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Finding low cost homeowners insurance quotes for Constantine, does not have to be difficult. Our website is designed to help consumers like you to compare multiple providers. Enter your Zip Code in the form above and get a quick look at the top-recommended options for your area.
Home Insurance Quotes That Will Give You Excellent RatesVery few people that get Constantine homeowners insurance actually end up finding the best rates available. They will typically go with what their current insurance provider has for them, usually bundling that in order to get a discount. However, you can find several different Michigan companies that will charge far less than what your existing insurance policy actually offers. In fact, they may even give you more coverage for less money, but you have to obtain home insurance quotes on the web that can lead you to these exceptional deals.
How Do You Get These Quotes?
You can obtain these quotes very quickly by going on the Internet and submitting your information to several businesses through forms that are provided. It may take you a few hours to submit them all, but you will end up with a multitude of different quotes from the companies that they directly work with. Some of them will be major carriers, whereas others may not be companies that you have ever heard of before. You can verify the authenticity of these businesses if you would like to, the more times than not, the business that is allowing you to submit your personal information will have already done that research.
How Much Can You Save?
Long Will It Take To Go Into Effect?
The speed at which the policy will go into effect is usually quite fast. If you are coming up on your next payment with your current insurance provider, it will likely start on the same day so that you do not lose any coverage. Also remember that discounts can also be achieved by paying your premiums annually instead of making monthly payments. These are just a few other things to consider if you are looking for a way to save money on your Constantine, Michigan homeowner insurance policy.This type of insurance is absolutely essential for people that own homes, and similar insurance is necessary when you have rentals. Just make sure that you are getting the best deal possible, something that can only be determined by getting multiple quotes from different insurance providers. It will actually be very worth your while to spend this extra time, and you are not necessarily betraying the trust of your current insurance provider because you will likely keep all of your other policies. It's just nice to know that you have options, ones that will help you save money on the insurance that protects your home.
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We obtain home, in order to raise our house and keep them protected. If you personal a house with no getting a home owner's insurance policy plan, your family members has no safety at all. If there is any variety of catastrophe, you will be out on the streets with no hope of getting back again into your home. So make sure that you use these suggestions to get a wonderful insurance package at a fair value.
A lot of renters don't get renters' insurance coverage. Renter's insurance policy addresses your individual possessions. You want to get your very own plan to go over your things in the event of a hearth, flood, or even theft.
When you are going to acquire home owners insurance policies there are particular items that you should seem for in a policy. A good point to have is confirmed substitution price insurance. This indicates that no subject the value your home will be rebuilt if a disaster had been to occur. Most folks think this is automatic, nonetheless, given that house values elevated it probably would cost far more now than what you had initially paid out for the house. This way you are lined.
Ahead of installing a pool or buying a trampoline, be positive to check out with your insurance policies company to see what effect this will have on your rates. Some businesses will charge as much as ten% much more to insure a home with a pool, trampoline or other potentially hazardous tools on the home.
You can help save thousands of dollars and a long time of payments by creating your home payment on a bi-weekly basis, rather of month to month. Inquire your mortgage loan holder about environment you up on this payment system. Considering that there are fifty two months in a 12 months, you will stop up creating an further pair of payments with out breaking the lender or your price range.
homeowner's insurance policy if your credit rating score is great. Possessing a low credit score makes you a prospective chance in the eyes of your home
Put in and extensively maintain a protection method in your home to get a price reduction on your home
Contemplate a policy that provides confirmed substitution worth when buying for home home insurance policies. Certain replacement value means that if your home is wrecked the insurance coverage business will spend the cost to rebuild it, regardless of what that expense is. Taking into consideration that the expense of construction typically will increase in excess of the a long time, this is specially critical if you will be in your home lengthy term. Having such a cushion can supply you true peace of mind.
Increasing a deductible is a great way to lower home insurance rates. You have to do investigation, because modest claims can value you cash and you have to pay them, this sort of as leaky pipe damage and broken house.
home's safety.


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A strategy that is linked into the effectiveness of digital marketing is content marketing.[39] Content marketing can be briefly described as "delivering the content that your audience is seeking in the places that they are searching for it".[39] It is found that content marketing is highly present in digital marketing and becomes highly successful when content marketing is involved. This is due to content marketing making your brand more relevant to the target consumers, as well as more visible to the target consumer.
Brian Clark: No. And honestly, quite a few of the people that are onboard with this have a digital business, and they're really looking to find out more about how to grow. Then there is another subset of students who are getting their feet wet, so they are the ones thinking about leading with a gateway product, such as an ebook or developing their first course.
We are online marketing and conversion rate optimization experts, and one of the top digital marketing agencies in the USA. Using data derived from our marketing analytics process, we can help you get more (qualified) visitors to your website using online marketing strategies such as SEO, PPC, email marketing, video, social media marketing and more. Using proprietary website analytics tools, we'll also show you how to optimize your website to convert more visitors into leads and sales. It is not uncommon for a new Blue Corona client to double, triple or even quadruple their website traffic and online leads.
Working outside the home has its perks, but it also means missing out on some of the biggest moments in your child's life. Your baby's first steps, her first "oooohhh" or "ahhhhhh," and her first giggle are priceless milestones you are likely to miss. When you're a work-at-home mom, you have a much better chance of being there for all of the moments that matter.
When you decide to promote, or point traffic to, eBay.com, you'll use an affiliate link. An affiliate link includes a unique ID given to you by the merchant – at EPN, we call this a Campaign ID. Then, when someone clicks on your affiliate link, the affiliate ID gets stored on that person's browser within a text file known as a cookie. The EPN cookie contains several pieces of information, called "parameters", including Campaign ID, to help us track the eBay shopping activity of users after they click on your link to ensure you get paid a commission.affiliate-tracking
IoT devices can include objects as simple as a refrigerator to as complicated as a tidal turbine. These "things" use sensor arrays and server-side processing to receive and act on their environments. APIs that allow web developers to connect and communicate with these devices are currently being created, leading to even more interconnectivity of the next several years.
Being on the cutting edge of website design and development is critical to stay relevant as a leading agency which is why our expert team uses the latest technology to ensure your websites and lading pages are easily accessed and usable across all devices. We have vast experience in Ecommerce design and development, building well-optimized landing pages, conversion rate optimization, mobile websites, and responsive design. Our design team has experience in all things digital and the ability to create amazing websites, landing pages, creative for display advertising, infographics, typographic video, print ads, and much more.
Fads. They're everywhere, especially in digital marketing. A lot of digital marketing companies gravitate towards what's cool or hip without looking at results. At ROAR!, located conveniently in Orlando, FL, our focus is on your leads and sales. No gimmicky sales techniques. No cheap tactics. No chasing the latest digital marketing trend simply so we can write a blog post about it.
Professor of psychology at Arizona State University, Suniya S. Luthar, Ph.D., examined the work-life satisfaction in new mothers. Her research shows the most satisfied are those who wanted to go back to work and did, as well as those who wanted to stay at home and did. The study didn't address WAHMs, but she says from her own parenting experience, being a WAHM is "just not doable. It's a distraction. One ear is always listening for them. The kid is looking for mom to feel safe…. You're not going to get your work done properly, and you'll end up being a mass of nerves and guilt."
In this new world of digital transparency brands have to be very thoughtful in how they engage with current and potential customers. Consumers have an endless amount of data at their fingertips especially through social media channels, rating and review sites, blogs, and more. Unless brands actively engage in these conversations they lose the opportunity for helping guide their brand message and addressing customer concerns.
It's important to know where your traffic is coming from and the demographics of your audience. This will allow you to customize your messaging so that you can provide the best affiliate product recommendations. You shouldn't just focus on the vertical you're in, but on the traffic sources and audience that's visiting your site. Traffic sources may include organic, paid, social media, referral, display, email, or direct traffic. You can view traffic source data in Google Analytics to view things such as time on page, bounce rate, geo location, age, gender, time of day, devices (mobile vs. desktop), and more so that you can focus your effort on the highest converting traffic. This analytics data is crucial to making informed decisions, increasing your conversion rates, and making more affiliate sales.
Our leadership philosophy is to both lead and be led. We derive guidance and strength from every team-member in the company no matter what rank or experience level. We invest a great deal of time and resources in recruiting and developing the best talent in the industry. Every team member at IMI is encouraged to be an emerging leader and take on responsibility outside of their normal role. That is what makes IMI great and why we continue to flourish.
If you're not an expert in digital and internet marketing, ask someone who is. There are hundreds of internet marketing coaches and consultants available to you, many of whom can give you a consultation about what you should change to see success. For small business owners who need to focus on other business systems, a coach or consultant can be extremely helpful.
What It Is: "So many jobs that were reserved for a corporate setting you can now do at home, like IT troubleshooting," Shagara says. In this role you'll use problem-solving skills to diagnose technical problems and walk clients through solutions. A company may also want you to be a point of reference for new software or hardware installment and repair.
It's important to note that, while the numbers for stay-at-home moms do support Gallup's results, the difference in most of the percentages isn't a huge gap. For example, the number of stay-at-home moms who feel they're struggling is 42 percent, compared to 36 percent of working moms. And the number of stay-at-home moms who smiled or laughed a lot the previous day was 81 percent, compared to 86 percent of working moms. A majority of SAHMs, 50 percent to be exact, reported stress in their previous day and 26 percent reported sadness.
Hubstaff – Looking for a remote position that you'll actually enjoy? Hubstaff is hiring. Hubstaff is a completely remote team that is distributed across the globe, they currently have openings in their marketing, development and customer service departments. Working for Hubstaff means you have the freedom to work from wherever you want, whether it's in your home, at a coffee shop or halfway across the world – they won't trap you in an office. Enjoy the ability to create your own schedule and work during times that makes sense for your schedule. Hubstaff values the work and time of their team and believe they should be compensated fairly, join Hubstaff and start getting paid what you deserve. Be a part of a team that loves what they do. Apply today: https://hubstaff.com/jobs
Another real challenge of WAHM-hood for me was the loneliness. I used to walk around stores just to chat with clerks for a break from baby babble. Luthar says that women with young children—especially those working from home—need to connect with people for their well-being. She suggests parent support groups, including virtual ones, like her Authentic Connections program. "Moms are not like the Energizer Bunny, an endless well that stays filled without replenishment," she says.
We don't believe in offering an idea without figuring out how to follow it through. When it comes to developing a concept for your business, we'll do the research, the writing, the design and we'll promote it when it's finished. After all, anyone can come up with an idea; only Black Bear Design can execute like we do. With a broad skill set and ever-expanding expertise, we do everything, and we're proud of our ability to be nimble and responsive. Our clients love it, too.
With website builders, you get what you pay for. While they have plenty of free templates, more professional-looking websites will always cost more money. However, this investment could be worth it, especially as a website is one of the few startup costs for affiliate marketers. The social media profiles you develop are dependent on your niche and target market.
Establishment of customer exclusivity: A list of customers and customer's details should be kept on a database for follow up and selected customers can be sent selected offers and promotions of deals related to the customer's previous buyer behaviour. This is effective in digital marketing as it allows organisations to build up loyalty over email.[22]
Affiliate marketing is one of the earliest forms of performance-based online marketing. The 90s ushered in the age of the internet. Organizations and individuals began creating websites and content in droves and – when search engines began cataloging websites and pages, making it easy to find and navigate to this content – marketing changed forever.
Staffed by experienced professionals who have helped hundreds of businesses with their internet marketing needs, Wodu Media is one of Florida's premier digital design, development, and marketing agencies. We provide our clients with personal service and smart custom website design along with the Internet marketing strategies that will help their businesses thrive on the web.
Find a program — As we discussed earlier, many affiliate marketers find their merchants, vendors, or brands through affiliate programs. It's important you determine your niche prior to finding a program, as some programs are geared toward certain types of products. If you're interested in a particular affiliate program, look into what kinds of products it offers and whether it has any data on the success of its affiliates.
The web became a place where people could find information, news, products, opinions, inspiration, data. Terms like e-commerce, website traffic and banner ads emerged. As the world increasingly decided to spend their time and money online, marketers began inventing ways to leverage this communication channel, and opportunities for website owners to partner began. Content creators conceptualized ways to monetize their sites – ways to get paid for the exposure they could give merchants to their site visitors. Merchants found ways to reach new audiences and pay only when they converted.
What It Is: You will transcribe the audio content of criminal investigations, internal affairs audits, and various law enforcement agencies verbal communications. "Clients of mine who have done this tell me they can't get enough of hearing all the varied crime stories and how and what goes on behind the scenes in the law enforcement community," Ceruto says.
I have been a client of Michael Hernandez since the beginning of the year. Previously, I had used other SEO companies without good results and was a bit skeptical. I am a personal injury attorney in a very competitive market. In this short time Michael has produced the results I need. He delivers what he says he will do. His service is well priced, he quickly responds to inquiries, timely gives updates and in the end, makes my web site rank extremely well. There are still good people left out there that do a good job. Michael is one of them. I highly recommend him to everyone except my competitors. I'm saving him for myself.
As a digital entrepreneur, one of the most important skills you'll need is the ability to find customers. In this manner, you should try to find direct traffic to your website and I know there are a lot of ways to bring people to your website. However, in this article I'll discuss SEO because when people are doing research, they are in an active state of mind and more willing to take the action you want than on social media.
It can mean sharing it on your social media profiles. It can mean including a few articles or video in your weekly newsletter that relate to your products. It can mean going on internet forums and replying to individuals whose questions you know how to answer. It can mean writing a guest post that gets your name and website name onto another person's site, expanding your reach to their network as well.
Another tactic to adopt when you're in business mode? Dress the part. Aimee Samuelson, a Portland, Oregon, mom of two, who runs a marketing business out of a converted garage, dresses as if she's going into an office when she's on the job. She knows if she works in her pj's she won't concentrate as well and might get distracted by household tasks between conference calls. Not everyone needs a suit on to feel more professional -- sometimes taking a shower and putting on makeup and a clean outfit will do the trick.
Freelancing — I mentioned contracting as a virtual assistant for a multi-VA firm above, but you can also these services – and others – directly to clients. Freelance jobs include things like web design, bookkeeping, social media management, and being a virtual assistant. Even if you don't think you have marketable skills, all it takes is a conversation with someone about what you know how to do, and you've got the potential for a freelance business. Plus, you can always deep-dive into something that interests you (Facebook ads, landing page design, marketing on Pinterest, podcast production, and more) and specialize in that area.
My name is Jamie Spencer and I have spent the past 5 years building money making blogs. After growing tired of the 9-5, commuting and never seeing my family I decided that I wanted to make some changes and launched my first blog. Since then I have launched lots of successful niche blogs and after selling my survivalist blog I decided to teach other people how to do the same.

subset: commoncrawl


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The supplement is characterized by the presence of compounds, which do not cause serious side-effects. It is possible to increase a single dose of the preparation in order to maximize the effects. In case of the ailments of the digestive system, it is recommended to divide a daily dose into several portions.
In order to notice positive influence of active ingredients on the state of joints, the supplement should be applied for at least several months.
A dietary supplement that contains a powerful combination of vitamins, minerals and extracts.Buy
Nitric booster in the form of capsules. It provides greater strength and endurance and a faster recovery.Buy
Vitamin and mineral complex for men. Promotes mental and physical performance of the male body.Buy
A complex of vitamins and minerals. It supports the immune system and protects joints.Buy
A complex of vitamins and minerals. It supports the immune system and gastrointestinal tract.Buy
Glucosamine sulphate (glucosamine) is an amino sugar present in cartilage matrix; compound needed for the glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans, affecting its structure and flexibility, increasing immunity to overloads. Glucosamine is synthesized in the human body, it can be supplied from the outside (a component of shells of marine crustaceans, and in coatings for fungi) as supplements. Increased demand for glucosamine occurs in sports training (athletes exposed to overload the musculoskeletal system), during convalescence after injuries and contusions, moreover, in the case of older people in prevention and therapeutic of degenerative changes of the locomotor system. Glucosamine occurs as mono-preparation or multiple preparations (including, among others, hyaluronic acid and chondroitin, collagen hydrolyzate and ascorbic acid) in supplementation in supporting the functioning of the musculoskeletal system, such as d-glucosamine sulphate 2KCl; HCL Poly NAG.
Dosage: 500-1500 mg per day.
Chondroitin sulfate has chondroitin in its composition, belonging to the glycosaminoglycans, affecting the maintenance of joint stability and strength (building component of cartilage). Chondroitin sulfate proteins involved with the synthesis of proteoglycans. It is synthesized in the body or delivered in the foods of animal origin (e.g. containing tissue). It is used by athletes in the disciplines greatly aggravating the locomotor system with exercises, as well as in the treatment of sports injuries and joint recovery and rehabilitation after injuries, increased demand also occurs in people of advanced age. In the sports supplementation is a component of multi-component combined supplements, often containing hyaluronic acid, glucosamine and hydrolysed collagen, supporting the functioning of the locomotor system.
Dosage: 500-1500 mg per day.
Collagen hydrolyzate (FORTIGEL) obtained by enzymatic hydrolysis of collagen, which is a major ingredient, building up connective tissue (tendons, ligaments cartilage, bone, and blood vessels), from the group of fibrous proteins (i.e. fibrous scleroproteins). Patented formula of collagen hydrolyzate, forming amino acids (such as proline, glycine, hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine) connected by peptide bonds. It is a substance easily digestible and well assimilable . Recommended in sports supplementation and for people, who are particularly active, as well as during convalescence after injuries and certain diseases.
Dosage: 10-20g per day (normally used in supplementing).
Calcium (element chem. symbol Ca, atomic no. 20, the group of alkaline earth metals) is the basic building substance of bones and teeth, in which stored is 99% of the element, in the form of hydroxylapatite. When building bones and teeth, phosphorus is very important in the right proportion. It is a base-forming element and activator of many enzymes (ATPase) necessary to release the energy of ATP. It has a significant effect on blood clotting and regulates blood pressure and neuromuscular conductivity. Thanks to the reduced permeability of cell membranes, it soothes the symptoms of food allergies. Calcium is actively involved in the metabolism of iron interacts with vitamins A, C and D and phosphorus, magnesium. Natural source of calcium are animal products (dairy products, sardines, salmon, sprats eaten with bones) and plant products (nuts, soybeans, sunflower seeds). Absorption takes place in the small intestine (less in the colon), it has an effect on the level of lactose, insoluble fibre, organic acids, alkalinity (low pH). The best absorption have organic compounds (lactates, amino acid chelates etc.). Obstructing the absorption of calcium is caused by: phytic acid and oxalic acid as well as excess fat. Scientific studies have confirmed that the combination of calcium, magnesium, boron and vitamin D in dose 3 mg / 24h effectively prevent osteoporosis. Supplements on the market are both mono-preparation supplements (enriched with vitamin D3) and multi-component supplements, available at www.muscle-zone.pl.
Calcium deficiency disorders manifested in the construction of the bones (osteoporosis) and iron metabolism. The symptoms are: rickets, cramps and muscle tremor, osteoporosis.
Excess resulting from an overdose of calcium supplements containing vitamin D3 for children and adults overdose of calcium (hypercalcemia). Symptoms of hypercalcemia are: lack of appetite, vomiting and constipation.
The dosage administered in various publications are inconsistent: 800 - 1000 mg / 24 h (100 - 500 mg / 24h)
Ginger root extract is an extract of ginger - plants occurring in tropical Asia and Australia, the Zingiberaceae famly, (in Zingiberaceae are also turmeric and cardamom which are just as ginger a valuable kitchen spice). Characterized by a high content of gingerols (phenylpropane derivatives), acting inflammatory, diaphoretic, warming, antioxidant reducing oxidation of LDL cholesterol and the deposition of atherosclerotic plaque on the walls of blood vessels. It is used in the reducing body fat supplements. In combination with glucosamine and curcumin it affects the regeneration of joints, treatment of musculoskeletal system injury and regeneration. In the sports supplementation pro-health and thermogenic potential of ginger root is used.
Dosage: 50-200 mg per day.
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a plant of Asian, with the ginger family with a strong odour, contains curcumin, used as a dye (orange-yellow) for the food, e.g. rice, a spicy and acrid taste, soluble in fat and alcohols (water insoluble) . The raw material is the rhizome of turmeric, also containing an essential oil. It is used for prophylactic treatment because of its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antipyretic and cholagogic properties. Significantly increases thermogenesis, enhancing fat reduction. Its effects in the treatment of cancer (certain destroys cancer cells) have been proven. In the supplement it is available as a component of fat burners and supplements which improve the work of cartilage and joint tissue.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) it is a vitamin soluble in body fluids, can be taken from foods (fruits and vegetables), or as drug derived synthetically. The largest of its resources can be found in broccoli, Brussels sprout, kale, black currant fruit and hawthorn, citrus fruits, tomatoes, Savoy cabbage, potatoes. In fact, intake of vitamin C of the food products does not limit the absorbed quantity. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a potent antioxidant, it is an antitoxic, increasing the immune system due to the elimination of risk of bacterial contamination. Vitamin C prevents rupture of blood vessels, affects the blood cholesterol level. It substantially increases the absorption of iron. Inhibits the growth of cancer cells. Lowers stress levels.
Vitamin C deficiency causes abnormal development of connective tissue, cracking capillaries, abnormal calcification of bone tissue, impaired absorption of iron, scorbutus. With the lack of vitamin C, all kinds of injuries do not heal up properly. Vitamin C deficiency can be caused by smoking; each cigarette is destroying up to 100 mg of vitamin C.
Dosage: The demand is 60-80 mg daily. It does not limit the ability to consume higher doses. Some side effects may occur only with longer taking of synthetic vitamin C.
Ascorbic acid – vitamin C. Its biologically active form is the L-isomer, which negatively rotates the polarised light, so that it is a dextroisomer (laevorotatory vitamin C does not exist). It is a strong antioxidant; it reduces the amounts of free radicals, which reduces oxidative stress, a factor leading to cell apoptosis, which is why it is indicated to be a cause for premature ageing.
It supports the immune system functions and increases body system immunity. It is an essential element of the collagen synthesis path, which is why it positively affects the condition of connective tissue. Hence, it promotes also wound healing and increases the durability of capillary vessel. It is involved in transformations of tyrosine and carnitine as well as of some nutrients, so that it affects metabolism. It can also have an impact on the nervous system functions, as it reduces mental fatigue.
Higher supply of vitamin C is especially recommended in the periods of more intensive body system burden, after infections and in order to accelerate regeneration. The indications for increased supply of the vitamin are also hard physical work or intensive trainings.
Zinc (chemical element from transition group 12) belongs to the trace elements, it helps maintain acid-base balance of the body, protein, energy, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. It provides bone metabolism and transport of oxygen. It protects the body against free radicals. Necessary for the proper operation of the senses of taste and smell. Positive impact on the process of insulin metabolism in the pancreas. It supports visual adaptation to the dark, has a significant influence on brain function. It is helpful in the treatment of infertility and mental illness.
Zinc deficiency leads to decreased immunity, and growth retardation. Zinc deficiency can occur in case of excessive consumption of simple sugars. In the case of hormonal therapy of women with irregular menstruation, the therapy should be associated with increased consumption of zinc. It can be found in food like: beans, eggs, carrots, beef and pork meat, milk, nuts, citrus fruits, seafood, rice, cottage cheese, lettuce.
Dosage: Daily 12-15 mg zinc. Exceeding the daily dose of 20 mg cause symptoms of poisoning of the body.
What is zinc oxide?
Zinc oxide is a binding of oxygen with zinc in the II oxidation state. It is one of the forms used in dietary supplements.
Zinc is a mineral with a very wide range of effects on the human organism. Among its properties is, for example, the beneficial effect on the condition of the skin, especially helpful for people struggling with acne. Men appreciate zinc for its ability to increase testosterone levels and reduce oestradiol, which is possible thanks to aromatase inhibition. The mineral is also beneficial for the thyroid gland, as it can help to increase the level of hormones FT3 and FT4. The neurological aspect of zinc's activity is also very interesting. It has the ability to block the access of glycine to the NMDA receptor, and the initiation of ion flow in the receptor becomes impossible for glycine. Thanks to that, zinc can protect neurons from the excitotoxic activity of glutamate. It also contributes to the growth of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which can be beneficial for cognitive functions and reduce the risk of depression.
Zinc oxide can be found in vitamin and mineral complexes offered by muscle-zone.pl.
Food and nutrients to support healthy hair
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11 Years Manufacturer Super magnet for Kyrgyzstan Factory Detail:
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Me voici dans un video de hand spinner pro league mais attention !!
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Fifty Shades of Grey is the hotly anticipated film adaptation of the bestselling book that has become a global phenomenon. Since its release, the "Fifty Shades" trilogy has been translated into 51 languages worldwide and sold more than 100 million copies in e-book and print—making it one of the biggest and fastest-selling book series ever.
Stepping into the roles of Christian Grey and Anastasia Steele, who have become iconic to millions of readers, are Jamie Dornan and Dakota Johnson.
Joining Dornan and Johnson in the cast are Luke Grimes as Elliot, Christian's brother; Victor Rasuk as José, Anastasia's close friend; Eloise Mumford as Kate, Anastasia's best friend and roommate; Marcia Gay Harden as Dr. Grace Trevelyan Grey, Christian's mother; Rita Ora as Mia, Christian's sister; Max Martini as Taylor, Christian's bodyguard; Callum Keith Rennie as Ray, Anastasia's stepfather; Jennifer Ehle as Carla, Anastasia's mother; and Dylan Neal as Bob, Carla's husband.
Fifty Shades of Grey is directed by Sam Taylor-Johnson and produced by Michael De Luca and Dana Brunetti alongside E L James, the creator of the series. The screenplay for the film is by Kelly Marcel.


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The official notification has been released by Tamil Nadu Public Service Commission (TNPSC). Details can be found at tnpsc.gov.in.
Exam Pattern
Written Test: The written test will comprise of questions from English, Mathematics and General Knowledge. Except English, other papers will be bilingual.
Interview: Interview will assess the intelligence, personality, etc of the candidates.
How to apply for RIMC Admission 2018?
Prospectus and application form can be obtained through speed post from the "The Commandant, Rashtriya Indian Military College, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, PIN 248 003." by sending a written request with a Demand Draft to the Value of Rs.600 (Rs.555 for SC/ST candidates) along with caste certificates drawn in favour of "The Commandant, R I M C, Dehradun", payable at State Bank of India -Tel. Bhavan Branch, Dehradun (Code - 01576).
Eligibility: Candidates must either be studying in Class VII or passed Class VII from any recognised School, at the time of admission to the RIMC. Applicants must not have attained 13 years as on 1 July 2018 and must not be less than 11.5 years.
Click here for more Education News


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Charming farmhouse on 10 tranquil acres. Hard surface road to property, pond, fencing, 40x80 pole barn, detached garage, water spigots for livestock, cozy fireplace in kitchen and pellet stove in... More Details
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After gaining international fame, Delbert Anderson and his ensemble bring their music home.
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Events and Things to do in Reno, Nevada
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April 2019
The Illusionists Experience
Having shattered box office records around the world, "The Illusionists Experience" will feature spectacular showcases from five of the most incredible illusionists on earth. Full of death-defying stunts, acts of breathtaking wonder and hilarious magic,…Find out more »
May 2019
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June 2019
Beginning Musical Theater — A Brand New Class!!
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North Lake Tahoe No Barriers Summit
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Summer Camp for Kids & Teens – Sierra Nevada Journeys
We offer week-long, overnight camps for kids, ages 8 to 17 at Grizzly Creek Ranch located just 50 minutes north of Reno in Portola, CA. Campers participate in all the classic camp activities such as…Find out more »
Summer Musical Theater Camp
Grab the mic and take the stage in this fun and creative theater summer camp for students ages 9 - 15. This year's camp is June 17-21, 9 a.m.–3 p.m. each day. Campers will help…Find out more »
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Have some summer fun! Kids get creative through instruction in both the Visual Arts and Creative Moving/Drama. Get them off the couch and into the studio with the 5 day, morning camp. Our talented teaching…Find out more »
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Reno 1868 FC vs. Phoenix Rising SC
Reno's professional soccer team takes on Phoenix Rising SC at Greater Nevada Field at 7:15pm.Find out more »
Feed the Camel
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Reno Rodeo Presents Chris Janson
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3rd Thursday
Downtown Sparks is the place to be year-round for family fun on the 3rd Thursday of the month. Every month the event features local artists, live music performances, dancing, delicious food, kids' activities, vendors, and…Find out more »
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Words + Images – Reception
Words + Images: Broadsides from the Black Rock Press A Nevada Touring Initiative Exhibition City of Reno City Hall Metro Gallery April 29 – June 21, 2019 June 20 from 5:00 – 7:00 pm A…Find out more »
Young Artist's Studio: Watercolor Landscapes
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An Extraordinary Evening with Andrea Bocelli
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Mac Sabbath
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|David W. Bruno and Patrick T. K. Woo
|File size
|File format
Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture
2nd Edition
This page intentionally left blank
Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in
Cage Culture
2nd Edition
Edited by
Patrick T.K. Woo
Department of Integrative Biology
College of Biological Science
University of Guelph
Guelph, Ontario, Canada
David W. Bruno
Marine Scotland Science
Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
CABI is a trading name of CAB International
Nosworthy Way
Oxfordshire OX10 8DE
38 Chauncy Street
Suite 1002
Boston, MA 02111
Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111
Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.cabi.org
Tel: +1 800 552 3083 (toll free)
Tel: +1 617 395 4051
E-mail: [email protected]
© CAB International 2014. All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically,
by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the copyright owners.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library,
London, UK.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Diseases and disorders of finfish in cage culture / edited by Patrick T.K. Woo,
Department of Integrative Biology, College of Biological Science, University
of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, and David W. Bruno, Marine
Scotland Science, Scotland, UK. -- 2nd edition.
pages cm
ISBN 978-1-78064-207-9 (hbk : alk. paper)
1. Fishes--Diseases. 2. Cage aquaculture. I. Woo, P. T. K. II. Bruno, D. W.
(David W.)
Commissioning editor: Rachel Cutts
Editorial assistant: Emma McCann
Production editor: Laura Tsitlidze
Typeset by SPi, Pondicherry, India.
Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY.
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
1 Overview of Cage Culture and Its Importance in the 21st Century
Donald J. Noakes
2 Infectious Diseases of Coldwater Fish in Marine and Brackish Waters
Eva Jansson and Pia Vennerström
3 Infectious Diseases of Coldwater Fish in Fresh Water
Kenneth D. Cain and Mark P. Polinski
4 Non-infectious Disorders of Coldwater Fish
Heike Schmidt-Posthaus and Mar Marcos-López
5 Infectious Diseases of Warmwater Fish in Marine and Brackish Waters
Angelo Colorni and Ariel Diamant
6 Infectious Diseases of Warmwater Fish in Fresh Water
Gilda D. Lio-Po and L.H. Susan Lim
7 Non-infectious Disorders of Warmwater Fish
Florbela Soares, Ignacio Fernández, Benjamín Costas and Paulo Gavaia
8 Sporadic Emerging Diseases and Disorders
Simon R.M. Jones and Pedro A. Smith
9 Transmission of Infectious Agents between Wild and Farmed Fish
Sonja M. Saksida, Ian Gardner and Michael L. Kent
This page intentionally left blank
David W. Bruno, Marine Scotland Science, 275 Victoria Road, PO Box 101, Aberdeen, AB11
9DB, Scotland, UK. E-mail: [email protected]
Kenneth D. Cain, Department of Fish and Wildlife Science, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter
Drive M51136, Moscow, Idaho 83844-1136, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
Angelo Colorni, National Center for Mariculture, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological
Research Ltd., PO Box 1212, Eilat 88112, Israel. E-mail: [email protected]
Benjamín Costas, CIIMAR/CIMAR - Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental
Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, 4050-123, Porto, Portugal. E-mail: [email protected]
Ariel Diamant, National Center for Mariculture, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological
Research Ltd., PO Box 1212, Eilat 88112, Israel. E-mail: [email protected]
Ignacio Fernández, CCMAR - Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR-LA), University of
Algarve, Campus of Gambelas, 8000-139 Faro, Portugal. E-mail: [email protected]
Ian Gardner, Atlantic Veterinary College, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada.
E-mail: [email protected]
Paulo Gavaia, CCMAR - Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR-LA), University of
Algarve, Campus of Gambelas, 8000-139 Faro, Portugal. E-mail: [email protected]
Eva Jansson, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), SE-75189 Uppsala, Sweden. E-mail: [email protected]
Simon R.M. Jones, Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada. E-mail:
[email protected]
Michael L. Kent, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
L.H. Susan Lim, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Selangor, Malaysia. E-mail: [email protected]
Mar Marcos-López, Marine Laboratory, Marine Scotland Science, 375 Victoria Road, Aberdeen
AB11 9DB, UK. E-mail: [email protected]
Donald J. Noakes, Thompson Rivers University, 900 McGill Road, Kamloops, British Columbia,
Canada V2C 0C8. E-mail: [email protected]
Gilda D. Lio-Po, Fish Health Section, Aquaculture Department, South East Asia Fisheries
Development Center, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines. E-mail: [email protected]
Mark P. Polinski, National Centre of Marine Conservation and Resource Sustainability,
University of Tasmania, Locked Bag 1370, Launceston, Tasmania 7250, Australia. E-mail:
[email protected]
Sonja M. Saksida, BC Centre for Aquatic Health Sciences, Campbell River British Columbia,
Canada. E-mail: [email protected]
Heike Schmidt-Posthaus, Centre for Fish and Wildlife Health, Institute of Animal Pathology,
University of Berne, Laenggassstrasse 122, PO Box 8466, 3001 Berne, Switzerland. E-mail:
[email protected]
Pedro A. Smith, Department of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University
of Chile, Santiago, Chile. E-mail: [email protected]
Florbela Soares, IPMA - National Institute for the Ocean and Atmosphere, Olhão, Portugal.
E-mail: [email protected]
Pia Vennerström, Finnish Food Safety Authority Evira, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: pia.
[email protected]fi
Patrick T.K. Woo, Department of Integrative Biology, College of Biological Science, University
of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. E-mail: [email protected]
Preface to the Second Edition
The world population was 7 billion in 2011, and at the current rate of increase it will be about
8 billion by 2025. Also, the demand for animal protein as a food source will continue to increase
and exert additional pressures on food production which will have to compete with other
human activities (e.g. housing, transportation, industry) for the limited usable land. Animal
protein contains essential amino acids which are important components of a balanced diet.
However, free ranging land animals are no longer a significant source of protein, and the production costs of farm animals continue to escalate. To increase efficiency and to reduce costs
animal farms are large and often close to human habitations. Wastes associated with the large
scale breeding of mammals and birds can pollute the environment and also increase the risks
of disease outbreaks in animals with the subsequent interspecies transmission of zoonotic diseases (e.g. Nipah virus in pigs, avian influenza virus in birds, cryptosporidian parasites in
cattle) to humans.
Finfish are an excellent source of protein and many marine species have beneficial PUFA
(polyunsaturated fatty acids); however, the capture-fishery is either stagnant or in decline as
there are no newly discovered fishing grounds. Also, natural fish stocks in many parts of
the world have been significantly reduced due to more efficient fishing technologies, over
and/or indiscriminate fishing, and the loss and/or destruction of spawning grounds. Industrial
wastes (e.g. heavy metals, organophosphates) discharged into the aquatic environment can
affect fish growth, survival and reproduction, and in some areas pollutants have accumulated
in fish to the extent they are no longer suitable for human consumption. Cage culture of finfish
(especially in-shore) has lower start-up and production costs and it does not have some of the
problems associated with the raising of large numbers of warm blooded animals. Intensive
culture of fish is one solution to producing more affordable animal protein; however, outbreaks of diseases may occur more frequently because of numerous factors, which include
enhanced transmission of infectious pathogens between fish.
A tremendous volume of research has been conducted on the diseases and disorders since
the publication of the first edition of 'Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture' in
2002. The aims, philosophy, audience, focus and format have remained unchanged. However,
significant changes in the current edition include new contributors for eight of the nine chapters, the addition of a new chapter (on 'transmission of infectious agents between wild and
farmed fish'), and the deletion of one chapter (on 'the history of cage culture') have resulted in
a more relevant and informative text.
Preface to the Second Edition
Our contributors are highly respected international experts from Asia, Australia, Europe,
North America and South America. They have practical experience and/or research expertise
on diseases/disorders and their diagnosis, and /or solutions to problems associated with cage
culture. As with the first edition our primary objective is to produce an authoritative and practical volume for colleagues in the aquaculture industry, especially those associated with the
cage culture of finfish. We also hope this volume will alert industry to potential and/or emerging diseases and disorders in specific regions of the world and to point out gaps in our knowledge so as to stimulate further research.
Patrick T.K. Woo and David W. Bruno
Preface to the First Edition
In many parts of the world the primary source of animal protein for humans is finfish.
The intensive culture of finfish has grown significantly since the 1980s partly because of the
dramatic decline in the natural fish stocks and the increase in fish consumption by the everincreasing population. For example, the worldwide consumption of fish between 1990 and
1997 increased by 30% while the capture fisheries increased only by 9%. The demand for fish
is expected to continue to increase, especially as the more affluent consumers in the developed
countries become more aware of the beneficial effects of fish (e.g. marine fish are an excellent
source of polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids). Aquaculture is the only solution to the demand
as it can provide consistently high quality fish protein year round. The industry is already
considered the single fastest-growing food production process in the world.
The cage culture of finfish, especially mariculture, is becoming more popular because there
are many economic advantages associated with this approach. However, it also has problems
and one of them is disease. Disease outbreaks tend to occur more often when fish are raised
under intensive culture conditions, and consequently both infectious and non-infectious
diseases are important constraints to the industry.
Our primary objective is to produce an authoritative and practical volume on diseases and
disorders of finfish in cage culture. We hope the book will also alert the industry to potential
and/or emerging disease problems in specific regions of the world, and to point out gaps in
our knowledge so as to stimulate further research. This book is designed for aquaculturalists
who are using or intend to use cage culture. It will also be useful to fish health consultants
(e.g. veterinarians), microbiologists, parasitologists, fish pathologists, and managers and directors of diagnostic laboratories. Each chapter is written by international experts who have personal experience or expertise on diseases and their diagnosis, and/or solutions to problems
associated with the cage culture of finfish.
This book is divided into four parts – the first part is on the cage culture system, the
second and third are on diseases/disorders in warmwater fish (water temperature above 15°C)
and in coldwater fish, respectively. In each of these parts, there are three chapters – one on
infectious diseases in fresh water (zero salinity), one on estuarine and marine diseases and one
on non-infectious disorders. The final part on emerging diseases is to alert the industry to
potential problems. We hope this division of the book will make it easier for the reader to
access information on known diseases/disorders within a group of fish. The arrangement will
also help to highlight similarities and differences in disease problems between groups of fish
Preface to the First Edition
(e.g. between marine warmwater and marine coldwater fish). However, such divisions also
create some minor problems, e.g. a few pathogens have been isolated from both seawater and
freshwater fish, so our authors and editors have worked closely to avoid extensive overlaps in
coverage. For example, furunculosis is in Chapter 4, with only brief reference to it in Chapter 3,
because it is often seen in freshwater fish. Similarly, important infectious agents (e.g. Piscirickettsia
salmonis) of marine fish (Chapter 3) are only briefly mentioned in Chapter 4 because of their
lesser importance to freshwater fish.
There are books on infectious and on non-infectious diseases/disorders of fish (e.g. Fish
Diseases and Disorders, Volumes 1–3, CAB International), but there are none devoted specifically to problems associated with cage culture of finfish. Problems encountered in cage culture
are in some ways different from those using other rearing methods. In cage culture, fish may
be exposed constantly to ubiquitous pathogens. Also, the stress associated with captive rearing
creates opportunities for disease, and to a lesser extent non-infectious disorders, to become
significant causes of morbidity and mortality. Transmissions of infectious agents are also
enhanced, and fish become more susceptible to disease partly because their immune system
may be compromised due to prolonged exposure to pollutants in the water and/or crowding
stress. The impact and spread of new and/or emerging diseases are also important, and are
influenced by factors that include international trade in eggs or fry, unauthorized transportation of fish, and contact with migratory or naive fish species. Under natural conditions these
agents in their natural hosts may not be considered important pathogens, but in an expanded
geographical and/or host range, under different environmental conditions or temperatures,
they may lead to epizootics with serious consequential economic impact.
As the demand for animal protein increases in the new millennium, we expect a significant increase in cage culture activity in many countries. This will be true especially in countries
with limited usable land mass but with relatively long coastlines and/or extensive river–lake
systems. We hope this book will fill a niche and be useful to colleagues who are active in the
Patrick T.K.Woo
David W. Bruno
L.H. Susan Lim
Overview of Cage Culture and its
Importance in the 21st Century
Donald J. Noakes*
Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops, Canada
Almost half of the fish consumed by humans
is the product of some form of aquaculture
and the relative and absolute contribution of
this important sector will only increase in the
future. While there are many different forms
of aquaculture, there are currently more than
100 species of fish, shellfish and invertebrates
cultured in cages and that number is expected
to increase substantially in the future (FAO,
2011). Typically these are high value, fast or
relatively fast growing species that not only
provide consumers with high quality food
but also contribute substantially to local,
regional and global trade and commerce.
There are also many other socio-economic
benefits associated with aquaculture (cage
culture and other forms) and they include
direct and indirect local employment as well
as opportunities for specialized education
and training, and for research and development. Indeed, research and development in
fish culture and husbandry practices, disease
monitoring, detection, and treatment, and
optimizing fish feed have driven the development of cage culture worldwide.
Although fish have been cultured for
more than 2500 years, the first record of cage
culture is from the late 1800s (Eng and Tech,
2002 and references within). Eng and Tech
(2002, Table 1.1a, b, c) provide a good summary
of the finfish species that have been or are
cultured in cages in fresh, brackish and salt
water worldwide with some of the species
being cultured in more than one of these environments. Although there are some problems
with incomplete records and standardized
reporting, currently about 10% of the total
world aquaculture production or roughly
5 million t comes from cage culture (FAO,
2012a). Salmon and trout (Salmo salar and
Oncorhychus spp.) accounts for approximately
half (by weight) of the finfish grown in cages
(FAO, 2012b). Given the significant capital
investment required to establish and maintain a successful cage culture operation and
the number of regulatory and environmental
conditions that must be met and addressed,
salmon and trout are likely to remain the key
species cultured in cages in the next decade
(FAO, 2012b).
To fully appreciate the importance of
aquaculture now and in the future, it is
worthwhile adding both context and perspective by comparing aspects of this sector with
traditional fisheries. To that end, four broad
areas are considered in this chapter. First, current and past production trends for traditional
fisheries and aquaculture are compared as
well as expected future trends in both sectors.
This includes the importance of cage culture
* E-mail: [email protected]
© CAB International 2014. Diseases and Disorders of Finfish in Cage Culture, 2nd Edition
(eds P.T.K. Woo and D.W. Bruno)
D.J. Noakes
in the future where significant overall growth
is expected. Second, the production and economic value of the top 15 currently cultured
species are discussed with particular emphasis on the importance of and outlook for species being raised through cage culture. Third,
an overview of the socio-economic benefits of
aquaculture including direct and indirect employment and trade are discussed. Although
the focus is on the aquaculture, data for traditional (wild) fisheries are also included for
perspective. Finally, there are significant challenges and issues facing aquaculture in general and cage culture in particular that need
resolution. A discussion of these issues (sustainability and growth) with specific emphasis on problems facing cage culture is included
along with concluding remarks.
Production Trends
Aquaculture has been practised for at least
the past 2500 years or more and since it
began it has been and continues to be an
important source of food production and
employment for local communities. It has
also contributed substantially to local, regional
and global trade and commerce – much more
so recently given the significant growth in
the aquaculture sector worldwide, an increasing global population, and the continued
globalization of the world's economy. Despite
recent economic troubles and concerns, there
is every reason to believe that the aquaculture sector will continue to grow and contribute substantially to global food security.
Demand for high quality fish products
(especially for the fresh food market) continues to grow and it is clear that traditional
fisheries cannot and will not be able to meet
this demand now and in the future. Recent
estimates of stock status suggest that about
30% of world fish stocks are over exploited,
50% are fully exploited and the remaining 20%
under or moderately exploited. Thus given
the current state of world fish stocks, it is
unlikely that there will be any real growth in
capture fisheries in the near future and there
is a real possibility of further declines in
stocks (fisheries) in both the short and long
term (FAO, 2012a).
Aquaculture is different from traditional
harvest fisheries in two very important ways.
First, it involves some form of intervention in
the production cycle of freshwater or marine
fish, invertebrates and shellfish or aquatic
plants. The interventions may include the
regular stocking of ponds, tanks, cages or
other grow-out systems using captured (wild)
or hatchery produced juvenile fish or plants
and regular feeding of the stocked fish or
plants. They may also include monitoring
and detection of disease-causing agents and
treatment of infections, or a variety of other
fish husbandry practices aimed at enhancing
the survival and/or growth of the species
being cultured. Another very important and
essential feature of any aquaculture venture
is ownership of the stock. This ensures that
benefits accrue to those directly involved
with and responsible for the aquaculture
enterprise. Stock ownership applies whether
the aquaculture operation is being conducted
on privately owned land or waterways or on
leased or public land or water. This is quite
different from capture fisheries where typically participants do not have ownership
rights – a characteristic that has frequently
resulted in overfishing and depletion of fish
stocks (commonly referred to as 'the tragedy
of the commons'). Limited entry fisheries
where the number of fishers allowed to catch
a particular species in a specific area provide
more predictable access to fish stocks but
only after conservation targets are met and
only after those with legitimate fishing 'rights'
to access (such as First Nations or Aboriginal
peoples) have been allowed their share
(often negotiated). Thus, in some years fishers, even those involved in limited access
fisheries, may have low or no quota allocated
to them. Stock enhancement programmes
used to rebuild or supplement traditional
fisheries or stocks may employ some of the
same types of interventions that are used in
the aquaculture sector, such as using hatchery produced juveniles. However, like capture fisheries there is no ownership of the
stock. All three of these approaches to fish
production (aquaculture, fisheries and stock
enhancement) are important for food production and conservation and they are certainly linked economically.
Overview of Cage Culture in the 21st Century
World aquaculture production, excluding
marine plants, was less than 1 million t per
year in the 1950s or about 5% of the total
world fisheries and aquaculture production
(FAO, 2012a). Aquaculture production grew
at a very modest rate until about the mid- to
late-1980s at which time it was roughly
10 million t per year. The rate of growth in
this sector increased substantially through
the 1990s and 2000s and between 2001 and 2010,
world aquaculture production increased by
approximately 6.3% per year or about three
times the rate of increase for meat production
(beef, poultry and pork) (FAO, 2012a). In
2010, world aquaculture production reached
59.9 million t for fish, shellfish and invertebrates with an additional 19 million t of aquatic
plants. By comparison, production from
all capture fisheries increased steadily from
about 18 million t in the early 1950s until the
early 1990s when the annual production
from world capture fisheries levelled off
at approximately 90 million t. Although the
rate of growth in aquaculture production
has moderated slightly in recent years, total
world aquaculture production is expected to
equal or exceed production in the wild capture fisheries within the next decade or two
(FAO, 2012a). This may in fact happen sooner
than later given the predicted decline in
world fish population expected as a result of
climate change (IPCC, 2007).
Fish is an important source of animal
protein providing almost 4.2 billion people
with about 15% of their average annual per
capita intake (FAO, 2012a). In 2010, that represented an average per capita consumption
of fish of approximately 18.6 kg per person,
which is more than double the per capita
consumption of fish in the 1960s. Demand
for fish for human consumption is expected
to substantially increase in the future (given
both its significant economic and health
benefits) and demand will be further compounded by population growth (FAO, 2012a).
While world capture fisheries totalled about
90 million t in 2010, not all of the fish were
for human consumption. A substantial fraction of the 90 million t was by-catch and
some of the catch was used as fishmeal for
feed, and fish oil for animal and fish consumption as well as for use in industry.
By contrast, the vast majority (90% or more)
of aquaculture production is used for
human consumption. The net result was
that aquaculture production contributed
approximately 47% of the 115 million t of
fish, shellfish and invertebrates (excluding
marine plants) destined for human consumption in 2010. This disproportionate and
very significant contribution from aquaculture is not immediately obvious from production statistics but none the less it is an
important and crucial fact (FAO, 2012b).
With wild capture fishery production levelling or slightly declining, it is estimated that
more than half of the aquatic food destined
for human consumption will come from
aquaculture sources in the very near future.
Thus, the importance of the aquaculture sector to local, regional and global food security now and in the future cannot be
Major Species and Their Importance
by Area and Region
The recent growth in aquaculture production has been the result of significant
increases in production in China, which now
accounts for about 60% (36.7 million t) of the
total biomass (FAO, 2012a). Other Asian
countries (including India and a number of
other Southeast Asian countries) account
for another 30% of the world's production
(Fig. 1.1). The growth in production in these
areas is clearly driven by the demands of
increasing populations in China and other
Asian countries as well as their expanding
and maturing economies that support healthy
export markets. While most aquaculture production is consumed by the producing nation,
a portion is also exported to countries such
as Japan, the United States and European
nations where the demand for fish and fish
products is more than can be produced locally
either through their capture fisheries or aquaculture ventures. The demand in these markets also tends to be for species such as
salmon, shrimp, tilapia and other high value
species, particularly for servicing the fresh
fish market (FAO, 2012b).
D.J. Noakes
India 4.65 mt
Vietnam 2.67 mt
Indonesia 2.3 mt
Bangladesh 1.31 mt
Thailand 1.29 mt
Norway 1.01 mt
Egypt 0.92 mt
Myanmar 0.85 mt
Philippines 0.74 mt
Japan 0.72 mt
Chile 0.7 mt
t × 1,000,000
Bang Thai
Nor Egy
Phil Jap Chil
Fig. 1.1. The 2010 production (million t) of cultured fish, crustaceans, molluscs and other non-plant species
for nine of the top ten producing nations (excluding China). In 2010, China's aquaculture production was
36,734,200 t (excluding marine plants) representing approximately 61% of the total world aquaculture
production. Production from these ten countries accounted for nearly 90% of the world aquaculture
production. Source: FAO, 2012b, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010 Statistical Yearbook.
In 2010 and in recent years, approximately
55% of the world's aquaculture production
occurred in freshwater (Fig. 1.2) primarily in
lakes or ponds or other areas including flooded
fields whose primary purpose is growing other
crops such as rice (FAO, 2012b). Although some
cage culture also occurs in fresh water (approximately 1 million t), this is an area or mode of
production that is expected to increase substantially in the future (FAO, 2007). In addition to
promoting and expanding co-culture opportunities, there is an increasing trend to create
aquaculture operations or facilities (including
cage culture) as part of other projects in developing countries both to meet the demand for
fish and to ensure the best use of limited space
and resources (Soto, 2009). The rate of increase
in aquaculture production has been similar for
fresh and brackish waters (approximately 5% or
6% growth per year over the last decade) and
both are about double the rate of increase in
production for species grown in marine waters
(Fig. 1.2). In part this is because many freshwater species (such as various species of tilapia
and carp, Table 1.2) have been cultured for
many years and production is simply being
scaled up, whereas the technologies for cultivating many marine species (such as tropical
sea bass (Lates calcarifer) Centropomidae and
sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbra) are still being
developed and refined. Also, a significantly
higher capital investment and higher on-going
costs are required for marine aquaculture ventures, so expansion in this sector is less rapid
than in fresh water. While aquaculture remains
an important sector worldwide, Asia currently
accounts for about 90% of the aquaculture production by weight and almost 80% of the total
value. In both the short- and longer-term, this
will likely be the region in which most of the
future growth in the industry will occur, although
Africa is also an area where significant growth
in aquaculture may occur, particularly with
freshwater species (FAO, 2011, 2012b).
While freshwater species accounted for
just over half the production by weight and
value of the aquaculture sector, other species
were important both regionally and globally
(Table 1.1). For instance, mollusc production
in 2010 was 14.1 million t or approximately
40% of the freshwater fish production (by
weight). Although as a group molluscs were
Overview of Cage Culture in the 21st Century
Million t
Fig. 1.2. Marine, brackish and freshwater aquaculture production of fish, crustaceans, molluscs and other
non-plant species from 2001 through 2010 inclusive. Production increased by approximately 75% over this
10-year period with freshwater aquaculture production accounting for approximately 60% of the total on an
annual basis. Source: FAO, 2012b, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010 Statistical Yearbook.
Table 1.1. Aquaculture production (million t) and value (billion US$) by species group
(excluding aquatic plants) in 2010. While aquaculture production was dominated by
freshwater fishes, high-valued crustacean and diadromous fish species contributed
substantially (US$ 42.7 billion) to the economies of producing nations and international
trade. Source: FAO, 2012b, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010 Statistical Yearbook.
Species group
Freshwater fishes
Diadromous fishes
Marine fishes
Aquatic animals
Quantity (million t)
Value (billion US$)
33.7 (56.4%)
14.1 (23.6%)
5.7 (9.6%)
3.6 (6.0%)
1.8 (3.1%)
0.8 (1.4%)
51.5 (43.1%)
14.3 (12.0%)
26.9 (22.5%)
15.8 (13.2%)
8.0 (6.7%)
3.0 (2.6%)
less valuable per t of production compared to
some other species they still contributed over
US$14 billion to the aquaculture sector and
were an important source of protein for local
communities. Conversely, crustacean and diadromous fish production (culture) by weight
was much more modest (9.3 million t combined) but these high value species contributed more than US$40 billion (roughly 36% of
the total value) to the sector in 2010 (Table 1.1).
While some high-valued species (such as
shrimp and salmon) are consumed where
they are produced, the majority of the production is destined for the fresh fish food markets
in developed countries where demand is high
and the economies (and per capita income)
can support the premium prices for these high
quality products (FAO, 2012b). There are also
multiplier factors associated with each group
(Table 1.1) which would magnify the economic importance of the entire sector and perhaps to a greater degree for those species
(such as salmon, shrimp) that are exported
rather than consumed locally.
The top 15 species cultivated in 2010
accounted for roughly 60% of the total production or 35.1 million t (Table 1.2). These major
species will likely retain their prominence for
the foreseeable future, although their individual
ranking may change slightly reflecting year-toyear variations in production and/or annual
shifts in species preference (FAO, 2012b). Six
freshwater carp species dominated the list, each
with production in excess of 2 million t annually
D.J. Noakes
Table 1.2. Top 15 cultured species according to 2010 production. Carp and tilapia species culture
accounted for 24,277,264 t or roughly 40% of the 59,872,600 t of fish, crustaceans, molluscs and other
non-plant species grown or cultivated in 2010. Source: FAO, 2012b, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010
Statistical Yearbook.
Common name(s)
Ctenopharyngodon idellus
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
Catla catla
Ruditapes philippinarum
Cyprinus carpio
Penaeus vannamei
Hypophthalmichthys nobilis
Oreochromis niloticus
Carassius carassius
Salmo salar
Labeo rohita
Chanos chanos
Penaeus monodon
Oncorhynchus mykiss
Sinonovacula constricta
Grass carp
Silver carp
Indian carp
Manila clam
Common carp
White leg shrimp
Bighead carp
Nile tilapia
Crucian carp
Atlantic salmon
Rohi or Rohu (carp)
Giant Tiger prawn
Rainbow trout
Chinese razor or Agemaki clam
(Table 1.2). The top three species, the grass
carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus), silver carp
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and Indian carp
(Catla catla), had a combined production of
about 12.3 million t in 2010 (Table 1.2). While
these species are cultured worldwide, much of
the production is in China, India and other
Asian countries. Carp and tilapia are cultured
primarily in lakes, ponds or fields (as a component of a co-culture venture) and although most
are consumed locally some are also exported
(FAO, 2012b). Manila clams (Ruditapes philippinarum), white legged shrimp (Penaeus vannamei)
and Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) round
out the list of species with production in excess
of 2 million t annually. Shrimp and tilapia are
also important species for export (FAO, 2012b).
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salmar) and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are coldwater or temperate water species that are
raised primarily in cages and tanks in both the
northern and southern hemispheres with a
combined production of 2.15 million t in 2010
(Table 1.2). Salmon and trout (as well as shrimp
and prawns) are high-value species with much
of the production being exported to Japan, the
United States and a number of European
nations (FAO, 2012b). Because the unit production cost for these species is relatively high,
these species are usually raised at high density
2010 Production (t)
and in cages or tanks. In 2005, salmon and
trout accounted for more than 50% (by weight)
of the cage culture globally although the data
on cage culture were at best incomplete (FAO,
2007). Currently, more than 100 species are cultured in cages worldwide with 10 species
accounting for 90% of the production and the
remaining species contributing about 10% of
the production (Tacon and Halwart, 2007; FAO,
2011). Complete records are not available for
all nations but reporting and the statistics from
some countries (particularly for China) have
improved since 2005 (FAO, 2012a). It's likely
that cage culture still only accounts for a small
(5% to 10%) fraction of the total production of
cultured fish, shellfish and invertebrates (FAO,
2012a, b). Nevertheless, a significant amount
of research has been done to diagnose, manage
and treat diseases of species raised in cages or
tanks in order to maximize production, minimize costs and ensure the highest quality
product (Woo et al., 2002; Woo, 2006; Eiras
et al., 2008; Leatherland and Woo, 2010; Noga,
2010; Woo and Bruno, 2011). While much of
this work has been directed to resolving issues
associated with the culture of salmonids and
shrimp, the advances made for these species
may be useful or provide guidance for finding
solutions for new species being cultured or
being considered for culture.
Overview of Cage Culture in the 21st Century
Not surprisingly, China having the largest freshwater aquaculture industry is also the
country with the largest freshwater cage culture
sector with a production of approximately
704,000 t in 2005 (Tacon and Halwart, 2007).
Vietnam (126,000 t), Indonesia (67,700 t) and
the Philippines (61,000 t) also have significant
freshwater cage culture production, with
other countries producing substantially less
(Fig. 1.3a). While about 30 species are cultured
Vietnam 126
Indonesia 67.7
Philippines 61
Russian Federation 14
Turkey 10.8
Lao PDR 9.9
Thailand 7
Malaysia 6.2
Japan 3.9
t × 1000
Thai Mala
Pangasius spp. 133.6
Oreochromis niloticus 87
Cyprinus carpio 21.6
Oreochromis spp. 16.7
Oncorhynchus mykiss 14.6
Salmon spp. 12.1
Channa micropeltes 11.5
Salmon trutta 8.6
Freshwater fishes nei 6.9
Acipenseridae 2.4
t × 1000
Ore O.myk
Salm Chan S.tru
Fig. 1.3. (a) Excluding China, freshwater cage culture production (t × 1,000) for the top nine countries in
2005. Freshwater cage production in China was about 704,000 t in 2005. (b) Excluding China, the top ten
species grown in freshwater cage culture in 2005. The data for China's freshwater cage culture is not
specific enough to provide a breakdown by species (Tacon and Halwart, 2007). Source: FAO, 2007.
Author David W. Bruno and Patrick T. K. Woo Isbn 9781780642079 File size 4.77MB Year 2014 Pages 354 Language English File format PDF Category Biology Book Description: FacebookTwitterGoogle+TumblrDiggMySpaceShare This new edition is a timely update on important advances in the understanding of infectious diseases of finfish. The content has been significantly updated to reflect current knowledge and developments in the fish production industry, including the dramatic increases in production in the Asia-Pacific region. An important resource for aquaculturalists, fish health consultants and fish pathologists. * The content has been significantly updated to reflect current knowledge and the developments in the fish production industry, including the dramatic increases in production in the Asia-Pacific region. * European and South American aquaculture production has continued to rapidly increase during the past 10 years due to the expansion of marine production. In the AsiaPacific region production accounts for 89% in terms of quantity and 79% in terms of value. This dominance is the result of Chinas enormous production, which accounts for 62% of global production in terms of quantity. Therefore there is a huge potential for sales across fish growing regions of the world * Each chapter features brief descriptions of the pathogens/disorders, their geographical location(s), and impact(s) on fish production. Greater emphases will be on clinical signs, diagnoses, pathology, prevention, and control Download (4.77MB) Sparidae: Biology And Aquaculture Of Gilthead Sea Bream And Other Species By Michalis Pavlidis Evolutionary Biology Of The Atlantic Salmon Paddlefish Aquaculture Marine Bivalve Molluscs Microalgae: Biotechnology, Microbiology And Energy Load more posts