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Anthropogenic aerosols are thought to exert a significant indirect radiative forcing because they act as cloud condensation nuclei in warm cloud-forming processes and ice nuclei in cold cloud-forming processes. Although many of the processes associated with the perturbation of cloud microphysics by anthropogenic aerosols were discussed, IPCC (2007) provided only an estimate of full quantification of the radiative forcing attributable to the first indirect effect (which they referred to as the cloud albedo effect). Here we explain that this approach is necessary if one is to compare the radiative forcing from the indirect effect of aerosols with those from other radiative forcing components such as that from changes in well-mixed greenhouse gases. We also highlight the problems in assessing the effect of anthropogenic aerosols upon clouds under the strict definitions of radiative forcing provided by the IPCC (2007). Although results from global climate models, at their current state of development, suggest that an analysis of indirect aerosol effects in terms of forcing and feedback is possible, a key rationale for the IPCC's definition of radiative forcing, a straightforward scaling between an agent's forcing and the temperature change it induces, is significantly compromised. Feedbacks from other radiative forcings are responses to radiative perturbations, whereas feedbacks from indirect aerosol effects are responses to both radiative and cloud microphysical perturbations. This inherent difference in forcing mechanism breaks down the consistency between forcing and temperature response. It is likely that additional characterization, such as climate efficacy, will be required when comparing indirect aerosol effects with other radiative forcings. We suggest using the radiative flux perturbation associated with a change from preindustrial to present-day composition, calculated in a global climate model using fixed sea surface temperature and sea ice, as a supplement to IPCC forcing.
The Concept of Radiative Forcing
In the latest IPCC report, Forster et al. (2007) define the concept of radiative forcing as follows:
The radiative forcing of the surface-troposphere system due to the perturbation in or the introduction of an agent is the change in the net irradiance at the tropo-pause after allowing for stratospheric temperatures to readjust to radiative equilibrium, but with surface and tropospheric temperatures and state held fixed at the unperturbed values.
Over the last couple of decades, radiative forcing has proved to be a useful concept because the global mean near surface temperature response, dT, to a particular radiative forcing, dF, may be related to the climate sensitivity, X, via the relationship:
Generally, studies suggest that this relationship appears to be approximately independent of the forcing mechanism (e.g., Meehl et al. 2004; Matthews et al. 2004), which means that the relative importance of many different forcing mechanisms may be quantified and compared.
While X is approximately independent of the forcing mechanism, it may be quite strongly model-dependent. Additionally, some recent studies have suggested that X may not be entirely independent of the forcing mechanism, as they may induce different feedbacks, which may lead to a modification of Equation 19.1 via the climate forcing efficacy, £, (Joshi et al. 2003; Hansen and Nazarenko 2004):
where £i is defined as Xi/XCO2. The inter-forcing mechanism differences in £i appear to be greatest for absorbing aerosols, where absorption of solar radiation induces the so-called "semi-direct effect," but large-scale dynamic feedbacks differ in the models used in assessing £i. This results in values that are either larger (e.g., Jacobson 2001) or smaller (e.g., Roberts and Jones 2004; Hansen et al. 2005; Jones et al. 2007) than unity with values that typically range from 0.7-1.3 (Forster et al. 2007).
It is important to realize that to diagnose an indirect radiative forcing that may be compared to other forcing mechanisms, it is the global radiative forcing that is related to the global temperature change in Equation 19.1 and 19.2. A local radiative forcing does not correspond to a local temperature change because of the myriad of local-, regional-, and global-scale feedback processes that vary over the different regions of the Earth.
Now that the IPCC (2007) definition of radiative forcing and its limitations have been presented, we will discuss the specifics of the indirect aerosol radiative forcing via interactions with clouds.
Radiative Forcing and the Aerosol Indirect Effects
Aerosol particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and can thereby modify the microphysical, macrophysical, and optical properties of clouds. Figure 19.1 summarizes schematically the processes considered in assessing aerosol indirect radiative effects. As depicted, unperturbed clouds reflect a proportion of incident solar radiation back to space; when anthropogenic aerosols are introduced under the assumption of constant cloud liquid water, the cloud is made up of a larger number of smaller droplets, as represented by the albedo effect/1st indirect effect/Twomey effect (Twomey 1977). The change in the cloud droplet radius affects the cloud development in a number of complex ways, some of which are shown in Figure 19.1. Smaller cloud drops may lead to a decrease in the coalescence rate and thus reduce rainfall: decreased rainfall will increase the cloud liquid water content, leading to more developed and therefore deeper clouds (e.g., Pincus and Baker 1994). Reduced rainfall and the increase in cloud liquid water content may also lead to an increase in the lifetime of clouds (Albrecht 1989). All of these effects were considered by Forster et al. (2007) to be encompassed by the labels "cloud lifetime effect/2nd indirect effect/Albrecht effect" in Figure 19.1. Furthermore, two other effects are represented in Figure
Unperturbed Increased CDNC cloud (constant LWC) (Twomy, 1974)
Drizzle Increased cloud Increased cloud suppression height (Pincus lifetime increased LWC and Baker, 1994) (Albrecht, 1989)
Heating causes burn-off (Ackerman et al., 2000)
Unperturbed Increased CDNC cloud (constant LWC) (Twomy, 1974)
Albedo effect/ 1st indirect effect/ I Twomey effect
Drizzle Increased cloud Increased cloud suppression height (Pincus lifetime increased LWC and Baker, 1994) (Albrecht, 1989)
Cloud lifetime effect/ 2nd indirect effect/ Albrecht effect
Heating causes burn-off (Ackerman et al., 2000)
Semi-direct effect
Figure 19.1 A schematic diagram representing the processes considered in assessing aerosol direct and indirect radiative effects (modified from Haywood and Boucher 2001).The small black dots represent anthropogenic aerosols, and the large/small open circles depict large/small cloud droplets, respectively. Ice particles are represented by stars. Solar fluxes are represented by arrows, and the magnitude of the fluxes represented by the width of the arrows. Wavy lines represent infrared fluxes. Precipitation is depicted by dashed vertical gray lines. CDNC: cloud droplet number concentration; LWC: liquid water content.
19.1: the effect of anthropogenic aerosols as ice nuclei and the semi-direct effect, whereby additional solar absorption by anthropogenic aerosols causes heating of the ambient environment and reduces the ambient relative humidity, thereby changing the cloud amount.
Much higher-resolution models, such as cloud-resolving models (CRMs) or large eddy simulation models, are better able to represent the microphysical and dynamical interaction of aerosols and clouds, but they still require subgrid-scale parameterizations of some processes (e.g., entrainment). Their limited domains mean that they are currently only capable of estimating the local indirect radiative forcing for specific case studies. Thus, only general circulation models (GCMs) or chemical transport models (CTMs) are suitable for quantifying the global indirect radiative forcing, which can then be compared with other forcing mechanisms such as that attributable to changes in well-mixed greenhouse gases.
The History of Aerosol Indirect Radiative Forcing
In the mid-1990s, when global simulations of aerosol interactions with clouds were in their infancy, a compromise between CTM and GCM modeling efforts was devised to investigate aerosol indirect forcing. CTMs generally did not include realistic radiative transfer codes, which need accurate representation of absorbing gases, treatment of scattering, and accurate representation of surface reflectance, emissivity, and temperature profiles. Similarly, GCMs did not include the detailed chemical processes that were necessary to represent the emission, formation, transportation, microphysical processes, and wet and dry deposition of aerosols and their precursors. Therefore, CTMs were frequently used to model the particulate mass mixing ratios for preindustrial and present-day conditions. These CTM-derived mass mixing ratios were used by the GCMs to simulate the effect of aerosols upon the cloud effective radius by using parameterizations based on either Köhler theory or aircraft observations (e.g., Leaitch et al. 1992; Hegg et al. 1993; Martin et al. 1994). These GCM parameterizations related the particle number or mass concentration to the number of cloud droplets, which itself is related to cloud effective radius. Typically, GCMs diagnosed the first indirect radiative forcing by making two calls to the radiation code: the first call used preindustrial particle concentrations and the second used present-day particle concentrations. "Preindustrial" was used for advancing the model physics at each radiation time-step and the top-of-the-atmosphere (TOA) outgoing shortwave radiation, SWtoa^preind, was diagnosed. "Present-day" was used to modify the cloud effective radius at each radiation time step and determined the TOA outgoing shortwave radiation perturbed by anthropogenic aerosols, SWTOA^PRESENT The first indirect effect can then be simply diagnosed as SWTOA^PREIND - SWTOA^PRESENT. Because increased concentrations of anthropogenic aerosol reduce the effective radius of cloud particles and smaller cloud particles refl ect more radiation back to space, SWTOAtPREIND - SWTOAtPRESENT is negative, and the first indirect effect leads to a cooling of the climate system according to Equation 19.1.
There are two contraventions to the definition of radiative forcing of Forster et al. (2007), namely that the change in the net irradiance is frequently derived at the TOA rather than at the tropopause, and the definition does not account for stratospheric adjustment. Neglecting these effects makes very little difference to the derived first indirect radiative forcing when it is derived diagnosti-cally. It is important to realize that the present-day call to the radiative transfer code does not affect the atmospheric heating rates in the model in any way, and therefore the model evolution is entirely unaffected by the perturbation to the particle concentrations. This means that feedback processes are not induced, and cloud, precipitation, sensible and latent heat fluxes, etc. are not affected in diagnosing the first indirect effect in this manner.
GCMs and CTMs have continued their development, and increases in computing power mean that they have to some extent merged: GCMs are now capable of including detailed parameterizations for many types of aerosol which account for the emissions, gas and aqueous phase formation, transportation, and wet and dry deposition of aerosols and their precursors. Therefore, GCMs no longer rely on the off-line particle mass mixing ratios generated by CTMs. As a result, deriving the first aerosol indirect forcing in the manner described above has fallen out of favor. This is because global climate simulations are now driven by emissions, and they explicitly model (albeit in a highly parameterized way) the effect of aerosols upon the microphysical properties of clouds in a far more complete way, and account for the host of second indirect effects, shown schematically in Figure 19.1. Once this approach is taken, diagnosis of the first indirect effect by itself is difficult because separation of the first from the second indirect effects is difficult to achieve in a consistent way. Although the first indirect effect can be approximated by global models without inducing any feedbacks to the climate system (using two calls to the radiation code), when the second indirect effects are invoked, there are necessarily significant fast feedbacks that come into play. For example, each of the second indirect effects represented schematically in Figure 19.1 and represented by GCMs show perturbations to the precipitation. Therefore the state of the atmosphere is not held fixed because surface and tropospheric temperatures respond to changes in, for example, the surface sensible and latent heat flux perturbations caused by the perturbation to the aerosol. Thus, the definition of radiative forcing of Forster et al. (2007) is further compromised. Because we wish, however, to quantify approximately the potential global climatic impact of the second indirect effects, a so-called quasi- or pseudo-indirect forcing is frequently diagnosed (e.g., Rotstayn and Penner 2001). This "quasi-forcing" is diagnosed in a very different way to the first indirect effect. The TOA net flux (the sum of the short- and longwave fluxes, SWTOA^ and LWTOA^) in two separate parallel global GCM simulations is diagnosed. The first simulation uses preindustrial aerosol emissions while the second simulation uses present-day aerosol emissions, and the total indirect "quasi-forcing" is diagnosed as the difference between the net top of atmosphere fluxes. Importantly, the simulations are generally carried out in atmosphere-only GCMs with fixed SSTs and sea-ice extents; this means that the temperature response of the model and slow feedbacks associated with changes in global temperatures are inhibited, but the atmospheric state is no longer strictly held fixed (Hansen et al. 2002). Further methods for diagnosing the radiative forcing have been proposed where the land-surface temperatures are also held fixed (e.g., Shine et al. 2003).
At this point, it is worth considering whether the "quasi-forcing" provides an adequate representation of the strict definition of radiative forcing, as defined by Forster et al. (2007). Figure 19.2a (after Ming et al. 2005), shows the radiative forcing from the cloud albedo effect calculated using this definition in the GFDL AM2 (GFDL 2004). To obtain the forcing in Figure 19.2a, a simulation is run with preindustrial aerosols. The fields from this simulation are used to calculate a second set of TOA radiative fluxes, with the only change being the replacement of preindustrial by present-day aerosols in the radiation code. The difference between fluxes with present-day and preindustrial aerosols (the IPCC forcing) is shown in Figure 19.2a. Figure 19.2b shows the "quasi-forcing" from the cloud albedo effect, obtained by integrating AM2 with preindus-trial aerosols but using present-day aerosols for purposes of radiative transfer only. The simulation in Figure 19.2b is a preindustrial simulation, except that the cloud albedo corresponds to present-day aerosols. We use this simulation to illustrate the effect of the preindustrial to present-day change in aerosols on cloud albedo while modeling all other cloud processes for preindustrial aerosols. The "quasi-forcing" in Figure 19.2b includes feedbacks caused by radiative, but not microphysical, perturbations associated with anthropogenic aerosols. Many features of the forcing and "quasi-forcing" patterns are similar. Although the amplitudes of the features tend to be larger for the "quasi-forcing," the global means are almost the same. The feedbacks, which are included in the "quasi-forcing," are responses to a radiative perturbation only. This is also true of the feedbacks, which occur in response to forcing by changes in well-mixed greenhouse gases. For cloud-albedo feedback, then, "quasi-forcing" and forcing behave similarly, at least for the GFDL AM2.
The use of the radiative forcing concept becomes problematic when one considers feedbacks associated with microphysical aspects of the aerosol indirect effect. We refer to these feedbacks here as non-albedo effects. Figure 19.2c shows non-albedo "quasi-forcing," obtained by integrating AM2 with present-day aerosols but using preindustrial aerosols for purposes of radiative transfer only. The simulation in Figure 19.2c models all cloud processes, except albedo, using present-day aerosols. We use this simulation to illustrate the effects of the preindustrial to present-day change in aerosols on all cloud processes except albedo, which corresponds to preindustrial aerosols. The most important point is that the magnitude of the non-albedo "quasi-forcing" is a
-20 -10 -5.0 -3.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 3.0 5.0 10 20 -20 -10 -5.0 -3.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 3.0 5.0 10 20
Figure 19.2 (a) Indirect forcing (by cloud albedo effect) using the definition of Forster et al. (2007); (b) quasi-forcing by cloud albedo effect only; (c) quasi-forcing by non-albedo effects only; and (d) quasi-forcing by all indirect effects. The quasi-forcings are derived from ten-year means from parallel GCM simulations where the sea surface temperatures are held fixed. Simulations use the GFDL AM2 model. Figure 19.2a modified from Ming et al. (2005).
-20 -10 -5.0 -3.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 3.0 5.0 10 20 -20 -10 -5.0 -3.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 3.0 5.0 10 20
Figure 19.2 (a) Indirect forcing (by cloud albedo effect) using the definition of Forster et al. (2007); (b) quasi-forcing by cloud albedo effect only; (c) quasi-forcing by non-albedo effects only; and (d) quasi-forcing by all indirect effects. The quasi-forcings are derived from ten-year means from parallel GCM simulations where the sea surface temperatures are held fixed. Simulations use the GFDL AM2 model. Figure 19.2a modified from Ming et al. (2005).
large fraction of the magnitude of the albedo forcing, and this is apparent in Figure 19.2d, which shows the total indirect-effect "quasi-forcing." Given the nonlinear nature of the forcing mechanisms, the near additivity of the albedo and non-albedo forcings is noteworthy; at this point we have no way of knowing whether this result is general or particular to this model. The microphysi-cal feedbacks, which produce the "quasi-forcing" in Figure 19.2c are unique among the forcings considered by IPCC and are not associated with instantaneous forcing, as defined by Forster et al. (2007). The relationship between forcing and "quasi-forcing" (and thus between forcing and temperature change) at the global mean will differ for indirect aerosol effects from the relationship for changes in well-mixed greenhouse gases or aerosol direct effects.
A key rationale for use of forcings by IPCC is to scale temperature changes among various agents of climate change. Aerosol indirect effects will not fit into this scaling because unique microphysical feedback mechanisms operate, and the magnitude of the microphysical feedbacks is large relative to the radiative feedbacks.
Rationale of IPCC (2007) for Including Only the First Indirect Effect
IPCC (2007) continues to adopt the approach that only the first aerosol indirect effect can be rigorously defined as a forcing because, in determining any of the second indirect effects, cloud feedbacks necessarily come into play in the climate system. The second indirect effects are therefore considered as feedbacks (responses to the initial anthropogenic perturbation of aerosol via the first indirect effect) to the climate system rather than as radiative forcings. IPCC (2007) continues to rely on global climate models for these estimates, as they are the only tool presently capable of providing global estimates. Arguably, satellite retrievals could provide global estimates of the indirect effects of aerosols (e.g., Nakajima et al. 2001; Brenguier et al. 2000) but an unambiguous determination of a change in cloud reflectance when influenced by anthropogenic aerosols is hampered by large natural variability and/or artifacts in retrievals of cloud liquid water path and/or cloud effective radius caused by absorbing aerosol above cloud (e.g., Haywood et al. 2004). As with all such satellite-based approaches, there is also the question of the degree to which modern-day "clean" conditions are representative of global preindustrial conditions. Figure 19.3 shows the first indirect radiative forcing determined by IPCC (2007), ranging from -0.2 to -1.8 W m-2.
It may be argued that the second indirect effects have to be comprehensively quantified if we are to understand fully the effects of aerosols upon clouds. While there is no doubt that clouds remain one of the most challenging aspects in accurate simulations of climate change, the following argument shows that there is some wisdom in not (yet) including the second indirect effects as radiative forcing mechanisms. This statement stems from the different behavior of the second aerosol indirect effect when assessed by GCM schemes compared with more detailed microphysical large eddy models (LEMs). In GCM pa-rameterizations, the second indirect effect leads to a decrease in precipitation efficiency and therefore increases in cloud water path and fraction. In LEM simulations, however, the response to increases in particle concentration depends on precise details of the situation. In studies of tradewind cumuli, Xue and Feingold (2006) and Xue et al. (2008) found that the competing effects of aerosol-induced precipitation suppression and evaporation enhancement determined whether aerosols increased or decreased cloud fraction, and could be quite regime-dependent. Detailed modeling studies of stratiform clouds by Ackerman et al. (2004) and Wood (2007) showed that the second indirect effect can operate either to enhance or reduce cloud amount, again depending on the precise conditions that prevail (humidity above cloud and cloud-base
ui cd O
Radiative forcing from cloud albedo effect -->-r
Hadley (Jones et al. 2001) Hadley (Williams et al. 2001) CSIRO (Rotsayn and Penner 2001) GISS (Menon et al. 2002) CSIRO (Rotstayn and Liu 2003) LMDZ (Quaas et al. 2004) LMDZ/POLDER (Dufresne et al. 2005) GFDL (Ming et al. 2005)
ECHAM (Lohmann et al. 2000) PNNL (Ghan et al. 2001) NCAR-CCM (Chuang et al. 2002) NCAR-CCM (Kristjansson 2002) SPRINTARS (Suzuki et al. 2004) SPRINTARS (Takemura et al. 2005) GISS (Hansen et al. 2005) LMDZ/CTRL (Quaas and Boucher 2005) LMDZ/POLDER (Quaas and Boucher 2005) LMDZ/MODIS (Quaas and Boucher 2005) UM_ctrl (Chen and Penner 2005) UM_1 (Chen and Penner 2005) UM_2 (Chen and Penner 2005) UM_3 (Chen and Penner 2005) UM_4 (Chen and Penner 2005) UM_5 (Chen and Penner 2005) UM_6 (Chen and Penner 2005) Oslo (Penner et al. 2006) LMDZ (Penner et al. 2006) CCSR (Penner et al. 2006)
Figure 19.3 Assessment of the first indirect effect. Modified from Forster et al. (2007). BC: black carbon; D: dust; N: nitrate; OC: organic carbon; S: sulfate; SS: sea salt.
height being two of the conditions identifi ed). Studies with CRMs for deep convection indicate that increasing aerosols can either increase or decrease precipitation (van der Heever et al. 2006; Khain and Pokrovsky 2004; Khain et al. 2004; Khain et al. 2005; Lynn et al. 2005), depending on the stability and moisture structure of the flow in which convection develops.
Although global climate models appear to simulate the first-order effect of aerosols on cloud droplet number and precipitation fairly well, the climate impact of this change depends on a host of feedback processes, some of which have only crudely been modeled. This means that in GCMs, which are the only tool available at present for diagnosing the second indirect effect on a global basis, cloud water path or fraction always increases with particle concentration, leading to a cooling of the Earth-atmosphere system. Analysis of the results presented in Forster et al. (2007) shows that in all of the climate models studied, the total indirect effects were more negative than the first indirect effect alone, indicating that the second indirect effect in all the models operated in this manner. In more detailed models, which represent the microphysical, dynamic, and radiative properties of both clouds and aerosols far more explicitly, the second indirect effect can operate in either direction, suggesting that the global impact on the Earth-atmosphere system is unclear.
Limitations of Forcing as a Measure of Indirect Effects
In the previous section, we made a case for viewing forcing as IPCC has traditionally construed it; that is, as an instantaneous flux change produced by a specified change in atmospheric composition. Here, we consider further characteristics of cloud-aerosol interactions which may limit the interpretation of forcing when applied to aerosol indirect effects.
Figure 19.1 presented a traditional view of aerosol direct and indirect effects in GCMs. As noted above, process-level models (e.g., LEM) raise the possibility that, as clouds evolve from an initial state with increased aerosol, evaporation may compete with reduced precipitation and break the sequence depicted in Figure 19.1. A concern for GCM development is that current cloud parame-terizations are not able to capture processes in LEMs that could fundamentally alter the response of clouds to aerosols. However, even with current state-of-the-science GCM cloud parameterizations, the response of clouds to increased aerosols can differ fundamentally, depending on atmospheric state. Figure 19.4 shows the change in cloud liquid profiles over two days of integration at high and low particle concentrations, using the single-column model for the GFDL AM2 (GFDL 2004). (A simplified radiation parameterization has been used in these calculations.) For the moist sounding, the clouds and aerosols interact as depicted in Figure 19.1. For the dry sounding, Figure 19.5 shows that the interaction sequence is broken after drizzle is suppressed and liquid water content increased; this, in turn, results in an increase in cloud-top longwave cooling. The associated instability leads to increased entrainment of dry air into the planetary boundary layer and subsequent increased evaporation. Cloud lifetime decreases with increasing aerosol particle concentrations, and the sign of the cloud lifetime effect is changed. Figure 19.6 summarizes the sequences of interactions between clouds and radiation occurring in Figure 19.1 and 19.5. The mechanisms shown in Figures 19.5 and 19.6 are by no means the only possibilities for reducing cloud liquid water at high particle concentration.
Initial profiles
20 40 60 80 100
w tu
Initial profiles
20 40 60 80 100
284 286 288 290 292 Temperature (°K)
Figure 19.4 Evolution of cloud liquid over two days at high and low aerosol concentrations for two initial relative humidity (RH) profiles (otherwise identical soundings) in the GFDL AM2 single-column model. Cloud liquid is a grid mean, i.e., the product of cloud fraction and in-cloud water mixing ratio.
Evolution of cloud water
Moist sounding Dry sounding
880 900 920 940 960 980
284 286 288 290 292 Temperature (°K)
Figure 19.4 Evolution of cloud liquid over two days at high and low aerosol concentrations for two initial relative humidity (RH) profiles (otherwise identical soundings) in the GFDL AM2 single-column model. Cloud liquid is a grid mean, i.e., the product of cloud fraction and in-cloud water mixing ratio.
Among other possibilities is turbulence that results from precipitation suppression (Ackerman et al. 2004; Wood 2005), and all such mechanisms are not included in current GCM parameterizations.
A change in the sign of the cloud lifetime effect does not, by itself, negate the case made earlier about the utility of the forcing concept. The cloud lifetime effect acts as a feedback. Whether the feedback is positive or negative depends on the moisture structure of the atmosphere in which the clouds form in the illustrative case we have just discussed, and probably on additional
Increased radiative Reduced cloud lifetime
Unperturbed cloud
Increased CDNC (constant LWC) (Twomy, 1974)
/Albedo effect/ 1st indirect effect/I Twomey effect j
Drizzle suppression increased LWC
Increased radiative Reduced cloud cooling
Increased cloud-top instability and dry-air entrainment
Increased evaporation lifetime
Figure 19.5 A schematic diagram showing how the sequence of indirect effects depicted in Figure 19.1 can change if drier air overlies the planetary boundary layer. Curved lines represent entrainment, while other notation follows Figure 19.1.
GCM parameterizations: traditional indirect path
Anthropogenic aerosol perturbation to cloud
GCM parameterizations: alternate indirect path
Anthropogenic aerosol perturbation to cloud
Increased Nd
Assume no change to LWC
Decreased ref
Increased Nd
| Assume no change to LWC [ Decreased reff ]
Smaller cloud particles
Smaller cloud particles
Reduced coalescence
Reduced coalescence
Smaller raindrops
Decreased rainfall
Reduced rainout
Increased LWC
Cloud a function of LWC Increased cloud lifetime ]
Increased development
Smaller raindrops
Decreased rainfall
Reduced rainout
Increased LWC
Increased cloud height
| Cloud a function of LWC [ Increased radiative cooling ]
| Cloud-top Instability [ Increased dry-air entrainment J
| Boundary layer interaction [ Increased evaporation ]
Reduced cloud lifetime
Figure 19.6 Sequence of feedbacks in GCMs in response to increasing aerosol concentration. The GCM paths on the left and right correspond to Figure 19.1. LWC: liquid water content.
factors in other cases. A more interesting situation would arise were a negative cloud lifetime effect to reduce cloud lifetime sufficiently rapidly so that the resulting reduction in reflected shortwave radiation exceeded the increase in reflected shortwave radiation associated with the first indirect effect. In this case, the combination of oppositely signed albedo and lifetime effects would have a net effect of opposite sign to the forcing. This certainly is not consistent with the general view of a feedback amplifying or damping a forcing, although it would still fit within the framework of Equation 19.1 or 19.2, but only if negative climate sensitivities or efficacies are allowed. Much of the IPCC rationale for using forcing is that it scales with temperature response in a fairly straightforward manner. The relationship between forcing and temperature response is not straightforward if the magnitude of a cloud lifetime effect exceeds that of an oppositely signed cloud albedo effect.
The use of "quasi-forcing" avoids issues of this type but is likely to exhibit considerable model-dependence. It also clearly (and undesirably) includes some but not all feedbacks operating in the climate system. As a practical matter, the relative merits of forcing and "quasi-forcing" would depend on the prevalence of situations where indirect non-albedo cloud effects oppose the indirect cloud albedo effect and the relative magnitudes of albedo and non-albedo effects. If the prevalence is low or the albedo effects are much larger than the non-albedo effects, the advantages of clear separation of forcing from feedback using the current IPCC approach are very evident. As noted, Forster et al. (2007) report that climate models developed thus far, which include indirect effects, exhibit same-signed global-mean indirect albedo and non-albedo effects. This is true for the GFDL AM2 (Ming et al. 2005), as is evident in Figure 19.2, even though its parameterizations allow oppositely signed non-albedo and albedo effects. The current state of climate modeling of indirect effects, then, does not make the case for departing from the current approach to forcing for indirect aerosol effects. However, a major caveat lies in the poorly developed state of many of the cloud parameterizations on which indirect effects depend. The case shown in Figures 19.1, 19.4, and 19.5 depends strongly on the treatment of cloud radiation and boundary-layer turbulence, both of which are probably represented with limited realism in GCMs. The preliminary conclusions about relative magnitudes and signs of indirect cloud-albedo and non-albedo effects may change with further GCM development.
Indirect aerosol effects challenge the traditional view of forcing in climate models. For liquid clouds alone, several aerosol effects are likely. In state-of-the-science GCMs, these effects can be considered in terms of traditional forcing-feedback analysis, since the global responses to changes in droplet size, which produce the indirect cloud albedo effect, amplify the albedo effect. The concept remains useful if indirect non-albedo effects are oppositely signed to the albedo effects, at least if the magnitude of these effects remains smaller than the cloud albedo effect. (If not, quantities such as climate sensitivity and forcing efficacy need not even remain positive for indirect forcing.)
Even though forcing-feedback analysis remains a viable tool for considering indirect aerosol effects, much of its attractiveness in earlier applications disappears. For example, the climate sensitivity for forcing by indirect effects of aerosols in Equation 19.1 will almost certainly take values considerably different than for forcing by changes in well-mixed greenhouse gases, at least for some models. Although this can be formally treated using the climate forcing efficacy in Equation 19.2, substantial departures of the forcing efficacy from unity are quite possible for indirect forcing. Given the range of results in Figure 19.3, substantial variation of the climate forcing efficacy among models is also likely, at least at the present stage of model development. Note here that feedbacks for well-mixed greenhouse gases are also important. The limitations on the utility of the forcing concept arise because the nature of the feedbacks differs for perturbations of clouds by aerosols and perturbations in well-mixed greenhouse gases.
The case of indirect forcing by aerosols simulated by the GFDL AM2, shown in Figure 19.2, provided an illustrative example. Although it exhibited qualitative similarities in the regional patterns of flux changes for forcing and "quasi-forcing," the regional and global mean magnitudes differed appreciably. These differences are attributable to the presence of strong microphysical feedbacks that result from changes in the sizes of cloud droplets when aerosols increase. Direct aerosol forcing and forcing by changes in well-mixed greenhouse gases are assumed to have feedbacks that respond only to radiative perturbations, whereas both radiative and microphysical feedbacks occur with aerosol indirect effects. The large magnitude of the non-albedo (microphysical) "quasi-forcing" indicates that the temperature response to a forcing whose feedbacks result from a purely radiative perturbation will differ from a forcing whose feedbacks result from both radiative and microphysical perturbations.
As a result, the chief rationale for using forcings in IPCC—to compare cleanly the relative importance of perturbations in atmospheric composition— is likely to be limited for indirect aerosol effects. At least, the climate forcing efficacy will require consideration, along with forcing, to compare indirect aerosol effects with other forcing. This situation introduces complexity but is an inevitable consequence of the vast difference between the forcing mechanism associated with indirect aerosol effects and other forcing mechanisms considered by the IPCC. Although changes in greenhouse gases or direct aerosol effects are assumed to force the atmosphere by changing its radiative properties, indirect aerosol effects force the atmosphere by changing both its radiative and microphysical properties. Feedbacks occur in all cases but can operate through more processes in response to indirect aerosol effects.
"Quasi-forcing" or pseudo-indirect forcing is a strong candidate to supplement IPCC forcing. Its chief drawback is probably the confusion which using the term "forcing" produces. Given that "quasi-forcing" is, in fact, the TOA radiative flux perturbation produced by integrating an atmospheric GCM from preindustrial to present-day composition with fixed SSTs and sea-ice extents, we recommend using the term radiative flux perturbation instead. Radiative flux perturbations are likely to scale more closely with global mean surface temperature change than IPCC forcings and, like forcings, remain reasonably easy to calculate, relative to fully coupled GCMs. In addition to incorporating aerosol indirect effects, recent results from Gregory and Webb (2008) suggest that the radiative flux perturbations will include fast cloud feedbacks as well. Invariably, intermodel spread in radiative flux perturbations is likely to be greater than the spread in forcings. Thus, radiative flux perturbation would more accurately capture uncertainty associated with indirect effects than forcing.
C. Seman (GFDL) provided formatting assistance for figures.
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Chuang, C. C., J. E. Penner, J. M. Prospero et al. 2002. Cloud susceptibility and the first aerosol indirect forcing: Sensitivity to black carbon and aerosol concentrations. J. Geophys. Res. 107(D21):4564.
Dufresne, J.-L., J. Quaas, O. Boucher, S. Denvil, and L. Fairhead. 2005. Contrasts in the effects on climate of anthropogenic sulfate aerosols between the 20th and the 21st century. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32:L21703.
Forster, P., V. Ramaswamy, P. Artaxo et al. 2007. Radiative forcing of climate change. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning et al. pp. 129-234. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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Ghan, S., N. Laulainen, R. Easter et al. 2001. Evaluation of aerosol direct radiative forcing in MIRAGE. J. Geophys. Res. 106(D6):5295-5316.
Gregory, J., and M. J. Webb. 2008. Tropospheric adjustment induces a cloud component in CO2 forcing. J. Climate 19(1):39.
Hansen, J., and L. Nazarenko. 2004. Soot climate forcing via snow and ice albedos. PNAS 101:423-428.
Hansen, J., M. Sato, L. Nazarenko et al. 2002. Climate forcings in Goddard Institute for Space Studies SI2000 simulations. J. Geophys. Res. 107:D184347.
Hansen, J., M. Sato, R. Ruedy et al. 2005. Efficacy of climate forcings. J. Geophys. Res. 110:D18104.
Haywood, J. M., S. R. Osborne, and S. J. Abel. 2004. The effect of overlying absorbing aerosol layers on remote sensing retrievals of cloud effective radius and cloud optical depth. Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc. 130:779-800.
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Jacobson, M. Z. 2001. Strong radiative heating due to the mixing state of black carbon in atmospheric aerosols. Nature 409:695-697.
Jones, A., D. L. Roberts, and M. J. Woodage. 2001. Indirect sulphate aerosol forcing in a climate model with an interactive sulphur cycle. J. Geophys. Res. 106(D17):20,293-20,301.
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Khain, A., A. Pokrovsky, M. Pinsky, A. Seifert, and V. Phillips. 2004. Simulation of effects of atmospheric aerosols on deep turbulent convective clouds using a spectral microphysics mixed phase cumulus cloud model. Part I: Model description and possible applications. J. Atmos. Sci. 15:2963-2982.
Khain, A., and A. Pokrovsky. 2004. Simulation of effects of atmospheric aerosols on deep turbulent convective clouds using a spectral microphysics mixed-phase cumulus cloud model. Part II: Sensitivity study. J. Atmos. Sci. 24:2983-3001.
Khain, A., D. Rosenfeld, and A. Pokrovsky. 2005. Aerosol impact on the dynamics and microphysics of deep convective clouds. Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc. 131:2639-2663.
Kristjansson, J. E., A. Staple, J. Kristiansen, and E. Kaas. 2002. A new look at possible connections between solar activity, clouds and climate. Geophys. Res. Lett. 29(23):2107.
Leaitch, W. R., G. A. Isaac, J. W. Strapp, C. M. Banic, and H. A. Wiebe. 1992. The relationship between cloud droplet number concentration and anthropogenic pollution: Observations and climatic implications. J. Geophys. Res. 97:2463-2474.
Lohmann, U., J. Feichter, J. E. Penner, and W. R. Leaitch. 2000. Indirect effect of sulfate and carbonaceous aerosols: A mechanistic treatment. J. Geophys. Res. 105(D10):12,193-12,206.
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Quaas, J., and O. Boucher. 2005. Constraining the first aerosol indirect radiative forcing in the LMDZ GCM using POLDER and MODIS satellite data. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32:L17814.
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Wood, R. 2005. Drizzle in stratiform boundary layer clouds. Part I. Vertical and horizontal structure. J. Atmos. Sci. 62:3011-3033.
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Xue, H., and G. Feingold. 2006. Large-eddy simulations of trade wind cumuli: Investigation of aerosol indirect effects. J. Atmos. Sci. 63:1605-1622.
Xue, H., G. Feingold, and B. Stevens. 2008. Aerosol effects on clouds, precipitation, and the organization of shallow cumulus convection. J. Atmos. Sci. 65:392-406.


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The building where our contact centre is based was evacuated on 13 June. Our contact centre and emails are up and running again, but please be patient as we have limited support available. We'll do our best to help you if you need to contact us. For more information, read our latest media release.
An introduction to the requirements for becoming a licensed rental vehicle operator, and your legal and other responsibilities once you've obtained your rental service licence.
Things to know when hiring a vehicle in New Zealand, including your responsibilities to the rental company and your responsibilities while driving on our roads.
© 2019 NZ Transport Agency, all rights reserved
New Zealand Government

subset: commoncrawl


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Get the news
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text:
All About X11 Coins
Mining altcoins (e.g. Ethereum mining) is more affordable than what youd need in order to mine Bitcoin. But this only means that the hardware will cost less. Another hassles of power costs, configurations, maintenance and so on are essentially the same.
Sometimes youll encounter a website or mobile program that tells you they will mine coins for you. Most of these services are pretty much useless and will usually consume your devices computing power and battery life just to give you a couple of cents in return.
Another option is cloud mining paying someone else to handle the mining equipment for you. When this sounds perfect, the majority of the cloud mining websites today are simply pretending to use your money for mining operations, they're in fact scams.
Furthermore, while there are a few legit sites on the market, the money youd cover them to mine Bitcoin is probably better invested just buying Bitcoin. Obviously we always urge you to do your own market research since in the end, its own money.
A very popular way of growing your Bitcoin riches is through Bitcoin lending systems. These sites connect borrowers that need crypto with crypto owners that lend their coins for an interest rate. Because such loans are ultra insecure the interest rates are high that initially seems like a fantastic thing. .
Well, since there's absolutely no actual collateral which holds the borrower liable for your loan more often than not these loans default and lenders are left with no money.
Weve tested out many loans at 99Bitcoins, and they all eventually defaulted. Thats why I recommend to steer clear of this specific method.
Another method I suggest you avoid are coin doublers and higher Yield Investment Programs also known as HYIPs. These are sites which promise to double your coins every couple of days or provide you unreal interest rates.
What these sites actually do is take money from new customers and use that money to pay off older users. This method makes a great deal of buzz around the site that is apparently legit and solvent.
Little Known Questions About Scrypt Coins.
On top of that, they almost always have some kind of referral app so that consumers can bring their friends on board.
This is the way a Ponzi scheme functions. This will go on for around 3-4 months until one day the site will just go offline and the money is going to be gone. No longer payments will be made and a great deal of people may get angry that they got scammed.
We've reviewed many Bitcoin investment websites in the previous 3 decades and have yet to find a website which we can say is secure to invest in. Any site that guarantees you something that's too good to be true is likely just a facade for individuals trying to steal your coins. .
Best Alt Coins - Questions
How can you find out if a website is a scam for yourself Easy, utilize our Bitcoin scam evaluation tool to get a fair assumption about a sites validity.
Starting around August 2017 Bitcoin began forking Look At This into other coins. In a nutshell, forking means a new Bitcoin clone originates in the existing Bitcoin. Every person who held Bitcoin before the fork can now claim the new coin as well.
The first popular branch was Bitcoin Cash, but soon after followed Bitcoin Gold, Bitcoin Diamond and more. The procedure for claiming forked coins (aka forkcoins) is standard but demands an above basic understanding of how Bitcoin works. You can view our fork claiming guide here.
Fascination About Multi Coin Wallet
Keep in mind that if youre not sure what youre doing when claiming a forkcoin you could end up losing your Bitcoins. So for many non technical customers it would better to pass on a fork and keep your Bitcoins secure. Other alternatives include companies which assert the coins for you and take a commission but this may easily turn into a scam which runs off with you money. .
More About Cpu Mining Coins
Once you maintained a forkcoin you can sell it on an exchange for Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies assuming it has a market.
Airdrops are much like forks in the sense that you get coins out of thin air. Airdrops are often utilized to spread the word about a certain cryptocurrency. The currency is distributed freely to the public, although in certain situations some conditions can apply.
By way of instance, Byteball was distributed freely to Bitcoin users depending on the amount of Bitcoins they owned.
To conclude, forks and airdrops could possibly be the highest value for some time method you can use to make money from your Bitcoins however they can be SUPER risky. I would recommend that you use these methods only after ample research and a fantastic understanding of the claiming process.


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Ruby-LXC is a Ruby binding for liblxc. It allows the creation and management of Linux Containers from Ruby scripts.
Ruby-LXC alternatives and related gems
Based on the "DevOps Tools" category
Vagrant9.9 9.5 L2 Ruby-LXC VS VagrantCreate and configure lightweight, reproducible, and portable development environments.
Logstash9.9 9.0 L4 Ruby-LXC VS LogstashLogs/event transport, processing, management, search.
Capistrano9.8 4.6 L4 Ruby-LXC VS CapistranoA remote server automation and deployment tool written in Ruby.
Chef9.7 9.8 L4 Ruby-LXC VS ChefA systems integration framework, built to bring the benefits of configuration management to your entire infrastructure.
Puppet9.6 9.7 L3 Ruby-LXC VS PuppetAn automated administrative engine for your Linux, Unix, and Windows systems, performs administrative tasks (such as adding users, installing packages, and updating server configurations) based on a centralized specification.
Backup9.1 1.0 L4 Ruby-LXC VS BackupProvides an elegant DSL in Ruby for performing backups on UNIX-like systems.
Mina8.9 0.1 L5 Ruby-LXC VS MinaReally fast deployer and server automation tool.
BOSH8.4 9.6 L4 Ruby-LXC VS BOSHCloud Foundry BOSH is an open source tool chain for release engineering, deployment and lifecycle management of large scale distributed services.
Request-log-analyzer7.8 0.0 L4 Ruby-LXC VS Request-log-analyzerCreate reports based on your log files. Supports Rails, Apache, MySQL, Delayed::Job, and other formats.
Deployinator7.4 0.7 L5 Ruby-LXC VS DeployinatorDeployinator is a deployment framework extracted from Etsy.
Centurion7.2 3.0 L5 Ruby-LXC VS CenturionA mass deployment tool for Docker fleets.
Rubber7.1 0.8 L5 Ruby-LXC VS RubberThe rubber plugin enables relatively complex multi-instance deployments of RubyOnRails applications to Amazon's Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2).
Lita7.0 0.0 L5 Ruby-LXC VS LitaChatOps for Ruby: A pluggable chat bot framework usable with any chat service.
Einhorn6.7 3.7 L4 Ruby-LXC VS EinhornEinhorn will open one or more shared sockets and run multiple copies of your process. You can seamlessly reload your code, dynamically reconfigure Einhorn, and more.
Dpl6.7 7.7 L5 Ruby-LXC VS DplDpl (dee-pee-ell) is a deploy tool made for continuous deployment.
Kochiku4.8 0.3 L5 Ruby-LXC VS KochikuKochiku is a distributed platform for test automation.
Blender3.9 0.0 L5 Ruby-LXC VS BlenderA modular system orchestration framework with pluggable driver and host discovery.
SSHKey2.8 3.8 L5 Ruby-LXC VS SSHKeySSH private and public key generator in pure Ruby (RSA & DSA).
Capistrano rbenv2.7 0.8 Ruby-LXC VS Capistrano rbenvIdiomatic rbenv support for Capistrano 3.x
Logs1.1 3.4 Ruby-LXC VS LogsMountable Rails Engine for viewing paginated logs from a browser
chef-template0.8 0.0 Ruby-LXC VS chef-templateChef Solo config for management servers with Ruby/Rack based applications
* Code Quality Rankings and insights are calculated and provided by Lumnify.
They vary from L1 to L5 with "L5" being the highest. Visit our partner's website for more details.
Do you think we are missing an alternative of Ruby-LXC or a related project?
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Welcome to the website of St Martin's Church, Brasted in Kent. Do join us at a service, and feel free to ring (01959 565829) with any enquiries. Our full address is St Martin's Church, Church Road, Brasted, Westerham TN16 1HZ. Click here for a location map.
Linda Green, Rector
3 May: New St Martin's History and Guide details in Notices
4 May: Services for June to August added in Services
10 May: Report for 2018 added in Music
10 May: The Stocket Chapel Restoration and Ringing for Notre-Dame added in News
10am: Sung Eucharist CW
Trinity Sunday
10am: Sung Eucharist CW
6.30pm: Sung Evensong
Coffee Break
in the St Martin's Room
with coffee and homemade cake
All will be very welcome.
Trinity 1
10am: Sung Eucharist (CW)
Trinity 2
10am: Sung Eucharist (CW)
Further future services and dates of events can be found at Services, Dates for your Diary, Music, and Heritage Trust.
St Martin's Church takes seriously its responsibility to protect and safeguard the welfare of children and vulnerable adults.
You are visitor number since 18 May 2012. Counter provided by WebCounter


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With Designed with tongue and groove paneling to avoid splintering all joints are secured with traditional mortise and tenon giving a professional clean finish and Large pull out tray too which makes cleaning easy. complete with easy to read step by step instructions for simple and quick assembly, the WA-008 is available now from MOOL. The Mool Easy Clean Double Decker Wooden Rabbit Guinea Pig Hutch With Play Area 156 X 58 X 682 Cm is offered for RabbitHutch.org.uk customers to order online at this fantastic price.
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Ricardo Arjona
September 8th, 2014
Edgar Ricardo Arjona Morales
Ricardo Arjona
Pop Latino
Years Active:
'90s, '00s, '10s
Ricardo Arjona
Guatemalan singer/songwriter Ricardo Arjona is one of the more respected Latin artists, mostly for his social conscience and his integrity in writing and performing songs. Born in Antigua, he was interested in music from an early age but later decided to become a rural schoolteacher. He also played basketball for the Guatemalan national team, but continued to play his guitar and write songs in his spare time. After realizing that music was his one true love, he moved to Mexico City; once there, he began looking for a record contract and played at many student festivals, increasing his status as a protest singer.
Become a fan of the Top Songs 2014 on Facebook for exclusive offers, the inside scoop on latest and most exclusive music albums, singles and videos.


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A new restaurant on the horizon
If everything goes according to plan, in approximately one month to six weeks a new restaurant will open in Concordia. It is housed at 108 NW Fourth St., which is the former location of the combo restaurant KFC/Taco Bell. According to property owner Isein Kadrijoski, the restaurant will serve typical diner fare.
"(We'll serve) breakfast and lunch for now, and then in future days if we get enough help, we'll serve dinner too," he said. "In future weeks or months, maybe 24 hours. But first we need to get enough help in here."
During lunch service some specialty dishes, such as Greek, Italian and Mexican, will be served along with what is generally served for lunch at a diner, he added. As for the food, Kadrijoski's promised it will be all homemade, and nothing frozen.
Remodeling is still underway at the building. The original order counters were removed, and a number of other changes will happen to the interior design and décor of the building. Some modifications will occur to the exterior, but the major rehabilitation is to the interior. Other changes include updating the kitchen and its equipment, new floors, window shades, booths, tables and chairs.
Kadrijoski has experience with running restaurants, as his family has another restaurant run by his sons. Once the restaurant is ready to open, Kadrijoski's son, Arlind will oversee its day-to-day operations.
"We like the location here," he noted. "I bought this place for my son because of the location. McDonald's, the truck stop and the highway is here. ... We looked at quite a few places, but either the location or the building was bad. We liked this place the most."


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After a two year break, Bigben and Kylotonn are all set to release their latest title in their long running WRC franchise, WRC 8. WRC 8 is releasing in September 2019 and will come out on PS4, Nintendo Switch, Xbox One and PC.
Kylotonn and Bigben have been busy collecting fan feedback over the years and from their eSports WRC championship as well and have used that to create one of the best rally experiences ever with WRC 8. WRC 8 will be heavily inspired by all the collected fan feedback and will greatly expand on the original WRC formula.
WRC 8 will feature better graphics which are evident by the reveal trailer. The game looks absolutely gorgeous specially the ground and gravel textures look amazing. Since the game is currently in development, we can expect that these visuals will be even better in the final release.
Check out the reveal trailer below. The trailer features Ford Fiesta World Rally Car ripping it out at the brand-new Rally Turkey.
Apart from better visuals, WRC 8 will also feature better steering requirements and more realistic vehicle physics than WRC 7. WRC 8 will also bring the roster of world famous rally drivers along with their official rally teams.
All teams will be according to the official FIA 2019 WRC season. Drivers like Sebastien Ogier, Esapekka Lappi, Jari-Matti Latvala, Kris Meeke and Ott Tanak. Fans would be delighted to know that nine-time WRC champion and legend, Sebastien Loeb is also returning back to WRC for 2019.
All player favorite teams are returning in WRC 8 which include Citroen Racing, Toyota and Hyundai Motorsport. Players will get to experience the most advanced and fastest rally bred machines these companies have to offer in the game.
Apart from WRC drivers, WRC 8 will also feature different WRC 2 and Junior WRC drivers. The developers also claim that a few historic models will also be featured in the game however they will be revealed later.
WRC 8 will feature more than 100 special stages over 14 countries and each country will bring its own unique challenges and obstacles. Players will need to upgrade their vehicles and each vehicle is now highly customizable in the game. Team development is also vital in the most detailed and intense career mode featured in WRC 8.
During rally events, players will now experience dynamic weather which will totally change the driving experience. This will add more realism and increased challenge in the game and players will need to tinker with their machines before each rally to adapt according to the developing situations.
To make sure that players have made the right choices in their vehicle setups, they will be required to keep a healthy relationship with the weather team who will give them tips and other advice which will be crucial to the upcoming rally stages. Weather is not just for visual eye candy, it will have adverse effect on the track and racing conditions.
WRC 8 is slated for release in September 2019 on PS4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch and PC.


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Improved Interoperability: Red Hat Deepens Virtualization Effort with MicrosoftOct 08, 2009
Red Hat and Microsoft have deepened their partnership even further in the virtualization realm under the concept of "interoperabiity." Cross-certification should lead to more satisfied customers.more »
New products and updatesSep 18, 2009
Professional users are always searching for an edge. Whether you work with Linux as a webmaster, programmer, system administrator, or security consultant, you know the best solution depends on finding the right tool for the job. We thought you might be interested in the following new products and updates.more »
Open vSwitch as Virtual Switch for VM EnvironmentsSep 09, 2009
The Open vSwitch open source project has announced development of a sofware switch for virtual environments.more »
Kroah-Hartman: Remove Hyper-V Driver from Kernel?Sep 07, 2009
Microsoft caused a sensation with its release of its Hyper-V virtualization driver -- now its inclusion in the Linux kernel could be in doubt.more »
Red Hat Releases RHEL 5.4Sep 03, 2009
Announced at the Red Hat Summit in Chicago, the Red Hat Enterprise Linux version 5 update intends to set the groundwork for future virtualization products and cloud computing.more »
IDC: Linux Growing into Billion-Dollar MarketAug 20, 2009
Market researcher IDC predicts that Linux will continue steady growth over the next five years, reaching into the billions of dollars in 2012.more »
VMware Acquires SpringSourceAug 11, 2009
Virtualization provider VMware has purchased open source firm SpringSource for $420 million.more »
QEMU and Qemu Manager Sneaking Linux into WindowsJul 31, 2009
Carry a virtual Linux machine with you wherever you go.more »
Issue 224/2019
Buy this issue as a PDF
Chromium-Based Browsers Will Ignore Google's Ad-Blocking Ban
Brave Opera and Vivaldi will not implement Google's changes that will cripple ad-blockers.
Zorin OS 15 Released
The new release is based on Ubuntu 18.04 LTS.
Ubuntu to Package Proprietary Nvidia Driver
Canonical is making it easier for users to install proprietary Nvidia drivers.
openSUSE Leap 15.1 Released
Better hardware support.
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 8 Available
An OS redesigned for the hybrid cloud era.
Google Brings Linux to Chromebook
All new Chromebooks will be capable of running Linux.
Fedora Project Announces Fedora 30
The latest version comes with new tools and a new alignment of the various Fedora editions.
The Apache Software Foundation Completes Migration To GitHub
The foundation has decommissioned its own Git service.
Canonical Combines its Services in a Single Package
Now customers can gain access to all of its services under Ubuntu Advantage offering.
Black Hole Image Has an Open Source Connection
Two imaging libraries responsible for the image are fully open source.


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I want to develop a passive income stream in the next 4 years, nothing grand, maybe an extra 500-1000 dollars a month, but I'm not sure how to go about it so I was wondering if you had any tips. I'm so-so as a writer, and am currently finishing up my second book (just write as a hobby), and in the past made about 30-50 dollars an hour as a free lance writer but that was a couple of years back, it was only for about 10-20 hours a month, and the gig just dried up. I just got particularly lucky with that. I've tried online poker as a means in the past, and which I learned A) was not passive income but hard work and B) I have an addictive personality which resulted in me losing the 4g I earned in 6 weeks over the span of 72 hours so that's out of the picture. I also partook in some illegal selling of things when I was younger, but being a little older and wiser the risk-reward ratio for possibly ending up in Jail just doesn't match up. I tried making three businesses (dog walking, house cleaning, and personal assistant) and while those all were succesful to varying degrees and earned me about 15-25 dollars an hour, they weren't mobile and quiet honestly I don't have the time to be a full time dog walker or run a house cleaning operation seeing as I'll be in school, work, and athletics.
What are your thoughts on an Immediate Annuity as a passive income vehicle? I suppose it's not a great investment since you never get your principal back, but the risk is zero and the cash flow is fairly good, approaching 6% currently. And, since you are guaranteed payments for life, you may not care that you never see your principal again anyway since you'll be dead!
In order to generate $10,000 in Net Operating Profit After Tax (NOPAT) through a rental property, you must own a $50,000 property with an unheard of 20% net rental yield, a $100,000 property with a rare 10% net rental yield, or a more realistic $200,000 property with a 5% net rental yield. When I say net rental yield, I'm talking about rental income minus all expenses, including a mortgage, operating expenses, insurance, and property taxes.
I'm looking at accepting a professor job. It'll be more than a 50% pay cut. But I'll have the same life you describe – endless summers and an entire month every winter to ski. I'm thinking in the end, eventually, I might even end up wealthier in more ways than one. Happy people tend to be the most successful. I have no desire to diversify. Dividend stocks allude me. CDs seem like a good choice for older people, but I have time on my hands and real estate knowledge, so I'm sticking with what I know, despite the fact that most people will tell me it is foolish and I should diversify.
Here you have a chance to become part of a large online community that works together to achieve mutual SUCCESS! Products Home Welcome To Lain-Hamp Co. Your Search For The Right Income Opportunity Is Over! "Beloved, I pray that you may prosper in all things and be in good health as your soul prospers." My Ultimate Goal Here Is To Help You Build Success One Income Opportunity At A Time! Elaine Hampton ~ Owner Copyright © 2002 - 2019 Lain-HampCo.net - All Rights Reserved Getting Rich Is A Pipe Dream 3 John 1:2 Sustainable Residual Wealth Is Attainable!
Vanguard: Vanguard has a minimum of $50,000 and a fee of 0.3%. Rebalancing is done automatically once every quarter and tax loss harvesting is done on a client-by-client basis. We included Vanguard because clients who invest between $50,000-$500,000 have access to a team of financial advisors. Those with accounts over $500,000 will have a dedicated advisor.
Hello from the UK! Fundrise and Wealthfront are only available to US residents it seems :(. Any other readers from the UK here? The only thing I have managed to do from Sam's list is getting a fixed rate bond (CBS is having a 5-year fixed rate at 2.01% – not great but the best I could find ). Don't know if the FIRE movement will ever take off here but would love to trade tips/ideas on how to reach FI and have the freedom to consider alternative rythms to living.
Crowdfunding is a newer way to invest, having emerged onto the scene just within the last few years. Most people have heard of sites like Kickstarter and GoFundMe, and a very similar concept exists for real estate. Developers are always looking to raise capital to fund their projects. Through the various online platforms, investors have access to these projects and can choose to invest in both residential and commercial properties. See the List of My Favorite Crowdfunding Sites.
At some point in life, passive income becomes the 'Holy Grail' for every investor. For some, passive income strategies have an impact early on. For others, it comes mid-life – in an effort to prepare for the unexpected. Then there are those that don't start pursuing it until retirement is in sight, and panic sets in. Unfortunately, there are so many myths surrounding passive income that individuals can take detours down the wrong rabbit holes for years. So what are some of the misconceptions about passive income that need to be busted?
I agree mostly with the real estate advice. I'm looking for ways to take advantage of the condo I own to get up the rent from ~$0.90/ft to the $1.2-1.5/ft that seems more like the range in the same area. I'd have to put in a bit of capital (probably 10k on the low end for just the basics up to 40k if I wanted to remodel the kitchen and 2 bathrooms up to par with the area), so the return is likely there if those upgrades warrant $1.30/ft (given the unit is larger than most 2br/2ba in the area).
What if there was a way for you to effectively make money while you sleep? Sounds like a dream come true, right? Even for the biggest workaholics, there are only so many hours in a day. If only you could get paid multiple times for something you did once—that's exactly how passive income works! Thanks to technology, the potential to create multiple income streams is even easier than ever before. We're no longer held back by the limitations of a traditional 9-to-5 job, and financial freedom is at our fingertips. Even if you already work a full-time job you can still improve your financial health with passive income.
I just found your site & so far I like what I see. I am 50 years old & will be retiring at the end of Jan 2019. I turn 51 the following month. I will have a pension income of $60,000 per year & an additional $5,400 from a survivors benefit. I was able to save $200,000 in a deferred comp program through my employer & wish to know what to do to generate a passive income? I can leave it in the plan which will generate about 3.5% or invest it. My concern is the tax liability of taking out a large sum from that fund & leaving me less to invest. I do have an opportunity to invest in a bar/restaurant with family (my main concern) that currently generates $120,000 annually for an absentee owner. It would be a 3 way partnership if I did that. I do like your idea of creating my own product such a blog with a goal of $12,000 to $18,000 passive income I feel that may be my best option. Any thoughts or advice would be greatly appreciated.
If you have decent writing skills you can start a retainer writer business. Mastering your pitch will put you in a position where you can land awesome writing gigs. You can then complete the work yourself as you establish yourself in this space, and from there, the sky is the limit. Outsourcing is key to creating a passive income stream from this idea.
I agree mostly with the real estate advice. I'm looking for ways to take advantage of the condo I own to get up the rent from ~$0.90/ft to the $1.2-1.5/ft that seems more like the range in the same area. I'd have to put in a bit of capital (probably 10k on the low end for just the basics up to 40k if I wanted to remodel the kitchen and 2 bathrooms up to par with the area), so the return is likely there if those upgrades warrant $1.30/ft (given the unit is larger than most 2br/2ba in the area).
However, this comes back to the old discussion of pain versus pleasure. We will always do more to avoid pain than we will to gain pleasure. When our backs are against the wall, we act. When they're not, we relax. The truth is that the pain-versus-pleasure paradigm only operates in the short term. We'll only avoid pain in the here and now. Often not in the long term.
And while real estate is an excellent option, it does require a significant initial investment, so whether or not this passive income stream is right for you depends on your current financial situation. You might be better off starting with an investment strategy where you can build funds until you have a big enough sum to get involved in real estate.
Build a list in a particular niche and tell them stories. Create a bond. Build a relationship with them. It's important. Then, when you've created a bit of culture, start marketing affiliate products or services to them that you think they might like. Just be sure that you personally vet out whatever it is that you're selling to avoid complaints if the product or service falls short.
Or you could do joint ventures/strategic alliances for your business or for other businesses and make residual cash flow for $0 investment.. that's what I do lol. No money, no risk, little time, 20+ years working from home. Just connect companies and take a %, use the Internet to do it locally or globally, be the intermediary & connect companies…. ;-)
Individual customers and businesses can purchase your stock images for their websites and marketing materials. Simple stock photos, like businessmen shaking hands or a woman riding in a car, are sought after by many companies. To be most successful, you'll want to upload photos monthly to consistently grow your portfolio. You'll generate a commission each time one of your photos is downloaded.
Did any of these ideas interest you in building passive income? Want a clearer picture of how different income streams might fit into your overall wealth-building strategy? If so, connect with a financial professional through our SmartVestor program and create a game plan to start building wealth that lasts. A financial pro will look at all your income streams and help you develop a financial plan that meets your individual needs. Find a SmartVestor Pro today!
The underlying idea is that investors require a rate of return from their resources – i.e. equity – under the control of the firm's management, compensating them for their opportunity cost and accounting for the level of risk resulting. This rate of return is the cost of equity, and a formal equity cost must be subtracted from net income. Consequently, to create shareholder value, management must generate returns at least as great as this cost. Thus, although a company may report a profit on its income statement, it may actually be economically unprofitable; see Economic profit. It is thus possible that a value deemed positive using a traditional discounted cash flow (DCF) approach may be negative here. RI-based valuation is therefore a valuable complement to more traditional techniques.
The trial court ruled in Karen's favor and signed a proposed divorce decree that had been drafted up by Brad's attorney. Neither party appealed the decree. After the divorce, however, Karen's monthly income began to progressively decline. As a result, she filed a petition in July of 2007 alleging that Brad had violated the terms of the divorce decree. She also proposed an alternative argument that perhaps the divorce decree was too vague and needed to be clarified. The trial court found that the decree was, in fact, too vague, and ordered it to be clarified.


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outdoor installations of tile murals
Project Info
Category: Outdoor Wall Murals Decorative
Date: June 25, 2019
Site URL: www.natalieblakestudios.com
Project Description
outdoor installations of tile murals. Kitchen Metal Wall Art Decor Home Furniture And Design. Wall Murals For Outdoor Walls Wallpaper. outdoor wall hangings sloanesboutique.com. Decorative Murals. Garden Ideas Outdoor Wall Hangings Door Murals Kitchen. Outdoor Tile Murals. 20 Best Decorative Outdoor Metal Wall Art. Top 15 of Outside Wall Art. 2018 Best of Decorative Outdoor Metal Wall Art


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We are human. Let's face it. We find that when lonely, we want to be in company. Not just with anyone, but someone we perceive values and needs the attention. Somehow, combating someone else's loneliness caters for ours. "You're such a great listener! I enjoy our conversations!" Our ear drums beat excitedly to the rhythm…
We are human.
Let's face it.
We find that when lonely, we want to be in company. Not just with anyone, but someone we perceive values and needs the attention.
Somehow, combating someone else's loneliness caters for ours.
"You're such a great listener! I enjoy our conversations!"
Our ear drums beat excitedly to the rhythm of this compliment as an "achievement bulb" lights up in our heads.
We forget that it is genuine interest that fuels the art of true listening. Interest either in the topic or the person. Interest, sometimes, however, in been listened to ourselves. Not necessarily toward a "profitable" end; not because we want to motivate or inspire. Neither for fact sharing nor experience detailing – we just want to speak and be heard.
We crack jokes…
…Drop bars, "whine" and grant sarcastic responses to questions we feel are below our intellectual high-ground.
Like Simi, we pay no attention to jamb questions.
We make hilarious facial expressions and concoct worthy captions for them whilst basking in the adulation of RTs and likes.
No doubt, we, individually, possess some level of humor. We're not Jenifa or Helen Paul (Tatafo) . Neither are we EmmaOhMyGod nor Ebiye but at least bae giggles heartily to our poorly put-together banter and our siblings laugh at our misconstrued attempts at dancing.
Sometimes, however, it's not a need to make people laugh that sparks our jokes, it's because we find them funny. The realization of the mutual feeling just heightens the joy of the experience. Hence, the phrase "share a laugh".
So much is said about doing things for others.
There's a school of thought that magnifies the satisfaction of others needs at the expense of one's personal comfort.
That's what it's called.
While neither downplaying the importance and necessity of such a character trait nor advocating for more self-centeredness in relationships, certain boggling questions come to mind.
Will "others" be truly happy:
• if what is done is done with absence of mind/interest?,
• If you "made them laugh" whilst spotting a straight face, some inner sadness & probably no idea of what was funny?
• If your listening was mechanical? "Oh let's do it and get it over with. So they don't say we don't care"
• If the company they enjoyed was with someone not truly present?
My assertion is that we shouldn't just initiate experiences out of a need to feel accepted.
The magic in the moment is the shared experience.
The shared experience is the foundation for the fulfillment found in the moment.
Share in the experience. Share in the moment. Enjoy what you give.
Too many relationships end just because one party is having all the fun. Let's reduce the "I didn't like it, I just did it" in our relationships.
True love asks what it wants from someone in terms of behavior, then takes initiative to treat them likewise.
This way, we not only achieve a semblance of perfection, we grow closer to something divine.


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Contact Virgilio!
Translate your text from English to Italian - up to 250 word
Virgilio C. Italy£10
Delivery in
1 day
(2 reviews)
Response time
within a few hours
What you get with this Offer
I am fluent in both Italian and English and enjoy using that knowledge to translate texts into those two languages. I practice it every day thanks to my business that require constant connections with suppliers and clients from all over the world.
I will offer you a great efficiency and more...
You may experience a slow response from Virgilio as they have marked themselves as unavailable at the moment. Return to browse freelancers.


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This course is designed for those who need to understand the fundamental features and uses of the application and the best way to incorporate these into their work.
None other than basic IT competency.
A comprehensive set of reference notes covering course topics, follow-up telephone support and, for training on Transmedia premises, lunch and refreshments.
London Central • London Greenwich • Bristol
|All our courses run in London and Bristol, or can be tailored to requirements at your own offices. For alternative dates, please email or call us on 0208 269 4260
|All prices are per person and are subject to VAT
15% discount for groups of four delegates.
10% discount for groups of three delegates.
(This offer applies for delegates on the same public scheduled course on the same date.)
"Amazing industry knowledge."
The Economist Group
"Excellent. The best training I have ever had."
National Housing Federation
"Staff were helpful and the course was relevant to my needs. A great course!"
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Baba Sushi Sturbridge SEAFOOD RESTAURANT, SUSHI
2 Thumbs up
2 Reviews
People love discovering this place.
Here's what people say after redeeming their Nift gift.
Vegetable tempora is awesome. Good service. Very nice atmosphere there. Only thing that could be better there is the tofu. It is a little dry.
Redeem your gift here:
453 Main St, Fiskdale, MA 01518


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Tech Saudiya is the latest addition to technology events and conferences in Saudi Arabia. First edition of the one-day event will be held on March 7 at Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University's Conference Center. The event will bring local and international leaders in academia, innovation, and technology.
The event is brainchild of Dr. Artemisa Jaramillo, who currently serves as Programme Director of the Marketing, Innovation, and Technology- Digital Undergraduate programme, at Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, the largest university for women in the world. She is also the founder of GCC Blockchain Community, a network of technology and blockchain professionals in Saudi Arabia.
"Tech Saudiya aims to support and advance women in tech and give them an understanding of how technology is shaping Saudi Arabia's business landscape. Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University is a landmark for Women education in Saudi Arabia as the largest women university in the world," said Dr. Artemisa Jaramillo, speaking to MENAbytes. "With a student population of 52,308 and 3,767 academic staff across 15 colleges, PNU graduates 50% of Saudi Arabia's female professionals every year. Tech Saudiya has opened PNU doors to all University students and professionals in KSA."
The event will feature different talks and panels on blockchain, Saudi tech ecosystem, gender inclusiveness, artificial intelligence, and startup funding. It will also be hosting three workshops (requires registration); Artificial Intelligence and IBM Watson, Advancing your career, and Intro to Data Science.
Tech Saudiya is being led by a committee of academics, researchers and practitioners in partnership with a number of institutions and organizations supporting technology and business innovation in Saudi Arabia.
The event will take place from 9 am to 4 pm at Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Convention Centre (A10). Those attending can access the campus from Gate No. 1 of university and take left towards A10 station. More details about the event and registration here.
Latest posts by MB Staff (see all)
- Dubai-based direct-to-consumer subscription contact lens startup Hopi raises six-figure seed from Omar Kassim's Esanjo - June 23, 2019
- Saudi starts offering permanent residency to expats for $213,000, accepting online applications now - June 23, 2019
- Averos, a Saudi startup that helps businesses track their staff, assets, and inventory in real time, raises seven-figure Pre-Series A - June 23, 2019


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601 Southwest Main Street
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