text:
Use of the term "Islam"
[edit] Transmission routes
The Crusades also intensified exchanges between Europe and the Levant, with Italian City Republics taking a great role in these exchanges. In the Levant, such cities as Antioch, Arab and Latin cultures intermixed intensively.[5]
Classical knowledge
These texts were translated back into Latin in multiple ways. The main points of transmission of Islamic knowledge to Europe were in Sicilia, and in Toledo, Spain (with Gerard of Cremone, 1114–1187). Burgondio of Pise (died in 1193), who discovered in Antioch lost texts of Aristotle, translated them into Latin.
Islamic sciences
Contributing to the growth of European science was the major search by European scholars for new learning which they could only find among Muslims, especially in Islamic Spain and Sicily. These scholars translated new scientific and philosophical texts from Arabic into Latin.
One of the most productive translators in Spain was Gerard of Cremona, who translated 87 books from Arabic to Latin,[10] including Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī's On Algebra and Almucabala, Jabir ibn Aflah's Elementa astronomica,[11] al-Kindi's On Optics, Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī's On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions, al-Farabi's On the Classification of the Sciences,[12] the chemical and medical works of Rhazes,[13] the works of Thabit ibn Qurra and Hunayn ibn Ishaq,[14] and the works of Arzachel, Jabir ibn Aflah, the Banū Mūsā, Abū Kāmil Shujā ibn Aslam, Abu al-Qasim, and Ibn al-Haytham (including the Book of Optics).[10]
Alchemy and chemistry
Marcelin Berthelot translated some of Jabir's books under the fanciful titles Book of the Kingdom, Book of the Balances, and Book of Eastern Mercury. Several technical Arabic terms introduced by Jabir, such as alkali, have found their way into various European languages and have become part of scientific vocabulary.
The chemical and alchemical works of Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) were also translated into Latin around the 12th century.[13]
Astronomy and mathematics
Al-Khazini's Zij as-Sanjari (1115–1116) was translated into Greek by Gregory Choniades in the 13th century and was studied in the Byzantine Empire.[16] The astronomical corrections to the Ptolemaic model made by al-Battani and Averroes and the non-Ptolemaic models produced by Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma), Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (Tusi-couple) and Ibn al-Shatir were later adapted into the Copernican heliocentric model. Al-Kindi's (Alkindus) law of terrestrial gravity influenced Robert Hooke's law of celestial gravity, which in turn inspired Newton's law of universal gravitation. Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's Ta'rikh al-Hind and Kitab al-qanun al-Mas'udi were translated into Latin as Indica and Canon Mas'udicus respectively.
Fibonacci presented the first complete European account of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system from Arabic sources in his Liber Abaci (1202).[13] Al-Jayyani's The book of unknown arcs of a sphere, the first treatise on spherical trigonometry, had a "strong influence on European mathematics", and his "definition of ratios as numbers" and "method of solving a spherical triangle when all sides are unknown" are likely to have influenced Regiomontanus.[17]
Translations of the algebraic and geometrical works of Ibn al-Haytham, Omar Khayyám and Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī were later influential in the development of non-Euclidean geometry in Europe from the 17th century.[18][19]
European depiction of the Persian doctor al-Razi, in Gerard of Cremona's Receuil des traites de medecine (1250-1260). Gerard de Cremona translated numerous works by Arabic scholars, such as al-Razi's, but also those of Ibn Sina.[20][edit] Medicine
Ibn al-Nafis' Commentary on Compound Drugs was translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago (d. 1522), who may or may not have also translated (with out publication) Ibn al-Nafis' Commentary on Anatomy in the Canon of Avicenna, which first described pulmonary circulation and which might have had an influence on Michael Servetus and Realdo Colombo if they saw it.[25]
The theories of motion in Islamic physics developed by Avicenna and Avempace influenced Jean Buridan's theory of impetus, the ancestor of the inertia and momentum concepts, and the work of Galileo Galilei on classical mechanics.[39] The work of Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and al-Khazini on mechanics, particularly statics and dynamics, were also adopted and further developed in medieval Europe.[40]
Other works
Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan was translated into Latin by Edward Pococke in 1671 and into English by Simon Ockley in 1708 and became "one of the most important books that heralded the Scientific Revolution."[48] Ibn al-Baitar's Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada also had an influence on European botany after it was translated into Latin in 1758.[49]
Islamic techniques
Numerous new techniques in clothing, as well as new materials were also introduced: muslin, taffetas, satin, skirts. Trade mechanisms were also transmitted: tarifs, customs, bazars, magazins.
[edit] Institutions
According to a common theory on the origins of the troubadour, a composer of medieval lyric poetry, it may have had Arabic origins. Ezra Pound, in his Canto VIII, famously declared that William of Aquitaine "had brought the song up out of Spain / with the singers and veils…" referring to the troubadour song. In his study, Lévi-Provençal is said to have found four Arabo-Hispanic verses nearly or completely recopied in William's manuscript. According to historic sources, William VIII, the father of William, brought to Poitiers hundreds of Muslim prisoners.[69] Trend admitted that the troubadours derived their sense of form and even the subject matter of their poetry from the Andalusian Muslims.[70] The hypothesis that the troubadour tradition was created, more or less, by William after his experience of Moorish arts while fighting with the Reconquista in Spain was also championed by Ramón Menéndez Pidal in the early twentieth-century, but its origins go back to the Cinquecento and Giammaria Barbieri (died 1575) and Juan Andrés (died 1822). Meg Bogin, English translator of the trobairitz, held this hypothesis. Certainly "a body of song of comparable intensity, profanity and eroticism [existed] in Arabic from the second half of the 9th century onwards."[71]
Another theory on the origins of the Western solfège musical notation suggests that it may have also had Arabic origins. It has been argued that the solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of the Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal ("Separated Pearls") (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam). This origin theory was first proposed by Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum (1680) and then by Laborde in his Essai sur la Musique Ancienne et Moderne (1780).[72][73]
The Muslim Agricultural Revolution in particular diffused a large number of crops and technologies into medieval Europe, where farming was mostly restricted to wheat strains obtained much earlier via central Asia. Spain received what she in turn transmitted to the rest of Europe; many agricultural and fruit-growing processes, together with many new plants, fruit and vegetables. These new crops included sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes, aubergines, and saffron. Others, previously known, were further developed. Muslims also brought to that country lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas and sugar cane. Several were later exported from Spanish coastal areas to the Spanish colonies in the New World. Also transmitted via Muslim influence, a silk industry flourished, flax was cultivated and linen exported, and esparto grass, which grew wild in the more arid parts, was collected and turned into various articles.[74] Industries established for sugar plantations,[86] ceramics, distillation technologies, clocks, mechanical hydropowered and wind powered machinery, matting, pulp and paper, perfumery, silk, sugar, water, and the mining of minerals such as sulfur and ammonia, were transferred from the Islamic world to medieval Europe.[87] Factory installations and a variety of industrial mills (including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, steel mills[citation needed], sugar mills may have also been transmitted to medieval Europe,[88] along with the suction pump (which also incorporated a crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism) invented by al-Jazari,[89][90] noria and chain pumps for irrigation purposes.[91] These innovations made it possible for many industrial operations that were previously driven by manual labour to be driven by machinery in medieval Europe.[92]
[edit] Education
If a university is assumed to mean an institution of higher education and research which issues academic degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels, then the Jami'ah which appeared from the 9th century were the first examples of such an institution.[97][99] The University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco is thus recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 by Fatima al-Fihri.[100] However, the madrasah differed from the medieval university of Europe in several important respects, namely that the degree took the form of a license (ijazah) which "was signed in the name of the teacher, not of the madrasa".[101] In other words, "the authorization or licensing was done by each professor, not by a group or corporate body, much less by a disinterested or impersonal certifying body".[102] The first colleges and universities in Europe were nevertheless influenced in many ways by the madrasahs in Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily at the time, and in the Middle East during the Crusades.[99]
The origins of the doctorate dates back to the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifta' ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the Madh'hab legal schools. To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and ten or more years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses," and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose" which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of faqih (meaning "master of law"), mufti (meaning "professor of legal opinions") and mudarris (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into Latin as magister, professor and doctor respectively.[99] The term doctorate comes from the Latin docere, meaning "to teach", shortened from the full Latin title licentia docendi meaning "license to teach." This was translated from the Arabic term ijazat attadris, which means the same thing and was awarded to Islamic scholars who were qualified to teach. Similarly, the Latin term doctor, meaning "teacher", was translated from the Arabic term mudarris, which also means the same thing and was awarded to qualified Islamic teachers.[99] The Latin term baccalaureus may have also been transliterated from the equivalent Arabic qualification bi haqq al-riwaya ("the right to teach on the authority of another").[97]
According to Professor George Makdisi and Hugh Goddard, some of the terms and concepts now used in modern universities which have Islamic origins include "the fact that we still talk of professors holding the 'Chair' of their subject" being based on the "traditional Islamic pattern of teaching where the professor sits on a chair and the students sit around him", the term 'academic circles' being derived from the way in which Islamic students "sat in a circle around their professor", and terms such as "having 'fellows', 'reading' a subject, and obtaining 'degrees', can all be traced back" to the Islamic concepts of Ashab ("companions, as of the prophet Muhammad"), Qara'a ("reading aloud the Qur'an") and Ijazah ("license to teach") respectively. Makdisi has listed eighteen such parallels in terminology which can be traced back to their roots in Islamic education. Some of the practices now common in modern universities which Makdisi and Goddard trace back to an Islamic root include "practices such as delivering inaugural lectures, wearing academic robes, obtaining doctorates by defending a thesis, and even the idea of academic freedom are also modelled on Islamic custom." The Islamic scholarly system of fatwa and ijma, meaning opinion and consensus respectively, formed the basis of the "scholarly system the West has practised in university scholarship from the Middle Ages down to the present day."[99] According to Makdisi and Goddard, "the idea of academic freedom" in universities was "modelled on Islamic custom" as practiced in the medieval Madrasah system from the 9th century. Islamic influence was "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first delibrately-planned university" in Europe, the University of Naples Federico II founded by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor in 1224.[103]
Other legal scholars such as Monica Gaudiosi, Gamal Moursi Badr and A. Hudson have argued that the English trust and agency institutions in common law, which were introduced by Crusaders, may have been adapted from the Islamic Waqf and Hawala institutions they came across in the Middle East.[60][107][108] Dr. Paul Brand also notes parallels between the Waqf and the trusts used to establish Merton College by Walter de Merton, who had connections with the Knights Templar. Brand also points out, however, that the Knights Templar were primarily concerned with fighting the Muslims rather than learning from them, making it less likely that they had knowledge of Muslim legal institutions.[104]
Several legal institutions in civil law were also adapted from similar institutions in Islamic law and jurisprudence during the Middle Ages. For example, the Islamic Hawala institution influenced the development of the Avallo in Italian civil law and the Aval in French civil law.[109] The commenda limited partnership used in European civil law was also adapted from the Qirad and Mudaraba in Islamic law. The civil law conception of res judicata[98] and the transfer of debt, which was not permissible under Roman law but is practiced in modern civil law, may also have origins in Islamic law. The concept of an agency was also an "institution unknown to Roman law", where it was not possible for an individual to "conclude a binding contract on behalf of another as his agent."[citation needed]
Islamic law also introduced "two fundamental principles to the West, on which were to later stand the future structure of law: equity and good faith"[citation needed], which was a precursor to the concept of pacta sunt servanda in civil law and international law. Another influence of Islamic law on the civil law tradition was the presumption of innocence, which was introduced to Europe by Louis IX of France soon after he returned from Palestine during the Crusades. Islamic law was based on the presumption of innocence from its beginning, as declared by the caliph Umar in the 7th century.[110]
There is evidence that early Islamic international law influenced the development of European international law, through various routes such as the Crusades, Norman conquest of the Emirate of Sicily, and Reconquista of al-Andalus.[110] In particular, the Spanish jurist Francisco de Vitoria, and his successor Grotius, may have been influenced by Islamic international law through earlier Islamic-influenced writings such as the 1263 work Siete Partidas of Alfonso X, which was regarded as a "monument of legal science" in Europe at the time and was influenced by the Islamic legal treatise Villiyet written in Islamic Spain.[110][111]
A number of Islamic legal concepts on human rights were also adopted in European legal systems, including concepts such as the charitable trust, trusteeship of property, human dignity, dignity of labour[citation needed], condemnation of antisocial behavior, presumption of innocence, caring, women's rights, privacy, juristic personality, individual freedom, equality before the law, non-retroactivity, limited sovereignty, tolerance[citation needed]. Many of these concepts were adopted in medieval Europe through contacts with Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily, and through the Crusades and the Latin translations of the 12th century.[112] After Sultan al-Kamil defeated the Franks during the Crusades, Oliverus Scholasticus praised the Islamic laws of war, commenting on how al-Kamil supplied the defeated Frankish army with food:[113]
"Who could doubt that such goodness, friendship and charity come from God? Men whose parents, sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, had died in agony at our hands, whose lands we took, whom we drove naked from their homes, revived us with their own food when we were dying of hunger and showered us with kindness even when we were in their power."[113]
According to Janet Abu-Lughod:
The preferred specie for international transactions before the thirteenth century, in Europe as well as the Middle East and even India, were the gold coins struck by Byzantium and then Egypt. It was not until after the thirtheenth century that some Italian cities (Florence and Genoa) began to mint their own gold coins, but these were used to supplement rather than supplant the Middle Eastern coins already in circulation.[119]
[edit] Literature
A famous example of Arabic poetry and Persian poetry on romance (love) is Layla and Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a Latin version of Layli and Majnun to an extent.[124]
Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) was a pioneer of the philosophical novel. He wrote the first Arabic novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus), which told the story of Hayy, an autodidactic feral child, living in seclusion on a desert island, being the earliest example of a desert island story.[125][126] A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's Hayy ibn Yaqdhan first appeared in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, regarded as the first novel in English.[127][128][129][130] Philosophus Autodidactus also inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist.[131] The story also anticipated Rousseau's Emile: or, On Education in some ways[citation needed].
There were several elements of courtly love which developed in Arabic literature. The notions of "love for love's sake" and "exaltation of the beloved lady" have been traced back to Arabic literature of the 9th and 10th centuries. The notion of the "ennobling power" of love was developed in the early 11th century by the Persian psychologist and philosopher, Ibn Sina (known as "Avicenna" in Europe), in his treatise Risala fi'l-Ishq (Treatise on Love). The final element of courtly love, the concept of "love as desire never to be fulfilled", was at times implicit in Arabic poetry. These elements influenced the development of courtly love in European literature, in which all four elements of courtly love were present.[132]
Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, considered the greatest epic of Italian literature, derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on Islamic eschatology: the Hadith and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before[133] as Liber Scale Machometi, "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning Muhammad's ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of Ibn Arabi. The Moors also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from Morocco to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.[134]
[edit] Philosophy
Al-Ghazali also had an important influence on Christian medieval philosophers along with Jewish thinkers like Maimonides.[138] According to Margaret Smith, "There can be no doubt that Ghazali's works would be among the first to attract the attention of these European scholars" and "The greatest of these Christian writers who was influenced by Al-Ghazali was St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), who made a study of the Islamic writers and admitted his indebtedness to them. He studied at the University of Naples where the influence of Islamic literature and culture was predominant at the time."[139] René Descartes' ideas from his Discourse on the Method were also influenced by al-Ghazali, and Descartes' method of doubt was very much similar to al-Ghazali's work.[140]
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- ^ Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), p. 1-30.
- ^ "Partnership and Profit in Medieval Islam by Abraham L. Udovitch". http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0007-6805%28197223%2946%3A3%3C397%3APAPIMI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage.
- ^ Banaji, Jairus (2007). "Islam, the Mediterranean and the rise of capitalism". Journal Historical Materialism (Brill Publishers) 15: 47–74. doi:10.1163/156920607X171591.
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- ^ Labib, Subhi Y. (1969). "Capitalism in Medieval Islam". The Journal of Economic History 29: 79–96.
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- ^ a b c d e f g (Makdisi 1999)
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- ^ The Guinness Book Of Records, 1998, p. 242, ISBN 0-5535-7895-2
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- ^ Goddard, Hugh (2000), A History of Christian-Muslim Relations, Edinburgh University Press, p. 100, ISBN 074861009X, OCLC 237514956
- ^ a b Mukul Devichand (24 September 2008). "Is English law related to Muslim law?". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7631388.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
- ^ Hussain, Jamila (2001), "Book Review: The Justice of Islam by Lawrence Rosen", Melbourne University Law Review 30
- ^ El-Gamal, Mahmoud A. (2006), Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice, Cambridge University Press, p. 16, ISBN 0521864143, OCLC 173610010
- ^ Gaudiosi, Monica M. (April 1988), "The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College", University of Pennsylvania Law Review 136 (4): 1231–1261
- ^ Hudson, A. (2003), Equity and Trusts (3rd ed.), London: Cavendish Publishing, p. 32, ISBN 1-85941-729-9
- ^ Badr, Gamal Moursi (Spring, 1978), "Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems", The American Journal of Comparative Law 26 (2 [Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24–25, 1977]): 187–198 [196–8], doi:10.2307/839667
- ^ a b c Boisard, Marcel A. (July 1980), "On the Probable Influence of Islam on Western Public and International Law", International Journal of Middle East Studies 11 (4): 429–50
- ^ Weeramantry, Judge Christopher G. (1997), Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9041102418, OCLC 219748178
- ^ Judge Weeramantry, Christopher G. (1997), Justice Without Frontiers, Brill Publishers, pp. 129–31, ISBN 9041102418, OCLC 219748178
- ^ a b Judge Weeramantry, Christopher G. (1997), Justice Without Frontiers, Brill Publishers, pp. 136–7, ISBN 9041102418, OCLC 219748178
- ^ British Museum
- ^ Blanchard, Ian Mining, Metallurgy and Minting in the Middle Ages Franz Steiner Verlag, 2001 ISBN 9783515079587 [1], p.196
- ^ British Museum, Islamic Art room
- ^ Cardini, Franco Europe and Islam Blackwell Publishing, 2001 ISBN 9780631226376 [2], p.26
- ^ Grierson, Philip Medieval European Coinage Cambridge University Press, 1998 ISBN 9780521582315 [3], p.3
- ^ Janet Abu-Lughod Before European Hegemony, The World System A.D. 1250-1350, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195067746 p.15
- ^ a b John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arabian fantasy", p 51 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
- ^ L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy, p 10 ISBN 0-87054-076-9
- ^ a b John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Arabian fantasy", p 52 ISBN 0-312-19869-8
- ^ James Thurber, "The Wizard of Chitenango", p 64 Fantasists on Fantasy edited by Robert H. Boyer and Kenneth J. Zahorski, ISBN 0-380-86553-X
- ^ "Nizami: Layla and Majnun – English Version by Paul Smith". http://www.shirazbooks.com/ebook1.html.
- ^ Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
- ^ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 95-101, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame.[4]
- ^ Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
- ^ Cyril Glasse (2001), New Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0759101906.
- ^ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [369].
- ^ a b Martin Wainwright, Desert island scripts, The Guardian, 22 March 2003.
- ^ a b G. J. Toomer (1996), Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 222, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198202911.
- ^ G. E. von Grunebaum (1952), "Avicenna's Risâla fî 'l-'išq and Courtly Love", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 11 (4): 233-8 [233-4].
- ^ I. Heullant-Donat and M.-A. Polo de Beaulieu, "Histoire d'une traduction," in Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet, Latin edition and French translation by Gisèle Besson and Michèle Brossard-Dandré, Collection Lettres Gothiques, Le Livre de Poche, 1991, p. 22 with note 37.
- ^ Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor, Sam Wanamaker Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare's Globe Theatre (cf. Mayor of London (2006), Muslims in London, pp. 14-15, Greater London Authority)
- ^ a b Majid Fakhry (2001). Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851682694.
- ^ Corbin (1993), p.174
- ^ Irwin, Jones (Autumn 2002), "Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam", The Philosopher LXXXX (2)
- ^ Ormsby, Eric. "Averroes (Ibn Rushd): His Life, Works and Influence". H-Net Review. See also: "The Influence of Islamic Thought on Maimonides". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/maimonides-islamic/. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
- ^ Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazali: The Mystic (London 1944)
- ^ Najm, Sami M. (July-October 1966), "The Place and Function of Doubt in the Philosophies of Descartes and Al-Ghazali", Philosophy East and West 16 (3-4): 133–41, doi:10.2307/1397536
- ^ "Inventions et decouvertes au Moyen-Age", Samuel Sadaune, p.112
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-262, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598.
- ^ Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān, pp. 38-46, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004093001.
- ^ Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufayl and Léon Gauthier (1981), Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan, p. 5, Editions de la Méditerranée.[5]
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-239, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598.
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 227, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598.
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 247, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598.
- ^ Makdisi, George (April-June 1989), "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West", Journal of the American Oriental Society 109 (2): 175–182, doi:10.2307/604423
- ^ Judge Weeramantry, Christopher G. (1997), Justice Without Frontiers, Brill Publishers, pp. 8, 135, 139–40, ISBN 9041102418, OCLC 219748178
- ^ Lebedel, p.113
- Farmer, Henry George (1988), Historical facts for the Arabian Musical Influence, Ayer Publishing, ISBN 040508496X, OCLC 220811631
- Lebedel, Claude (2006), Les Croisades, origines et conséquences, Editions Ouest-France, ISBN 2737341361, OCLC 181885553
- Lewis, Bernard (1993), Les Arabes dans l'histoire, Flammarion, ISBN 2080813625, OCLC 36229500
- Makdisi, John A. (June 1999), "The Islamic Origins of the Common Law", North Carolina Law Review 77 (5): 1635–1739
- Roux, Jean-Paul (1985), Les explorateurs au Moyen-Age, Hachette, ISBN 2012793398


text:
Former FIFA official calls for Africa to get serious about ending match fixing in soccer
DOHA, Qatar – A former FIFA official says that Africa needs to do much more to combat match fixing, including setting up a regional body to investigate credible allegations if it wants to restore the faith of soccer fans.
Chris Eaton, a former security chief for soccer's governing body, tells The Associated Press that a new body to fight fixing should be made up of police across Africa, sporting bodies and gambling organizations. He said it would need appropriate funding both from inside and outside Africa and should go beyond "writing reports" to produce credible investigations.
Eaton praises police in Africa but says governments on the continent don't seem serious about combating the problem.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Evergreen's "Gateways" Program Receives Major Funding
Improving Health and Success of Young Men of Color
Princeton, NJ, - The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF) today announced its support of The Evergreen State College "Gateways for Incarcerated Youth" program through Forward Promise, the Foundation's $9.5 million initiative to improve the health and success of boys and young men of color. Gateways will receive approximately $500,000 over 30 months to support its programs that bring college students to juvenile institutions to work as peer mentors, tutors, and co-learners with incarcerated youth.
Gateways for Incarcerated Youth, based at Evergreen's Center for Community Based Learning and Action, was one of 10 organizations selected for their innovative community-based programs that strengthen health, education, and employment outcomes for middle school- and high school-aged boys and young men of color.
"Young men of color are the future of our communities. Gateways works to support college access for incarcerated youth and provide peer learning for campus-based student mentors in a community setting," said Evergreen faculty member Chico Herbison.
"We are excited to be part of the community of Forward Promise grantees," said grant project director Ellen Shortt Sanchez. "This community is developing innovative models across the country that can put all of our young people on a path to a healthy and successful adulthood."
RWJF launched Forward Promise in 2012 to address the fact that boys and young men of color are more likely to grow up in poverty, live in unsafe neighborhoods, and attend schools that lack the basic resources and supports that kids need in order to thrive. In addition, actions that might be treated as youthful indiscretions by other young men often are judged more severely and result in harsher punishments that have lasting consequences.
Statistics reflect these troubling trends: 44 percent of Latino males and 46 percent of African American males do not have a high school diploma, and Latino youth are two times more likely and African-American youth are five times more likely to be involved with the juvenile justice system than their white counterparts.
"So much of our health is shaped by forces beyond the doctor's office that are rooted in where we live, learn, work, and play. Far too many boys and young men of color become disconnected from school and work opportunities, undermining their ability to live healthy lives and strengthen their communities," said Maisha Simmons, RWJF program officer. "This innovative model is helping young men overcome significant challenges, and we look forward to working with Gateways for Incarcerated Youth at The Evergreen State College to create a new future of hope for America's young men of color."
RWJF is investing in best practices and successful models around the nation that can be strengthened and spread to help even more boys and young men of color. Gateways, together with the other grantees supported through RWJF's Forward Promise initiative, seeks to improve outcomes for African-American, Latino, Asian-Pacific Islander, and/or Native American boys and young men in one or more of the following areas: 1) school discipline approaches that do not push students out of school; 2) early interventions that focus on dropout prevention and increasing middle school retention and high school graduation rates; 3) mental health solutions tailored to young men who have been exposed to violence and trauma; and 4) career-training programs that address both education and employment to ensure that youth are college- and career-ready.
Gateways offers incarcerated youth the chance to earn college credit while participating in faculty-led Evergreen seminar classes held at the juvenile institution and enlists college students as peer mentors and co-learners in academic work. In partnership with Washington state's Green Hill School and Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration, this grant will provide more youth with educational access and support.


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Peyton Manning could use break after shaky performances against Colts, Redskins
DENVERPeyton Manning is fallible.
The Denver Broncos' 37-year-old quarterback might be the NFL's midseason MVP and has his team at 7-1 heading into its bye, but the last few weeks have shown he won't be leading the Broncos to the Super Bowl by himself.
Manning's body is tired, and his ankles are achy – bad enough that he had to sit out of a practice last week for the first time since joining the Broncos last year. And lately, Manning has been sloppy, the victim of poor pass protection and a handful of wobbly passes.
In Sunday's 45-21 win against the Washington Redskins, Manning was responsible for all four of the Broncos' turnovers – a rare trio of interceptions, one that was returned for a touchdown, and a fumble that led directly to another Washington touchdown.
It would be fair to say that the Redskins and their quarterback, Robert Griffin III, really only scored seven of those points on their own, and Manning handed them the rest.
The Broncos defense, for once, was able to bail out Manning – instead of the reverse, which had so often been the case through the first half of the season. Denver's defense hit Washington's quarterbacks 13 times, sacked Griffin three times and knocked him from the game late in the fourth quarter. Griffin was erratic and repeatedly missed open receivers as he completed only 50 percent of his passes for 132 yards. He threw a pair of interceptions, and his backup, Kirk Cousins, threw two more in the game's final minutes.
"There's a lot of missed opportunities," Washington coach Mike Shanahan said after being asked to assess Griffin's day as a passer.
Had it not been for Griffin's struggles and Denver's defensive resurgence (welcome back, Von Miller), Manning would be to blame for a massive loss. Instead, Manning and his teammates could shrug off all the errors.
"The offense had really … we really put our team in a tough spot," Manning said. "You do feel, I don't think frustrated is the word, I think determined is the word, to overcome those mistakes. And you don't do it by pressing and forcing things, you do it by going about your business and doing your job."
The rest of Manning's afternoon against Washington was expected. The four touchdown passes, the 354 passing yards – the type of numbers that would be a career-best day for most NFL quarterbacks have become routine for Manning. He now has thrown for 2,919 yards this season, more than any other player through eight games, and 29 touchdowns, putting him on pace to break Tom Brady's single-season record of 50.
But none of that will be possible without some rest and a bye week that couldn't be more perfectly timed.
Manning the workaholic could be tempted to push himself through the NFL-mandated four days off that he and his teammates will be granted starting on Thursday. But this time Manning might actually take a break.
His body needs it.
Manning endured multiple hard hits two weeks ago in a win against Jacksonville and was taken down 10 times, including four sacks, last week in Indianapolis. He didn't show up on the Broncos' injury report until Wednesday, the day he spent merely watching practice. He was back, full participation, for the rest of the week and showed little effect of any lingering pain Sunday afternoon.
Manning was sacked twice by the Redskins and credited with four rushing attempts for negative three yards.
"I know there's always a lot of speculation when I'm injured. So I'm going to go on the injury report starting now under 'body' and keep me there all season. That's what I'm going to go with," Manning deadpanned Sunday evening.
A short time after his post-game press conference ended, Manning emerged from the west tunnel surrounded by a host of Mannings – his father, Archie, and mother, Olivia. His wife, Ashley, and the couple's twin toddlers. His older brother, Cooper, and some nephews and a niece.
The Mannings posed for pictures, and the bigger kids ran with Cooper Manning into the end zone. Marshall, Manning's two-year-old, clung to his father, before Manning waved goodbye and headed off with his parents.
Time to recharge and reassess.
"I think I'll do it and be good to go," Manning said.


text:
U S v. ST LOUIS & M V TRANSP CO(1902)
On October 17, 1894, the St. Louis & Mississippi Valley Transportation Company filed in the court of claims a suit by way of petition against the United States, in pursuance of the provisions of the act of August 3, 1894, alleging that said company was a corporation of the state of Missouri, and the owner [184 U.S. 247, 248] of the towboat Future City, her barges in tow and freight earning; that owing to a collision on May 5, 1888, in the Mississippi river between said steam towboat and barges and war vessels of the United States, several of the barges, with their cargoes and contents, were sunk and wholly lost, and the freight earnings of such barges for the voyage in progress were lost, or not earned and paid to the claimant; and that said collision and the loss and injury resulting therefrom were solely and directly the result of negligence on the part of those in charge of the said vessels of war; and claimed damages in the sum of $24,308.
The United States appeared in said court of claims by its Attorney General, and filed an answer traversing and denying the allegations of the claimant's petition. The case was so proceeded in that on March 21, 1898, the court found for the claimant, and adjudged and decreed that the St. Louis & Mississippi Valley Transportation Company should have and recover of and from the United States the sum of $19,808.85.
On March 21, 1898, the court filed findings of fact and conclusion of law. Subsequently, to wit, on May 14, 1900, the court filed an order withdrawing its former findings of fact, and filed new and amended findings in lieu thereof.
On May 21, 1900, an appeal was prayed for and allowed to this court.
Messrs. George H. Gorman and L. A. Pradt for appellant.
Messrs. James H. Hayden and Jos. K. McCammon for appellee.
Mr. Justice Shiras delivered the opinion of the court:
After the findings of fact, conclusions of law, and judgment were filed by the court of claims on March 21, 1898, two successive motions for a new trial were made on behalf of the defendant. The result of these motions was that on May 14, [184 U.S. 247, 249] 1900, the court filed an order withdrawing its former findings of fact, and filed new and amended findings and opinion; and it is now contended that by such action in amending its findings of fact and modifying its opinion the court must be deemed to have set aside its judgment. But as the amendments of the findings were made at the request of the defendant in connection with the motions for a new trial, we think that the existing conclusions of law and judgment were not thereby disturbed. Obviously the changes or modifications in the findings, at the instance of the defendant, were intended by the court to enable the case of the defendant to be most advantageously presented for review by the court below on the motions for a new trial, and by this court on appeal. The motions for a new trial having been overruled, the judgment rendered on March 21, 1898, remained as the judgment of the court of claims, and that is the judgment from which the defendant appealed, and which is now before us for review. By taking such appeal, the defendant must be deemed to have admitted the existence and finality of the judgment. Nor is it perceived that the defendant has any reason to complain that the findings, on which the conclusions of law and the judgment were based, were amended at its instance. So far as the amendments were at all material, they were, in some instances. favorable to the case of the defendant, and, at all events, must be regarded as a proper exercise of authority by the trial court in making its findings conform to the truth, while its record had not passed out of its control by the allowance of an appeal.
The material facts found by the court of claims were as follows: The Future City and the barges comprising her two were all staunch, sound, and seaworthy, and were fully and adequately manned, officered, and equipped, and the Future City was ample, powerful, and able to handle her tow under any and all circumstances arising in the navigation of the Mississippi river. On May 7, 1888, the Future City with her tow was descending the river and approaching the port of New Orleans, with the intention of making a landing, and while so descending the river the Future City followed the proper and customary course of navigation for descending towboats with tows. A towboat [184 U.S. 247, 250] with a tow bound for the port of New Orleans, and pursuing the proper and customary course for such vessels, cannot make out and see vessels and other objects lying in that portion of the river below a point of land at Celeste street and between the western shore and the middle of the stream, because that point and the buildings standing upon it, and the shipping moored along its banks, intervene and completely shut off the view in that direction.
Upon rounding the point of land at Celeste street the Future City for the first time sighted five United States vessels, to wit, the Atlanta, Galena, Ossipee, Yantic, and Richmond, lying at anchor below the said point of land and between the western bank of the river and the middle of the stream. The Future City could not have made out and discovered the United States vessels before, because the said point of land intervened and, with the buildings upon it and the shipping moored along its banks, completely shut off the view in the direction of the portion of the river where those vessels lay at anchor. As soon as she sighted and discovered the United States vessels lying at anchor in her usual and proper course, the Future City backed under a full head, working full stroke, with all the power she had, thus adopting the only course feasible and proper in the circumstances, or in anywise calculated to prevent her from colliding with the United States vessels. On account of the insufficiency of time and space after she discovered the United States vessels, and notwithstanding that she made every possible effort to keep clear of the United States vessels, and, in order that her tow might extend out into the river as short a distance as its length would permit, backed her stern as close to the New Orleans shore as it was in anywise possible without coming into collision with the shipping moored therealong, and notwithstanding that she was skilfully and properly handled and managed by her officers and crew, the Future City was unable, on account of the short distance intervening, either to check her headway or to straighten up, and still being in a flanking position, she and her tow were carried by her headway and the current of the river, and barge 73, the leading barge of her tow on the port side, came into collision with the Atlanta, [184 U.S. 247, 251] striking against the ram of that vessel broadside on with great force. As a result of this collision barge 73 was cut down, and sank, with all her cargo.
Thereafter, notwithstanding that the Future City continued to pursue the only course feasible and proper in the circumstances and in anywise calculated to avoid further collisions with other of the United States vessels, and continued to back with all her power, and notwithstanding that she was skilfully managed and handled by her officers and crew, yet her stern having been swung slightly down stream by the collision of barge 73 with the Atlanta, she was unable to check her headway or straighten up, and was carried by her headway and the currents of the river, and barge 68, the leading barge on the starboard side, collided with the Galena, and was sunk with all her cargo. Notwithstanding that the Future City was skilfully and properly handled, and that she and her officers and crew did their utmost to control her remaining barges and to prevent further collisions between them and the United States vessels, barge 50 broke loose and was carried by the current, and came into collision with the Richmond, and thereby sustained great damage and the loss of part of its cargo.
The United States vessels, as they lay at anchor on May 7, 1888, were ranged in an irregular line along the western bank of the river, which is the city side, their distances from said bank varying from 500 to 700 feet. The Atlanta was anchored highest up stream, and was about 150 feet below the Richard street ferry, and the entire fleet extended down the river for the distance of about 1 mile-the Richmond lying off and about opposite the barge landing. At Celeste street the shore extends into the river to a sharp point, and the river bends from that point to the north. Just below, the width of the stream is about 1,800 feet. The location of the Atlanta, 600 feet, or a little less, from the New Orleans shore, put that vessel in the track of tows entering the harbor from above. It was in the pathway of a tow of even less length than the plaintiff's, at that particular place engaged in flanking down to the landing. The upper vessel was at the entrance to the harbor, and the fleet was located in the way of all vessels descending and seek- [184 U.S. 247, 252] ing to land in the neighborhood of the barge landing. When the United States vessels were first sighted or discovered by the Future City the Atlanta was distant from her about 150 yards.
The positions occupied by the United States vessels were directly in the track of towboats with tows descending the Mississippi river bound for the port of New Orleans, and pursuing their proper and customary course of navigation, and were thus directly in the track of course of which the Future City and her tow were pursuing when she first sighted and discovered them. The positions thus occupied by the United States vessels were improper and unusual, by reason of their being higher up stream, too short a distance below the point of land at Celeste street, not at the bank, but nearer to the New Orleans or western shore in the river, than the proper, usual, and customary anchorage grounds for such or other vessels, or than vessels had ever before been known to occupy while at anchor. By reason of their being anchored so high up the river such short distances below the point of land at Celeste street and so close to the New Orleans shore, and by reason of their swinging at anchor, they rendered the navigation of the river by towboats with tows, pursuing their usual and customary course, hazardous and extremely dangerous. On May 7, 1888, and prior thereto, there was an abundance of good and suitable anchorage ground lower down the river and nearer its eastern or Algiers shore, where it was usual, customary, and proper for vessels to lie at anchor while at the port of New Orleans, and where the United States vessels could have lain at anchor in perfect safety and without rendering the navigation of the river at the port of New Orleans either hazardous or dangerous for any vessels pursuing their usual, proper, and customary courses. Good holding ground for vessels like the men-of-war to safely anchor at all times existed within 20 feet of the Algiers shore. The United States vessels came to anchor in their said positions on or about May 5, 1888, while the Future City, with her tow, was descending the Mississippi river on her voyage from St. Louis, and none of her officers or crew had notice or knowledge of their presence at New Orleans, or of their whereabouts, or of the manner in which they were anchored, until [184 U.S. 247, 253] they were sighted and discovered after the Future City had rounded the point of land at Celeste street. There is a clear and well-defined custom at New Orleans respecting the course and practice of tows to land. Descending tows come close to the shore on the city side of the river. If they did not pursue this course descending tows would come down in the current so far out that the motive power could not back the tow to land. One of the reasons for coming in close to the shore is to catch the slack near vessels moored to the shore.
Under the laws of the state of Louisiana there existed, at the time of this occurrence, a board of five harbor masters, who were charged with the duty of 'regulating and stationing all vessels in the stream of the river Mississippi, within the limits of the port of New Orleans, and at the levees thereof.' Among the rules and regulations adopted by the board, and at that time in force, was one prescribing that 'the harbor masters have authority by law to regulate, moor, and station all seagoing or coasting vessels at the levee, and to remove them from time to time to make room for others, and of the degree of accommodation which one vessel shall afford another the harbor master is constituted sole judge;' and another which provides that 'all vessels arriving at this port shall notify the harbor master of the district or leave word at the central office, where the place of landing will be designated; otherwise they will be removed at the expense of the vessel;' and another which declares that 'masters of vessels failing to comply with the rules will be held responsible for all damages in consequence, besides laying themselves liable under the law.'
Upon the arrival of these United States vessels in May it does not appear that the harbor master was notified of the fact, nor was word left at the central office that the vessels had arrived. The harbor master exercised no personal supervision over the matter of the anchorage of the fleet, and was without knowledge of the places taken in the river by the said war vessels.
The court of claims further found, in its twenty-fourth finding, that 'the said collisions were the result of negligence on the part of the officers in command of the United States ves- [184 U.S. 247, 254] sels in bringing them to anchor in improper and unusual positions, and in causing them to be anchored on swinging chains, as aforesaid.'
A lengthy discussion is made in the briefs of the respective counsel as to the nature of this finding. Is it a finding of the ultimate fact in the case, or is it merely a conclusion of law based on the facts previously found?
It is said, on the one hand, that, by the express terms of the act of Congress authorizing this suit to be brought, no judgment shall be rendered against the government unless it shall affirmatively appear, from the evidence adduced, that such collision was the result of negligence on the part of the officers in command of said vessels of war, and that the court of claims, having affirmatively found that the collisions were the result of negligence on the part of the officers in command of the United States vessels, such finding is a conclusion of fact, which conclusively disposes of the case, and which, so far as the right to recover is concerned, leaves no question of law to be passed upon by this court. On the other hand, it is claimed that negligence is not a fact which is the subject of direct proof, but an inference from facts put in evidence, and that, hence, this court can determine, from the facts otherwise found, whether the collision was the result of negligence on the part of the officers in command of the vessels.
We do not think it necessary to weigh this question in a very delicate balance, as we are of opinion that, even if the government's contention in that particular is sound, yet the evidence adduced, as it appears in the facts found, was sufficient to warrant the court below in holding that it affirmatively appeared that the collision was the result of the negligence of the officers in command of the vessels.
Undoubtedly, by entering the port of New Orleans, intending to anchor and remain there, in total disregard of the usages and regulations of the port, the officers in command of the vessels were negligent. Ports like those of New Orleans and New York, which are frequented, not merely by seagoing vessels, but by numerous vessels and barges engaged in commerce, of [184 U.S. 247, 255] rivers which enter and form part of the harbors, require regulations suited to the local exigencies.
There was also culpable negligence in anchoring in an unusual and improper position.
The treatment of the question of negligence on the part of those in command of the government's vessels was so full and satisfactory by the court below that we think it sufficient to refer to its opinion, reported in 33 Ct. Cl. 251.
The dissent on the part of Peelle, J., did not arise out of any [184 U.S. 247, 256] view that the United States officers had not been negligent, but was based on the opinion of the dissenting justice that negligence on the part of the plaintiff had contributed to the accident.
Adverting to that aspect of the case, we think that, upon the findings made, which of course control us, the plaintiff was not chargeable with contributory negligence. The findings show that the Future City entered the harbor and manoeuvered for landing, in the manner customary for vessels of her class; that she had no reason to expect to find vessels at anchor, where none had ever been known to anchor before, on the city side of the river and close under the point at Celeste street, and that her management, when she encountered the exigency, was skilful and proper.
The court of claims further found that the damages caused to the plaintiff, as a result of the collisions, amounted to the sum of $19,808. 85.
It is contended on behalf of the government that, even if the collision was the result of negligence on the part of the officers in command of said vessels of war, and even if, on the facts found, the plaintiff was properly exonerated from the charge of contributory negligence, yet that the judgment of the court below was erroneous in including the loss and damages caused to barge 68.
This contention is based on an alleged difference between the findings of fact filed on March 21, 1898, and those filed on May 14, 1900, whereby, it is claimed, that the facts that were found in the first finding, and upon which the liability of the government for barge 68 was based, were eliminated, and hence there was no foundation left for the judgment in that respect. This record doesnot disclose to us the first finding, and, of course, we can only consider the findings as amended and filed on May 14, 1900. But, even conceding that the discrepancies pointed out exist, yet we think that the findings actually and finally made furnish sufficient support for the judgment in the particular complained of. Finding sixteen is explicit, that, 'notwithstanding the Future City, after the collision with the Atlanta, continued to pursue the only course feasible and proper [184 U.S. 247, 257] in the circumstances, and in anywise calculated to avoid further collision with other of the United States vessels, and continued to back with all her power, and notwithstanding that she was skilfully and properly handled and managed by her officers and crew, yet her stern having been swung slightly down stream by the collision of barge 73 with the Atlanta, she was unable to check her headway or straighten up, and was carried by her headway and the currents of the river, and went down toward the Galena, which was lying about 400 feet astern of the Atlanta and closer to the New Orleans shore than the latter. In the collision between barge 68 and the Galena the lines and fastenings of the said tow and the rigging of the Future City were parted or greatly damaged, and her tow was broken up and the lead barge (68), the barge on the starboard side, struck the Galena and was sunk, with all cargo aboard, and the barge and her freight earnings became a total less.'
Inasmuch as the court found that everything that was possible to avert further collisions after the collision with the Atlanta was done by the Future City, it, in effect and indeed in terms, found that the loss of the three barges occasioned by collision with the Atlanta, the Galena, and the Richmond, were occasioned by negligence of the officers in command of the said United States vessels, in bringing them to anchor in improper and unusual positions, and in causing them to be anchored on swinging chains.
The judgment of the Court of Claims is affirmed.


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Were any wealthy philanthropist to consult us as to the disposal of his millions with a view to ensure the greatest possible advantages to the greatest possible number, we should unhesitatingly recommend him to undertake the publication of a Chinese newspaper, to be sold at a merely nominal figure per copy. Under skilled foreign guidance, and with the total exclusion of religious topics, more would be effected in a few years for the real happiness of China and its ultimate conversion to western civilisation, than the most hopeful enthusiast could venture to predict. The _Shun-pao_, edited in Shanghai by Mr Ernest Major, is doing an incredible amount of good in so far as its influence extends; but the daily issue of this widely-circulated paper amounts only to about four thousand copies, or one to every hundred thousand natives! Missionary publications are absolutely useless, as they have a very limited sale beyond the circle of converts to the faith; but a _colporteur_ of religious books informed us the other day that he was continually being asked for the _Shun-pao_. Now the _Shun-pao_ owes its success so far to the fact that it is a pure money speculation, and therefore an undertaking intelligible enough to all Chinamen. Not only are its columns closed to anything like proselytising articles, but they are open from time to time to such tit-bits of the miraculous as are calculated to tickle the native palate, and swell the number of its subscribers. Therefore, to avert suspicion, it would be necessary to make a charge, however small, while at the same time such bogy paragraphs as occasionally appear in the columns of the _Shun-pao_ might be altogether omitted.
Our attention was called to this matter by a charming description in the _Shun-pao_ of a late balloon ascent from Calais, which was so nearly attended with fatal results. Written in a singularly easy style, and going quite enough into detail on the subject of balloons generally to give an instructive flavour to its remarks, this article struck us as being the identical kind of "light science for leisure hours" so much needed by the Chinese; and it compared most favourably with a somewhat heavy disquisition on aeronautic topics which appeared some time back in the _Peking Magazine_, albeit the latter was accompanied by an elaborate woodcut of a balloon under way. There is so much that is wonderful in the healthy regions of fact which might with mutual advantage be imparted to a reading people like the Chinese, that it is quite unnecessary to descend to the gross, and too often indecent, absurdities of fiction. Much indeed that is not actually marvellous might be put into language which would rivet the attention of Chinese readers. The most elementary knowledge, according to our standard, is almost always new, even to the profoundest scholar in native literature: the ignorance of the educated classes is something appalling. On the other hand, all who have read their _Shun-pao_ with regularity, even for a few months, are comparatively enlightened. We heard the other day of a Tao-t'ai who was always meeting the phrase "International Law" in the above paper, and his curiosity at length prompted him to make inquiries, and finally to purchase a copy of Dr Martin's translation of "Wheaton." He subsequently complained bitterly that much of it was utterly unintelligible; and judging from our own limited experience of the translation, we think His Excellency's objection not altogether groundless.
Of the domestic life of foreigners, the Chinese, with the exception of a few servants, know absolutely nothing; and equally little of foreign manners, customs, or etiquette. We were acquainted with one healthy Briton who was popularly supposed by the natives with whom he was thrown in contact to eat a whole leg of mutton every day for dinner; and a high native functionary, complaining one day of some tipsy sailors who had been rioting on shore, observed that "he knew foreigners always got drunk on Sundays, and had the offence been committed on that day he would have taken no notice of it; but," &c., &c. They have vague notions that filial piety is not considered a virtue in the West, and look upon our system of contracting marriages as objectionable in the extreme. They think foreigners carry whips and sticks only for purposes of assault, and we met a man the other day who had been wearing a watch for years, but was in the habit of never winding it up till it had run down. This we afterwards found out to be quite a common custom among the Chinese, it being generally believed that a watch cannot be wound up whilst going; consequently, many Chinamen keep two always in use, and it is worth noticing that watches in China are almost invariably sold in pairs. The term "foreign devil" is less frequently heard than formerly, and sometimes only for the want of a better phrase. Mr Alabaster, in one of his journeys in the interior, was politely addressed by the villagers as _His Excellency the Devil_. The Chinese settlers in Formosa call themselves "foreign men," but they call us "foreign things;" for, they argue, if we called you foreign men, what should we call ourselves? The _Shun-pao_ deserves much credit for its unvarying use of _western_ instead of _outside_ nations when speaking of foreign powers, but the belief is still very prevalent that we all come from a number of small islands scattered round the coast of one great centre, the Middle Kingdom.
And so we might go on multiplying _ad nauseam_ instances of Chinese ignorance in trivial matters which an ably-conducted journal has it in its power to dispel. We are so dissimilar from the Chinese in our ways of life, and so unlike them in dress and facial appearance, that it is only many years of commercial intercourse on the present familiar footing which will cause them to regard us as anything but the barbarians they call us. Red hair and blue eyes may make up what Baron Hubner would euphemistically describe as the "beau type d'un gentleman anglais," but when worn with a funny-shaped hat, a short coat, tight trousers, and a Penang lawyer, the picture produced on the retina of a Chinese mind is unmistakably that of a "foreign devil."
Chinese Sketches >


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GROTON — Selectmen are moving forward with the idea to convert the century-old Prescott School building into a downtown hotel by launching a search for developers.
The town has recently issued a request for proposals for the former Prescott School building on Main Street. Interested parties may propose to lease or buy the property from the town and submit detailed plans by the May 17 deadline. Selectmen are expected to award a contract to a winning bidder, contingent upon the authorization by court to use the property for a hospitality business.
According to Selectman Peter Cunningham, the town had an agreement with a family that donated the land nearly a century ago to use it for educational purposes only. That changed some years ago after Town Meeting agreed to petition the court to revise the agreement to include some business uses of the property. Because the expanded uses did not include hospitality businesses, selectmen will be proposing to petition the court again to further revise the original agreement when Town Meeting is held on April 11.
The idea to turn the circa-1927 building into an inn came from the Prescott School Reuse Committee. The task force that has analyzed various reuse scenario said last year that a 30-room inn could generate an estimated annual revenue of $1 million, or $52,000 in taxes for the town — far more than the $115,000 annual income and $32,000 in tax revenue projected from a commercial complex, which has been a popular redevelopment option among many residents.
Committee Chairman Halsey Platt has said Groton could use a place to accommodate its visitors — including those at Lawrence Academy and Groton School — after last summer's fire destroyed Groton Inn in the downtown. Selectmen said the committee received positive feedback to its presentation of the idea at Fall Town Meeting last October.
Reached by phone Friday, all five selectmen said they did not know the appraised value of the school property.
"At the end of the day, appraisal is (only) a reference point," Selectman Peter Cunningham said, adding that market and sale prices of comparable properties will decide the value of Prescott School. All selectmen also stressed that the monetary value of the property is just one of many factors they will look at when selecting a winning bidder.
The request for proposal calls for architectural designs that are harmonious with the surroundings and plans that have positive impacts on the community.
Selectman Anna Eliot, who serves on the Prescott School Reuse Committee, said the board hopes to select a proposal that is "most advantageous" to the town.
Selectman Stuart Schulman said he has not heard any developer has approached the town yet. Selectman Joshua Degen, for one, said redeveloping the school into a retail/office condo complex would prove to be more successful, although he is willing to go along with the committee's recommendation to seek developers to turning it into an inn.
Nonetheless, selectmen remain hopeful that the idea will yield good results. Selectman Jack Petropoulos said the committee has done an exhaustive analysis of reuse scenarios. Petropoulos and Eliot said the inn option presents a lot of potentials.
Town Meeting will start Thursday at 7 p.m. at Groton-Dunstable Regional Middle School.


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Monkey Bounce
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By Riot Points Generator, June 28, 2013 @ 8:52 pm
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My research interests originate in parallel backgrounds of measurement intensive basic research in physical science, commercial analytical instrument development, application of computers to measurement, diagnosis, and control, and computer modeling and design of measurement and perception systems. My research in robotics has focused on the design and integration of sensing devices, measurement and control systems, and knowledge based approaches to interpretation and utilization of data. Past projects have addressed sensors and algorithms for biotechnology process control, interferogram based fiberglass forming control, tactile sensor based manipulator control, development semiconductor devices that simulate the olfactory sense, and detection and analysis of electric power transmission system faults using expert systems. Current and future research directions are illustrated by the following project capsules. Their unifying theme is making "difficult measurements in difficult environments", seeking new ways to formulate and execute control decisions using incomplete, noisy, ambiguous and contradictory measurements.
Mobile Robots for Aging Aircraft Inspection. With each takeoff and landing, the skin of a pressurized airplane expands and contracts, causing cracks around the rivet heads. Load induced stresses cause cracks deep in structural members, engine components, etc. Weather and the environment lead to dangerous weakening of bonds and structures by corrosion. Present inspection procedures to find these flaws are about 10% electronically instrumented, primarily using hand-held eddy current sensors, and about 90% visual, aided only by off-the-shelf magnifiers and flashlights. We have two projects in which we are studying the four key issues in the application of mobile robots to aiding and perhaps eventually automating these inspections. The first project focuses on the mobility and manipulation issues in electronic measurement instrument deployment; it uses computer vision to aid navigation, alignment, and motion control of a small suction cup based beam-walker that we designed and built. The second project focuses on the measurement and monitoring issues of visual inspection, especially camera, software, and display systems for doing remote enhanced visual inspection using 3D-stereoscopic methods; in this project a large but very light weight wheeled robot is being designed and built to systematically scan the fuselage crown of large passenger and cargo airplanes. We also contemplate a future microrobotics program for inspection of inaccessible areas such as fuel tanks, wheel wells, and the inside surface of the skin.
3D-Stereoscopic Display Systems. We are working on several key obstacles to 3D-TV and 3D-stereoscopic computer graphics systems successfully making the transition from currently cumbersome laboratory curiosities to eventually standard appliances in the home and the workplace. Research issues that we are working on include camera and graphics engine design, binocular and multi-perspective signal stream compression and coding, 3D-stereoscopic display hardware implementations that are cognizant of and able to exploit the psychophysics of binocular perception, and efforts to quantify the additional utility of 3D- stereoscopy for perceiving complex data, virtual reality, and intricate spatial relationships. We are carefully examining the geometrical and optical system issues that underlie virtual reality presentations of naked-eye, augmented- eye (binoculars, stereomicroscopes), and fish-eye perspectives. We are able to couple sensing of the observer's position to the display's viewpoint, suitably changing the perspective from which computer graphics are rendered, and suitably interpolating camera viewpoints (and potentially moving selected cameras) in multi-viewpoint video systems. This work is coupled with our aircraft inspection work via incorporation of advanced 3D- stereoscopic cameras and display systems in the enhanced remote visual inspection sensor package. We are also beginning to apply this work to some issues in medical robotics and medical imaging, including dynamic fusion of imagery from x-ray CT, ultrasonic, and video sources, and measurements for optimizing and manufacturing custom designed seat cushions for wheelchair bound patients.
Modeling of Illumination Systems. During the course of a project to generate simulation and design aids for a manufacturer of automobile head-lamps and tail-lamps we conceived a new approach to modeling complex illumination systems. The method combines automated systematic measurements that fully characterize the radial dependence of the angular distributions of light from extended light sources with a parametric representation akin to the multipole expansions used in antenna and atomic radiation models. Using this approach, we have succeeded in achieving very compact representations of complex off-the- shelf light sources from which raytracing can proceed extremely efficiently. We have used this representation to model luminaires, and to optimize their reflector shapes to achieve desired complex lighting patterns such as those required of automobile head lamps. We have also developed an encapsulation of the key angular features of light sources in a small number of coordinate system independent parameters, thus making it possible to compare and contrast different sources, and even different types of sources, on an equal footing.
Sensor Device Oriented Projects. We often invest a little time and a few spare dollars to pursue an innovative concept, usually an idea for a sensor device, by building a laboratory demonstration of it potential. We have a unique approach to range-from- focus: harmonic analysis of the signal from an oscillating image sensor gives the focus error, and thus the object range, pixel-by-pixel, without explicit need to focus any part of scene. We build semiconductor gas sensors, devices that change an electrical property in response to trace constituents in the environment, using neural networks to model and replicate the sense of smell. We are using electrets, waxy materials cast or molded into finger-like shapes and electrically polarized to make them pressure sensitive, for tactile sensors in delicate inspection and manipulation tasks. Ideas like these are good ones for student projects and, when developed in depth, can make good thesis research topics.


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Pamphlet 1) Chlorine Basics
Contains basic information including properties and physiological effects of chlorine, description and rules for handling chlorine containers, emergency measures and first aid, and chemical and physical characteristics.
(62 pages)
Pamphlet 5) Bulk Storage of Liquid Chlorine
Recommends design, construction, location, installation and inspection of non-refrigerated liquid chlorine storage systems.
(31 pages)
Pamphlet 6) Piping Systems for Dry Chlorine
This publication is intended to provide useful information concerning chlorine piping for both permanent production and use facilities, as well as temporary transportation systems. This pamphlet's objective is to offer practical suggestions in the selection of material suited for the indicated service. Use of materials other than those recommended herein may be technically desirable in specific producing/consuming sites.
(88 pages)
Pamphlet 9) Chlorine Vaporizing Systems
Contains information intended to assist in the selection, design and safe operation of vaporizers.
(44 pages)
Pamphlet 17) Packaging Plant Safety and Operational Guidelines
Contains recommendations for receiving, inspecting, testing and reconditioning chlorine cylinders, ton containers, valves and fusible plugs at packaging plants. It also covers procedures for filling these containers, personal protective equipment use, tank car receiving, emergency planning/response, and key regulations.
(107 pages)
Pamphlet 49) Recommended Practices for Handling Chlorine Bulk Highway Transports
Provides guidelines, recommended practices, and other useful information for the safe shipping, receiving, loading, unloading, maintenance, and emergency response relevant to handling cargo tank motor vehicles and portable tanks used to transport chlorine by highway. This pamphlet also refers to the applicable regulatory requirements.
(88 pages)
Pamphlet 57) Emergency Shut-Off Systems for Bulk Transfer of Chlorine
Recommends practices for emergency shut-off protection during chlorine transfers involving bulk containers.
(13 pages)
Pamphlet 60) Chlorine Pipelines
Provides recommendations on the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of carbon steel pipelines that transport chlorine liquid or gas. The recommendations are applicable to pipelines that terminate outside the chlorine shipper's property or crosses property not owned by the shipper or receiver of the chlorine.
(24 pages)
Pamphlet 65) Personal Protective Equipment for Chlor-Alkali Chemicals
Provides information pertaining to personal protective equipment (including Respiratory Protection and Equipment) used in the manufacture or handling of chlorine and sodium hydroxide, including when to use which level of PPE.
(74 pages)
Pamphlet 66) Recommended Practices for Handling Chlorine Tank Cars
Provides guidelines, recommended practices and other useful information to personnel involved in the shipping, receiving, and/or tank testing of single unit chlorine tank cars.
(95 pages)
Pamphlet 73) Atmospheric Monitoring Equipment for Chlorine
Discusses experiences of CI members with ambient chlorine monitors and techniques involved in installing, selecting, maintaining, and calibrating a successful chlorine monitoring system. Provides listing of known monitoring equipment vendors.
(26 pages)
Pamphlet 76) Guidelines for the Safe Motor Vehicular Transportation of Chlorine Cylinders and Ton Containers
Provides guidelines, recommended practices and other useful information, including guidance on securement, segregation, driver training, emergency response and regulatory requirements, for shipping chlorine cylinders and ton containers on the highways.
(29 pages)
Pamphlet 80) Recommended Practices for Handling Sodium Hydroxide Solution and Potassium Hydroxide Solution (Caustic) Barges
Provides guidelines, recommended practices and other useful information for the safe shipping, receiving and handling of sodium hydroxide solution and potassium hydroxide solution in barges. This pamphlet also refers to the applicable regulatory requirements.
(34 pages)
Pamphlet 82) Recommendations for Using 100 and 150 Pound Chlorine Cylinders at Swimming Pools
Designed to provide basic information for the safe handling and use of chlorine cylinders kept on site at swimming pools.
(44 pages)
Pamphlet 86) Recommendations to Chlor-Alkali Manufacturing Facilities for the Prevention of Chlorine Releases
Provides guidelines for manufacturing facilities to help prevent the occurrence of uncontrolled releases of chlorine and reference material and discussion to assist the reader with Risk Management Plan (RMP) implementation in the United States.
(46 pages)
Pamphlet 87) Recommended Practices for Handling Sodium Hydroxide Solution and Potassium Hydroxide Solution (Caustic) Tank Cars
Provides guidelines, recommended practices and other useful information for the safe shipping, receiving, loading, unloading and maintenance relevant to handling sodium hydroxide solution and potassium hydroxide solution in tank cars. This pamphlet also refers to the applicable regulatory requirements.
(54 pages)


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Quite a few years ago I wrote an overview article on the use of sound for representing geographic data, including a series of sound variables for mapping I developed. The article was titled "Sound and Geographic Visualization" and was published as a chapter in the now out-of-print book Visualization in Modern Cartography (MacEachren & Taylor eds., 1994).
Sound is used to convey information all the time, but less so in the realm of mapping where the visual dominates. The article explores the possibilities of making maps with sound, or using sound in tandem with a visual display to add additional layers of information.
Some work on tactile mapping had had occurred at the time the article was published, as well as a few dozen articles on sound for representing data in general (not geographic data). Subsequently, research on multi-sensory mapping has expanded but not as much as I expected. We still can't hear data with Google Earth.
For an updated bibliography of related work, see the articles and books that cite "Sound and Geographic Visualization" at Google Scholar.
The article is below as originally published. It holds up ok, although technology has changed quite a bit.
Denis Elder emailed me (Feb 6, 2012) and asked about the "manuscript videotape" cited in the paper below. The video was made to accompany my 1993 Association of American Geographers (AAG) conference presentation on using sound with maps. Back then, showing the examples (which were created with the software Director on a Mac) live at the conference would not have been easy, so I made a video of the maps being used (and making sounds). This presentation was an early form of the work that would be published as "Sound and Geographic Visualization."
I managed to find the video and had our media center create a digital version (in Quicktime / .mov format).
The video and the notes for the presentation ("Mapping with Sound") are below. This is old stuff, so don't laugh!
"Mapping with Sound." (PDF) Presented at the 1993 Association of American Geographers Conference, Atlanta, Georgia.
"Mapping with Sound." (Quicktime Movie, 9 minutes, 84mb) to accompany paper. Explanation of this video is in the above PDF of the paper presented at the conference. If sound does not work try the .m4v version (below).
"Mapping with Sound." (.m4v Movie, 131.6mb). Same as above, different movie file format.
And, least and last, the 1991 seminar paper (For Mark Detweiler in Psychology 597a) that served as the basis of the Sound and Geographic Visualization book chapter: "An Elemental Approach to Animation and Sound in Information Graphics" (PDF, 1mb)
Sound and Geographic Visualization
"Who the hell wants to hear actors talk?"
Harry Warner on being confronted with the prospect of the sound movie.
The issue of sound in the context of visualization may at first seem incongruous. There is, however, evidence to support the claim that sound is a viable means of representing and communicating information and can serve as a valuable addition to visual displays. Abstracted two-dimensional space and the visual variables – the traditional purview of cartography – may not always be adequate for meeting the visualization needs of geographers and other researchers interested in complex dynamic and multivariate phenomena. The current generation of computer hardware and software gives cartographers access to a broadened range of design options: three-dimensionality, time (animation), interactivity, and sound. Sound – used alone or in tandem with two-or three-dimensional abstract space, the visual variables, time, and interactivity – provides a means of expanding the representational repertoire of cartography and visualization.
This chapter discusses the use of realistic and abstract sound for geographic visualization applications. Examples of how and why sound may be useful are developed and discussed. Uses of sound in geographic visualization include sound as vocal narration, as a mimetic symbol, as a redundant variable, as a means of detecting anomalies, as a means of reducing visual distraction, as a cue to reordered data, as an alternative to visual patterns, as an alarm or monitor, as a means of adding non-visual data dimensions to interactive visual displays, and for representing locations in a sound space. The chapter concludes with research issues concerning sound and its use in geographic visualization.
Experiencing and Using Sound to Represent Data
Our sense of vision often seems much more dominant than our sense of hearing. Yet one only has to think about the everyday environment of sound surrounding us to realize that the sonic aspects of space have been undervalued in comparison to the visual (Ackerman 1990, Tuan 1993). Consider the experience of the visually impaired to appreciate the importance of sound and how it aids in understanding our environment. Also consider that human communication is primarily carried out via speech and that we commonly use audio cues in our day to day lives – from the honk of a car horn to the beep of a computer to the snarl of a angry dog as we approach it in the dark (Baecker and Buxton 1987).
There are several perspectives which can contribute to understanding the use of sound for representing data. Acoustic and psychological perspectives provide insights into the physiological and perceptual possibilities of hearing (Truax 1984, Handel 1989). An environmental or geographical perspective on sound can be used to examine our day to day experience with sound and to explore how such experiential sound can be applied to geographic visualization (Ohlson 1976, Schafer 1977, Schafer 1985, Porteous and Mastin 1985, Gaver 1988, Pocock 1989). Understanding how sound and music is used in non-western cultures may inform our understanding of communication with sound (Herzog 1945, Cowan 1948). Knowledge about music composition and perception provides a valuable perspective on the design and implementation of complicated, multivariate sound displays (Deutsch 1982). Many of these different perspectives have coalesced in the cross-disciplinary study of sound as a means of data representation, referred to as sonification, acoustic visualization, auditory display, and auditory data representation (Frysinger 1990). Within this context both realistic and abstract uses of sound are considered.


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The title for my third novel was finalized last month: Deadly Alliance. I like it. A lot. No, it wasn't one of my suggestions, but I'm completely OK with that.
I have a fascination with titles that include the word dead or any of its derivatives (as long as it doesn't sound like a novel about zombies). In 2012 I bought We Die Alone: A WWII Epic of Escape and Endurance, by David Howarth, because it was a kindle daily deal, it was about WWII, and die was in the title. It ended up being the best book I read that year. I think my interest in titles like this stems from reading too many Jack Higgins novels while growing up. His titles include: Angel of Death, Drink with the Devil, The Killing Ground, Touch the Devil, The Devil is Waiting, A Prayer for the Dying, A Fine Night for Dying, Death Run, The Graveyard Shift, Brought in Dead. He's written dozens of other books too, but you get the picture.
So where does Deadly Alliance take place? Well, this past week I also got a map from the talented Briana Shawcroft. Here it is:
The borders may look different that what you're familiar with. Yugoslavia was divided up during WWII, and then the borders changed again when Italy switched sides in 1943 and when the war ended in 1945. Actually, the border around Trieste wasn't finalized until 1954.
I also created a page for the new book, where you can read an un-finalized blurb. Deadly Alliance comes out in April.
So what type of titles to you like? Have you ever bought a book just because of the title?