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1. Introduction1
The principle of decentralization has been one of the cornerstones of the internet's genesis: the primary objective of the 'network of networks' was indeed to enable communication between heterogeneous and remote machines, without mandatory transit points. Today, concentration models dominate, around a handful of macro-actors – giants equipped with extensive server farms, managing the most part of internet traffic. However, the original principle has not been entirely abandoned, and in all areas of application, developers explore decentralized alternatives, relying on cooperation between users (and their computers). These dwarfs of the network form the basis of search engines, social networks, storage platforms that allocate resources and tasks equally among participants in the network.
In this paper, I discuss some of the results of a five-year-long (and on-going) investigation of alternative, decentralized and peer-to-peer approaches to internet services, and of the social and organizational forms they propose (Musiani, 2013a). To avoid adopting an excessively broad focus – and the impossible mission of summarizing years of work into a single paper – I will focus here, in particular, on discussing the implications of this research for the study of internet governance.2 As Geoffrey Bowker points out, 'If the governance of the internet is a key sociotechnical issue of our times, then we need to be able to explore both the choices we have made and the roads not taken. If we are to deal with this fundamental political issue of our time, then we need an integrated understanding of what is at stake socially and how changes can be made technologically' (Bowker, 2013).
1.1. P2P, between widespread infractions and promise of equality
Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a technology that continues to cause both excitement and anxiety, despite its relatively simple technical definition of computer networking model structured in a decentralized manner, so that communications or exchanges take place between nodes entrusted with an equal responsibility in the system (Schollmeier, 2001). For a large number of internet users – since the encounter between P2P and the public, prompted by the file sharing software Napster in 1999 – this technology is a de facto synonym for the (illegal) download of cultural content; for others, it represents the ultimate utopia of techno-egalitarianism, or suggests a more sustainable organizational model for the societies of tomorrow. While it certainly does not, and cannot, wish to neglect the powerful agency of these normative views, my research does not seek to be a further contribution to the already well-established debate on copyright, and on the sharing/stealing dialectic to which P2P now seems to be almost 'naturally' associated. I have taken as the starting point of my work the basic feature of P2P as a computer network model: the facilitation of direct exchanges of data between equal nodes – equal in terms of their provision of technical resources to the system as a whole, and of the responsibility assigned to them within its operations.
My work of the past five years has focused on the development and the appropriation of internet-based services the conception of which integrates a specific design choice: the delegation of the responsibility and the control of data management and flows to the margins, or the periphery, of these networking systems. The necessary operations for the proper functioning of these systems, and their ability to correctly provide the services for which they are intended, technically depend on users, the 'dwarfs' of the network: their terminals, their computing resources, mobilized in an aggregate manner in order to serve a common purpose.
Thus, my work is not primarily concerned with the type of service that is most often associated with P2P architecture, file sharing. Rather, it focuses its attention on the 'meeting' between the choice of developing a P2P technical architecture, and applications such as information retrieval, video streaming, file storage. We are very familiar with these online activities in our daily practice as internet users, under the name of Google, YouTube, Dropbox – the 'giants' of information technology, based on a client/server network architecture that sets out a clearly identifiable dichotomy between a server that provides resources, and clients requesting them. My work explores the making of systems that, while serving these same, diverse purposes – search, networking, storage – have in common an original feature of their technical architecture, compared to their famous centralized counterparts: all are based on P2P networking technologies.
1.2. Approach and methodology
This work builds on an approach that blends internet studies with science and technology studies (STS) infrastructure studies – first and foremost – with a particular attention to methods that Star (1999) has described as 'ethnography of infrastructure'. This blend of qualitative methods has proven fruitful and has been formulated in order to shed light on the 'ballet between programmers, software and users' (Abbate, 2012) that builds decentralization into internet-based services, and also to further explore the socio-political implications of this distributed and decentralized approach to the technical architecture of internet services. The underlying hypothesis for this method is that the 'lower layers' of a networked system have, or may have, consequences on the purpose that the system serves, the dynamics that are enacted within it, the techno-legal procedures it entails. Thus, it contributes to shape the present and future of internet governance, enacted not only via institutions but via the sinews of power embedded in the architectures and infrastructures of the internet (DeNardis, 2014). In the case of the present article, space constraints do not allow to present more than a very limited part of the ethnographic work which spans three chapters in (Musiani, 2013b); section 3, 3.1 in particular, will give a 'flavour' of this ethnography. This ensemble of methods, unpacking the discrete, oft-invisible operations and devices that subtend internet-based services, contributes to the disengagement from two equally 'reductionist' conceptions of the internet: either a de facto stranger to the institutional forces of the off-line 'reality', or a system that can be entirely assimilated to the codified spaces of traditional politics (Cheniti, 2009). Moving away from this dichotomy allows to give emphasis, in the study of internet governance, to its materiality and practice: the set of mechanisms that lead the different actors in the technical, political and economic management of the 'network of networks' to build common knowledge, legitimize some of it as stabilized facts of the internet, and shape boundaries able to reconcile the concerns of both experts and users.
Indeed, when it comes to the design and implementation choices subtending technical architectures, issues of materiality take central stage, intertwined with issues of 'code' (i.e. computers being 'programmed' in a specific way). The choice of decentralization, by developers and users alike, entails a number of very 'material' implications. Firstly, it is about the very existence of the system. In decentralized networks, there is no external supporting infrastructure; if domestic computers act as servers, server farms belonging to the 'giants' can be substantially reduced or don't need to exist, potentially, thus organizing the global infrastructure of the internet in a very different manner. Secondly, it has implications for what users' machines are equipped to do or not, the amount of control that users can exert on them, how they are appropriated by users; e.g., if domestic computers have P2P clients installed on them, they make specific uses of hardware such as Central Processing Units (CPUs) and hard disks, that are different in a classical, centralized 'cloud' configuration.
2. Network architecture, 'politics by other means'
'Study an information system and neglect its standards, wires, and settings, and you miss equally essential aspects of aesthetics, justice, and change,' once wrote STS scholar Susan Leigh Star (Star, 1999, 339). Indeed, the history of internet innovation suggests that the shaping of technical architectures populating the network of networks is, in the words of philosopher Bruno Latour, 'politics by other means' (Latour, 1988, 229). The ways in which architecture is politics, protocols are law, code shapes rights, are explored today by a number of different authors in relation to networked media (e.g. Lessig, 1999; DeNardis, 2009); in particular, internet-related research has contributed to foster the debate on the intersection and overlap of governance by architecture with other forms of governance. This section, while not pretending to be exhaustive, discusses some of the most interesting approaches to the question.
Information studies scholar and internet pioneer Philip Agre has addressed the relationship between technical architecture and institutions, notably the difference between 'architecture as politics' and 'architecture as a substitute for politics' (Agre, 2003). Defining architectures as the matrixes of concepts (e.g. the distinction between clients and servers) designed into technology, and institutions as the matrixes of concepts that organise language, rules, job titles, and other social categories in particular societal sectors, Agre suggests that the engineering story of rationally distributed computation and the political story of institutional change through decentralised architecture are not naturally related. They reconfigure and evolve constantly, and for these reconfigurations and evolutions to share a common direction, they need work: 'Decentralized institutions do not imply decentralized architectures, or vice versa. The drive toward decentralized architectures need not serve the political purpose of decentralizing society. Architectures and institutions inevitably coevolve, and to the extent they can be designed, they should be designed together.' (Agre, 2003, 42). Also interested in the relationship between architectures and the organization of society, Terje Rasmussen (2003) has argued that the technical model of the internet, and of the systems populating it, point towards central characteristics of modern societies. Thus, there is a structural match between the development of the internet and the transformation of the societies in which it operates. In this account, the technical infrastructure suggests a distributed society based on an ability to handle risk rather than central control.
Working at the crossroads of informatics, economics and law, Barbara van Schewick explores the relationship between the architecture of the internet (and its applications), with economics and competition structures. Her work seeks to examine how changes, notably design choices, in internet architecture affect the economic environment for innovation, and evaluates the impact of these changes from the perspective of public policy (2010, 2). According to van Schewick, this is a first step towards filling a gap in how scholarship understands innovators' decisions to innovate and the economic environment for innovation. After many years of research on innovation processes, we understand how these are affected by changes in laws, norms, and prices; yet, we lack a similar understanding of how architecture and innovation impact each other, perhaps for the intrinsic appeal of architectures as purely technical systems (Ibid, 2–3). Traditionally, she concludes, policymakers have used the law to bring about desired economic effects. Architecture de facto constitutes an alternative way of influencing economic systems, and as such, it is becoming another tool that actors can use to further their interests (Ibid, 389).
The relationship between the design of technical architecture for networked media and the making of law has been an increasingly central interdisciplinary preoccupation since the late 90s/early 2000s. Early uses of the metaphor 'code is law' can be found in William Mitchell's City of Bits (1995) and in Joel Reidenberg's article on lex informatica, the formation of information policy rules through technology (1998). However, legal scholars Yochai Benkler and Lawrence Lessig have arguably been the 'scene-setters' in this field, with their work on sharing as a paradigm of economic production in its own right (2004) and technical architecture as politics (1999), respectively. While the former argued for the rise of a 'networked information economy' as a system of 'production, distribution, and consumption of information goods characterized by decentralized individual action carried out through widely distributed, nonmarket means' (Benkler, 2006), the latter introduced technical architecture as one out of the four main (and interconnected) society regulators, the other three being law, market and norms. The application of this principle to the text of computer programs led to what remains, perhaps, the most famous incarnation of the famous 'code is law' label (Lessig, 1999).
Among the scholars that have since been inspired by this line of inquiry, Niva Elkin-Koren is especially interesting. In her work (e.g. 2006, 2012), architecture is understood as a dynamic parameter in the reciprocal influences of law and technology design, in the field of information and communication systems. The interrelationship between law and technology often focuses on one single aspect, the challenges that emerging technologies pose to the existing legal regime, thereby creating a need for further legal reform; however, the author argues, juridical measures involving technology both as a target of regulation and as a means of enforcement should take into account that the law does not merely respond to new technologies, but also shapes them and may affect their design (Elkin-Koren, 2006). Interestingly, the work of Tim Wu adds layers to the conceptualization of code's relationship with law, moving from Lessig's concept that computer code can substitute for law or other forms of regulation, to code as an anti-regulatory mechanism tool that certain groups will use to their advantage to minimize the costs of law – the possibility of 'using code design as an alternative mechanism of interest group behavior' (Wu, 2003).
2.1. Architecture and the future(s) of the internet
The current trajectories of innovation for the internet are making it increasingly evident by the day: the evolutions (and in-volutions) of the network of networks are likely to depend in the medium-to-long term on the topology and the organisational/technical model of internet-based applications, as well as on the infrastructure underlying them (Aigrain, 2011). This is illustrated by what has been this author's main research focus of the past few years: the development of internet-based services – search engines, storage platforms, video streaming applications – based on decentralised network architectures (Musiani, 2013b).
The concept of decentralisation is somehow shaped and inscribed into the very beginnings of the internet – notably in the organisation and circulation of data packets – but its current topology integrates this structuring principle only in very limited ways (Minar & Hedlund, 2001). The limits of the concentrated and centralised urbanism of the internet, which has been predominant since the beginning of its commercial era and its appropriation by the masses, are sometimes highlighted by the same phenomena that have contributed to its widespread success, such as social media (Schafer, Le Crosnier & Musiani, 2011). While internet users have become, at least potentially, not just consumers but also distributors, sharers and producers of digital content, the network of networks is structured in such a way that large quantities of data are centralised and compressed within specific regions of the internet. At the same time, such data are most suited to a rapid re-diffusion and re-sharing in multiple locations of a network that has now reached an unprecedented level of globalization. The current organisation of internet-based services and the structure of the network that enables their functioning – with its mandatory passage points, places of storage and trade, required intersections – raises many questions, in terms of the optimised utilisation of resources, the fluidity, rapidity and effectiveness of electronic exchanges, the security of exchanges, the stability of the network.
Beyond technology, these questions are deeply social and political, and affect the 'ramifications of possibles' (Gai, 2007) the internet is currently facing for its near-term future. They affect the balance of powers between users and service providers, and impact net neutrality. To what extent can network providers interfere with specific uses? Can the network be optimised for specific uses? By enabling individuals, communities and companies to use the internet in the way that creates the most value for them, changes in architecture are likely to increase or diminish the internet's overall value to society. Goals such as user choice, non-discrimination, non-optimisation, may be achieved in a variety of ways according to different designs of network architecture (van Schewick, 2010, 387). Resorting to decentralised architectures and distributed organisational forms, then, constitutes a different way to address some issues of management of the network, in a perspective of effectiveness, security and digital 'sustainable development' (better resource management), and of maximisation of its value to society.
Since the heyday of Napster, which marked the beginning of P2P's 'public' history, decentralized networks have mostly been considered, from a political and legal viewpoint, as a threat for the digital content industry. The most widespread use of such networks being the unauthorized sharing of music or video files, the problem of intellectual property rights has imposed itself as the predominant political and media framing of P2P networks and their uses. However, an equally relevant research question to ask is whether the diversity of P2P appropriations gives way to the construction of a social, political and economic opportunity for internet-based services, as well as an alternative to the predominant server-based concentration models.
Thus, the 'stories of P2P' that my recent research has been concerned with are representatives of a particular category of decentralized systems. Sladder is a British start-up offering a search engine decentralized at multiple levels of its technical architecture, aiming at making affinities and preferences of users a crucial component of query results. Drizzle is a Swiss start-up that once proposed a distributed file storage system, which also includes social networking features.3 Delenk, a BitTorrent-based decentralized video streaming system funded by the European Union, is an occasion to observe the political and technical mobilization of P2P as an alternative model for audio-visual services via the internet.4 All three projects wish to propose alternatives, based on decentralized or P2P architectures, to online services occupying an important place in the daily lives of internet users. The purposes of these systems are applications such as search, storage, streaming, the same that are provided by the 'big players' of the internet, such as Google, Dropbox, YouTube. They are designed to meet the same requirements as these services, from the perspective of the end user (who will continue to search for words, store photos, or watch a video), but are built on a different technical platform that leverages the potential of P2P and decentralization.
3. Architectures shaping user rights: a flavour of ethnography
Systems based on distributed, decentralized, P2P architectures seek their place today in an IT landscape that is mostly one of concentration and removal from users' machines. Sharing, regrouping and stocking information and data in the most popular, and widespread, internet services of today means promoting a model in which traffic is redirected towards an ensemble of machines, placed under the exclusive and direct control of the service provider. Thus, exchanges between users are made by 'copying' data that one wishes to share on one or more external terminals, or by giving these machines the permission to index this information. The ways in which data circulate, are stored and are written in these machines are, most of the times, opaque; moreover, the rights that the service provider acquires on such data are often excessive with respect to those maintained by the end user – in oft-unclear ways for users themselves.
When the operations of data treatment and handling are conducted, partially or totally, on users' terminals directly linked together, this choice of network architecture contributes to build specific definitions and implementations of privacy protection. It modifies the ways in which the control on informational data and the responsibility for their protection are spread out to the users, the service providers, the developers who have created the service. Distributed networking models challenge 'by architecture' the extent, the balance and the very definition of the rights obtained by service providers on users' personal data, vis-à-vis the rights that users maintain on such data. This often comes with a trade-off: on one hand, the user sees her privacy reinforced by the possibility of an augmented control on her data, and on the ways in which they are treated by the P2P client. However, simultaneously and for the same reasons, her responsibility for the actions she undertakes within and by means of the application is increased as well, while the provider surrenders voluntarily some of its control on the data and content present on the service. The collective dimension of this responsibility is also emphasized, and the collective consequences of individual infractions highlighted – regardless of whether the infraction is the storage of inappropriate content, the introduction of unreliable information or spam in a distributed search index, or a 'selfish' management of the bandwidth shared by a P2P streaming system.
Three cases of internet services based on a decentralized network architecture – a search engine, a storage platform and a video streaming software, studied between 2009 and 2011 – have shown how a definition of privacy 'by design', more specifically by architectural design, takes shape in internet services (Musiani, 2013b). With this alternative, 'techno-legal' way of defining privacy, a central role is attributed to the constraints and the opportunities of privacy protection that are inscribed into the technical model chosen by developers (Schaar, 2010).
Sladder, a P2P search engine developed first in Germany, then in the United Kingdom, displays a 'six-levels' distribution model, which must prevent the traceability of queries by a central entity. This model is intended to preserve personal data within the user's own terminal and the P2P client installed on it – unless they are encrypted beforehand, on that very terminal, before they leave it. This feature also allows the developers to work towards reducing the tension – which is a priori very difficult to eliminate – between the confidentiality of personal information and the personalization of search queries, the latter being the 'added value' that social dynamics add to the search engine, and which is based on the very collection of this personal information.
The case of Delenk, a P2P video streaming tool first developed at a Dutch technical university, offers another occasion to follow this tension, as the logic underlying the system is that the history of downloads made by a user are shared by default with other users so as to nourish the software's 'recommendation' algorithm. The solution envisaged by the developers has, once again, to do with an idea of 'privacy by architectural design', as it builds on the decentralized and distributed model to mitigate, in the eyes of users, the impression of exposure and revelation of themselves that the system's social features may provoke: not only can the feature be disabled, but it only sends the download history to other users – it doesn't keep the information on any server controlled by the service.
Finally, Drizzle, a (formerly) distributed storage platform developed in Switzerland, displayed similar attempts to protect user privacy by architecture. The heart of this service was the user's terminal, where, thanks to a dedicated P2P client, the operations of encryption and fragmentation of stored data took place. These two operations – conducted before any other operation leading to share, download or circulate data in the network – were meant, in the vision of Drizzle's developers, as evidence given to the users that the service provider, regardless of its intentions, did not even possess the technical means to break user trust in the system. The following section delves into this case study in some more detail.
3.1. Achieving privacy by design in decentralized storage
In early 2007, when Drizzle first sees the light, the industry of online data storage – a service allowing users to store, save and share data on one or several terminals connected to the internet – is in full development. Google, Amazon, Microsoft and Oracle, to name but a few, propose their storage platforms, each with its specificities and one common denominator: the 'cloud'. According to this model, the service provider is in charge of both the physical infrastructure and the software. Thus, the service provider hosts applications and data at once – in a location, and according to modalities, unknown to or at best ambiguous for the user (Mowbray, 2009). The so-called 'server farms' proliferate, to support and manage this increasing remoteness of data from users and users' terminals.
In this context, Drizzle, a small start-up founded by two developers and computer programmers who we will call Dietrich and Kurt, makes an unusual foundational decision: its cloud storage platform will mainly be composed – alongside more 'classical' data centres – of portions of the users' hard disks, directly linked in a peer-to-peer, decentralised network architecture (Schollmeier, 2001; Taylor & Harrison, 2009). This choice entails a number of peculiar features. On the one hand, the implementation of a technical process defined as 'encrypted fragmentation', which consists in encrypting locally – on the user's computer, and by means of a previously installed Drizzle P2P client – the content that will be stored. The content is then divided into fragments, duplicated to ensure redundancy, and spread out to the network. In return, users need to accept to 'pool' – put at the disposal of other users and their computers – the computational and material resources necessary for the operations related to the storage of content. As the service's terms of use point out: 'The user acknowledges that Drizzle may use processor, bandwidth and hard disk (or other storage media) of his computer for the purpose of storing, encrypting, caching and serving data that has been stored in Drizzle by the user or any other users. The user can specify the extent to which local resources are used in the settings of the Drizzle client software. The amount of resources the user is allowed to use in Drizzle depends on the amount of local resources the user is contributing to Drizzle.' The interdependent and egalitarian model subtending the platform will allow its users to barter their local disk space with an equivalent space in the decentralised cloud, thereby improving the quality of this storage space, which will become permanently available and accessible.
By shaping their decentralised storage service, the developers of Drizzle carry on a double experimentation: with the frontier between centralisation and decentralisation, and with sharing modalities that blend peer-to-peer, social networking and the cloud. Drizzle's first steps are taken in a community of research and development that tries to counter the social media 'explosion' by developing P2P systems as an alternative to a variety of internet-based services, including social networks, structured in a centralised manner (Le Fessant, 2009). In a context of user exposure on social networking sites and cloud-based services, and the increasingly widespread storage of applications and data in locations and ways unknown or at best ambiguous, several developers – including Drizzle's – identify in a peer-to-peer type of network architecture a possible way of approaching the protection of personal data privacy with a different angle: through the relocation and 're-appropriation' of data within the terminals of users, who would be able to host their own profiles and the information they contain (see also Moglen, 2010; Aigrain, 2010, 2011).
As in the development of Drizzle, a conception of privacy and confidentiality of personal data, which is conceived of and enforced via technical means – called privacy by design (Cavoukian, 2010; Schaar, 2010), is at work. This conceptualisation of privacy is defined by means of the constraints and the opportunities linked to the treatment and the location of data, according to the different moments and the variety of operations taking place within the system. In particular, the confidentiality of data (personal data as well as the content stored in the P2P cloud) is defined by the peculiar role and enhanced features attributed to the password that identifies the user vis-à-vis the network.
In Dietrich's intentions, the role of the user-selected and user–generated password for the Drizzle system should have 'stri[cken] the user as soon as he had access to the system for the very first time.' Indeed, the virtual form that is served to users upon subscription may come as a surprise: it informs that 'We do not know your password as it never leaves your computer. Please, do not forget your password and use, if needed, your password hint.' The status of the password is thus negotiated, beyond its usual meaning of unique identifier vis-à-vis the system, to define, detail and legitimise the process of local encryption and decryption of data within the Drizzle system. This feature comes to symbolise the specificity of Drizzle's promise of security and privacy as well as users' trust, as it becomes the symbol and the graphical representation of the 'local' dimension of the encryption process – as it never leaves the computer of the user who created it. The operations, for the most part automatically managed, that are linked to the protection of personal data are thus hosted on the terminals of users. Indeed, this entails a modification of the user's role within the service's architecture: node among equal nodes, it becomes a server itself, instead of a starting point and a final point for operations that are otherwise conducted on another machine or group of machines.
Through the attribution of this status to the password, the developers of Drizzle are also proposing an alternative to the balance between the rights exerted by users on their own data and the rights acquired by the service provider on these same data – a balance that is usually heavily bent on the provider's side. However, this reconfiguration in the balance of rights comes with a trade-off. As the password stays with the user and is not sent to the servers controlled by the firm, the latter cannot retrieve the password if needed. Thus, users do not only see their privacy reinforced, but at the same time and for the same reasons, the responsibility for their actions is augmented – while the service provider renounces some of its control over the content that circulates thanks to the service it manages. The meaning of this 'renunciation', Dietrich explains, is double: on the one hand, the Drizzle team wishes to make it evident, almost translate into a specific object the user can easily relate to, the 'obscure' and unfamiliar process of client-side encryption, which is an on going source of controversies and perplexities. On the other hand, it is also a matter of Drizzle's business model: the more the firm knows about its users, the more it is mandatory for it to submit the users to regular surveillance and control – and this requires an investment of material resources and time that, in its first phases of existence, the firm does not have: 'If we can know what is in your account, starting with your password, we have heightened obligations to police the content and to make sure nobody can eavesdrop on the traffic.'
The development of Drizzle's 'peer-to-peer cloud' allows to observe how changes in the architectural design of networked services affect data circulation, storage and privacy – and in doing so, reconfigure the articulation of the 'locality' and the 'centrality' in the network (Akrich, 1989: 39), suggesting a model of decentralised governance 'by architectural design' for the service. Ultimately, decentralising the cloud leads to a reformulation and 're-balancing' of the relationship between the user and the service provider. The local, client-side encryption of data first, and its fragmentation afterwards – both operations conducted within the P2P client installed by the user, and entirely taking place on his terminal – are proposed by Drizzle as evidence that the firm, in its own words, 'does not even have the technical means' to betray the trust of users. In particular, this conception of privacy by design takes shape around the password, which remains locally stored in the user's P2P client and unknown to the service provider. In doing so, it becomes a form of disengagement of the service provider with respect to security issues, its 'auto-release' from responsibility: a detail whose importance may seem small at first, but eventually leads to changes in the forms of technical solidarity (Dodier, 1995) established between users and service provider.
4. How (de-) centralized architectures matter for internet governance
The critiques targeting the interdisciplinary, emerging research field of internet governance – from the difficulty of establishing precise definitions, to the alleged 'unholy marriages' with its subject of study – do not jeopardize the validity and the interest of a field that is not only 'in the making', but interested in an especially dynamic object (Brousseau & Marzouki, 2012). However, it needs to be acknowledged, as Michel van Eeten and Milton Mueller do, that the literature describing itself as specialized in the internet governance field often tends to focus on a limited number of international institutions and debates about the global politics of the internet. The 'internet governance' qualification does not generally apply to the study of a number of activities and daily practices, on and with the internet, that play a very important role in the shaping and the regulation of the 'network of networks' (van Eeten & Mueller, 2013).
Paying close attention to the tensions between the dwarfs and the giants of the Net – the tensions between technical and organizational models, and their 'political' consequences – can contribute, as Tarek Cheniti has pointed out, to a disengagement from an all-too-frequent dualist conception of the internet as an a priori identifiable and rigidly bounded space: either a stranger to the institutional forces of the off-line 'reality', or on the contrary, entirely entrenched behind the codified spaces of traditional politics (Cheniti, 2009). This perspective allows to give emphasis in the analysis to the set of mechanisms that lead different participants in the technical, political and economic management of the 'network of networks' to build common knowledge, legitimize some of it as facts of the internet, and shape limits and boundaries able to reconcile the concerns of both experts and users. It helps identifying and presenting different versions of the worlds in which notions of governance take place, before defining what governance actually is (Ziewitz and Pentzold, 2013).
Arrangements of technical architecture have always inherently been arrangements of power, writes Laura DeNardis (2014): the technical architecture of networked systems does not only affect internet governance, but is internet governance. This governance by architecture, or 'governance by design' (De Filippi, Dulong de Rosnay & Musiani, 2013), has important implications at a number of levels, of which the previous section, centred on privacy and the ways in which it can be implemented by architectural design, has given but one example.
Changes in architectural design affect the repartition of competences and responsibilities between service providers, content producers, users and network operators. They affect forms of engagement and intéressement (Callon, 2006) in networked systems, of users first and foremost, but also of other actors concerned by the implementation and the operations of internet services. They shape the sustainability of the underlying economic models and the technical and legal approaches to the management of digital content and personal data. They make visible, in various configurations, the forms of interaction between the local and the global, the patterns of articulation between the individual and the collective.
Changes in network architectures contribute to the shaping of user rights, of the ways to produce and enforce law, and are reconfigured in return. A number of legal issues, that go way beyond copyright (despite having often been reduced to this aspect, notably in the case of peer-to-peer systems), are raised by architectural configurations of internet services. To preserve the internet's 'social value' (van Schewick, 2010), it is important to achieve reliable forms of regulation – technical, political, or both – without impeding present and future innovation.
Changes in architectures do, finally, contribute to shift the boundary between public and private uses of the internet as a global facility: they are a crucial factor in defining intellectual property rights, the right to privacy of users/clients, or their rights of access to content. They contribute to define what is a contributor in internet-based services, in terms of computing resources required for operating the system, and of content.
In the end, technical architecture appears as one of the strongest, if not the strongest, structuring element of internet governance: what is shaped into architecture and infrastructure can seldom be undone by institutional negotiation and dialogue alone, and institutions find it increasingly complicated to keep up with 'creative' governance by architecture and by infrastructure (see DeNardis, 2012). In this sense, future evolutions of internet governance as a field would do well to fully take into account Michel van Eeten and Milton Mueller's suggestion to expand to areas such as the economics of cybercrime and cybersecurity, network neutrality, content filtering and regulation, infrastructure-based copyright enforcement, and interconnection arrangements among ISPs (van Eeten & Mueller, 2013).
Information and communication technologies, the internet first and foremost, are increasingly mobilized to serve broader economic, political and military aims, ranging from the theft of strategic data to the hijacking of industrial systems. The rise of techniques, devices and infrastructures destined to facilitate digital espionage, data collection and aggregation, tracking and surveillance is highlighted not only by the recent Snowden revelations, but also by the construction and the organization of a dedicated, increasingly widespread and lucrative market. What lies under the internet governance label is, in fact, an ensemble of fluidly-contoured socio-political and socio-technical controversies, which have in STS-informed approaches to network architecture – its centralization and decentralization – one of the best opportunities to be thoroughly accounted for, richly described and extensively analysed.
5. Conclusions
If it is possible to design in detail the architecture of the world users interact with, it is possible to design the architecture of our global communication infrastructure in order to promote specific types of political, economic and legal interactions over others (De Filippi et al., 2013) with important consequences for the ways in which the future internet will be governed, and for the extent to which its users will be not only customers, but citizens.
Technical architectures, as argued by several authors discussed in this article, may be understood as alternative ways of influencing economic systems, sets of rules, communities of practice – indeed, as the very fabric of user behaviour and interaction. They are very 'material' devices of governance, as well, embedded in the reconfigurations of traffic flows, redistribution of computing power, rearrangements of storage space, downloads of P2P clients, availability and performance of hard disks. The status of every internet user as consumer, sharer, producer and possibly manager of digital content is informed by, and shapes in return, the technical structure and organisation of the services she has access to.
It is in this sense that network architecture is internet governance: changes in the design of the networks subtending internet-based services, and the global internet itself, affect the 'politics by other means' (Latour, 1988: 229) of the network of networks – the balance of rights between users and providers, the capacity of online communities to engage in open and direct interaction, the fair competition between actors within the internet market.
Competing Interests
The author declares that they have no competing interests.


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(Pocket-lint) - Sony's new range of MP3 players is the company's best yet, showing that when it wants to, the company can be just as creative as it was with the original Walkman range 25 year ago. So does the new 6Gb Network Walkman or (NW-A1000) live up to the new hype or has the electronics giant got it all wrong?
Open the box and the words "Every moment has its music" glares out at you. It's marketing spiel at its best and it embodies the idea that this is a product to excited about.
Out of the box and the NW-A1000 is thin, compact and shiny. The highly polished casing gives nothing away and Sony as with its other players in the range uses the OLED screen that disappears when not in use. The player is available in a range of colours including purple, and on the whole the minimalist design of the NW-A1000 has a lot going for it on the style front.
While the top half is for the (almost invisible when off) screen, the bottom is for the controlling buttons and they allow you to access the menu and songs either via the d-pad or an option and back button. The sides feature a Volume, Hold and Link buttons.
The Link button isn't, as you would expect, a button that forces the device to link to a computer, but an interesting way of surfing through your music collection on the 6Gb player. Pressing the button searches for tracks by artists that belong to the similar genre to the artist of the current playing track.
It's surprising what the player throws up and certainly brings new life in how you will see your music collection.
Sprucing up your music collection is just one of the great things about the NW-A1000. Rather than offer one shuffle mode, the unit has three: Favourite, Intelligent, and Year. Year is the most worthy of note because it randomly selects a year based on the music in your collection and then only plays tracks from that year according to the data in its ID tag. Hold your hand over the screen as it randomly selects it and it is like playing those games where a radio station plays you 10 tracks from a certain year and you've got to guess what year it is.
The NW-A1000 also tracks the songs you play so you can build a history, as well as offering you a top-100 playlist based on what you listen to the most. If that isn't enough, you can also search alphabetically and shoot straight to any letter without having to scroll through thousands of tracks.
But it is not all good, good, good. Where the NW-A1000 fails against other MP3 players on the market, is in its support for images or album art. We say support, but what we actually mean is that there isn't any.
The OLED screen may allow Sony to offer a far superior battery life over most of its competitors, but the trade-off is its inability to view anything else other than text relating to songs.
While virtually every other MP3 manufacturer now services those wanting to view images, Sony has yet to bring its picture viewing technology from its cameras to its MP3 player range effectively and the NW-A1000 is another unit that follows suit.
With a long battery life, good sound via the included headphones, a slim body and innovative search features the NW-A1000 has a lot going for it. However the lack of picture support could be an issue if you are looking for a MP3 player with this functionality to show off that holiday you've just been on.
On the whole, another sharp shooter from Sony.

subset: commoncrawl


text: Retirees from Missouri desired a "small, modern box in the woods" for their new home south of Missoula. It needed to fit into nature, but not over take it. The exterior of this 1,300 square foot object is clad in champagne colored custom metal panels, fabricated on site, which tie perfectly to the soils and stones of the land. All exterior materials were chosen with fire proof capabilities in mind. The interior has an open floor plan, filled with light and spaciousness.


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Here visitors can turn back the pages of time to enjoy a simpler life where no one hurries, and no one hurries you. A place where everyone is special and everyone is welcome. Recently The National Trust for Historic Preservation selected Saugatuck / Douglas as one of the "Dozen Distinctive Destinations" in the U.S. and the writers and editors of Midwest Living Magazine ranked Saugatuck / Douglas fifth among the top 100 vacation destinations in the Midwest.
Spend your days at Oval Beach, rated one of the top 25 beaches of the world. Challenge yourself to climb Mount Baldy. You can also visit local galleries, take a ride on the hand-cranked chain ferry, or take an exhilarating ride through the dunes. In addition, dining opportunities abound – from casual to fine dining!


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6 thoughts on "Urine-detecting swimming pool dye"
September 19, 2015 at 21:20
Check out the link to CBC News, 25 June 2015, at the bottom of the Wikipedia entry, and enjoy your next visit to a pool. Now I know why I've always preferred swimming in the ocean. Sharks? I'll take my chances.
September 21, 2015 at 14:28
!!! eurgh – although I beg to differ with her assessment as we once had a pool at home and on the days it smelled more strongly of chlorine, it was because I put too much chlorine powder in, rather than the rest of the family all reliving themselves in it (I hope)
September 22, 2015 at 13:26
Unfortunate indeed are the modern pool plungers, chlorinated, aluminium oxidised, piddle-soaked, deafened by hollering sprogs and that doesn't include what the water companies have mangled back at the treatment works. So foul is the water in Warwick that junior, temporarily back in blighty, saddles up with gallons of malty towers own brand when visiting. Cast, if you will, envious glances at the average mountaineer, pristine ice and snow require no dye, the urination is glaring obvious, particularly when one of the roped party above, usually Austrian in my experience, decides they can no longer hold on.
September 23, 2015 at 14:19
It has long been a known fact that swimming pools are commonly contaminated with urine and often faecal matter. This is despite the presence of bactericides and sterilising agents such as chlorine. In Jacuzzis this is more so due to the aeration and elevated temperature. Better to swim in the sea or freshwater lakes and pools.
Comments are closed.


text: Innocent flames lashed at the candle wicks as the last words exited the summoners mouth. A large crack tore into sky, an unnatural separation of matter, and a beam of energy descended upon the sarcophagus in an instant shattering to the core. In the blink of an eye the summoner was little more than dust particles. Perhaps it went wrong, or perhaps it just went wrong for the world as whatever lay dormant for longer than memory had just returned to power. The summoners last breath, body and soul had been the ignition with the words spoken the key. Now the sky hung open, anything in the path of the beam seemed to disappear from this realm. Long had the summon studied endless tomes, searching for the knowledge to grant power, but to whom? Perhaps they thought this immense power would be bestowed on the one who read the ritual, so much labor, so many sleepless nights. What lie ahead, what had sealed this tomb away for so long, and what lie within?


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G1 is to iPhone What Linux is to Mac OS
There, I've said it. All morning I've been reading about G1's flaws and the iPhone's slickness in comparison; or, in another camp, about G1's potential over iPhone's closedness.
What most people seem to forget here is that iPhone is one, while the Android will be many. G1 is just the first of many different phones that will be inhabited by Google's mobile platform, Android. It may not have multitouch functionality, as noted in Gizmodo's most recent list of grievances, but that's because the device itself does not support it. But some other device will.
In other words, you cannot directly compare the iPhone and G1, and you cannot directly compare iPhone's platform with Android. Simply put, it's not the same sport.
Android based phones will be very, very open. This means: a lot of apps for the same purpose, some crappy, some great, with the best of them probably forgetting about design slickness and bringing lots of functionality with great attention to detail. There will be many different Android devices around, which means that some will support some supercool applications while the others won't be able to do so. There will (hopefully) be a fanatical community of developers for Android, and it will yield some great applications.
On the other hand, iPhone is one device that will change over time, but there will never be a wide variety of iPhones. It will never have every little bit of functionality that hardcore geeks salivate over, but it will be slick, applications will work without many flaws, and the entire thing will be a lot easier to use.
Sounds familiar? Yup, it sounds like Linux vs. Mac OS, or - to a degree - Linux vs. Windows.
So, it's not about which one is better. It's about which one is better for you. Like command line? Like tinkering with hundreds of options that common users can't even begin to understand? Like having a choice of 15 apps that do the same thing? Then Android-based phones will be right up your alley.
On the other hand, if you just want the damn thing to work, you'll probably choose the iPhone. Simple.


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The second meet of Belton Powerlifting's 2018 season took place last Thursday at Midway High School in Hewitt.
The Tigers took first place with 52 points, collecting five first-place finishes, two second-place finishes, two third-place finishes and a fifth-place finish. The Tigers finished 13 points in front of Waco (39), 21 in front of Copperas Cove (31), 27 in front of Temple (25), 28 in from of Midway (24) and 45 points in front of University.
Here were the Tigers' placements in Hewitt:
114: Tristan Pierce, first place (210-lb. squat, 115-lb. bench press, 220-lb. deadlift, 545-lb. total).
123: Max Castelli, second place (280-160-310=750), and Kyle Gascon, fifth place (295-125-260=680).
132: Brent Wheeler, first place (340-180-325=680), and Nathan Hunt, fourth place (220-140-275=635).
148: Christian Castillo, first place (390-215-380=985), Patrick Frazho, second place (365-205-380=950), Cameron Parker, third place (360-220-350=930), and Gerald Fountain, fourth place (250-155-325=730).
165: Devyn Raper, fifth place (360-255-400=1,015), and Samuel Garcia, sixth place (300-250-375=925).
181: Keaton Kaulfus, fourth place (345-225-320=890).
198: Randy Schoolcraft, sixth place (360-210-325=895), and Malik Jackson, eighth place (305-180-300=785).
220: Devin Martinez, second place (440-275-440=1,155), Jawaun Howard, third place (410-315-410=1,135), Devon Taplin, fourth place (430-275-420=1,125), and Garrett Orange, eighth place (380-235-400=1,015).
242: Arturo Jaimes, first place (560-315-600=1,475).
275: Sidney Sherwood, first place (515-350-420=1,285).
The Lady Tigers took second at Midway with 40 points, based on three first-place finishes, two second-place finishes, two third-place finishes, a fourth-place finish and a fifth-place finish. Belton finished nine points behind Copperas Cove (49), while they finished 14 points ahead of Midway (26), 16 points ahead of Temple (40), 32 points ahead of Moody (8) and 40 points ahead of University.
Here were the Lady Tigers finishes:
105: Jade Crowell, first place (110-lb. squat, 75-lb. bench press, 135-lb. deadlift, 320-lb. total).
114: Stephanie Sanders, fifth place (150-85-185=420).
123: Jaci Cauble, first place (250-125-235=610).
132: Sela Anderson, third place (215-80-250=545).
148: Christen Paslay, second place (235-135-255=625), and Kyndall Carroll, fourth place (225-85-220=530).
165: Rylee Pratt, third place (225-90-240=555).
220: Betty Hernandez, first place (285-120-280=685), and Bethany Sherwood, second place (265-135-280=650).
259: Je'rece Justice, first place (355-175-280=810).
259+: Angela Ferrer, third place (155-115-160=430).
The Tigers and Lady Tigers play host to the 2018 Belton Invitational Meet at the Belton 9th Grade Center on Saturday at 8 a.m.


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Codeguard:Get 2GB Free Remote Website Backup with Cloudflare
Day by day the ocean of information i.e WEB is increasing drastically,peoples are preferring to involve in the world of Virtualization. As a information grows, we need to protect it to avail the privacy and usability of that information.So the privacy & security of the process data are two major factors that we strongly support.Though we are dealing with all above points their are some sorts of peoples or group of peoples called "Hackers/Intruders" trying to malfunction the operation of WWW(world wide Web). So as a web developer or website owner we really need to protect our site and our shared data from such bad personalities with some reputed & secure services,isn't it ?
Now a days term "Backup Website Services" come into existence, i.e you can store a backup/replica of your website into trusted 3rd party service provider with simple and secure way.Their are lots of services who provide the backup of entire website automatically/ manually but the most of them are costly,& some free services have certain limitation.So it's not a good way to use it ,if you want it for free.Another way is you can get premium account or take a traditional backup through FTP 😀 which is really painful if your data size is lot.
Now I will introduce you the "Codeguard" service which will give you the ability to take a backup of your website for free with 2GB disk space,to avail 2GB space of Codeguard service you need to use "CloudFlare" with your website which is also one of the tool that will super-fast the performance of your website,So we can say 'We can Kill 2 birds using single Arrow" right ? You can read following points of cloudflare:
[note]If you signup with codeguard directly without using Cloudflare then you can get only 100MB free space 🙁 So go with it using Cloudflare to get 2GB for free 😀 [/note]
What is CloudFlare ? How to use it?
1. CloudFlare is a best content delivery network (CDN) & distributed Domain Name Server(DNS) service aimed at enhancing website performance and speed by providing better security.
2. To use Cloudflare free with your website you can Sign up from CloudFlare website,if you are hosted your domain with Hostgator,then no need to sign up you can simply activate it from Hostgator Cpanel to activate service.
3. Before using CloudFlare you must read this ,Tips after installing Cloudflare & Cloudflare Faq's
when you cover all above things then you can activate CodeGuard from cloudflare application settings from dashboard,so that you will get 2Gb space instead of 100MB 😀
How to activate 2GB free space CodeGuard Account using Cloudflare
1. Login to CloudFlare go to apps.
2. Check for CodeGuard and signup(highlighted area)by making it ON
3. When you make it ON you will get an Email on Email Id that you are using with cloudflare ,with all details of your CodeGurad i,e username and password credentials
4. Then login to CodeGuard site with correct credentials .
5. Add your Website by clicking "Add Website"button
6. Provide your website address and FTP address on next screen
7. Provide your FTP details like username and password on next screen
NOTE: I recommended you to create a separate FTP account for Codeguard through Cpanel of website
8. Verify Your Connection ,if success then you are ready to take a backup Enjoy free 2GB backup Space 🙂
Their are several options are available on dashboard of Codeguard like disk usages,Backup notification,Scheduling Backup etc.
[note]You can share your experience with us,for better performance with cloudflare we recommended you to use Google DNS [/note]


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Whether your lifestyle is athletic or sedentary, foot pain is always undesirable. That's why we are here to help you to rejuvenate you by eliminating all foot-related ailments.
We are one of the best podiatrists in your area. Equipped with the latest diagnostic tools and sports medicine supplies, our sprawling centre has dedicated facility for children, sportspersons and senior citizens. Our experienced and authorized staffs (podiatrists, orthotic and footwear technicians) are always ready to provide the best podiatric services at affordable cost.
We treat general podiatric conditions such as nails surgeries, corns, callous, plantar warts, ingrown nails, heel pain, ingrown toenails and fungal infections. We also treat chronic and acute foot, ankle, shin, knee, hip and lower back pain. We are expert in treating conditions. We provide high-quality podiatry foot care including life. Apart from children's clumsiness, tripping, pigeon toe, out the toe, heel pain, knee pain, gait anomalies (unusual walking/running styles) and plantar fasciitis conditions. We provide high-quality podiatry foot care including video/computerize gait analysis, orthotics, podiatric assessments (both sports and general), footwear recommendation, and laboratory on site.
Apart from podiatric services, we also provide required advice regarding foot care.
We all offer several physiotherapy services which include – Acute Sports injury services, Balance & Proprioception, Biomechanical Analysis, BPPV – Vertigo Treatment, Core Exercises, Electrotherapy, Gait Analysis, Joint Mobilisation, Kinesiology Taping, Massage, Neurodynamics, Physiotherapy Instrument Mobilisation, Posture Correction, Real-Time Ultrasound, Resistance Band, Exercises, Soft Tissue Injury Care, Strength Exercises, Stretching Exercises, Swiss Ball Exercises, TENS Machine, Therapeutic Ultrasound, Vestibular Physio.
Further, we are experts in massage services like Remedial Massage, Reflexology, Indian Head Massage and Acupuncture services. Please find more details in corresponding sections.
Most foot problems are treatable.
Be assured.
Your feet are in good hands.
By our premium services, we reduce your discomfort before it compromises your quality of life.
Team of experienced podiatrists, physiotherapist, massage therapists, and acupuncturist.
Fare and transparent pricing
Ultra modern facility with all requisite tools
Dedicated facilities for sportspersons, children and senior citizens/VTA
Arrangement with insurance companies and doctors


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Hunnie chile I just looked at this trailer for The Bad Girls Club Atlanta! When I tell you this is going to be a major Pickle! These girls calling people Niggas and such, I think they forgot they were in the south! I cant wait for Jan 15 at 8pm, its going to be a night to remember. Oxygen will probably want to stop after this airs! I typically have to skip seasons of The Bad Girls Club, because it is just so much violence. But i will be tuned in. these young ladies are READY!!!!!
Fly GossipGuy


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You've come to the right place for all your landscaping requirements in Essex, East London and Hertfordshire! Deal Direct Landscaping has been providing reliable landscaping services since 1982 withcountless satisfied customers. We undertake all types of work in Essex, Hertfordshire and East London - driveway paving, patios, driveway and patio restoration, pathways, steps, edging, drainage, brickwork/walling, decking, fencing, gates and turfing.
Show businesses near Harold Hill


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"If I Can't Believe It's Not Butter isn't butter, what is it?"
Good question; the answer to that query and many more can be found in Patrick Di Justo's new homage to all mysterious, yet common, foodstuffs and household products: This is What You Just Put in Your Mouth? What do you know about the staples of your diet and pantry? More importantly, are you brave enough to find out?


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You can download both undergraduate and postgraduate timetables by visiting UNSW Timetables and performing a class search by subject area. Your personal class timetable is available at myUNSW under your Student Profile.
Academic calendar
The myUNSW Academic calendar contains the dates for :
- Teaching periods (including Summer term)
- Examination periods
- Calendar information for staff; and
- Public holidays
Key dates
Visit myUNSW's Key Dates for a comprehensive list including dates for:
- Enrolment
- Fee payment
- Census
- Exams & Results; and
- Expos


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Things are really hotting up Cybher wise and I'm really excited about the amazing speakers that are already lined up for the first event next May.
Lots of people have been asking about the schedule and its now live for you to take a look at over on the Cybher site.
More sessions will be added over the next few weeks as speakers are confirmed so please do check back.
Early bird tickets are on sale at £80 until 30/11/11 and we have a deal in place with a hotel just around the corner who are offering single rooms to Cybher delegates for just £80 per night. These rooms are limited and are selling out fast. Full information is on the Cybher blog.
Lead - don't follow.


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Spanish legislation covers the different cases in which a foreigner may be deported from Spanish territory. Generally speaking, in such cases the Commission is the designated authority chosen to represent the foreigner and the conducts presented in Law 4/2000 regarding the rights and liberties of foreign nationals in Spain and their social integration. Sections of this law pertain to the severity of the situation, whether it takes place inside or outside of the country, specifying if the act shall be considered a crime resulting in imprisonment for more than one year.
In the event of such expulsion, any residence and work permit becomes ineffective. The file will be archived if the applicant has just initiated the process of applying for the residence and work permit.
Certain people in Spain may only be expelled from country if they commit an offense classified as a serious infringement in article 53.1 of Law 4/2000 or if they have repeated such offense within a year. These people include the following: persons born in Spain who have legally lived in the country during the last five years, people with a long-stay residence permit, and people of Spanish origin who have lost the nationality.
Translated by: Katherine Pascal


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Programme offer 5 ECTS points for students with presentation
Social Systems theory after Luhmann
Systems theory has had a tremendous impact in social science since the 1950s. During the last decades, however, systems theory has been completely transformed. In particular, German sociologist Niklas Luhmann's system theory has changed what social studies are and how they are conducted. Luhmann's "Grand Theory" got its final form with his principal work Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft 1 – 2 (Social Theory Vol. 1-2, Stanford University Press 2013) in 1997. Morevover, additional books, articles and interviews have been published, including more than twenty books now in English. Whatever one thinks about the exact form of his analysis, sociological theory has to some extent been transformed by the "Luhmann effect".
Albeit Luhmann's general theory hitherto has seemed very abstract and distant, there is a strong drive towards analyses in empirical studies that make use of Luhmann's insights. This is evident in his seminal publication Social Theory. Luhmann's systems theory is more an abductive applied theory than a deductively developed theory. Yet it seems that its very abstract character has a fruitful effect.
A recent Dubrovnik conference in problem-oriented social systems theory concerned structural couplings between systems and resulted in the publication by Alberto Febbrajo and Gorm Harste (eds.). Law and Intersystemic Communication. Understanding 'Structural Coupling', London: Ashgate 2013.
Developments in Professions
Professions developed as structural couplings between functional systems, organizational systems, and individualized persons. This gave a strong and even authorized position to some of the first professions such as priests, lawyers and judges, university teachers, officers, doctors and civil servants with the prince at the top. Their authorization even promised them to swear to some form of devoted obedience. Some of the classical functional systems developed with this attachment to organization and to particular persons. Developments in private companies followed and still more professions too. University degrees became requirements, but other degrees and still more educations emerged in the shadows of the classic model.
Some cities, states, and regions became more dominated by professions. Protestants and Catholics competed. Professionalization, discipline and the reverse side, individualization, became a first class modernization factor. The idea of professionalization became a generalized form to be useful with the enlightenment of society. The standard professions developed their self-organization often linked to bureaucracies and froze the form of modern society. Their subdivisions, in law, medicine, civil engineering, military disciplines, at universities and even in sport stabilized the development of modern society.
However, as soon as such structures emerged with its self-referential form, the more particular problems were to be solved in dissent and conflict between the professions. Often to their surprise individuals can observe into which communication disagreement their professions may lead them. And the obvious response is, of course, to develop new subdisciplines, new hybrids, and even semi-professional skills in-between practice and theoretical educational traditions.
Work became networking and project-development. Deduction and inductions retired from abductive training and skills. Professionalization entered the daily life and vice versa. At the same time, persons, clients, situations, problems had to be patient squeezed in-between all the mutually conflicting professions with their essentially contested concepts and codes of communication. Semi-professional outsourcing and privatizations is invited to solve the problems, which so often dissolve into snow-balled increasing problems and non-solutions packed into a blurred new speak language when no-one take responsibility.
Luhmannian systems theory pose questions to such developments beyond the classical frameworks from Émile Durkheim, Max Weber and Parsons, but also in a difference to sociologies of knowledge known from Pierre Bourdieu's framework.
Scholars are invited to describe their research and their particular observations of professional problems, of theoretical oppositions and similarities, of empirical differences from system to system, field to field, and from communes, states, international cooperation, or network operations.
Systems theory is empirically open. New semantics, different codes, and changing forms turn out to change and develop structures at different and opposed levels. A main topic in many studies is about conflicts between differentiated professions. Yet the question of the present conference is: How do systems challenge other systems, and how do systems invite conflict between professions? Narratives develop according to professional conflicts in communication forms, but also between communication and in-communication. Risks and blind spots are well known, yet still, they develop.
The conference opens for theoretical and empirical studies in politics, aesthetics, sociology, theology, history, economics, health, psychology, ecology and organization. They call for abductive research.
The conference will approach professions from Luhmann's theory of social systems and gather scholars who work with theoretical and methodological clarifications as well as empirical studies. Studies that compare system analysis with other forms of analysis are welcome (Foucauldian, Bourdieuian or analysis of discourse or ANT).
The conference language is English (papers in German are accepted since most participants read German but their presentation should be held in English).
Deadline for abstracts to the programme is August 20th, 2017. Short abstracts (10-20 lines) should be sent to the programme coordinator (Gorm Harste, Department of Political Science, Aarhus University, Denmark, email@example.com). It is not obligatory to send an abstract, or to present a paper, in order to participate in the conference; however in any case, all participants are requested to send a mail well before September the 1st to announce their participation. A list of participants will be distributed, and papers (or outlines of papers) should be sent to the coordinator and eventually to the distributed list no later than September 10th.
Organizational background
Every year conferences about the use of Luhmann's system theory have been held in, for example, Munich, Copenhagen, Tromsö, Stuttgart, Montreal, Boston, London or Stockholm. The Scandinavian and British network has developed fruitful discussions to which German, French, Italian, Canadian and Dutch scholars have also contributed. Translations of Luhmann's books are still more numerous, introductions and theoretical contributions are flourishing. The same seems to be the case with empirical studies applying system theory in comparative studies, case studies, historical studies or in concrete practice. Some of the current debates take place at the following websites:
(http://uk.groups.yahoo.com/group/luhmann_danish/) (http://groups.yahoo.com/group/sociocybernetics/ ).
In the 1980s, Hans-Ulrich Gumbrecht and Ludwig Pfeiffer organised a number of great conferences at the Inter-University Centre of post-graduate studies (IUC) in Dubrovnik in the former Yugoslavia, now Croatia. Since 1981, Luhmann attended these conferences. Unfortunately, the Centre was bombed in 1991 and for some years the conferences could not take place. The contributions from those conferences were published in a series of five rather big volumes at the important Suhrkamp Verlag (Der Diskurs der Literatur- und Sprachhistorie, 1983; Epochenschwellen und Epochenstrukturen im Diskurs der Literatur- und Sprachhistorie, 1985; Stil, 1986; Materialität der Kommunikation, 1988, Paradoxien, Dissonanzen, Zusammenbrüche, 1991). Quite a number of those studies were dedicated to semantic history and contributions to a system theory of art.
Today, the Centre has been completely restored physically as well as in spirit. The center has nice internet facilities and a number of rooms for study and possibilities for accommodation. See www.iuc.hr . The center only demands a fee of 50 Euro from each participant.


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Explore Further◄ Browse by Call Number ►
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I am a long time fan of C C but I have to say I agree with imajpm down below.
The opening cat racing scene in this book was a bit long. I put this book down for a few weeks after reading that. Thomas was more mysterious than the average hero. For part of the book I was wondering if he was actually the villain! Meggie was not quite to my taste. She was a bit too nice, chatty, loyal, forgiving.
Overall a decent read even with some problems.
There are no ages for this title yet.
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Structure in the Winter
Posted on 13th Jan, 2010
With the country under a blanket of snow any idea of getting out to work in the garden has to be put aside – Gardeners retreat to the potting shed or if they have more sense to a warm fireside to plot and plan for the season ahead.
Meanwhile, us garden designers can be found going back to the drawing board! Literally.
The winter garden provides the best time to make a long hard assessment of the overall structure of the garden, or to use designer speak – the "bones". All gardens, whatever their size, need good bones, and a garden in winter should have its own character and features which will be enhanced by frost, snow, fog, mist and even rain! The wonderful challenge when working on a new design for a garden or a new planting scheme is to think seasonally – hard landscaping features such as walls, steps, pergolas, obelisks and other structures add to the three dimensional aspect of the garden and provide permanent structure throughout the seasons but have added value when they take on a different look in the soft warm light of autumn to the mist of a cold winter morning. Planting provides valuable bones as well – trees, hedges, shrubs both deciduous and evergreen, grasses and if you don't cut them down in autumn – last seasons seed heads all contribute in different but equally valuable ways to the winter picture.
The snow provides another winter blessing. With site visits cancelled and outside work on hold – it's a fantastic chance to get out into the landscape and embrace the winterscape. Somehow the snow makes you look at the landscape differently. The silhouette of trees in the winter sun helps to remind me of the importance of encouraging clients to plant trees and to try to include a tree in even the smallest garden for their valuable year round structure. Those of us who get out into the winter landscape probably have a greater appreciation of just how much colour is out there – coloured barks, beech and hornbeam leaves, evergreen trees and shrubs and the first stirrings of the fresh grey/green of snowdrops. It's always heartening that even in the first days of January the daylight already seems longer in the afternoon and that despite the snow, the early bud is forming all around us and spring really is just around the corner!


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Creating memories that will last a lifetime…
The school provides a safe, comfortable environment in which children and adults of all ages can participate and enjoy all the benefits that dance can bring. Teachers are dedicated in providing a warm, positive, friendly teaching environment, enabling professional tuition and memories that will last a life time.
We offer classes to students purely for pleasure, social and health benefits but can also open opportunities for long term careers in dance.
We offer part time classes in Ballet, Tap, Modern, Street / Commercial Jazz, Musical Theatre, Drama, Singing and 'Little Stars' pre-school dance classes. Adult Zumba fitness and Diva Dance.
Optional examinations in ISTD Ballet, Tap & Modern. With 100% pass rate.
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The Command to Love - A Sermon for Easter 6B
1 John 5:1-6
So here is your mission, if you choose to accept it:
Stand with Jews who also wait for Messiah.
Stand with Christians who see God's power in Jesus.
Stand with Gentiles in mercy, all the others who are not like us.
Stand in that company and you will find yourself filled with hope for what God will yet do. [Brueggemann, Gospel of Hope, p. 91]
Preached by:
Dr. Robert D. Cornwall, Pastor
Central Woodward Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)
Troy, Michigan
Easter 6B
May 6, 2018
We recently sang the hymn "They'll know we are Christians by our love." That is the hope, isn't it? We want to be "one in the Spirit," and "one in the Lord." We hope that "unity may one day be restored." After all, we are Disciples of Christ, "a movement for wholeness in a fragmented world."
Last Sunday we heard a word from 1 John that invites us to "love one another, because love is from God." He also tells us that "everyone who loves is born of God" (I Jn. 4:7). John wrote these words to a congregation that was in the middle of a big fight that threatened to tear their community apart. So, when he told them to love one another he was reminding them that they were born to love.
This Sunday we hear another word about loving one another. In our reading for today, John talks about love, and he continually uses forms of the Greek word agapē. Tom Oord defines agapē as "acting intentionally, in response to God and others, to promote overall well-being, in response to that which produces ill-being" [Oord, Nature of Love, p. 56]. This agapē form of love is an expression of God's very being, because God is love. Therefore, if we abide in God, not only will we love God, but God's love will flow out from us so that this fragmented world of ours can experience wholeness.
John tells us that "everyone who loves is born of God" and that "everyone who believes that Jesus is the Christ has been born of God." I believe there is a connection here between loving and believing that Jesus is the Christ. When we put our trust in Jesus, we experience God's love, which makes us "God-begotten" people, or as the Gospel of John puts it, in Christ we are "born again." Because we are "God-begotten" we are children of God, and since "everyone who loves the parent, loves the child," when we are in Christ, we love the children of God. That means, we're family!
Now, all of this works well in the abstract, but we know that family relationships aren't always loving ones. We have our disagreements. Sometimes they're serious disagreements. Churches divide. So do denominations that make unity their polar star. Just because we're family doesn't mean we have this love-thing down pat. Therefore, and there always seems to be a "therefore," Judith Lieu points out in her commentary on this letter that "the horizontal relationship is always mediated through God." We love one another not because we recognize each other as brothers and sisters in Christ. We love each other because God is at work in our midst, transforming us into children of God, which enables us to love one another [Judith Lieu, I, II, III John (NTL), kindle loc. 3475-3477].
So, if God is the mediator of love, how do we love God? The answer is this: we love God by obeying God's commandments. While these commandments aren't supposed to be burdensome, the words "obey" and "commandment" can be off-putting in an age like ours that celebrates freedom over obedience. But, remember, Paul told the Corinthians that while "all things are lawful, but not all things are beneficial" (1 Cor. 10:23).
Our denominational tradition has always preached a message of freedom. It's deeply planted in our DNA. But, we call ourselves "disciples of Christ," not just because it sounds biblical, but because we are students and followers of Jesus. To be a disciple involves obedience to Jesus our master. So, what are these commandments that aren't burdensome?
We might want to start with Jesus' two commandments, which involve loving God with our entire being, and loving our neighbor as we love ourselves. Of course, the second command leads to a question: who is my neighbor? Jesus answered that question in the Gospel of Luke with the parable of the Good Samaritan.
Now Jesus drew these two commands from the Hebrew Bible, which has a lot of other commands. Some are less burdensome than others, but you might say that each of these commandments found in the Hebrew Bible are expressions of the two great commandments. You might call the Ten Commandments clarifications of the two Great Commandments. If you dive deeper into the Hebrew Bible, you will find more than 600 other rules and regulations that expand on the Ten. So, maybe the command to love is more burdensome than John is letting on, or is it?
The command to love God is found in the Shema, the Jewish confession of faith, which declares: "The Lord is our God, the Lord alone. 5 You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might" (Deut. 6:4-5). This command summarizes the first table of the Law revealed on Mount Sinai, which includes prohibitions against making idols and worshiping them, as well as a prohibition against profaning the name of God. There is a positive command here—keep the sabbath. Everything starts here, in submission to the God whom John declares is love.
By loving God, we love our neighbor, which is the second great command. These commandments, which are called the second table, include honoring parents, as well as prohibitions against murder, stealing, and bearing false witness, to name a few. The last command, might be the key to the rest. Don't covet! That's because coveting comes from the heart, and is often the motivation for breaking the other commands (Deut. 5:1-21). Such is not the behavior of one who is "God-begotten."
This leads us to the final point, which we might call John's mission statement. That's because, in John's mind, loving God leads to participation in God's mission. That mission, in the words of John, involves conquering the world, which might be John's way of inviting us to participate with Jesus in the establishment of the kingdom of God.
Here is where things get sticky. We have around sixteen hundred years of Christendom that colors our reading of this call to conquer the world. Down through the ages, armies "marched as to war with the cross of Jesus going on before," while missionaries followed in their wake bringing the good news of Western civilization in the guise of Christianity. Pictures of little boys in places like Africa dressed in white shirts and ties and little girls dressed in western-style white dresses conveyed to the people back home that the gospel civilized the natives. It made people feel good, but I'm not sure that is what John or Jesus had in mind.
If we're to receive a word from God here, we might want to rethink this idea of conquering the world. We might need to translate this calling in light of the past. It also might help to remember that John is writing to a congregation living in a very different context from ours. These Jesus followers were largely powerless. They didn't have government support, armies, or much wealth at their disposal. All they had was the power of love that was revealed in Jesus' death at the hands of the Roman imperial government. Yes, Jesus rose from the dead, but the Christian community faced significant threats from outside and from within the congregation as well.
When John speaks here of conquering the world, I don't believe he envisions armies marching unto war, armed with sword and lance, imposing the kingdom of God on the world? Instead, as Judith Jones puts it, "truly Christian faith conquers the world not by military might or doctrinal arguments or coercion, but by love."
Jesus came into the world preaching the kingdom of God. In this spirit we sang "All Hail the Power of Jesus' Name." The music of this hymn itself can stir the soul, while the words remind us that in the resurrection Jesus is crowned Lord of all. We sang "let every kindred, every tribe, on this terrestrial ball, to him all majesty ascribe, and crown him Lord of all." With this song on our lips and on our hearts, I close with this word of hope from Walter Brueggemann:
Stand with Jews who also wait for Messiah.
Stand with Christians who see God's power in Jesus.
Stand with Gentiles in mercy, all the others who are not like us.
Stand in that company and you will find yourself filled with hope for what God will yet do. [Brueggemann, Gospel of Hope, p. 91]
Preached by:
Dr. Robert D. Cornwall, Pastor
Central Woodward Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)
Troy, Michigan
Easter 6B
May 6, 2018


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Saint Felix of Burgundy, Bishop of Dunwich, Enlightener of East Anglia
Saint Felix, the Apostle of East Anglia, was born in the Burgundy region of what is now France. He was a bishop who was sent to England by Saint Honorius of Canterbury (September 30) to evangelize East Anglia.
Saint Felix established his See in Dunwich on the Suffolk coast in 631, and labored there successfully for seventeen years. He founded a school for boys with the help of King Siegbert, and brought in teachers from Canterbury.
Saint Felix died in 648 and was buried at Dunwich, but his relics were transferred to Ramsey abbey in Huntingdonshire in 971.
Saint Felix has given his name to Felixstowe in Suffolk, and to Felixkirk in Yorkshire. He is mentioned by Saint Bede (HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH CHURCH AND PEOPLE, Book 3, ch. 18 and 20).


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Rumi Ruminations - Wisdom of Rumi. Yaşar Kemal - YKY. Interesting facts about Turkey - All About Turkey. Turkey. [By: Noam Avigdor Güleryüz] The Republic of Turkey, a transcontinental country located mostly on Anatolia in Western Asia and East Thrace in Southeastern Europe, has a Jewish history dating back possibly to the 4th century B.C.E.
Today, the Jewish population of Turkey is approximately 17,400. Cafe Anatolia - Gülümcan (Enstrümantal) Cafe Anatolia - Dream's 2008 - Fikrimin İnce Gülü. Göksel Baktagir - Kar Tanem! INSTRUMENTAL RELAXING MUSIC - TURKISH MUSIC. Cafe Anatolia - Dream's 2008 - Consuelo Luz - Yastayim. Zara - Sarmaşık GüLLeri 2. KLip. Funda Arar - Herkes Gibisin 2011 HQ. Ah Istanbul olali. Sezen Aksu - istanbuL istanbuL oLaLi. Ferhat Göcer-Biri bana gelsin(english sub)-orjinal klip+lyrics. Ferhat Göcer - Üzüm -with lyrics and english subtitles. Turkish Love Song. Romantic, beautiful, love song in Turkish!
Funda Arar- yak gel, lyrics & english subtitles. Filiz( seviyorum seni ) lyrics & english translation subtitles. Le pool Art of Turkish Tiles and Ceramics. Hagia Sophia - Istanbul, Turkey. AYASOFYA CAMİİ - Dış Cepheden Muhteşem Kareler... AYASOFYA CAMİİ - İç Mekandan Muhteşem Kareler... AYASOFYA CAMİİ - Kuşbakışı Muhteşem Kareler... Hagia Sophia, Turkey - 7 wonders. Aya Sofya is the most beautiful building that survived to the fire, to the earthquake and the vandalism of rioters but each time it literally rose from its ashes was to be the most majestic human construction ever before seen.
The church of Holy wisdom was constructed in 360 AD by the Constantine's son. It remained until 404 AD as the "Great Church" when the fury of the mob did not let trace of the original structure. The Mausoleum of Maussollos at Halicarnassus, Turkey - 7wonders. The Temple of Artemis, Turkey - 7 wonders. VirtualANI - Dedicated to the Deserted Medieval Armenian City of Ani. Dick Osseman. Sabiha Gokcen (1913-2001), Pioneer Aviatrix. Sabiha Gökçen (1913-2001) Sabiha Gökç Sabiha Gökçen was born in Bursa on March 21 1913.
She started elementary School during the Turkish war of Independence. She was adopted by Ataturk during his trip to Bursa in 1923 and was brought to Ankara. Turkish - Wikibooks, collection of open-content textbooks. Binnurs Turkish Cookbook. Ceif:how to make turkish coffee. Turkish Proverbs. The unpretentious and modest common sense of the Turkish people over many generations is distilled in many proverbs that are used today.
When it matches the situation, a proverb is said without any other commentary because it just says it all. Some examples are provided below with its direct translation and with its meaning: (Do not search for a calf under a bull.) When someone shows unnecessary amount of suspicion for an action. Okuz altinda buzagi aranmaz. Time and Life - Turkish Poem. Miniaturk Park. Virtual Istanbul - 3D Virtual Tours. Virtual Bursa - 3D Virtual Tours. Angora goat. An Angora goat The Angora goat (Turkish: Ankara keçisi) is a breed of domestic goat that is named for Ankara, Turkey, historically known as Angora.
Angora goats produce the lustrous fibre known as mohair. History[edit] The Angora goat has been regarded by some as a direct descendant of the Central Asian Markhor (Capra falconeri).[1][2] They have been in the region since around the Paleolithic.[3] Angora goats were depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 50 lira banknotes of 1938-1952.[4] The first Angora goats were brought to Europe by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, about 1554, but, like later imports, were not very successful.
Characteristics[edit] Angora goats are traditionally white, but colored Angoras are growing in popularity The fleece taken from an Angora goat is called Mohair. Angora goats are more susceptible to external parasites (ectoparasites) than similar animals, as their coats are denser. See also[edit] Angora rabbit. An English Angora rabbit Coat and appearance[edit] Angoras are bred mainly for their wool because it is silky and soft when sleeping.
Turkish Van. The Turkish Van (Turkish: Van Kedisi) is a longhaired breed of domestic cat with genetic origins in modern Turkey.
The breed is claimed to be descended from the landrace of Van cats, mostly found near Lake Van, though one of the two original breeders has stated that none of the original cats used to found the formal breed came from the Van area.[1][2]:114 The breed is rare, and is distinguished by the Van colour pattern, where the colour is restricted to the head and the tail, and the rest of the cat is white;[3] this is due to the expression of the piebald white spotting gene, a type of partial leucism.[4]:148 A Van may have blue or amber eyes, or be odd-eyed, having one eye of each colour.
The Turkish Van is nicknamed the swimming cat. Breed standards[edit] While a few registries recognise all-white specimens as Turkish Vans, most do not. Varieties[edit] Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Turkish Republic and its first President, stands as a towering figure of the 20th Century. Among the great leaders of history, few have achieved so much in so short period, transformed the life of a nation as decisively, and given such profound inspiration to the world at large. Emerging as a military hero at the Dardanelles in 1915, he became the charismatic leader of the Turkish national liberation struggle in 1919. He blazed across the world scene in the early 1920s as a triumphant commander who crushed the invaders of his country. Following a series of impressive victories against all odds, he led his nation to full independence. The World of Turkish Calligraphy - Turkish Art Collection. Calligraphy is a spiritual geometry produced by material implements.
One day, the world famous painter Picasso saw the work of a master calligrapher and could not help crying "This is art! " because of the authentic aesthetic he witnessed: Islamic Calligraphy. There are basically six styles in Islamic Calligraphy. Also known as "Aklam-i Sitte", "Seskalem", These styles are "Sulus,Nesih, Muhakkak, Reyani, Tevki ve Rika" and are considered to be developed by the famous calligrapher Yakut in Baghdad of the 13th Century. Discover The Ottomans. Basic Istanbul - Towards the Tulip Era. Piri Reis. Piri Reis (Turkish: Pîrî Reis or Muhyiddin Pîrî Bey also known as Hacı Ahmed Muhiddin Piri; "Reis" being a military rank) was an Ottoman admiral, geographer, and cartographer born between 1465 and 1470.
He was executed in 1553.[1] He is primarily known today for his maps and charts collected in his Kitab-ı Bahriye (Book of Navigation), a book that contains detailed information on navigation, as well as very accurate charts (for their time) describing the important ports and cities of the Mediterranean Sea. He gained fame as a cartographer when a small part of his first world map (prepared in 1513) was discovered in 1929 at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi. Turkey >> Important Turkish People >> Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi Illustration of Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi flying from the Galata Tower over Golden Horn Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi (1609-1640), an inhabitant of Istanbul in the 17th century Ottoman Empire is credited with the first appropriate flight with artificial wings in the history of aviation.
The event took place in the year 1638 during the tenure of Sultan Murad IV. Hezarfen took off from the 183-foot tall Galata Tower near Bosporus and landed successfully at Uskudar, on the other side. This feat was 200 years ahead of its time. Ahmet Ali Çelikten. Ahmet Ali Çelikten,[1][2][3] also known as Arap Ahmet Ali[2] or İzmirli Ahmet Ali[1] (born İzmirli Alioğlu Ahmed; 1883–1969), was an Ottoman aviator who may have been the first black military pilot in aviation history[4] and was one of only two black pilots in World War I (the other being Eugene Jacques Bullard). His grandmother came from Bornu (now in Nigeria) to the Ottoman Empire as a slave.[4][5] Biography[edit] Ahmet born in 1883 in İzmir[6] to his mother Zenciye Emine Hanım and father Ali Bey, of African Turkish descent.[7] He aimed to become a naval sailor and entered the Naval Technical School named Haddehâne Mektebi (literally "School of the Blooming Mill") in 1904.[7] In 1908, he graduated from school as a First Lieutenant (Mülâzım-ı evvel).[7] And then he went to aviation courses in the Naval Flight School (Deniz Tayyare Mektebi) that was formed on 25 June 1914 at Yeşilköy.[1] He was then a member of the Ottoman Air Force.
Dünyanın ilk siyah pilotu: Arap Ahmet - Sabah - Galeri - Türkiye. Old Prints and Maps-Constantinople.org.uk. Sufism in Istanbul, Turkey. Fatih Mosque (Fatih Camii) - Istanbul, Turkey. Suleymaniye Mosque - Istanbul, Turkey. Bosphorus. Sezen Aksu - Ah Istanbul - ein Music Video. Türkei - Balkan Express. Dieses Video steht nicht mehr zur Verfügung. Türkei Die unbemerkte Revolution Religiös, sehr konservativ, mächtig, aber global denkend. So beschreibt die Journalistin Yasemin Congar die neue Mittelklasse in der Türkei.
Congar "fürchtet sich nicht im Geringsten" vor diesen Leuten, auch wenn ihr politischer Arm, die AKP, alle wichtigen Ämter innehat. Es ist der Verdienst dieser Dokumentation, dass sie den Konflikt, der die vergangenen Jahre die türkische Gesellschaft und Politik tatsächlich bewegt hat, sehr genau herausarbeitet. Ausgelöst wurde dieser Konflikt durch den rasanten Wirtschaftsboom, der die Türkei erfasst hat. Auch weil der Machtkampf mit allen Mitteln geführt wird. Auch für Inci Bespinar, der Vizebürgermeisterin des Istanbuler Bezirks Kadıköy, ist das Kopftuch eines der geringsten Probleme der türkischen Frauen. Von einem Rückschritt kann aber trotzdem nicht die Rede sein.
English Version >>> Istanbul through my eyes. Istanbul Tourism Video - Travel Kanalı. HD Galata Tower İstanbul Panorama. İstanbul Kız Kulesi. Turkey - Topkapi Palace. Turkey - Dolmabahce Palace. Çırağan Palace.