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Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na (from Latin natrium) and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal. Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table. Its only stable isotope is 23Na. The free metal does not occur in nature, and must be prepared from compounds. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and exists in numerous minerals such as feldspars, sodalite, and halite, i.e., rock salt (NaCl). Many salts of sodium are highly water-soluble: sodium ions have accumulated from the leaching action of water on Earth's minerals over eons, and thus sodium and chlorine are the most common dissolved elements by weight in the oceans.
Sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Among many other useful sodium compounds, sodium hydroxide (lye) is used in soap manufacture, and sodium chloride (edible salt) is a de-icing agent and a nutrient for animals including humans.
- Sir Humphrey Davy
Abominated gravy.
He lived in the odium
Of having discovered sodium.
- Edmund Clerihew Bentley, Clerihews: Biography for Beginners (1905)
- The first difficulty that faced us was the identification of the forms seen on focusing the sight on gases. We could only proceed tentatively. Thus, a very common form in the air had a sort of dumb-bell shape... we examined this, comparing our rough sketches, and counted its atoms; these, divided by 18—the number of ultimate atoms in hydrogen—gave us 23.22 as atomic weight, and this offered the presumption that it was sodium. We then took various substances—common salt, etc.—in which we knew sodium was present, and found the dumb-bell form in all. In other cases, we took small fragments of metals, as iron, tin, zinc, silver, gold; in others, again, pieces of ore, mineral waters, etc... In all, 57 chemical elements were examined, out of the 78 recognized by modern chemistry.
In addition to these, we found 3 chemical waifs: an unrecognized stranger between hydrogen and helium which we named occultum, for purposes of reference, and 2 varieties of one element, which we named kalon and meta-kalon, between xenon and osmium... Thus we have tabulated in all 65 chemical elements, or chemical atoms, completing three of Sir William Crookes' lemniscates, sufficient for some amount of generalization.
- Annie Besant and Charles W. Leadbeater, Occult Chemistry, Clairvoyant Observations on the Chemical Elements (1919) Chapter III. The Later Researches. pp. 18-19.
- Iodine was discovered by Courtois of Paris in 1812 in the mother-liquors collected in the process of manufacturing the sodium salts from kelp or burnt sea-weeds. The name is derived from a Greek word meaning "violet" in allusion to the colour of the vapour of iodine. Its elementary character was established by Gay-Lussac in 1815.
- James Campbell Brown, A History of Chemistry from the Earliest Times (1920) pp.506-507
- In a sense, human flesh is made of stardust.
Every atom in the human body, excluding only the primordial hydrogen atoms, was fashioned in stars that formed, grew old and exploded most violently before the Sun and the Earth came into being. The explosions scattered the heavy elements as a fine dust through space. By the time it made the Sun, the primordial gas of the Milky Way was sufficiently enriched with heavier elements for rocky planets like the Earth to form. And from the rocks atoms escaped for eventual incorporation in living things: carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulphur for all living tissue; calcium for bones and teeth; sodium and potassium for the workings of nerves and brains; the iron colouring blood red… and so on.
No other conclusion of modern research testifies more clearly to mankind's intimate connections with the universe at large and with the cosmic forces at work among the stars.
- Nigel Calder, The Key to the Universe (1977)
- I need only remind you of Davy's great researches: nitrous oxide; electric conduction and decomposition—resulting, on the one hand, in the separation of potassium and sodium, the decomposition of the earths following as a necessary consequence, and on the other in the electro-chemical theory; iodine and chlorine—resulting in the extension and confirmation of the word element, the discovery of the so-called hydrogen acids, and the important modification of the French theory of the constitution of acids; the investigation of gaseous explosion and of flame, and the invention of the safety lamp. These are the contributions to science which stand out more prominently in connection with Davy. But over and above all this is the peculiar manner of his discoveries. He was no patient plodder. He did not elaborate his work in minute detail. He dashed it off in broad masses; but just on that account there has never been anyone to follow up his investigations. Davy's mantle fell on no one, not even on Faraday.
- The distinction would only come to Mendeleev halfway through writing his Principles of Chemistry. ...chemical practice and not chemical theory had provided his initial organizing principle... Up to this point [Chapter 20], Mendeleev had only treated four elements in any detail: oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen—the so-called "organogens." Mendeleev began this chapter as usual by purifying the central substance, sodium chloride, from sources such as seawater. A discussion of sodium and chlorine followed in the next few chapters, and finally the halogens appeared... that were closely related to chlorine... and the alkali metals (the sodium family) form the first chapter of volume 2. ...he had dealt with only 8 elements, relegating 55... to the second volume. ...Mendeleev's earlier system of pedalogically useful organization—using laboratory practices... could no longer sustain the burden of exposition. He needed a new system... and he hit upon the idea of using a numerical marker for each element. Atomic weight seemed the most likely candidate for a system that would (a) account for all remaining elements; (b) do so in limited space; and (c) maintain some pedagogical merit. His solution, the periodic system, remains one of the most useful tools in chemistry.
- Michael D. Gordin, A Well-Ordered Thing: Dimitrii Mendeleev and the Shadow of the Periodic Table (2004) p. 22.
- Study of the conduction of electricity in liquids became possible at the beginning of the nineteenth century, following the discovery of the electrolytic cell by Volta in 1800, which provided the first continuous source of electric current. It was soon discovered that the conduction of electricity by solutions is accompanied by chemical reactions at the electrodes which serve to conduct the current into and out of the solution. Nicholson and Carlisle demonstrated the decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen by a current in 1801. Davy's discovery of sodium and potassium metals by electrolysis of moist soda and [caustic] potash was a striking example of the novelty of electrochemical decomposition. Many of the phenomena of electrolysis were already known when Michael Faraday began his researches.
- A. Horsfield, "The Faraday and Its Significance in Determining the Fundamental Constants," Precision Measurement and Fundamental Constants; Proceedings (1971) Issue 343, pp. 137-138, U.S. National Bureau of Standards.
- Abnormal sodium metabolism may be critical in the causation of certain forms of hypertension, particularly salt-sensitive hypertension. Long-term restriction of sodium intake in patients at high risk for the development of hypertension may reduce the chances of established hypertension occurring later. These high-risk patients in whom subsequent hypertension may be prevented include normotensive patients with family histories of hypertension, elderly patients, black patients, and those with low-renin hypertension. Treatment of hypertension with moderate sodium restriction to 70 mEq/day will significantly reduce blood pressure in a large percentage of patients, particularly known salt-sensitive hypertensive patients. This degree of restriction is also an effective adjunctive therapy for patients receiving antihypertensive medications. There is convincing experimental, epidemiologic, and clinical evidence that moderate sodium restriction helps prevent and assists in the treatment of hypertension in those patients who are genetically predisposed to develop primary hypertension or who already have hypertension. There is no evidence that this degree of sodium restriction is harmful.
- Mark C. Houston,"Sodium and hypertension. A review" Archives of Internal Medicine (January 1986) 146(1) pp. 179–185, doi:10.1001/archinte.1986.00360130217028.
- [T]he conditions for BEC in alkali gases are reached by combining two cooling methods. Laser cooling is used to precool the gas. The principle of laser cooling is that scattered photons are on average blue-shifted with respect to the incident laser beam. As a result, the scattered light carries away more energy than has been absorbed by the atoms, resulting in net cooling. Blue-shifts are caused by Doppler shifts or ac Stark shifts. The different laser cooling schemes are described in the 1997 Nobel lectures in physics... After the precooling, the atoms are cold enough to be confined in a magnetic trap. Wall-free confinement is necessary, otherwise the atoms would stick to the surface of the container. It is noteworthy that similar magnetic confinement is also used for plasmas which are too hot for any material container. After magnetically trapping the atoms, forced evaporative cooling is applied as the second cooling stage ... In this scheme, the trap depth is reduced, allowing the most energetic atoms to escape while the remainder rethermalize at steadily lower temperatures. Most BEC experiments reach quantum degeneracy between 500 nK and 2 μK, at densities between 1014 and 1015 cm-3. The largest condensates are of 100 million atoms for sodium, and a billion for hydrogen; the smallest are just a few hundred atoms.
- The purpose of cow's milk is to turn a 65-pound calf into a 400-pound cow, as rapidly as possible. Cow's milk is baby calf growth fluid. That's what this stuff is. Everything in that white liquid, the hormones, the lipids, the protein, the sodium, the growth factors, the IGF, every one of those is meant to blow that calf up to a great big cow, or it wouldn't be there. And whether you pour it onto your cereal as a liquid, whether you clot it into yogurt, whether you ferment it into cheese, whether you freeze it into ice cream, it's baby calf growth fluid. And women eat it and it stimulates their tissues, and it gives women breast lumps, it makes the uterus get big, and they get fibroids and they bleed and they get hysterectomies, and they need mammograms, and it gives guys man-boobs. Cow's milk is the lactation secretions of a large bovine mammal who just had a baby. It's for baby calves. I tell my patients, "Go look in the mirror. Do you have big ears, do you have a tail? Are you a baby calf? If you're not, don't be eating baby calf growth fluid." In any level, there's nothing in it people need.
- Michael Klaper, Interview in the documentary-film Cowspiracy (2014) by Kip Andersen & Keegan Kuhn
- Before we can rightly understand the principles of spectroscopic astronomy, we must go back to the life and work of its founder—Joseph von Fraunhofer. ...Allowing light from the Sun to pass through a prism attached to the telescope, he was amazed to find several dark lines in the spectrum. ...Fraunhofer named the more prominent lines by the letters of the alphabet from A in the red to H in the violet. They are now known as the Fraunhofer lines. ...He expressed the belief that the pair of lines in the solar spectrum which he marked D, coincided with the pair of bright lines emitted by incandescent sodium. Although he doubtless suspected that the lines conveyed intelligence regarding the elements in the Sun, he never was able properly to decipher their meaning. ...Had he lived he would probably have made the great discovery.
- Hector Macpherson, A Century's Progress in Astronomy (1906) p. 47-50.
- Black... set himself the problem of accurately determining the differences in composition between burnt (or caustic) and unburnt (or mild) alkali, and he solved the problem most successfully. He showed that the properties of mild alkalis differ from those of caustic alkalis, because the composition of the former differs from that of the latter; and he showed exactly wherein this difference of composition consists, viz. in the possession or non-possession of fixed air.
Strange we may say that this discovery did not induce Black to prosecute the study of caustic alkalis: surely he would have anticipated Davy, and have been known as the discoverer of potassium and sodium.
- M. M. Pattison Muir, Heroes of Science. Chemists. (1883) p. 176.
- When a strong electric current is passed through melted salt, a light, shining, metal-like solid [sodium], and a yellow gas [ chlorine ], having a very penetrating odour, are formed in place of the salt.
- Alkali. (Arabic, al Kali.) A name applied to a well-defined class of bodies characterized by the following properties. They turn red litmus paper blue, completely neutralize acids, they are soluble in water, and their solutions exert a caustic action upon animal matter. The alkalies proper are the oxides of potassium, sodium, rubidium, and cæsium. To these must be added the compound alkali ammonia, the oxide of the hypothetical metal ammonium, which used to be called the volatile alkali, in contradistinction to potash and soda, which were called fixed alkalies. The alkaline earths are the oxides of barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesium. The oxides of some other metals, such as silver, thallium, and lead, are also somewhat soluble in water, and possess slight alkaline properties.
- G. F. Rodwell, ed., A Dictionary of Science; Comprising Astronomy, Chemistry, Dynamics, Electricity, Heat, Hydrodynamics, Hydrostatics, Light, Magnetism, Mechanics, Meteorology, Pneumatics, Sound, and Statics; Preceded by an Essay on the History of the Physical Sciences (1873) p. 41.
- Dumas devised an accurate and excellent method for determining the specific gravities, or densities, of gases which could be used at high temperatures, thus enabling him to experiment upon the vapor densities of iodine, phosphorus, sulphur, mercury, etc. His results, instead of confirming, tended rather to disprove the law of volumes. The trouble lay in the complex nature of the molecules experimented upon, but of course this was unknown to Dumas. He finally declared that even in the case of the simple gases like volumes did not contain equal numbers of chemical atoms. ...The atomic weights determined by him with the greatest care were those of silver, potassium, sodium, lithium, lead, chlorine, bromine, iodine, sulphur, and nitrogen.
- Francis Preston Venable, History of Chemistry (1922) pp.75-77
- The first numerical regularities observed between the atomic weights were the triads of Döbereiner. This chemist seems to have observed first that the combining weight of strontium was the arithmetical mean of those of calcium and barium. A like regularity was noted with regard to certain physical properties of these elements and some of their compounds. This led him for a while to question the independent existence of strontium. Several similar triads were discovered among the other elements as lithium, sodium, and potassium; chlorine, bromine, and iodine; sulphur, selenium, and tellurium. He was careful not to let this grouping depend upon the atomic weights alone but insisted that only elements exhibiting decided analogies of properties should be considered together. This idea was taken up by other chemists, notably by Gmelin in his Handbook, and many analogies and groups were sought for. In 1857 [Ernst] Lennsen returned to this grouping, endeavoring to force all the elements into some twenty groups. Then Odling sought to build upon them an elaborate system of the elements which he called the Natural System. Such groupings were often forced, and failures. The science was not far enough advanced to enable one to understand the real meaning of these regularities.
- Francis Preston Venable, History of Chemistry (1922) pp.83-84.
- If you pass the light from a sodium flash through a prism, you get a pattern very different from the familiar continuous rainbow that Newton elicited from natural sunlight. Instead of a continuous pattern, in which all gradations of pure color are apparently represented, the sodium flash generates a series of lines of light. ...in the musical analogy, sodium produces a chord where sunlight produced all possible tones—"white noise." Other elements produce other chords.
- Frank Wilczek, Betsy Devine, Longing for the Harmonies: Themes and Variations from Modern Physics (1987)
Chemical Analysis by Spectral Observations (1860)Edit
- by Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen, Annalen der Physik (1860) ed., Johann Christian Poggendorff, Vol. 110, 1860. pp. 275-301. As quoted in The Laws of Radiation and Absorption: Memoirs by Prévost, Stewart, Kirchhoff, and Kirchhoff and Bunsen (1901) Tr., ed., DeWitt Bristol Brace, pp. 107-109. See also Kirchhoff and Bunsen, "Chemical Analysis by Spectrum-observations" (Aug, 1860) The London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, pp. 94-96.
- We will now consider more closely the characteristics of the several spectra, the knowledge of which is of importance from a practical standpoint, and indicate the advantage which the chemical analytical method founded upon it furnishes.
- SODIUM. Of all the spectral reactions that of sodium is the most sensitive. The yellow line Naα, the only one which is shown in the sodium spectrum coincides with Fraunhofer's line D and is characterized by its peculiarly sharp boundary and its extraordinary brilliancy. If the temperature of the flame is very high and the quantity of the substance used very great, traces of a continuous spectrum are seen in the immediate neighborhood of the line.
- Lines of other substances, in themselves very weak, lying near it appear still weak and will, therefore, often first be visible after the sodium reaction has begun to disappear.
- Swan has already called attention to the minuteness of the quantity of common salt which can produce the sodium line clearly.
- Ref: Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol XXI, Part III, p. 411. Also see Swan, Pogg. Anu. Vol. C, p. 311.
- The following investigation shows that chemistry produces no single reaction which in the remotest degree can compare in sensitiveness with this analytical spectral determination of sodium.
- We detonized in one corner of the experiment room which contained about 60 cubic meters of air and as far as possible from our apparatus three milligrams of chlorate of sodium with milk sugar while the non-luminous flame was observed before the slit. After some minutes, the flame, becoming gradually colored pale yellow, gave a strong sodium line, which, after ten minutes, again completely vanished.
- From the weight of the detonized salt and the air contained in the room it is easy to calculate that in a unit weight of the latter not a th part of sodium smoke could have been suspended. ...[I]t follows that the eye is capable of detecting less than th of a milligram of sodium salt with the greatest distinctness. With such a sensibility of the reaction it is evident that only rarely is a sodium reaction not visible in glowing atmospheric air.
- The earth is covered over more than two-thirds of its surface with a solution of chloride of sodium, which, by the waves breaking into foam, is transformed continually into spray; the particles of sea-water, which reach the atmosphere in this way, evaporate and leave behind them motes of salt which vary in magnitude, but, as it appears, are rarely absent from the atmosphere, and, perhaps, serve to supply the small organisms the salt which the larger plants and animals secure from the ground.
- If, as we yet can scarcely doubt, there are catalytic influences which are the cause of the miasmic spread of disease, it is possible that an antiseptic substance, such as salt, even in vanishingly small quantities, may indeed not be without definite influence upon such processes in the air. From daily and long continued spectrum observation it would be easy to learn whether the variation in the intensity of the spectral line Naα, produced by the sodium combination in the air, is related in any degree to the appearance and the spread of endemic diseases.
- In the exceedingly delicate sodium reaction may also be sought the reason why all bodies exposed to the air show the sodium line after a time when heated in the flame, and why it is possible with only a few compounds to eliminate the last trace of the sodium line Naα by crystallizing it out ten or more times from water which has come in contact with platinum vessels only.
- A hair wire of platinum, which has been freed, by heating, from every trace of sodium, shows the reaction most vividly again, if it is exposed some hours to the air. Dust which settles in the room from the air shows it in the same degree, so that, for example, the slapping of a dusty book is quite sufficient to produce at a distance of several spaces the most brilliant flashes of the Naα line.
The Principles of Chemistry (1891)Edit
- by Dmitri Mendeleev, Tr. George Kamensky, of Основы химии (1867) See also 2 Volume (1905) edition.
- Mercury as a liquid metal is capable of dissolving other metals and forming metallic solutions. These are generally called 'amalgams.' The formation of these solutions is often accompanied by the development of a large amount of heat—for instance when potassium and sodium are dissolved... but sometimes heat is absorbed, as... when lead is dissolved. It is evident that phenomena of this kind are exceedingly similar to the phenomena accompanying the dissolution of salts and other substances in water, but here it is easy to demonstrate that which is far more difficult to observe in the case of salts: the solution of metals in mercury is accompanied by the formation of definite chemical compounds of the mercury with the metals dissolved. This is shown by the fact that when pressed (best of all in chamois leather) such solutions leave solid, definite compounds of mercury with metals. It is, however, very difficult to obtain them in a pure state, on account of the difficulty of separating the last traces of mercury, which is mechanically distributed between the crystals of the compounds. Nevertheless, in many cases such compounds have undoubtedly been obtained, and their existence is clearly shown by the evident crystalline structure and characteristic appearance of many amalgams.
- [T]he sulphate of sodium prepared at chemical works is converted into soda ash—that is, sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 , which is used for many purposes. In the form of carbonates, the metallic oxides behave in many cases just as they do in the state of oxides or hydroxides, owing to the feeble acid properties of carbonic acid. However, the majority of the salts of carbonic acid are insoluble, whilst sodium carbonate is one of the few soluble salts of this acid and therefore reacts with facility. Hence sodium carbonate is employed for many purposes, in which its alkaline properties come into play. Thus, even under the action of feeble organic acids it immediately parts with its carbonic acid, and gives a sodium salt of the acid taken. Its solutions exhibit an alkaline reaction on litmus. It aids the passage of certain organic substances (tar, acids) into solution, and is therefore used, like caustic alkalies and soap (which latter also acts by virtue of the alkali it contains), for the removal of certain organic substances, especially in bleaching cotton and similar fabrics.
- [A] considerable quantity of sodium carbonate is used for the preparation of sodium hydroxide or caustic soda, which has also a very wide application. In large chemical works where sodium carbonate is manufactured from Na2SO4, it is usual first to manufacture sulphuric acid, and then by its aid to convert common salt into sodium sulphate, and lastly to convert the sodium sulphate thus obtained into carbonate and caustic soda. Hence these works prepare both alkaline substances (soda ash and caustic soda) and acid substances (sulphuric and hydrochloric acids), the two classes of chemical products which are distinguished for the greatest energy of their reactions, and are therefore most frequently applied to technical purposes. Factories manufacturing soda in this manner are generally called alkali works.
- Pure sodium is a lustrous metal, at the ordinary temperature as white as silver and as soft as wax, but it becomes brittle in the cold. In ordinary moist air it quickly tarnishes and becomes covered with a film of NaHO and Na2CO3, formed at the expense of the water and CO2 in the air. In perfectly dry air sodium retains its lustre for an indefinite time. Its density at the ordinary temperature is equal to 0.975, so that it is lighter than water; it fuses very easily at a temperature of 97°, and distils at a bright red heat (742°, according to Perman, 1889). Scott (1887) determined the density of sodium vapour and found it to be nearly 12 (if H = 1). This shows that its molecule contains one atom (like mercury and cadmium), Na. It fuses with most metals, forming indefinite compounds called alloys. Thus, if sodium, having a clean surface[,] be thrown into mercury, especially when heated, there is a flash, and such a considerable amount of heat is evolved that part of the mercury is transformed into vapour. Compounds or solutions of sodium in mercury, or amalgams of sodium, even when containing only 2 parts of sodium to 100 parts of mercury, are solid. Only those amalgams which are the very poorest in sodium are liquid. Such alloys of sodium with mercury are often used instead of sodium in chemical investigations, because in combination with mercury sodium is not easily acted on by air, and is heavier than water, whilst at the same time it retains its principal properties, such, for instance, as the power to decompose water, forming NaHO.
- The most important chemical property of sodium is its power of easily decomposing water and evolving hydrogen from the majority of the hydrogen compounds, and especially from all acids and hydrates in which the presence of hydroxyl must be recognised. This depends on its power of combining with the elements which are in combination with the hydrogen. ...[S]odium disengages hydrogen, not only from water, hydrochloric acid, and all other acids, but also from ammonia, with the formation of sodamide, NH2Na, although it does not displace hydrogen from the hydrocarbons. Sodium burns both in chlorine and in oxygen, evolving much heat. These properties are closely connected with its power of taking up oxygen, chlorine, and similar elements from most of their compounds.
Humphry Davy, Poet and Philosopher (1896)Edit
- Main article: Humphry Davy, Poet and Philosopher (Thorpe)
Note: quotes are from Ch. VI. The Isolation of the Metals of the Alkalis. unless otherwise noted.
- It would seem from his description of its properties that the potassium he obtained was most probably alloyed with sodium derived from impure potash. Potassium is solid up to 143° F.; but, as Davy subsequently found, an alloy of potassium and sodium is fluid at ordinary temperatures.
- The "basis" of soda is described as a white opaque substance of the lustre and general appearance of silver. It is soft and malleable, and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. Its specific gravity was found by flotation in a mixture of oil of sassafras and naphtha... It was found to fuse at about 180° F. (the real melting point of sodium is 197.5°). Its action on a number of substances—oxygen, hydrogen, water, etc.—is then described, and its general behaviour contrasted with that of the "basis" of potash.
- He then enters upon some general observations on the relations of the "bases" of potash and soda to other bodies.
- "Should the bases of potash and soda be called metals? The greater number of philosophical persons to whom this question has been put, have answered in the affirmative. They agree with metals in opacity, lustre, malleability, conducting powers as to heat and electricity, and in their qualities of chemical combination."
- "Their low specific gravity does not appear a sufficient reason for making them a new class; for amongst the metals themselves there are remarkable differences in this respect, and in the philosophical division of the classes of bodies, the analogy between the greater number of properties must always be the foundation of arrangement."
- "On this idea, in naming the bases of potash and soda, it will be proper to adopt the termination which, by common consent, has been applied to other newly discovered metals, and which, though originally Latin, is now naturalized in our language."
- "Potasium [sic] and sodium are the names by which I have ventured to call the new substances; and whatever changes of theory, with regard to the composition of bodies, may hereafter take place, these terms can scarcely express an error; for they may be considered as implying simply the metals produced from potash and soda. I have consulted with many of the most eminent scientific persons in this country, upon the methods of derivation, and the one I have adopted has been the one most generally approved. It is perhaps more significant than elegant. But it was not possible to found names upon specific properties not common to both; and though a name for the basis of soda might have been borrowed from the Greek, yet an analogous one could not have been applied to that of potash, for the ancients do not seem to have distinguished between the two alkalies."
- He begins by again drawing attention to the various surmises which had been made respecting the true nature of potassium and sodium. Although these substances had been isolated, and in the hands of chemists for upwards of two years, their properties were so extraordinary when compared with those of the metals in general, that many philosophers hesitated to consider them as true metals.
"The Development of the Electron Idea" (Nov. 8, 1901)Edit
- Walter Kaufmann, The Electrician Vol. 48, pp. 95-97. Lecture delivered before the 73rd Naturforscher Versammlung at Hamburg. From the Physikalische Zeitshrift, of October 1, 1901.
- [A]lthough the plans of the edifice of the electromagnetic theory of light were laid in 1880 by H. A. Lorentz, and even indicated much earlier by W. Weber, a full 10 years were required before the discoveries of Heinrich Hertz gave the impetus to collect the building stones and work them into shape. In the years 1890-93 a number of works appeared by F. Richarz, H. Ebert and G. Johnstone Stoney, mostly dealing with the mechanism of the emission of luminous vapours, and in which attempts are made, on the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, to determine the magnitude of the elementary electrical quantity, called by Stoney by the now universally accepted name of electron. ...H. Ebert proved that the amplitude of an electron in luminous sodium vapour need only be a small fraction of a molecular diameter in order to excite a radiation of the absolute intensity determined by E. Wiedemann. The way of determining the amount of electricity contained in the electron is very simple. The quantity of electricity required for the electrolytic evolution of 1 cubic cm. of any monatomic gas is divided by Loschmidt's number—i.e., the number of gas molecules contained in 1 cubic cm.
- In view of the facility with which Lorentz's theory explains the dispersion and observation phenomena, a direct proof of its truth was hardly required. But that was also forthcoming. In 1896 a pupil of Lorentz, P. Zeeman, discovered a phenomenon whose existence Faraday had vainly sought for in 1862. If a luminous vapour, say a sodium flame, is brought into a strong magnetic field, the spectrum lines of the vapour show peculiar changes, consisting of a doubling or trebling, according to the line of vision. These changes are predicted by Lorentz's theory. The Zeeman phenomenon further permitted a determination of the inert mass connected with the vibrating charges, and then a striking result was obtained: the vibrating electron is always negatively charged, while the positive charge is stationary. ...The original and almost tacit assumption that the whole ion—i.e., the chemical atom plus its valency charge—was in oscillation must, therefore, be abandoned. We must suppose that the charge, just as is the case in electrolysis, has also an independent mobility in the light-emitting molecule, and that the mass concerned in the Zeeman phenomenon is that of the electron itself.
The Centenary of Davy's Discovery of the Metals of the Alkalis (1908)Edit
- by Thomas Edward Thorpe. A Discourse delivered before the Royal Institution , January 17, 1908, as quoted in The Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science Vol. 97, No. 2527, pp. 210-211. (May 1, 1908)
- The publication of Davy's discovery created an extrordinary sensation throughout the civilised world, a sensation not less profound, and certainly more general from its very nature, than that which attended his lecture of the previous year. But at the very moment of his triumph, it seemed that the noise of the universal acclaim with which it was received was not to reach him.
- Ref: Humphry Davy, The Bakerian Lecture, on some new Phenomena of chemical Changes produced by Electricity, particularly the Decomposition of the fixed Alkalis, and on the Exhibition of the new substances which constitute their bases; and on the general Nature of alkaline Bodies (Read Nov 9, 1807) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1808) Part. I, pp. 1-44.
- Have sodium and potassium at all justified the hope that they would facilitate the means of procuring the comforts and conveniences of life? I have not the time... to attempt to follow the many changes in the metallurgy of the metals of the alkalis of the past century. Let me... show how the matter stands at the end of a hundred years.
- The general properties and chemical activities of potassium and sodium are so very similar that as a matter of commercial production that metal which can be most economically obtained is necessarily the one most largely manufactured, and of the two that metal is sodium. To-day, sodium is made by thousands of tons, and by a process which in principle is identical with that by which it was first made by Davy, i.e., by the electrolysis of fused caustic soda.
- [A]fter a series of revolutions in its manufacture, sodium, having been produced from time to time on a manufacturing scale by a variety of metallurgical methods involving purely thermal processes of reduction and distillation, entirely dissociated from electricity, we should have now got back to the very principle of the process which first brought the metal to light. And that this has been industrially possible is entirely owing to another of Davy's discoveries - possibly indeed the greatest of them all—Michael Faraday.
- As we all gratefully acknowledge, it is to the genius and labours of Faraday—Davy's successor in this place—that the astonishing development of the application of electrical energy which characterises this age has taken rise.
- The modern method of production of sodium is based, therefore, as regards principles upon the conjoint labours of Davy and Faraday.
- These principles took their present form of application at the hands of... Hamilton Y. Castner... It is by Castner's process that all the sodium of to-day is manufactured.
In the Castner process melted caustic soda produced by the electrolysis of a solution of common salt by a method also devised by Castner, is brought into an iron vessel shaped like a large cauldron, mounted in brickwork, and provided with an extension adapted to receive the negative electrode. Suspended directly above the cathode is an iron vessel attached to a lid; to its lower edge is secured iron-wire gauze, which, when the receptacle is in position, completely surrounds the cathode. The positive electrode is connected with the lid of the vessel, which is provided with openings for the escape of the gases resulting from the electrolysis, and is suitably insulated.
- As the electrolysis proceeds the alkali metal, being much lighter than the molten caustic, rises from the negative electrode and passes into the receiver, the gases escaping around the edges of the cover. The molten metal collects on the surface of the caustic, and is removed by means of a large perforated spoon, the perforations enabling the melted caustic to flow out, while the metal remains in the spoon. As the several vessels are thus skimmed in succession the fused sodium is collected into an iron vessel, whence it is poured into moulds in which it congeals, forming blocks of the size and shape of an ordinary building brick. These, after being trimmed to remove adherent oxide, are immersed in paraffin oil, and are then packed into large iron drums... capable of being closed air-tight, and protected in transit by an outer casing of wood.
- The due regulation of the volume and intensity of the current is a matter of the greatest importance in order to obtain the most economical yield of the metal. No very high temperature is needed; indeed, the temperature of the fused caustic soda should not be much higher than that of its melting point. By suitably regulating the current, the soda, in fact, may be maintained at the proper temperature and in the proper degree of fluidity without extraneous heat. Fresh melted caustic soda is added to the vessel from time to time to replace the metal removed, and in this manner the process is made continuous.
- The greater quantity of the sodium made in England is... converted into sodium cyanide... for use in the extraction of gold. As gold is... generally considered the principal material factor in procuring the comforts and conveniences of life, Davy's great discovery may be thus said to have secured the primary object which the projectors of the Royal Institution had in view. Other important uses of sodium are in the manufacture of peroxide for bleaching purposes, of artificial indigo, and of a number of other synthetic dye stuffs and of drugs like antipyrin.
- [T]his extraordinary development of the manufacture has not been without its influence on the price of sodium. A quarter of a century ago it was a comparatively rare metal, and a stick of it was regarded as a chemical curiosity, to be handled with circumspection and care. Even as late as 1890 its selling price was as high as 8s. per lb. To-day it is 8d. Sodium now takes rank, therefore, with zinc, tin, copper, or aluminium as a common, ordinary metal of commerce.
- I am indebted to the directors of the Castner-Kellner Company... or affording me the opportunity, in connection with this lecture, of actually witnessing the modern process of manufacturing sodium as it is carried out at Wallsend... And in concluding may I be permitted to recall here the feelings to which that visit to Wallsend gave rise. ...Before me, stretching down to the river, was the factory where a score of workers, clad in helmets and gauntlets and swathed like so many Knights Templar, travel-stained and war-worn, their visages lit up by the yellow soda flames, and their ears half-deafened with the sound of exploding hydrogen—a veritable inferno—were repeating on a Gargantuan scale the little experiment first made a century ago in the cellars of this building; turning out, day and night, hundredweights of the plastic metal in place of the little pin-heads which then burst upon the astonished and delighted gaze of Davy.
- Behind me was the magnificent power-house... furnishing not only the electrical energy which transformed the soda into sodium, but diffusing this energy for a multitude of other purposes over an entire district—a noble temple to the genius and prescience of Faraday. Surely one might here say, if you desire to see the monuments of these men, look around!
The Mind (1984)Edit
- The composition of every cell is different from that of the material in which it exists. ...The striking feature of a neuron at rest ...its contents are one-tenth as rich in sodium ions as the external fluid and... ten times richer in potassium ions. ...[S]odium ions will leak into the cell and potassium will leak from it. ...[T]he membrane possesses pumps to offset the flow ...sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphotase pumps ...can steadily exchange three sodium ions for two potassium ...Every neuron contains about a million pumps... and every pump can swap about 200 sodium ions for 130 potassium ions every second.. ...The pumps ...maintain that sodium potassium imbalance, and... the inside of each neuron at seventy millivolts negative to the outside. ...[T]hat helps to explain the near-permanent demand for oxygen ...
- [A] change in the electrical state of the nerve cell... hurries along the axon in advance of the impulse... partnered by an alteration in the permeability of the membrane... permitting sodium ions to pour into the cell... [T]he more... ions rush in the more channels are opened to increase this torrent. Suddenly, with a change in the membrane potential from negative to positive... sodium channels close. Another group... opens, permitting potassium ions to flow out... until the... minus seventy millivolts is achieved again.
- The transmission of an impulse is not electrical... The so-called spike... the shift in membrane potential between -70 millivolts and +40 millivolts, is the electrical manifestation of each nerve impulse. ...[T]here is plainly more to it—with channels opening, pumps operating, and sodium scurrying back and forth—than... an electrical impulse along a copper wire.
- [C]onsiderable attention has been paid to the 'blood-brain barrier'. ...[I]n 1909 ...it was realized that certain substances, such as dyes, did not reach the brain. ...[T]hey arrived swiftly within every other tissue but not the brain or spinal cord. ...There was apparent restriction both to foreign substances (sucrose, insulin, penicillin) and natural ones (urea, sodium, potassium, creatinine). By comparison with muscular tissue, where there is equilibrium between blood and tissue for the injected substance within seconds or minutes, such a balance in the brain may take hours.
See alsoEdit
External linksEdit
- Sodium at Periodic Videos (University of Nottingham)
- Etymology of "natrium" and of the symbol Na.
- Na, Sodium, The Wooden Periodic Table.
- Isotopes of Sodium (Z=11) The Berkeley Laboratory Isotopes Project from the Wayback Machine @archive.org.


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In seriousness, I think this is actually an underappreciated element of anti-fascism.
A core element of fascist ideology is the idea that there was once a perfect, ideal past, that we through our degeneracy let slip away. The fascist promises to bring us back to it by being a stern ruler who will punish us for our sins.
So it's important to help people understand that there was NEVER a perfect, ideal past. There was just people and their various screw-ups. And people now are fundamentally the same as people then. The clothes change, the rituals change, but people are people.
@jalefkowit Great point. The "good old days" narrative being fascist-adjacent is one of the reasons I have a real problem with a lot of (mainstream, US-radio-played) country music.
I don't think that the musicians are necessarily consciously promoting fascism, but the uncritical romanticization of a past that never really existed seems to feed directly into it.
The last time the US was majority-rural by population, women couldn't legally vote.
@jalefkowit @kadin so, do all facists long for the good ol days?
i... actually havent ever heard one who didn't preach that
@kadin @ketmorco @jalefkowit accelerationists are either hopeless optimists who haven't studied enough history, or false flag fascists keeping the hope alive for the first group.
This Mastodon instance is for people interested in technology. Discussions aren't limited to technology, because tech folks shouldn't be limited to technology either!

subset: commoncrawl


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Ether, Shiba Inu, and DOGE Are Slowly Eating Into Bitcoin's Multi-Billion Dollar Payments Dominance
Altcoins and stablecoins have downsized Bitcoin's dominance as a method for paying for items and providers on-line by 27%. That is in response to a brand new report launched by Bloomberg citing information from BitPay.
In keeping with BitPay, Ether accounted for 15% of all international funds at service provider shops whereas stablecoins accounted for 13%. Dogecoin, Shiba Inu, and Litecoin every accounted for 3%. Bitcoin Money accounted for 9-10% of all business-based BitPay transactions from August to December in response to the BitPay report. USDC stablecoin accounted for between 1 to 2% throughout the identical interval.
The report reveals that increasingly more retailers are discovering stablecoins viable for holding and transferring worth throughout borders, clearly as a result of retailers need to cut back the volatility of the worth over time. Stablecoins just like the USDT are cryptocurrencies pegged to the greenback or another property of comparatively secure worth to regulate the worth from various commonly as witnessed with different kinds of cryptocurrencies.
Nonetheless, the report reveals that extra retailers who settle for cryptocurrencies for funds for his or her items and providers additionally need to expose their cash to volatility by holding or accepting a sure token whose worth is anticipated to go up as a result of they apparently profit from this pattern.
That explains why tokens like Shiba Inu and Dogecoin have been chosen by many retailers for acceptance of funds for his or her items and providers. Dogecoin, as an illustration, surged 3,600% final 12 months and earned a spot amongst retailers prepared to simply accept crypto for funds given the assist it continues to obtain from Tesla CEO Elon Musk.
Shiba Inu additionally turned so common on-line given the huge lobbying by the Shib Military though Shib's reputation amongst retailers was additionally as a result of many partnerships it sealed with on-line fee processors and different firms. It additionally bought listed on a number of vital crypto exchanges which additionally acted to spice up its pricing positions.
However, most retailers selected to simply accept funds and maintain their worth in Bitcoin given its robust dominance and in expectation of earnings from bull runs – Bitcoin had two main bull runs final 12 months.
So far as totally different industries are involved, the biggest cryptocurrency fee worth is dealt with by pay as you go/present playing cards, Web, VPN/internet hosting, laptop video games, valuable metals, and shopper electronics industries.
BitPay realized a 31% surge in transactions associated to luxurious items final 12 months from 9% in 2020. Chief Government Officer Stephen Pair acknowledged that Bitcoin was additionally spent on shopping for luxurious items together with jewellery, watches, vehicles, boats, and gold.


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Date and time
UBC Farm
Vancouver, BC V6T 1W5
Refund policy
Urban Seed Saving
Delve into the exciting world of seed saving with expert Mel Sylvestre! This workshop is for gardens, homesteaders, and urban farmers who want to learn about the incredible potential of saving your own seeds within the city. The workshop will cover the basic theory behind seed saving and focus on the practical skills and knowledge to practice seed saving in an urban context. Basic gardening knowledge would be an assets but not seed saving experience is required to participate to the workshop.
Mel Sylvestre has been a small-scale organic farmer for 10 years. She spent 6 years on Vancouver Island working with Saanich Organics and ran a small acreage of mix vegetables called RiseUp Organic for 4 years. She is currently working at UBC Farm as the Perennial and Biodiversity Coordinator and runs the farm's Seed Saving Project. She is also an active member of the BC Seeds collective and has attended seed gatherings and conferences around North America.
Date: Tuesday May 6th, 2014
Location: UBC Farm Centre
3461 Ross Drive
Vancouver BC
Refunds & Exchange policy
Please be advised that refunds for workshops are subject to a $5 fee. Refund or exchange requests less than 48 hours prior to the event cannot be accomodated.
Student Ticket Pricing
We offer several student priced tickets. A valid student card must be presented at the workshop.


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Written by Screen Correspondent |
August 19, 2011 5:31:56 pm
August 19, 2011 5:31:56 pm
Shah Rukh Khan recently released two pictures from the forthcoming Sony PlayStation game based on his next home production Ra.One on Twitter. Shah Rukh plays the role of G.One in the film. The actor seemed excited about having his own videogame featuring his character from the film but wrote that his hair was too pointy. Shah Rukh also said he will post pictures of other stars from the game.
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EFP's board of directors works hard to secure community funding and provide logistical and technical support for our programs and events. Our staff and students are grateful to the board and sponsors for everything they do to help make EFP possible!
Board of Directors
Ed Edick, Chair
Darren Caesar
Karen Chackel
Gene Deering
Francois DeJohn
Henry Dubroff
Michael Forgea
Joanne Funari
Janet Garufis
Chad Hine
Michael Holliday
Peter Jordano
Edward Lazarus
Bill Macfadyen
Kristen Miller
Lisa Moore
Kathy Odell
John Petote
Michael E. Pfau
Tracey Solomon
Christian Treitler
Bob Tuler
Carolle Van Sande
Paul Wieckowski
- Edward Birch
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- John Davies
- Steve Engles
- Doug Fell
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- C. Richard James
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We gratefully acknowledge the following South County sponsors.
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It's time to drop the schools' mandate and opt for mask choice
It has been said that universal masking is optimal, a kind of "gold standard." And yet, I'm sure many educators, students and parents would agree that what we are seeing in our classrooms today is far from the gold standard.
How do we reconcile this?
The answer is mask choice for our students and our teachers.
Although we've been waiting and watching the numbers, many of us have come to realize that there will never be a date, a fact, a figure or an absolute number that provides a universal level of comfort. In terms of development of the brain, the younger a child is, the more critical is each day that passes…so while some people are just fine waiting this out "a little bit longer," some are not.
Will our children catch up on their learning loss? Will their brains compensate and just figure out the world anew once we take the masks off? I am hopeful, I really am! But I also wonder why we are so committed to kicking the can further down the road instead of honestly evaluating these policies, not only how well they're "working" on Covid transmission, but how well they're "working" for education and child development. The single factor in decision-making has been the public health factor, and that is certainly understandable. But when will we start balancing the public health crisis that exists right now with the public health crises of our future? In the case of the mental health of our children and adolescents, that crisis is unfolding quickly.
There are many data points to consider if we can just agree to open the conversation and honestly discuss the impacts on our children without fear of being called selfish or reckless. I am hopeful here too.
We all navigate risk every single day and we can continue to do so thoughtfully in regard to this pandemic. There are many ways that students and teachers can continue to keep each other safe without universal masking, but the idea of a student carrying the burden of harming or protecting the adults around them must be re-evaluated. This is especially true now as the adults they protect have access to all of the protections possible, through vaccinations, boosters, natural immunity, through readily available surgical and KN-95 masks and through frequent testing.
Children who need additional protection can continue to mask. We should ensure that our students and school communities embrace acceptance around different choices so that students and teachers can continue to mask as they see fit.
Teachers have been working so hard to make learning meaningful and engaging for our students, and I want to honor their incredible dedication during these most challenging of times. Our child is thrilled to be back at school, and she has had a great year and we're so grateful. This isn't just about my kid though, I have spoken to many other families who have kids who are struggling with universal masking. A one-size-fits-all policy is unacceptable after two years.
Mask choice is not about anyone's political loss or gain. It is about protecting the most vulnerable (our children), and it is also out of respect for both the individual child and the greater good. I've heard many times that people who are advocating for mask choice are just tired, that we are "over it." The reality is that many of us who are advocating for school mask choice are still very much "in it."
We see our kids in Connecticut following Covid restrictions every single day. This is still very real for us. We launder the dirty masks, we comfort our children during the after-school meltdowns, we note how elated they are on playdates to really SEE each other, and we have to answer the question of "how much longer, Mom?" Although we have not been in the school building this entire time, parents are not removed or out-of-touch from the reality of the impacts on our own kids.
I understand and accept that not everyone sees these mandates the same way, but I just hope we can keep the conversation open. My mother was ambivalent about the idea of lifting the mask mandates for kids. Then she went into her office for the first time in months, and had to wear a mask for a 90-minute meeting at work. She was surprised at how much harder it was for her personally to focus and engage in the conversation. When we spoke again, I pointed to my 3-year-old son and 7-year-old daughter, and said, "can you imagine seven hours a day at their ages?" Her perspective changed dramatically that day when she truly realized how long these kids are masked each day, and for how many days and months.
Mask choice is about empathy. Mask choice honors that there are no absolutes, that there is likely no one right answer here. We need to move forward cautiously, with compassion, and with choice for our children and our teachers, and we need to move forward now.
Christina Rothstein


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We are pleased to present the ZWILLING Sample Sale at Icon Outlet at The O2.
Running exclusively at Icon Outlet at The O2 from Thursday to Sunday of this week, German cookware specialists Zwilling will be bringing their high-quality kitchen products to our sample sale unit; all at up to 70% off the RRP.
Whether you've got a passion for cooking (Passion 5pc Cookware Set was £299, now £120) or you're just enjoying a glass of wine (or two) in the sun (Predicat carafe was £41.95, now £20).
Opening times:
Thursday 14 July – 10am – 8pm
Friday 15 July – 10am – 8pm
Saturday 16 July – 10am – 8pm
Sunday 17 July – 10am – 7pm


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Customer homework (CDD) is mostly a process by which financial institutions acquire information about potential clients. They keep an eye on financial deals and look for indications of questionable activity. If that they discover any kind of suspicious activity, that they report it to the appropriate authorities. CDD is a continuing process, mainly because the monetary transactions have to be consistent with the bank's knowledge of the consumer and risk profile. This kind of continuous character allows documents to be updated on a regular basis. CDD is actually a vital element of AML compliance.
In today's very technological environment, a combination of know-how and technology is vital with regards to effective CDD measures. To aid financial institutions conduct proper Customer Research, they choose identity verification solutions companies for assistance. The sort of solution is usually iDenfy, which will turns any smart equipment into an ID scanning device and confront recognition device. iDenfy's technology can distinguish 1300 types of records and 2 hundred countries.
Also to assessing the likelihood of fraudulence, customer homework includes creating a risk profile. Due diligence starts with collecting information about a prospective client, their location and type of organization. The risk account will figure out how much homework is required. Risky customers need even more due diligence than low-risk types. This process must be completed in accordance with legal and regulatory requirements. Once evaluating a potential customer's risk profile, it is critical to remember that a decreased risk consumer may not be a risk to your business.
Banks https://dataroomworld.net/best-online-instruments-for-making-your-business-development-easier/ must take customer due diligence seriously. Fraud has serious results, both with regards to the client as well as for the financial institution. A single fraud circumstance can damage the trustworthiness of the company. In order to avoid such a predicament, organizations must learn as much as possible about their legal and healthy clients. Right verification of clients may minimize fraud risks that help minimize the risk of cash laundering. To achieve this, companies need to implement a strict research process.


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NEW YORK (AP) — A battle is brewing between two of Fox News' biggest stars after conservative host Sean Hannity accused colleague Megyn Kelly of backing Hillary Clinton.
The spat began Wednesday night on Kelly's program, when the anchor criticized both GOP presidential nominee Donald Trump and the Democratic candidate, Clinton, for avoiding tough media interviews. She said Trump "will go on Hannity and pretty much only Hannity and will not venture out to the unsafe spaces these days."


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3.92 CAD are equal to 3.069815 CUC
The Canadian Dollar is the currency of Canada. The currency code for Canadian Dollar is CAD, and the currency symbol is $.
The Cuban Convertible Peso is the currency of Cuba. The currency code for Cuban Convertible Peso is CUC, and the currency symbol is $.
3.92 Canadian Dollars are equal to 3.069815 Cuban Convertible Pesos. Use this CAD to CUC converter ($ to $) to get today's exchange rate, in real time from Canadian currency to Cuban currency or to any other world's currency, even offline.
All figures are live interbank rates, which are not available to consumers and are for informational purposes only. To get a quote for money transfer, you should look for a money transfer service, once we do not provide theese services.


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Spring cone crusher is applicable for crushing iron ore, copper ore, limestone, quartz, granite, sandstone and other medium hard or hard materials in metallurgy industry,Read more →
Slag dryer is widely used in building materials industry, metallurgy industry, ore dressing industry, chemical industry, cement and other industries.Read more →
Calcite grinding mill is suitable for processing medium and low hardness non flammable and explosive brittle materials with 6 or less than 6 grade Mohs hardness, such as calcite, chalk, limestone, carbon black, kaolin, bentonite,Read more →
Symons cone crusher, also known as Symons crusher, is the integrated cone crusher with springs and hydraulic cylinder.Read more →
Sludge dryer produced by Fote Machinery is mainly used for dehydrating and drying sludge, thus reducing the water content and volume of sludge.Read more →
High efficiency concentrator is suitable for dewatering treatment of concentrate and tailings on ore dressing plants, which can increase the 20-30% slurry to about 40-70%.Read more →
Flotation plant is widely used in various fields of ore dressing industry. For example, the separating of gold ore, silver, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, chalcocite, molybdenite, pyrite, nickel sulfide mineral,Read more →
Basalt is the best material for repairing roads, railways and airfield runways. It has the advantages of abrasion resistance, less water consumption, poor conductivityRead more →
Powder grinding plant is also called powder making plant, which is widely used for the powder making in mining, power, chemical industry, building materials, metallurgy, refractory materials,Read more →
More superhard can provide diamond and cbn chain saw sharpening wheel shape: 1f1, 3f1 bonded: resin bond cbn wheel the chainsaw grinding wheels are widely used in oregon, stihl, tecomec, timbertuff, jolly, maxx, franzen, foley, northern, maxx, silvey, franzen and.
2. different kind abrasive of grinding wheel suitable for grinding different workpiece (this is mainly defends on the materials of workpiece). after a lot of experimentation, we found that diamond and cbn grinding wheels are most suitable for grinding chain saw:.
3m 6 diamond cbn grinding wheel suppliers uae. cbn grinding wheel 1v1 wheel type, d220 gritmfr. model 51141312668cbn grinding wheel, 1v1, diameter 6 in., thickness 12 in., abrasive our technical team will review the offer and upon approval.
4 inch 100mm thk diamond coated concave grit 400 grinding wheel bench grinder. brand new. c 35.39. top rated seller. top rated seller. buy it now. free shipping. from hong kong.
6 diam x 114 hole x 38 thick, 240 grit tool amp; cutter grinding wheel very fine grade, diamond, type 1, resinoid bond msc 80789563 3m (00051115207686) ships from mfr. within 1 week.
8 inch soft diamond lapidary grinding wheel set of 4. grits: 280, 600, 1200, 3000. 8 inch hard diamond lapidary grinding wheel set of 2. grits: 80, 220. total wheels in this set: 6 pcs. ready to use at once taken outside the box.
8 x112 220grit lapidary grinder diamond cabbing polishing grinding wheel. flexibleabrasive. 4.5 out of 5 stars. (24) star seller. 83.62. add to favourites.
4.2.1 analysis of diamond grinding wheel for sharpening carbide saw blade bond. 184.108.40.206 resin bond diamond grinding wheels. the bond strength of this type of diamond grinding wheel is weaker than that of other wheels. the selfsharpening for carbide saw blade is better, no blocking. the grinding force and grinding temperature are low.
As the worlds hardest substance, diamond is the only abrasive material capable of effectively grinding, cutting or shaping ceramics, cemented carbides and ferrites. our wide portfolio of superabrasives features diamond grinding wheels, flexible diamond belts, discs and more – plus diamond dressing rolls to keep your process running smoothly.
Because in this large market, the cost pressure is particularly high. we are talking here about synthetic gemstones made of zircon, spinel, marcasite, ruby or moissanite. they are grown, the stones cut and then mounted, to be faceted and polished with diamond grinding wheels or suspensions.
Chains bib necklaces tassel necklaces top 6 grit 14000 lapidary diamond resin cabbing grinding wheel 14000grit soft nova roundanddurable 4.5 out of 5 stars (47) 54.95 free shipping add to favorites vintage heavy metal tool gears handle grinding wheel farm garage salvaged metal piece metal gadget steampunk photo movie prop panchosporch.
Chains bib necklaces tassel necklaces top 6 set pcs 6 lapidary diamond resin polishing grinding wheels nova like cab roundanddurable 4.5 out of 5 stars (72) 339.95 free shipping add to favorites silicancarbide lapidary belts 3 x 25 732 for 8 expadabledrum 36 grit amp; 60, 80, 100, 220, 320,400, 600, 800,1000 free shipping.
Choose from our selection of diamond grinding wheels, including over 175 products in a wide range of styles and sizes. in stock and ready to ship.
3,687. location. vermontcanada border. dec 6, 2007. 6. diamond is really for carbide only. the borazon and cbn are for regular steel alloy. i have a worn out stihl diamond wheel which did work for some time grinding regular chain but it gets clogged and ruined quickly for use on carbide after sharpening regular chain.
Diamond and cbn chain saw grinding wheels can easily replace the pink wheels you will not have to rebuild your sharpening machine. the common hole diameter is 78 (22.23 mm), but every chain saw grinding wheel comes with the reducing spacer which can reduce bore size to 12 mm, in case your grinder has 12mm shaft.
Diamond chainsaw wheels for carbide insert chains do not use with high speed steel! for oregon 510511 and equivalent sharpeners (5 34 with 78 hole) cs575.8878d 5 34 diamond wheel 14 amp; .325 pitch carbide chains.
Diamond grinding chainsaw sharpening wheels achieve superior sharpened surface finish. they are suitable for professionals and private use. 34. 78 arbor (h) 5 34 diameter.
Diamond grinding chainsaw sharpening wheels achieve superior sharpened surface finish. they are suitable for professionals and private use. 38 and .404 chain. 78 arbor (h) 5 34 diameter.
Diamond grinding tools china factory, suppliers, manufacturers. our products are greatly acknowledged and reliable by users and may fulfill repeatedly shifting financial and social wants for diamond grinding tools, diamond cup grinding wheel , diamond floor polishing pads , concrete polishing wheel , turbo cup wheel .
Diamond is one of the hardest abrasive materials. commonly used in grinding and polishing ceramic, stone and aluminum alloy. dish wheel wheel type type 12 superabrasive wheel type number type 12a2 wheel diameter (inch) 6 wheel diameter (mm) 152 hole size (inch) 114 hole size (mm) 31.75 overall thickness (inch) 1 overall thickness (mm) 25 grade fine grit 120 abrasive.
Diamond powders and superabrasive grains include extremehardness abrasives such as synthetic diamond, natural diamonds, and cubic boron nitride (cbn). they are used in the polishing, finishing, grinding, and cutting of ultrahard materials such as ceramics, stone, glass, superalloys, and titanium.
Diamond products amp; abrasive blades. diamond core bits. diamond blades. ring saw blades. mortar raking blades. diamond cup wheels. diamond chains. diamond grinding blocks amp; polishing pads. abrasive rail blades.
Diamond wheel inc. makes cbn (cubic boron nitride or borazon) grinding wheels for professional chainsaw chain sharpening. cbn replacement wheels are designed to sharpen standard (noncarbide) chainsaw chains. they are preshaped and unlike aluminum oxide wheels will hold their shape. diamond wheel inc. cbn wheels have an aluminum core to run cooler, create very little dust, and.
Don't forget to dress 3m offers a versatile line of dressing tools, each uniquely equipped to sharpen specific wheels. ultimately, the dressing tool you select will be based on a variety of factors, including wheel size, mineral type and just how much buildup needs to be cleared from the wheel. 3m™ diamond nonresettable single point dressing tool is a generalpurpose dressing tool designed.
Electric chainsaw sharpener diamond grinding wheel 98105145mm thickness edge 100 brand new and high quality features: nonwoven ceramic grinding wheel for chainsaw sharpener. used for cutting and polishing the edge of a chain, such as a factory chain, a gasoline saw and chainsaws. easy to install and use.
Every single member from our large efficiency revenue team values customers' wants and company communication for good wholesale vendors diamond burnishing pads metalbond diamond grinding wheels teardrop shaped – ashine , the product will supply to all over the world, such as: irish, czech, uruguay, we are your reliable partner in international markets with the best quality.
Do not use diamond on steel chains or cbn on carbide chains. the type of wheel is a 1f1 or 1ff1 and has a steel or aluminum core with a band of the 60 grit abrasive imbedded in a 14 or 18 resin bond around the outside periphery (x) of the wheel. there is a full radius (r) already shaped for the profile and chain pitch you are sharpening.
Find many great new amp; used options and get the best deals for electric chainsaw sharpener diamond grinding wheel 98105145mm thickness edge at the best.
For sale. 2 borazon cbn grinding wheels manufactured by national diamond lab. both wheels are in used condition. these 2 borazon wheels were in a big box of grinding wheels that we purchased. the grinding wheels measure 1.472 d. x 1.109 w. with a 2 long by 38 carbide mandrel. the only marking for this wheel is 600 g written on the end.
Forester 534 x 1 x 18 diamond grinding wheel for carbide saw chain. forester diamond grinding wheels for sharpening carbide chain saw chain 18 wheels were designed to sharpen: 14 , 38 ext, and .325 low profile tooth chainsaw chain 316 wheels were designed to sharpen: larger 38 , .404, and large profile .325.
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My son was diagnosed with colon cancer at the age of 31. He was a tanker during the Gulf war, and just awarded 100% after years of fighting the VA. He kept filing claims that it was SC due to exposier of Depleted Uranium as a tanker and always denide. He finally talked to a specilist AT THE VA HOSPITAL about 5 months ago and she told him that it takes 5 years from onset to manifestation. So if he was in the service during any of that time period he should refile using this information and claim SC as unknown causes. WHAMMO 100% just last week. Just a little info that could lead to a BIG difference.
Commonly Claimed Disabilities
Tinnitus | PTS(D) | Lumbosacral Cervical Strain | Scars | Limitation of flexion, knee | Diabetes | Paralysis of Siatic Nerve | Limitation of motion, ankle | Degenerative Arthritis Spine | TBI – Traumatic Brain Injury
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Depleted Uranium
Please post your question as a New Topic by clicking this link and choosing which forum to post in.
For almost everything you are going to want to post in VA Claims Research.
If this is your first time posting. Take a moment and read our Guidelines. It will inform you of what is and isn't acceptable and tips on getting your questions answered.
Remember, everyone who comes here is a volunteer. At one point, they went to the forums looking for information. They liked it here and decided to stay and help other veterans. They share their personal experience, providing links to the law and reference materials and support because working on your claim can be exhausting and beyond frustrating.
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Semper GratusPatrick Glenn Harper - Carl Fischer LLC
This challenging concert opener or contest selection is designed to develop fundamentals of music and technical aspects of performance. With an expanded percussion section providing many colors, multiple key changes, and engaging melodic, dynamic, and rhythmic developments throughout, this composition will help your students be "always grateful" for your contributions to their music and their lives.
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It has been 20 years of marital bliss for Pat Smith and her man, Emmitt Smith, and they took to social media to celebrate the milestone.
To mark the special occasion of their 20th wedding anniversary, Pat Smith, a published author and journalist, and her husband, Emmitt Smith, exchanged sweet messages on social media.
Miss Virginia USA 1993 Patricia Smith and her husband, former NFL player and pageant judge Emmitt Smith, attend the 2015 Miss Universe Pageant at Planet Hollywood Resort & Casino on December 20, 2015 | Photo: Getty Images
While Pat tweeted a simple "Happy 20th Wedding Anniversary!!!!" with a love emoji and kissy-face, her man tweeted a longer message that read:
"I will always be here for you and I can't wait to see what the next 20 hold for us. @PatSmithTY!! Love, E."
The NFL player and the author, who share three children, have been dishing out #couplegoals since they walked down the aisle in 2000.
Lawrence, however, filed for divorce from Shamicka in 2012 and by 2017, the "Martin" star proposed to Roberta Moradfar following months of dating.
Asides having a seemingly successful marriage, Britannica reported that Emmitt gained more fame when he became the all-time leading rusher in NFL history in 2002. He, however, retired after the 2004 season with 18,355 yards rushing.
In fact, Emmitt took things up a notch when they told The Dallas Morning News that they wanted to live their life like they aren't celebrities.
Former NFL player Emmitt Smith visits the SiriusXM set at Super Bowl 51 Radio Row at the George R. Brown Convention Center on February 2, 2017 | Photo: Getty Images
While it seems that Pat has found her Prince Charming, fans are worried about her ex-husband, Martin Lawrence, as they recalled that the pair walked down the aisle back in 1995.
During their short-lived union, the duo one child, Jasmin Page Lawrence. According to Cheat Sheet, since their split in 1997, Martin has been with several women including Shamicka Gibbs whom he married in 2010.
Martin Lawrence attends the premiere of BET's "Boomerang" Season 2 at Paramount Studios on March 10, 2020 | Photo: Getty Images
Lawrence, however, filed for divorce from Shamicka in 2012 and by 2017, the "Martin" star proposed to Roberta Moradfar following months of dating.
Fans have shared their hopes that this would be the happily-ever-after that the actor so clearly deserves.
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April 05, 2022


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Fantasy Game
CricInfo Fantasy Cricket continues for the Triangular series involving West Indies, Pakistan and Zimbabwe during April. Entries close at the start of the 3rd ODI on the 5th of April.
Teams must consist of 4 players from each of the three countries. They are restricted to 5 batsmen, 2 all-rounders, 1 wicketkeeper and 4 bowlers, and a 'trump' player. Points are awarded as follows: 1 point per run, 20 points per wicket and 5 points per catch/stumping. Double points are allocated to the 'trump' player.
Requirements: You need to supply your registered username and password so that only you can access your team. We will be sending updates to you on your team by email during the tour.
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Redgauntlet: A Tale of the Eighteenth Century, Bind 2
A. Constable and Company, 1824 - 331 sider
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able addressed Alan Fairford answered appeared attention called carried cause circumstances clerk consider continued Court danger Darsie desire direct door doubt duty escape expect eyes Fair father fear feelings follow gave Geddes give given hand head hear heard heart Herries honour hope horse Justice keep Laird Latimer least leave length less letter light look manner matter Maxwell means mind never observed occasion once party passed perhaps person Peter Peebles poor possible present Provost Quaker reason received recollection Redgauntlet replied returned seemed seen shew side situation sound speak suffered Summertrees tell thing thou thought tion tone Trumbull trust turned usual voice warrant whole wish write young
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Side 203 - MY heart's in the Highlands, my heart is not here : My heart's in the Highlands a-chasing the deer ; Chasing the wild deer, and following the roe, My heart's in the Highlands wherever I go. Farewell to the Highlands, farewell to the North, The birth-place of valour, the country of worth ; Wherever I wander, wherever I rove, The hills of the Highlands for ever I love.
Side 160 - God bless the King !— God bless the Faith's defender !— God bless — No harm in blessing the Pretender. Who that Pretender is, and who that King,*— God bless us all, — is quite another thing.
Side 3 - ... practised by various great authors, and by ourselves in the preceding chapters. Nevertheless, a genuine correspondence of this kind (and Heaven forbid it should be in any respect sophisticated by interpolations of our own !) can seldom be found to contain all in which it is necessary to instruct the reader for his full comprehension of the story.
Side 7 - ... frequently, as his little cellar contained some choice old wine, of which, on such rare occasions, he was no niggard. The whole pleasure of this good old-fashioned man of method, besides that which he really felt in the discharge of his...
Side 203 - ... HEART'S IN THE HIGHLANDS. MY heart's in the Highlands, my heart is not here ; My heart's in the Highlands a-chasing the deer ; Chasing the wild deer, and following the roe, My heart's in the Highlands wherever I go.
Side 85 - I answered, with an energy of which despair alone could have rendered me capable — " I will never submit to loss of freedom a moment longer than I am subjected to it by force.
Side 240 - I swear and vow by moon and stars, And sun that shines so early, If I had twenty thousand lives, I'd die as aft for Charlie.
Side 326 - And every one that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that was discontented, gathered themselves unto him; and he became a captain over them: and there were with him about four hundred men.


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All dogs need grooming to keep their coats in great condition, even those with very short hair. However, short-haired dogs can have a more difficult time finding the right brush that will keep them groomed without hurting the skin beneath their fur.
Reading: Best short hair dog brush
Some of the brushes we loved best with our longer haired dogs just weren't comfortable for the ones with shorter hair.
We've searched low and high to find the best brushes for our short-haired canine compadres, and the following ten reviews are the ones we thought were worth mentioning.
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Only the top three get our final recommendations, and after reading our comparisons, we think you'll agree.
A Quick Comparison of Our Favorites in 2022
The 10 Best Brushes for Dogs with Short Hair
Our favorite feature was the self-cleaning button that detracts the bristles when you push it. This makes it quick and easy to remove all the loose fur in seconds so you can get back to grooming your dog. In the end, it made for an easy and comfortable grooming experience, which is why it's earned the top position on our list.
Our dogs loved the feel of the pins as they worked out the tangles and knots in their fur. Afterward, we switched to the bristles, which helped make the coats look shiny and clean. Since it was effective at de-shedding as well as brushing out the knots and tangles, it met all of our qualifications, especially since it's so affordable. That said, the durability was a key issue, and the handle on ours cracked in the second week. With excellent performance for a fraction of the price of any competitors, we think it's the best brush for dogs with short hair for the money.
This tool seemed to remove far more hair than any other grooming tool we tried. It only requires a few passes across your dog's body to remove all the loose fur, and it does so without damaging the skin beneath. That said, it's almost a little too effective. It's easy to overuse since it works so quickly. If you make too many passes, over-grooming can occur and you'll notice your dog's coat thinning out! We can't knock a product for working too well though, which is why the FURminator is our premium choice.
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The DakPets brush was durable and is even backed up by a 60-day replacement guarantee. It was great for removing loose and dead fur and actually reduces shedding by up to 90%. That said, it also tended to pull hair that was still attached to our pets. To avoid this, we had to hold the brush at a very uncomfortable angle that made grooming less fun for us. It also made it easy to over-groom and remove more hair than intended. Overall, it's a useful tool, but we suggest spending just a little more for the superior function of the FURminator in our third position instead.
We liked the durable design that easily survives drops on hard floors. However, our dogs weren't wild about this brush and never got excited for grooming time with it. We also noticed that the teeth are sharper than some competitors, making it easier to scratch your dogs' skin if you're not careful.
In our experience, this brush was difficult to clean and we really missed the self-cleaning feature that many other brushes come with. This brush also didn't seem to collect the loose fur well, which meant we had a large mess of floating hair to clean up after brushing.
Summary of the Best Brushes for Dogs with Short Hair
Even dogs with short hair can create an unruly mess if they're not properly groomed and cared for. We've tried as many brushes as we could find to discover the perfect fit for our short-haired pups, and our reviews have compared the ten we thought were best. Before you make a final decision, we'll summarize our top recommendations so they're fresh in your mind. Our favorite overall was the Hertzko self-cleaning slicker brush that made it quick and convenient to keep our dogs' coats in top shape. You can remove all the hair with the push of a button making grooming much quicker, and our dogs loved the way this brush felt.
The BioSilk dogs brush was the one we thought provided the best value. Not only is it one of the most affordable brushes we've seen, it's also equipped with two separate sets of bristles to give you more diversity in how you groom your dog. Last but not least, the FURminator was our premium choice and our final recommendation. It self-cleans with the push of a button, removes tons of loose fur with each pass, and it was easy on the skin beneath.
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