
بني عمنا ما نرتضي الذل غلمه *** تسير السبايا والمطايا ركابها
وهي عالما بأن المنايا تنيلها *** بلا شك والدنيا سريع انقلابها","Their dowry consists of nothing less than slender, lean, Bluish-grey (horses), as quick in their movements as the tongues of vipers. O my cousins, humiliation is not for young men to appreciate (Whose very) captives ride mounted when they travel. They know that fate will stalk them Without doubt, since the world quickly changes."
"ومنها في وصف الظعائن:
قطعنا قطوع البيد لا نختشي العدا *** فتوق بحوبات مخوف جنابها
ترى العين فيها قل لشبل عرائف *** وكل مهاة محتظيها ربابها","Verses on women departing in their litters, from the same poem: In departing women, crossing deserts, not fearing hostile people, Cutting through tracts of land in a much feared environment, The eye sees-tell Shibl!-(dear) acquaintances. Every wild cow has for friends those who are able to get her [?]!"
"ترى أهلها غب الصباح ان يفلها *** بكل حلوب الجوف ما سد بابها
لها كل يوم في الأرامي قتائل *** ورا الفاجر الممزوج عفو رضابها","You see their people in the early morning [?]carry them With every . . . . There are some people killed every day because of them among the signs erected in the desert [?],And the promiscuous [?] libertine has no chance to kiss them."
"ومن قولهم في الأمثال الحكمية
وطلبك في الممنوع منك سفاهة *** وصدك عمن صد عنك صواب
إذا رأيت أناسا يغلقوا عنك بابهم *** ظهور المطايا يفتح الله باب","Here is a wise maxim from (Maghribi Arab) poetry: It is stupid of you to seek the impossible. It is correct to keep away from those who keep away from you. Let people close their doors to you! Mount the backs of (your) camels, and God will open a gate (for you)."
"ومن قول شبل يذكر انتساب الكعوب إلى برجم:
لشيب وشبان من أولاد برجم *** جميع البرايا تشتكي من ضهادها",In the following verse Shibl refers to the fact that the Ku’ub trace their pedigree back to Tarjam: Both the old and the young descendants of Tarjam Make everybody complain of their violence.
ومن قول خالد يعاتب إخوانه في موالاة شيخ الموحدين أبي محمد بن تافراكين المستبد بحجابة السلطان بتونس على سلطانها مكفولة أبي إسحاق ابن السلطان أبي يحيى وذلك فيما قرب من عصرنا:,"The following poem is a poem by Khalid, in which he blames his tribesmen (ikhwan) for allying themselves with the Almohad shaykh Abu Muhammad b. Tafragin who had seized control of Tunis from his charge, the Sultan of Tunis, Abu Ishaq, the son of Sultan Abu Yahya. This happened near our own times."
"يقول بلا جهل فتى الجود خالد *** مقالة قوال وقال صواب
مقالة حبر ذات ذهن ولم يكن *** هريجا ولا فيما يقول ذهاب
تهجست معنا نابها لا لحاجة *** ولا هرج ينقاد منه معاب","(The poem runs as follows:) Well-informed, the generous hero, Khalid, gives a speech Worthy of an orator. What he says is always correct, The speech of a sage, an intelligent speech, without Confusion. One cannot escape (the logic of) what he says. I have conceived an intelligent idea, not for any compelling reason . And not in order to cause trouble that would result in reproaches."
"وكنت بها كبدي وهي نعم صابة *** حزينة فكر والحزين يصاب
تفوهت بادي شرحها عن مآرب *** جرت من رجال في القبيل قراب
بني كعب أدنى الأقربين لدمنا *** بني عم منهم شائب وشباب","I have kept (the speech) as a treasure [?] What a good thing to have it was, A treasure of thought! Every treasure is discovered [sooner or later?]. (Now,) I openly come out with it and speak about things Done by men related (to us) in the tribe, The Bane Ka’b, our closest blood relatives, Our cousins, both the old and young men."
"جرى عند فتح الوطن منا لبعضهم *** مصافاة ود واتساع جناب
وبعضهم ملنا له عن خصيمه *** كما يعلموا قولي يقينه صواب
وبعضهمو مرهوب من بعض ملكنا *** جزاعا وفي جو الضمير كتاب","When the country was conquered, some of (its inhabitants) were treated by us As true friends and as hospitably received neighbors. Others were defended by us against their adversaries. You know that what I say is supported by the truth. To others we gave part of our own property As a reward. That is written down in the official decree."
"وبعضهمو جانا جريحا تسمحت *** خواطر منها للنزيل وهاب
وبعضهمو نظار فينا بسوة *** نقهناه حتى ما عنا به ساب
رجع ينتهي مما سفهنا قبيحه *** مرارا وفي بعض المرار يهاب","Others came to us in need. Our high-mindedness Made us generous to them and we gave them ample (gifts). Others attacked us with malice. We reproved them, until the things with which they were concerned disappeared. ……………………………………….. ……………………………………….."
"وبعضهمو شاكي من أوغاد قادر *** غلق عنه في أحكام السقائف باب
فصمناه عنه واقتضي منه مورد *** على كره مولى البالقي ودياب
ونحن على دافي المدى نطلب العلا *** لهم ما حططنا للفجور نقاب","Others complained about the servants of an important person Who closed the door to them when decisions were being made in the halls. Against the former, we protected the latter. He required them to let them in Against the will of the master of al-Yalifi and Rabab. All the while, we sought to exalt Them. We never let down a veil to betray (them)."
"وحزنا حمى وطن بترشيش بعد ما *** نفقنا عليها سبقا ورقاب
ومهد من الأملاك ما كان خارجا *** على أحكام والي أمرها له ناب
بردع قروم من قروم قبيلنا *** بني كعب لاواها الغريم. وطاب","We took the land of Tarshish (Tunis) under our protection as our possession after We had risked (our) swift (horses) and (our own) necks for it . . . of possessions those which were outside Of the control of their rulers who had . . . With the help of the resistance of the chiefs of our tribe, The Bane-Ka`b .. ."
"جرينا بهم عن كل تأليف في العدا *** وقمنا لهم عن كل قيد مناب
إلى أن عاد من لا كان فيهم بهمة *** ربيها وخيراته عليه نصاب
وركبوا السبايا المثمنات من أهلها *** ولبسوا من أنواع الحرير ثياب","They helped us against any hostile coalition. They freed us from the fetters of any (unpleasant) occurrence, Until those among them who did not have so much as a lamb came to be Affluent and abundantly blessed with goods, And used the captive (women) who were sold dear by the people who owned them And dressed in different kinds of silk."
"وساقوا المطايا يا لشرا لا نسوا له *** جماهير ما يغلو بها بجلاب
وكسبوا من أصناف السعايا ذخائر *** ضخام لحزات الزمان تصاب
وعادوا نظير البرمكيين قبل ذا *** وإلا هلالا في زمان دياب","They drove (riding) animals .. . Numerous ones .. . They acquired large stocks of different kinds of animals, Such as can only be met with at special times. They came to be similar to the Barmecides of old, Or to the Hilal in the time of Dhiyib."
"وكانوا لنا درعا لكل مهمة *** إلى أن بان من نار العدو شهاب
وخلوا الدار في جنح الظلام ولا اتقوا *** ملامه ولا دار الكرام عتاب
كسوا الحي جلباب البهيم لستره *** وهم لو دروا لبسوا قبيح جباب","They came to be our shields in every important danger, Until the enemy’s fire (of war) turned into a blaze. (Then,) they left home under the cover of darkness, but they did not fear Blame, because the home of noble persons is never subject to censure. They clothed the tribe in fur pelisses to cover it, While they themselves-would that they knew it wore mean coats."
"كذلك منهم حانس ما دار النبا *** ذهل حلمي ان كان عقله غاب
يظن ظنونا ليس نحن بأهلها *** تمنى يكن له في السماح شعاب
خطا هو ومن واتاه في سوء ظنه *** بالاثبات من ظن القبائح عاب","There is also among them a spy [?] who has not got the (right) information. My opinion about his forgetfulness is that his mind is deranged. He holds suspicions about us that do not apply to us. Let us wish that he may have several avenues to earn forgiveness! He is wrong, and so are all those involved with him in his error, As is established. Those who hold evil suspicions are blameworthy."
"فوا عزوتي ان الفتى بو محمد *** وهوب لآلاف بغير حساب
وبرحت الأوغاد منه ويحسبوا *** بروحه ما يحيى بروح سحاب
جروا يطلبوا تحت السحاب شرائع *** لقوا كل ما يستاملوه سراب","Oh, how to find consolation (over the death of) the hero Bu Muhammad (b. Tafragin), Who used to give away thousands without counting it! (His) servants are afflicted by his (loss). They thought of His appearance, so long as he lived, like the appearance of (rain) clouds. (Now, however,) they run in search of watering places under the (rain) clouds, (But) find that all they had hoped to find is a mirage."
"وهو لو عطى ما كان للرأي عارف *** ولا كان في قلة عطاه صواب
وان نحن ما نستاملوا عنه راحة *** وانه باسهام التلاف مصاب
وان ما وطا ترشيش يضياق وسعها *** عليه ويمشي بالفزوع لزاب","When he gave gifts, he knew what was appropriate. Even when he gave little, it was right. We have no hope ever to be consoled, Since the arrows of death struck him down. The broad land of Tarshish (Tunis) has become too strait For him, and the setting sun is gone with the scattered clouds."
"وانه منها عن قريب مفاصل *** خنوج عناز هوالها وقباب وعن فاتنات الطرف بيض غوانج *** ربوا خلف استار وخلف حجاب
يتيه إذا تاهوا ويصبوا إذا صبوا *** بحسن قوانين وصوت رباب","He [?] will soon depart from it ……………………………………….. And from maids with charming eyes, slender, coquettish ones, Who were reared behind curtains and behind veils. He is haughty when they are, and he is gay when they are, Under the influence of the beautiful (music of) the ganun and the sound of the rebec."
"يضلوه عن عدم اليمين وربما *** يطارح حتى ما كأنه شاب
بهم حازله زمه وطوع أوامر *** ولذة مأكول وطيب شراب
حرام على ابن تافركين ما مضى *** من الود إلا ما بدل بحراب","They lead him astray, because he has no (longer) any certainty (of himself). And often He talks (with them), even as though he were a young man. He spent (happy) days with them. (His) orders were obeyed. There was delicious food and good drinks. Now, past friendship no longer is available to Ibn Tifrigin. Instead of it, he received only death."
"وان كان له عقل رجيح وفطنة *** يلجج في اليم الغريق غراب
وأما البدا لا بدها من فياعل *** كبار إلى أن تبقى الرجال كباب
ويحمي بها سوق علينا سلاعه *** ويحمار موصوف القنا وجعاب","If he has outstanding intelligence, (even) a raven [?] dare enter the deep sea. Unforeseen events require men of action, Great ones, until the people are welded together, And (until) the snatched lances and quivers are red (with blood),"
"ويمسي غلام طالب ريح ملكنا *** ندوما ولا يمسي صحيح بناب
أيا واكلين الخبز تبغوا أدامه *** غلطتوا أدمتوا في السموم لباب","And (until) the slave (young man) who wants to gain our royal authority comes to Repent and does not come to be sound… . O you who eat bread and like to season it, You mixed and seasoned the good stuff with poison."
"ومن شعر علي بن عمر بن إبراهيم من رؤساء بني عامر لهذا العهد أحد بطون زغبة يعاتب بني عمه المتطاولين إلى رياسته:
محبرة كالدر في يد صانع *** إذا كان في سلك الحرير نظام","‘Ali b. `Umar b. Ibrahim, a contemporary chieftain of the Banu ‘Amir, one of the subtribes of the Zughbah, censures his cousins who aspire to the leadership of his clan in the following poem:. . . Sweet verses of poetic speech, Well embroidered, like pearls in the hand of a craftsman When all are in order on the silken thread (on which they are strung),"
"أباحها منها فيه أسباب ما مضى *** وشاء تبارك والضعون تسام
غدامنه لام الحي حيين وانشطت *** عصاها ولا صبنا عليه حكام
ولكن ضميري يوم بان بهم إلينا *** تبرم على شوك القتاد برام","I bring them (here) to show the reasons for what happened, While there appeared the departure of the camels with their litters, (causing) a separation [?], That resulted in (the splitting of) the mother tribe into two tribes, and the staff Is split-May we never meet people who would condemn (us) for it! But on the day, when the(ir evil) intention went away with them, my heart Felt a sting (like) that of the thorn of the tragacanth,"
"وإلا كأبراص التهامي قوادح *** وبين عواج الكانفات ضرام
والا لكان القلب في يد قابض *** أتاهم بمنشار القطيع غشام
لما قلت سما من شقا البين زارني *** إذا كان ينادي بالفراق وخام","Or like that of the fiery sparks the smith makes, Kindled by them among curved tongs. Or rather, (my) heart is in the hands of a (wood) splitter [?]Who brought them the saw for (wood) cutting, a stupid one. Whenever I say: Let us be spared the pain of separation, I am visited and Encircled by someone [?] who announces the separation."
"ألا يا ربوع كان بالأمس عامر *** بيحيى وحله والقطين لمام
وغيد تداني للخطأ في ملاعب *** دجى الليل فيهم ساهر ونيام
ونعم يشوف الناظرين التحامها *** لنا ما بدا من مهرق وكظام","O that place, which was yesterday (still) populated With a large tribe and group, while there were many slaves (there); Servants who bind up (the horses) tightly for the riders in tournaments [?], Some of whom, in the darkness of the night, are awake and (others) asleep; And cattle whose gathering pleases those who see (the cattle), Whenever (the cattle) appear from plain or mountain path;"
"وعرود باسمها ليدعو لسربها *** واطلاق من شرب المها ونعام
واليوم ما فيها سوى البوم حولها *** ينوح على اطلال لها وخيام
وقفنا بها طورا طويلا نسألها *** بعين سخينا والدموع سجام","And crows whose young ones frighten even (or, please only) their parents; And herds upon herds of wild cows and ostriches. Today, (however), there is nothing there except owls around it, Wailing over the traces of abandoned camps there and the round hillocks. I stood a long time there questioning the (scene) With a weak eye, while (my) tears flowed copiously."
"ولا صح لي منها سوى وحش خاطري *** وسقمي من أسباب إن عرفت أوهام
ومن بعد ذاتدى لمنصور بو علي *** سلام ومن بعد السلام سلام
وقولوا له يا بو ألوفا كلح رأيكم *** دخلتم بحور غامقات دهام","All I got from it was a feeling of desolation in my heart And sickness, for reasons that I know, and (my heart) has become deranged [?].Now then, you should bring greetings to Mansur Bu ‘Ali And after greetings, there is well-being. Say to him: O Abul-Wafa’, who is the evil spirit [?] of your [pl.] opinions, You [pl.] entered dark, deep waters,"
"زواخر ما تنقاس بالعود إنما *** لها سيلات على الفضا وإكام
ولا قستمو فيها قياسا يدلكم *** وليس البحور الطاميات تعام
وعانوا على هلكاتكم في ورودها *** من الناس عدمان العقول لئام",Turbulent ones; which cannot be measured with the rod. They just Flow over land and hills. You were not (able to) measure off in them a measure to guide you. Swollen waters cannot be crossed by swimmers. There have helped-preparing for your undoing by entering them Certain vile men without intelligence.
"أيا غزوة ركبوا الضلالة ولا لهم *** قرار ولا دنيا لهن دوام
الا غناهمو لو ترى كيف زايهم *** مثل سراب فلاة ما لهن تمام
خلو القنا يبغون في مرقب العلا *** مواضع ما هيا لهم بمقام","O raiders, they made a mistake, and they will not Last. There are no worlds that persist. … would you could see how their opinions Are a stopgap, and like rags that cannot be repaired, Without usefulness or desirability. At the outpost on high There are places that are no places for them to occupy."
"وحق النبي والبيت وأركانه العلى *** ومن زارها في كل دهر وعام
لبر الليالي فيه ان طالت الحيا *** يذوقون من خمط الكساع مدام
ولا برها تبقى البوادي عواكف *** بكل رديني مطرب وحسام","By the Prophet and the House and its corners that Are visited at all times and in every year, If life lasts in me for the . . . of the nights, You shall taste a bitter-tasting wine. . . . we follow the deserts perseveringly, With every spear a narrow path, and (with every) sword,"
"وكل مسافة كالسد إياه عابر *** عليها من أولاد الكرام غلام
وكل كميت يكتعص عض نابه *** يظل يصارع في العنان لجام
وتحمل بنا الأرض العقيمة مدة *** وتولدنا من كل ضيق كظام","And (with) every horse, (quick) like the winds, that runs fast, Worthy to carry upon itself a young man of noble birth, And (with) every bay (steed) with short tail and mane, which gnashes its teeth, And in harness continuously champs (the) bit. The sterile earth will be pregnant with us for a while, And then give birth to us from every narrow mountain path,"
"بالأبطال والقود الهجان وبالقنا *** لها وقت وجنات البدور زحام
أتجحدني وأنا عقيد نقودها *** وفي سن رمحي للحروب علام
ونحن كأضراس الموافي بنجعكم *** حتى يقاضوا من ديون غرام","With heroes, and strong-bodied camels, and lances Coming in huge numbers while the enemy assembles tumultuously. I hold them back [?], being the commander who leads them, With my sharp spear a sign for wars. We shall go after your pastures like greedy falcons, So that you will pay back the debts you owe (us, your) creditors,"
"متى كان يوم القحط يا مير أبو علي *** يلقى سعايا صائرين قدام
كذلك بو حمو إلى اليسر ابعته *** وخلى الجياد العاليات تسام
وخل رجالا لا يرى الضيم جارهم *** ولا يجمعوا بدهى العدو زفام","When the owl of the plain, O Amir Bu ‘Ali, Meets hungry hunters starving for meat. Also, Bu Hammu bought a stumbling race horse, And he let precious horses in great numbers go. He let men go whose neighbor (guest) never sees any wrong (done to him) And who do not knuckle under, fearing the enemy, humble ones."
"ألا يقيموها وعقد بؤسهم *** وهم عذر عنه دائما ودوام
وكم ثار طعنها على البدو سابق *** ما بين صحاصيح وما بين حسام
فتى ثار قطار الصوى يومنا على *** لنا أرض ترك الظاعنين زمام","Why do you not set them up (help them), and they will (then be able to) follow their intended course. They are the glory of the Zughbah, first and last. How often has a camel-driver stirred their (women) departing in the camel litters toward the desert, Between the level ground and the hillocks, After him who crosses the elevations of the desert . . . When the departure [?] of the camels with their litters ."
"وكم ذا يجيبوا أثرها من غنيمة *** حليف الثنا قشاع كل غيام
وإن جاء خافوه الملوك ووسعوا *** غدا طبعه يجدي عليه قيام
عليكم سلام الله من لسن فاهم *** ما غنت الورقا وناح حمام","And how much booty do they bring (back) when they follow him, The ally of glory, the best vintage of all [?]!And when kings come to tyrannize him and to be unfair, He departs early in the morning, traveling while it is still dark. Farewell to you from an eloquent (poet), who understands The song of the dove and the wailing of the pigeon."
ومن شعر عرب نمر بنواحي حوران لامرأة قتل زوجها فبعثت إلى أحلافه من قيس تغريهم بطلب ثأره تقول:,"The following poem is a poem of the Arab Bedouins of the Syrian desert in the region of the Hawran. It was (composed) by a wife whose husband had been killed and who sent to his Qaysite allies, instigating them to seek revenge for him:"
"تقول فتاة الحي أم سلامه *** بعين أراع الله من لا رثى لها
تبيت بطول الليل ما تألف الكرى *** موجعة كان الشقا في مجالها
على ما جرى في دارها وبو عيالها *** بلحظة عين البين غير حالها","The valiant tribeswoman, Umm Salamah, speaks About a dear person-God frighten those who do not mourn for him! She spends long nights unused to sleep, Full of grief, and sorrow is wherever she turns, Because of what happened in her house and family. In one moment, separation (from her husband who was killed) changed her position."
"فقدنا شهاب الدين يا قيس كلكم *** ونمتوا عن أخذ الثار ماذا مقالها
أنا قلت إذا ورد الكتاب يسرني *** ويبرد من نيران قلبي ذبالها
أيا حين تسريح الذوائب واللحى *** وبيض العذارى ما حميتو جمالها","You have lost Shihab-ad-din, all you Qays, And you have neglected to take revenge. Is that (your) friendship for her? I said, when they sent me a letter to cheer me And to cool the fire burning in my heart: “What a shame, to comb forelocks and beards, And not to protect the beauty of white-skinned virgins!”"
(الموشحات والأزجال للأندلس),The Spanish muwashshahahs and zajals
وأما أهل الأندلس فلما كثر الشعر في قطرهم وتهذبت مناحيه وفنونه وبلغ التنميق فيه الغاية استحدث المتأخرون منهم فنا منه سموه بالموشح ينظمونه أسماطا أسماطا وأغصانا أغصانا يكثرون من أعاريضها المختلفة.,"Poetry was greatly cultivated in Spain. Its various ways and types were refined. Poems came to be most artistic. As a result, recent Spaniards created the kind of poetry called muwashshah. The muwashshahah consists of “branches” (ghusn) and “strings” (simt) in great number and different meters."
ويسمون المتعدد منها بيتا واحدا ويلتزمون عند قوافي تلك الأغصان وأوزانها متتاليا فيما بعد إلى آخر القطعة وأكثر ما تنتهي عندهم إلى سبعة أبيات.,A certain number (of “branches” and “strings”) is called a single verse (stanza). There must be the same number of rhymes in the “branches” (of each stanza) and the same meter (for the “branches” of the whole poem) throughout the whole poem. The largest number of stanzas employed is seven.
ويشتمل كل بيت على أغصان عددها بحسب الأغراض والمذاهب وينسبون فيها ويمدحون كما يفعل في القصائد.,"Each stanza contains as many “branches” as is consistent with purpose and method. Like the gasidah, the muwashshahah is used for erotic and laudatory poetry."
وتجاروا في ذلك إلى الغاية واستظرفه الناس جملة الخاصة والكافة لسهولة تناوله وقرب طريقه. وكان المخترع لها بجزيرة الأندلس مقدم بن معافر الفريري من شعراء الأمير عبد الله بن محمد المرواني.,"(The authors of muwashshahahs) vied to the utmost with each other in this (kind of poetry). Everybody, the elite and the common people, liked and knew these poems because they were easy to grasp and understand. They were invented in Spain by Muqaddam b. Mu’afa al-Qabri, a poet under the amir ‘Abdallah b. Muhammad al-Marwani."
وأخذ ذلك عنه أبو عبد الله أحمد بن عبد ربه صاحب كتاب العقد ولم يظهر لهما مع المتأخرين ذكر وكسدت موشحاتهما. فكان أول من برع في هذا الشأن عبادة القزاز شاعر المعتصم ابن صمادح صاحب المرية.,"Ahmad b. ‘Abdrabbih, the author of the ‘Iqd, learned this (type of poetry) from him. (Muqaddam and Ibn ‘Abdrabbih) were not mentioned together with the recent (authors of muwashshahahs), and thus their muwashshahahs fell into desuetude. The first poet after them who excelled in this subject was ‘Ubadah al-Qazzaz, the poet of al-Mu’tasim b. Sumadih, the lord of Almeria."
وقد ذكر الأعلم البطليوسي أنه سمع أبا بكر بن زهير يقول: كل الوشاحين عيال على عبادة القزاز فيما اتفق له من قوله:,Al-A’lam al-Batalyawsi mentions that he heard Abu Bakr b. Zuhr say that all authors of muwashshahahs are indebted to the following verses which ‘Ubadah al-Qazzaz happened to make:
"بدر تم. شمس ضحا *** غصن نقا. مسك شم
ما أتم. ما أوضحا *** ما أورقا ما أنم
لا جرم. من لمحا *** قد عشقا. قد حرم",Full moon-Late morning sun-Bough on a sandhill -sweet smelling musk: How perfect-how resplendent-how exuberant-how fragrant! No doubt – he who sees her – falls in love with her – has lost Out!
وزعموا أنه لم يسبقه وشاح من معاصريه الذين كانوا في زمن الطوائف.,It is believed that no contemporary from the time of the reyes de taifas preceded (‘Ubadah) as author of muwashshahahs.
وذكر غير واحد من المشايخ أن أهل هذا الشأن بالأندلس يذكرون أن جماعة من الوشاحين اجتمعوا في مجلس بأشبيلية وكان كل واحد منهم اصطنع موشحة وتأنق فيها,"A number of shaykhs have mentioned that Spaniards interested in (muwashshah poetry) tell how a number of authors of muwashshahahs once gathered in Sevilla, each of them with a very artistic muwashshah poem of his own composition."
"فتقدم الأعمى الطليطلي للإنشاد فلما افتتح موشحته المشهورة بقوله:
ضاحك عن جمان. سافر عن در *** ضاق عنه الزمان. وحواه صدري
صرف ابن بقي موشحته وتبعه الباقون.","Al-A’ma at-Tutili stepped forward to recite his poem. He began with his famous muwashshahah: Laughing and revealing (teeth like) pearls – showing a face beautiful like the moon – time is too narrow to hold (the beauty of the beloved) – but my bosom encloses it. (When the assembled poets heard that,) Ibn Baqi tore up his muwashshahah, and all the others followed suit."
"وذكر الأعلم البطليوسي أنه سمع ابن زهر يقول: ما حسدت قط وشاحا على قول إلا ابن بقي حين وقع له:
أما ترى أحمد. في مجده العالي لا يلحق *** أطلعه الغرب. فأرنا مثله يا مشرق",Al-A’lam al-Batalyawsi mentioned that he heard Ibn Zuhr say: “The only muwashshah poem I ever envied the poet is the following lines by Ibn Bagi: Look at Ahmad-at the peak of glory – which cannot be reached (by anyone else)! – The West caused his rise – Show us someone like him – O East!”
وكان في عصرهما من الموشحين المطبوعين أبو بكر الأبيض. وكان في عصرهما أيضا الحكيم أبو بكر بن باجة صاحب التلاحين المعروفة,"In the time of (at-Tutili and Ibn Bagi), there lived the gifted muwashshahah poet Abu Bakr al-Abyad. In their time, there also lived the philosopher Abu Bakr b. Bajjah, the author of famous melodies."
"ومن الحكايات المشهورة أنه حضر مجلس مخدومه ابن تيفلويت صاحب سرقسطة فألقى على بعض قيناته موشحته التي أولها:
جرر الذيل أيما جر *** وصل الشكر منك بالشكر","There is a famous story that relates how he attended the reception of his master Ibn Tifalwit, the lord of Saragossa, and had one of his singing girls recite the following muwashshahah of his own composition: Let the train (of your robe) drag wherever it will-and add drunkenness (with the love of your beloved) to drunkenness (with wine)!"
"فطرب الممدوح لذلك لما ختمها بقوله:
عقد الله راية النصر *** لأمير العلا أبي بكر","This greatly moved (Ibn Tifalwit), to whom the praise was directed. Then, (Ibn Bajjah) finished the poem with these words: Let God raise the banner of victory – for the distinguished amir Abu Bakr!"
فلما طرق ذلك التلحين سمع ابن تيفلويت صاح: وا طرباه: وشق ثيابه وقال: ما أحسن ما بدأت وختمت وحلف بالأيمان المغلظة لا يمشي ابن باجة إلى داره إلا على الذهب.,"When the song was over, Ibn Tifalwit was heard to exclaim: “How moving!” He tore his garments (as a sign of joyous emotion) and said: “What a beautiful beginning and end!” And he swore the most binding oaths that Ibn Bajjah should walk home upon gold."
فخاف الحكيم سوء العاقبة فاحتال بأن جعل ذهبا في نعله ومشى عليه. وذكر أبو الخطاب بن زهر أنه جرى في مجلس أبي بكر بن زهير ذكر أبي بكر الأبيض الوشاح المتقدم الذكر,"The philosopher was afraid that it would not end well, so he employed the ruse of putting gold in his shoes and walking home on that gold. Abul-Khattab b. Zuhr mentioned that in the salon of Abu Bakr b. Zuhr, the afore-mentioned muwashshahah poet Abu Bakr al-Abyad was mentioned."
"فغص منه بعض الحاضرين فقال كيف تغص ممن يقول: ما لذ لي شراب راح «على رياض الأقاح *** لولا هضيم الوشاح» إذا أسا في الصباح
أو في الأصيل «أضحى يقول: *** ما للشمول» لطمت خدي؟","One of those present spoke slightingly of him, whereupon (Abu Bakr b. Zuhr) said: “How can one speak slightingly of a person who made the following poem: I get no pleasure out of drinking wine – on meadows of camomile flowers unless one with slender hips – when he bends down in the morning-or in the evening – says: Why does the evening drink (shamfil) – beat my cheek"
"وللشمال «هبت فمال *** غصن اعتدال» ضمه بردي
مما أباد القلوبا «يمشي لنا مستريبا *** يا لحظه رد نوبا» ويا لماه الشنيبا
برد غليل «صب عليل *** لا يستحيل» فيه عن عهدي
ولا يزال «في كل حال *** يرجو الوصال» وهو في الصد","and why does the north wind (shamal) blow – so that it bendsthe well-proportioned bough – that my garment covers? This is what makes hearts vanish – The way he walks throws me into confusion – O glance, sin more and more! – O red lips, and the fine teeth of his! – Cool the thirst – of a sickly lover – (who) will not.give up(his) love pact with his (beloved) – and will not cease – in every condition hoping to be united with him – though he is unapproachable.”"
"واشتهر بعد هؤلاء في صدر دولة الموحدين محمد بن أبي الفضل بن شرف. قال الحسن بن دويدة: رأيت حاتم بن سعيد على هذا الافتتاح:
شمس قاربت بدرا *** راح ونديم","Subsequently, at the beginning of the Almohad dynasty, Muhammad b. AbilFadl b. Sharaf became famous. Alms [?]b. Duwayridah said: “I saw Hatim b. Sa’id begin a poem thus: A sun in conjunction with a full moon: – Wine and a boon companion."
"وابن بهرودس الذي له:
يا ليلة الوصل والسعود *** بالله عودي
وابن مؤهل الذي له:
ما العيد في حلة وطاق. وشم وطيب. *** وإنما العيد في التلاقي. مع الحبيب.","Further, Ibn Hardus, who made the following poem: O night of union and happiness -by God, return! (Further,) Ibn Mu’ahhil, who made the following poem: A holiday is not made by a (fine) dress and scarf – and the smell of perfume – A holiday is when one meets – with the beloved.”"
وأبو إسحاق الرويني قال ابن سعيد: سمعت أبا الحسن سهل بن مالك يقول: إنه دخل على ابن زهير وقد أسن وعليه زي البادية إذ كان يسكن بحصن سبتة فلم يعرفه فجلس حيث انتهى به المجلس.,"(There was also) Abu Ishaq ad-Duwayni. Ibn Sa’id said: “I heard Abul-Hasan Sahl b. Malik say that (Abu Ishaq) came to Ibn Zuhr when (the latter) was advanced in years. He wore rustic clothes, as he was living at Hisn Istabbah. He was not recognized. (Abu Ishaq) sat at the very end of the room."
"وجرت المحاضرة فأنشد لنفسه موشحة وقع فيها:
كحل الدجى يجري «من مقلة *** الفجر» على الصباح
ومعصم النهر «في حلل *** خضر» من البطاح فتحرك ابن زهير وقال أنت تقول هذا؟ قال: اختبر! قال: ومن تكون؟","The conversation was in progress, and he recited a muwashshahah of his own composition in which the following verses occurred: The antimony of darkness runs – from the white eyeball of dawn – in the morn – and the wrist of the river – is clad in garments of green (plants) – from the marshes. Ibn Zuhr stirred and asked: ‘You can make such verses?’ (Abu Ishaq) replied: ‘Try me.’ Whereupon (Ibn Zuhr) asked who he was."
فعرفه، فقال: ارتفع فو الله ما عرفتك، قال ابن سعيد وسابق الحلبة الذي أدرك هؤلاء أبو بكر بن زهير وقد شرقت موشحاته وغربت،,"He told him, and (Ibn Zuhr) said: ‘Come up. Really I did not recognize you.’ ” Ibn Sa’id continued: “The champion of the whole group was Abu Bakr b. Zuhr. His muwashshahahs are known in the East and the West.”"
"قال: وسمعت أبا الحسن سهل بن مالك يقول قيل لابن زهير لو قيل لك ما أبدع وأرفع ما وقع لك في التوشيح قال كنت أقول:
ما للموله من سكره لا يفيق. يا له سكران. من غير خمر. ما للكئيب المشوق. يندب الأوطان.",He said: “I heard Abul-Hasan Sahl b. Malik say that people asked Ibn Zuhr: ‘If you were asked what is your most original muwashshahah (what would you say)?’ (Ibn Zuhr) replied: ‘I would say the following poem: Why does the infatuated person-not wake up from his drunkenness? – How drunk he is – without wine! – Why is the grieved person full of longing – homesick? –
"هل تستعاد. أيامنا *** بالخليج. وليالينا
أو نستفاد. من النسيم *** الأريج. مسك دارينا
أو هل يكاد. حسن المكان *** البهيج. أن يحيينا؟
روض أظله. دوح عليه أنيق. مورق الأفنان. والماء يجري. وعائم وغريق. من جنى الريحان.",Will our days along the canal – and our nights ever return – when we enjoyed the balmy breeze fragrant as Darin musk-and when we almost received new life – from the beauty of the pleasant spot? – A river which is given shade – by splendid large trees along it – with thick green foliage – and the water runs – (carrying) on its surface and submerged under the water-fallen myrtle (leaves).’ “
"واشتهر بعده ابن حيون الذي له من الزجل المشهور قوله:
يفوق سهمه كل حين *** بما شئت من يد وعين
وينشد في القصيد:
خلقت مليح علمت رامي *** فليس تخل ساع من قتال
وتعمل بذي العينين متاعي *** ما تعمل يدي بالنبال","Afterwards, Ibn Hayyun became famous. He composed the following famous zajal: His arrow is more dangerous than death – whether shot by the hand or by the eye. He also wrote the following couplet: I was created beautiful and am known as a skillful archer. Hence, I do not stop fighting for a moment. I do, with these two eyes of mine, What my hand does with the arrow."
"واشتهر معهما يومئذ بغرناطة المهر بن الفرس، قال ابن سعيد، ولما سمع ابن زهر قوله:
لله ما كان من يوم بهيج *** بنهر حمص على تلك المروج
ثم انعطفنا على فم الخليج *** نفض في حانه مسك الختام
عن عسجد زانه صافي المدام ورداء الأصيل ضمه كف الظلام","Together (with Ibn Zuhr and Ibn Hayyin), al-Muhr b. al-Faras became famous at that time in Granada. Ibn Sa’id said: “When Ibn Zuhr heard his poem: By God, what a splendid day it was – at the river of Hims (Sevilla) on those meadows! – We then turned around to the mouth, of the canal – breaking the musk seals – on (the bottles of) golden wine – while the cloak of evening was being folded up by the hand of darkness."
"قال ابن زهر: أين كنا نحن عن هذا الرداء وكان معه في بلده مطرف. أخبر ابن سعيد عن والده أن مطرفا هذا دخل على ابن الفرس فقام له وأكرمه، فقال:
لا تفعل! فقال ابن الفرس: كيف لا أقوم لمن يقول:
قلوب تصاب بألحاظ تصيب *** فقل كيف تبقى بلا وجد","he said: ‘We could not invent such a (beautiful comparison as that of the) cloak!’ ” Mutarrif lived in the same place as (al-Muhr). Ibn Sa’id reported, on the authority of his father, that Mutarrif came to Ibn al-Faras, who got up to honor him. When Mutarrif told him not to do that, Ibn al-Faras replied: “What – not get up for the poet who made these verses: Hearts are smitten – by well-aimed glances. – Say, how can you remain – without emotion?”"
وبعد هذا ابن حزمون بمرسية. ذكر ابن الرائس أن يحيى الخزرجي دخل عليه في مجلسه فأنشده موشحة لنفسه فقال له ابن حزمون: لا يكون الموشح بموشح حتى يكون عاريا عن التكلف،,"Later, there was Ibn Hazmun in Murcia. Ibn ar-Ra.’is mentioned that Yahya al-Khazraji came to his salon and recited a muwashshahah of his own composition. Ibn Hazmim said to him: “A muwashshahah is not a muwashshahah, until it is entirely free from forced (artificiality).”"
"قال على مثل ماذا؟ قال على مثل قولي:
يا هاجري هل إلى الوصال *** منك سبيل
أو هل ترى عن هواك سالي *** قلب العليل","When Yahya asked: “How, for instance?” Ibn Hazmun replied: “As, for instance, the following verses of mine: O you who are keeping away from me – to be united with you – is there a way? Or do you think – your love can be forgotten – by the heart of the (love)sick person?”"
"وأبو الحسن سهل بن مالك بغرناطة. قال ابن سعيد كان والدي يعجب بقوله:
إن سيل الصباح في الشرق *** عاد بحرا في أجمع الأفق
فتداعت نوادب الورق
أتراها خافت من الغرق *** فبكت سحرة على الورق",Abul-Hasan Sahl b. Malik in Granada. Ibn Sa’id said: “My father used to. admire his poem (which reads): The brook of the morning in the east – turns into a sea everywhere – and the doves cry out plaintively to each other – as if they are afraid of drowning – and they weep in the early morning among the foliage (of the trees).”
"واشتهر بأشبيلية لذلك العهد أبو الحسن بن الفضل، قال ابن سعيد عن والده، سمعت سهل ابن مالك يقول له: يا ابن الفضل لك على الوشاحين الفضل بقولك:
وا حسرتا لزمان مضى *** عشية بأن الهوى وانقضى","At that time, Abul-Hasan b. al-Fadl became famous in Sevilla. Ibn Sa’id, on the authority of his father, said: “I heard Sahl b. Malik say to (Ibn al-Fadl): ‘O Ibn al-Fadl, you excel (fadl) among the writers of muwashshahahs with these verses of yours: Alas for a time that has passed – In the evening, passion is finished and gone –"
"وأفردت بالرغم لا بالرضى *** وبت على جمرات الغضى
أعانق بالفكر تلك الطلول *** وألثم بالوهم تلك الرسوم","I am alone against my will, not willingly – I spend the night by the bright – burning fire of tamarisk coals – in my mind embracing those remnants of the abandoned camps – in my imagination kissing their traces.’ “"
"قال وسمعت أبا بكر بن الصابوني ينشد الأستاذ أبا الحسن الدباج موشحاته غير ما مرة، فما سمعته يقول له لله درك، إلا في قوله:
قسما بالهوى لذي حجر *** ما لليل المشوق من فجر","Ibn Sa`id) continued: “I heard Abu Bakr b. as-Sabuni recite his muwashshahahs to Professor Abul-Hasan adDabbaj many times, but I heard (ad-Dabbaj) praise him highly only for the following verses: Swearing by the love of him who keeps (me) off: – The night of one consumed by longing has no dawn –"
"جمد الصبح ليس يطرد ما لليلي فيما أظن غد اصح يا ليل إنك الأبد
أو قفصت قوادم النسر *** فنجوم السماء لا تسري
ومن محاسن موشحات ابن الصابوني قوله:
ما حال صب ذي ضنى واكتئاب *** أمرضه يا ويلتاه الطبيب","The morning is frozen and does not flow – My night, I think, has no morn – Is it correct, O night, that you are eternal – Or, have the tips of the wings of the eagle been clipped – so that the stars of heaven do not run their course?” One of the best muwashshahahs by Ibn as-Sabuni runs: What is the matter with the person in love who pines away in grief? Woe unto him! The physician who should have cured him made him ill."
"عامله محبوبه باجتناب *** ثم اقتدى فيه الكرى بالحبيب
جفا جفوني النوم لكنني *** لم أبكه الا لفقد الخيال
وذا الوصال اليوم قد غرني *** منه كما شاء وشاء الوصال
فلست باللائم من صدني *** بصورة الحق ولا بالمحال","His beloved avoids him – and then, slumber imitates the example of the beloved in this respect (and also avoids him). Sleep treats my eyelids cruelly, but I do not weep for it, except (that having no sleep) means loss of (seeing) the image (of the beloved in my dreams). The (hoped for) meeting (with the beloved) today was a disappointment for me (as it did not take place), just as he wanted it. What a sad meeting! But I do not blame him who keeps me off, in the form of reality or
unreality."
"واشتهر ببر أهل العدوة ابن خلف الجزائري صاحب الموشحة المشهورة:
الإصباح قدحت زناد *** الأنوار في مجامز الزهر
وابن خرز البجائي وله من موشحة:
ثغر الزمان موافق *** حباك منه بابتسام","Among the people of the (African) shore, Ibn Khalaf al-Jaza’iri became famous. He is the author of the famous muwashshahah: The hand of morn has lighted – sparks of light – in the braziers of the flowers. (Another author from northwestern Africa is) Ibn Khazar al-Baja’i. One of his muwashshahahs runs: Some fortunate circumstance greeted you with a smile from the teeth of time."
"ومن محاسن الموشحات للمتأخرين موشحة ابن سهل شاعر إشبيلية وسبتة من بعدها فمنها قوله:
هل دري ظبي الحمى أن قد حمى *** قلب صب حله عن مكنس
فهو في نار وخفق مثل ما *** لعبت ريح الصبا بالقبس","A muwashshahah by a recent poet is that of Ibn Sahl, a poet first in Sevilla and later on in Ceuta. The following verses are from his poem: Does the gazelle of al-Hima know that it inflamed (hamd) – the heart of a lover which it-has made its dwelling place? – Now, it is afire and throbbing, like a firebrand with which- the east wind plays."
"وقد نسج على منواله فيها صاحبنا الوزير أبو عبد الله ابن الخطيب شاعر الأندلس والمغرب لعصره وقد مر ذكره فقال:
جادك الغيث إذا الغيث همي *** يا زمان الوصل بالأندلس
لم يكن وصلك إلا حلما *** في الكرى أو خلسة المختلس","Our afore-mentioned friend, the wazir Abu ‘Abdallah b. al-Khatib, who was in his day the (leading) poet of Spain and the Maghrib, wove on (Ibn Sahl’s) loom. He thus said: May the abundant rain, as it pours down, benefit you, O time of the meeting in Spain! My meeting with you is but a dream In (my) slumber, or a furtive moment."
"إذ يقود الدهر أشتات المنى *** ينقل الخطو على ما يرسم
زمرا بين فرادى وثنا *** مثل ما يدعو الوفود الموسم
والحيا قد جلل الروض سنى *** فثغور الزهر فيه تبسم
وروى النعمان عن ماء السما *** كيف يروي مالك عن أنس؟","Time presents such a diversity of wishes, That proceed in a prescribed order, One by one, or two by two, Like groups (of pilgrims) whom the festival calls (to Mecca). Rain gave a generous sparkle to the meadow. So that brilliant flowers are smiling in it. An-Nu’man transmits on the authority of Ma’-as-sama’, Exactly as Malik transmits on the authority of Anas."
"فكساه الحسن ثوبا معلما *** يزدهي منه بأبهى ملبس
في ليال كتمت سر الهوى *** بالدجى لولا شموس الغرر
مال نجم الكأس فيها وهوى *** مستقيم السير سعد الأثر
وطر ما فيه من عيب سوى *** أنه مر كلمح البصر","Beauty has clothed the (beloved) with an embroidered garment That makes him look scornfully upon the most splendid dress, On nights when I would have covered the secret of (my) love With (their) darkness, had there not been the suns of gleaming white (faces). On (such occasions), the star of the cup inclined and fell In a straight course with happy results. A desirable situation, with which there is nothing wrong, except That it passed as quickly as a glance of the eye,"
"حين لذ النوم منا أو كما *** هجم الصبح هجوم الحرس
غارت الشهب بنا أو ربما *** أثرت فينا عيون النرجس
أي شيء لامرئ قد خلصا *** فيكون الروض قد مكن فيه
تنهب الأزهار فيه الفرصا *** أمنت من مكره ما تتقيه","Just when (we) were enjoying being together, or as suddenly as The (disappearance of the) watchful stars ushers in the morning. Shooting stars fell upon us, or The eyes of narcissuses affected us. What else could a man (wish) for who has escaped (from sorrow), So that (the beauty of) the meadow could gain a place (in him) ? The flowers seize this opportunity Of being safe from his trickery, and do not fear him."
"فإذا الماء يناجي والحصا *** وخلا كل خليل بأخيه
تبصر الورد غيورا برما *** يكتسي من غيظه ما يكتسي
وترى الآس لبيبا فهما *** يسرق الدمع بأذني فرس
يا أهيل الحي من وادي الغضا *** وبقلبي مسكن أنتم به","Then, the water (of the brook) whispers with the pebbles. Every lover is alone with his friend. One beholds the rose, jealous and annoyed (because of the beauty of the beloved), Covering itself, flushing with anger, with its (red color). One sees the myrtle, intelligent and understanding, Listening clandestinely with sharp ears. Dear (fellow-) tribesmen from Wadi al-Ghada, In my heart there is a place where you live."
"ضاق عن وجدي بكم رحب الفضا *** لا أبالي شرقه من غربة
فأعيدوا عهد أنس قد مضى *** تنقذوا عانيكم من كربه
واتقوا الله وأحيوا مغرما *** يتلاشى نفسا في نفس
حبس القلب عليكم كرما *** أفترضون خراب الحبس","My longing for you cannot be encompassed by (even) the widest space; I do not care to distinguish its East from its West. Bring back the past times of intimacy, And you will liberate (me) who cares for you from his sadness. Fear God, and revive a passionate lover Whose life spends itself with (each) breath. His respect for you made his heart a prison. Would you want that prison to be destroyed?"
"وبقلبي منكم مقترب *** بأحاديث المنى وهو بعيد
قمر أطلع منه المغرب *** شقوة المغري به وهو سعيد
قد تساوى محسن أو مذنب *** في هواه بين وعد ووعيد
ساحر المقلة معسول اللمى *** جال في النفس مجال النفس","In my heart, one of you is near In wishful thought, while he is far away. A moon whose rise in the west caused Unhappiness (for me) who is deeply in love with him, while he himself is happy! The virtuous and the sinners know no distinction, When they love him, between the divine promise and the divine threat. He charms with his eyes, with red lips sweet as honey. He roams in the soul like (life-giving) breath."
"سدد السهم فأصمى إذ رمى *** بفؤادي نبلة المفترس
إن يكن جار وخاب الأمل *** وفؤاد الصب بالشوق يذوب
فهو للنفس حبيب أول *** ليس في الحب لمحبوب ذنوب
أمره معتمل ممتثل *** في ضلوع قد براها وقلوب","He aimed his arrow, said: “In the name of God,” and let fly. Thus, my heart became the prey of the wild beast (of passion). Even when he is unfair and (my) hope is disappointed, So that the heart of the lover melts with longing, Still, he is the first (best) beloved of my soul. As it is no sin to love one’s beloved, His orders are executed and obeyed In bosoms that he has rent (with love’s pain), and hearts."
"حكم اللحظ بها فاحتكما *** لم يراقب في ضعاف الأنفس
ينصف المظلوم ممن ظلما *** ويجازي البر منها والمسي
ما لقلبي كلما هبت صبا *** عاده عيد من الشوق جديد؟
كان في اللوح له مكتتبا *** قوله إن عذابي لشديد","(His) glance sits in judgment over them, and he has his way. He does not heed, in connection with the poor weak souls (of his lovers), Him who renders justice to the one who is treated unjustly, against the one who treats him unjustly, And who rewards pious (souls) and (punishes) the evildoer. What is the matter with my heart? Whenever the east wind blows, It has a new attack of longing. On the tablet (of destiny) was written for (my heart) These divine words: “My punishment, indeed, will be severe.”"
"جلب الهم له والوصبا *** فهو للأشجان في جهد جهيد
لاعج في أضلعي قد أضرما *** فهي نار في هشيم اليبس
لم يدع من مهجتي إلا الدما *** كبقاء الصبح بعد الغلس
سلمي يا نفس في حكم القضا *** واعبري الوقت برجعى ومتاب","It is worried and ill, But, still, always very eager for torturing (emotions). A burning (passion) is kindled in my boso A fire among dry stubble. It has left only a little of (my) lifeblood, Just as the morn remains after the last darkness of the night. Submit, O my soul, to the decision of destiny, And use the time (that is left) in (thinking of) my return (to God) and repentance."
"واتركي ذكرى زمان قد مضى *** بين عتبى قد تقضت وعتاب
واصرفي القول إلى المولى الرضى *** ملهم التوفيق في أم الكتاب
الكريم المنتهى والمنتمي *** أسد السرج وبدر المجلس
ينزل النصر عليه مثلما *** ينزل الوحي بروح القدس","Do not think back to a time that has passed, When (I received) alternately (from the beloved) favors long gone, and reproaches. Address now the gracious master, Who was inspired with the success (announced) in the heavenly prototype (of the Qur’an), Who is noble in end and origin, The lion of the flock, the full moon of the assembly, Upon whom victory descends, as The revelation descends by means of the holy spirit."
"وأما المشارقة فالتكلف ظاهر على ما عانوه من الموشحات. ومن أحسن ما وقع لهم في ذلك موشحة ابن سناء الملك التي اشتهرت شرقا وغربا وأولها:
حبيبي ارفع حجاب النور *** عن العذار","The attempts at muwashshahahs by Easterners are obviously forced. One of the best muwashshahahs they happened to produce is by Ibn Sana’-al-Mulk alMisri. It became famous in the East and the West. It begins: O my beloved, lift the veil (which covers) the light – from (your) face,"
"تنظر المسك على كافور *** في جلنار
كللي يا سحب تيجان الربى *** بالحلى واجعلي
سوارها منعطف الجدول","So that we may behold musk (black eyebrows) on camphor (white skin) – in pomegranates (red cheeks). Encircle, O clouds, the crowns of the hills -with ornaments, And give them as bracelets winding brooks."
ولما شاع فن التوشيح في أهل الأندلس، وأخذ به الجمهور، لسلاسته وتنميق كلامه وترصيع أجزائه، نسجت العامة من أهل الأمصار على منواله، ونظموا في طريقته بلغتهم الحضرية من غير أن يلتزموا فيها إعرابا.,"Muwashshah poetry spread among the Spaniards. The great mass took to it because of its smoothness, artistic language, and the (many) internal rhymes found in it (which made them popular). As a result, the common people in the cities imitated them. They made poems of the (muwashshah) type in their sedentary dialect, without employing vowel endings."
واستحدثوا فنا سموه بالزجل، والتزموا النظم فيه على مناحيهم لهذا العهد، فجاءوا فيه بالغرائب واتسع فيه للبلاغة مجال بحسب لغتهم المستعجمة.,"They thus invented a new form, which they called zajal. They have continued to compose poems of this type down to this time. They achieved remarkable things in it. The (zajal) opened a wide field for eloquent (poetry) in the (Spanish-Arabic) dialect, which is influenced by non-Arab (speech habits)."
وأول من أبدع في هذه الطريقة. الزجلية أبو بكر بن قزمان، وإن كانت قيلت قبله بالأندلس، لكن لم يظهر حلاها، ولا انسبكت معانيها واشتهرت رشاقتها إلا في زمانه. وكان لعهد الملثمين، وهو إمام الزجالين على الإطلاق.,"The first to create the zajal method was Abu Bakr b. Quzman, even though zajal poems were composed in Spain before his time. But the beauty of the zajal became evident, its ideas took on their artistic shape, and its elegance became famous, only in Ibn Quzman’s time. He lived in the days of the Veiled (Sinhajah Almoravids). He is (indisputably) the leading zajal poet."
قال ابن سعيد: ورأيت أزجاله مروية ببغداد أكثر مما رأيتها بحواضر المغرب. قال: وسمعت أبا الحسن بن جحدر الإشبيلي، إمام الزجالين في عصرنا يقول: ما وقع لأحد من أئمة هذا الشأن مثل ما وقع لابن قزمان شيخ الصناعة،,"Ibn Sa’id said: “I saw his zajals recited in Baghdad more often than I had seen them recited in the cities of the West. And,” continued Ibn Sa`id, “I heard Abul-Hasan b. Jahdar al-Ishbili, the leading contemporary zajal poet, say: ‘No leading zajal poet has produced a zajal like that of Ibn Quzman, the principal zajal artist, (which he made on the following occasion)"
"وقد خرج إلى منتزه مع بعض أصحابه، فجلسوا تحت عريش وأمامهم تمثال أسد من رخام يصب الماء من فيه على صفائح من الحجر متدرجة فقال:
وعريش قد قام على دكان *** بحال رواق","He had gone to a park with-some of his friends, and they were sitting in an arbor. In front of them was the marble statue of a lion. From its mouth water flowed down over blocks of stone set in steps. Whereupon Ibn Quzman said: An arbor that is standing upon a platform-like a portico,"
"وأسد قد ابتلع ثعبان *** من غلظ ساق
وفتح فمه بحال إنسان *** بيه الفراق
وانطلق من ثم على الصفاح *** وألقى الصياح","And a lion that has swallowed a snake-thick as a thigh, And opens its mouth like a man-who loudly breathes his last, And (the snake) goes from there on blocks of stonemaking a great noise.’ “"
وكان ابن قزمان، مع أنه قرطبي الدار، كثيرا ما يتردد إلى إشبيلية ونيتاب نهرها، فاتفق أن اجتمع ذات يوم جماعة من أعلام هذا الشأن. وقد ركبوا في النهر للنزهة، ومعهم غلام جميل الصورة من سروات أهل البلد وبيوتهم.,"Although Ibn Quzman had his residence in Cordoba, he often came to Sevilla and spent a good deal of time along the river there. It happened that one day a group of noted zajal poets came together and took a boat ride on the river for recreation. They were accompanied by a handsome lad from one of the wealthy leading families of the place."
"وكانوا مجتمعين في زورق للصيد، فنظموا في وصف الحال، وبدأ منهم عيسى البليدي فقال:
يطمع بالخلاص قلبي وقد فاتو *** وقد ضمني عشقو لشهماتو
تراه قد حصل مسكين محلاتو *** يغلق وكذاك أمر عظيم صاباتو
توحش الجفون الكحل إن غابو *** وذيك الجفون الكحل أبلاتو","They were together in a boat fishing and made poems describing their situation. ‘Isa al-Balid led off with the following verses: My heart desires freedom, but cannot get it,-for love has checkmated it. You can see that (my heart) has become completely miserable – and is restless and also suffers greatly. It is affected by loneliness for eyelids dark with antimony, Those eyes are what make it miserable."
"ثم قال أبو عمرو بن الزاهر الإشبيلي:
نشب والهوى من لج فيه ينشب *** ترى ايش دعاه يشقى ويتعذب
مع العشق قام في بألوان يلعب *** وخلق كثير من ذا اللعب ماتوا","Then, Abu ‘Amr b. az-Zahid al-Ishbili said: He is caught. All those who enter the ocean of passion are caught. You can see what causes him pain and difficulties. He wanted to play with love. Many people have died in that game."
"ثم قال أبو الحسن المقري الداني:
نهار مليح يعجبن أوصافو *** شراب وملاح من حولي قد طافوا
والمقلين يقول من فوق صفصافو *** والبوري أخرى فقلاتو","Then, Abul-Hasan al-Muqri’ ad-Dani said: A nice day, everything about which pleases me: – Drinks and handsome (boys) surround me. The finch sings in the willow tree – while a fish in the pot is my reward."
"ثم قال أبو بكر بن مرتين:
الحق تريد حديث بقالي عاد *** في الواد النزيه والبوري والصياد
لسنا حيتان ذيك الذي يصطاد *** قلوب الورى هي في شبيكاتو","Then, Abu Bakr b. Martin said: You (he [?]) want(s) it to be true when you (he) say(s): “I have to go back To the river,” you (he [?]) announce(s) [?], “and recreation and fishing. Those are not fish that he wants to hook The hearts of men are in his little net."
"ثم قال أبو بكر بن قزمان:
إذا شمر كمامو يرميها *** ترى البوري يرشق لذاك الجيها
وليس مرادو أن يقع فيها *** إلا أن يقبل بدياتو","Then, Abu Bakr b. Quzman said: When he rolls up his sleeves to cast (his little net), One sees the fish run in his direction. They do not want to fall into it. They want only to kiss his little hands."
"وكان في عصرهم بشرق الأندلس محلف الأسود، وله محاسن من الزجل منها قوله:
قد كنت منشوب واختشيت النشب *** وردني ذا العشق لأمر صعب","In the eastern Spain of their time, Yakhlaf al-Aswad composed fine zajals, for instance: I was caught. I was afraid to be caught. Love has brought me into difficulties."
"حتى تنظر الخد الشريق البهي *** تنتهي في الخمر ألما تنتهي
يا طالب الكيميا في عيني هي *** تنظر بها الفضة وترجع ذهب","(Later on) in (this poem) he says: When I look into the brilliant, resplendent face (of the beloved), its redness reaches its limit. O student of alchemy, alchemy is in my eye. I look with it at silver, and it turns into gold."
"وجاءت بعدهم حلبة كان سابقها مدغليس، وقعت له العجائب في هذه الطريقة، فمن قوله في زجله المشهور:
ورذاذ دق ينزل *** وشعاع الشمس يضرب
فترى الواحد يفضض *** وترى الآخر يذهب","After these (poets) came a period in which Madghallis was the champion. He accomplished marvelous things in zajal poetry. The following verses are from his famous zajal that goes: And a fine rain that falls-and beats the rays of the sun. The one appears silvery, and the other golden."
"والنبات يشرب ويسكر *** والغصون ترقص وتطرب
وتريد تجي إلينا *** ثم تستحي وتهرب","The plants drink and get drunk – the boughs dance and are excited. They want to come to us – Then, they are ashamed and go back."
"ومن محاسن أزجاله قوله:
لاح الضيا والنجوم حيارى *** فقم بنا ننزع الكسل
شربت ممزوج من قراعا *** أحلى هي عندي من العسل
يا من يلمني كما تقلد *** قلدك الله بما تقول
يقول بان الذنوب تولد *** وأنه يفسد العقول","A fine zajal of his is the following: The bright sunlight has come, and the stars are confused. – Let us get up and shake off laziness! A little mixed wine from a bottle seems to me sweeter than honey. . O you who censure me for my behavior! May God let you behave according to your words! You say that (wine) -generates sin and that it corrupts the intellect."
"لارض الحجاز موريكن لك أرشد *** ايش ما ساقك معي في ذا الفضول
مر أنت للحج والزيارا *** ودعني في الشرب منهمل
من ليس لو قدره ولا استطاع *** النية أبلغ من العمل","Go to the Hijaz! It will be better for you: What leads you into such superfluous (talk) with me? Go you on the pilgrimage (to Mecca) and visit (Medina), But let me be engrossed in drinking! If one does not have the power and ability (to behave), Intention is more effective than action."
"وظهر بعد هؤلاء بأشبيلية ابن جحدر الذي فضل على الزجالين في فتح ميورقة بالزجل الذي أوله هذا:
من عاند التوحيد بالسيف يمحق *** أنا بري ممن يعاند الحق","They were succeeded in Sevilla by Ibn Jahdar. He showed himself superior to (all other) zajal poets on the occasion of the conquest of Majorca, when he composed the zajal that begins: Those who oppose the oneness of God will be wiped out by the sword. I have nothing to do with those who oppose the truth."
"قال ابن سعيد لقيته ولقيت تلميذه المعمع صاحب الزجل المشهور الذي أوله:
يا ليتني ان رأيت حبيبي *** أفتل اذنو بالرسيلا
ليش أخذ عنق الغزيل *** وسرق فم الحجيلا","Ibn Sa’id said: “I met (Ibn Jahdar). I also met his pupil al-Ya’ya’, the author of the famous zajal that begins: Would that, when I see my beloved, I might tempt his ear with a little message: Why did he adopt the neck of the little gazelle and steal the mouth of the partridge?"
ثم جاء من بعدهم أبو الحسن سهل ابن مالك إمام الأدب، ثم من بعدهم لهذه العصور صاحبنا الوزير أبو عبد الله بن الخطيب إمام النظم والنثر في الملة الإسلامية غير مدافع، فمن محاسنه في هذه الطريقة:,"They were succeeded by Abul-hasan Sahl b. Malik, the leading litterateur. Also, (still) later, (close) to the present time, there was our friend, the wazir Abu ‘Abdallah b. al-Khatib, the leading poet and a prose writer without peer in Islam. A fine poem of this type by him is the following:"
"امزج الأكواس واملالي تجدد *** ما خلق المال إلا أن يبدد
ومن قوله على طريقة الصوفية وينحو منحى الششتري منهم:
بين طلوع وبين نزول *** اختلطت الغزول
ومضى من لم يكن *** وبقي من لم يزول","Mix the goblets and fill mine, so that I maystart all over again! Money was created only to be squandered. A poem in Sufi style in the manner of the Sufi ashShushtari (by Ibn alKhatib) is the following: Between sunrise and sunset, love poems of various kinds were composed. Gone are (the mortals) who (were created and) had not been before. There remains (God) who never ceases."
"ومن محاسنه أيضا قوله في ذلك المعنى:
البعد عنك يا بني أعظم مصائبي *** وحين حصل لي قربك سببت قاربي","Another fine poem in this sense by (Ibn al-Khatib) is the following: To be away from you, son – is my greatest misfortune. When I can be near (qurb) you – I let my boat (qarib) drift."
"وكان لعصر الوزير ابن الخطيب بالأندلس محمد بن عبد العظيم من أهل وادي آش، وكان إماما في هذه الطريقة وله من زجل يعارض به مدغليس في قوله:
لاح الضياء والنجوم حيارى بقوله:
حل المجون يا أهل الشطارا *** مذحلت الشمس في الحمل","A contemporary of the wazir Ibn al-Khatib in Spain was Muhammad b. ‘Abd-al-‘Azim, from Guadix. He was a leading zajal poet. He wrote a zajal in which he imitated Madghallis’ verse: “The bright sunlight has come, and the stars are confused.” It runs as follows: Dissipation is permitted, you clever fellows, Since the sun entered into Aries."
"تجددوا كل يوم خلاعا *** لا تجعلوا بينها ثمل
إليها يتخلعوا في شنبل *** على خضورة ذاك النبات
وحل بغداد واجتياز النيل *** أحسن عندي من ذيك الجهات
وطاقتها أصلح من أربعين ميل *** ان مرت الريح عليه وجات","Thus, commit a new immorality every day! Don’t let a boring period intervene between them! Let us go after them at the Genil, Upon the verdant meadows there! Let Baghdad alone and do not talk about the Nile! I like these regions here better, A plain which is – better than an expanse of forty miles. When the winds blow over it to and fro,"
"لم تلتق الغبار امارا *** ولا بمقدار ما يكتحل
وكيف ولاش فيه موضع رقاعا *** إلا ونسرح فيه النحل","No trace of dust is found, Not even enough to apply as antimony to the eyes. How could it be different, since there is no pleasant spot here Where the bees do not swarm."
وهذه الطريقة الزجلية لهذا العهد هي فن العامة بالأندلس من الشعر، وفيها نظمهم حتى أنهم لينظمون بها في سائر البحور الخمسة عشر، لكن بلغتهم العامية ويسمونه الشعر الزجلي,"At the present time, the zajal method is what the common people in Spain use for their poetry. They even employ all fifteen meters for poems in the vulgar dialect and call them zajals."
"مثل قول شاعرهم:
دهر لي نعشق جفونك وسنين *** وأنت لا شفقة ولا قلب يلين
حتى ترى قلبي من أجلك كيف رجع *** صنعة السكة بين الحدادين","For instance, we have the following verses by a Spanish poet: A long time, years, I have loved your eyes. But you have no pity and no softness in your heart. You can see how my heart has become, because of you, Like a ploughshare in the smiths’ hands."
"الدموع ترشرش والنار تلتهب *** والمطارق من شمال ومن يمين
خلق الله النصارى للغزو *** وأنت تغزو قلوب العاشقين","Tears stream down. Fire burns. Hammers to the right and the left. God created the Christians to be raided, But you raid the hearts of (your) lovers."
"وكان من المجيدين لهذه الطريقة لأول هذه المائة الأديب أبو عبد الله اللوشي وله فيها قصيدة يمدح فيها السلطان ابن الأحمر:
طل الصباح قم يا نديمي نشربو *** ونضحكو من بعد ما نطربو
سبيكة الفجر أحكت شفق *** في ميلق الليل فقم قلبو","At the beginning of this century, an excellent representative of this method was the litterateur Abu ‘Abdallah alLushl. He wrote a poem in which he praised Sultan Ibn al-Ahmar: Morning has come. Get up, O my boon companion, let us drink And be gay, after we have been moved by music! The gold ingot of dawn has rubbed (its) red color Against the touchstone of the night. Get up and pour (the wine)!"
"ترى عيارها خالص أبيض نقي *** فضة هو لكن الشفق ذهبو
فتنتفق سكتوا عند البشر *** نور الجفون من نورها يكسبو
فهو النهار يا صاحبي للمعاش *** عيش الغني فيه بالله ما أطيبوا
والليل أيضا للقبل والعناق *** على سرير الوصل يتقلبو","You will find (it) to be of pure alloy, white and clean. It is silver, but the red color of the dawn made it golden. (Wine) is a currency that has great circulation among mankind. The light in the eyes (of the beloved) is acquired from the light of (that currency). This is the day, O my companion, when we can (really) live. By God, how pleasant is a young man’s life on (such a day)! The night, too, is for kissing and embracing, Turning over and over on the bed of (love) union."
"جاد الزمان من بعد ما كان بخيل *** ولش ليفلت من يديه عقربو
كما جرع مرو فما قد مضى *** يشرب بيننو ويأكل طيبو
قال الرقيب يا أدبا أيش ذا *** في الشرب والعشق ترى ننجبو","A good time has come now after a stingy one. Why should it let good fortune escape its hands? As one swallowed its bitterness in the past, So one now drinks its delectable (wine) and eats fine food. The watcher asks: You litterateurs, why do we See you so generous with wine and love?"
"وتعجبوا عذالي من ذا الخبر *** فقلت يا قوم من ذا تتعجبوا
نعشق مليح الا رقيق الطباع *** علاش تكفروا بالله أو تكتبوا
ليش يربح الحسن إلا شاعر أديب *** يفض بكرا ويدع ثيبو","Those who censure me are astonished by it, But I say: You people, why are you astonished? Could anyone but a sensitive (poet really) love a handsome (boy), . As, by God, we find it said and stated in writing? Beauty can be acquired only by a cultured poet Who deflowers virginal (beauty) and does not bother with (beauty) that has belonged to others before."
"أما الكاس فحرام نعم هو حرام *** على الذي ما يدري كيف يشربو
ويد الذي يحسن حسابه ولم *** يقدر يحسن ألفاظ أن يجلبوا
وأهل العقل والفكر والمجون *** يغفر ذنوبهم لهذا إن أذنبوا","The cup is forbidden, but only to those Who do not know how to drink it. Intelligent, delicate [?],or dissolute people Are forgiven the sins they may commit in this respect. There is one whose beauty captivates me, and I cannot captivate it with the choicest words."
"ظبي بهي فيها يطفي الجمر *** وقلبي في جمر الغضى يلهبو
غزال بهي ينظر قلوب الأسود *** وبالوهم قبل النظر يذهبوا
ثم يحييهم إذا ابتسم يضحكوا *** ويفرحوا من بعد ما يندبوا","A handsome fawn, fat enough to put out the coals (on which it is roasted), While it sets my heart afire with (burning hot) tamarisk coal. A (handsome) gazelle, who so moves the hearts of lions when they see it, And even when they do not see it but only imagine (they see it), they run away. She then revives them when she smiles, And they are gay, after having been sad."
"فميم كالخاتم وثغر نقي *** خطيب الأمة للقبل يخطبو
جوهر ومرجان أي عقد يا فلان *** قد صففه الناظم ولم يثقبو
وشارب أخضر يريد لاش يريد *** من شبهه بالمسك قد عيبو","She has a little mouth like a seal ring and a row of white teeth. The preacher of the people demands (in his sermon) to kiss them. What a necklace of pearls and corals (those teeth are), O man. Well strung and not pierced! A darkish down on her lips, which want something. To compare it with musk would be an insult."
"يسبل دلال مثل جناح الغراب *** ليالي هجري منه يستغربوا
على بدن أبيض بلون الحليب *** ما قط راعي للغنم يحلبوا
وزوج هندات ما علمت قبلها *** ديك الصلا يا ريت ما أصلبوا","Hair black as the raven’s wing Which (even) the nights when I am separated from her consider remarkable, falls down Upon a body, milk white, whiter Than any ever got by shepherd from his flock, And two little breasts. I did not know before That anything could be so firm."
"تحت العكاكن منها خصر رقيق *** من رقتو يخفي إذا تطلبوا
أرق هو من ديني فيما تقول جديد عتبك حق ما أكذبوا أي دين بقا لي معاك وأي عقل من يتبعك من ذا وذا تسلبوا","Under the fat (bosom), there is a slim waist, So slim that it could hardly be found when one looks for it. It is slimmer than my religion, as I might say. Come, look at your slave, my lady! I do not lie in this respect. What religion remains to me, and what intelligence? You deprive those who follow you of both the one and the other."
تحمل ارداف ثقال كالرقيب حين ينظر العاشق وحين يرقبو,She has buttocks as heavy as a watcher When he observes and watches a lover …………………………………………
يصير إليك المكان حين تجي وحين تغيب ترجع في عيني تبو محاسنك مثل خصال الأمير أو الرمل من هو الذي يحسبو عماد الأمصار وفصيح العرب من فصاحة لفظه يتقربو,"The place becomes a castle when you are here, But when you are away, it seems to me a cave. Your good qualities are like those of the Amir, Or like the sand, who could count it? He is the pillar of the cities. He speaks pure Arabic."
بحمل العلم انفرد والعمل ومع بديع الشعر ما أكتبوا ففي الصدور بالرمح ما أطعنه وفي الرقاب بالسيف ما أضربوا من السماء يحسد في أربع صفات فمن يعد قلبي أو يحسبو الشمس نورو والقمر همتو الغيث جودو والنجوم منصبو,"He is outstanding in knowledge and actions. He is an original poet, and how well he writes! How he pierces with his lance the breasts (of the enemy)! How he smites their necks with the sword! Heaven envies him four of his qualities. Who could count his (qualities), tell me, or estimate them? The sun (envies) his light, the moon his ambition, The rain his generosity, and the stars his position."
يركب جواد الجود ويطلق عنان الاغنيا والجند حين يركبوا من خلعتو يلبس كل يوم بطيب منه بنات المعالي تطيبوا نعمتو تظهر على كل من يجيه قاصد ووارد قط ما خيبوا قد أظهر الحق وكان في حجاب لاش يقدر الباطل بعد ما يحجبو,"He rides on the steed of generosity and gives free rein To enterprise and zeal in being (generous). Every day, we put on the robes of honor that he gives us. With the perfume of his high glory we consider (the day) perfumed. His kindness is showered upon everybody who comes to him. He lets no one who approaches him go home with empty hands. He brought out the truth that had been concealed. Falsehood can (now) no longer conceal it."
وقد بنى بالسر ركن التقى من بعد ما كان الزمان خربو تخاف حين تلقاه كما ترتجيه فمع سماحة وجهو ما أسيبو يلقى الحروب ضاحكا وهي عابسة غلاب هو لا شيء في الدنيا يغلبو إذا جبد سيفه ما بين الردود فليس شيء يغني من يضربو,"He rebuilt the crumbling pillar of piety (toward God) Which time had ruined. He is feared when he is met, just as one puts one’s hope in him. In spite of the kindness of his face, how forbidding he can be! He goes to war laughing, and war is frowning. He is superior. No one in the world is superior to him. When he draws his sword among the engines of war, No second stroke is needed where he strikes."
وهو سمي المصطفى والإله للسلطنة اختار واستنخبو تراه خليفة أمير المؤمنين يقود جيوشو ويزين موكبو لذي الإمارة تخضع الرءوس نعم وفي تقبيل يديه يرغبوا ببيته بقي بدور الزمان يطلعوا في المجد ولا يغربوا,"He is the namesake of the chosen (Prophet Muhammad). God Selected and chose him to be ruler. One can see that he is caliph, the commander of the Muslims. He leads his armies and is an ornament of his cavalcade. All heads bow and obey the chief. Indeed, they desire to kiss his hand. His house, the Band Nasr, are the full moon of the time. Their glory (steadily) rises and (never) sets."
وفي المعالي والشرف يبعدوا وفي التواضع والحيا يقربوا والله يبقيهم ما دار الفلك وأشرقت شمسه ولاح كوكبو وما يغني ذا القصيد في عروض يا شمس خدر ما لها مغربو,"They go far in loftiness and nobility. They do not go far in humbleness and shame. Let God preserve them, as long as the firmament revolves. And the sun rises and the stars sparkle, And as long as this poem shall be sung to music, O sun of the harem, that never sets."
ثم استحدث أهل الأمصار بالمغرب فنا آخر من الشعر، في أعاريض مزدوجة كالموشح، نظموا فيه بلغتهم الحضرية أيضا وسموه عروض البلد، وكان أول من استحدثه فيهم رجل من أهل الأندلس نزل بفاس يعرف بابن عمير،,"The urban population of the Maghrib then created a new poetical form in meters with internally rhyming couplets, similar to the muwashshahah. They wrote poetry in this form in their sedentary dialect, too. They called it “local meter.” The first to create the form was a Spaniard who settled in Fez, by name Ibn ‘Umayr."
"فنظم قطعة على طريقة الموشح ولم يخرج فيها عن مذاهب الإعراب إلا قليلا مطلعها:
أبكاني بشاطئ النهر نوح الحمام *** على الغصن في البستان قريب الصباح
وكف السحر يمحو مداد الظلام *** وماء الندى يجري بثغر الاقاح","He wrote a fragmentary piece in the manner of the muwashshahah, in which he only rarely disregarded the rules of the vowel endings. It begins: On the bank of the river, the plaint of a dove Upon a bough in the garden near morn made me weep. The palm of morning was wiping off the ink of darkness, And the drops of dew were flowing among the teeth of the camomiles."
"باكرت الرياض والطل فيها افتراق *** كثير الجواهر في نحور الجوار
ودمع النواعير ينهرق انهراق *** يحاكي ثعابين حلقت بالثمار
لووا بالغصون خلخال على كل ساق *** ودار الجميع بالروض دور السوار",I had gone to the meadows early in the morning. The dew was scattered about there Like jewels strewn over the bosoms of maidens. The tear of the water wheels was being shed Like snakes wriggling around fruit. The boughs are all twisted like an anklet around the thigh. All of this surrounds the meadow like a bracelet.
"وأيدي الندى تخرق جيوب الكمام *** ويحمل نسيم المسك عنها رياح
وعاج الصبا يطلى بمسك الغمام *** وجر النسيم ذيلو عليها وفاح
رأيت الحمام بين الورق في القضيب *** قد ابتلت ارياشو بقطر الندى","The hands of the dew break through the folds of the calyxes, And the winds carry a breeze from off (the flowers), which smells like musk. The ivory of the clear sky is covered by the dark musk of the clouds. The zephyr draws his train over (the flowers) and spreads their perfume. I saw the dove in the foliage on a branch. It had wetted its feathers with drops of dew."
"تنوح مثل ذاك المستهام الغريب *** قد التف من توبو الجديد في ردا
ولكن بما أحمر وساقو خضيب *** ينظم سلوك جوهر ويتقلدا
جلس بين الأغصان جلسة المستهام *** جناحا توسد والتوى في جناح","It cooed plaintively, like a lovesick stranger. Urban Poetry in the Contemporary Maghrib It had covered itself with its new plumage as with a cloak, But with its beak red and its leg colored. It had a necklace of well-arranged strings of jewels. It was sitting between the boughs like a lovesick person, Using one wing as a cushion, and the other to cover itself."
"وصار يشتكي ما في الفؤاد من غرام *** منها ضم منقاره لصدره وصاح
قلت يا حمام أحرمت عيني الهجوع *** أراك ما تزال تبكي بدمع سفوح
قال لي بكيت حتى صفت لي الدموع *** بلا دمع نبقي طول حياتي ننوح","It had come to complain about the passion in its heart, And, on account of it, had put its beak to its breast and cried. I said: O dove, my eye can no longer slumber. Please, will you not stop crying and shedding tears? The dove replied: I cried, until my tears ran dry. I cry plaintively all the time, without tears,"
"على فرخ طار لي لم يكن لو رجوع *** ألفت البكا والحزن من عهد نوح
كذا هو ألوفا وكذا هو الزمام *** انظر جفون صارت بحال الجراح
وأنتم من بكى منكم إذا تم عام *** يقول عناني ذا البكا والنواح","For a young bird that flew away from me and did not return. I have been familiar with crying and grief since the time of Noah. This is faithfulness, I say, this is fidelity. Look, my eyes have become (red) like sores. But you (human beings), if one of you is afflicted, after a year, He says: I have had enough of this weeping and mourning."
"قلت يا حمام لو خضت بحر الضنى *** كنت تبكي وترثي لي بدمع هتون
ولو كان بقلبك ما بقلبي أنا *** ما كان يصير تحتك فروع الغصون
اليوم نقاسي الهجر كم من سنا *** حتى لا سبيل جمله تراني العيون","I said: O dove, if you had plunged into the ocean of misery (in which I am), You would cry and mourn for me with tears and sighs. And if your heart felt like mine, The boughs upon which you are sitting would be reduced to ashes. How many years is it today that I suffered separation (from my beloved), So that it is altogether impossible for the eyes (of anybody) to see me?"
"ومما كسا جسمي النحول والسقام *** أخفاني نحولي عن عيون اللواح
لو جتنى المنايا كان يموت في المقام *** ومن مات بعد يا قوم لقد استراح
قال لي لو رقدت لا وراق الرياض *** من خوفي عليه ودا النفوس للفؤاد","My body is covered with thinness and disease. My thinness conceals me from the eyes of spectators. If death should come to me, I would die on the spot. Those who are dead, my friends, at last enjoy rest. (The dove) said to me: If the rivers in the meadows were to moan Out of the (great) fear that I harbor for (my beloved), the soul would be returned to the heart."
"وتخضبت من دمعي وذاك البياض *** طوق العهد في عنقي ليوم التناد
أما طرف منقاري حديثو استفاض *** بأطراف البلد والجسم صار في الرماد","I am discolored by my tears. This whiteness Will always be like a necklace around my neck to the day of the (last) convocation. As for the tip of my beak, its story is known: It is like a bit, of flame, while (the rest of my) body is (gray as) ashes."
فاستحسنه أهل فاس وولعوا به ونظموا على طريقته، وتركوا الإعراب الذي ليس من شأنهم، وكثر سماعه بينهم واستفحل فيه كثير منهم ونوعوه أصنافا إلى المزدوج والكازي والملعبة والغزل.,"The inhabitants of Fez liked it and applied this method in their poetry. They omitted the vowel endings with which they were not familiar. This kind of poetry gained a wide diffusion among them. Many of themexcelled in it. Theyused several forms, the muzawwaj, the kazi, the mal’abah, and the ghazal."
واختلفت أسماؤها باختلاف ازدواجها وملاحظاتهم فيها. فمن المزدوج ما قاله ابن شجاع من فصولهم وهو من أهل تازا:,"They differ according to the arrangement of the rhyming couplets and the contents the poets want to express in them. A muzawwaj poem is that of Ibn Shuja`, an outstanding Maghribi poet, from Taza:"
"المال زينة الدنيا وعز النفوس *** يبهي وجوها ليس هي باهيا
فها كل من هو كثير الفلوس *** ولوه الكلام والرتبة العاليا
يكبر من كثر ما لو ولو كان صغير *** ويصغر عزيز القوم إذ يفتقر","Money is the ornament of the world and the strength of the soul. It makes faces that are not beautiful, beautiful. Lo, anyone who has plenty of money to spend Is made a spokesman and given a high rank. Whoever has a great deal of money is great, even if he be small. And the mighty man becomes small when he becomes poor."
"من ذا ينطبق صدري ومن ذا تغير *** وكاد ينفقع لولا الرجوع للقدر
حتى يلتجي من هو في قومو كبير *** لمن لا أصل عند وو لا لو خطر
لذا ينبغي يحزن على ذي العكوس *** ويصبغ عليه ثوب فراش صافيا","The one thing warps my breast, and the other makes it jealous. It would burst, if there were not the (possibility of) recourse to destiny. A man who is great among his people may (have to) seek refuge With a man who has no pedigree and no influence. Such a reversal causes me sadness, And because of it I put my garment over my head to conceal (myself) [?]."
"اللي صارت الاذناب أمام الرءوس *** وصار يستفيد الواد من الساقيا
ضعف الناس على ذا وفسد ذا الزمان *** ما يدروا على من يكثروا ذا العتاب
اللي صار فلان يصبح بو فلان *** ولو رأيت كيف يرد الجواب","Thus, the tails have come to be in front of the heads, And the river borrows water from the water wheel. Did the weakness of man do that, or the corruption of time? We do not know which we should blame more. Someone came to be addressed as “Father of someone” And “please!” and how (long it took) before he replied!"
"عشنا والسلام حتى رأينا عيان *** أنفاس السلاطين في جلود الكلاب
كبار النفوس جدا ضعاف الاسوس *** هم ناحيا والمجد في ناحيا
يرو أنهم والناس يروهم تيوس *** وجوه البلد والعمدة الراسيا","We have lived, thank God, long enough to see with our own eyes The souls of princes in the skins of dogs. Many with very great souls may have weak (material) foundations. They are in one place, and glory is in another. Whereas people see them as old fools, they see themselves As the outstanding personalities of the country and (its) solid foundation."
"ومن مذاهبهم قول ابن شجاع منهم في بعض مزدوجاته:
تعب من تبع ذا الزمان *** أهمل يا فلان لا يلعب الحسن فيك
ما منهم مليح عاهد الا وخان *** قليل من عليه تحبس ويحبس عليك","The (Maghribi) method is represented by the following verses from a muzawwaj poem by Ibn Shuja’: He whose heart goes after the handsome (ones) of this day will be tired (and disappointed). You had better leave off or beauty will use you for a plaything. There is no handsome (beloved) among them who ever promised something and did not break his promise. Few are those to whom you can be faithful, and who are faithful to you."
"يهبوا على العشاق ويتمنعوا *** ويستعمدوا تقطيع قلوب الرجال
وان واصلوا من حينهم يقطعوا *** وان عاهدوا خانوا على كل حال
مليح كان هويتو وشت قلبي معو *** وصيرت من خدي لقدمو نعال","They are proud toward their lovers and refuse (them). They deliberately set out to break people’s hearts. When they enter into a liaison, they break it up in their own good time. When they make a promise, they break it in any case. There is a handsome (youth) with whom I have fallen in love. I have set my heart on him. I have made my cheek the shoe for his foot."
"ومهدت لو من وسط قلبي مكان *** وقلت لقلبي أكرم لمن حل فيك
وهون عليك ما يعتريك من هوان *** فلا بد من هول الهوى يعتريك
حكمتوا علي وارتضيت بو أمير *** فلو كان يرى حالي إذا يبصرو","I have given him a place in the center of my heart. I said: O my heart, honor him who has taken up residence in you! Think little of the humiliation that you suffer! For you cannot escape being affected by the frightful power of passion. I have given him power over me. I am satisfied to have him as my master. If you could see my condition when I see him!"
"يرجع مثل در حولي بوجه الغدير *** مرديه ويتعطس بحال انحرو
وتعلمت من ساعا بسبق الضمير *** ويفهم مرادو قبل أن يذكرو
ويحتل في مطلو لو أن كان *** عصر في الربيع أو في الليالي يريك","I am like a beetle upon the surface of a pond, Which turns over in it and suffocates like a little (round fruit). I know at once what is in his mind. I understand what he wants before he mentions it. I try to get (for him) what he wants, even if it be Grape juice in spring, or early wheat in the winter."
"ويمشي بسوق كان ولو بأصبهان *** وايش ما يقل يحتاج لو يجيك
حتى أتى على آخرها","I go to fetch it, even if it be in Isfahan. Whenever he says: “I need something,” I say to him: “You’ll get it.” And so on."
وكان منهم علي بن المؤذن بتلمسان، وكان لهذه العصور القريبة من فحولهم بزرهون من ضواحي مكناسة رجل يعرف بالكفيف، أبدع في مذاهب هذا الفن.,"Another (Maghribi) poet was ‘Ali b. al-Mu’adhdhin of Tlemcen. An outstanding poet in Zarhun, in the region of Meknes, close to the present time, was a man known as alKafif (the blind one). He produced original specimens of these types of poetry."
ومن أحسن ما علق له بمحفوظي قوله في رحلة السلطان أبي الحسن وبني مرين إلى إفريقية يصف هزيمتهم بالقيروان، ويعزيهم عنها ويؤنسهم بما وقع لغيرهم بعد أن عيبهم على غزاتهم إلى إفريقية,"The best poem of his that sticks in my memory is a poem on the trip of Sultan Abul-Hasan and the Merinids to Ifriqiyah. In it, he describes their rout at alQayrawan. He consoles them about it and cheers them by describing what happened to others, but first he blames them because of their raid against Ifriqiyah."
في ملعبة من فنون هذه الطريقة يقول في مفتحها، وهو من أبدع مذاهب البلاغة في الأشعار بالمقصد في مطلع الكلام وافتتاحه ويسمى براعة الاستهلال:,"It is a mal’abah, a variety of this sort of poetry. The beginning is one of the most original examples of how to indicate eloquently the purpose of a poem right at the start. This is called “excellence of beginning” (bara’at al-istihlal). His verses run:"
"سبحان مالك خواطر الأمرا *** ونواصيها في كل حين وزمان
ان طعناه أعظم لنا نصرا *** وان عصيناه عاقب بكل هوان","Praised be He who holds the hearts of amirs By their forelocks at any moment and time. If we obey Him, He gives us much help. If we disobey Him, He punishes (us) with all kinds of humiliation."
"إلى أن يقول في السؤال عن جيوش المغرب بعد التخلص:
كن مرعى قل ولا تكن راعي *** فالراعي عن رعيته مسئول
واستفتح بالصلاة على الداعي *** للإسلام والرضا السني المكمول","He goes on, until, after the transition (takhallus), he comes to inquire after the armies of the Maghrib: Be a sheep, but do not be a shepherd! For a shepherd is held responsible for his flock. Start with a prayer for him who called (us) To Islam, the gracious, exalted, perfect (Prophet),"
"على الخلفاء الراشدين والاتباع *** واذكر بعدهم إذا تحب وقول
أحجاجا تخللوا الصحرا *** ودوا سرح البلاد مع السكان
عسكر فاس المنيرة الغرا *** وين سارت بو عزايم السلطان","For the right-guided caliphs, and the men of the second generation! Afterwards, mention whatever you like, and speak out: O pilgrims, cross the desert And describe the countries with (their) inhabitants! Where did the intention of the Sultan lead The army of brilliant, beautiful Fez?"
"أحجاج بالنبي الذي زرتم *** وقطعتم لو كلاكل البيدا
عن جيش الغرب حين يسألكم *** المتلوف في افريقيا السودا
ومن كان بالعطايا يزودكم *** ويدع برية الحجاز رغدا","O pilgrims, by the Prophet whom you visited And for whose sake you traversed the sand hills of the desert, I have come to ask you about the army of the West That perished in black Ifrigiyah, And about the (ruler) who provided you (for your pilgrimage) by his gifts And made the desert of the Hijaz a place of luxurious living."
"قام قل للسد صادف الجزرا *** ويعجز شوط بعد ما يخفان
ويزف كر دوم تهب في الغبرا *** أي ما زاد غزالهم سبحان
لو كان ما بين تونس الغربا *** وبلاد الغرب سد السكندر","There has come up something like a dam facing a slope, And a gorge is cleft after the water of a deluge [?].It (the army) is crushed like Sodom and trampled into the earth [?]. Tell me now, did Zughar become their jailer? If the region from near Tunis To the country of the West were an Alexandrian obstacle"
"مبنى من شرقها إلى غربا *** طبقا بحديد أو ثانيا بصفر
لا بد الطير أن تجيب نبا *** أو يأتي الريح عنهم بفرد خبر
ما أعوصها من أمور وما شرا *** لو تقرأ كل يوم على الديوان","Built (across the world) from the East to the West, With one layer of iron, and a second of bronze, Still, the birds should answer us, Or the wind should bring us special news from them. Vexing and bad things, If they were recited .. ."
"لجرت بالدم وانصدع حجرا *** وهوت الخراب وخافت الغزلان
أدر لي بعقلك الفحاص *** وتفكر لي بخاطرك جمعا
ان كان تعلم حمام ولا رقاص *** عن السلطان شهر وقبله سبعا","Stones would run with blood and burst, Hillocks would tumble and be carried away by a torrent. Let me know with your penetrating intelligence And think it over for me completely [?] in your heart, If you know, whether a pigeon or messenger From the Sultan has become known, and speak out seven times [?]"
"تظهر عند المهيمن القصاص *** وعلامات تنشر على الصمعا
الا قوم عاريين فلا سترا *** مجهولين لا مكان ولا إمكان
ما يدروا كيف يصوروا كسرا *** وكيف دخلوا مدينة القيروان","About the announcement of ‘Abd-al-Muhayman alGhawwas [?] And (further) indications spread (from) atop the minarets. They are indeed people, naked, unprotected, Ignored, with no place and no power. They do not know how to picture (their) failure, Or how they (might have) entered the city of alQayrawan."
"أمولاي أبو الحسن خطينا الباب *** قضية سيرنا إلى تونس
فقنا كنا على الجريد والزاب *** واش لك في أعراب افريقيا القوبس
ما بلغك من عمر فتى الخطاب *** الفاروق فاتح القرى المولس","O my Lord Abul-Hasan, we come to the gate (court) On a definite matter: Let us go to Tunis! We are enough for you, and you do not need the Jarid and the Zab. What do you have to do with the Arabs of dark Ifriqiyah? Do you not know the story of ‘Umar, the son of alKhattab, The Faruq, conqueror of villages, the treacherously (assassinated caliph)?"
"ملك الشام والحجاز وتاج كسرى *** وفتح من افريقيا وكان
رد ولدت لو كره ذكرى *** ونقل فيها تفرق الاخوان
هذا الفاروق مردي الأعوان *** صرح في افريقيا بذا التصريح","He took possession of Syria, the Hijaz, and the crown of Khosraw (the ‘Iraq), And he conquered a part of the entrance to Ifriqiyah. He was a person of great renown [?],And still he used to say: “In (Ifriqiyah), our friends will be divided.” This Faruq, the emerald of all beings, Pronounced himself thus concerning Ifriqiyah."
"وبقت حمى إلى زمن عثمان *** وفتحها ابن الزبير عن تصحيح
لمن دخلت غنائمها الديوان *** مات عثمان وانقلب علينا الريح
وافترق الناس على ثلاثة أمرا *** وبقي ما هو للسكوت عنوان","It remained quiet to the time of ‘Uthman. Ibn az-Zubayr conquered it according to verified information. When the spoils from it arrived at the government office, ‘Uthman died, and the atmosphere changed for us. People were divided under three amirs. Something (better) treated with silence came to be (considered true) faith."
"إذا كان ذا في مدة البرارا *** اش نعمل في أواخر الأزمان
وأصحاب الحضر في مكناساتا *** وفي تاريخ كأنا وكيوانا
تذكر في صحتها أبياتا *** شق وسطيح وابن مرانا","If that was the situation in the days of the pious (early Muslims), What shall we do in later times? The experts in jafr in their little booklets, And in the history of their Mercury and Saturn, Mention in their pamphlets and verses (Experts such as) Shiqq and Satih and Ibn Murranah –"
"ان مرين إذا تكف براياتا *** لجدا وتونس قد سقط بنيانا
قد ذكرنا ما قال سيد الوزرا *** عيسى بن الحسن الرفيع الشان
قال لي رأيت وأنا بذا أدري *** لكن إذا جاء القدر عميت الأعيان","That, when Merin’s creatures have to lean On the walls of Tunis, Merin loses its importance. And remember what the chief minister, The influential ‘Isa b. al-Hasan, said to me. He said to me: I ought to be the person who knows, But when fate comes, eyes are blind."
"ويقول لك ما دهى المرينيا *** من حضرة فاس إلى عرب دياب
أراد المولى بموت ابن يحيى *** سلطان تونس وصاحب الأبواب","I tell you: What brought the Merinids From the capital of Fez to the Dabbab Arabs? May our lord profit from the death of Bu Yahya, The Sultan of Tunis and master of al-‘Unnab!"
ثم أخذ في ترحيل السلطان وجيوشه، إلى آخر رحلته ومنتهى أمره، مع أعراب إفريقية، وأتى فيها بكل غريبة من الإبداع. وأما أهل تونس فاستحدثوا فن الملعبة أيضا على لغتهم الحضرية، إلا أن أكثره رديء ولم يعلق بمحفوظي منه شيء لرداءته,"Then, he began to describe the trip of the Sultan and his armies, to the end of that, and then on to the end of the whole affair with the Arabs of Ifriqiyah, using in his description every kind of remarkable, original (expression). The inhabitants of Tunis also produced mal’abahs in their dialect. However, most of them are bad. Nothing has stuck in my memory, because they are so bad."
وكان لعامة بغداد أيضا فن من الشعر يسمونه المواليا، وتحته فنون كثيرة يسمون منها القوما، وكان وكان، ومنه مفرد ومنه في بيتين، ويسمونه دو بيت على الاختلاف المعتبرة عندهم في كل واحد منها، وغالبها مزدوجة من أربعة أغصان.,"The common people of Baghdad also had a kind of (popular) poetry. They called these poems al-mawaliya. (The mawaliya) have many subdivisions. They are called alHawfi, Kan-wa-kan, and Dubayt. All the different meters recognized by them are used for these poems. Most of the verses are couplets of four “branches” that rhyme with each other."
وتبعهم في ذلك أهل مصر القاهرة وأتوا فيها بالغرائب، وتبحروا فيها في أساليب البلاغة بمقتضى لغتهم الحضرية، فجاءوا بالعجائب،,The Egyptians followed the Baghdadis in this respect. They produced remarkable poems of this type. They rivaled (each other in) expressing in them all the methods of rhetorical expression as required by their dialect. They produced marvelous things.
ورأيت في ديوان الصفي الحلي من كلامه «أن المواليا من بحر البسيط، وهو ذو أربعة أغصان وأربع قواف، ويسمى صوتا وبيتين. وأنه من مخترعات أهل واسط، وأن كان وكان فهو قافية واحدة وأوزان مختلفة في أشطاره:,I have seen it stated in the Diwan of Safi-ad-din alHilli that a mawaliya has the meter basit and consists of four rhyming “branches.” It is also called sawt “tune” and baytan “double verse.” It was invented by the people of Wasit. Kan-wa kan has one rhyme (throughout) and different meters in its hemistichs.
الشطر الأول من البيت أطول من الشطر الثاني ولا تكون قافيته إلا مردفة بحرف العلة وأنه من مخترعات البغداديين. وأنشد فيه لنا: بغمز الحواجب حديث تفسير ومنو أوبو، وأم الأخرس تعرف بلغة الخرسان». انتهى كلام الصفي.,"The first hemistich is longer than the second. The rhyme letter must be accompanied by one of the weak letters (i, u, a). It was invented by the Baghdadis. The following (kanwa-kan) is recited: In the winking of the eyelids we have a conversation that is self-explanatory. The mother of the dumb (child) understands – the language of the dumb. End of the quotation from Safi-ad-din."
"ومن أعجب ما علق بحفظي منه قول شاعرهم:
هذي جراحي طريا *** والدما تنضح
وقاتلي يا أخيا *** في الفلا يمرح
قالوا ونأخذ بثأرك *** قلت ذا أقبح
إلى جرحتي يداويني *** يكون أصلح","The most remarkable poem of the sort that has stuck in my memory is that of an (Egyptian) poet. (It runs:) This wound is still fresh – and the blood is still flowing and my killer, dear brother – has a good time in the desert – They said: We shall avenge you – I said: This is worse – He who wounded me shall heal me That will be better."
"ولغيره:
طرقت باب الخبا قالت من الطارق *** فقلت مفتون لا ناهب ولا سارق
تبسمت لاح لي من ثغرها بارق *** رجعت حيران في بحر أدمعي غارق","Another poet says: I knocked at the door of the tent. She said: Who is knocking? – I said: One enamored, no robber or thief. She smiled – A flash like lightning came to me from her teeth – I returned perturbed, drowned in the ocean of my tears."
"ولغيره:
عهدي بها وهي لا تأمن علي البين *** وان شكوت الهوى قالت فدتك العين
لمن يعاين لها غيري غلام الزين *** ذكرتها العهد قالت لك على دين","Another poet says: There was a time in our relationship when she could not guarantee me that she would not depart. And when I complained about my passion, she said: I would give (my) eye for you. But when someone else, a handsome youth, caught her eye, I reminded her of our relationship, but she (merely) said: I am in your debt."
"ولغيره في وصف الحشيش:
دي خمر صرف التي عهدي بها باقي *** تغني عن الخمر والخمار والساقي
قحبا ومن قحبها تعمل على احراقي *** خبيتها في الحشى طلت من احداقي","Another poet describes hashish as follows: A choice intoxicant whose effect always lasts with me – It makes wine, wine merchant, and cupbearer superfluous. It is an old strumpet whose viciousness inflames me – I conceal it in my intestines, and it comes out of my eyes."
"ولغيره:
يا من وصالو لأطفال المحبة بح *** كم توجع القلب بالهجران أوه أح
أودعت قلبي حوحو والتصبر بح *** كل الورى كخ في عيني وشخصك دح","Another poet says: You who like to be united with the children of love, nab – how much pain will separation cause to the heart, awwah ah (Oh, ouch). I deposited my heart haw-haw, and my patience is bah-Everybody is kakh in my eye. Your person is dah."
"ولغيره:
ناديتها ومسيبي قد طواني طي *** جودي علي بقبلة في الهوى يا مي
قالت وقد كوت داخل فؤادي كي *** ما ظن ذا القطن يغشى فم من هو حي","Another poet says: I called her, while gray hair already enveloped me: Give me a loving kiss, O Mayyah. She said, having burnt out the inside of my heart, I would not think that such cotton could ever cover the mouth of a person who is still alive."
"ولغيره:
رآني ابتسم سبقت سحب أدمعي برقه *** ماط اللثام تبدي بدر في شرقه
اسبل دجى الشعرتاه القلب في طرقه *** رجع هدانا بخيط الصبح من فرقه",Another poet says: He saw me and smiled. The rain clouds of my tears preceded the lightning (smile of his brilliant teeth) – He withdrew the veil. The full moon seemed to rise. He lowered his dark hair. The heart got lost in its net He led us aright again with the thread of dawn coming from where his hair was parted.
"ولغيره:
يا حادي العيس ازجر بالمطايا زجر *** وقف على منزل أحبابي قبيل الفجر
وصيح في حيهم يا من يريد الأجر *** ينهض يصلي على ميت قتيل الهجر","Another poet says: O camel driver, shout at the animals – and stop at the dwelling of my beloved ones shortly before dawn! Call out among their tribe: Let him who wants the (heavenly) reward-rise and pray for a deceased person who was killed by separation (from the beloved)."
"ولغيره:
عيني التي كنت ارعاكم بها باتت *** ترعى النجوم وبالتسهيد اقتاتت
وأسهم البين صابتني ولا فاتت *** وسلوتي عظم الله أجركم ماتت","Another poet says: The eye with which I was observing you, spent the night – observing the stars, and fed on sleeplessness. The arrows of separation hit me and did not pass me by – My solace – Let God give you a great reward – is dead."
"ولغيره:
هويت في قنطرتكم يا ملاح الحكر *** غزال يبلى الأسود الضاريا بالفكر
غصن إذا ما انثنى يسبي البنات البكر *** وان تهلل فما للبدر عند وذكر","Another poet says: In your district, O cruel pretty ones, I loved – a gazelle that afflicts ferocious lions with pensiveness. A bough that captivates chaste girls when it bends – and when it lights up, the full moon cannot compare with it."
"ومن الذي يسمونه دو بيت:
قد أقسم من أحبه بالباري *** أن يبعث طيفه مع الأسحار
يا نار أشواقي به فاتقدي *** ليلا فعساه يهتدي بالنار","The following poem is one of the poems called dubayt: The one whom I love has sworn by the Creator – that he would send his apparition in the early mornings. O fire of my desire for him, burn – all night. Perhaps he will be guided by the fire."
واعلم أن الأذواق كلها في معرفة البلاغة إنما تحصل لمن خالط تلك اللغة وكثر استعماله لها ومخاطبته بين أجيالها حتى يحصل ملكتها كما قلناه في اللغة العربية.,"It should be known that taste as to what constitutes eloquence in connection with such poetry is possessed only by those who have contact with the dialect in which (a particular poem) is composed, and who have had much practice in using it among the people who speak it. Only thus do they acquire the habit of it, as we stated with regard to the Arabic language."
فلا يشعر الأندلسي بالبلاغة التي في شعر أهل المغرب ولا المغربي بالبلاغة التي في شعر أهل الأندلس والمشرق ولا المشرقي بالبلاغة التي في شعر الأندلس والمغرب. لأن اللسان الحضري وتراكيبه مختلفة فيهم.,"A Spaniard has no understanding of the eloquence of Maghribi poetry. Maghribis have none for the eloquence of the poetry of Easterners or Spaniards, and Easterners have none for the eloquence of Spaniards and Maghribis. All of them use different dialects and word combinations."
وكل واحد منهم مدرك لبلاغة لغته وذائق لمحاسن الشعر من أهل جلدته,Everybody understands eloquence in his own dialect and has a taste for the beauties of the poetry of his own people.
وفي خلق السماوات والأرض واختلاف ألسنتكم وألوانكم آيات للعالمين,"“In the creation of the heavens and the earth and the difference of your tongues and colors, there are, indeed, signs for those who know.”"
كتاب: المناظر، لابن الهيثم,THE OPTICS OF IBN AL-HAYTHAM
المقالة الأولى: كيفية الإبصار بالجملة,BOOK I ON THE MANNER OF VISION IN GENERAL
الفصل الأول: صدر الكتاب,CHAPTER 1: PREFACE TO THE [WHOLE] BOOK
إن المتقدمين من أهل النظر قد أمعنوا البحث عن كيفية إحساس البصر، وأعملوا فيه أفكارهم، وبذلوا فيه اجتهادهم، وانتهوا منه إلى الحد الذي وصل النظر إليه، ووقفوا منه على ما وقفهم البحث والتمييز عليه.,"Early investigators diligently pursued the inquiry into the manner of visual sensation and applied their thoughts and effort to it, eventually reaching the limit to which their investigation had led, and gaining as much knowledge of this matter as their inquiry and judgement had yielded."
ومع هذه الحال فآرائهم في حقيقة الإبصار مختلفة، ومذاهبهم في هيئة الإحساس غير متفقة، فالحيرة متوجهة، واليقين متعذر والمطلوب غير موثوق بالوصول إليه.,"Nevertheless, their views on the nature of vision are divergent and their doctrines regarding the manner of sensation not concordant. Thus, perplexity prevails, certainty is hard to come by, and there is no assurance of attaining the object of inquiry. How strong, in addition to all this, is the excuse for the truth to be confused, and how manifest is the proof that certainty is difficult to achieve!"