text:
Gloria Exercitus: A History of the Ancient Roman Legion
Curated/Reviewed by Matthew A. McIntosh
Public Historian
A Roman legion (Latin legio, "military levy, conscription", from legere "to choose") was the largest military unit of the Roman army.
A legion was roughly of brigade size, composed of 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry in the republican period, extended to 5,200 infantry and 120 auxilia in the imperial period.
In the early Roman Kingdom "legion" may have meant the entire Roman army, but sources on this period are few and unreliable.[1] The subsequent organization of legions varied greatly over time but legions were typically composed of around five thousand soldiers. During much of the republican era, a legion was divided into three lines of ten maniples. In the late republic and much of the imperial period (from about 100 BC), a legion was divided into ten cohorts, each of six (or five) centuries. Legions also included a small ala, or cavalry, unit. By the third century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. In the fourth century AD, East Romanborder guard legions (limitanei) may have become even smaller. In terms of organisation and function, the republican era legion may have been influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonian phalanx.[2]
For most of the Roman Imperial period, the legions formed the Roman army's elite heavy infantry, recruited exclusively from Roman citizens, while the remainder of the army consisted of auxiliaries, who provided additional infantry and the vast majority of the Roman army's cavalry. (Provincials who aspired to citizenship gained it when honourably discharged from the auxiliaries.) The Roman army, for most of the Imperial period, consisted mostly of auxiliaries rather than legions.[3]
Many of the legions founded before 40 BC were still active until at least the fifth century, notably Legio V Macedonica, which was founded by Augustus in 43 BC and was in Egypt in the seventh century during the Islamic conquest of Egypt.
Overview: Typical Organization and Strength
Because legions were not permanent units until the Marian reforms (c. 107 BC), and were instead created, used, and disbanded again, several hundred legions were named and numbered throughout Roman history. To date, about 50 have been identified. The republican legions were composed of levied men that paid for their own equipment and thus the structure of the Roman army at this time reflected the society, and at any time there would be four consular legions (with command divided between the two ruling consuls) and in time of war extra legions could be levied. Toward the end of the 2nd century BC, Rome started to experience manpower shortages brought about by property and financial qualifications to join the army. This prompted consul Gaius Marius to remove property qualifications and decree that all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for service in the Roman army with equipment and rewards for fulfilling years of service provided by the state.
The Roman army became a volunteer, professional and standing army which extended service beyond Roman citizens but also to non-citizens who could sign on as auxillia (auxiliaries) and were rewarded Roman citizenship upon completion of service and all the rights and privileges that entailed. In the time of Augustus, there were nearly 50 upon his succession but this was reduced to about 25–35 permanent standing legions and this remained the figure for most of the empire's history.
The legion evolved from 3,000 men in the Roman Republic to over 5,200 men in the Roman Empire, consisting of centuries as the basic units. Until the middle of the first century, ten cohorts (about 500 men) made up a Roman legion. This was later changed to nine cohorts of standard size (with six centuries at 80 men each) with the first cohort being of double strength (five double-strength centuries with 160 men each). By the fourth century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. This had come about as the large formation legion and auxiliary unit, 10,000 men, was broken down into smaller units – originally temporary detachments – to cover more territory. In the fourth century AD, East Romanborder guard legions (limitanei) may have become even smaller. In terms of organisation and function, the Republican era legion may have been influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonian phalanx.[2]
The size of a typical legion varied throughout the history of ancient Rome, with complements of 4,200 legionaries and 300 equites (drawn from the wealthier classes – in early Rome all troops provided their own equipment) in the republican period of Rome (the infantry were split into 10 cohorts each of four maniples of 120 legionaries), to 5,200 men plus 120 auxiliaries in the imperial period (split into 10 cohorts, nine of 480 men each, plus the first cohort holding 800 men).
Roman Monarchy (to 500 BCE)
In the period before the raising of the legio and the early years of the Roman Kingdom and the Republic, forces are described as being organized into centuries of roughly one hundred men. These centuries were grouped together as required and answered to the leader who had hired or raised them. Such independent organization persisted until the 2nd century BC amongst light infantry and cavalry, but was discarded completely in later periods with the supporting role taken instead by allied troops. The roles of century leader (later formalized as a centurion), second in command and standard bearer are referenced in this early period.
Rome's early period is undocumented and shrouded in myths, but those myths tell that during the rule of Servius Tullius, the census (from Latin: censeō – accounting of the people) was introduced. With this all Roman able-bodied, property-owning male citizens were divided into five classes for military service based on their wealth and then organized into centuries as sub-units of the greater Roman army or legio (multitude). Joining the army was both a duty and a distinguishing mark of Roman citizenship; during the entire pre-Marian period the wealthiest land owners performed the most years of military service. These individuals would have had the most to lose should the state have fallen.
Roman Republic (509-107 BCE)
At some point, possibly in the beginning of the Roman Republic after the kings were overthrown, the legio was subdivided into two separate legions, each one ascribed to one of the two consuls. In the first years of the Republic, when warfare was mostly concentrated on raiding, it is uncertain if the full manpower of the legions was summoned at any one time. In 494 BC, when three foreign threats emerged, the dictator Manius Valerius Maximus raised ten legions which Livy says was a greater number than had been raised previously at any one time.[4]
Also, some warfare was still conducted by Roman forces outside the legionary structure, the most famous example being the campaign in 479 BC by the clan army of gens Fabia against the Etruscan city of Veii (in which the clan was annihilated). Legions became more formally organized in the 4th century BC, as Roman warfare evolved to more frequent and planned operations, and the consular army was raised to two legions each.
In the Republic, legions had an ephemeral existence. Except for Legio I to IV, which were the consular armies (two per consul), other units were levied by campaign. Rome's Italian allies were required to provide approximately ten cohorts (auxilia were not organized into legions) to support each Roman Legion.
In the middle of the Republic, legions were composed of the following units:
- Equites (cavalry): The cavalry was originally the most prestigious unit, where wealthy young Roman men displayed their skill and prowess, laying the foundation for an eventual political career. Cavalry equipment was purchased by each of the cavalrymen and consisted of a round shield, helmet, body armour, sword and one or more lances. The cavalry was outnumbered in the legion. In a total of circa 3,000 men, (plus the velites that normally enlarged the number to about 4,200), the legion only had around 300 horsemen, divided into 10 units (turmae) of 30 men. These men were commanded by decurions. In addition to heavy cavalry, there would be the light cavalry levied from poor citizens and wealthy young citizens not old enough to be in the hastati or the equites. In battle, they were used to disrupt and outflank enemy infantry formations and to fight off enemy cavalry. In the latter type of engagement, they would often (though not always) dismount some or all of the horsemen to fight a stationary battle on foot, an unusual tactic for the time, but one that offered significant advantages in stability and agility in a time before stirrups.[5]
- Velites (light infantry): The velites were mainly poorer citizens who could not afford to equip themselves properly. Their primary function was to act as skirmishers – javelin-throwers, who would engage the enemy early in order either to harass them or to cover the movement of troops behind them. After throwing their javelins, they would retreat through the gaps between the maniples, screened from the attack of the enemy by the heavy infantry lines. With the shortage of cavalry in the army of the early to mid Republican army, the velites were also used as scouts. They did not have a precise formal organization or formation.
- Heavy infantry: This was the principal unit of the legion. The heavy infantry was composed of citizen legionaries that could afford the equipment composed of an iron helmet, shield, armour and pilum, a heavy javelin whose range was about 30 meters. After 387 BC, the preferred weapon for the hastati and principes was the gladius, a short sword. Their hobnailed sandals (caligae) were also an effective weapon against a fallen enemy. Prior to the Marian reforms (see below), the heavy infantry was subdivided, according to experience, into three separate lines of troops:
- The hastati (sing. hastatus) consisted of raw or inexperienced soldiers, considered to be less reliable than legionaries of several years' service. The Hastati were placed at the front for several reasons. One reason is the city of Rome could ill-afford to lose experienced soldiers, so they put the greenest soldiers at the front. If they survived, the Hastati/tus would gain invaluable experience. Another reason is if the newest soldiers succumbed to battle nerves and broke and tried to run, then there were experienced soldiers behind them to stiffen their resolve.
- The principes (sing. princeps) These were the more experienced soldiers, often better equipped than the Hastati, and having more experience on the battlefield, they would take up the second line in the battle in the event the Hastati failed or fled. They were the second wave in an early Republican Legion before the military reforms of Marius.
- The triarii (sing. triarius) were the veteran soldiers, to be used in battle only in extreme situations; they rested one knee down when not engaged in combat. The triarii served primarily as reserves or barrier troops designed to backstop the hastati and principes, and were equipped with long hastae (spears) rather than the pilum and gladius (the hastati and principes stopped using spears in 387 BC). Thus armed, they fought in a phalanx formation. The sight of an advancing armored formation of triarii legionaries frequently discouraged exultant enemies in pursuit of retreating hastati and principes troops. Ad triarios redisse – To fall back upon the triarii was a Roman idiom – meaning to use one's last resort.
Each of these three lines was subdivided into (usually 10) chief tactical units called maniples. A maniple consisted of two centuries and was commanded by the senior of the two centurions. At this time, each century of hastati and principes consisted of 60 men; a century of triarii was 30 men. These 3,000 men (twenty maniples of 120 men, and ten maniples of 60 men), together with about 1,200 velites and 300 cavalry gave the mid Republican ("manipular") legion a nominal strength of about 4,500 men.
Late Republic (107-30 BCE)
The Marian reforms (of Gaius Marius) enlarged the centuries to 80 men, and grouped them into six-century "cohorts" (rather than two-century maniples). Each century had its own standard and was made up of ten units (contubernia) of eight men who shared a tent, a millstone, a mule and cooking pot.
Following the reforms of the general Marius in the 2nd century BC, the legions took on the second, narrower meaning that is familiar in the popular imagination as close-order citizen heavy infantry.
At the end of the 2nd century BC, Gaius Marius reformed the previously ephemeral legions as a professional force drawing from the poorest classes, enabling Rome to field larger armies and providing employment for jobless citizens of the city of Rome. However, this put the loyalty of the soldiers in the hands of their general rather than the State of Rome itself. This development ultimately enabled Julius Caesar to cross the Rubicon with an army loyal to him personally and effectively end the Republic.
The legions of the late Republic and early Empire are often called Marian legions. Following the Battle of Vercellae in 101 BC, Marius granted all Italian soldiers Roman citizenship. He justified this action to the Senate by saying that in the din of battle he could not distinguish Roman from ally. This effectively eliminated the notion of allied legions; henceforth all Italian legions would be regarded as Roman legions, and full Roman citizenship was open to all the regions of Italy. At the same time, the three different types of heavy infantry were replaced by a single, standard type based on the Principes: armed with two heavy javelins called pila (singular pilum), the short sword called gladius, chain mail (lorica hamata), helmet and rectangular shield (scutum).
The role of allied legions would eventually be taken up by contingents of allied auxiliary troops, called Auxilia. Auxilia contained specialist units, engineers and pioneers, artillerymen and craftsmen, service and support personnel and irregular units made up of non-citizens, mercenaries and local militia. These were usually formed into complete units such as light cavalry, light infantry or velites, and labourers. There was also a reconnaissance squad of 10 or more light mounted infantry called speculatores who could also serve as messengers or even as an early form of military intelligence service.
As part of the Marian reforms, the legions' internal organization was standardized. Each legion was divided into cohorts. Prior to this, cohorts had been temporary administrative units or tactical task forces of several maniples, even more transitory than the legions themselves. Now the cohorts were ten permanent units, composed of 6 centuries and in the case of the first cohort 5 double strength centuries each led by a centurion assisted by an optio. The cohorts came to form the basic tactical unit of the legions. Ranking within the legion was based on length of service, with the senior Centurion commanding the first century of the first cohort; he was called the primus pilus (First Spear), and reported directly to the superior officers (legates and tribuni). All career soldiers could be promoted to the higher ranks in recognition of exceptional acts of bravery or valour. A newly promoted junior Centurion would be assigned to the sixth century of the tenth cohort and slowly progressed through the ranks from there.
Every legion had a large baggage train, which included 640 mules (1 mule for every 8 legionaries) just for the soldiers' equipment. To keep these baggage trains from becoming too large and slow, Marius had each infantryman carry as much of his own equipment as he could, including his own armour, weapons and 15 days' rations, for about 25–30 kg (50–60 pounds) of load total. To make this easier, he issued each legionary a cross stick to carry their loads on their shoulders. The soldiers were nicknamed Marius' Mules because of the amount of gear they had to carry themselves. This arrangement allowed for the possibility for the supply train to become temporarily detached from the main body of the legion, thus greatly increasing the army's speed when needed.
A typical legion of this period had 5,120 legionaries as well as a large number of camp followers, servants and slaves. Legions could contain as many as 11,000 fighting men when including the auxiliaries. During the Later Roman Empire, the legion was reduced in size to 1,000 to allow for easier provisioning and to expand the regions under surveillance. Numbers would also vary depending on casualties suffered during a campaign; Julius Caesar's legions during his campaign in Gaul often only had around 3,500 men.
Tactics were not very different from the past, but their effectiveness was largely improved because of the professional training of the soldiers.
After the Marian reforms and throughout the history of Rome's Late Republic, the legions played an important political role. By the 1st century BC, the threat of the legions under a demagogue was recognized. Governors were not allowed to leave their provinces with their legions. When Julius Caesar broke this rule, leaving his province of Gaul and crossing the Rubicon into Italy, he precipitated a constitutional crisis. This crisis and the civil wars which followed brought an end to the Republic and led to the foundation of the Empire under Augustus in 27 BC.
Early Empire (27 BCE-284 CE)
Generals, during the recent Republican civil wars, had formed their own legions and numbered them as they wished. During this time, there was a high incidence of Gemina (twin) legions, where two legions were consolidated into a single organization (and was later made official and put under a legatus and six duces). At the end of the civil war against Mark Antony, Augustus was left with around fifty legions, with several double counts (multiple Legio Xs for instance). For political and economic reasons, Augustus reduced the number of legions to 28 (which diminished to 25 after the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, in which 3 legions were completely destroyed by the Germanics).
Beside streamlining the army, Augustus also regulated the soldiers' pay. At the same time, he greatly increased the number of auxiliaries to the point where they were equal in number to the legionaries. He also created the Praetorian Guard along with a permanent navy where served the liberti, or freed slaves. The legions also became permanent at this time, and not recruited for particular campaigns. They were also allocated to static bases with permanent castra legionaria (legionary fortresses).
Augustus' military policies proved sound and cost effective, and were generally followed by his successors. These emperors would carefully add new legions, as circumstances required or permitted, until the strength of the standing army stood at around 30 legions (hence the wry remark of the philosopher Favorinus that It is ill arguing with the master of 30 legions). With each legion having 5,120 legionaries usually supported by an equal number of auxiliary troops (according to Tacitus), the total force available to a legion commander during the Pax Romana probably ranged from 11,000 downwards, with the more prestigious legions and those stationed on hostile borders or in restive provinces tending to have more auxiliaries. By the time of the emperor Severus, 193-211, the auxiliaries may have composed 55 to 60% of the army, 250,000 of 447,000. Some legions may have even been reinforced at times with units making the associated force near 15,000–16,000 or about the size of a modern division.
Throughout the imperial era, the legions played an important political role. Their actions could secure the empire for a usurper or take it away. For example, the defeat of Vitellius in the Year of the Four Emperors was decided when the Danubian legions chose to support Vespasian.
In the empire, the legion was standardized, with symbols and an individual history where men were proud to serve. The legion was commanded by a legatus or legate. Aged around thirty, he would usually be a senator on a three-year appointment. Immediately subordinate to the legate would be six elected military tribunes – five would be staff officers and the remaining one would be a noble heading for the Senate (originally this tribune commanded the legion). There would also be a group of officers for the medical staff, the engineers, record-keepers, the praefectus castrorum (commander of the camp) and other specialists such as priests and musicians.
Later Empire (from 284 CE)
In the Later Roman Empire, the number of legions was increased and the Roman Army expanded. There is no evidence to suggest that legions changed in form before the Tetrarchy, although there is evidence that they were smaller than the paper strengths usually quoted. The final form of the legion originated with the elite legiones palatinae created by Diocletian and the Tetrarchs. These were infantry units of around 1,000 men rather than the 5,000, including cavalry, of the old Legions. The earliest legiones palatinae were the Lanciarii, Joviani, Herculiani.
The 4th century saw a very large number of new, small legions created, a process which began under Constantine II. In addition to the elite palatini, other legions called comitatenses and pseudocomitatenses, along with the auxilia palatina, provided the infantry of late Roman armies. The Notitia Dignitatum lists 25 legiones palatinae, 70 legiones comitatenses, 47 legiones pseudocomitatenses and 111 auxilia palatina in the field armies, and a further 47 legiones in the frontier armies.[7] Legion names such as Honoriani and Gratianenses found in the Notitia suggest that the process of creating new legions continued through the 4th century rather than being a single event. The names also suggest that many new legions were formed from vexillationes or from old legions. In addition, there were 24 vexillationes palatini, 73 vexillationes comitatenses; 305 other units in the Eastern limitanei and 181 in the Western limitanei.[8] A rare instance of apparent direct continuity between the legions of the early Empire and those of the post-6th century army was Legion V Macedonica; created in 43 BC, recorded in the Notitia Dignitatum as a legione comitatense under the title of Quinta Macedonica and surviving in Egypt until the Arab conquest of 637 AD.[9]
According to the late Roman writer Vegetius' De Re Militari, each century had a ballista and each cohort had an onager, giving the legion a formidable siege train of 59 Ballistae and 10 Onagers, each manned by 10 libritors (artillerymen) and mounted on wagons drawn by oxen or mules. In addition to attacking cities and fortifications, these would be used to help defend Roman forts and fortified camps (castra) as well. They would even be employed on occasion, especially in the later Empire, as field artillery during battles or in support of river crossings.
Despite a number of organisational changes, the Legion system survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It was continued within the Eastern Roman Empire until the 7th century, when reforms begun by Emperor Heraclius to counter the increasing need for soldiers resulted in the Theme system. Despite this, the Eastern Roman/Byzantine armies continued to be influenced by the earlier Roman legions, and were maintained with similar levels of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization.
Legionary Ranks
Aside from the rank and file legionary (who received the base wage of 10 assēs a day or 225 denarii a year), the following list describes the system of officers which developed within the legions from the Marian reforms (104 BC) until the military reforms of Diocletian (c. 290).
Senior Officers
- Legatus Augusti pro praetore, Imperial Legate: The commander of two or more legions. The Imperial Legate also served as the governor of the province in which the legions he commanded were stationed. Of Senatorial rank, the Imperial Legate was appointed by the Emperor and usually held command for 3 or 4 years. In the present time, an Imperial Legate would be called a General.
- Legatus legionis, Legion Legate: The overall legion commander. The post was usually filled by a senator, appointed by the emperor, who held command for 3 or 4 years, although he could serve for a much longer period. In a Roman province with only one legion, the legatus was also the provincial governor. In such circumstances, the Legatus was dual-hatted as both Legion Legate and Imperial Legate. The Legion Legate also served as commander of the auxiliary units attached to the legion though they were not formally a part of the legion's command structure.
- Tribunus laticlavius, Broad Band Tribune: Named for the broad striped tunic worn by men of senatorial rank, this tribune was appointed by the emperor or the Senate. Though generally young, he was more experienced than the tribuni angusticlavii, he served as second in command of the legion, behind the legate. Because of his age and inexperience he was not the actual second in command in battle, but if the legate died he would take command of the legion.
- Praefectus castrorum, Camp Prefect: The Camp Prefect was third in command of the legion. Generally he was a long serving veteran from a lower social status than the tribunii whom he outranked, and who previously had served as primus pilus and finished his 25 years with the legions. He was used as a senior officer in charge of training a legion, though he could also command a cohort of auxiliaires.
- Tribuni angusticlavii, Narrow Band Tribunes: Each legion had five lower ranking tribunes, who were normally from the equestrian class and had at least some years of prior military experience. They often served the role of administrative officers.[10] This tribunate was often a first, but optional, step in a young man's political career (see cursus honorum).[11]
The rank of centurion was an officer grade that included many ranks, meaning centurions had very good prospects for promotion. The most senior centurion in a legion was known as the primus pilus (first file or spear), who directly commanded the first century of the first cohort and commanded the whole first cohort when in battle. Within the second to tenth cohorts, the commander of each cohort's first century was known as a pilus prior and was in command of his entire cohort when in battle. The seniority of the pilus prior centurions was followed by the five other century commanders of the first cohort, who were known as primi ordines.
The six centuries of a normal cohort, were, in order of precedence:
- The forward hastati (forward spears)
- The rear hastati (rear spears)
- The forward principes (forward principal line)
- The rear principes (rear principal line)
- The forward triarii (forward third line)
- The rear triarii (rear third line)
The centuries took their titles from the old use of the legion drawn up in three lines of battle using three classes of soldier. (Each century would then hold a cross-section of this theoretical line, although these century titles were now essentially nominal.) Each of the three lines is then sub-divided within the century into a more forward and a more rear century.
- Primus pilus, literally First File: The Primus Pilus was the commanding centurion of the first century, first cohort and the senior-most centurion of the entire legion. (Unlike other cohorts, the first cohort had only one javelin century, instead of a "front spear" and a "back spear" century.) The primus pilus had a chance of later becoming a Praefectus Castrorum. When the primus pilus retired, he would most likely gain entry into the equestrian class. He was paid 60 times the base wage. Primus Pilus were also paid more than an average centurion and like a narrowband tribune.
- Pilus prior: The "front file" centurions were the commanders of the 10 1st centuries within the legion, making them senior centurions of their respective cohorts. While the legion was in battle formation, the Pilus Prior was given command of their entire cohort. The Primus Pilus was also a Pilus Prior, and the most senior of all the centurions within the legion. These positions were usually held by experienced veteran soldiers who had been moved up within the ranks. This rank is subordinate to the Primus Pilus.
- Primi ordines: The "ranks of the first [cohort]" were the five centurions of the first cohort, and included the primus pilus. They, excluding the primus pilus, were paid 30 times the base wage. This rank is senior to all other centurions, save the primus pilus and pilus prior.
- Other centurions: Each legion had 59 or 60 centurions, one to command each century of the 10 cohorts. They were the backbone of the professional army and were the career soldiers who ran the day-to-day life of the soldiers and issued commands in the field. They were generally moved up from the ranks, but in some cases could be direct appointments from the emperor or other higher-ranking officials. The cohorts were ranked from the first to the tenth and the century within each cohort ranked from 1 to 6, with only five centuries in the first cohort (for a total of 59 centurions and the primus pilus). The century that each centurion commanded was a direct reflection of his rank: command of the 1st century of the first cohort was the highest, and the 6th century of the 10th cohort was the lowest. Paid ten times the basic wage.
Lower Ranks
- Optio: One for each centurion (59–60), they were appointed by the centurion from within the ranks to act as his second in command and were paid twice the basic wage. Equivalent to a modern First Sergeant.[12]
- Tesserarius: (Guard commander) One for each century. They acted as seconds to the Optios and were paid one and a half times the basic wage. Keeper of the watchword, administrative assistant to HQ Staff, third in command of a century. These men fought as normal soldiers when the century they were attached to was not in the vanguard. Equivalent to a modern Staff Sergeant.
- Decurion: Commanded a cavalry unit (turma) of 10 to 30 eques legionis.[12]
- Decanus: Commanded a contubernium or ten men tent party, eight soldiers and two non-combatants, equivalent to a Sergeant or Corporal. A group of four soldiers would be referred to as a Quaternion.
Special Duty Posts
- Aquilifer: A single position within the legion. The aquilifer was the legion's standard– or Aquila (eagle)– bearer and was an enormously important and prestigious position. Losing the aquila was considered the greatest dishonor a legion could endure. This post therefore had to be filled with steady veteran soldiers, with an excellent understanding of the tactics of the legion. He was paid twice the basic wage.
- Signifer: Each century had a signifer (thus, there were 59 in a legion) and within each cohort the 1st century's signifer would be the senior. He was standard-bearer for the centurial signum, a spear shaft decorated with medallions and topped with an open hand to signify loyalty, which was a rallying point for the soldiers. In addition to carrying the signum, the signifer also assumed responsibility for the financial administration of the unit and functioned as the legionaries' banker. He was paid twice the basic wage.
- Cornicen (Horn blower): Worked hand in hand with the signifer drawing the attention of the men to the centurial signum and issuing the audible commands of the officers. He was paid twice the basic wage.
- Imaginifer: A special position from the time of Augustus onwards. Carried the standard bearing the image of the Emperor as a constant reminder of the troops' loyalty to him. He was paid twice the basic wage.
- Immunes: Immunes were legionary soldiers who possessed specialized skills, qualifying them for better pay and excusing them from labour and guard work. Engineers, artillerymen, musicians, clerks, quartermasters, drill and weapons instructors, carpenters, hunters, medical staff and military police were all immune soldiers. These men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and were called upon to serve in the battle lines when needed.
- Evocatus: A veteran of the Roman army who had earned his military diploma for military service, but had chosen to re-enlist. They received double pay and were excluded from regular duties, such as manual labour.
- Duplicarius: A special pay grade that could also be awarded regardless of rank, received double the basic pay.
From the time of Gaius Marius onwards, legionaries received 225 denarii a year (equal to 900 Sestertii); this basic rate remained unchanged until Domitian, who increased it to 300 denarii. In spite of the steady inflation during the 2nd century, there was no further rise until the time of Septimius Severus, who increased it to 500 denarii a year. However, the soldiers did not receive all the money in cash, as the state deducted a clothing and food tax from their pay. To this wage, a legionary on active campaign would hope to add the booty of war, from the bodies of their enemies and as plunder from enemy settlements. Slaves could also be claimed from the prisoners of war and divided amongst the legion for later sale, which would bring in a sizeable supplement to their regular pay.
All legionary soldiers would also receive a praemia (veterans' benefits) on completion of their term of service of 25 years or more: a sizeable sum of money (3,000 denarii from the time of Augustus) and/or a plot of good farmland (good land was in much demand); farmland given to veterans often helped in establishing control of the frontier regions and over rebellious provinces. Later, under Caracalla, the praemia increased to 5,000 denarii.
From 104 BC onwards, each legion used an aquila (eagle) as its standard symbol. The symbol was carried by an officer known as aquilifer, and its loss was considered to be a very serious embarrassment, and often led to the disbanding of the legion itself. Normally, this was because any legion incapable of regaining its eagle in battle was so severely mauled that it was no longer effective in combat.[13]
In Gallic War (Bk IV, Para. 25), Julius Caesar describes an incident at the start of his first invasion of Britain in 55 BC that illustrated how fear for the safety of the eagle could drive Roman soldiers. When Caesar's troops hesitated to leave their ships for fear of the Britons, the aquilifer of the tenth legion threw himself overboard and, carrying the eagle, advanced alone against the enemy. His comrades, fearing disgrace, 'with one accord, leapt down from the ship' and were followed by troops from the other ships.
With the birth of the Roman Empire, the legions created a bond with their leader, the emperor himself. Each legion had another officer, called imaginifer, whose role was to carry a pike with the imago (image, sculpture) of the emperor as pontifex maximus.
Each legion, furthermore, had a vexillifer who carried a vexillum or signum, with the legion name and emblem depicted on it, unique to the legion. It was common for a legion to detach some sub-units from the main camp to strengthen other corps. In these cases, the detached subunits carried only the vexillum, and not the aquila, and were called, therefore, vexillationes. A miniature vexillum, mounted on a silver base, was sometimes awarded to officers as a recognition of their service upon retirement or reassignment.
Civilians could also be rewarded for their assistance to the Roman legions. In return for outstanding service, a citizen was given an arrow without a head. This was considered a great honour and would bring the recipient much prestige.
The military discipline of the legions was quite harsh. Regulations were strictly enforced, and a broad array of punishments could be inflicted upon a legionary who broke them. Many legionaries became devotees in the cult of the minor goddess Disciplina, whose virtues of frugality, severity and loyalty were central to their code of conduct and way of life.
Minor Punishments
- Castigatio – being hit by the centurion with his staff or animadversio fustium (Tac. Annals I, 23)
- – Reduction of rations or to be forced to eat barley instead of the usual grain ration
- Pecuniaria mulcta – Reduction in pay, fines or deductions from the pay allowance
- – Flogging in front of the century, cohort or legion
- – Whipping with the flagrum (flagellum, flagella), or "short whip" – a much more brutal punishment than simple flogging. The "short whip" was used by slave volunteers, volones, who constituted the majority of the army in the later years of the Roman Empire.
- Gradus deiectio – Reduction in rank
- Missio ignominiosa – Dishonourable discharge
- – Loss of time in service advantages
- Militiae mutatio – Relegation to inferior service or duties.
- Munerum indictio – Additional duties
Major Punishments
- Fustuarium – a sentence for desertion or dereliction of duty. The legionary would be stoned or beaten to death by cudgels, in front of the assembled troops, by his fellow soldiers or those whose lives had been put in danger. Soldiers under sentence of fustuarium who escaped were not pursued but lived under sentence of banishment from Rome. In the event that a group of legionaries are to be subjected to this punishment, the Tribune would make an alteration in order to spare the majority of the accused. The Tribune would first select a handful of the guilty men, and those selected would be condemned to the original penalty under the Fustuarium. The remainder of the accused would then be driven out of the camp and forced to live in an undefended location for a chosen period of time; they were also limited to eating only barley. [14]
- Decimation – According to 17th century belief[15][failed verification](possibly folk etymology[citation needed]), the Romans practiced this punishment in which a sentence was carried out against an entire unit that had mutinied, deserted, or shown dereliction of duty. One out of every ten men, chosen by lots, would be beaten to death, usually by the other nine with their bare hands, who would be forced to live outside the camp and in some instances obliged to renew the military oath, the sacramentum.
Factors in a Legion's Success
Montesquieu wrote that "the main reason for the Romans becoming masters of the world was that, having fought successively against all peoples, they always gave up their own practices as soon as they found better ones."[16]
Examples of ideas that were copied and adapted include weapons like the gladius (Iberians) and warship design (cf. Carthaginians' quinquereme), as well as military units, such as heavy mounted cavalry and mounted archers (Parthians and Numidians).
- Roman organization was more flexible than those of many opponents. Over time, the legions effectively handled challenges ranging from cavalry, to guerrillas, and to siege warfare.
- Roman discipline (cf. decimation (Roman army)), organization and systematization sustained combat effectiveness over a longer period. These elements appear throughout the legion in training, logistics, field fortification etc.
- The Romans were more persistent and more willing to absorb and replace losses over time than their opponents. Wars with Carthage and the Parthians and most notably, the campaigns against Pyrrhus of Epirus, illustrate this.
- Roman leadership was mixed, but over time it was often effective in securing Roman military success.
- The influence of Roman military and civic culture, as embodied particularly in the heavy infantry legion, gave the Roman military consistent motivation and cohesion.[citation needed]
- Strict, and more importantly, uniform discipline made commanding, maintaining, and replacing Roman legionaries a much more consistent exercise.
- Roman military equipment (cf. Roman military personal equipment), particularly armor, was more withstanding and far more ubiquitous, especially in the late Republican and Early Imperial era, than that of most of their opponents. Soldiers equipped with shields, helmets and highly effective body armor had a major advantage over warriors protected, in many cases, with nothing other than their shields, particularly in a prolonged engagement.
- Roman engineering skills were second to none in ancient Europe, and their mastery of both offensive and defensive siege warfare, specifically the construction and investiture of fortifications (cf. sudis, castra), was another major advantage for the Roman legions.
- Roman military training focused on the more effective thrusting of the sword rather than the slash.
- Cornell, T. J. (1995): The Beginnings of Rome
- Manousos Kambouris, Spyros Bakas (2016). "Greco-Macedonian influences in the manipular Legion system". Archaeology and Science. 11 2015: 145–154.
- Data in: Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). Complete Roman Army. pp. 95–95; Holder, Paul (1980). Studies in the Auxilia of the Roman Army. pp. 86–96; Elton, Hugh (1996). Frontiers of the Roman empire. pp 123. See table in article "Auxiliaries (Roman military)" for compilation of this data.
- Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.30
- Mccall, Jeremiah B. The Cavalry of the Roman Republic: Cavalry Combat and Elite Reputations in the Middle and Late Republic. (New York, Routledge, 2002) pp. 53ff
- "Map". .hypotheses.org.
- Totals from summary of Notitia Dignitatum in Richardot, Philippe, La fin de l'armée romaine 284–476 [3rd ed.] Economica, 2005.
- Jones, Later Roman Empire, pp. 1449–50
- Esposito, Gabriele (3 May 2016). The Late Roman Army. p. 77.
- Bowman, Garnsey, Rathbone (eds) The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 11 pp. 326–27
- Birley, Anthony R. Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1989) p. 40
- Caesar's Civil War, Adrian Goldsworthy, p. 20
- Several Authors (17 December 2015). History of The Roman Legions: History of Rome. Self-Publish. pp. 1069–. GGKEY:DXPWT430TXP.
- Edwards, H. J. "The Histories of Polybius: Fragments of Book VI p.357". The University of Chicago. Retrieved April 2, 2020.
- "It's totally fine to use 'decimate' as a synonym for 'devastate'. This is why". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved October 24, 2018.
- Montesquieu C., Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans and Their Decline, Hacket, 1999, p. 24
- The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, Legions, history and location of
- History of the Art of War. Vol 1. Ancient Warfare, Hans Delbrück
- Roman Warfare, Adrian Goldsworthy
- A History of Warfare, John Keegan
- The Roman Army and Greece and Rome at War, Peter Connolly
- The Encyclopedia Of Military History: From 3500 B.C. To The Present. (2nd Revised Edition 1986), R. Ernest Dupuy, and Trevor N. Dupuy.
- War, Gwynne Dyer.
- The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare, Trevor N. Dupuy.
- Flavius Vegetius Renatus, De Re Militari (with English translation on-line)
- Julius Caesar, The Gallic War
- William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.
- The Punic Wars, Adrian Goldsworthy.
- Carnage and Culture, Victor Davis Hanson
- The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation, by Arther Ferrill, 1988
- The Complete Roman Army, by Adrian Goldsworthy
- The Military System Of The Romans, by Albert Harkness
- From the Rise of the Republic and the Might of the Empire to the Fall of the West, by Nigel Rodgers
- The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200 (Oxford, September 1998) by Adrian Goldsworthy
- The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c.1000-264 BC) (Routledge 1995) by T. J. Cornell
- "Legion GmbH. Das Unternehmen Römische Armee" (Saarbrücken 2012) by Stefan Zehnter
- "Roman Infantry Tactics in the mid-Republic: A Reassessment"( Historia 63, 2014) by Michael J. Taylor
Originally published by Wikipedia, 09.26.2001, under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license.


text:
Cas Haley ADD
"Connection", his Easy Star Records debut, is aptly named. It's all about those deep-running connections that make him what he is—those unbreakable links between artist and audience, between styles of music, between art and life, and most of all, between all people. As Cas points out, reggae's core message is, after all, "one love."
His crystalline voice and funky, easygoing beats earned Cas a second-place finish on "America's Got Talent," which in turn netted him a measure of fame and a following. But the contest also locked the Texan singer/songwriter/guitarist into a major label deal that didn't feel right. So, not wanting to be turned into a manufactured product, he struck out on his own. The superb result: "Connection," a collection of songs basking in the philosophical and musical maturity that comes from staying true to his artistic vision.
Raised by musician parents, Cas grew up surrounded by the sounds of blues and 60s-70s rock. He got serious about the guitar at age 12 and was "taught by the tribe" of musicians passing through the house. "The kitchen would be turned into the practice room or for jam sessions, so I was pretty much born into that lifestyle," he says. And from the very beginning he was more inclined to create his own music than to slavishly learn covers.
Also prominent at home were the Bob Marley records his mother would play, which made a profound impression. After a period of heavy immersion in the sounds of the ska/punk/skateboard culture, Cas was blown away by the classic reggae-pop of bands like UB40 and Sublime, and his mature style began to take shape.
Those pop-inflected island grooves and his joyful, versatile voice helped bring Cas to the brink of stardom on "America's Got Talent" and sell 30,000 copies of a debut album with virtually no promotion. And they're fundamental to the soul of his music—what he calls the "relaxing, effortless playing where everything fits together." Elements of soul, blues, and pop swirl through Cas's strong reggae beats. Just like disparate musical styles, "we're way more connected than we think," Cas says. "We separate ourselves in so many different ways, but the whole theme of the album is that we're all connected."
"Every color," he sings in the title track, "is created from the same light."
Easy Star, the leading U.S.-based independent reggae label, is the ideal home for "Connection." The label has been stretching beyond its strictly roots-reggae format, signing progressive bands and artists like John Brown's Body, Tommy T, and The Black Seeds. "Cas's sound is unique, accessible, and a great way to keep expanding the Easy Star audience," says CEO Eric Smith. "And it's not often we come across a singer-songwriter this talented, regardless of genre, so we had to work with Cas."
Mixed by Danny Kalb (Ben Harper, Beck), "Connection" bristles with chill grooves, rocking guitars, and funky horns, all fueling Cas's irresistible melodies. Meanwhile his lyrics effortlessly balance simple, spiritual truths with thoughtful reflection. Cas's songs recognize the complexities of life—love, family, worldly troubles and uncertainties—but always come back to the central message of connection.
It's the journey that matters; Cas is aiming for success on his own terms. "If I'm not doing it authentically then I don't want it," he says. His only goal: "To authentically express myself and help others do the same. Because it's a sweet life to be able to do that."

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Campus Programs & Resources
Mission and Ministry Center, Office of Mission and Catholic Institute for Lasallian Social Action cultivate Lasallian culture on campus through a wide range of programs and activities that help students become more involved in our community. You can participate in a Weekend Immersion trip that will give you first hand knowledge of the life of migrants workers, go on a retreat to reflect on your spirituality and build community with your peers or serve others outside Saint Mary's through work in our Legacy Garden.
Stop by the beautiful Saint Mary's College Chapel for a place of quiet reflection and prayer. A daily Mass is offered; all are welcome. Throughout the year the Mission and Ministry Center organizes several masses and other prayer opportunities that are available to everyone.
More information on the liturgies and other prayer opportunities we have to offer.
If you really want to dive into Lasallian living you can become an MMC Student Leader and work with the MMC team on presence, programs and experiences that give spirit and voice to our Catholic Lasallian Mission. More information on the Student Leadership Team.
Each year everyone's hard work and dedication culminate in the celebration of De La Salle Week. For a whole week we commemorate our Lasallian heritage and a distinguished Lasallian educator is awarded an honorary doctorate conferred by SMC Board of Trustees at Convocation. More information on De La Salle Week.
So, go ahead! Explore the seemingly infinite number of programs and resources Saint Mary's has to offer, and truly experience living Lasallian!


text:
An updated and modified version of the classic Farmyard Frolics (Edwin Hooper) style children's effect with a twist.
Great festive fun routine where Santa vanishes and appears in a funny comical routine with a different ending to the original style of effect
After Santa vanishes, the magician can't see him peeping out the side and the top of the house. There is much audience participation as the children waste no time in shouting out where he is. Trick concludes with a magical ending
This is a great trick with a Christmas magical theme for today's children's entertainers. Modern, colourful and keeps the children laughing and shouting in a controlled way that is a fun to see.
We have taken a tried and tested formula. Improved it and now we are proud to present this greatly enhanced set.
You will be amazed at how stunning this looks. Never before has a children's Christmas prop looked so good.
In the pack you will receive an attractive giant magic snow covered house and set of Christmas character cards with the most beautifully illustrated festive characters you will ever see in any children's effect, again all superbly made.
The whole set comes in it's own special hard wearing PVC carry case for easy transportation. Which will help protect your set for many years. This is an absolute must for any professional or amateur children's entertainer and an ideal addition to any children's and family Christmas shows.
Summary of effect
A picture of a snow covered house is shown.
When the children are shown inside all they can see is a bare room with a sad looking Christmas tree with no decorations, baubles, lights and worst of all no presents.
The children are encouraged to shout out what items are missing from the tree.
The magician now looks for Santa but cannot be found so some of Santa's friends are introduced one by one and each character is holding something nice to decorate the tree.
Santa appears and the children are asked it they would like him to do some Christmas magic. Of course they say yes so Santa is made to vanish followed by lots of fun where the children see him peeping out of the side of the house, every time the magician looks he pops back inside so does not see him.
Eventually the children are asked to say the special Christmas magic words and Santa now appears with all his friends in the same room but now the Christmas tree has been transformed and is beautifully decorated and presents can be seen at the bottom – Merry Christmas Everyone !!!
top of page
bottom of page


text:
There are a growing number of conflicts worldwide, fighting in Syria, unrest in Egypt, and increasing tension in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict among them. As more and more countries become involved, a real possibility exists that things can get worse for everyone. This holiday season, I believe it is important for countries to stop and think about their actions, to realize the dangers of the paths they are taking. Too many countries today are more concerned about their personal interests and differences and not enough about how this affects people in their nations and others as well.
Recently, the worldwide head of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, His Holiness Mirza Masroor Ahmad, addressed the European Parliament. He advised that lasting peace could only be achieved when countries put aside their differences and instead base their decisions regarding international relations solely on absolute justice. He cited that the Qur'an tells people to adhere to justice, even if it goes against their parents. It also states that personal enmity should not alter one's sense of judgment. God willing, these and other countries will adhere to his advice and work toward a lasting peace with each other.
Mohammad Iqbal Khan, Aberdeen


text:
On Yale360 Paul Crutzen and Christian Schwägerl write that Living in the Anthropocene:
Living up to the Anthropocene means building a culture that grows with Earth's biological wealth instead of depleting it. Remember, in this new era, nature is us.
In the March 2011 National Geographic, environmental journalist Elizabeth Kolbert writes Enter the Anthropocene—Age of Man, which describes the idea and the geological changes being produced by humanity. This article looks at the anthropocene more from the point of view as damage to the biosphere, rather than what we can do to reduce that damage and increase human wellbeing. It is illustrated by photos two of which are shown above.
For more on living in the anthropocene, see our 2009 post resilience as an operating system for the anthropocene on Chris Turner's article Age of Breathing Underwater on the anthropocene in the Walrus, as well as our recent article on the Environmentalist's Paradox.


text:
Reports Reveal Two New Scandals in the Pepper-Spraying at UC Davis
An official investigation suggests there was no legal basis for the raid on the students that day. Meanwhile, California public employee rules prevent the pepper-spray cop from being fired.
After Lieutenant John Pike discharged a thick cloud of pepper spray at a group of non-violent student protesters on the quad at UC Davis last November, he returned to campus police headquarters, where video of the incident was soon displayed on a nearby television screen. Said a suddenly concerned colleague, Dispatch Supervisor Leticia Garcia-Hernandez, as she watched the footage for the first time: "John, that looked really bad." She wasn't alone in thinking so. Almost immediately the video went viral, spread by digitally savvy Occupy Wall Street protesters and mainstream media organizations struck by the brutality of the scene. His identity quickly outed, Lt. Pike became a figure of infamy even as he took off as an Internet meme, his visage Photoshopped into iconic scenes where he'd invariably deploy his highly-pressurized pepper spray in the unnervingly casual, almost offhand way that he had against the undergraduates.
When would Lt. Pike be fired? That's what many campus activists, professors, and faraway pundits wanted to know. Some called for the university's chancellor and police chief to resign too. Administrators responded by promising a thorough, independent investigation, a pledge they kept. Last week, a task force chaired by Cruz Reynoso, a former associate justice of the California Supreme Court, released its report, along with a separate, independent fact-finding document assembled by Kroll, a consulting firm that specializes in investigations. Both reports set forth a scathing indictment of the university administrators who ordered campus police to remove protester tents from the quad; the hapless chief of campus police; and the officers who carried out her orders. The reports concluded with pointed recommendations for improving UC police protocol.
Press coverage has understandably focused on the culpability of UC leadership. "Report Faults UC Davis Administrators, Police In Pepper Spray Incident," NPR stated. "UC Davis chancellor says she takes 'full responsibility' in pepper-spraying case," the McClatchy/Tribune wire reported.
What's garnered less attention are two details about the controversy that are scandalous in their own right. One concerns a telling assumption that almost every single observer made as they watched the UC police action on YouTube or The Daily Show or the nightly news. The other concerns the fate of Lt. Pike, who seemed to act indefensibly in that viral video -- and in fact did, two exhaustive investigations found, though their fact-finding is surprisingly irrelevant to his fate.
As Occupy Wall Street protestors camped out in parks, plazas, and other public spaces throughout the country, Americans became accustom to a familiar script: citing a threat to sanitation or public safety, municipal authorities would issue lawful orders for the protesters to abandon their camps by a certain deadline, after which police would be called to arrest them. Observers were divided about whether municipal authorities ought to keep permitting Occupy to camp or require their departure; and about whether resisting lawful orders was an act of civil disobedience in service of a larger moral point or an illegitimate exercise in posturing; but most everyone agreed that protesters were choosing to break duly enacted laws that had long been on the books.
Whether due to familiarity with previous Occupy coverage or the American tendency to trust police, almost every observer fit the altercation at UC Davis into the willful civil disobedience script: students were protesting by breaking the rules, and Lt. Pike used excessive force to respond. But the Reynoso and Kroll reports conclude that we were likely all wrong about that. The students had a right to be on the quad. Neither administrators nor campus police possessed clear, lawful authority to order their departure at 3 pm on a Friday afternoon. It turns out that the Occupy Davis protesters were following the law far more assiduously than the police forcibly dismantling their tents, spraying pepper into their mucous membranes and carting them off in flex handcuffs. And there's evidence that both administrators and campus police knew it!
Says the Reynoso report:
The police officers in charge of the police operation were uncertain as to the legal grounds for the action they were taking and consulted with University Counsel on the issue. Even on November 18, Police Department leadership continued to question their legal authority to remove tents during the day in order to implement legal prohibitions against overnight camping.
The Kroll report goes into more detail:
Despite the lack of clarity of the legal basis to remove the tents, the UCDPD operation plans for both November 15 and November 18 stated that camping was not allowed on campus and that tents would not be permitted... A few hours before the operation commenced, Chief Spicuzza, Lieutenant Pike and OfficerP sought legal advice regarding the laws that apply to camping on the UC Davis campus... This call was apparently placed because of the Lieutenants' continued concern over the legal basis for removing the tents, and the police operation was commenced only after this last-minute call.
The legal advice given in that call was kept secret from the independent investigators. But the Kroll report undertook its own analysis of the relevant laws, and found that each one cited by UC Davis administrators and police to justify their actions didn't apply. They failed to press "for a definitive legal assessment of the scope of its authority to order the removal of the tents," the report concluded. "Kroll has been unable to identify the legal basis for the decision of the Leadership Team to act against the protesters... It appears that the UCDPD mounted its operation absent the clarity of legal authority under pressure from the Administration to do something to get rid of the tents."
Sometimes when protesters scream at the police that they have every right to be somewhere, and that police officers have no right to arrest them, it turns out that the protesters are legally correct, and the police officers themselves are the ones who are transgressing against the rule of law.
Along with excoriating UC Davis' leadership and its campus police chief, the Reynoso and Kroll reports conclude that Lt. Pike, whose actions caused the whole controversy to go viral, acted indefensibly. There's his most egregious act, captured in this straightforward assessment:
Lt. Pike Bears Primary Responsibility for the Objectively Unreasonable Decision to Use Pepper Spray on the Students Sitting in a Line and for the Manner in Which the Pepper Spray Was Used.
That is, however, just one aspect of his culpability. Lt. Pike reportedly disobeyed a direct order to deploy that day without riot gear. He carried with him a pepper spray disbursement mechanism bigger and more powerful than what UC Davis police are authorized to carry and use.
Apparently untrained in using that disbursement device, he shot pepper spray at a distance far closer than is recommended in its instructions for safe use. While claiming that he was afraid for his safety due to being encircled by students, Lt. Pike failed to perceive the openings in the circle confirmed by video evidence, and apparently did not know that one of his fellow officers was traversing the circle, prisoners in tow, without a problem. In planning and executing the raid, Lt. Pike made other errors that investigators judged partly responsible for the needless escalation. And one graduate student present that day insists Lt. Pike said that no one would be pepper sprayed by police unless they turned violent, information passed to the whole group via the human mic system. Finally, Lt. Pike reportedly failed to follow standard debriefing protocol.
After the incident, when Internet commenters the world over were calling for Lt. Pike to be summarily fired, it's good that he was instead placed on paid leave pending a thorough investigation. Under a hypothetical protocol, the UC Board of Regents could hire investigators to review video of the event, interview witnesses, and fire Lt. Pike a couple weeks later, having concluded that what the viral video seemed to show is basically what happened: a bunch of kids sitting on a quad were casually and needlessly assaulted with a bright orange cloud of pepper spray.
But that can't happen in the real world.
The actual investigative procedure was more thorough. Months were spent putting it all together. Lt. Pike was on paid leave all the while. It should have ended in his immediate firing when the Reynoso and Kroll inquiries found him culpable not just for the egregious excesses seen on the video, but for other transgressions against good judgment and professionalism.
But that isn't how things are going to work in this case either, for in California, a misbehaving police officer like Lt. Pike has due process rights so robust that its extraordinarily difficult to discipline or fire one, even if he's an international pariah caught on video marshaling unapproved equipment to needlessly spray harsh chemicals into the mucus membranes of non-violent protesters.
As the independent investigators noted, they weren't afforded the opportunity to speak with Lt. Pike because, like his boss, he refused to participate in the inquiry, which he could do without being fired. The recommendations of the Reynoso task force and the independent investigators didn't extend to firing or disciplining anyone, for relevant personnel matters were beyond the duties given them. Moreover, their damning findings won't play any role in whether or not Lt. Pike keeps his job, or faces any disciplinary measure at all, which could remain secret.
California law is the problem.
Here's how the Reynoso Task Force puts it:
The Office of the President should review provisions of the Police Officers' Bill of Rights that appear to limit independent public review of police conduct and make appropriate recommendations to the Legislature. The Task Force did not have access to the subject officers. This limitation does not serve the police or the public interest. When information necessary to understand and evaluate police conduct is unavailable to the public, the public has less confidence in the police and the police cannot perform their duty without public confidence.
So what happens to Lt. Pike?
Once placed on administrative leave, he was subject to an internal affairs investigation. The law requires that its findings alone can bear on personnel actions, never mind all the useful evidence collected by the independent consultants, or the analysis performed by the panel of esteemed statesmen. The internal affairs investigation into Lt. Pike's actions were conducted by Ed McErlain, a former police officer and "senior investigator for Norman A. Traub Associates, which specializes in employment investigations;" and Deborah Maddux Allison, "a partner with the Van Dermyden Allison Law Corporation, who specializes in employment law and workplace investigations." They were advised by Charles "Sid" Heal, another retired police officer.
Their method and findings are secret.
The public never gets to read them.
Their report was submitted to something called the Sufficiency Review Board, which is supposed to certify its quality and completeness in another secret process. And the secret internal affairs investigation won't necessarily lead to anything beyond the report itself. As UC Davis put it:
Any disciplinary action resulting from the IA investigations would be taken in accordance with University policies. Depending on the rank of the officer, this would involve various levels of process involving notice to any officer subject to a proposed disciplinary action, and an opportunity to respond. If disciplinary action were initiated, it would likely require several weeks to conclude.
That process would be secret too. "Any resulting personnel action that may be taken against a police officer is also confidential and not subject to public disclosure under state law," UC Davis states. Basically, California law dictates that all UC Davis can say about its most controversial officer is "the employment status of the officer, e.g., current employment status and rank."
For now, he still works there.
Thanks to the job protections California affords to this class of public employees, the thorough, independent review available to the public and the press has no bearing on the fate of the man who inspired it; whereas whether or not he'll continue to patrol among the very students he needlessly sprayed is determined by a secretive process wholly lacking in transparency, and accountable only to the administrative apparatus whose very failure helped cause the pepper spraying.
Can there be any doubt that this system prioritizes the job security of campus police officers above the safety and well being of students? It's possible that the secretive process will ultimately end in Lt. Pike's termination after many months of being paid. Regardless, it's time to reform a system wherein a public employee can abuse his authority in the most blatant and egregious way, and totally avoid being held accountable to independent investigators or the public. It's perfectly reasonable to take steps that ensure all facts are known before someone is terminated. What this case shows is that exhaustive fact-gathering that definitively establishes a public safety employee's inexcusable misbehavior isn't enough to fire him in California.


text:
Billionaire Killed By Stress of Madoff Money
Billionaire investor Jeffry Picower—who made billions off of Bernie Madoff's Ponzi scheme—was found dead in his (expensive) pool Sunday. Murder??? Well, the coroner doesn't want you to think so. But clearly, Madoff's money has a deadly curse.
The autopsy said that Picower had a massive heart attack in his pool, then drowned as a result. And he was reportedly in poor health—thanks to Bernie Madoff!
"We always have been private people, and having all this play out in the media has taken a big toll on our health," the couple wrote in response to questions submitted earlier this month by The New York Times.
Irving Picard, the trustee for the Madoff victims, still wants to get back the $7 billion that Picower made from Madoff over the years. Hell, he can't take it with him, wherever he is. And it ended up killing him. Crime really doesn't pay.
[Pic via]


text:
SPOILER ALERT! If you haven't read the first two Hunger Games books, go read them now before you read this. They're awesome. It won't take long. Promise.
For the rest of you, a recap: The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins introduces Katniss Everdeen, a girl living in a North America hundreds of years in the future. Our lovely civilization has apparently crumbled and been replaced by Panem, a nation of twelve districts run by the Capitol. Uprising against the Capitol will result in your complete annihilation-that's what happened to District Thirteen, anyway. As punishment for that attempted rebellion, the Capitol holds The Hunger Games, an annual reality television show. Each district selects one boy and one girl by lottery, and the "tributes" are confined to an arena where they are forced to fight to the death. Katniss's kid sister's name is drawn in the District Twelve lottery, so Katniss volunteers to take her place knowing she's basically signing up to be killed. After all, the impoverished District Twelve hasn't produced a winner in at least thirty years. To make things even more complicated, Katniss has feelings for her childhood best friend Gale and her fellow District Twelve tribute, Peeta.
If you don't have a problem with goofy names (let's be serious, it's not like "Hermione" is a home run either) then Katniss Everdeen is the heroine for you. Besides displaying your classic to-the-rescue traits - smart, brave, resourceful - Katniss also finds herself in the tricky spot of being totally in control of whether she lives or dies while having virtually no control over what will happen to her if she manages to survive.
And as love triangles go, the best friend from home versus exciting new guy from your exciting new life isn't the most revolutionary idea in the history of books, but Collins' guys are at least equally deserving of Katniss' affection, just for totally different reasons.
More From Seventeen
In Catching Fire, Katniss realizes that her actions in the arena inadvertently sparked a revolution. Rather than let Peeta and Katniss get away with (not) murder, the Capitol throws a very special Hunger Games: one whose contestants are all previous victors. While Katniss had no initial intention of being the rebel rebel to inspire Panem, she becomes the threat the Capitol wants to crush. It's too late to go back; she and Peeta team up with the other victors and put on a show like nothing Panem has ever seen.
The third installment Mockingjay picks up immediately after the end of Catching Fire, in the rumored to be non-existent District Thirteen and it's spooky-efficient 1984-like underground cityscape. Unlike the first two books which center around life in the arena, Mockingjay does away with the pretense of a finite problem altogether. It's not just about making it through the Games so everything will be okay; Katniss is in a fight for the entirety of Panem (not to mention, of course, the ongoing struggle of Gale vs. Peeta). It's tough to raise the stakes when your original premise involves the brutal murder of twenty-three teenagers, but Collins manages to create a bigger and more terrifying enemy for the last time out.
Jessica Goldstein is a writer covering all things culture. You can read her in the Washington Post, Vulture, McSweeney's Internet Tendency, and elsewhere across the internet. Follow her on Twitter @Jessicagolds. She would love to pet your dog.


text:
Delta to install new seats, bins on 225 planes
ATLANTA – Delta Air Lines says it will install new seats and bigger overhead bins on many of the planes it flies within the U.S. It's squeezing more seats onto many of those planes, too.
Delta said on Wednesday that the project will cover 225 planes. Passengers will have electrical power at every seat, and most of them are getting bigger overhead bins and new seats.
Delta will be able to fit more seats onto many of those planes, including about 19 more seats on its Boeing 757-200s, six more on its Airbus A319s, and 10 more on its A320s.
It's getting the extra space by using so-called "slim-line" seats that have a smaller, lighter-weight frame from front to back. And on the 757s, the new kitchens, called galleys, will take up less space. Also, some of the 757s will have fewer business-class seats, making room for more coach seats.
Legroom on the planes will be about the same as now, Delta Air Lines Inc. spokesman Paul Skrbec said. Seats on the Airbus planes will be slightly wider.
Atlanta-based Delta is also overhauling the interiors on its Boeing 737-800s, but the number of seats will remain the same.
Delta's 757s include a mix of planes that it has always owned, and planes it got when it bought Northwest Airlines in 2008. The remodeling will make the interiors on those planes the same.
Delta plans to spend $770 million on the three-year project, which begins this winter and will run through the end of 2016.


text:
Roll over image to zoom in
Perfect for everyday wear, the men's ABEO Iconic T-Shirt is a wardrobe staple for classic style and comfort. The cotton jersey crew neck tee features an embroidered logo in the front for added interest.
- Super soft 100% cotton jersey.
- Rib-knit crew neck.
- Roomy construction for casual comfort.
- Embroidered front logo.
- Machine washable.


text:
By Andrew Miga
Associated Press
WASHINGTON (AP) — A sharply divided Congress isn't likely to jump at President Barack Obama's challenge for quick passage of a mortgage refinancing bill that supporters say could help millions of homeowners save big each year and boost the economy.
Obama praised the legislation in his State of the Union speech last week, saying the proposal would help more homeowners with mortgages backed by Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac take advantage of low interest rates and refinance their loans.
Even with mortgage rates near a 50-year low, Obama said, too many families that have never missed a payment and want to refinance are being turned down.
"That's holding our entire economy back, and we need to fix it," the president said. "Right now, there's a bill in this Congress that would give every responsible homeowner in America the chance to save $3,000 a year by refinancing at today's rates. Democrats and Republicans have supported it before."
The economy's slow recovery from the recession gives the idea urgency, Obama said. "Send me that bill," he told members of Congress listening to his speech in the House chamber.
The proposal is part of a push by Democrats and the White House to help homeowners take advantage of low interest rates as a way to help the housing market recover and to give the economy a shot in the arm.
While the bill could gain traction in the Democratic-controlled Senate, it faces a rough road in the GOP-run House, where many Republicans favor scaling back the government's role in the housing market as a way of aiding the economy. Similar versions of the measure died in the House and Senate's lame duck sessions last year.
"At the moment, it's an uphill battle," said Rep. Peter Welch, D-Vt., who plans to file the House version of the bill.
Welch said he will reach out to Republicans this year in hopes of building more support, but the bill's association with the government-controlled Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, the federal housing agencies partly blamed for the collapse of the housing market, hurts its support base among GOP lawmakers.
"The American taxpayers have already sunk $190 billion dollars into the operations of Fannie and Freddie," said Rep. Randy Neugebauer, R-Texas, a member of the House Financial Services Committee. "It's time that we wind their operations down instead of using them as a piggy bank for failed programs that further delay the housing recovery. "
In the Senate, Democrats Bob Menendez of New Jersey and Barbara Boxer of California have legislation to aid borrowers who are current on their loans backed by Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, but who are not able to refinance because their home values have declined too much.
Nearly 12 million homeowners have Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac loans and stand to benefit refinancing, the two senators said. Many can't refinance at a lower rate because of red tape and high fees.
The red tape has reduced competition among banks, so borrowers pay higher interest rates than they would if they were able to shop around more, according to the senators.
The bill also would reduce up-front fees that borrowers pay on refinances and eliminate appraisal costs for all borrowers.
The measure seeks to expand the Obama administration's Home Affordable Refinancing Program, which saves an average homeowner about $2,500 per year, they said.
"Homeowners will have more money in their pockets, Fannie and Freddie will see fewer foreclosures, and the housing market and economy will continue building momentum," Boxer said.
Among the bill's supporters are the Mortgage Bankers Association, the National Association of Realtors and the National Association of Home Builders.
"It is another tool that can be out there to help stabilize the housing market and kick start the economy if consumers can, in fact, put another $100 bucks in their pockets every month," said John Hudson, government affairs chairman of the Association of Mortgage Professionals.
Similar proposals by Boxer and Menendez last year got bogged down in the Senate Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs Committee. Republican attempts to add amendments on other housing issues beyond refinancing led to a stalemate.
Twenty Senate Democrats are co-sponsors of this year's bill, but no Republicans have signed on.
"I support finding ways to smartly streamline the refinance process, but I'm not sure that eliminating all documentation requirements makes sense," said GOP Sen. Bob Corker of
Tennessee, a committee member. "I also think we need to quickly move beyond short-term stimulus and start focusing on the structural issues in our housing finance system."
Sen. Mike Crapo, the committee's top Republican, declined through a spokeswoman to comment on the bill.
Welch's House bill also died during the last Congress. Welch accused Republicans of not wanting to give Obama an election-year boost by passing the mortgage refinance measure.
"Last year was even tougher because it was an election year," said Welch. "The Republican leadership wanted Obama to fail."
- Posted February 20, 2013
- Tweet This | Share on Facebook
Mortgage bill faces tough road in Congress
By Andrew Miga
headlines Macomb
headlines National
- Prosecution of environmental lawyer Steven Donziger broke 'basic constitutional promise,' 2 SCOTUS justices say
- Florida plastic surgeon accused of killing lawyer who disappeared after going to restroom
- In Rare Win for Defamation Plaintiff, Judge Denies Fox All Summary Judgment
- Legal Speak at Legalweek 2023: Lex Machina's Karl Harris and Casepoint's Jessica Robinson
- Another federal agency challenges adverse ruling by 5th Circuit
- The morning read for Friday, March 31


text:
Gratefully built with ACNLPatternTool
Use your arrow keys to navigate the tabs below, and your tab key to choose an item
Title: Scarab
Period: Middle Kingdom–Second Intermediate Period
Dynasty: Dynasty 12–17
Date: ca. 1981–1550 B.C.
Geography: From Egypt
Medium: Gray glazed steatite
Dimensions: L. 1.8 cm (11/16 in.)
Credit Line: Purchase, Edward S. Harkness Gift, 1926
Accession Number: 26.7.588
We continue to research and examine historical and cultural context for objects in The Met collection. If you have comments or questions about this object record, please complete and submit this form. The Museum looks forward to receiving your comments.


text:
WASHINGTON (AP) — Birth control that you must take every single day? A more goof-proof option that costs a lot upfront but then works for several years? Or something in between?
A woman"s choice may come down to her wallet: The price of birth control varies dramatically.
Just the pill has a huge range, from $9 a month for generics to $90 a month for some of the newest brands, plus a yearly doctor"s visit for the prescription.
Want a once-a-month option? The patch or ring could run you $55 monthly.
Even more reliable are so-called long-acting types, those IUDs or implants that can last years but can cost $600 to nearly $1,000 for the doctor to insert.
That"s if you don"t have insurance that covers at least some of the tab — although many women do. And if those prices are too much, crowded public clinics offer free or reduced-price options. But it might take a while to get an appointment.
Questions about cost and access to birth control have been swirling for weeks now, intensifying after a Georgetown University law school student testified before congressional Democrats in support of a new federal policy to pay for contraception that she said can add up to $1,000 a year, not covered by the Jesuit college"s health plan. Talk show host Rush Limbaugh"s verbal assault on her comments became the latest skirmish in the birth control wars.
Soon, the new policy will make contraceptives available free of charge as preventive care, just like mammograms, for women with most employer-provided health insurance. Churches are exempt. But for other religious-affiliated organizations, such as colleges or hospitals, their insurance companies would have to pay for the coverage, something that has triggered bitter political debate.
A major study of nearly 10,000 women that"s under way in St. Louis provides a tantalizing clue about what might happen when that policy takes effect.
Consider: Nearly half of the nation"s 6 million-plus pregnancies each year are unintended. Rates of unplanned pregnancies are far higher among low-income women than their wealthier counterparts. Among the reasons is that condoms can fail. So can birth control pills, if the woman forgets to take them every day or can"t afford a refill.
Only about 5 percent of U.S. women use the most effective contraceptives — a matchstick-sized implant named Implanon or intrauterine devices known as IUDs. Once inserted, they prevent pregnancy for three, five or 10 years. But Dr. Jeffrey Peipert of Washington University in St. Louis says many women turn them down because of a higher upfront cost that insurance hasn"t always covered — even though years of pills can cost as much.
"How can we cover Viagra and not IUDs?" wonders Peipert, who is leading the new study.
Called the Contraceptive CHOICE Project, the study is providing those options and a range of others for free. Participants also can choose from birth control pills, a monthly patch, a monthly vaginal ring and a once-every-three-months shot. They"re told the pros and cons of each but that the long-lasting options have a lower failure rate.
About 75 percent of women in the ongoing study are choosing the IUD or the implant, Peipert says. After the first year, more than 80 percent of the women who chose the long-acting contraceptives are sticking with them ,compared with about half the pill users, he says.
According to the Guttmacher Institute, the average woman who has two children will spend parts of three decades trying to avoid an unintended pregnancy. The Institute of Medicine says that"s one reason that women tend to incur higher out-of-pocket costs for preventive care than men.
Yes, there already are some options for more affordable contraception, such as public clinics or Planned Parenthood.
About 55 percent of local health departments offer some family planning services, according to the National Association of County & City Health Officials. Many of those receive federal Title X funding, which means they can offer contraception on a sliding fee scale. The poorest women may get it free, while others may pay full price or somewhere in between.
There are cheaper generic pills. Peipert says there"s little difference between them and pricey new brand-name versions like Yaz.
But some women go through a number of brands before finding one that doesn"t cause uncomfortable side effects, says Sarah Brown of the National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. Her organization operates a website, www.bedsider.org, that details options along with the price range.
"Not every woman can use generic pills, by any means," Brown says. "Do we say to people, "Just go get generic cardiac medicines. Hope that works out for you?" "
Peipert notes that contraception is cheaper than what insurers or taxpayer-funded Medicaid pay for prenatal care and delivery. He says economic studies have found that every $1 spent on family planning can save nearly $4 in expenditures on unintended pregnancy.
Do women ask about the price?
"Oh, my gosh, absolutely," exclaims obstetrician-gynecologist Dr. Monica Dragoman of New York"s Montefiore Medical Center.
Just last week, she saw a woman whose heart condition could make another pregnancy life-threatening but who couldn"t afford the IUD that Dragoman wanted to prescribe, and chose a cheaper option.
If a family"s struggling financially, "sometimes contraception is one of the first things to fall off," Dragoman says.


text:
Wood Stork, Mycteria americana
The Southeastern U.S. population of wood storks is listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and is fully protected by Florida state and federal laws. The principle reason for the ESA listing is related to its decline from an estimated 20,000 nesting pairs in the 1930s to a low of about 3,000-5,000 pairs in the 1970s.
In 1999, a new wood stork rookery formed on Zoo grounds and it soon began to show signs of annual growth. This was brought to the attention of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and resulted in Jacksonville Zoo and Gardens' (JZG) Wood Stork Conservation Project and Partnership with the USFWS in 2003 when careful monitoring began.
Banding of nestlings began in 2003, the following year JZG began satellite tagging and banding adult wood storks. The program plans to use banded storks to monitor nest attendance by sex and to determine the site fidelity of the species. Since the rookery's inception, JZG staff has provided veterinary care for any injured birds. Over the last eleven years the JZG rookery has been one of the most productive in the Southeastern U.S, and volunteers have logged hundreds of hours monitoring its success.
This site uses cookies to offer you a better browsing experience. If you continue using our website, we'll assume that you are happy to receive all cookies on this website and you agree to our Privacy Policy.


text:
The Central Hotel was one of many hotels in the town of Cedar Springs during the early days of the village. It stood in the area where the Round Up bar and Gebhardt insurance are now located. It's not known exactly when it was built, but it was a town landmark, and advertised as early as 1902 in a track and field day program. It was bought in 1905 by the J.M. Hart family, and they ran it for many years.
According to the Cedar Springs Story by Sue Harrison and Donna DeJonge, people recalled the hey-day of the hotel, "when buggies lined up for blocks, and guests from nearby towns waited to get inside for one of Mother Hart's famous dinners."
The hotel was destroyed in a fire on July 23, 1943. The fire burned three businesses and half a block on Main Street. The Central Hotel, Cedar Springs Cleaners and Mulford Lunchroom all perished in the blaze, at an estimated loss of $35,000. The hotel, operated at the time by George Oppenneer, suffered the heaviest loss at $25,000.


text:
Was I affected by the Yahoo hack? A cyber security expert weighs in on keeping your data safe
The company announced Wednesday that the data of more than 1 billion users was stolen
The company announced Wednesday that the data of more than 1 billion users was stolen
Yahoo announced Wednesday that more than one billion accounts have been compromised through a 2013 security breach. The accessed data included users' names, passwords, security questions and contact information, the company said. The news came two months after Yahoo revealed that a similar attack targeted 500 million accounts in 2014.
"As Yahoo previously disclosed in November, law enforcement provided the company with data files that a third party claimed was Yahoo user data," the Sunnyvale tech conglomerate stated in a press release. "Based on further analysis of this data by the forensic experts, Yahoo believes an unauthorized third party, in August 2013, stole data associated with more than one billion user accounts. The company has not been able to identify the intrusion associated with this theft. Yahoo believes this incident is likely distinct from the incident the company disclosed on September 22, 2016."
Why are Yahoo users just now learning about the incident?
"Most likely, Yahoo recently found out about the breach two years too late," Gary Miliefsky, cyber security expert and founding member of the US Dept. of Homeland Security told Hearst Television on Wednesday. "This happens all the time. According to Fireeye, most breaches are not discovered by the victims for over 280 days, nearly a year."
Miliefsky also believes the breach wasn't the work of a typical online thief.
"My gut says it's not cyber criminals because of the way the hack occurred," he explained, adding that it could possibly be a "nation-state effort," or a group of hackers working for a government agency outside the US.
Does this mean you should start panicking? Has your personal online identity been compromised? While there's no way to completely protect yourself from a virtual attack, Miliefsky shared some tips on lowering the odds of being hacked in the future -- and what to do if you think you're already at risk.
1. Always monitor your online accounts for suspicious activity. Change passwords and security questions for online services regularly, and don't use obvious passwords. Sorry, but "yourfavoritesportsteam123" won't keep an experienced hacker from draining your bank account.
2. Create strong passwords that use a combination of letters, numbers and symbols. Don't share it with anyone. Enable any additional security features that verify your identity, especially on financial sites.
3. Don't click on suspicious links. Be wary of emails or pop-ups that ask for personal information.
4. Keep a close eye on online banking accounts. Only use credit cards that offer protection from fraudulent transactions for online purchases.
5. Lastly, Miliefsky recommends frequently checking credit reports for unauthorized charges or accounts. If you believe you've already been hacked, request to be placed under fraud alert with reporting bureaus Experian, TransUnion and Equifax. This means any business has to confirm your identity before issuing new credit.


text:
Lions land Bush, Broncos snag Welker on Day 2 of NFL free agency
Reggie Bush is heading to Detroit, Wes Welker landed in Denver, and even Ray Lewis got a new deal - with ESPN.
Day 2 of the NFL's free agency frenzy was highlighted by Bush's move to the Lions and Welker switching from one all-time great quarterback, Tom Brady, to another, Peyton Manning.
All-Pro safety Dashon Goldson left the 49ers for the Buccaneers on Wednesday.
Bush agreed to a four-year deal and could fill a huge hole at running back. The Lions haven't been able to count on 2010 first-round draft pick Jahvid Best, whose career is in doubt because of concussion issues.
"It's a running back's dream," Bush said. "One of the reasons I wanted to come here is to be able to bring a balanced attack."
Bush adds to a strong offense led by record-setting All-Pro receiver Calvin Johnson. The second overall pick in 2006 by New Orleans, Bush rushed for 986 yards for Miami last season after gaining 1,086 yards in 2011, his first year with the Dolphins.
"The thing that was important to us was not just the talent of Reggie Bush, but also the way those talents complemented the other players we have on offense," coach Jim Schwartz said. "That was really the basis of our interest in Reggie."
Welker got a two-year deal with the Broncos, and John Elway announced said on his Twitter: "Excited to have Wes join the Broncos. His production & toughness will be a great asset!"
The best slot receiver in the league, Welker caught 118 passes for 1,354 yards and six TDs last season.
Goldson gets a five-year contract worth $41.25 million. He receives $8.25 million per year and $22 million in guaranteed money. He spent the past two seasons on one-year contracts with the 49ers, including last year with the franchise tag for $6.2 million.
Cleveland remained active, agreeing to terms with linebacker Quentin Groves and tackle Desmond Bryant to further bolster a defense that added Ravens linebacker Paul Kruger hours after free agency began.
"With the additions of Paul and Desmond, we believe that we have significantly improved our defense overall, particularly our front seven," Browns CEO Joe Banner said.
Kruger is one of many Super Bowl winners to leave the Ravens, including hard-hitting safety Bernard Pollard, who was released Wednesday. The biggest loss for Baltimore was an expected departure: Lewis announced in early January that he was ending his 17-year career. Then he led the Ravens to the championship.
On Wednesday, he joined ESPN as a studio analyst - an intense one, no doubt.
"I'm ready to bring the same level of passion to this next phase of my life as I brought to the field during my years as a player," Lewis said.
Baltimore signed defensive lineman Chris Canty, offensive lineman Ramon Harewood and running back Damien Berry.
Kansas City added cornerback Dunta Robinson, a former Clarke Central standout, and receiver Donnie Avery to the three free agents it signed the previous day when the marketplace opened.
The Chiefs, who have the No. 1 pick in next month's draft after a 2-14 season, agreed to deals with tight end Anthony Fasano, defensive tackle Mike DeVito, and quarterback Chase Daniel on Tuesday, when they also finalized the trade with San Francisco for starting QB Alex Smith.
After hiring Andy Reid as coach and John Dorsey as general manager, the Chiefs signed wide receiver Dwayne Bowe and punter Dustin Colquitt to long-term deals and franchised left tackle Branden Albert.
Also Wednesday:
-Chicago released tight end Kellen Davis after signing Martellus Bennett away from the Giants on Tuesday to replace him.
-The Giants signed 11-year veteran place kicker Josh Brown, who joins former Cowboys kicker David Buehler on the roster and apparently indicating free agent Lawrence Tynes won't be back. Tynes has made winning field goals in two NFC championship games in overtime and the Giants went on to win the Super Bowl in those seasons.
-Pittsburgh found its backup to QB Ben Roethlisberger in a Steel City native, Bruce Gradkowski. The 30-year-old Gradkowski is 6-14 as a starter with Oakland, Cleveland and Tampa Bay. He spent the 2011-12 seasons with the Cincinnati Bengals, appearing in five games.
Pittsburgh also released oft-injured offensive lineman Willie Colon.
-Arizona, in dire need of help in the backfield, agreed on a one-year contract with former Steelers starter Rashard Mendenhall. For three of his seasons, Mendenhall's offensive coordinator was new Cardinals coach Bruce Arians.
-Jacksonville released receiver Laurent Robinson, the latest high-priced player let go as part of the team's rebuilding project. Robinson signed a five-year, $32.5 million free agent-contract last season before missing considerable time with concussions.
"It's unfortunate, but it's part of the business," Robinson said. "Got to keep your head up and keep moving. Can't ever be surprised in this league."
-Tennessee agreed to terms on a multi-year deal with fullback Quinn Johnson, who has been one of Chris Johnson's lead blockers with the Titans.
-Buffalo addressed a need at linebacker by signing seven-year veteran Manny Lawson. The Bills are switching from a 4-3 alignment to a 3-4 under new coordinator Mike Pettine.