text:
Aerosols from biomass burning (BB) emissions are poorly constrained in
global and regional models, resulting in a high level of uncertainty in
understanding their impacts. In this study, we compared six BB aerosol
emission datasets for 2008 globally as well as in 14 regions. The six BB
emission datasets are (1) GFED3.1 (Global Fire Emissions Database version 3.1), (2) GFED4s (GFED version 4 with small fires), (3) FINN1.5 (FIre
INventory from NCAR version 1.5), (4) GFAS1.2 (Global Fire Assimilation
System version 1.2), (5) FEER1.0 (Fire Energetics and Emissions Research
version 1.0), and (6) QFED2.4 (Quick Fire Emissions Dataset version 2.4).
The global total emission amounts from these six BB emission datasets
differed by a factor of 3.8, ranging from 13.76 to 51.93 Tg for organic
carbon and from 1.65 to 5.54 Tg for black carbon. In most of the regions,
QFED2.4 and FEER1.0, which are based on satellite observations of fire
radiative power (FRP) and constrained by aerosol optical depth (AOD) data
from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), yielded
higher BB aerosol emissions than the rest by a factor of 2–4. By comparison, the BB
aerosol emissions estimated from GFED4s and GFED3.1, which are based on satellite
burned-area data, without AOD constraints, were at the low end of the range.
In order to examine the sensitivity of model-simulated AOD to the different
BB emission datasets, we ingested these six BB emission datasets separately
into the same global model, the NASA Goddard Earth Observing System (GEOS)
model, and compared the simulated AOD with observed AOD from the AErosol
RObotic NETwork (AERONET) and the Multiangle Imaging SpectroRadiometer
(MISR) in the 14 regions during 2008. In Southern Hemisphere Africa (SHAF)
and South America (SHSA), where aerosols tend to be clearly dominated by
smoke in September, the simulated AOD values were underestimated in almost all
experiments compared to MISR, except for the QFED2.4 run in SHSA. The
model-simulated AOD values based on FEER1.0 and QFED2.4 were the closest to the
corresponding AERONET data, being, respectively, about 73 % and 100 % of
the AERONET observed AOD at Alta Floresta in SHSA and about 49 % and
46 % at Mongu in SHAF. The simulated AOD based on the other four BB
emission datasets accounted for only
Biomass burning (BB) is estimated to contribute about 62 % of the global
particulate organic carbon (OC) and 27 % of black carbon (BC) emissions
annually (Wiedinmyer et al., 2011). Therefore, biomass burning emissions
significantly affect air quality by acting as a major source of particulate
matter (PM) and the climate system by modulating solar radiation and cloud
properties. For instance, a number of studies have revealed that wildfire
smoke exposure is harmful to human health by causing general respiratory
morbidity and exacerbating asthma, because approximately 80 %–90 % of the
smoke particles produced by biomass burning fall within the PM
With the advent of satellite remote sensing of active fires and burned areas in the last couple of decades, a number of global BB emission datasets based on these observations have become available (e.g., Ichoku et al., 2012). Six such major BB datasets will be compared in this study, including three datasets based on burned area approaches, namely the Fire INventory from NCAR (FINN; Wiedinmyer et al., 2011), two versions of the Global Fire Emissions Database (GFED; van der Werf et al., 2006, 2010, 2017), and three datasets based on fire radiative power (FRP) approaches, namely the Global Fire Assimilation System (GFAS; Kaiser et al., 2012) developed in the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and two National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) products, i.e., the Fire Energetics and Emissions Research algorithm (FEER; Ichoku and Ellison, 2014) and the Quick Fire Emissions Dataset (QFED; Darmenov and da Silva, 2015).
Although much progress has been made over the last couple of decades in
improving the quality of BB emission datasets, for example, by incorporating
more recent satellite measurements with better calibration and spatial
resolution (e.g., van der Werf et al., 2010, 2017), biomass burning aerosol
emissions still have large uncertainty and thus are still poorly
constrained in models at global and regional levels (e.g., Liousse et al.,
2010; Kaiser et al., 2012; Petrenko et al., 2012, 2017; Bond et al., 2013;
Zhang et al., 2014; Pan et al., 2015; Ichoku et al., 2016a; Reddington et
al., 2016; Pereira et al., 2016). Specifically, large uncertainty exists in
the description of the magnitude, patterns, and drivers of wildfires and
types of biomass burning (e.g., Hyer et al., 2011). For instance, a global
enhancement of particulate matter BB emission by a factor of 3.4 was
recommended for GFAS by Kaiser et al. (2012) to match the corresponding
observed aerosol loading. Andreae (2019) commented that in contrast to
gaseous compounds, which are chemically well defined, aerosols are complex
and variable mixtures of organic and inorganic species and comprise
particles across a wide range of sizes. This affects in particular the
measurements of organic aerosol, black/elemental carbon, and size
fractionated aerosol mass.
in contrast to gaseous compounds, which are chemically well defined, aerosols are complex and variable mixtures of organic and inorganic species and comprise particles across a wide range of sizes. This affects in particular the measurements of organic aerosol, black/elemental carbon, and size fractionated aerosol mass.
A recent analysis with multiple models has been conducted under the auspices
of the Aerosol Comparisons between Observations and Models (AeroCom) Phase III biomass burning emission experiments using the GFED version 3.1
(GFED3.1) emission dataset as input to several models (hereinafter "the
AeroCom multi-model study",
Our study aims to explore multiple BB emission datasets, including GFED3.1, GFED version 4 with small fires (GFED4s), FINN version 1.5, GFAS version 1.2, QFED version 2.4, and FEER version 1.0, in order to investigate the discrepancies between these six BB emission datasets by comparing them at both regional and global levels. Such a comparative evaluation of BB emission datasets would show the differences between them as well as how these differences propagate through the physical processes of related aerosols in models, e.g., dry and wet deposition, transport, atmospheric abundance, and the resulting AOD. Our study is expected to provide further insight into the development of possible mitigation for the current large uncertainties in BB emissions. Similar comparative studies of multiple BB aerosol emission datasets were previously conducted at regional scales, e.g., by Zhang et al. (2014) in the northern sub-Saharan African region, Pereira et al. (2016) and Reddington et al. (2019) in South America, and Reddington et al. (2016) in the entire tropical region. The current study not only provides a global assessment and analysis of these six BB emission datasets to provide a worldwide perspective, but also examines their performance within 14 regions (Fig. 1) which were previously defined for a series of GFED-based studies (e.g., van der Werf et al., 2006, 2010, 2017).
Map showing the 14 regions used in this study, following GFED regionalization defined by Giglio et al. (2006) and van der Werf et al. (2006, 2017). The 14 AERONET sites selected for detailed analysis in the respective regions are represented by the numbered magenta dots. These AERONET sites and the included data (years in parentheses) for calculating aerosol climatology are 1 – Fort McMurray (2005–2018), 2 – Monterey (2002–2018), 3 – Tuxtla Gutiérrez (2005–2010), 4 – Medellín (2012–2016), 5 – Alta Floresta (1993–2018), 6 – Tõravere (2002–2017), 7 – IMS METU ERDEMLI (1999–2017), 8 – Ilorin (1998–2018), 9 – Mongu (1997–2010), 10 – Moscow MSU MO (2001–2017), 11 – EPA NCU (2004–2018), 12 – Chiang Mai Met Sta (2007–2017), 13 – Palangkaraya (2012–2017), and 14 – Lake Argyle (2001–2017).
In the rest of this paper, we first describe these six BB emission datasets, the GEOS model configuration and experimental designs, and observations in Sect. 2, and then we show comparisons of the biomass burning emission datasets and the resulting model-simulated AOD in Sect. 3. We discuss possible attributions of the differences between the six BB emission datasets to the sources of uncertainty associated with the biomass burning emissions and the aerosol modeling in Sect. 4. Conclusions and recommendations are presented in Sect. 5.
General information about each of the six biomass burning emission datasets investigated in this study, namely GFED3.1, GFED4s, FINN1.5, GFAS1.2, FEER1.0, and QFED2.4, is given below. Their main attributes, such as their spatial and temporal resolutions, the methods used to estimate burned area (where applicable), the method to derive emission coefficients (where applicable), and the references for the emission factors, are compared in Table 1. Overall, all datasets provide daily global biomass burning emissions since at least 2003.
Summary of six biomass burning emission datasets during the MODIS era (i.e., 2000–present).
CASA: Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach biogeochemical.
The total dry matter consumed by biomass burning in GFED3.1 (van der Werf et
al., 2010) is estimated by the multiplication of the MODIS burned area
product at 500 m spatial resolution (Giglio et al., 2010, for the MODIS era)
and fuel consumption per unit burned area, the latter being the product of
the fuel loads per unit area and combustion completeness. This estimation is
conducted using the Carnegie–Ames–Stanford approach (CASA) biogeochemical
modeling framework that provides estimates of biomass in various carbon
"pools" including leaves, grasses, stems, coarse woody debris, and litter.
Fuel loads in CASA are estimated according to carbon input information on
vegetation productivity, and carbon outputs through heterotrophic
respiration, herbivory, fires, and tree mortality (Giglio et al., 2010; van
der Werf et al., 2010). Then, the biomass burning emission of a given
species is calculated by multiplying the dry matter with an emission factor
of that species (EF, in grams of species per kilogram of dry matter burned). The
EF used in GFED3.1 (and most of the other datasets) is mainly chosen from
Andreae and Merlet (2001) and/or Akagi et al. (2011), but may also be
obtained from various other sources. The GFED3.1 dataset can be accessed
through the following link:
Compared to GFED3.1, the latest GFED version, GFED4s, has a few significant
upgrades as described in detail by van der Werf et al. (2017), including (1) additional burned area associated with small fires which were previously
omitted by the burned area product but now are compensated for by including the
active fires to augment the burned area product MCD64A1 (Giglio et al.,
2013; Randerson et al., 2012); (2) a revised fuel consumption
parameterization optimized using field observations (e.g., van Leeuwen et
al., 2014); and (3) further dividing forest into temperate and boreal forest
ecosystems and applying different sets of emission factors. Among the
existing BB emission datasets, GFED4s has hitherto been the most widely used
by modeling communities, such as the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
Phase 6 (CMIP6; Van Marle et al., 2017) and AeroCom phase III experiments
The FINN1.5 biomass burning emission dataset is developed from its previous
version FINN1 (Wiedinmyer et al., 2011) with several updates. It uses
satellite observation of active fire (with a confidence level greater than
20 %) and land cover from the MODIS instruments on board the NASA Terra and
Aqua polar-orbiting satellites, together with the estimated fuel consumption
to derive biomass burning emissions. The burned area in each active fire
pixel is assumed as 1 km
The GFAS (Kaiser et al., 2012) estimates dry matter combustion rate by
multiplying FRP and biome-specific conversion factors (units: kilograms of dry matter per megajoule). The global distribution
of FRP observations is obtained from the MODIS instruments on board the
Terra and Aqua satellites and are then assimilated into the GFAS system. The
gaps in FRP observations, which are mostly due to cloud cover and spurious
FRP observations of volcanoes, gas flares, and other industrial activity, are
corrected or filtered in the GFAS system. Eight biome-specific conversion factors are
calculated by linear regressions between the GFAS FRP and the dry matter
combustion rate of GFED3.1 in each biome (see Table 2 and Fig. 3 in Kaiser et
al., 2012). The biomass burning emission of a given species is calculated by
multiplying the dry matter with an emission factor of that species. More
information on the latest GFAS product can be found at
The FEER1.0 (Ichoku and Ellison, 2014) multiplies its emission coefficients
In QFED (Darmenov and da Silva, 2015) biomass burning aerosol emissions are
estimated using gridded MODIS Terra and MODIS Aqua FRP and emission
The GEOS model consists of an atmospheric general circulation model, a catchment-based land surface model, and an ocean model, all coupled together using the Earth System Modeling Framework (ESMF; Rienecker et al., 2011; Molod et al., 2015). Within the GEOS model architecture, several interactively coupled atmospheric constituent modules have been incorporated, including an aerosol and carbon monoxide (CO) module based on the Goddard Chemistry Aerosol Radiation and Transport model (GOCART; Chin et al., 2000, 2002, 2009, 2014; Colarco et al., 2010; Bian et al., 2010) and a radiation module from the Goddard radiative transfer model (Chou and Suarez, 1999; Chou et al., 2001). The GOCART module used in this study includes representations of dust, sea salt, sulfate, nitrate, and black and organic carbon aerosol species. A conversion factor of 1.4 is used to scale organic carbon mass to organic aerosol (OA), which is on the low end of current estimates (Simon and Bhave, 2012). More discussion on this conversion factor can be referred to in Sect. 4.3.
In this study the GEOS model (Heracles-5.2 version) was run globally on a
cubed-sphere horizontal grid (c180,
In order to investigate the sensitivity of the modeled AOD to different BB emission datasets, seven experiments were conducted with the GEOS model, differing only in the source of biomass burning emissions. The first six runs are GFED3.1, GFED4s, FINN1.5, GFAS1.2, FEER1.0, and QFED2.4, using the corresponding biomass burning datasets described above in Sect. 2.1. A seventh run is called "NOBB," where the model is run without including biomass burning emissions.
We evaluated the simulated monthly AOD at 550 nm with the monthly level 3
total AOD data at the 558 nm wavelength from the Multiangle Imaging
SpectroRadiometer sensor on board the EOS Terra satellite (Kalashnikova and
Kahn, 2006; Kahn et al., 2010). We used MISR version 23 data products (MISR
v23, with filename tagged as F15_0032) in half-degrees, which
can be downloaded from the website
We also evaluated the modeled 3-hourly and monthly AOD at 550 nm and
Ångström exponent (AE, 440–870 nm) with corresponding measurements from
the ground-based AErosol RObotic NETwork (AERONET; Holben et al., 1998)
sites situated in biomass burning source regions. AERONET Version 3 Level 2.0 data, which are cloud-screened and quality-assured aerosol products with
a 0.01 uncertainty (Giles et al., 2019), were used in this study. The data
can be downloaded from the website:
The biomass burning OC emissions were compared throughout this study, since OC is the major constituent in fresh biomass burning smoke particles, with mass fractions ranging from 37 % to 67 % depending on fuel type (e.g., grassland/savanna, forests, or others), according to various studies based on thermal evolution techniques (Reid et al., 2005, part II, Table 2). These intercomparisons were carried out in terms of both annual and seasonal variations in Sect. 3.1.1 and 3.1.2, respectively.
Figure 2 shows the spatial distributions of annual total biomass burning OC
emissions in 2008 from the six BB emission datasets. The regions with high
emission of OC in Africa, boreal Asia, and South America are pronounced in
all six BB emission datasets, albeit to different degrees. The regional
differences of the annual total biomass burning OC emissions in different BB
emission datasets can be appreciated more quantitatively in Fig. 3. Relevant
statistics for the six BB emission datasets in the 14 regions are also
listed at the top of the panel in Fig. 3, with the mean of the six BB
emission datasets in the first row (mean). We also used three different measures
to quantify the spread of the annual total from the six BB emission
datasets: (1) standard deviation (SD), (2) ratio of maximum to minimum
The spatial distribution of annual total organic carbon (OC)
biomass burning emissions for 2008 estimated by six biomass burning emission
datasets (units: g m
The regional annual total organic carbon (OC) biomass burning
emissions for 2008 in six biomass burning emission datasets in 14 regions
(units: Tg yr
Overall, two FRP-based BB emissions, QFED2.4 and FEER1.0, were a factor of 2–4 larger than the other BB datasets. This result is consistent with the findings of Zhang et al. (2014) over sub-Saharan Africa. It is worth noting that the BB emission amount of GFAS1.2 was close to that of GFED3.1, reflecting the fact that GFAS1.2 is tuned to GFED3.1 (described in Sect. 2.1.4). Globally, FINN1.5 yielded more OC emissions than the two GFED datasets and GFAS1.2 (e.g., 40 % larger than GFED4s). Regionally, FINN1.5 was generally comparable to the two GFED datasets in most of the regions, but was higher than them in the tropical regions, such as EQAS, Southeast Asia (SEAS), Central America (CEAM), and Northern Hemisphere South America (NHSA). Interestingly, FINN1.5 was even the largest among all six datasets over the EQAS region, which might be associated with its assumption of continuation of burning into the second day in that region (to be discussed in Sect. 4.1.2). The global OC emissions from GFED4s were lower than those from its GFED3.1 counterpart, although higher in several other regions, such as TENA, CEAM, NHSA, boreal Asia (BOAS), and central Asia (CEAS). Possible explanations for these differences among the six global BB emissions datasets are provided in Sect. 4.1.
Biomass burning is generally characterized by distinct seasonal variations in each of the 14 regions and globally, as shown in Fig. 4. Overall, there were four peak fire seasons across the regions: (1) during the boreal spring (March–April–May), fires peak in BOAS mainly because of forest fires (see the contribution of different fire categories in Table 3 of van der Werf et al., 2017); in CEAM, NHSA, and SEAS because of savanna and deforestation fires; and in central Asia (CEAS) mainly due to the agricultural waste burning to prepare the fields for spring crops. (2) During the boreal summer (June–July–August), fires peak in BONA and TENA, mostly due to wildfires that occur under the prevailing dry and hot weather, in EURO probably associated with the burning of agricultural waste. In addition, we found that fire peaked in MIDE in the three FRP-based datasets, i.e., QFED2.4, FEER1.0, and GFAS1.2. This might be associated with the failure to filter out the gas flares from the FRP fire product, especially in QFED2.4 (Darmenov and da Silva 2015). (3) During the austral spring (September–October–November), fires peak in the southern hemispheric regions of SHSA, SHAF, and AUST (Australia and New Zealand), associated with savanna burning (in addition to deforestation fires in SHSA). In SHSA, the two GFED versions peaked in August, 1 month earlier than the rest; (4) during the boreal winter (December and January), fires peak in NHAF, particularly along the sub-Sahel belt (Fig. 2), where savanna fires are associated with agricultural management and pastoral practices across that region (e.g., Ichoku et al., 2016b). Overall, all six BB emission datasets exhibited similar seasonal variations, although they differed in magnitude. In particular, it is noteworthy that in EQAS, the annual OC emissions from GFED4s were lower than those of GFED3.1 by 18 %, but higher by a factor of 2 in the month of August when peatland burning is predominant.
Monthly variation in organic carbon (OC) biomass burning emissions for 2008 in six biomass burning emission datasets in 14 regions and the globally (i.e., GLOB, highlighted with a black box). The annual total emission is listed on the right side of each panel.
For reference, biomass burning black carbon (BC) emissions are also shown,
but in the Supplement (Figs. S1, S2 for annual total and Fig. S3 for seasonal
variation), which
exhibited features similar to those of OC. The amounts of biomass burning BC emission
were almost proportional to their OC counterparts (about
As in other similar situations where several different datasets are available to be chosen from (e.g., Bian et al., 2007), a question that invariably comes to mind is the following: which BB emission dataset is the most accurate or should be used in a given situation? In fact, it is difficult to give a conclusive answer, as it is often challenging to measure the emission rate of an active fire in real time or to disentangle the contribution of smoke aerosols from the total atmospheric aerosol loading and concentration in observations. Therefore, in this study we have implemented all six global BB emission datasets separately in the GEOS model, and we evaluated their respective simulated aerosol loadings. More specifically, we compared the simulated AOD with the satellite-retrieved AOD data from MISR (primarily to examine the spatial coverage) as well as with ground-based measurements from AERONET sites near biomass burning source regions to examine the seasonal variation. Our analysis was focused on the regional biomass burning peak seasons, when smoke aerosol emissions dominate those from other sources, such as pollution or dust. With such an effort to evaluate the sensitivity of the simulated AOD to the different BB emission datasets, the results from this study may shed some light on the aforementioned question; i.e., which BB dataset is the most accurate or should be used in a given situation? We acknowledge that although the result from a particular model (e.g., GEOS in this case) can potentially introduce additional uncertainty through various complicated and nonlinear procedures employed to calculate the AOD, such as the modeled relative humidity and the related aerosol hydroscopic growth (Bian et al., 2009; Pan et al., 2015), evaluation of the model-simulated AOD has still proven to be a feasible approach to compare various BB emission datasets in reference to the currently available observations (e.g., Petrenko et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2014).
Aiming to evaluate the sensitivity of the modeled AOD to different BB emissions datasets, we compared the spatial distribution of the GEOS model-simulated AOD with MISR-retrieved AOD in Sect. 3.2.1 and with the AERONET-measured AOD at 14 AERONET sites in Sect. 3.2.2. We also conducted an in-depth study at two AERONET sites, Alta Floresta (in the Southern Hemisphere South America, SHSA) and Mongu (in Southern Hemisphere Africa, SHAF), as discussed in Sect. 3.3.
Comparisons for September and April in 2018 are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively, representing the peak biomass burning months in the Southern Hemisphere and many regions in the Northern Hemisphere, respectively. The MISR AOD is displayed in the top left panel and the model biases (model minus MISR) from the seven individual experiments are shown in the rest of the panels.
Same as Fig. 5 except for April 2008.
In September 2008, the high AOD observed from MISR (Fig. 5a) in the Southern
Hemisphere was mostly attributable to biomass burning. A large fraction of Southern Hemisphere Africa (SHAF) featured high AOD (greater than 0.5).
The area-averaged AOD over the entire SHAF was 0.331 (see Table S1 for the
area-averaged MISR AOD in each region). The observed AOD peaked in central Africa (nearly 1.0) and gradually decreased westwards. A large negative model
bias (
In Southern Hemisphere South America (SHSA), where the area-averaged MISR
AOD was 0.188, the maximum AOD was
Being mixed with and often surpassed by other aerosol types, however, the contribution of biomass burning aerosols to the total AOD is hardly distinguishable from those of other sources in the peak biomass burning months in certain regions, such as April (Fig. 6) in the regions of Southeast Asia (SEAS), central Asia (CEAS), and boreal Asia (BOAS). Such complicated situations lead to the difficulties in evaluating the BB emission datasets with AOD observations, especially when the background AOD represented by the NOBB run was already overestimated, for example, in the region of CEAS, or when the MISR AOD was missing, for example, in the region of BOAS (where MODIS AOD was missing as well, not shown).
In order to better quantify the sensitivity of the simulated AOD to the six different BB emission datasets, we further compared the simulated monthly AOD with the ground-based AOD observations from AERONET stations by choosing one representative station in each region (see Fig. 7: the panels representing the AERONET stations in Fig. 7 were arranged in a way that their placements correspond to those of their respective regions in Fig. 4 for easy reference). The exceptions are two regions NHSA and EQAS, where valid AERONET observations could not be found during 2008. Thus, we used the multi-year climatology of AOD at Medellín and Palangkaraya to represent NHSA and EQAS, respectively. We also included the climatology of AERONET AOD in the other 12 AERONET sites for reference. As shown in Fig. 7, the annual cycle of AOD in 2008 at available sites (thin brown bars) was similar to its respective climatology (thick light gray bars) to within 0.05. The MISR AOD was plotted for reference as a green diamond. In this section, the modeled monthly mean AOD was calculated by averaging over the modeled instantaneous AOD in each month, while the monthly AOD of AERONET and MISR was simply calculated by averaging over available observations in each month.
Monthly variation in AOD (at 550 nm wavelength) for 2008 over 14
AERONET sites selected from the respective 14 regions (with the country of
each site indicated in parentheses). The climatology of AERONET AOD (i.e.,
AERONET-clim) is represented by thick light gray bars and the monthly mean
AERONET AOD for 2008 by thin brown bars, with their corresponding annual
mean values shown in parentheses. MISR monthly mean AOD at 558 nm is
represented by the green diamonds, and the seven GEOS experiments with
different biomass burning emission options are represented by the lines in
different colors. The corresponding annual ratios (ratio of model
Contributions from non-BB emissions to the total AOD are represented by the NOBB
experiment (black line in Fig. 7). Runs with different BB emission datasets
showed almost identical AOD during non-biomass-burning seasons at each
selected AERONET station in each region, thereby allowing their differences
to be noticeable during the biomass burning peak seasons. At Alta Floresta
in Brazil (Fig. 7(5)), Mongu in Zambia (Fig. 7(9)), and Chiang Mai Met Sta
in Thailand (Fig. 7(12)), where the biomass burning emissions dominated the
peak AOD, almost all experiments underestimated AOD during the respective
peak biomass burning seasons. However, the fact is that the contribution of
non-BB AOD was usually more than that of BB AOD during the burning seasons
at most of the selected AERONET sites, except at the above three sites,
Therefore, it is difficult to disentangle the effect of biomass burning on
the total AOD in most situations, especially when the model has difficulty
representing the non-BB AOD, leading, for example, to overestimation at
three high-latitude (
In order to investigate the relationship between AOD and biomass burning emission in the context of daily variation, we focused on two AERONET stations, namely Alta Floresta in Brazil and Mongu in Zambia during September, for the in-depth analysis in this section. Biomass burning emissions are known to be dominant at these locations and in this month, as estimated by Chin et al. (2009), who found that 50 %–90 % of the AOD was attributable to biomass burning emissions according to GOCART model simulations. Based on other previous studies as well, e.g., two studies with multiple BB datasets applied to one model, Pereira et al. (2016) in Southern Hemisphere South America and Reddington et al. (2016) in tropical regions including Southern Hemisphere South America and Africa or the AeroCom Multi-model study (Mariya Petrenko, personal communication, 2019) with one biomass burning emission dataset (i.e., GFED3.1) mentioned earlier in the introduction, there appears to be a general consensus that the simulated AOD is consistently underestimated over Southern Hemisphere South America and Africa in many models. Therefore, in this study, we further examined these two sites: Alta Floresta in Brazil and Mongu in Zambia. We calculated the 3-hourly AOD by sorting the instantaneous AOD from both AERONET and model outputs for each day into eight time steps, namely 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, and 21Z. The modeled monthly mean AOD was calculated by averaging over the modeled 3-hourly AOD, which coincided with 3-hourly AERONET AOD in that month. The detailed analyses are discussed below.
The monthly mean AOD observed from AERONET at Alta Floresta is 0.47 during
September 2008 (Fig. 8a). It shows that the simulated AOD from all six
experiments captured the high aerosol episode observed in the AERONET
dataset during 13 September (AERONET AOD is about 1.0–1.2). The simulation
with QFED2.4 BB emission produced the closest agreement with the AERONET
observed AOD with an average ratio of 1.00. In contrast, the simulated AOD with
FEER1.0 (ratio
Characteristics of the observed and the simulated aerosols at Alta
Floresta during September 2008:
The OC column mass loading (Fig. 8b) in each run resembled its corresponding
AOD (Fig. 8a), implying that the day-to-day variation in OC column mass
loading in this dry season dominates the simulated AOD in the model, rather
than other factors such as relative humidity (RH). The OC column mass
loading is determined by the regional scale of emission, transport, and
removal processes of aerosols; the latter two processes being the same
across the six experiments, given that the same model configurations were
used. Therefore, the differences of OC column mass loading and thus AOD
across the six experiments are attributed to the different choices of
biomass burning emission datasets. Figure 8c shows the local biomass burning
OC emissions (i.e., at the
All of the foregoing evidence collectively suggests that the temporal variations in AOD (and aerosol mass loading) in Alta Floresta during the burning season do not directly respond to the local BB emission at the daily and sub-daily timescales but rather to the regional emission. The regional emission is further adjusted by the multiple processes determining the residence time of aerosols in air (typically a few days), such as the regional-scale transport and removal of aerosols. The MODIS Terra true-color image overlaid with active fire detections (red dots) on 13 September 2008 (Fig. 8d) confirms that there were no active fires (represented by red dots) detected at Alta Floresta (blue circle), and thus the dense smoke over the site during this peak aerosol episode must have been transported from the upwind areas rather than from localized BB emission sources. Therefore, accurate estimation of both the magnitude and spatial pattern of regional emissions is quite important.
The case of Mongu is different from that of Alta Floresta. Figure 9d reveals that there were numerous active fire detections (represented by the red dots in this MODIS Aqua true-color image) at and close to Mongu (blue circle) on 12 September 2008, one of peak aerosol episodes as Fig. 9a shows. The simulated AOD from all six experiments captured two peak aerosol episodes observed from the AERONET dataset during 11–12 and 2–3 September (AOD about 1.0), albeit underestimated (Fig. 9a). All experiments also underestimated the sustained aerosol episode after 20 September. However, all model experiments almost reproduced the AERONET AE value of 1.80 throughout September at this site (not shown), confirming that the dominance of the fine-mode aerosol particles in smoke aerosols is captured by the model irrespective of the BB emission dataset used.
Characteristics of the observed and the simulated aerosols at
Mongu during September 2008:
The biomass burning OC emissions averaged over the grid box of Mongu
exhibited distinct daily variations in each BB dataset (Fig. 9c). Similar
emission patterns are found when averaged over nine or 25 surrounding grid
boxes (not shown). At this site, the day-to-day variations in AOD still
cannot be totally explained by the corresponding local emission at Mongu.
For example, emission from FEER1.0 on 17 September is 6 times higher than
that on 2 September (Fig. 9c), but the simulated AOD on 17 September is
2 times lower than that on 2 September (Fig. 9a). However, the magnitude of
AOD at Mongu in each experiment corresponded to the magnitude of BB emission
at the regional scale, since it is apparent that the overall higher regional
BB emissions still resulted in higher column mass loading and thus AOD. For
instance, FEER1.0 and QFED2.4, which have the largest monthly total biomass
burning OC emission over the region of SHAF among the six BB emission
datasets during September (2.27 and 2.92 Tg per month, respectively, as
shown in Fig. 4), corresponded to the highest AOD (ratio
Although the temporal variation in the ambient RH may partially contribute to the day-to-day changes of the emission–AOD relationship, the close resemblance between the model-simulated AOD and column OC mass loading (Fig. 9b) excludes such possibility. This evidence therefore suggests that the temporal variations in AOD (and aerosol mass loading) in Mongu, where daily local BB emissions were present instead, do not directly respond to the local BB emission at the daily and sub-daily timescales during the burning season either as is the case in Alta Floresta. It further confirms the importance of accurate estimation of both the magnitude and spatial pattern of regional emissions as mentioned in the case of Alta Floresta. Therefore, over Southern Hemisphere Africa and Southern Hemisphere South America, an enhancement of regional BB aerosol emission amounts in all the BB emission datasets except for QFED2.4 in the latter region is suggested by this study in order to reproduce the observed AOD level although to different degrees.
The simulated AOD is biased low in biomass-burning-dominated regions and seasons across almost all six BB emission datasets as demonstrated in this study. More explanations on differences among the six BB emissions datasets are discussed in Sect. 4.1. Basically, the uncertainty of the simulated AOD could be attributable to two main sources: (1) BB emissions-related biases and (2) model-related biases. They are discussed in Sect. 4.2 and 4.3, respectively.
This study has shown that the QFED2.4 and FEER1.0 BB emission datasets are
consistently higher than the others, with QFED2.4 being the highest overall.
Some of the possible reasons responsible for this difference include the following.
Globally, the FINN1.5 dataset is lower than QFED2.4 and FEER1.0 but larger
than GFAS1.2, GFED3.1, and GFED4s (Fig. 3). Although FINN1.5 can capture the
location of the large wildfires using the active fire products, the
estimation of burned area is rather simple without the complicated spatial
and temporal variability in the amount of burned area per active fire
detection or variability in fuel consumption within biomes. For example, it
estimates 1 km
Globally and in some regions, biomass burning OC emission in GFED4s is lower
than that in GFED3.1 (see Figs. 2–4), although the former has 11 %
higher global carbon emissions and includes small fires (van der Werf et
al., 2017). There are a few possible reasons, of which two major ones are as
follows: (1) for aerosols, the implementation of lower EF for certain biomes
in GFED4s than in GFED3.1 reduces the aerosol biomass burning emissions. As
for the savanna and grassland, for instance, the GFED4s dataset mainly
applies the EF value recommended by Akagi et al. (2011), which is 2.62 g OC kg
Comparison of emission factor (units: g species kg
On the other hand, there are regions in the Northern Hemisphere where GFED4s
is higher than GFED3.1. For example, over CEAS and EURO, small fires
associated with burning of agricultural residues contribute to 43.6 % and
58.6 % of the carbon emissions, respectively (van der Werf et al., 2017).
In spite of the 30 % reduction of the EF in these two regions, the effect of
including small fires in GFED4s is greater, resulting in the biomass burning
OC emission from GFED4s being twice as high as that from GFED3.1. Another
example is in BOAS where the biomass burning OC emissions are 10 % higher
in GFED4s than in GFED3.1. This is likely attributable to the higher EF used in
GFED4s for boreal forest fires than that in GFED3.1 (9.60 vs.
9.14 g OC kg
It is interesting that the yearly total biomass burning OC emission from GFED4s is 20 % lower than that from GFED3.1 in EQAS (Fig. 4), even though the small fires are included and the EFs of peatland and tropical forest are higher in the former (Table 2). By examining the monthly variations over EQAS (Fig. 4), however, we found that GFED4s is actually higher than GFED3.1 in August by a factor of 2 when peatland burning is predominant but is equal to or lower than GFED3.1 in other months, particularly in May, leading to the overall lower annual total value in GFED4s.
Uncertainty in any of the six BB emissions datasets considered in this study
could have been introduced from a variety of measurement and/or analysis
procedures, including detection of fire or area burned, retrieval of FRP,
emission factors (see Table 1), biome types, burning stages, and fuel
consumption estimates, some of which are explained in detail below.
On the other hand, although the sparse diurnal sampling frequency may not
necessarily be an issue for the MODIS burned area product, upon which some
of the emission datasets are based (e.g., GFED3.1), burned area product may not
account for small fires due to its low spatial resolution of 500 m, which
may limit the identification of small burned scars such as those generated
by small fires from croplands. In addition, the estimation of biomass
burning emission based on the burned area product, e.g., GFED, is subject to
the uncertainty associated with the estimation of fuel load and combustion
completeness as mentioned earlier.
On the other hand, although the sparse diurnal sampling frequency may not necessarily be an issue for the MODIS burned area product, upon which some of the emission datasets are based (e.g., GFED3.1), burned area product may not account for small fires due to its low spatial resolution of 500 m, which may limit the identification of small burned scars such as those generated by small fires from croplands. In addition, the estimation of biomass burning emission based on the burned area product, e.g., GFED, is subject to the uncertainty associated with the estimation of fuel load and combustion completeness as mentioned earlier.
The model-related biases in the GEOS model, which other models most probably
also suffer from, include, for example, inaccurate representations of
horizontal and vertical transport of aerosol by wind, fire emission plume
height, and estimation of aerosol removal in models. Furthermore, the
production of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) in biomass burning plumes,
which has been observed in lab studies and ambient plumes (e.g., Bian et
al., 2017; Ahern et al., 2019), is missing in these GEOS simulations. Given
the sparsity of the measurements of surface and vertical concentrations at
the global scale, we implemented an approach to evaluate model simulation
uncertainty globally due to biomass burning aerosol emissions by evaluating
the resulting AOD against that from satellite data and AERONET
measurements, following the studies by Petrenko et al. (2012) and Zhang et
al. (2014). We acknowledge the uncertainties in calculating AOD, such as
uncertainties associated with assumptions of aerosol size distribution,
optical properties, aerosol water uptake, and vertical distribution of
aerosol (e.g., Reddington et al., 2019). In addition, Ge et al. (2017)
showed that the choice of different meteorological fields can also lead to
uncertainty in simulating the modeled aerosol loading. For instance,
meteorological fields from ECMWF and the National Centers for Environmental
Prediction (NCEP) can yield a factor of 2 difference in the resulting
surface PM
In this study, we compared six global biomass burning aerosol emission datasets in 2008, i.e., GFED3.1, GFED4s, FINN1.5, GFAS1.2, FEER1.0, and QFED2.4. We also examined the sensitivity of the modeled AOD to the different BB emission datasets in the NASA GEOS model globally and in 14 regions. The main results are summarized as follows.
The biomass burning OC emissions derived from GFED3.1, GFED4s, FINN1.5, GFAS1.2, FEER1.0, and QFED2.4 can differ by up to a factor of 3.8 on an annual average, with values of 15.65, 13.76, 19.48, 18.22, 28.48, and 51.93 Tg C in 2008, respectively. The biomass burning BC emissions can differ by up to a factor of 3.4 on an annual average, with values of 1.76, 1.65, 1.83, 1.99, 3.66, and 5.54 Tg C in 2008, respectively. In general, higher biomass burning OC and BC emissions are estimated from QFED2.4 globally and regionally, followed by FEER1.0.
The best agreement among the six emission datasets occurred in Northern
Hemisphere Africa (NHAF), equatorial Asia (EQAS), Southern Hemisphere Africa
(SHAF), and Southern Hemisphere South America (SHSA), where the biomass burning
emissions are predominant in determining aerosol loading, with the top
coefficient of variation rankings (1–4) and relatively low
In Southern Hemisphere Africa (SHAF) and Southern Hemisphere South America (SHSA) during September 2008, where and when biomass burning aerosols are dominant over other aerosol types, the amounts of biomass burning OC emissions from QFED2.4 and FEER1.0 are at least double those from the remaining four BB emission datasets. The AOD values simulated by the NASA GEOS based on these two BB emission datasets are the closest to those from MISR and AERONET, but still biased low. In particular, at Alta Floresta in SHSA, they can account for 36 %–100 % of the observed AOD, and at Mongu in SHAF the AOD values simulated with the six biomass burning emission datasets only account for 15 %–49 % of the observed AOD. Overall, during the biomass burning peak seasons at most of the representative AERONET sites selected in each region, the AOD simulated with QFED2.4 is the highest and closest to AERONET and MISR observations, followed by that of FEER1.0. Considering that regional-scale transport and removal processes as well as wind fields are the same across the six BB emission experiments since they were run under the same model configurations except for BB emission, it is evident that enhancement of BB emission amounts in all six BB emission datasets will be needed (although to different degrees) for the model AOD simulations to match observations, particularly in SHAF (Mongu) and SHSA (Alta Floresta), except for QFED2.4 in SHSA. Although the result of this study is partially model-dependent, it sheds some light on our understanding of the uncertainty of the simulated AOD associated with the choice of biomass burning aerosol emission datasets.
Based on the results of the current study, it is appropriate to make some
recommendations for future studies on improving BB emission estimation. Our
understanding of the complexity, variability, and interrelationships between
different fire characteristics (behavior, energetics, emissions) still needs
to be improved (Hyer et al., 2011). More accurate estimation of emission
factors (EFs) for different ecosystem types and burning stages would greatly
improve the emission overall, as demonstrated by the discrepancy between
GFED3.1 and GFED4s (see Sect. 4.1.3). The global BB emission datasets driven
by fire remote sensing and retrievals of FRP and burned-area products, which
have hitherto depended heavily on MODIS, can be augmented with products from
higher-resolution sensors such as the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite
(VIIRS) and the global suite of geostationary meteorological satellites
such as Meteosat (covering Europe, Africa, and the Indian Ocean),
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES, covering North,
Central, and South America), and Himawari (covering east Asia, Southeast
Asia, and Australia). Also, measurements from the recent field campaigns
such as WE-CAN (
The GFED3.1 biomass burning dataset can be accessed through the link
The supplement related to this article is available online at:
CI, MC, and XP conceived this project. XP conducted the data analysis and the model experiments. XP and CI wrote the majority of this paper, and all other authors participated in the writing process and interpretation of the results. HB, AD, PC, and AdS helped with model setup. CI, AD, and LE provided the biomass burning emission datasets and interpretation of these datasets. TK, JW, and GC provided the help to apply the biomass burning emission datasets in the model. CI, MC, and TO provided funding support.
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
The contents of this article are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not represent the official views of any agency or institution.
We thank the AERONET networks for making
their data available. Site PIs and data managers of those networks are
gratefully acknowledged. We acknowledge the use of imagery from the NASA
WorldView application (
This research has been supported mainly by various NASA Earth science programs, including the NASA Atmospheric Composition Modeling, Analysis, and Prediction Program (ACMAP), the Modeling, Analysis, and Prediction program (MAP), the Interdisciplinary Studies Program (IDS), the Carbon Cycle Science program (grant no. NNX14AM76G), and the Educational Partnership Program of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. Department of Commerce, under agreement no. NA16SEC4810006.
This paper was edited by Dominick Spracklen and reviewed by Mark Parrington and one anonymous referee.


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Dingwall-based GlenWyvis Distillery is partnering with Scottish hospitality operator Cobbs to open a visitor centre focused on the history of illicit distilling in Scotland.
The Loch Ness Whisky Experience will open alongside the Cobbs-owned Loch Ness Lodge and Loch Ness Clansman Hotel, and will include an interactive display and retail space.
GlenWyvis founder and managing director John Mckenzie said: "This opportunity has come at the perfect time for GlenWyvis. It will give us access to a global audience and it will provide a great forum to engage with visitors who are interested in the story of whisky from a Highland community perspective.
"This is about the story of grassroots distilling, distilling for the people, and, of course, that is what underpins the community ethos of GlenWyvis."
The experience will focus on telling the story of illicit distilling in the Highlands and will be housed in a converted Highland cottage overlooking Loch Ness.
Cobbs managing director Fraser Campbell said: "We are delighted to be working with the GlenWyvis team to bring the idea to fruition. It will be something exciting and new for our visitors – and will provide a fascinating insight into the old Highland traditions around distilling and whisky, but in a very modern way. We're really looking forward to getting this off the ground now."
Planning permission for the development has now been sought, and GlenWyvis is working with the Highland Council planning team to address any concerns that have been raised. Currently, the distillery plans to open the visitor experience in summer 2019.
Visits to the GlenWyvis Distillery in Dingwall are currently restricted due to local road access issues. The new Loch Ness Whisky Experience will provide a global shop for GlenWyvis, which is the world's first 100% community-owned distillery.
Go to Source
Author: Owen Bellwood {authorlink}

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Frame Colour: Brandy lacquered
Cover Colour: Light grey
First the print quality of the logo must be checked!
Do you want your own logo with transparent background?
Please sent us a inquiry inclusive logo as vectorized .eps or .ai file at
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The Brandy lacquer of this model, which is produced exclusively in the EU, protects the solid beech wood. At the same time, the grain remains visible and it gets a light brown tone. The hinges and/or fittings are all made exclusively of steel.Please notice that beech wood is not weather-resistant. The chair should therefore not be left outside constantly. But you can simply fold the chair and store it space saving. For mere outdoor use we recommend our directors chair Oscar in Iroko wood (similar to teak).
The light grey covers are lightfast, water resistant and durable. They are perfectly suitable for indoor and outdoor use and will resist a small rain shower unharmed.
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The Waterloo Foundation Annual Meeting Public Lecture: Professor Mary Carskadon 'How changes in sleep biology create a perfect storm affecting adolescent well-being'
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There will be a drinks reception from 5-6 pm followed by the lecture 6-7pm.
How changes in sleep biology create a perfect storm affecting adolescent well-being
The critical role that sleep plays in adolescence is increasingly well documented for a range of areas including brain maturation, learning, emotional wellbeing and physical health. Insufficient sleep, daytime sleepiness and circadian misalignment in adolescence have been variously shown to contribute to reduced quality of life and productivity, greater risk of depression and obesity, higher rates of drowsy driving crashes and illness and may increase incidents of anti-social behaviours, aggression, substance abuse and self-harm. This presentation will provide an overview of findings and an update of key evidence of the important role of sleep in adolescent development; it will also argue that the 'perfect storm' metaphor applies to sleep patterns of adolescents in the sense that developmental trajectories of biopsychosocial factors conspire to limit the quantity of sleep for many adolescents who live in industrial societies in the twenty-first century.
Hadyn Ellis Building
Maindy Road


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Expose Framework for Joomla 2.5 and 3.0+ -
Ford Motor Company said it has formed a partnership with ride-sharing service Lyft to deploy self-driving vehicles on Lyft's network in large numbers by 2021. The two companies will work together to design software that will allow Ford vehicles to communicate with Lyft's smartphone applications.
US ridesharing giant Lyft announced it was acquiring bikesharing operator Motivate as it ramps up efforts against rival Uber in alternative forms of transportation. Terms of the deal were not announced for Motivate, which operates bike programs in New York, Boston, San Francisco, Washington and elsewhere.
Uber has announced its initial public offering (IPO) to be released on Thursday and will make its market debut in May.
One of the world's most iconic cities has voted overwhelmingly to reduce the number of licenses issued for ride-hailing firms such as Uber and Lyft.
US ride-hailing platform Lyft has announced that it will assist voters in the forthcoming mid-term elections in November by offering FREE rides and discounted promotions in an effort to encourage and increase voter turnout.
Smartphone-summoned ride service Lyft announced it is raising $600 million in a funding round that values the Uber competitor at $15.1 billion. The financing round is being led by Fidelity Management & Research Company, and has been joined by Senator Investment Group.
US cities Seattle and Portland are set to get 'smarter' following the launch of a free app which allows users to search for on-demand rides. It will be formally introduced after the completion of a successful three-month test period.
A US ride-services firm has bolstered its attempts to compete for market share with its fierce and larger rival Uber Technologies Inc. by raising $600m in fresh funding. Lyft which was launched in 2012 - has continued to invest in its growth in order to expand its services. This year, the company has extended its services to 100 new cities.


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Dr. Chan, a native San Franciscan, graduated from The University of California, Davis School of Veterinary Medicine with a focus in avian and exotic animals. Since the beginning of her veterinary career, she has treated a multitude of species such as birds, reptiles, rodents, rabbits, cats and dogs. She prides herself in taking a thorough, comprehensive approach in treating all her patients and educating their owners. Prior to joining the Sunset Veterinary Hospital family, Dr. Chan worked as an exotics-focused veterinarian for several hospitals in the Bay Area, and is excited for the opportunity to serve the community in her hometown.
During her free time, Dr. Chan has volunteered at non-profit organizations such as the San Francisco SPCA, PAWS (Pets are Wonderful Support), VetSOS (Veterinary Street Outreach Services), and a wildlife rehabilitation center. She enjoys training her parents' birds to sing Christmas jingles, volunteers to perform spay and neuter procedures on adoptable exotic small mammals at a local veterinary technician school, and ventures around the city in search of the perfect boba milk tea. When she's not exploring the Bay Area's vibrant community, Dr. Chan enjoys traveling to far away places to learn about different cultures and cuisines. Whether your companion has four, two or even no legs (snakes!), Dr. Chan would love to meet them.


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Jump to navigation Jump to search
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Results from sister projects
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Guitar Lessons Flint Wales (CH6): Regardless of whether you're about to hold a guitar for the very first time or are a seasoned veteran of many years experience, hiring a guitar instructor in Flint, to help you is a great approach to hone your technique and discover new tricks, or even to aid you in getting over a playing doldrums.
Learning how to play the guitar or in fact any musical instrument is a process which takes time and work. It is of course quite possible for you to learn to play guitar using only books and videos but having a seasoned guitar tutor on hand should help you achieve your ambitions more speedily.
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In the process of learning guitar you may choose to try out several specialist classes for example heavy metal guitar lessons, bass guitar lessons, funk guitar lessons, flamenco guitar lessons, rhythm and blues guitar lessons, classical guitar lessons or jazz guitar lessons. Studying and perfecting any of these styles should open up an entirely host of new possibilities, giving you a huge repertoire of music that you are able to play. Being comfortable in playing the fundamental chords and riffs, is however vitally important before you even consider tackling any of these more specialised guitar genres. Remember, don't attempt to bite off more than you can chew.
When you're searching for guitar lessons in Flint, you should try to identify a teacher who has earned a music degree from a distinguished college or university. This is usually much better than having guitar lessons from someone who's self-taught. Someone who's exceptional at playing the guitar, will not necessarily make a great instructor. References from your local Flint music shop will be valuable in this situation.
It will be an advantage to delve into a bit of music theory to get an understanding of precisely how music works, whilst you're doing your guitar lessons. Any reputable guitar teacher ought to take you through the necessary basics of reading music to ensure you've got an awareness of the true structure of a song. As a rookie guitarist this is probably one of the things you fear the most, nevertheless, it's not all that difficult and the many benefits you will gain from doing this are substantial.
You'll shortly be getting the knack of this outstanding instrument, as soon as you have got yourself a top notch guitar instructor in Flint. A successful teacher will make sure that you try to practice for at least 30 minutes per day and they will have to be be patient but strict in their strategy for the lessons. The magic formula to this process is practice, practice, practice, and if you're wondering "how long does it take to learn to play guitar?", the reply is going to be, it hinges on how much you are willing to practice.
You'll certainly find that after taking these initial steps to learn the guitar you'll spark off a powerful love of music coupled with a lifetime passion for the guitar as an instrument.
Guitar lessons are available in Flint and also in nearby places like: Nannerch, Rhes-y-Cae, Connahs Quay, Brynford, Shotton, Lixwim, Holywell, Bagillt, Flint Mountain, Northop, Pentre Ffwrndan, Bedol, Mount Pleasant, Oakenholt, Halkyn, and in these postcodes CH6 5AY, CH6 5AP, CH6 5HT, CH6 5NH, CH6 5NS, CH6 5EX, CH6 5SA, CH6 5AH, CH6 5QD, CH6 5RW. Local Flint guitar teachers will likely have the postcode CH6 and the telephone dialling code 01352.
Ten Top Brands of Electric Guitar
- Rickenbacker
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Latest Wales Guitar Enquiries
Current Wales guitar and musical teaching requests: In Rhos on Sea, Daniel and Evelina Myatt are in search of an expert who'll teach their daughter to play the guitar. In Tregarth, Wales, Aydin and Isla-Rose Davidson are on the lookout for someone who'll teach their son to play the bazouki. In Fochriw Mr Alec Dobson needs a guitar instructor to help him get out of a guitar playing rut. Mrs Esther Higginson in Abercarn, Wales needs to find someone to give a couple of guitar lessons to her daughter. In Crickhowell, Gethin and Robin Hopkins are in search of somebody who can train their son to play the classical guitar. In Ruthin Mr Jax Hope needs a guitar instructor to give some ukulele lessons to his grandson. Mrs Lola-Rose Mason from Barmouth, Wales needs someone who can give her some acoustic guitar lessons. Mrs Alessia Frith in Caerleon wants somebody who can help her to elevate her guitar playing.
Classical Guitar Lessons Flint
From guitar masters to complete beginners, taking classical guitar lessons in Flint can help you become successful in this interesting genre very quickly. A classical guitar teacher in Flint, with plenty of experience, can get total novices playing music and shaping chords in a few hours of lessons.
It might be the case that you've been thinking of buying a classical guitar and don't know where to start, in this instance a few enjoyable lessons with a professional teacher can help set you off on your exciting journey with this wonderful instrument. Most classical guitar teachers in Flint will be prepared to lend you a guitar during lessons, or even rent them out for you to use at home for a modest monthly fee, to give you the chance to try before you buy. After a few lessons your instructor should then be able to offer advice about what kind of guitar is best for your spending budget, ability and playing style.
Try to look for face to face tuition in Flint where the lessons are paced to your ability and learning targets, however you can also attend group lessons as a more affordable alternative or if you wish to practice your skills. (Tags: Learn Classical Guitar Flint, Classical Guitar Tuition Flint, One-to-One Classical Guitar Lessons Flint, Classical Guitar Lessons Flint).
Guitar Instruction Online
Private one-to-one guitar lessons in Flint are not going to be cheap and you should anticipate paying around £25 for a 1 hour lesson. Cheaper options are out there if you cannot really afford this. A popular strategy right now is to learn on the web, either by studying YouTube videos or signing up for online courses. A number of the web based training courses are really good. Alongside these lessons are some first-rate educational information and the expertise of the course instructors is also great. It might not suit some folks, as you are left to look after yourself. It is easy to get past this problem and at the same time ensure you're not developing any nasty habits, by periodically taking an in-person session with a private teacher in Flint.
Guitar Lessons Near Flint
Also find: Rhes-y-Cae guitar lessons, Bagillt guitar lessons, Shotton guitar lessons, Mount Pleasant guitar lessons, Pentre Ffwrndan guitar lessons, Connahs Quay guitar lessons, Holywell guitar lessons, Bedol guitar lessons, Oakenholt guitar lessons, Nannerch guitar lessons, Brynford guitar lessons, Flint Mountain guitar lessons, Lixwim guitar lessons, Northop guitar lessons, Halkyn guitar lessons and more.
Guitar Lessons Wales
In the Wales area you'll also discover: Abercarn guitar tutors, Church Village guitar classes, Bangor on Dee guitar tuition, Maesteg guitar lessons, Llandysul guitar tutors, Overton guitar tuition, Nefyn guitar tutors, Glyn Neath guitar teachers, Caersws guitar instruction, Rhos on Sea guitar classes, Borth guitar tuition, Tywyn guitar teachers, Llanidloes guitar tuition, Cilgerran guitar tutors, Church Village guitar lessons, Hay on Wye guitar teachers, Bargod guitar classes, Deri guitar lessons, Rhoose guitar tuition, Lampeter guitar instruction, Taffs Well guitar teachers, Rachub guitar classes, Clyro guitar lessons, Coedpoeth guitar lessons, Northop Hall guitar tuition, Bodedern guitar instruction, Mold guitar classes, Glyn Ceiriog guitar tuition, Porth guitar tuition, Penrhyn Bay guitar classes.
Other Lessons Flint
While you are on the lookout for acoustic guitar lessons in Flint, Wales, you could additionally require electric guitar lessons in Flint, flamenco guitar lessons in Flint, piano lessons in Flint, banjo lessons in Flint, saxophone lessons in Flint, ukelele teachers in Flint, singing lessons in Flint, keyboard lessons in Flint, jazz guitar teachers in Flint, bass guitar lessons in Flint, blues guitar teachers in Flint, classical guitar teachers in Flint.
Guitar Lessons Flint
- Flint Guitar Lessons for Kids
- Flint Guitar Teachers
- Flint Beginner Guitar Lessons
- Flint Guitar Tutors
- Flint Bass Guitar Lessons
- Flint Electric Guitar Lessons
- Flint Acoustic Guitar Lessons
- Flint Guitar lessons For Beginners
- Flint Guitar Lessons
- Flint Classical Guitar Lessons
- Flint Guitar Instruction
- Flint Jazz Guitar Lessons
- Flint Guitar Classes
- Flint Guitar Tuition
Around Flint
Guitar lessons were recently given in Deansbury Close, Hazel Court, Edwin Drive, Marian, Acorn Business Park, Balmoral Close, Fourth Avenue, Maes Hyfryd, Manor Drive, Pwll y Hwyaden, Maes Afon, Northop Road, Brookdale Avenue, Cornist Road, Fifth Avenue, Moel Parc, Duke Street, Maes yr Ysgol, Feather Street, Cornist Drive, Beech Grove, Oak Grove, Deva Close, Elm Avenue, Coed Onn Road, Tudor Avenue, Centenary Square, Bron Llwyn, Lon Odyn, Y Farchnad, and in homes with these postcodes: CH6 5AY, CH6 5AP, CH6 5HT, CH6 5NH, CH6 5NS, CH6 5EX, CH6 5SA, CH6 5AH, CH6 5QD, CH6 5RW.
List of publications: The First 100 Chords for Guitar by Joseph Alexander, Music Theory for Guitarists, Guitar For Dummies (Jon Chappell and Mark Phillips), Teach Yourself to Play Guitar (David Brewster), Guitar Player Repair Guide, How to Play Guitar by Ben Parker, How To Play Acoustic Guitar.
For the best local info on Flint, Wales check here
More Wales guitar teachers: Gorseinon, Porthcawl, Cardiff, Prestatyn, Maesteg, Neath, Caerphilly, Barry, Swansea, Rhyl, Cwmbran, Llandudno, Carmarthen, Pontypridd, Tonypandy, Penarth, Llanelli, Wrexham, Port Talbot, Merthyr Tydfil, Aberystwyth, Ebbw Vale, Flint, Colwyn Bay, Aberdare, Bridgend and Newport.
Guitar lessons in CH6 area, 01352.
Acoustic Guitar Lessons Flint - Guitar Tutors Flint - Electric Guitar Lessons Flint - Guitar Instruction Flint - 01352 - Guitar Teachers Flint - Guitar Classes Flint - Learn Guitar Flint - Guitar Lessons Flint


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Worth a thousand words
We're keeping our wedding casual and intimate, but we want to make sure you don't miss the highlights.
If you won't be attending or just want to relive the events of our big day, we've hired an amazing photographer to capture all of the key moments. Stay tuned.
Engagement Photos
Cannon Beach, OR
Photographer: Julie Terekhin


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I can't understand why we can't have double headers for men/women basketball like the OVC did. IMO, it makes more sense for a lot of reasons. Probably some expense savings with facility operations, one time rather than 2 nights for the events staff, somewhat more exposure for the WBB team, and frankly I personally always enjoyed the extra game feature. Minor details like admission charges and times could be easily worked out.
Seeing our MBB team play Wofford one day here and the next day WBB plays there somehow just seems rather strange. Primarily, however, this is just my opinion, and others may have a different viewpoint - evidently the SoCon does.


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Gertrude is an experienced Shepherdess, active in the southwestern region of Carcassonne. She looks the part: a heavily built, grim Woman with short hair and a Longbow. In her time, she has led dozens of small Orc war bands into traps and guided parties of Knights to larger groups.[1a]
She is starting to feel unappreciated. The pay of a shepherd is not great and their social status is not very high. In particular, Gertrude thinks she would like to get married, but no men seem interested. She is thus considering a number of ways to get more Money and find a husband. She might ultimately turn to Outlawry, but she isn't there yet. In the meantime, she is willing to act as a guide for groups of adventurers seeking important sites in the mountains. She demands money up front and a share of the treasure, and she does her job well as long as she thinks she will get paid. If there are any attractive men among the adventurers, they become the subject of her amorous attentions. She does not take insulting rejections well.[1a][1b]


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Neuropathy redirected here pain could be quite exhausting. It is actually one of the most usual kinds of pain. Nevertheless, it is actually treatable and can be regulated.
Medications like anti-inflammatory medications, painkillers, and pain deadlies may be utilized to soothe the pain. These procedures are frequently reliable in controlling discomfort, they might certainly not handle the reason of the neuropathy.
Several people decide on substitute therapies to help all of them alleviate their NPNS. These procedures can easily assist along with both the sensory and emotional part of neuropathic pain.
Homeopathy look at this site may be among the best reliable forms of treatment for NPNS. This strategy of treatment includes the attachment of incredibly thin needle right into the skin layer at specific aspects that create discomfort or even numbness.
Acupuncture can function by boosting the flow of energy to the ruined nerve endings and restoring suitable excitement and task of the soft spot. Along with helping a person to get remedy for neuropathic ache, traditional chinese medicine may aid a patient to lose weight and also boost blood flow in the location of the nerve causing the ache. Additionally, traditional chinese medicine may help with anxiety, tension, and also anxiety also.
Massage is actually another alternate therapy for NPNS. This technique makes use of pressure administered to specific places of the body to assist lessen worry, rest muscular tissues, as well as increase flow.
Neuropathy ache is a popular illness which may be triggered due to lots of explanations. You need to be actually really careful in selecting the best therapy for your pain if you yearn for to prevent it and also get rid of it entirely.
When you pick a procedure, it is important that you should consult with a doctor to begin with to ensure that he can tell you what form of treatment you ought to decide on for your discomfort. It might aid you to recognize that there are actually numerous forms of treatments accessible for neuropathy ache.
Within this write-up, our team will definitely cover some of the several types of treatments that are available for neuropathy discomfort. Our company have listed several of the usual treatments accessible out there today. Our team really hope that through reviewing the post you are going to have the ability to pick the most ideal one for you.
There are pair of types of treatments for neuropathy discomfort. The very first one is actually called traditional treatment as well as the 2nd one is called alternative treatments. The first type of procedure is incredibly popular as a result of its own efficiency in lowering ache.
The traditional therapy features the use of pain medication. Pain medication could be gotten in the nearby establishments and pharmacies. One more choice is to take pain relievers as per the guidelines of your physician.
Actually, this technique is actually really helpful however it is actually also known to trigger negative effects. Therefore, it is actually a lot better if you may choose various other kinds of treatments like acupuncture or chiropractic procedure. Both these procedures are really effective in the long run.
It is also incredibly reliable in the typical procedures. Folks that experience coming from neuropathic ache may use this strategy for a longer period of opportunity. They will certainly acquire the very same end result with the routine consumption of pain killers as well.
Folks that have actually experienced neuropathy discomfort can easily opt for the alternate method of procedure including using pain medication as well as acupuncture. These techniques can decrease the discomfort in a quite short stretch of time as well as the individual will definitely really feel no ache in any way.
There are actually numerous options offered for pain medication for neuropathy ache. You may choose between the pain killers which contain aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen salt, and so on. These medications are actually on call in the local drug stores and also it is a lot better if you acquire all of them online.
These medications can easily ease the ache in your body system, but these medications can easily additionally cause numerous concerns for your health and wellness. You ought to be really cautious about the high quality of the drug before using it.
The discomfort greats may create a lot of side impacts such as unsteadiness, nausea as well as drowsiness. So, it is actually a lot better if you can make use of natural pain medication. As opposed to these medicines, you can additionally select herbal and also herb pain killers.
There are some all-natural cannabis that can easily additionally be used as pain medication. But, they may result in side effects too. Thus, it is actually better if you can take advantage of alternative treatments.
Some of the absolute most preferred pain reliever used for neuropathic discomfort is the herbal tea plant oil. The oil has actually been actually utilized for several years and also currently it has been learnt to become quite reliable.
The oil has tannic acid that aids in soothing the pain. Thus, it is actually constantly advisable for anybody to use this oil consistently.
An additional terrific procedure for neuropathy discomfort is actually to utilize coconut oil. This is actually another form of oil that is made use of in the treatment of all sorts of discomforts.
The oil helps in lessening the ache and it is terrific for all kinds of aches. If you possess neuropathy pain, make certain you select the very most effective option procedure.


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WOW!!! There are some amazing stamp sets in the New Mini Catalogue, so I thought it was time to share a few of my projects.
|This is a great colour combo
|love love love Mustard and grey
|I saw a similar card made by Mikeala Titheridge and just had to make it.
By adding in the Lady from Beautiful You stamp set it makes a wonderful combination
|loved the lady in the previous card and so thought id make my own version .
This is a lovely soft background


text: To all my PHS 1970 classmates…..just 4 weeks from Saturday until we gather to celebrate our 45th class reunion. For those of you who ARE planning to attend – I can't wait to see you ( helped by my progressive lenses). To those who are still thinking about it….PLEASE decide to join us and relive the great and not-so-great moments from so long ago. The reunion committee has worked very long/hard in planning this party but your presence will make it truly memorable. Head counts will be needed before too long – so get those checks/reservations sent in and start the count down to July 18th.


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We can only imagine what this sweet little lady has endured in her life, or what she would have endured in the future, if she had not been found when she was. Like so many other unlucky dogs in the inner city, Star ended up in the hands of someone that never saw her as a living, breathing being that needed love, care, and attention. We've seen it so many times, and most times, it never turns out that this is some long-lost beloved pet. Unfortunately, it is usually an unfortunate dog that was obtained by someone that didn't want a pet, but rather a guard dog, or a source of income. When the dog doesn't turn out to be as protective or profitable as they had hoped, they just put them out on the streets to get hit by a car, starve, or fall into worse hands than they started out in. Thankfully, Star was lucky and was rescued before that could happen.
Star was weak and starving when she arrived at the AHS Newark facility on November 14th. Weighing just 27 pounds, the adult pit bull mix was about 30 pounds underweight. She had open sores on her legs and on her body, and various fresh lacerations and old scars. What she went through in the past, we'll never know, but she sure didn't hold any of it against anyone. This adorable little dog with the skeletal frame was overjoyed to get care and attention from the staff and was so happy to be safe, warm, and fed.
Star spent about a week in AHS Newark where she enjoyed comfy blankets, lots of good meals and medical care, and plenty of love and attention. She has been transferred to AHS/Popcorn Park to continue on with her recovery. In less than two weeks, Star has already put on seven pounds and although she is still under medical care for anemia due to malnutrition and an upper respiratory infection, she just couldn't be happier. She is an extremely sweet, affectionate dog that makes friends with new people instantly. She wants nothing more than to sit on your feet and soak up all the attention you'll give her. We just adore this young girl and are looking forward to the day that she'll be plump, healthy, and ready to move on to a new home.
In the meantime, she's loving life and Star is getting everything that she needs to make a full recovery, thanks to those that contribute to our ResQ Fund. Please consider making a donation to our ResQ Fund because without it, we could never provide for such deserving animals, like Star. We will update again soon on Star's condition and hope that in her next set of pictures, no more ribs will be showing! For info on Star, contact AHS/Popcorn Park at 609-693-1900 and refer to File#42707.
Check out the latest video of Star!
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An Edmonton liquor store clerk, faced with being robbed for the second time this week, took matters into her own hands and helped take down the alleged bandit with some help from passersby.
On Tuesday, a man entered a liquor store at 118 Avenue and 103 Street and allegedly made an attempt to rob it, but was chased out by the unnamed clerk and an untold number of citizens.
The suspect was chased and cornered in a building at 119 Avenue and 105 Street by the crowd, and police arrested him from there.
"It was a good catch by the employee and the citizens that arrested him," said Edmonton Police Service Staff Sgt. Howard Kunce, who couched his praise with remembering the danger of confronting robbers in this manner. "In the interest of public safety, we would never suggest this to anyone."
Robert Jason Crumley, 32, has been charged with four counts of robbery, one of attempted robbery, four weapons offences, one count of theft under $5,000, and eight counts of breach of recognizance.
The man was being investigated for a crime spree dating back to Aug. 20, which includes
robberies of a liquor store, a gas station, a convenience store and a grocery store.


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Sports Injuries
Sports Injuries
Common Causes:
- Sports that commonly can cause injuries
- Football
- Baseball
- Basketball
- Soccer
- Tennis
- Types of Injuries:
- The most typical injury from these sports are sprains in the area of pain.
- Concussions
- Fractures
- A good sign that an injury has occurred is if there is increased swelling and pain in the area.
How can these conditions be treated?
Synergy Pain Relief Center offers several treatment options for a variety of sports injuries. Our office can use massage therapy and manual therapy as well as introducing exercises and stretches that can be done to relieve the pain. We can also treat injuries with the help of durable medical equipment or bracing for that area. If further diagnostics are needed, we will recommend our patients receive imaging. From there we may be able to perform steroid injections in the area to reduce pain in the injured area.
I have experienced a sports injury. Now, what do i do?
That is a great question! If you have just recently experienced a sports injury of any variety, we recommend checking in with your primary care physician or emergency room if necessary. However, if you still continue to experience pain, please feel free to complete the contact form below to schedule your appointment with us today.


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Enschede, The Netherlands
Xsens was founded in 2000 by Casper Peeters and Per Slycke, both University of Twente graduates. Inspired by the possibilities of tiny motion sensors for measurement of the performance of athletes, they specialized themselves in sensor technologies and sensor fusion algorithms.
Xsens is focused on capturing, processing and sharing data on body and motion, and will provide premium solutions for animation; human motion measurement; sports; healthcare and industrial applications, for professional and consumer markets.
Compatible with Xsens MVN Animate
The push for perfect realism in 3D character animations seen in the dynamic worlds of games, film, animation, TV broadcast, and live entertainment means hardware and software remain top of its game and at the fingertips for all production teams. The Prime II Xsens gloves has been specifically developed to work seamlessly with Xsens MVN Animate, the 3D character animation software used by industry professionals the world over.
The 2020 European Games mascot was brought alive by Asterman Digital Production using the Prime Xsens glove together with an Xsens suit. During the official presentation "The Flame of Peace", the 3D-model of the mascot Lesik accompanied the…


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Chemiosmosis and ATP synthesis
The components of non-cyclic phosphorylation are found in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast. Electrons passing through the transport chain provide energy to pump H+ ions from the stroma, across the thylakoid membrane into the thylakoid compartment. H+ ions are more concentrated in the thylakoid compartment than in the stroma. We say there is an electrochemical gradient. H+ ions diffuse from the high to the low regions of concentration. This drives the production of ATP.
Chemiosmosis as it operates in photophosphorylation within a chloroplast
Cyclic phosphorylation
The net effect of non-cyclic phosphorylation is to pass electrons from water to NADP. Energy released enables the production of ATP. But much more ATP is needed to drive the light-independent reactions.
This extra energy is obtained from cyclic phosphorylation. This involves only Photosystem I which generates excited electrons. These are transferred to the electron transport chain between PSII and PSI, rather than to NADP+ and so no NADPH is formed. The cycle is completed by electrons being transported back to PSI by the electron transport system.
The light-independent reactions
In the Light-Independent Process (the Dark reaction) carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (or water for aquatic/marine organisms) is captured and modified by the addition of hydrogen to form carbohydrates. The incorporation of carbon dioxide into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation. The energy for this comes from the first phase of the photosynthetic process. Living systems cannot directly utilize light energy, but can, through a complicated series of reactions, convert it into C-C bond energy that can be released by glycolysis and other metabolic processes.
Carbon dioxide combines with a five-carbon sugar, ribulose 1,5-biphosphate (RuBP). A six-carbon sugar forms but is unstable. Each molecule breaks down to form two glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) molecules.
These glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) molecules are phosphorylated by ATP into glycerate diphosphate molecules.
These are reduced by NADPH to two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GALP).
Of each pair of GALP molecules produced:
- one molecule is the initial end product of photosynthesis; it is quickly converted to glucose and other carbohydrates, lipids or amino acids
- one molecule forms RuBP through a series of chemical reactions
The first steps in the Calvin cycle
The first stable product of the Calvin Cycle is phosphoglycerate (PGA), a 3-C chemical. The energy from ATP and NADPH energy carriers generated by the photosystems is used to phosphorylate the PGA. Eventually there are 12 molecules of glyceraldehyde phosphate (also known as phosphoglyceraldehyde or PGAL, a 3-C), two of which are removed from the cycle to make a glucose. The remaining PGAL molecules are converted by ATP energy to reform six RuBP molecules, and thus start the cycle again.


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Scratch proof flooring will probably be useful for the Floor. It has scratch proof flooring to become your best friend in your Floor. We know that the majority of scratch proof flooring individuals devote their long time in the Floor. You'll find several activities that done scratch proof flooring from the Floor and desire more hours. That's why individuals will need comfortable home furniture for his or her Floor. Chairs with wheels will soon be useful for you because it is going to give you a few added benefits. You will be able to cut back your back pain and knee discomfort because you should at all times sit and endure for many situations. When you employ this seat along with wheel you only have to move to all locations which you would like.
You can find just three forms vinyl flooring ebay of feces height and every has distinct function. Dining table height stool would be vinyl flooring ebay your least expensive and also it is exemplary decision to be utilized in table. The world wide is bar-height feces, and since the name imply, it vinyl flooring ebay is something which you see in pub and restaurant. The centre height is that the Scratch proof flooring. Here is some thing which you want to select in case you often eat on your Floor island.
Though Scratch proof flooring are proven may be last for a long time, it doesn't mean we do jarrah flooring not have to maintain them. We still have to routinely clean the collections so they may seem great and could last for a long time. Below are some basic tactics to care and maintain wooden Floor table and seats. Dusts will scratch timber's shine should they aren't washed frequently. Use damp microfiber fabric to swipe the dust. If you don't have microfiber cloth, you can use older t-shirt. Keep away from dust polish because it contains silicone that can hurt the woods.
Grease blot driftwood flooring is a typical issue in Floor cupboards but it is frequently invisible. You ought to know Scratch proof flooring therefore you can avert the buildup and damages of all those woods. There are a number of ways to clean out the dirt; you could try out the gentlest way to this tougher options. Blend a couple of glasses of hot water 2 tablespoons of dish soap. Scrub the cupboards using the solution and clean fabric. Adhere to the wood grain. Next, wash the sterile area using a sponge and dry with a towel.
Tags: driftwood flooring jarrah flooring laminate flooring scratch-proof


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[RC] cats and snakes - sandy . l . holder
On the subject of snakes: my two wonderful city cats (we moved to 12 acres in March) have been bringing in 'entertainment' for the past couple of months. First it was lizards (all now without tails), then it was birds, then it was mice (great when you have a guest over spending the night) - all of which they bring in to "play with" show us their new hunter skills and then grow bored with (hence we end up having to get them OUT of the house). . . but NOW it's SNAKES!!! They've brought in three so far. The first a nice pretty baby king snake, and the last TWO baby rattlesnakes (did I mention that Snakes are the one thing I can't STAND). I didn't even know that baby rattlesnakes didn't have rattles until one struck at the cat (the cat thought it was fun to get out of it's way) and showed its fangs. Thank God I have two 19 year old sons that think it's "cool" to catch them. They haven't found the exact nest but have already found 3 of them, the first one inside the house - compliments of the cats - the second one outside (they chased the cat out with it), again compliments of our lovely felines and the third where we think the nest must have been. . . oh, and talk about FAST snakes. I love living in the country - except for the snakes.
I've thought about hiring out the boys but given that they're having fun at what they're doing, I think I'll pass. . . something about luck and chance (if you have fun at something and get lucky at doing it, eventually the chance of getting hurt will catch up with you).
Good luck,
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COVID-19 SHIPPING UPDATE: Shipping worldwide! Orders are shipping daily but due to reduced air capacity & increased mail volumes we just need your patience in the event of any postal service delivery delays during this time.
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Make 4 payments of $5.50 over 8 weeks and get it now!In Stock
Label: Prosthetic
Year: 2018
Cat #: PROS103492
Format: CD Jewel Case Sealed
Second full length album from US apocalyptic, misanthropic blackend death metal grindcore band Languish.
Noise filled overtones, blistering blast beats and death metal riffs make up this 15 track, full-on aural assault on humanity.
Track Listing:
1. Raze
2. Nurv
3. Urges Fulfilled
4. Recommence
5. Malignancy
6. Goliath
7. Unworthy
8. Chopping Block
9. Unholy Land
10. Pawn of God
11. The Blinding Light of Purgatory
12. Hung and Butchered
13. Soft Will
14. Rake
15. Famine
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CBS Evening News for Friday, Jun 20, 1980
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(Studio) Conflict between federal and state govts. over clean-up cost of Mount Saint Helens volcano outlined; scientist's warning about mount's current behavior noted.
REPORTER: Bob Schieffer
(Portland, OR) Present situation on and around Mount Saint Helens examined; films shown. [US Geological Survey spokesperson Tom CASADEVALL - comments.] New underground geysers reported in Spirit Lake. [CASADEVALL - explains strata record of May 18 eruption.] Potential for further eruptions considered.
REPORTER: David Dow
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Submitted by user Jebedaia; MIT; 2020-06-13
Rakugo is framework (inspired by Ren'Py) for story driven games in Godot. It is a Story Management Plugin. The idea is to have a ready to use plug-in for stories, so developers can create narrative driven games with all the amazing features and tools of Godot 3.1+.
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