text:
United States Congress
Coordinates: 38°53′23″N 77°0′32″W / 38.88972°N 77.00889°W
United States Congress
|116f United States Congress
House of Representatives
|March 4, 1789
|Preceded by
|Congress of de Confederation
New session started
|January 3, 2019
Mike Pence (R)
since January 20, 2017
Nancy Pewosi (D)
since January 3, 2019
Chuck Grasswey (R)
since January 3, 2019
|535 voting members
in totaw ≤541 members
Senate powiticaw groups
House of Representatives powiticaw groups
Senate wast ewection
|November 6, 2018
House of Representatives wast ewection
|November 6, 2018
Senate next ewection
|November 3, 2020
House of Representatives next ewection
|November 3, 2020
|Meeting pwace
|United States Capitow
Washington, D.C.
United States of America
|United States Constitution
|This articwe is part of a series on de
powitics and government of
de United States
|United States portaw
The United States Congress is de bicameraw wegiswature of de federaw government of de United States and consists of two chambers: de House of Representatives and de Senate. The Congress meets in de United States Capitow in Washington, D.C. Bof senators and representatives are chosen drough direct ewection, dough vacancies in de Senate may be fiwwed by a governor appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 435 representatives and 100 senators. In addition, de House of Representatives currentwy has six non-voting members, bringing de totaw membership of de US Congress to 541[1] or fewer in de case of vacancies.
The members of de House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing de peopwe of a singwe constituency, known as a district. Congressionaw districts are apportioned to states by popuwation using de United States Census resuwts, provided dat each state has at weast one congressionaw representative. Each state, regardwess of popuwation or size, has two senators. Currentwy, dere are 100 senators representing de 50 states. Each senator is ewected at-warge in deir state for a six-year term, wif terms staggered, so every two years approximatewy one-dird of de Senate is up for ewection, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Articwe One of de United States Constitution reqwires dat members of Congress must be at weast 25 years owd (House) or 30 years owd (Senate), have been a citizen of de United States for seven (House) or nine (Senate) years, and be an inhabitant of de state which dey represent. A smaww number of senators in de 19f century were under 30 years owd and derefore did not meet de constitutionaw age reqwirement.[2]
The Congress was created by de Constitution of de United States and first met in 1789, repwacing in its wegiswative function de Congress of de Confederation. Awdough not wegawwy mandated, in practice since de 19f century, Congress members are typicawwy affiwiated wif de Repubwican Party or wif de Democratic Party and onwy rarewy wif a dird party or independents.
Articwe One of de United States Constitution states, "Aww wegiswative Powers herein granted shaww be vested in a Congress of de United States, which shaww consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." The House and Senate are eqwaw partners in de wegiswative process—wegiswation cannot be enacted widout de consent of bof chambers. However, de Constitution grants each chamber some uniqwe powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidentiaw appointments whiwe de House initiates revenue-raising biwws. The House initiates impeachment cases, whiwe de Senate decides impeachment cases.[3] A two-dirds vote of de Senate is reqwired before an impeached person can be removed from office.[3]
The term Congress can awso refer to a particuwar meeting of de wegiswature. A Congress covers two years; de current one, de 116f Congress, began on January 3, 2019, and wiww end on January 3, 2021. The Congress starts and ends on de dird day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of de Senate are referred to as senators; members of de House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congresswomen, or congressmen, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Schowar and representative Lee H. Hamiwton asserted dat de "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom" and insisted it was a "driving force in American government"[4] and a "remarkabwy resiwient institution, uh-hah-hah-hah."[5] Congress is de "heart and souw of our democracy," according to dis view,[6] even dough wegiswators rarewy achieve de prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices; one wrote dat "wegiswators remain ghosts in America's historicaw imagination, uh-hah-hah-hah."[6] One anawyst argues dat it is not a sowewy reactive institution but has pwayed an active rowe in shaping government powicy and is extraordinariwy sensitive to pubwic pressure.[6] Severaw academics described Congress:
Congress refwects us in aww our strengds and aww our weaknesses. It refwects our regionaw idiosyncrasies, our ednic, rewigious, and raciaw diversity, our muwtitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everyding from de vawue of war to de war over vawues. Congress is de government's most representative body ... Congress is essentiawwy charged wif reconciwing our many points of view on de great pubwic powicy issues of de day.— Smif, Roberts, and Wiewen[4]
Congress is constantwy changing and is constantwy in fwux.[7] In recent times, de American souf and west have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by de census and incwudes more minorities and women awdough bof groups are stiww underrepresented.[7] Whiwe power bawances among de different parts of government continue to change, de internaw structure of Congress is important to understand awong wif its interactions wif so-cawwed intermediary institutions such as powiticaw parties, civic associations, interest groups, and de mass media.[6]
The Congress of de United States serves two distinct purposes dat overwap: wocaw representation to de federaw government of a congressionaw district by representatives and a state's at-warge representation to de federaw government by senators.
Most incumbents seek re-ewection, and deir historicaw wikewihood of winning subseqwent ewections exceeds 90 percent.[8]
The historicaw records of de House of Representatives and de Senate are maintained by de Center for Legiswative Archives, which is a part of de Nationaw Archives and Records Administration.[9]
Congress is directwy responsibwe for de governing of de District of Cowumbia, de current seat of de federaw government.
The First Continentaw Congress was a gadering of representatives from twewve of de dirteen cowonies of Norf America.[10] On Juwy 4, 1776, de Second Continentaw Congress adopted de Decwaration of Independence, referring to de new nation as de "United States of America." The Articwes of Confederation in 1781 created de Congress of de Confederation, a unicameraw body wif eqwaw representation among de states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not wegiswative audority, and de federaw judiciary was confined to admirawty.[11] and wacked audority to cowwect taxes, reguwate commerce, or enforce waws.[12][13]
Government powerwessness wed to de Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution wif a two–chamber or bicameraw congress.[14] Smawwer states argued for eqwaw representation for each state.[15] The two-chamber structure had functioned weww in state governments.[16] A compromise pwan, de Connecticut Compromise, was adopted wif representatives chosen by popuwation (benefiting warger states) and exactwy two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smawwer states).[7][17] The ratified constitution created a federaw structure wif two overwapping power centers so dat each citizen as an individuaw was subjected to bof de power of state government and de nationaw government.[18][19][20] To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government—executive, wegiswative, and judiciaw—had a separate sphere of audority and couwd check oder branches according to de principwe of de separation of powers.[3] Furdermore, dere were checks and bawances widin de wegiswature since dere were two separate chambers.[21] The new government became active in 1789.[3][22]
Powiticaw scientist Juwian E. Zewizer suggested dere were four main congressionaw eras, wif considerabwe overwap, and incwuded de formative era (1780s–1820s), de partisan era (1830s–1900s), de committee era (1910s–1960s), and de contemporary era (1970s–today).[23]
1780s–1820s: Formative Era[edit]
Federawists and anti-federawists jostwed for power in de earwy years as powiticaw parties became pronounced, surprising de Constitution's Founding Faders of de United States. Wif de passage of de Constitution and de Biww of Rights, de anti-federawist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined de Anti-Administration Party dat James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790–91 to oppose powicies of Treasury Secretary Awexander Hamiwton; it soon became de Democratic-Repubwican Party or de Jeffersonian Repubwican Party[24] and began de era of de First Party System. Thomas Jefferson's ewection to de presidency marked a peacefuw transition of power between de parties in 1800. John Marshaww, 4f chief justice of de Supreme Court, empowered de courts by estabwishing de principwe of judiciaw review in waw in de wandmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectivewy giving de Supreme Court a power to nuwwify congressionaw wegiswation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[25][26]
1830s–1900s: Partisan Era[edit]
These years were marked by growf in de power of powiticaw parties. The watershed event was de Civiw War which resowved de swavery issue and unified de nation under federaw audority, but weakened de power of states' rights. The Giwded Age (1877–1901) was marked by Repubwican dominance of Congress. During dis time, wobbying activity became more intense, particuwarwy during de administration of President Uwysses S. Grant in which infwuentiaw wobbies advocated for raiwroad subsidies and tariffs on woow.[27] Immigration and high birf rates swewwed de ranks of citizens and de nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party weadership in bof houses of Congress as weww as cawws for reform; sometimes reformers wouwd attack wobbyists as corrupting powitics.[28] The position of Speaker of de House became extremewy powerfuw under weaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon. The Senate was effectivewy controwwed by a hawf dozen men, uh-hah-hah-hah.
1910s–1960s: Committee Era[edit]
A system of seniority—in which wong-time members of Congress gained more and more power—encouraged powiticians of bof parties to serve for wong terms. Committee chairmen remained infwuentiaw in bof houses untiw de reforms of de 1970s.
Important structuraw changes incwuded de direct popuwar ewection of senators according to de Seventeenf Amendment,[17] ratified on Apriw 8, 1913, wif positive effects (senators more sensitive to pubwic opinion) and negative effects (undermining de audority of state governments).[17] Supreme Court decisions based on de Constitution's commerce cwause expanded congressionaw power to reguwate de economy.[29] One effect of popuwar ewection of senators was to reduce de difference between de House and Senate in terms of deir wink to de ewectorate.[30] Lame duck reforms according to de Twentief Amendment ended de power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wiewd infwuence despite deir wack of accountabiwity.[31]
The Great Depression ushered in President Frankwin Roosevewt and strong controw by Democrats[32] and historic New Deaw powicies. Roosevewt's ewection in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards de executive branch. Numerous New Deaw initiatives came from de White House rader dan being initiated by Congress.[33] The Democratic Party controwwed bof houses of Congress for many years.[34][35][36] During dis time, Repubwicans and conservative soudern Democrats[37] formed de Conservative Coawition.[36][38] Democrats maintained controw of Congress during Worwd War II.[39][40] Congress struggwed wif efficiency in de postwar era partwy by reducing de number of standing congressionaw committees.[41] Soudern Democrats became a powerfuw force in many infwuentiaw committees awdough powiticaw power awternated between Repubwicans and Democrats during dese years. More compwex issues reqwired greater speciawization and expertise, such as space fwight and atomic energy powicy.[41] Senator Joseph McCardy expwoited de fear of communism during de Second Red Scare and conducted tewevised hearings.[42][43] In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowwy won de presidency and power shifted again to de Democrats who dominated bof houses of Congress untiw 1994.
1970s–Present: Contemporary Era[edit]
Congress enacted Johnson's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandaw had a powerfuw effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidentiaw wrongdoing and coverups; de scandaw "substantiawwy reshaped" rewations between de branches of government, suggested powiticaw scientist Bruce J. Schuwman.[45] Partisanship returned, particuwarwy after 1994; one anawyst attributes partisan infighting to swim congressionaw majorities which discouraged friendwy sociaw gaderings in meeting rooms such as de Board of Education.[6] Congress began reasserting its audority.[33][46] Lobbying became a big factor despite de 1971 Federaw Ewection Campaign Act. Powiticaw action committees or PACs couwd make substantive donations to congressionaw candidates via such means as soft money contributions.[47] Whiwe soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, de money often benefited candidates substantiawwy in an indirect way and hewped reewect candidates.[47] Reforms such as de 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act wimited campaign donations but did not wimit soft money contributions.[48] One source suggests post-Watergate waws amended in 1974 meant to reduce de "infwuence of weawdy contributors and end payoffs" instead "wegitimized PACs" since dey "enabwed individuaws to band togeder in support of candidates."[49] From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations weaped from $12.5 miwwion to $120 miwwion[49][50][51] awong wif concern over PAC infwuence in Congress.[52][53] In 2009, dere were 4,600 business, wabor and speciaw-interest PACs[54] incwuding ones for wawyers, ewectricians, and reaw estate brokers.[55] From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "hawf or more of deir campaign cash" from PACs.[54][56][57]
From 1970 to 2009, de House expanded dewegates, awong wif deir powers and priviweges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning wif representation on committees for Puerto Rico's resident commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a dewegate for de District of Cowumbia was audorized, and in 1972 new dewegate positions were estabwished for U.S. Virgin Iswands and Guam. 1978 saw an additionaw dewegate for American Samoa, and anoder for de Commonweawf of de Nordern Mariana Iswands began in 2009. These six members of Congress enjoy fwoor priviweges to introduce biwws and resowutions, and in recent congresses dey vote in permanent and sewect committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences wif de Senate. They have Capitow Hiww offices, staff and two annuaw appointments to each of de four miwitary academies. Whiwe deir votes are constitutionaw when Congress audorizes deir House Committee of de Whowe votes, recent Congresses have not awwowed for dat, and dey cannot vote when de House is meeting as de House of Representatives.[58]
In de wate 20f century, de media became more important in Congress's work.[59] Anawyst Michaew Schudson suggested dat greater pubwicity undermined de power of powiticaw parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individuaw representatives to infwuence decisions."[59] Norman Ornstein suggested dat media prominence wed to a greater emphasis on de negative and sensationaw side of Congress, and referred to dis as de tabwoidization of media coverage.[7] Oders saw pressure to sqweeze a powiticaw position into a dirty-second soundbite.[60] A report characterized Congress in 2013 as being unproductive, gridwocked, and "setting records for futiwity."[61] In October 2013, wif Congress unabwe to compromise, de government was shut down for severaw weeks and risked a serious defauwt on debt payments, causing 60% of de pubwic to say dey wouwd "fire every member of Congress" incwuding deir own representative.[62] One report suggested Congress posed de "biggest risk to de US economy" because of its brinksmanship, "down-to-de-wire budget and debt crises" and "indiscriminate spending cuts," resuwting in swowed economic activity and keeping up to two miwwion peopwe unempwoyed.[63] There has been increasing pubwic dissatisfaction wif Congress,[64] wif extremewy wow approvaw ratings[65][66] which dropped to 5% in October 2013.[67]
Rowe in Government[edit]
Powers of Congress[edit]
Overview of congressionaw power[edit]
Articwe I of de Constitution creates and sets forf de structure and most of de powers of Congress. Sections One drough Six describe how Congress is ewected and gives each House de power to create its own structure. Section Seven ways out de process for creating waws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a wist of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of de state, some of which may onwy be granted by Congress.[68] Constitutionaw amendments have granted Congress additionaw powers. Congress awso has impwied powers derived from de Constitution's Necessary and Proper Cwause.
Congress has audority over financiaw and budgetary powicy drough de enumerated power to "way and cowwect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay de Debts and provide for de common Defence and generaw Wewfare of de United States." There is vast audority over budgets, awdough anawyst Eric Patashnik suggested dat much of Congress's power to manage de budget has been wost when de wewfare state expanded since "entitwements were institutionawwy detached from Congress's ordinary wegiswative routine and rhydm."[69] Anoder factor weading to wess controw over de budget was a Keynesian bewief dat bawanced budgets were unnecessary.[69]
The Sixteenf Amendment in 1913 extended congressionaw power of taxation to incwude income taxes widout apportionment among de severaw States, and widout regard to any census or enumeration, uh-hah-hah-hah.[70] The Constitution awso grants Congress de excwusive power to appropriate funds, and dis power of de purse is one of Congress's primary checks on de executive branch.[70] Congress can borrow money on de credit of de United States, reguwate commerce wif foreign nations and among de states, and coin money.[71] Generawwy, bof de Senate and de House of Representatives have eqwaw wegiswative audority, awdough onwy de House may originate revenue and appropriation biwws.[3]
Congress has an important rowe in nationaw defense, incwuding de excwusive power to decware war, to raise and maintain de armed forces, and to make ruwes for de miwitary.[72] Some critics charge dat de executive branch has usurped Congress's constitutionawwy defined task of decwaring war.[73] Whiwe historicawwy presidents initiated de process for going to war, dey asked for and received formaw war decwarations from Congress for de War of 1812, de Mexican–American War, de Spanish–American War, Worwd War I, and Worwd War II,[74] awdough President Theodore Roosevewt's miwitary move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressionaw approvaw.[74] In de earwy days after de Norf Korean invasion of 1950, President Truman described de American response as a "powice action, uh-hah-hah-hah."[75] According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents [had] ordered troops into position or action widout a formaw congressionaw decwaration a totaw of 149 times."[74] In 1993, Michaew Kinswey wrote dat "Congress's war power has become de most fwagrantwy disregarded provision in de Constitution," and dat de "reaw erosion [of Congress's war power] began after Worwd War II."[76][77][78] Disagreement about de extent of congressionaw versus presidentiaw power regarding war has been present periodicawwy droughout de nation's history.[79]
Congress can estabwish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, estabwish Courts inferior to de Supreme Court, and "make aww Laws which shaww be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution de foregoing Powers, and aww oder Powers vested by dis Constitution in de Government of de United States, or in any Department or Officer dereof." Articwe Four gives Congress de power to admit new states into de Union, uh-hah-hah-hah.
One of Congress's foremost non-wegiswative functions is de power to investigate and oversee de executive branch.[80] Congressionaw oversight is usuawwy dewegated to committees and is faciwitated by Congress's subpoena power.[81] Some critics have charged dat Congress has in some instances faiwed to do an adeqwate job of overseeing de oder branches of government. In de Pwame affair, critics incwuding Representative Henry A. Waxman charged dat Congress was not doing an adeqwate job of oversight in dis case.[82] There have been concerns about congressionaw oversight of executive actions such as warrantwess wiretapping, awdough oders respond dat Congress did investigate de wegawity of presidentiaw decisions.[83] Powiticaw scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested dat oversight functions do not hewp members of Congress win reewection, uh-hah-hah-hah. Congress awso has de excwusive power of removaw, awwowing impeachment and removaw of de president, federaw judges and oder federaw officers.[84] There have been charges dat presidents acting under de doctrine of de unitary executive have assumed important wegiswative and budgetary powers dat shouwd bewong to Congress.[85] So-cawwed signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip de bawance of power between Congress and de White House a wittwe more in favor of de executive branch," according to one account.[86] Past presidents, incwuding Ronawd Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Biww Cwinton, and George W. Bush,[87] have made pubwic statements when signing congressionaw wegiswation about how dey understand a biww or pwan to execute it, and commentators, incwuding de American Bar Association, have described dis practice as against de spirit of de Constitution, uh-hah-hah-hah.[88][89] There have been concerns dat presidentiaw audority to cope wif financiaw crises is ecwipsing de power of Congress.[90] In 2008, George F. Wiww cawwed de Capitow buiwding a "tomb for de antiqwated idea dat de wegiswative branch matters."[91]
Enumerated powers[edit]
The Constitution enumerates de powers of Congress in detaiw. In addition, oder congressionaw powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutionaw amendments. The Thirteenf (1865), Fourteenf (1868), and Fifteenf Amendments (1870) gave Congress audority to enact wegiswation to enforce rights of African Americans, incwuding voting rights, due process, and eqwaw protection under de waw.[92] Generawwy miwitia forces are controwwed by state governments, not Congress.[93]
Impwied powers and de commerce cwause[edit]
Congress awso has impwied powers deriving from de Constitution's Necessary and Proper Cwause which permit Congress to "make aww Laws which shaww be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution de foregoing Powers, and aww oder Powers vested by dis Constitution in de Government of de United States, or in any Department or Officer dereof."[94] Broad interpretations of dis cwause and of de Commerce Cwause, de enumerated power to reguwate commerce, in ruwings such as McCuwwoch v. Marywand, have effectivewy widened de scope of Congress's wegiswative audority far beyond dat prescribed in Section Eight.[95][96]
Territoriaw government[edit]
Constitutionaw responsibiwity for de oversight of Washington, D.C., de federaw district and nationaw capitaw, and de U.S. territories of Guam, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, de U.S. Virgin Iswands, and de Nordern Mariana Iswands rests wif Congress.[97] The repubwican form of government in territories is devowved by Congressionaw statute to de respective territories incwuding direct ewection of governors, de D.C. mayor and wocawwy ewective territoriaw wegiswatures.[98]
Each territory and Washington, D.C., ewect a non-voting dewegate to de U.S. House of Representatives as dey have droughout Congressionaw history. They "possess de same powers as oder members of de House, except dat dey may not vote when de House is meeting as de House of Representatives." They are assigned offices and awwowances for staff, participate in debate, and appoint constituents to de four miwitary service academies for de Army, Navy, Air Force and Coast Guard.[99]
Washington, D.C., citizens awone among U.S. territories have de right to directwy vote for de President of de United States, awdough de Democratic and Repubwican powiticaw parties nominate deir presidentiaw candidates at nationaw conventions which incwude dewegates from de five major territories.[100]
Checks and bawances[edit]
Representative Lee H. Hamiwton expwained how Congress functions widin de federaw government:
To me de key to understanding it is bawance. The founders went to great wengds to bawance institutions against each oder—bawancing powers among de dree branches: Congress, de president, and de Supreme Court; between de House of Representatives and de Senate; between de federaw government and de states; among states of different sizes and regions wif different interests; between de powers of government and de rights of citizens, as spewwed out in de Biww of Rights ... No one part of government dominates de oder.[4]:6
The Constitution provides checks and bawances among de dree branches of de federaw government. Its audors expected de greater power to wie wif Congress as described in Articwe One.[4][101]
The infwuence of Congress on de presidency has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressionaw weadership, presidentiaw powiticaw infwuence, historicaw circumstances such as war, and individuaw initiative by members of Congress. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson made de presidency wess powerfuw dan Congress for a considerabwe period afterwards.[102] The 20f and 21st centuries have seen de rise of presidentiaw power under powiticians such as Theodore Roosevewt, Woodrow Wiwson, Frankwin D. Roosevewt, Richard Nixon, Ronawd Reagan, and George W. Bush.[103] However, in recent years, Congress has restricted presidentiaw power wif waws such as de Congressionaw Budget and Impoundment Controw Act of 1974 and de War Powers Resowution. Neverdewess, de Presidency remains considerabwy more powerfuw today dan during de 19f century.[4][103] Executive branch officiaws are often woaf to reveaw sensitive information to members of Congress because of concern dat information couwd not be kept secret; in return, knowing dey may be in de dark about executive branch activity, congressionaw officiaws are more wikewy to distrust deir counterparts in executive agencies.[104] Many government actions reqwire fast coordinated effort by many agencies, and dis is a task dat Congress is iww-suited for. Congress is swow, open, divided, and not weww matched to handwe more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity, according to one anawysis.[105]
The Constitution concentrates removaw powers in de Congress by empowering and obwigating de House of Representatives to impeach bof executive and judiciaw officiaws for "Treason, Bribery, or oder high Crimes and Misdemeanors." Impeachment is a formaw accusation of unwawfuw activity by a civiw officer or government officiaw. The Senate is constitutionawwy empowered and obwigated to try aww impeachments. A simpwe majority in de House is reqwired to impeach an officiaw; however, a two-dirds majority in de Senate is reqwired for conviction, uh-hah-hah-hah. A convicted officiaw is automaticawwy removed from office; in addition, de Senate may stipuwate dat de defendant be banned from howding office in de future. Impeachment proceedings may not infwict more dan dis; however, a convicted party may face criminaw penawties in a normaw court of waw. In de history of de United States, de House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officiaws, of whom seven were convicted. Anoder resigned before de Senate couwd compwete de triaw. Onwy dree presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Biww Cwinton in 1999, and Donawd Trump in 2019. Aww dree triaws ended in acqwittaw; in Johnson's case, de Senate feww one vote short of de two-dirds majority reqwired for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in de House Judiciary Committee indicated he wouwd eventuawwy be removed from office.
The Senate has an important check on de executive power by confirming Cabinet officiaws, judges, and oder high officers "by and wif de Advice and Consent of de Senate." It confirms most presidentiaw nominees but rejections are not uncommon, uh-hah-hah-hah. Furdermore, treaties negotiated by de President must be ratified by a two-dirds majority vote in de Senate to take effect. As a resuwt, presidentiaw arm-twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for exampwe, President Obama's secretary of state, Hiwwary Cwinton, urged her former senate cowweagues to approve a nucwear arms treaty wif Russia in 2010.[106] The House of Representatives has no formaw rowe in eider de ratification of treaties or de appointment of federaw officiaws, oder dan in fiwwing a vacancy in de office of de vice president; in such a case, a majority vote in each House is reqwired to confirm a president's nomination of a vice president.[3]
In 1803, de Supreme Court estabwished judiciaw review of federaw wegiswation in Marbury v. Madison, howding, however, dat Congress couwd not grant unconstitutionaw power to de Court itsewf. The Constitution does not expwicitwy state dat de courts may exercise judiciaw review; however, de notion dat courts couwd decware waws unconstitutionaw was envisioned by de founding faders. Awexander Hamiwton, for exampwe, mentioned and expounded upon de doctrine in Federawist No. 78. Originawists on de Supreme Court have argued dat if de constitution does not say someding expwicitwy it is unconstitutionaw to infer what it shouwd, might or couwd have said.[107] Judiciaw review means dat de Supreme Court can nuwwify a congressionaw waw. It is a huge check by de courts on de wegiswative audority and wimits congressionaw power substantiawwy. In 1857, for exampwe, de Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressionaw act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision, uh-hah-hah-hah.[108] At de same time, de Supreme Court can extend congressionaw power drough its constitutionaw interpretations.
The congressionaw inqwiry into St. Cwair's Defeat of 1791 was de first congressionaw investigation of de executive branch.[109] Investigations are conducted to gader information on de need for future wegiswation, to test de effectiveness of waws awready passed, and to inqwire into de qwawifications and performance of members and officiaws of de oder branches. Committees may howd hearings, and, if necessary, compew individuaws to testify when investigating issues over which it has de power to wegiswate by issuing subpoenas.[110][111] Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress, and dose who testify fawsewy may be charged wif perjury. Most committee hearings are open to de pubwic (de House and Senate intewwigence committees are de exception); important hearings are widewy reported in de mass media and transcripts pubwished a few monds afterwards.[111] Congress, in de course of studying possibwe waws and investigating matters, generates an incredibwe amount of information in various forms, and can be described as a pubwisher.[112] Indeed, it pubwishes House and Senate reports[112] and maintains databases which are updated irreguwarwy wif pubwications in a variety of ewectronic formats.[112]
Congress awso pways a rowe in presidentiaw ewections. Bof Houses meet in joint session on de sixf day of January fowwowing a presidentiaw ewection to count de ewectoraw votes, and dere are procedures to fowwow if no candidate wins a majority.[3]
The main resuwt of congressionaw activity is de creation of waws,[113] most of which are contained in de United States Code, arranged by subject matter awphabeticawwy under fifty titwe headings to present de waws "in a concise and usabwe form."[3]
Congress is spwit into two chambers—House and Senate—and manages de task of writing nationaw wegiswation by dividing work into separate committees which speciawize in different areas. Some members of Congress are ewected by deir peers to be officers of dese committees. Furder, Congress has anciwwary organizations such as de Government Accountabiwity Office and de Library of Congress to hewp provide it wif information, and members of Congress have staff and offices to assist dem as weww. In addition, a vast industry of wobbyists hewps members write wegiswation on behawf of diverse corporate and wabor interests.
The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particuwar subject intensewy. It is neider expected nor possibwe dat a member be an expert on aww subject areas before Congress.[114] As time goes by, members devewop expertise in particuwar subjects and deir wegaw aspects. Committees investigate speciawized subjects and advise de entire Congress about choices and trade-offs. The choice of speciawty may be infwuenced by de member's constituency, important regionaw issues, prior background and experience.[115] Senators often choose a different speciawty from dat of de oder senator from deir state to prevent overwap.[116] Some committees speciawize in running de business of oder committees and exert a powerfuw infwuence over aww wegiswation; for exampwe, de House Ways and Means Committee has considerabwe infwuence over House affairs.[117]
Committees write wegiswation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Whiwe procedures, such as de House discharge petition process, can introduce biwws to de House fwoor and effectivewy bypass committee input, yet dey are exceedingwy difficuwt to impwement widout committee action, uh-hah-hah-hah. Committees have power and have been cawwed independent fiefdoms. Legiswative, oversight, and internaw administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees which gader information, evawuate awternatives, and identify probwems.[118] They propose sowutions for consideration by de fuww chamber.[118] In addition, dey perform de function of oversight by monitoring de executive branch and investigating wrongdoing.[118]
At de start of each two-year session de House ewects a speaker who does not normawwy preside over debates but serves as de majority party's weader. In de Senate, de vice president is de ex officio president of de Senate. In addition, de Senate ewects an officer cawwed de president pro tempore. Pro tempore means for de time being and dis office is usuawwy hewd by de most senior member of de Senate's majority party and customariwy keeps dis position untiw dere is a change in party controw. Accordingwy, de Senate does not necessariwy ewect a new president pro tempore at de beginning of a new Congress. In bof de House and Senate, de actuaw presiding officer is generawwy a junior member of de majority party who is appointed so dat new members become acqwainted wif de ruwes of de chamber.
Support services[edit]
Library of Congress[edit]
The Library of Congress was estabwished by an act of Congress in 1800. It is primariwy housed in dree buiwdings on Capitow Hiww, but awso incwudes severaw oder sites: de Nationaw Library Service for de Bwind and Physicawwy Handicapped in Washington, D.C.; de Nationaw Audio-Visuaw Conservation Center in Cuwpeper, Virginia; a warge book storage faciwity wocated at Ft. Meade, Marywand; and muwtipwe overseas offices. The Library had mostwy waw books when it was burned by a British raiding party during de War of 1812, but de wibrary's cowwections were restored and expanded when Congress audorized de purchase of Thomas Jefferson's private wibrary. One of de wibrary's missions is to serve de Congress and its staff as weww as de American pubwic. It is de wargest wibrary in de worwd wif nearwy 150 miwwion items incwuding books, fiwms, maps, photographs, music, manuscripts, graphics, and materiaws in 470 wanguages.[119]
Congressionaw Research Service[edit]
The Congressionaw Research Service, part of de Library of Congress, provides detaiwed, up-to-date and non-partisan research for senators, representatives, and deir staff to hewp dem carry out deir officiaw duties. It provides ideas for wegiswation, hewps members anawyze a biww, faciwitates pubwic hearings, makes reports, consuwts on matters such as parwiamentary procedure, and hewps de two chambers resowve disagreements. It has been cawwed de "House's dink tank" and has a staff of about 900 empwoyees.[120]
Congressionaw Budget Office[edit]
The Congressionaw Budget Office or CBO is a federaw agency which provides economic data to Congress.[121]
It was created as an independent non-partisan agency by de Congressionaw Budget and Impoundment Controw Act of 1974. It hewps Congress estimate revenue infwows from taxes and hewps de budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as de nationaw debt[122] as weww as wikewy costs of wegiswation, uh-hah-hah-hah. It prepares an annuaw Economic and Budget Outwook wif a mid-year update and writes An Anawysis of de President's Budgetary Proposaws for de Senate's Appropriations Committee. The speaker of de House and de Senate's president pro tempore jointwy appoint de CBO director for a four-year term.
Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to infwuence congressionaw decisions to refwect deir cwients' needs. Lobby groups and deir members sometimes write wegiswation and whip biwws. In 2007, dere were approximatewy 17,000 federaw wobbyists in Washington, D.C.[123] They expwain to wegiswators de goaws of deir organizations. Some wobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro bono for issues in which dey are personawwy interested.
United States Capitow Powice[edit]
Partisanship versus bipartisanship[edit]
Congress has awternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties, known as bipartisanship, and periods of deep powiticaw powarization and fierce infighting, known as partisanship. The period after de Civiw War was marked by partisanship, as is de case today. It is generawwy easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possibwe. Some powiticaw scientists specuwate dat a prowonged period marked by narrow majorities in bof chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in de wast few decades, but dat an awternation of controw of Congress between Democrats and Repubwicans may wead to greater fwexibiwity in powicies, as weww as pragmatism and civiwity widin de institution, uh-hah-hah-hah.[124]
Procedures of Congress[edit]
A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions," one for each year; Congress has occasionawwy been cawwed into an extra or speciaw session. A new session commences on January 3 each year, unwess Congress decides differentwy. The Constitution reqwires Congress meet at weast once each year and forbids eider house from meeting outside de Capitow widout de consent of de oder house.
Joint sessions[edit]
Joint sessions of de United States Congress occur on speciaw occasions dat reqwire a concurrent resowution from bof House and Senate. These sessions incwude counting ewectoraw votes after a presidentiaw ewection and de president's State of de Union address. The constitutionawwy mandated report, normawwy given as an annuaw speech, is modewed on Britain's Speech from de Throne, was written by most presidents after Jefferson but personawwy dewivered as a spoken oration beginning wif Wiwson in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionawwy presided over by de speaker of de House, except when counting presidentiaw ewectoraw votes when de vice president (acting as de president of de Senate) presides.
Biwws and resowutions[edit]
Ideas for wegiswation can come from members, wobbyists, state wegiswatures, constituents, wegiswative counsew, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a biww, but onwy members of Congress may introduce biwws. Most biwws are not written by Congress members, but originate from de Executive branch; interest groups often draft biwws as weww. The usuaw next step is for de proposaw to be passed to a committee for review.[3] A proposaw is usuawwy in one of dese forms:
- Biwws are waws in de making. A House-originated biww begins wif de wetters "H.R." for "House of Representatives," fowwowed by a number kept as it progresses.[113]
- Joint resowutions. There is wittwe difference between a biww and a joint resowution since bof are treated simiwarwy; a joint resowution originating from de House, for exampwe, begins "H.J.Res." fowwowed by its number.[113]
- Concurrent Resowutions affect onwy bof de House and Senate and accordingwy are not presented to de president for approvaw water. In de House, dey begin wif "H.Con, uh-hah-hah-hah.Res."[113]
- Simpwe resowutions concern onwy de House or onwy de Senate and begin wif "H.Res." or "S.Res."[113]
Representatives introduce a biww whiwe de House is in session by pwacing it in de hopper on de Cwerk's desk.[113] It is assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each biww intensewy at dis stage.[113] Drafting statutes reqwires "great skiww, knowwedge, and experience" and sometimes take a year or more.[3] Sometimes wobbyists write wegiswation and submit it to a member for introduction, uh-hah-hah-hah. Joint resowutions are de normaw way to propose a constitutionaw amendment or decware war. On de oder hand, concurrent resowutions (passed by bof houses) and simpwe resowutions (passed by onwy one house) do not have de force of waw but express de opinion of Congress or reguwate procedure. Biwws may be introduced by any member of eider house. However, de Constitution states, "Aww Biwws for raising Revenue shaww originate in de House of Representatives." Whiwe de Senate cannot originate revenue and appropriation biwws, it has power to amend or reject dem. Congress has sought ways to estabwish appropriate spending wevews.[3]
Each chamber determines its own internaw ruwes of operation unwess specified in de Constitution or prescribed by waw. In de House, a Ruwes Committee guides wegiswation; in de Senate, a Standing Ruwes committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for exampwe, de Senate rewies heaviwy on de practice of getting "unanimous consent" for noncontroversiaw matters.[3] House and Senate ruwes can be compwex, sometimes reqwiring a hundred specific steps before a biww can become a waw.[4] Members sometimes turn to outside experts to wearn about proper Congressionaw procedures.[125]
Each biww goes drough severaw stages in each house incwuding consideration by a committee and advice from de Government Accountabiwity Office.[3] Most wegiswation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particuwar subject such as Agricuwture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; de Senate has sixteen, uh-hah-hah-hah. Standing committees meet at weast once each monf.[3] Awmost aww standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to de pubwic unwess de committee votes, pubwicwy, to cwose de meeting.[3] A committee might caww for pubwic hearings on important biwws.[3] Each committee is wed by a chair who bewongs to de majority party and a ranking member of de minority party. Witnesses and experts can present deir case for or against a biww.[113] Then, a biww may go to what is cawwed a mark-up session, where committee members debate de biww's merits and may offer amendments or revisions.[113] Committees may awso amend de biww, but de fuww house howds de power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, de committee votes wheder it wishes to report de measure to de fuww house. If a biww is tabwed den it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new biww wif amendments buiwt in wiww be submitted as a so-cawwed cwean biww wif a new number.[113] Bof houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruwed but dey are rarewy used. Generawwy, members who have been in Congress wonger have greater seniority and derefore greater power.[126]
A biww which reaches de fwoor of de fuww house can be simpwe or compwex[113] and begins wif an enacting formuwa such as "Be it enacted by de Senate and House of Representatives of de United States of America in Congress assembwed." Consideration of a biww reqwires, itsewf, a ruwe which is a simpwe resowution specifying de particuwars of debate—time wimits, possibiwity of furder amendments, and such.[113] Each side has eqwaw time and members can yiewd to oder members who wish to speak.[113] Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a biww which means to change part of it.[113] Generawwy, discussion reqwires a qworum, usuawwy hawf of de totaw number of representatives, before discussion can begin, awdough dere are exceptions.[127] The house may debate and amend de biww; de precise procedures used by de House and Senate differ. A finaw vote on de biww fowwows.
Once a biww is approved by one house, it is sent to de oder which may pass, reject, or amend it. For de biww to become waw, bof houses must agree to identicaw versions of de biww.[113] If de second house amends de biww, den de differences between de two versions must be reconciwed in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee dat incwudes bof senators and representatives[113] sometimes by using a reconciwiation process to wimit budget biwws.[3] Bof houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informawwy known as pay-as-you-go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits.[3] If bof houses agree to de version reported by de conference committee, de biww passes, oderwise it faiws.
The Constitution specifies dat a majority of members, known as a qworum, be present before doing business in each house. However, de ruwes of each house assume dat a qworum is present unwess a qworum caww demonstrates de contrary and debate often continues despite de wack of a majority.
Voting widin Congress can take many forms, incwuding systems using wights and bewws and ewectronic voting.[3] Bof houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye" or "no" and de presiding officer announces de resuwt. The Constitution, however, reqwires a recorded vote if demanded by one-fiff of de members present or when voting to override a presidentiaw veto. If de voice vote is uncwear or if de matter is controversiaw, a recorded vote usuawwy happens. The Senate uses roww-caww voting, in which a cwerk cawws out de names of aww de senators, each senator stating "aye" or "no" when deir name is announced. In de Senate, de Vice President may cast de tie-breaking vote if present when de Senators are eqwawwy divided.
The House reserves roww-caww votes for de most formaw matters, as a roww caww of aww 435 representatives takes qwite some time; normawwy, members vote by using an ewectronic device. In de case of a tie, de motion in qwestion faiws. Most votes in de House are done ewectronicawwy, awwowing members to vote yea or nay or present or open.[3] Members insert a voting ID card and can change deir votes during de wast five minutes if dey choose; in addition, paper bawwots are used on some occasions—yea indicated by green and nay by red.[3] One member cannot cast a proxy vote for anoder.[3] Congressionaw votes are recorded on an onwine database.[128][129]
After passage by bof houses, a biww is enrowwed and sent to de president for approvaw.[113] The president may sign it making it waw or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress wif de president's objections. A vetoed biww can stiww become waw if each house of Congress votes to override de veto wif a two-dirds majority. Finawwy, de president may do noding—neider signing nor vetoing de biww—and den de biww becomes waw automaticawwy after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to de Constitution, uh-hah-hah-hah. But if Congress is adjourned during dis period, presidents may veto wegiswation passed at de end of a congressionaw session simpwy by ignoring it; de maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and cannot be overridden by de adjourned Congress.
Congress and de pubwic[edit]
Advantage of incumbency[edit]
Citizens and representatives[edit]
Senators face reewection every six years, and representatives every two. Reewections encourage candidates to focus deir pubwicity efforts at deir home states or districts.[59] Running for reewection can be a gruewing process of distant travew and fund-raising which distracts senators and representatives from paying attention to governing, according to some critics.[130] Awdough oders respond dat de process is necessary to keep members of Congress in touch wif voters.
Neverdewess, incumbent members of Congress running for reewection have strong advantages over chawwengers.[47] They raise more money[52] because donors fund incumbents over chawwengers, perceiving de former as more wikewy to win,[50][131] and donations are vitaw for winning ewections.[132] One critic compared being ewected to Congress to receiving wife tenure at a university.[131] Anoder advantage for representatives is de practice of gerrymandering.[133][134] After each ten-year census, states are awwocated representatives based on popuwation, and officiaws in power can choose how to draw de congressionaw district boundaries to support candidates from deir party. As a resuwt, reewection rates of members of Congress hover around 90 percent,[8] causing some critics to accuse dem of being a priviweged cwass.[7] Academics such as Princeton's Stephen Macedo have proposed sowutions to fix gerrymandering in de U.S. Bof senators and representatives enjoy free maiwing priviweges, cawwed franking priviweges; whiwe dese are not intended for ewectioneering, dis ruwe is often skirted by borderwine ewection-rewated maiwings during campaigns.
Expensive campaigns[edit]
In 1971, de cost of running for Congress in Utah was $70,000[135] but costs have cwimbed.[136] The biggest expense is tewevision advertisements.[51][131][135][137][138] Today's races cost more dan a miwwion dowwars for a House seat, and six miwwion or more for a Senate seat.[7][51][137][139][140] Since fundraising is vitaw, "members of Congress are forced to spend ever-increasing hours raising money for deir re-ewection, uh-hah-hah-hah."[attribution needed][141]
Neverdewess, de Supreme Court has treated campaign contributions as a free speech issue.[136] Some see money as a good infwuence in powitics since it "enabwes candidates to communicate wif voters."[136] Few members retire from Congress widout compwaining about how much it costs to campaign for reewection, uh-hah-hah-hah.[7] Critics contend dat members of Congress are more wikewy to attend to de needs of heavy campaign contributors dan to ordinary citizens.[7]
Ewections are infwuenced by many variabwes. Some powiticaw scientists specuwate dere is a coattaiw effect (when a popuwar president or party position has de effect of reewecting incumbents who win by "riding on de president's coattaiws"), awdough dere is some evidence dat de coattaiw effect is irreguwar and possibwy decwining since de 1950s.[47] Some districts are so heaviwy Democratic or Repubwican dat dey are cawwed a safe seat; any candidate winning de primary wiww awmost awways be ewected, and dese candidates do not need to spend money on advertising.[142][143] But some races can be competitive when dere is no incumbent. If a seat becomes vacant in an open district, den bof parties may spend heaviwy on advertising in dese races; in Cawifornia in 1992, onwy four of twenty races for House seats were considered highwy competitive.[144]
Tewevision and negative advertising[edit]
Since members of Congress must advertise heaviwy on tewevision, dis usuawwy invowves negative advertising, which smears an opponent's character widout focusing on de issues.[145] Negative advertising is seen as effective because "de messages tend to stick."[146] However, dese advertisements sour de pubwic on de powiticaw process in generaw as most members of Congress seek to avoid bwame.[147] One wrong decision or one damaging tewevision image can mean defeat at de next ewection, which weads to a cuwture of risk avoidance, a need to make powicy decisions behind cwosed doors,[147][148] and concentrating pubwicity efforts in de members' home districts.[59]
Pubwic perceptions of Congress[edit]
Prominent Founding Faders writing in The Federawist Papers fewt dat ewections were essentiaw to wiberty, dat a bond between de peopwe and de representatives was particuwarwy essentiaw,[149] and dat "freqwent ewections are unqwestionabwy de onwy powicy by which dis dependence and sympady can be effectuawwy secured."[149] In 2009, however, few Americans were famiwiar wif weaders of Congress.[150][151][152] The percentage of Americans ewigibwe to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63% in 1960, but has been fawwing since, awdough dere was a swight upward trend in de 2008 ewection, uh-hah-hah-hah.[153] Pubwic opinion powws asking peopwe if dey approve of de job Congress is doing have, in de wast few decades, hovered around 25% wif some variation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[7][154][155][156][157][158][159] Schowar Juwian Zewiger suggested dat de "size, messiness, virtues, and vices dat make Congress so interesting awso create enormous barriers to our understanding de institution ... Unwike de presidency, Congress is difficuwt to conceptuawize."[160] Oder schowars suggest dat despite de criticism, "Congress is a remarkabwy resiwient institution ... its pwace in de powiticaw process is not dreatened ... it is rich in resources" and dat most members behave edicawwy.[5] They contend dat "Congress is easy to diswike and often difficuwt to defend" and dis perception is exacerbated because many chawwengers running for Congress run against Congress, which is an "owd form of American powitics" dat furder undermines Congress's reputation wif de pubwic:[7]
The rough-and-tumbwe worwd of wegiswating is not orderwy and civiw, human fraiwties too often taint its membership, and wegiswative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective ... Stiww, we are not exaggerating when we say dat Congress is essentiaw to American democracy. We wouwd not have survived as a nation widout a Congress dat represented de diverse interests of our society, conducted a pubwic debate on de major issues, found compromises to resowve confwicts peacefuwwy, and wimited de power of our executive, miwitary, and judiciaw institutions ... The popuwarity of Congress ebbs and fwows wif de pubwic's confidence in government generawwy ... de wegiswative process is easy to diswike—it often generates powiticaw posturing and grandstanding, it necessariwy invowves compromise, and it often weaves broken promises in its traiw. Awso, members of Congress often appear sewf-serving as dey pursue deir powiticaw careers and represent interests and refwect vawues dat are controversiaw. Scandaws, even when dey invowve a singwe member, add to de pubwic's frustration wif Congress and have contributed to de institution's wow ratings in opinion powws.— Smif, Roberts & Wiewen[7]
An additionaw factor dat confounds pubwic perceptions of Congress is dat congressionaw issues are becoming more technicaw and compwex and reqwire expertise in subjects such as science, engineering and economics.[7] As a resuwt, Congress often cedes audority to experts at de executive branch.[7]
Since 2006, Congress has dropped 10 points in de Gawwup confidence poww wif onwy 9% having "a great deaw" or "qwite a wot" of confidence in deir wegiswators.[161] Since 2011, Gawwup poww has reported Congress's approvaw rating among Americans at 10% or bewow dree times.[65][66] Pubwic opinion of Congress pwummeted furder to 5% in October 2013 after parts of de U.S. government deemed 'nonessentiaw government' shut down, uh-hah-hah-hah.[67]
Smawwer states and bigger states[edit]
When de Constitution was ratified in 1787, de ratio of de popuwations of warge states to smaww states was roughwy twewve to one. The Connecticut Compromise gave every state, warge and smaww, an eqwaw vote in de Senate.[162] Since each state has two senators, residents of smawwer states have more cwout in de Senate dan residents of warger states. But since 1787, de popuwation disparity between warge and smaww states has grown; in 2006, for exampwe, Cawifornia had seventy times de popuwation of Wyoming.[163] Critics, such as constitutionaw schowar Sanford Levinson, have suggested dat de popuwation disparity works against residents of warge states and causes a steady redistribution of resources from "warge states to smaww states."[164][165][166] However, oders argue dat de Connecticut Compromise was dewiberatewy intended by de Founding Faders to construct de Senate so dat each state had eqwaw footing not based on popuwation,[162] and contend dat de resuwt works weww on bawance.
Members and constituents[edit]
A major rowe for members of Congress is providing services to constituents.[167] Constituents reqwest assistance wif probwems.[168] Providing services hewps members of Congress win votes and ewections[133][169][170] and can make a difference in cwose races.[171] Congressionaw staff can hewp citizens navigate government bureaucracies.[4] One academic described de compwex intertwined rewation between wawmakers and constituents as home stywe.[172]:8
Congressionaw stywe[edit]
One way to categorize wawmakers, according to powiticaw scientist Richard Fenno, is by deir generaw motivation:
- Reewection, uh-hah-hah-hah. These are wawmakers who "never met a voter dey didn't wike" and provide excewwent constituent services.
- Good pubwic powicy. Legiswators who "burnish a reputation for powicy expertise and weadership."
- Power in de chamber. Lawmakers who spend serious time awong de "raiw of de House fwoor or in de Senate cwoakroom ministering to de needs of deir cowweagues." Famous wegiswator Henry Cway in de mid-19f century was described as an "issue entrepreneur" who wooked for issues to serve his ambitions.[172]:34
Priviweges and pay[edit]
Priviweges protecting members[edit]
Members of Congress enjoy parwiamentary priviwege, incwuding freedom from arrest in aww cases except for treason, fewony, and breach of de peace, and freedom of speech in debate. This constitutionawwy derived immunity appwies to members during sessions and when travewing to and from sessions.[173] The term arrest has been interpreted broadwy, and incwudes any detention or deway in de course of waw enforcement, incwuding court summons and subpoenas. The ruwes of de House strictwy guard dis priviwege; a member may not waive de priviwege on deir own, but must seek de permission of de whowe house to do so. Senate ruwes, however, are wess strict and permit individuaw senators to waive de priviwege as dey choose.
The Constitution guarantees absowute freedom of debate in bof houses, providing in de Speech or Debate Cwause of de Constitution dat "for any Speech or Debate in eider House, dey shaww not be qwestioned in any oder Pwace." Accordingwy, a member of Congress may not be sued in court for swander because of remarks made in eider house, awdough each house has its own ruwes restricting offensive speeches, and may punish members who transgress.
Obstructing de work of Congress is a crime under federaw waw and is known as contempt of Congress. Each member has de power to cite individuaws for contempt but can onwy issue a contempt citation—de judiciaw system pursues de matter wike a normaw criminaw case. If convicted in court, an individuaw found guiwty of contempt of Congress may be imprisoned for up to one year.[citation needed]
The franking priviwege awwows members of Congress to send officiaw maiw to constituents at government expense. Though dey are not permitted to send ewection materiaws, borderwine materiaw is often sent, especiawwy in de run-up to an ewection by dose in cwose races.[174][175] Indeed, some academics consider free maiwings as giving incumbents a big advantage over chawwengers.[8]‹See TfM›[faiwed verification][176]
Pay and benefits[edit]
From 1789 to 1815, members of Congress received onwy a daiwy payment of $6 whiwe in session, uh-hah-hah-hah. Members received an annuaw sawary of $1,500 per year from 1815 to 1817, den a per diem sawary of $8 from 1818 to 1855; since den dey have received an annuaw sawary, first pegged in 1855 at $3,000.[177][178] In 1907, sawaries were raised to $7,500 per year, de eqwivawent of $173,000 in 2010.[178] In 2006, members of Congress received a yearwy sawary of $165,200.[178] Congressionaw weaders were paid $183,500 per year. The Speaker of de House of Representatives earns $212,100 annuawwy. The sawary of de President pro tempore for 2006 was $183,500, eqwaw to dat of de majority and minority weaders of de House and Senate.[179] Priviweges incwude having an office and paid staff.[126] In 2008, non-officer members of Congress earned $169,300 annuawwy.[154] Some critics compwain congressionaw pay is high compared wif a median American income of $45,113 for men and $35,102 for women, uh-hah-hah-hah.[180] Oders have countered dat congressionaw pay is consistent wif oder branches of government.[154] Anoder criticism is dat members of Congress have access to free or wow-cost medicaw care in de Washington, D.C., area. The petition, "Remove heawf-care subsidies for Members of Congress and deir famiwies," garnered over 1,077,000 signatures on de website Change.org.[181] In January 2014, it was reported dat for de first time over hawf of de members of Congress were miwwionaires.[182] Congress has been criticized for trying to conceaw pay raises by swipping dem into a warge biww at de wast minute.[183] Oders have criticized de weawf of members of Congress.[135][138] Representative Jim Cooper of Tennessee towd Harvard professor Lawrence Lessig dat a chief probwem wif Congress was dat members focused on wucrative careers as wobbyists after serving––dat Congress was a "Farm League for K Street"––instead of on pubwic service.[184][185]
Members ewected since 1984 are covered by de Federaw Empwoyees Retirement System (FERS). Like oder federaw empwoyees, congressionaw retirement is funded drough taxes and participants' contributions. Members of Congress under FERS contribute 1.3% of deir sawary into de FERS retirement pwan and pay 6.2% of deir sawary in Sociaw Security taxes. And wike federaw empwoyees, members contribute one-dird of de cost of heawf insurance wif de government covering de oder two-dirds.[186]
The size of a congressionaw pension depends on de years of service and de average of de highest dree years of deir sawary. By waw, de starting amount of a member's retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of deir finaw sawary. In 2006, de average annuaw pension for retired senators and representatives under de Civiw Service Retirement System (CSRS) was $60,972, whiwe dose who retired under FERS, or in combination wif CSRS, was $35,952.[187]
Members of Congress make fact-finding missions to wearn about oder countries and stay informed, but dese outings can cause controversy if de trip is deemed excessive or unconnected wif de task of governing. For exampwe, de Waww Street Journaw reported in 2009 dat wawmaker trips abroad at taxpayer expense had incwuded spas, $300-per-night extra unused rooms, and shopping excursions.[188] Lawmakers respond dat "travewing wif spouses compensates for being away from dem a wot in Washington" and justify de trips as a way to meet officiaws in oder nations.[188]
See awso[edit]
- Caucuses of de United States Congress
- Congressionaw Archives
- Current members of de United States House of Representatives
- Current members of de United States Senate
- Ewections in de United States § Congressionaw ewections
- List of United States Congresses
- Oaf of office § United States
- Radio and Tewevision Correspondents' Association
- Term wimits in de United States
- United States Congress Joint Sewect Committee on Deficit Reduction
- United States Congressionaw Basebaww Game
- United States congressionaw hearing
- United States presidents and controw of Congress
- ^ The independent senators (Angus King and Bernie Sanders) formawwy caucus wif de Democratic Party.
- ^ "Membership of de 116f Congress: A Profiwe". Congressionaw Research Service. p. 4. Retrieved March 5, 2020.
Congress is composed of 541 individuaws from de 50 states, de District of Cowumbia, Guam, de U.S. Virgin Iswands, American Samoa, de Nordern Mariana Iswands, and Puerto Rico.
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- ^ a b Awexander Hamiwton or James Madison (February 8, 1788). "The Federawist Paper No. 52". Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- ^ "Congress' Approvaw Rating at Lowest Point for Year". Reuters. September 2, 2009. Archived from de originaw on September 5, 2009. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- ^ "The Congress: Makings of de 72nd (Cont.)". Time. September 22, 1930. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- ^ Jonadan Peterson (October 21, 1996). "Confident Cwinton Lends Hand to Congress Candidates". Los Angewes Times. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- ^ "References about diffname".
- "The Congress: Makings of de 72nd (Cont.)". Time. September 22, 1930. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- Maki Becker (June 17, 1994). "Informed Opinions on Today's Topics – Looking for Answers to Voter Apady". Los Angewes Times. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- Daniew Brumberg (October 30, 2008). "America's Re-emerging Democracy". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- Karen Tumuwty (Juwy 8, 1986). "Congress Must Now Make Own Painfuw Choices". Los Angewes Times. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- Janet Hook (December 22, 1997). "As U.S. Economy Fwows, Voter Vitriow Ebbs". Los Angewes Times. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- ^ a b c "Congress gets $4,100 pay raise". USA Today. Associated Press. January 9, 2008. Retrieved September 28, 2009.
- ^ Gawwup Poww/Newsweek (October 8, 2009). "Congress and de Pubwic: Congressionaw Job Approvaw Ratings Trend (1974 – present)". The Gawwup Organization. Retrieved October 8, 2009.
- ^ "References about wow approvaw ratings".
- "Congress' Approvaw Rating Jumps to 31%". Gawwup. February 17, 2009. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- "Congress' Approvaw Rating at Lowest Point for Year". Reuters. September 2, 2009. Archived from de originaw on September 5, 2009. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- John Whitesides (September 19, 2007). "Bush, Congress at record wow ratings: Reuters poww". Reuters. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- Seung Min Kim (February 18, 2009). "Poww: Congress' job approvaw at 31%". USA Today. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- ^ interview by David Schimke (September–October 2008). "Presidentiaw Power to de Peopwe – Audor Dana D. Newson on why democracy demands dat de next president be taken down a notch". Utne Reader. Retrieved September 20, 2009.
- ^ Guy Gugwiotta (November 3, 2004). "Powitics In, Voter Apady Out Amid Heavy Turnout". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- ^ "Voter Turnout Rate Said to Be Highest Since 1968". The Washington Post. Associated Press. December 15, 2008. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
- ^ Juwian E. Zewizer, ed. (2004). "The American Congress: The Buiwding of Democracy". Houghton Miffwin Company. p. xiv–xv. ISBN 0-618-17906-2. Retrieved September 11, 2010.
- ^ Norman, Jim (June 13, 2016). "Americans' Confidence in Institutions Stays Low". Gawwup. Retrieved June 14, 2016.
- ^ a b "Roger Sherman and The Connecticut Compromise". Connecticut Judiciaw Branch: Law Libraries. January 10, 2010. Retrieved January 10, 2010.
- ^ Cass R. Sunstein (October 26, 2006). "It Couwd Be Worse". The New Repubwic. Archived from de originaw on Juwy 30, 2010. Retrieved January 10, 2010.
- ^ Reviewed by Robert Justin Lipkin (January 2007). "Our Undemocratic Constitution: Where de Constitution Goes Wrong (And How We de Peopwe can Correct It)". Widener University Schoow of Law. Archived from de originaw on September 25, 2009. Retrieved September 20, 2009.
- ^ Sanford Levinson (2006). "Our Undemocratic Constitution". p. 60. Retrieved January 10, 2010.
- ^ Richard Labunski interviewed by Powicy Today's Dan Schwartz (October 18, 2007). "Time for a Second Constitutionaw Convention?". Powicy Today. Retrieved September 20, 2009.
- ^ Charwes L. Cwapp, The Congressman, His Work as He Sees It (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1963), p. 55; cf. pp. 50–55, 64–66, 75–84.
- ^ Congressionaw Quarterwy Weekwy Report 35 (September 3, 1977): 1855. Engwish, op. cit., pp. 48–49, notes dat members wiww awso reguwarwy appear at wocaw events in deir home district, and wiww maintain offices in de home congressionaw district or state.
- ^ Robert Preer (August 15, 2010). "Two Democrats in Senate race stress constituent services". Boston Gwobe. Retrieved September 11, 2010.
- ^ Daniew Mawwoy (August 22, 2010). "Incumbents battwe association wif stimuwus, Obama". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved September 11, 2010.
- ^ Amy Gardner (November 27, 2008). "Wowf's Decisive Win Surprised Even de GOP". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 11, 2010.
- ^ a b Wiwwiam T. Bwanco, ed. (2000). "Congress on dispway, Congress at work". University of Michigan, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 0-472-08711-8. Retrieved September 11, 2010.
- ^ Davidson (2006), p. 17
- ^ Engwish (2003), pp. 24–25
- ^ Simpson, G. R. (October 22, 1992). "Surprise! Top Frankers Awso Have de Stiffest Chawwenges". Roww Caww.
- ^ Steven S. Smif; Jason M. Roberts; Ryan J. Vander Wiewen (2006). "The American Congress (Fourf Edition)". Cambridge University Press. p. 79. Retrieved September 11, 2010.
- ^ Senate Sawaries since 1789. United States Senate. Retrieved August 13, 2007.
- ^ a b c Sawaries of Members of Congress (pdf). Congressionaw Research Service. Retrieved August 12, 2007.
- ^ Sawaries of Legiswative, Executive, and Judiciaw Officiaws (pdf). Congressionaw Research Service. Retrieved August 12, 2007.
- ^ "US Census Bureau news rewease in regards to median income". Archived from de originaw on January 3, 2010. Retrieved August 28, 2007.
- ^ Lui, Kevin (March 17, 2017). "A Petition to Remove Heawf Care Subsidies From Members of Congress Has Nearwy 500000 Signatures". Time Magazine. Washington D.C. Retrieved May 22, 2018.
- ^ Lipton, Eric (January 9, 2014). "Hawf of Congress Members Are Miwwionaires, Report Says". The New York Times. Retrieved January 11, 2014.
- ^ "A Quiet Raise—Congressionaw Pay—speciaw report". The Washington Post. 1998. Retrieved February 23, 2015.
- ^ Lessig, Lawrence (February 8, 2010). "How to Get Our Democracy Back". CBS News. Retrieved December 14, 2011.
- ^ Lessig, Lawrence (November 16, 2011). "Repubwic, Lost: How Money Corrupts Congress—and a Pwan to Stop It". Googwe, YouTube, The Huffington Post. Retrieved December 13, 2011.
(see 30:13 minutes into de video)
- ^ Scott, Wawter (Apriw 25, 2010). "Personawity Parade cowumn:Q. Does Congress pay for its own heawf care?". New York, NY: Parade. p. 2.
- ^ Retirement Benefits for Members of Congress (PDF). Congressionaw Research Service, February 9, 2007.
- ^ a b Brody Muwwins & T.W. Farnam (December 17, 2009). "Congress Travews More, Pubwic Pays: Lawmakers Ramp Up Taxpayer-Financed Journeys; Five Days in Scotwand". The Waww Street Journaw. Retrieved December 17, 2009.
- "How To Cwean Up The Mess From Inside The System, A Pwea—And A Pwan—To Reform Campaign Finance Before It's Too". Newsweek. October 28, 1996. Retrieved September 20, 2009.
- "The Constitution and de Idea of Compromise". PBS. October 10, 2009. Retrieved October 10, 2009.
- Awexander Hamiwton (1788). "Federawist No. 15 – The Insufficiency of de Present Confederation to Preserve de Union". FoundingFaders.info. Retrieved October 10, 2009.
- Bacon, Donawd C.; Davidson, Roger H.; Kewwer, Morton, eds. (1995). Encycwopedia of de United States Congress (4 vows.). Simon & Schuster.
- Cowwier, Christopher & Cowwier, James Lincown (1986). Decision in Phiwadewphia: The Constitutionaw Convention of 1787. Bawwantine Books. ISBN 0-394-52346-6.
- Davidson, Roger H. & Wawter J. Oweszek (2006). Congress and Its Members (10f ed.). Congressionaw Quarterwy (CQ) Press. ISBN 0-87187-325-7. (Legiswative procedure, informaw practices, and oder information)
- Engwish, Ross M. (2003). The United States Congress. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-6309-4.
- Francis-Smif, Janice (October 22, 2008). "Waging campaigns against incumbents in Okwahoma". The Okwahoma City Journaw Record. Archived from de originaw on May 10, 2010. Retrieved September 20, 2009.
- Herrnson, Pauw S. (2004). Congressionaw Ewections: Campaigning at Home and in Washington. CQ Press. ISBN 1-56802-826-1.
- Huckabee, David C. (2003). Reewection Rates of Incumbents. Hauppauge, New York: Novinka Books, an imprint of Nova Science Pubwishers. p. 21. ISBN 1-59033-509-0.
- Huckabee, David C. – Anawyst in American Nationaw Government – Government Division (March 8, 1995). "Reewection rate of House Incumbents 1790–1990 Summary (page 2)" (PDF). Congressionaw Research Service – The Library of Congress. Retrieved September 20, 2009. Cite journaw reqwires
- Maier, Pauwine (book reviewer) (November 18, 2007). "HISTORY – The Framers' Reaw Motives (book review) Unruwy Americans and de Origins of de Constitution book by Woody Howton". The Washington Post. Retrieved October 10, 2009.
- Oweszek, Wawter J. (2004). Congressionaw Procedures and de Powicy Process. CQ Press. ISBN 0-87187-477-6.
- Powsby, Newson W. (2004). How Congress Evowves: Sociaw Bases of Institutionaw Change. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516195-5.
- Price, David E. (2000). The Congressionaw Experience. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-1157-8.
- Strubwe, Robert Jr. (2007). Chapter seven, Treatise on Twewve Lights. TeLL. Archived from de originaw on Apriw 14, 2016.
- Zewizer, Juwian E. (2004). The American Congress: The Buiwding of Democracy. Houghton Miffwin, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 0-618-17906-2.
Furder reading[edit]
- Baker, Ross K. (2000). House and Senate, 3rd ed. New York: W. W. Norton, uh-hah-hah-hah. (Proceduraw, historicaw, and oder information about bof houses)
- Barone, Michaew and Richard E. Cohen, uh-hah-hah-hah. The Awmanac of American Powitics, 2006 (2005), ewaborate detaiw on every district and member; 1920 pages
- Berg-Andersson, Richard E. (2001). Expwanation of de types of Sessions of Congress (Term of Congress)
- Berman, Daniew M. (1964). In Congress Assembwed: The Legiswative Process in de Nationaw Government. London: The Macmiwwan Company. (Legiswative procedure)
- Bianco, Wiwwiam T. (2000) Congress on Dispway, Congress at Work, University of Michigan Press.
- Hamiwton, Lee H. (2004) How Congress Works and Why You Shouwd Care, Indiana University Press.
- Herrick, Rebekah (2001). "Gender effects on job satisfaction in de House of Representatives". Women and Powitics. 23 (4): 85–98. doi:10.1300/J014v23n04_04.
- Hunt, Richard (1998). "Using de Records of Congress in de Cwassroom". OAH Magazine of History. 12 (Summer): 34–37. doi:10.1093/maghis/12.4.34.
- Imbornoni, Ann-Marie, David Johnson, and Ewissa Haney. (2005). "Famous Firsts by American Women, uh-hah-hah-hah." Infopwease.
- Lee, Frances and Bruce Oppenheimer. (1999). Sizing Up de Senate: The Uneqwaw Conseqwences of Eqwaw Representation, uh-hah-hah-hah. University of Chicago Press: Chicago. (Eqwaw representation in de Senate)
- Rimmerman, Craig A. (1990). "Teaching Legiswative Powitics and Powicy Making." Powiticaw Science Teacher, 3 (Winter): 16–18.
- Ritchie, Donawd A. (2010). The U.S. Congress: A Very Short Introduction, uh-hah-hah-hah. (History, representation, and wegiswative procedure)
- Smif, Steven S.; Roberts, Jason M.; Vander Wiewen, Ryan (2007). The American Congress (5f ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19704-5. (Legiswative procedure, informaw practices, and oder information)
- Story, Joseph. (1891). Commentaries on de Constitution of de United States. (2 vows). Boston: Brown & Littwe. (History, constitution, and generaw wegiswative procedure)
- Tarr, David R. and Ann O'Connor. Congress A to Z (CQ Congressionaw Quarterwy) (4f 2003) 605pp
- Wiwson, Woodrow. (1885). Congressionaw Government. New York: Houghton Miffwin, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- Some information in dis articwe has been provided by de Senate Historicaw Office.
Externaw winks[edit]
- Officiaw website
- U.S. House of Representatives
- U.S. Senate
- Bwack Americans in Congress, Office of de Cwerk, U.S. House of Representatives
- GovTrack.us, a free reference and tracking toow for congressionaw wegiswation and voting records
- How Laws Are Made, via U.S. Government Printing Office
- Legiswative Information (Congress.gov) via Library of Congress
- Women in Congress, Office of de Cwerk, U.S. House of Representatives
Generaw information[edit]
- Biww Hammons' American Powitics Guide – Members of Congress by State, by Committee, and by House District wif District Map and Partisan Voting Index
- Congress and Legiswation from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Congress of de United States at de Encycwopædia Britannica
- Information about United States Congressionaw Biwws and Resowutions
- Sewected Congressionaw Research Service Reports on Congress and Its Procedures, via Law Librarians' Society of Washington, D.C.
- Sessions of Congress wif Corresponding Debate Record Vowume Numbers, via Law Librarians' Society of Washington, D.C.
|Preceded by
Congress of de Confederation
| Legiswature of de United States
March 4, 1789 – present
|Succeeded by