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Ouvrier Albert / Alexandre Martin
Revolutionary and socialist, in February 1848 'Worker Albert' was the first manual worker member of government anywhere in the world.
Left-wing individuals who lived in Paris and 'made a difference' in the evolution of both socialism nationally and internationally and of France's quite unique social model.
Revolutionary and socialist, in February 1848 'Worker Albert' was the first manual worker member of government anywhere in the world.
A printworker deported after the defeat of the Commune. Created the Allemanist syndicalist tendency within 1880s French socialism.
Philosopher and Communist from 1948. His structural Marxism strongly influenced Maoist currents in 1968.
Poet, rebel and surrealist, joined the Communist Party in 1927, and fatihfully followed its line into the 1950s. While becoming dissident he remained a PCF member through his last two decades.
French mother of five who became Lenin's mistress in 1909. Chaired the First International Congress of Communist Women in Russia in 1918.
Young Communist and resistance fighter, rescuing her husband from the Gestapo in 1943. Became a major anti-racist campaigner.
Russian revolutionary who became a major theoretician of anarchism and lived in Paris in the mid-1840s.
Supporter of the republican Rights of Man society wounded in the 1839 insurrection and called 'the scourge of the establishment' by Marx
Member of the Romanian Left opposition lived in France from 1936. He founded the Communist Union that became Lutte ouvrière.
A major leader of the Algerian anti-colonial struggle. Jailed at La Santé prison from 1956 to 1962. Became the first president of independent Algeria.
Trotksyist philosopher, founder of the Revolutionary Communist Youth (JCR), active in May 1968 and a leader of the Revolutionary Communist League (LCR).
France's 'national poet' of the 1820s and 1830s his songs led him to prison. They appealed to liberals, republicans, Bonapartists and socialists.
Postman who joined the Young Socialists in 1936. Official of the anti-Communist CGT-Force ouvrière he was its General Secretary from 1964 to 1989.
Influential figure in early French socialism, he was Influenced by utopian communists, but argued the importance of the state. Exiled 1848-1870.
Called 'the imprisoned' after lifelong attempts to overthrow every government from 1830 onwards he was the 19thC's major insurrectionary communist
France's leading 20th century historian, excluded from his Paris post as a Jew before leading the Lyon resistance movement and executed in 1944.
Post office sorting worker he joined Force ouvrière (FO) in 1956. In 1985 became General Secretary with the support of the Trotskyist Parti des Travailleurs.
A major Jewish figure of French socialism, prime minister in 1936 of the Popular Front government, in a concentration camp from 1942 to 1945.
A leading post office trade unionist in the CGT in the 1920s and 1930s, she was also a leader of the French Women's Suffrage League.
Philosopher and sociologist he supported Algerian independence and the French strike wave of 1995
A seamstress, she was one of many women trade unionists who campaigned for women's suffrage after their experiences in the First World War.
Leading anarchist poet and songwriter, of the 1950s and 1960s, encouraged anti-authoritarianism.
Poet, surrealist, he joined the Communist Party in 1927, he co-operator with Trotksy in 1935 and later supported Algerian independence.
A lawyer who was initially close to revolutionary syndicalism and then to Jaurès. Became a government minster 26 times between 1906 and 1932.
Leader of the French Suffrage Union, editor of La Française. She became the third Jewish minister in the 1936 Popular Front government.
Buchez inspired the workers' cooperative movement of the 1840s. In May 1848 he was briefly president of the Assembly.
Utopian socialist and influential propagandist for Babeuf in Paris around 1830
In the 1930s Cesaire moved towards Black nationalism and anti-colonialism. He was elected an overseas deputy in the French National Assembly in 1945.
François worked in the health sector, joined the CFDT in 1978 and was General Secretary from 2002 to 2012.
The leading realist painter of his day,Gustave Courbet was a socialist and republican. After supporting the 1871 Commune he was jailed and exiled.
Communist Minister of Labour and Social Security from 1945 to 1947 responsible for the creation of the French social security and pensions systems


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subset: commoncrawl


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Lebron James is all set for his return to Canada tonight as he takes on the Toronto Raptors at the Scotiabank Arena. When the season ended for the raptors last year at the hands of James, it came to no surprise that the city name was renamed 'Lebronto' by ESPNS Mark Jones. We've compiled a list of his most dominant and memorable performances against the raptors.
5. Raptors 105, Cavaliers 98 | 56 points, 10 rebounds, 5 assists
Just a few months after his 20th birthday James produced the best game of his life and became the youngest player to score 50 points in an NBA. James' individual performance acted as a warning sign for what the Raptors would have in store over the next 14 years.
4. Cavaliers 93, Raptors 90 | 39 points, 11 rebounds, 8 assists
Scoring a layup, a free throw and back-to-back 3-pointers in the first 3 minutes James totalled 24 points in the fourth quarter to drag the Cavaliers through to an important win.
3. Cavaliers 113, Raptors 87 | 33 points, 11 rebounds, 6 assists
In this game Lebron James scored 33 with 11 boards and 3 blocked shots. It was one of many games that cemented his reputation as one of the best in history.
2. Cavaliers 109, Raptors 102 | 35 points, 9 rebounds, 6 assists
Lebron James scored 35 points to cap off a four-game win streak against the Raptors. Effectively sweeping away any hopes they had of ending the season on a high.
1. Cavaliers 128, Raptors 110 | 43 points, 14 assists, 8 rebounds
Once again, the Raptors needed to win the game to square matters with the Cavaliers, but instead, James took centre stage to remind everyone just how good he really is. Scoring 43 points and earning 14 assists it left the city of Toronto sitting in the shadow of the one and only Lebron James
Categories: sport


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- How does social procurement help with fulfilling social responsibility?
- What kind of goods or services can enterprises obtain from social enterprises?
How does social procurement help with fulfilling social responsibility?
A social enterprise, generally speaking, is a business that targets at a specific social mission. It attempts to solve social problems by commercial means. Maximising profit for the shareholders is not its primary target, while its profit will be principally re-invested in the business to create wider social impact. Therefore, social procurement can support a sustainable operation of the social enterprises. Thereby achieving diverse social goals and missions.
What kind of goods or services can enterprises obtain from social enterprises?
According to a survey conducted by our center, over 50% of the interviewees (company/ organization) think social enterprises cannot provide goods or services they need. Therefore, they will not consider social enterprises when it comes to procurement.
In fact, other than gifts services, social enterprise can also provide services like office & building cleaning, moving & relocation, designing & production, packaging, performing, accounting& auditing, and also vocational training and team building. These kinds of services are suitable for different companies.
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New Mercedes-Benz Vito Launch Friday 24th April 2015 at the Ageas Bowl, Southampton
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The Frog Prince
|The Frog Prince
The Frog Prince by Paul Friedrich Meyerheim (1889)
|Folk tale
|The Frog Prince
|Also known as
|The Frog Prince; or, Iron Henry
|Aarne-Thompson grouping
|AT 440 ("The Frog King")
|Published in
|Kinder- und Hausmärchen, by the Brothers Grimm (1812)
"The Frog Prince; or, Iron Henry" (German: Der Froschkönig oder der eiserne Heinrich, literally "The Frog King or the Iron Henry") is a fairy tale, best known through the Brothers Grimm's written version; traditionally it is the first story in their collection.
The story is best known through the Brothers Grimm' rendition. The Grimm Brothers included it in their 1812 edition of Kinder- und Hausmärchen, but there is an older moralistic version in the Grimms' handwritten Ölenberg Manuscript from 1810. Jack Zipes noted in 2016 that the Grimms greatly treasured this tale, considering it to be one of the "oldest and most beautiful in German-speaking regions."[1] It has been postulated that parts may extend back until at least Roman times; an aspect of the story is referred to in Petronius's Satyricon, in which the character Trimalchio remarks that, "qui fuit rana nunc est rex" ("The man who was once a frog is now a king.").[2] Other scholars, however, argue that this may actually be a jab at the emperor Nero, who was often mockingly compared to a frog.[3] Folkorist Stith Thompson suggests that the story of the Frog King in the German tradition began with a 13th century literary tale written in Latin.[4]
In the tale, a spoiled princess reluctantly befriends the Frog Prince, whom she met after dropping a gold ball into a pond, and he retrieves it for her in exchange for her friendship. The Frog Prince magically transforms into a handsome prince. In the original Grimm version of the story, the frog's spell was broken when the princess threw it against the wall, while in modern versions the transformation is triggered by the princess kissing the frog.[5]
In other early versions, it was sufficient for the frog to spend the night on the princess' pillow.[6]
The frog prince also has a loyal servant named Henry (or Harry) who had three iron bands affixed around his heart to prevent it from breaking in his sadness over his master's curse. When the frog prince transforms into his human form Henry's overwhelming happiness causes all three bands to break, freeing his heart from its bonds.[7]
It is Aarne–Thompson type 440.[8] Other folktales similar to the Frog Prince are:[9]
- "The Frog Prince". The first English translation of the above tale. Edgar Taylor, the translator, not only changed the title, but altered the ending in a substantial and interesting manner.[10]
- "The Wonderful Frog" (W. Henry Jones and Lewis L. Kropf, Hungary).[11]
- "The Tale of the Queen Who Sought a Drink From a Certain Well" (J. F. Campbell, Scotland).
- The Hare's Bride.
- "The Well of the World's End"
- "The Paddo" (Robert Chambers, Scotland).
- "The Maiden and the Frog" (James Orchard Halliwell-Phillipps, England).
- "The Kind Stepdaughter and the Frog" (W. Henry Jones and Lewis L. Kropf, England).
- "The Frog Prince" (H. Parker, Sri Lanka).
- "A Frog for a Husband" (William Elliot Griffis, Korea).
- "The Toad Bridegroom" (Zong In-Sob, Korea).
- In Puddocky (old word for toad), another German folk tale, and likewise "Tsarevna Lyagushka" (The Frog Princess), a Russian folk tale the male and female roles of the frog prince are reversed. Prince Ivan Tsarevitch discovers the enchanted female frog, who becomes Vasilisa the Wise, a sorceress.
A possible parallel in Antiquity may be found in the story of Danaid Amymone, who went to fetch water in a jug, because of a drought season created by the gods. A satyr tried to force himself on her, but maritime deity Poseidon rescued her. It has been suggested that the amphibian suitor and the handsome prince may have been separate characters at first.[12]
In a Latvian tale, Little White Dog, a girl is tasked with getting water from a well without wetting the bucket. A little white dog appears and promises to help her if she accepts him as her bridegroom.[13]
Cultural legacy[edit]
- The Frog (1908), directed by Segundo de Chomón, is the first film adaptation of "The Frog Prince".[14]
- Stevie Smith's poem "The Frog Prince" (1966) suggests the thoughts of the prince as he waits for disenchantment.[15]
- The Frog Prince was a 1971 film starring Kermit the Frog, Trudy Young and Gordon Thomson.
- Anne Sexton wrote an adaptation as a poem called "The Frog Prince" in her collection Transformations (1971), a book in which she re-envisions sixteen of the Grimms' fairy tales.[16]
- Robin McKinley's 1981 collection of short stories The Door in the Hedge contains a version of the tale, entitled "The Princess and the Frog".
- "The Tale of the Frog Prince" was the first story presented by Shelley Duvall's Faerie Tale Theatre in 1982, with Robin Williams as the witty Frog Prince and Teri Garr as the vain princess.
- The Frog Prince is a 1986 film starring John Paragon and Aileen Quinn.
- "The Frog Prince" was one of the fairy tales featured in Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics in its Grimm Masterpiece Theater season (1987).
- Linda Medley's graphic novel Castle Waiting from 1996 contains a character named Iron Henry or Iron Heinrich, who has 3 iron bands around his heart to repair the heartbreak he suffered when his son died of a fearful curse.
- In the second episode of Adventures from the Book of Virtues (1996), Plato the Bison and Annie try to convince their friend Zach to tell his father the truth by telling him three stories, including one about "The Frog Prince." In this version, the title character was transformed into a frog for lying to a witch and breaking his promise. He is voiced by Jeff Bennett while the princess is voiced by Paige O'Hara.
- Prince Charming is a 2001 film adaptation of the fairy tale, starring Martin Short, Christina Applegate and Sean Maguire as the title character. The prince is cursed to remain a frog until a maiden breaks his spell, giving him extreme longevity and allowing for the modern setting of the film.
- In Shrek 2, Fiona's father King Harold is secretly the frog prince. However, unlike the fairy tale where the princess meets him as a frog and her actions make him human, he becomes human through a deal with the Fairy Godmother.
- A musical version of The Frog Prince, written by Dieter Stegmann and Alexander S. Bermange, was presented at the Amphitheater Park Schloss Philippsruhe in Hanau, Germany as part of the Brothers Grimm Festival in 2005.[citation needed]
- A chamber opera for children based upon The Frog Prince, written by Jacob A. Greenberg for Brown Opera Productions and the Providence Athenaeum, was performed in 2008.[17]
- The tale was adapted for German television as one of the episodes of fairy tale series Sechs auf einen Streichen ("Six at one Blow"), in the 2008 season.
- The Princess and the Frog, a 2009 Disney animated film, is loosely based on the 2002 novel The Frog Princess by E. D. Baker. The film starred Anika Noni Rose and Bruno Campos and was directed by Ron Clements and John Musker. The Frog Prince story itself is mentioned several times in the film, being read to Princess Tiana as a child and inspiring the spoiled Prince Naveen (who has been transformed into a frog) to suggest Tiana kiss him to break his spell. However, the kiss fails, turning her into a frog as well.
- Hidden object game series Dark Parables used the tale as basis for its second installment (The Exiled Prince).
- Robert Coover wrote a "reimagined" version of the tale for The New Yorker in 2014.[18]
- The Children's Theatre of Cincinnati's Script Development Division adapted the one-act musical "Princess & Frog" in 2020. The stage musical is adapted from the full-length musical "Croaker" written by Jason Marks and Debra Clinton.
See also[edit]
- The Frog Princess
- The Princess and the Frog
- Puddocky
- The Three Feathers (the female frog as the bride)
- The Frog Princess, a novel by E. D. Baker
- Henry F. Urban, author of the play Der Froschkönig
- The Prince of the Pond, Jimmy the Pickpocket of the Palace, Gracie the Pixie of the Puddle, a trilogy by Donna Jo Napoli
- ^ Zipes, Jack. (2016). The Original Folk and Fairy Tales of the Brothers Grimm: The complete first edition. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 479. ISBN 978-0691173221.
- ^ Anderson, Graham (2002). Fairytale in the ancient world. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-23702-4. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ^ Brenck, Frederick A. (1998). Relighting the Souls: Studies in Plutarch, in Greek Literature, Religion, and Philosophy and in the New Testament Background. Stuttgart, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag Stuttgart. p. 134. ISBN 3-515-07158-X. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
- ^ Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. University of California Press. 1977. pp. 101-102, 179. ISBN 0-520-03537-2
- ^ Heidi Anne Heiner,"The Annotated Frog King"
- ^ Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. University of California Press. 1977. p. 102. ISBN 0-520-03537-2
- ^ Lily Owens, ed. (1981). The Complete Brothers Grimm Fairy Tales. p.3. Avenel Books. ISBN 0-517-336316
- ^ D. L. Ashliman, "Frog Kings: folktales of Aarne–Thompson–Uther type 440 about slimy suitors"
- ^ Clouston, W. A. "The Story of "The Frog Prince": Breton Variant, and Some Analogues." Folklore 1, no. 4 (1890): 493-506. www.jstor.org/stable/1253634.
- ^ Works related to The Frog Prince at Wikisource
- ^ Works related to The Wonderful Frog at Wikisource
- ^ Anderson, Graham. Fairytale in the Ancient World. Routledge. 2000. pp. 176-178. ISBN 0-203-18007-0
- ^ Olcott, Frances Jenkins. Wonder tales from Baltic wizards: from the German and English. London, New York: Longman, Green and Co. 1928. pp. 154-158.
- ^ The Frog on IMDb
- ^ From her collection The Frog Prince and Other Poems, 1966 – also appears in Stevie Smith: A Selection, 1983.
- ^ "Transformations by Anne Sexton"
- ^ Events at Brown University (2008), Rhode Island State Council on the Arts. Accessed March 26, 2017.
- ^ The Frog Prince by Robert Coover
Further reading[edit]
- Dench, Geoff (1994). The Frog, the Prince & the Problem of Men. Neanderthal Books. ISBN 978-0-9523529-0-7.
- Livo, Norma J. "Variations on a Theme: Frogs." Language Arts 53, no. 2 (1976): 193-212. www.jstor.org/stable/41404128.
- Massey, Irving. "The Effortless in Art and Ethics: Meditations on "The Frog King, or Iron Henry"." The Georgia Review 37, no. 3 (1983): 640-58. www.jstor.org/stable/41398572.
- Ostmeier, Dorothee (2014). "Frogs and Salamanders as Agents of Romanticisms". MLN. 129 (3): 670–687. doi:10.1353/mln.2014.0049. ISSN 0026-7910. JSTOR 24463546.
- PETTMAN, DOMINIC. "THE ANIMAL BRIDE AND HORNY TOADS." In Creaturely Love: How Desire Makes Us More and Less Than Human, 66-72. Minneapolis; London: University of Minnesota Press, 2017. www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.ctt1n2ttdv.15.
- Siegel, David M.; McDaniel, Susan H. (1991). "The Frog Prince: Tale and toxicology". American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 61 (4): 558–562. doi:10.1037/h0079283. ISSN 1939-0025. PMID 1746631.
- Wolfgang Mieder (2014). ""You Have to Kiss a Lot of Frogs (Toads) Before You Meet Your Handsome Prince": From Fairy-Tale Motif to Modern Proverb". Marvels & Tales. 28 (1): 104–126. doi:10.13110/marvelstales.28.1.0104. JSTOR 10.13110/marvelstales.28.1.0104.
- Zipes, Jack (2008). "What Makes a Repulsive Frog so Appealing: Memetics and Fairy Tales". Journal of Folklore Research. 45 (2): 109–143. doi:10.2979/JFR.2008.45.2.109. ISSN 0737-7037. JSTOR 40206971.
External links[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Frog Prince.
|Wikisource has original text related to this article:
- Nice English version
- Fairyland Illustrated Frog Prince
- SurLaLune Fairy Tale Pages: The Annotated Frog King
- Frog Kings: Folktales about Slimy Suitorss
- Elizabeth Barrette, "Frog Prince" (e-text)
- "Frog Prince 1978 Russian Cartoon"[permanent dead link]
- Archived audio recording of The Frog Prince, recorded as part of an ArtsSmarts educational project
- Frogprince.ca, presents the Frog Prince for kids
- Auburn and the Frog Prince Storyboard Video


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This is Åsa (pronounced Osa), from Sweden, although for me, Argentinian Latina at heart. She lived for years in Argentina and the first time I heard her speak I simply thought she was from there. To put it simply, she's crazy, and when she realized we had a week of Fall Break in October, she told me we should hitchhike to Romania.
The idea of hitchiking in Europe had always been in my mind, but I always thought it was something that I'd do in a veeeery long time, and very hesitantly.
The day came closer, and when I told my mom I would do it, she said, "Okay, I don't give you permission to do it, but ask Mae (my wise stepdad)" He told me it was simply an unnecessary risk, but he didn't want to control me from afar, because now we live thousands of kilometers away.
Over many talks we finally decided we'd go to Budapest and then see where life would take us.
And so the day came. I met Åsa at Altglienicke, a place in Berlin where the road leads to the highway where there's no speed limit :O. It was a cold fall morning that seemed more like winter. And then we stood at the highway for around 40 minutes with our fingers raised for someone to take us closer to Budapest.
Our first ride was a nice guy with his two little German daughters. He was on his way to Dresden to leave them with their Opa and Oma for vacations. It was an enjoyable ride, they didn't speak much english so I was happy to get the opportunity to practice my German :D. He left us at a gas station close to Dresden and we were lucky enough to get a ride to somewhere close to Prague in less than one minute. This time, it was two Czech girls who spoke like 10 words of English, but were really nice and told us they were heading to the Czech mountains for some days of hiking. They left us in a McDonalds and gas station stop, where we had to wait for around 2 hours to finally get a ride. This time it was a Slovakian Economics teacher who was in Berlin for the weekend at a coin show, because he was a coin collector, his name was Branislav. We talked the whole way until we finally made it to a gas station at the end of Bratislava.
On the road
Coming from Chile, the long country, where you can ride your car for 20 hours and still be in the same country, these rides kept amazing me. It's so weird that in Europe you can be in another country in a matter of minutes, by land. Also, language changes as soon as you switch countries.
It was already dark, but luck kept accompanying us. We were at that stop for around 30 minutes, till we found two cool women from Budapest who had gone to Prague for the weekend to celebrate one of their 40th birthdays. Although language was also a barrier, we shared some nice conversations, listened to awesome lit music like Madonna (when you call my name it's like a little prayer), and gave us chocolate and cookies until we had a chocolate coma HAHA.
As we crossed the bridge over the Danube river and gazed at the beautifully illuminated city we were left speechless, and realized we had made it to Budapest. There, we did couchsurfing for a couple of nights.
Our couchsurfer's apartment
And our breakfast
Unfortunately, the weather was sooo bad that it didn't let us witness the magic of Budapest at day, but we met up with our friend Mila, and had fun hiking up a small hill at the Buda side.
I must say, the biggest highlight of Budapest was the food
Cheese Soup
Nutella Langosh
After 3 days, it was time for us to get on the road again. We decided to go to Belgrade, just because we could. We took a bus to a small petrol station at the outsides of the south of Budapest. After 2 hours without any luck, we decided to just go to Prague, thinking it'd be easier, but just as we made that decision, we found a ride to go to Belgrade :D. This time it was two businessmen who gave us the best compliment: "you guys look so free"
We made it to Belgrade when it was already dark, and since it was a last minute plan to go there we didn't know where we'd sleep. Thankfully, we saw a Marriot Hotel (I think) close to the highway and made our way there to get some internet and try to find a couchsurfing host. This time we weren't lucky, so we just booked a 6 euro hostel where Åsa thought she got bed bugs.
Going to Belgrade after being in the European Union for so long, specifically Germany, a very developed country, was at first a shock for me. Specially because we got there at night and walked through places with people sleeping in the streets, and through deserted streets, I thought Belgrade was an abandoned, unhappy place. But, I was proved the opposite the next day, when we met our friend Marta,
who showed us the beauty of the city as she walked us through the fortress. (More photos at the gallery)
Åsa had worked at a hostel in Turkey, and when she put a picture on Facebook showing that she was in Belgrade, her ex boss texted her saying we should go to the hostel where he was staying, Akrabarka, a floating hostel in the Sava river. For 12 euros we got a room in the best hostel ever with breakfast, dinner, and an open-bar included!!!
Our terrace
Morning views
It was really cool because Åsa's ex boss was there for a meeting with owners of the best hostels in Europe. So, the hostel was full of really interesting, successful hostel owners, and we arrived on the night of their good-bye party!
Our last night we couchsurfed at a crazy musicians house, and went to eat dinner while we discussed the magic of not being normal.
Belgrade was an extremely interesting city, full of history. At the 6 euro hostel, we met a Serbian woman who told us her experience during the Yugoslavian war. You learn so much from talking to locals of the city you visit while traveling. The two most interesting topics for me there were, the Yugoslavia war and the many Syrian refugees that came to Serbia as a last stop before entering the European Union. (Too much to write in this post)
Then, it was time to leave Belgrade and head back to Berlin
Our way back was a whole other story, but in summary, after around 15 cars, hours of walking, and amazing people, we made it home :D. (It's funny because after just 6 days being away from Berlin, I had already began to miss it.)
We passed by Bratislava on our way back, to meet Branislav again (the guy who took us to Bratislava on our way to Budapest), who had invited us to have lunch at his house on our way back to Berlin.
This was just a small portion of all the super-mega-delicious food he gave us: duck, dumpling, and purple cabbage.
Literature accompanies you through the different phases of your life, you interpret it the way you must in order to understand yourself in a precise moment. Like literature, travelling helps me understand myself better, realize what I want to do, and find my track again. When I travel, I happen to meet the right people or happen to live the right moments to help me refocus and rediscover myself. This trip happened to be incredible because everything was unexpected, and with Åsa we were open to any opportunities.
and of course, it was even better because I travelled with one of the best travel-companions!
- Hitchiking at gas stations is safer than just standing in the road, because you actually get to talk to the people you ask to take you beforehand.
- Trusting your instinct is vital.


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For some celebrity couples reality TV can make or break the relationship.
We've witnessed relationship train wrecks from Linda and Hulk Hogan to Kate and Jon Gosselin, Whitney Houston and Bobby Brown, and Britney Spears and K-Fed. Even the "Bachelor's" Emily Maynard and Brad Womack didn't make it to the altar.
So who does it really work out for?
"E! News" anchor Giuliana Rancic and her husband, the original "Apprentice" winner Bill Rancic insist that having a reality TV show, 영덕출장마사지 while not always easy, has only made their relationship better.
"It's been great for our marriage," Giuliana tells CBSNews.com.
The celebrity couple, who launched the fourth season of "Giuliana & Bill" on the Style network on July 18, say that despite the bad reputation that reality TV gets, their show represents a healthy and successful marriage. Hard to come by these days!
What can fans expect this season? After spending a majority of their time in transit Giuliana and Bill decide to settle down together in L.A. where Giuliana continues to thrive as a co-host of "Fashion Police" and "E! Live from the Red Carpet" while Bill continues to travel for his speaking engagements.
"I'm a Chicago guy, things are different out here," he points out. "The things you do for love."
After a tumultuous year of trying to conceive, Giuliana and Bill decide to take a break from IVF treatments to focus on their relationship, have a "year of fun," as Bill says, and embark on a trip to Giuliana's native Naples, Italy.
But even while overseas they can't shake the idea of having a child. While in Naples they explore the possibility of adopting a child.


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Waste Free Wednesday
Well done Junior School on being so amazing at bringing nude fruits and veggies for Crunch and Sip every Wednesday.
Our next goal is to make recess and lunch as waste free as possible. In Year 2 this week we have been discussing how we can reduce the packaging of recess foods. We have been using reusable containers to put fruit, chips or snacks in.
Also, if you have 10c recycleable signs on your plastic bottles or cans at home and you would like to send them to school, our Blue Vinnies recycle bins will not only help Vinnies but PCS too!
Allison Pena & Penny Gabin
Year 2 Teachers


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Time to thin fruit trees
Look under your fruit trees. You might see dozens of tiny fruit on the ground. Don't worry; it's the June drop. Since trees often set more fruit than they can support, each June they shed an abundance of underdeveloped fruit. This natural thinning lessens competition for nutrients and allows the fruit most likely to thrive to remain on the tree. This year, because of the strong frequent winds, it seems as if there are a lot more fruit on the ground than previous years. Don't despair. Nature is doing some of your thinning work for you.
However, even after the June drop and help from the wind, you will want do additional thinning. You can of course not thin your fruit trees, but the resulting small, although abundant, fruit you do get probably won't make you happy. Who prefers a puny little apple over a big ripe juicy one? Or, tiny peaches that are more skin than flesh? In order to have luscious big fruit, thinning is required. It is also advised in order to keep a tree healthy and strong and prevent limb breakage that can occur when a branch is overloaded.
Thin peaches, apricots, nectarines, plums (stone fruits), apples, European and Asian pears (pome fruits) immediately, for the thinning window is rapidly closing. Bartlett pears are often self-thinning. Cherries do not need thinning. If you thin too late after bloom, fruit size may not increase. Apricots and plums are thinned to 2-4 inches apart on a branch. Peaches and nectarines should be 3-5 inches apart. Apples and pears often have a cluster of fruit at each bud and need to be thinned to retain the largest fruit of the cluster. Space the clusters no less than 6-8 inches apart. The goal is to avoid fruit touching at maturity. Remove more fruit at the terminal end of the branch than from the inner branch area to reduce branch weight. In the past, I haven't thinned enough and have had to build branch supports, which is not optimal. Remove any disfigured or damaged fruit.
Twist fruit off instead of pulling it. Or, use pruners to clip the fruit off. Be sure to throw all thinned fruit into the trash to avoid codling moths, other insects or diseases from infecting remaining fruit. Good cleanliness practices now will save headaches later.
JoAnne Skelly is Associate Professor & Extension Educator, Emerita, University of Nevada Cooperative Extension. She can be reached at email@example.com.


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One reason why the case for and against major, comprehensive philosophies are mostly cumulative is because of discontent in what is often called foundationalism. In one classical form of foundationalism, one secures first and foremost a basis of beliefs which one may see to be true with certainty. The base may be cast as indubitable or infallible. One then slowly builds up the justification for one's other, more extensive beliefs about oneself and the world. Many (but not all) philosophers now see justification as more complex and interwoven; the proper object of philosophical inquiry is overall coherence, not a series of distinguishable building operations beginning with a foundation.
One way of carrying out philosophy of religion along non-foundationalist lines has been to build a case for the comparative rationality of a religious view of the world. It has been argued that the intellectual integrity of a religious world view can be secured if it can be shown to be no less rational than the available alternatives. It need only achieve intellectual parity. John Hick and others emphasize the integrity of religious ways of seeing the world that are holistic, internally coherent, and open to criticism along various external lines (see Hick 2004, 2006). On the latter front, if a religious way of conceiving the world is at complete odds with contemporary science, that would count as grounds for revising the religious outlook. The case for religion need not, however, be scientific or even analogous to science. If Hick is right, religious ways of seeing the world are not incompatible with science, but complementary. Independent of Hick but in the same spirit, Plantinga has proposed that belief in God's existence may be taken as properly basic and fully warranted without having to be justified in relation to standard arguments for God from design, miracles, and so on. Plantinga argues that the tendency to believe in God follows natural tendencies of the human mind. This stance comprises what is commonly referred to as Reformed Epistemology because of its connection to the work of the Reformed theologian John Calvin (1509–1564) who maintained that we have a sense of God (sensus divinitatis) leading us to see God in the world around us. Plantinga has thereby couched the question of justification within the larger arena of metaphysics. By advancing an intricate, comprehensive picture of how beliefs can be warranted when they function as God designed them, he has provided what some believe to be a combined metaphysical and epistemic case for the rationality of religious convictions (see Beilby (ed.) 2002).
Who has the burden of proof in a debate between a theist and an atheist? Antony Flew (1984) thinks it is the theist. By his lights, the theist and atheist can agree on a whole base line of truths (such as the findings of the physical sciences). The question then becomes, Why go any further? Flew wields a version of Ockham's razor, arguing that if one has no reason to go further, one has reason not to go further. (As it happens, Flew has subsequently claimed that there are good reasons for going beyond the natural world, and he is currently a theist; see Flew 2008.) His challenge has been met on various fronts, with some critics claiming that Flew's burden of proof argument is wedded to an outmoded foundationalism, that any burden of proof is shared equally by atheists and theists, or that the theist has an array of arguments to help shoulder a greater burden of proof. The position of fideism is a further option. Fideism is the view that religious belief does not require evidence and that religious faith is self-vindicating. Karl Barth (1886–1968) advocated a fideistic philosophy. (For a critical assessment of fideism, see Moser 2010, chapter 2.) Hick and Plantinga need not be considered fideists because of the high role each gives to experience, coherence, and reflection.
To sketch some of the main lines of argument in this literature, consider the ontological, cosmological, and teleological arguments, arguments from the problem of evil, and the argument over the cognitive status of religious experience.
4.2.1 Ontological arguments
There is a host of arguments under this title; all of them are based principally on conceptual, a priori grounds which do not involve a posteriori empirical investigation. If a version of the argument works, then it can be deployed using only the concept of God and some modal principles of inference, that is, principles concerning possibility and necessity. The argument need not resist all empirical support, however, as I shall indicate.
The focus of the argument is the thesis that, if there is a God, then God's existence is necessary. God's existence is not contingent—God is not the sort of being that just happens to exist. That this is a plausible picture of what is meant by God may be shown by appealing to the way God is conceived in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions. This would involve some a posteriori, empirical research into the way God is thought of in these traditions. Alternatively, a defender of the ontological argument might hope to convince others that the concept of God is the concept of a being that exists necessarily by beginning with the idea of a maximally excellent being. If there were a maximally excellent being what would it be like? It has been argued that among its array of great-making qualities (omniscience and omnipotence) would be necessary existence. Once fully articulated, it can be argued that a maximally excellent being which existed necessarily could be called "God."
The ontological argument goes back to St. Anselm (1033/34–1109), but I shall explore a current version relying heavily on the principle that if something is possibly necessarily the case, then it is necessarily the case (or, to put it redundantly, it is necessarily necessary). The principle can be illustrated in the case of propositions. That six is the smallest perfect number (that number which is equal to the sum of its divisors including one but not including itself) does not seem to be the sort of thing that might just happen to be true. Rather, either it is necessarily true or necessarily false. If the latter, it is not possible, if the former, it is possible. If one knows that it is possible that six is the smallest perfect number then one has good reason to believe that. Do we have reason to think it is possible that God exists necessarily? In support of this, one can also appeal to a posteriori matters, noting the extant religious traditions that uphold such a notion. The fact that the concept of God as a necessarily existing reality seems to be coherently conceived widely across time and cultures is some evidence that the concept is coherent (it is possible there is a God), for God's existence has plausibility, thus can also contribute to believing it is possible God exists. There is an old philosophical precept that from the fact that something exists, it follows that it is possible (ab esse ad posse valet consequentia). A related principle is that evidence that something exists is evidence that it is possible that such a thing exists. There does not appear to be anything amiss in their thinking of God as necessarily existing; if the belief that God exists is incoherent this is not obvious. Indeed, a number of atheists think God might exist, but conclude God does not. If we are successful in establishing the possibility that God necessarily exists, the conclusion follows that it is necessarily the case that God exists.
There have been hundreds of objections and replies to this argument. Perhaps the most ambitious objection is that the argument can be used with one minor alteration to argue that God cannot exist. Assume all the argument above is correct, but also that it is possible that God does not exist. Atheists can point out that many theists who believe there is a God at least allow for the bare possibility that they could be wrong and there is no God. If it is possible that there is no God, then it would necessarily follow that there is no God. Replies to this objection emphasize the difficulty of conceiving of the non-existence of God. The battle over whether God is necessary or impossible is often fought over the coherence of the various divine attributes discussed in section 3. If you think these attributes are compossible, involve no contradictions, and violate no known metaphysical truths, then you may well have good grounds for concluding that God is possible and therefore necessary. However, if you see a contradiction, say, in describing a being who is at once omniscient and omnipotent, you may well have good grounds for concluding that God's existence is impossible.
Another objection is that it makes no sense to think of a being existing necessarily; propositions may be necessarily true or false, but objects cannot be necessary or contingent. Some philosophers reply that it makes no less sense to think of an individual (God) existing necessarily than it does to think of propositions being necessarily true.
A further objection is that the ontological argument cannot get off the ground because of the question-begging nature of its premise that if there is a God, then God exists necessarily. Does admitting this premise concede that there is some individual thing such that if it exists, it exists necessarily? Replies have claimed that the argument only requires one to consider an ostensible state of affairs, without having to concede initially whether the state of affairs is possible or impossible. To consider what is involved in positing the existence of God is no more hazardous than considering what is involved in positing the existence of unicorns. One can entertain the existence of unicorns and their necessary features (that necessarily if there were unicorns, there would exist single-horned beasts) without believing that there are unicorns.
Finally, consider the objection that, if successful in providing reasons to believe that God exists, the ontological argument could be used to establish the existence of a whole array of other items, like perfect islands. Replies to this sort of objection have typically questioned whether it makes sense to think of an island (a physical thing) as existing necessarily or as having maximal excellence on a par with God. Does the imagined island have excellences like omniscience, omnipotence (a power which would include the power to make indefinitely many islands), and so on?
Classical, alternative versions of the ontological argument are propounded by Anselm, Spinoza, and Descartes, with current versions by Alvin Plantinga, Charles Hartshorne, Norman Malcolm, and C. Dore; classical critics include Gaunilo and Kant, and current critics are many, including William Rowe, J. Barnes, G. Oppy, and J. L. Mackie. The latest book-length treatment of the ontological argument is a vigorous defense: Rethinking the Ontological Argument by Daniel Dombrowski (2006).
The cosmological argument relies on the intelligibility of the notion of something which is not itself caused to exist by anything else. This could be either the all-out necessity of supreme pre-eminence across all possible worlds used in versions of the ontological argument, or a more local, limited notion of a being that is uncaused in the actual world. If successful, the argument would provide reason for thinking there is at least one such being of extraordinary power responsible for the existence of the cosmos. At best, it may not justify a full picture of the God of religion (a First Cause would be powerful, but not necessarily omnipotent), but it would nonetheless challenge naturalistic alternatives and bring one closer to theism.
Both versions of the argument ask us to consider the cosmos in its present state. Is the world as we know it something that necessarily exists? At least with respect to ourselves, the planet, the solar system and the galaxy, it appears not. With respect to these items in the cosmos, it makes sense to ask why they exist rather than not. In relation to scientific accounts of the natural world, such enquiries into causes make abundant sense and are perhaps even essential presuppositions of the natural sciences. Some proponents of the argument contend that we know a priori that if something exists there is a reason for its existence. So, why does the cosmos exist? If we explain the contingent existence of the cosmos (or states of the cosmos) only in terms of other contingent things (earlier states of the cosmos, say), then a full cosmic explanation will never be attained. At this point the two versions of the argument divide.
Arguments to a First Cause in time contend that a continuous temporal regress from one contingent existence to another would never account for the existence of the cosmos, and they conclude that it is more reasonable to accept there was a First Cause than to accept either a regress or the claim that the cosmos just came into being from nothing. Arguments to a sustaining cause of the cosmos claim that explanations of why something exists now cannot be adequate without assuming a present, contemporaneous sustaining cause. The arguments have been based on the denial of all actual infinities or on the acceptance of some infinities (for instance, the coherence of supposing there to be infinitely many stars) combined with the rejection of an infinite regress of explanations solely involving contingent states of affairs. The latter has been described as a vicious regress as opposed to one that is benign. There are plausible examples of vicious infinite regresses that do not generate explanations: for instance, imagine that I explain my possession of a book by reporting that I got it from A who got it from B, and so on to infinity. This would not explain how I got the book. Alternatively, imagine a mirror with light reflected in it. Would the presence of light be successfully explained if one claimed that the light was a reflection of light from another mirror, and the light in that mirror came from yet another mirror, and so on to infinity? Consider a final case. You come across a word you do not understand; let it be "ongggt". You ask its meaning and are given another word which is unintelligible to you, and so on, forming an infinite regress. Would you ever know the meaning of the first term? The force of these cases is to show how similar they are to the regress of contingent explanations.
Versions of the argument that reject all actual infinities face the embarrassment of explaining what is to be made of the First Cause, especially since it might have some features that are actually infinite. In reply, Craig and others have contended that they have no objection to potential infinities (although the First Cause will never cease to be, it will never become an actual infinity). They further accept that prior to the creation, the First Cause was not in time, a position relying on the theory that time is relational rather than absolute. The current scientific popularity of the relational view may offer support to defenders of the argument.
It has been objected that both versions of the cosmological argument set out an inflated picture of what explanations are reasonable. Why should the cosmos as a whole need an explanation? If everything in the cosmos can be explained, albeit through infinite, regressive accounts, what is left to explain? One may reply either by denying that infinite regresses actually do satisfactorily explain, or by charging that the failure to seek an explanation for the whole is arbitrary. The question, "Why is there a cosmos?" seems a perfectly intelligible one. If there are accounts for things in the cosmos, why not for the whole? The argument is not built on the fallacy of treating every whole as having all the properties of its parts. But if everything in the cosmos is contingent, it seems just as reasonable to believe that the whole cosmos is contingent as it is to believe that if everything in the cosmos were invisible, the cosmos as a whole would be invisible.
Another objection is that rather than explaining the contingent cosmos, the cosmological argument introduces a mysterious entity of which we can make very little philosophical or scientific sense. How can positing at least one First Cause provide a better account of the cosmos than simply concluding that the cosmos lacks an ultimate account? In the end, the theist seems bound to admit that why the First Cause created at all was a contingent matter. If, on the contrary, the theist has to claim that the First Cause had to do what it did, would not the cosmos be necessary rather than contingent?
Some theists come close to concluding that it was indeed essential that God created the cosmos. If God is supremely good, there had to be some overflowing of goodness in the form of a cosmos (see Kretzmann and Stump in Morris 1987, on the ideas of Dionysius the Areopagite; see Rowe 2004 for arguments that God is not free). But theists typically reserve some role for the freedom of God and thus seek to retain the idea that the cosmos is contingent. Defenders of the cosmological argument still contend that its account of the cosmos has a comprehensive simplicity lacking in alternative views. God's choices may be contingent, but not God's existence and the Divine choice of creating the cosmos can be understood to be profoundly simple in its supreme, overriding endeavor, namely to create something good. Swinburne has argued that accounting for natural laws in terms of God's will provides for a simple, overarching framework within which to comprehend the order and purposive character of the cosmos (see also Foster 2004). At this point we move from the cosmological to the teleological arguments.
Defenders of the cosmological argument include Swinburne, Richard Taylor, Hugo Meynell, Timothy O'Connor, Bruce Reichenbach, Robert Koons, and William Rowe; prominent opponents include Antony Flew, Michael Martin, Howard Sobel, Nicholas Everitt, and J. L Mackie.
4.2.3 Teleological arguments
These arguments focus on characteristics of the cosmos that seem to reflect the design or intentionality of God or, more modestly, of one or more powerful, intelligent God-like agents. Part of the argument may be formulated as providing evidence that the cosmos is the sort of reality that would be produced by an intelligent being, and then arguing that positing this source is more reasonable than agnosticism or denying it. As in the case of the cosmological argument, the defender of the teleological argument may want to claim only to be giving us some reason for thinking there is a God. Note the way the various arguments might then be brought to bear on each other. If successful, the teleological argument may provide some reason for thinking that the First Cause of the cosmological argument is purposive, while the ontological argument provides some reason for thinking that it makes sense to posit a being that has Divine attributes and necessarily exists. Behind all of them an argument from religious experience may provide some initial reasons to seek further support for a religious conception of the cosmos and to question the adequacy of naturalism.
One version of the teleological argument will depend on the intelligibility of purposive explanation. In our own human case it appears that intentional, purposive explanations are legitimate and can truly account for the nature and occurrence of events. In thinking about an explanation for the ultimate character of the cosmos, is it more likely for the cosmos to be accounted for in terms of a powerful, intelligent agent or in terms of a naturalistic scheme of final laws with no intelligence behind them? Theists employing the teleological argument will draw attention to the order and stability of the cosmos, the emergence of vegetative and animal life, the existence of consciousness, morality, rational agents and the like, in an effort to identify what might plausibly be seen as purposively explicable features of the cosmos. Naturalistic explanations, whether in biology or physics, are then cast as being comparatively local in application when held up against the broader schema of a theistic metaphysics. Darwinian accounts of biological evolution will not necessarily assist us in thinking through why there are either any such laws or any organisms to begin with. Arguments supporting and opposing the teleological argument will then resemble arguments about the cosmological argument, with the negative side contending that there is no need to move beyond a naturalistic account, and the positive side aiming to establish that failing to go beyond naturalism is unreasonable.
In assessing the teleological argument, we can begin with the objection from uniqueness. We cannot compare our cosmos with others to determine which have been designed and which have not. If we could, then we might be able to find support for the argument. If we could compare our cosmos with those we knew to be designed and if the comparison were closer than with those we knew not to be designed, then the argument might be plausible. Without such comparisons, however, the argument fails. Replies to this line of attack have contended that were we to insist that inferences in unique cases were out of order, then we would have to rule out otherwise perfectly respectable scientific accounts of the origin of the cosmos. Besides, while it is not possible to compare the layout of different cosmic histories, it is in principle possible to envisage worlds that seem chaotic, random, or based on laws that cripple the emergence of life. Now we can envisage an intelligent being creating such worlds, but, through considering their features, we can articulate some marks of purposive design to help us judge whether the cosmos was designed rather than created at random. Some critics appeal to the possibility that the cosmos has an infinite history to bolster and re-introduce the uniqueness objection. Given infinite time and chance, it seems likely that something like our world will come into existence, with all its appearance of design. If so, why should we take it to be so shocking that our world has its apparent design, and why should explaining the world require positing one or more intelligent designers? Replies repeat the earlier move of insisting that if the objection were to be decisive, then many seemingly respectable accounts would also have to fall by the wayside. It is often conceded that the teleological argument does not demonstrate that one or more designers are required; it seeks rather to establish that positing such purposive intelligence is reasonable and preferable to naturalism. Recent defenders of the argument this century include George Schlesinger, Robin Collins, and Richard Swinburne. It is rejected by J. L. Mackie, Michael Martin, Nicholas Everitt, and others.
One feature of the teleological argument currently receiving increased attention focuses on epistemology. It has been contended that if we do rely on our cognitive faculties, it is reasonable to believe that these are not brought about by naturalistic forces—forces that are entirely driven by chance or are the outcome of processes not formed by an overriding intelligence. An illustration may help to understand the argument. Imagine coming across what appears to be a sign reporting some information about your current altitude (some rocks in a configuration giving you your current location and precise height above sea-level in meters). If you had reason to believe that this "sign" was totally the result of chance configurations, would it still be reasonable to trust it? Some theists argue that it would not be reasonable, and that trusting our cognitive faculties requires us to accept that they were formed by an overarching, good, creative agent. This rekindles Descartes' point about relying on the goodness of God to ensure that our cognitive faculties are in good working order. Objections to this argument center on naturalistic explanations, especially those friendly to evolution. In evolutionary epistemology, one tries to account for the reliability of cognitive faculties in terms of trial and error leading to survival. A rejoinder by theists is that survival alone is not necessarily linked to true beliefs. It could, in principle, be false beliefs that enhance survival. In fact, some atheists think that believing in God has been crucial to people's survival, though the belief is radically false. Martin and Mackie, among others, object to the epistemic teleological argument; Plantinga, Richard Creel and Richard Taylor defend it.
Two recent developments in teleological argumentation have involved the intelligent design hypothesis and fine tuning arguments.
The first is an argument that there are orders of biological complexity emerging in evolution that are highly unlikely if accounted for by random mutation and natural selection or any other means in the absence of a purposive, intentional force (Behe 2007). Debate on the intelligent design (ID) proposal includes questions of whether it is properly scientific, about the biochemistry involved, and whether (if the ID hypothesis is superior to non-ID accounts) the ID hypothesis can inform us about the nature of the intelligent, designing forces. While the ID hypothesis has been defended as an allegedly scientific account—it is not based on an appeal to Genesis (as Creationism is)—many scientists argue that ID is not a scientific theory because it is neither testable nor falsifiable. Some also argue that ID goes beyond the available evidence and that it systematically underestimates the ability of non-intelligent, natural causes (plus chance) to account for the relevant biological complexity. Critics like Kenneth Miller contend that Behe does not take into sufficient account the adaptive value of very minor changes in evolution (such as the sensitivity to light found in algae and bacteria) that gradually lead to complex organs such as the eye (Miller 1999).
Fine tuning arguments contend that the existence of our cosmos with its suns, planets, life, et al. would not have come about or continued in existence without the constancy of multiple factors. Even minor changes to the nuclear weak force would not have allowed for stars, nor would stars have endured if the ratio of electromagnetism to gravity had been different. John Leslie observes: "Alterations by less than one part in a billion to the expansion speed early in the Big Bang would have led to runaway expansion, everything quickly becoming so dilute that no stars could have formed, or else to gravitational collapse inside under a second" (Leslie 2007, 76). Robin Collins and others have argued that theism better accounts for the fine tuning than naturalism (see Collins 2003; for criticism of the argument, see Craig & Smith 1993).
A more sustained objection against virtually all versions of the teleological argument takes issue with the assumption that the cosmos is good or that it is the sort of thing that would be brought about by an intelligent, completely benevolent being. This leads us directly to the next central concern of the philosophy of God.
In the face of the problem of evil, some philosophers and theologians deny that God is all-powerful and all-knowing. John Stuart Mill took this line, and panentheist theologians today also question the traditional treatments of Divine power. According to panentheism, God is immanent in the world, suffering with the oppressed and working to bring good out of evil, although in spite of God's efforts, evil will invariably mar the created order. Another response is to think of God as being very different from a moral agent. Brian Davies and others have contended that what it means for God to be good is different from what it means for an agent to be morally good (Davies 2006). A more desperate strategy is to deny the existence of evil, but it is difficult to reconcile traditional monotheism with moral skepticism. Also, insofar as we believe there to be a God worthy of worship and a fitting object of human love, the appeal to moral skepticism will carry little weight. The idea that evil is a privation or twisting of the good may have some currency in thinking through the problem of evil, but it is difficult to see how it alone could go very far to vindicate belief in God's goodness. Searing pain and endless suffering seem altogether real even if they are analyzed as being philosophically parasitic on something valuable. The three great monotheistic traditions, with their ample insistence on the reality of evil, offer little reason to try to defuse the problem of evil by this route. Indeed, classical Judaism, Christianity and Islam are so committed to the existence of evil that a reason to reject evil would be a reason to reject these religious traditions. What would be the point of the Judaic teaching about the Exodus (God liberating the people of Israel from slavery), or the Christian teaching about the incarnation (Christ revealing God as love and releasing a Divine power that will, in the end, conquer death), or the Islamic teaching of Mohammed (the holy prophet of Allah who is all-just and all-merciful) if slavery, hate, death, and injustice did not exist?
In part, the magnitude of the difficulty one takes the problem of evil to pose for theism will depend upon one's commitments in other areas of philosophy, especially ethics, epistemology, and metaphysics. If in ethics you hold that there should be no preventable suffering for any reason, regardless of the cause or consequence, then the problem of evil will conflict with your acceptance of traditional theism. Moreover, if you hold that any solution to the problem of evil should be evident to all persons, then again traditional theism is in jeopardy, for clearly the "solution" is not evident to all. Debate has largely centered on the legitimacy of adopting some middle position: a theory of values that would preserve a clear assessment of the profound evil in the cosmos as well as some understanding of how this might be compatible with the existence of an all powerful, completely good Creator. Could there be reasons why God would permit cosmic ills? If we do not know what those reasons might be, are we in a position to conclude that there are none or that there could not be any? Exploring different possibilities will be shaped by one's metaphysics. For example, if you do not believe there is free will, then you will not be moved by any appeal to the positive value of free will and its role in bringing about good as offsetting its role in bringing about evil.
Theistic responses to the problem of evil distinguish between a defense and a theodicy. A defense seeks to establish that rational belief that God exists is still possible (when the defense is employed against the logical version of the problem of evil) and that the existence of evil does not make it improbable that God exists (when used against the probabilistic version). Some have adopted the defense strategy while arguing that we are in a position to have rational belief in the existence of evil and in a completely good God who hates this evil, even though we may be unable to see how these two beliefs are compatible. A theodicy is more ambitious and is typically part of a broader project, arguing that it is reasonable to believe that God exists on the basis of the good as well as the evident evil of the cosmos. In a theodicy, the project is not to account for each and every evil, but to provide an overarching framework within which to understand at least roughly how the evil that occurs is part of some overall good—for instance, the overcoming of evil is itself a great good. In practice, a defense and a theodicy often appeal to similar factors, the first and foremost being what many call the Greater Good Defense.
Some have based an argument from the problem of evil on the charge that this is not the best possible world. If there were a supreme, maximally excellent God, surely God would bring about the best possible creation. Because this is not the best possible creation, there is no supreme, maximally excellent God. Following Adams (1987), many now reply that the whole notion of a best possible world, like the highest possible number, is incoherent. For any world that can be imagined with such and such happiness, goodness, virtue and so on, a higher one can be imagined. If the notion of a best possible world is incoherent, would this count against belief that there could be a supreme, maximally excellent being? It has been argued on the contrary that Divine excellences admit of upper limits or maxima that are not quantifiable in a serial fashion (for example, Divine omnipotence involves being able to do anything logically or metaphysically possible, but does not require actually doing the greatest number of acts or a series of acts of which there can be no more).
Those concerned with the problem of evil clash over the question of how one assesses the likelihood of Divine existence. Someone who reports seeing no point to the existence of evil or no justification for God to allow it seems to imply that if there were a point they would see it. Note the difference between seeing no point and not seeing a point. In the cosmic case, is it clear that if there were a reason justifying the existence of evil, we would see it? William Rowe thinks some plausible understanding of God's justificatory reason for allowing the evil should be detectable, but that there are cases of evil that are altogether gratuitous. Defenders like William Hasker and Stephen Wykstra reply that these cases are not decisive counter-examples to the claim that there is a good God. These philosophers hold that we can recognize evil and grasp our duty to do all in our power to prevent or alleviate it. But we should not take our failure to see what reason God might have for allowing evil to count as grounds for thinking that there is no reason. This later move has led to a position commonly calledskeptical theism. Michael Bergmann, Michael Rea, and others have argued that we have good reason to be skeptical about whether we can assess whether ostensibly gratuitous evils may or may not be permitted by an all good God (Bergmann 2001; Bergmann and Rea 2005; for criticism see Almeida and Oppy 2003).
Some portraits of an afterlife seem to have little bearing on our response to the magnitude of evil here and now. Does it help to understand why God allows evil if all victims will receive happiness later? But it is difficult to treat the possibility of an afterlife as entirely irrelevant. Is death the annihilation of persons or an event involving a transfiguration to a higher state? If you do not think that it matters whether persons continue to exist after death, then such speculation is of little consequence. But suppose that the afterlife is understood as being morally intertwined with this life, with opportunity for moral and spiritual reformation, transfiguration of the wicked, rejuvenation and occasions for new life, perhaps even reconciliation and communion between oppressors seeking forgiveness and their victims. Then these considerations might help to defend against arguments based on the existence of evil. Insofar as one cannot rule out the possibility of an afterlife morally tied to our life, one cannot rule out the possibility that God brings some good out of cosmic ills.
The most recent work on the afterlife in philosophy of religion has focused on the compatibility of an individual afterlife with some forms of physicalism. Arguably, a dualist treatment of human persons is more promising. If you are not metaphysically identical with your body, then perhaps the annihilation of your body is not the annihilation of you. Today, a range of philosophers have argued that even if physicalism is true, an afterlife is still possible (Peter van Inwagen, Lynne Baker, Trenton Merricks, Kevin Cocoran). The import of this work for the problem of evil is that the possible redemptive value of an afterlife should not be ruled out (without argument) if one assumes physicalism to be true. (For an extraordinary, rich resource on the relevant literature, see The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology, ed. by J. Walls.)
4.2.6 Religious Experience
Perhaps the justification most widely offered for religious belief concerns the occurrence of religious experience or the cumulative weight of testimony of those claiming to have had religious experiences. Putting the latter case in theistic terms, the argument appeals to the fact that many people have testified that they have felt God's presence. Does such testimony provide evidence that God exists? That it is evidence has been argued by Jerome Gellman, Keith Yandell, William Alston, Caroline Davis, Gary Gutting, Kai-Man Kwan, Richard Swinburne and others. That it is not (or that its evidential force is trivial) is argued by Michael Martin, J. L. Mackie, Kai Nielson, Matthew Bagger, John Schellenberg, William Rowe, and others. In an effort to stimulate further investigation, I shall briefly sketch some of the moves and countermoves in the debate.
Objection: Religious experience cannot be experience of God for experience is only sensory and if God is non-physical, God cannot be sensed.
Reply: The thesis that experience is only sensory can be challenged. Yandell marks out some experiences (as when one has "a feeling" someone is present but without having any accompanying sensations) that might provide grounds for questioning a narrow sensory notion of experience.
Objection: Testimony to have experienced God is only testimony that one thinks one has experienced God; it is only testimony of a conviction, not evidence.
Reply: The literature on religious experience testifies to the existence of experience of some Divine being on the basis of which the subject comes to think the experience is of God. If read charitably, the testimony is not testimony to a conviction, but to experiences that form the grounds for the conviction. (See Bagger 1999 for a vigorous articulation of this objection, and note the reply by Kai-man Kwam 2003).
Objection: Because religious experience is unique, how could one ever determine whether it is reliable? We simply lack the ability to examine the object of religious experience in order to test whether the reported experiences are indeed reliable.
Reply: As we learned from Descartes, all our experiences of external objects face a problem of uniqueness. It is possible in principle that all our senses are mistaken and we do not have the public, embodied life we think we lead. We cannot step out of our own subjectivity to vindicate our ordinary perceptual beliefs any more than in the religious case. (See the debate between William Alston and Evan Fales 2004).
Objection: Reports of religious experience differ radically and the testimony of one religious party neutralizes the testimony of others. The testimony of Hindus cancels out the testimony of Christians. The testimony of atheists to experience God's absence cancels out the testimony of "believers."
Reply: Several replies might be offered here. Testimony to experience the absence of God might be better understood as testimony not to experience God. Failing to experience God might be justification for believing that there is no God only to the extent that we have reason to believe that if God exists God would be experienced by all. Theists might even appeal to the claim by many atheists that it can be virtuous to live ethically with atheist beliefs. Perhaps if there is a God, God does not think this is altogether bad, and actually desires religious belief to be fashioned under conditions of trust and faith rather than knowledge. The diversity of religious experiences has caused some defenders of the argument from religious experience to mute their conclusion. Thus, Gutting (1982) contends that the argument is not strong enough to fully vindicate a specific religious tradition, but that it is strong enough to overturn an anti-religious naturalism. Other defenders use their specific tradition to deal with ostensibly competing claims based on different sorts of religious experiences. Theists have proposed that more impersonal experiences of the Divine represent only one aspect of God. God is a person or is person-like, but God can also be experienced, for example, as sheer luminous unity. Hindus have claimed the experience of God as personal is only one stage in the overall journey of the soul to truth, the highest truth being that Brahman transcends personhood. (For a discussion of these objections and replies and references, see Taliaferro 1998.)
How one settles the argument will depend on one's overall convictions in many areas of philosophy. The holistic, interwoven nature of both theistic and atheistic arguments can be readily illustrated. If you diminish the implications of religious experience and have a high standard regarding the burden of proof for any sort of religious outlook, then it is highly likely that the classical arguments for God's existence will not be persuasive. Moreover, if one thinks that theism can be shown to be intellectually confused from the start, then theistic arguments from religious experience will carry little weight. Testimony to have experienced God will have no more weight than testimony to have experienced a round square, and non-religious explanations of religious experience—like those of Freud (a result of wish-fulfillment), Marx (a reflection of the economic base) or Durkheim (a product of social forces)—will increase their appeal. If, on the other hand, you think the theistic picture is coherent and that the testimony of religious experience provides some evidence for theism, then your assessment of the classical theistic arguments might be more favorable, for they would serve to corroborate and further support what you already have some reason to believe. From such a vantage point, appeal to wish-fulfillment, economics, and social forces might have a role, but the role is to explain why some parties do not have experiences of God and to counter the charge that failure to have such experiences provides evidence that there is no religious reality. For an excellent collection of recent work on explaining the emergence and continuation of religious experience, see Schloss and Murray (eds.) 2009.
There is not space to cover the many other arguments for and against the existence of God, but several additional arguments are briefly noted. The argument from miracles starts from specific extraordinary events, arguing that they provide reasons for believing there to be a supernatural agent or, more modestly, reasons for skepticism about the sufficiency of a naturalistic world view. The argument has attracted much philosophical attention, especially since David Hume's rejection of miracles. The debate has turned mainly on how one defines a miracle, understands the laws of nature, and specifies the principles of evidence that govern the explanation of highly unusual historical occurrences. There is considerable debate over whether Hume's case against miracles simply begs the question against "believers." Detailed exposition is impossible in this short entry, but I argue elsewhere that Hume's case against miracles is most charitably seen as part of his overall case for naturalism (Taliaferro 2005).
There are various arguments that are advanced to motivate religious belief. One of the most interesting and popular is a wager argument often associated with Pascal (1623–1662). It is designed to offer practical reasons to cultivate a belief in God. Imagine that you are unsure whether there is or is not a God. You have it within your power to live on either assumption and perhaps, through various practices, to get yourself to believe one or the other. There would be good consequences of believing in God even if your belief were false, and if the belief were true you would receive even greater good. There would also be good consequences of believing that there is no God, but in this case the consequences would not alter if you were correct. If, however, you believe that there is no God and you are wrong, then you would risk losing the many goods which follow from the belief that God exists and from actual Divine existence. On this basis, it may seem reasonable to believe there is a God.
In different forms the argument may be given a rough edge (for example, imagine that if you do not believe in God and there is a God, hell is waiting). It may be put as an appeal to individual self-interest (you will be better off) or more generally (believers whose lives are bound together can realize some of the goods comprising a mature religious life). Objectors worry about whether one ever is able to bring choices down to just such a narrow selection—for example, to choose either theism or naturalism. Some think the argument is too thoroughly egotistic and thus offensive to religion. Many of these objections have generated some plausible replies (Rescher 1985). For a thoroughgoing exploration of the relevant arguments, see the collection of essays edited by Jeffrey Jordan (1994).
Recent work on Pascalian wagering has a bearing on work on the nature of faith (is it voluntary or involuntary?), its value (when, if ever, is it a virtue?), and relation to evidence (insofar as faith involves belief, is it possible to have faith without evidence?). For an excellent overview and promising analysis, see Chappell (1996), Swinburne (1979), and Schellenberg (2005). A promising feature of such new work is that it is often accompanied by a rich understanding of revelation that is not limited to a sacred scripture, but sees a revelatory role in scripture plus the history of its interpretation, the use of creeds, icons, and so on (see the work of William Abraham).
Two interesting new, rather different developments in debate over the evidence for God's existence need to be observed. John Schellenberg has developed what may be called the "hiddenness of God objection." Schellenberg argues that perfect love necessarily belongs to any personal Divine being, and that such perfect love entails openness to a personal relationship with the Divine being, a relationship that would require creatures to know or at least be aware of the Divine being. Schellenberg then contends that the fact that there are many nonbelievers in this God of love who would not resist God's disclosure (whether through religious experience or argument) is evidence against the existence of a personal Divine being. The Divine being or God would have been more evident (see Shellenberg 2007; for a reply, see Taliaferro 2009).
In a private communication, Schellenberg has pointed out that his target is not only the God of Christianity but "any personal Divine being." Making the above adjustment about "any personal Divine being" and Schellenberg's point about "perfect love" and its entailments will make clearer the scope of Schellenberg's project. Taking a very different approach to theism, Paul Moser has recently criticized what he refers to as the preoccupation in philosophy of religion with what he calls "spectator evidence for God," evidence that can be assessed without involving any interior change that would transform a person morally and religiously. Eschewing fideism, Moser holds that when one seeks God and willingly allows oneself to be transformed by God's perfect love, one's very life can become evidence of the reality of God (see Moser 2008, 2010). While this proposal may worry secular philosophers of religion, Moser is not out of keeping with the pre-Christian Platonic tradition that maintained that inquiry into the good, the true, and the beautiful involved inquiry in which the inquirer needed to endeavor to be good, true, and beautiful.
Another burgeoning question in recent years is whether the cognitive science of religion (CSR) has significance for the truth or rationality of religious commitment. According to CSR, belief in supernatural agents appears to be cognitively natural (Barrett 2004, Keleman 2004, Dennett 2006, De Cruz, H., & De Smedt, J. 2010) and easy to spread (Boyer 2001). The naturalness of religion thesis has led some, including Alvin Plantinga it seems (2011: 60), to imply that we have scientific evidence for Calvin's sensus divinitatis. But others have argued that CSR can intensify the problem of divine hiddenness, since diverse religious concepts are cognitively natural and early humans seem to have lacked anything like a theistic concept (Marsh 2013). There are many other questions being investigated about CSR, such as whether it provides a debunking challenge to religion (Murray and Schloss 2009), whether it poses a cultural challenge for religious outlooks like Schellenberg's Ultimism (Marsh forthcoming), and whether it challenges human dignity (Audi 2013). Needless to say, at the present time, anyhow, there is nothing like a clear consensus on whether CSR should be seen as worrisome, welcome, or neither, by religious believers.


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Exercise through a Crisis
Be a Busy Bee when you're free - it's good for your health
It's fair to say that there is very little that occupies people these days other than the Coronavirus and the ramifications this will bring. While the UK looks to be heading to lockdown mode there are concerns for the mental wellbeing of those who are living alone with little chance of contact with friends or family.
As bars, restaurants and theatres close and non-vital meetings are discouraged, there is the chance that come the evenings and weekends we find ourselves with time on our hands.
Fifty One Apparel the Work Horse
It was a long and unrelenting last week, ahead of a few days in the Lake District, which was just the ticket for a consistently reliable work horse.
I am a guest blogger, an original Karin V neck, separated from my equally talented peers at the moment.
Healthy and Glowing Start to the Year with Arbonne
A Laugh A Minute
Do we want to stop eating chocolates? Do we want to hit the gym 3 times a week ? Do we want to keep the gin secure in the fridge? Realistically the majority of us would tick NO. Surely there must be a better and more enjoyable way to get the va va voom into the New Year.
Festive Fun - Was it ?
So the Xmas festivities are over time off work eating and drinking to one's hearts' content seeing family and friends – nothing really not to like, or is there ?


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The Apple HomePod is available to pre-order from today and it launches next month, the device costs $349 and now Sonos is countering Apple's device with a special offer on its Sonos One speakers.
As the HomePod costs $349 Sonos has decided to offer two of their Sonos One speakers for $349, which basically gives you multi-room audio for the price of one Apple's HomePods.
Two is better than one. Get two Sonos Ones with @amazon Alexa built in and over 80 streaming services. On sale tomorrow for a limited time. pic.twitter.com/5bXd3tCrKK
— Sonos (@Sonos) January 25, 2018
Sonos have said that this will be a limited time offer for their two speakers for $349, the company has not revealed how long the devices will be available at this price. The device normally retails for $199 so basically you get a discount of $50 on two of the Sonos One.
Source The Verge


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"Without struggle, there can be no progress." — Frederick Douglass
The Universi-Teaser was first founded in 1919, just two years shy of a century ago. With almost a hundred years under our belts, we've made mistakes and learned from them.
We've started from humble beginnings as a newspaper started by two university students to a fully-staffed editorial squad.
Now facing the next section of our life as a student newspaper, we wanted to travel back in time to see where we've been and what we've done.
Learning from our mistakes is part of the learning process, and we're looking forward to a future.
The Toledo Universi-Teaser printed its first issue on March 5, 1991. The weekly student newspaper, which was sold for five cents, was started by two Toledo University students. Articles they covered and printed for the first issue included Bill Barber, a war hero teaching French at TU; a banquet held by the university commerce club; and Toledo's Founding Fathers.
In 1922, the name of the newspaper was changed to The Campus Collegian and was shortened to The Collegian in 1962.
This issue of the Campus Collegian was published on December 12, 1941, just days after the attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States' start of involvement in World War II. In addition to regular campus news, this issue had articles on the Red Cross and discussions of war opinions.
On January 10, 2000, the Collegian resumed printing for the spring semester. We found it interesting that three of the top stories included information about "bugs" in their headlines. The bottom story talks about the failure of the Y2K and the entire scare behind it.
The University of Toledo has changed a lot over the years, and it's odd to see campus without some of its iconic locations.
On Oct. 21, 2010, the Independent Collegian, which became independent in the summer of 2000, covered the new Taco Bell which would soon be constructed next to campus.