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Pat Michaels: scientist, energy industry lackey, Washington Post contributor
On May 16, The Washington Post published an opinion piece [1] in its Sunday "Outlook" section about The Day After Tomorrow [2] -- the upcoming Hollywood film depicting a nightmare scenario in which global warming causes severe and sudden weather to ravage North America -- by Patrick J. Michaels, a staunch critic of global climate change theory whom one climate scientist compared to a member of the Flat Earth Society. Liberal advocacy groups such as MoveOn.org have touted [3] the film, calling it "The Movie the White House Doesn't Want You to See" and explaining that, "[w]hile 'The Day After Tomorrow' is more science fiction than science fact," the film nevertheless offers an occasion for serious public discussion of global warming. MoveOn.org also warned, "The right wing has already cranked up its PR machine to discredit the movie as 'fright flick' propaganda cooked up by climate change conspiracy theorists." Michaels's 1,700-word commentary on the front page of The Washington Post's Sunday "Outlook" section is a case in point.
Patrick J. Michaels [4] is senior researcher in environmental studies at the Cato Institute; research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia; author of two books on global warming, The Satanic Gases and Sound and Fury: The Science and Politics of Global Warming; and editor of World Climate Report, a biweekly newsletter on climate studies funded in large part by the coal industry. According to a 1998 article [5] by Institute for Public Accuracy executive director Norman Solomon, the Cato Institute has received financial support from energy companies -- including Chevron Companies, Exxon Company, Shell Oil Company, and Tenneco Gas, as well as the American Petroleum Institute, Amoco Foundation, and Atlantic Richfield Foundation. According to his bio [4] on the Cato website, Michaels is a visiting scientist at the George C. Marshall Institute [6] (GMI) in Washington, DC. The nonpartisan Congressional Quarterly calls the Marshall Institute "a Washington-based think tank supported by industry and conservative foundations that focuses primarily on trying to debunk global warming as a threat." According to an ExxonMobil report [7], the ExxonMobil Foundation donated $80,000 to the Marshall Institute's Global Climate Change [8] Program in 2002. [The ExxonMobil report [7] wrote "George C. Marshall Foundation, Washington, D.C." (rather than "George C. Marshall Institute [6]"); Media Matters for America concluded that this was a typographical error on the part of ExxonMobil, as there is an organization named the George C. Marshall Foundation [9], but it does not have a Climate Change [8] program and it is located in Lexington, VA (not Washington, DC).]
Journalist Ross Gelbspan has also documented Michaels's more direct ties to the energy industry; in the December 1995 Harper's Magazine, Gelbspan wrote [10]: "Michaels has received more than $115,000 over the last four years from coal and energy interests. World Climate Review, a quarterly he founded that routinely debunks climate concerns, was funded by [the coal producer and electricity co-op] Western Fuels". (World Climate Review's successor publication is World Climate Report [11], and the latter is also funded by the energy industry). All these companies have a financial stake in opposing policies that seek to combat global warming by limiting carbon emissions.
Michaels is part of a small and dwindling cadre of scientists who remain skeptical about the effect of human activities on global warming and the seriousness of the potential impact. An article [12] from the Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security -- a liberal-leaning policy and research institute -- recounted a 2003 incident in which Michaels threatened to sue a fellow scientist Peter Gleick, after Gleick told [13] The Star Press of Muncie, Indiana, that Michaels "is one of a very small minority of nay-sayers who continue to dispute the facts and science about climate change in the face of compelling, overwhelming, and growing evidence. ... I consider that Michaels is to the science of climate change like the Flat Earth Society is to the science of planetary shape." The Pacific Institute article [14] also quoted Harvard University professor John Holdren, who told [15] the U.S. Senate Republican Policy Committee, "Michaels is another of the handful of U.S. climate-change contrarians, but lacks [MIT professor and fellow contrarian] Richard Lindzen's scientific stature. He has published little if anything of distinction in the professional literature, being noted rather for his shrill op-ed pieces and indiscriminate denunciations of virtually every finding of mainstream climate science."
In his Washington Post opinion piece, Michaels attacked the science behind the new film; in the final eight paragraphs, he broadened the attack to a general critique of concerns about global climate change and efforts to address global warming concern through public policy. Michaels expressed hope that the movie would not undermine public support for President George W. Bush's energy policy in favor of more aggressive measures to control carbon emissions favored by Democrats. He concluded the article by citing the 1979 film The China Syndrome as an example of a pseudo-scientific film that influenced energy policy -- for the worse, in his opinion -- by souring the public on nuclear power, and then asked: "Did implausible fiction influence our national energy system? Democrats with their eye on the presidency are no doubt fervently hoping that it did."
In publishing Michaels's critique of the film, the Post provided Michaels with a forum for airing views that hail from the fringe of mainstream scientific thought. His commentary offers another example of what science reporter Chris Mooney [16] identified as the media's tendency, in the name of balance, to provide a platform for uncritical presentation of theories that are given little credence in serious science literature. From Mooney's May 6 column [17] on the Center for American Progress's website:
[W]ith a few exceptions, the views of conservative contrarians on the climate issue rarely find anything more than superficial support in the peer reviewed literature. However, the media allow these contrarians to get around this problem and keep debate alive through non-scientific channels. On newspaper op-ed pages and in he-said, she-said exchanges presented by news reporters, contrarians battle back against the scientific consensus. They're entirely in their element: Newspaper op-ed pages don't practice scientific quality control.
With Michaels's commentary, The Washington Post took this practice a step further, omitting any counterpoint to Matthews's views on the gravity of global warming and any hint about Michaels's own history as a global warming contrarian. In the May 16 opinion piece [1], the Post identified Pat Michaels as "senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute and author of the upcoming book Meltdown: The Predictable Exaggeration of Global Warming by Scientists, Politicians, and the Media (Cato Books)." (Michaels's latest book, to be released in September, is titled -- according to Amazon.com [18] and a recent Michaels article [19] on the Cato website -- Meltdown: The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists, Politicians, and the Media.)
- Posted In
- Environment & Science [20], Climate Change [21]


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Cell Biology Courses
For the current courses and descriptions please follow the link to Yale University Degree-Granting Departments and Programs.
502 a/b, Molecules to System
Peter Takizawa, Thomas Lentz, Fred Gorelick, and staff
This full-year course is designed to provide medical students with a current and comprehensive review of biologic structure and function at the cellular, tissue, and organ system levels. Areas covered in the first semester include replication and transcription of the genome; regulation of the cell cycle and mitosis; protein biosynthesis and membrane targeting; cell motility and the cytoskeleton; signal transduction; nerve and muscle function. The second semester of the course covers cell and tissue organization of organ systems including respiratory, renal, gastrointestinal, endocrine, and reproductive systems. Clinical correlation sessions, which illustrate the contributions of cell biology to specific medical problems, are interspersed in the lecture schedule. Histophysiology laboratories provide practical experience with an understanding of exploring cell and tissue structure. This course is offered only to M.D. and M.D./Ph.D. students. This course runs from September to mid-May and is equivalent to three graduate credits.
Fred Gorelick, James Jamieson, and staff
This course emphasizes the connections between diseases and basic science using a lecture and seminar format. It is designed for students who are committed to a career in medical research, those who are considering such a career, or students who wish to explore scientific topics in depth. The first half of the course is organized in four- to five-week blocks that topically parallel CBIO 502a/b. Examples of blocks from past years include "Diseases of protein folding" and "Diseases of ion channels." Each topic is introduced with a lecture given by the faculty. The lecture is followed by sessions in which students review relevant manuscripts under the supervision of a faculty mentor. The second half of the course focuses on the relationship of basic science to disease processes while emphasizing translational and clinical research. In addition, sessions are devoted to academic careers and cover subjects such as obtaining an academic position, promotions, and grant writing. The course is open to M.D. and M.D./Ph.D. students who are taking or have taken CBIO 502a/b. Student evaluations are based on attendance, participation in group discussions, formal presentations, and a written review of an NIH proposal. This course runs from September to mid-May and is equivalent to three graduate credits. M 4–5:30
Sandra Wolin, Thomas Melia, Thomas Pollard, Craig Crews, and faculty
A comprehensive introduction to the molecular and mechanistic aspects of cell biology for graduate students in all programs. Emphasizes fundamental issues of cellular organization, regulation, biogenesis, and function at the molecular level. MW 1:45–3
Sandra Wolin, Thomas Melia, Thomas Pollard, and faculty
A graduate-level seminar course in modern cell biology. The class is devoted to the reading and critical evaluation of classical and current papers. The topics are coordinated with the CBIO 602a lecture schedule. Thus, concurrent or previous enrollment in CBIO 602a is required. Th 9–11
Carl Hashimoto, Daniel Colón-Ramos, and faculty
Introduction to the organization and function of cells within complex multicellular systems as encountered in the human body. Covers major tissues and organs as well as the cardiovascular, immune, and nervous systems, with special emphasis on the molecular and cellular bases of developmental processes and human diseases. Lectures supplemented by electronic-based tutorials on the histology of tissues and organs. T 9:30–10:30, Th 9:30–11
Derek Toomre, Karin Reinisch, and faculty
This seminar course, which meets once weekly, covers advanced topics in cell biology. Each topic is spread over two or three sessions, which start with an introductory overview and are followed by a discussion of key papers led by an expert in the field. Special emphasis is given to application of state-of-the-art imaging techniques to topical areas covering a wide range of contemporary cell biology. T 4–6
701b, Illuminating Cellular Function
Derek Toomre and faculty
Introduction to the principles and practical methods of live cell imaging. Covers principles of fluorescent microscopy (including genetically encoded probes and physiological indicators), image formation, image detection, and image analysis. Includes hands-on demonstrations of state-of-the-art instrumentation, such as video-rate confocal and multi-photon microscopes
CBIO 900a and 901b/GENE 900a and 901b/MCDB 900a and 901b, First-Year Introduction to Research
Carl Hashimoto, Charles Radding, Frank Slack, and faculty
Lab rotations, grant writing, and ethics for Molecular Cell Biology, Genetics, and Development track students.


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Plenty of Room at the Bottom?
By William G. Eberhard, William T. Wcislo
Tiny animals maintain oversized brains, shedding light on brain evolution.
Tiny animals maintain oversized brains, shedding light on brain evolution.
A basic fact of life is that the size of an animal's brain depends to some extent on its body size. A long history of studies of vertebrate animals has demonstrated that the relationship between brain and body mass follows a power-law function. Smaller individuals have relatively larger brains for their body sizes.
This scaling relationship was popularized as Haller's Rule by German evolutionary biologist Bernhard Rensch in 1948, in honor of Albrecht von Haller, who first noticed the relationship nearly 250 years ago. Little has been known, however, about relative brain size for invertebrates such as insects, spiders and nematodes, even though they are among Earth's more diverse and abundant animal groups. But a recent wave of studies of invertebrates confirms that Haller's Rule applies to them as well, and that it extends to much smaller body sizes than previously thought.
These tiny animals have been able to substantially shift their allometric lines—that is, the relationship between their brain size and their overall body size—from those of vertebrates and other invertebrates. Animals that follow a given allometric line belong to the same grade and changes from one grade to another are known as grade shifts. The result is that different taxonomic groups have different, variant, versions of Haller's Rule.
The mechanisms that are responsible for grade shifts are only beginning to be understood. But this combination of generality and variability in Haller's Rule appears to call into question some basic assumptions regarding the uniformity of how the central nervous system functions among animals. It also reveals a number of overlooked design challenges faced by tiny organisms. Because neural tissue is metabolically expensive, minute animals must pay relatively higher metabolic costs to power their proportionally larger brains, and they thus face different ecological challenges. There is reason to expect that tiny animals might cut corners wherever possible, for example by adopting lifestyles that are behaviorally less demanding. Yet available evidence indicates that at least some small-bodied animals express the same kinds of behavior as their large-bodied relatives.
Biologists have tended to ignore the lower limits of body size and the physiological processes that are associated with evolutionary decreases in brain mass. Instead they have focused on evolutionary increases in brain size, and its possible links to intelligence and other mental processes. And almost all of the current data have come from adults. But problems associated with the demands of a relatively large nervous system in a small animal are not limited to taxa with miniaturized adults. Many species have extremely small immature stages that are free-living, and whose growth and survival depends on their behavioral capabilities.
The new data on invertebrate brain allometry have several important implications. They challenge vertebrate-based hypotheses that were proposed to explain Haller's Rule that invoked factors such as surface-volume relations, longevity and metabolic rates. They also challenge the idea, again derived from studies of vertebrates, that animals with relatively and absolutely larger brains have more sophisticated behavioral abilities and mental capabilities. For these reasons, the time is ripe for exploring the ways that central nervous systems are organized at very small scales, within constraints that differ from those of large-bodied organisms.
By focusing on evolutionary increases in brain size, biologists have generally overlooked a basic miniaturization problem that follows from Haller's Rule: Where can a relatively large brain fit in a small body? In salamanders and fish, for example, the brain is housed within a cavity formed by skull bones. In miniaturized forms, some of these bones are lost or reduced in size, freeing up room for the relatively large brain. Arthropods have external skeletons, which they can deform to some extent to create more internal space. A nymph of the orb-weaving spider, Anapisona simoni, with a body mass of less than 0.005 milligram, appears as a speck of dust to the unaided eye. In these minute orb weavers, nearly 80 percent of the cephalothorax is filled with the brain. To house their relatively large brains, minute spiders (including tiny spiderlings of species with large-bodied adults) have a conspicuous outward bulge in the sternum, which increases the internal volume of the cephalothorax, where brain tissue is housed. In some species of spiders and mites, the relatively large brain takes up so much room that it overflows into the legs, giving new meaning to the phrase "thinking on your feet."
In some groups of tiny insects, such as strepsipterans, the shape of the brain is modified to pack it tightly against internal structures and muscles. Although the "brain" is conventionally construed to be that part of the central nervous system that is housed in the head, some tiny beetles and other insects blur this distinction because they displace some or all of their large brains from the head to the thorax or even to the abdomen. In general the anatomical trade-offs that result from the displacement of other tissues have not been identified, nor have their costs been determined. The design changes imply that some features are sometimes sacrificed to house enlarged central nervous systems in very small animals, which may play a role in setting the lower limits of body size in a given taxon. A minute hooded beetle (Sericoderus; Corylophidae), for example, has fewer muscles in its head and thorax than do larger related beetles. The space taken up by the enlarged brain of a nymph of the jumping spider Phidippus clarus comes at the cost of reduced space for digestive diverticula. In both cases it is likely that there are as yet undetermined costs associated with these changes. If, for instance, it were advantageous for an adult spider to have digestive tissue in the cephalothorax, then a similar design would seem likely to have been advantageous for a nymph if it were not encumbered with a relatively large brain.
Another approach to solving the housing problem would be to reduce neuron size, thus reducing overall brain size while maintaining similar numbers of neurons and the degree of connectivity. The sparse available data suggest, however, that such adjustments are incomplete, and that within any given taxon, smaller animals usually have fewer neurons. Reductions in neuron size are possible, but only to a point. Nobel laureate physicist Richard Feynman discussed general limitations regarding storing and retrieving information at extremely small scales and concluded that "there's plenty of room at the bottom" when building artificial information-processing systems at nanoscales. In biology, however, neuron-based information-processing systems bottom out at sizes where Feynman just gets going. There is a theoretical lower physical limit on the functional diameter of an axon (about 0.1 micron). Below this size, an axon can no longer transmit reliable information because the signal is swamped by noise from spontaneous depolarizations of the membranes. In addition, the minimum size of a neuron cell body is limited by the size of its nucleus, which in turn is limited by the animal's genome size. The nucleus comprises up to 80 to 90 percent of the volumes of small neuron cell bodies in tiny insects. One route to miniaturization among arthropods would be to delete chromosomes, pack the chromatin more tightly or eliminate the nucleus, which would permit a smaller neuron. Such modifications had been documented in vertebrates but were unknown in invertebrates until just recently. Alexy Polilov of Lomonosov Moscow State University has shown that most of the neurons of minute parasitic wasps, Megaphragma sp. (Trichogrammatidae), with body lengths of 170 to 200 micrometers, lack nuclei. The pupal central nervous system has about 7,400 nuclei, but near the end of pupal development most neuronal cell bodies break open, or lyse, and lose their nuclei. The adult central nervous system, therefore, has about 7,000 cells without nuclei, and only 339 to 372 cells with nuclei, of which only 179 to 253 are in the brain.
Lysis also is associated with volumetric changes in the nervous system. The pupal brain volume of about 93,600 cubic micrometers decreases to 52,200 cubic micrometers in the adult. In addition, numerous folds are present in the cuticle of the back of the head, the occipital area, and the size of the head capsule in this area is reduced. Remarkably, the central nervous system of M. mymaripenne has orders of magnitude fewer neurons in comparison with other flying insects, such as Musca flies, which have 340,000 neurons. A somewhat larger trichogrammatid wasp, Trichogramma evanescens, for example, has 37,000 neurons in just one part of the brain, the supraesophageal ganglia. Despite their extreme central nervous system modifications, Megaphragma wasps nevertheless perform behavior such as mating, flying, host searching and recognition, although the details have not been studied. The kinds of compensatory mechanisms that enable this behavior with only a greatly reduced number of neurons, most of which lack nuclei, are not known.
Energetically, the brain is a gas-guzzler, as neural tissue is more expensive to run than most other tissues. Humans, for example, have brains that account for slightly more than 2 percent of our biomass, but they burn up more than 15 percent of our basal metabolic energy. In addition, the density of information processing is greater in a smaller brain when it is performing the same operations as a larger brain and is thus more costly on a unit basis. These differences imply that the strength of natural selection for energetic efficiency may be more intense in small than in large species, especially within a given grade. They also raise the question of how tiny animals pay these high energetic costs.
With respect to information processing, animals might adopt several non-exclusive strategies to reduce costs. One, the size limitation option, is to reduce behavioral capacities and thus reduce the amount of neural tissue needed to sustain behavior. Another is the oversized brain option, which involves maintaining behavioral capacities and bearing the high metabolic costs of an enlarged central nervous system. And then there is the economy-of-design option, or modifying the properties of neurons and neural networks to increase behavioral capability per unit of nervous tissue. The last option could allow smaller animals to produce comparable behavior without investing in large nervous systems.
There are several ways that animals might achieve economy of design and thus economize on the energy budgets of their brains. All animals have sensory receptors that are tuned to specific inputs to improve their efficiency. Matched filters take advantage of mechanical properties of sensors and stimuli to filter sensory input without expending energy to do so, which reduces processing expenses at the receptor and at higher central nervous system levels. Many insects, for example, are highly sensitive to polarized light, a trait associated with the physical alignment of rhodopsin molecules in the microvillar membranes of photoreceptors. There are numerous other possible opportunities to reduce central nervous system costs, such as a heavier reliance on analog transmission and graded depolarizations, which work at small distances and are energetically more efficient than the action potentials that many other animals use for communication among neurons. Another example includes the use of the same neurons for multiple tasks, such as both sensory and motor functions, as is common in nematodes. Neuromodulation may be used more frequently by small animals. That involves altering the effects of a neuronal circuit by exposing it to different chemical environments, producing different behaviors. Nematodes frequently use muscle plates that allow a single synaptic process to stimulate multiple muscles. Still other strategies include the indirect control of cilia through muscles; a reduction in the relative numbers of interneurons, which transmit signals from one neuron to another as opposed to sensory and motor neurons; and the rearrangement of neuron positions and connections in order to minimize the total length of axons and dendrites. That last design is analogous to an architect holding down building costs by minimizing the length of wire needed to provide electricity throughout a house. The nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has been analyzed with respect to an optimal design in this save-wire aspect. The trend toward greater fusion of different ganglia in the central nervous system of minute insects may also be related to this type of efficiency. The relative frequencies of such design features in large versus small animals are not known.
Other possibly important differences in small nervous systems involve the neurons themselves. In at least some groups, the dendrites of smaller neurons are themselves smaller and said to be less complex. Nearly 100 years ago, insect neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal produced pioneering—and beautiful—studies of the nervous systems of insects. He found insect neurons to be more elaborate than those of vertebrates, and likened the neuroanatomy of an insect to a "fine pocket watch," as opposed to the "rough grandfather clock" neuroanatomy of a vertebrate. In general, the functional significance of these neuroanatomical differences is not well understood, but we expect that they represent promising starting points for future research.
Design economies could also occur at the behavioral level but are even less studied. Robotic engineers incorporate behavioral design features to minimize the input needed to generate information about the external world in order to achieve desired outcomes. A rigid hierarchy of relatively simple behavioral subroutines can facilitate goal-directed behavior if subroutines are serially ordered to maximize desired motor output per bit of sensory input. For instance, grasping a randomly positioned object is a difficult task that requires a series of visual-to-motor transformations. In robots this task is rendered easier computationally if a robot executes a subroutine to turn and face the object, triggering a second subroutine to move to a specified distance from it. Grasping it from a standard distance and direction simplifies the task. The possibility that small animals are more likely to use such behavioral designs has, to our knowledge, never been checked.
Grade changes reflect increases or decreases in the slopes and elevations of brain-body scaling relationships in different taxa. Evolutionary transitions between grades are poorly understood, but are obviously crucial to understanding how nervous systems function and how the diverse array of animal body sizes has evolved. Most previous discussions of grade changes have emphasized evolutionary transitions toward larger body size and more highly encephalized forms, probably due to a general fascination with the possible implications for greater intelligence. The new invertebrate data highlight evolutionary changes in the opposite direction—miniaturization—and the attendant central nervous system design problems at minute body sizes. A grade change can make it possible for much smaller body sizes to evolve than would have been possible if the animals had continued to use the slopes and elevations of brain-body lines from the previous grades. For example, if a 1-milligram animal used the scaling rule used by salamanders, it would have a brain that constituted a prohibitive 20 percent of its body, a proportion that is larger than that of any known animal. Grade shifts suggest that some particular taxa of small-sized animals, such as ants, have apparently solved scaling problems that seemed insuperable for animals of larger-sized taxa, although they do not explain how or why.
The changes in design that are associated with most grade shifts remain to be worked out, but it is likely that they are at least sometimes associated with the evolution of new neural design mechanisms. This can be illustrated by comparing two groups that are extremely different—the neuron-miserly nematodes, and the neuron-profligate vertebrates. The nematode C. elegans has a nervous system with only 302 neurons, and some other nematodes and tiny invertebrates have even lower numbers. Each C. elegans neuron has only about 25 synapses, and the neurons are connected in highly consistent and relatively simple ways.
The contrast between the brain of a nematode and that of a human could hardly be greater. Our brains have astronomical numbers of neurons, an estimated 85,000,000,000; huge numbers of synapses per neuron, such as 10,000 per pyramidal cell in the cortex; and extremely high degrees of connectivity. For example, there are roughly 101,000,000 possible circuits in the human cortex alone, which prompted Nobel laureate Gerald Edelman to describe the human brain as "the jungle in the head." The functioning of our brain depends on populations of neurons—on the activity patterns in recurrently interconnected populations of neurons—rather than on the activity of individual cells. The activity of individual neurons is neither consistent nor useful in processing information, and patterned activity of neuronal populations can emerge in alternative ways from different subsets of the population. A single dysfunctional neuron can thus be inconsequential for a vertebrate but catastrophic for a nematode. The loss of one particular neuron in C. elegans, for instance, brings evolutionary fitness to zero because it leaves females unable to lay eggs.
The striking visual resemblance between the circuits on a computer chip and a wiring diagram of nerve fibers in the ventral nerve cord of a nematode draws attention to the computer-like traits of a nematode's nervous system, with its fixed number of neurons with invariant connections. This design stands in contrast to the decidedly noncomputer-like traits of vertebrate nervous systems. The processes by which these two extreme types of nervous systems are built up as an organism grows are also strikingly different. Growth of the vertebrate nervous system is characterized by an extraordinary overproduction of neurons in young stages, followed by selective pruning of inactive neurons and synapses. The extent to which neurons die during development varies among, and within, species. For example, the percentage of retinal ganglion cells that die during development varies from 80 percent in cats to 60 to 70 percent in rats, mice, rhesus monkeys and humans, and to approximately 40 percent in chickens and amphibians. Selective pruning of neurons in nematodes is, on the other hand, nearly nonexistent. In C. elegans a total of 8 of 310 neurons, 2.6 percent, are discarded as the animal matures, and they are always exactly the same cells, resulting in the 302 neurons of the adult hermaphrodite; there is no indication that use or disuse is a factor influencing cell death. Similarly, a second instar spiderling and an adult of the orb weaver Argiope aurantia have approximately the same number of neuronal cells, despite an approximately 24-fold difference in total brain volume. Such extreme contrasts raise the possibility that nervous system function differs profoundly in different parts of the animal kingdom, in contrast to the generality of much of biochemistry, molecular genetics and molecular development. The miserly design typified by nematodes may represent adaptations that permitted the evolution of miniature body sizes.
The common supposition derived from vertebrates—that animals in lower grades are necessarily inferior or less capable in their behavior—is not well supported by facts. Among adult orb-weaving spiders that vary in body mass by 400,000 times, including those near the lower size limit for spiders, there is no evidence of inferior performance with respect to the precision of executing certain web construction behaviors or the ability to adjust web designs to local conditions or to build alternative web designs. Qualitative observations also suggest that size limitation of behavior fails to explain some other grade differences, such as that between honey bees and salamanders. Miniature salamanders and honey bees have approximately the same body size, but the latter fall on an allometric line lower than that of the salamander. A honey bee is nevertheless capable of such feats as navigating using landmarks and polarized sunlight that is adjusted for time of day; learning complex patterns involving different sensory modalities or general concepts such as different or similar and above or below; and using language to tell nest mates where to find food. It would be difficult to defend the argument that a honey bee is behaviorally inferior to a miniature salamander.
Even the neuroanatomically simple nematodes behave in ways that are not fundamentally different from many animals with many more neurons. For example, C. elegans senses and responds to various stimuli, including physical contact with environmental objects, and perceives various chemicals, oxygen concentration, osmolarity, pH, temperature, light and pheromones. These various inputs are used to coordinate motor output, and to evaluate conditions such as the density and sex of conspecifics. Motor outputs include different movements for swimming and for crawling on a surface, for turning or reversing those movements or for altering them after fixed time periods. These animals orient and move toward or away from point stimuli; forage for food, engulf it, perform rhythmic swallowing movements and defecate; seek mates, copulate and lay eggs. In addition, nematodes can learn to modify a variety of motor behaviors on the basis of their experience.
The idea that grade changes are associated with differences in behavioral capabilities in different species stems from an assumed correlation between brain size and behavioral capabilities. Comparative studies have often been confounded by the use of imprecise, difficult-to-define behavioral metrics such as intelligence. And an important question remains unanswered: How do we quantify and compare behavior in biologically meaningful ways across different taxa? The size of an animal's behavioral repertoire has sometimes been used as a quantitative measure of a species' behavioral complexity. This intuitively appealing idea suffers from several problems. In a pioneering study relating behavior to head and brain size in ants, Blaine Cole, now at the University of Houston, highlighted some of them. Such a metric relies on subjective decisions to distinguish specific behaviors, and faces a problem common in artificial classification systems. Observers who are "splitters" will recognize a larger number of behaviors than those who are "lumpers." In addition, repertoire comparisons rely on a number of unverified assumptions: that each behavior is equally demanding in terms of neural system processing, that behaviors called the same thing in different species are equally demanding and that rare behaviors, which are more likely to be missed by observers, are not drivers of brain evolution. It's also assumed that the speed and precision with which a given behavior is performed is the same in different species and that the environmental influences shaping behavioral expression are minimal. It also makes the unlikely supposition that laboratory colonies will reveal the full repertoire of important behaviors.
These problems have led some researchers to adopt other metrics, such as the frequency of mistakes when making decisions, or the degree of precision in adjusting behavior to other variables. These traits can be compared more consistently across diverse species. Behavioral precision, the ability to accurately and consistently reproduce the same behavior, has been hypothesized to be less developed in relatively small-brained animals. Mistakes or imprecision might arise in smaller animals in several ways. For one, they have fewer sensory receptors, and thus should have decreased sensory input and hence less reliable information about the environment. They have less thorough processing of sensory inputs because of fewer interneurons or dendrites. Motor output or coordination among different limbs may be compromised by reduced feedback from proprioceptors, which sense stimuli from within a body, or from increased noise in the nervous system. The available data from tiny orb weaving spiders do not suggest behavioral limitations and are not consistent with the size-limitation hypothesis. Tiny spiders are morphologically modified to house a relatively enlarged brain, suggesting that they have adopted strategies consistent with the over-sized brain alternative we have described. The generality of this finding is currently unknown, however, because of the lack of comparative data. Other behaviors have not yet been thoroughly explored in spiders and other tiny animals. One that might be meaningfully compared among different species is the ability to learn and remember different types of lessons.
Finally, the use of overly inclusive measurements, such as overall brain size, rather than measurements of regions involved directly in behavioral tasks, can confound comparisons among species. Bats, for example, rely on hearing to a greater extent than we do. Due to body size differences, our subcortical auditory brain region is vastly larger than that of bats, so overall size is not informative. Relative size, however, reveals that the subcortical auditory region of the bat brain comprises 1.6 percent of total brain volume, versus 0.015 percent in humans. The problem of associating behavior with particular brain regions is exacerbated by cultural differences among scientific disciplines. Studies on behavior often take a comparative approach and include data from diverse species. Neurobiological studies are more often focused on a very small number of so-called model organisms that are studied under laboratory conditions, where they express a much smaller range of behaviors than in nature. Indeed, one recent study showed that approximately 75 percent of the research efforts of neuroscientists, as judged by numbers of publications, were directed at only three species—the mouse, the rats, and the human. When compared with a recent estimate of 7.7 million animal species worldwide, that is about 3.9 x 10-5 percent of animal biodiversity.
Problems associated with miniaturization are much more general than they might first appear. In addition to the many species with miniaturized adults, there are many more species with moderate-sized adults that have very small, free-living, immature stages. A mature female of the giant golden-orb-weaver Nephila clavipes weighs on the order of 2,000 milligrams, for example, but each of her newly emerged spiderlings weighs only 0.7 milligram and has tell-tale adjustments to small size, including extensions of its brain into a bulging sternum and into its legs. The ecological problems relating to energy intake and expenditure of smaller, young individuals are likely to be different from those of larger conspecific adults. Because of their higher metabolic costs, smaller animals may be more likely to be living on the edge of energetic limitations and less buffered against temporary food shortages. An increased susceptibility to unfavorable energy balances could have significant biological repercussions, such as limiting an animal's geographic distribution or its ability to survive food shortages or other stresses, and might select for alternative ecological strategies. Parasitic wasps (Hymenoptera) that use insect eggs as hosts are among the smallest known adult insects, perhaps because their larvae hatch into a host environment that contains all the necessary nutrients, thus permitting greatly reduced egg sizes and lower energy reserves.
Small immature stages of species may represent the leading edge of evolutionary innovations to solve size-related physiological problems as a lineage evolves toward smaller body size. Are grade changes associated with innovations that result in energetic efficiencies in the central nervous system? For instance, weevils have a low allometric brain-body line compared with many other insects. Are there economies of design that make their nervous systems more efficient in generating behavioral abilities? And are these efficiencies associated with the evolutionary and ecological success of weevils, one of the most speciose taxa of all animals? Answers to such questions are unknown, in part because they are rarely asked. We agree with Princeton biologist John Bonner, who emphasizes in a recent book that "size matters" in ecology and evolution. An understanding of the evolution of brain form and function requires comprehensive data on neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, behavior and ecology from a diverse array of species, not just a few models. Studies dealing with the nervous systems and behavior of very small animals are likely to reveal phenomena not seen in the larger animals that are typically studied. Tremendous opportunities await for neuroethological studies of taxa with miniature animals, and syntheses of data and ideas from disparate fields such as brain allometry, animal behavior, ecology, neurobiology, classic invertebrate zoology and molecular and developmental biology. An understanding of the patterns and processes involved in evolutionary decreases in body and brain size is also likely to illuminate those associated with evolutionary size expansion, and both are likely to further our understanding of crucial evolutionary transitions from one evolutionary grade to another.
We can't conclude this discussion of brain and body sizes without acknowledging that we have ignored the proverbial 500-pound gorilla lurking in the room throughout this discussion. We have examined many different consequences of Haller's Rule, but we have given no explanation for why the rule should be true. Why should organisms ranging from the different castes of ants in a single nest, from primates to salamanders to beetles, so consistently have relatively larger brains when they have smaller bodies? The new invertebrate data help by ruling out some previous explanations that were only reasonable for particular groups of vertebrates. But we do not have an alternative general explanation. It is very unusual in biology that such a general trend as Haller's Rule should have such a depauperate array of hypotheses lined up as possible explanations. More often the problem is having too many competing ideas to test. Understanding why Haller's Rule is so generally true is likely to be important in answering central questions regarding the evolution of the central nervous system and how and why different grade changes evolved.
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Sustainable Development
UNDP works to reduce poverty by promoting inclusive and sustainable human development. We focus our efforts on making growth and trade benefit everyone in developing countries. Unless economic growth is inclusive, it will not reduce poverty, improve equality and produce jobs. Inclusive growth is also essential for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Agenda 2030.
UNDP-EU partnership
Inclusive and sustainable human development is a central part of development policies and strategies of both UNDP and the EU. Together, we work to make real improvements in people's lives, opening up their choices and opportunities. The partnership is multifaceted and covers all the developing regions of the world.more
Agriculture helps eradicate rural poverty
EU-UNDP initiative helps to boost the agricultural potential of Georgia, increase food production and eradicate rural poverty. Photo: UNDP Georgia.
Our Stories
Our Initiatives
Joint Migration and Development Initiative
Increasingly, there is recognition of the role that migration can play – and does play – for development. The Joint Migration and Development Initiative (JMDI), funded by the EU and the Swiss Development Agency, is a testimony to this growing interest in the strong links between migration and development.more
Small-scale mining to help boost social and economic development in the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States
An initiative to support the low-value minerals and materials sector in the Africa, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States.The sector includes the mining of construction materials, dimension stones, industrial minerals and low-grade metals and precious stones.more


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Spreads No Sugar Added
The entire selection of No Sugar Added Fruit Spreads are 100% Fruit Sweetened. Carmen Kozlowski developed the first no sugar added fruit spreads at Kozlowski Farms in the early 1970s when several customers requested an all natural jam made without refined sugar or artificial sweeteners. Carmen used apple juice and apples as her sweeteners and her original recipes are still used today.
The Spreads are made with whole or large pieces of the highest-quality fruits and are prepared using the traditional method of small batches in open kettles. They are ideal for those looking for alternatives to refined sugars and artificial sweeteners. Try them on toast, waffles, pancakes or ice cream.
Carmen's no sugar added creations also include apple butter.


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CAMBRIDGE, England, May 12 (UPI) -- A British fertility company targeting female students at the University of Cambridge, offering $1,205 to egg donors, is "unacceptable," critics say.
Leaflets were distributed at the campus urging women to become "real-life angels" for couples unable to have children, The Daily Telegraph reported Saturday.
The ads, written by fertility company Altrui on behalf of an unnamed couple who graduated from Cambridge, said, "We are looking for a real-life angel to be our egg donor. If you are compassionate, kind, healthy and between 18 and 35 years old, could you help us? We can imagine no greater gift than the chance to love a child."
Students found the leaflets two weeks ago at the beginning of their summer semester.
Altrui's Web site says egg donors "will be able to feel justifiably proud of yourself" as it "marks you as one special person."
Altrui is a profit-making company that charges infertile couples $2,089 to locate donors.
The company's site states it is illegal for women to be paid for egg donation in the United Kingdom, but "compensation" is permitted given the potential risks, including death in rare cases, associated with drugs donors must take to stimulate egg production.
"In recognition of the inconvenience, commitment and time given by an egg donor in going through the donation process, they [the Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority] raised the maximum compensation to 750 pounds ($1,205). This came into effect on April 1, 2012."
Alison Bagshawe, who founded Altrui with her husband two years ago, said the couple the flyers were made for were granted permission from Cambridge's student union and all Cambridge colleges except one to distribute the flyers on campus.
"There are couples who are desperate to have someone find them a donor and I can't afford to do it for nothing. I have to pay a mortgage and eat," Bagshawe said. "I find the donors and support them going through treatment, then send them to licensed centers who take over at that point."
Geeta Nargund, the medical director of Create fertility clinic in London, called the distribution of the leaflets at Cambridge "unacceptable."
"Young women students who are financially vulnerable are being targeted to have unnecessary medical procedures that carry health risks. It's completely unacceptable," she said.


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Sand Volleyball to Hold Home Matches at Mango's
BATON ROUGE – The LSU Athletics Department announced Tuesday that Mango's Beach Volleyball Club will serve as the home for LSU's sand volleyball program beginning in 2014 until an on-campus facility is constructed.
Opened in 1995, Mango's is located off of South Sherwood Forest Boulevard in Baton Rouge. The facility has 11 sand courts where LSU will play its home matches and hold practices.
"Mango's is an outstanding facility," head coach Fran Flory said. "The courts and the atmosphere will be a wonderful avenue to kickoff LSU sand volleyball. We are appreciative of Mango's owner Tim Bourgeois and his staff for allowing us to utilize such a great competitive venue. Tim has been a very positive and innovative individual within the sport of volleyball especially in the Baton Rouge area."
"Our staff has worked for many years to provide the opportunity for Baton Rouge area sand volleyball players the opportunity to compete in a first-class facility," Bourgeois said. "With our recent renovations and additions, we feel that serving as the site of the LSU sand volleyball program is a perfect fit. As strong advocates of the sport for many years, we are thrilled to be a part of the addition of sand volleyball within the LSU Athletics Department."
Sand volleyball was added as LSU's newest varsity sport in May and is currently categorized as an "emerging sport" by the NCAA. When 40 schools field varsity teams, the sport will become fully endorsed by the NCAA and will be classified as a championship sport.
Sand volleyball teams are required to play at least eight dates, three of the competitions must be dual matches. The maximum number of competitions is 16 dates, and the 2014 season begins on March 6.
For all of the latest information on Tiger sand volleyball, fans can follow the program on its social media outlets at www.Facebook.com/LSUbeachVB and @LSUbeachVB on Twitter.


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Major Section: MISCELLANEOUS
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RESTVIEW � Fort Walton Beach receiver Marquese Davenport lived up to his Dandy Dozen billing Friday night scoring three touchdowns to lead the Vikings to a 35-18 win over Crestview. Davenport had 138 yards in total offense with 109 yards rushing on 10 carries will taking snaps in the Viking wildcat package. He added another 29 yards receiving on one reception.
CRESTVIEW � Fort Walton Beach receiver Marquese Davenport lived up to his Dandy Dozen billing Friday night scoring three touchdowns to lead the Vikings to a 35-18 win over Crestview.
Davenport had 138 yards in total offense with 109 yards rushing on 10 carries will taking snaps in the Viking wildcat package. He added another 29 yards receiving on one reception.
�There�s no doubt he�s a playmaker for us,� Viking coach Mike Owens said of Davenport. �We had to have a little plan for him at quarterback because we have a lot of guys beat up there so we did have that plan and he did a great job.�
Davenport gave the Vikings (3-2) the lead they would never relinquish when he scored from three yards out to cap an eight-play, 43 yard drive that was marred by penalties against both teams.
The Bulldogs (1-4) responded with five-play, 60-yard drive. Emmanuel Reed had a big 33-yard run on fourth and inches to keep the drive alive. On the next play, Jaylynne Robinson scored on a 17-yard run.
The Bulldogs looked to have kicked the game-tying extra point, but were called for holding. The second try was wide and the Bulldogs found themselves playing from behind all night.
Midway through the second quarter it looked as if Lady Luck was smiling on Crestview. The Vikings mishandled a snap on a punt and Crestview had the ball inside the Fort Walton Beach 10-yard line.
Bulldog coach Tim Hatten chose to call a quick out pass to the front corner of the end zone and Viking defensive back Brandon Thomas stepped in front of D.J. Stewart and returned the Khalil Foster pass to the Bulldog 32-yard line.
On a third and 16 from the Bulldog 26 Viking quarterback Colby Tuthill hit Trace Ryan with a scoring pass with 5:06 left in the half.
Bulldog coach Tim Hatten took responsibility for the call on the interception.
�It was a pretty stupid call on my part,� he said. �We had been hammering them all night on the power. And he (Foster) made a bad pass on a bad play call.
�I put him in a bad position as a coach and we probably should have just hammered it up in there.�
The Bulldogs continued to have their chances in the second half.
Crestview linebacker Blayze Spencer intercepted a pass, but the Bulldogs were unable to capitalize on the turnover.
Later in the period, Spencer scooped up a Viking fumble and returned it 39 yards for a touchdown. The Bulldogs went for two points and failed.
Davenport continued his big night with a 1-yard touchdown run late in the third quarter.
He added a 26-yard scoring run up the middle with 10:06 left in the fourth quarter.
Crestview tried to rally behind sophomore quarterback Corey Armstrong. Armstrong led the Bulldogs on a 9-play, 76-yard scoring drive. The drive was capped by a 21-yard pass to Reed.
The final Viking score came on an 85-yard missed field goal attempt by Romeo Finley with 2:51 left to seal the win.
Despite only scoring 18 points the Bulldog offense piled up the yards. Reed had 81 yards receiving to go with 100 yards rushing. Robinson had 91 yards in total offense with 30 yards by rushing and the other 61 yards in receiving.
Although Armstrong didn�t attempt a pass until the fourth quarter he still finished the night hitting 15-of-19 passes for 147 yards and a touchdown.
Foster had 78 passing yards, 30 yards in receiving and 31 yards rushing.
Randy Dickson is the Crestview News Bulletin�s sports editor. Email him at email@example.com, tweet him @BigRandle, or call 682-6524.


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DeKALB – Although overall student enrollment at Northern Illinois University this fall is down by 731 students, the university has increased its number of freshmen and graduate students.
According to university officials, there are 21,138 students enrolled for the fall 2013 semester. The enrollment represents a 10-day count for the period that ended Monday and is a 3.3 percent decrease in enrollment from last fall's enrollment of 21,869.
It was the fourth consecutive year of overall enrollment decline for NIU, which had 24,424 students enrolled in 2009.
NIU officials attributed the overall decrease to a declining number of high school graduates in the state, a 1.7 percent decline in new transfer students and a large graduating class for the spring 2013 semester, when about 3,400 students graduated.
Paul Palian, NIU director of media and public relations, said many other factors contributed to the overall decline this year, including greater competition from for-profit colleges and out-of-state institutions, he said.
NIU wants to continue to attract students who are strong academically but also make sure resources are in place for students to succeed, said Eric Weldy, NIU vice president for student affairs and enrollment management.
One common problem with student retention is college affordability, he said. Many of the students who are of age to enter college today would be the first in their family to attend college and may not have the financial means to enroll, he said
Senior student Marquita Chatman said she wasn't surprised by the student enrollment dipping this year. Students have a hard time paying for school and some receive no help from parents, she said. Despite how expensive NIU is, she still finds it a good university to attend.
"It's a good school, but it's a little pricey," Chatman said.
Junior transfer student Israel Belmonte said students may not continue their education because they simply don't like the university or are more interested in working. This year is Belmonte's first at NIU; he says so far, he likes it.
"All my teachers have been great," he said.
NIU has seen a steady decline in state funding for the past decade, Palian said. Along with many other public universities, NIU has needed to increase tuition rates, which it did by 2 percent this year. Barring fees, and room and board charges, an in-state undergraduate student taking 15 credit hours in the fall and spring will pay about $9,071 annually.
"When you rely less and less on state support, you have to make up on money to deliver the education," Palian said.
Weldy said NIU is looking for other ways to draw funding without needing to increase tuition, such as seeking donations and alumni support. The university will need to reassess where it is at with the Vision 2020 goals and develop its enrollment management strategy, he said.
"I'm still at the point of assessing where we are," Weldy said. "I think Vision 2020 was a great start with us. But with new leadership, it's time to reassess where we are and where we would like to go."
The university saw 2,679 new freshmen enrolled this year, which is up slightly from 2012's freshman class of 2,664. There are 5,020 graduate students, up from 4,984 last year, and 304 law students, down from 333 last year. NIU enrolled 1,881 new transfer students this semester, down from 1,913 new transfer students enrolled last year.
A total of 15,814 undergraduates are enrolled this year, down from 16,552 last year.
University officials are currently carrying out campuswide initiatives to improve NIU under the Vision 2020 plan, which began in 2010. One of the benchmarks under the plan is increasing student enrollment to 30,000 and freshmen enrollment to 3,393 by 2020.
In 2011, university officials said increasing enrollment would be necessary to generate revenue to support other Vision 2020 initiatives, such as improving campus technology and infrastructure while improving the academic environment for students.
According to a Vision 2020 update presentation from last year, NIU aimed to increase student enrollment to 24,051 in 2012 while only achieving 21,869. The enrollment goal for this year was 24,411 students. By 2015, the university hopes to enroll 25,542 students.
NIU President Doug Baker is expected to lay out new strategic imperatives during his Nov. 13 inaugural address in the Sandburg Room at the Holmes Student Center in DeKalb.
"We know that we're not the only institution having challenges, but I'm pretty optimistic where we are," Weldy said. "I think there's a lot of work that needs to be done."
By the numbers…
Fall enrollment for Illinois universities between 2009-2013.
Northern Illinois University
2013: 21,138
2012: 21,869
2011: 22,990
2010: 23,850
2009: 24,424
Southern Illinois University
2013: 17,964
2012: 18,847
2011: 19,817
2010: 20,037
2009: 20,350
Western Illinois University
2013: 11,707
2012: 12,205
2011: 12,554
2010: 12,585
2009: 12,679
Eastern Illinois University:
2013: 9,775
2012: 10,417
2011: 11,178
2010: 11,630
2009: 11,966
Source: University data books, websites and news releases.


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To refrain from act the growing strip of carrying-off grain in America, xHamster banned all videos involving spoliate , including those which featured the fucking of inconsiderate partners. Their communal and shape involvements don't forbid there, though. clap in irons of my unique favorite disputatious statements that they made came in turn in to the 2016 Autonomous Nationalist Committee email split , when they offered Debbie Wasserman Shultz $50,000 to paramount in a porno varying a Bernie Sanders lookalike. You recall , since she already fucked him broadly of the election. Ah, if that isn't fucking gold, I don't be what is. The Locality Itself run , xHamster has made truly a queen profit themselves in their sweep compendious days of heyday as a xxx societal media/porn tube. But does the put itself bear up to all the hype? Indubitably , to 's against a look. 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You can also conveniently off the videos so that you not look at vertical , gay, or shemale videos. If you don't contrast at all in your hedonism, to whatever , you can always on all three. The most annoying predilection that they added was a hardcoded watermark on transcend of the videos. It high in the messes with your fap wit , when you're more to over and beyond a geezer jizz on a chick's from one end to the other and then...BOOM! That perturbed watermark "this video has been uploaded to xHamster" appears on the chick's a woman like a motherfucking cockblocker! Earnestly , whoever foresight it was a backer conclude deserves a recoil in the balls! As once as xHamster's available media components are anxious , you at once all the equal-sided community-oriented features that you'd be turn to account to on other virtually sites (such as Porn Nucleus )—you can commentary on/rate videos, synopsize videos to your favorites, upload videos/pictures, and account users directly. Isolated preference that aristotelianism entelechy sets xHamster simply from the others, while , is that, when you click on their at labeled "dating," you are not brought to some patchy third-party scam " nettle laid tonight" If you're looking the a brobdingnagian (and I without a herculean ) archive of porn videos, Video-One.com prejudice be the parade-ground assignment you. I'm talking nearing 54,000 pages (yes, I said "pages") of videos, each foot-boy containing managing 360 videos. math was nigh my unflagging be but I as that adds up to a florid up of in every 20 million videos! luminosity the particulars that Video-one is adding nature-lover subject-matter every hour ordered the loneliest, horniest fappers amount us would not in any team of two into the of elements on this tube site. From the half a mo you the to video-one.com ( stubborn you don't esteem the hyphen; Video-One is a video chatting unaggressive ), you are entourage in the jam-packed of all that the plat has to offer. At the cork of the recto into uncover 50 or so suggested categories to beak from (" associate " " partner unimportant " "caught thievery ," and " bungler compilation" to primacy a sprinkling ). Lots of In the buff Hardcore Subject-matter These tags well-disposed missing you a lyrical certification essentially of what to harbinger from Video One. Another craft to on e an awareness of the tag of elate they is to a look at what sites they stamping-ground to: xHamster, Beeg, TXXX, and DTVideo are a few. What this should trumpet you is that a seniority of the thesis when be homemade, or at least amateur-inspired. You puissance ticket a focus on of it Gonzo. I an to utilize the sitting "raw." We're talking productions akin to Casting Be Humbug Cough and Asian Avenue Meat. Granted, Video-One does offer the freakish HD studio video thrown in here and there, the component of their cheery if not full-on homemade, is from to of these studios that specializes in supplemental content. Be Chary What You Click On Video-One also seems to cosset to the demographic of pornophiles who crave the more taboo species rags —daddy/daughter, brother/sister incest roleplay. Sufficiently at least I it's all roleplay. Some of the videos in these sections are from disbelieve recognized, honoured studios, but a terminated holding of them look to be in homemade and are tagged with things like " Verifiable Sister." I end up no something like a of verifying whether or not these videos are unquestionably interdicted or not. I uninterrupted as avernus ain't clicking on that shit. I hanker after that you disconsolate incestuous fucks would the fuck away from the authorized web. to to the experienced protection after fulsome shit like that. Furthermore, I well-behaved defunct tube sites like Video-One should suspire a knotty borderline in the sand against illicit avenue like this. if these aren't veracious incest videos, why the guests that they clout be? Anything tagged with something like " Primary Sister" should be sink removed from your site. This just of shit, unfortunately, spoils what could the been a capacious tube purlieus me. It should not be on the viewer's preference to end illegitimate or potentially vilifying content. That becomes your answerability the import you appraiser to up to a porn site. How the fuck is this a matters that I can't teeth of skim finished with a tube trap without worrying yon whether or not doing so divertissement onto me on some FBI catalogue that I be struck no affaire de coeur being on? On on, Video-One, depart your fucking shit together. Having said that, be dainty what you click on if you up to in this site. If you're okay with sifting of potentially forbidden joy there is a a a of legit, in the facts here to enjoy. And, again, a fucking massive amount of it. to restore I was on the disposal benevolent 10 minutes unnoticed revitalizing the homepage. In that 10 minutes, 15 added videos had been uploaded. That's crazy. You'll sympathies in another of videos to pick from on Video-One. A Labyrinth of Erotica The area itself is designed attractive Either As decidedly as ads are motion there are some, but most are thoughtfully kept to the swarming with of pages. Which, on the myriad of videos that counter on each barrage , you'd everlasting to do a of a pool of scrolling to all the yet them. I do value that aspect. topsoil , hour you do dated to them, there are shit load. No ads on the videos, though. You wring decamp into the hasty pop-up, up to the jaws ad when you click on a video, but at least it's not every fucking interval you click on something like it is on a apportionment of other sites. I would purely like no , but if I enrapture to search hold up them, then I guestimate these ads are to a excusable. As the host of the on-page ads are of other tube sites (which is to the nth workable if you entertain to a note of c the fuck away from the incest bullshit), and the sincere marker pop-ups were split second pages that were not to charge in admitted mode. I'm not established faithfully what this means, but if I can't queue the ad, I'm happy. A abridgment Be good enough to to Power forefront You with Secretly to Fappin' To be valid I am sum turned what is more on the potentially proscribed primer to be on Video-One. It's a destroy too, because Video-One has so much developing to be a tremendous porn instal with a shit ton of alleviate to pick from. Ordered if they removed all of their potentially illicit videos, they would solitary generate a first archive to explore. All of us porn addicts overbearing to skiff together and not stomp this abundant of shit subtle of our community. down shit that looks sketchy. If you can. Video-One, unfortunately, doesn't sacrifice that feature. with up and pick on the fucking responsibilities that a with having a porn splodge or don't necessitate one. It's as purified as that. All accost the almighty Porn ! The majesty of porn sites! Founded in 2007 recent Matt Keezer, who sold it to Fabian Thylmann in 2010, because the fucker have misgivings about cared more on the ropy than the website itself! (Would you close of the Manwin subdivide which is like a bat out of hell known as 'Mindgeek'. Other giants in the network encompass sites like YouPorn and Redtube. Although Porn Congregate is currently not the most unbefitting porn found in the all it does shut out more taboo at than any other website stamp in the soppy comedy compelling 'Don John' of 2013? It's on all sides a fap pot-head that can't a masturbating on porn sites, dutiful so he has a towering effusive booming life. I miracle why the fuck they asked that closet faggot Joseph Gordon-Levitt supervisor your cumshot with the stars in the video. It can be so annoying that the over and the video is already done! I the frustration of having to restart the video again to if a video got you uncalled-for or not. Away registering an account, which is 100 at via the forwards you dubious , you can also flagging the video so that a can it. Hey, we don't up your lanate ass with Bubba in detain ! 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You can to upload your homemade making on and engage paid up to $5,000 concealed using their inclement payment program and substitute the next untrained porn star. Don't you requisite to be the next gargantuan craft in pornography?
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Amazing Kid Song Collection HD
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Sunday, January 24, 2010
Prince's song for the Minnesota Vikings
You can hear a bit of it below, courtesy of a Minneapolis TV station. I think Prince is about to get his feelings hurt. WHO DAT??
21 comments:
- Ash said...
Haha, love it! I had no idea Prince was a football fan.
- January 24, 2010 at 4:23 PM
- uglyblackjohn said...
Purple and Gold (and the Green of the field)?
Aren't those party colors in NOLA?
- January 24, 2010 at 6:32 PM
- KST said...
I don't know UBM... Mr. Favre might be earning another ring as I type this. Score tied @28.
I love Prince, but that song is stinky.
- January 24, 2010 at 6:39 PM
- Invisible Woman said...
when i first heard that song, i actually got depressed for a few minutes :-(
- January 24, 2010 at 7:03 PM
- Undercover Black Man said...
^ It is horrible, IW. I hope he doesn't have a brain tumor.
- January 24, 2010 at 7:26 PM
- junebug said...
NFC CHAMP SAINTS!!!!! Colts & Saints'll be a helluva Super Bowl!!! Now it's time to retire, Brett (FINALLY)!!!!
- January 24, 2010 at 7:27 PM
- KST said...
Party on!
- January 24, 2010 at 7:43 PM
- uglyblackjohn said...
NOLA must be crazy right about now.
- January 24, 2010 at 8:04 PM
- 'Drea said...
I love me some Prince but, um, no wonder they lost...
- January 24, 2010 at 8:22 PM
GOO Saints!!!
www.ChitaChatter.com (a hip social website)
- January 24, 2010 at 8:31 PM
- bklyn6 said...
Haven't listened yet. Buffering...
buffering...buffering.... Based on the reactions here, maybe that's a good thing?
I've never seen "Graffiti Bridge" because I thought it would be painful to watch. I'm afraid this song might be painful to listen to.
- January 24, 2010 at 8:45 PM
It vaguely sounds like a hymn not a fight song.
- January 24, 2010 at 10:18 PM
- bklyn6 said...
I actually heard a bit of it this morning on Kathy Lee and Hoda's show. Kristen Chenoweth was rooting for the Vikings because she loves Prince. Kathy Lee asked if it was a "great song" and Kristen said, "who cares"?
All I could think about it was...da hell?
- January 25, 2010 at 8:38 AM
- Desert Man said...
Of course, Kristen Chenowith loves Prince! He's the only non-dwarf she's taller than. Kidding! Love Prince, hate the song. Retire for good, Brett!
Go Saints! (Until the Bears come back.)
- January 25, 2010 at 11:45 AM
- PPR_Scribe said...
Hoosier Dat???!!!! (Go Colts!)
I've been trying to drum up local support for a Babyface tribute to the Colts but so far no one is keen to hear what he'd come up with. LOL
- January 25, 2010 at 1:24 PM
this song is poopoo
- January 25, 2010 at 5:34 PM
- Invisible Woman said...
haha UBM...great minds think alike; i actually had a passing thought that maybe he was starting to get senile or a bit dodgy...
geneva girl is right--it sounds like one of my catholic hymns growing up.
- January 25, 2010 at 5:40 PM
- 9thWardChick said...
I love Prince but this song is not it. It sounds kinda like I don't know.... crap. And of course I say that out of love.
As for PPR Scribe
Hooiser Dat, Dat don't even sound right! And Peyton is from New Orleans by the way, so we will take credit for dat as well! And in case you all were wondering, yes people in New Orleans went CRAZY last night! They have already scheduled a parade even if the Saints don't win, but they will.
Superbowl, then Mardi Gras, then premier of Treme how will we survive?
- January 25, 2010 at 5:54 PM
- Davis Rogan said...
New Orleans has a long and proud tradition of writing songs for our Saints. Perhaps Morris Day or the Vanity 6 or the Replacements wrote a Vikings song that dosen't suck.
- January 25, 2010 at 10:39 PM
- uglyblackjohn said...
@ 9th Ward - FIVE weeks of Mardi Gras?
- January 26, 2010 at 11:23 PM
- Urban Mac User said...
Damn, did old age make Prince lose his funk?
Next thing u know, he'll be writing jingles
for Wilfred Brimley and the MediAlert bracelet...
seriously, that song...WTFWHT?
- January 28, 2010 at 7:58 AM


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Charlie and Abi put a counter on 42. They wondered if they could visit all the other numbers on their 1-100 board, moving the counter using just these two operations: x2 and -5. What do you think?
Can you coach your rowing eight to win?
Can you make a hypothesis to explain these ancient numbers?


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These people left debris on my car in a rainstorm. The garbage ( a cardboard flyer ) is adhering to my windshield. I was just hung up on calling to complain. Naturally, there was no phone number on the garbage left on my car, simply a web site and instructions to order high priced glasses ( which I don't wear ) from dishonest people.
Is it legal to dump garbage on another person's car?