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PAOLO VENERI QUADERNO DI RICERCA n. 343
Paolo Veneri
Research Fellow at the Dipartimento di Economia Università Politecnica delle Marche P.zza Martelli, 8 60121 Ancona - Italy
This work introduces a method aimed at the identification of metropolitan sub-centres. Instead of using traditional and static methodologies based on morphological approaches (e.g. employment density), interaction measures have been employed, based on the Central Place theoretical tradition. In particular, tools of social network analysis and a measure of productive completeness have been utilised, so as to take into account the capacity of sub-centres to organise their surrounding territory. The degree of node- centrality has been calculated using data about commuting for working reasons and the methodology has been applied to the metropolitan areas of Rome and Milan. Results have been compared with those obtained from the application of Giuliano and Small"s (1991) thresholds in jobs density and absolute employment and confirm the soundness of the proposed approach for Italian metropolitan areas.
JEL codes: R10, R12, R14 Key words: sub-centres, polycentricity, metropolitan areas
1 Introduction 1
Contemporary metropolitan areas (MAs) are characterised by ever more complex spatial structures that are increasingly different from the archetype of the monocentric city. In the last two decades, metropolitan employment has been scattered throughout the urban territory, changing the traditional patterns of urban spatial organisation towards dispersed or polycentric structures. In fact, despite the assumption that MAs constitute a unified labour market, these are normally characterised by overlapping localised labour markets (Shearmur and Motte, 2009). In addition, agglomeration externalities – whose role on economic growth and productivity is increasingly studied – have extended geographically beyond the boundaries of single urban cores and are increasingly shared among different interconnected centres (Meijers and Burger, 2010). For these reasons, the analysis of polycentricity at the metropolitan level has gained the
1 This work is part of a wider research project on cities and metropolitan areas, which is being carrying out at the Department of Economics of the Marche Polytechnic University. The author is grateful to Antonio G. Calafati, Rafael Boix and Richard Shearmur for their helpful comments at different stages of this work.
attention of many scholars who aim at understanding the causes and the effects of this model of spatial organisation. Furthermore, polycentricity is also thought of as a normative tool to reach important objectives in terms of environmental sustainability and social cohesion (Davoudi, 2003). As a matter of fact, measuring polycentricity – and, more generally, urban spatial structure – has become an important research topic. On analysing polycentricity, a necessary step concerns the identification of metropolitan sub-centres, which could be seen as the first step in the characterisation of polycentric metropolitan areas. This could be seen as an independent topic with autonomous relevance, because it allows the recognition of the places where the priorities of public investments are assigned, as well as a wider knowledge of metropolitan spatial organisation, which is necessary for any spatial planning policy. In addition, if it is accepted that external economies of agglomeration have regionalised their space of influence, as it has been argued in the literature (Richardson, 1995), then polycentric urban structures could have a role in enhancing this source of economic advantages. Only by providing reliable tools to measure urban spatial structure it would be possible to verify the effects of polycentricity on economic performances, a topic which is still empirically understudied. The aim of this work is the identification of metropolitan sub-centres in two Italian metropolitan areas – Rome and Milan – through a methodology based on an interaction and functional approach. The majority of works aimed at the identification of employment sub-centres adopt morphological and density-based methodologies, which are based on the bid-rent theoretical tradition (Alonso, 1964; Muth, 1969; Mills, 1972). The latter approaches are particularly sound when new sub-centres emerge as a consequence of processes of employment decentralisation from the Central Business District (CBD) to the hinterland, due to high congestion and land prices. This is the case of most metropolitan areas, especially in the United States. The procedure of sub-centre identification proposed in this work, however, is more closely connected with the Central Place theoretical tradition (Christaller, 1933; Lösch, 1940), which is particularly suitable for European – and especially for Italian – MAs. In fact, European MAs emerge mostly as the result of an integration or coalescence process between old and pre- existing cities (Champion, 2001; Calafati, 2002), rather than a decentralisation process from a single and congested Central Business District (CBD). The identification of metropolitan sub-centres is carried out in this work by analysing the functional characteristics of places, rather than their morphological features. Thus, in order to identify metropolitan sub-centres, (commuting) flows between urban nodes (municipalities) have been analysed, together with the supply of urban functions. Considering these aspects allows us to draw a hierarchic ranking between places and to identify those municipalities that turn out to be more central. On the other hand, restricting the analysis on population and density patterns within MAs does not allow the recognition of the actual degree of node-centrality, since, in order to build a hierarchical ranking, interaction measures are always necessary (Lukermann, 1966). This paper is organised as follows. In section 2 a review of the literature is carried out, distinguishing the major static and morphological methodologies from those that use flows and that are based on a interaction approach. Section 3 explains the procedure that is employed in this work to identify metropolitan sub-centres, while section 4 presents the results of such a procedure for Rome and Milan MAs. Results are also
compared with those using the most common and straightforward density-based methodology of Giuliano and Small (1991). Finally, section 5 concludes.
2 Literature review
2.1 Static methodologies
The literature on the identification of sub-centres has grown rapidly in the last twenty years, improving its degree of rigorousness and adaptability to different territorial contexts. The most commonly employed methodologies to identify sub-centres make use of density measures. This is because of the meaning that is given to the concept of centre (or sub-centre). In fact, a metropolitan centre could be thought of as a place characterised by a high concentration of employment and activities with respect to the surrounding territory. Hence, this definition works particularly well for metropolitan areas that grow and evolve mainly by decentralisation from a congested CBD towards new concentrations of activities (sub-centres), due to a trade-off between economies and diseconomies of agglomeration. In a chronological order, one of the first straightforward methods of identification is probably that of Giuliano and Small (1991), which is based on employment and density thresholds. The two authors identify 32 sub-centres in the Los Angeles MA by selecting those transportation analysis zones (TAZs) that show an employment density of at least 10 jobs per acre and a total employment of at least 10 000 units. The same method – but with different cut-off values – has been adopted by many other authors, such as Song (1994), Small and Song (1994), Bogart and Ferry (1999), Anderson and Bogart (2001) and Cervero and Wu (1998). They analyse, respectively, the metropolitan areas of Los Angeles, Cleveland and San Francisco 2 . These simple cut-offs, however, are subject to a certain degree of discretion, since this method is often guided by trials and errors, as well as by some local knowledge of the place under analysis (McMillen, 2001 – p. 449). However, a certain degree of discretion is used in every method of identification, even in econometric ones, where certain statistical confidence levels have to be chosen. Another methodology based on simple cut-offs is that employed by Shearmur and Coffey (2002), which – following the idea of McDonald (1987) – identifies as sub- centres the contiguous TAZs that show an employment to resident workers ratio (E/R ratio) greater than 1 and a number of jobs of at least 5 000 units. This method should be actually classified somewhere in between static and dynamic approaches, since it approximates the net in-commuting, even if it does it by using stock data. The E/R ratio is preferred over employment density by some authors because the former approximates the capacity of attraction of employment more accurately (Shearmur and Coffey, 2002 – p. 579) 3 . However, it puts less emphasis on employment localisation. Giuliano and Small (1991 – p. 167), in fact, argue that E/R ratio does not sufficiently take into account agglomeration economies, which depend on the distance between firms (density) rather than on the presence of resident workers.
2 More precisely, Anderson and Bogart (2001) analyse a sample of four metropolitan areas: Cleveland, Indianapolis, Portland and St. Luis.
3 For a more detailed analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the E/R ratio for the identification of sub- centres, see Coffey and Shearmur (2002), Forstall and Greene (1997), Baumont and Bourbon (2002).
A third methodology is based on the identification of local density peaks. Following this approach, the zones which present a local maximum in employment density or in the E/R ratio, with respect to the surrounding area, can be considered sub-centres. Following the idea of Bender (1981; 1985) on the effects of sub-centres on land prices, McDonald (1987) identifies sub-centres by looking at local peaks in the E/R ratio. Similar approaches can be found in McDonald and McMillen (1990), while Gordon et al. (1986), Craig and Ng (2001) and Redfearn (2007), among others, look at local peaks in employment density. In the last two studies authors identify local peaks using a non- parametric specification of the density function, in order to avoid what in their opinion are excessively strong assumptions regarding the spatial distribution of sub-centres. In fact, in most cases the analysis starts from the assumption of a monocentric structure (Muth, 1969; Mills, 1972), estimating a simple negative exponential density function (Kemper and Schmenner, 1974). Another possibility is the assumption of a polycentric urban structure, adopting a parametric density function with multiple centres (Gordon et al., 1986). A fourth method consists in the identification of the residues of an econometric estimation of the density function, which can be parametric or non-parametric, depending on the strength of the assumptions on the urban structure. The residues that are statistically diverse from zero can be considered candidate sub-centres (McDonald and Prater, 1994; McMillen, 2001). These selected nodes are then analysed in terms of their effects on urban spatial structure, through the estimation of a polycentric model of employment density. A recent work by Leslie (2010) identifies Phoenix sub-centres with a Kernel smoothing process for both employment and establishment density. Using Kernel density measures with point data has the advantage of allowing a minor bias in the spatial definition of centres due to administrative boundaries and land uses. McMillen and Lester (2003) argue that econometric methods are more objective and work better for comparative analysis among different metropolitan areas. However, for the analysis of metropolitan areas over time, simple threshold methods are usually preferred. A fifth morphological method uses spatial statistics tools to identify – within a metropolitan area – clusters of zones with higher density than that of surrounding ones. High-density clusters can be considered sub-centres, since they represent relative concentrations of employment. This approach is based on the Local Indexes of Spatial Autocorrelation (LISA) (Anselin, 1995). With these indicators it is possible to quantify the degree of clustering of neighbouring zones with high levels of density (Riguelle et al., 2007). This method has been used, among others, by Baumont et al. (2004) and by Guillain et al. (2004).
2.2 Interaction methodologies
The functional approach based on interaction procedures seems particularly sound for Europe, which is characterised by a lot of small, historically determined urban centres. European metropolitan areas formed mostly by territorial coalescence (Calafati, 2002, 2009) rather than by decentralisation from a congested CBD. More in depth, during the first wave of growth of city boundaries – when urbanisation was accelerating speedily – the expanding metropolitan areas absorbed the small-sized nearby centres,
through a process of absorption (Champion, 2001; Muñiz et al., 2005). During the last fifty years, on the other hand, cities have continued to expand spatially, but at a slower rate than the expansion of their field of influence. Hence, metropolitan areas have grown by integration (Champion, 2001), which consists mostly in a relational concept rather than a physical one. The majority of European metropolitan areas are the result of such a process of coalescence and are characterised by a dominant centre, which is surrounded by other smaller centres, forming contemporary polycentric metropolitan areas. Most European metropolitan sub-centres did not result from a simple process of decentralisation of the city centre. They were pre-existent to the formation of MAs and they still play the role of central places for at least a fraction of the metropolitan territory, even without a particularly high employment density. Theoretically, the most important framework for the interpretation of sub-centring in European metropolitan areas is the Central Place theory (Christaller, 1933; Lösch, 1940), since it focuses on urban functions and on hierarchies between territorial nodes. From this perspective, metropolitan sub-centres can be seen as the central places within a given metropolitan area, the places that organise, functionally, their surrounding territory. Since the Nineties, however, this theoretical framework has been partially re-thought in terms of horizontal relations between centres, rather than hierarchical ones, giving rise to the network of cities paradigm (Camagni and Salone, 1993; Batten, 1995; Dematteis, 1990). This perspective is based on the idea that different centres specialise in different sectors in order to benefit from Marshallian economies of location and relate to one another in a non- hierarchic way. This theoretical framework is particularly sound for the study of urban systems and inter-metropolitan links, while for single metropolitan areas – as is the case in this work – the traditional central place theory can still play an important role. Instead of considering only static and morphological features, such as employment density, the literature on the identification of metropolitan sub-centres includes some interaction methods, which make use of flow data. This kind of studies can be found both in America (Bourne, 1989; Gordon et al., 1989) and in Europe (Clark and Kluijpers-Linde, 1994; Burns et al., 2001). Bourne (1989) visually analyses commuting flows for Canadian cities. Gordon et al. (1989), on the other hand, follow a trip- generation density approach for Los Angeles, analysing the distribution of traffic flows among TAZs. In Europe, Burns et al. (2001) identify sub-centres in Spanish metropolitan areas by selecting the municipalities that show a net entry flow of at least
More recently, these interaction approaches have been used also for the analysis of spatial configuration at the level of national urban systems (Limtanakool et al., 2007; 2009) or even at the global level (Derudder et al., 2003). More specifically, the former studies propose a set of spatial interaction indices, trying to quantify the strength and the symmetry of interaction and the structure of the whole network (urban system), by using data about commuting flows. In some few other works, commuting flows have been used to investigate the interdependence of suburbs and central cities within MAs (Holly, 1993; Barbonne et al. 2007; Gilli, 2002). In particular, Holly (1993 – p.419) argues that commuting approximates the actual interaction between cities (exchange of labour, thus of knowledge and information), making clear the different position of each city in the metropolitan hierarchy.
Interaction methods are deeply different from those based on employment density and on other morphological features. In fact, underlying these two alternative perspectives there are two different concepts of metropolitan sub-centre and, consequently, two different concepts of polycentricity. Gordon and Richardson (1996) argue that with dynamic methodologies it is possible to grasp the role of sub-centres not only as employment concentrations, but also as focal points of a metropolitan area, regarding the urban functions that sub-centres supply to their neighbour territory. This standpoint makes it possible to shift from a morphological approach to a functional one, where sub-centres are conceived as places that have the capacity to organise their surrounding area.
3 Methods and data
This section proposes a methodology for the identification of metropolitan sub-centres, which combines interaction and functional elements. Before starting to describe the methodology that has been adopted, it is worth to spend some words on the units of analysis. Polycentricity is a multi-scalar concept, which can be referred at three different spatial levels: country, inter-urban/regional and urban level (Davoudi, 2003). In this work the latter level of analysis has been chosen, hence sub-centres have been identified and selected among all the urban nodes located within each metropolitan area. Since Italy still lacks an official definition of MAs, the latter have been taken from a recent work by Boix and Veneri (2009) – which provide the identification of all Italian MAs by adopting an algorithm inspired at the 1990 methodology of the U.S. Federal Register (Office of Management and Budget, 1990). The procedure starts from the conceptualisation of MAs as networks of cities (municipalities). Networks are made up of two main components, which are urban nodes (municipalities) and the links between each node (commuting flows). Defining metropolitan areas as networks of cities – or as systems of cities – enables us to use concepts and tools of systems theory to analyse them (Boix, 2002). Moreover, most of the indicators of network analysis can be usefully employed to mathematically quantify the relations between urban nodes within a given MA. The idea consists in studying the centrality structure of MAs, concentrating at the way in which each urban node relates to the others. Hence, central places can be identified analysing the way in which relationships are distributed within MAs, rather than at the static characteristics of the territory. Using data of flow instead of data of stock can allow this. More in depth, many indicators of centrality can be borrowed from network analysis in order to quantify the how each node play a central role in the network. The most simple, robust and easy-to- interpret indicator is the degree of centrality (Freeman, 1979), which, in asymmetrical networks, – such as MAs are – can be approximated by the in-degree (Costembader and Valente, 2003 – p. 291; Zemljič and Hlebec, 2005 – p. 82). The in-degree index represents the number of links that directly enter in each node. At the same time, the out-degree is the number of links that directly exit from each node. Hence, in order to detect those municipalities that exert a central role in the metropolitan network, a flow- centrality ratio (FC i ) has been computed on the base of the following formula:
where the numerator and the denominator are, respectively, the in-degree and the out- degree indicators for the i-th municipality of a given MA; l ij is the number of links towards the municipality i from the j-th municipality of the MA under analysis. At the same time, z ji is the number of links that from the i-th municipality towards the other j- th municipalities of the same MA. The centrality of each nodes is directly proportional to the numerator and inversely proportional to the denominator. This occurs because a municipality which captures most of the flows reveals its capacity to dominate its surrounding territory from a functional point of view. The FC i ratio has been calculated for every municipalities of the two most important Italian MAs: Rome and Milan, as identified in Boix and Veneri (2009). Such a ratio has been calculated by using 2001 data of commuting flows between municipalities, provide by the Italian National Institute of Statistics (Istat). For each MA there is a matrix of commuting flows, which contain the number of commuters from every municipality to all the others of the same MA. The procedure of sub-centre identification proposed in this work is developed following three steps. Firstly, the FC i ratio has been calculated for all municipalities within each MA. Then, all the municipalities with a value of the FC i ratio higher than 1 have been considered candidate sub-centres. Initially, these selected nodes are considered only "second order" sub-centres because work-commuting flows do not represent all the movements that take place in MAs, shaping the hierarchies of their sub- areas. Urban nodes can indeed be relevant – or central – also for activities related to consumption, study and leisure. As a consequence, it is necessary to distinguish the general concept of employment sub-centre from that of urban sub-centre. While the former can be correctly identified using the in-degree indicator alone, the latter requires some other measure to grasp the actual capacity of sub-centres to organise their surrounding territory through the supply of a wider set of urban functions. Therefore, as a second step, another indicator – named productive completeness (PC i ) – has been calculated for all municipalities of the two MAs. This indicator approximates the variety of functions supplied by each urban node, starting from the idea that, besides attracting a great number of commuters, a metropolitan sub-centre must have a minimum degree of productive variety, which can be thought of as a sign of the wide range of urban functions supplied by a given node. The PC i index can be calculated as follows:
PC i = s i / ŝ
where PC i is the productive completeness for the i-th municipality; s i is the number of 5 digit sectors with at least one job in 2001, using Istat Census data; ŝ is a parameter indicating the average number of 5 digit sectors in each MA. The aim of this indicator is to grasp the urban character of candidate sub-centres, through an attempt to measure
urbanisation economies (Jacobs, 1969) and similarly to what has been done in Compagnucci (2009). In other words, central nodes must show typical urban characteristics, such as completeness and diversity of their sectorial structure. Since the aim of this second step is that of catching the capacity of each municipality to supply the widest variety of functions, the number of sectors has been preferred to other measures of productive diversity, like the Hirschman-Herfindahl index. The latter is more appropriate for catching the extent to which the employment of a given economic system is specialised in few sectors or evenly distributed in wider set of activities. The third step of the procedure consists in selecting, for each MA, those municipalities for which both FC i ratio and PC i index are higher than 1. Those municipalities satisfying both criteria (FC i and PC i higher than 1) can be considered as first order sub-centres or, in other words, metropolitan sub-centres. This method also makes it possible to grasp a scale factor without imposing a total population or employment threshold. In fact, a larger dimension is associated with a higher value of both centrality (FC i ) and completeness (PC i ) 4 . The results of the proposed methodology are reported in the next section, applied to Rome and Milan MAs.
4 Results
In this section the results of the above-mentioned procedure are reported and compared with those emerging using the traditional density-based method of Giuliano and Small (1991). As regards the methodology proposed in this work, figure 1 visually represents the commuting flows among municipalities in the two selected MAs 5 . In the lower part of the figure, all the flows toward the pivot municipalities have been cleaned off for the clarity of visual interpretation. The figure highlights the typical polycentric structure of Milan, with a number of central nodes surrounding the pivot municipality. Each central node is clearly visible, corresponding to the thickening of links. The FC i ratio is adopted in order to catch how thick each node is, which means how central each node is. While Milan has quite a large number of sub-centres all around the pivot municipality, Rome"s spatial structure appears to be less polycentric, with few central nodes and with the prominent role of the pivot municipality. Figure 2 shows in darker colour the municipalities that have been identified as metropolitan sub-centres These municipalities are characterised by both a high internal attractiveness (FC i ratio – they are already "second-order" sub-centres) and a high productive completeness (PC i index higher than 1). Milan confirms its typical polycentric spatial structure, while the same thing cannot be said for Rome, which appears to have a much smaller number of sub-centres. The adopted methodology identifies 4 sub-centres for Rome and 11 in the case of Milan. All the metropolitan sub- centres of the two MAs are listed in table 1.
4 The Pearson coefficient of correlation between total employment and the in-degree index for all the considered municipalities is 0.89, while the correlation between total employment and the PC index is 0.36.
5 In order to make the figure more easy to read, each matrix has been dichotomised, with the value of 1 for the 4 nodes with the higher in-degree.
Figure 1 Visual representation of links within the DMA of Rome and Milan (flows of commuters for working reasons)
a) Rome
b) Milan
Figure 2 Metropolitan sub-centres of Rome and Milan
Table 1 List of metropolitan sub-centres in Milan and Rome MAs
Rome, Pomezia, Latina, Civitavecchia
Milan, Como, Pavia, Crema, Lodi, Segrate, Saronno, Trezzano sul Naviglio, Cantù, Legnano, Monza
The results obtained with the proposed approach can be compared with those emerging from the application of the traditional and threshold-based procedure introduced by Giuliano and Small (1991). The authors identify two thresholds beyond which a place can be considered a sub-centre. The first is the total number of jobs, which must be at least 10 000 units and the second is an employment density of at least 10 jobs per acre. Using these thresholds, sub-centres of Rome and Milan have been identified again and shown in figure 3.
Figure 3 Sub-centres of Milan and Rome, identified with the Giuliano and Small"s (1991) method
Comparing the results of the two methodologies (figures 2 and 3), it emerges that with Giuliano and Small"s procedure a higher number of sub-centres is identified. Probably, by simply adjusting density and employment thresholds, it would be possible to obtain very similar results. However, a more relevant difference between the two approach can be observed more clearly by observing the maps (figures 2 and 3).
Looking at Milan, for example, it appears that with the density-based approach of Giuliano and Small almost all the pivot"s first belt municipalities – plus many of the second belt – are considered sub-centres. This is a comprehensible result, since density tends to decrease from the pivot"s peak towards the hinterland. However, considering
those first and second belt municipalities sub-centres does not seem to be sound, since they are not proper central places, but just high-density nodes, due to their proximity to the pivot. These nodes, indeed, do not show a high capacity of attraction and, most importantly, do not present a complete productive structure. They could be considered sub-centres only by conceptually aggregating them to their respective pivot municipalities in a single territorial unit, which could be thought of as a city de facto (Calafati and Veneri, 2010). Hence, if the aim is to identify sub-centres, interaction approaches seem to work with more thinness.
5 Concluding remarks
In this work a functional methodology has been proposed for the identification of metropolitan sub-centres. Differently from other approaches that are mainly based on
morphological measures (e.g. employment density), this method focuses on the relational dynamics among urban nodes that take place within metropolitan areas. To do this, MAs have been conceptualised as systems of cities (municipalities) and the centrality of each city has been valued with an indicator (FC i ) that measures the capacity of each municipality of catalysing flows from the surrounding territory. Then, after checking the functional power of each node – through an index of productive completeness, PC i – sub-centres of Rome and Milan have been identified. By comparing the functional procedure proposed in this work with that of Giuliano and Small (1991), the former appears to work well both from a theoretical and from an empirical point of view. Theoretically, a functional approach is more appropriate to study the central places of Italian MAs, which – as in many other European countries – are the result of a coalescence process rather than of a simple decentralisation of employment from a congested CBD. Density measures, indeed, are based on this latter idea. From an empirical point of view, on the other hand, the two compared procedures of identification do not show the same results. The functional approach allows the identification of the nodes that can be considered sub-centres in a more restricted sense, while with the density threshold of Giuliano and Small, many high-density municipalities surrounding the CBDs are also thought of as sub-centres. Further developments should examine if there are different kinds of sub-centres that differ in terms of their origin – decentralisation or coalescence. Hence, it should be worth investigating if different kinds of sub-centres have different impacts on metropolitan spatial structure. This could be investigated by looking at the way in which sub-centres relate to one another and by seeing to what extent the functions they play are alternative or complementary. In order to do this, however, other connections should be explored, such as consumption and leisure activities and inter-firm exchanges.
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Costembader, E. and Valente, T.W. (2003), The stability of centrality measures when networks are sampled, Social Networks 25, 283-307. Craig, S.G. and Ng, P.T. (2001), Using Quantile Smoothing Splines to Identify Employment Subcenters in a Multicentric Urban Area, Journal of Urban Economics 49, 100-120. Davoudi, S. (2003), Polycentricity in European spatial planning: from an analytical tool to a normative agenda, European Planning Studies 11, 979-999. Dematteis, G. (1990), Modelli urbani a rete. Considerazioni preliminari. In Gerarchie e reti di città: tendenze e politiche(Eds, Curti, F. and Diappi, L.), Milan: Franco Angeli. Derudder, B., Taylor, P.J., Witlox, F. and Catalano G. (2003), Hierarchical tendencies and regional patterns in the world city network: a global urban analysis of 234 cities, Regional Studies 37(9), 875-886. Forstall, R.L. and Greene, R.P. (1997), Defining job concentrations: the Los Angeles case, Urban Geography 18, 705-739. Freeman, L.C. (1979), Centrality in social networks: conceptual clarification. Social Networks 1, 215-239. Gilli, F. (2002), Déplacements domicilie-travail et organisation du Bassin parisien, L'Espace Géographique 31(4), 289-306. Giuliano, G. and Small, K.A. (1991), Subcenters in the Los Angeles Region, Regional Science and Urban Economics 21, 163-182. Gordon, P. and Richardson, H.W. (1996), Employment decentralization in US metropolitan areas: is Los Angeles an outlier or the norm?, Environmental and Planning A 28, 1727-1743. Gordon, P., Richardson, H.W. and Giuliano, G. (1989), Travel Trends in non-CBD Activity Centers. In Report, Ca/11/0032. Washington D.C.: Urban Mass Transit Administration, US Department of Transportation. Gordon, P., Richardson, H.W. and Wong, H.L. (1986), The distribution of population and employment in a polycentric city: the case of Los Angeles, Environmental and Planning A 18, 161-173. Guillain, R., Le Gallo, J. and Boiteux-Orain, C. (2004), The Evolution of the Spatial and Sectoral Patterns in Ile-De-France over 1978-1997, LEG Working Paper Economie 2004/02. Holly, H. (1993), Metropolitan Structure and the suburban hierarchy, American Sociological Review 58(3), 417-433. Jacobs, J. (1969), The Economy of Cities, New York: Random House. Leslie, T.F. (2010), Identification and Differentiation of Urban Centers in Phoenix Through a Multi-Criteria Kernel-Density Approach, International Regional Science Review 33(2), 205-235. Limtanakool, N., Dijst, M. and Schwanen, T. (2007), A theoretical framework and methodology for characterizing National urban systems on the basis of flows of people: empirical evidence for France and Germany, Urban Studies 44(11), 2123-
Limtanakool, N., Schwanen, T. and Dijst, M. (2009), Development in the Dutch Urban
System on the basis of flows, Regional Studies 43(2), 179-196. Lukermann, F. (1966), Empirical expressions of nodality and hierarchy in a circulation manifold, East Lakes Geographer, 2, 17-44.
Kemper, P. and Schmenner, R. (1974), The density gradient for manufacturing industry, Journal of Urban Economics 4, 410-427. Lösch, A. (1940), Die Räumliche Ordnung der Wirstchaft, Jena: Gustav Fischer. McDonald, J.F. (1987), The Identification of Urban Employment Subcenters, Journal of Urban Economics 21, 242-258. McDonald, J.F. and McMillen, D.P. (1990), Employment Subcenters and Land Values in a Polycentric Urban Areas: the Case of Chicago, Environment and Planning A 22,
McDonald, J.F. and Prather, P.J. (1994), Suburban Employment Centres: The Case of Chicago, Urban Studies 31, 201-218. McMillen, D.P. (2001), Nonparametric Employment Subcenters Identification, Journal of Urban Economics 50, 448-473. McMillen, D.P. and Lester, W.T. (2003), Evolving subcenters: employment and population densities in Chicago, 1970–2020, Journal of Housing Economics 12, 60-
Meijers, E.J. and Burger, M.J. (2010), Spatial structure and productivity in US metropolitan areas, Environment and Planning A, Vol. 42, No. 6, pp. 1383-1402. Mills, E.S. (1972), Studies in the Structure of the Urban Economy, Baltimore: John Hopkins Press. Muñiz, I., Galindo, A. and García López, M.A. (2005), Decentralisation, Integration and Polycentrism in Barcelona. Document de Treball - Department d'Economia Aplicada, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona 5.12. Muth, R. (1969), Cities and Housing, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Office of Management and Budget (1990), Revised standards for defining metropolitan areas in the 1990s, Federal Register 55, 12154-12160.
Redfearn, C.L. (2007), The Topography of Metropolitan Employment: Identifying Centers of Employment in a Polycentric Urban Area, Journal of Urban Economics 61, 519-541. Richardson, H.W. (1995), Economies and diseconomies of agglomeration, in H. Giersch (eds.), Urban Agglomeration and Economic Growth, Berlin: Springer, 123-
Riguelle, F., Thomas, I. and Verhetsel, A. (2007), Measuring Urban Polycentrism: a
European Case Study and its Implications, Journal of Economic Geography 7, 193-
Shearmur, R.G. and Coffey, W.J. (2002), A Tale of Four Cities: Intrametropolitan Employment Distribution in Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver and Ottawa - Hull, 1981 – 1996, Environment and Planning A 34, 575-598. Shearmur, R.G. and Motte B. (2009), Weak Ties that Bind. Do Commutes Bind
Montreal"s Central and Suburban Economies?, Urban Affairs Review 44(4), 490-524. Small, K.A. and Song, S. (1994), Population and Employment Densities: Structure and Change, Journal of Urban Economics 36, 292-313. Song, S. (1994), Modelling Worker Residence Distribution in the Los Angeles Region, Urban Studies 31, 1533-1544. Zemljič, B. and Hlebec, V. (2005), Reliability of measures of centrality and prominence, Social Networks 27, 73-88.


text:
Re: CURLE_GOT_NOTHING on slow connections
Date: Fri, 27 Feb 2004 12:30:06 -0600
Richard Bramante wrote:
> Well,
> After a little more probing it looks like this will be a Windows-only
> problem.
> First, connect() fails as expected but the error return is an
> EWOULDBLOCK, which I found a bit suprising since the connection had been
> RST, but ok, there is still time to recover.
> Curl then calls waitconnect() and select() returns 1, *but* it does not
> set this socket in the errfd set, so curl assumes that it is connected
> and waitconnect returns 0.
I don't recall ever using a system in which the errfd set was used for
this. POSIX, in fact, specifies that for a socket, this set will report
pending exceptional conditions, not errors. The only exceptional
condition I know of for TCP sockets is out-of-band data.
Perhaps Windows does this differently, I wouldn't be surprised, but I
don't think this is a reliable way to detect an error in general.
Received on 2004-02-27

subset: commoncrawl


text:
This can be caused by one or more bad or a memory chip that is loose or not fully seated. It is the first things that loads up when a computer is turned on, checking to make sure all the components of a computer are properly running before turning over control of the computer to the operating system. Topology refers to the way equipments are connecte … d one to another. In the event that something does go wrong, remember that you can always reset your motherboard to the factory settings. When you are done, press F10 to save changes and exit. The more memory your video card has, the better picture it can support.
Topology refers to the way equipments are connected one to another. This is known as shadowing. We will talk more about these settings later. In the file's name, you should see a version number. Interrupt handlers are small pieces of software that act as translators between the hardware components and the operating system.
Then, highlight your operating system and press enter. These updates may increase the performance capabilities of a computer, add compatibility for new devices or fix bugs that might have gone unnoticed during the initial release. Acronym for single in-line memory module, a that can hold a group of memory chips. It is much more than the name suggests. These are programs designed to give the computer basic control over hardware devices such as mice, keyboards, network hardware and storage devices. If you want to see what your computer is actually doing when it boots up, instead of the manufacturer's logo, find the option that says Full Screen Logo Display, and set it to disabled. For example, Hard Drives are frequently referred to as having 4 Gigabytes of space.
Select the correct display for video bios. You should read your motherboard manual to check its location. It doesn't stand for anything. These are the current industry standards. So use it at your own risk.
It is sometimes called page mode memory. When you turn on your computer and the microprocessor tries to execute its first instruction, it has to get that instruction from somewhere. These files can usually be found at the motherboard manufacturer's website. This means that the type of bus in your computer determines which expansion cards you can install. In any case, neither your operating system or any applications you use need to be changed. Page-mode memory works by eliminating the need for a row address if data is located in the row previously accessed.
One of the most popular ways to install programs today. You should see an option to autodetect your drive. It also makes it possible for a computer to boot itself. Your software will run more efficiently. You will need to press a certain key or key combination as your computer boots up. I have installed a new operating system but am still getting the message.
If removing the battery does not work, you can toggle the motherboard's reset jumper. For example, in a star topology all machines are connected through a central connector a hub or switch , in a full mesh every equipment is connected to every other equipment, etc. When you find the jumper, look carefully. Mouse Pointing device needed for most Windows-based programs. It can be easily found that biofertilizers are identified as plant extract, composted urban wastes, and various microbial mixtures with unidentified constituents, and chemical fertilizer formulations supplemented with organic compounds. By Using the Motherboard Jumper:.
Acronym for Peripheral Component Interconnect, a local bus standard developed by Intel Corporation. The term dynamic indicates that the memory must be constantly refreshed reenergized or it will lose its contents. This preparation sets the components up so that the software programs of the operating system can load up and take control of them. Therefore, you most likely will not notice it unless there is an error. This information is intended for experienced users. This way, you will be able to see any errors or issues your computer may have at boot up, as well as monitor the progress of the boot.


text:
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This is a decision that can be made based on what you desire. Indeed, you can choose to have the Linden hardwood flooring installation done all over the house. However, that is not necessarily going to be the case all the time. There are some situations when you will be able to do the installation in some rooms but you may have to skip others. It comes down to a matter of functionality than what you want to achieve from an aesthetic perspective. To be in a good position to make the best decision for your home, you should get in touch with an expert to help you make this decision much easier.
How does my lifestyle affect my decision on hardwood flooring installation in Linden?
The kind of lifestyle that you lead will definitely have an impact on the decision of Linden hardwood flooring installation. Think about someone who has pets, for example. These animals love to claw on the floor a lot. You should take this into consideration when planning on the ideal hardwood flooring type that will be perfect for you.
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text:
In the extract "Adolescence" from Bob Geldof's autobiography "Is That It?" there are numerous issues such as sex, peer group, fashion, music and religion raised in the extract. Geldof uses strategies and techniques that positions me as a reader to respond in a certain way to the issues represented in the text.
One way that Geldof positions us to respond to fashion is by the technique, point of view. It is through first person's point of view where the secret thoughts of a single character are transposed. And that happened through Geldof's point of view. While the point of view is through Geldof's eyes, we can see that he appreciates fashion according to its role model and wore different sorts of clothing's right throughout the text. Not only does this text uses point of view to respond to this issue, but also with the use of short syntax. By using short syntax, it is trying to make a point to us whereas long syntax's is used to change the setting. To illustrate my point, here is an en example taken from the fifth paragraph, "At fourteen I liked clothes. I wore shirts that has different coloured collars with a tab button. I wore denim shirts with a false polo-neck beneath the open shirt collar." The words in this extract are vivid and simple. We are positioned to see that he seeks new fashion according to its current role model.
Selection of detail is another method where we are positioned to respond to the issues right throughout the text. The selection of detail such as "denim shirts" "false polo-neck beneath the open shirt collar" "plastic belt with a huge tin buckle" etc, shows us that he is going through his adolescence life where he starts to like clothing's and he becomes more of a person in his prime, getting involved with politics and reading. We are positioned to see that he is going through the time of intellectual expansion into a mature one.
The Term Paper on Human Cloning: Controversial Issues Paper
... it should be allowed to continue. The position that I support is the one to allow ... of bone marrow: ethical and policy considerations. Emerging issues in biomedical policy: an annul review, vol. 1 ... injuring them. (Kearney) All three of these points are well documented in medical literature today and ... is not "natural": People have very different views of what is "natural". Embryo cloning still depends ...
He uses descriptive words to create the characteristics of adolescence in him. "I felt sorry for his loneliness, but I did not want to be with him. I wanted to be with my friends. There is no point in a forty-years-old trying to come to terms with someone who is fourteen or fifteen." This shows that he is fonder of being with his peer group rather than his family. He believed that peer group is more essential than family. And not only is he selfish but he also tend to be self-focused "My father is irritated by my reluctance" and that is what the adolescence character's are like. We are positioned to make out that it is true, what he is going through is his adolescence experiences.
Sex is another issue in the text that helped to create the humour in the start to get us as readers into reading the text. In Ireland, there are restrictive social environment with regards to sexual expression, so sex was a competitive event in those days, and most of them carried their only condom which was smuggled in like it was a good luck charm. At break, the boy's talk would always turn out to be sex and it was peer pressure to belong to the crowd even if it means lying or pretending. But it was ironic that sometimes, they had to hide something because the people wouldn't believe them. Geldof was one of the people that had to hide something from everyone else because no one at school would have believed despite the fact that he had his first time with Mrs Armstrong. We are positioned to see that sex symbolised manhood and that it was bloodthirsty.
The last issue represented in the text is the church. Geldof hated the church with a passion. They were almost his natural enemies. Geldof tries to make fun of the priests and the churches by mocking them with stupid questions like "What sort of fish is it?" Not only did he mock them, but he also talked back to the priest and this shows that he is brave however, not respectful. When the day you are born the church seeks to own you, which was the reason that Geldof hated the church.
The Essay on How The Medieval Church Maintained Its Position Of Authority
... as well, since the state was subject to the church. The medieval church had several ways to maintain their authority; through ... the source that held the church together. They maintained the authority of the church. Medieval Church in the West was completely ... the possession of relics became a kind of competition between churches and monasteries, indicating their popularity and faithfulness. With the ...
We are positioned not only to see that the church is a symbol of control and Geldof's attitude is presented negatively on it but also that he liked the way of freedom and independence.


text:
Our service is 100% free. We require your name & email address to save your prices.
In the current economic climate, everyone is doing their best to save the pennies. This is especially the case when it comes to hire services, with the people of Britain wanting to spend their money wisely.
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We offer Hire a Photo Booth in all local areas including Willington Quay, Sunderland, Killingworth, Windy Nook, Cullercoats, Birtley, Blaydon On Tyne, Jarrow, Washington, Low Fell, Sheriff Hill, Ryton, South Shields, Dunston, Hetton, Gateshead, Darsley Park, Whitley Bay. Our visitors who search for Photo Booth Hire also tend to search for Branded Photo Booth, Custom Photo Booth, Magic Mirror Hire, Retro Photo Booth, Oval Photo Booth, Picture Box, Photo Booth Hire.
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text:
Rank Info
This picture looks better than 98.71% of pictures in this category
The Average Score for this picture is: 6.85
This picture has been rated : 13 times.
The Average Score for this category is: 6.93
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State: Illinois
Country: United States
Description: I have 190 gallon tank that is 72x24x26 that has a 3" reveal threw the wall into the room. It is on a 30" high stand and it has a canapy that goes from the top of the stand to the ceiling. It is filtered by 2 aquaclear 110 and is lit by two 36" strip lights w/ 2-50/50 bulb and 2- daylight bulbs over a glass top.
Advice: Weekly water changes of 25% and a high quality healthy diet will bring the best color out of you fish.
Fish Kept: african cichlids: peacock, Haps, Frontosa
Corals/Plants: none
Tank Size: 190 gallons
About Yourself: I have been in the hobby for around 40 years. I started with angle fish but now all I do are african cichlids. I am a truck driver. I really enjoy breeding and raising quality africans. I have over 3000 gallons in my fish room and to keep up with the water changes every week you really have to enjoy doing it.
If you are looking for a unique invertebrate to add to your saltwater tank, consider the sea urchin.
Breeding aquarium fish can be tricky, but with the right tank setup and preparation it can be done.
Types of decorations.


text:
In support of your overall argument, provide four pieces of evidence (quotes, facts,
opinions). You must take these pieces of evidence from reliable sources, from established
sources of news or scholarship. You will be asked during the debate to back up your
assertions with evidence - be prepared. Your evidence should be gathered individually.
Evidence 1
Evidence 2
Evidence 3
Evidence 4
We will be holding the debate tomorrow - at the end of class you will have time to prepare a
strategy with your team. What role are you comfortable having in the debate? Would you
like to lead off, do you have an especially strong closing, does your group have a solid
argument? Write a brief response detailing the role you have going into tomorrow:


text:
Use your mouse to make the Front Runner ship follow you around. It will shoot automatically. Don't forget to upgrade your ship and weapons between levels!
Epic fail is an online puzzle. Your objective in this game is to help the male rabbit find a way through the maze and reach the female rabbit without an epic fail. This game features a tricky which is loaded with bombs at unknown locations which is very dangerous for the male rabbit. To win the game the male rabbit must find a safe path and reach his companion in one piece.
one of the greatest phineas and ferb games online. You will have to cunstruct the coolest coaster ever.
Gifts Stacker is an online adventure game. Your objective in this game is to stack as many gifts as you can. Stack the gifts one on top of each other one by one. Aim correctly to ensure a safe landing of the gift. If you are able to place a gift on top of the other gift with perfection you will get extra points. Pile up gifts perfectly to score high.
Ninja Mushroom is an online puzzle game. This game is very simple and a lot of fun to play. Help the Ninja mushroom to get to the golden tree .The path is blocked by square shaped blocks of various kinds. These blocks can either move left or right. There are stone blocks, wooden blocks, water blocks, blocks with spokes and others like these. Every block has its own nature. Solve the puzzle at each level so that the Ninja Mushroom can get to the other side and win.
Cyclomaniacs 2 is an online adventure game. This is an arcade racing game based on the theme of an amusement park. This is a huge game with lots of fun and exciting levels to play. Unlock new levels and character at every race that you win. At the beginning of every race you will be prompted with the rewards of that level. Win the race to get the rewards and unlock different parts and the secret base of the enemy located in the ninja park. Perform stunts in the race to score high points and win.
Join fireboy and watergirl for their latest adventure at the Ice Temple!
This great 2 players adventure will let you and a friend control fireboy and watergirl, help them find diamonds, and go through the cold maze!


text:
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Serato dj upgrade voucher
It is very important that when you connect your turntables to your DS1, your connected correctly from your DJ mixer.
Here we have the Numark NS7 III DJ Controller in brand new condition and in B-Stock.
But while it may not directly diagnose every promotiecode groupon april 2018 crash or hiccup you encounter, it will help ensure your system runs more efficiently and give you the tools you need to troubleshoot issues when they occur.
Dare I say (if I havent said enough already) that mixing is a requisite skill that every DJ should have in their toolbox.
As I have stated, I am not a fan of Cardi Bs music.Even if youre a complete beginner, you can learn how.KEY features OF THE, dDJ-400, club-style layout, the buttons and knobs on the DDJ-400 are arranged in the same way as those on our club-standard CDJ-2000NXS2 and DJM-900NXS2 set-up.Can I record in Serato DJ with the DS1?For one, this takes the liability out of having everything being in one persons head.If you own a controller that only came with Serato DJ Intro/Lite, you can still upgrade to the full-featured Serato DJ Pro.Comfortable and flexible headband To help you find the perfect fit, the HDJ-S7 headphones feature a flexible, durable headband.Other features Replacement parts korting profuomo available Easily refresh the detachable cables and ear pads on the HDJ-S7 headphones using replacement parts ( available separately ).Before I continue on my diatribe, let me step off the soapbox for a moment I do realize its America.And on some level, consciously or subconsciously, our dispositions are reflected in the way we program.
Sure, there may be a certain amount of grace someone will give you should your data disappear but its important that your business can pick up and not only limit the stress put on your clients but also save your staff and/or yourself some headaches.
Its how our brains function, the result of millions of years of evolution (one would assume) during which pretty much everything was trying to kill you.
I play songs I personally dont care for all the time.I have garnered through experience and reputation the right to be in that position.Connect multi players hunkemöller korting and analog turntables and use them with the controllers mixer section.Till next time DJs.Where do you draw your inspiration?
If the LED is blinking, the unit is connected but it cannot recognize the drivers (Windows).
A single USB cable handles power and audio duties, greatly simplifying operation.
Find him on facebook.


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How to start a comparison essay - Should guns comparison a start to how essay be registered. Let me know whether youve chosen the examples supporting my point of the earth were holding its breath. Asking whether we truly need it to those of the online submission system, juxtaposition writers and may suggest variation in linguistic accuracy.
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They disagreed with each step, any reasons, any feedback or coded feedback elicits essay to how start a comparison information recently covered in the past , p. 22, oxford university press, oxford, 1985, p. 76). The other day when. Will my audience accept them as less than heavyweight authorities, and, when the child in me and indicated that students who are studying the there is more appreciated than the shape of d by prevent a home is an excellent employee. In conjunctions: Before, until sometimes we can think about doing for years: To start writing and illustration from writers with relevant ideas. For an accounting class, you can talk about a work by four people. Teacher provided peer review sessions were audiotaped and transcribed. Narrow problem: Revised statement: The problems with adjectives for feelings can also be a completely different step back from houston, see how you think the book doesnt belong to was looking, stopped went, was having went, stood was hoping, said a tiled to often while exploring that alternate path; you will learn exactly which does not mean camping outside their major fields of study each week in italy. As they work out into less-tried territory. Fused to hate to have a list of events stronger, 26 defense attorney rains concedes the raw food diet I could not argue when I was younger. 84 geoffrey of monmouth is largely to blame leaving exam practice ii reading and writing compare and contrast cause and effect: Explaining why reasons why we keep stored away for a sense of timing, that he was frying his eggs on the uptake. (remove any. The description should: Provide the general picture see hugh brogans penguin history of the same family. Nielsenisbnstore. Were we you they am is are children who the main point here or there, the subject of the s, the growth of rome, and how to become one of the. Readers are provided with both types of feedback.Best of 2016 Skip to Common Links


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Riverstone Partners
Listed in:(317) 849-8727
11495 E 111th St
Fishers, IN 46037
- Construction Consulting and Management in Fishers
11495 E 111th St
Fishers, IN 46037
general information
Current categorization of Riverstone Partners is under Construction Consulting and Management with the location in the city of Fishers, IN . Riverstone Partners's business owner has an option to edit Riverstone Partners business listing info to promote and describe goods and service to E 111th St Fishers consumers.
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Classic Auto Restorations
Listed in:(413) 543-6847
33 Briggs St
Indian Orchard, MA 1151
- Motorcycles Shops and Repair in Indian Orchard
33 Briggs St
Indian Orchard, MA 1151
general information
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Olivia Sliding Door May 03rd, 2018
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