text:
June 2010
Executive Summary .........................................................................................................................i 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 1.2 1.3 Study objectives ..................................................................................................................... 1 Approach ................................................................................................................................ 1 Report structure..................................................................................................................... 2 History of mobile telecommunications in Australia............................................................... 3 The current state of the market ............................................................................................ 4 The role of mobile data........................................................................................................ 13 Spectrum in mobile telecommunications ............................................................................ 18 Productivity .......................................................................................................................... 22 Innovation ............................................................................................................................ 24 Investments ......................................................................................................................... 25 Direct contribution............................................................................................................... 28 Indirect contribution ............................................................................................................ 32 Total contribution ................................................................................................................ 37
References ................................................................................................................................... 40 Appendix A: Economic contribution studies ............................................................................... 42 Appendix B: AERGEM ................................................................................................................. 44
Chart 2.1 : Mobile services, at 30 June ......................................................................................... 7 Chart 2.2 : Market share of mobile network carriers by revenue, 2009 ...................................... 9 Chart 2.3 : Market share of resellers by revenue, 2009.............................................................. 10 Chart 2.4 : Pre and postpaid services ....................................................................................... 12 Chart 2.5 : Capability and usage of nonvoice services, 2008 ..................................................... 14 Chart 2.6 : Mobile internet activities undertaken on handheld mobile devices ........................ 14 Chart 2.7 : Forecast data subscriptions per head of population ................................................. 17 Chart 4.1 : Industry revenue and value added ............................................................................ 29 Chart 4.2 : Industry value added ................................................................................................. 30 Chart 4.3 : Price indices used in modelling exercise ................................................................... 33
While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of this document and any attachments, the uncertain nature of economic data, forecasting and analysis means that Access Economics Pty Limited is unable to make any warranties in relation to the information contained herein. Access Economics Pty Limited, its employees and agents disclaim liability for any loss or damage which may arise as a consequence of any person relying on the information contained in this document and any attachments.
Chart 4.4 : Economic impact on GDP .......................................................................................... 37 Chart 4.5 : Total economic contribution of mobile telecommunications, 200809.................... 38
Table 2.1 : Network coverage, by carrier, end 200809 financial year ......................................... 7 Table 2.2 : Handset shipments, 2008 ............................................................................................ 8 Table 4.1 : Industry revenue and value added, 200405 to 200809, 200809 $m..................... 28 Table 4.2 : Earnings to employees (200809 $m) ........................................................................ 30 Table 4.3 : Employees, by carriers and resellers ......................................................................... 31 Table 4.4 : Industry payments to government, 200809 ............................................................ 32 Table 4.5 : Economic impacts in 200809.................................................................................... 36
Figure 1.1 : Framework for the analysis ........................................................................................ 2 Figure 2.1 : The Mobile Telecommunications Industry................................................................. 6 Figure 4.1 : Economic impact of a price decline......................................................................... 34 Figure 4.2 : Economic impact of productivity improvements ..................................................... 35
2G 3G 4G ACCC AERGEM ACMA AMTA CDMA ENG FTE GDP GHz GPRS GSM HSDPA LTE M2M Mbps MHz MVNO NBN PDA PSTN TIO VHA WAP WCDMA WiMax Second Generation Third Generation Fourth Generation Australian Competition and Consumer Commission Access Economics Regional General Equilibrium Model Australian Communications and Media Authority Australian Mobile Telecommunications Association Code Division Multiple Access Electronic news gathering Fulltime Equivalent Gross Domestic Product Gigahertz General Packet Radio Service Global System for Mobiles High Speed Downlink Packet Access LongTerm Evolution Machine to machine Megabits per second Megahertz Mobile Virtual Network Operator National Broadband Network Personal Digital Assistant Public Switched Telephone Network Telecommunications Industry Ombudsman Vodafone Hutchison Australia Wireless Application Protocol Wideband Code Division Multiple Access Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
Executive Summary
The mobile telecommunications industry contributed $17.4 billion to the Australian economy in 200809. This includes $6.7 billion in direct contribution and $10.7 billion in indirect contribution. The indirect contribution has grown by over $3 billion in two years. Mobile data is increasingly important. Access Economics forecasts suggest that, across the industry, mobile broadband subscribers will grow significantly over the coming years, with the total number of mobile data subscriptions passing 50% of the population size in 2012. The mobile telecommunications industry makes a substantial contribution to the Australian economy. The importance of the mobile telephone has grown over the past two decades as the use and useability of the technology has improved. In addition, the cost of mobile telecommunications services has decreased in real terms, driven down by competition and technological innovation, improving affordability. Recent technological advancements include the development of mobile data and internet services. A wide range of data content services and applications have become available, including email, mobile video, and social networking. Use of mobile data comes in three main forms:
3Genabled mobile phones and handheld devices; Laptop computers, through use of builtin mobile broadband cards, or wireless attachments (for example, USB dongles); and Other uses some applications include backtobase alarms, integrated transport systems such as those used by some taxi services, and coverage of broadband black spots (3G routers designed to be used in a fixed location).
Mobile telecommunications have become a complement to fixed telephone and internet for most Australians, while some have replaced fixed line telephones altogether in favour of mobile telecommunications. The Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) (2010) estimated that in 200809 approximately 10% of Australians aged 14 and over did not have a fixed phone line in their home and used only mobile phone services, with this share slowly rising. Total mobile subscriptions in Australia at 30 June 2009 totalled 24.22 million (ACMA 2010). In 200809 3G subscriptions overtook 2G services for the first time, accounting for 51% of all mobile services. It is estimated that 55% of all mobile phone users now have a phone that is mobile data enabled (ACMA 2010). Increased 3G uptake has also seen a rise in mobile data usage, with 23% of all internet connections now wireless (ACMA 2010).
Total contribution
The total economic contribution of the mobile telecommunications industry is shown in Chart i. Combining the direct and indirect contributions, Access Economics estimates the mobile telecommunications industry contributed $17.4 billion to the Australian economy. Based upon
the estimated Australian population at 30 June 2009 (ABS 2009b), GDP per capita in Australia is $760 higher than would otherwise have been the case. Chart i: Total economic contribution of mobile telecommunications, 200809
20.0 18.0 16.0 14.0
$ billion
$10.7 b
$17.4 b
12.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 Direct Contribution Indirect Contribution Total Contribution $6.7 b
The $17.4 billion total contribution has been estimated as a direct contribution (the value of mobile telecommunications firms) and an indirect contribution (the flowon value of services provided by mobile telecommunications services to other sectors in the economy). The relative importance of these contributions is detailed below.
Direct contribution
The sectors direct contribution to the economy in 200809 is estimated to be $6.7 billion (see Table ii). This represents a slight reduction from 200708, reflecting competitive forces in the sector putting pressure on margins. Table ii: Industry revenue and value added, 200405 to 200809, 200809 $m 200405
Industry revenue Industry value added Gross operating surplus Earnings to employees Employment 14,322.0 6,503.7 4,785.5 1,718.2 23,893
14,654.5 5,986.8 4,351.6 1,635.2 22,117
15,518.7 6,476.0 4,944.1 1,531.9 21,964
16,391.9 6,753.6 5,284.3 1,469.3 21,170
17,788.3 6,702.5 5,257.7 1,437.0 20,790
The industry is capitalintensive, with more than three quarters of value added flowing as earnings to capital rather than earnings to employees. Labour productivity within the sector is also increasing (reflected in an increase in revenue per employee). Both carriers and resellers have reduced staff for several years now through both improvements in productivity and structural changes through mergers and acquisitions.
Indirect contribution
The economic impact of the mobile telecommunications industry extends beyond direct benefits, with flowon or indirect effects generating an additional $10.7 billion in economic contribution of the mobile telecommunications industry. Falling mobile phone service prices have increased consumer benefits from telecommunications. Furthermore, the potential for productivity gains from use of mobile telecommunications and associated increased connectivity of employees has seen significant changes in business practices in almost every industry and sector of the Australian economy. Methodology The indirect contribution of the mobile telecommunications incorporates two key factors:
Price declines according to the ACMA, in 200809 average voice call costs for mobiles fell 4.8%. Falls in the price of mobile telecommunications services create economic benefits for consumers through reducing the price of mobile services, as well as fixed line services through price and functionality pressures that increase competition. Productivity gains these flow from two avenues: the enhanced connectivity and mobility of workers, utilising voice services and more advanced applications that utilise mobile data on a smart phone handset. This means that time away from the office and on the move that had previously been unproductive can instead be used to catch up on emails or for conducting other work functions. mobile broadband services on laptop computers and in machine to machine (M2M) applications, which are providing a valuable augmentation to existing broadband services available in Australia. These services provide transformational effects that high speed data services have on businesses, and the productivity impacts to business extend well beyond the mere connectivity of workers while away from the office.
Limitations in the modelling mean that only the enhanced connectivity and mobility of workers on handsets have been captured in the modelling, with laptop and M2M applications that are excluded providing additional benefits to the $10.7 billion result here. The value of these laptop and M2M mobile data services is likely to be large. Consequently, this is a conservative estimate of the indirect contribution of the mobile telecommunications industry. Growth in mobile data Data has grown rapidly both in total and as a share of revenue for mobile carriers internationally, with the GSM Association (2010) noting large growth across a range of countries. In Europe, Vodafones data traffic rose 300% over the period 20072009, and now represents 11% of all European services revenues. In Latin America, the experience was similar, with Telefonica reporting total growth of nearly 37% in mobile revenue for first half of 2009 yearonyear. This trend was also seen in North America, with Bell Canada reporting a 33% growth in wireless data revenue and 124% growth in subscriptions from Q3 2008 to Q3 2009. Overseas expectations indicate an ongoing rapid expansion in the adoption and usage of mobile data. Cisco Systems have forecast a 39fold increase in mobile data traffic from 2009 to
2014, equating to a compound rate of 108% per annum1. Similarly, AT&T projects that mobile data by volume will grow at a compound average growth rate of 65%80% over 2007 to 2018 (Rysavy 2008). At the subscriber level, the GSM Association expects mobile data customer numbers to increase 71% in 2010 alone2. CCS Insight anticipates a slightly slower growth rate than this in Europe, forecasting instead a gain in subscriber numbers over two years (20092011) of 95%3. Indirect contribution Using Access Economics inhouse General Equilibrium model, Australias economic output, measured by real GDP, is estimated to be $10.7 billion dollars higher as a result of lower mobile telecommunications prices and enhanced on the go productivity. In addition, investment and employment were projected to be stronger as a result of mobile telecommunications. Mobile telecommunications were projected to increase employment by 27,000 FTEs in 200809. A summary of the results is presented in Table iii. Table iii: Economic impacts in 200809
Variable Real GDP Real GNP Real Consumption Real Investment Real Exports Real Imports Employment (000)
Source: Access Economics
Change from reference values ($m) 10,650 8,972 5,271 7,536 (168) 2,651 27
Variable Real GDP Real GNP Real Consumption Real Investment Real Exports Real Imports Employment
% deviation from reference case 0.85 0.75 0.82 2.07 0.06 0.95 0.29
The indirect contribution to GDP has grown significantly in recent years, with a $3 billion increase since the 200607. While some of this is due to price declines for mobile services and productivity gains from voice services, the main productivity driver has been increased use of first wave mobile data, i.e. on the go savings from data on handsets. Mobile data is in a period of rapidly increasing use, with an associated rapid growth in productivity gains to the economy in 200708 and 200809.
1 2 3
Reardom M, Cisco predicts wirelessdata explosion. Fierce Wireless 2010 GSMA predicts 15% spike in mobile broadband investment, February 10. GSA 2010, Mobile broadband growth results, January.
The forecasts are based on a combination of ACMA (2010) estimates of actual mobile data uptake to 200809 and confidential forecasts from some AMTA members. The forecasts suggest that, across the industry, mobile broadband subscribers will grow significantly over the coming years, passing 50% in 2012, with overall growth in subscriptions of 282% over five years. Over the period 20102014, data subscriptions are forecast to grow at a faster rate than 3G subscriptions, as some of those who have dataenabled devices but are not yet using data services take them up. However a gap of around 20 percentage points is expected to remain in 2014, indicating that there will be some 4 million 3G subscribers with dataenabled devices but not using data. These forecasts make no assessment about the devices associated with subscriptions, however it is likely that subscriptions associated with second wave connections, in particular using laptops with USB dongles, will be a significant share of this total. These devices, the contribution of which is not captured in this analysis, are likely to be an important source of productivity growth in 2009 and beyond. Chart ii: Forecast data subscriptions per head of population
Subscriptions per capita 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 2006 2007 2008
Data subscriptions
Source: Access Economics based on data from AMTA members
3G subscriptions
Radiofrequency spectrum As this report illustrates, Access Economics estimation of the contribution that the mobile telecommunications industry makes to the Australian economy is substantial and is predicted to grow rapidly. Radiofrequency spectrum is the critical enabling asset for the deployment of mobile telecommunications services including mobile broadband. In order to meet predicted demand, AMTA believes that the industry requires new spectrum allocations, arguing that gaining access to the 2.5GHz and 700MHz frequency bands for mobile data applications is critical if forecast future demand for mobile broadband services is to be met, and if continued technological advancement is to occur.
While the regulator, the ACMA, has identified scope for a change in the allocation of certain spectrum frequencies, spectrum is a finite resource and, therefore, care must be given when determining how it should be allocated, with view to ensuring that the total economic welfare gained from spectrum allocations is maximised.
Concluding remarks
This report demonstrates that the mobile telecommunications industry is of large value to the Australian economy, with this importance on the rise. Mobile data applications are growing in importance for the industry and for business as a whole. In order to harness the full potential benefits of mobile telecommunications, including mobile data, going forward it is necessary to ensure that the industry is able to access adequate additional radiofrequency spectrum, facilitating network upgrades and improved service provision. Access Economics June 2010
The importance of the mobile telephone has grown over the past two decades as the use and useability of the technology has improved. In addition, the cost of mobile telecommunications services has decreased in real terms, driven down by competition and technological innovation, improving affordability. The use of mobile telecommunications has significantly impacted upon businesses and the way people live. Advancements in the capabilities of mobile telecommunications have seen the development and adoption of mobile data and internet services. A wide range of content services and applications have become available, and there are increasing synergies gained from smart phone handset technologies that also function as, for example, music players or cameras. Although at first glance the Australian market may appear to have reached a saturation point with more mobile telephones in Australian than people the rapidly changing nature of the technology ensures an ongoing demand for handset upgrades and, for some, multiple devices, for example a personal digital assistance (PDA) plus a laptop. The increasing uses of mobile technology, including data and internet services, have also ensured that mobile telecommunications remains a growth industry. It is against this background that Access Economics was commissioned by the Australian Mobile Telecommunications Association (AMTA) to report on the economic significance and contribution of the Australian mobile telecommunications industry. This follows three preceding reports published annually between 2003 and 2005, and is an update of the reports prepared by Access Economics in 2007 and 2008.
1.2 Approach
This report is an economic contribution study, determining the value of mobile telecommunications services to the Australian economy. The economic contribution of the Australian mobile telecommunications industry (the industry) can be estimated by economic contribution and economic impact studies. The
direct contribution of the industry to the Australian economy can be estimated by calculating the direct value added. However, this is only a partial measure, with benefits accruing across all industries from the productivity gains made by workers utilising mobile telecommunications. To consider these productivity impacts on the economy more broadly, general equilibrium modelling has also been undertaken. As shown in Figure 1.1, the information compiled in the economic contribution study feeds into the economic impacts analysis. Figure 1.1: Framework for the analysis
Chapter 2 provides a snapshot of the Australian mobile telecommunications industry. Chapter 3 discusses recent innovation and investment in the mobile telecommunications industry and discusses the productivity gains these have enabled. Chapter 4 describes the direct and indirect economic contributions of the industry. Chapter 5 provides some conclusions based upon the findings of the report.
This chapter provides an overview of the mobile telecommunications industry. Topics covered include a brief history of mobile telecommunications technology, the current industry structure, and trends in the mobile telecommunications industry.
3G and Beyond
3G technology was first offered in Australia by Hutchisons 3 in April 2003. 3G technology offers services such as music and video downloads, mobile broadband, improved internet connectivity and a host of other datarich services. 3G networks are now being offered by all mobile network carriers in Australia. Initial 3G network implementations used the 2100 MHz spectrum band. Hutchisons 3 and Telstra
jointly operate a 3G network in the 2100 MHz band, while Vodafone and Optus jointly built and operate a 3G network in the same frequency band. Telstra has also developed an independent 3G network with wider coverage, introducing its Next GTM network in October 2006 using the 850 MHz spectrum. The network claims to cover 99% of the population. Optus 3G network was launched in 2005, and uses a combination of the 900MHz and 2100MHz bands. As at March 2010 the mobile network footprint exceeded 97% voice coverage4. Vodafone also expanded its 3G network coverage using the 900MHz spectrum range in 2009. Innovations such as the development of Bluetooth, which allows rapid data transfer from mobile devices to Local Area Networks and personal computers over short distances, have enhanced the functionality of 3G devices. Mobile users are able to conveniently upload and download large amounts of data automatically, without having to incur the cost of using the mobile network to do so, and can take advantage of increased interoperability between devices. Socalled 3.5G services are enhanced 3G services, typically to High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), an advancement that supports bursty traffic and offers theoretical downlink speeds of up to 42 Megabits per second (Mbps). All carriers in Australia have upgraded their 3G mobile services to HSDPA protocol, with networks offering these speeds or higher. Moves towards deployment of longterm evolution (LTE) technology are underway, with Optus and other members of the SingTel group participating in an Australasian trial during 20105. LTE is a 3G technology from the 3GPP standards group. It will be developed into LTE Advanced which will be a fourth generation (4G) recognised technology. LTE technologies are expected to enhance more demanding data applications such as interactive TV and mobile video blogging6. There are plans in Australia for the 2.5GHz frequency band to be made available for LTE use (see Section 2.4).
The manufacturing or hardware sector is responsible for building and maintaining the extensive telecommunications network (including base stations, switching equipment, antennas and towers) as well as supplying handsets and associated equipment to end users. Ericsson Australia, AlcatelLucent, Huawei and Nokia Siemens provide
Singapore Telecommunications Limited and Subsidiary, Companies, Management Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition, Results of Operations and Cash flows for the Fourth quarter and Year Ended 31 March 2010, p 46 18 November 2009, SingTel Group to conduct LTE trials in Asia and Australia, http://www.optus.com.au/aboutoptus/About+Optus/Media+Centre/Media+Releases/2009/SingTel+Group+to+con duct+LTE+trials+in+Asia+and+Australia Global mobile Suppliers Association 2009, GSM/3G Market/Technology Update, December 10.
infrastructure hardware to the Australian mobile telecommunications market, while the AMTA members who supply handsets include: Nokia, Motorola, Samsung, LG, Sony Ericsson, iMate, HTC, ZTE and RIM. A large proportion of the activity of these firms is undertaken overseas, with most handsets shipped to Australia ready to sell.
Carriage service providers provide telecommunications services to households and businesses using carrier network infrastructure. There are several levels of these. Mobile telecommunications carriers are primarily engaged in operating and maintaining switching and transmission facilities that provide direct communication via airwaves. For most of the 200809 financial year there were four carriers in Australia: Telstra, Optus, Vodafone and Hutchisons 3, however it is noted that Vodafone and Hutchison merged late in the 200809 financial year, reducing the number of carriers in Australia to three. Resellers provide telecommunications services by use of a network owned by a third party but bill customers in their own names. Some own switching equipment while others simply buy and resell telecommunications services. Mobile virtual network operators (MVNOs) are value adding entities that use an existing network to sell a service, usually one linked to other branded services. Unlike resellers, MVNOs purchase wholesale mobile capacity from network carriers. For example, AAPT purchases wholesale mobile capacity from Vodafone. MVNOs in Australia include B Digital, Revolution, Boost Mobile, Primus Telecom, People Telecom and Macquarie Telecom.
There are several types of firms involved in the provision of mobile content. Content service providers deliver information and entertainment services, which are sourced and purchased from a variety of channels before being structured and bundled for distribution over mobile networks. The advent of 3G mobile services has increased the importance of the role played by content service providers. Content aggregators manage multiple content providers and provide services through content linked to these providers products such as sourcing, reporting, formatting for multiple streams, quality control and crossreferencing. Examples of Australian content aggregators are Legion Interactive, Infospace and iTouch. Program developers use industry development tools to create new and innovative applications for mobile phone users.
Retailers offer mobile services to end users on behalf of carriage service providers. Most carriage service providers have their own retail shops where customers can purchase hardware, particularly handsets and USB dongles, and enter into contracts with the provider to access services. Other retailers include nonbranded but still speciality telecommunications, and other retail outlets that offer hardware and services, such as supermarkets and Australia Post; as well as online stores.
Population coverage
There are now more mobile phone services in Australia than people, with a total of 24.22 million services in Australia at 30 June 2009 (ACMA 2010). Forecasts of subscriber numbers from carriers suggest that this figure will continue to grow, albeit at a slower rate than in recent years. 3G services have rapidly increased in use, with a growth in subscribers of 44% over 200809, to 12.28 million services. The 200809 financial year saw the market share of 3G services overtake that of 2G, with 3G services accounting for 51% of total mobile services at 30 June 2009. This change has been pushed somewhat by reductions in 2G services through closure of CDMA networks, forcing an accelerated adoption of 3G services in some regional areas. Growth in mobile subscriptions has been relatively consistent in recent years, although the growth rate slowed slightly in the last year. With more subscriptions than people in Australia, there is less demand for additional services. The future growth in mobile services is likely to be constrained by potential applications of the technology and the rate of population growth.
There are currently six networks in operation in Australia (see Table 2.1, Vodafone and Optus share a WCDMA network). Over 200809 these were operated by four carriers, however late in the financial year Vodafone and Hutchison merged into Vodafone Hutchison Australia (VHA), reducing total carrier numbers to three. All of the 3G networks in Australia today have been upgraded to HSDPA networks. Most carriers have announced plans to upgrade their networks and provide improved service speed over 2009 and 2010. Table 2.1: Network coverage, by carrier, end 200809 financial year No. of mobile services (millions)
6.3 3.9 5.2 2.6 3.1 1.2 2.0
Telstra Optus Vodafone Hutchison
Source: Carrier websites and annual reports Notes: Optus and Vodafone WCDMA coverage is for Dual Band (2100/900MHz) coverage. Customers with a 2100MHzonly compatible phone receive 80% population coverage. Hutchison figure is for its cooperated 2100MHz network only, customers can attain up to 96% population coverage through roaming to Telstra network. Subscription figures are at 30 June 2009, excepting Optus which is 31 March 2009.
Handset shipments (and by association, sales) continue to be strong. A total of 8.8 million handsets were shipped to Australia in 2008. Most of these are sold through mobile carriers and resellers in contract packages. These packages encourage additional sales at a higher rate than subscription growth, through offers of heavily subsidised handsets in exchange for taking out or renewing a fixed period contract. Table 2.2: Handset shipments, 2008 Month
January February March April May June July August September October November December Total
Source: AMTA website
Handset Sales
551,159 597,326 682,630 929,622 797,430 666,484 544,743 455,833 798,383 1,218,642 988,132 602,371 8,832,755
Competition in the Australian mobile telecommunications industry is high among established firms, both in terms of price and service. All carriers directly provide service to over 95% of the population, with the 3 network accessing this share through a roaming agreement which provides service on Telstras network in areas where they have no coverage. 3 customers have been able to roam onto the Vodafone 2G network since December 2009 as a result of the VHA merger. Resellers are limited in their ability to compete on price by the price at which they are able to procure network services from the four carriers. There is also some scope for those firms which offer other telecommunications services to provide price advantages through bundling, benefitting the carriers, as well as some larger resellers. On the whole there are a large number of firms with similar product offerings, and firms that cannot offer price competitive services will lose customers. As well as strong internal competition, the mobile telecommunications industry is driving competition in other areas of the communications sector. Although most Australians use both mobile and fixed services, there remains competition for which service is used for calls when
not on the move. If fixed call rates are more expensive than those for mobiles the volume of calls made on mobile handsets will be higher. Similarly, as the functionality of mobile data services increases and mobile internet continues to improve and the price of these falls, the mobile telecommunications industry moves further into direct competition with fixed internet services, however at this stage mobile broadband services primarily remain a complement rather than substitute for fixed line broadband services. Strategies to attract customers and increase revenue per user have become simpler than in recent years, focused around value for money. This includes an increase in the role of cap mobile plans, and the use of data bundles to encourage the adoption and usage of internet based services. Although competition is high among existing market players, there remain substantial barriers to entry to the Australian market for mobile carriers. The capital costs of establishing a nationwide network are prohibitively high for most potential entrants, and even if these expenses can be met, the existing firms all have large market shares from which they generate economies of scale and, where they offer other telecommunications services, economies of scope. The VHA merger likely to increase the magnitude of the economies of scale as duplication of core services is reduced. Finally, the prevailing high rate of technological change in telecommunications presents a barrier, as a new entrants technology may be out of date even as they launch it. The result is that barriers to entry for new competitors in the mobile sector are high. Chart 2.2 shows the market share of mobile network carriers by revenue in 2009. Market shares had stabilised in a narrow range around a 40/30/20/10 pattern, with Telstra as the largest carrier holding around 40% market share, followed by Optus, Vodafone and Hutchison respectively. Chart 2.2: Market share of mobile network carriers by revenue, 2009
Source: IBISWorld J7122, September 2009
However the shape of the carrier market is set to alter, with approval given by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) for a merger between Vodafone and
Hutchison in June 2009. The merged company, VHA, will have a market share of 30% across its two brands Vodafone and 3 in the Australian market. There are no immediate plans to merge service provision of the two carrier arms, with all existing customer contracts to continue as is through the existing provider. Chart 2.3 shows the market share for resellers of all telecommunications services in the same year. The barriers to entry are lower for resellers than carriers, as the required infrastructure investments are much lower. As a result there are more and smaller resellers, with none holding a large market share. However the market as a whole is much smaller than that of carriers. Chart 2.3: Market share of resellers by revenue, 2009
TCNA Australia Investments (AAPT) Commander Communications SP Telemedia SingTel Optus M2 Telecommunications Other
Source: IBISWorld J7123, August 2009 Note: This pie chart includes activity by all resellers, of which mobile telecommunications was estimated by IBISWorld to have accounted for 35% in 200809
The main regulatory body is the Australian Communications and Media Authority (the ACMA). The specific responsibilities of the ACMA include regulating compliance with legislation, licence conditions and the like; reporting on matters relating to the communications industry, including its performance; and issuing telecommunications licences and radiofrequency spectrum. Under the Telecommunications Act 1997 (Cth), the telecommunications industry has broad scope for selfregulation. The industry has developed a range of industry codes, primarily via the Communications Alliance industry group. As at 30 June 2009, the ACMA had registered 22 telecommunications codes. The ACMA may act in response to a complaint of a breach of one of these codes as well as more formal regulation. The Telecommunications Industry Ombudsman (TIO), which carriers are obliged to join, may also be responsible for responding to breaches of these codes. The TIO is funded by members,
and is a dispute resolution body for residential and small business customers and their service providers. Failure to join the TIO scheme may result in pecuniary penalties to a carrier. The increasingly blurred line between services offered by mobile telecommunications and television and the internet was highlighted by the Commonwealth Legislation Amendment (Content Services) Act 2007. This legislation amended the Broadcasting Services Act so that viewing safeguard laws which apply to content delivered over the internet and television are now applied to live content and internet accessed via mobile devices. The ACCC made the 2G GSM network a declared service in 1997, increasing competition and effectively restricting the price carriers may charge for terminating access services. The regulatory framework under which mobile telecommunications operates may soon shift considerably, with the government announcing plans to enter discussions with Telstra regarding a change in its corporate structure in September 20097. While it remains to be seen whether this will directly affect ownership of any mobile telecommunications infrastructure, any change in fixed services and consumer regulation may have implications for competition and market structure across all telecommunications sectors. The arrival of the National Broadband Network (NBN) is expected to have a significant impact on the regulatory landscape of the industry. Because of the substantial volume of regulation and regulatory reform required to implement the NBN, the industry as a whole may move from one of mostly selfregulation to one of coregulation, where the government and industry share the task more equally.
There has been a move towards postpaid mobile phone contracts in the past two years, with number of prepaid services in Australia levelling off. From 200102 to 200506 prepaid services were increasing market share, however firms have introduced strategies to arrest and reverse this trend. The ACMA (2009) suggests that incentives offered by service providers to consumers under postpaid contracts including free or subsidised handsets, periodic repayments for handsets, bundles with data allowances, and cheaper call rates encourage uptake of these services in preference to prepaid, where the customer may have better control over their total spend.
Persons (millions)
0 2002-03
Source: ACMA 2010
2005-06 Year
Fixed/mobile usage
For most Australians, fixed line and mobile telephone services operate in a complementary fashion. Mobile is used while away from home, and services that are available on mobiles but less so on fixed (for example Short Message Service and video calls) while fixed services are used for making calls while at home. However for some people mobile phones are a substitute for fixed line phone services. In 200809 the ACMA (2010) estimated that approximately 10% of Australians aged 14 years and over did not have a fixed line phone service. This is part of an overall trend of:
an increasing proportion of voice calls being carried over mobile networks compared with the proportion of voice calls carried over the fixedline networks; and a decrease in the number of fixedline connections and an increase in the number of mobile connections.
As mobile subscribers continue to increase in Australia, the number of fixed line subscribers has fallen, with a loss of 0.33 million fixed line services in 200809 (ACMA 2010). The absolute numbers of calls from fixed lines fell in most categories, with increases only in calls from fixed to mobile numbers. The greater convenience of using a mobile phone as a default home contact, rather than a fixed line, is relevant in the dropoff of fixed line usage. Additionally, the falling costs for mobile phone usage mean that calls from a fixed line are no longer strictly cheaper than calls from a mobile.
Mobile phone call costs per minute declined by 4.8% in 200809, from 28.7 cents to 27.4 cents (ACMA 2010). The ACMA (2009) suggests the fact that plans that do not charge in a strict per minute fashion, including caps where a fixed price is charged for up to a much larger value of calls, are factors contributing to the ongoing fall in call costs. Average revenue per call minute is higher for 2G mobiles than 3G, with costs of 30 cents per call minute for 2G compared to 26 cents for 3G (ACMA 2010). The difference in pricing between 2G and 3G is driven by differences in intensity of use. The level of competition posed by mobile services has seen call rates fall for fixed line services, with a decline of 2.3% on average across all Public Switch Telephone Network (PSTN) call types seen in 200809. The trend towards mobile services is further highlighted by the increasing share of fixedtomobile calls in PSTN call revenues, accounting for 18.6% of total fixed phone services revenue in 200809 (IBISWorld J7123).
3Genabled mobile phones, including PDAs and smart phones; Laptop computers, through use of builtin wireless broadband cards, or wireless attachments (e.g. USB dongles); and Other uses some applications include backtobase alarms, integrated transport systems such as those used by some taxi services, and coverage of broadband black spots (3G routers designed to be used in a fixed location).
Handheld devices
The 2008 report noted that, although an increasing share of mobile phone subscribers owned 3Genabled phones, a large proportion of these owners were not making use of these services. However the role of not just datacapable but datafriendly phones has increased in the past year. The first quarter of 2009 represented the first time that shipments of datacentric smart phones exceeded those of voicecentric phones (IDC, October 2009). The highly popular Apple iPhone, which accounted for 21% of Australian smart phone sales8, can be partially credited with this rise.
Computerworld, 12 October 2008, iPhone sends Aussie smartphone market soaring, accessed 28 October 2009
Device enabled
Source: ACMA 2009
It is estimated that some 55% of all mobile phone users now have a phone that is mobile data enabled (ACMA 2010). However only around onethird of these users, or 18% of all mobile users, used their phone in 200809 to utilise nonvoice content and services online (ACMA 2010). This represents a substantial increase on evidence in the 2008 report, which suggested that only around 5% of users accessed the internet on their phones. Chart 2.6: Mobile internet activities undertaken on handheld mobile devices
Other Used Mobile TV Streamed or downloaded videos Made VoIP calls Streamed or downloaded music Accessed sport updates Sent or received email Accessed weather updates Accessed news updates Internet browsing 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
Source: ACMA 2010
The most popular uses of mobile internet activities are general internet browsing, mobile email, and news and weather services. Use of more advanced services, such as mobile television, remains low. Social networking is a popular use of mobile data, with the ability to access websites such as Facebook and Twitter via a mobile device viewed as driving the adoption of mobile internet services overseas9. Dedicated mobile applications that allow use of these social networking sites without an internet browser have been developed for a wide range of 3G handsets, encouraging the use of handset data. Mobile carriers and resellers have promoted the adoption and usage of mobile data on handheld devices through the use of bundle plans, where a mobile phone plan is combined with a fixed monthly fee for a given volume of data use. These handheld devices provide easytoaccess internet services while on the move, however are not generally designed to be used as an individuals sole internet connection. They are more likely to be a supplementary device (at least for data) that is utilised when fixed devices are unavailable.
Mobile internet services on laptops have increased in popularity as the major carriers continue to make investments in improving speeds. Some new laptops now contain a 3G card ready for use on wireless networks, while the major mobile carriers, as well as some nonphone internet services providers, offer wireless plans that run with the use of a USB dongle as a modem. The speeds attainable by mobile internet have increased enough in recent years to be classified as broadband speeds (typically defined as speeds greater than 256Kbps). Depending upon the network used, the average speeds attainable range from 300Kbps to 3Mbps, although there may be some bursts where speeds could reach 8Mbps or higher10. Mobile broadband is now in use as an alternative product offering to fixed line broadband where these services are unavailable. This is mostly in more remote locations where it is impractical to roll out cable or fibre. These services have the full functionality of fixed broadband devices (albeit with lower speeds) and the benefit of portability. This has brought mobile telecommunications into more direct competition with fixed internet services, with scope for some consumers to exclusively use mobile services in areas where mobile broadband is available. However while the scope to exclusively use mobile broadband services exists, it overwhelmingly remains a complement to existing fixed line services. Mobile wireless internet services are increasing as a share of total internet subscriptions, accounting for 23% of the total in 2009 (ACMA 2010). This includes mobile handsets as well as laptops and other uses, and is indicative of a wider preference for mobile communications, as evidenced by the dropoff in fixed telephone lines in recent years.
BBC online 2009, Facebook driving mobile net usage, 14 July. Source: Websites of carriers and service providers.
International experience
Data has grown rapidly both in total and as a share of revenue for mobile carriers internationally. In Europe, Vodafone data traffic rose 300% over the period 20072009, and now represents 11% of all European services revenues11. In Latin America, the experience was similar, with Telefonica reporting total growth of nearly 37% in mobile revenue for first half of 2009 yearonyear12. This trend was also seen in North America, with Bell Canada reporting a 33% growth in wireless data revenue and 124% growth in subscriptions from Q3 2008 to Q3 200913. Overseas expectations indicate an ongoing rapid expansion in the adoption and usage of mobile data. Cisco Systems have forecast a 39fold increase in mobile data traffic from 2009 to 201414. Similarly, AT&T projects that mobile data by volume will grow at a compound average growth rate of 65%80% over 2007 to 2018 (Rysavy 2008). At the subscriber level, the GSM Association expects mobile data customer numbers to increase 71% in 2010 alone15. CCS Insight anticipates a slightly slower growth rate than this in Europe, forecasting instead a gain in subscriber numbers over two years (20092011) of 95%16. The increase in useability is also highlighted by ABI Research, who forecast a 55fold increase in shipments of mobile broadbandenabled consumer products between 2008 and 201417.
GSA 2010, Mobile broadband growth results, January. Ibid. Ibid. Reardom M, Cisco predicts wirelessdata explosion. Fierce Wireless 2010 GSMA predicts 15% spike in mobile broadband investment, February 10. GSA 2010, Mobile broadband growth results, January. Ibid.
services take them up. However a gap of around 20 percentage points is expected to remain in 2014, indicating that there will still be around 4 million 3G subscribers with dataenabled devices but not using data. The forecasts suggest that data adoption rates will increase by 282% over the next five years (Chart 2.7). This forecast growth would mean that total adoption rates by 201314 will be nearing 70%. However because of the many potential mobile data applications, this does not mean that this proportion of the population will have a mobile data service, rather it means that there will be 0.7 services in operation for every Australian. Chart 2.7: Forecast data subscriptions per head of population
1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Data subscriptions
Source: Access Economics
3G subscriptions
It is likely that a number of these services will reflect duplication, where for example one person has subscriptions for both their mobile and laptop; however the extent of this duplication is unclear. As a result, a given mobile data subscription rate does not necessarily indicate the proportion of the population with a mobile data subscription. Growth in consumption of mobile data is expected to be even higher than that of mobile data adoption. This represents the fact that existing subscribers are expected to increase their usage. It is unclear how much of this growth will be attributed to handheld devices compared to laptops with mobile broadband. Comparison with fixed broadband Fixed broadband connections can serve as both a complement and rival to mobile data applications. In the case of handheld devices they will tend to be complementary, while in the case of a laptop the mobile broadband is more likely to be a substitute standalone service. Access Economics forecasts suggest that fixed broadband adoption rates will slow considerably in the coming years, and the gap between the number of fixed and mobile broadband subscriptions will be close to closed by 2014. Some of the slowdown in fixed broadband adoption rates can be attributed to the rapid uptake of mobile broadband as a new and potentially more useful application.
Mobile broadband subscriptions are growing much more rapidly than fixed broadband, with an 80% growth rate in mobile data subscriptions over 200809, compared with less than 18% for fixed broadband. Mobile broadband is also entering its main growth phase of adoption, while broadband in an overall sense is approaching maturity18. In the five years to 2014 Access Economics anticipates a growth in mobile data subscriptions of 282%, compared with 31% for fixed broadband.
Mobile telecommunications rely upon access to radiofrequency spectrum in order to be operational. Planning, allocation and management of spectrum is the responsibility of the ACMA using a range of approaches including spectrum licences to determine conditions of access. Spectrum licences can be obtained for relatively short periods via the apparatus licensing regime and for longer periods, up to 15 years, via the spectrum licensing regime. Australias first 15year spectrum licence allocations are due to begin expiring in 2012, requiring the Government to consider its policy approach and a process to manage licence renewal. The spectrum requirements of carriers have evolved over time. For example, the 1800MHz frequency range was used more intensely in the 1990s and early 2000s when 2G services were the technological leaders as their importance has declined the intensity of spectrum usage in this frequency band has dropped. Going forward, strong demand for advanced mobile data applications and services including mobile broadband will require the retention of existing spectrum and access to new spectrum allocations. As mobile broadband becomes increasingly used as an internet solution, scope for these services to be operated on a range of spectrum frequency bands increases. Part of the 700MHz range has been identified by AMTA as a key spectrum frequency range for LTE. This is the range in which analogue television is broadcast in Australia, and which is planned to be made available for other purposes following the shutdown of the Australian analogue television networks by the end of 2013. This shutdown will free up a substantial share of spectrum in this range, the socalled digital dividend, which may then be reallocated for more productive purposes. Internationally, the 700MHz band has been identified as a band for LTE rollout, with Verizon in the US indicating that they will deploy LTE in this band (Rysavy 2008) and AT&T indicating that it will deploy LTE in this frequency band in some key markets from 201119. This frequency band is also expected to be used for this purpose in Australia, with Telstra announcing plans to deploy LTE in rural broadband gaps using 700MHz if it is successful at attaining spectrum at auction20.
This is true of fixed broadband as a whole; however there is ongoing substitution between forms of fixed broadband as existing subscribers upgrade to faster speeds.
19 20
A number of European countries have also committed their respective digital dividend spectrum ranges to LTE, including France, Germany, Sweden and Norway21. Indeed, trials by operators have commenced in using digital dividend frequencies for High Speed Packet Access or LTE broadband services22. AMTA have noted that it is important that the digital dividend process in Australia be progressed in a timely manner in order to ensure pace is kept with international markets23. A report prepared by Spectrum Value Partners for AMTA indicated that Australias economy would be boosted by up to $10 billion if at least 120MHz of useable spectrum from the digital dividend were allocated to mobile broadband uses24. Notwithstanding the wide range of views canvassed in the DBCDEs Digital Dividend Green Paper, the government has identified 126MHz as a target amount of spectrum seen as optimal for the digital dividend process. In line with a decision in 2000 by World Radio Conference, the 2.5 Gigahertz (GHz) spectrum band has been identified as a potential space for mobile broadband. This range is already used for mobile broadband services overseas, and this generates compatibility benefits, including the fact that devices designed to operate on the 2.5GHz frequency are already being produced. In Australia, the 2.5GHz frequency is currently in use for electronic news gathering (ENG) however it has been identified by the ACMA as one that may potentially be reallocated in light of the international identification and allocation of this frequency for mobile broadband purposes. This is the subject of a recently released the ACMA discussion paper Review of the 2.5 GHz band and longterm arrangements for ENG, and of an ongoing review. The ACMA discussion paper stated that its preferred outcome is the conversion of the ENG apparatus licences to spectrum licences in part of the 2.5GHz band and the reallocation of the remainder of the band, a 2 x 70MHz allocation, for wireless access services to be primarily used for mobile telephony and mobile broadband services. AMTA sees gaining access to the 2.5GHz and 700MHz frequency bands for mobile data applications as critical to ensuring the infrastructure is in place if forecast future demand for mobile broadband services is to be met, and if continued technological advancement through the rollout of services such as LTE is to occur25.
While the ACMA has identified scope for a change in the allocation of the 2.5GHz frequency range, spectrum is a finite resource and care must therefore be taken when determining how it should be allocated. In order to maximise total economic welfare from spectrum allocations, consideration should be given to:
21 22 23 24 25
the highest value use for spectrum; efficient investment and innovation;
Tony Warren 2009, Short term action for long term evolution, presentation to RadComms09 GSA Digital Dividend Update February 2010 ACMA 2009, Draft Fiveyear Spectrum Outlook 20092014 Submission, September. Ibid. AMTA Spectrum Policy Vision Overview Statement
spectrum availability will aid in ensuring that the efficiency of investment and innovation is maximised.
This is an important consideration in the distribution of spectrum among market players, both within the same industry and across industries. The ACCC has previously supported the application of competition limits for some auctions in order to encourage competition and the entry of new participants in the telecommunications market (ACCC 2002). Competition concerns may arise particularly when there is scope for perverse incentives. This includes the scenario where the highest value use may be for a firm to purchase a licence simply to prevent their rivals from gaining access to it. Under such a situation, the licence holder will not be using the spectrum to generate additional economic value, instead merely increasing the value of investments on their other spectrum holdings. However it may be difficult to create an allocation process that completely protects against this outcome. The Radiocommunications Act 1992 (Cth) gives the ACMA scope to utilise a pricebased allocation process that limits the number of licences that may be issued to any one person or group of persons, and provides scope for the Minister to direct the ACMA to do the same.
Consumer convenience
Consumer convenience is particularly important in the case of spectrum that has previously been allocated and is due for renewal. If spectrum is being actively used to provide services for consumers, there may be large displacement costs to consumers if that spectrum is then reallocated to a different user. This is particularly true of mobile telecommunications, where hundreds of thousands of consumers would be impacted if a licence on which one of the mobile carriers provides services were not to be renewed. There is an inconvenience cost to these consumers from losing access to their services, and also in lost utility from investments they have made on the basis of receiving these services, as these often cannot readily be transferred for use elsewhere. However this social value to consumers is not reflected in a licence bidders valuation of spectrum. Consequently there is a need to consider the social costs of failing to renew an incumbents licence in the decision making process.
Other considerations
In some cases, there may be a need to consider additional factors. One such example is the 2.5GHz spectrum frequency and potential benefits from international compatibility. Additionally, this may include spectrum that is allocated to essential services and has a public interest aspect, such as spectrum allocated to defence and emergency services.
3.1 Productivity
Productivity gains from information and communications technology are notorious for being difficult to observe in official productivity statistics (indeed the Solow paradox26 describes this difficulty). Instead the productivity benefits are mostly analysed in a qualitative fashion, using surveys and anecdotes of cases where productivity improvements have occurred.
Handheld devices
Mobile voice The advancement of mobile devices has led to improved workplace productivity. A survey conducted by Kelly Services found that more than 80% of Australians believe mobile communications technology has boosted their personal productivity27. However 36% of those surveyed also indicated that they were working longer hours due to greater contactability. Anecdotal evidence suggests that mobile telephony has benefited business by allowing for time to be made productive and for people to remain uptodate with news and developments in the work place whilst out of the office. For example, IDC notes that responding to email is taking up an increasing amount of corporate users time, so being able to use mobile devices to respond to email when out of the office allows employees to be more time efficient and better at utilising gaps in their work schedule (IDC 2005). The Centre for Economics and Business Research (CEBR) conducted a study on labour productivity on behalf of the UK telecommunications firm O2, finding that, overall, mobiles increase UK labour productivity by almost 1%. The gains were largest among mobile workers, the group of largely bluecollar workers with no fixed work location, including tradespeople. These numbers imply that, because of mobiles, UK workers can work for around 20 minutes less each week to achieve the same output. In total, the CEBR estimated that the productivity benefits of mobile phones boosted UK GDP by 8.9 billion in 2004. In the US, a study by Ovum (2008) found that mobile voice services generated productivity gains worth $157 million in 2004. Ovum argues that the widespread adoption of mobile technology has been the catalyst in the turnaround in US labour productivity growth over the past decade.
The Solow Paradox describes a remark by Robert Solow in 1987 that You can see the computer age everywhere but in the productivity statistics.
Kelly Services 2009, Mobile technology lifts productivity but lengthens working hours for Australian employees, 7 July, accessed via http://www.kellyservices.com.au/web/au/services/en/pages/about_us_media_release_mobile_technology_lifts_pr oductivity.html on 17 December
Mobile data As smart phones increase in market importance, the productivity benefits of mobile telephony are increasingly becoming available to officebased workers while they are on the move. A study by IpsosReid found that BlackBerry smart phones enabled users to turn what would otherwise have been 60 minutes of downtime into productive time each workday, adding up to a total of 250 hours per year (IpsosReid 2007). The study further found that cost savings attributable to BlackBerry use equated to US$250 per user per year, and estimated the value of access to time sensitive email and calls while mobile averaged US$5,000 per user per year. There have been numerous case studies or examples of the impact that mobile telephony has on productivity of a business or firm. For example:
The Tasmanian breast cancer screening program uses mobile broadband technology to digitally transmit Xray images from their mobile screening unit to head office in Hobart, saving up to two weeks in processing time and reducing staff time spent on administration. Magazine distributors Gordon and Gotch have increased efficiency, accuracy and turn around time by providing PDA devices to merchandising team members, allowing them to collect information and submit this information wirelessly to the publishers server. Independent internet broadcaster Viocorp improved efficiency through moving all staff to a single corporate account, reducing costs by 50%, and provided all staff with data enabled phones to increase worker flexibility when working offsite.
The productivity benefits extend beyond improved outcomes for business. Modelling undertaken for Telstra found that, in the long term, annual real household consumption will be 1.4% greater than it would be in a scenario without mobile broadband services28. Technological advances increasingly mean that functions previously requiring multiple devices can all be undertaken on a smart phone or PDA. This means that time that had previously been relatively unproductive, such as time spent travelling to and from work, can instead be used to catch up on emails or for conducting other work functions.
Mobile broadband
Mobile broadband services are a rapidly growing source of productivity gains to the economy. Ovum (2008) estimated that, in 2005, mobile broadband services produced productivity gains of $28 billion to the US economy. The potential of rapid adoption of mobile technologies is highlighted in forecast productivity gains, with a forecast total productivity gain from all mobile telecommunications of $427 billion per year by 2016, an increase of 130% on 2005 levels. Aside from the Ovum report, research considering the productivity impacts of mobile internet services to date has been largely limited to handheld devices to date. However mobile broadband functions on a laptop or similar device in the same manner as traditional broadband, and so studies considering the impact of this may be used as a proxy for additional evidence in this area.
Connected Nation Inc. (2008) considered the economic impact of increased broadband access and adoption in Kentucky that arose as a result of the ConnectKentucky initiative, which brought together partners in the public and private sectors to foster both the supply of and demand for broadband. When compared to projections of what broadband uptake in Kentucky was expected to have looked like without the initiative, it was found that broadband adoption was 7 percentage points higher. The estimated economic impacts for Kentucky totalled $1.59 billion annually. Crandall et al (2008) controlled for a number of factors that will influence productivity performance including taxes, education level and wages to measure the impact of broadband directly. Their measure of broadband takeup is the number of broadband lines per capita. Using regression analysis, they find consistently positive effects on both employment and output at the State level as well positive effects for all but one of fourteen 2digit industry sectors examined.29 Among the results, they found that, for the period 20032005, an increase of 0.01 lines per capita an increase of around 10% resulted in an increase of 0.46% in output in the nonfarm private sector. A MICUS (2008) study into the impact of broadband on productivity in the EU considers the problem in two steps. Firstly, the impact of broadband on productivity is analysed at the company level on the basis of experiences such as case studies from Cornwall and Piedmont and previous analyses of statistical datasets in the USA, UK and Europe. Secondly, the macro economic impact of broadband on productivity is evaluated by multiplying the figure obtained at the company level with the indicator of adoption of online services among European companies. Overall, the use of online services generates an average annual productivity improvement of 0.29% across the EU27, with higher benefits in the services (0.32%) and business services (0.58%) sectors, and lower benefits in the manufacturing (0.14%) sector.
3.2 Innovation
Innovation in telecommunications industry has been occurring at a rapid pace for some time, and this trend is continuing.
Following the closure of Telstras nowsuperseded CDMA network in April 2008, Telstra has put considerable effort into migrating customers across to Next GTM network and further expanding this network to more than 99% population coverage. This network operates on the 850MHz frequency band, a lower frequency band that is well suited to regional areas. Optus continues to expand its network, which operates on the 900MHz and 2100MHz bands. In December 2008, Optus completed its 3G network rollout to reach 96% population coverage, with plans to expand network coverage to 98% of the population. The VHA (Vodafone) 3G network has also been expanded, taking in a larger number of regional centres.
The one sector where the effects were negative was arts, entertainment and recreation although all of the estimates were not statistically significant.
Innovation in networks and services continues to be made. Internationally, moves indicate the arrival of 4G technologies, with much higher internet speeds than what is available on Australian wireless services (IBISWorld J7122). Indeed, Optus became the first carrier to announced plans to commence trials of LTE 4G technology in Australia in 201030. This trial is expected to take between six and nine months, with Optus indicating that the technology may be capable of peak speeds of 340Mbps. Telstra has also announced plans for a trial of LTE technology31. The line between competing technologies has become increasingly blurred due to innovation. Historically the main rival to mobile telecommunications has been fixed line telephony. However as smart phones are adopted and individuals are able to utilise wireless internet services on mobile handsets, a wider range of alternative communications services become direct competitors to mobile telecommunications, including fixed internet services.
The release of the iPhone 3G has seen a notable increase in the adoption and use of 3G technology in Australia. This popular handset allows for full 3G capability, and encourages usage of this through an online application store. The Amazon Kindle ebook device operates on a 3G wireless connection. This enables download of books purchased from the online store, as well as availability of subscriptions to newspapers and magazines worldwide, which are automatically downloaded to the subscribers device once available. Voice2Text services were first introduced for business customers by Telstra in 2007, with both Optus and Telstra now offering such services. This subscription addon enables voicemails to be automatically converted and delivered to a subscribers phone in text message form. Innovation has been seen also in the packages offered by carriers, with cap plans an increasingly popular means of moving customers onto postpaid contracts. Bolton subscriptions, particularly for download quotas, have also become more prominent in an effort to increase adoption of mobile internet services.
The mobile telecommunications industry is a capitalintensive one due to extensive coverage and capacity requirements, the upgrade to advanced network technologies and the development of large scale customer sales, service and billing systems. Many innovations in technology standards require significant infrastructure investments before returns can be earned.
30 31
Recent investments
As 2G technologies approach the end of their lifecycle, there is a negligible level of investment in this level of technology, with a focus instead on 3G and trials of LTE. Telstra has undertaken investment in its Next GTM network to increase maximum download speeds. These increased maximum speeds from 14.4Mbps to 21Mbps, with a rollout for business customers undertaken first in FebruaryMarch 2009, followed by rollout for residential customers in April32. The Next GTM network was upgraded in early 2010 to support peak download speeds of 42Mbps. Optus continues to roll out network upgrades, including increases in network coverage. Network coverage reached 96% of the population in December 2008. Optus also has plans to extend its 3G network coverage to 98% of the population with the mobile network footprint exceeding 97% voice coverage as at 31 March 2010. Vodafone has expanded its 3G network coverage, increasing total population coverage from 80% to 94% with recent upgrades. These upgrades cover a large number of regional centres, with the 3G network coverage now having virtually the same reach as Vodafones existing 2G network. Investments in less traditional mobile telecommunications have also taken place. There has been considerable research in WiMAX technologies, looking at the provision of highspeed internet over mobile broadband. Research into this has been undertaken by firms not currently active in mobile applications, potentially increasing mobile broadband competition. Investment in mobile communications has spread beyond firms in the telecommunications industry. An example of this is WiFi hotspots in restaurants and cafes, where customers are able to use the provided wireless internet, either for free or at a charge. This service can be used by a mobile customer on their mobile device without consuming any paidfor data under their contract, improving useability for mobile internet and potentially encouraging the adoption and usage of mobile internet services as a whole.
Planned investment
Telstra has announced plans to further increase the speed of its Next GTM network, with upgrades to increase the speed to a theoretical maximum of 84Mbps during 201133. This upgrade may not be experienced by all Telstra customers, with some likely to be constrained by the speeds that can be tolerated by handsets. Some customers will need to upgrade their handsets in order to utilise the faster speeds. There are some concerns that investment going forward may be constrained by uncertainty due to the expiry of existing radiofrequency spectrum licenses and access to new spectrum. Recovery of investment in telecommunications infrastructure requires many years of operation, and as such the current lack of certainty as to whether spectrum will be retained long enough to generate an appropriate return.
32 33
AAP 2009, Telstra to roll out worlds fastest wireless network, February 17
http://www.telstra.com.au/abouttelstra/mediacentre/announcements/telstralaunchesworldsfirsthspadual carriernetwork.xml
Government investment
Formal plans for the construction of the NBN were announced by the Federal Government in April 2009. This network involves rollout of fibre to the premises broadband for 93% of Australians in the most densely populated regions, with the next 4% of the population to receive wireless coverage at 12Mbps and the remainder to receive satellite coverage at 12Mbps34. Although a large share of those households covered will already have access to 3G wireless technology via the carriers networks, the 12Mbps service that is to be built may expand the total reach of wireless technology in Australia. The speeds offered through this service are slower than current maximum speeds available through the carriers networks, however it is unclear whether the areas that are due to receive 12Mbps access under the NBN already have access to these speeds. The NBN nevertheless represents a significant potential government investment in wireless technology over the coming eight years.
Assuming the Federal Government adopts the recommendations of the KPMG/McKinsey NBN Implementation Study.
The mobile telecommunications industry makes a substantial contribution to the overall Australian economy35. In addition to its direct contribution to aggregate output through value added by the industry, mobile telecommunications also benefit other industries and economic sectors by raising the labour productivity of workers. Access Economics has used its AEGEM dynamic computable general equilibrium model to quantify the economywide impacts of falling mobile telecommunication prices and rising labour productivity resulting from increasing mobile device usage.
14,654.5 5,986.8 4,351.6 1,635.2 22,117
15,518.7 6,476.0 4,944.1 1,531.9 21,964
16,391.9 6,753.6 5,284.3 1,469.3 21,170
17,788.3 6,702.5 5,257.7 1,437.0 20,790
Output (revenue)
Output in the sector was valued at $17.8 billion for 200809, up 8.5% on the 200708 total. Chart 4.1 demonstrates the trend of high growth in industry revenue. Industry output has growth strongly in recent years; the 200809 result represents a total increase in output of 24.2% over five years.
Note this analysis takes account of mobile carriers and resellers. For example, the mobile handset industry is also an important contributor of value added and employment in Australia. However, data is presently unavailable to quantify the industry wide contribution.
Over the period 200405 to 200809, increases in revenue have been driven by a substantial increase in mobile telecommunications subscriptions, with the total number of mobile accounts increasing from 18.4 million at the end of 200405 to over 24 million in 200809. The high growth in subscription numbers has more than offset the downward pressure that falling prices for telephony services has had on revenue figures. After having eased in recent years, the growth rate in output surged again in 200809, even as subscription rates pass 100% of the population. Higher yielding product offerings, including the increased share of dataenabled phones and corresponding increases in data usage, are a large contributing factor to this increase. Chart 4.1: Industry revenue and value added
Source: IBISWorld J7122 September 2009 and J7123 August 2009 and Access Economics
Proportion of total communications IGP
5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 22% 1,000 0 200405 200506 200607 200708 200809 Carriers Resellers Share of total communications 21% 24%
The total share of resale activity in the telecommunications industry attributable to mobile phones has increased in recent years, from 32% in 200607 to 35% in 200809. Nevertheless, the reseller component of industry value added remains small compared to the activity of carriers.
1,635.2 1,535.5 109.7
1,531.9 1,426.1 105.8
1,469.3 1,362.6 106.7
1,437.0 1,327.5 109.5
Earnings in the mobile telecommunications industry attributable to capital were $5.3 billion for 200809. In this report, earnings to capital have been derived as the residual of industry gross product once earnings to employees have been accounted for. The total earnings to capital in the industry have been highly stable in real terms over recent years, and also in terms of the share of total industry gross product, accounting for around threequarters of the total.
Employment in the sector is estimated to be 20,790 employees FTE in 200809. This represents a fall of 1.2% in total number of employees for the year. As is to be expected, the vast majority of persons employed in the mobile telecommunications industry work for network carriers, with less than 10% of total employees working for resellers. Table 4.3 provides a breakdown of the share of total employment by carriers and resellers. Both carriers and resellers have cut FTE staff for several years now, even as the industry continues to grow. This is largely to do with increased labour productivity. The same telecommunications technology that is increasing total labour productivity economywide is having the same effect within the industry itself, while mergers and acquisitions within the industry also play a role.36 Table 4.3: Employees, by carriers and resellers 200405
Employment Carriers Resellers 23,685 21,468 2,217
22,923 20,850 2,073
21,779 19,800 1,979
21,050 19,065 1,985
20,790 18,745 2,045
Payments to Government
Like all major industries, the mobile telecommunications industry engages with the Australian Government regularly. For example, the industry contributes to government revenues through one off payments for spectrum allocations as well as through annual payments for apparatus licence fees and through other charges such as those relating to the National Relay Service, carrier licences, and numbering charges. Many of these payments are proportional to a carriers eligible revenue, which is based on the carriers gross sales revenue less a series of revenue and expense deductions. Like businesses in other industries, those in the mobile telecommunications industry also pay corporate income taxes to the Australian Government and payroll taxes to State and Territory Governments. The mobile telecommunications industry is required to make a number of industryspecific payments to government. Access Economics estimates that, in 200809, the value of these payments was $176.6 million, although it is noted that the $46.2 million received under the Universal Service Obligation is not retained by the government but rather paid to Telstra to cover the cost of providing universal services in areas where it is not profitable to do so. The portion of this total attributable to each type of payment is detailed in Table 4.4. In addition, the industry contributes to its effective operation through voluntary and compulsory payments to support various industry associations and selfregulatory schemes, including AMTA and the TIO.
For example, Optus acquisition of Virgin Mobile and AAPTs acquisition of PowerTel.
Table 4.4: Industry payments to government, 20080937 Payment type Basis for calculating payment amount Estimated 2008 09 payment ($ million)
68.0 Eligible telecommunications revenue Eligible telecommunications revenue Number of fixed pointtopoint installations Quantity of mobile telephone numbers Fixed sum plus eligible telecommunications revenue 46.2 1.9 13.4 40.0 7.1 176.6
Radiocommunications licence fee Universal Service Obligation National Relay Service Licence fee for fixed service Numbering charge Annual Carrier Licence Charge Total
Source: Access Economics calculations based on ACMA 2010
Note: Universal Service Obligation payments to Government are passed on to Telstra to cover losses that flow from providing universal services in nonprofitable areas.
Price declines
Strong competition in the mobile phone industry has led to cheaper mobile services. According to the ACMA, in 200809 average voice call costs for mobiles fell by 4.8% per cent. 2G customers were the beneficiaries of the cost reductions, with a 6.7% reduction in calling
For payments that are contingent on eligible telecommunications revenues, the 200607 figures were computed by applying the share of mobile payments in the 200506 figures to the total payments made by the telecommunications industry in 200607 and adjusting for the rise in the share of mobile telecommunications revenues in total telecommunications revenues between 200506 and 200607. Licence fees for fixed services were estimated by assuming that the growth rate for such fees were the same in 200607 as in 200506.
costs in 200809, while call costs for 3G customers increased by 1.5% in 200809, from 25.6 cents to 26 cents. The first component of the analysis of indirect effects is the simulation of the historical price reductions achieved by mobile telecommunications service providers over the period 2001 2009 (Chart 4.3). Chart 4.3: Price indices used in modelling exercise
40.00 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
gains to consumers of mobile services; and gains to consumers of telecommunications services more generally through the price pressure that mobile services place on fixedline services in Australia via competition.
Therefore, the price decrease in mobiles services places downward pressure on the price of a basket of telecommunications services. The pricequantity diagram below captures the economic benefits associated with such an effect.
Decrease in the price of a basket of telecommunications services due to falling prices for mobile services.
a b
abcd = gain in allocative efficiency from decreasing prices for telecommunications services
DT denotes the demand curve for telecommunications services; MCT denotes the (constant) marginal cost to society associated with supplying telecommunications services; PT is the perunit price of telecommunications services; and QT is the quantity of telecommunications services.
0 It illustrates that with a fall in the price of a basket of telecommunications services from PT to 1 PT , there will be an increase in the demand for telecommunications services from Q 0 to Q 1 . T T
As consumers value these additional units supplied from Q 0 to Q 1 by the amount abQ 1 Q 0 , T T T T and the cost to society of supplying these units is only dcQ 1 Q 0 , the increase in supply creates T T an overall increase in welfare equal to the redshaded area abcd.
Productivity gains
Aside from mobile services being consumed, mobiles are also an input for many businesses across many different sectors of the economy. As detailed in Section 3 above, studies suggest that mobiles have a positive impact on the productivity of workers, and this will lead to gains in productive efficiency across the economy. These gains arise from the improved ability of workers to remain productive while onthego through use of voice and data applications, for example through the ability to receive and reply to email. The figure below captures this effect, by illustrating the increase in efficiency associated with a productivity gain in a particular competitive sector of the economy.
P0acP1 = gain in productive efficiency from declining mobile prices and increased labour productivity abc = gain in allocative efficiency from decreasing prices in this competitive sector of the economy
P0 P1 c
a b
Using similar notation to the previous section, the impact of mobiles on labour productivity in competitive sectors in the economy, is to decrease the marginal cost of production to society from MC0 to MC1, decrease the price from P0 to P1, and increase quantity from Q0 to Q1. The decrease in the cost of supplying Q0 units, leads to a gain in productive efficiency equal to the greenshaded rectangle area P0acP1, while the increase in quantity from Q0 to Q1 leads to a gain in total welfare equal to redshaded triangle area abc. Therefore, across each competitive market, the increase in productivity resulting from mobile telecommunications services generates an overall efficiency gain equal to area P0abP1. Surveys conducted by Telstra indicated that on average, commercial users of the Next G network felt that their productivity had been improved on average by 9.3 per cent. The productivity improvements were quantified as estimated cost savings that the businesses using Next G have achieved in different areas (such as travel costs, administration costs and monitoring of staff costs)38. Earlier work by CEBR, on behalf of mobile phone provider O2, in the UK had estimated that, on average, each worker in the UK in 2004 saved 20 minutes per week from the use of mobile phones39. These estimates of the productivity gain have been incorporated into the model as measures of the productivity gain from mobile phone usage, with the O2 figures used for the productivity benefits of nondata activity and the Telstra study used as a base for the data analysis. Although mobile broadband is an increasingly widely used technology, the productivity gains measured here do not incorporate its use.
38 39
Econtech, 2007. Productivity gains of Next GTM: results on the customer survey. Report to Telstra. CEBR, 2006. An analysis of how mobile phone use contributes to business productivity. Report to O2.
The industry is rapidly growing, both in terms of overall subscriptions and the uptake of the 3G network. According to the ACMA the number of 3G services in operation was 12.3 million at 30 June 2009, a 44% annual increase. Revenue from 3G services increased 47% over the year 20080940. Based on these sources, Access has estimated productivity shocks taking into account the higher proportion of mobile phone users accessing data services in 200809, as shown by the continuing increase in 3G subscriptions. The 200809 mobile data adoption rate of 18% (ACMA 2010) is used to estimate the impact of data on productivity.
Modelling results
The estimated economic impact of mobile telecommunications on the Australian economy was to raise economic growth as measured by GDP, in real terms, by $10.7 billion in 2009. That is to say, if mobile price levels had not fallen relative to the CPI from 2001, and there were no flowon effects to PSTN prices or labour productivity, Australias GDP would have been $10.7 billion lower in 2009. The results of the GE modelling are found in Table 4.5. Table 4.5: Economic impacts in 200809
Variable Real GDP Real GNP Real Consumption Real Investment Real Exports Real Imports Employment (000)
Source: Access Economics
Change from reference values ($m) 10,650 8,972 5,271 7,536 (168) 2,651 27
Variable Real GDP Real GNP Real Consumption Real Investment Real Exports Real Imports Employment
% deviation from reference case 0.85 0.75 0.82 2.07 0.06 0.95 0.29
Australias economic welfare, measured by gross national product, was projected to be $9.0 billion higher in 2009 than would otherwise have been the case.41 In addition, investment and employment were projected to be stronger as a result of mobile telecommunications. For example, mobile telecommunications were projected to increase employment by 27,000 FTEs in 2009. These are not roles in the telecommunications industry, rather they are roles generated by the improved productivity and reduced cost of telecommunications services that have been driven by mobile telecommunications. The trade impact of mobile telecommunications is overall negative, relating to the relatively high proportion of telecommunications hardware that is produced overseas and imported for domestic consumption. Additionally, the increased economic activity that has resulted from
40 41
Australian Communications and Media Authority 2010, Communications Report 200809, ACMA, Melbourne
GDP measures the output produced in Australia and includes income generated by foreigners residing in Australia. GNP measures the output and income generated by Australians, including those living abroad.
mobile telecommunications has increased Australians ability to purchase goods and services. Real imports are $2.7 billion higher as a result of mobile telecommunications services. The indirect contribution to GDP has grown significantly in recent years, with a $3 billion increase in the result since the 200607 analysis (Chart 4.4). While some of this is due to price declines for mobile services, the main driver has been the productivity gains from increased mobile data adoption by new consumers and higher usage by existing consumers. Chart 4.4: Economic impact on GDP
0 2005
Source: Access Economics
Forecasts of rapid growth in mobile data adoption, with expectations of additional increases in usage by existing subscribers, suggest that the productivity impact of the industry is likely to continue to grow significantly over the next five years. Chart 4.5: Total economic contribution of mobile telecommunications, 200809
20.0 18.0 16.0 14.0
$ billion
$10.7 b $17.4 b
12.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 Direct Contribution Indirect Contribution Total Contribution
$6.7 b
Concluding remarks
The Australian mobile telecommunications industry continues to increase in importance for the Australian economy. In 200809 the industry contributed $17.4 billion to the Australian economy. The indirect contribution of the industry represented more than 60% of the total value of the industry, indicating that mobile telecommunications services provide significant flowon benefits to those businesses that make use of them. The importance of the mobile telecommunications industry is on the rise in Australia, with growth of $3 billion in the contribution of the industry over two years. Mobile data applications are growing in importance for the industry and for business as a whole. In order to harness the full potential benefits of mobile telecommunications, including mobile data, to the economy going forward it is necessary to ensure that the industry is able to access adequate additional radiofrequency spectrum, facilitating network upgrades and improved service provision.
AAP 2009, Telstra to roll out worlds fastest wireless network, February 17. ACCC 2002, Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts Consideration of Options for Structural Reform in Spectrum Management: Submission from the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, September, Canberra. Access Economics 2007, Australian Mobile Telecommunications Industry: Economic Significance and State of the Industry, July, Canberra. Australian Bureau of Statistics 2009, Australian System of National Accounts, 200809, Canberra, December. Australian Bureau of Statistics 2009b, Australian Demographic Statistics, June 2009, Canberra, December. Australian Communications and Media Authority 2010, Communications Report 200809, ACMA, Melbourne. Australian Communications and Media Authority 2010b, Review of the 2.5GHz band and long term arrangements for ENG: Discussion Paper, Canberra, January. Australian Communications and Media Authority 2009, Communications Report 200708, ACMA, Melbourne. CEBR, 2006. An analysis of how mobile phone use contributes to business productivity. Report to O2. Computerworld, 12 October 2008, iPhone sends Aussie smartphone market soaring, accessed 28 October 2009. Concept Economics 2009, Next G Productivity Impacts Study, February, Sydney. Connected Nation Inc 2008, The Economic Impact of Stimulating Broadband Nationally, Washington, February. Conroy 2009, Historic reforms to telecommunications regulation, Media Release, Canberra, 15 September. Crandall R, Lehr W, Litan R 2007, The Effects of Broadband Deployment on Output and Employment: A CrossSectional Analysis of US Data. DBCDE 2010, Digital Dividend Green Paper, Canberra, January. Econtech, 2007. Productivity gains of Next GTM: results on the customer survey. Report to Telstra. GSM Association 2010, Mobile broadband growth: Reports from operators worldwide, January. IBISWorld 2009, Mobile Telecommunications Carriers in Australia, Report J7122, September.
IBISWorld 2009, Telecommunications Resellers in Australia, Report J7123, August. IDC 2009, Australian Smart Phone Market Soars 29% in First Half 2009, Press Release, Sydney, 12 October. IDC 2005, Corporate Mobile Email in Western Europe 20042009, September. IpsosReid 2007, Analyzing the Return on Investment of a BlackBerry Deployment, 2007, Canada. Kelly Services 2009, Mobile technology lifts productivity but lengthens working hours for Australian employees, 7 July, accessed via
http://www.kellyservices.com.au/web/au/services/en/pages/about_us_media_release_mobile_technology _lifts_productivity.html on 17 December.
MICUS Management Consulting Group 2008, The Impact of Broadband on Growth and Productivity, prepared for the European Commission, Dusseldorf. Ovum 2008, The Increasingly Important Impact of Wireless Broadband Technology and Services on the US Economy, prepared for CTIA The Wireless Association, Boston. Winterford B 2009, Optus to launch LTE wireless trials, IT News,
http://www.itnews.com.au/News/160830,optustolaunchltewirelesstrials.aspx, 18 November 2009.
Productivity Commission 1999, Australias Gambling Industries, Report No. 10, AusInfo, Canberra, (page 4.19).
In a fundamental sense, economic contribution studies are simply historical accounting exercises. No whatif, or counterfactual inferences, should be drawn from them.
Appendix B: AERGEM
AEGEM is a large scale, dynamic, multiregion, multicommodity computable general equilibrium model of the world economy. The model allows policy analysis in a single, robust, integrated economic framework. This model projects changes in macroeconomic aggregates such as GDP, employment, export volumes, investment and private consumption. At the sectoral level, detailed results such as output, exports, imports and employment are also produced. The model is based upon a set of key underlying relationships between the various components of the model, each which represent a different group of agents in the economy. These relationships are solved simultaneously, and so there is no logical start or end point for describing how the model actually works. Figure B shows the key components of the model for an individual region. The components include a representative household, producers, investors and international (or linkages with the other regions in the model, including other Australian States and foreign regions). Below is a description of each component of the model and key linkages between components. Some additional, somewhat technical, detail is also provided. Figure B: Key components of AEGEM
Representative household
AEGEM is based on a substantial body of accepted microeconomic theory. Key assumptions underpinning the model are:
The model contains a regional consumer that receives all income from factor payments (labour, capital, land and natural resources), taxes and net foreign income from borrowing (lending). Income is allocated across household consumption, government consumption and savings so as to maximise a CobbDouglas (CD) utility function. Household consumption for composite goods is determined by minimising expenditure via a CDE (Constant Differences of Elasticities) expenditure function. For most regions, households can source consumption goods only from domestic and imported sources. In the Australian regions, households can also source goods from interstate. In all cases,
the choice of commodities by source is determined by a CRESH (Constant Ratios of Elasticities Substitution, Homothetic) utility function.
Government consumption for composite goods, and goods from different sources (domestic, imported and interstate), is determined by maximising utility via a CD utility function. All savings generated in each region are used to purchase bonds whose price movements reflect movements in the price of creating capital. Producers supply goods by combining aggregate intermediate inputs and primary factors in fixed proportions (the Leontief assumption). Composite intermediate inputs are also combined in fixed proportions, whereas individual primary factors are combined using a CES production function. Producers are cost minimisers, and in doing so choose between domestic, imported and interstate intermediate inputs via a CRESH production function. The model contains a more detailed treatment of the electricity sector that is based on the technology bundle approach for general equilibrium modelling developed by ABARE (1996).43
The supply of labour is positively influenced by movements in the real wage rate governed by an elasticity of supply. Investment takes place in a global market and allows for different regions to have different rates of return that reflect different risk profiles and policy impediments to investment. A global investor ranks countries as investment destinations based on two factors: global investment and rates of return in a given region compared with global rates of return. Once the aggregate investment has been determined for Australia, aggregate investment in each Australian subregion is determined by an Australian investor based on: Australian investment and rates of return in a given subregion compared with the national rate of return. Once aggregate investment is determined in each region, the regional investor constructs capital goods by combining composite investment goods in fixed proportions, and minimises costs by choosing between domestic, imported and interstate sources for these goods via a CRESH production function. Prices are determined via marketclearing conditions that require sectoral output (supply) to equal the amount sold (demand) to final users (households and government), intermediate users (firms and investors), foreigners (international exports), and other Australian regions (interstate exports). For internationallytraded goods (imports and exports), the Armington assumption is applied whereby the same goods produced in different countries are treated as imperfect substitutes. But in relative terms imported goods from different regions are treated as closer substitutes than domesticallyproduced goods and imported composites. Goods traded interstate within the Australian regions are assumed to be closer substitutes again. The model accounts for greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion. Taxes can be applied to emissions, which are converted to goodspecific sales taxes that
Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE), 1996, MEGABARE: Interim Documentation, Canberra.
impact on demand. Emission quotas can be set by region and these can be traded, at a value equal to the carbon tax avoided, where a regions emissions fall below or exceed their quota.
Some detail
The representative household allocates income across three different expenditure areas private household consumption; government consumption; and savings to maximise a CobbDouglas utility function. Private household consumption on composite goods is determined by minimising a CDE (Constant Differences of Elasticities) expenditure function. Private household consumption on composite goods from different sources is determined is determined by a CRESH (Constant Ratios of Elasticities Substitution, Homothetic) utility function. Government consumption on composite goods, and composite goods from different sources, is determined by maximising a CobbDouglas utility function. All savings generated in each region is used to purchase bonds whose price movements reflect movements in the price of generating capital.
Apart from selling goods and services to households and government, producers sell products to each other (intermediate usage) and to investors. Intermediate usage is where one producer supplies inputs to anothers production. For example, coal producers supply inputs to the electricity sector. Capital is an input into production. Investors react to the conditions facing producers in a region to determine the amount of investment. Generally, increases in production are accompanied by increased investment. In addition, the production of machinery, construction of buildings and the like that forms the basis of a regions capital stock, is undertaken by
producers. In other words, investment demand adds to household and government expenditure from the representative household, to determine the demand for goods and services in a region. Producers interact with international markets in two main ways. First they compete with producers in overseas regions for export markets, as well as in their own region. Second, they use inputs from overseas in their production.
Some detail
Sectoral output equals the amount demanded by consumers (households and government) and intermediate users (firms and investors) as well as exports. Intermediate inputs are assumed to be combined in fixed proportions at the composite level. As mentioned above, the exception to this is the electricity sector that is able to substitute different technologies (brown coal, black coal, oil, gas, hydropower and other renewables) using the technology bundle approach developed by ABARE (1996). To minimise costs, producers substitute between domestic and imported intermediate inputs is governed by the Armington assumption as well as between primary factors of production (through a CES aggregator). Substitution between skilled and unskilled labour is also allowed (again via a CES function). The supply of labour is positively influenced by movements in the wage rate governed by an elasticity of supply is (assumed to be 0.2). This implies that changes influencing the demand for labour, positively or negatively, will impact both the level of employment and the wage rate. This is a typical labour market specification for a dynamic model such as AEGEM. There are other labour market settings that can be used. First, the labour market could take on longrun characteristics with aggregate employment being fixed and any changes to labour demand changes being absorbed through movements in the wage rate. Second, the labour market could take on short run characteristics with fixed wages and flexible employment levels.
Investment takes place in a global market and allows for different regions to have different rates of return that reflect different risk profiles and policy impediments to investment. The global investor ranks countries as investment destination based on two factors: current economic growth and rates of return in a given region compared with global rates of return. Some detail
Once aggregate investment is determined in each region, the regional investor constructs capital goods by combining composite investment goods in fixed proportions, and minimises costs by choosing between domestic, imported and interstate sources for these goods via a CRESH production function.
Each of the components outlined above operate, simultaneously, in each region of the model. That is, for any simulation the model forecasts changes to trade and investment flows within,
and between, regions subject to optimising behaviour by producers, consumers and investors. Of course, this implies some global conditions must be met such as global exports and global imports are the same and that global debt repayments equals global debt receipts each year. Table A outlines the eight regions in the model, including Australia, countries like China and Japan and multicountry regions like East Asia and the Euro Zone. Table A: Modelling regions Region
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Australia China Japan East Asia India USA Euro Zone 27 Rest of the World