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Risk and protective factors associated with gang-involved youth in Trinidad and Tobago
Factores de riesgo y factores protectores asociados con la participación de los adolescentes en pandillas en Trinidad y Tabago
Charles M. KatzI; Andrew M. FoxI
ICenter for Violence Prevention and Community Safety, Phoenix, Arizona. Send correspondence to Charles M. Katz, PhD, Arizona State University, Mail Code 3120, 500 N. 3rd Street, Suite 200, Phoenix, AZ, 85004-2135, United States of America; e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
IIDirector, Department of Public Security, Organization of American States. Personal communication, 25 April 2009
OBJECTIVES: To examine the prevalence of gang involvement, the risk and protective factors associated with gang involvement, and the association between gang involvement and exposure to multiple risk and protective factors among school-aged youth in Trinidad and Tobago.
METHODS: A survey instrument was administered to 2 206 students enrolled in 22 high-risk, urban public schools, from MarchJune 2006. It measured 30 risk factors and 13 protective factors within four domains: community, school, family, and peer-individual, plus levels of alcohol/drug use and delinquency.
RESULTS: About 7.7% of youth reported being a gang associate; 6.8%, a former gang member; and 6.2%, a current gang member. Gang involvement was associated with perceived availability of handguns, residential mobility, having parents who favor antisocial behavior, early initiation of antisocial behavior, intention to use drugs, having antisocial peers, and having peers who use drugs. Those with social skills, belief in moral order, and interactions with prosocial peers were significantly less likely to self-report gang membership. Additionally, the probability of gang involvement increased as the number of risk factors increased.
CONCLUSIONS: Gang membership among public school youth is about as prevalent in Trinidad and Tobago as it is in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, but further research is needed. Although risk factors associated with gang involvement were present in all four domains, peer-individual risk factors were disproportionately likely to be associated with gang status. The most effective gang prevention strategies might be those that focus on multiple risk factors, with an emphasis on peer-individual factors and promoting a "belief in moral order."
Key words: Youth; adolescent behavior; social problems; mass behavior; risk factors; risk reduction behavior; Trinidad and Tobago; Caribbean Region.
OBJETIVOS: Examinar la prevalencia de la participación en pandillas, los factores de riesgo y los factores protectores asociados con la participación en pandillas, y la asociación entre la participación en pandillas y la exposición a diversos factores de riesgo y protectores en los adolescentes en edad escolar en Trinidad y Tabago.
MÉTODOS: Entre marzo y junio del 2006 se administró un instrumento de encuesta a 2 206 estudiantes matriculados en 22 escuelas públicas urbanas de alto riesgo. La encuesta medía 30 factores de riesgo y 13 factores protectores en cuatro ámbitos diferentes: la comunidad, la escuela, la familia y los compañeros individuales, además de los niveles de consumo de alcohol o drogas y la delincuencia.
RESULTADOS: Cerca de 7,7% de los adolescentes informaron que pertenecían a una pandilla, 6,8%, habían sido miembros de una pandilla y 6,2% lo eran en la actualidad. La participación en una pandilla se asociaba con la percepción de disponibilidad de pistolas, la movilidad residencial, tener padres que aprobaran la conducta antisocial, el inicio temprano de comportamientos antisociales, la intención de consumir drogas, tener compañeros antisociales y tener compañeros consumidores de drogas. Los adolescentes dotados de habilidades sociales, los que creían en un orden moral y los que se relacionaban con compañeros prosociales presentaban de forma significativa menos probabilidades de participación en una pandilla. Además, la probabilidad de participación en una pandilla se incrementaba si aumentaba el número de factores de riesgo.
CONCLUSIONES: La prevalencia de la participación en pandillas en los adolescentes de las escuelas públicas de Trinidad y Tabago es aproximadamente la misma que la observada en Estados Unidos, Canadá y Europa occidental, pero es necesario ampliar la investigación. Aunque los factores de riesgo asociados con la participación en pandillas estaban presentes en los cuatro dominios, la probabilidad de que los factores de riesgo relacionados con los compañeros individuales se asociaran con la participación en una pandilla era desproporcionadamente alta. Las estrategias más eficaces para prevenir la participación en pandillas tal vez sean aquellas que se centran en múltiples factores de riesgo y hacen hincapié en los factores relacionados con los compañeros individuales.
Palabras clave: Adolescente; conducta del adolescente; problemas sociales; conducta de masa; factores de riesgo; conducta de reducción del riesgo; Trinidad y Tobago; Región del Caribe.
Since the early 1990s, gangs, gang members, and gang-related problems have become increasingly recognized as a major public health problem in many areas of the world (1). Such is the extent of the issue that global public health and international development organizationsthe Pan American Health Organization, the Organization of American States (OAS), the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)are allocating substantial resources for gang prevention and intervention programs (23, and Christopher Hernandez-Roy).2 This response has been largely a consequence of the growing realization that gang membership increases health risks for young people, and that individuals associated with gangs are substantially more likely to experience negative health outcomesviolent injury, death, sexually-transmitted disease (STD), unwanted pregnancy, and drug and alcohol overdose (4).
The research of gangs and gang-related phenomena has a long and extensive history in the United States of America; in Europe, the topic has also received increasing attention, but gangs have not been systematically examined elsewhere, much less in the Caribbean (5, 6). The lack of research in the Caribbean does not come as a surprise given that, as Caribbean scholars report, until recently little attention had been given to the health status of young people, and less so, to gang-related problems (7).
Though gang involvement can be difficult to assess, in large part because school-based methodologies and definitions of gang membership differ, recent findings indicate that the Caribbean may have a more extensive gang problem than that other more economically-developed areas. In 2005, one of the few studies of gang prevalence in the Caribbean found that 17%24% of males and 11%16% of females reported gang involvement (8). Earlier research, funded by the World Bank, seems to support this view as well. A study of Jamaica found that in some communities, gang violence has created a "virtual 'war,' dominating and pervading all aspects of community life and restricting mobility within the area" (9). The same study concluded that gang activity in Jamaica was a primary contributor to that nation's homicide problem (9). Similar findings were reported for Trinidad and Tobago where, in 2008, the homicide rate rose to 44.34 per 100 000, placing it among the top most "murderous" nations (10); 63% of these murders were attributed to gang members (11).
One approach to explaining, predicting, and addressing problem behaviors among youth is the risk factor prevention paradigm (12). Risk factors are those characteristics or symptoms, that when present, increase the odds that an individual will engage in problem behavior. Conversely, protective factors are those characteristics or symptoms, that when present, decrease the odds that an individual will engage in problem behavior (7, 1317). The risk factor prevention paradigm, introduced to the study of behavior associated with crime and delinquency in 1992, categorizes risk and protective factors into four domains: community, school, family, and peer and individual. Within each of the domains are factors that have been empirically found to put an individual at risk or provide protection for problem behaviors such as substance abuse, delinquency, violence, teen pregnancy, and academic failure (17, 18).
Identifying the risk and protective factors associated with gang membership is important for at least two reasons. First, it helps structure an understanding of predictors associated with gang membership. The risk factor approach is very useful for isolating the most important factors related to gang membership and permits researchers to further diagnose, through more formal causal analyses, the root causes of gang membership (19). Second, the risk factor prevention paradigm helps structure prevention and intervention planning and programs, and helps focus resources on individuals with symptoms associated with the problem behavior (19, 20). Studies confirm this, specifically that it is a "user-friendly conceptual model" that can be easily translated into programmatic responses by mid-level policymakers and practitioners (21); and that risk and protection-focused prevention programs are repeatedly shown to be effective (22).
As noted above, studies conducted over several decades have identified a number of risk and protective factors associated with problem behavior; however, relatively few have examined the relationship between these factors and gang membership. A recent study synthesized and reviewed the body of literature on this topic and found that a total of 20 studies examined the association between risk factors and gang membership; they were almost exclusively conducted in the United States (20). Furthermore, most of the studies relied on bivariate analysis, were primarily descriptive in nature, and had not included controls for many of the factors known to be associated with joining a gang (20).
Consistent with the risk factor prevention paradigm, research has shown there to be multiple factors associated with gang joining. For example, studies have shown that community factors, such as availability of firearms (23) and/or drugs (24, 25) and number of neighborhood youth in trouble, increase a youth's risk of joining a gang. Youth with a low level of school commitment and low academic achievement have also been found to be significantly more likely to join a gang (23, 25). Family management has also been shown to be a risk factor associated with gang membership. Youth with parents who are less likely to supervise and monitor their children's activities and who express favorable attitudes toward antisocial behavior are more likely to join a gang (23, 2528).
The literature suggests, however, that peer-individual factors, such as association with delinquent peers, early initiation to delinquent behavior, and possessing delinquent beliefs receive the strongest and most consistent support for being associated with gang membership (25, 2729). Factors that lead to gang involvement are multifaceted, and may lead to gang involvement in one context, but not necessarily in another. Therefore, research is needed in various contexts to understand which factors might be globally applicable and which are unique to a specific scenario.
Accordingly, the goals of the present study were: to examine (a) the prevalence of gang involvement, (b) the risk and protective factors associated with gang involvement, and (c) the association between gang involvement and exposure to multiple risk and protective factors; to understand why Caribbean youth are joining gangs; and to provide information useful for designing prevention and intervention programs specifically for Caribbean nations.
Study area
The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is a two-island nation located about 11 km off the northeastern coast of Venezuela, between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. Trinidad and Tobago obtained independence from Great Britain in 1962; however, it remains a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, and it continues to be highly influenced by British culture and law. Although Trinidad and Tobago was once an agrarian society, over the past 30 years it become one of the wealthiest and most industrialized Caribbean countries, largely through petroleum production and the provision of regional finance. It currently reports one of the highest gross national incomes per capita and the second-fastest-growing economy in all the Caribbean, Central America, and South America (30). The nation is comprised of about 1.26 million people, of whom 40% are East Indian; 37.5%, African; and 20.5% Afro-Indian.
Education in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is compulsory for all children 612 years of age. After the completion of primary school, students may either continue to secondary school, vocational studies, or craft training, or end their formal education (31). Just over 72% of youth (1218 years of age) chose to continue their education, and of these, about 90% attend school on a daily basis (32). According to data provided by the Ministry of Education's Educational Planning Division, dropout rates among school-attending youth are a low 1.02% (20052006 school year). Dropout rates did vary by gender and form (i.e., grade level), with 1.3% of males and < 1% of females dropping out. The highest dropout rate was found for form five (equivalent to 11th grade in the U.S. school system) males, with 2.34% dropping out. In just 10 years, Trinidad and Tobago experienced a 555% increase in homicides, from 98 incidents in 1998, to 544 incidents in 2008. Most of the increase has been attributable to firearms-related violence (33) and gang warfare (9). The increase in violence has led to a significant increase in fear among residents in high-crime neighborhoods. For example, a study of one high-crime community found that "56% of residents [believed that] the risk of being injured or killed because of crime [was] high, and many [felt] unsafe in their own neighborhood" (34).
Study design
The present study examines data from the Trinidad and Tobago Youth Survey (TTYS), one of several data collection initiatives funded by the Trinidad and Tobago Ministry of National Security for the purpose of diagnosing the nation's violent crime problem (34). Since the base rates for the behaviors in question were either unknown or expected to be low, a cross-sectional research design was developed to ensure a sufficient number of youth at high risk for delinquency and crime.
The target population for the TTYS was defined as third and fifth form (i.e., equivalent to 9th and 11th grades in the U.S. system) students attending high-risk, urban, public schools. At the time of the study, the nation had a total of eight school districts with 92 public schools teaching third and fifth form students. Five of the eight districts were considered "urban"; therefore, for the purposes of the study, an "urban" school was defined as any school teaching third and fifth forms in one of the five urban school districts. Consequently, three districts were eliminated, including the school district of Tobago. The result was 67 public schools defined as "urban." Within this group, "high-risk schools" were defined as those identified by the Ministry of Education as having a disproportionate number of students living in high-crime areas, or a high number of delinquent incidents. As a result, 27 were identified as being at "high risk," and of these, 22 (81.5%) agreed to participate in study's data collection efforts.
This response rate was fairly typical by international standards (3538), but high when compared to other studies conducted in some developing nations (39). The 22 schools represent 24% of all public schools in Trinidad and Tobago, or about one-third of all public schools located in urban areas.
Additional analysis was also performed to confirm that the schools selected were indeed high-risk. Using police calls-for-service data provided by the Trinidad and Tobago Police Services (TTPS), neighborhood crime patterns were examined and compared to the Ministry of Education's high-risk schools. The results showed there to be high reliability between the two data sources.
Survey instrument and data collection
The survey instrument used in the present study was originally developed by the Social Development Research Group at the University of Washington (14). This instrument was chosen because its measures have been validated for use by the international community (12, 4044). Key stakeholders at the Ministry of Education assisted in slightly modifying the instrument to reflect the local language and culture (i.e., monetary units, social activities, and organizations). The final version, the Trinidad and Tobago Youth Survey (TTYS), contained 238 items that measured 30 risk factors and 13 protective factors, within four domains: community, school, family, and peer/individual. The survey instrument also measured alcohol and drug use, and delinquency.
From MarchJune 2006, the survey was administered to 2 552 students during their homeroom period at school. All students present in their homeroom on the day of the survey were given a copy of the survey instrument. Students were informed that if they did not wish to participate in the survey, they were to return the questionnaire "blank." Likewise, students were informed that if they did not want to answer a specific question, they could leave it blank. Therefore, our sample excludes youth not enrolled in school or absent from school on the survey day (due to illness, hospitalization, truancy/ skipping school, or detention). Regarding enrollment and absenteeism at participating schools, the Ministry of Education stated that data of this kind is not routinely collected, and that any available data is not necessarily accurate; whereas school administrators/officials estimated that on any given day, 510% of students are absent.
Gang involvement served as the primary outcome variable for the present study. This was measured through two items: "Have you ever belonged to a gang;" followed by "Think of your four best friends. In the past year, how many of your best friends have been a member of a gang?" Guided by prior research, respondents were categorized into four groups according to their responses. Those who reported currently being in a gang were categorized as "current gang members"; those who reported having been in a gang in the past were categorized as "former gang members"; those who reported having two or more friends in a gang were categorized as "gang associates"; and those who did not self-report gang involvement were categorized as "non-gang members." Note that although some academics have argued that a dichotomous measure of gang membership (i.e., past and current members in one category and non-gang members in another) is more analytically parsimonious, for this study it would not have allowed for the possibility of qualitative differences based on the extent of an individual's gang involvement. In particular, the very nature of dichotomous measurement might mask important behavioral distinctions regarding the extent of gang association, which in turn, could result in fallacious findings and policy recommendations (45).
As a form of validation, all former and current gang members were asked additional questions about the organizational structure of their gang. About 95% of both former and current members indicated that their gang possessed one or more of the following organizational qualities: name, territory/turf, a leader, regular meetings, rules, consequence/punishment for broken rules, special colors/signs/symbols/clothing, contributions of money to the gang, drug sale income, kidnapping, and/or other crimes. The average number of organizational qualities reported by each former and current member was 4.5. Based on these results, respondents were indicating membership to a gang and not just an association with a delinquent peer network.
A total of 30 risk factors and 13 protective factors were examined to identify relationships with gang involvement. Table 1 presents the risk and protective factors and each of their properties by domain. Guided by previous research, a score for each respondent was determined by averaging responses across items within each factor (some items had to be reverse-coded before scale construction). Scales were initially constructed using all items used by the Social Development Research Group. After scale construction, however, some of the scales were altered (i.e., items were dropped) due to lack of internal reliability. In the end, all multiple-item scales used in the multivariate analysis demonstrated internal reliability (as measured by Cronbach's alpha). Appendix A describes the items and response categories used to construct risk and protective factor scales.
Respondents who scored in the upper-third on a particular risk or protective factor were coded as "1," indicating that the respondent was at elevated risk (or protection) for the factor. Respondents who scored elsewhere in the distribution were coded as "0," indicating that they were at low risk (or protection) for the factor. The authors noted that there are advantages and disadvantages associated with dichotomizing predictor variables; however, prior research indicates that dichotomizing risk and protective factors is beneficial as far as it increases interpretability (i.e., meaningful interpretations of odds ratios) and reduces the error-associated skewed variables. Additionally, while the use of dichotomized predictors limits the amount of variation in a variable, it rarely affects the substantive findings (46). For an explanation of the cut point chosen for the present study, see Bond et al. (47).
To examine the association of multiple risk and protective factors on gang association, the number of elevated risk and protective factors attributed to each respondent were counted. Because there were 30 risk factors and 13 protective factors, a respondent's cumulative risk factor score could range from 030, and the cumulative protective factor score, from 013.
Bivariate analyses were used to examine the prevalence of gang involvement by gender, ethnicity, and age, and to assess the relationship of multiple risk and protective factors with gang involvement. Multinomial logistic regression was used to examine the risk and protective factors associated with gang involvement. Multinomial logistic regression was used because the outcome measure was a nominal level variable. In multinomial logistic regression, one category is chosen as the comparison (or base) category, which is contrasted with all other response categories. In the present study, we have four response categories: never in a gang, gang associate, former gang member, and current gang member. "Never in a gang" was chosen as the comparison category, to be contrasted with the other three responses. Additionally, given that surveys were collected across 22 schools, STATA 10.0 (StataCorp LP, Texas, United States) was used to calculate robust standard errors to account for clustering by school (48). Before interpreting the findings, multicollinearity diagnostics were conducted. The diagnostic tests indicated that multicollinearity was not a problem; no variance inflation factor was greater than 2 and no condition indices were greater than 10, well below levels that would suggest collinearity (49).
Of the 2 552 survey instruments administered to students, 6.9% were excluded for invalid data. For example, near the end of the survey all respondents were asked, "How honest were you in filling out this survey?" If the respondent did not answer the question, or indicated "I was not honest at all," that survey was eliminated from the dataset (n = 85). Likewise, for respondents reporting use of a nonexistent drug (phenoxydine), their data were excluded from analysis (n = 91). Furthermore, not all students who took the survey completed every question. Imputation of missing data was conducted using PRELIS 2.0 (Scientific Software International Inc., Illinois, United States) similar response pattern imputation. Research has supported this method of imputation, and there is evidence that it introduces less bias than listwise deletion and mean replacement (50). After the above protocols were applied, 2 206 surveys remained in the dataset and were used for the present study.
The final sample contained respondents ranging from 1119 years of age, with a mean age just over 15 years. About 22% of the respondents were 14 years of age or younger; 38.7% were 15; 27.7% were 16; and 13.6% were 17 or older. Females comprised 59.6% of the sample. In terms of ethnicity, 41.2% of the respondents indicated that they were African; 22.8%, East Indian; and 15.3%, AfroIndian. For purposes of the analysis, the 17 respondents who reported being Chinese and the 18 who reported being White were combined with those who reported their ethnicity as "other" (n = 423); therefore, the ethnicity of 20.8% of study respondents was coded as "other." East Indian students may have been underrepresented in the study sample because, according to the Ministry of Education, the East Indian population tends to be wealthier than the African population and therefore more likely to enroll in private schools, which were not included in this study (telephone communication with Marlene Charles, Ministry of Education, April 2006).
Gang prevalence
Of the respondents in our sample, the majority (79.4%) reported never having been in a gang; 7.7% reported being a gang associate; 6.8%, being a former gang member; and 6.2%, a current gang member (Table 2). Analysis indicated that gang status varied significantly by gender, with more males (8.9%) than females (4.4%) reporting being a current gang member. Likewise, more males (10.4%) than females (5.8%) reported being a gang associate, and more than twice as many males (10.1%) as females (4.5%) reported being a former gang member.
Gang association also varied, although not significantly (P = 0.051), by ethnicity. Those identifying themselves as belonging to the ethnic group "other" were most likely to report current gang membership (7.6%); followed by Africans (6.4%); East Indians (5.8%); and AfroIndians (4.5%). About 10% of AfroIndians reported being former gang members, as did 6.8% of "others"; 5.6% of Africans; and 6.4% of East Indians. About 9% of those in the "other" ethnic group reported being gang associates; as did 8% of Africans; 7.4% of AfroIndians; and 5.8% of East Indians. Gang affiliation was significantly associated with age, with former gang members being significantly older than the other three categories (current gang members, gang associates, and non-gang members).
Risk and protective factors associated with gang status
While all of the risk and protective factors that were shown in Table 1 were included in our analyses, Table 3 presents findings for those variables that were significantly associated with the outcome variable, i.e., the significant relationships found between gang status and risk and protective factors (results not presented in Table 3 are available from the corresponding author upon request).
Analyses indicated that, within the community domain, two risk factors were associated with gang status: residential mobility and availability of handguns. Respondents who reported residential mobility were more likely to be former gang members, rather than non-gang members; and those reporting availability of handguns in their communities were more likely to be current gang members (odds ratio (OR) = 2.503) or former gang members (OR = 2.864), rather than non-gang members.
Within the school domain, one risk factor was significantly related to gang involvement, with former gang members being less likely to report low commitment to school (OR = 0.611).
Within the family domain, one risk factor was associated with gang status, that is, the odds of being a gang associate increased by about 45% for those who reported parental attitudes favorable toward antisocial behavior.
In the peer-individual domain, five risk factors (ae) were significantly associated with gang status. Compared with non-gang members, gang associates were significantly more likely to report an elevated risk for (a) antisocial peers (OR = 6.255), (b) peer drug use (OR = 2.767), and (c) peer alcohol use (OR = 1.745); and former gang members reported being at greater risk for (d) early initiation of antisocial behavior (OR = 2.828) and (e) intention to use drugs (OR = 1.921). Current gang members concurred by reporting an elevated risk for (a) antisocial peers (OR 2.328), (b) peer drug use (OR 1.638), (d) early initiation of antisocial behavior (OR = 1.717), and (e) intention to use drugs (OR 3.163).
Analysis also revealed several protective factors associated with gang joining. For example, within the individual domain, four protective factors (ad) were significantly related to gang involvement. Current gang members were less likely to report the protection of (a) social skills (OR = 0.448) and (b) belief in moral order (OR = 0.617); and former gang members reported (c) less interaction with prosocial peers (OR = 0.491), as well as (d) fewer social skills (OR = 0.442).
Reporting rewards for prosocial involvement, however, increased a respondent's odds of being a former gang member by about 58%. In the community domain, gang associates were found to be significantly more likely than non-gang members to report rewards for prosocial involvement within their communities; and in the school domain, current gang members were more likely to report opportunities for prosocial involvement (OR = 1.924). Within the family domain, the odds of being a former gang member (OR = 1.535) increased for those respondents who reported having the protection of opportunities for prosocial involvement.
Overall, there was good model fit for the multinomial logistic regression model presented in Table 3. There was a significant Chi-square ( χ2 = 753.02 with 129 degrees of freedom; P < 0.001). Additionally, the model effect size indicates that the risk and protective factors explain a substantial portion of the variance in gang status (Nagelkerke R2 = 0.376).
Effects of multiple risk and protective factors on gang involvement
Table 4 presents findings on the association between gang involvement and exposure to multiple risk and protective factors. Analyses indicated that overall, 46.6% of respondents who reported being exposed to a high number of risk factors (17 or more) were not gang members (see row %). Still, those who reported exposure to a high number of risk factors were more likely to be gang-involved (see column %), and those who reported exposure to a low number of risk factors were less likely to be.
A similar trend was observed for the relationship between multiple protective factors and gang involvement. Respondents who reported exposure to a high number of protective factors were less likely to report gang involvement. For example, about 35% of those who had never been in a gang reported being exposed to seven or more protective factors; only about 17% of current gang members reported this level of exposure (see column %). Likewise, 51.1% of current gang members and 37% never in a gang reported exposure to two or fewer protective factors. A Chi-square test for significance indicated that, in fact, the cumulative number of risk factors and the cumulative number of protective factors vary significantly by gang involvement.
The study results suggest that gang membership is about as prevalent in Trinidad and Tobago as it is in samples of public schools in Canada, the United States, and Western Europe, but perhaps lower than that of some other Caribbean nations (20).
Until recently, research on gang prevalence had been conducted primarily in the United States, but during the last decade, researchers from nations such as Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the Netherlands have begun to examine the issue with school-based samples (5, 20). Prevalence estimates have varied depending on the researcher's definition of a gang and the sampling strategy employed, but work using unrestrictive definitions of a gang and public school-based samples, as used in the present study, has yielded fairly consistent prevalence rates (20).
The gang prevalence rates found in the current study, broken down by select sociodemographic characteristics, were also similar to those of developed nations, with males and older respondents being more likely to report gang involvement (20). However, it is important to note that our gang membership prevalence rates are inconsistent with at least one study (8) that reported 1724% of males and 1116% of females in Caribbean public schools were either former or current gang members. While said study focused on students in Jamaica and eight small island nations across the Caribbean, the difference in gang membership prevalence rates might have been the result of inter-island differences, the wording of survey questions, or sampling protocol. For instance, one study may have found higher gang member prevalence rates because 60% of its sample was Jamaican students (7, 8). While there has been little systematic research on the topic, Jamaica is believed to have one of the worst gang problems in the Western Hemisphere (9).
The present study found that although risk factors associated with gang involvement were present in all four domains, the influence of the respective domains was unequal. For example, school-related risk factors, for the most part, were not significantly associated with gang involvement. While some prior research has shown that low commitment to school and low academic achievement is related to gang joining (23, 25), these findings are consistent with a larger body of research that has shown the relationship not to be significant (51) or have determined the relationship to be inconclusive (52, 53).
Our analyses indicated that two community risk factors were associated with gang joining: perceived availability of handguns and a high level of residential mobility. Perceived availability of handguns was found to be significantly associated with former and current gang membership. The fact that former and current gang members were more likely to report perceived availability of handguns in their communities is not surprising. Prior research has shown that gang members are more likely than non-gang members to possess and to use guns and that their peers are more likely to possess and use handguns. This might account for why gang members perceived handguns to be more widely available than non-gang members in our sample. Alternatively, a large body of research indicates that a sizable proportion of gang members joined their gang for protection (20, 54, 55). In communities with a high number of handguns, youths may join gangs out of fear. On the other hand, the relationship between perceived availability of guns and gang involvement may, in fact, be because gang members are more likely to carry a gun. Further research to examine this relationship is recommended.
Regarding residential mobility, youth who lived in neighborhoods with a high level of mobility were significantly more likely to report being former gang members. A key tenet of social disorganization theory is that communities characterized by high levels of mobility are also characterized by lower levels of informal social control due to a reduced capacity to develop social cohesion and mutual trust among residents. Thus, gangs and violence are more likely to emerge in communities with high levels of mobility because the values and norms that are essential for informal social control at the neighborhood level are missing (5658).
Few of the family risk factors were found to be associated with gang joining. The only risk factor within the family domain that was significantly associated with gang status was that youth who associated with gang members were significantly more likely to report having parents with attitudes that favored antisocial behavior. It might be that youth with parents who favor antisocial behavior face fewer parental consequences for developing friendship networks with troublesome youth, such as gang members. While parental supervision has been frequently found to be associated with gang status in prior research (23, 25, 28, 29), it was not significantly related to gang joining among our sample of youth in Trinidad and Tobago. A recent review of the literature on risk behaviors among Caribbean youth showed that few studies have examined the relationship between parental supervision and risky behavior, and the few that have, have not found the relationship to be significant (60only risky sexual behavior was associated with low parental supervision; substance abuse, teenage pregnancy, sexually-transmitted infections and HIV/AIDS, mental health, violence/delinquency, and eating disorders/obesity were not).
Peer-individual risk factors were more likely to be associated with gang status, than were risk factors in other domains. Specifically, the study found a robust relationship between gang status and early initiation of antisocial behavior, intention to use drugs, having antisocial peers, and having peers who use drugs. Our findings are consistent with prior longitudinal and cross-sectional studies that have repeatedly shown that youth who engage/intend to engage in delinquency and drug use are significantly more likely to join a gang, than those who do not (21, 26, 59). Likewise, the body of research has repeatedly demonstrated that gang joining is strongly associated with having delinquent peer networks and negative peer influencesnet of other risk and protective factorsand that peer influences exert a much stronger influence on gang joining than family, community, and school factors. As a consequence, our analysis, combined with research conducted in other nations, suggests that the influence of the peer-individual domain on gang joining is strong.
Another major finding of the present study was that some protective factors were associated with gang status, but not always in the hypothesized direction. Our analyses indicated that, in general, those with social skills, belief in moral order, and who had interaction with prosocial peers were significantly less likely to have self-reported being a current or former gang member. Of particular interest was our finding that rewards and opportunities for prosocial involvement were significantly related to gang involvement. Gang associates were significantly more likely than non-gang members to self-report living in communities with rewards for prosocial involvement. Former gang members, when contrasted to non-gang members, were significantly more likely to report having more family opportunities for prosocial involvement and to be rewarded by their peers for prosocial involvement. Current gang members were also significantly more likely than non-gang members to have opportunities for prosocial involvement in their schools. To help interpret these findings, a small, but important body of literature suggests that some group-based activity can increase participation in gangs (20).
Over the last three decades, several prevention and social intervention programs have relied on programs that attempts to steer at-risk youth away from delinquency, crime, and gangs by encouraging them to pursue more socially-acceptable activities, such as sports teams, club activities, and other prosocial group-based events. While most of the research examining these strategies found that they were ineffective in reducing gang membership as well as gang crime (6063), some of this research demonstrated that these programs lead to an increase in gang membership and gang violence (64, 65).
While this study's data do not allow the underlying causal mechanisms at play to be examined, it may be that at-risk youth cluster toward group activities in Trinidad, which in turn has a "peer contagion effect." Peer contagion is believed to operate through a process of socialization whereby delinquent youth co-opt at-risk youth through verbal and non-verbal communication (66, 67). Peer contagion effects have been linked to drug and alcohol use, delinquency, violence, and gang joining (6770). It might be that at-risk youth who participate in group-based activities in Trinidad increase their chances for joining a gang.
Lastly, the probability of gang association was found to increase as the number of risk factors increased. Current gang members were disproportionately in the highest cumulative risk category; next were former gang members, followed by gang associates, and those never in a gang. Our findings are consistent with prior research that reported that exposure to multiple risk factors, regardless of the domain, were associated with negative health outcomes, such as depression and substance use (45).
Although not often discussed in the literature, the present study also found that exposure to multiple risk factors did not necessarily mean that a youth would be gang-involved. In fact, more than half of youth who reported the presence of a high number of risk factors were not involved in a gang. This finding indicates that the influence of risk factors on gang joining can be mediated, and that some protective factors can inoculate youth against gang involvement.
Study limitations
Before the interpretation of the findings is complete, four limitations must be noted. First, the findings should not be generalized to other countries in the Caribbean or proximate nations. Numerous studies have demonstrated that every community's gang problem is unique and might be dissimilar to the problem in other communities (5).
Second, the present study relied on a cross-sectional research design using measures of risk and protective factors shown in prior research to predict gang membership, delinquency, and drug use; however, the results should not be interpreted as implying causality. The cross-section design employed in the present study does not permit us to make statements about the existence or direction of the factors that lead to gang involvement, only that particular factors were or were not associated with gang involvement.
Third, the present study employs the risk and protective factor paradigm that has been characterized by some academics as limited. Specifically, the paradigm has been criticized for its over- emphasis of proximate individual factors and its under-emphasis of social and structural factors (71).
Fourth, the study may suffer from sample selection bias. The use of a high-risk public school sample may have necessarily confined the variability of respondent's exposure to some risk and protective factors, particularly in the school domain. Also, the prevalence estimates of gang membership might be under-estimating the scope and nature of the problem because gang members might be less likely to enroll in and attend school. Some prior research has shown that increased gang activity is related to lower academic resilience (72).
Despite its limitations, to the authors' knowledge, this is the first study in the Caribbean to examine risk and protective factors associated with gang membership in a sample of public school youth. The study analysis yielded three important findings: first, gang prevalence among Trinidadian school youth is similar to rates found in the United States and Europe, but lower than previous Caribbean estimates; second, although risk factors associated with gang involvement were present in all four domains, peer-individual risk factors were disproportionately likely to be associated with gang status; and third, the probability of gang involvement increased with the accumulation of risk factors and decreased with the accumulation of protective factors.
Research recommendations and policy implications
This study's findings have several implications for policy and future research. Researchers in the near future should conduct comparative research between nations using a similar methodology to further understand the scope and nature of gang problems, and how they contribute to public health problems, such as violence and drug use. It is important to understand whether predictors of gang phenomena are universal, regardless of economic, political, and other macro-level forces, and whether current theoretical propositions for understanding gangs hold across national boundaries. Such an approach would enable researchers and policymakers to better understand similarities and differences in gang problems for the purpose of designing responses that would be effective across geopolitical boundaries.
Additionally, these findings, coupled with prior research, suggest that focusing on multiple risk factors will help practitioners identify youth who are at high risk for gang joining, and provide a framework for building gang prevention programs. This strategy is currently being employed by the City of Los Angeles, United States. Approximately a dozen Los Angeles neighborhoods characterized by community risk factors (i.e., social disorganization, high mobility, etc.) associated with gang joining were first identified. Next, youth (and their families) who were exposed to a high number of risk factors associated with gang membership were then identified (through self-report surveys) and recruited for gang prevention programs (73). While the program in Los Angeles is the largest of its kind, and has yet to be evaluated, prior research suggests that prevention programs focused on a number of risk and protective factors have the most success with prevention of gang joining (74). However, additional research that examines the association between gang status and risk and protective factors is needed in the Caribbean prior to implementing similar programs. In this regard, it would be beneficial for researchers across the Caribbean to collaborate on a geographically-based longitudinal study to better understand the health risks faced by Caribbean youth, so that governments and social services can respond most effectively.
Last, the current study found that some prosocial group-based activities that have been traditionally viewed as protective, might in fact increase the likelihood of gang joining in the Caribbean. Future research in the Caribbean should focus on the social mechanisms through which specific risk and protective factors function for gang involvement, in general, and should further examine the effect of peer contagion on gang joining, in particular. If these study's findings are replicated in the future, they suggest that policymakers consider increasing the availability of individual goal-oriented programs, and reducing peer relationship group-based exercises as part of gang prevention efforts.
In addition, future research might also focus on identifying individual and/or group-based activities that promote a "belief in moral order," which the study confirmed is a significant protective factor.
Acknowledgements. Funding for this research was provided by the Ministry of National Security, Trinidad and Tobago. The points of view expressed in this paper are those of the authors alone and do not represent the official policies or positions of the Ministry of National Security, Trinidad and Tobago Police Service, or Arizona State University. The authors would like to thank Todd Herrenkohl, Scott Decker, and William Wells for reviewing and providing substantive feedback on an earlier version of this manuscript. Furthermore, the authors would like to thank Marlene Charles of the Peace Promotion Programme within the Ministry of Education. This research was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Arizona State University (IRB Protocol #0702001609), United States.
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Manuscript received on 30 June 2009.
Revised version accepted for publication on 21 December 2009.


text:
Rx drug information, pharmaceutical research, clinical trials, news, and more
Sulfacetamide Sodium and Prednisolone Sodium Phosphate Ophthalmic Solution is a sterile topical ophthalmic solution combining an anti-infective and an adrenocortical steroid.
Sulfacetamide sodium and prednisolone sodium phosphate ophthalmic solution is indicated for corticosteroid-responsive inflammatory ocular conditions for which a corticosteroid is indicated and where superficial bacterial ocular infection or a risk of bacterial ocular infection exists.
Ocular corticosteroids are indicated in inflammatory conditions of the palpebral and bulbar conjunctiva, cornea, and anterior segment of the globe where the inherent risk of corticosteroid use in certain infective conjunctivitides is accepted to obtain diminution in edema and inflammation. They are also indicated in chronic anterior uveitis and corneal injury from chemical, radiation, or thermal burns or penetration of foreign bodies.
The use of a combination drug with an anti-infective component is indicated where the risk of superficial ocular infection is high or where there is an expectation that potentially dangerous numbers of bacteria will be present in the eye.
The particular anti-infective drug in this product is active against the following common bacterial eye pathogens: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus (viridans group), Haemophilus influenzae,Klebsiella species, and Enterobacter species.
This product does not provide adequate coverage against: Neisseria species, Serratia marcescens.
A significant percentage of staphylococcal isolates are completely resistant to sulfa drugs.
Intraductal Meibomian Gland Probing Trial [Active, not recruiting]
In this research study, the investigators are looking at the effects of Meibomian Gland
Probing (MGP) versus a sham (fake) procedure in patients with refractory MGD who have
already tried traditional management with no success in resolving their clinical signs (as
seen by their ophthalmologist) or their symptoms.
The investigators are also evaluating the effects of using two (2) post-procedural
medication treatments: Blephamide or GenTeal PM Night-Time to determine if treatment after
the MGP procedure has an effect on its outcome.
Patients Response to Early Switch To Oral:Osteomyelitis Study [Not yet recruiting]
Based on the current literature, investigators hypothesize that patients with osteomyelitis
who are treated with the standard approach of intravenous antibiotics for the full duration
of therapy will have the same clinical outcomes as patients treated with the experimental
approach of intravenous antibiotics with early switch to oral antibiotics.
The primary objective of this study is to compare patients with osteomyelitis treated with
the standard approach of intravenous antibiotics for the full duration of therapy versus
patients treated with intravenous antibiotics with an early switch to oral antibiotics in
relation to clinical outcomes at 12 months after discontinuation of antibiotic therapy.
Secondary objectives of the study include the evaluation of adverse events related to the
use of antibiotics as well as the cost of care evaluated from the hospital perspective.
Effects of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy on Surgical Wound Healing [Enrolling by invitation]
The aim of this study is to test the effect of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy) HBOT (100% oxygen;
2. 0 ATA; 90 minute total exposure) and compare against a hyperbaric sham treatment (HBST)
(patient's breathing room air; 2. 0 ATA; 90 minute exposure) in reducing edema and
ecchymosis. HBOT will be applied as a single pre-operative and a single post-operative
treatment for patients undergoing eyelid surgery. Briefly, patients will be exposed to HBOT
2-4 hours prior to undergoing surgery, 2-4 hours post-surgery and healing will be assessed
at day 3, 10, 21, 30 & 90 days after surgery. Edema and ecchymosis will be assessed in a
time series to determine the extent that HBOT reduces these clinical signs. The primary
null hypothesis to test will be that no differences in scores will exist between treatment
and control at day 3, 10 & 21 post-surgery. A secondary null hypothesis to test is the time
required to change a score will be no different between the two groups.
HBOT=hyperbaric oxygen therapy; HBST=hyperbaric sham treatment
The Effect of Sodium Thiosulfate Eardrops on Hearing Loss in Patients Who Receive Cisplatin Therapy [Terminated]
This is a pilot, randomized, self-controlled study of the effects of intratympanic sodium
thiosulfate (STS) on the degree of hearing loss in patients receiving cisplatin therapy.
Sodium thiosulfate is an inactive ingredient contained in sulfacetamide ophthalmic solution
which is used routinely as an otic solution delivered to the middle ear space.
The hypothesis of this study is that local administration of sodium thiosulfate (STS) will
result in improved hearing compared to ears not receiving the study drug in patients
receiving systemic cisplatin therapy.
ORCA - Oracea� for Rosacea: A Community-based Assessment [Completed]
The objective of this study is to assess the effectiveness, safety, subject satisfaction and
quality of life with Oracea� when used as monotherapy or as add-on therapy to existing
topical regimens for the treatment of rosacea.
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
9/11 is rolling around again. As happens every year, I will pause whatever I am doing at 8:46am and cry – just a bit. Less every year. I was one of the many journalists dispatched to New York that day. Witnessing history was why I got into journalism and I will never regret racing to Ground Zero.
Now, though, I am a professor. I'm supposed to teach what it's like to be a journalist. How to write a lead sentence, how to shoot video on a camera or a cell phone, how to edit and publish on multiple platforms… you know the deal. But every year I struggle with how to teach horror. How to teach a terror attack. How to prepare these bright-eyed young journalists to tell the story in the midst of sheer chaos and fear.
Students entering college this fall were most likely born in 1999. They have no independent memory of that day, although they've heard about it all their lives. Even the older students don't really remember much, parents and teachers shielded them from the horror unfolding on TV screens. I often begin class by telling them I'm going to give them a first person account of the day. To a person, they watch me. They watch me explain what I was doing, where I went and what I did. They hear my voice shake, they see my tears. They also see me take a deep breath and try to explain how to remain a journalist in those circumstances, how to find the voices to tell the stories, and how to try to find the truth.
Each year the questions they ask me vary, but again and again I hear, "Why was it so hard for people to call each other? Why didn't people post their locations?" I explain about the lack of cell phone towers, and the fact that there was no social media to post anything on. And they are stunned. How the world has changed in their lifetimes.
In our world now, terror attacks are increasing. Orlando, Paris, Barcelona, Manchester…on and on. These students of mine may find themselves in the middle of one someday, as a journalist or as a person just living their life.
I don't think I can ever really prepare them for that. I can only tell my story.


text:
Preplan a Funeral
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text:
a view at the very top!
hi! we arrived in colorado a few days ago and it's GORGEOUS here! and can you even believe it, we needed coats this yesterday morning when the kids woke up and went outside for a bit before breakfast! what?!
anyway, i'll share more later but wanted to share a bit from last monday when we visited the observatory deck at the world trade center in the city....Read more


text:
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European stocks had a lacklustre start to the week yesterday, with weakness in commodity prices offset by strength in the likes of defensives, with utilities and healthcare outperforming, which in turn helped the FTSE 100 to finish the day modestly in the green.
There was also little in the way of direction for US markets, which also traded quietly below last week's record highs, with the Nasdaq regaining some of Friday's lost ground.
A large part of the weakness in commodity prices yesterday, which saw crude oil sink to one-month lows, has been concern over rising Delta variant cases in both China and the US, acting as a brake on demand. China is a particular concern given the disruption caused by recent flooding in some areas of the country, which appears to be making it difficult to contain new virus outbreaks, while US cases rose to a six month high.
Gold and silver prices also flash crashed sharply lower before rebounding, as investors looked ahead to this week's US CPI numbers, against a backdrop of concern that the recent rise in inflationary pressures may well be more persistent, than transitory.
Yesterday's China factory gate numbers for July showed another increase, rising back to 9% after dipping to 8.8% in June. Some of that gain was as a consequence of higher crude oil and other raw material prices, however there is evidence that prices are now starting to level off and slide back, if recent declines in various key benchmark commodity indices are any indication.
Asia markets have had a similarly quiet session as rising virus concerns temper enthusiasm here and this looks set to bleed into today's European open, with the only data of note being the latest German ZEW economic expectations survey for August. This is expected to decline to 55, after dropping to 63.3 in July from 79.8 in June. Amongst the many reasons is likely to be due to the damage caused by the recent flooding, as well as concern that the recovery in China is hitting a soft patch.
On the UK data front, the latest BRC retail sales data for July showed that consumer spending slowed a touch despite the full lifting of restrictions, with online spending falling back, although it still remained resilient. Spending on the likes of theatre, cinema and sporting events rose, as did spending on in store sales as shoppers returned to the high street. Like for like sales in July rose 4.7%, down from June's 6.7%.
EUR/USD – looking soggy but needs to push below the 1.1740 area to open up a return to the March lows at 1.1704, and the November lows at 1.1603. Resistance comes in at the 1.1830 area.
GBP/USD –feels like we could see a test of the 1.3820 area. A fall below 1.3800 argues for a return to the 1.3720 area. A move through the 1 4020 area is needed to reopen the path higher.
EUR/GBP – posted a new 18-month low yesterday at 0.8462, with the potential to move lower towards the 2020 lows at 0.8280. The euro needs to recover back above the 0.8540 level to stabilise.
USD/JPY – looks on course to retest that 110.70 area and July highs, after last week's break above the 109.80 area. This should now act as support for another leg higher.
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Newsflash: October is Connected Educator Month! I almost missed it, so to make up for it, I have this lovely little post for you about what it is and how you can get involved.
First off, what is this all about? Well, the Connected Educators project was started by the Office of Educational Technology, part of the Department of Education in the United States, which designated October 2013 as "a celebration of online communities of practice and networks in education," or Connected Educator's Month. The main Connected Educators website is pretty snazzy, so I recommend you take a peek. There are all sorts of events going on this month and many ways to participate, too.
You should probably start where I did, with the Starter Kit, which explains just about everything you need to know. It begins by defining connected educator and connected learner and then runs through a number of awesome resources and activities you can do to utilize them. Even if you don't feel like a tech whiz, give it a try! I think you'll find it rather straightforward and everything is explained so well. There is no rush to get through the whole kit in one sitting. It's well organized and nicely paced, although if you're starting midmonth, I wouldn't worry about trying to catch up.
From there, participate! Actually do the activities described in the kit, make connections, attend free events, and earn badges. Check out the publications and follow @edcocp on Twitter. If you don't have a Twitter account, the Starter Kit has four pages devoted to it and that's actually where I'm heading now—so good luck, have fun, and enjoy Connected Educator Month!
Once you get started, come back and share with us your favorite Connected Educator activity or resource, and how you used it with your ELLs.


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Footprint Table Inspired from the Beach
September 17, 2010 by admin · Leave a Comment
We have seen a lot of innovation when it comes to home furniture and accessories by Foot print table from Journeyman Furniture is one of its kind. The outer part of the table has footprints contoured into it and the same thing is also carved out of the underside as well. This gives the viewer an impression that that somebody actually walked on the table resulting in its surface being pushed through.
Since wood cannot be heated or molded into shapes, this furniture design gives an impression of something that can never happen naturally. The furniture is an excellent concoction of hand crafted skill and state of art technology. This technology can be extended to toss out a range of customized and personalized furniture and interiors.
Designed by Nicholas Langan, the furniture is available for a price of £3,950 from the retail shelves of Journeyman Furniture. The Oak colored table measures 1195 L X 695 W X 420 H and has been inspired by the beach.
Via: DesignPotter
Source: Elite Choice


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Benefits for Women
Normally the uterus leans slightly over the bladder in the center of the pelvis, about one and a half inches, above the pubic bone. It is held in this position by muscles, the vaginal wall, and ligaments that attach it to the back, front, and sides of the pelvis. Uterine ligaments are made to stretch to accommodate a growing fetus inside and to move freely when the bladder or bowel is full. The ligaments and muscles can weaken and loosen, causing the uterus to fall downward, forward, backwards and to either side.
A uterus in any of these positions is called tilted or prolapsed. Modern medicine has little or nothing to offer woman with this problem. Options may include using the birth control pill, muscle relaxants, or surgery and woman are generally told, "your uterus is tipped, but that is normal and don't worry about it." Yet women have a laundry list of physical and emotional symptoms that can be addressed and prevented with these simple, non-invasive massage techniques. When reproductive organs shift, they can constrict normal flow of blood and lymph, and disrupt nerve connections. Just a few extra ounces sitting on blood and lymph vessels can cause havoc throughout the different systems of the body. By shifting the uterus back into place, homeostasis, or the natural balance of the body, is restored in the pelvic area and the surrounding organs. Toxins are flushed and nutrients that help to tone tissue and balance hormones are restored to normal order. This is essential for healthy pregnancy, labor and delivery.
Old adhesion from invasive treatments to the pelvic and abdominal area, including fibroids, endometriosis, and cesarean delivery are diminished when addressed by uterine massage. In addition, digestive, urinary and bladder problems can be helped.
Practitioners of The Arvigo Techniques of Maya Abdominal Therapy® report that many common health care symptoms are alleviated by these techniques. Organ functions are supported and enhanced.
This list contains the most common symptoms that are improved by incorporating this holistic modality into ones health care.
Displacement symptoms for Women
- Displaced or prolapsed uterus and or bladder
- Painful menstrual cycles and ovulation
- Irregular menstrual cycles and ovulation
- Bladder or yeast infections
- Miscarriages, difficult pregnancies
- Endometriosis
- Peri menopause, menopausal symptoms
- Fertility challenges
- PMS/Depression with menstruation
- Ovarian cysts
- Uterine fibroids
- Abnormal uterine bleeding
- Enhances Pregnancy, aids in labor and birthing
- Pelvic congestion, pain
"The uterus is a woman's "second brain" and comprises the spiritual center of her being." – Rosita Arvigo


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iBodyboard is all about bodyboarding. Take your bodyboarding skills to the next level with iBodyboard and start bodyboarding the way you have always dreamed of.
This app is the only one of its kind available in the app store.
iBodyboard is stacked with information for all levels of bodyboarders.
What information is in iBodyboard :
Bodyboarding Moves
~ Beginner Moves - Learn beginner moves with step by step instructions, pictures, descriptions and videos.
~ Intermediate Moves - Learn intermediate moves with step by step instructions, pictures, descriptions and videos.
~ Advanced Moves - Learn the most advanced moves performed in bodyboarding with images, steps, descriptions and videos.
~ Bodyboard - Learn parts and uses of a bodyboard with pictures and detailed descriptions.
~ Wetsuits - Putting on wetsuits, types of wetsuits and the different parts of a wetsuit.
~ Fins and accessories - learn about selecting the right fins for you and the accessories which are vital for bodyboarding.
~ Learn all about Rips, Currents, Blue bottle stings and other dangers while bodyboarding.
Surf Log
~ Keep a surf diary if you are traveling to record all your surfs.
~ Keep track of competitions, heats and mistakes.
~ Keep track of moves worked on to track your progression.
~ Export any of your logs to Friends, family, Sponsors and Coaches.
~ You will never ever forget about a surf again.
Surfing Rules and Terminology
~ Learn the rules of surfing and surfing terminology
Tips for Improvements
~ Follow our Improvement tips to speed up your bodyboarding progression.
Future Updates
~ Pre-Surf warm up Routine
~ Bodyboarding specific fitness training


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Editor's note: Join Gayle Laakmann McDowell for her upcoming talk at General Assembly in San Francisco on Thursday, November 29, 2012. Save 15% with promo code "Women2" when you register here.
By Gayle Laakmann McDowell (Founder & CEO, CareerCup)
We've all probably experienced it. The raised eyebrows when we say, no, really, we're engineers. The extra fighting to prove we're technical. The presumption that we're in some less technical role (or, if we actually are there, that we probably have no technical chops).
In that sense, technical interviews are a good thing for us. Let's be excited about them.
What is a technical interview?
A technical interview for a programmer consists of coding and algorithm questions. These questions might be things like:
- Write code to remove duplicates in a string.
- How would you design a mail server?
- Design an algorithm to find the Nth largest item in a binary tree.
They are common in many companies for software engineering / programming roles, and even for many program / product manager roles. At companies like Microsoft, Google, and Amazon, this is how they hire software engineers. This is not just a component of your interview; this is your interview.
And you get five to six of these in a row, making your interview process effectively eight hours of straight problem solving.
(What do these interviews look like? Click here for a clip.)
Why should women love these interviews?
These interviews can certainly be scary, particularly if you're not expecting this. But there's good news too: these can actually be a great thing for women, as compared to traditional behavioral / tell-me-about-your-experience interviews.
- Objectivity: Although evaluating technical interview performance isn't perfectly objective, it is much more objective than trying to evaluate someone's technical skills by discussing prior experience. This means that to the extent that people are biased and assuming that women are less technical, we've got a better shot when the evaluate criteria is more objective.
- Leveling the playing field: While times are (fortunately) changing, many women take on more domestic responsibilities than do their male colleagues. More responsibilities at home means less time to build the cool "extracurricular" projects that can set you apart in an interview. With less focus on your projects and experience, and more on your raw coding / algorithm skills, women may perform better in interviews.
- Gives a leg up to those who started later: Some women were fortunate enough to pursue computer science in college; others were not, and picked up coding later in life. Because technical interviews emphasize aptitude rather than pure knowledge or experience, those with less experience can perform comparatively well.
Technical interviews are not a perfect system by any means, but they do have their upsides.
How do you ace the technical interview?
You should prepare for all interviews, and technical interviews are no exception. Studying is important!
Here's what you do:
- Read real interview questions: CareerCup has over 8000 technical interview questions on there. Read them. Practice them. The goal here is not to memorize questions and solutions, but rather to help you learn how to solve questions.
- Practice with pen and paper: In most cases, you won't get a computer to write code in an interview, so you shouldn't be practicing interview coding on a computer. Use a pen and paper
to practice code. And don't forget to test your code!
- Talk Out Loud: The interviewer wants to see you try to solve the question. They want to know how you're approaching the question. Explain to them your thought process, and definitely ask about anything that might be vague or unspecified. This is supposed to be a conversation with you and your interview.
- Be Confident: Many people get scared when they read interview questions, thinking that they have to immediately know how to solve a question. Not so! Even the best candidates can't spit out the answers immediately to interview questions. If you get a problem that stumps you, that's okay. Start with a brute force solution and work your way from there. Try some example cases. Brainstorm various approaches. Just don't give up!
You can ace these interviews with a bit of studying. Check out Cracking the Coding Interview for more tips.
Editor's note: Join Gayle Laakmann McDowell for her upcoming talk at General Assembly in San Francisco on Thursday, November 29, 2012. Save 15% with promo code "Women2" when you register here.
Women 2.0 readers: What are some interview tips for technical interviews? Let us know in the comments below.
About the guest blogger: Gayle Laakmann McDowell is the Founder and CEO of CareerCup, which provides programming interview prep for candidates interviewing with Microsoft, Google, Amazon and many other companies. She is the author of two books: Cracking the Coding Interview and The Google Resume. She holds a bachelor's and master's degree from the University of Pennsylvania in Computer Science, and an MBA from the Wharton School. She lives in Palo Alto, CA. Follow her on Twitter at @gayle.


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Watch: Shaq's son dominates as a high school freshman
Shaquille O'Neal's son Shareef looks like his dad, but he's six inches shorter, a hundred pounds lighter and can dribble and shoot.
Shareef is a 6'7" freshman at Windward High School in Los Angeles and, judging from this highlight video (taken at the 2015 Big Cup tournament last week in Houston), is pretty good at basketball.
In the brief 55-second tape, we see young Shareef, a small forward, dribble by defenders, fire beautiful passes, reject a hapless fast-breaker, throw down several impressive dunks and even (gasp) shoot a three, which certainly wasn't Dad's specialty.
We also see Shaq looking impressed and hear him shouting from the stands.
• FERNANDEZ: A look at pop culture when NBA's remaining teams last won title
Shareef won't graduate high school until 2018, so there's some time before we have to get to know him.


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A little girl born with a rare disease is on a quest to throw the ceremonial first pitch for every Major League Baseball team as she sets out to prove that children can live extraordinary lives despite their handicaps or physical deformities.
Hailey Dawson, 7, was born with a rare disease called Poland Syndrome that causes birth defects in one out of every 200,000 births. She's missing the three middle fingers — pointer, middle and ring — on her right hand, giving her the appearance of always flashing the friendly Hawaiian "hang loose" Shaka symbol.
Anyone who knows Hailey believes the Shaka symbol she flashes is of no coincidence. Those who know her say she's a tough kid who is proud of the way she looks. She will often present her little hand to high-five her friends, hold their hands or to wave to people. She'll often try to complete a task with her right hand before relying on help, switching to her non-dominant left or using a handicap.
And now, the soon-to-be second-grader is throwing first pitches at MLB games with the help of a 3D-printed hand so that she can prove that deformities aren't a hindrance.
"She has no fear. When she waves, she waves with her little hand. When kids want to hold her hand, that's the hand she pulls out. She has no care about what other people think," said Yong Dawson, Hailey's mom. "When people ask her, she says, 'This is what I was born with. You were born with blue eyes, I was born with his hand. This is me.'"
Hailey began her run of ceremonial first pitches a few years ago at a University of Nevada Las Vegas Rebels game, not far from where the Dawsons live. Since then, she has expanded to two MLB teams, throwing her first MLB opening pitch at a Baltimore Orioles vs. Oakland Athletics game in Baltimore in August 2015. Last month, she threw out the first pitch in a second MLB game at the Washington Nationals' Nationals Park when they hosted the Texas Rangers.
Her journey has allowed her to meet several MLB players, including Chicago Cubs third baseman and Las Vegas native Kris Bryant and Nationals right fielder/Vegas native Bryce Harper.
And she's now on a quest to pitch at as many MLB games as possible to raise awareness about Poland Syndrome.
The hand
It took a few years and a number of prototypes — a journey that had the Dawson family collaborating with researchers from South Africa to the U.S. — to find a hand that fit just right.
Ultimately, it was scientists in their own backyard at UNLV that built the hand Hailey wears to pitch today.
Hailey has six different hands that have been constructed with various superficial designs for a variety of purposes (including a white presidential one for when she toured the White House and met then-President Barack Obama). All of them contain five fingers that are held together and controlled with fishing line. They're mostly made of hard plastic.
The fingers open and close as she flicks her wrist up and down. As she winds up to throw a pitch, she begins with her wrist in a down position so that he fingers clasp around the ball (try it with your own hand — your relaxed fingers will naturally open and close depending on which way you flick your wrist).
As she forces her hand forward toward her target — baseball catchers — she lifts up her wrist so that her fingers loosen, releasing the ball. A 30-pound weight, which Hailey worked up to from just 5 pounds initially, adds power to her throw.
The 3D-printed hand project has been led by Dr. Mohamed Trabia, the associate dean for Research, Graduate Studies and Computing at UNLV, and a professor of mechanical engineering, as well as Dr. Brendan O'Toole, chair of the university's Department of Mechanical Engineering and director of the College of Engineering's Mendenhall Innovation Program that's focused on entrepreneurship and design.
Through an army of students and a sponsorship by engineering company AECOM, Trabia and O'Toole have designed 3D-printed hands for two girls, Hailey included. The project remains ongoing at UNLV, as they're constantly scouring the open-source websites Flexy-Hand 2 to Robohand to get new design ideas.
Currently, they're looking for ways to better scale the designs they find online to meet the demands of particular individuals. That includes increasing flexibility and use of the thumb so that people like Hailey can complete increasingly complex and meticulous tasks, such as picking up a pen from a table.
Down the road, they may also add motorization capabilities.
"Right now, the fingers clench when the user rotates their wrist. It's a simple design and low cost," O'Toole said. "But that means every time you want to grab something you have to flex your wrist, so we're looking at ways to add motors to improve functionality."
The UNLV project hasn't yet settled on a design where they can easily fit the motors and have it be functional and remain easy-to-use for a little kid. But they're working toward that.
"We don't have a final model that fits all," Trabia said. "We're in flux in a sense."
The future of 3D printing and medicine
As 3D printers become more affordable and scientists continue to experiment with new materials that are more durable, flexible and more harmonious with the body, O'Toole and Trabia predict a future where mechanical engineering will play a key role in biomechanics.
In the example of 3D printed hands, the ability to be able to print them out using lightweight metal materials would offer a more permanent solution compared with the plastic ones.
My little inspiration meeting those she admires. #krisbryant #bryceharper #cubs #nationals #nlmvp2015 #nlmvp2016 #luckygirl #baseball pic.twitter.com/5QovItDTHt
— Yong Dawson (@YongDawsonLV) March 9, 2017
As the biomechanics improve, the prosthetics could also eventually be built with components, such as chips and sensors, that make them smarter. Motorized hands, for example, could have sensors and switches that automatically open and release the ball at a specific point of the pitch.
"Once you have a motorized design that's reliable and small enough and has enough battery power that it works, ultimately you would add smart technology that it would automatically sense your motion and respond accordingly," O'Toole said. "You could add an artificial intelligent aspect to it. It's something that's doable now, but it's going to take time to get to do that."
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The ability to print with different types of metals is also seen as a "huge expansion area for design and 3D printing in general," he said.
New printing materials, such as titanium, would open up new opportunities for implants that could help people in a wide-range of scenarios. Currently, UNLV is working on developing a spinal surgery implant device this way, and comparing its quality, benefits and costs with similar devices produced through traditional — and more expensive — manufacturing channels.
In the future, a person in need for a hip or knee replacement might be able to be scanned in an MRI and then have a 3D-printed replacement part designed and customized for them and printed at a lower-cost on a much faster timeline, they said.
"It will be built to fit you," said Trabia.
For now, though, the goal of the Dawson family is much shorter term.
While Hailey doesn't always use the hands UNLV has designed for her, they have come into play during certain activities, such as pitching at MLB games, that have helped build her confidence.
The goal is to continue having Hailey throw first pitches at as many MLB games and for as many MLB teams as possible to continue down that road of boosting her confidence and inspiring other children to set and achieve lofty goals.
Yong says they have requests out to a number of teams, including the Cubs, and are awaiting responses.
"Maybe she can throw one out in every major league ballpark," Yong envisioned on a recent call with SportTechie. "That's what I'm going to work on this summer."
Presidents Cup: Inside the Technology on Tap for Fans at Quail Hollow Club in Charlotte
The Presidents Cup is underway in Charlotte. SportTechie spoke with sports data and graphics producer SMT and the PGA about the tournament's technology activations for fans.
- David Rumsey
- Sept. 24, 2022
NBA Launchpad Program Accepting Applications for Second Round With Categories Focused on Fan Viewing Experience, Injury Prevention
SportTechie spoke with the NBA's basketball technology and innovation lead about the league's Launchpad program as it begins to solicit applications for its second edition. The areas of focus include basketball-specific and fan-based categories.
- Joe Lemire
- Sept. 24, 2022
NFL, StatusPro Release Virtual Reality Game Pro Era Where Fans Can Play From a Quarterback's Perspective
SportTechie spoke with StatusPro co-founders Andrew Hawkins and Troy Jones as well as the NFL's VP of video gaming about the league's new virtual reality game Pro Era.
- Joe Lemire
- Sept. 24, 2022
Here's How PlayerStatData Is Providing Soccer Clubs and Academies With an Objective Look at Player Performance Development
SportTechie's Joe Lemire on more on a new soccer player development data platform that provides player breakdowns that go beyond just performance data.
- Joe Lemire
- Sept. 23, 2022
Inside the NFL's Decision to Create the League's First Blockchain Game With Mythical Games
SportTechie spoke with the NFL's VP of video gaming as well as Mythical Games CEO about the pair's team up to create NFL Rivals, the league's first blockchain game. With a planned release in early 2023, NFL Rivals is an arcade-style free-to-play football gameplay experience in which users can buy and sell player NFTs to improve their teams.
- Andrew Cohen
- Sept. 23, 2022


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July 27, 2015 written by Michelle Chen
In an age of global warming, two global capitals, Los Angeles and New York, are going "zero waste." Following a nationwide trend, the cities have launched new plans to aggressively reform their waste-management and recycling systems to nearly eliminate dumping in landfills.
While zero waste seems like a tall order for the two arguably trashiest places on earth, LA's city government is currently rolling out a full-fledged Zero Waste plan that will "divert an estimated 90 percent of local waste from landfills by 2025," including commercial and residential garbage. The system parallels a similar reform plan in New York City, as well as a national resolution on zero waste by a coalition of mayors.