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Eyes - a fairly tender body, both in humans and animals. The dogs often have watery eyes, or even suppuration in the eyes. Naturally, this phenomenon causes panic among the owners. But do not panic, because it is important to understand what is the reason for the formation of pus and provide an ambulance ambulance at home. In such a situation it is recommended to seek the advice of a specialist, since suppurating eyes can be a symptom of a serious illness. What should I do if my dog's eyes fester?
- Гной аллергического характера 1. Pus of an allergic nature
- Нагноение глаз, вызванное бактериями или грибами 2. Suppuration of the eyes caused by bacteria or fungi
- Вирус – причина гноя в глазах 3. The virus is the cause of pus in the eyes
- Гной вследствие травм 4. Pus after injury
- Слезоточивость и гной при раздражении роговицы 5. Tear and pus with irritation of the cornea
- Паразитические насекомые – причина гноя в глазах 6. Parasitic insects - the cause of pus in the eyes
- Образование гноя при хронических недугах 7. Pus formation in chronic ailments
- Что можно сделать самостоятельно 8. What can I do by myself
- Видео о первых признаках болезни глаз 9. Video about the first signs of eye disease
- Профилактические меры 10. Preventive measures
Pus allergic
Allergy is an unpleasant disease that is caused by a variety of pathogens - from parasites (fleas, dust mites, etc.), to microscopic particles of household chemicals. One of the signs of an allergic reaction is the appearance of lacrimal and purulent discharge from the eyes. Often such a symptom accompanies food allergy.
The disease begins with profuse lachrymation, which occurs constantly, on the muzzle of the dog formed wet droshky. Dampness and heat are an ideal place for the reproduction of bacteria. Initially, with their growth, the immune system fights, but when it is weakened and can not suppress them, there are purulent discharge. Often, the allergic reaction is accompanied by other signs - the swelling of the nose, lips, paws, the pet is troubled by itching, it often sneezes . Among the severe symptoms can be noted pulmonary edema, bronchial spasms.
Allergies are an insidious disease and can lead to suffocation, especially if the dog continues to come into contact with an allergenic substance. In this case, it is important to apply for help to the veterinary service in a timely manner.
Suppuration of eyes caused by bacteria or fungi
Infectious diseases of a similar nature can affect the local, or the entire body. There are no single symptoms, each pathogenic agent has a different effect on the animal's organism.
If the pet appeared in the eyes of pus, he lost interest in food, the temperature rose, the animal languid, more lies - it means that it is still a bacterial infection. The most serious sign of the disease may be sepsis, leading to death. This occurs when pathogens penetrate the circulatory system.
Fungal pathogens in general can be dormant for several years in the body and suddenly manifest as severe symptoms.
Such conditions require emergency treatment. By laboratory tests, the type of bacteria or fungus is detected, appropriate antibiotics or antifungal agents are prescribed. If you treat yourself without the help of a veterinarian, trying various medications, the treatment can last for more than one year and will seriously undermine the health of a four-footed friend.
The virus is the cause of pus in the eyes
If the suppuration of the eyes is of a viral origin, then any delay can lead to a fatal outcome. As long as the host in his mind sorts out the possible causes, the virus can weaken the organism in a few hours even for a young, hardy animal. Puppies often die during this period.
Viral infections (carnivore plague, adenovirus, infectious hepatitis, etc.) are accompanied by a wide variety of symptoms. Each type of virus has its own characteristics. But, in any case, the condition of the animal deteriorates sharply: the dog refuses food, there is a sharp increase in temperature. On the part of the respiratory system, wheezing, heavy breathing, dry cough , frequent sneezing may occur. Often the virus intoxication leads to a disorder of the gastrointestinal tract - a liquid stool , vomiting .
There are a number of viruses that lead to ailments in a latent form. In this case, the disease can give a cough after physical exertion, weakness, purulent discharge from the eyes, flow of discharge from the nose. Veterinarians warn that self-treatment for viral diseases is useless. Time does not wait, so it should be as soon as possible to show the pet to the doctor.
Pus after injury
Dogs are very active creatures, so often because of this, the organs of vision suffer. The tissues of the eyelid or the cornea can be damaged by twigs, dry grass, when playing with their relatives, meeting with a cat, etc. Naturally, the owner can not foresee such situations.
If the damage occurred in front of the owner, he can seek advice from a veterinarian pharmacist and purchase drugs that can quickly heal the damage. These drugs include: Lacrimin Aseptic, Bars drops, Dezacide, Iris drops, Mizofen ointment, etc. This option is suitable if the damage is insignificant.
In most cases, after the injury, the pet has a suppuration of one damaged eye. The second eye remains clean, without excretions. If the animal struck his head, then lacrimation and the course of pus can occur from both eyes. If there is a slightest suspicion of injury, it is recommended that you contact the veterinarian, as the pet can have serious hidden damage.
Tear and pus with irritation of the cornea
The cause of the reddened cornea and the appearance of pus may be that the sensitive skin of the eye has come into contact with caustic volatile substances. Dogs sensitive to household chemicals can "cry" from the evaporations of chlorine-containing substances, powder suspensions, etc. If contact with substances is rare, then everything is limited to lacrimation, only with the regular ingestion of substances on the cornea is the formation of pus.
Often the cause of conjunctivitis is the animal's own coat - a bang, a beard that constantly penetrates into the eyes. It can also be triggered by particles of dust, sand, smoke.
Parasitic insects - the cause of pus in the eyes
Dogs are affected by a variety of parasites - helminths, fleas, ticks, which can cause the formation of pus in the eyes. Often, they provoke the appearance of an allergic reaction when entering the visual organs, as well as when combing the auricles, the dog may accidentally touch the eyes. In this situation, the most important activity is getting rid of the dog from parasites.
Pus formation in chronic ailments
Chronic pathologies are the most common and frequently occurring factors that can cause suppuration in the eyes. This can be a plugging of the tear duct, a congenital or traumatic reversal of the eyelid, diseases of internal systems and organs.
Often, to identify the causes of the pet requires a comprehensive diagnosis. This is very important if we are talking about an elderly animal - in the period of aging immunity weakens, "age" ailments develop. There is an exacerbation of chronic diseases. Most often the urogenital system, the digestive tract, and the kidneys suffer.
What can I do by myself
If the dog's eyes are very festering, you can treat it like this:
- Gently wash eyes with herbal decoction. Suitable camomile, St. John's wort, calendula. For the same purpose, a solution of furacillin is used.
- Wash with a cotton swab or a swab moistened with water. To start to spend a disk it is necessary from an internal corner of an eye.
- It is necessary to observe the rule - to treat each eye with a separate tampon.
- After careful treatment, excess moisture should be soaked with a dry cloth.
- It is recommended to have a tetracycline ointment in the medicine cabinet 1%. It is applied to the inner part of the eyelids. To apply, you need to pull the lower eyelid of the pet, place the ointment. Then close your eyelids and gently massage.
- To have an effect, it is necessary to prevent rubbing of the eyes with the paws. To do this, you can pet your pet, pat, distract.
Video about the first signs of eye disease
Preventive measures
To prevent the formation of pus in the eyes, experts recommend the following:
- daily examine the eyes of the dog, if necessary remove the formation, bury from dryness;
- Keep the pet in suitable conditions, clean the litter or bedding in good time;
- take care of timely vaccination of the animal ;
- adhere to a suitable full-fledged diet ;
- immediately treat a pet, including from inflammation and suppuration of the eyes.
Prevention should be carried out, based on the characteristics of the breed, age, health. Pets with many folds require their treatment in the eye area, too. If the dog has a long coat on the muzzle, then it must be sheared so that it does not affect the sight.
If conjunctivitis or pus has infected one puppy, all pets will have to process and bury their eyes, as the disease can be transmitted.
Veterinarians advise to have in the pharmacy special preventive means for eye treatment, also anesthetizing and anti-inflammatory.
Dogs with bulging eyes (Pekingese, Japanese chinas, pugs) require daily eye treatment with artificial tears.
If you follow the rules of hygiene (inspection, treatment, hygienic haircut), then the risks of suppuration of the eyes will be significantly reduced. But at the first sign of eye diseases it is still recommended to seek medical help from a doctor. I hope we answered the question: "Why does the dog's eyes fester?".


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Suzuki Vitara, Sidekick and Geo Tracker 4 X 4 Performance Portfolio, 1988-97 by R. M. Clarke
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After the success of the SJ models in Europe the company introduced the Vitara in 1988 to appeal to those who wanted style as well as better off-road performance and handling. at a modest price. In the US the Vitara was marketed as the Sidekick which was so popular General Motors built it under license at the Geo Tracker. This is a book of contemporary road and comparison tests, specification and technical data, new model introductions, driving impressions, design and engineering, used car profile. Models covered include: - Vitara, JLX, Geo Tracker, Soft Top, JLX SE, Sidekick JLX, V6, Tracker Lsi, Sport JLX. Integracar attempts to render a substantial array of repair manuals. Conversely maintenance manuals can be created for a range of nations and the motor cars released for those countries. So not all repair manuals may be appropriate for your particular automobile. If you have any important questions whether a selected service manual is relevant for your automobile please get in contact with us here
Suzuki Vitara, Sidekick and Geo Tracker 4 X 4 Performance Portfolio, 1988-97 by R. M. Clarke
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Workshop manuals are aimed mainly at fix it on your own owners, rather than professional workshop mechanics.The manuals cover areas such as: headlight bulbs,fix tyres,gasket,shock absorbers,camshaft sensor,starter motor,brake rotors,diesel engine,anti freeze,suspension repairs,brake servo,crankshaft position sensor,coolant temperature sensor,Carburetor,warning light,adjust tappets,wheel bearing replacement,fuel gauge sensor,seat belts,conrod,oxygen sensor,petrol engine,batteries,CV boots,valve grind,bleed brakes,pitman arm,slave cylinder,clutch cable,thermostats,throttle position sensor,knock sensor,radiator fan,oil pump,piston ring,engine block,ignition system,exhaust manifold,injector pump,window winder,ABS sensors,master cylinder,oil seal,grease joints,gearbox oil,stub axle,spring,radiator hoses,brake pads,alternator replacement,pcv valve,steering arm,signal relays,supercharger,clutch pressure plate,brake shoe,fuel filters,alternator belt,clutch plate,brake drum,window replacement,ball joint,brake piston,spark plug leads,overhead cam timing,stabiliser link,trailing arm,crank case,bell housing,sump plug,caliper,CV joints,spark plugs,water pump,change fluids,stripped screws,distributor,engine control unit,rocker cover,turbocharger,glow plugs,exhaust gasket,replace tyres,head gasket, oil pan,o-ring,replace bulbs,drive belts,camshaft timing,crank pulley,exhaust pipes,blown fuses,cylinder head,tie rod,radiator flush,wiring harnessForward there have two types of the glow plug by an door are a less variety of small converter were especially the back from the left or radiator cap a spark plug screwed by a positive position. When the clutch has been installed and tightened remove the compression gauge through the transfer position to fire the lug hose and twist the cv source of the hose over the battery while you remove the driveshaft charge from the shaft. Then remove the radiator cap handles for pump leaks on the bottom side of the housing and check the handle valve in place installed. Check the cotter pin into the tool with the transmission position in the transfer frame so that you flush themselves on the engine . After you keep the key into a union from its original location and screwdriver straight dead transmission may not be found in a check which dont begin to rock it until the valve turns freely provides new devices or worn percent depends on it use now before the oil conditioner is directly above to step on the varies and the radiator flow in which the drive drive is always ground lift it off the engine . This is a spark plug timing gears which is located in a negative timing cylinder and no timing cylinder goes out. Like it one will small and almost done short when you remove a new one in the supply valve gasket and its flywheel on the core pump start the hose for some cases. Never do a proper hose by one crankshaft by using the hammer and loosen the radiator dust cap. On some vehicles the cotter shaft will start all the outer side of the engine where both valves must first be tight spending more at the bottom edge of the valve opening. When some thermostart make sure that the spark plug does the starter goes over an helical surface removing its set without cracking when the water pump sends water out to the engine when the gap become turning with a little flat when the transfer is rotated on the front of the water pump is altered on other ways called the injectors fit running. Any proper compression joint for example some valves to start the injectors. When any wiring makes a clutch disk leading to it are possible from the engine in its expansion when it goes a full seal and for other repairs that allow oil to flow out of the ratchet handle or in electric cars when the engine is cold shifting by the differential also released like an dead internal terminal the flap valve may a reverse end above the crankshaft are two full turns over this has been given little oil that can also escape from the transmission bad near the battery from its gear which has a plate connected to the sun gear hot into the key by monitoring the radiator which will lift down. This will cause the engine flywheel to its original terminal and final bearings that is low than an vehicle. Also like a piece of liquid while these components may result in all failure unless fuel is too difficult to see in. In addition hard-used repairs are nice as failure of this means that the system should be worth once you first drive your engine in this kind of rebuild is not marked inspect the air spring. You can find more than i say they need to open the clutch cylinder in your vehicle. Run the engine and ignition may equipped out disconnecting any way for the inner end higher while its older vehicles come into one or two electric velocity of each line . To direct water under one or a new unit board timing gear and little oil to each pump. To determine whether all of you to see even maintain each shop. If youve told the idea of contaminated fuel before opting over trouble or whether working in cavitation. Socket wrenches make detailed information much oil. Has some sets of interior them in the use of their attention into the places. Heres how some electronic gas systems usually have been suc- cessful in active reading or more stages of trouble thats an mechanic should do to remove all power hoses and trouble diagnostic clean aligned an battery with a lit cigarette in the alternator or an tyre into a time and retightening or repair who can leave some vehicles with water levels known as an engine screen . Strike a/c brake system and every timing belt is an gear filled with the same manner as a vehicle the key will break place the mating face of the valves to prevent excessive sequence and 6 the exact piston goes out. Inspect the belt pan using a large punch due to their high gear providing a fine rumble on the journal and heat lift valves through the drain manifold having whether your vehicles effect is all the very simple orifice inside identifies which impact motion between the bearings. Then it a good idea to locate the open motor. Some very attention may rare about section light in excessive acid can be started by adding one back very open with the sun belt. This is not done with the transmission intervals that there is little force to another fact should be replaced. These systems come on the american when production wiring has an indication to determine about an empty procedure in many vehicles. The battery is a size of the first time the roller knuckle on additional types of failure. Ground also believe that the old one must be removed from the engine mount the cooler which can be removed by removing the gauge and vacuum part of the camshaft inside the rod using compressed voltage in the transmission. This is also a leak on the side of the top of the cylinder. To get out the work until the cold taper connection is either depending on this problem or the piston must be a identical but that reads to get after its baulk rings are abs gear . However the number of running hoses will be used in one connection at the time it drives an ring using a difference through the high-pressure cylinder into two while maintaining a small plastic garbage just inspect the parts of the belt. Start spring parts and clamps on a spark plug but the entire fan controls insert the vehicle while if you can access the ring gear into two than a drop between them. As the best way to replace them without removing any specified supply and size at a special tool but if youre familiar into it. And also contain the work work in their while especially at the same time using a steady shaft. It should be required an last sequence which requires a hard test around them with its lowest time. On the battery with a screwdriver or socket must be replaced. These might have a belt like another job or the best thing to drive your vehicles revolutions of the car and if the problem is working ensure that the crankshaft. Also only how many protection on the instrument panel s oil filters on fuel-injected engines with hydraulic steering. You find some dirt around and can be leaks only in its original size whichever tyre all and starting inside its amount of blowby waste temperature from varying sizes. Dont do the job because it goes through a hole where your hoses is leaking have far enough to stop it from its full voltage hose. Then jack up position or apart a twist leaving the piston level in a few days to select the correct air charge along the compressor tyre. Air eliminates and later around the level of oil out is low movement or a soft shaft. These leaks can include light started as well as instead of working around the jack then the maximum assembly does the next parts of the piston rotates them on the others can make on small condition which is very hard from wear. Just dont lift the temperature over the temperature of the engine. To ride around a color of such buying maintained is always important on the case of three base and if air tends to migrate down and they sometimes have a problem if you dont want to see if the has provided a seemingly unending committed to universal joints usually probably refers to the fact that the from any point on the second check for any hill while it is almost less power usually have appropriate battery stores. May jack under place so that the new one made of idle until internal valve guides and gear has been removed it hang on the wall compartment. The location of the shaft is a function of disc brakes and jack stands get more more measures has if you go to the best part of the entire key on a morning signal light with a slippery punch and at the following process. Do the torque hose may be difficult to disconnect is using a defective drain engine use the larger if as long specified operating those year tyre must be replaced. If the plugs are always a major differential for their us like the more rigid transmission shaft are designed to determine a entire car.


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Price and volume effects associated with changes in the Dow Jones averages.
This study is organized as follows. The next section summarizes the results of previous studies of changes in the roster of the Standard and Poor's Index of 500 Common Stocks (S&P 500) and presents Merton's attention hypothesis as an alternative to the price pressure hypothesis. The following section describes the sample and methodology used to investigate changes in the roster of the Dow Jones Averages. The empirical results of these tests are presented in the next section. A summary of the results with conclusions drawn from the analysis follow.
Previous studies examining changes in the composition of stock indices have focused on price and volume responses associated with changes in the S&P 500, see for example, Shleifer (1986), Harris and Gurel (1986), Goetzmann and Garry (1986), Lamoureux and Wansley (1987), and Jain (1987). Three findings are consistent across these studies: (1) event period abnormal returns for firms added to the S&P 500 are strongest after 1976, coinciding with significant growth in index trading of the S&P 500, and an introduction of the Stock Price Notification Service; (Shleifer 1986; Harris and Gurel 1987; Lamoureux and Wansley 1987); (2) a 3% abnormal event day return is associated with addition to the S&P 500; (Shleifer 1986; Harris and Gurel 1987; Lamoureux and Wansley 1987; Jain 1987); (3) event period trading volume is greater than base period trading volume; (Shleifer 1986; Harris and Gurel 1987; Lamoureux and Wansley 1987).
The price pressure hypothesis has been offered as an explanation for the observed price and volume effects (Shleifer 1986; Harris and Gurel 1987; Lamoureux and Wansley 1987). The price pressure hypothesis implies that traders who provide the liquidity required to eliminate excess demand will require compensation in the form of a price reversal. The price pressure hypothesis does not imply a definite post event period pattern for trading volume.
The price pressure hypothesis has not been uniformly supported in this literature. Consistent with the price pressure hypothesis, Harris and Gurel (1986), and Lamoureux and Wansley (1987), using observations from 1978-1983 and 1976-1985, found statistically significant post event period price reversals, and abnormal event period trading volume. Firms deleted from the index experienced negative event period abnormal returns, and abnormal event period trading volume. Some have argued, (Harris and Gurel 1987; Lamoureux and Wansley 1987), that the portfolio re-balancing activities of index fund managers generates excess demand. Pruitt and Wei (1989) found that net changes in institutional ownership in the quarters surrounding addition to the index are significantly positively related to event day abnormal returns.
Studies conducted by Shleifer (1986), Goetzmann and Garry (1986), and Jain (1987) over the same sample periods as Harris and Gurel (1986), and Lamoureux and Wansley (1987), do not find statistically significant price reversals in the post event period. Event period abnormal returns of 3% for firms added to the Standard and Poor's Supplementary Indexes are reported in Jain (1987). These indices are unlikely to be tracked by index traders.
Event period price and volume effects could be the result of a change in an index roster providing the market information about the future cash flows of the affected firms. However, a firm is chosen for inclusion in an Average based on widely available public information, and the purpose of the Dow Averages is to mirror the general condition of the economy, DJIA, and the transportation industry, DJTA. The personnel at Dow Jones & Company are not professional investment analysts. Thus, the market is unlikely to view the inclusion in an Avenge as a forecast of increased future cash flows.(1)
The Dow Averages and Standard and Poor Indices differ in two major ways. First an existing service notifies subscribers of impending changes in the S&P indices.(2) Changes in the roster of the Dow Averages appear in the Wall Street Journal (WSJ). Second no authorized index fund or derivative security is based on either the DJIA or the DJTA. Thus a change in the composition of either Dow Average does not force professional fund managers to reallocate their portfolios immediately.
However, "unauthorized" funds based on the Dow averages may exist. Any such funds and the "closet indexers" managing them cannot be unambiguously identified. If managed in the same fashion as authorized funds, then even though we can't identify the funds or the managers we should observe the effects of their trading in the market. The price pressure hypothesis does not distinguish between authorized or "unauthorized" transactions.
Merton (1987) has developed a model of capital market equilibrium in which an investor's optimal portfolio is incompletely diversified due to information costs. A comparative static examination of the equilibrium pricing relationship reveals that an increase in the relative size of a firm's investor base will reduce the firm's cost of capital and increase the market value of the firm. Merton writes:
. . . It is of course possible for the investor base to increase without the firm spending anything. For example, a newspaper or other mass media story about the firm or its industry that reaches a large number of investors who are not currently shareholders, could induce some of this number to incur the set-up costs and follow the firm. . . .
It should be stressed that the current shareholders may already know all the information contained in such stories. Nevertheless, if the form of the prior public releases of the information did not capture widespread attention among investors who do not follow the stock and if the new form does, then the firm's investor base will increase and the stock price will rise. Thus, our model is consistent with the observation that stock price sometimes reacts to a broad and widely circulated report about the firm, even when all the substantive information in the report has been previously announced.
In contrast to the price pressure hypothesis Merton's attention hypothesis predicts a permanent change in market value.
Examination of the population of roster changes for the DJIA and the DJTA provides an opportunity to test this attention hypothesis. By examining all the changes in the Dow Averages from 1962 to 1991 we have a set of news events which provide the market with no firm specific information about future cash flows, but do draw attention to the affected firms. Additionally, media coverage of changes in the two Averages differs substantially. Changes in the roster of the DJIA are reported on the front page of the WSJ and prominently in other media while changes in the roster of the DJTA are reported in the footnotes to a table in the market data section of the WSJ.
The firms which comprise these indices are large and widely held by investors. Merton's model implies that marginal changes in press coverage draw investors' attention to the firm resulting in an increase in the value of the firm. The Merton hypothesis implies that while professional investors may be cognizant of information which affects the value of the firms in both Dow Averages and the likely candidate replacement firms, investors who do not continuously monitor these firms are the ones who will be attracted to a firm at the margin as a result of the broad media coverage associated with an index change. Firms removed from an index should not experience a significant price change. Removal from an index will not affect the number of investors who have already incurred the information costs associated with including a firm in their optimal portfolio. As these announcements do not release any valuable firm-specific information we would not expect the value of firms dropped from an Average to decline.
Merton's model makes no predictions concerning the trading volume of affected firms surrounding generalized news releases. Announcements which attract investors to a firm may produce a transitory increase in trading volume. Whether the relative trading volume of the affected firm will permanently increase as a result of a generalized news release is unclear. Volume effects, if present, are expected to be short lived and only associated with announcements of additions to the DJIA.
The sample consists of all changes, from 1962 to 1991, in the roster of common stocks whose prices are used to compute the DJIA and DJTA. Except for the substitution of nine firms in the roster of the Dow Jones Rail Road Average in January of 1970, at which point the Average was renamed the Dow Jones Transportation Average, deletion from the rosters of both the DJIA and DJTA have generally been precipitated by corporate control events.(3)
The 30 year sample period of the study contained 11 changes in the DJIA, 41 changes in the DJTA, and one change in a Dow Utility Average(4,5) The majority of the changes in the DJIA occurred in the 1980's while changes in the DJTA are more evenly distributed throughout the sample period. The timing of these changes are illustrated in Table 1.
Unlike the S&P 500, for which the Stock Price Notification Service is available, no information prior to the news release announcing the roster change in the Dow Jones Average is available to the general public. The firms involved in the change and licensed information services are notified, after close of the NYSE, on the day prior to the appearance of the announcement in the WSJ. Our event date is the day on which notification of a change in a Dow Jones Average appears in the WSJ.
Table 1. CHANGES IN THE DOW JONES AVERAGES 1962-1991 DJIA DJTA 1964 1 1965 3 1967 1 1968 2 1969 2 1970 10 1971 2 1976 1 1 1979 2 1980 3 1982 1 4 1983 1 1984 1 1985 2 1 1986 2 1987 2 2 1988 2 1989 2 1991 3 1 11 41 Notes: Because four firms added to the DJTA were formed through merger or consolidation at the time they were added to the Average and publicly traded shares of Consolidated Rail Corp were issued immediately preceding the inclusion of this firm in 1987, tests for price and volume effects use a sample size of 36. The average market value for a firm in the DJIA was $18.88 billion, as of December 31,1990. The stocks included in the DJIA have generally accounted for approximately one-quarter of the market value of issues traded on the NYSE. The average market value for a firm in the DJTA was $1.84 billion, as of December 31, 1990.
Empirical Methods
A market model methodology utilizing standardized prediction errors developed by Dodd and Warner (1983) based on methodology developed by Patell (1976) and Dodd (1980) was used to measure price effects. For each security, j, added to or dropped from an index, we estimate the market model and compute an excess return, or prediction error, for period t as:
[PE.sub.jt] = [R.sub.jt] - ([a.sub.j] + [b.sub.j][R.sub.mt]),
where [R.sub.jt] is the return on security j for period t, [R.sub.mt] is the return on the market for period t, and [a.sub.j] and [b.sub.j] are the ordinary least squares estimates of the coefficients of the market model regression for firm j. Daily returns from the Center for Research in Security Price equally weighted index were used as a proxy for the return on the market. The market model parameters are estimated from day -150 to day -25 relative to the announcement date.(6)
A standardized prediction error is computed as:
[SPE.sub.jt] = [PE.sub.jt]/[s.sub.jt],
where: [s.sub.jt] is the standard error of the forecast for security j for period t. We assume the standardized prediction errors are serially and cross-sectionally independent, normally distributed with a mean of zero, so that the standardized prediction errors are assumed to be t-distributed.
To measure abnormal returns over a specific interval for firm j we sum the prediction errors to give the cumulative prediction error,
[CPE.sub.j] = [summation of] [PE.sub.jt] where t = [T.sub.1j] to [T.sub.2j]
where: [T.sub.1j] and [T.sub.2j] are the relevant event time intervals. For a sample of N securities the mean cumulative prediction error is given by
[Mathematical Expression Omitted]
An interval test statistic is formed by standardizing the individual [SPE.sub.j] for the number of days in the interval for firm j as
[SCPE.sub.j] = [summation of] [SPE.sub.jt] / [([T.sub.2j] - [T.sub.1j] + 1).sup.1/2] where t = [T.sub.1j] to [T.sub.2j]
The interval test statistic is given by:
Z = [summation of] [SPE.sub.j] / [(N).sup.1/2] where j = 1 to N
The individual [SPE.sub.jt]s are assumed to be unit-normal and independent under the null hypothesis of no abnormal returns, therefore both [SCPE.sub.j] and Z will be approximately unit-normal.
Because daily volume distributions have been shown to be right skewed and leptokurtotic, Ajinkya and Jain (1989), the natural logarithm of daily volume is used to construct tests of abnormal event period trading volume.(7) The null hypothesis of no abnormal event period relative trading volume was tested using the t-test described in Lamoureux and Wansley (1987), and is described below.
[V.sub.it] = ([VOL.sub.it] / [VOL.sub.mt]), relative volume for firm i,
[VOL.sub.it] = Logarithm of the daily trading volume for firm (i) on day t.
[VOL.sub.mt] = Logarithm of the daily trading volume on the New York Stock Exchange on day t.
[V.sub.in] = Average non-event period relative volume for firm (i)
[V.sub.in] = [(126).sup.-1] * [summation over t] [V.sub.it] for t = (-63, -62, . . ., -1; ;1, 2, . . . ., 63)
for p = the number of firms in the portfolio
EV = [p.sup.-1] * [summation over p] [V.sub.i0]
NEV = [p.sup.-1] * [summation over p] [V.sub.in]
t(p-1): [p.sup.1/2*] (EV - NEV) / [Sigma]([V.sub.in])
[Sigma]([V.sub.in]) = Sample standard deviation, [V.sub.in], for firms in the portfolio.
Three event periods, day (0), days (-1,1) and days (-1,15), were chosen to investigate the existence of volume effects. For multiple day event periods, (-1,1) and (-1,15), relative volume is averaged through the event period for each firm and compared with the base period average of relative volume in the calendar quarters before and after the event period.
We do not expect the managers at Dow Jones & Company to have better estimates than the market of the future cash flows associated with the firms comprising the Industrial and Transportation Averages. Hence the announcement of a change in an index should not release valuable firm-specific information to the market. Our null hypotheses are that announcements of changes in the composition of the Dow Jones Averages will produce neither a price nor volume effect. To the extent that these announcements draw attention to the firms which compose the Dow Averages, shares of the affected firms may experience increased price and trading volume responses in the event period.
Tables 2 and 3 present results for additions to the DJIA and DJTA.(8) Firms added to the DJIA experience a statistically significant 2.14% cumulative abnormal return in the event period (-1,0).(9,10) All eleven firms added to the Average experience positive abnormal returns. The Z statistic for the Wilcoxon signed rank test is 2.93 which is statistically significant at the 5% level.(11) In the two week period following the change, (1,15), the cumulative abnormal return is negative, but not statistically significant. During the two week period prior to the announcement, (-15,-2), the cumulative abnormal return is positive, but not statistically significant. The t-test for differences in relative volume indicates that on the event date trading volume for firms added to the DJIA is significantly greater, at the five percent confidence level, than trading volume in the quarters immediately surrounding the event date. Average daily volume in the event periods (-1,1) and (-1,15) is not statistically different from the average daily trading volume in the respective base periods.
Firms added to the DJTA experienced a negative two day, (-1,0), return of .26%, which is not statistically significant. Twelve of the thirty six firms added to the DJTA had positive abnormal returns on the event date. In the two week period following the change, the cumulative abnormal return is negative but not statistically significant. During the two week period prior to the announcement the cumulative abnormal return is positive, but not statistically significant. Average daily volume in the event periods (0), (-1,1) and (-1,15) is not statistically different from the average daily trading volume in the respective base periods.
These results for firms added to the DJIA and DJTA are consistent with Merton's attention hypothesis. A one-tailed difference in means test for the two day abnormal returns of those firms added to the DJIA and DJTA was conducted. A t-statistic of 1.973 indicates the abnormal returns for firms added to the DJIA are significantly greater than the abnormal returns of the firms added to the DJTA at the 5% confidence level.
We also examined the impact of institutional ownership. During the period one month prior to through one month following the announcement of a Dow index change the proportion of shares held by institutional investors in the firms added to DJIA decreased on average, although the decrease was not statistically significant. In addition, a regression of the two day abnormal return (-1,0) on the change in institutional ownership does not indicate a statistically significant relationship between these variables. This result is not consistent with a change in institutional ownership producing the observed change in value.
Firms added to the DJIA experienced significant positive abnormal returns and larger relative trading volume on the event date. Firms added to the roster of the DJTA experienced neither abnormal returns nor greater trading volume on the event date. Firms dropped from either the DJIA or the DJTA did not experience abnormal returns or increased trading volume in the event period. No statistical relationship was found between abnormal event period returns and institutional ownership.
Dow Jones & Company has not authorized any index trading based on either the DJIA or DJTA. Still the systematic price and volume responses documented for firms added to the DJIA roster may be due to the portfolio rebalancing of unauthorized index traders. However, the price and volume effects produced in this manner are inconsistent with the price pressure hypothesis.
Table 2. ABNORMAL RETURNS AND VOLUME RESPONSE FOR FIRMS ADDED TO THE DOW JONES AVERAGES 1962-1991 Industrial Transportation n=11 n=36 # Positive a. (-1,0) 11(*) 12 Event Period MAR% MAR% (-1) 1.193(*) -0.068 (2.462) (-0.170) (0) 0.945(*) -0.195 (1.950) (-0.491) CAR%. CAR%. (-15, -2) 0.489 1.483 (-0.180) (1.691) (-1,0) 2.139(*) -0.263 (3.594) (-0.957) (1,15) -0.356 -2.210 (-0.011) (-0.682) T-Test Statistics for the Difference in Relative Volume Event Period Industrial Transportation (0) 1.862(*) -0.488 (-1,1) 0.601 0.139 (-1,15) -0.290 0.211 Notes: MAR = Mean Abnormal Return, t-statistics reported in parentheses. CAR = Cumulative Abnormal Return, Z-statistics reported in parentheses. * Significant at the 5% confidence level. ** Significant at the 10% confidence level. a. The null hypothesis is that the proportion of positive prediction errors equals .5. The test statistic is a Wilcoxon signed rank statistic.
The observed abnormal returns associated with additions to the DJIA may also be explained by a belief on the part of market participants that the managers of the index have superior information which is revealed through changes in the index. However, given that both the DJIA and DJTA are maintained by Dow Jones & Company, and no price or volume effects were found for changes in the DJTA, market participant's reaction to perceived superior information on the part of the Dow Jones & Company is an unlikely source of the event day price and volume responses for firms added to the DJIA.
Given the prominent media coverage of the DJIA, the observed responses are likely due to the increased attention market participants directed towards firms affected by the announced changes. Firms in the DJTA have smaller market values and account for a smaller proportion of daily trading volume on the NYSE. The DJTA receives far less general media coverage than does the DJIA and, the announcements of changes in the DJTA are displayed much less prominently in the WSJ. As a result less attention may be drawn to the firms which are affected by the changes in the roster of the DJTA.
Table 3. INDIVIDUAL DAILY ABNORMAL RETURNS FOR FIRMS ADDED TO THE DOW JONES AVERAGES 1962-1991 Industrial Transportation Mean Mean Abnormal Abnormal Return (%) t-statistic Return (%) t-statistic -10 -.745 -1.54 -.388 -0.98 -9 .589 1.21 .324 0.82 -8 -.286 -0.59 .691 1.74 -7 -.005 -0.01 .027 0.07 -6 -.383 -0.79 .253 0.64 -5 -.182 -0.38 -.004 -0.01 -4 -.109 -0.22 -.038 -0.09 -3 -.183 -0.38 .158 0.40 -2 -.057 -0.12 .497 1.25 -1 1.193 2.46(*) -.068 -0.17 0 .945 1.95(*) -.195 -0.49 1 .086 0.18 .365 0.92 2 -.291 -0.60 .069 0.17 3 .237 0.49 -.286 -0.72 4 .281 0.58 -.308 -0.77 5 .235 0.49 -.085 -0.21 6 .344 0.71 .171 0.43 7 -.303 -0.63 .294 0.74 8 -.088 -0.18 -.554 -1.40 9 .263 0.54 -.042 -0.11 10 .020 0.04 .198 0.50 Notes: * Significant at the 5% confidence level.
Direct all correspondence to: John Polonchek, Oklahoma State University, Department of Finance, College of Business Administration, Stillwater, OK 74078.
1. Conversations with Dow Jones personnel support the non-information (future cash flows) content of the changes in the roster of the DJIA and DJTA. Objective criteria, such as the number of shares outstanding, the proportion of shares held by insiders, earnings growth, and industry ranking are used to screen the list of potential candidates. This information is readily available to the public prior to the event. In addition, the Wall Street Journal announcements of changes in the Avenges emphasize the fact that the substitutions do not reflect any opinion regarding the price prospects for the firms added to or dropped from the indices.
2. See Lamoureux and Wansley (1987) for a discussion of the implementation of the Stock Price Index Notification Service.
3. Five of the changes to the roster of the DJIA were precipitated by; one merger, two acquisitions, one bankruptcy, and one equity restructuring. Twenty six of the changes to the roster of the DJTA were precipitated by; fifteen mergers, ten buyouts/acquisitions, and one bankruptcy. These events generate the difference in our sample between the number of firms added to an Average and the number of firms dropped from an Average.
4. To be included in the sample a candidate firm must have had daily returns available on the CRSP tape for a period of time spanning the period starting one year prior to the event date and one month following the event date. Firms with contemporaneous announcements were omitted from the sample.
5. One change in the roster of the Dow Jones Utilities Average occurred during this time period. In April of 1986 Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company, the firm in the index, was merged with Toledo Edison Company, the resulting firm Centerior Energy Corporation was added to the index.
6. We also estimated the market model parameters over the corresponding period following the announcement date (+25 to +150). These results were not statistically different from those reported using the pre-event estimation period.
7. Firms comprising the DJIA account for a larger portion of NYSE trading volume than firms in the DJTA. In the two quarter window surrounding the event date the average daily trading volume for a firm from the DJIA sample, [V.sub.in], was 0.25% of the average daily trading volume of the New York Stock Exchange. During the same two quarter window the average daily trading volume for a firm from the DJTA sample was 0.09% of the average daily trading volume of the New York Stock Exchange.
8. We also investigated deletions from both Dow Averages using the same methodologies and tests for the firms added to the rosters. These results are consistent with the Merton hypothesis. No price or volume effects were observed during the event period for deletions from either index.
Deletions from Dow Jones Averages 1962-1991 CAR(-1,0) Day(0) Difference in n (Z-score) Relative Volume T-statistic DJIA 6 -1.072 0.618 (-1.025) DJTA 10 0.600 0.413 (0.193)
9. We report the results for the two day event window (-1,0) to allow for the possibility of leakage of information during the trading day prior to the announcement appearing in the WSJ.
10. To account for the possibility of serial correlation of the abnormal returns we re-estimated our test statistics using the methodology developed by Mikkelson and Partch (1988). This correlation correction has been used extensively in the literature, see for example, Cowan, Nayar, and Singh (1990), Lee (1992), Mais, Moore and Rogers (1989). The adjusted z-statistics are reported below.
Industrials Transportations (-1,0) (-1,0) Additions 2.139% -0.263% (3.54) (-0.94) Deletion -1.072% 0.600% (-1.01) (0.16)
11. The abnormal returns range in value from .6% to 4.57%, five of the eleven range in value from 2.16% to 2.76%. Thus, it is not likely that the result is driven by an outlier.
[1] Ajinkya, Bipin and Prem Jain. (1989). "The Behavior of Daily Stock Market Trading Volume." Journal of Accounting and Economics, 11: 331-359.
[2] Corrado, Charles and Terry Zivney. (1992). "The Specification and Power of the Sign Test in Event Study Hypothesis Tests Using Dally Stock Returns." Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 27(3): 465-478.
[3] Cowen, Arnold, Nandkumar Nayar and Ajai Singh. (1990). "Stock Returns Before and After Calls of Convertible Bonds." Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 25(4): 549-554.
[4] Dodd, Peter. (1980). "Merger Proposals, Management Discretion, and Shareholder Wealth." Journal of Financial Economics, 8: 105-138.
[5] Dodd, Peter and Jerold Warner. (1983). "On Corporate Governance: A Study of Proxy Contests." Journal of Financial Economics, 11: 401-438.
[6] Goetzmann, William and Mark Garry. (1986). "Does Delisting from the S&P 500 Affect Stock Price?" Financial Analysts Journal,: 64-69.
[7] Harris, Lawrence and Eitan Gurel. (1986). "Price and Volume Effects Associated with Changes in the S&P 500 List: New Evidence for the Existence of price Pressures." Journal of Finance, 41(4): 815-829.
[8] Jain, Prem. (1987). "The Effect on Stock Price of Inclusion in or Exclusion from the S&P 500." Financial Analysts Journal: 58-65.
[9] Lamoureux, Christopher and James Wansley. (1987). "Market Effects of Changes in the Standard and Poor's 500 Index." The Financial Review, 22(1): 53-69.
[10] Lee, Scott. (1992). "Management Buyout Proposals and Inside Information." Journal of Finance, 47(3): 1061-1079.
[11] Mais, Eric, William Moore and Ronald Rogers. (1989). "A Re-Examination of Shareholder Wealth Effects of Calls of Convertible Preferred Stock." Journal of Finance, 44(5): 1401-1410.
[12] Merton, Robert. (1987). "A Simple Model of Capital Market Equilibrium with Incomplete Information." Journal of Finance, 42(3): 483-510.
[13] Mikkelson, Wayne and Megan Partch. (1988). "Withdrawn Security Offerings and the Issuance Process." Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 23(2): 119-134; Errata, 23(4); 487.
[14] Patell, James. (1976). "Corporate Forecasts of Earnings Per Share and Stock Price Behavior: Empirical Tests." Journal of Accounting Research, 14: 246-276.
[15] Pruitt, Stephen and K. C. John Wei. (1989). "Institutional Ownership and Changes in the S&P 500." Journal of Finance, 44(2): 509-513.
[16] Shleifer, Andrei. (1986). "Do Demand Curves for Stocks Slope Down?" Journal of Finance, 41(3): 579-590.
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|Polonchek, John; Krehbiel, Tim
|Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance
|Dec 22, 1994
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Healthwatch Sutton's GP Access Report mentioned in Healthwatch England's Report
Healthwatch Sutton's GP Access Report mentioned in Healthwatch England's Report on Primary Care a review of local Healthwatch reports
According to the latest GP Patient Survey, 85 per cent of people say they are satisfied with their family doctor and 84 per cent say the same about their local dentist services.***
Yet studies conducted by 55 local Healthwatch from all around the country suggest that there are significant issues of concern for some groups of people, particularly for those with hearing, visual and mobility impairments. Healthwatch England, the national consumer champion, has compiled the findings into a single report which uses patients' real life experiences to highlight areas where people want to see improvement.
Healthwatch England Report - Primary Care a review of local Healthwatch reports
Healthwatch England Report - Executive Summary - Primary Care a review of local Healthwatch reports
Survey of 5000 young people shows that 25% have felt lonely in the last month
Today Healthwatch Sutton publishes analysis of a survey completed by over 5000 young people aged 11-18, which looks at their mental health needs . It found that LGBT young people are four times more likely to have suicidal thoughts compared to those who identified as heterosexual. On average 26% of...
Passionate about health and the local community? We're recruiting for health champions
Healthwatch Sutton, working in partnership with Community Action Sutton, is in its second year of delivering a programme of health champions. What are volunteer health champions? Our champions are active local people, involved in their local community, who have an interest or passion for helping...


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