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Vote for The Movement Dr. as the Best Physical Therapy in the Bay! Your vote means the world to me! Vote Here Now! Every year the Pensacola New's Journal opens a readership survey, "Best of the Bay", to determine the best businesses in the Pensacola Bay area. Once again, The Movement Dr. has been nominated for the Best Physical Therapy in Pensacola and I...
Physical Therapist:
Dr. CJ DePalma, PT, CSCS, CF-L1
Meet Dr. CJ DePalma, PT And Owner
Dr. CJ DePalma, PT is the owner of The Movement Dr. and native to the Pensacola, FL area, which is where the physical therapy clinic is located. CJ and his practice have become known as The Best of Bay Best Physical Therapy.
He specializes in chronic pain management and rehabilitation through a unique approach of education, evidence, and movement.
He has experience treating the general population, youth athletes, CrossFitters, CrossFit Games Athletes, olympic lifters, strongman athletes, professional athletes of various sports, and more from chronic pain issues, struggling with daily activities, to back-to-sport injury rehabilitation.
Beyond physical therapy, and treating his patients for their pain and injuries, CJ is extremely passionate about keeping these aches and pains away and helping his clients reach their health and fitness goals.
He loves working with people who are ready to set goals and partner with him to crush them!
Whether you want to run your first 5k, get your first muscle-up, get better at CrossFit, or be a competitive athlete, CJ is the man for the job. He works with athletes of all ages and experience levels, from youth, recreational, amateur, and professional.
Working with CJ, you can be sure you will have a balanced program that will help you progress to your goals without getting injured.
CJ works with his clients and patients at the physical therapy clinic in Pensacola, FL, as well as remotely/virtually. He has had incredible results with his treatment and coaching model with patients and clients all around the world.
CJ's Story Behind The Movement Dr.
"Rethink Your Rehab"
"The Movement Dr. began because while in school, I was unhappy with my clinical rotations and what I saw in traditional Outpatient Physical Therapy. The requirement to see multiple patients at a time while sitting in front of a computer screen doing notes made me feel like I was handcuffed into providing subpar care.
I had a vision of a movement-based approach to treat everyone and all pathologies, with an emphasis on patient independence, and education. I give the patient the information and tools they need to get better on their own. By doing so, we see each other less often and have quicker results.
You will never walk into my clinic and be told to stop activity. Here we modify everything so we can keep moving."
-Dr. CJ DePalma, PT
Unfortunately, many healthcare providers rely on outdated methods that simply do not follow the evidence. These practitioners make patients become reliant on methods that seem to be "quick fixes" but are not really fixes at all.
CJ uses treatment methods that have evidence behind them and he stays up to date on all of the latest studies around pain and rehabilitation. He educates his patients about how bodies and pain work, so they have realistic expectations, are more confident, and more independent.
Unfortunately, there is a lot of fear-mongering and unnecessary language used by healthcare providers that actually can hinder the results for patients. CJ is honest and realistic with his patients, known for improving his patients' outlook on their recovery, helping avoid unnecessary surgery, and providing lasting results.
Physical Therapy & Training Resources By Dr. CJ DePalma, PT
Get In Touch With Us
Let's discuss how we can help you with physical therapy, rehabilitation, personal training, or remote coaching!


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Atletico Madrid vs Sevilla
Spain – LaLiga
Date: Saturday, 7 March 2020
Kick-off at 15:00 UK/ 16:00 CET
Venue: Wanda Metropolitano (Madrid).
In the rush to reach the third spot in the La Liga table, Athletico Madrid will host Sevilla. With their decent run, the match is likely to produce some goals in Madrid.
- Athlectico form: 26 matches – 11 wins – 11 draws – 4 losses – 44 points.
- Sevilla form: 26 matches – 13 wins – 7 draws – 6 losses – 46 points.
Atletico Madrid vs Sevilla Head-to-head (h2h)
- Their recent three matches have ended in a draw.
- The host has recorded three of the last five wins.
- The guest has won only one of their prior 12 visits.
- Their previous encounter resulted in a 1-1 draw.
Atletico Madrid vs Sevilla Match preview
Unbeaten in the last five fixtures, including a 1-0 triumph over Liverpool in the Champions League fixture, Athletico Madrid will be the one to look out in the clash.
The host had their previous encounter on the road. They faced Espanyol in which both teams scored a goal each to share the spoils in the game.
Diego Simeone and his boys have only lost to Barcelona in their last 22 home matches across all major competitions in their schedule.
Competing in the Europa League this season, Sevilla is not so bad. They have a two-point lead over the host in the La Liga table.
The visitor is on a five-game unbeaten streak following a 3-2 win at home against the likes of Osasuna in their previous league clash.
Julen Lopetegui's men have won only four of their recent ten away fixtures in their schedule. After four winless games, they won against Getafe in their last outing.
It has to be noted that Los Rojiblancos has not lost to Sevilla in their last four h2h meetings. So, the odds will be against the traveling side in Madrid.
Atletico Madrid vs Sevilla Prediction
Dropping points in their away games have been the problem for Diego Simeone this season. Even though they are below Sevilla, Athletico Madrid will be a bigger fish to fry at Madrid for the guests.
Besides, Los Nervionenses does not show promise in their away fixtures. Julen Lopetegui's men have lost 4 of their 13 away games, and two losses came within the recent three trips on the road.
Having lost only one of their 13 home matches in the league with a five-game unbeaten streak, Los Rojiblancos shows more composure at home.
The betting tip for the home win in full-time is at 1.90 odds. Even though it seems high, the host is likely to create more chances in the game.
The home team has averaged 1.4 goals per match at league home matches. This shows potential for over 1.5 goals in ninety minutes at 1.50 odds as the best bet for the punters.
Atletico Madrid vs Sevilla Betting tips
Over 1.5 goals @ 1.50 (1/2).
Athletico Madrid to win @ 1.90 (10/11).
Looking for More Games? Read all Spanish La Liga Predictions here or jump to our main Football Tips Page.

subset: commoncrawl


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Research Fellow
UCL Department / Division
Division of Psychology and Language Sciences
Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology
£35,328 per annum
This position provides an exciting opportunity to join a Medical Research Foundation funded research project aiming to further our understanding of the aetiology of adolescent mental health. The project features data from major longitudinal cohorts and the application of advanced genetically informed causal inference designs. As such, this is a unique opportunity to gain training in these cutting-edge methodologies. Funds are available for additional formal training on these topics.
The position is for 18 months, in the first instance, subject to satisfactory completion of the probationary period.
To apply online, please click the "Apply Now" button below.
Informal enquiries can be made to Dr. Jean-Baptiste Pingault, firstname.lastname@example.com
15 Feb 2019
Please use these links to find out more about UCL working life including the benefits we offer and UCL Terms and Conditions related to this job.


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High traffic volumes expected this long weekend
With this weekend being the first long weekend where people are able to leave their region, police are preparing for an increase in traffic.
With more people, comes more risk, says Acting Superintendent Gini Welch.
"As people prepare to go away for the first long weekend since lockdown, we want to remind them they will be sharing the road with a lot more people than they've been used to for a while.
"We need people to remember the basics of road safety; wear your seatbelt, stay within the speed limit and drive to the conditions of the road, put your phone away, always make sure you are sober and alert."
Share the driving if you can, says Gini.
"This is the first long weekend the country has had since the start of the year where people are actually able to leave town as part of Alert Level 2.
"We know people will be keen to catch up with friends and family they have missed around the country."
She says that likely means they'll be eager to get going and get there.
"So we want to remind people that there will be traffic and there will be hold ups, so it's important to stay calm and patient.
"The important thing is arriving at your destination safely.
"Throughout the Covid-19 pandemic, Kiwis have done a great job of being kind to each other."
Waka Kotahi NZ Transport Agency senior road safety manager Fabian Marsh says Queen's Birthday weekend is also a good time for people to move into a safe winter driving mindset.
"While most of the country has had a long summer and an unusually fine autumn, winter weather is starting to set in.
"We're now seeing a drop in overnight temperatures, and colder, wet, windy days."
Fabian says the change in the weather is a good prompt to think about safe winter driving.
"Ice, fog, rain, and snow can all make for treacherous road conditions, so it's important to allow extra time for your journeys and drive to the road and weather conditions.
"It's also important to ensure your car is safe, roadworthy, and well equipped for winter driving, with a safe spare tyre, lights, brakes and windscreen-wipers all working, and a clean windscreen inside and out."
Waka Kotahi's website contains more easy tips for safe winter driving: nzta.govt.nz/winterjourneys.
"These tips are particularly important heading into the long Queen's Birthday holiday weekend, with more traffic on our roads."
Police officers will continue to be highly visible on the roads throughout the long weekend, ensuring those who are travelling are driving safely.


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We wouldn't recommend following your nose, but you should definitely follow your instinks! With our "Relaxing Skunk Embroidered Sweatshirt", you'll look pretty stinkin' cute & stylish but without the smell! Odor now while supplies last!
All other clothes or accessories displayed are excluded from this offer.
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2020 events have been cancelled due to COVID-19. We miss you all & look forward to keeping in touch online! Please stay safe! ♡
BE AWARE of stolen/ unauthorized LOKISA products! KNOW WHERE TO BUY ORIGINALS!


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How Patients Feel
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Viewing articles tagged 'Add domain'
How to add a domain name to DirectAdmin
Follow the below steps to add a new domain name to your DirectAdmin control panel. Log into...How to add a domain name to the Solid Control Panel.
This Guide will walk you through creating a new domain name and customer on the Solid Control...


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On its recent 10th birthday, I'm acknowledging Nelson Minar's Some Bits weblog as another site I routinely enjoy. As Minar says:
My weblog is an old school blog, a public diary of things that personally interest me. I mostly write as a way to summarize what I'm learning about something new like living in Paris or flying airplanes. … Go ahead, write something, it's not hard! Even if no one but yourself ever reads it it's worth your time.
I'm not so much into the foodie or GA posts, but I usually find the tech nuggets quite good. For example, I was tipped off, by Some Bits, to Adam Fast's Neogeography blog, which looks top notch.


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I am in the early stages of building up a library of videos to help you build confidence once you have come along to a sling library or seen me for a one to one Consultation but here are just a few.
Here is our Live from Carry Online, which is the fabulous online sling show running this weekend, organised and hosted by SleepyNico's Angeline. Here we are showing how to use a stretchy wrap with a newborn 🌺🌺🌺🌺🌺. And this weekend only, we're giving you and huge 10% off The purchase price of our Lifft Slings stretchy wraps! Purchase here 🔥💖🔥💖
Online Tutorial showing how to use a SSC or Buckle Carrier – Tula FTG, with a Newborn
Tutorial online Showing how to use a Newborn safely into a Tula Free to Grow, Buckle Carrier (SSC or Soft Structured Carrier) on the front.
Online Tutorial – Tula Standard, SSC/Buckle Carrier
Tutorial showing how to safely use a buckle carrier or SSC (Soft Structured Carrier) with a bigger infant.


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17 Cool Photos Of Challenger Coloring Page – Nicely, if the coloring pages and books that Old Individuals these of us previous the age of twenty-five used back in the days before they invented weather and after we all knew what a phone twine was are fading out of mind, they're being reborn on the Internet. Children's coloring pages are everywhere on-line. A whole new dimension of coloring and drawing has been opened up with the advent of the Web.
When the Internet was nonetheless fairly new anybody here sufficiently old to recollect those days? only some web sites supplied free, printable coloring pages, and most of those merely contained some rough sketches or produced teeny weeny photos. But today one can discover a multitude of websites from which you'll print out high-quality coloring sheets on almost any topic that you can imagine.
Why Youngsters's Coloring Pages are Important
At the moment's kids nonetheless love Challenger Coloring Page just as a lot as the Outdated Individuals used to when they have been kids. Along with this fact, it's now recognized that coloring is a wondrous pre-reading activity which helps kids develop the hand-eye coordination they're going to want for studying write. Parents who encourage the usage of kids's coloring pages are also encouraging an array of other growth skills together with decision making, persistence, persistence, and creativity.
dodge challenger coloring page in Challenger Coloring Page
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Muscle Cars Coloring Pages Free 7 Image – Colorings a Challenger Coloring Page
Hot Rod Coloring Pages to Print Download for Challenger Coloring Page
Youngsters's coloring pages on the Web provide a higher assortment of subject matter than the books within the shops can, and if your youngsters want printed coloring books you possibly can fire up that printer of yours and create a personalized, one among a kind Challenger Coloring Page e book for your little one. It only takes a couple of minutes to print out a number of coloring pages, and these lead to hours of entertainment and mind stimulation on your child.
The Selections in online Children's Challenger Coloring Page
At some websites you'll find the fundamental kids's coloring pages that may be printed and coloured by hand with crayons, coloured pencils, and whatever else. However, you may as well find web sites that offer interactive coloring pages that require you baby to work on the pc itself to fill in the photos with colours. Often instances, these interactive coloring pages are a part of a complete online neighborhood and the pages are just one in every of many issues out there to do on the website.
For example, an internet site with these pages is perhaps about dolls, and it would also comprise all shapes, sizes, and sorts of dolls for children to play with and even create them. Their favorites can change into photographs on Challenger Coloring Page. There can even likely be articles, games, quizzes, contests, and chat boards for doll lovers. Your baby will love being able to learn a lot and be so artistic with one thing she has a love for already.
Free Coloring Pages For Youngsters – The place to Discover Them
Coloring pages for teenagers are a preferred merchandise, as a result of they can be present in any library or retailer for kids. They can be printed out from the web in any dimension and can be used as posters or wallpapers for a room. These coloring pages for kids can be of many differing types. With cartoon characters from well-known cartoons, akin to Disney's cartoons, Pixar and plenty of others prefer it. They can also represent well-known youngsters's stories and fairy tales.
Printable coloring pages for teenagers are much more well-liked because they are often downloaded free from the web and even bought on-line. We can even go to a print store to make the pages look somewhat skilled. These kinds of pages can be utilized to make your individual coloring book for your kids.
They are also common because they will enhance the mind and they're useful because they assist with the imagination of a kid, and the best way he perceives colors and shapes. It is strongly recommended that a baby should use colours and get used to coloring book from an early age, in order that his inventive facet can grow and he may even develop into a painter or any other type of artist.
One other well-liked line of coloring pages for teenagers is the one with Barbie, the perfect doll, wished by each little girl in the world. Coloring pages with Barbie could be discovered nearly in every single place and they symbolize Barbie and her friends and family, together with Ken, in different landscapes and even stories.
Coloring pages may also be a great way to earn money if you're free panorama artist. For those who can reproduce any character from cartoons or fairy tales, you possibly can draw sketches of them and sell them, both online, both to a library retailer that can promote them and offer you part of the revenue. You can even say that some people use the sketches as they're, black and white, with out Challenger Coloring Page. The printable ones will also be used to make stickers and such.
Crafted Here 2019


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text: Hello, my name is Rachael Martin and I have grown up all around the world because my Dad is in the military. I have barely stayed in one place for more than three years however music has stayed constant in my life, and I have always found myself with a violin, clarinet, piano, ukulele etc. Music has played a big role in my life and as I get older the more significant it becomes. My passions include running track, sports are a very important part in my life, and writing. I love the creativity and freedom writing provides. I grew up with two older brothers which I blame for my competitiveness. Im just a senior in high school trying to get into college and I hope you enjoy my music!


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Wellness Absorbent Underwear, by Unique Wellness, is an innovational product that allows an individual to efficiently manage urinary incontinence.
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All over the web there square measure various recipes, diets and remedies for natural loss of weight and fat burn and that we all have likely tried several of them, a number of them more practical than others.
One of these is thought for its potency and quick results, which is that the ginger water. It guarantees results for real once it involves fat burn and it conjointly helps in burning fat from the foremost stubborn places and shed pounds in very little time. the foremost tough components to form, that square measure the hips and also the belly region cannot be a problematic space. moreover, aside from serving to you with fat burn, the ginger water is additionally unbelievably healthy and can promote your overall basic health and shield you from various diseases.
Here square measure the most effective HEALTH advantages FROM REGULAR CONSUMPTION OF GINGER WATER:
Hypertension – This water can facilitate with the regulation of your high pressure and fight blood clots formation. Lowers cholesterin – Constant consumption of ginger water can lower your high cholesterin levels and stop the unwellness related to this disease.
Strong inhibitor properties – it'll forestall free radicals harm because of the sturdy inhibitor properties.
Anti-inflammatory properties – It conjointly has medicinal properties and can forestall the onset of arthritis and rheumatism.
Anti-cancer cure – because of the actual fact that its potent medicine and anti-cancer properties, ginger water protects you from all types of cancer.
You'll need:
a few skinny slices of ginger root
Lemon juice (if you want)
5l. water
Preparation method:
At first, simply boil the water and add in it the ginger root. Leave it simmer for regarding 10-15 minutes and set it aside to cool down. Strain the ready mixture, so add a drizzle of juice. Drink of the remedy a glass the morning before breakfast and one glass before dinner.
Stimulates sensible circulation
The ginger is extremely made in metallic element and Mg, that square measure 2 key ingredients once it involves sensible circulation. quite that, it inhibits the dangerous cholesterin accumulation within the liver that is crucial for the hindrance of various vas issues.
Protects you from the colds and also the influenza
This is a tremendous root that has potent antibiotic and medicament properties that are tested to be terribly effective against colds and also influenza. Asians used it for hundreds of years ad a potent anti-flu remedy to nice results and this has been scientifically tested with a study conducted by the University of Maryland Department of medication, the terminal that ginger tea specifically is extremely helpful as a treatment against influenza and cold symptoms.
Improves digestion
Apart from rising the nutrient absorption, the ginger will facilitate within the treatment of abdominal pain that happens as a result of upset stomach and inflammation. It's helpful against gasses and bloating, constipation and promotes sensible digestion.
Improved nutrient absorption
It helps improve the absorption of the many essential nutrients since it stimulates the secretion of abdomen and exocrine gland enzymes. just in case you've got low craving, chew on a chunk of ginger root before your meals and you'll notice enhancements terribly before long.
Improves the system
Ginger intake on every day and your system can perform cleanly. It helps against all types of infections, coughs, influenza and chronic diseases.
Relieves pain within the joints As antecedently mentioned, the ginger has potent medicine properties that square measure terribly helpful once it involves reducing joint pain and inflammation.


text:
Watch Perfect Sense Online
Film title: Perfect Sense
Released: 2011-10-07
Language: English, Sign Languages
Plot: An odd epidemic appears across the globe: people suddenly lose one of their senses. At first, it's an outbreak of loss of smell. It's often presaged by a destructive temper tantrum. In this mix are a scientist and a chef - she's Susan, one of a team trying to understand the epidemic; he's Michael, charming and engaging. Susan and Michael begin a relationship in the middle of increasing chaos, as the loss of other senses plagues more people and as civil authorities try to maintain order. Susan's voice-over reflections provide insight. Is love possible in such a changed world? Can anything make perfect sense?
Where to watch Perfect Sense online:
Watch Perfect Sense Trailer
Perfect Sense Cast & Crew
Eva Green
as Susan
Lauren Tempany
as Girl in Bed
Ewan McGregor
as Michael
Connie Nielsen
as Jenny
Denis Lawson
as Boss
Stephen Dillane
as Stephen Montgomery
Shabana Akhtar Bakhsh
as Nurse
Caroline Paterson
as Woman at Hospital
Malcolm Shields
as Patient
Judith Anne Christie
as Waitress
Ewen Bremner
as James
Alastair Mackenzie
as Virologist
Anamaria Marinca
as Street Performer
Juliet Cadzow
as Wife at Grave
Similar Movies


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English Language and Literacy Learning: Research to Practice
How do adults learn to speak and read English as a second language? What are the best ways to develop speaking and reading skills with ESL learners? Over the past 20 years, a growing number of adult ESL educators and researchers have sought answers to these questions as they grapple with the challenges posed by an increasingly large and diverse population of adults in the United States learning English as a second language. This paper summarizes the literature on second language acquisition (focusing on learning to speak in a second language) and on adults learning to read in English and gives implications for instructional practice. What Does the Research Say About Second Language Acquisition? Studies of second language acquisition (SLA) focus primarily on the learning of oral language. They provide valuable information about how second languages are learned and the factors that influence the language learning process. Little research has been conducted on second language acquisition with English language learners in adult education contexts, and no controlled intervention studies have been done. The complexities of adult English as a second language (ESL) instruction make research in this field challenging. Investigating issues of culture, language, and education as well as tracking learner progress over time are not easy when working with diverse and mobile learner populations in varied learning contexts (e.g., workplace classes, general ESL classes, family literacy classes). However, the SLA literature gives important insights into the language acquisition process that can guide adult ESL instruction. SLA researchers examine the development of communicative competence in a language-- the ability to interpret the underlying meaning of a message, understand cultural references, use strategies to keep communication from breaking down, and apply the rules of grammar of the language (Savignon, 1997). They also study nonlinguistic influences on SLA such as age, anxiety, and motivation. (See Ellis, 1997; Gass & Selinker, 2001; & Pica, 2003 for extensive discussions of SLA theory and research.) The following sections summarize the three major areas that are covered in the second language acquisition literature and that are critical to acquiring a second language: learner motivation, opportunities for interaction, and vocabulary knowledge. (This summary is adapted from Moss & Ross-Feldman, 2003; see also NCLE's Web resource collection, Second Language Acquisition, for an annotated list of the studies that form the basis for this summary: www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/collections/SLA.html.)
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Motivation Dörnyei (2002a, p. 8) defines motivation as "why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the activity, [and] how hard they are going to pursue it." Studies indicate that integrative motivation (wanting to learn a language in order to identify with the community that speaks it) promotes SLA regardless of the age of the learner or whether the language is being learned as a second or a foreign language (Gardner, 1985; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003). Learners may have instrumental motivation, the desire to learn the language to meet their needs and goals, such as getting a job or talking to their children's teachers (Morris, 2001; Oxford & Shearin, 1994). Whether learners' motivation is integrative or instrumental, research indicates that teachers should learn about and respond to learners' needs and goals when planning instruction (Dörnyei & Csizer, 1998; Weddel & Van Duzer, 1997). Teachers can help learners identify their motivations for learning English and their shortterm goals and reflect on their progress and achievements. One way to do this is by using tools like those described below: · · · Self-evaluation tools such as checklists to identify their skills, strengths, and weaknesses; Weekly checklists to track their progress towards meeting a learning goal; and Reflection tools such as learning diaries to help them build autonomy and take charge of their learning (Marshall, 2002).
(See Needs Assessment and Learner Self-Evaluation, page II5, for examples of these tools and descriptions of ways they can be used.) Recent research looks at how instructional contexts affect motivation. A learner's motivation may vary from day to day and even from task to task, and social factors (e.g., group dynamics, learning environment, and a learning partner's motivation) may affect a learner's attitude, effort, classroom behavior, and achievement (Dörnyei, 2002b). Therefore, teachers should create an environment that is conducive to learning by encouraging group cohesion in the classroom and by using varied and challenging instructional activities to help learners stay focused and engaged with instructional content (Dörnyei & Csizer, 1998). Activities that are done in pairs and small groups can provide learners with opportunities to share information and build a sense of community (Florez & Burt, 2001). Research also suggests that teachers should create opportunities for learners to continue their language learning outside of class (Clement, Dörnyei, & Noels, 1994). Projects that are started in class and continued outside class are one way to do this. For example, a class might work together to create a book of information about community services for new families. In class they might brainstorm ideas and develop the outline for the book. Outside class, individual learners might collect information about different community agencies,
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write it up, and bring it to class to be compiled in the book. Projects like this one give learners opportunities to work with others to accomplish tasks and to use English in real-life situations. (See Moss & Van Duzer, 1998, Project-based Learning For Adult English Language Learners, for discussion.) New research on motivation and second language acquisition is examining specific factors that influence motivation and learning, such as personal goals, levels of self-confidence, and features of the learning environment (Dörnyei, 2003; Noels, Clement, & Pelletier, 2003). Opportunities for Interaction Interaction refers to communication between individuals, particularly when they are negotiating meaning or working to prevent a breakdown in communication (Ellis, 1999). Interaction provides learners with opportunities to receive language input (through hearing the language) and feedback (when the conversational partner responds, corrects, or asks for clarification). It also allows them to make changes to their language as the conversation proceeds (Gass, 1997; Long, 1996; Pica, 1994; Swain, 1995). This allows learners to "notice the gap" between their use of the language and correct, native speaker use (Schmidt & Frota, 1986, p. 311). Empirical research with second language learners indicates that participating in language interactions facilitates second language development. For example, a study of conversational interaction and learners' acquisition of question formation found that interaction increased their rate of acquisition (Mackey, 1999). Research on interaction includes studies of task-based language learning and focus on form. Task-based learning · The goal of an interactive task is for learners to focus together on a topic or activity and exchange meaning about it (Ellis, 1999). Most tasks are done in pairs or small groups. SLA researchers have found that carefully designed tasks give learners opportunities to use the language (in this case English) in authentic situations and in meaningful ways. They have also found that learners tend to produce longer sentences and negotiate meaning more often in interactive tasks than they do in teacher-fronted instruction, where the teacher stands at the front of the room and leads the discussion (Doughty & Pica, 1986). When designing tasks, teachers should consider the learners' language proficiency, the goals of the lesson, the language to be practiced, the skills to be learned and content areas to be covered, opportunities to give feedback to learners, and classroom logistics. Interactive tasks seem to be most successful when they: o Center on a problem that is new or unfamiliar to the participants; o Require learners to exchange information;
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o Have a specific outcome; o Involve discussion of details; and o Involve the use of naturally occurring conversation and narratives (Ellis, 2000). · In problem-solving tasks, learners have opportunities to share ideas, build consensus, and explain decisions about real-life issues that are important to them. For example, a group might have a hypothetical amount of money to spend and figure out a monthly budget for a family of four. (See Van Duzer & Burt, 1999, for discussion and examples of problem-solving tasks.) Information gap tasks, in which two people share information to complete the task, may be more structured than problem solving tasks and give learners opportunities to ask and answer questions. In one-way information gap tasks, one learner has all of the information (e.g., one learner describes a picture while the other draws it). In two-way information gap tasks, both learners have information that they must share with the other to complete the task (e.g., both have some information about directions to a location, but they have to share the information that they have to complete the directions). See McKay & Tom, 1999, for examples of one-way and two-way tasks.)
(See Activities to Promote Interaction and Communication, Information Gap Activities, page II49 & 50, for examples of information gap activities.) Focus on form Instruction focused on grammatical forms and correct grammatical usage does not need to take place in isolation. Rather, learners' attention can be drawn to grammatical forms in the context of meaningful activities. The teacher's focus on the forms to be taught can be informed by the problems that learners are having with comprehension or production (Long, 2000). Research studies suggest that instruction that uses a focus-on-form approach and that incorporates form with meaning is as effective as more traditional approaches in which grammar is taught in isolation (Norris & Ortega, 2001). When lessons are based on authentic communication and there is a focus on form within that context, learners incorporate new and correct structures into their language use (Ellis, Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2001). When teaching about the forms of language, teachers need to consider learners' needs and goals and their readiness to understand the instruction. Teachers then need to decide how to draw learners' attention to a specific form and give them opportunities to practice it in meaningful activities (Doughty & Williams, 1998). For example, in a workplace class with intermediate- or advanced-level learners, the class might read and discuss a memo from an employer to an employee and focus on the use of the passive voice in the memo (e.g., "This report must be finished by 3:00 today).
English Language and Literacy Learning
Vocabulary Knowledge Word knowledge is an essential component of communicative competence, and it is important for production and comprehension of a second language (Coady & Huckin, 1997). What does it mean to know a word? Vocabulary knowledge includes both the number of words one knows and the depth of knowledge about those words. Depth of knowledge refers to the pronunciation, spelling, and various meanings of the word; the contexts in which it can be used; the frequency with which it is used; its various parts of speech and forms; and how it combines (or collocates) with other words (e.g., vocabulary item "squander" is often combined with "time," "money," or "resources," as in "squander resources") (Folse, 2004; Qian, 1999). Recent research has focused on incidental vocabulary, new words that are learned when one is focused on a meaningful task, such as hearing or reading a story, rather than specifically on learning new words. Learners figure out the meanings of words by paying attention to "clues" in the context; for example, learning that "picnic" means a meal outside when hearing about a family that has a picnic at the beach. (See Gass, 1999, for a summary of research on incidental vocabulary acquisition.) However, researchers argue that learners need to understand about 3,000 word families in order to pick up word meaning from context (Laufer, 1997). (For example, the family of "think" includes think, thinks, thought, thoughtful, thoughtfully.) Teachers then need to help learners build their vocabulary. One way to approach vocabulary instruction is to organize the words to be learned into thematically related units (e.g., vocabulary related to eating out with friends or taking a trip to the mall) (Folse, 2004). Research also suggests that learners gain vocabulary knowledge through extensive reading, especially when reading is accompanied by vocabulary building activities (Paribakht & Wesche, 1997; Wesche & Paribakht, 2000). Teachers should include opportunities for reading to be done in class and assist learners in selecting texts that are of high interest to and at the appropriate level for them. Teachers should preview the important vocabulary in a reading passage before learners read it and teach words that are key to the meaning and that occur frequently. They also should show learners how to use dictionaries effectively. Negotiation of meaning seems to have a positive effect on vocabulary acquisition (de la Fuente, 2002; Ellis & He, 1999; Ellis, Tanaka, & Yamazaki, 1994). Teachers can provide learners with multiple opportunities to use new vocabulary in interactive situations in the following ways: · · · Tasks requiring information sharing and information-gap activities (described on pages II49 & 50); Games such as Bingo, Password, and Concentration; Projects and tasks that learners carry out outside of class, such as keeping vocabulary journals with new words they encounter and the strategies they use to learn them).
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(See Activities to Promote Interaction and Communication, page II41, for examples of these activities and games.) Giving learners opportunities to interact with the teacher and with each other, planning instruction to include tasks that promote these opportunities, and teaching language forms and vocabulary in the context of meaningful learning activities are all ways in which second language acquisition research may be applied in the classroom. What Does the Research Say About Learning to Read in English? The National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) found that more than half of the U. S. population studied had low literacy skills and that compared to native English speakers, a higher percentage of non-native English speakers read English at the lowest levels (Kirsch, Jungeblut, Jenkins, & Kolstad, 1993; Greenburg, Macías, Rhodes, & Chan, 2001). Adults performing at the lowest levels had difficulty with basic literacy tasks in English, such as reading documents (e.g., time tables, forms, and maps), reading prose (e.g., newspaper articles, instructions on medicine bottles), and performing numeracy tasks (e.g., computing hours, calculating interest rates). These outcomes have caused concern that many adults, both native and non-native English speakers, lack the reading, writing, and functional skills necessary for living in a literate society. However, there is very little research on the reading development of adults who are non-native English speakers. The National Center for ESL Literacy Education (NCLE) synthesized the limited research on adults learning English that was published between 1980 and 2002 (Burt, Peyton, & Adams, 2003). This synthesis focused on the reading development of adults in adult education and college-based intensive English programs (IEPs). The adults in these studies were ages 16 years and older and not enrolled in secondary schools. The research reviewed was published in refereed (peer-reviewed) journals, dissertations, the ERIC database, the Modern Language Association database, the Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts database, and books. Studies were included if they reported (1) outcomes related to reading (and, where applicable, general literacy) development, (2) descriptions of the adults participating, (3) details on the intervention or study situation, and (4) information on the procedures and outcome measures. The studies included used experimental or quasiexperimental methodologies based on comparisons between groups (with statistical tests for significance), non-experimental methods, and qualitative methods (descriptive and practitioner research). Theoretical discussions of reading development also were included. Descriptions of the articles reviewed, along with an annotated bibliography of the research (Adams & Burt, 2002, www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/bibliographies/readingbib.html) and a synthesis of the research (Burt, Peyton, & Adams, 2003, www.cal.org/caela/research/ raell.pdf), are available online.
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In addition, Kruidenier (2002) has reviewed the research on reading instruction with native English speakers in adult basic education (ABE) programs. This and other resources are available online at www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading. This discussion draws from the resources above to give a brief overview of the following questions and suggest implications for instruction: · · · What factors influence the literacy development of adults learning English, and what challenges do they face when learning to read? What reading skills do adult English language learners need? What are the overall benefits of reading in a second language?
What Factors Influence the Literacy Development of Adults Learning English, and What Challenges Do They Face? The factors discussed most frequently in the literature on learning to read in English as a second language are summarized here--learners' first-language literacy, educational background, second-language proficiency, and goals for learning English. Additional factors include learners' ages; motivations to read; instructional, living, and working environments; socio-cultural backgrounds; and learning abilities or disabilities. First Language Literacy Researchers have identified six different types of literacy learners according to their firstlanguage literacy background: pre-literate, non-literate, semi-literate, non-alphabet literate, non-Roman alphabet literate, and Roman alphabet literate. Pre-literate learners come from cultures where literacy is not common in everyday life. They might include those whose native language is not written or is being developed (e.g., the Bantu of Somalia and the Dinka of Sudan). They often have had little or no exposure to written text and may not be aware of the purposes of literacy in everyday life. They need to be taught how written language works. They generally progress slowly in literacy and other language instruction and may need frequent re-teaching of skills. Non-literate learners come from cultures where literacy is more common, but they have not had sufficient access to literacy, often because of their socio-economic or political status. (For instance, adults from Central America may not know how to read or write in their native Spanish because of disrupted schooling due to war and poverty.) Although they have not learned to read, they have probably been exposed to written language and may have greater awareness of the value and uses of literacy than pre-literate learners. These adults may be reluctant to disclose their limited literacy background in class, and instruction with them may proceed slowly.
English Language and Literacy Learning
Semi-literate learners usually have had access to literacy in their native culture, but because of their socio-economic status or political or educational situation, they have not achieved a high level of literacy in their native language. These adults may have left school at a young age for economic or political reasons (e.g., as did many Southeast Asian refugees and Central American immigrants in the 1970s and 1980s), or they may have lived in the United States and developed oral English proficiency but not literacy. Written materials used in teaching may be of limited use with pre-literate, non-literate, and semi-literate learners, and their retention of class material may be limited because they cannot use educational texts or take notes for later review. Because of their limited educational experiences, they may feel intimidated about learning English. At the same time, they are often highly motivated to learn. They need opportunities to increase their self-confidence in educational situations and to develop positive images of themselves as readers and writers (Goldberg, 1997; Strucker, 1997). They also may have learning disabilities that have not been diagnosed or addressed (Schwarz & Terrill, 2000). Programs should have procedures to identify and meet the needs of English language learners with learning disabilities. (See Artiles & Ortiz, 2002; Schwarz & Terrill, 2000, and Adult English Language Learners and Learning Disabilities, page IV59 for discussions of ways to identify and work with these learners.) The following groups of learners are literate in their first language, have already developed reading skills, have formed reading behaviors, and know that written language can represent speech. Described below are characteristics and implications for teaching reading to individuals from these groups. · Learners who are literate in a language with a non-alphabetic script (e.g., Chinese or Japanese) may focus on entire words rather than on letters or other word parts (as English readers do when using phonological decoding to identify words). This is because the symbols in non-alphabetic scripts often represent syllables or entire words. The written symbols in these languages do not represent sounds, as letters do in alphabetic languages. Therefore, like young readers, as described in the report of the National Reading Panel (2000), they must develop an "alphabetic strategy" (Birch, 2002, p. 33) to be able to read and write in an alphabetic script (Adams, 1990). Learners who are literate in a language with a non-Roman alphabetic script (e.g., Arabic, Greek, Korean, Russian, or Thai) know how to read with an alphabet, but they may struggle to find English words in the dictionary, and they need time to process written materials presented in class, because the writing system of their first language is different from that of English, both in the letters and, in some cases the directionality of the writing (e.g., Arabic, which is written from right to left). Learners who are literate in a language with a Roman-alphabetic script (e.g., French, German, or Spanish) know about sound/symbol correspondences. With
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regard to vocabulary, they may find many linguistic similarities between their native languages and English. They can study ESL texts and take notes in class to learn new vocabulary or structures, and they can read outside of class. They still need to learn the sound-symbol correspondences of English before they are able to read well (Hilferty, 1996; Strucker & Davidson, 2003). For a more detailed discussion of the role of the first-language in reading development see Burt & Peyton (2003) at www.cal.org/caela/digests/reading.htm. For more discussion of the types of first language backgrounds described here, see Birch (2002); Hilferty (1996); Huntley (1992); and Strucker & Davidson (2003). In many adult ESL programs, decisions about learner placement and instructional approaches are based solely on learners' oral proficiency in English. However, learners' first-language literacy should be taken into consideration as well, because it can strongly influence the types of instruction they need and the rates of progress they are likely to make (Robson, 1982; Strucker & Davidson, 2003). First-language literacy is an important factor in the following decisions: · Assigning learners to classes. Pre-literate, non-literate, and semi-literate learners may have difficulty using writing to reinforce what they learn orally and may learn less rapidly than other learners. They may benefit from being placed in both oral ESL and English literacy classes and in different classes from literate learners. This is not always easy to do, but it is sometimes possible in larger programs. Designing and teaching ESL lessons. Lessons that involve conveying a lot of information through writing (e.g., on the board or in written exercises) will be harder for pre-, non-, and semi-literate learners to understand. They may need much more conversational and visual support for content and skills covered than do literate learners. Teaching literacy skills. Non- and low-literate learners need to be taught basic literacy skills such as sound/symbol correspondence, the relationship between written symbols and oral speech, and the directionality of writing. Those who are literate in their first language need a different focus. According to some researchers, literate learners need to know 3,000 to 5,000 words in English before they can transfer their literacy skills from their first language to English (Laufer, 1997). This is a fairly high level of English; as a result, even literate learners probably need a heavy emphasis on vocabulary building. Furthermore, the transfer of reading skills from the native language to English will not be automatic. Learners need to be shown how to use the reading skills they have in their first language to help them read in English. They will also need direct instruction in English sound/symbol correspondences and other reading strategies.
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Educational Background Learners' language proficiency and literacy are often linked with their educational experiences in the following ways: · Learners with limited or no literacy in their first language have probably had little or no experience with formal education. They may not be accustomed to sitting at desks for long periods of time, listening to a teacher, interacting with other adults as fellow learners, getting information from print, and studying outside of class. Their educational experience may have involved watching and learning from others. Therefore, their learning will be different from that of learners who have had more experience with formal education. Literacy instruction with these learners is more likely to be successful when they believe it is relevant to their lives and they feel comfortable in the instructional setting (Hardman, 1999; Klassen & Burnaby, 1993). Learners who are highly literate in their first language are more likely to have had formal education in that language, but their prior educational experiences may differ from those they have in the United States (Constantino, 1995; Tse, 1996a, 1996b). They may come to classes in the United States expecting a great deal of direct teaching and traditional approaches to learning, such as memorizing vocabulary lists and doing mechanical exercises. They may also tend to focus more on reading accuracy than on fluency. To improve their reading fluency and increase their exposure to English vocabulary, they may benefit from pleasure reading of texts appropriate to their reading proficiency level (texts in which they can read approximately 95 percent of the words) (Cho & Krashen, 1994; Coady, 1997; Laufer, 1997; Sökmen, 1997; Tse, 1996a, 1996b).
Second-Language Proficiency Adult English language learners have varying levels of proficiency in English, which may influence their reading speed and comprehension (Tan, Moore, Dixon, & Nicholson, 1994). Studies suggest that learners need some level of proficiency in the second language to read effectively in the language (Alderson, 1984; Carrell, 1991; Tan, et al., 1994). It is as yet unclear how much of a grammar and discourse foundation is needed before one can read effectively. It seems, however, that the amount of foundation needed will vary, depending on the students themselves (Grabe & Stoller, 2002). Goals for Learning English Adults learning English have different needs for literacy. Some of the most common are to be successful at work, participate in their children's education, achieve U.S. citizenship, participate in community activities in English, and pursue further education (Marshall, 2002).
English Language and Literacy Learning
Some learners may focus on improving their functional literacy for advancement in the workplace (Mikulecky, 1992). Many cannot advance in their jobs or receive the job training they need until they have achieved a functional level of English literacy. In many cases, a General Educational Development (GED) certificate may be required for job promotion (Mikulecky, 1992; Strucker, 1997). Others may want to improve their literacy skills to help their children in school (Shanahan, Mulhern, & Rodriguez-Brown, 1995). The belief that parents' literacy influences children's eventual literacy attainment is one of the reasons behind the support for family literacy in the U.S. Department of Education (National Center for ESL Literacy Education, 2002). Since much of school-related communication is conducted in written English, limited English literacy may limit parents' involvement in their children's education and their communication with teachers, administrators, and counselors. Furthermore, adults who are not literate in English will have difficulty reading in English with their children and helping them learn English vocabulary. A common literacy goal of adult ESL students focuses on community participation. Effective community participation includes having the skills to handle financial transactions and keep informed about developments in the community (Klassen & Burnaby, 1993; Strucker, 1997). In addition to integrating into the English-speaking community, adults who speak languages other than English and also are literate in English can be valuable resources for other community members. Opportunities for involvement in community activities are usually announced in writing and in English, and most advocacy activities that reach decision makers are conducted in English. Adult ESL students also may wish to gain U. S. citizenship. To do this, they need to pass a written test on U.S. government and history, and at every step in the residency and citizenship process, they need to have the literacy skills to fill out immigration and citizenship forms. Finally, many learners want to improve their literacy skills to increase their opportunities to continue their education. Some need to obtain a high school equivalency degree. Others are seeking English certification of degrees and skills they have in their native language or their home country. Still others need English reading skills to pass tests such as the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) in order to enroll in institutions of higher education. Curricula and materials used in instruction (commercial textbooks and teacher-produced materials) should match the goals of the learners. That is, school-related instruction and materials should be used with parents in family literacy programs, workplace instruction and materials should be used with workers, and civics-focused instruction and materials should be used in citizenship classes. It is a challenge, of course, to address learners' interests when a variety of goals for developing literacy are represented in one class or program.
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What Reading Skills Do Adult English Language Learners Need? Researchers working with native English speakers have focused on the following component skills of reading development: alphabetics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. (See Kruidenier, 2002, for discussion of these reading component skills with adult native English speakers.) Researchers working with adults learning English as a second language have focused on similar skills, but they are labeled and grouped somewhat differently-- phonological processing, vocabulary knowledge, syntactic processing, and background knowledge. Figure IV1 shows the terms used in reading research and instruction with native English speakers and gives implications for instruction with these two groups. Following the figure is a discussion of findings from research on English reading with adults learning English and their implications for instruction. Figure IV1: Reading Terms and Their Application
Alphabetics. "Alphabetics includes both phonemic awareness, or knowledge of the sounds of spoken language; and word analysis, or knowledge of the connection between written letters and sounds (letter-sound correspondence)" (Kruidenier, 2002, p. 35). Phonological awareness is the "broad term that includes phonemic awareness. In addition to identifying and manipulating larger parts of spoken language, such as words, syllables, and onsets and rimes, phonological awareness encompasses an awareness of other aspects of sound, such as rhyming, alliteration, and intonation" (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001, p. 3). Phonemic awareness. One type of phonological awareness, "phonemic awareness, is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate the individual sounds--phonemes--in spoken words" (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001, p. 4). Phonics "is the understanding that there is a predictable relationship between phonemes (the sounds of spoken language) and graphemes (the letters and spellings that represent those sounds in written language)" (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001, p. 4). Word analysis involves decoding words, sight word recognition, dictionary use, and structural analysis of words (e.g., knowledge of prefixes and suffixes) (Kruidenier, 2002). · Application to native English speakers: Instruction in word analysis with native English speakers is usually done by having learners pronounce letters, word parts, or whole words. Nonsense words are often used to push learners to decode and not rely on sight words. The ability to read sight words is often assessed by having learners read lists of regularly and irregularly spelled words. Application to non-native English speakers: Alphabetics instruction often assumes high oral language skills and vocabulary knowledge, which adults learning English may not have. Using nonsense words is a questionable activity with these learners, who do not necessarily have proficiency in oral English.
Fluency is the ability to read easily and accurately with appropriate rhythm, intonation, and expression. · Application to native English speakers: Instruction focuses on the accuracy and speed of oral or silent reading.
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Application to non-native English speakers: Oral reading accuracy and speed may be complicated by interference from the native language and may not indicate actual reading skill in the native language or in English.
Vocabulary refers to the words that a person understands and knows the meaning. Vocabulary knowledge is critical to the comprehension processes of a skilled reader. · Application to native English speakers: Vocabulary building activities often build on themes such as family, the community, or the workplace. Learners are encouraged to determine the meanings of words from context. Learners often define words or choose the correct meanings of words among several choices. Application to non-native English speakers: Adults learning English may not have the background knowledge they need to work effectively with the themes usually used in U. S. classes. Teachers need to use themes that learners are familiar with or give them the background information they need. Learners need to have multiple exposures to specific words in different contexts and know how to use English and bilingual dictionaries (Folse, 2004). They need explicit instruction in defining words and doing multiple choice exercises
Reading comprehension is the ability to derive meaning from a written text. Skilled readers are purposeful and active in applying comprehension strategies to texts. · Application to native English speakers: Native English speakers have oral English and culture-specific knowledge that guides their understanding of reading texts used in U. S. classes, and they can often describe orally the strategies they use to comprehend what they read. Application to non-native English speakers: English language skill and cultural knowledge may impede English language learners' comprehension and ability to talk about texts. Some researchers argue that readers need to understand more than 95 percent of the words in a passage before they can effectively determine meaning from context (e.g., Qian, 1999). Non-native English speakers may use comprehension strategies in their native language that they need to be taught to use when reading English, and they may not be able to talk about the strategies that they use. Teachers need to tie readings to learners' native languages and cultures whenever possible and teach specific strategies for comprehending a passage. Teachers should preview unfamiliar ideas, vocabulary, and formats (titles, pictures, graphics, and text structure) of texts before learners read them.
Research on Adults Learning to Read in English The following discussion is organized around the categories that researchers studying English language learners typically focus on phonological processing, vocabulary knowledge, syntactic processing, and background knowledge. Phonological Processing Phonological processing (or decoding) involves interpreting written letters as sounds (phonological awareness) and combining letters into syllables and words (word analysis) (Adams, 1990; Kruidenier, 2002; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). Some researchers argue that phonological processing skills are among the primary reading skill components that differentiate native and non-native English speakers learning to read (Koda, 1999). Researchers also argue that teaching adult ESL literacy students the letter-sound
English Language and Literacy Learning
correspondences in the English writing system through phonics instruction will improve their reading (Jones, 1996; Koda, 1999; Strucker & Davidson, 2003). Even advanced English learners whose native language is written with the Roman alphabet need instruction in decoding and in matching letters to sounds in English (Hilferty, 1996; Strucker & Davidson, 2003). Some ways that teachers can develop students' phonological processing skills are to provide opportunities for them to do the following: · · · · Match letters to sounds (phonics). Listen to words related to a specific topic that begin with similar sounds (e.g., food cheese, chicken, cherries) (phonemic awareness). Attach morphemes to words (e.g., past tense markers on verbs, plural and possessive markers on nouns) and observe pronunciation changes (word analysis). Participate in oral readings and choral readings (phonemic awareness).
(See Activities to Promote Reading Development, page II57, for descriptions of specific activities.) Note: Beginning literacy learners may need structured, systematic instruction in decoding (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001). Kruidenier (2002) cites research on children that may apply to adult learners. This research shows that systematic phonics instruction is more effective with beginning readers than incidental instruction. Although the research cited was not done on English language learners, teachers working with groups of very low readers may find a structured program useful. "A program of systematic phonics instruction clearly identifies a carefully selected and useful set of letter-sound relationships and then organizes the introduction of these relationships into a logical instructional sequence" (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001, p. 16). Some examples of systematic language programs include The Wilson Reading System, Lindamood-Bell, and Orton-Gillingham. Vocabulary knowledge Vocabulary knowledge has been found to have a strong effect on reading comprehension (Brown, 1993; Sökmen, 1997; Coady, 1997; Coady, Mgoto, Hubbard, Graney, & Mokhtari, 1994; Folse, 2004; Zimmerman, 1997). Reading specialists argue that readers need to know 3,000- 5000 words in the language they are reading in order to read independently (Grabe & Stoller, 2002; Laufer, 1997). Vocabulary knowledge includes both breadth (the number of words a reader knows or the number of content areas in which a reader is familiar with the vocabulary) and depth (the amount of knowledge a reader knows about individual words including their pronunciation, spelling, the parts of speech they may be used for, prefixes and suffixes that can be used with them and how those change word meaning and use, how the words are used in sentences, and various meanings of the words).
English Language and Literacy Learning
The following strategies to increase learners' vocabulary knowledge have been suggested in the literature: · · Teach vocabulary that learners will need to use often (high-frequency vocabulary). Teach key sight words that learners will need, such as emergency, 911, last name, first name, especially when learners are at beginning literacy levels. (Sight word knowledge is the ability to recognize words without having to sound them out.) Provide multiple opportunities for learners to read and use specific words in different texts and activities that are thematically related, such as the following: o Brainstorm vocabulary on a specific topic, such as food shopping. o Practice food vocabulary with flash cards. o Practice dialogues in which food vocabulary is used (e.g. "I am going shopping." "What do you need?" "I need bread, beans, and chicken."). o Complete cloze exercises (worksheets with sentences or paragraphs about food; key vocabulary words related to food are left out, with a blank for the learners to fill in). o Make a shopping list of items they need to buy. o For homework, copy food words from packages. · · · · · Preview key vocabulary that will be used in a text or activity. Give the meanings of vocabulary words that may be difficult. Have learners write their own sentences with words they have read in a text. Teach learners how to use dictionaries. Use computer programs to provide more interactive vocabulary learning opportunities.
(See Activities to Promote Reading Development, page II57, for descriptions of specific activities.) Syntactic processing Syntactic processing (related to reading comprehension in the literature on native English speakers) involves understanding the structures of the language and making connections among words in a sentence or among sentences and paragraphs in a text. For example, learners should be taught language forms that change the meanings of words, such as prefixes and suffixes. Learners should know common prefixes, such as non-, in-, im-, and un- that make words negative (as in possible/impossible, happy/unhappy), and suffixes, such
English Language and Literacy Learning
as the -ed verb ending used to form the past tense and the passive voice. They should also understand words that bring cohesion to a text (e.g., however, therefore, nevertheless). Grammar instruction should be integrated with reading instruction, with learners' attention directed to syntactic structures in reading texts. Teachers can point out certain grammatical structures in a passage (e.g., all of the past tense verbs), choose reading passages that highlight the grammatical structures that students are learning, and have students find and mark specific grammatical structures. Teachers also can help build learners' knowledge of grammar and syntax by having them do the following: · Learners complete a cloze exercise, in which specific words left out of a text with blanks that they fill in. Some exercises might focus on nouns, others on verbs or adjectives, and so on. To provide support for students, these exercises may be done initially as a whole class, then in small groups, and then individually. Learners identify the parts of speech of certain words in a text (nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, etc.). Learners write their own sentences or longer texts, using specific grammatical forms (e.g., past tense verbs) and cohesion words (e.g., however, therefore).
· ·
(See Activities to Promote Reading Development, page II57, for descriptions of specific activities.) Background knowledge Background knowledge is also related to reading comprehension in the literature on native English speakers. Readers generally understand texts more easily if they are familiar with and have information about the topics covered and the genres and text structures involved (Adams & Collins, 1985; Carrell, 1991; Goldberg, 1997; Hudson, 1982). If learners have low reading proficiency, readings about culturally familiar topics should be selected (Eskey, 1997). Even if readers are more advanced, the topics and structures of reading texts should be reviewed before learners begin reading, so that they are familiar (Goldberg, 1997). To build on learners' background knowledge, teachers can do the following: · · · · Relate reading texts to ideas, concepts, and events from learners' cultures and personal experiences whenever possible. Use visual aids and physical objects to support understanding of unfamiliar ideas and themes. Preview unfamiliar ideas, actions, and settings. Preview titles, pictures, graphics, grammatical structures, and cohesion words used.
English Language and Literacy Learning
Create language experience texts. In the language experience approach, learners have an experience together or share knowledge about an experience, such as taking a class trip, shopping for food, or coming to the United States. They discuss or answer questions about the experience and the teacher writes a text. They then copy the text and read it themselves. (See Holt, 1995, and Activities to Promote Reading Development, page II57, for details about developing language experience stories.)
What Are the Benefits of Reading in a Second Language? We have described above how second language proficiency facilitates reading development, but reading in English also can help develop language proficiency. The act of reading itself exposes us to language that we process as we seek to gain information that is important and meaningful. Therefore, at the same time that students learn from their reading about gardening, parenting in the United States, U.S. citizenship, or workplace benefits, they also are learning English. Some of the benefits of reading for language development are the following: · · · · Reading texts provides one source of language input. Extensive or sustained reading can promote knowledge of the vocabulary and structures of English. Learners engaged in extensive reading tend to be more likely to enjoy reading and feel comfortable reading new texts. Extensive reading seems to develop writing ability in some learners, especially those with greater English proficiency and literacy skills.
(See Carson, Carrell, Silberstein, & Kuehn, 1990; Cho & Krashen, 1994; Constantino, 1995; Grabe & Stoller, 2002; Tse, 1996a, 1996b for discussion of these benefits.) In summary, reading can build second language vocabulary, conversational proficiency, and writing ability as well as reading proficiency. Teachers need to carefully select texts for learners or assist them in choosing their own texts at appropriate levels of reading difficulty. They need to focus on the level of decoding, vocabulary knowledge, and cultural or background knowledge needed to handle the texts. They also need to create classroom activities that will help learners understand and work with the texts and develop the key reading component skills.
English Language and Literacy Learning
For Further Reading
Bell, J. S. (1995). The relationship between L1 and L2 literacy: Some complicating factors. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 687-704. Carrell, P. L. (1989). Metacognitive awareness and second language reading. Modern Language Journal, 73 (2), 121-34. Florez, M. C., & Burt, M. (2001). Beginning to work with adult English language learners: Some considerations. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/ digests/beginQA.html Florez, M. C., & Terrill, L. (2003). Working with literacy-level adult English language learners. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/litQA.html Van Duzer, C. (1999). Reading and the adult English language learner. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/Read.html
English Language and Literacy Learning
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Adams, M. J. & Collins, A. (1985). A schema-theoretic view of reading. In H. Singer & R. B. Ruddell (Eds.). Theoretical models and processes of reading, pp. 404-425. Newark, DL: International Reading Association. Adams, R., & Burt, M. (2002). Research on the reading development of adult English language learners: An annotated bibliography. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/bibliographies/readingbib.html Alderson, J. C. (1984). Reading in a foreign language: A reading problem or a language problem? In J. C. Alderson & A. H. Urquhart (Eds.). Reading in a foreign language (pp. 1-27). New York: Longman. Armbruster, B. B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. (2001). Put reading first: The research building blocks for teaching children to read. Washington, DC: Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement. Artiles, A. J., & Ortiz, A. A. (2002). English language learners with special education needs: Identification, assessment, and instruction. Available from http://calstore.cal.org/store Birch, B. M. (2002). English L2 reading: Getting to the bottom. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Brown, C. (1993). Factors affecting the acquisition of vocabulary: Frequency and saliency of words. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes, & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 263-86). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Burt, M., & Peyton, J. K. (2003). Reading and adult English language learners: The role of the first language. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/ digests/reading.html Burt, M., Peyton, J. K., & Adams, R. (2003). Reading and adult English language learners: A review of the research. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved March 8, 2008, from www.cal.org/caela/research/raell.pdf Carrell, P. L. (1991). Second language reading: Reading ability or language proficiency. Applied Linguistics, 12, 159-79. Carson, J. E., Carrell, P. L., Silberstein, S., & Kuehn, P. (1990). Reading-writing relationships in first and second language. TESOL Quarterly 24, 245-66. Cho, K. S., & Krashen, S. D. (1994). Acquisition of vocabulary from the Sweet Valley Kids series: Adult ESL acquisition. Journal of Reading, 37, 662-7. Clement, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1994). Motivation, self-confidence, and group cohesion in the foreign language classroom. Language Learning, 44, 417-448. Coady, J. (1997). L2 vocabulary acquisition through extensive reading. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition (pp. 225-37). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Coady, J., & Huckin, T. (Eds.). (1997). Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
English Language and Literacy Learning
Coady, J., Mgoto, J., Hubbard, P., Graney, J. & Mokhtari, K. (1994). High frequency vocabulary and reading proficiency in ESL readers. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes, & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 217-28). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Constantino, R. (1995). Reading in a second language doesn't have to hurt: The effect of pleasure reading. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Reading, 39, 68-9. de la Fuente, M. J. (2002). Negotiation and oral acquisition of L2 vocabulary: The roles of input and output in the receptive and productive acquisition of words. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 81-112. Dörnyei, Z. (2002a). Teaching and researching motivation. Essex, England: Pearson Education Limited. Dörnyei, Z. (2002b). The motivational basis of language learning tasks. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 137-158). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: Advances in theory, research, and applications. Language Learning, 53 (Suppl. 1), 3-32. Dörnyei, Z., & Csizer, K. (1998). Ten commandments for motivating language learners: Results of an empirical study. Language Teaching Research, 4, 203-229. Dörnyei, Z., & Kormos, J. (2000). The role of individual and social variables in oral task performance. Language Teaching Research, 4, 275-300. Doughty, C., & Pica, T. (1986). "Information gap" tasks: Do they facilitate second language acquisition? TESOL Quarterly, 20, 305-325. Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (Eds.). (1998). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R. (1997). Second language acquisition. New York: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (1999). Learning a second language through interaction. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Ellis, R. (2000). Task-based research and language pedagogy. Language Teaching Research, 4, 193220. Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H., & Loewen, S. (2001). Learner uptake in communicative ESL lessons. Language Learning, 51, 281-318. Ellis, R., & He, X. (1999). The roles of modified input and output in incidental acquisition of word meanings. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 285-301. Ellis, R., Tanaka, Y., & Yamazaki, A. (1994). Classroom interaction, comprehension, and the acquisition of L2 word meanings. Language Learning, 44, 449-491. Eskey, D. E. (1997). Models of reading and the ESOL student: Implications and limitations. Focus on Basics, 1(B), 9-11. Florez, M. C., & Burt, M. (2001). Beginning to work with adult English language learners: Some considerations. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/ digests/beginQA.html Folse, K. S. (2004). Vocabulary myths: Applying second language research to classroom teaching. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.
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Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitude and motivation. London: Edward Arnold. Gass, S. M. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Gass, S. M. (1999). Discussion: Incidental vocabulary learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 319-333. Gass, S. M. & Selinker, L. (2001). Second language acquisition: An introductory course. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Goldberg, R. (1997). Deconstructing the great wall of print. Connections: A Journal of Adult Literacy, 1, 8-13. Grabe, W., & Stoller, F. L. (2002). Comparing L1 and L2 reading. In Teaching and researching reading (pp. 4063). Harlow, England: Longman. Greenberg, E., Macías, R. F., Rhodes, D., & Chan, T. (2001). English literacy and language minorities in the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Education Research and Improvement. Hardman, J. C. (1999). A community of learners: Cambodians in an adult ESL classroom. Language Teaching Research, 3,145-66. Hilferty, A. G. (1996). Coding decoding: Predicting the reading comprehension of Latino adults learning English. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge. Holt, G. M. (1995). Teaching low-level adult ESL learners. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/holt.html Hudson, T. (1982). The effects of induced schemata on the "short circuit" in L2 reading: Nondecoding factors in L2 reading performance. Language Learning, 32, 3-31. Huntley, H. S. (1992). The new illiteracy: A study of the pedagogic principles of teaching English as a second language to non-literate adults. (ERIC Document No. ED356685) Jones, M. L. (1996). Phonics in ESL literacy instruction: Functional or not? Philadelphia: World Conference on Literacy. (ERIC Document No. ED436104) Kirsch, I. S., Jungeblut, A., Jenkins, L., & Kolstad, A. (1993). Adult literacy in America: A first look at the findings of the National Adult Literacy Survey. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Klassen, C., & Burnaby, B. (1993). Those who know: Views on literacy among adult immigrants in Canada. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 377-97. Koda, K. (1999). Development of L2 intraword orthographic sensitivity and decoding skills. Modern Language Journal, 83, 51-64. Kruidenier, J. (2002). Research-based principles for adult basic education reading instruction. Retrieved May 24, 2004, from http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading Laufer, B. (1997). The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don't know, words you think you know, and words you can't guess. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp. 20-34). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
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Long, M. H. (2000). Focus on form in task-based language teaching. In R. D. Lambert & E. Shohamy (Eds.), Language policy and pedagogy: Essays in honor of A. Ronald Walton (pp. 179192). Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Long, M. H. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of research on language acquisition: Vol. 2. Second language acquisition (pp. 413-468). New York: Academic Press. McKay H., & Tom, A. (1999). Teaching adult second language learners. New York: Cambridge University Press. Mackey, A. (1999). Input, interaction, and second language development: An empirical study of question formation in ESL. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 557-587. Marshall, B. (2002). Preparing for success: A guide for teaching adult English language learners. Washington, DC, & McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics & Delta Systems. Available from http://calstore.cal.org/store Masgoret, A. M., & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: A meta-analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language Learning, 53 (Suppl. 1), 167-210. Mikulecky, L. (1992). Workplace literacy programs: Variations of approach and limits of impact. San Antonio, TX: National Reading Conference. (ERIC Document No. ED353461) Morris, F. (2001). Language learning motivation for the class of 2002: Why first year Puerto Rican high school students learn English. Language and Education, 15, 269-278. Moss, D., & Ross-Feldman, L. (2003). Second language acquisition in adults: From research to practice. Washington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy Education. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/SLA.html Moss, D., & Van Duzer, C. (1998). Project-based learning for adult English language learners. Washington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy Education. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/ProjBase.html National Center for ESL Literacy Education. (2002). Family literacy and adult English language learners. NCLE Fact Sheet. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/ esl_resources/collections/factsheets.html#fam National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Noels, K. A., Clement, R., & Pelletier, L. G. (2003). Perceptions of teachers' communicative style and students' intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Modern Language Journal, 83, 23-34. Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2001). Does type of instruction make a difference? Substantive findings from a meta-analytic review. Language Learning, 51 (Suppl. 1), 157-213. Oxford, R., & Shearin, J. (1994). Language learning motivation: Expanding the theoretical framework. Modern Language Journal, 78, 12-28. Paribakht, T. S., & Wesche, M. (1997). Vocabulary enhancement activities and reading for meaning in second language vocabulary acquisition. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp. 174-200). United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
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Pica, T. (1994). Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second-language learning conditions, processes, and outcomes? Language Learning, 44, 493-527. Pica, T. (2003). Second language acquisition research and applied linguistics. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 18. Qian, D. D. (1999). Assessing the roles of depth and breadth of vocabulary knowledge in reading comprehension. Canadian Modern Language Journal, 56, 262-305. Robson, B. (1982). Hmong literacy, formal education, and their effects on performance in an ESL class. In B. T. Downing & D. P. Olney, (Eds.). The Hmong in the west: Observations and reports (pp. 201- 225). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota. Savignon, S. (1997). Communicative competence: Theory and classroom practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. Schmidt, R., & Frota, S. (1986). Developing basic conversational ability in a second language: A case study of an adult learner of Portuguese. In R. Day (Ed.), Talking to learn: Conversation in second language acquisition (pp. 237-326). Rowley, MA: Newbury. Schwarz, R. & Terrill, L. (2000). ESL instruction and adults with learning disabilities. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/LD2.html Shanahan, T., Mulhern, M., & Rodriguez-Brown, F. (1995). Project FLAME: Lessons learned from a family literacy program for linguistic minority families. The Reading Teacher, 48, 586-93. Snow, C. E., Burns, S. M., & Griffin, P. (Eds.) (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Sökmen, A. J. (1997). Current trends in teaching second language vocabulary. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy, Vocabulary: Description, acquisition, and pedagogy (pp. 237-257). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Strucker, J. (1997). What silent reading tests alone can't tell you: Two case studies in adult reading differences. Focus on Basics, 1(B), 13-17. Strucker, J., & Davidson, R. (2003). Adult reading components study (ARCS): A NCSALL research brief. Boston, MA: National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honour of H. G. Widdowson (pp. 125-144). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Tan, A., Moore, D. W., Dixon, R. S., & Nicholson, T. (1994). Effects of training in rapid decoding on the reading comprehension of adult ESL learners. Journal of Behavioral Education, 4,177-89. Tse, L. (1996a). When an ESL adult becomes a reader. Reading Horizons, 37, 16-29. Tse, L. (1996b). If you lead horses to water they will drink: Introducing second language adults to books in English. California Reader, 29 (2), 14-7. Van Duzer, C., & Burt, M. (1999). A day in the life of the González family. Washington DC & McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics & Delta Systems. Available from http://calstore.cal.org/store Weddel, K., & Van Duzer, C. (1997). Needs assessment for adult ESL learners. Washington, DC: National Center for ESL Literacy Education. Retrieved December 14, 2004, from http://www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/digests/Needas.html
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Wesche, M. B., & Paribakht, T. S. (2000). Reading-based exercises in second language learning: An introspective study. Modern Language Journal, 84, 196-213. Zimmerman, C. B. (1997). Do reading and interactive vocabulary instruction make a difference? An empirical study. TESOL Quarterly, 3(1), p. 121-140.
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