text:
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text:
* UN Security Council may vote soon on Mali mission
* African Union plans military push to oust Islamist rebels
* Washington more cautious than Paris about plan
By John Irish and Louis Charbonneau
PARIS/UNITED NATIONS, Dec 18 (Reuters) - France said on
Tuesday it would address U.S. concerns about a military mission
to retake northern Mali from Islamist rebels and hoped for a
Security Council vote this week, but U.N. envoys said a
French-U.S. agreement on the issue remained elusive.
U.S. diplomats have voiced scepticism over a French draft
resolution to approve an African Union (AU) military force that
would seek to oust al Qaeda-linked insurgents who seized vast
swathes of the African country last March.
U.N. chief Ban Ki-moon has cautiously recommended the
Security Council approve the operation, but Washington countered
Paris's draft with its own proposal for a two-phase mission,
focusing first on training Malian and other African forces and
pursuing a political process before mandating a military
Foreign Ministry spokesman Philippe Lalliot said Paris was
confident of finding common ground with Washington before the
"We are on course to meet our objective to get this
resolution adopted by the week's end," he told reporters.
"We are discussing two points: the assurances the Americans
are asking for to ensure the U.N. forces are able to carry out
their mission, and financing the mission," Lalliot said.
U.N. Security Council diplomats in New York, however, cast
doubt on the French optimism, telling Reuters on condition of
anonymity that Washington and Paris were still far from a deal.
A senior Western diplomat said "it's not quite nailed down
The draft resolution would have the council authorize the
use of "all necessary measures" - diplomatic code for military
force - to tackle the al Qaeda militants in northern Mali.
The draft would also set key "benchmarks" for Mali,
including a political agreement and verified training and
operational readiness of the battered Malian army and the
African intervention force.
The political track would have to include a deal between the
Malian government and the separatist Tuaregs and Ansar Dine,
diplomats said.
The idea would be that operations to take on al Qaeda in the
north of Mali, which would not begin before September or October
2013, would not commence if the benchmarks were not met, the
draft says.
U.N. diplomats and officials say there has been progress on
the political front. The Tuareg separatist MNLA, which launched
the northern uprising, and Ansar Dine, a local Islamist group,
have agreed to work on a negotiated solution with Malian
Once viewed as an example of democratic progress in Africa,
Mali was plunged into chaos in March by a coup that toppled the
president and left a power vacuum that was quickly exploited by
rebels to seize the country's desert north.
Former colonial master France, which has several citizens
held hostage in the Sahara by al Qaeda-linked groups, is pushing
for a swift war. Washington, which spent years working with
Mali's army, advocates a more cautious approach.
Foreign Minister Laurent Fabius said on Sunday that 14 of
the Security Council's 15 members backed France's initiative,
suggesting Washington was isolated.
The fall of Mali's north to Islamist groups, including al
Qaeda's North African wing AQIM, has created a haven for
militants and international organised crime groups in West
Africa, stirring fears of attacks in Europe.
Washington, however, has said any military intervention
should wait until after elections, to strengthen the civilian
leadership in the capital Bamako where the prime minister was
forced to resign last week after being arrested by the army.
The U.S. delegation wants the council to first authorize the
training mission and then the northern intervention force, while
the French want one authorization.
Another element of the French-U.S. disagreement, diplomats
said, is Washington's belief that Malian troops and forces from
the West African regional group ECOWAS are not up to the fight
against battle-hardened AQIM militants.
The Americans believe non-ECOWAS countries with forces
accustomed to desert fighting like Chad and Mauritania should
lead the initial combat operations in northern Mali, where they
would effectively be attempting to kill as many militants as
The Chadians and Mauritanians have the best desert fighters,
the senior Western diplomat said.
Asked whether Washington and Paris would reach an agreement,
U.S. Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Michael Pelletier said
discussions were ongoing and voiced support for an election in
Mali to be held as soon as possible.
"We really believe that a democratically elected government
would have more credibility to negotiate and to lead the
campaign to restore the territorial integrity of Mali," he told
reporters on a conference call.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
You can read the manual from Help menu in the main screen. The document is made under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. Actually, the manual was created for Dia 0.5, but you still can use it for Dia 0.96.1.
taufanlubis@toshiba:~$ sudo apt-get install dia
Reading package lists… Done
Building dependency tree
Reading state information… Done
The following extra packages will be installed:
dia-common dia-libs
Recommended packages:
The following NEW packages will be installed:
dia dia-common dia-libs
0 upgraded, 3 newly installed, 0 to remove and 0 not upgraded.
Need to get 3301kB of archives.
After unpacking 21.4MB of additional disk space will be used.
Do you want to continue [Y/n]? y
WARNING: The following packages cannot be authenticated!
dia-common dia-libs dia
Install these packages without verification [y/N]? y
Get:1 http://archive.ubuntu.com gutsy/main dia-common 0.96.1-3 [2392kB]
Get:2 http://archive.ubuntu.com gutsy/main dia-libs 0.96.1-3 [716kB]
Get:3 http://archive.ubuntu.com gutsy/universe dia 0.96.1-3 [192kB]
Fetched 3301kB in 1m3s (51.9kB/s)
Selecting previously deselected package dia-common.
(Reading database … 115213 files and directories currently installed.)
Unpacking dia-common (from …/dia-common_0.96.1-3_all.deb) …
Selecting previously deselected package dia-libs.
Unpacking dia-libs (from …/dia-libs_0.96.1-3_i386.deb) …
Selecting previously deselected package dia.
Unpacking dia (from …/archives/dia_0.96.1-3_i386.deb) …
Setting up dia-common (0.96.1-3) …
Setting up dia-libs (0.96.1-3) …
Setting up dia (0.96.1-3) …


text:
Martyred Holy Fathers who were slain at the Monastery of Saint Sabbas - Troparion & Kontakion
Troparion — Tone 4
As chosen and holy lambs of the Savior, / you were gathered together in wise Sabbas' flock from many lands. / You were put to death by the cruelty of the barbarians / and you departed joyfully to the heavenly fold. / As righteous athletes you now pray for our souls.
Kontakion — Tone 4
You openly disdained the pleasure of earthly and corruptible things, / choosing instead a life in the desert. / You despised the beautiful things of this world / together with the food that passes away. / Therefore, all-blessed ones, you were counted worthy of the Kingdom of heaven, / where you rejoice with the choirs of martyrs and ascetics. / As we honor your memory, / we earnestly cry out to you: / deliver us, O Fathers, from tribulations!


text:
Dominions were semi-independent polities that were nominally under The Crown, constituting the British Empire and later the British Commonwealth, beginning in the later part of the 19th century.[1][2] They included (at various times) Canada, Australia, Pakistan, India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, and the Irish Free State. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 recognised the Dominions as "autonomous Communities within the British Empire". In 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognized the Dominions as fully sovereign from the United Kingdom, with which they shared a common allegiance to the Crown. The Dominions and later constitutional monarchies within the Commonwealth of Nations maintained the same royal house and royal succession from before full sovereignty, and became known after the year 1953 as Commonwealth realms.
Earlier usage of dominion to refer to a particular territory dates back to the 16th century and was sometimes used to describe Wales from 1535 to around 1800.
- 1 Definition
- 2 Historical development
- 3 Dominions
- 4 Southern Rhodesia
- 5 Foreign relations
- 6 From Dominions to Commonwealth realms
- 7 See also
- 8 Notes
- 9 References
In English common law, the Dominions of the British Crown were all the realms and territories under the sovereignty of that Crown. For example, the Order in Council annexing the island of Cyprus in 1914 declared that, from 5 November, the island "shall be annexed to and form part of His Majesty's Dominions".[3][4]
Use of dominion to refer to a particular territory dates back to the 16th century and was sometimes used to describe Wales from 1535 to around 1800: for instance, the Laws in Wales Act 1535 applies to "the Dominion, Principality and Country of Wales".[5] Dominion, as an official title, was conferred on the Colony of Virginia about 1660 and on the Dominion of New England in 1686. These dominions never had self-governing status. The creation of the short-lived Dominion of New England was designed—contrary to the purpose of later dominions—to increase royal control and to reduce the colony's self-government.
Under the British North America Act 1867, what is now eastern Canada received the status of "Dominion" upon the Confederation of several British possessions in North America. However, it was at the Colonial Conference of 1907 when the self-governing colonies of Canada and the Commonwealth of Australia were referred to collectively as Dominions for the first time.[6] Two other self-governing colonies—New Zealand and Newfoundland—were granted the status of Dominion in the same year. These were followed by the Union of South Africa in 1910 and the Irish Free State in 1922. At the time of the founding of the League of Nations in 1924, the League Covenant made provision for the admission of any "fully self-governing state, Dominion, or Colony",[7] the implication being that "Dominion status was something between that of a colony and a state".[8]
Dominion status was formally defined in the Balfour Declaration of 1926, which recognised these countries as "autonomous Communities within the British Empire", thus acknowledging them as political equals of the United Kingdom. The Statute of Westminster 1931 converted this status into legal reality, making them essentially independent members of what was then called the British Commonwealth.
Following the Second World War, the decline of British colonialism led to Dominions generally being referred to as Commonwealth realms and the use of the word dominion gradually diminished. Nonetheless, though disused, it remains Canada's legal title[9] and the phrase Her Majesty's Dominions is still used occasionally in legal documents in the United Kingdom.[10]
Historical development
Overseas dominions
The word dominions originally referred to the possessions of the Kingdom of England. Oliver Cromwell's full title in the 1650s was "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, and the dominions thereto belonging". In 1660, King Charles II gave the Colony of Virginia the title of dominion in gratitude for Virginia's loyalty to the Crown during the English Civil War.[citation needed] The Commonwealth of Virginia, a State of the United States, still has "the Old Dominion" as one of its nicknames. Dominion also occurred in the name of the short-lived Dominion of New England (1686–1689). In all of these cases, the word dominion implied no more than being subject to the English crown.[citation needed]
Responsible government: precursor to Dominion status
The foundation of "Dominion" status followed the achievement of internal self-rule in British Colonies, in the specific form of full responsible government (as distinct from "representative government"). Colonial responsible government began to emerge during the mid-19th century. The legislatures of Colonies with responsible government were able to make laws in all matters other than foreign affairs, defence and international trade, these being powers which remained with the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Bermuda, notably, was never defined as a Dominion, despite meeting this criteria, but as a self-governing colony that remains part of the British Realm.
Nova Scotia soon followed by the Province of Canada (which included modern southern Ontario and southern Quebec) were the first Colonies to achieve responsible government, in 1848. Prince Edward Island followed in 1851, and New Brunswick and Newfoundland in 1855. All except for Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island agreed to form a new federation named Canada from 1867. This was instituted by the British Parliament in the British North America Act 1867. (See also: Canadian Confederation). Section 3 of the Act referred to the new entity as a "Dominion", the first such entity to be created. From 1870 the Dominion included two vast neighbouring British territories that did not have any form of self-government: Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory, parts of which later became the Provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and the separate territories, the Northwest Territories, Yukon and Nunavut. In 1871, the Crown Colony of British Columbia became a Canadian province, Prince Edward Island joined in 1873 and Newfoundland in 1949.
The conditions under which the four separate Australian colonies—New South Wales, Tasmania, Western Australia, South Australia—and New Zealand could gain full responsible government were set out by the British government in the Australian Constitutions Act 1850.[11] The Act also separated the Colony of Victoria (in 1851) from New South Wales. During 1856, responsible government was achieved by New South Wales,[12] Victoria,[13] South Australia,[14] and Tasmania,[15] and New Zealand. The remainder of New South Wales was divided in three in 1859, a change that established most of the present borders of NSW; the Colony of Queensland, with its own responsible self-government,[16] and the Northern Territory (which was not granted self-government prior to federation of the Australian Colonies).[17] Western Australia did not receive self-government until 1891, mainly because of its continuing financial dependence on the UK Government.[18] After protracted negotiations (that initially included New Zealand), six Australian colonies with responsible government (and their dependent territories) agreed to federate, along Canadian lines, becoming the Commonwealth of Australia, in 1901.
In South Africa, the Cape Colony became the first British self-governing Colony, in 1872. (Until 1893, the Cape Colony also controlled the separate Colony of Natal.) Following the Second Boer War (1899–1902), the British Empire assumed direct control of the Boer Republics, but transferred limited self-government to Transvaal in 1906, and the Orange River Colony in 1907.
The Commonwealth of Australia was recognised as a dominion in 1901, and the Dominion of New Zealand and the Dominion of Newfoundland were officially given Dominion status in 1907, followed by the Union of South Africa in 1910.
Canadian Confederation and evolution of the term Dominion
In connection with proposals for the future government of British North America, use of the term "Dominion" was suggested by Samuel Leonard Tilley at the London Conference of 1866 discussing the confederation of the Province of Canada (subsequently becoming the Province of Ontario and the Province of Quebec), Nova Scotia and New Brunswick into "One Dominion under the Name of Canada", the first federation internal to the British Empire.[19] Tilley's suggestion was taken from the 72nd Psalm, verse eight, "He shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth", which is echoed in the national motto, "A Mari Usque Ad Mare".[20] The new government of Canada under the British North America Act of 1867 began to use the phrase "Dominion of Canada" to designate the new, larger nation. However, neither the Confederation nor the adoption of the title of "Dominion" granted extra autonomy or new powers to this new federal level of government.[21][22] Senator Eugene Forsey wrote that the powers acquired since the 1840s that established the system of responsible government in Canada would simply be transferred to the new Dominion government:
By the time of Confederation in 1867, this system had been operating in most of what is now central and eastern Canada for almost 20 years. The Fathers of Confederation simply continued the system they knew, the system that was already working, and working well.[22]
The constitutional scholar Andrew Heard has established that Confederation did not legally change Canada's colonial status to anything approaching its later status of a Dominion.
At its inception in 1867, Canada's colonial status was marked by political and legal subjugation to British Imperial supremacy in all aspects of government—legislative, judicial, and executive. The Imperial Parliament at Westminster could legislate on any matter to do with Canada and could override any local legislation, the final court of appeal for Canadian litigation lay with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London, the Governor General had a substantive role as a representative of the British government, and ultimate executive power was vested in the British Monarch—who was advised only by British ministers in its exercise. Canada's independence came about as each of these sub-ordinations was eventually removed.[21]
Heard went on to document the sizeable body of legislation passed by the British Parliament in the latter part of the 19th century that upheld and expanded its Imperial supremacy to constrain that of its colonies, including the new Dominion government in Canada.
When the Dominion of Canada was created in 1867, it was granted powers of self-government to deal with all internal matters, but Britain still retained overall legislative supremacy. This Imperial supremacy could be exercised through several statutory measures. In the first place, the British North America Act of 1867 provided in Section 55 that the Governor General may reserve any legislation passed by the two Houses of Parliament for "the signification of Her Majesty's pleasure", which is determined according to Section 57 by the British Monarch in Council. Secondly, Section 56 provides that the Governor General must forward to "one of Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State" in London a copy of any Federal legislation that has been assented to. Then, within two years after the receipt of this copy, the (British) Monarch in Council could disallow an Act. Thirdly, at least four pieces of Imperial legislation constrained the Canadian legislatures. The Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865 provided that no colonial law could validly conflict with, amend, or repeal Imperial legislation that either explicitly, or by necessary implication, applied directly to that colony. The Merchant Shipping Act of 1894, as well as the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act of 1890 required reservation of Dominion legislation on those topics for approval by the British Government. Also, the Colonial Stock Act of 1900 provided for the disallowance of any Dominion legislation the British government felt would harm British stockholders of Dominion trustee securities. Most importantly, however, the British Parliament could exercise the legal right of supremacy that it possessed over common law to pass any legislation on any matter affecting the colonies.[21]
For decades, none of the Dominions was allowed to have its own embassies or consulates in foreign countries. All matters concerning international travel, commerce, etc., had to be transacted through British embassies and consulates. For example, all transactions concerning visas and lost or stolen passports by citizens of the Dominions were carried out at British diplomatic offices. It was not until the late 1930s and early 1940s that the Dominion governments were allowed to establish their own embassies, and the first two of these that were established by the Dominion governments in Ottawa and in Canberra were both established in Washington, D.C., in the United States.
As Heard later explained, the British government seldom invoked its powers over Canadian legislation. British legislative powers over Canadian domestic policy were largely theoretical and their exercise was increasingly unacceptable in the 1870s and 1880s. The rise to the status of a Dominion and then full independence for Canada and other possessions of the British Empire did not occur by the granting of titles or similar recognition by the British Parliament but by initiatives taken by the new governments of certain former British dependencies to assert their independence and to establish constitutional precedents.
What is remarkable about this whole process is that it was achieved with a minimum of legislative amendments. Much of Canada's independence arose from the development of new political arrangements, many of which have been absorbed into judicial decisions interpreting the constitution—with or without explicit recognition. Canada's passage from being an integral part of the British Empire to being an independent member of the Commonwealth richly illustrates the way in which fundamental constitutional rules have evolved through the interaction of constitutional convention, international law, and municipal statute and case law.[21]
What was significant about the creation of the Canadian and Australian federations was not that they were instantly granted wide new powers by the Imperial centre at the time of their creation; but that they, because of their greater size and prestige, were better able to exercise their existing powers and lobby for new ones than the various colonies they incorporated could have done separately. They provided a new model which politicians in New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, Ireland, India, Malaysia could point to for their own relationship with Britain. Ultimately, "[Canada's] example of a peaceful accession to independence with a Westminster system of government came to be followed by 50 countries with a combined population of more than 2-billion people."[23]
Colonial Conference of 1907
Issues of colonial self-government spilled into foreign affairs with the Boer War (1899–1902). The self-governing colonies contributed significantly to British efforts to stem the insurrection, but ensured that they set the conditions for participation in these wars. Colonial governments repeatedly acted to ensure that they determined the extent of their peoples' participation in imperial wars in the military build-up to the First World War.
The assertiveness of the self-governing colonies was recognised in the Colonial Conference of 1907, which implicitly introduced the idea of the Dominion as a self-governing colony by referring to Canada and Australia as Dominions. It also retired the name "Colonial Conference" and mandated that meetings take place regularly to consult Dominions in running the foreign affairs of the empire.
The Colony of New Zealand, which chose not to take part in Australian federation, became the Dominion of New Zealand on 26 September 1907; Newfoundland became a Dominion on the same day. The Union of South Africa was referred to as a Dominion upon its creation in 1910.
First World War and Treaty of Versailles
The initiatives and contributions of British colonies to the British war effort in the First World War were recognised by Britain with the creation of the Imperial War Cabinet in 1917, which gave them a say in the running of the war. Dominion status as self-governing states, as opposed to symbolic titles granted various British colonies, waited until 1919, when the self-governing Dominions signed the Treaty of Versailles independently of the British government and became individual members of the League of Nations. This ended the purely colonial status of the dominions.
The First World War ended the purely colonial period in the history of the Dominions. Their military contribution to the Allied war effort gave them claim to equal recognition with other small states and a voice in the formation of policy. This claim was recognised within the Empire by the creation of the Imperial War Cabinet in 1917, and within the community of nations by Dominion signatures to the Treaty of Versailles and by separate Dominion representation in the League of Nations. In this way the "self-governing Dominions", as they were called, emerged as junior members of the international community. Their status defied exact analysis by both international and constitutional lawyers, but it was clear that they were no longer regarded simply as colonies of Britain.[24]
Irish Free State
The Irish Free State, set up in 1922 after the Anglo-Irish War, was the first Dominion to appoint a non-British, non-aristocratic Governor-General when Timothy Michael Healy took the position in 1922. Dominion status was never popular in the Irish Free State where people saw it as a face-saving measure for a British government unable to countenance a republic in what had previously been the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Successive Irish governments undermined the constitutional links with Britain until they were severed completely in 1949. In 1937 Ireland adopted, almost simultaneously, both a new constitution that included powers for a president of Ireland and a law confirming the king's role of head of state in external relations.
Second Balfour Declaration and Statute of Westminster
The Balfour Declaration of 1926, and the subsequent Statute of Westminster, 1931, restricted Britain's ability to pass or affect laws outside of its own jurisdiction. Significantly, Britain initiated the change to complete sovereignty for the Dominions. The First World War left Britain saddled with enormous debts, and the Great Depression had further reduced Britain's ability to pay for defence of its empire. In spite of popular opinions of empires, the larger Dominions were reluctant to leave the protection of the then-superpower. For example, many Canadians felt that being part of the British Empire was the only thing that had prevented them from being absorbed into the United States.
Until 1931, Newfoundland was referred to as a colony of the United Kingdom, as for example, in the 1927 reference to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council to delineate the Quebec-Labrador boundary. Full autonomy was granted by the United Kingdom parliament with the Statute of Westminster in December 1931. However, the government of Newfoundland "requested the United Kingdom not to have sections 2 to 6[—]confirming Dominion status[—]apply automatically to it[,] until the Newfoundland Legislature first approved the Statute, approval which the Legislature subsequently never gave". In any event, Newfoundland's letters patent of 1934 suspended self-government and instituted a "Commission of Government", which continued until Newfoundland became a province of Canada in 1949. It is the view of some constitutional lawyers[citation needed] that—although Newfoundland chose not to exercise all of the functions of a Dominion like Canada—its status as a Dominion was "suspended" in 1934, rather than "revoked" or "abolished".
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland and South Africa (prior to becoming a republic and leaving the Commonwealth in 1961), with their large populations of European descent, were sometimes collectively referred to as the "White Dominions".[25] Today Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom are sometimes referred to collectively as the "White Commonwealth".[citation needed]
List of Dominions
|Country[‡ 1]
|To[‡ 2]
Continues as a Commonwealth realm and member of the Commonwealth of Nations. 'Dominion' was conferred as the country's title in the 1867 constitution and retained with the constitution's patriation in 1982, but has fallen into disuse.[19][26][27][28]
Continues as a Commonwealth realm and member of the Commonwealth of Nations
|New Zealand
Continues as a Commonwealth realm and member of the Commonwealth of Nations
|After governance had reverted to direct control from London in 1934, became a province of Canada under the British North America Act, 1949 (now the Newfoundland Act) passed in the U.K. parliament, 31 March 1949,[29] prior to the London Declaration of 28 April 1949
|South Africa
|Continued as a Commonwealth realm until it became a republic in 1961 under the Republic of South Africa Constitution Act, 1961, passed by the Parliament of South Africa, long title "To constitute the Republic of South Africa and to provide for matters incidental thereto", assented to 24 April 1961 to come into operation on 31 May 1961.[30]
| Irish Free State (1922–37)
Éire (1937–49) [‡ 3]
|The link with the monarchy ceased with the passage of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, which came into force on 18 April 1949 and declared that the state was a republic.
|The Union of India (with the addition of Sikkim) became a federal republic after its constitution came into effect on 26 January 1950.
|Continued as a Commonwealth realm until 1956 when it became a republic under the name "The Islamic Republic of Pakistan": Constitution of 1956[31]
|Continued as a Commonwealth realm until 1972 when it became a republic under the name of Sri Lanka
Four colonies of Australia had enjoyed responsible government since 1856: New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia.[32] Queensland had responsible government soon after its founding in 1859[33] but, because of ongoing financial dependence on Britain, Western Australia became the last Australian colony to attain self-government in 1890.[34] During the 1890s, the colonies voted to unite and in 1901 they were federated under the British Crown as the Commonwealth of Australia by the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act. The Constitution of Australia had been drafted in Australia and approved by popular consent. Thus Australia is one of the few countries established by a popular vote.[35] Under the second Balfour Declaration, the federal government was regarded as coequal with (and not subordinate to) the British and other Dominion governments, and this was given formal legal recognition in 1942 (when the Statute of Westminster was retroactively adopted to the commencement of the Second World War 1939). In 1930, the Australian prime minister, James Scullin, reinforced the right of the overseas Dominions to appoint native-born governors-general, when he advised King George V to appoint Sir Isaac Isaacs as his representative in Australia, against the wishes of the opposition and officials in London. The governments of the States (called colonies before 1901) remained under the Commonwealth but retained links to the UK until the passage of the Australia Act 1986.
The term Dominion is employed in the Constitution Act, 1867 (originally the British North America Act, 1867), and describes the resulting political union. Specifically, the preamble of the act states: "Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom..." Furthermore, Sections 3 and 4 indicate that the provinces "shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly".
Usage of the phrase Dominion of Canada was employed as the country's name after 1867, predating the general use of the term dominion as applied to the other autonomous regions of the British Empire after 1907. The phrase Dominion of Canada does not appear in the 1867 act nor in the Constitution Act, 1982, but does appear in the Constitution Act, 1871, other contemporaneous texts, and subsequent bills. References to the Dominion of Canada in later acts, such as the Statute of Westminster, do not clarify the point because all nouns were formally capitalised in British legislative style. Indeed, in the original text of the Constitution Act, 1867, "One" and "Name" were also capitalised.
Frank Scott theorised that Canada's status as a Dominion ended with the Canadian parliament's declaration of war on Germany on 9 September 1939.[36] From the 1950s, the federal government began to phase out the use of Dominion, which had been used largely as a synonym of "federal" or "national" such as "Dominion building" for a post office, "Dominion-provincial relations", and so on. The last major change was renaming the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982. Official bilingualism laws also contributed to the disuse of dominion, as it has no acceptable equivalent in French.
While the term may be found in older official documents, and the Dominion Carillonneur still tolls at Parliament Hill, it is now hardly used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces or (historically) Canada before and after 1867. Nonetheless, the federal government continues to produce publications and educational materials that specify the currency of these official titles.[28][37][38]
Defenders of the title Dominion—including monarchists who see signs of creeping republicanism in Canada—take comfort in the fact that the Constitution Act, 1982 does not mention and therefore does not remove the title, and that a constitutional amendment is required to change it.[26]
The word Dominion has been used with other agencies, laws, and roles:
- Dominion Carillonneur: official responsible for playing the carillons at the Peace Tower since 1916
- Dominion Day (1867–1982): holiday marking Canada's national day; now called Canada Day
- Dominion Observatory (1905–1970): weather observatory in Ottawa; now used as Office of Energy Efficiency, Energy Branch, Natural Resources Canada
- Dominion Lands Act (1872): federal lands act; repealed in 1918
- Dominion Bureau of Statistics (1918–1971): superseded by Statistics Canada
- Dominion Police (1867–1920): merged to form the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)
- Dominion Astrophysical Observatory (1918–present); now part of the National Research Council Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics
- Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory (1960–present); now part of the National Research Council Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics
- Dominion of Canada Rifle Association founded in 1868 and incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1890
Toronto-Dominion Bank (founded as the Dominion Bank in 1871 and later merged with the Bank of Toronto), the Dominion of Canada General Insurance Company (founded in 1887), the Dominion Institute (created in 1997), and Dominion (founded in 1927, renamed as Metro stores beginning in August 2008) are notable Canadian corporations not affiliated with government that have used Dominion as a part of their corporate name.
Ceylon, which, as a crown colony, was originally promised "fully responsible status within the British Commonwealth of Nations", was formally granted independence as a Dominion in 1948. In 1972 it adopted a republican constitution to become the Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. By a new constitution in 1978, it became the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.
India and Pakistan
India officially acquired responsible government in 1909, though the first Parliament did not meet until 1919.[39] In the 1930s the idea of making British India as it was then into a dominion - the first one with a non-European population - was seriously discussed, but ran into serious snags - notably the increasing tensions between Hindus and Muslims. India and Pakistan finally separated as independent dominions in 1947.[40] In the changed post-Second World War conditions this proved a transitory stage, and India became a republic in 1950[39] and Pakistan adopted a republican form of government in 1956.[41]
Irish Free State / Ireland
The Irish Free State (Ireland from 1937) was a British Dominion between 1922 and 1949. As established by the Irish Free State Constitution Act of the United Kingdom Parliament on 6 December 1922 the new state—which had dominion status in the likeness of that enjoyed by Canada within the British Commonwealth of Nations—comprised the whole of Ireland. However, provision was made in the Act for the Parliament of Northern Ireland to opt out of inclusion in the Irish Free State, which—as had been widely expected at the time—it duly did one day after the creation of the new state, on 7 December 1922.[42]
Following a plebiscite of the people of the Free State held on 1 July 1937, a new constitution came into force on 29 December of that year, establishing a successor state with the name of "Ireland" which ceased to participate in Commonwealth conferences and events. Nevertheless, the United Kingdom and other member states of the Commonwealth continued to regard Ireland as a dominion owing to the unusual role accorded to the British Monarch under the Irish External Relations Act of 1936. Ultimately, however, Ireland's Oireachtas passed the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, which came into force on 18 April 1949 and unequivocally ended Ireland's links with the British Monarch and the Commonwealth.
The colony of Newfoundland enjoyed responsible government from 1855 to 1934.[43] It was among the colonies declared dominions in 1907. Following the recommendations of a Royal Commission, parliamentary government was suspended in 1934 due to severe financial difficulties resulting from the depression and a series of riots against the dominion government in 1932.[44] In 1949, it joined Canada and the legislature was restored.[45]
New Zealand
The New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 gave New Zealand its own Parliament (General Assembly) and home rule in 1852.[46] In 1907 New Zealand was proclaimed the Dominion of New Zealand.[47] New Zealand, Canada, and Newfoundland used the word dominion in the official title of the nation, whereas Australia used Commonwealth of Australia and South Africa Union of South Africa. New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster in 1947[47] and in the same year legislation passed in London gave New Zealand full powers to amend its own constitution. In 1986, the New Zealand parliament passed the Constitution Act 1986, which repealed the Constitution Act of 1852 and the last constitutional links with the United Kingdom.[48]
South Africa
The Union of South Africa was formed in 1910 from the four self-governing colonies of the Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, and the Orange Free State (the last two were former Boer republics).[49] The South Africa Act 1909 provided for a Parliament consisting of a Senate and a House of Assembly. The provinces had their own legislatures. In 1961, the Union of South Africa adopted a new constitution, became a republic, left the Commonwealth (and re-joined following end of Apartheid rule in the 1990s), and became the present-day Republic of South Africa.[50]
Southern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia (renamed Zimbabwe in 1980) was a special case in the British Empire. Although it was never a dominion, it was treated as a dominion in many respects. Southern Rhodesia was formed in 1923 out of territories of the British South Africa Company and established as a self-governing colony with substantial autonomy on the model of the dominions. The imperial authorities in London retained direct powers over foreign affairs, constitutional alterations, native administration and bills regarding mining revenues, railways and the governor's salary.[51]
Southern Rhodesia was not one of the territories that were mentioned in the 1931 Statute of Westminster although relations with Southern Rhodesia were administered in London through the Dominion Office, not the Colonial Office. When the dominions were first treated as foreign countries by London for the purposes of diplomatic immunity in 1952, Southern Rhodesia was included in the list of territories concerned. This semi-dominion status continued in Southern Rhodesia between 1953 and 1963, when it joined Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in the Central African Federation, with the latter two territories continuing to be British protectorates. When Northern Rhodesia was given independence in 1964 it adopted the new name of Zambia, prompting Southern Rhodesia to shorten its name to Rhodesia, but Britain did not recognise this latter change.[51]
Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence from Britain in 1965 as a result of the British government's insistence on majority rule as a condition for independence. London regarded this declaration as illegal, and applied sanctions and expelled Rhodesia from the sterling area.[52] Rhodesia continued with its dominion-style constitution until 1970, and continued to issue British passports to its citizens. The Rhodesian government continued to profess its loyalty to the Sovereign, despite being in a state of rebellion against Her Majesty's Government in London, until 1970, when it adopted a republican constitution following a referendum the previous year.[53] This endured until the state's reconstitution as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 under the terms of the Internal Settlement; this lasted until the Lancaster House Agreement of December 1979, which put it under interim British rule while fresh elections were held. The country achieved independence deemed legal by the international community in April 1980, when Britain granted independence under the name Zimbabwe.[54]
Foreign relations
Initially, the Foreign Office of the United Kingdom conducted the foreign relations of the Dominions. A Dominions section was created within the Colonial Office for this purpose in 1907. Canada set up its own Department of External Affairs in June 1909, but diplomatic relations with other governments continued to operate through the governors-general, Dominion High Commissioners in London (first appointed by Canada in 1880; Australia followed only in 1910), and British legations abroad. Britain deemed her declaration of war against Germany in August 1914 to extend to all territories of the Empire without the need for consultation, occasioning some displeasure in Canadian official circles and contributing to a brief anti-British insurrection by Afrikaner militants in South Africa later that year. A Canadian War Mission in Washington, D.C., dealt with supply matters from February 1918 to March 1921.
Although the Dominions had had no formal voice in declaring war, each became a separate signatory of the June 1919 peace Treaty of Versailles, which had been negotiated by a British-led united Empire delegation. In September 1922, Dominion reluctance to support British military action against Turkey influenced Britain's decision to seek a compromise settlement. Diplomatic autonomy soon followed, with the U.S.-Canadian Halibut Treaty (March 1923) marking the first time an international agreement had been entirely negotiated and concluded independently by a Dominion. The Dominions Section of the Colonial Office was upgraded in June 1926 to a separate Dominions Office; however, initially, this office was held by the same person that held the office of Secretary of State for the Colonies.
The principle of Dominion equality with Britain and independence in foreign relations was formally recognised by the Balfour Declaration, adopted at the Imperial Conference of November 1926. Canada's first permanent diplomatic mission to a foreign country opened in Washington, D.C., in 1927. In 1928, Canada obtained the appointment of a British high commissioner in Ottawa, separating the administrative and diplomatic functions of the governor-general and ending the latter's anomalous role as the representative of the British government in relations between the two countries. The Dominions Office was given a separate secretary of state in June 1930, though this was entirely for domestic political reasons given the need to relieve the burden on one ill minister whilst moving another away from unemployment policy. The Balfour Declaration was enshrined in the Statute of Westminster 1931 when it was adopted by the British Parliament and subsequently ratified by the Dominion legislatures.
Britain's declaration of hostilities against Nazi Germany on 3 September 1939 tested the issue. Most took the view that the declaration did not commit the Dominions. Ireland chose to remain neutral. At the other extreme, the conservative Australian government of the day, led by Robert Menzies, took the view that, since Australia had not adopted the Statute of Westminster, it was legally bound by the UK declaration of war—which had also been the view at the outbreak of the First World War—though this was contentious within Australia. Between these two extremes, New Zealand declared that as Britain was or would be at war, so it was too. This was, however, a matter of political choice rather than legal necessity. Canada issued its own declaration of war after a recall of Parliament, as did South Africa after a delay of several days (South Africa on September 6, Canada on September 10). Ireland, which had negotiated the removal of British forces from its territory the year before, remained neutral. There were soon signs of growing independence from the other Dominions: Australia opened a diplomatic mission in the US in 1940, as did New Zealand in 1941, and Canada's mission in Washington gained embassy status in 1943.
From Dominions to Commonwealth realms
Initially, the Dominions conducted their own trade policy, some limited foreign relations and had autonomous armed forces, although the British government claimed and exercised the exclusive power to declare wars. However, after the passage of the Statute of Westminster the language of dependency on the Crown of the United Kingdom ceased, where the Crown itself was no longer referred to as the Crown of any place in particular but simply as "the Crown". Arthur Berriedale Keith, in Speeches and Documents on the British Dominions 1918–1931, stated that "the Dominions are sovereign international States in the sense that the King in respect of each of His Dominions (Newfoundland excepted) is such a State in the eyes of international law". After then, those countries that were previously referred to as "Dominions" became Commonwealth realms where the sovereign reigns no longer as the British monarch, but as monarch of each nation in its own right, and are considered equal to the UK and one another.
The Second World War, which fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership, further loosened the political ties between Britain and the Dominions. Australian Prime Minister John Curtin's unprecedented action (February 1942) in successfully countermanding an order from British Prime Minister Winston Churchill that Australian troops be diverted to defend British-held Burma (the 7th Division was then en route from the Middle East to Australia to defend against an expected Japanese invasion) demonstrated that Dominion governments might no longer subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives. To ensure that Australia had full legal power to act independently, particularly in relation to foreign affairs, defence industry and military operations, and to validate its past independent action in these areas, Australia formally adopted the Statute of Westminster in October 1942[55] and backdated the adoption to the start of the war in September 1939.
The Dominions Office merged with the India Office as the Commonwealth Relations Office upon the independence of India and Pakistan in August 1947. The last country officially made a Dominion was Ceylon in 1948. The term "Dominion" fell out of general use thereafter. Ireland ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth on 18 April 1949, upon the coming into force of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948. This formally signalled the end of the former dependencies' common constitutional connection to the British crown. India also adopted a republican constitution in January 1950. Unlike many dependencies that became republics, Ireland never re-joined the Commonwealth, which agreed to accept the British monarch as head of that association of independent states.
The independence of the separate realms was emphasised after the accession of Queen Elizabeth II in 1952, when she was proclaimed not just as Queen of the United Kingdom, but also Queen of Canada, Queen of Australia, Queen of New Zealand, and of all her other "realms and territories" etc. This also reflected the change from Dominion to realm; in the proclamation of Queen Elizabeth II's new titles in 1953, the phrase "of her other Realms and Territories" replaced "Dominion" with another mediaeval French word with the same connotation, "realm" (from royaume). Thus, recently, when referring to one of those sixteen countries within the Commonwealth of Nations that share the same monarch, the phrase Commonwealth realm has come into common usage instead of Dominion to differentiate the Commonwealth nations that continue to share the monarch as head of state (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc.) from those that do not (India, Pakistan, South Africa, etc.). The term "Dominion" is still found in the Canadian constitution where it appears numerous times, but it is largely a vestige of the past, as the Canadian government does not actively use it (see Canada section). The term "realm" does not appear in the Canadian constitution.
The generic language of dominion did not cease in relation to the Sovereign. It was, and is, used to describe territories in which the monarch exercises sovereignty. It also describes a model of governance in newly independent British colonies, featuring a Westminster parliamentary government and the British monarch as head of state:
After World War II, Britain attempted to repeat the dominion model in decolonizing the Caribbean. ... Though several colonies, such as Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, maintained their formal allegiance to the British monarch, they soon revised their status to become republics. Britain also attempted to establish a dominion model in decolonizing Africa, but it, too, was unsuccessful. ... Ghana, the first former colony declared a dominion in 1957, soon demanded recognition as a republic. Other African nations followed a similar pattern throughout the 1960s: Nigeria, Tanganyika, Uganda, Kenya, and Malawi. In fact, only Gambia, Sierra Leone, and Mauritius retained their dominion status for more than three years.[56]
The phrase His/Her Majesty's dominions is a legal and constitutional phrase that refers to all the realms and territories of the Sovereign, whether independent or not. Thus, for example, the British Ireland Act, 1949, recognised that the Republic of Ireland had "ceased to be part of His Majesty's dominions". When dependent territories that had never been annexed (that is, were not colonies of the Crown), but were mandates, protectorates or trust territories (of the United Nations or the former League of Nations) were granted independence, the United Kingdom act granting independence always declared that such and such a territory "shall form part of Her Majesty's dominions", and so become part of the territory in which the Queen exercises sovereignty, not merely suzerainty.
Many distinctive characteristics that once pertained only to Dominions are now shared by other states in the Commonwealth, whether republics, independent realms, associated states or territories. The practice of appointing a High Commissioner instead of a diplomatic representative such as an ambassador for communication between the government of a dominion and the British government in London continues in respect of Commonwealth realms and republics as sovereign states.
See also
- British Empire
- Changes in British sovereignty
- Colonisation
- Commonwealth of Nations
- Crown colony
- High Commissioner (Commonwealth)
- Name of Canada
- Self-governing colony
- United Kingdom
- ↑ Merriam Webster's Dictionary (based on Collegiate vol., 11th ed.) 2006. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc.
- ↑ Hillmer, Norman (2001). "Commonwealth". Toronto: Canadian Encyclopedia.
...the Dominions (a term applied to Canada in 1867 and used from 1907 to 1948 to describe the empire's other self-governing members)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Cyprus (Annexation) Order in Council, 1914, dated 5 November 1914.
- ↑ Order quoted in The American Journal of International Law, "Annexation of Cyprus by Great Britain"[1]
- ↑ "Parliamentary questions, Hansard, 5 November 1934". hansard.millbanksystems.com. 1934-11-05. Retrieved 2010-06-11.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Roberts, J. M., The Penguin History of the World (London: Penguin Books, 1995, ISBN 0-14-015495-7), p. 777
- ↑ League of Nations (1924). "The Covenant of the League of Nations". Article 1: The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Retrieved 2009-04-20. Cite journal requires
|journal=(help)CS1 maint: location (link)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ James Crawford, The Creation of States in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979, ISBN 978-0-19-922842-3), p. 243
- ↑ "Dominion". Youth Encyclopedia of Canada (based on Canadian Encyclopedia). Historica Foundation of Canada, 2008. Accessed 2008-06-20. "The word "Dominion" is the official status of Canada. ... The term is little used today."
- ↑ National Health Service Act 2006 (c. 41), sch. 22
- ↑ Link to the Australian Constitutions Act 1850 on the website of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au
- ↑ Link to the New South Wales Constitution Act 1855, on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au
- ↑ Link to the Victoria Constitution Act 1855, on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au
- ↑ Link to the Constitution Act 1855 (SA), on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au
- ↑ Link to the Constitution Act 185 (Tasmania), on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au
- ↑ Link to the Order in Council of 6 June 1859, which established the Colony of Queensland, on the Web site of the National Archives of Australia.[2]
- ↑ The "Northern Territory of New South Wales" was physically separated from the main part of NSW. In 1863, the bulk of it was transferred to South Australia, except for a small area that became part of Queensland. See: Letters Patent annexing the Northern Territory to South Australia, 1863. In 1911, the Commonwealth of Australia agreed to assume responsibility for administration of the Northern Territory, which was regarded by the government of South Australia as a financial burden.www.foundingdocs.gov.au. The NT did not receive responsible government until 1978.
- ↑ Link to the Constitution Act 1890, which established self-government in Western Australia: www.foundingdocs.gov.au
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Alan Rayburn (2001). Naming Canada: Stories about Canadian Place Names. University of Toronto Press. pp. 17–21. ISBN 978-0-8020-8293-0.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "The London Conference December 1866 – March 1867". www.collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2010-06-11.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Andrew Heard (2008-02-05). "Canadian Independence". Check date values in:
|year= / |date= mismatch(help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Eugene Forsey (2007-10-14). "How Canadians Govern Themselves". Check date values in:
|year= / |date= mismatch(help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Buckley, F. H., The Once and Future King: The Rise of Crown Government in America (Encounter Books, 2014), excerpt: http://fullcomment.nationalpost.com/2014/05/15/f-h-buckley-how-canadas-creation-changed-the-world/.
- ↑ F. R. Scott (January 1944). "The End of Dominion Status". The American Journal of International Law. American Society of International Law. 38 (1): 34–49. doi:10.2307/2192530. JSTOR 2192530.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Europe Since 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of War and Reconstruction; John Merriman and Jay Winter; 2006; see the British Empire entry which lists the "White Dominions" above except Newfoundland
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 J. E. Hodgetts. 2004. "Dominion". Oxford Companion to Canadian History, Gerald Hallowell, ed. (ISBN 0-19-541559-0), at http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195415599.001.0001/acref-9780195415599-e-471 - p. 183: "... Ironically, defenders of the title dominion who see signs of creeping republicanism in such changes can take comfort in the knowledge that the Constitution Act, 1982, retains the title and requires a constitutional amendment to alter it."
- ↑ Forsey, Eugene A., in Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. "Dominion" The Canadian Encyclopedia. Hurtig Publishers: Toronto.
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 "National Flag of Canada Day: How Did You Do?". Department of Canadian Heritage. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
The issue of our country's legal title was one of the few points on which our constitution is not entirely homemade. The Fathers of Confederation wanted to call the country "the Kingdom of Canada". However the British government was afraid of offending the Americans so it insisted on the Fathers finding another title. The term "Dominion" was drawn from Psalm 72. In the realms of political terminology, the term dominion can be directly attributed to the Fathers of Confederation and it is one of the very few, distinctively Canadian contributions in this area. It remains our country's official title.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ [3]
- ↑ s:Republic of South Africa Constitution Act, 1961
- ↑ [4]
- ↑ B. Hunter (ed), The Stateman's Year Book 1996-1997, Macmillan Press Ltd, pp. 130-156
- ↑ Order in Council of the UK Privy Council, 6 June 1859, establishing responsible government in Queensland. See Australian Government's "Documenting a Democracy" website at this webpage: www.foundingdocs.gov.au
- ↑ Constitution Act 1890 (UK), which came into effect as the Constitution of Western Australia when proclaimed in WA on 21 October 1890, and establishing responsible government in WA from that date; Australian Government's "Documenting a Democracy" website: www.foundingdocs.gov.au
- ↑ D. Smith, Head of State, MaCleay Press 2005, p. 18
- ↑ Scott, Frank R. (January 1944). "The End of Dominion Status". The American Journal of International Law. American Society of International Law. 38 (1): 34–49. doi:10.2307/2192530.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "The Prince of Wales 2001 Royal Visit: April 25 - April 30; Test Your Royal Skills". Department of Canadian Heritage. 2001. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
As dictated by the British North America Act, 1867, the title is Dominion of Canada. The term is a uniquely Canadian one, implying independence and not colonial status, and was developed as a tribute to the Monarchical principle at the time of Confederation.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ "How Canadians Govern Themselves" (PDF). PDF. Retrieved 2008-02-06.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> Forsey, Eugene (2005). How Canadians Govern Themselves (6th ed.). Ottawa: Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. ISBN 0-662-39689-8.
The two small points on which our constitution is not entirely homemade are, first, the legal title of our country, "Dominion," and, second, the provisions for breaking a deadlock between the Senate and the House of Commons.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 The Statesman's Year Book, p. 635
- ↑ Indian Independence Act 1947, "An Act to make provision for the setting up in India of two independent Dominions, to substitute other provisions for certain provisions of the Government of India Act 1935, which apply outside those Dominions, and to provide for other matters consequential on or connected with the setting up of those Dominions" passed by the U.K. parliament 18 July 1947.[5]
- ↑ The Statesman's Year Book, p. 1002
- ↑ On 7 December 1922 (the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State) the Parliament resolved to make the following address to the King so as to opt out of the Irish Free State: "MOST GRACIOUS SOVEREIGN, We, your Majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Senators and Commons of Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled, having learnt of the passing of the Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922, being the Act of Parliament for the ratification of the Articles of Agreement for a Treaty between Great Britain and Ireland, do, by this humble Address, pray your Majesty that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland". Source: Northern Ireland Parliamentary Report, 7 December 1922 and Anglo-Irish Treaty, sections 11, 12.
- ↑ The Statesman's Year Book, p. 302
- ↑ The Statesman's Year Book, p. 303
- ↑ The Statesman's Year Book
- ↑ "History, Constitutional - The Legislative Authority of the New Zealand Parliament - 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand". www.teara.govt.nz. 2009-04-22. Retrieved 2010-06-11.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 "Dominion status". NZHistory. Retrieved 2010-06-11.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Prof. Dr. Axel Tschentscher, LL. M. "ICL - New Zealand - Constitution Act 1986". servat.unibe.ch. Retrieved 2010-06-11.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ The Stateman's Year Book p. 1156
- ↑ Wikisource: South Africa Act 1909
- ↑ 51.0 51.1 Rowland, J. Reid. "Constitutional History of Rhodesia: An outline": 245–251. Cite journal requires
|journal=(help)<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles> Appendix to Berlyn, Phillippa (April 1978). The Quiet Man: A Biography of the Hon. Ian Douglas Smith. Salisbury: M. O. Collins. pp. 240–256. OCLC 4282978.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Wood, J. R. T. (April 2008). A matter of weeks rather than months: The Impasse between Harold Wilson and Ian Smith: Sanctions, Aborted Settlements and War 1965–1969. Victoria, British Columbia: Trafford Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-42514-807-2.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Harris, P. B. (September 1969). "The Rhodesian Referendum: June 20th, 1969" (pdf). Parliamentary Affairs. Oxford University Press. 23: 72–80. Retrieved 2013-06-04.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Gowlland-Debbas, Vera (1990). Collective Responses to Illegal Acts in International Law: United Nations action in the question of Southern Rhodesia (First ed.). Leiden and New York: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 73. ISBN 0-7923-0811-5.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942 (Act no. 56 of 1942). The long title for the Act was "To remove Doubts as to the Validity of certain Commonwealth Legislation, to obviate Delays occurring in its Passage, and to effect certain related purposes, by adopting certain Sections of the Statute of Westminster, 1931, as from the Commencement of the War between His Majesty the King and Germany." Link: www.foundingdocs.gov.au.
- ↑ Brandon Jernigan, "British Empire" in M. Juang & Noelle Morrissette, eds., Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History (ABC-CLIO, 2008) p. 204.
- Buckley, F. H., The Once and Future King: The Rise of Crown Government in America, Encounter Books, 2014.
- Choudry, Sujit. 2001 (?). "Constitution Acts" (based on looseleaf by Hogg, Peter W.). Constitutional Keywords. University of Alberta, Centre for Constitutional Studies: Edmonton.
- Holland, R. F., Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance 1918-1939, MacMillan, 1981.
- Forsey, Eugene A. 2005. How Canadians Govern Themselves, 6th ed. (ISBN 0-662-39689-8) Canada: Ottawa.
- Hallowell, Gerald, ed. 2004. The Oxford Companion to Canadian History. Oxford University Press: Toronto; p. 183-4 (ISBN 0-19-541559-0).
- Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. "Dominion" et al. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Hurtig Publishers: Toronto.
- Martin, Robert. 1993 (?). 1993 Eugene Forsey Memorial Lecture: A Lament for British North America. The Machray Review. Prayer Book Society of Canada. A summative piece about nomenclature and pertinent history with abundant references.
- Rayburn, Alan. 2001. Naming Canada: stories about Canadian place names, 2nd ed. (ISBN 0-8020-8293-9) University of Toronto Press: Toronto.
- CS1 errors: missing periodical
- CS1 maint: location
- CS1 errors: dates
- Articles with unsourced statements from September 2007
- Articles with unsourced statements from June 2009
- Articles with unsourced statements from April 2014
- Articles with unsourced statements from December 2007
- Articles needing additional references from February 2012
- Articles needing additional references from January 2011
- Articles with inconsistent citation formats
- Commonwealth realms
- Governance of the British Empire
- Legal history of Canada
- Political geography


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New Study: Hadley Center and CRU Apparently Cherry‐picked Russia's Climate Data
Yesterday, the Moscow‐based Institute of Economic Analysis (IEA), of which I am President, issued a study (in Russian), "How Warming Is Being Made: The Case of Russia." The report, prepared by IEA director Natalya Pivovarova, suggests that the Hadley Center for Climate Change based at the headquarters of the British Meteorological Office in Exeter (Devon, England) and the Climate Research Unit of the University of East Anglia (CRU) in Norwich (England) apparently cherry‐picked Russian climate data.
The IEA report shows that Russian meteorological‐station data in the last 130 years did not substantiate the rate of warming on Russian territory suggested by the Hadley Climate Research Unit Temperature (HadCRUT) database, which has now been partially released.
IEA analysts point out that Russian meteorological stations cover most of the country's territory, while the HadCRUT used data from only 25% of such stations in their calculations. Over 40% of Russian territory was not included in their global temperature calculations even though there was no lack of meteorological stations and observations. The data of stations located in areas not listed in the HadCRUT survey often shows slight cooling or no substantial warming in the second part of the 20th century and the early 21st century.
The HadCRUT database includes specific stations providing shorter observations and incomplete data highlighting the warming process, rather than stations providing longer and uninterrupted observations not demonstrating significant warming. On the whole, HadCRUT specialists use the incomplete findings of meteorological stations far more often than those providing complete observations. IEA analysts found that the climatologists used the data of stations located in large populated centers that are influenced by the "urban heat effect" more frequently than the unbiased data from the stations located in less populated places.
The IEA authors calculated that the scale of actual warming for the Russian territory in 1877–1998 was probably exaggerated by 0.64°C. Since Russia accounts for 12.5% of the world's land mass, such an exaggeration for Russia alone should have an impact on the IPCC claim that the global temperature in the last century has risen by 0.76°C.
If similar procedures have been used for processing climate data from other national data sources, the impact on the rate of change in global temperature would be considerable.
The IEA report concludes that it is necessary to recalculate all global temperature data in order to assess the real rate of temperature change during the last century. Global temperature data will have to be modified because the calculations used by Copenhagen Conference on Climate Change analysts are based on HadCRUT research.


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The United Nations celebrates its 68th birthday on Grand Place in Brussels Sunday 20 October from 11 am to 5 pm.
The team from the 26 offices of the UN in Brussels. lead the celebrations of UN Day, which include a photo exhibiton, music, games and sustainable food.
The official UN Day is actually not 20 October but 24 October when the UN Charter entered into force in 1945.
In his message Ban Ki-moon, the UN Secretary-General says that the United Nations Day is a chance to recognize how much this "invaluable Organization contributes to peace and common progress."
"It is a time to reflect on what more we can do to realize our vision for a better world. The fighting in Syria is our biggest security challenge. Millions of people depend on UN humanitarian personnel for life-saving assistance.
UN experts are working hand-in-hand with the Nobel Peace Prize-winning Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons to destroy Syria's stockpiles.
And we are pushing for a diplomatic solution to end suffering that has gone on far too long," the Secretary-General says.
UN Day marks the anniversary of the entry into force in 1945 of the UN Charter. With the ratification of this founding document by the majority of its signatories, including the five permanent members of the Security Council, the United Nations officially came into being.
24 October has been celebrated as United Nations Day since 1948. In 1971, the United Nations General Assembly recommended that the day be observed by Member States as a public holiday.
The Brussels based United Nations Regional Information Centre for Western Europe - UNRIC provides information on UN activities to the countries of the region. It also provides liaison with institutions of the European Union in the field of information. Its outreach activities extend to all segments of society and joint campaigns, projects and events are organized with partners including the EU, governments, the media, NGOs, schools and local authorities.
United Nations Regional Information Centre for Western Europe (UNRIC Brussels)
Residence Palace, Rue de la Loi/Wetstraat 155, Block C2,7th and 8th floor, Brussels 1040, Belgium
Tel.: +32 2 788 8484 / Fax: 32 2 788 8485


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Next Episode of Spike Guys' Choice Awards is
Spike's Guys Choice is everything that a typical award show is NOT – a hilarious, unpretentious, heartfelt event where comedy is king and the world's greatest stars (past and present) align to toast the mega- splendor of all things GUY.This year's star-studded homage to the year in Guydom once again brings together the biggest names in entertainment and sports. The show will be taped Saturday, June 4 at the Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, CA and air on Thursday, June 9 at 9/8c on Spike.
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But don't worry - it can happen to the best of us,
- and it just happened to you.
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107 Photos
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✓ Wow! You must be an excellent tracker.
The Union Sportsmen's Alliance is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization with a mission to unite the union community through conservation to preserve North America's outdoor heritage.


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|Find the best surf spots
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Latitude: 30° 1.364' N
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Easy access from the road. It is just beach break.
DistanceTake a car
WalkInstant access (< 5min)
Easy to find?Easy to find
Public access?Public access
Special accessDon't know
Wave qualityNormal
ExperienceAll surfers
DirectionRight and left
Normal lengthShort (< 50m)
Good day lengthNormal (50 to 150m)
Good swell direction
Good wind direction
Swell sizeStarts working at Less than 1m / 3ft and holds up to 2m+ / 6ft+
Best tide positionMid and high tide
Best tide movementRising tide
Week crowdEmpty
Week-end crowdEmpty
This is the first place I ever surfed in February 1962.
Sand beach that is rather remote from dense beach communities.
Hej, it was my first surf and it does break along the beach with the right conditions (sand bars, swell direction and wind)
Author: thesurfer Contributors (1) They surfed this spot ! (8)
South Ponte Vedra Beach
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Over 20 different nations from four continents are represented at the 2013 Rolex Fastnet. Around 40% of fleet and half the sailors are non-British. The biennial event, one of the world's great ocean races and sponsored by Rolex since 2001, is globally revered and recognised.
Rolex Fastnet Race
From the United States to Russia, the United Arab Emirates to Australia, the fleet reflects the continued international reach of the sport of offshore yacht racing pitting together the finest professional sailors and passionate Corinthians. From young Omani female sailor Raiya al Habsi, taking on the event for the first time, to 83-year old Dutchman Piet Vroon making the nautical pilgrimage to the Fastnet rock for a 25th time, the allure is irresistible.
The majority of the record-breaking 336 race starters share two common goals: the first naturally enough is to finish this 611-nautical mile test of skill and character. The second is to win the event overall and to claim the coveted Rolex Fastnet Challenge Cup and Rolex timepiece.
American influence
At the inaugural Fastnet in 1925 – a race inspired by the United States' classic Newport-Bermuda Race created in 1906 - all seven of the competing yachts flew British flags. A touch of foreign influence was still prevalent: Saladwin was sailed by Ingo Simon, a Spaniard, and the race's first winner Jolie Brise was constructed in Le Havre, France. A year later the race welcomed its first official overseas entry, the American schooner Primrose. Her participation was announced in the New York Times, a sign of the event's instant reputation across the Atlantic.
American boats have defined eras in the race. In 1928, Paul Hammond's Ninawas the country's first winner, causing some controversy for its pursuit of speed and ruthless desire to win in an era where a more gentile sailing was considered 'appropriate'. American yachts, typically faster and more sophisticated than their British counterparts of the time, dominated the 1930s. Dorade – designed and sailed by Rod and Olin Stephens – claimed victories in 1931 and 1933, Stormy Weather in 1935, Elizabeth McCaw took line honours in 1937. In the 1950s, it was the turn of Carina who secured back-to-back handicap successes in 1955 and 1957. A decade later and Ted Turner came to prominence with his groundbreaking American Eagle, claiming line honours in 1969 and 1971 with a race record to boot. Turner also triumphed with Tenacious in the tragic 1979 race. Only one American boat – Great News – has won the Rolex Fastnet Challenge Cup since although Nirvana set a race record in 1985.
A clutch of American boats have entered again this year, including the extremely competitive 72-ft Bella Mente, owned by Hap Fauth current Mini Maxi Rolex World Champion. This is Fauth's first Rolex Fastnet, and he happily concedes he is the 'senior rookie' in his crew: "The Rolex Fastnet is an iconic race noted for very difficult conditions. It's tactically and strategically challenging. It has very dangerous and frustrating moments. That's why we are here. It's extraordinary to put this many boats in a race: from 130-ft down to 30-ft. Its a great statement by the organizers."
The 1960s marked a new era of the event and the globalisation extended to Australia whose sailors brought heightened professionalism and dedication. Australian success arrived in the shape of the legendary Syd Fischer's Ragamuffin the winner in 1971, a year marked by the participation of acting British Prime Minister Edward Heath.
Channel hoppers
The largest overseas contingent comes from France with in excess of 50 boats at this year's Rolex Fastnet. Back in 1928 L'Oiseau Bleu was the first French-owned vessel to start the race, although it wasn't until Guerveur appeared in 1929 that a French boat completed the course. In 1965, Baron de Rothschild's Gitana IV – one of the last heavy yawls to win the race – broke the 26-year race record. The crew were said to change attire each evening for a sit down dinner served to them. Overall French victory eventually arrived two years later under the guise of Pen-Duick III skippered by the legendary Eric Tabarly. Three French winners have followed, most recently the 33-ft Iromiguy in 2005.
François Gabart, this year's Vendée Globe winner and co-skippering the IMOCA 60 MACIF in 2013, is one of the latest generation of top French offshore sailors. "The Rolex Fastnet is very famous and prestigious in France. Since I was a kid I have thought about competing in this race. For a professional sailor to sail against non-professional sailors is nice, mixing with people who just love sailing. I'm proud to be part of this event."
Going global
No yacht has travelled further to the 2013 Rolex Fastnet than Australian Geoff Boettcher's 51-ft Secret Men's Business 3.5 from Adelaide. Given the logistical challenge it has taken to transport his yacht 16,000 miles to the UK, Boettcher is not here to simply make up the numbers. "As an Australian to come and do a Rolex Fastnet is huge. We've done so many Rolex Sydney Hobarts (the world's other great 600-nautical mile offshore race which Secret Men's Business 3.5 won in 2010), this is a great add-on to the crew's career in sailing. We're looking for a podium finish." Boettcher is not the only former Australian Rolex Sydney Hobart winner in attendance. Andrew Saies (whose Two True won in 2009) is competing with a largely Australian crew on Two True Tarka.
Southern hemisphere success has not been confined to Australia. New Zealand with Ross Field's RF Yachting took line honours and a race record in 1999. Neville Crichton won line honours in 2003 with Alfa Romeo and one of the country's greatest sailors is back this year. "The Rolex Fastnet is one of the classics of our sport. It's very tactical, challenging and great competition, all facets that we love. I've got wonderful memories of the race," revealed Mike Sanderson, ISAF Rolex World Sailor of the Year in 2006, tactician on Bella Mente.
South America's one and only victory arrived courtesy of Saga from Brazil in 1973. The Middle East has confirmed its blossoming emergence in competitive sailing with Abu Dhabi Ocean Racing, skippered by British Olympian Ian Walker, winning line honours and claiming the monohull race record in 2011. This year, Middle Eastern interest is extended with the participation of Oman Air Musandam.
Swedish heritage
Sweden is another country with a particular affiliation with the Rolex Fastnet. Success first arrived in the 1950s. Circe (1951) and Anna Marina (1959) claimed line honours while Sven Hansen's Sparkman & Stephens Anitra was overall winner in 1959.
In the late 1990s, Sweden was again a dominant force at the front end of the fleet with the same boat, originally named Nicorette and then Royal Blue, achieving line honours in 1995 and then again in 1997. The link with the event remains strong. Overall winner in 2009 and 2011 the Mini Maxi Rán 2 sails under the British flag with predominantly British crew. Owner Niklas Zennström, however, is a Swede, and Rán 2carries the initials of the Royal Swedish Yacht Club on its stern. The history of the race has had a marked impact on Zennström. "You take that trophy (the Rolex Fastnet Challenge Cup) and you see the plaques with all of the names of the yachts. There is a lot of history there, you see all the names, a lot of classic boats, boats that as a kid you watched and read about it."
Homeward bound
Among this myriad of international yachting powers is Ireland, home to the race's emblematic symbol - the Fastnet Rock. Only one Irish boat – Chieftain in 2007 –- has ever won the event. Trying to improve upon that statistic is this year's 12-strong Emerald Isle contingent including Ker 39 Antix, whose crew includes Anthony O'Leary and his son Peter. "The Rolex Fastnet is on the bucket list," explained Peter, who competed at the 2012 Olympics. "I learnt to sail in Baltimore as a youngster and used to go out and watch the boats going around the Fastnet Rock. I grew up wanting to do the race. My father has done it and my mother did it in '79. A good few boats will come out in Baltimore to see us pass the Rock although it will be strange disappearing and returning back to England."
Professional British sailors who have sailed throughout the world still find the draw of the race irresistible. "The Rolex Fastnet Race is the one of the top offshore races in the world," revealed Sam Davies, navigator on Volvo 70 Team SCA, a predominantly female crew. "I remember when I was young watching all the boats prepare for the Fastnet Race thinking there is no way I could ever sail 600 miles! For me just sailing the Channel was a long way. Now I am here doing my fifth Rolex Fastnet Race and really looking forward to it. I love sailing along the British coast. It's beautiful and there are lots of tactical and navigational challenges."
The international attraction of the race is unquestionable. The race organizers, the Royal Ocean Racing Club and in particular its CEO, Eddie Warden Owen who has 7 races under his belt are quick to recognize the status the race has achieved and its widespread popularity. "It's the people's Everest of the ocean," says Warden Owen. "It's a tough challenge but one people enjoy." A view plainly echoed by the some 3,000 sailors drawn to the contest every two years and the intrepid yachtsmen who have gone before.
How to follow the Rolex Fastnet Race
The Rolex Fastnet Race is organized by the Royal Ocean Racing Club (RORC) and sponsored by Rolex since 2001.
For more information about the RORC and the Rolex Fastnet Race, please visit www.rorc.org
RORC Event Press Officer
Peta Stuart-Hunt
E: email@example.com
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|Introducing the fabulous Jimmy Choo Memento Collection. The capsule collection was created in celebrarion of the 20 year anniversary of Jimmy Choo. This is a capsule collection of gorgeous shoes paying tribute to Jimmy Choo's iconic red carpet legacy. The stunning collection consists of twenty ultra glam shoe and bag designs. Above is the showstopping Jimmy Choo Rox 100. The Swarovski crystal embellished Rox and Storm designs are available nude or black suede with a closed or open toe option and available in 3 different heel heights. Each pair of Rox and Storm are made to order. Discover more of the Jimmy Choo Memento Collection below. Simply click on the image, or the description below for more information. I am not able to link directly to the specific shoe....just click on Memento Collection when you arrive at the site!! View the entire collection at Jimmy Choo. Enjoy!!
|Jimmy Choo Lance
|The Memento Trunk
How amazing is this? A special trunk to and home to all of your Jimmy Choo's! The limited edtition shoe trunk was designed as part of the Jimmy Choo Memento Capsule Collection.
"Not surprisingly, I have a personal obsession with collecting shoes. For our milestone birthday I wanted to unashamedly celebrate a woman's love affair with shoes and create a one-of-a-kind environment to house her most treasured pairs. I wanted the trunk to be exceptional and to be the ultimate expression of luxury and glamour." - Sandra Choi - Creative Director
(collages by LOLO)


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Yes, I know you can facilitate me drinking heavily! Before I even get to the Gate!Token wrote:I can help facilitate this.C.f.M. wrote:...yes, and I can be consoled at the death of a fellow burner with stupid-expensive bottles of wine.HandJamMasterC wrote: Don't tell me Sparky and I will have to fight to the death in Thunderdome for you now?
$1 for 300 parties, that's a really great way to look at it, for broke-ass people like me who really have to justify the expense.
One of regionals/home burn/all-time favourite burn, to celebrate their fifth year, are offering the first 500 at $5. But then, the others are only $35, they being avowed to not raise prices unless absolutely necessary. They also buy a scholarship ticket to Burning Man they gift.


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'All My Children's' Lucci to host 'real-life soap'
NEW YORK -- "All My Children" veteran Susan Lucci is returning to the world of soap operas. But this time, the stories will be real.
Lucci will host and narrate "Deadly Affairs," a new prime-time series airing on Investigation Discovery. The show will explore true stories of romance gone wrong and the crimes of passion that resulted, the network announced Thursday.
"They are deceptive love relationships, love triangles and betrayal that have deadly consequences," Lucci said. "And they end in tragedy.
"Every day you hear these stories and you think, 'Oh, my goodness!' Then they disappear. You don't know what happened next, and you don't know why they happened. I'm hoping that, in exploring them, we'll shed some light on human nature."
Lucci won lasting fame as devious, often-wed Erica Kane throughout the run of daytime drama "All My Children," which aired from 1970 until ABC canceled it last September.
"As Erica, I got punished for my wrong deeds," Lucci noted. "I wound up in jail several times, even in a blood-stained ball gown. But with 'Deadly Affairs,' these are not characters on a soap opera. This is real life."
Describing her new show as a "real-life soap," she called her hosting role "a perfect match," adding, "I couldn't help but smile" after getting the series offer.
Filming of the 10-episode season is expected to begin in March, with its premiere slated for this fall, Investigation Discovery said.
Lucci also has guest shots on the Lifetime drama "Army Wives" and TV Land's sitcom "Hot in Cleveland." But she has closed the book on Erica Kane after 41 years.
"I miss Erica tremendously," she said. "That's the same thing I hear from people I meet."
Another long-running ABC soap, "One Life to Live," comes to an end Friday, but Lucci expressed confidence that the soap opera genre will endure.
"If it has good writing and good production values," she said, "it has a future."


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Archive for category Year 1
Involved Dads Boost Behavioral Outcomes at Year 1
Posted by psychieblogger in Children and Teens, Psychology, Research, Supervision, Troubled Relationship, University Of Oxford, Wh, Year 1 on July 25, 2012
Children whose fathers are more engaged with them at 3 months have fewer behavioral problems at 12 months, according to new research.
Researchers at the University of Oxford studied 192 families recruited from two maternity units in the UK to see whether there was a link between father-child interactions in the early postnatal period and the child's behavior.
"We found that children whose fathers were more engaged in the interactions had better outcomes, with fewer subsequent behavioral problems," said Dr. Paul Ramchandani, who led the study.
"At the other end of the scale, children tended to have greater behavioral problems when their fathers were more remote and lost in their own thoughts, or when their fathers interacted less with them."
The association tended to be stronger for boys than for girls, suggesting that boys may be more susceptible to the influence of their fathers from a very early age, he said.
"We don't yet know whether the fathers being more remote and disengaged are actually causing the behavioral problems in the children, but it does raise the possibility that these early interactions are important," he added.
The researchers believe there are a number of possible explanations for the link. The lack of engagement by the father could reflect wider problems in family relationships, with fathers who are in a more troubled relationship with their partners finding it more challenging to engage with their infants, they said.
Alternatively, it may reflect a lack of supervision and care for the infant, resulting in an increase in behavioral problems.
Another possibility is that the infant's behavior represents its attempts to elicit a parental reaction in response to an earlier lack of parental engagement, the researchers said.
"Focusing on the infant's first few months is important as this is a crucial period for development and the infant is very susceptible to environmental influences, such as the quality of parental care and interaction," Ramchandani said.
"As every parent knows, raising a child is not an easy task. Our research adds to a growing body of evidence which suggests that intervening early to help parents can make a positive impact on how their infant develops."
The research was published in the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.
Source: Wellcome Trust