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The tonal era and after: 1600 to the present
The beginning of the 17th century was one of the most dramatic turning points in the history of music, even more so than the beginning of the Ars Nova and almost as revolutionary as the beginning of the 20th century. The winds of change had been felt several decades earlier, and the establishment of the new style required several decades after the turn of the century, but the year 1600 saw the performance of several works destined to change the course of music.
The Baroque era
Originally used in a derogatory sense of referring to something bizarre, degenerate, and abnormal, the term Baroque gradually acquired a positive connotation for the grandiose, dramatic, energetic spirit in art that prevailed during the period from about 1600 to about 1750. The new spirit required a vastly expanded musical vocabulary, and a rapid evolution of new techniques occurred, particularly in vocal music. Two distinct musical styles were recognized. One, the prima prattica (or stile antico), was the universal style of the 16th century, the culmination of two centuries of adherence to Flemish models. The other, called seconda prattica, or stile moderno, referred to the new theatrical style emanating from Italy.
The expanded vocabulary allowed for a clearer distinction between sacred and secular music as well as between vocal and instrumental idioms, and national differences became more pronounced. The tonal organization of music evolved also, as the medieval modes that had previously served as the basis of melody and harmony were gradually replaced, during the 17th century, by the system of tonality dominating Western music until about 1900: a system based on contrasting keys, or sets of interrelated notes and chords deriving from a major or minor scale. Viewing the period as a whole, two additional innovations most clearly distinguish it from the preceding Renaissance: concertato, or the contrast, combination, and alternation of voices and instruments, and basso continuo (thorough bass, figured bass), an accompaniment consisting of a low-pitched instrument, such as a violoncello or a bassoon, combined with a keyboard instrument or lute capable of harmonic elaboration.
Most typical of the emerging style were the dramatic productions of the Camerata, a group in Florence who were dedicated to recreating and imitating the musical ideals and practices of classical antiquity—in a sense, the musical manifestation of the Renaissance. Their guiding philosophy was the preeminence of textual over musical considerations; their belief was that the function of music was to heighten the dramatic impact of words. The musical result was monody: originally recitative (solo singing reflecting speech rhythms), later also arioso (more lyric than recitative) and aria (more elaborate song), accompanied by a basso continuo that could provide an innocuous background to a solo voice. Among the major figures in this revolutionary movement were Giulio Caccini and Jacopo Peri, both of whom composed operas based on the legend of Orpheus and Eurydice. Caccini also provided the name for the new movement with his publication of Le nuove musiche, a collection of solo songs with continuo accompaniment. The ideas and techniques conceived by the Camerata spread rapidly over Italy and, subsequently, all over Europe.
Early Italian operatic schools
During the 1620s and 1630s the centre of operatic activity shifted from Florence to Rome, where several distinctive features developed: a chorus was used extensively, dancing was incorporated into the dramatic spectacle, and an overture in the style of a canzona became the accepted norm. A flourishing operatic activity developed a decade later in Venice, where the first public opera house was opened in 1637. Public taste began to influence operatic composition, and, as a result, several innovations, such as the extensive use of popular tunes, spectacular staging, and short, fanfare-like overtures, were introduced. The audience's desire for tuneful songs also contributed to the clear distinction between recitative and aria, which began with the Venetian school. Foremost among contemporary composers was Monteverdi, who had known of the activities of the Florentine Camerata while serving as musical director to the Gonzaga family in nearby Mantua. He adopted the new style for his later madrigals and wrote two operas, Orfeo (1607) and L'Arianna (1608), before moving to Venice in 1613. Francesco Cavalli and Antonio Cesti became the leading Venetian operatic composers after Monteverdi's death in 1643.
Neapolitan opera
The last major operatic centre to develop in Italy began its activities in the 1670s in Naples. Neapolitan opera seria, or serious opera, with characters from classical history or mythology, dominated Europe for a century. It was essentially a series of recitatives and arias, the latter mostly of the da capo type (ABA, the A section given improvised embellishment on its repetition) characterized by florid virtuosic singing. Other features were, first, the distinction between recitativo secco (dry recitative), accompanied by the continuo, and recitativo accompagnato, or stromentato, accompanied by the orchestra, and, second, the establishment of the Italian overture. Called a sinfonia, the overture in three parts (fast–slow–fast) evolved into the symphony during the 18th century. Alessandro Scarlatti was the most influential of the early Neapolitan operatic composers.
During the same period, opera was introduced at courtly functions outside Italy. After Luigi Rossi's Orfeo was performed in Paris in 1647, the Italian form was gradually merged with the major French dramatic form, the ballet; the importance of dancing in French operas thereafter is not surprising. Another distinguishing feature was the French overture (a slow movement, a fast movement, and, occasionally, a return to the opening slow section), which, like the Italian overture, later had an independent life. The masters of French opera during the Baroque period were Jean-Baptiste Lully and his successor Jean-Philippe Rameau. Because of the social and political upheaval of the Thirty Years' War, there was less operatic activity in Germany than in France, and the activity that did occur was more completely dominated by the Italian style. Hamburg, Munich, Dresden, and Vienna were the major centres, with Reinhard Keiser and Georg Philipp Telemann as the most prolific composers.
The situation in England resembled that in France, since the English also had a flourishing musicodramatic form, the masque, which gradually merged with Italian opera. Henry Purcell and John Blow were the chief composers of opera in English before Italian domination of serious opera became almost complete during the 18th century.
Cantata and oratorio
The leading Neapolitan opera composers also helped to establish the Baroque successor to the madrigal—the cantata—which originated as a secular form for solo voice with instrumental accompaniment. Giacomo Carissimi standardized the form as a short drama in verse consisting of two or more arias with their preceding recitatives. The cantata was introduced into France by one of Carissimi's students, Marc-Antoine Charpentier; Louis Nicolas Clérambault continued the tradition in the late Baroque period. With the fading stylistic distinction between sacred and secular music, the cantata was quickly converted to church purposes, particularly in Germany, where it became the chief decorative service music for the Lutheran Church. Dietrich Buxtehude and Johann Kuhnau were two of the leading composers of such church cantatas.
While the new concertato techniques were being applied to established forms of church music, such as the mass, service, motet, anthem, and chorale, new forms emerged that were clear departures from Renaissance styles and types. The oratorio and settings of the Passion story developed simultaneously with opera and on almost identical lines, consisting of recitatives, arias, vocal ensembles, instrumental interludes, and choruses. Emilio del Cavaliere was the "founder" of the oratorio with his La rappresentazione di anima e di corpo (The Representation of the Soul and the Body). Produced in Rome in 1600, this work, unlike true oratorio, used actors and costumes. Carissimi and Alessandro Scarlatti were the chief Italian Baroque composers of oratorio, and Heinrich Schütz, a pupil of both Giovanni Gabrieli and Monteverdi in Venice, was the leading 17th-century German composer in this field.
Instrumental music
The new techniques of Le nuove musiche were to be heard in music for instruments, especially now that they participated in genres formerly written for unaccompanied voices (e.g., the motet). The forms and mediums of instrumental music remained essentially the same but with considerably different emphasis. The lute, for example, lost status quickly with the rise of the harpsichord as the most common instrument for continuo accompaniment of dramatic productions. The organ, as the traditional church instrument, retained its position and assimilated the evolving forms.
Modification and expansion of older forms
Dance pairs of the Renaissance grew, about the middle of the 17th century, into dance suites consisting basically of four dances: allemande, courante, saraband, and gigue, with optional dances such as the gavotte, the bourrée, and the minuet sometimes inserted before the final movement. Variation forms—the chaconne (in which a set of harmonies or a bass theme is continuously repeated), the passacaglia (in which the theme is repeated but not necessarily in the bass), along with the ground bass and variations on well-known melodies—continued to be popular. Free forms also continued in the patterns of their Renaissance antecedents, while growing in dimension and inventiveness. The toccata, prelude, and fantasia were expanded into multisectional forms using the three basic instrumental textures—imitative counterpoint, chordal homophony, and virtuosic passage work—in combination, alternation, and contrast. The Renaissance fugal forms, chiefly the canzona and the ricercar, gradually evolved into the late Baroque fugue, and cantus firmus compositions continued to flourish as a result of their liturgical function.
The sonata and concerto
The major new categories of instrumental music during the Baroque period were the sonata and the concerto. Originally applied to instrumental ensemble pieces derived from the canzona, the term sonata became the designation for a form that was to dominate instrumental music from the mid-18th until the 20th century. In its keyboard manifestation, it was a binary (two-part) structure similar to a dance-suite movement. For small ensemble, it evolved into a series of independent movements (usually in a slow–fast–slow–fast arrangement) called a sonata da chiesa ("church sonata") or a dance suite called a sonata da camera ("chamber sonata"). Especially prominent was the trio sonata, for two violins (or flutes or oboes) and cello with continuo. Eventually, similar forms were adopted for orchestra (sinfonia or concerto), for orchestra with a small group of featured instruments (concerto grosso), or for a solo instrument with orchestra (solo concerto). The fundamental principle of the concerto was that of contrast of instrumental groups and musical textures.
Throughout the period, keyboard music flourished, notably in the hands of Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck in the Netherlands, Johann Pachelbel and Johann Froberger in Germany, Girolamo Frescobaldi in Italy, and Domenico Scarlatti in Spain; in France the chief exponents included Rameau and François Couperin.
Instrumental ensemble music, both chamber and orchestral, was dominated by Italians, chiefly from Bologna, the Bolognese school producing such composers as Arcangelo Corelli, Antonio Vivaldi, and Giuseppe Tartini. Purcell in England and Couperin and Jean-Marie Leclair in France are representative of the many composers in other nations who were influenced by Italian models of instrumental ensemble music.
The late Baroque
The Baroque era reached its zenith in the work of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) and George Frideric Handel (1685–1759). Both were born in the same part of Germany; both were reared in the Lutheran Church; and both were primarily organists; but because of different environmental circumstances each became a master of different musical forms. Handel, because of his conditioning in Italy, was primarily a dramatic composer, writing opera, oratorio, and secular cantatas, mostly after he reached England. He also wrote quite extensively for orchestra and instrumental ensemble. Bach, by contrast, was influenced by his lifelong employment in the church and by his dedication as a teacher; his works thus include Passions, cantatas for church services, liturgical organ pieces, and harpsichord compositions, many instructional in purpose.
In the works of both Handel and Bach changes in technique reached a culmination with the clear establishment of the tonal system, allowing for modulation from one key centre to another, primarily as a device for formal organization. Rich, chromatic harmonic language was both reason and result of such a change. The fusion of contrapuntal technique with homophonic style resulted in a distinctive hybrid texture that employed figured bass (homophony) as a foundation for two or more independent melodic lines (polyphony).
The Classical period
As in the case of the Renaissance, difficulties with terminology again arise with the label classical. Does it refer to a period of time, a distinctive musical style, an aesthetic attitude, an ideal standard, or an established norm? Again, the term was borrowed from the visual arts of the same epoch and is awkward when applied to music in that there were no known models from classical antiquity for composers to imitate. A full understanding of the term depends on a clear conception of the term romantic, for the two stand at opposite poles. Each represents a set of artistic ideals that has been in opposition to the other since both were recognized by early Grecian writers. As has been noted, the ancient Greek followers of Apollo established the ideal of classicism, whereas the cult of Dionysus produced the prototype of romanticism. A mixture of the two qualities has prevailed throughout recorded history, with first one and then the other in the ascendancy. Thus, there have been many "classic" and many "romantic" eras, but the labels have come to refer most specifically to the last half of the 18th century and the 19th century, respectively, because those periods represent most vividly the two tempers.
The social and political scene during the late 18th century was hardly a setting for a quiet, composed "classical" age in view of the prevailing revolutionary spirit and colonial rivalry. The revolutionary movement did have a direct effect on music in that "music for the masses" became a new ideal—music directly appealing to a large number of unsophisticated people who had previously been excluded from courtly entertainments.
Precursors of the Classical style
The Rococo style galant
As the pendulum swung from the predominantly romantic Baroque period toward the Classical period, there was an inevitable overlapping of the old and the new. While Bach was composing his intricate and erudite polyphony, his sons were reflecting a new ideal, the Rococo. Fostered by the court of the French king Louis XV, whose life-style was far less formal than that of his illustrious great grandfather, the Rococo ideal was artistic expression dedicated to elegance, frivolity, and gracefulness; a work of art must be delicate, playful, entertaining, and immediately appealing. The result was often artificial and unrealistic, but it succeeded in capturing the discreetly sentimental and hedonistic attitudes of the times. Powdered wigs, lace cuffs, and perfumed handkerchiefs for both sexes were other manifestations of the same playful spirit that produced music in the style galant.
The empfindsamer Stil
The German counterpart of the essentially French Rococo was the empfindsamer Stil, or "sentimental style," which flourished in the 1750s and 1760s. Its leading exponent was one of J.S. Bach's sons, Carl Philip Emanuel Bach, who served for a time at the court of Frederick the Great in Berlin. The distinguishing feature of this German reaction against Baroque profundity was its concern with emotional feeling in the music itself, on the part of the performers and, hopefully, in the reaction of the audience. The French obsession with lightness, gracefulness, and decoration was countered by the German determination to affect sensibilities that were often more attuned to tears than to laughter. A late and less reserved manifestation of Empfindsamkeit was the Sturm und Drang ("storm and stress") movement in the arts during the 1770s and 1780s. The inclination toward the more intense personal expression of that movement was a harbinger of the coming Romantic period.
Consolidation of the Classical style
The fundamental changes in musical style that distinguished Classical from Baroque were inspired by Rococo ideals and refined and stabilized by the Classicists, particularly Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Christoph Willibald Gluck, and the young Ludwig van Beethoven.
Stylistic elements
For the first time in the history of music, instrumental music became more important than vocal music. The orchestra and chamber groups, such as the string quartet, trio, and quintet, and the piano trio became standardized and replaced the heterogeneous trio sonata and other ensembles of the Baroque period. The basic duple and triple organization of metre remained unchanged, but rhythmic patterns tending toward more regularity and simplicity became the rule, producing the "tyranny of the bar line" that was to prevail for more than a century.
Melody was inclined to be more motivistic, tuneful, and epigrammatic, in contrast to the extended, figurative style of many Baroque melodies. Harmony was second only to melody as a focal element. Harmonic patterns that clearly established the tonal centre were the rule of the day.
As a reaction against the intricate polyphony of the later Baroque period, homophonic texture dominated by melody became the norm, but the accompanying patterns were different from those of the early Baroque, when monody supported by sustained chords was the prevailing style. In the late 18th century, figurations such as the Alberti bass (form of accompanying figure consisting of broken chords) and rhythmically enlivened repeated chords formed the typical textural patterns. Counterpoint was retained in some forms, however, and regained status particularly in development sections of works in sonata form.
Formal structure, a definitive aspect of classical style, was characterized by simplicity and clarity. Sectional forms (created by contrast and repetition of thematic materials, tonalities, and textures), variations, and the new principle of development (fragmentation, expansion, and modification of themes) were the established norms. Phrases of musical material became shorter and more clearly demarcated as well as more balanced and regular. A new concept of dynamic contrast also contributed to formal clarity. Shading from loud to soft or vice versa provided a dramatic means of building toward an expressive climax. Orchestration and instrumentation were closely allied to dynamic variation, and much more colour contrast and variety appeared in orchestral music, even though the ensemble was more standardized than formerly.
Sonata form
The pattern that served as the structural basis for most instrumental music of the classical period was the sonata. A large-scale work in several movements, it evolved from several Baroque predecessors, chiefly the Italian overture, the sonata da chiesa, and the concerto grosso. Depending on the medium of performance for which it was intended, it would be called, for example, a symphony, a concerto, a string quartet, a sextet, a trio. The designation sonata was reserved for a solo instrument or for an instrument accompanied by harpsichord or piano. Originally in three movements, the sonata became standardized as a four-movement form when a minuet was incorporated in the following sequence: (1) a serious allegro, (2) a slow, lyrical movement (andante or adagio), (3) a minuet and trio, and (4) a brilliant, vivacious finale. The internal structure of the first movement was so uniform that it acquired the designation sonata-allegro form; that is, the form employed in the allegro movement of a sonata, consisting basically of exposition, development, and recapitulation. The slower second movement is less structurally predictable. It is frequently a sectional form (for example, ABA, AABA, ABCA) or a set of variations. It may, even though in a slow tempo, be a sonata-allegro form, illustrating again the inconsistency of musical terminology. The third movement, usually omitted in the concerto and sometimes in other forms, is either a graceful minuet or a scherzo, a lively rhythmic form derived from the minuet. The structural pattern of the minuet had been fixed when it was established as the official court dance by Louis XIV in the mid-17th century. The last movement is frequently a rondo form, in which the principal theme recurs regularly between subordinate themes.
Instrumental music
The symphony
The most important and influential manifestation of the sonata form was that played by an orchestra—the symphony. During the 17th century the term sinfonia had been used for various kinds of instrumental music. "Sonata" was equally ambiguous. Late in the century, the designation sinfonia began to be confined to the Italian opera overture—a three-movement arrangement, fast–slow–fast. By the mid-18th century, opera overtures were being played independently in concerts. The insertion of the minuet between the last two movements resulted in the prototype of the Classical symphony.
During the waning Baroque period, vigorous advocates of the burgeoning Rococo and Empfindsamkeit ideals were active in Milan, Vienna, and Mannheim. In Milan, Giovanni Battista Sammartini began writing his symphonies, some 25 of them, in the 1730s. While employing the continuo of his models, Corelli and Giuseppe Torelli, the bithematic plan for his opening movements foreshadowed the exposition of the Classical symphonies. At about the same time, young composers in Vienna were experimenting with the new genre, thus laying the foundation for the later Viennese masters. The most famous and probably the most influential group was active in Mannheim in the court orchestra of Karl Theodor, the elector of the Palatinate. Their activity began in the 1740s, when Johann Stamitz became leader of the orchestra. His experiments with dynamic techniques—crescendo (increasing in loudness), diminuendo (decreasing in loudness), sforzando (special emphasis)—with homophonic textures featuring the first violins in virtuoso passages and with tremolo and other dramatic effects, became the hallmarks of the Mannheim style and served as models for his son Karl Stamitz and for composers in Vienna. Thanks to the fortuitous presence of certain instrumentalists as well as to benevolent patronage, the basic ensemble of the modern symphony orchestra was gradually established: violins, violas, violoncellos, and double basses; two flutes, two oboes, and two bassoons; two French horns and two tympani. Trumpets were added for festive occasions.
The concerto
Unlike the symphony, which had its origins in other forms, the Classical concerto grew directly out of the Baroque solo concerto and resembles it in that it is based on exchange of musical material between solo instrument or instruments and orchestra. While directly derived from the ritornello principle of the Baroque concerto (that of a recurrent musical passage when the soloists are silent), the internal structure of the first movement assimilated the developmental principle of sonata-allegro form. Pietro Locatelli and Giuseppe Tartini are especially notable for their numerous late-Baroque violin concerti.
Chamber music
While music for small instrumental ensembles had flourished for over 200 years previously, the late 18th century witnessed the establishment of chamber music in the modern sense of the term: music in sonata form for a small group of instruments with one player for each part. Replacing the trio sonata of the Baroque period, the most popular classical ensemble was a group of four stringed instruments—two violins, a viola, and a violoncello. Both the group itself and a sonata written for the group were called a string quartet. Among other popular ensembles were the string trio (violin, viola, and violoncello; or two violins and a violoncello) and the piano trio (violin, violoncello, and piano).
The keyboard sonata
The solo keyboard sonata was one of the most vital forms of the period, partly because of the great increase in amateur performers resulting from the newly affluent middle class. The sonatas of Domenico Paradisi, of J.S. Bach's sons, and of Haydn and Mozart reflect the evolution from the one-movement, binary form of the Baroque period to the standard classical three-movement form. A four-movement form did not become popular until the time of Beethoven. A celebrated contemporary of Mozart, Muzio Clementi, composed more than 60 sonatas for the piano alone and half again as many for piano and violin or flute and strongly influenced the style of piano writing.
Other instrumental forms
While the sonata was unquestionably the most important form of instrumental music during the period, several other types were cultivated. For orchestra and chamber ensemble, a suitelike work called variously divertimento, serenade, cassation, or notturno was popular for light entertainment, differing from the more serious symphonies, concerti, and sonatas (which were intended for attentive listening) in that the ensemble of instruments was inconsistent, unpredictable, and often unspecified. The number, types, and arrangements of movements were equally flexible, ranging from three to 10 or more, some in dance forms and others in forms suitable for a sonata. While nonsonata forms for solo instruments (particularly keyboard) occasionally bear these designations, the most popular smaller solo forms were sets of variations, individual dances or marches, fantasies, and small pieces that would have been appropriate as movements of sonatas. For some reason, composition for the organ dwindled drastically after the death of J.S. Bach, in 1750.
Vocal music
There was less distinction between Baroque and Classical opera than between instrumental styles of the two periods because opera, with musical interest centred on a solo voice, had been largely melodic-homophonic since its inception. Another reason for the continuity of operatic style throughout the 18th century was the universal domination by the Neapolitan opera seria. Even in Paris, where the Lully-Rameau tradition maintained its vitality, there was an Italian opera theatre. While there was some effective reform of certain aspects of Neapolitan style that had become decadent and some nationalistic reaction in the field of comic opera, nothing in the nature of serious opera challenged Neapolitan supremacy. As a result, the late 18th century was a period of great vitality in operatic composition.
The distinguishing characteristics of Neapolitan opera seria reveal why it is little known and rarely heard today. It was a very conventionalized form, with artificial and overcomplex plots. There were usually six main characters representing three of each sex, with some of the male and female parts sung by castrati (emasculated male sopranos and contraltos). Each character was allotted a standardized number of arias in fairly standardized succession. Obviously, with such constant interruption of the action, dramatic truth received little if any consideration. The singers and the arias were the focus of the entire production, with little of musical interest in the parlando recitatives (i.e., using speech rhythms), little use of chorus, and little function for the orchestra aside from providing a subordinate accompaniment.
Objections to the decadence and artificiality of the Neapolitan style, which had begun to appear as early as the 1720s, would have been fruitless had not a champion appeared to put suggestions and theories for reform into actual practice. Culminating the movement for reform was Christoph Willibald Gluck, who began his career in the 1740s by writing about 20 operas in the prevailing style. Then, beginning with Orfeo ed Euridice in 1762, he attempted to enhance both the dramatic and musical components of opera. Superfluous virtuosity and vocal display were drastically curtailed if not eliminated by providing music that reflected the emotional or dramatic situation. As a result of Gluck's reforms, opera moved toward a classical simplicity of style of which his and Mozart's works were the culmination.
A second challenge to established Neapolitan opera was emerging through comic opera in which the subject matter was light, sentimental, often topical, and satirical, reflecting both the social changes of the period and ridicule of serious opera. The music was engagingly tuneful, easy to perform and to comprehend. Comic opera had appeared during the 17th century but began its independent existence during the first half of the 18th century in Italy, where it was called the opera buffa. The French opéra comique evolved during the same period and was given new impetus by the guerre des bouffons ("war of the buffoons") of the early 1750s, when support of the Italian opera buffa company then performing in Paris exceeded that of the French heroic opera of Rameau. In England, ballad opera, beginning with The Beggar's Opera in 1728, followed a course of development similar in both period and style to that of the opéra comique. German singspiel grew out of translations and imitations of English ballad opera. Models that centred on Vienna adhered to the Italian style and culminated in Mozart's The Abduction from the Seraglio and The Magic Flute. Yet Mozart also brought the old Italian style to its zenith in Le Nozze di Figaro (The Marriage of Figaro), Così fan tutte (Thus Do They All), and Don Giovanni.
Other vocal music
Aside from opera, secular vocal music was composed for solo voice and chorus. But the production of solo songs and cantatas in other countries could not compare with the growing interest in the German lied, which flourished under C.P.E. Bach and later composers. The most extensive development of secular part-songs took place in England, where numerous catches and glees were written.
Large-scale sacred choral music of the period was strongly influenced by the prevailing operatic style. Except for the text, some passages from oratorios and passions are indistinguishable from an operatic excerpt. But the Handelian tradition combined with the Neapolitan style and culminated in Haydn's two noble oratorios, The Creation and The Seasons. Liturgical music, such as masses, motets, litanies, psalms, and canticles, also demonstrated that the same composers were writing for both church and theatre. In many instances the style was uniform for the two types, although the chorus naturally played a much greater role in church music.
The Romantic period
The beginning of the 19th century witnessed a change of both musical style and aesthetic attitude that has become identified as Romantic. The term romantic originated in German literature of the late 18th century, illustrating once again the overlapping of classical and romantic attitudes and ideals. The Franco-Swiss writer Mme de Staël articulated the new ideals of the movement in 1813 as original, modern, national, popular, derived from the soil, religion, and prevailing social institutions. Obviously, some of these proclaimed romantic ideals and purposes were the same as those of the 18th-century Classicists.
Establishment of the Romantic idiom
In defining classicism, it was suggested that the distinctive elements of musical romanticism embrace emotionalism, subjectivity, individualism, nationalism, and a preference for a certain type of subject matter. Emotionalism is reflected in the revelation of intensely personal feelings, indeed, the sentimentality that pervades 19th-century music. Subjectivity replaces the formalism of the Classical period, in that impulse and inspiration play a major role in the motivation of both composer and performer, and the listener's response is expected to be more sensory than intellectual. Closely related to subjectivity is the individualism reflected in the highly self-centred expression of composers of the period, as well as by the conviction that a composer's most personal thoughts and feelings are the ultimate artistic message. In contrast to the universality of musical style that prevailed during the 18th century, much 19th-century music is identifiable in terms of national origin. Nationalism—the consciousness of the distinctive features of a nation and the intent to reveal, emphasize, and glorify those features—played a prominent part in Romantic music, partly as a result of social and political developments. The subject matter favoured by Romantic composers is most apparent in vocal music, where words can convey the explicit theme, but instrumental music was also affected by the Romantic attraction to national identification and to remoteness, strangeness, and fantasy, particularly to the fantastic aspects of medieval tales and legends.
Stylistic traits
During the 19th century, musical techniques and materials were rapidly enriched by new resources, all devoted to the ideal of emotional or dramatic expressiveness. The orchestra, the piano, the solo voice with piano accompaniment, and the opera were the four predominating mediums; chamber and choral music occupied a less central position. Duple and triple divisions of the measure remained the basis of metre, but there were occasional experiments with metric irregularity, and rhythm was recognized as one of the most effective agents of expressiveness in music. Strong rhythmic energy, frequently produced by dotted patterns, provided a vigorous force that could be enhanced by faster and faster tempi. Flaccid patterns in slower tempi provided for the requisite pensive or sorrowful moods.
Melodic style was determined on one hand by the vocal ideal of song, with long, lyric lines. On the other hand, the new idiomatic possibilities of instruments were being exploited. In either case, expressiveness was the governing ideal. Harmonic and tonal elements were gradually expanded during the century, with more chromaticism, enriched sonorities (seventh and ninth chords), and more nonharmonic tones resulting in a more flexible tonal scheme. Tonic and dominant chords (those based on the first and fifth notes of the key), were no longer the secure poles of tonal movement; frequent and remote modulations (changes from one key to another) contributed to the restlessness of key centres. Because musical interest was centred in melody and harmony, texture remained prevailingly homophonic, though counterpoint played a prominent role in developmental sections. Fugues and other imitative forms occurred as a result of studied archaism or for special effect, but the composers' preoccupation with direct and immediate expression led them to neglect the traditional polyphonic forms, with their inherent traditions and restraints.
The Romantic abhorrence of formalism has frequently been exaggerated for the purposes of distinguishing between Classical and Romantic attitudes. Established patterns such as the sonata-allegro and rondo forms were subjected to many modifications and extensions, but musical coherence demands a judicious balance of unity and variety, so most compositions of the 19th century are still fairly clear-cut sectional, variational, or developmental forms. The distinctive new features are largely in the area of emphasis and dimension—symphonies lasting over an hour in contrast to the 20- to 30-minute standard of the Classical period. Instrumental colour and variety, as another aspect of expressiveness, was made possible by a greatly enlarged orchestra and figured prominently in the new sound ideal.
Beethoven as a transitional figure
The Janus-like figure who marked the transition from the Classical to the Romantic style was Beethoven, the first composer whose personality and character made a purposeful impact on the types and style of music he composed. Inspired by the revolutionary forces prevailing at the time, he declared himself a free artistic agent, with neither allegiance nor responsibility to any patron. His early works reflected the 18th-century acceptance of providing music on demand, and he applied his craftsmanship to supplying compositions in hope of financial reward. But in his later works, from about 1820 on, he declared his personal independence and wrote only what his imagination and inspiration dictated, thus establishing individuality, subjectivity, and emotional expression as the standard for Romantic composers. Yet the body of music he produced reflects the tastes of the 18th rather than the 19th century, in that he was attracted more by the absolute forms of instrumental music than by the dramatic and lyrical forms cultivated by the Romanticists. Symphonies, chamber music (particularly string quartets), and piano pieces (including 32 sonatas) far outweigh his one opera, one oratorio, one major mass, and assorted songs and part-songs. His lack of interest in dramatic vocal music reflects the classical side of his nature, though the expressive changes apparent in his instrumental works are evidence of his being the springboard to the Romantic epoch.
The opera remained a flourishing medium throughout the 19th century, and Italian opera continued as the dominant type during the first half of the century in the hands of Gioachino Rossini, Vincenzo Bellini, and Gaetano Donizetti. The reforms instigated by Gluck were discernible, but enough of the genre's indigenous Italianate character remained to distinguish it from other national types. The man who, more than any other, personifies Italian opera of the period is Giuseppe Verdi (1813–1901), whose works are still among the most performed. Late in the century, the tendency toward even more realistic and topical subject matter produced the verismo ("realism") school of Ruggiero Leoncavallo, Pietro Mascagni, and Giacomo Puccini.
Meanwhile, German opera developed into the epitome of Romantic subject matter and expressiveness, beginning in 1821 with the performance of Der Freischütz (The Freeshooter, or, more colloquially, The Magic Marksman), by Carl Maria von Weber. Plots based on tales from Teutonic mythology and medieval legend that emphasized the mystical aspects of nature were a distinctive feature of Germanic operas and distinguished them from the more mundane Italianate plots. Richard Wagner (1813–83) crystallized the German Romantic ideal into the music drama, in which all aspects of the production—drama, music, design, performance—were intended to fuse into a manifestation of pure artistic expression in which no one element predominated over the others, as singing still tended to do in Italian opera. There was no development in Germany after Wagner comparable with the post-Verdi verismo group in Italy. Wagner's innovations—once again a readjustment of dramatic versus musical forces in musical theatre—were the point of departure for most German opera since his time, from Richard Strauss to the present.
In Paris, the operatic centre of the world from late in the 18th century until well into the 19th, native composers were quick to sense the Gluckian changes in Italian opera as well as the new directions in Germany. Beginning with Rossini's Guillaume Tell in 1829 and crystallizing in the operas of Giacomo Meyerbeer in the 1830s and '40s, French grand opera emerged as the most opulent and grandiose musico-dramatic spectacle of the first half of the century. During the later 19th century, opéra comique and grand opera merged to produce the prevailing French lyric opera. At the same time, opéra comique branched off in another direction to produce operettas, which developed into the musical comedies of the 20th century. Indigenous opera appeared in other regions, especially in Russia, Bohemia, and Scandinavia, as a result of nationalistic fervour.
Orchestral music
Reaching both a culmination and a turning point in the nine symphonies of Beethoven, orchestral music developed in two directions during the 19th century. On the one hand were composers who, because of their training and temperament, adhered primarily to Classical forms and ideals of absolute music. On the other hand were the composers seeking new realms of dramatic content, colour, and expressiveness. Even for the more conservative group, both the forms and the orchestra itself were greatly expanded during the century, but the total output of works was much smaller than in the Classical period. Romantic musical vocabulary replaced the Classical language in symphonies, of course, and programmatic content (i.e., an extramusical image or story) was a frequent element.
New orchestral forms
The more progressive composers cultivated new musical types that represented the tastes and ideals of the Romantic period—the concert overture, the symphonic poem (later called tone poem), the symphonic suite, and symphonic variations. The concert overture, a direct development of overtures to dramatic works, was an attempt to reconcile the old classical demands for form with Romantic desire for programmatic content. It was usually a sonata-allegro form with picturesque themes designed to suggest (with the help of the title) characters, locations, or dramatic situations. Felix Mendelssohn's Hebrides overture and Brahms's Tragic Overture (completed 1880) are representatives of the genre. The symphonic poem, foreshadowed in Hector Berlioz' Symphonie fantastique (completed 1830), was originated by Franz Liszt at midcentury as an orchestral work, usually in one movement, based on an extramusical idea such as a poem or a narrative. The futility of attempting to depict explicit events and attitudes in purely musical terms resulted in the demise of the form early in the 20th century after the many tone poems of Richard Strauss. The symphonic suite was one of three distinct types: (1) an outgrowth of 18th-century dance suites, divertimentos, or serenades, (2) the extension of the symphonic poem into a composite work of several movements of related programmatic nature, or (3) a group of selections from a dramatic work such as a ballet. Rimsky-Korsakov's Scheherazade represents the second type, and Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite is typical of the third. While variations had appeared as movements of symphonies and concerti since the mid-18th century, they became an independent orchestral form during the last quarter of the 19th century. César Franck's Variations symphoniques (1885) is a good example of the type. Popular orchestral pieces, such as the waltzes of Johann Strauss, also flourished.
The mainstream of composers whose orchestral music reflected most clearly their allegiance to Classical forms and models—though conditioned by Romanticism, of course—is represented by Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, and Anton Bruckner. The more overtly Romantic contingent was centred around Berlioz, Liszt, Gustav Mahler, and Richard Strauss.
The movement toward national expression
A third group, chiefly nationalists who were reacting against Germanic domination of instrumental music as well as reflecting the sociopolitical developments of the era, combined features of both conservative and progressive camps, to which they added national characteristics. While there were manifestations of the movement in countries such as Hungary, Poland, Spain, and England, the most productive and outstanding of those who sought to reflect national distinctiveness were the Russian "Five"—César Cui, Mily Balakirev, Aleksandr Borodin, Modest Mussorgsky, and Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov—the Bohemians Bedřich Smetana and Antonín Dvořák, and the Scandinavians Edvard Grieg, Carl Nielsen, and Jean Sibelius. French composers such as Camille Saint-Saëns, César Franck, and Vincent d'Indy were motivated by the same impulse of independence, but they could hardly be categorized as nationalists in the same sense as their eastern European colleagues, since there was less distinctive folk material from which to draw colourful materials and since they had been in the mainstream of musical development all along.
Piano music
One of the most popular media of the Romantic era, thanks to the rapid technical development of the instrument, was piano music. Another reason for the popularity of the piano was the growing demand for recreation and entertainment on the part of the newly affluent middle class. In tune with the taste of the times, small pieces of distinctive expressive character (hence, "character pieces") were the most popular type, either as single pieces or as parts of composite works. Stylized dances continued to be popular, but nationalistic types such as the polonaise and mazurka and the novel waltz replaced the staid minuets of the previous era. Sonatas continued to occupy serious composers, and sets of variations continued to flourish. The virtuosity of the violinist Niccolò Paganini and his contemporaries led to many studies, or études, designed to exhibit the performer's dexterity as well as the invention of the composer. Chopin, Schumann, Liszt, and Brahms were the major composers of piano music after Beethoven, but practically all composers of the time contributed to the literature.
The vocal counterpart of the keyboard character piece was the solo song with piano accompaniment. With the rise of the German romantic poetry of Goethe, Schiller, Heine, and others, about the beginning of the 19th century, the German lied ("song") flourished. After 1850, composers of other nations, especially France and Russia, also produced a song literature of universal appeal. A pioneer and certainly the most prolific composer of lieder was Schubert, who in his short life wrote more than 600 songs. His chief successors, in chronological order, were Karl Loewe, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Brahms, Hugo Wolf, and Richard Strauss.
Chamber and choral music
The great Viennese tradition of chamber music reached its zenith in the works of Beethoven and with the death of Schubert came temporarily to a close. The conciseness, unity, and balance that were basic to the Classical ideal were incompatible with the essence of musical Romanticism. When writing for instruments, the typical Romantic composer was inclined toward the colouristic effects and expressive possibilities of the orchestra. Chamber music continued to be written and performed, of course, but nowhere was it one of the primary interests of composers as it had been during the 18th century. Predictably, the more conservative composers, such as Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Brahms, were the chief composers of chamber music.
While the same musical vocabulary and style had served both church and opera house since the rise of dramatic music, the 19th century witnessed a separation of musical idioms according to function—sacred or secular. Music for use in church was generally conservative, especially after the "rediscovery" of Palestrina and systematic research into the reform of Gregorian chant. On the other hand, cantatas and popular part-songs produced for the many amateur choral societies incorporated as many of the new techniques as could be managed by the singers. There was some fusion of the two idioms in oratorios and in settings of liturgical texts for the concert hall or for special occasions. The requiem mass, with its vividly dramatic content, was attractive to Romantic composers, and Berlioz's and Verdi's settings remain as emotionally telling today as most operas of the period.
Modern period
Diversity of styles
The striking changes in musical style that occurred about 1900 were a turning point in the history of Western music comparable to the dramatic transformation of the early 14th and early 17th centuries. But never before had the change been so rapid, and never before had there been such a diversity of resulting styles. The last decades of the 19th century witnessed what might be termed the diffusion of Romanticism, when significant departures from the current musical vocabulary appeared in the works of some nationalist composers and especially in the Impressionistic style represented in France by Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. The amorphous rhythmic patterns, the whole-tone scale, the concept of free relationship of adjacent harmonies, and the kaleidoscopic textures of musical Impressionism were musical manifestations of the aesthetic movements current in painting and literature.
The experimental works of Arnold Schoenberg and Igor Stravinsky about 1910 heralded a new epoch in music. Schoenberg was the pioneer when his adoption of the ideals of the Expressionist movement—like Impressionism an aesthetic development shared by other art forms—resulted in his discarding traditional harmonic concepts of consonance and dissonance and led to the development of atonality and 12-tone technique (in which all 12 tones of the octave are serialized, or given an ordered relationship). Stravinsky's revolutionary style, variously labelled "dynamism," "barbarism," or "primitivism," concentrated on metric imbalance and percussive dissonance and introduced a decade of extreme experimentation that coincided with World War I, a period of major social and political upheaval.
In contrast with Schoenberg's and Stravinsky's experiments during the second decade of the century, another line of demarcation appeared about 1920 with a general return to the aesthetic ideals of the late 18th century. Following the leadership of Stravinsky, Paul Hindemith, Béla Bartók, and Sergey Prokofiev, among others, most prominent composers entered a Neoclassical period characterized by restraint of emotional content; simplification of materials, structures, and textures; a greater attention to craftsmanship; and a revival of concern for linear counterpoint rather than instrumental or harmonic colour. Baroque emphasis on counterpoint and Classical formalism were now clothed in 20th-century melodic, harmonic, rhythmic, tonal, and orchestral idioms. The Expressionist followers of Schoenberg, most notably Alban Berg, continued in their preoccupation with serial techniques.
Neoclassicism continued as the dominant trend throughout the period from about 1920 until World War II, while many of the experimental techniques introduced during the revolutionary second decade of the century were gradually refined, modified, and assimilated into the accepted musical vocabulary. At the same time, experimentation continued alongside a tenacious conservatism that echoed Romantic ideals and styles. Nationalism also continued to flourish, reaching a level in some countries never achieved during the 19th century.
After World War II the two leading artistic attitudes tended to merge when the followers of Anton von Webern carried serial composition to such a rigorous extreme that its craftsmanship and intellectual orientation suggested Classicism rather than Expressionism. Shortly afterward, Stravinsky, the doyen of the Neoclassical group, began experimenting with serialism. Avant-garde music since that time has begun to employ the techniques made possible by technological developments in electronics.
Advent of electronic composition
Beginning about 1950, two leading groups began experimenting with electronic music, one in Cologne and the other in Paris. The product of the latter group was referred to as musique concrète in acknowledgement of the principle that preexisting, or "concrete," recorded sounds serve as the basis of all sonorities in the finished work. The basic sounds, which may be derived from any source—musical, natural, or mechanical—are modified electronically and arranged in any combination and succession suitable to the composer's purpose. The German group, led by Karlheinz Stockhausen, was concerned with a purer form of the medium in that its basic sounds are electrically generated instead of being recorded from sources external to the electronic apparatus. The two approaches share one connecting link with music of the past: all sounds have pitch, intensity, duration, and quality. All other concepts of musical organization have been discarded, including the necessity of a performer. Electronic compositions exist on a tape (or disc), and can be made audible by a speaker system. The dehumanizing of music has been carried several steps further by the use of mathematics and even of computers to determine the nature of sound materials—either electronic or that produced by more conventional means—and their organization. At the other extreme is aleatory music, in which the performer is allowed to choose the manner and order of presentation of materials specified or simply suggested by the composer.
Popular music
Another result of advances in electronics has been the tremendous growth of popular music during the 20th century. New techniques have made possible high-fidelity reproduction of sound and its widespread and rapid dissemination through radio, phonograph, tape recorder, and television. In addition, some of the instruments used in popular music have incorporated electronic amplification as well as sound production. While there has been a popular music as long as mankind has turned to singing and dancing for diversion and recreation, much of it was folk music and existed only as an oral tradition. But popular music in the modern sense originated in the late 18th century, when ballads made popular in ballad opera and dance music received wide circulation. The same types flourished throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, when a new direction was prompted by the emergence of jazz among blacks in the southern United States. After the original ragtime came jazz proper, swing, bebop, and rock in its numerous manifestations—punk, new wave, etc. Early in the century, the novelty of jazz rhythms and dominance of brass, woodwind, and percussion instruments over strings attracted some serious composers who occasionally incorporated suitable jazz idioms into their works. Since about 1930, the influence has worked in both directions, and popular music has gradually adopted techniques that originated in serious music. Regardless of the interaction of popular and serious music, the popularity of the former is one of the most significant musical developments of the 20th century, especially in view of the widening gulf between the serious composer and the potential audience.
It is impossible to arrive at a complete and objective description of a revolutionary movement while it is in progress; only a period of time can provide the necessary perspective. It can be acknowledged, however, that music has never before passed through a more anarchic phase than in the 20th century. The tremendous number and diversity of stylistic distinctions has precluded a characteristic designation for the first half of the century, but one must be forthcoming, for musicians of the future will need the terms modern and contemporary for their own times.
Despite the disproportionate publicity given to the most radical experiments, the majority of leading composers working today continue along the moderate path established in the late 1920s and 1930s. And, if one can rely on the lessons of history, the mainstream of music will continue to absorb those new techniques that contribute to expressiveness and communication while discarding that which is merely novel and sensational, so that music history will remain an evolutionary rather than a revolutionary process.Ralph Thomas Daniel
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
broadcasting: MusicRadio has had two important effects on the musical life of the world: it has widened the audience for all forms of music, and it has made easier the development of new forms, such as electronic music. Music remains a staple ingredient of radio…
dramatic literature: The role of music and danceThe Sanskrit treatise
Natya-shastrasuggests that drama had its origin in the art of dance, and any survey of Western theatre, too, must recognize a comparable debt to music in the classical Greek drama, which is believed to have sprung from celebratory…
sonata form: Significance of sonata form in Western music historySonata form is only one episode in a complex chronicle of styles and principles of musical organization. Seemingly infinite in its variety, the form has since 1750 been the basis for some of the greatest works of Western music. It is exemplified…
Western artsWestern arts, the literary, performing, and visual arts of Europe and regions that share a European cultural tradition, including the United States and Canada. Diverse as the European continent is, the artistic traditions of its nations share many common traits. The antecedents of most European…
Notre-Dame schoolNotre-Dame school, during the late 12th and early 13th centuries, an important group of composers and singers working under the patronage of the great Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris. The Notre-Dame school is important to the history of music because it produced the earliest repertory of…
More About Western music23 references found in Britannica articles
Assorted References
- comparison with East Asian music
- criticism of Rousseau
- influence on English literature
- religious proscription by Disciples of Christ
- use of polyphony
- In polyphony
development in
- Expressionism
- Gothic art
- Impressionism
- Minimalism
- In Minimalism
- minstrel
- In minstrel


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Montblanc Black Meisterstuck Rollerball. Length is 5 3/8″. Resin. This Rollerball is Shipped in a Montblanc Box.
Your Price: $372.00
Savings: 20%
Out of stock
Montblanc Black Meisterstuck Rollerball. Length is 5 3/8″. Resin. This Rollerball is Shipped in a Montblanc Box.
5 3/8"
|Country of Origin
Men's, Unisex, Women's
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Currency Displayed in
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Explosion proof compound cable gland with pouring liquid and a fast curing and liquid resin seal
For Zone 1 and 21
For some years now, Electromach is the official representative of CMP Products in the Benelux.
Universal cable glands for armoured cable, cable glands with compound and the so-called barrier glands, are the most popular models. Some time ago a new model was added to the product range, the 'Rapid-Ex' cable gland. The Rapid-Ex explosion proof cable gland has a fast pouring liquid, which only takes a few minutes to cure.
It's all in the name: Rapid!
As the pouring liquid of the Rapid-Ex cures so much faster than the compound of the existing models, PX2K and PXSS2K barrier gland, the installation of the gland can be resumed much sooner. How soon depends on the environment and the temperature is particularly crucial. Using the PX2K and PXSS2K barrier gland, the hardening of the compound takes up to several hours, which means that in many cases the installation of the glands cannot be resumed the same day. When using the Rapid-Ex cable glands, work can usually be resumed within one hour.
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Here in Florida at what I've come to refer to as the Family Compound, my sister's family and my husband and I have been grilling (with propane and on the smoker) several times a week.
Recently, my brother in law James made pork ribs and chicken wings in the smoker. I'm sharing these recipes here, including James's custom dry rubs and sauces.


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Air France wins 'sucks' domain name
Not a gripe site
The domain name AirFranceSucks.com will be transferred to Air France. But the airline's victory at arbitration was not without controversy: panellists disagreed about what the word 'sucks' really means to internet users.
The name was registered by Florida-based Virtual Dates Inc. in 1999. It was only in February 2005 that Air France took a claim before the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO), alleging cybersquatting. The decision was made on 24th May and published today.
For most of the past six years, Virtual Dates pointed the domain name at a page of ePinions.com, an ad-supported site that rates and invites reader comments on everything from movies and barbecues to office supplies and zoos.
Virtual Dates said AirFranceSucks.com was a freedom of expression site for the registration of complaints or recommendations about the airline. Air France said it was just trying to cash-in on its trade mark: this was a commercial entity, not the gripe site of an aggrieved customer.
Two of the three WIPO panellists reckoned that a domain name that adds 'sucks' to a trade mark will generally be confusingly similar to that trade mark. Presiding panellist Knud Wallberg wrote:
"The incorporation of a well known trade mark in its entirety as the first and dominant part of a domain name is confusingly similar to this trade mark regardless of whether the additional elements are pejorative as in this case or of a more neutral kind such as airfrancetickets".
Co-panellist Christian-André Le Stanc agreed: international customers might not appreciate the pejorative nature of the term 'sucks', which would leave users confused.
The third panellist, Jeffrey M Samuels, disagreed.
Samuels, an intellectual property professor at Akron University, Ohio, accepted that not all internet users will be familiar with the pejorative nature of the term 'sucks.' But he added: "it is likely that a substantial percentage of potential customers of Air France are familiar with the English language and, thus, would be aware of the pejorative nature of 'sucks.'"
A confusingly similar trade mark is not enough of itself to force a transfer: it must also be shown that the registrant has no rights or legitimate interest in the name and that its registration and use were in bad faith.
But if a panel is convinced that a domain name is not confusingly similar to a trade mark, the rest of a cybersquatting claim will collapse.
In Samuels' opinion, the domain name was not confusingly similar to Air France's trade mark, because it did not look or sound alike nor convey the same commercial impression.
Decisions on 'sucks' sites have gone both ways trade mark owners in the past. But the current panel's majority view on their similarity to a trade mark is supported by a WIPO report on trends in domain name dispute decisions, published in March. On 'sucks' sites, it agreed that non-fluent English speakers would fail to recognise the negative connotations of the word.
Copyright © 2005, OUT-LAW.com
See: The WIPO ruling
Related stories
Cohen disputes UK registry's legitimacy
US Appeals Court clarifies protest website law
WIPO publishes case book of domain name decisions
BAA accused in net 'dirty tricks' campaign
Sucks.com issue rears ugly head again


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The Physics of Imaginary Objects
Tina May Hall
University of Pittsburgh Press:
160 pp., $24.95
In hard times, as you well know, fewer risks are taken when it comes to potential profit and potential loss. In the publishing world, this means less experimental fiction published by large houses. It also means an upwelling of creative new houses and imprints that publish raw experiments with language. Tina May Hall's pungent writing breaks down walls between poetry and prose, narrator and reader, humor and horror. These stories, a daunting cross between Rikki Ducornet and early Jayne Anne Phillips, reveal the author's fascination with life and death, the confusion of hunger with other needs, and the bureaucratic tyranny of forms: sonnets and novellas, chapters and verses. Relationships in most of the pieces are conducted beyond language; as for location — it's often "flyspecked" and swarming. They are narrated by a medical expert in a murder trial, an ex-nun, a group that offers the "Skinny Girls' Constitution and Bylaws": "We will know each other by the way our watches slip from our wrists, the bruises on our knees, our winged shoulder blades tenting silk dresses." Fierce, huh? And brave — both writer and publisher.
All Is Forgotten, Nothing Is Lost
Lan Samantha Chang
Norton: 208 pp., $23.95
"The room was slowly filling with the ghosts of poets. At age thirty-eight, Federico Garcia Lorca had been executed during the Spanish Civil War. At age thirty-nine, Dylan Thomas had drunk himself to death with eighteen shots of whiskey. At age forty, Frank O'Hara had been run over by a dune buggy on Fire Island. Also at forty, Edgar Allan Poe had been found delirious on the streets of Baltimore and died shouting a name no one knew." Here is a novel populated with those ghosts: the purists, the ones who wrote for fame, the ones who had a burning thing to tell, the ones who needed someone's approval.
Roman Morris takes a graduate seminar in creative writing with the famous poet Miranda Sturgis. They are lovers and she gives his career a major head start. It's all a bit much, a bit narcissistic, self-conscious — all the smarmy quagmires that have given the pursuit of poetry a bad name. But below all that, there's so much more — the need for an honest response to one's writing, the vulnerable student-teacher relationship, the perils of writerly friendships, the pressure cooker of graduate writing programs, the questionable ethics of the prize world. So much at stake! So small a pie! Lan Samantha Chang treats her characters with great respect. She takes them seriously, unraveling Roman's need for approval; his friend Bernard's garretted isolation and disdain for the business of poetry; Miranda's power and her fall from grace. It's a world within a world like any other, nestled in a culture that, for the most part, does not value what it has to offer.
Salter Reynolds is a writer in Los Angeles.


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What's Included
About This Organizer
Sanibel Sea School is a 501(c)(3) marine conservation nonprofit. Our mission is to improve the ocean's future, one person at a time. Our vision is a world where all people value, understand, and care for the ocean.
Sanibel Sea School is dedicated to vibrantly teaching children and adults about marine ecosystems - animals, people, plants, land, ocean, and weather. We give students an opportunity to touch, feel, and interact with natural surroundings.
The ocean delivers strong messages. Sanibel Sea School provides an experience that fosters an intimate connection with our ocean planet and a wellspring for lifelong stewardship. This is transformative education and it changes lives.
Organizer Info
Sanibel Sea School


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The I CARE Foundation's International Travel Child Consent Form Available In Italian
The I CARE Foundation's International Travel Child Consent Form created to prevent international parental child abduction associated with a child being wrongfully detained by one parent in a foreign country is now available in Italian. The travel form addresses key legal issues revolving around the 1980 Hague Child Abduction Convention and provides courts worldwide charged with overseeing potential international parental child abduction cases associated with countries that speak Italian with a unique, globally well-established court implemented abduction prevention tool that is widely supported by the international legal, diplomatic, and judicial communities familiar with international parental child abduction.
An extensive I CARE Foundation study conducted during the summer of 2014 surveyed hundreds of attorneys and judges located around the world deeply familiar with international parental child abduction. The study's findings showed that over 70% of all international parental kidnappings amongst the ninety-four 1980 Hague Child Abduction Convention member signatory nations occur when one parent wrongfully detains a child abroad without the child's other parent's consent or a court order, violating the left-behind parent's right of custody and the child's right to the targeted parent. The survey also concluded the overwhelming majority of 1980 Hague Child Abduction Convention cases associated with wrongful retention, the abducting parent often uses abduction defenses available to them under Article 12 and Article 13 of the Hague Convention in hope to have the court located in the country the child has been wrongfully detained in sanction their act of not returning the child to their country of original jurisdiction.
Extensive high remarks for the I CARE Foundation's International Travel Child Consent Form as a groundbreaking, comprehensive, and significant global international parental child abduction prevention tool have been voiced by the leadership within legal communities familiar with international parental child abduction during legal forums around the world including compelling commentary from senior officers of the Hague Permanent Bureau during but not limited to international legal symposiums on child abduction held during the LEPCA Conference in the Hague, the IAML Conference in New York, and the Sapporo Bar Association's Hague Symposium in Sapporo. In addition a large and growing number of attorney Bar Associations in the United States and abroad have published positive and meaningful feedback concerning the I CARE Foundation's travel consent form with clear intent to educate their legal constituents about the landmark child abduction prevention tool. Perhaps most meaningful is the reality that many judges around the world have praised the I CARE Foundation's travel consent form, have utilized the document in their courtrooms, and continue to implement the form in courtrooms around the world during child custody and child travel legal proceedings.
Demonstrated by the large number of international child travel cases that have successfully occurred utilizing the I CARE Foundation's travel form, we continue to witness the important role a Hague-oriented travel consent form has in the global theater of international child abduction prevention and support the Secretary General's intent to consider incorporating an official Hague travel form into the arsenal of global abduction prevention tools. We remain highly optimistic that the global international parental child abduction rate will substantially decline due to use of Hague-oriented travel consent forms. Our substantial research indicates that over 70% of all international child kidnappings occur when a child is wrongfully detained abroad – the exact parental kidnapping scenario our travel form has successfully protected against.
The creation and use of our travel consent form is rather simple: children have a right to know magic and to live in a world free of concern from parental child abduction. And targeted parents of abduction have a right to have society protect their children from kidnapping. We believe in these rights. Our work and dedication continues.


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outofthebox necessitava di un nuovo design di logo e ha lanciato un contest su 99designs.
È stato scelto un vincitore tra 106 design presentati da 39 designer.
I would like a fun, clean logo to use on the website and stationary. The name of the company is Out of the Box Events. The primary clients will be corporate for team building, but we will also do celebrations such as birthdays. It is a scavenger hunt company, where we write the hunt and also can plan the whole event.
Out of the Box Events
Scavenger Hunts that Build Better Teams
Desired Color Scheme:
I like bright blue and orange but open to other colors
Desired Style:
able to go on white background, clean, simple
Accepted File Formats:
jpeg, pdf, vector
professional to appeal to corporate market, but still fun and unique
Maggiori informazioni su come funziona un contest di design o sui nostri servizi di design di logo.


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The Boulevard
For bloggers who aspire to inspire
"Fate succumbs many a species; one alone jeopardizes itself." ~W.H. Auden
I may leave you with a sad confidence that things are hard but they always matter. nothing is too small, but nothing is too big either.
Pandora's Box for Art Lovers and Beauty Seekers
Poetry, story and real life. Once soldier, busnessman, grandfather and Poet.
A blog full of humorous and poignant observations.
storytelling the world
Singing the praises of things that slip through the cultural cracks
A little of this and a little of that
ich zeige euch meine stadt wie ich sie sehe
Conversations with Street People
Nature & Wildlife Photography


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Judith R. Hendricks
The Laws of Harmony
Judith R. Hendricks
The Laws of Harmony
Release Date: 2/10/2009
LIST PRICE: $15.99 (you save $4.02)
Main description:
Sunny Cooper has been running since she was eighteen—from the New Mexican commune where she grew up . . . and from the haunting memory of the freak accident that took the life of her younger sister. Now, at thirty-two, Sunny voices radio spots in Albuquerque while struggling to hold on to a floundering relationship. But when a second tragic accident—and the devastating truths that come to light in its aftermath—turns her world upside down, Sunny runs again.
In the town of Harmony on San Miguel Island, she takes a new job, learns to ride a motorcycle, and makes some surprising new friends. But the past is never far behind. A startling discovery—along with an emotional and revelatory reunion with her estranged mother—is forcing Sunny to step out from the shadows of yesterday to embrace an uncertain future.
Review quote:
"[Hendricks] calls to mind Barbara Kingsolver in her affinity for wise women and the power of close female friendships."
Review quote:
"Hendricks has an engaging narrative voice that will pull readers right into this story of a damaged woman who is more resilient than she realizes."


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By Vanessa Stevens
A Southington Police officer and two members of the Southington American Legion won awards at the recent Connecticut American Legion annual convention.
The awards were presented to Southington Police Sergeant Keith Egan, Post Adjutant Dennis Bureaugard and Post Chaplain Hank Lucas.
Founded by Congress in 1919, the veteran's organization now has over 3 million members nationwide. The Southington post was founded after World War 1 and remains strong in the community by providing volunteer services, mentoring youth and assisting and connecting US. Veterans.
Sargeant Egan, nominated by Kiltonic post 72 for meeting the criteria set forth by the National Headquarters of the American Legion, received the Connecticut American Legion Law Enforcement Officer of the year.
He is the third officer in the town to be given this award.
Hank Lucas, Post Chaplain for three years and a twenty one year Legion member, was given the Boyd Saxton Plaque for exhibiting guidance and performing the most duties in office this past year.
Lucas whose best friend died in a fighter plane while in service, was pleasantly surprised to receive this honor.
A former navy lieutenant commander, Hank is known as a spiritual man who works from his heart. Of his experience as chaplain, he says it's been a great privilege to be of service to God and our country.
Under Hank's guidance, the post has a funeral honor guard that attends the services for any fallen members. An internet search that reviews all death notices was set up to alert Hank to any veteran sick or deceased anywhere in the United States that was a member of the Southington post at any time.
He then sends get well cards and arranges to visit the veteran at the hospital and if a funeral, locates the veterans' families and arranges to make charity donations in the veterans honor and send cards, and to go in person to either the hospital if local, or funeral parlor.
The funeral honor guards, anywhere from 6 to 12 legionnaires, arrive in proper uniform to greet the families who welcome these military men with open arms and smiles, and often send touching thank you letters to the post after the service.
Lucas knows he is making a difference in the veterans' families lives. He says, "It's always an honor to meet the families, to shake their hands. We know it means a lot."
Officer Dennis Beauregard, former military police officer, is a dual member of Kiltonic Post and Squadron 72. Beauregard was this year's recipient of the Neale V. Cabral Plaque, for performing his duties in an outstanding manner.
As adjutant of the Southington post, Beauregard's main job is taking and distributing notes for the post.
He has had several different roles this year. He has served as the 1st District Senior Vice Commander and a member of Department of Connecticut Color Guard, Realty Corporation president overseeing fix ups at the post, and visits the Southington schools regularly with other legionnaires to talk about his experiences in the military and to teach students about flag etiquette.
He says Southington is one of the first to implement this program in its schools, and he hopes the other posts will catch on.
Beauregard, a five year legionnaire considers himself a "late Bloomer." He never thought he'd enjoy spit-shining his shoes and boots, polishing his brass and blousing his pants, terms legionnaires know well. Today, he says, he loves all the routines and rules, especially when asked to do something.
"When you're tapped on the shoulder to and asked to do something, you don't say no," he said." You step up."
Sergeant Egan was unavailable for comment.
Southington Police Officer named Officer of the Year
By Vanessa Stevens


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Crowne Plaza READING4
Caversham Bridge,Richfield Avenue, Reading, RG1 8BD
Price FromView Rooms
- Very Good
- 145 guest reviews
"Enjoyed our stay and very central to where we needed to be. Only fault is the walls are very thin and we found it very noisy - you could hea..."
"Very nice hotel with a relaxed atmosphere. Staff are very helpful and politie. The food in the restaurant was amazing. Lovely walks on the T..."
"The room was lovely, quiet with a very comfy bed and a super power shower. The food was excellent, especially the breakfast buffet, which wa..."
"I booked 2 rooms, one for our son and fiancé and our Grandson who is a year old. We asked for a cot in one room and these was provided with..."
"Fabulous stay with exceptional service . Many thanks..."
About the hotel
The red-brick Crowne Plaza Reading hotel overlooks a peaceful stretch of the River Thames, 15 minutes' walk from Reading town centre. Nestled among trees on the banks of the River Thames, you'll find Crowne Plaza Reading an elegant retreat primed for business success, lavish banquets and a strategic base for unlocking London. If you're here with family, for a seminar or wedding, leave a gap for some me-time in our sumptuous Leisure Club, with its infinity-effect pool , sauna and 5 luxury treatment rooms.
Crowne Plaza Reading is 1 hour's drive from central London. You can leave your vehicle in our complimentary car park and stroll 15 minutes to Reading rail station , where trains zip to London Heathrow Airport in 20 minutes and central London in 30 minutes . Flirt with the latest fashions at The Oracle mall in Reading town centre or treat the family to escapades at Thorpe Park or LEGOLAND Windsor theme parks. Strive for business success from the leather chairs in our dark wood Executive Boardroom. For an insider guide to quaint pub gardens and locks along the river, look no further than the dedicated Concierge at Crowne Plaza Reading .
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Facilities Show/hide
- Main
- Disabled Facilities, Concierge, Currency Exchange, Porter, Public Air Conditioning
- Parking
- Car parking available onsite
- Dining
- Restaurant
- Leisure
- Indoor Pool, Golf 18 Hole
- Business
- Wi-Fi Available In Public Areas
Useful Info Show/hide
- From 15:00 hours
- By 12:00 hours
- Up to 17 years old
- The price shown is based on the occupancy and dates you have searched for. Prices and availability are subject to change based on the arrival date, number of nights and occupancy searched for. All prices are inclusive of all local taxes.
- Pets are not allowed
Customer Reviews
Our reviews are from genuine LateRooms.com customers. We verify that the customer has stayed before leaving a review.
Very Good
90% would recommend it to a friend
Customer service
Food quality
Room quality
Crowne Plaza Reading
Enjoyed our stay and very central to where we needed to be.
Only fault is the walls are very thin and we found it very noisy - you could hea...
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Dear E Ames ,
Thank you for taking the time to share your review of your recent stay. We sincerely apologize for any inconvenience you may have experienced due to the noise levels. Although we would have preferred you had a more comfortable stay, we appreciate your candid feedback. Let us assure you that we will continuously work on maintaining and improving our property to ensure we consistently provide our valued guests with the best hotel experience possible.
We look forward to welcoming you back and have the opportunity to make it up to you.
Faith R
Case Manager
Relaxing stay
Very nice hotel with a relaxed atmosphere.
Staff are very helpful and politie. The food in the restaurant was amazing. Lovely walks on the T...
Read More Less


text: › Sustainability » What We're Doing » Recycling Home Our Vision Our Commitment What is Sustainability? Sustainability Planning Council National Recognition STARS Highlights What We're Doing Energy Food Green Buildings Recycling Transportation Water What You Can Do Student Organizations Residential Communities Volunteer Opportunities Academics & Research Major in Sustainability Science Curriculum Research Community Outreach Furman Farm Resources Contact Us Plan a Visit ›Apply Now ›Give to Furman › Main Content Column 1 At Furman, even our waste is put to good use. In fact, our campus recently finished third in per capita recycling among universities across the nation in a contest known as RecycleMania. Through traditional and not-so-traditional programs, we try to reuse everything. We have an e-waste recycling program for cell phones, batteries, computers and other electronics. Our community can even recycle their old compact fluorescent light bulbs in our facilities warehouse. Learn where you can recycle on campus.


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Oil Painting Restorer
by Grumbacher
This restorer is a surface cleaning agent for oil paintings. It removes surface soil and helps to restore a fresh appearance. Available in a 2.5-ounce (74 ml) bottle.
?Ask a question about this product | See all questions & answers (5)
Average User Rating: Based on (7 Reviews)
Dave Z. from Waldorf, MD says:
I was very impressed with this product. I used it on a 30 year old oil painting that's color was very aged & dull in certain places. The product made the painting look as if I just finished the painting....[more]
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Product Questions and Answers
How large of an area can one bottle of this be expected to clean?- Asked by Claire on 28-May-14
This 2.5 oz. jar should clean one large painting, depending on the extent of the dirt and how heavily it is applied.- Answered by MisterArt on 29-May-14
We have an oil-on-canvas painting that we hung above our fireplace for 20 years. Now it has soot all over the painting and frame. Will this product work for us as we have no background in art?- Asked by Lorraine L on 01-Feb-14
This product will help remove soil from the surface. It may not be effective on several layers of soot accumulated over time. May take additional applications or ultimately require a professional restoration service.- Answered by MisterArt on 05-Feb-14
Will one jar be enough for a 36 in. x 50 in. painting?- Asked by Cheryl enlow on 23-Nov-13
This is only 2 1/2 ounces; I do not think one jar would be enough.- Answered by MisterArt on 25-Nov-13
My painting has smoke residue. Will this product be good for cleaning it?- Asked by GRF on 13-Nov-13
The only cleaner we sell for oil paintings is the Winsor and Newton Picture Cleaner. It is to clean soiled oil paintings, but I cannot guarantee this will clean smoke damage. You may have to call a conservation business to really remove the damage.- Answered by MisterArt on 14-Nov-13
Can I remove Grumbacher original varnish with this product?- Asked by linda on 25-Oct-12
This product is just to remove any external soiling or oxidation. To remove a varnish from an oil painting, you should consult a restoration professional. If you want to do it yourself then there are plenty of videos online that can show you, but it is a tricky process without experience.- Answered by MisterArt on 07-Nov-12
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UW Bothell recently adopted five overarching goals for student learning experiences across the undergraduate curriculum. Developed by the UW Bothell faculty, the new Undergraduate Learning Goals reflect the campus's core values and draw on national research on best practices in undergraduate education. The goals affirm UW Bothell's commitment to transformational education, engaged scholarship, and inclusive culture. They provide a foundation for ongoing initiatives to shape, assess, and enhance teaching and learning at UW Bothell.
Approved June 1, 2012
I. Knowledge of academic and professional theories, practices, and identities within disciplinary and interdisciplinary fields of study
II. Understanding of diversity in cultures, identities, backgrounds, and experiences among individuals and groups
III. Critical analysis of information from multiple perspectives including intercultural, global, and ecological
IV. Ethical reasoning in application to self, occupation, citizenship, and society
V. Proficiency in:
Approval of Undergraduate Learning Goals
UWB Student Learning Objectives
AAC& U Assessment Work


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Puerta de Santa Ana gate © Turespaña
This town has good access to one of the Basque Country's most unusual ecosystems.
Durango is 29 kilometres from Bilbao. One of the main attractions of the town is the chance of enjoying the surrounding countryside - only 10 kilometres away is the Urkiola Nature Reserve. There are routes for horse riding, hiking and biking. This is also an interesting area for sports such as climbing, caving and paragliding. If you prefer art and culture, Durango has a varied range of monuments. Its historic center has been declared of Cultural Interest.Santa Ana Gate, Santa María de Uribarri Church, Kurutziaga Cross and Santa Ana Church are significant examples that you will discover taking a quiet stroll through the streets of the town.
What to see in the destination
Discover the surroundings